Change Management for Information Services [Reprint 2013 ed.] 9783110968361, 9783598243608

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CHANGE MANAGEMENT FOR INFORMATION SERVICES

Other titles in this series include: Establishing an Information Center: A Practical Guide Document Management: New Technologies for the Information Services Manager Total Quality Management in Information Services Corporate Memory: Information Management in the Electronic Age Entrepreneurial Librarianship: The Key to Effective Information Services Management Customer Service in the Information Environment Power and Influence: Enhancing Information Services within the Organization

Change Management for Information Services

Sharon Penfold

BOWKER SAUR London · Melbourne · Munich · New Providence, New Jersey

© 1999 Reed Business Information Ltd © 1996 SLA for SLA Competencies appendix A All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means (including photocopying and recording) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Design and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P OLP. The written permission of the copyright holder must also be obtained before any part of this publication is stored in a retrieval system of any nature. Applications for the copyright holder's written permission to reproduce, transmit or store in a retrieval system any part of this publication should be addressed to the publisher. Warning: The doing of any unauthorized act in relation to a copyright work may result in both a civil claim for damages and criminal prosecution.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalogue record for this title is available from the Library of Congress

Published by Bowker-Saur, Windsor Court, East Grinstead House, East Grinstead, West Sussex RH19 1XA, UK Tel: +44 (0)1342 326972 Fax: +44 (0)01324 336198/190 E-mail: [email protected] Internet Website: http://www.bowker-saur.co.uk Bowker-Saur is a division of REED BUSINESS INFORMATION LIMITED. ISBN 1-85739-281-7 Cover design by Juan Hayward Typesetting by The Florence Group, Stoodleigh, Devon Printed on acid-free paper Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire

The author

Sharon Penfold is Head of Computer Services at the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders in the UK, with responsibility for both the technological and informational needs of the organization. Her current position follows two years at the Society as Technical Information Manager. Both posts have incorporated the role of Internet co-ordinator. Starting with vacation jobs in an engineering trade association library, Sharon Penfold has progressed through a range of roles and responsibilities at varying levels within the library and information management sector. Her career and professional interests have centred around such areas as marketing, information systems and the Internet. From virtually the beginning of her career, she has had a strong interest in using information technology as a tool. She has worked for a mixed bag of organizations, mostly in engineering, business and computing fields - including a professional institution, major defence firm, international environmental group, property consultancy and in academia. In posts where she was a 'one-man band', or solo librarian, focusing on the needs of individuals along with those of the organization as a whole became instinctive. As a result of her breadth and depth of experience, there is little in the fields of librarianship and information management that she has not encountered, and changes both major and minor have occurred throughout. Her involvement in several subject-based and regional committees was a particularly valuable source of professional support and development. In the early 1990s, she was responsible for developing, organizing and implementing a range of Internet training courses and seminars aimed at information professionals. The courses focused on the use of the Internet as a valuable research tool at a time when the resources available were not nearly as wide-ranging or numerous as they are today. Sharon Penfold holds an MBA from Aston University, UK, gained over 4 years of part-time and distance learning study. She is a member of the Institute of Information Scientists and Editor of the Institute's newsletter Inform.

For all those who have provided inspiration and support, particularly Martin, Tracey and my parents, all@Aston, John@IEE, Linda@TWI

Introduction to the series

A broader management perspective for information services For several years - decades, it seems - librarians and other information services professionals have lamented the fact that there is not enough emphasis on management in their training. They learn their subjects, and librarians especially connect very early on in their training to the concepts of service and the organization of information. Management skills, however, are frequently neglected or given minimal attention, and many information services professionals find themselves working in the corporate environment, research and technology organizations, government information units, or community/public administration organizations where management skills are needed. Much of what they need they learn on the job; other approaches, such as continuing education programs, are utilized by those who have the initiative to recognize that they must do something to educate themselves to be managers. Some of it works and some of it does not. Bowker-Saur's Information Management Series, for which I serve as Series Editor, seeks to address this need in the information services community. For this series (and indeed, since the entire field of information management is strongly predicted by many to be going in this direction), the concept of information services is being defined very broadly. The time has come, it seems to me, to recognize that the various constituent units of our society concerned with information have many of the same goals and objectives, and, not surprisingly, many of the same concerns. The practice of management is one of these, and for our purposes it does not matter if the reader is employed as an information manager, information provider, information specialist, or indeed, as an information counsellor (as these information workers have been described by one of the leaders of business and industry). In fact, it does not matter whether the reader is employed in information technology, telecommunications, traditional librarianship, records management, corporate or organizational

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for Information

Services

archives, the information brokerage field, publishing, consulting, or any of the myriad branches of information services (including service to the information community and the many vendors who make up that branch of the profession). These new titles on the management of information services have been chosen specifically for their value to all who are part of this community of information workers. Although much work is being done in these various disciplines, little of it concentrates on management, and that which is done generally concentrates on one or another of the specific subgroups in the field. This series seeks to unite management concepts throughout information services, and whereas some of the titles will be directed to a specific group, most will be broad-based and will attempt to address issues of concern to all information services employees. For example, one book in the series deals with entrepreneurial librarianship, which would seem to be limited to the library profession but in fact offers information and guidance to anyone working in the information services field who is willing to incorporate entrepreneurial thinking into his or her work. Another title looks at corporate memory from the perspective of data and records management, and would seem to be limited to those who are practicing the discipline of records management. In fact, the book has been specifically structured to be of value to anyone who is working in the information services field, that 'umbrella' concept of information services described above. As we attempt to bring general management practices into the realm of information services, it will be pointed out that the practice of management is addressed within the organizations or communities that employ information workers. This is true, and certainly in the corporate world (and, arguably, in the public and academic library communities as well), there are plenty of occasions for information services employees to participate in management training as provided in-house. There is nothing wrong with that approach and in many organizations it works very well, but the training does not proceed from an information services point of view, thus forcing the information worker to adapt, as best he or she can, the management practices of the organization to the management practices needed for the best provision of information services. The titles of the Bowker-Saur Information Services Management Series will enable the information worker to relate information management to organizational management, thus putting the information worker (especially the information executive) in a position of considerable strength in the organization or community where he or she is employed. By understanding management principles (admittedly, as frequently 'borrowed' from the general practice of management) and relating them to the way the information services unit is organized, not only does the information services employee position him or herself for the better provision of information services, but the entire information services unit

Change Management for Information Services

is positioned as a respectable participant in organizational or community operations. This last point perhaps needs some elaboration, for it should be made clear that the books in the series are not intended exclusively for the corporate or specialized information services field. It is our intention to provide useful management criteria for all kinds of information services, including those connected to public, academic or other publicly supported libraries. Our basic thesis is that quality management leads to quality services, regardless of whether the information services activity is privately or publicly funded, whether it is connected with a private research or public government agency, or indeed, whether it is a temporary information unit or whether it is part of a permanently funded and staffed operation. Writing for this series will be authors who, I am sure, will challenge some of the usual barriers to effective management practices in this or that type of library or information services unit, and certainly there will be librarians, records managers, archivists and others who will be able to relate some of their management practices in such a way that CIOs and computer services managers will benefit from the telling. In other words, our attempt here is to clear away the usual preconceptions about management within the various branches of information services, to do away with the concept of 'well-that-mightwork-for-you-but-it-won't-work-for-me' kind of thinking. We can no longer afford to fight turf battles about whether or not management is 'appropriate' in one or other of the various subunits of information provision. What we must do, and what the Information Services Management Series expects to do, is to bring together the best of all of us, and to share our management expertise so that we all benefit. Guy St Clair Series Editor

ix

Contents

The Author

ν

Introduction to the series (Guy St. Clair, Series Editor)

vii

List of

xiii

figures

Introduction

xv

Chapter 1

Status report: the information profession State of the art Professional issues Technology

1 1 3 10

Chapter 2

Status report: the Information Age The Information Age Information overload Organizational issues in the Information Age

19 19 21 24

Chapter 3

Status report: knowledge management History Definition Methods and approaches Dangers Implications for information services Pack leaders Change

38 38 40 41 45 46 48 48

Chapter 4

Status report: summary SWOT strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats PEST political, economic, social, technological

50 50 54

Chapter 5

Implications for the information profession Impact Opportunities

56 56 62

xii

Contents

Skills and abilities Education and learning Change Summary

66 79 85 88

Chapter 6

Change management theory Relevance The context of change management Implications Conditions for success Process Resistance Frameworks and approaches

91 91 92 100 102 109 114 116

Chapter 7

Managing change: information services framework Context Aim Changing organizational culture Changing attitudes Skills audit The framework overview The framework toolkit

120 120 121 122 122 123 124 127

Chapter 8

Where next?

134

Chapter 9

Real-world examples SmithKline Beecham Pharmaceuticals Hewlett Packard Laboratories Washington State University at Vancouver Pennsylvania State University Published case studies synopses

136 136 145 156 l60 163

Appendix A SLA Competencies - Extract from the full report

171

Appendix Β Recommended reading

179

Appendix C References and bibliography

181

Index

201

List of figures

Figure 1.1 Figure 2.1 Figure 6.1 Figure 6.2 Figure 6.3 Figure 7.1 Figure 9-1

The political wisdom matrix The 'new' change model: making 'invisible assets' visible A simplified view of the change process The change process based on timescale and magnitude The 'contrasting paths' model of change 3M single management process Performance support methodology

2 35 94 94 96 130 140

Introduction

There is a future but not as we know it. We .. . have the skills, knowledge and experience that the intelligent organization needs. All we have to do is get on and do it! (Nunn, 1994, p.6) All facets of the information profession, of organizations, of economies and most fundamentally, individuals - are increasingly affected by change. In the organizational setting there are innumerable theories, structures and toolkits which form the 'hard' side of change management and Chapter 6 summarizes the most valuable of these. However, the formal, often elaborately intellectual means of enacting change are frequently difficult to understand. As the subject of change management proliferates, becoming one of serious academic standing, these means become ever more difficult to comprehend. Fortunately, however, the accessible quantity of valuable 'nuggets' is simultaneously increasing. These nuggets which provide the practical, pragmatic and realistic side of change management - potentially offer a great deal to the information sector. As discussed throughout this volume, the information sector has traditionally been driven by change, rather than driving change to its own advantage. Change management related to the information industry is steadily gaining people's interest - as reflected by a modest, but solid core of articles, books and most recently, courses. There is much to take advantage of and, many ways in which change management in its many forms can make a real impact on individuals, on day-to-day working and information services and, ultimately, at the organizational level. Chapter 5 covers the implications for information workers in detail, but in a world where the Information Age and the Knowledge Economy are becoming common parlance, the profession clearly has no better opportunity to move its members, its status and its contribution to society forward. Information professionals in all settings must, therefore, be able at the very least to recognize and react to change - ideally proactively to manage, work with and exploit change. Coping with, seamlessly assimilating change, or continuing along the same lines as before is not what will

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Change Management for Information Services

successfully take individuals, information services and the profession into the 21st century. The following key areas must reflect change in all its forms: •

personal skills, traits, abilities

•

professional matters, infrastructure and support

•

hosting organization

•

organizational sector

The positive impact that individual information professionals can have on all these factors is too often grossly underestimated at the organization's higher levels. Their professional skills alone give them a major start over other professions, as a level of expertise in the acquisition and analysis of information is an essential part of any change initiative, whether at a personal or organizational level. The only thing holding them back is their mindset - on a collective and personal basis. One of the most encouraging developments in general change management theory is a realization that after so many failed change initiatives, there is a very simple solution: What is central to creating change, to learning, to generating value together . . . We need individuals to take responsibility, to see what is real and what is possible . . . A winning organization supports individuals working together to create value for all the stakeholders. (Page, 1996, p.5) Individually, information professionals can greatly contribute to such winning organizations - changing themselves and their services to suit the Information Age; changing their professional organizations and associations to support members actively and promote what they have to offer; changing their organizations from within in order to recognize and exploit their hugely valuable skills. As someone who started out with a traditional degree in librarianship, I have experienced a fair number of changes. I have been fortunate enough to be a part of a number of very different, stimulating and frequently inspirational teams, working in a range of organizational structures (with their associated politics) and experiencing several job redundancies on the way. Change has been a constant part of my professional and organizational life to varying degrees, sometimes welcome, sometimes most definitely not. Drawing on these experiences and the role models provided by many colleagues, my aim in this book is to detail the nature of the changes ahead for the profession, to draw out the most constructive and pragmatic elements of change management theory and to provide a framework of support for information professionals in the continuous 'loop of change'.

Chapter One

Status report: the information profession

Yesterday's rules have changed, he who predicts tomorrow's rules wins and then claims this is not a game . . . Keep moving or you get overtaken. (Horner, 1996, p.8)

State of the art The information services and management profession in its entirety faces major opportunities and equally major threats. As organizations and society steam into a Knowledge Economy and the Information Age, the profession is better placed to employ and promote its wide range of skills and experience than at any other stage in its long history. What other sector has a stronger lead in tackling the information overload that threatens to engulf civilization? The fundamental information handling, structuring and retrieving skills that will form a vital survival mechanism in the 21st century lie at the core of the profession's collective abilities. Too frequently the profession is in danger of focusing so totally on providing a high quality, effective and cost-efficient service within its host environment that the real world passes by. Technological developments are central to information service provision, but tend to be absorbed in a project-oriented fashion. Political and other environmental factors, both internal and external, can easily flow past unheeded. Negotiating, understanding and working with internal politics is time consuming and painful for a profession where many of its members can be categorized as 'innocents' under Hardy's Political Wisdom Matrix (1994, p.208) (see Figure 1.1). The profession is by nature and tradition an altruistic one, undoubtedly hindered by the full historical implications of: •

being dominated by women, with the accompanying effects on earnings and employment conditions

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Change Management for Information Services

•

a persistent poor image, despite the librarian's 'transition from guardian to assistant and information agent' (Cochrane, 1996, p. 12)

•

slow acceptance, within the profession as well as among its audience, that information has a price and value, it does NOT come free.

Library and information services have long proved an attractive target across the full range of government, educational and corporate institutions that host them. They have tended to be perceived as a very high central overhead and additionally not seen to add value by those in a position to cut resources and services. Libraries are also subject to the view that they are surely no longer necessary or relevant in this 'post-modern world of information provision' (Biddiscombe, 1996, p.l). Regular claims have appeared to the effect that 'the replacement of "real" libraries and librarians by "virtual" libraries is inevitable, although this will take at least 10 to 15 years to happen' (Gleadhill, 1996, p.25). The ever-deepening pool of such predictions offers a broad sweep of extremes: •

Ά typical business by the year 2000 will have more than 40 per cent of the workforce involved in collecting, analyzing, synthesizing, structuring, storing or retrieving information' (St Clair, 1994, p.xiii).

•

'By 2025, sovereign individuals will be competing in cyberspace - the world's largest economy - in a realm without physical existence . . . most . . . will be information-poor' (Cawkell, 1998, p.56).

•

'Laying out papers on the desk is a way of arranging our thoughts and helps us read across multiple surfaces . . . the paperless regime may . . . be less efficient than the litter strewn playpen' (Watson, 1998, p.56).

Accumulating and evaluating these, looking as far ahead as possible, is vital in understanding just what future environments the information service could find itself in, what impact the non-stop flow of innovations could have. Politically aware

Clever

Wise

Self-interest dominates

Common interest dominates Inept

Innocent

Politically unaware Figure 1.1 The political wisdom matrix

Status report: the information profession

As the profession faces the challenges, and sometimes unpleasant realities, of the 21st century, there are certainly scattered pockets of excellence in terms of managing both the services and their image. This is combined with the steady adoption of vital marketing, strategic and communication skills, which are all at least as important as a strong grounding in the traditional areas of cataloguing, classification and online searching. The latter collection constantly proves its worth in terms of structuring the new forms of information storage and dissemination, making the knowledge contained therein accessible and supporting and training the end users. Continuous promotion of the resources, services and expertise on offer should by now have been worked into the foundations for any information set-up, but this is still not necessarily the case. Overall, out of the massively wide-ranging set of desirable skills, it is the strategic planning and management abilities that are both most essential and least prevalent. In turn, change management as an accepted concept, when put into practice is equally thinly spread. This tricky mix of personal, technological and management competences and attitudes can make the difference between basic survival and thriving success. There are four basic categories in which information professionals must be able to monitor, evaluate and adopt developments, all on a regular awareness and updating basis: •

Professional - systems, services, trends

•

Technology - computer hardware and software, the Internet, multimedia

•

Information Society - government initiatives, 'information overload'

•

Organizational - management theory and practice, strategy, structure.

The first two tend to be a matter of course in any case, falling neatly into the approach for modern librarians advocated by Crawford and Gorman: Ά straight and narrow path between the librarianship of nostalgia and the ill-informed embrace of any technology that happens to capture the magpie fancy of the moment' (1995, p.l). Stretching beyond that are areas which can suffer from lacking an immediate interest, having no apparent value to current work, and possessing no potential fundamental impact on services.

Professional issues Information, data and knowledge The ongoing, frequently theoretical, debate concerning the very nature of information is one of the profession's underpinnings. A useful working

3

4

Change Management for Information

Services

definition is the four-level hierarchy of data, information, knowledge and wisdom, as explained by Homer (1996, p.5): •

Data - who, what?

•

Information - where, when?

•

Knowledge - how?

•

Wisdom - why?

Data and information storage and manipulation is well established, with advanced developments in 'data warehousing' and 'data mining' facilitating the extraction of useful patterns from incomprehensible quantities of data. 'Information extraction' is also under development, aiming to present the searcher with relevant facts from full documents. Putting the results in context and making links, however, still requires human input and there is now more emphasis on analysing the findings and presenting valueadded reports based on these findings. Knowledge management has moved far beyond an irrelevant buzz word, but is undoubtedly flavour of the decade in business and IT terms. Perceptive and progressive organizations have initiated real-world knowledge management projects and cultures. Intranets, when well structured and maintained, distribute valuable information as widely and freely as possible, ensuring that the wheel is not reinvented due to the loss of corporate memory. The underlying fundamental issues here include a shift in culture to encourage freer distribution and employment of information, as well as instilling the practical abilities to use the technology and information effectively. Some have policies of receiving documents only in electronic form; others ensure that any form of information source (directories, journals, databases) is ordered centrally, so preventing duplication of resources and isolated collections of under-utilized information. The key to knowledge management is perhaps its concentration on the people factor (not a traditional core strength of the information profession) as demonstrated in the following definition from the CEO of Monsanto: 'Knowledge management engages the collective intellect of the people to provide insight. Insight is manifested in new products, new processes, manufacturing, marketing, customer knowledge and logistics' (TFPL, 1996, p.4). Looking to the ultimate level, could the 21st century see the emergence of the wisdom-based organization? Is it the case that we suffer from 'not an overload of information so much as a deficit of meaning' (Talbott, 1997b)? Are we overly obsessed with information proliferation and management? Are we losing sight of the fact that it has been authoritatively proven by Garfield (most recently in 1996) that the most relevant core of research articles are contained within a relatively small proportion of the total available journals - something which holds true for all subject fields and information formats?

Status report: the information

profession

Librarians versus information professionals Within the profession, colleagues and hosting institutions are being pushed to recognize the opportunities, to apply their skills and to add real value to their organization's processes: 'We cannot resist the metamorphosis happening inside our current cocoon - our old view of librarianship. This cocoon will break, and out will fly an information facilitator and integrator or nothing!' (Medhurst, 1995, p.31). The full range of such demands was demonstrated at a meeting held in 1996 (Roberts, 1997, p.6): •

We have 'a role to advise and train users to think critically and evaluate the quality of information'.

•

We can 'enhance our position and our profession'.

•

We must 'develop training skills . . . presentation skills . . . marketing skills . . . and teamwork skills'.

•

However, there is also the fundamental question: 'Are librarians trying to make out that information skills are difficult to ensure that we maintain the role of gatekeeper?'

Such calls for action are nothing new. Marketing theory first hit the information profession in the early 1980s, and has been much written about ever since. Yet the necessity to present services and the individuals providing those services in a credible, businesslike fashion is still just filtering through in many cases. User-friendliness in organizing resources, creating systems and catalogues, providing training and written instructions and in face-to-face contact can still be a rarity. According to the Institute of Information Scientists (Hyams, 1996), complaints are still heard from information managers 'about the lack of awareness in parent organizations of the added value' that they provide. It is too often the case that these same information services have not publicized their contribution appropriately. At all levels, 'one just has to keep plugging away at the facts, unpalatable as they may seem to the senior management' - 'information strategy' is not equivalent to 'information technology strategy', neither is it feasible to 'close down the organizational library and on Monday morning you start using the Internet to get the data and documents' (Lester, 1996, p.94). Conclusive support for such 'plugging away' came from a survey of nine Swedish corporations, intended to quantify the value of information and show the role of corporate libraries in the information management process. Clear confirmation of the benefits to the organizations came through, and of the need for corporate libraries to 'motivate their existence in the future' - 'the path ahead is narrow, winding and thorny, but the reward will be that the library at last can play the strategic role it aims to play' (Nelke, 1999, p. 10).

5

6

Change Management for Information Services

Professional standing has suffered further from the insistence by the 'priesthood of Chartered Librarians' (Watson, 1996, p.49) concerning the eliteness of the library community. This has been consistently counterproductive, obscuring the practical business value of effective information handling. As an example of the type of issues affecting professional bodies within the information industry worldwide, the three UK library and information associations in the 1990s were the Library Association (LA), Institute of Information Scientists (IIS) and Aslib (the Association for Information Management). None was seen to be 'acting effectively in marketing librarians, information scientists, whatever you want to call them!' (Poynder, 1996a). The logicality of having just one representative body emerged from time to time: 1989 - Wilfred Saunders strongly emphasized the effectiveness of one body instead of three in taking advantage of the likely opportunities through the 1990s, 'the like of which have never arisen before, to raise the profile of library and information work to a level which will at last begin to reflect the value of its contribution to society' (1989, p.8). 1996 - Heated debate began over whether the LA and IIS should merge. The resultant, not unfounded, accusations included: - 'blinkered, elitist swaggering,' combined with 'professional ignorance and limited ambitions' (Henderson, 1996) - 'insecurity about our profession and role' (Woodward, 1996). 1998 - the 'time has come' to unify the LA and IIS, 'to claim assertively our rightful role in ensuring that people, businesses, institutions and voluntary organizations have the timely access they need to information' to 'play a key role centre stage in the rapidly developing information and communications technology revolution' (Institute of Information Scientists and the Library Association, 1998). Yet the frustrations of both memberships were still being loudly vocalized: •

'The LA majority seems quite disinterested in the views and needs of IIS members' (Gordon-Till, 1998, p.576).

•

'We are in the death throes of a dying profession' (Fleet, 1998).

•

'Public librarians need information scientists' . . . we should 'share our ambitions and aspirations, in order that we attain the bright future which is within our grasp' (Hendry, 1998, p.8).

Status report: the information

profession

Convergence with other sectors such as publishing, media, and more recently, computing has also reared its head cyclically, with little real impact however. But as Saunders accurately noted in 1989: 'Library and information workers will not be the only professional specialists to identify and pursue the opportunities which will open up in what has hitherto been largely their own professional field' (1989, p. 14). The matter of names, job titles and professional qualifications further extends the minefield, resulting in few constructive leads. Two major underlying factors in the whole debate are that: •

'Librarians have had so many problems because we have been willing to accept the status of bit players instead of understanding the assets our experience gives us' (Matson and Bonski, 1997).

•

'The imminent demise of the information professional has been a hot topic of discussion for years. It is something of a mystery to me why we are so convinced that we can be replaced, or so inclined to perceive new advances as threats' (Feldman, 1996).

Such fundamentals, the role and future of the individuals and their supporting bodies worldwide, have still to be resolved if this somewhat schizophrenic profession is to be in any position to deal with the personal and organizational challenges now facing it.

Luddites For all the attractions and adoption of technology, 'even in the late 1980s . . . there were still librarians who felt that computer systems led to conformity, or were not sufficiently adaptable to local requirements and led to the depersonalization of the library service' (Boddy and Gunson, 1996, p.68). Where hardened Luddites exist, there is little that can be done, but in reality there are few falling into this category. Age is arguably a factor, but certainly not anywhere near the entire cause. If particular Luddite tendencies are down to age (or age is used as an excuse for adopting a Luddite stance), then a few more decades will, in theory, see the issue solve itself. The majority of apparent Luddites generally convert once a technology has been proven as valuable (and better than traditional methods) to their own work and/or that of their customers. Then there is the opposite extreme, 'a marked fixation with powerful, innovative information systems, often irrespective of their direct suitability to users' (Nicholas, 1996, p.26). This is, unfortunately accurately, attributed to the profession's traditional 'insularity and four-wall mentality - they are not sufficiently concerned with information problems that occur in the organization outside the library' (Nicholas, 1996, p.31)· Sometimes this is combined with direct antagonism towards those users - again a traditional (perceived) mark of a librarian.

1

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Change Management for Information Services

Another ever-prevalent danger is that the users and hosting organizations have yet to move into the 20th century, let alone prepare for the 21st. The Institution of Mechanical Engineers' library, despite its excellent marketing strategies over the years, was under threat of being converted into a restaurant (Professional Engineering, 1996, p.32)! Members indicated that their library was perceived as an expensive service of little value and that the space could be better used. In principle still not an untypical situation.

The host environment The basic principles of information work, whatever their physical form or source of funding, remain the same. Emphases and driving factors naturally differ according to the type of library, service and organization. The staffing, operations, resources, products and management vary to the greatest possible extremes, within and between all the sectors involved (subject, commercial and non-commercial, academic, public, government and particularly the broad category traditionally described as special libraries). The additional skills increasingly required by the professionals concerned (librarians, information specialists and knowledge managers alike), alongside the functional techniques of library and information science, are now equally common - focusing on communications, marketing and management. Equally, the basic information issues within organizations are precisely the same. Park offers a long list of those applicable to users, managers and information professionals, including: •

'Concepts people have in their heads about using information are either outmoded or devalued.

•

'There are, more often than not, no information policies, strategies, or standards that make high-quality internal or external information readily available or people accountable or willing to budget for it.

•

'In many cases, someone else in the company or organization already has the information, but is not motivated to share it.' (1998, p.3)

Many relate to the human aspects, to psychology, perception and culture. None is easy or logical to deal with, but have to be recognized and handled appropriately. Libraries and information services in developing countries have all these factors to deal with, while simultaneously building up resources from nothing - by comparison, with nothing. However, they have a potential advantage in being able to leapfrog much of the painful learning process that services in developed countries have gone through - especially where

Status report: the information

profession

systems and technology are concerned. They can benefit further from the fact that 'globalization is exposing the world to rich information resources' (Boumarafi, 1997, p. 141). Comparatively straightforward access to quality information is on offer, quicker and cheaper than anyone outside of the worlds of research and academia could ever have thought possible - even in more recent decades. Outsourcing of services can be a double-edged sword, with potential for making long-term planning and vision impossible. Well structured and managed outsourcing has clear advantages, offering more support and security for the professionals involved, while taking the load off the parent organization. Disintermediation One further threat is that of disintermediation - the elimination of intermediaries skilled in exploiting and supporting systems and information sources. An organization could easily eradicate any form of library and information service, lay off all information professionals, digitize all documentation into a data warehouse, then run the risk of lacking effective retrieval systems (and staff) to find what it needs. One existing model is a Hughes Aerospace private corporate network (now known as intranets), set up in the UK in 1995 at a cost of $600 000. The key aim was to connect Hughes with 22 customers - but the network also incorporated the 7000 publications the group subscribed to. Apparently $250 000 was saved on these subscriptions in the first year. What is not specified is how many information jobs were lost as a result - as a minimum the clerical posts involved in filing those publications must have been re-evaluated. Other related positions would have had to change to a greater or lesser extent to cope with the new administrative and technological requirements, as well as taking advantage of the positive potential for new services (Turner, A. 1996, p.34). Questions also have to arise over the effectiveness of the network, as by 1999 the Hughes group was suffering from 'islands of knowledge, deep pockets of expertise that have trouble developing synergies among themselves' (Despres and Chauvel, 1999, p.4). A 'Knowledge Highway', another IT-supported network of company experts, was therefore created to link the islands. Another model is the aircraft group Boeing, where the majority of staff use the intranet to do their jobs. Over 1 million web pages were created on more than 20 000 individual sites in a 4-year span (Lamb, 1999, p.7). Again what is not specified is how much information is effectively lost in the morass of sites - and just how well those sites are structured and indexed. In such initiatives, what room is there in the simple transfer of text from print to binary digits for the good advice, informed help, dedication and respected integrity of librarians, as highlighted in a 1995 survey

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Change Management for Information

Services

(Biddiscombe, 1996, p. 171)? One of the most well-established library tenets is that customers will ask for what they think can be provided, not necessarily what they require. A key information skill is unravelling the question, establishing exactly what the subject of interest is and equally importantly, what the limitations on the query are (e.g. language, short summaries or full history, recency). The increasingly diverse range of information sources underlines the value of experience in searching skills combined with knowledge of the subject area and similar queries. A related issue is that of the quality and validity of resources: 'Disinformation, mis-information and part-information must not be allowed! . . . Electronic information means that users "become in a way much more vulnerable" ' (Armstrong, 1996, p.23). Evaluation of the results has always formed an intrinsic part of the 'literature-searching' process, taken to various degrees of thoroughness varying from the application of intuition and past experience to methodical pursuance of original proof. As end user searching grows, so should the already well-developed strong advisory and educational role of the information professional in terms of transferring the tools, approaches and techniques they have employed for so long.

Technology Being a highly information technology-based sector, the process and effects of 'relentlessly improving' technological change are marked. Apparently stable platforms (the hosting organization, the technology base) suddenly undergo massive change, upending all that was solid and accepted: •

The human knowledge base continually doubles in under two years, with associated implications for storing and retrieving the data.

•

Under Moore's Law, computer processors double in complexity, and so functionality, with each 'device generation' i.e. every 18 months (Meieran, 1996, p.6). At the extreme end of the technology, a $53m supercomputer under construction by Intel in 1996 to simulate nuclear explosions broke the world computer speed record by running at 1.06 teraflops per second (Guardian Online, 1996, p.6).

•

Data could be stored within a molecule smaller than a grain of salt according to some research (Vickery, 1996, p.l). This has incomprehensible implications, and many dangers. Is everything stored regardless of value, size and cost - or do we run the risk of losing documents whose significance only become obvious years after their format has degraded or become redundant? There is also the key question of longevity. Paper, if well stored, lasts for hundreds of years, whereas the 20th century is littered with failed document/film storage

Status report: the information profession

formats. This latter fact places 'the chronicle of our entire period in jeopardy' (Rothenberg, 1995, p.24). •

Nanotechnology indicates an equally impressive future with a transistor developed at Leeds University (Radford, 1997, p.2) which was smaller than a virus. This offers communication systems capabilities increased by factors of thousands and computer processors 10 000 or 100 000 times faster than current Pentiums.

•

More immediate promise is offered by a new Texas Instruments' digital signal processor allowing files to be transferred in 5 seconds against 10 minutes. However, while modem speeds have been doubling roughly every 18 months, the technology could now be approaching, if not already be at, the limits of its capacity.

•

A delightful mixed bag of predictions includes: - 90 per cent of everything that people will interact with by the start of the next millennium has not yet been developed (Innovations, 1995) - virtual reality will affect humanity more profoundly in the 21st century than the car did in the 20th century (ibid) - for 1989-1999 it was forecast that the percentage of total information resources in the United States in paper form would drop only 3 per cent, from 95 per cent to 92 per cent (Stephens, 1998, ρ.4) - in 1994 Gartner Group reported that 80 per cent of all information was on paper, 20 per cent was electronic - then claimed that the figures would reverse to 20 per cent paper, 80 per cent electronic by 2000 (ibid) - 'small businesses are not going to have small computers: it's not a practical way to go' - from a 1970 article in 'Computer Decisions' (Cawkell, 1987, p.55).

While the predictions often fall flat, many of the major steps forward become standard specification in a very short space of time. One knockon effect is forcing key investment decisions to be made ever more rapidly, while making long-term strategic planning ever more difficult. Additionally, there is the paradox that computer systems can (consciously or otherwise) result in restructuring and force flexibility, simultaneously forming just one element of 'the management decision-making involved in structural change processes' (Boddy and Gunson, 1996, p.37). It is very easy for information professionals to concentrate purely on the day-to-day advantages of new technology, effectively ignoring the wider structural and management implications. Some may be drawn into a geek's world of jargon and gimmicks, effectively ostracizing themselves

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Change Management for Information Services

from their users and organizations and falling foul of claims that 'we do not know where we are going, but it is essential we get there and as fast as we can' (Hendrix, 1987, p.45). Others have difficulty, deliberately or subconsciously in some cases, in just keeping pace with developments, let alone taking them on board and gaining full advantage. Pragmatically, 'we may have great problems if we accept the new technologies - but we shall have even greater ones, or worse ones, if we reject them' (ibid).

The Internet The clearest current example of the pattern and speed of technological development is provided by the World Wide Web (the Internet's friendly, graphical interface to information - e.g. reports, journal articles, databases). The rate and implications of Web development are phenomenal, with each new generation of software produced in a 'Web year' of just three months! Simpler, more powerful access and dissemination of information no longer relies on the arcane art of online searching. The latter relied on a painful process of retrieving reports, data and abstracts using the incomprehensible, disparate and easily forgettable commands of host systems such as Dialog and Datastar. The Web 'is the only medium where information of real value is actually increasing' 0 e f c o a t e > 1996) and provides a superb tool for simultaneously: •

presenting and manipulating information

•

allowing an immense, international audience to access knowledge easily

•

providing support and training to that audience

•

more effectively managing organizational information and communication processes.

There is a prevalent situation of little correlation between an organization's 'size, importance, historical success and current Web effectiveness' . . . 'The Web rewards skill, daring, imagination and ingenuity' (Collier, 1996, p. 16). Standard market forces will eventually prevail; resource-rich, global corporations will be able to dominate the new marketplace - but speed, agility and vision can still make all the difference at present. In 1996 according to KPMG, 41 per cent of UK companies with a turnover of over £200m had no Internet budget, but could be earning 20 per cent of their income from the Internet by 2000 (Pope, 1996, p. 162). The payback period, turning the massive investment needed into hard profit, is already proving to be much very much longer than claimed. Amazon, the major success story in selling books on the Web, must wait beyond 2000 to make money.

Status report: the information

profession

The Internet itself is currently subject to considerable hype and technical limitations, but it is certainly 'designing us as much as we are designing it; the requirements . . . challenge us economically, socially, politically and technically' (Weibel, 1995, p.640). There is no doubting the immense, fast-growing business and economic value of the Internet instant access to full US legislation, for example, or a same-day reply from a contact in Greece (without the telecommunications and spoken language problems). This relies on a number of factors including knowing where to start, effective searching abilities, basic data communications skills and endless patience. The technical limitations are potentially disastrous and are due to the phenomenal growth rate: estimates of users fall between 35 and 50 million in over 80 countries; from just four host computers in the 1960s, there are now over 12 million, with predictions of over 100 million by 2000. Technological investment and standardization, combined with new methods of dealing with the thorny issues of ownership, copyright, censorship and privacy are essential (and are mostly already underway) if what could be an invaluable business tool is not to grind to a halt. Some means of guaranteeing the integrity and validity of the information offered will also be a necessity. One other major issue is how and whether Internet use will be taxed - 'As manufacturing industries decline and the information economy takes over, governments are having to think up new ways to take their cut' (M. Ward, 1996, p. 14). Optimistically, 'whatever form it takes, the Internet will survive . . . it's too enmeshed in the world economy for a collapse to be acceptable' (Moody, 1996, p.27). From an information angle, we must ensure that we neither miss significant information nor flood the user with what is irrelevant. It is also a matter of filtering out the considerable amount of inaccurate, misleading or unvalidated information supplied via the Internet. Here is a major opportunity to guide end users through the maze, developing the necessary mix of search skills, technical insight and intuition to track down what is of real value. Indeed, there have been broader calls for 'librarians to become an integral part of the discussion about the Net's future', to provide the structures necessary for the Internet to rise to its true potential (Schneiderman, 1996). 'Scientific American' has claimed that the profession is the most appropriate to tame the 'wild frontier' of the Internet, which 'is made of information, and nobody knows more about how to order information than librarians, who have been pondering that problem for thousands of years' (1997). The situation mirrors that facing the profession in the 1980s, when it went through interminable debate and soul-searching as the traditional online systems started successfully targeting the ultimate user with friendly, logical and full-text services - negating the need for an interpreter. Now, again, there are two extremes within the profession, reflected in the following two statements:

13

14

Change Management for Information Services Information professionals would be arrogant and naive indeed if they did not believe that this would shake their information world to its very foundations. (Nicholas and Frossling, 1996, p.31) In truth, we all have been touched by the technology which is delivering the information society. But have we got a bit carried away with it and our role in it? Have we convinced ourselves that we are at the centre of it when in reality we are the bus drivers on the information super-highway and not the civil engineers? (Henderson, 1998b)

The reality is already staring the profession in the face. One business information resources survey found that end user access to the Internet trebled in just over one year whereas online and CD-ROM services failed to achieve anything like this level of desktop penetration. The same survey found that business librarians now expect Internet services to 'change the nature of their work, but not to reduce their role' (Smith, 1998, p.5). The effects on online services, access and hosts are again already in evidence. The traditional online hosts can both take advantage of the Internet technologies - and be stimulated by the competition to add more value to the information users. The changes implied, and those already occuring, will be anything but comfortable. The Dialog Corporation reverse takeover of MAID in 1998, combined with high-impact alterations to charging mechanisms, was an excellent example. On the downside, such groups are 'stuck with massive legacy systems and huge amounts of data. . . their expertise is obsolete' (Wiley, 1998).

Digital libraries There is a massive body of research on digital/electronic/virtual libraries and also on information retrieval systems. The Xerox group is one of the most obvious and prolific contributors, while at the end of 1996 the British Library announced a programme of digital library research, an area which it identified as strategically important. Much of such work is exceedingly technical and/or theoretical, but there are a number of real-life implementations. One of the earliest was at BP Nutrition, which closed its paper-based library in 1993 in favour of a 'total electronic information environment' (Information World Review, 1993, p. 10). The result was a professional role of networking within the organization, with the emphasis on 'infomating' (acting as the gatekeeper to the corporate memory), outsourcing and creativity. A more prominent example was the 'new' £500m British Library, 'which aims to become "a major centre for digital texts" and will use digital information systems to "create more efficient library processes and services" ' (May, 1996, p.8). The Library however, emphasized that technology is merely another evolutionary stage in the preservation of knowledge, that it will not replace the print originals, just make access easier - enhanced by the effective creation

Status report: the information profession

of the 'global library' (the USA, France and Australia were among countries heading in the same direction). At around the same time, a more technologically and professionally inspiring vision was provided by New York's Science, Industry and Business Library: 'a library without walls . . . a transparent membrane through which information and resources flow freely between the library, international business and research communities and the public' (May, 1996, p.9). This somewhat more exuberant description brings the potential for 21st-century information professionals and services to life. However, US research into digital libraries found that 'the public loves libraries but is unclear about whether it wants libraries to reside at the center of the evolving digital revolution - or at the margins' (Benton Foundation, 1996). This indicates once more that the profession 'must chart a role for themselves, giving meaning and message to their future institutions and their central role' (Benton Foundation, 1996). European and US research initiatives and implementations continue to work towards ensuring that access to the knowledge and meaning within the digitized stores is provided along with the incomprehensible amounts of information on offer. Meanwhile, Lester described a three-phase transition to virtuality, from an initial low concentration, through 'a very difficult and tempestuous phase two' which could take 10-15 years, to the ultimate dominance of virtual libraries (Lester, 1996, p. 195). Phase two certainly feels as if it is underway, even if 'the reason electronic libraries have been slow to develop is because content and system owners will have to collaborate in order to supply the depth and breadth of information users require, at a price they can afford' - and with an interface offering 'the easiest way to get to information' (Duncan, 1998a). Information professionals do have the potential to play an important human role in digital libraries. Vital elements on the people front can be underestimated, such as the personal interface, social interfacing and exchange, the personification of a hub of knowledge, serendipity and the stimulation of creativity. With these lies a key incentive to use the information. Other areas of involvement for the profession include: •

ensuring partnerships are established with publishers to 'provide permanent posting of freely accessible articles and to archive the digital versions in preparation for the time when digital versions are definitive. Taking action now can secure an information highway where toll gates do not limit access to the literature' (of science in the article concerned - but applicable to all fields (Walker, 1998))

•

using their purchasing power on behalf of entire user communities to offer electronic information resources, or the opportunity to access

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Change Management for Information Services

them. Electronic publishers and Internet access providers are recognizing the advantage of infiltrating user groups consisting of potential customers, such as students, researchers or trade association members.

Information Technologists versus Information Managers Concepts centred around the phrase 'information management' are appearing ever more frequently in the computing arena. Free-circulation journals such as Information Age, Document World and Information Strategy review the technologies and standards necessary to collate and access organizations' internal information resources. These publications cover such subjects as information management strategies, enterprise resource planning or enterprise management, but from a software engineering and computer hardware viewpoint. Typically, discussion will concentrate on document workflow or customer databases, focusing on 'business knowledge' but paying little attention to external resources or traditional information services. Overenthusiastic adoption of these theories by an organization's computing services is just one of the factors that can lead to major conflict with its information unit. Conflict is too often inevitable between these two areas, but co-operation needs to occur as a matter of course between computer systems departments and library/information units: 'In an ideal world we would be working together and understanding each other's requirements, and . . . it is definitely the exception rather than the rule' (Sylge, 1996a, p.25). Why this is so would seem to come down to a complex mix of psychological and occupational factors. These include the 'not invented here syndrome', as well as a view that librarians work in slow and expensive ways - 'The technological approach places emphasis on speed and efficiency - on brute force rather than elegance to achieve results' (Matson and Bonski, 1997). Computer departments have proved to be a minimum of obstructive and a maximum of destructive in known dealings with a range of information services. The opposite can be true when there is a 'meeting of minds' and joint projects work well. However, how do you move to a state of information literacy when 'computer people don't seem to be interested in this because it's not connected to speed' (Forbes, 1993, p.92). Is the only solution that seen in a number of organizations where senior management has had to make clear which department has priority in leading the way? In smaller companies, especially, there can be the very real threat of a merger of the two functions or even a short-sighted replacement of the library by the computing department. More positively, the international pharmaceuticals company SmithKline Beecham has successfully established its transnational Scientific Information Group under the banner of Computer and Information Sciences (Dieckmann, 1998c).

Status report: the information profession

The ideal, whatever the size or nature of the parent organization, is to ensure that information specialists work with the IT staff, building up the softer aspects of information work to make the whole greater than the parts. Cross-functional working is increasingly encouraged in the business environment, and information professionals can potentially contribute much to the technologists' systems, by, for example: •

indexing, searching

•

archiving, records management

•

legal implications of electronic documents

•

user friendly interfaces and training.

One current area of growing interest for both parties is that of information security standards. An example is the draft of the British Standards Institution's BS7799 on Information Security Management currently available. The value for information professionals is that this covers all forms of information, viewing the 'information and the systems and networks that support it' as 'important business assets' (British Standards Institution, 1998, p . l ) . The main factors are confidentiality, integrity and availability - all underlying the work of any special library. Implementation of such standards could provide a useful opportunity to bring the work of the library and the IT department together. On a wider scale (within the UK, but repeated worldwide), these areas are in turn encompassed by the government's work analysing and encouraging the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs). The UK Department of Trade and Industry ( D T I ) views these as 'a major determinant of competitive advantage as w e move into the 21st century' (Spectrum Strategy Consultants, 1998). Practical support schemes, targetted at small and medium sized companies in particular, are intended to open up the full range of possible business benefits from effective use of ICTs. Once more, an opening exists for the information manager to alert the organization's management to the schemes and/or to become part of their application. Internal factors found to affect the success of investing in technology offer much of common interest to both IT and information professionals: •

'top management commitment to IT and information investment

•

the organization's previous experience with IT and information systems

•

the organization's previous satisfaction with IT and information systems

•

the extent of political turbulence within the organization

•

the nature of an organization's growth (organic or by acquisition)

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Change Management for Information Services

•

IT strategy and the organization's IT planning process

•

the organization of IT decision making, including policies concerning outsourcing, etc.

•

IT project selection and the processes by which it is done

•

IT project management.' (Owens, Wilson and Abell, 1996, p.6)

A pragmatic and constructive approach to information management across organizations is simply 'the efficient and effective exploitation of the data, information and knowledge resources available to the organization' stressing that this 'requires a multi-disciplinary team, working within a clearly understood strategic vision and planning framework' (Wilson, 1997). This is from an information technology and business data (or management information) angle rather than library services, but Wilson's 'Seven Levels of Information Management' framework for assessing organizations could set up both parties to work towards the ultimate aim of 'The Knowledge Net'. What should certainly happen is close consultation, with recognition of the strengths and weaknesses each has to offer, particularly as it is the implementation strategies that 'determine whether information technologies are a boon or a bane' (Hines, 1994, p. 13). These strategies should be generated from the strengths of both, combined with a broader management and operational perspective. Possibly the most marked difference is the approach to problems and services. Information professionals tend to emphasize the users' viewpoint and requirements (even if they do not then market to those users what is on offer); computer professionals tend to focus on the available technology and what they can produce with it. Were both professions to create and develop effective communications skills among themselves and within their hosting institutions, then there would be no excuse for the 'yawning gulf between organizations' growing recognition of the value of information as a strategic asset and their ability, or inclination to manage it as an asset' (Reuters Business Information Ltd, 1995, p.l).

Chapter Two

Status report: the Information Age

As individuals and as businesses we will be able to accomplish things that would have been unimaginable a generation ago - and many of which are unimaginable today. (MITEL Telecom Ltd, 1998, p.8)

The Information Age The mass of 'Information Society' and 'Information Age' initiatives which have emerged worldwide, including those under both United Kingdom and European Community sponsorship, should theoretically underpin and strengthen the role of library and information services. The information profession is operating in what should be a tailor-made marketplace. The door is opened by the constant, global acknowledgement that the Information Society is: •

'being developed and driven by the market for new information and communications technologies and services' (Information Society Forum, 1996, p.5).

•

'vital for . . . competitiveness - wealth creation will be based on how successfully we use information in business processes' (Taylor, 1997, p.3).

Generally speaking, the theories and predictions of earlier work by gurus such as Toffler, Drucker and Bell are filtering through to the real world with the recognition that 'much of our future economic and social stability depends on how we manage the most profound and far-reaching technological change since the inventions of the steam engine and electricity' (Information Society Forum, 1996, p.5). We are in the midst of Drucker's 1969 prediction of 'the first era when energy for mind work has been available', information being that energy and slowly working towards being 'cheap, reliable and universally available' (Beatty, 1998, p.135).

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Change Management for Information Services

Over the last 10-15 years, there have been phenomenal changes throughout the world: 'Governments have changed or fallen, ways of life have changed, economic systems have collapsed and are being rebuilt, investment opportunities and markets now abound on every corner of the earth - all because of the vast dissemination of information' (McCall, 1994, p.35). Further such changes, and more that cannot yet be foreseen, lie ahead - all based on the recognition and understanding of information's value to organizations and societies. What is still to come is a broader awareness of the danger posed by the Information Society's 'plethora of entertaining and commercial distractions', which could divert attention from the more fundamental issues of a sustainable society and the global environment (Marien, 1994, p.l). Despite the innumerable attempts to develop coherent aims, just a few years ago the UK government believed that 'there is a slow uptake of the technologies and information products and applications, there is low awareness of what is currently available and what is developing and we have yet to achieve critical mass in terms of usage' (Taylor, 1997, p.4). One root cause was the earlier 'laissez-faire' approach of that government to the development and support of an Information Society: 'UK policy is out of step with other countries: for example the lack of a single focal group' (Oppenheim, 1996, p.4l4). This has been evidenced by the continuing confusion of numerous, unco-ordinated, often duplicating or overlapping, government programmes and committees (combined with the associated weight of paperwork) - all of which were intended to rectify the problems listed. The UK situation was exemplified by at least five funding initiatives during 1996/1997, aimed at assisting trade and professional associations to develop Internet and multimedia services. Each overlapped with at least one other programme; none referred to any of the other schemes and all produced very different sets of documentation (based around the same fundamental points). More widely, similar situations still occur, with failures to communicate and co-ordinate across and between the confusing layers of national, European and global schemes. However, steady improvements can be seen, in the aims and visions at least, if not in terms of action and implementation: •

The US recognizes that 'information services is a component of crucial importance across the entire economy' (Schorr, and Stolfo 1997, p.6); has invested in federal research projects on digital libraries; sees network-based learning (formerly distance education) growing rapidly, driven by 'demographics, digitalization and deregulation' (Indiana University, 1998, p.2).

•

the Commission of the European Communities takes the view that 'economic competitiveness, employment and the personal fulfilment of its citizens . . . real wealth creation . . . will depend on the production

Status report: the Information Age

and dissemination of knowledge, on the capacity to promote innovation.' Its aim is to create a 'veritable Europe of knowledge' (Commission of the European Communities, 1997, p.l). Balancing the optimism, there was also a warning that if Europe 'continues to move more slowly than some of its competitors, then our countries will find it very difficult to maintain, let alone increase competitiveness across the broad range of their economies' (ESPRIT, 1997, p.8). •

The UK, while business and industry have been found to be behind the USA and Japan in the use of most information and communication technologies (ICT) applications, has progressed substantially and is 'well placed for the continuing progression into the Information Age' (Spectrum Strategy Consultants, 1998, p. 163); for education and the public, there is now a real commitment to public library networking and to a National Grid for Learning.

•

China has a comparatively poor (but fast-developing) information infrastructure, but has seen an 'explosive growth' of Internet access since 1996, even if the attraction is the potential rather than the reality. Its 1 175 000 Internet users in 1998 (against 34.6m worldwide) were predicted to rise to 9 400 000 by 2000 - if barriers such as cost, speed and available web sites could be overcome (Kuang, 1999).

There will still be countries that are totally unable to take advantage of advanced technologies: Ά culture can get trapped in a Catch-22 where it not only lacks the ability to adapt to new technology but remains shackled in highly conservative institutions that almost reflexively fear anything new - especially technology that might enable or drive massive social changes' (James, 1997, p. 11). These are the countries, corporations and people that cannot comprehend the agility and speed required in the Information Age, or the opportunities on offer. These will see the reality of predicted media headlines about 'the information skills crisis and the need to raise the levels of information literacy in our schools and throughout our society' (Oxbrow, 1998, p.360). History will reveal their identities.

Information overload It is a simple fact. 'More information has been produced in the last 30 years than in the previous 5000. A weekday edition of the New York Times has more information in it than the average 17th century man or woman would have come across in an entire lifetime.' (Reuters Business Information Ltd, 1996, p.2). Unfortunately 'there is no evidence that the human brain's capacity to absorb information and make decisions has significantly speeded up' in accordance with its increased workload (Shaar Murray, 1996, p.7).

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Change Management for Information Services

The same definitive Reuters' survey found that managers: •

often waste time trying to locate the right information

•

believe information is underutilized

•

think that the cost of collecting information exceeds its value to business

•

believe that decisions are delayed and confused by having too much information to evaluate

•

take a view that collecting information can be used politically, or just to keep up with colleagues.

Not surprisingly, large organizations (500+ staff) were worst affected. Reuters' 1997 survey unveiled information addiction. A generation of 'dataholics' believes that PCs, the Internet and information in general will become addictive, while 54 per cent get a 'high' when they have found the information being sought. One year later the age of information overload was found to be waning, with levels of concern dropping - just 33 per cent reported that the volume of information caused tension in the workplace, against 71 per cent in 1997. There was a very clear division geographically in what Reuters termed the 'Information Development Cycle': •

Western Europe, the USA and Japan were moving beyond overload, having established personal coping strategies and also using new technologies to combat that overload (in 1996, those same technologies were very much the villain of the piece). However, single sources of information are key - collections of multiple resources are being rejected.

•

South East Asian countries are still suffering the full impact of information overload.

•

Eastern Europe is at the 'pre-information age' point of the cycle, with the full joys yet to come.

One telling change was that in 1995 only 23 per cent of managers saw information as their organization's single most important asset - in 1998 that figure was 50 per cent, with 76 per cent viewing it as mission critical (Reuters Business Information Ltd, 1998). Deloitte & Touche Consulting Group claimed that 'nearly 40 per cent of big organizations rarely have the right amount of information to do their jobs properly' (Kavanagh, 1997, p.l6). The valid point of whether and how the flood of information is actually used is also raised. This leads on to questions over the amount of understanding, interpretation and insight that is gained as a result of the gathering process.

Status report: the Information Age

The situation is increasingly recognized by the media's use of such terms as: •

information anxiety

•

information fatigue syndrome (IFS)

•

too much of everything syndrome (TOMES)

•

infoglut

•

data smog

•

information poverty

•

corporate goldfish syndrome (inability to recall and reuse information).

These conditions all reflect the same symptom: the sheer overload when 'information becomes noiselike . . . by its sheer volume or rate exceeding channel capacity' (Klapp, 1986, p.98). 'Information poverty' encompasses the fullest range of factors, from overload to the economic aspects (i.e. being able to afford the necessary equipment and subscriptions), as well as general and specific computer experience plus information-searching and organizational skills. In terms of information management, the following very simple statement applies to all too few managers, indicating the lack of vital practical skills: 'Those who believe they avoid information overload have learned to sift and prioritize, to make information work for them' (Reuters Business Information Ltd, 1996, p.20). The ideal is McPherson's information mastery, when 'information management and human cognition work together within a well-tuned system' (McPherson, 1995, p.36). Within this system, allowance has to be made for what has been aptly termed the 'Great Technological Deceit' and also the immense value of serendipity. This 'Deceit' is that the more sophisticated the information management and its tools, the more information is produced: 'The arms race between the powers of information proliferation and the powers of information management is an endlessly escalating one' (Talbott, 1997b, p.6). The blizzard of communications is particularly prone to this self-perpetuating cycle, with individuals sending the same message in several formats to ensure it gets through. E-mail presents further downfalls, with the ability to forward messages to entire corporations and the ease of sending time-wasting junk: 'It does not take much effort to relay information with an undisciplined enthusiasm, regardless of information content or quality, or whether it matches the information needs of the recipients' (Hall, 1997, p.38). The other side of the equation also has to be accounted for, which implies somehow building in intuition and chance: 'There are no human attributes that will enable us to cope with these massively increased levels

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Change Management for Information Services

of serendipity. We have to hope that machines can help us, or face an increasingly sterile and less creative world' (Cochrane, 1996, p.12). One organization among those attempting to manage the overload was Swiss Bank Corporation, which found that readership of its own internal publications was dismal. A 'know-how pool project' then used case-based reasoning, an artificial intelligence technique, and intelligent software agents to allow users to navigate a database of the documents quickly and easily (Houlder, 1997a). Possible solutions (Reuters Business Information Ltd, 1996, p.3), with an evident role for information services and systems, include: •

better training in separating essential primary information from interesting secondary information

•

more effective pre-analysis and filtering of information

•

better communications skills to eradicate unnecessary information.

Organizational issues in the Information Age The wider issues and changes affecting any form and size of organization will very obviously impact on the microcosm of the information world. Much of what has been predicted, as summarized in this section, is already in evidence to greater or lesser degrees in the real world of work. Much is inevitable and irreversible - but at the same time, 'a time of chaos is a time of opportunity' (Handy, 1994, p.l66). A fact perhaps applicable to the information world almost more than any other.

Economy The 'knowledge, or quaternary, economy' defined by Business Futures Network claims 'a shift will take place from material to knowledge resources, from physical labour to mental effort, and . . . from power to influence' (Woodling, 1996, p.9). This creates an 'economy of ideas' (Arthur, 1994, p.29), demanding immense flexibility and adaptability from its workers, and leaving those who cannot recreate themselves 'profoundly unemployable'. This latter term clearly applies to any profession also unable to adapt (again, the wider effects will hit information professionals to some extent, but the fuller implications are covered in Chapter 5). Rather than an information or knowledge economy, there is a view that this should be named the 'attention economy' - because of the limited number of people with attention to give. Another interesting view has been that as information becomes cheaper to obtain, so it is more expensive to deal with. In this last case, the value o f that information to

organizations and cultures - of learning, building and developing - is

Status report: the Information Age

missed entirely. But then in certain sectors, there is still a view that it is cheaper to recreate something than search for the original work. Engineering and pharmaceuticals in particular abound with tales of wasting years of time and investment trying to solve an especially thorny problem - eventually to end up at the information service, to be presented with the answer in an existing patent. Information and knowledge could have a still higher economic role according to Oppenheim: 'When markets collapse and chaos reigns, forward planing based on timely knowledge may be the only defence against disaster . . . information, adroitly applied, could help to build bridges to safety across the deep economic fissures now appearing around the globe' (Reuters Business Information Ltd, 1998, p.3). What is certain is that 'today's industrial nations are no longer world leaders when it comes to utilising traditional resources . . . what we do have is a high standard of education and lots of know-how . . . which must be exploited' (Zucker, 1996, p.51). The global economy and all its sectors have to make strategic decisions to absorb the new concepts and realign themselves accordingly: 'Global versus local, virtual versus real, partnership versus independence, traditional versus new. The net result will be a period of major structural turbulence' (Lyon, 1997, p.11). A very specific part of this is dealing with the basic fact 'that the mean time between decisions is now very much greater than the mean time between surprises provides a formula for the 21st century. And yet today we still have legal and governmental frameworks which take a great deal of time to respond to any demand. This could be a destabilizing feature for the future' (Cochrane, 1998a). Add yet more destabilizing features such as new models of commerce, companies living and dying in much shorter timespans, and overall: The balance of activity between firms and the market, between middlemen and the buyers and suppliers they sit between changes dramatically. Early exploiters of new technology disrupt value chains, cartels, industry structures, and the delicate balances between sellers and customers, between regulators and the regulated, and partners and competitors. New rules and new structures will rise and fall with increasing velocity, new operating models and new competitors will come and go, and activities will morph into others or disappear altogether. (Downes and Mui, 1998, p.54)

The online industry exemplifies this scenario, if not on quite such a fastmoving track. The comfortable life of online hosts was upended by the effects of Internet technologies (Web pages and intranets, as well as the Internet itself). Mergers and new operating models are most certainly underway - quite apart from the much longer term emphasis on end user searching. The massive exponential advances in technology, the changing of the world from 'atoms to bits', is forcing a 'sudden and dramatic disruption

25

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Change Management for Information Services

of the political, economic and social system . . . it will make feudalism look mild by comparison' (Downes and Mui, 1998, p.29). Downes refers to major leaps in the digital age as killer applications ('killer apps'), which although hugely profitable for their creators, destroy older products, companies and industries. Electronic commerce and the World Wide Web are excellent examples, both damaging the traditional publishing industry and providing it with a potential rebirth. Why should this not apply equally to the information profession - a phoenix from the ashes? At the most fundamental level, organizations have to 'adapt, create and develop a range of sustainability tools to remain competitive while helping the world to sustain itself. Because we are running out of time' (Guns, 1996, p.115).

People and employment At the most basic level, 'the economic pressures on organizations of all kinds is leading to constant pressures to reduce staff overheads, aided by the availability of ever more sophisticated technology . . . this is affecting employment opportunities on a potentially dramatic scale' (Boddy and Gunson, 1996, p.259)· This partly reflects the dominance of downsizing and reengineering, apparently giving way to the 'pursuit of organic growth' as organizations realize that they 'can't enhance the performance of axed employees' (Heller, 1997, p.25). The potential impact on employment in the information sector - particularly the opportunities - is examined in Chapter 5. Another factor is the much forecast reduction in clerical, secretarial and manual workers, against a rise in specialized, 'cerebral', professional, technical and managerial posts: 'Work is being transformed from the delivery of tangible products produced by manual labour to the delivery of products and services produced by intellectual capacity' (Bradley, 1996, p. 11). Although a comprehensive, authoritative definition of the sectors consisting of 'knowledge workers' is yet to emerge, the concept is well established. Among the many predictions, the UK could have over 10m knowledge workers by 2000, against 7m manual workers. A corollary of this is the somewhat grim view that 'we'll see the death of the professional. Knowledge workers are using technology to replace them . . . all professions are being compressed' (Barker, 1998, p.113). Ranter's view, however, is slightly different: 'The growth of a service economy of knowledge workers makes professionalism a more salient part of business success . . . more people hold jobs involving human contact. They must influence, affect, or satisfy other people, often in direct interactions . . . they are performing emotional work' (Kanter, 1997, p. 14). The numbers employed, and their mode of employment, will also change due to demographics and the emergence of very different organizational structures. Workforces will be subject to Handy's 14 x 2 x 3 = Ρ equation,

Status report: the Information Age

half the people in the core of an organization, paid twice as much, producing three times more and equalling productivity and profit. The de-jobbing process detailed by William Bridges' Jobshift will see layers of staff cut and non-core activities outsourced, while new jobs will be created in small firms and consultancies (i.e. Handy's Shamrock organization). However, there are real concerns over the lack of a sufficiently educated, flexible and skilled workforce, as the population sees a rise in the number of older people combined with diminishing younger generations. Additionally, it is evident that 'a high proportion of unemployed people does not have the required skills (or talents) and the volume of work available for untalented people is diminishing - it could be just possible that abandoning the untalented billions could become the only alternative' (Cawkell, 1998, p.58). Drucker summed up these serious social and economic problems in 1995, noting that there is a 'danger of a new "class conflict" between the large minority or knowledge workers and the majority of people who will make their living through traditional ways, either by manual work . . . or by service work. The productivity of knowledge work - still abysmally low - will predictably become the economic challenge of knowledge society . . . The productivity of the non-knowledge service worker will increasingly become the social challenge' (Beatty, 1998, p. 177). An answer could be Handy's notion of 'portfolio working'. Instead of a distinct career, people will combine five categories of work: wage (employment at the core of an organization); fee (on an outsourced basis); home; gift (i.e. for charities) and study. Other relevant, but debatable, predictions include the falling populations in developed countries leading to longer working lives and more retraining, or alternatively a greater dominance of the knowledge industries by countries still considered as Third World - the 'Asian Silicon Valley' for instance. From an organizational viewpoint, the emphasis will be on employability, based on flexibility, an ability to learn, adapt and constantly upgrade skills. Key practical skills, according to Sheffield University's Personal Skills Unit (Blake, 1996, p.30), include oral communication, teamwork, motivation, leadership, organization and foreign languages. The downside is the way that 'if activating human skills is so essential, why do so many companies still fail to do an adequate job of developing, motivating, and utilising their people?' (Kanter, 1997, p. 15). Further, the emergence of the 24 hour society, instant and direct access to services and products of all kinds 24 hours, 7 days a week calls for a 'new approach to time and how it is used', incorporating: •

'better time management and planning skills

•

less rigid routines for work and non-work activities

•

improved communications between people, their family and friends, and business - in both real and delayed time

27

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Change Management for Information Services

•

customer-driven opening hours

•

the development of 24-hour zones in cities, developed around transport and communication hubs' (Future Foundation, 1998, ρ.6).

From the employee's perspective, 'the more an organization becomes an organization of knowledge workers, the easier it is to leave . . . Therefore an organization is always in competition for its most essential resource, qualified, knowledgeable people' (Drucker, 1992, p. 100). The Internet specifically changes the balance of power between the organization and its staff. They can find jobs more easily; can vocalize and organize their views; if all else fails, they have the option of setting up in business with comparatively little expense and difficulty. One human factor easily overlooked is the effect of major transitions and structural change on employees' motivation, yet it is a simple fact that 'as the ground moves so the people will shake' (Abbey Information Systems, 1996). Equally, if leaner organizations fail to incorporate the people management aspects along with the restructuring, they 'expose themselves to relentless turmoil, with staff troubles, insecurity, retention crises and motivation difficulties' making the intended 'multi-skilled cando culture' a 'chaotic, overloaded "make-do" one' (Institute of Personnel and Development, 1998). An Institute of Management survey on the quality of working life in the UK found that 60 per cent of managers studied had been affected by organizational change in the previous year, mainly aimed at cutting costs and increasing competitiveness - restructuring that had extremely negative effects on staff loyalty, morale, motivation and perceptions of job security. Most worryingly, senior executives believed that all these factors had actually improved - while their managers did appreciate the full reality (Schofield, 1998, p.A6). In addition to this, there could be a total 'rejection of the high-tech lifestyle altogether. A growing number of people are fed up with the stress of modern life, the financial burdens of competitive consumption, empty politics . . . and the overwhelming, ubiquitous feeling that significant problems' are neglected. This is likened to the counter-culture and backlash of the 1960s, following the consumer and industrial developments of the 1950s (Chapman, 1998). The longer hours, increasing pressure and diminishing control experienced (or perceived) in many organizations, have to be balanced with a rewarding personal life. It is the boundaries between the two that are most difficult - while technologies such as laptops and mobile phones have made flexible working easier, so work can infiltrate into personal time. Just as organizations want leaner, agile working, so many workers want to move beyond the 19th-century model of working practices still in existence - maintaining flexibility and a home life. Teleworking can prove extremely successful - with a pragmatic saving on office space and furniture - as long as

Status report: the Information Age

the necessary technologies and work facilities are easily accessible (and supported), there is some form of 'social' meeting area and the inherent territorial nature of humans is catered for. Office design has to cater for the break away from the rigid, traditional styling and the mind-set that needs its own individual space and making best use of the technologies available - all coming together to convince employees that this really works for them. In general, there is hope - both leading UK companies and international corporations are among those which have certainly been found to be changing tactics in terms of rewarding, motivating and developing staff: focusing rewards on how employees add value; changing pay structures to allow workers to grow within their jobs; reskilling in preparation for market change rather than making redundancies. These policies again lead back to employees and professions being sufficiently adaptable, so encouraging employers to continue (or to adopt) such approaches.

Structure According to Drucker, 'every organization has to build the management of change into its very structure' (1992, p.97). All are faced very simply with the 'Red Queen principle' - they have to adapt twice as fast just to stay fit. Drucker's comprehensive view involves: the planned abandonment of whatever is established, with reviews every few years of all processes, products, procedures and policies; devotion to creating the new through continuous improvement, exploitation of knowledge and the organization of innovation; and speedy decision-making through a high degree of decentralization. The resultant organizations are 'being designed around a skeleton: information' - compared with the traditional commandand-control structure 'held together by its shell' (Drucker, 1995, p.62). Drucker further explains (1993, p. 106), that the fact that the structure is built on and around information means that many management levels are unnecessary. They exist only to 'amplify the faint signals emanating from the top and bottom of the corporate infrastructure', merely 'doubling the noise and cutting the message in half'. With such a structure as a base, Daft and Lengel's concept of 'lean' (formal documents and data) and 'rich' (informal and personal sources) information media is useful. This is not a new topic, but the definition of the 'integrator' role is key, linking both lean and rich resources, transmitting information and facilitating communication and discussion. Here is the opening for the information profession, enlarging 'the activity of the information manager beyond the supply and co-ordination of formal (lean) information media, to include involvement in the richer end of the spectrum . . . closer to the seat of power' (Kaye, 1996, p.20). Kanter's concept of 'brainpower in search of partners' (1997, p. 163) aptly describes both external and internal situations for most organizations:

29

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Change Management for Information Services

'To promote innovation, businesses need to tap and share 'soft knowledge' - insights, intuitions and hunches. To raise productivity, they must unravel and explain the mysteries of knowledge and service workers' craft, which involves skills and insights not captured in job manuals. To increase quality, they should promote understanding across functions and learning across companies. To drive expansion, businesses need flexible relationships with allies in other countries. And to build teams, managers must be sensitive to difficult dilemmas faced by employees with diverse lifestyles.' (Kanter, 1997, p.163) These softer, communications-based elements underlie and create the organizations overwhelmingly demanded by many management writers - 'lean, mean and highly manoeuvrable . . . can move and shift direction quickly in uncertain territory, reacting rapidly to the changing nature of the business environment, the changing nature of competition and the changing needs of the customer' (Gibson, 1997, p.8). Common goals, common language, common knowledge - essentials for teamwork, however diverse and geographically spread the team, partners or organization. These new realities of organizational structure and operations have also been clearly envisioned by Charles Handy, the 'Shamrock organization' in particular, which takes decentralization to its fullest extent. The Shamrock is 'a form of organization based around a core of essential executives and workers supported by outside contractors and part-time help' (Handy, 1995a, p.25). This is mirrored by International Data Corporation's (IDC) Synaptic Corporation Model (Steel, 1996) consisting of three divisions: specialized activities, giving the company its brand or competitive edge, for instance product design and development; centralized activities, core expertise such as payroll; outsourced activities such as tactical marketing. IDC gives an existing example of this as Virgin Direct, where the actual insurance operations are provided by Norwich Union. Another example is EDS, the pioneering US computer services group with revenues of $12bn in 1995, which is reinventing itself on a massive scale as a one-stop professional services superstore for the Information Age. Further support comes from the 'Law of Diminishing Firms' - 'as the market becomes more efficient, the size and organizational complexity of the modern industrial firm becomes uneconomic', added to by downsizing, outsourcing and otherwise decentralizing - 'firms will not disappear, but they will become smaller, comprised of complicated webs of wellmanaged relationships with business partners that include customers,

Status report: the Information Age

suppliers, regulators, and even shareholders, employees and competitors' (Downes and Mui, 1998, p.7). The inevitably lengthy changeover period - from traditional commandand-control to Shamrock, from physical bodies to virtual collections of collaborators and contractors - could well see organizations suffering from 'surplus order'. Here the level of control and hierarchy is far above the minimum that is actually needed - that hierarchy therefore also has to change. Apart from anything else, 'leaders should promote discomfort. Feeling comfortable can create false security' (Kanter, 1997, ρ.6θ). One pioneering example for managers has been described as the 'Electronic Elite': 'They exhibit little of the posturing, paranoia and obsessive controlling behaviour that characterise many Industrial Age executives' (James, 1997, p.xvi)! The mind-sets of this new breed work to provide the 'cultural framework for companies that are decentralized, trusting, empowering , informal and flexible' (James, 1997, p.22): 1

Business = Ecosystem

2

Corporation = Community

3

Management = Service

4

Employee = Peer

5

Motivation = Vision

6

Change = Growth

Contrast this with the traditional corporate mind-set: 1

Business = Battlefield

2

Corporation = Machine

3

Management = Control

4

Employee = Child

5

Motivation = Fear

6

Change = Pain

'In bureaucratic cultures, powerlessness, not power, can corrupt, turning the powerless into controlling petty tyrants who guard their own small patch of turf rather than strive to deliver value for customers' (Kanter, 1997, p.15). For all organizations, whatever they are, the overriding aim is 'strategic flexibility' - 'being able to set a clear general direction yet also being capable of adapting and learning as customer requirements change and

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Change Management for Information Services

new competitive threats or opportunities arise' (Glass, 1996, p. 10). This also summarizes essential parameters for information professionals.

Information and knowledge strategy It is no understatement that 'dealing with the information burden is now one of the most urgent world-wide challenges facing business' (Reuters Business Information Ltd, 1996, p.3). The reality of information-handling within organizations is very often the 'cubby hole' mentality reported by Toffler, where information is not distributed anywhere near as widely as it should be. This is frequently due to a lack of awareness or a subconscious protection mechanism, but can also be attributed to rather more dangerous organizational politics and power struggles as 'in many companies knowledge is squandered or even actually obliterated. Internal company rivalries stem the flow of knowledge' (Zucker, 1996, p.51). Knowledge management has implications far wider than for the information profession alone, affecting human resource management, training, IT and overall organizational development - issues covered more fully in Chapter 4. The ultimate goal in terms of information and knowledge must be Handy's 'Triple I Organization', based on the formula I3 = AV. This equates to Intelligence, Information and Ideas creating added value, the latter in the form of cash or kind (competitive advantage, direct and indirect cost savings, motivation). While not impossible, ensuring a global move to the starting point of recognizing the value of intellectual capital/ property, is a mammoth task. The pharmaceuticals industry is one of the most progressive and well established in this arena, with the strongest information management found in the most productive companies (Koenig, 1992, p.204). However, the industry's insularity and extreme commercial sensitivity leave little hope for a speedy transfer of this extensive experience to other fields. Management consultancies are a more obvious candidate for transferring these skills as many have their own formal knowledge programmes. Booz-Allen & Hamilton is one extremely successful example, with a long-established intranet-based knowledge management system and structure, but underlines the importance of measuring such a 'culture shift towards greater openness' (Van de Vliet, 1997a, p.64). The current status is seen in the findings of another Reuters survey (carried out in 1995, but still valid), which emphasized the financial value of information. This found that 'nearly one in four UK companies says that information is its most important asset' (p.4) - but also that nearly half strongly believe 'that companies have not woken up to the true value of information' (p.29). The statement that 'we have to understand and manage not simply the politics of information, but its economics too' (p.l) encapsulates what is ultimately necessary, but what is still under construction. Maybe the information profession should also be seen as under construction.

Status report: the Information Age

While the fundamentals are the same, progress has been made - as seen in later Reuters reports and by a British Telecommunications study in 1998. In this, 76 per cent of European and US respondents agreed that 'information will be the main strategic weapon for the next decade' - although the rate for the UK alone was 55 per cent, while Japan's was 92 per cent (White, 1998a, p. 11). One of the numerous underlying questions is what happens to the 'digital heritage' that already results from key developments and innovations? 'When great and influential people die, will libraries accumulate their PCs, laptops and PDAs, or just the bits they hosted?' (Cochrane, 1998b, p.10). Quite how these bits and bytes - the knowledge - will be stored, accessed and read is another of the big questions. How many 8" disk drives are still in use? The storage life of CD-ROM disks is also relatively short, despite its natural application to archiving. Compare these, and the many other examples emanating from the 20th century, with paper that has lasted hundreds and thousands of years - accessible to all (apart from that from the beginning of this century, already degrading due to cost-cutting in its production). On an individual front, categorizing everyone under the simple concept of 'informavores, or information eaters' is valid, if uncomfortable: 'Whether providers or consumers of information, we are all hunting for it during some portions of both our work and personal lives' (Hayes, 1998, p.5). Perhaps the ultimate goal is Handy's full revolutionary vision of 'informating' organizations involved in 'the pursuit of quality, intelligent machines and intelligent people, a culture of individuals in search of learning and government by consent' (1995a, p. 113). Information Technology As organizational structures have moved towards decentralization with the switch from mainframes to personal computers, 'the next logical step will be seen when computer networks allow the organization's information to "escape" to its partners' (Crewe, 1997, p.21). IT staff will need to develop the same flexibility and communication skills as other professions, to be able to work in this 'extended enterprise' as it creates and disbands teams to solve problems as required. More importantly the development of strong interpersonal skills is implied by claims that their 'relationships with customers will deepen and broaden' (Crewe, 1997, p.21), and further, by the concept of 'personalized communications': 'Going out and working with users/customers, understanding their needs and requirements . . . taking a proactive role in the business, not hiding behind the glass walls of the data center and reacting to problems' (Kern et al., 1996, p.4). Related to this need for improved communications, Computerworld's list of necessary skills (with an obvious implication that many are lacking) is plain and simple, but also has relevance for information professionals:

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Change Management for Information Services

•

'Listen first; speak second

•

Balance honesty with tact

•

Write clearly and succinctly

•

Translate technical messages for non-technical users and management

•

Empathize with users' needs.' (Blake, 1996, p.30)

In terms of adopting new technologies, strategies will be increasingly 'emergent' - learning what works, creating and maintaining order while simultaneously 'responding to an unfolding pattern of action' (Mintzberg, 1996, p.255); taking on what is of evident business and economic value. Two technological formulae that are beginning to feed off each other are Moore's Law (computing power doubles every 18 months for the same cost) and Metcalfe's Law where networks (of people, computers or telephones) dramatically increase in value with each extra node, or user. Software and standards can be given away via the Internet for example, so reaching critical mass quickly - and the users are hooked for the future, buying into upgrades and new versions. Similarly, as information is distributed widely throughout those networks, so it gains value. The Internet is still in a transitional phase - from a research network to a 'world-wide communications powerhouse'. There are still basic issues to be resolved, many dangerous traps and much technological development, but the future is positive: Is the Internet strong enough to grow without breaking? Yes. Can the Internet be ruined by politicians the world over? Yes again. Will the Internet be ruined? Not if w e can educate the politicians and channel Internet growth intelligently. (Gaskin, 1997, p.27)

As we have already seen, IT professionals are taking advantage of the emphasis on knowledge management, corporate memory and information systems, invading the information profession's traditional territory 'with proposed solutions geared heavily toward technology' (Poynder, 1996b, p. 10). Many individuals appointed to the new knowledge-based posts, such as director of intellectual capital or chief knowledge officer, do have a pure technology background. This has been found in many cases to result in 'an impressive network, but users soon start complaining that they can't find things and the computer people can't help them' (Poynder, 1996b, p. 10). There are however some pragmatic and constructive approaches working through, which offer hope from the information professional's point of view. That hope is reliant entirely on information professionals taking the initiative positively: changing themselves, the profession and their way of working. The potential results from the partnerships and working situations that could evolve must be enticing.

Status report: the Information Age

This would also proactively manage the fact that as IT is seen much more strategically (according to an Economist Intelligence Unit survey of 307 leading executives in the USA, Europe and Asia), 'the I is increasingly being seen by the movers and shakers as indivisible from the T, whatever we think about us putting the I into IT' (Coult, 1999, p.4). One approach comes from Wilson (1997), who stresses that 'a multidisciplinary team, working within a clearly understood strategic vision and planning framework' (p.24) is essential for the 'the efficient and effective exploitation of the data, information and knowledge resources available to the organization' (p.23). Another differentiates between: •

information management (information needed to operate, focusing on use, quality and content)

•

information systems (applications software)

•

information technology (technology infrastructure).

Based on these approaches - and extending the traditional, 'industrial-age' view of the elements involved in managing changes - is a very clear organizational model which brings out the value of knowledge and information (see Figure 2.1). One other far-sighted view is that as 'technology becomes more pervasive and invisible, and the emphasis is upon knowing, learning, thinking and sharing rather than just communicating, attitudes, interests

Figure 2.1 The 'new' change model: making 'invisible assets' visible (Marchand,

1997, p.7)

35

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Change Management for Information Services

and motives will assume greater significance' - organizations become networks (human and technological), freed of geographical constraints, 'its reality lying in the electronic signals and waves that influence the priorities and responses of those that receive them' (Coulson-Thomas, 1997, pp.82-3). Based on such thinking, convergence of the two professions has to be a distant option. In the short-term at least, closer co-operation and utilization of the respective strengths of the two, combined with a stronger integrator role on both parts. The standing and effectiveness of such integrated working could see IT and information acting as a powerful 'agent of business transformation' able to focus on 'radical improvement of the business activities that matter most' (Feeney and Plant, 1999, ρ·13). On the user side of the fence, generations are coming through which have known nothing but computers, optimistically able to recognize that IT is both a tool (but only as good as the people behind it) and a fundamental part of planning and strategy. Alternatively, they could prove to be simple 'computer fodder', with their intellectual capacity corroded and 'the human ability to think and make decisions' eroded (Donkin, 1997). Equally pessimistic is that 'computers don't invite the joined-up thinking of reading anything right through' (Fisher, 1997, ρ.6). It is a fact that reading lengths of text on screen is still unpleasant and wearing, quite apart from the health issues. Paper and books have clear advantages in portability, flexibility (reading entire documents or dipping in and out) and longevity - research is now finding that a literal paperless society is not imminent. Digital library technology, for instance, 'is often very impressive. But in general, it has critically failed to address libraries as social systems rather than information systems' (Duguid, 1998). A more positive example is the way that video-conferencing proved very profitable in human and financial terms for oil group BP. 'Virtual teamworking' gave participants (1 in 20 staff had access to the technology) the face-to-face contact that generates more commitment and trust than phone conversation, resulted in more effective collaboration on projects and had many technical advantages, such as remote fault diagnosis. On the negative side again, most IT predictions tended to ignore the Year 2000 issue until time started running out to solve it. A simple programming trick, originating in the early days of computing and intended to save space in expensive memory storage by ignoring the last 2 digits of the year - the turnover into a new century was too distant to worry about. Whilst desktop and home computers were relatively easy to assess and upgrade or replace (just expensive), embedded systems in particular (computer chips within other equipment) had most potential to cause immense damage. The huge cost and effort, combined with whatever the ensuing effects turn out to be, has now been predicted to result in a major 'discontinuity', causing a fundamental backlash against the commercial use of IT (Manchester, 1998, p. 19).

Status report: the Information Age

Obsolete technology is another delicate issue. As a minimum, there is the unpleasant, frantic cycle of continual upgrades to maintain leadership and technological compatibility within the purchasing organizations - fed by the economic greed and financial necessity of the technology producers. On another level, there are the more power-based and market leadership games, built-in obsolescence and illegal trickery. Simplistic yearnings for typewriters and other basic, reliable and understandable methods are understandable - although whether the global revival of typewriters forecast in 1997 will ever occur is another matter. Judging the winners and losers of the hardware and software battleground is something that organizations have to work hard at, continually - even when playing safe and avoiding leading-edge or start-up developers. Organizations have been found to be moving away from the 'gee whiz' reaction to new technologies towards 'a much harder-headed, financial appraisal of new business opportunities' (Department of Trade and Industry, 1998, p.2). This reflects a statement from 5 years earlier that if 'information technology managers don't move to the strategic end, they will be lost. And so will the companies they serve' (Stephens, 1993, p.35). More widely, the issues of privacy, security and intellectual property will continue to pose problems for years to come. Criminal law within many countries does not cover computer crime anywhere near adequately (the major categories being financial, illegal content, copyright and privacy), let alone coping with international and global networks, temporary and permanent. Standards, regulations and laws are frantically being developed, but have far to go - and even then will not be able to cater for all devious eventualities. More widely still, 'rapid changes to social, economic and political systems - mischief shaped by digital technologies - have left most business people feeling dazed' (Downes and Mui, 1998, p. 11) - and there is still much more to come.

37

Chapter Three

Status report: knowledge management

Knowledge management 1998, p. 177)

is a highly political

undertaking.

(Davenport,

Many effective marketing campaigns in this area, aiming at executive and senior management, now point out that their targets must aim for a real return on investment from the valuable asset of knowledge; that they are probably 'wasting resources by re-inventing knowledge, spending excess time locating difficult to find knowledge and unsuccessfully absorbing and using the growing volumes of knowledge flowing into your organization every day' (Dataware, 1998, p.2). Nothing to argue against there, plenty to support all aspects of the information manager's work. One major trap is that such claims are projected from a pure technological, products and systems base. Invest in software X or consultancy Y and all your business problems will be solved. Another trap indicated by Davenport, in our opening quotation, is that knowledge is power, inherently associated with hierarchy. For one it is impossible to truly succeed without senior level support - and understanding. Additionally, at a very basic level, 'you'll have to tread lightly in giving access . . . to knowledge to those who formerly lacked it. Or you will almost certainly run afoul of someone powerful to whom your knowledge management activities are threatening' (Davenport and Prusack, 1998, p. 177).

History The value of knowledge has always been implicitly recognized in the way that organizations tend to seek experienced staff; in the way that advice is sought from perceived experts (inside the organization or external gurus in the field). In organizational terms knowledge and learning have been steadily establishing bigger and better roles, from Taylor's scientific management

Status report: knowledge management

in the 1950s, through Drucker and Handy, to Total Quality Management (TQM) and Business Process Reengineering (BPR) in the 1980s and 1990s. 'Corporate memory' and 'learning organizations' took the realization of knowledge as an asset through the management theory barrier into the edges at least of the real world, being somewhat easier to break down into '10 easy steps to success' approaches. Corporate memory - 'all the active and historical information in an organization that is worth sharing, managing and preserving for reuse' (Megill, 1997, p.l6) - effectively relies on the combined skills of records managers, archivists, and naturally librarians. Learning organizations - 'focus on getting the job done better. They view learning as the best way to improve long-term performance' and will sacrifice today's performance to benefit tomorrow's (Guns, 1996, p.2). The characteristics according to Gun are: • enhanced strategic ability (acting realistically and openly; focus on its vision; responding to industry changes) • strengthened ability to change (acquiring knowledge that customers value, using new technology to its advantage, reduced cycle time, innovation, resiliency, reinforcing change) • improved performance (focus on improvement, teams run as businesses). From the employees' view, 'in the world of high technology where people understand uncertainty, the attractiveness of any company often lies in its capacity to provide learning and experience . . . access to training, mentors and challenging projects is more important than pay or benefits' (Kanter, 1997, p.53). At its most basic, if an organization does not learn, it will not change and 'will perish as surely as if it was denied capital, employees and markets' (Downes and Mui, 1998, p.l68). The origins of the learning organization go back to the late 1970s, but it took Peter Senge's book ' The fifth discipline' in 1990 to win it greater acceptance, summed up as: personal mastery, mental models, shared vision, team learning and systems thinking. The latter bringing the other four learning and teamworking elements together into a holistic view of the organization. Wisdom is added to the learning organization equation by Atkinson: 'Based upon the idea that people seek responsibility and enhancement and will generate wisdom for improved performance . . . People are the embodiment of the culture of the business and if conditions permit, the organization will learn and grow wise' (1998, p. 139).

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Change Management for Information Services

Definition The mid-1990s then saw the real beginnings of a knowledge management fascination - far wider than the information profession. Effective use of information within organizations - of explicit, documented knowledge was gaining regular (if not particularly stimulating) coverage in the professional journals of many sectors, including engineering, management and chemistry. In 1995 came an emphasis on implicit knowledge by Nonaka and Takeuchi's intellectually complex, but seminal book (The knowledgecreating company. How Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation - succinctly summarized by Smith and Irving, 1997). According to Skyrme (1997, p.24), based on Nonaka, the breakdown of knowledge is simply: explicit - 'that which is written down or expressed in some tangible form' implicit, tacit - 'is highly personal and hard to formalise. Subjective insights, intuitions and hunches'. Within organizations, this can be seen in formal and informal 'knowledge communities' - both likely to have their own 'silos' of knowledge. These can be official databases or unofficial viewpoints, found increasingly as discussion and newsgroups on intranets. Not only should these communities and their knowledge resources be brought together, but they 'are the new sources of creativity and innovation in an organization - they are the groups that will serve as the new core constituencies for librarians and information professionals' (Chase, 1998, p.19). Typically in this field of fads, inevitable as the concept finds its feet, there has been a more recent claim that the original distinction between explicit and tacit knowledge was actually a major turn-off. Instead what was meant, apparently, was 'tacit expertise and explicit process information' - that an electronic encyclopaedia of what is known is not knowledge management. The source was Newman, with a concept instead of 'barefoot knowledge management'. This provides a focus on visualization, patterns and context - leaving behind the rebadged IT of a plainly commoditized knowledge management (Morrow, 1998, p. 19). As there is clear value in both angles, is this just a question of pure semantics? Time will tell. Much of the appeal seems to lie in the unusual amount of common sense lying behind the principles. This is not pure academic, high flown and apparently irrelevant theorizing; nor is it specific only to a relatively small and poorly rated profession. An all-encompassing definition has to be: 'Knowledge management integrates into one whole process the areas of creativity and innovation, customer/client industry-domain knowledge, best practices, learning and competence development, customer-focused values and objectives,

Status report: knowledge management

intellectual knowledge, capital accounting etc. with radically new communications and groupware technologies' (Young, 1998, p.7). With leaner organizations and downsizing, a very sudden understanding of the value of the knowledge that was held (and who managed and communicated it) is enforced when that knowledge has gone. The painful realization that success can set in stone the methods and mechanisms behind that success is spreading. 'Why change for change's sake?' is fair enough, but can lead to a failure to adapt and recognize challenges - to build on previous findings and to create new skills. For all sectors, 'the powers of knowledge - speed, complexity, a sense of history and context, judgement and flexibility - are precisely those needed in a rapidly changing, increasingly competitive global economy' (Davenport and Prusack, 1998, p. 14). The recognition is there that 'budgeting and forecasting processes developed for the industrial age no longer seem to keep up with the pace of change . . . traditional people management techniques achieve little when individuals realize that organizations need their scarce skills and knowledge more than they need the organization' (Lank, 1998, p.32). Stated simply, all organizations whatever their size and type have to emphasize (and embody) speed, quality, service, value and innovation. Underpinning each of those - knowledge. A subject so thoroughly written about - and so much more widely than any information-related area has ever been - is well summed up in the principles offered by Davenport and Prusack (1998, p.24): •

'Knowledge originates and resides in people's minds

•

Knowledge sharing requires trust

•

Technology enables new knowledge behaviours

•

Knowledge sharing must be encouraged and rewarded

•

Management support and resources are essential

•

Knowledge initiatives should begin with a pilot program

•

Quantitative and qualitative measurements are needed to evaluate the initiative

•

Knowledge is creative and should be encouraged to develop in unexpected ways.'

Methods and approaches Strong concentration on the politics of the organization from the very start will ultimately pay off - understanding and working with them should

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Change Management for Information Services

avoid knowledge management projects failing or ending up in a battlefield situation. Because knowledge management is so much about changing cultures and processes, politics and change strategies provide the foundations. Any change which comes purely from the bottom or top will face difficult times, no matter how inspiring the vision. If it originates purely from a department such as information or computing, success is bound to be limited, and progress slow (although computing sections have more of a chance to force new software on staff - they cannot force efficient use). Equally, what are effectively the middle managers cannot be ignored - no matter how flat the organizational structure is in theory. Leadership and role models have to come from the top, as well as through all the layers and through the 'human networks' which are not based on the traditional hierarchy. These latter are based on 'expertise, innovation, decision-making or informal social networks' - the key both to fully understanding organizations and to 'unlocking the knowledge in people's heads' (Stephenson, 1998). A set of broad questions from Ward (1998b) then provides a good test for whether knowledge management exists to any extent: 'Can we transfer knowledge easily to new employees? Is ours an information/knowledge sharing culture? Do we know what and where our knowledge assets are? Is knowledge organized and easy to find? Do we capture and share best practice? Do we learn from mistakes? Do we reward knowledge sharing? Are we exploiting knowledge effectively and strategically?' From there, an extensive collection of practical steps, stages, plans and success factors is easily tracked down in the copious literature available. Most incorporate the same basic factors, typical is Andersen Consulting's seven knowledge management processes: adapt, collect, identify, create, share, apply, organize - none of which by the very nature of the beast is sequential or essential. Davenport's principles are more of a precursor to success, reflecting the human and communications aspects: 1 2

'Foster awareness of the value of the knowledge sought and a willingness to invest in the process of generating it. Identify

key

knowledge

workers

together in a fusion effort.

who

can

be

effectively

brought

Status report: knowledge management

3

Emphasize the creative potential inherent in the complexity and diversity of ideas, seeing differences as positive, rather than sources of conflict, and avoiding simple answers to complex questions.

4

Make the need for knowledge generation clear so as to encourage, reward, and direct it toward a common goal.

5

Introduce measures and milestones of success that reflect the true value of knowledge more completely than simple balance-sheet accounting.' (Davenport and Prusack 1998, p.62)

There are four specific key success factors. Common language Establish a meaningful vocabulary for the executives and financial managers based around intellectual capital - not around accounting terms or measures of profits and physical assets. The high cost of not knowing is something that can be measured, with powerful arguments against constantly reinventing the wheel or repeating the same mistakes; of bringing new products and services to market too slowly; of giving customers the wrong answer; of creating products or services based on information missing an element that would have led to more profitable decisions. People Communications and culture; open channels across and between groups, layers and functions have to be in evidence or created. Electronic methods have value when applied and directed appropriately, but 'face-to-face communication methods are vital for turning information and knowledge into organizational gold, because the act of sharing can often transform the information or knowledge in new and unexpected ways' (Allday, 1998, p.33). There must be a real sense of partnership and trust - unless knowledge management is to turn into yet another political football, kicked around for a while before being replaced by a different one. Collaboration, breaking down barriers, teamwork and leadership - all key concepts in their own right that have to be put into practice, maintained and developed. Leadership especially is a recurrent theme, vital at all levels and moving beyond management, concentrating on 'constant development of information resources, of individual skills . . . and of knowledge and learning networks' (Skyrme, 1997, p.26). Systems The tangible, explicit face of knowledge management tends to come in the form of comparatively easy to establish knowledge databases - such as best practices or market intelligence - and as workflow, groupware and

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Change Management for Information Services

intranet systems. The creation of knowledge centres and knowledge webs again can focus just on the technological set-up. All are very much software-based, electronic systems. This assumption that technology can replace human knowledge or create its equivalent has proved false time and again. A balancing factor now is that developments in technology are contributing to the rising interest in knowledge and its management. A balancing factor in turn is that the technology provides only the pipeline and storage, even if many elements of knowledge management over the years have been reflected by those technologies: document management systems; groupware and workflow; data warehouses and data mining; intranets; search engines; push technologies and agents - as well as library catalogues and end user information products. On the systems and products front, successful projects rely on such factors as: •

sharing a common language to describe processes and events (i.e. an organizational thesaurus, ideal for structuring databases and physical or virtual information centres)

•

contextual information (where the information was used and how)

•

the originator (details and how to contact them)

•

an experts collection (pointers to people and their expertise)

•

integrated technologies across the organization.

Behind these systems lie easily forgotten, more technical fundamentals how to identify and organize the information and knowledge that the software only then provides the management tools for (another area in which library and information professionals provide a built-in source of expertise). Important as the systems are, above all, 'if knowledge resides primarily in people and it is people who decide to create, use and share their ideas to attain business results, then knowledge management is as much about managing people as it is about managing information and IT' (Davenport and Marchand, 1999, p.3).

Early wins Prove the benefits with some quick, easy initial steps that will make a big difference (but still fit in to long-term project plans) - win over the doubters, confirm the backers' and supporters' confidence, impress the customer base (internal and external). Lastly, there is a Taoist maxim which reflects one of the basics of librarianship - 'learn how to not-know' — do not accumulate everything, know where to find it. Know what you do not know, and know where to go.

Status report: knowledge management

Dangers •

Rigid classification and codification of the knowledge resources, forcing new and future developments into 'the paradigms of the past'.

•

Wasted effort in creating what is merely an 'electronic encyclopaedia' - when there is no context, no link to the people and expertise behind the knowledge bank, no record of its relationship with other documents.

•

A culture of distrust and cynicism - of past history encapsulated, of sharing knowledge, of technology that will make jobs redundant, of senior management and their never-ending fads and initiatives. It has already been proved that where knowledge management systems were introduced in a culture that was 'adversarial, where it was "Knowledge is power", where it was "Need to know", the technologies sat idle' (Mendelsohn Kersey, 1998, p. 11).

•

Keeping too much - too many documents and too many versions, so blurring the significance of each.

•

The 'quick fix school who substitute the word knowledge for information in their language and literature. They then carry on as if nothing is different' (Skyrme, 1997, p.24).

•

Confusion because 'knowledge and management seem uneasy bedfellows . . . information is tangible and easily transmittable over electronic networks, how can you classify, organize and distribute knowledge that is in people's heads and not so easily codifiable?' (Skyrme, 1997, p.24).

•

Information professionals 'are in danger of being marginalized in the new Knowledge Era' and 'libraries and librarians are seen as irrelevant, even archaic' by the increasing ranks of knowledge workers (Chase, 1998, p.20) - yet the exact opposite should be true.

•

Knowledge management effectively creates yet more tasks for workers who are already overloaded. One method of cutting this down to a certain extent is to build knowledge management into projects that are happening anyway (and would perhaps benefit from an association with a buzz word that senior management appreciates).

•

Knowledge is not objective - SRI Consulting suggests that an understanding of the ways in which individuals approach and use knowledge is still lacking: 1 'Personality plays a critical role in the way people acquire, understand, value, and use knowledge. 2 The creation of knowledge is affected by the world view of the individual.' (Chase, 1998, p.20)

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Change Management for Information Services

•

Knowledge within organizations is highly dynamic, driven by various forces, likened by Davenport and Prusack (1998, p.25) to a marketplace for more tangible goods. There are brokers (librarians apparently make very good ones), entrepreneurs, internal power bases, exchanges of a product for some form of benefit - dynamics and politics that have to be understood if human nature is not to sabotage well-meant knowledge management projects.

•

The burgeoning mass of knowledge management literature is often guilty of 'good transatlantic talk with very little content' (Morrow, 1998, p.20) - yet also shows the speed with which the subject is developing, and the fascination with its potential.

•

All these dangers lie unquestionably in the fact that 'knowledge assets operate by disconcertingly different laws to material assets and managing them requires an entirely new management lexicon' (Caulkin, 1997, p.26). A lexicon applicable to all professions, levels, sectors and types of organization.

Implications for information services Real information management and retrieval skills, libraries and librarians, now sometimes warrant a passing mention in some of the advertising brochures and IT journals concerned with knowledge management. This is something that has to be tackled over time, working positively with those sources to ensure that they both recognize and incorporate the relevant professional information skills within their products, services and promotion. As an initial, vital first step however, the qualities offered by information managers are working their way through into some of the better informed and structured knowledge management textbooks (as well as more general management books) - offering some useful windows and opportunities for the profession. In particular, one role gaining popularity is that of applying this expertise as internal and external consultants, establishing information managers in a position to apply valuable skills within cross-functional teams, across the entirety of the organization, to any partnerships and ventures that the organization is involved in. The Special Libraries Association (SLA), headquartered in the USA, pointed out in 1997 that knowledge management had moved libraries towards 'just-for-you', leaving behind 'just-in-time', which in turn followed 'just-in-case' (Bender, 1997). This reflects the much more human, social and communications-based role that is arising. In the world of knowledge management, information workers are not purely 'gatekeepers for information resources, arbiters of quality and supporters of hierarchies'. Instead,

Status report: knowledge management

'they are concerned about the wide-ranging and speculative nature of this information transmission . . . The role becomes one of facilitation and possibly moderation in order to deal with information overload. Information staff can locate themselves in the lines of communication, with greater participation in discussions, planning, reporting and debriefing processes' (Cropley, 1998, p.33). Chief knowledge officers have been found to fall into four basic types: •

entrepreneur - willing to champion risky new initiatives

•

consultant - able to match new ideas with business needs

•

technologist - fully IT literate

•

environmentalist - able to design settings and processes to maximize knowledge. (Earl and Scott, 1999, p.7)

Earl also found some distinctive personality traits: 'Lively, infectiously enthusiastic, flexible, willing to work with anyone anywhere, and interested not only in the latest IT but in "soft" organizational mechanisms for promoting knowledge' (Earl and Scott, 1999)· Bearing in mind as well the fact reported by Business Intelligence that 'no large organization has effective information management, let alone knowledge management practices, embedded throughout its organization' (Caulkin, 1997, p.26), there can only be a fantastic opportunity opening up for the profession to apply its collective skills and gain true recognition of its collective value. However, that old chestnut comes to the fore again - the need for proactivity: 'We need to think entrepreneurially about our job as an information provider and look beyond the library to contribute your expertise. The knowledge manager must be found at the tables (sic) which decisions . . . are being made. You need to be seen as a strategic reactor to technology' (Field, 1997). An extremely optimistic view of the profession is something to ensure we match: While being comfortable with information technology, librarians are not obsessed by it. They use IT to solve people-related problems at user-dictated speeds. They have always been customer driven and they have a clear idea of knowledge workers' information mindsets. (Ryan, 1998, p.73)

The most attractive claim is 'information specialists are going to get very rich, very soon . . . the true value of information skills is now being recognized by organizations seeking to gain competitive advantage through leveraging their intellectual assets' (Knapp, 1998).

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Change Management for Information Services

Pack leaders Monsanto and British Petroleum (BP) are two of the international corporations in which major investment in knowledge management - and in the cultural aspects more than the technologies - has paid off. BP spent 20 per cent of a $20m knowledge management budget on technology, 80 per cent on coaching staff and changing the culture. Bankers' Trust turned its end users into literally that, tracking down all the information that they need in an 'information independent organization'. Other conglomerates and groups which are well documented in the knowledge management literature include: Dow Chemical Company; American Express and its subsidiary, IDS Financial Services; Boots the Chemists (UK and Ireland); Anglian Water Group (UK); Glaxo Wellcome and ICL. Management and technology consultants also feature unsurprisingly often as case studies, in particular Andersen Consulting, Booz-Allen & Hamilton, Ernst & Young and Coopers & Lybrand. TFPL, information and recruitment consultancy, is finding for the first time that senior managers outside the information world are telling them about the value of information - that they are not just forming part of the action but leading it. In 1996 Gartner Group estimated that $185m was spent by companies on consultancy for knowledge management system projects (excluding any software or hardware required as a result). Gartner also predicted a rise to $1.5bn by the turn of the millennium (Gill, 1998, p.37). Meanwhile a KPMG Management Consulting report found that just 2 per cent of 100 leading UK companies believed that knowledge management was a fad, soon to be consigned to the out tray - while 42 per cent thought they had some form of knowledge management in place (Blake, 1998, p.34).

Change Knowledge management is a superb example of change management, incorporating and promoting fundamental elements such as culture, learning, communications. All successful examples have sold their workforces on the 'desirability of the sharing culture. "The learning organization is the sharing organization is the successful organization" . . . It is also the organization with the workable knowledge management strategy' (Hamilton, 1998, p. 14). Knowledge in itself grows and changes - 'This is not a process that meets the criteria (sic) of "one-size fits all" but must be adaptive to fit the constant changing information needs of your clientele and the changing access patterns to information' (Special Libraries Association, 1998b, p.28). Further:

Status report: knowledge management

The knowledge management movement is actually about fundamental change in business principles, practices and attitudes . . . it is easier to solve existing visible problems that to create a framework for more effective working, particularly when the move is away from structure towards greater flexibility. (Cropley, 1998, p.30).

Finally, 'whatever the direction in which the formal frameworks of knowledge management evolve, though, it will be forward, not back. While the overall movements will contain fads and false starts, there is no doubt that the underlying change they are attempting to capture is as profound as the first industrial revolution 200 years ago. In the age of the "man-made brainpower industries" . . . advantage will accrue to knowledge . . . Finding out how to manage it best may take 15 or 20 years; the journey starts now' (Caulkin, 1997, p.32). It may even be that the role is purely a transitional one - finished once organizations have embedded knowledge management into their operations. Information professionals must be there from the start - changing themselves to manage that change best.

49

Chapter Four

Status report: summary

This chapter contains a slightly more succinct overview of this massive range of factors and issues affecting both the information profession and its working environment in SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) and PEST (political, economic, social, technological) analyses.

SWOT Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats Strengths

Organization •

Streamlined operations and eradication of duplication

•

increased flexibility and adaptability

•

globalization

•

improved quality control

•

continuously improving customer service

•

early warning of trends and problems.

Information •

Accessibility

•

intelligent software 'agents' to retrieve items of value automatically

•

growing awareness of the value and integration of internal/external resources

•

rising home use, experience and awareness of information resources

•

recognition of the dedication and integrity of information professionals.

Status report: summary

Systems •

Elimination of human error as systems reliability increases

•

eradication of mundane work

•

concentration in the profession of otherwise scarce skills

•

massively rising data-crunching capacity.

Communications •

Instant access to expert advice/opinions

•

immediate contact with as many or as few individuals as required.

Weaknesses Organization •

Increasingly litigious society with implications for information/products provided to consumers

•

libraries viewed as old-fashioned, costly overheads

•

continued (if diminishing) existence of the 'glass ceiling', effectively barring women in the profession from senior management roles (Mendelsohn, 1995a, p. 22).

Information •

Overload

•

guaranteeing validity, authenticity, quality, currency and authorship

•

copyright and intellectual property legislation still does 'not reflect a world where information can be transmitted around the world at the speed of light, copied in limitless quantities . . . combined with other works . . . and distributed for almost no cost' (Innovation & Technology Transfer, 1996, p. 18)

•

loss of serendipity, insight and intuition

•

disinformation

•

'signal-to-noise' ratio

•

lack of cost benefit analysis.

Systems •

Costs of introducing and maintaining new technology

•

rate of obsolescence, including the fact that 'it becomes more difficult to learn from either success or failure' (Boddy and Gunson, 1996, p. 2)

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Change Management for Information Services

•

questions over the real effects on manufacturing and service productivity (Talbott, 1997a)

•

computer systems 'have sometimes resulted in inflexibility and an inability to respond to environmental changes' (Boddy and Gunson, 1996, p. 3)

•

can any system be truly error free or future proof?

Communications •

Immense opportunities for global misinterpretation/misquoting

•

reliance on inherently unreliable technologies

•

damage to a single 'channel' (e.g. a satellite) affects millions.

Opportunities Organization 9

Opening up data, pushing information throughout the organization

•

emphasis on knowledge management

•

demand and expectations rise with the knowledge base (and hype exposure) of the users

•

'we . . . will increasingly be asked to do more in a shorter time and intelligent access and intelligent manipulation of data will be increasingly vital' (Cochrane, 1994, p. 5)

•

analyzing and promoting the value of specific information to business decisions and operations.

Information •

Organizing resources logically

•

providing simple, powerful, friendly retrieval

•

educating, training and supporting the end users

•

ensuring the validity of search engines and classification systems

•

'the move from "library island" to the "library server" . . . a key hub in the organization's electronic information network is still in its infancy' (Sylge, 1996a, p. 30)

•

information managers taking on the role of internal and external consultants within the organization.

Status report: summary

Systems •

All that the Internet can offer

•

phenomenal developments in storage and processing

•

dramatically decreasing cost

•

reliable artificial intelligence.

Communications •

Increasing reliability

•

rising capacity

•

improving security.

Threats Organization •

Shortage of skilled and effective IT managers and developers

•

lack of constructive relationships with IT departments

•

electronic warfare 'computer sabotage may take the place of nuclear exchange as post-Cold War nightmare . . . we may face an "electronic Pearl Harbor'" (Tenner, 1997, p. 11)

•

changing power structures and positions.

Information •

Autonomy and control

•

censorship, freedom, abuse

•

disintermediation

•

reinventing the wheel due to effectively losing old knowledge

•

deskilling

•

lack of personal/user contact.

Systems • Privacy and security • •

limited access and adoption in developing countries flawed or clashing systems causing shutdowns, security breaches or other major failures

53

54

Change Management for Information Services

•

lightning-speed distribution of viruses, among other mis-uses of the Internet and software

•

'the more information technologies are used by society, the more vulnerable it is to criminals' (Owen, 1998, p.8)

•

built-in system ageing/obsolescence.

Communications •

Lack of coherent regulation and standardization

•

technical constraints in transmitting data.

PEST Political, economic, social, technological Political •

Privatization, outsourcing

•

pressure to increase quality, productivity and value

•

the need for a moral (organizational and professional) conscience.

Economic •

Who pays for libraries in the information economy? (There is already divergence within library and information services between electronic information 'haves' and 'have nots')

•

decreasing budgets and staffing

•

cost justification (staff, information resources, technology, office space)

•

government prioritization of information and technology for society and industry (with associated support, funding, promotion and action).

Social •

Expectation of information for free

•

increasingly cheap, convenient, easy access to databases leading to greater numbers of end users. (One IRN survey predicted a 28 per cent rise in end user spending on business information databases over 1997/1998 in Europe, against a 6 per cent rise by the library/ information sector (Blake, 1997, p. 10)

•

45 per cent of the UK public does not use IT equipment at all

•

half the world's population has yet to make a first phone call

Statics report: summary

•

as always, the 'older, less intellectual, less privileged, poorer classes will not benefit . . . but do they benefit anyway from conventional libraries?' (Raitt, 1985, p.287)

•

a 1995 survey (Guha) found that most UK professionals believed their skills were outdated by new technology

•

information is power - 'the human race intuitively hoards information' (Forbes, 1993, p.90) - which must move to an open, 'owing' or sharing philosophy.

Technological •

Teleworking, networking, groupware and intranets. All underpin and emphasize: teamwork and co-operation; the convergence of telecommunications and computing; artificial intelligence

•

search engines retrieve too much information and cannot remotely match humans in filtering results, but improvements steadily work through, eventually reaching the real world

•

'paradigm shifts are essential to meet the technological challenges that the 21st century Information Networks will create' (Cochrane, 1994, p. 14) - changing culture and human nature is by far the least guaranteeable element of any technological advance

•

'technology will come and go, but documents will be with us for a very long time, particularly when you get away from the idea of a document as a piece of paper' (Ward, 1996, p. 21)

•

what comes next? Only one thing is certain, 'like a natural force, technology is impossible to hold back. It finds its way no matter what obstacles people put in its place' (Grove, 1996)

•

cost (monetary, environmental and time) of regular upgrading to remain compatible with the outside world

•

will the Information Age last only until the year 2000? (Horner, 1996, p.3)

•

techno-peasants, techno-phobes and Luddites are inevitable, at all stages of technological, professional and societal development.

55

Chapter Five

Implications for the information profession

We can't wait for people to offer us secure jobs and long careers. We have to decide what kind of life we want to lead and go out and make it happen. (Handy, 1997, p.24)

Impact Balancing the challenges, advantages and implications of the immensely wide-ranging set of issues and areas covered in the previous chapters is something that information workers have no choice but to understand and deal with. In principle at least the issues are the same, whether their host environment is academic, public, government or otherwise. The extent to which they individually affect a library and information service, plus the implications for each information professional's personality, technical abilities and communications skills are another matter. All have to be able to recognize change, its implications and be able to work within and across their organization/s to adapt as necessary, balancing the fact that 'it takes insight to distinguish between, on the one hand, the need to accept change in methods, and, on the other hand, the need to preserve constancy of purpose and mission' (Crawford and Gorman, 1995, p.183).

Information Age Early claims that the Information Society encourages 'a bias against certain information channels, especially the library' (Sweetland, 1993, p.9) may not have turned into an active, conscious trend, but it is still an undercurrent, requiring at the very least an awareness by the profession. Digital libraries offer perhaps the most appropriate example of this. The education sector specifically is faced with a dilemma that 'while the continuing maintenance of traditional libraries is too costly to support, an equally large investment

Implications for the information profession

in research, training, and the conversion of materials will be required to provide electronic resources of similar value for the advancement of knowledge' (Hawkins and Battin, 1998, p.291). The final part of this equation the investment to bring education and academia up to the same level as the rest of society - is something that is only gradually working its way through to the consciousness of funding bodies. Industry sponsorship alone is not sufficient to achieve such rapid change and such an extraordinary turnabout (the wider areas affected include employment and health and safety). Academic libraries and staff are among those who particularly have to draw from a long and valuable history while making the fundamental changes needed to succeed in the future: Of course the past is important. We need a sense of history. But you can't walk into the future looking over your shoulder. You can't stumble backwards into the future. (Handy, 1997, p.32)

The Year 2000 issue, dealing with computers and systems that cannot cope with the turn into the next millennium, is another excellent demonstration of the vital multilevel approach increasingly needed in library and information services. The technological implications for the information services have to be managed, while stepping back to evaluate the wider organizational impact and direction, and providing appropriate support and guidance to the organization and any initiatives underway - simultaneously planning for as many alternative outcomes to the 'millennium bomb' as can be foreseen. The implications here, apart from the obvious technological abilities, are: •

good communication skills

•

an appropriate network of contacts within the organization

•

foresight

•

a strategic and holistic view of the organization

•

excellent project management skills.

While the constancy of purpose that Crawford refers to provides an essential background, a claim made in 1985 is very evidently still applicable: 'The information industry has still only scratched the surface of what is to come' (Garfield, 1985, p.7). One element of that surface were difficulties posed by what Garfield then named 'information frustration' (tracking down what is relevant from the mass available). Still very certainly current, only renamed and now recognized by the world outside the information community. Another part of scratching that Information Age surface, is the reality of the Internet and other information and communication technologies (ICTs)

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in public libraries, along with the necessary training. In 1997 there were over 27,000 staff in the UK public library sector, 26 per cent of whom were professionals. All of whom 'will need an understanding of the current and future impact of networked information provision, and the skills to apply this understanding' - understanding and skills which was found to be minimal at the time (Library and Information Commission, 1997). These needs, and many more pragmatic aspects and roles of library and information services, did certainly register with research organizations. The British Library was one which concentrated on subjects that would quickly start filtering through to day-to-day workings in the information world: •

cost benefit analysis and measuring the value of information as an asset

•

role in dealing with the problems of information overload

•

role of knowledge in industrial networks

•

role of public libraries as wired study centres in lifelong learning.

Organizations The emphases and driving forces in business, industry and the economy as a whole have equally fundamental effects on the libraries and information services within each sector. Globalization for example has seen major pharmaceuticals corporations merging separate information units into one, transnational service. Downsizing, automation and lean organizations, combined with frameworks (or fads) such as business process reengineering, have resulted in an all-encompassing emphasis on: •

short-term, immediate needs

•

business benefits

•

cost and value analysis.

In terms of organizational operations as well, there are many implications emanating from teleworking and hot-desking; virtual and network organizations. Flexible working is a current reality, with widespread successful examples, from a Swedish car manufacturer to the major UK telecommunications companies. As a result, reliable end user access to up-to-date information immediately (if not in advance of that need) is even more of a driving force for information units. Organizational structures are perhaps heading for 'a shifting community of "micro units", "molecular entities", autonomous and self-managing teams and individual gurus who could be located almost anywhere' (Coulson-Thomas, 1997, p.83). This could be reflected in one far-sighted prediction, whereby most information professionals will be freelancers or have combined into support groups

Implications for the information profession

providing information services to an industry or organization. Further, 'the morale of a much more relaxed and less organization-oriented work force is also something about which we need to think' (Turner, 1994, p.93). Structures in information-based organizations were also found by Drucker to be flat, with many fewer levels of management. The elimination of hierarchy was evidenced when one US university library reorganized (using Total Quality Management techniques). The staff chose a circular, units-based format, and eliminated an entire level of administration (Fitch et al., 1993, p.296). Information-based organizations are also evidenced as learning organizations and knowledge management establish themselves firmly as part of the corporate vocabulary (thoroughly discussed by the management literature and covered in more detail in Chapter 3). The combination of these 'flattened organizations' with distributed information-processing (as mainframe computing is replaced by technologies such as client/server), means that 'expertise and decision-making responsibilities across and through organizations in new ways that. . . are certain to result in new interdependencies and inevitably in new organizational conflicts and opportunities' (Kreps et al., 1996). As a result of changing structures, information service functions are faced with needs and demands in terms of: •

desktop delivery (technologies, interfaces, training and support)

•

context-driven and timely information, with proactivity reaching further and wider

• flexibility and responsiveness, whatever the geographical, time and format requirements. Apart from serving organizations based around flexible working, information staff will inevitably be directly affected. Outsourced information services especially are expected to see 'much routine work inevitably being performed by relocated back offices'. Based on this 1997 research from the Special Libraries Association, the profession was urged to welcome rather than fear such moves (Bond 1997, p.34). However, teleworking success is reliant on highly motivated individuals with excellent time management and self-management skills. Strong management of the teleworkers is another success factor to ensure: recognition for the work done; opportunities for personal development; and involvement in organizational initiatives and objectives. Outsourcing itself has been found to be more effective than perceived - although often costing more than was saved. Pragmatically, where organizations and sector fluctuate in size and structure, new permanent staff are generally not an option - but can be compensated for by outsourcing and temporary contracts. Owens-Corning successfully moved

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onto an entirely different plane by shedding its traditional library operations through outsourcing to become a 'Knowledge Resource Centre, focused on meeting employees' information and knowledge needs regardless of the medium or location' (Davenport, 1999, P-4). Information overload, much over-hyped, will continue to play a key role for the immediate future - perhaps best described by Garfield's 1985 term (already referred to) of 'information frustration'. The potential for paralyzing teams, individuals and organizations faced with too much data, too many sources and too little time is not going to vanish easily. One important underlying factor for the information profession to resolve is that the 'mass introduction of information technology has confused the issues of information management and information provision' (Owens, Wilson and Abell, 1996, p.50). The confusion especially can cloud the need for (and value of) the basic measurements and checks traditionally applied to information by information professionals: •

quality

•

authority

•

accuracy

•

currency.

On the human side, the requirements of information specialists within these new structures are based around: /

•

teamworking, across functions, departments and countries

•

awareness of the basic human need for social interface and exchange

•

supporting and encouraging that informal interaction, whether through a physical library/meeting point or a virtual discussion room.

A collection of general organizational and management problem areas for the 21st century will also filter through all levels and functions, including employer-employee relations and the psychological, emotional, legal and motivational aspects.

Information professionals Sensitivity to the many issues and reactions involved in change underlies all of the points raised so far in this chapter. Basically, 'it is neither the easiest of prescriptions, nor the most fashionable, but libraries need to combine the past and the future in a rational, clear-headed, unsentimental manner' (Crawford and Gorman, 1995, p. 12). The personal development implications for information workers o n top of their core professional

competencies lie in the areas of:

Implications for the information profession

•

technological capabilities (particularly keeping up to date; where relevant, looking at formal IT qualifications and training such as MCP (Microsoft Certified Professional))

•

business and management understanding and skills

•

marketing, communications and interpersonal abilities

•

awareness of competition from other occupations (and creating appropriate coping strategies e.g. partnerships, co-ordination, integration).

As already discussed, the latter has fundamental implications in terms of development both for the library and information profession and for individual careers. From the information sector's viewpoint, the somewhat misleading use of such job titles as 'information officer' has long been seen in such areas as marketing, media and pharmaceuticals. However, within organizations there seems to be an increasing number of battles for ownership of information-related initiatives - relating to internal data as well as commercial external services. Computing, marketing (customer/membership data) and accounts departments are the most obvious sources of this potential conflict - all wanting to make full use of internal information - and wanting to offer it in a reliable, speedy, flexible and user-friendly fashion, at staff's point of work (desktop, laptop, meetings). Competition from technology, network and solutions providers is equally now very evident, and can only continue to head towards formidable levels. The sales executives for these vendors possess the same range of commercial skills that information professionals now require: 'Concept-sellers, highly technology-literate with an ability to grasp the specific needs of individual clients and to communicate with widely diverse audiences within any one client organization . . . a hybrid with breadth and depth of skills is a valuable commodity' (Thew, 1998, p.36). Other departments may start developing separate interests in - or isolated access to - tailored external information sources. Desktop delivery, particularly in the lucrative business information market (law, news, economics), has been steadily developing through the 1990s - frequently promoted directly by the supplier to the end user. Inevitably, a combination of separate, non-integrated sources and projects can result in basic problems of overlap, underuse, confusion, lack of access and a waste of organizational financial resources. The information professional's life can easily become bogged down with political negotiations and conflict. Alternatively, the door is open (or can be forced!) for that information professional to bring the services together and support their use, ensuring that the company obtains full business benefit. Where the hosting organization is concerned, whatever their sector, 'the age of integrated information is closer than we think, and management does not look kindly on employees who see themselves so unique they cannot

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participate in the overall organizational picture' (St Clair, 1996, p.51). Underlying this are long-known requirements based on the simple fact that hidden, altruistic, educational benefits are not sufficient to justify the existence of information services. The contribution that any form of information services makes to the operational mission of the organization must be made evident. Library and information services must be proved - and seen - to be as dynamic and vital as all other functions. Taking this even further, the information services department has to anticipate rather than react to the organizational mission. Another part of the equation is perception - ensuring that all those individuals and departments who need to know the precise value of the library are continually made aware of it. This applies to those who hold the purse strings and who control the internal politics as well as those who can directly benefit from the information services. One information centre tackled areas such as perception and value rating by circulating lists of the competency requirements for its staff to senior management - and so 'protected the integrity of the information services and products her centre provides, the professional collegiality of her information centre team, and the department's commitment to providing customers with the highest quality, most cost-effective, information services attainable' (Lettis, 1999, p.29). The time invested in this approach more than paid off. In summary, the result of the collated organizational and societal changes emerging from the Information Age, is that: The move from gatekeeper to facilitator is an unstoppable process . . . and requires a wider range of skills, including marketing, training, customer awareness, product development, IT, primary research, contract negotiation, planning and business management. Above all, it requires a sound understanding of the immediate needs of the business and the wider market in which it operates. (Thew, 1998, p.36)

Opportunities Change is not easy for any profession, individual or organization - but information managers have a clear opportunity to position themselves as a major influence in the 21st century. Overriding the numerous problems and disadvantages are the considerable opportunities and advantages opening up to libraries and information workers. The reality, however, is that compared with the immense scale of the information and knowledge related issues affecting all organizations, and the potential for those organizations to crumble if they fail to manage those issues, the profession in general still seems to have little 'public' voice or presence, despite all that it can offer. What unarguably did happen is that 'despite being at the vanguard of the information revolution in the early 1970s . . . [librarians] never appreciated the importance of their emerging role nor exploited

Implications for tbe information profession

their technological lead or privileged position' (Jackson, 1992). The pattern certainly does not have to repeat itself. The profession can take advantage of the highly publicized and government-funded paths being forged by information and communication technologies (ICTs). Could the world eventually follow Norway, which appointed its national librarian as the new Minister of Long-Term Planning (Bakken, 1996)? Bendik Rugaas was given responsibility for general information policy and information technology, encompassing the restructuring of government agencies to adjust to future requirements. The European Commission (EC) in its preparation for a 'Communication on the Role of Libraries' emphasizes 'the growing role played by libraries in organizing access to knowledge . . . a real need to link public libraries across Europe to form a network close to all citizens . . . to convey knowledge and culture' (European Commission, 1998). Another report on the EC and the Information Society heavily underlined the relatively small funding going into this area; that given time - which we do not have - technological development and market forces will produce information societies; that worldwide governments are 'accepting the need to play a major role in the transformation of their economies and social structures to take advantages of the opportunities that are opening up'. Something that also applies worldwide is that 'one of the real challenges is to ensure that all can benefit from a European information society, not just those with the wealth, skills and incentive to connect to the Internet' (White, 1998b). A number of information associations have also recommended that the profession can redefine its entire role within their employing organizations, to some extent losing the ties of the old definitions. While the culture shift towards exploiting that position has been underway for many years, in the short term one of the most difficult moves for the old school of librarianship to complete is that from mechanistic, automated processes and systems to an emphasis on human, interpersonal skills - alongside a logical, strategic viewpoint at all times. Far from information services providing a quiet retreat, 'the stress level is high. The ability to remain calm and professional is essential. You need a sense of perspective, the capacity to analyse and rationalize situations, and . . . a sense of humour' (Mendelsohn, 1995b, p.37). This need had intensified by 1998, where in one US university library 'the rapid proliferation and changing nature of electronic resources is creating an enormous amount of stress . . . and a crisis for professional and staff development' - and librarians believed that their work was 'less a skill as it has become a trade . . . more and more is technical support rather than a resource' (Tenopir and Ennis, 1998). Emphasizing the people aspects, a successful move into the knowledge era for the information profession is totally dependent on the people involved. Those people 'must have confidence in their skills, must understand their business, and need to learn quickly how to communicate and take the lead' (Oxbrow, 1997, p. 10). Specifically for knowledge manage-

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ment programmes, the full range of skills required have been listed as: •

'the technology savvy of a systems analyst

•

the interface design skills of an Internet wizard

•

the business sense of an MBA

•

the negotiating skills of a Rupert Murdoch

•

and the political smoothness of a Bill Clinton'. (Miller, 1997, p.33)

For chief information officers (the IT-based interpretation) the model is: •

vision builder and change master

•

deliverer and rearchitect

•

politician and reformer

•

relationship builder and alliance manager.

Interestingly, this model stresses that CIOs are in the business of change and 'have to be sensitive to the degree of change that is necessary, what will work and when to introduce it. They also need to be able to pick up signals that indicate when they themselves need to change' (Earl, 1999, p.3). From one extreme to another, redefining and extending the role of the information professional is not aided by the latest definition of librarian from the US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Admittedly at a draft stage, but still not broad enough to reflect fully just what librarians do, let alone their colleagues in the information profession: Administer libraries and perform related library services. Work in a variety of settings, including public libraries, schools, colleges and universities, museums, corporations, government agencies, law firms, non-profit organizations, and health care providers. Tasks may include selecting, acquiring, cataloguing, classifying, circulating, and maintaining library materials; and furnishing reference, bibliographical, and readers' advisory services. May perform in-depth, strategic research, and synthesize, analyze, edit, and filter information. May set up or work with databases and information systems to catalogue and access information. (Special Libraries Association, 1998a).

However, the profession is faced with more openings, is in a better position to take advantage of them, and is far more able to define what it does than at any other time in its history. Gaining practical (as opposed to intellectual) recognition from within organizational hierarchies and from other professions is already far advanced: 'Our place in this information economy may . . . be one of the most useful levers and common denom-

Implications for the information profession

inators we have for communicating with other managerial specialities' (Pemberton, 1995, p.54). The new and key skills that must be established as standard in the information professional's repertoire are combined with an emphasis on education and learning, continuing throughout the individual's working life. Together these underpin a profession which has so much to offer and gain. 'Having survived the last few decades of birth and pubescent development, the information services management community is now enjoying the benefits of enabling technology, technology that permits us' (St Clair, 1997) - permits us to meet our full potential and to make the best of what is undoubtedly out there (but it most definitely will not wait).

Recruitment requirements Recruiting organizations have now been found to be obsessive about 'soft skills' for first professional posts. Research by TFPL, international information management consultancy, in 1998 discovered that the more technically oriented and traditional elements of information work only seemed to creep into the requirements for second jobs. Underlying all these elements, are much more business- and value-oriented requirements. Individuals were expected to pick up the wider context outside the information service, to network internally and more broadly to achieve business goals. The necessary entrepreneurial attitude should not be confined within the information department - and needs to make its influence felt outside the organization. These factors are evidenced quite separately by The Boots Company (a UK pharmaceuticals retail and manufacturing group expanding into more of an international corporation). Boots has a Business Information Services unit - none of whose staff has a formal library background. Information science and librarianship graduates proved unsuitable, so 'we decided to select on the basis of personal qualities . . . A substantial part of everybody's job is to talk to people in the business . . . a business-oriented mind and confidence complete the picture' (Dieckmann, 1998a, p.24). A long list of alternative - but information-based - careers for librarians comes from the American Library Association: collection developers, database managers, digital technologists, HTML coders, LAN administrators, team leaders and trainers, among others - mostly concentrated around the key professional skills (Best-Nichols, 1997). Where successful implementation of knowledge management initiatives is concerned, the critical factor is seen as a team, complementing and catalyzing each other's particular skills. The sets of required skills are viewed as: •

cartographers: mapping expertise and making connections between people

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Services

•

geologists: drilling into specific areas and applying tools which get results

•

spark plugs: igniting awareness of the need for change through effective storytelling (TFPL, 1997).

Still on the knowledge management front, the skills and roles (new and old) required are under investigation, aiming to produce a blueprint for success. The anticipated result is 'an information skills curve', 'surrounded by and embedded in, a set of management, professional, technical and transferable skills' (TFPL, unpublished communication). Meanwhile the existence of 'knowledge navigators' has been uncovered since at least 1997, and the SLA looks forward to two more signs of the 21st-century librarian: 'Proficient with digital resources in addition to printed and other formats of information; and physical location will not restrict their services' (Special Libraries Association, 1998c). On top of the now established knowledge-related titles (chief knowledge officer, knowledge management analyst, knowledge manager), new job titles and role concepts arise quite regularly: 'information architects', 'access engineers' and 'cybrarians' for instance. The first of these is an interesting definition which actually did not originate within the profession and was summarily dismissed on initial discussion in the UK: Information architect 1) the individual who organizes the patterns inherent in data, making the complex clear. 2) a person who creates the structure or map of information which allows others to find their personal paths to knowledge. 3) the emerging 21st-century professional occupation addressing the needs of the age focused upon clarity, human understanding and the science of the organizing of information. (Mahon, 1996)

Two years on, the concept made another appearance in the Internet discussion lists - winning a more interested audience seeking case studies and articles. Perhaps a role yet to develop into a future reality. Lastly in recruitment terms, an emerging role in general business is that of relationship manager. Information professionals also incorporate elements of this job: professional problem-solvers and a 'new breed of communicators with a strong technology bent and a firm grip on business priorities' (Milne, 1998, p.54). The emphasis here is very clearly on those interpersonal skills.

Skills and abilities 'It has become a truism to say that LIS professionals need to develop new

Implications for the information profession

skills and approaches if they are to maintain and develop a central role in information and knowledge management within their organizations' (Foster, 1998a, p.42). While some may well have already successfully adapted, there are many yet to do so, to head towards the all-encompassing definition of the information profession: Openness to innovation and change and to managing information regardless of its source . . . focuses on the creation, control and dissemination of information in order to meet customer needs . . . an important part of the management of the organization . . . the combination of skills - technical, business and managerial. . . The willingness to look beyond current boundaries' (Megill, 1997, p.45). This was actually a description of the ideal corporate memory manager, but why be constrained by a job title? The principles are most certainly applicable to all. Again, the profession must build in the flexibility and strategic focus vital for proactive change management. Practical management skills are of equal priority, particularly where 'linking in' with the parent organization is concerned: 'We are very good at defining ourselves in terms of what we do, but we are not very good at identifying who we do it for or why we do it' (St Clair, 1996, p.51). Neither have we been traditionally good at actively publicizing that contribution and ensuring a high profile for the information service and its staff. Various collections of required skills and abilities incorporate all that is increasingly urgent and are widely published, for instance the American Society for Information Science (ASIS) abilities: •

'Guide in the face of an uncertain future.

•

Collaborate.

•

Prioritize and maintain agility and flexibility in the face of changing goals.

•

Empower.

•

Understand the core capabilities of one's organization, work group and colleagues.' (Griffiths, 1998)

Obviously not all 'expect to be a trend-setter, and there are many people who are distinctly uncomfortable when they find themselves expected to perform in a manner that runs counter to their own values and their own expectations of themselves'. For example, a librarian in a publishing company comfortably following 'a career in an intellectual and (supposedly) non-threatening environment' (St Clair, 1994, p.15). In that case, not so many years later, the same 'non-threatening environment' started working through a mammoth restructuring - changing publishing into an entirely different beast. For both publisher and library, the substantial changes affect production, distribution, staffing (less on manufacturing

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and stock, more on customer service), storage and buildings. Then there are all the equally interwoven financial implications for acquiring, charging and distributing information. The economic and accounting models have far to go to match the situations already out there, let alone what is underway. Responsibility and ethics cause ongoing dilemmas. One particularly tricky issue is 'the challenge for librarians committed to neutrality and openness is to understand what place, if any, their ability to make judgements about quality has in their professional practice' - having effectively through their commitment to openness, allowed a flood of poor-quality information into their services (Alfino and Pierce, 1997, p.146). More responsibility follows from US professor Paul Wasserman, believing that the profession 'has the potential to shape the intellectual waves of society, but too many students are put off by that' (Park, 1998, p.230. More widely, managers in all sectors and professions are being encouraged to move towards 'open-ended environments permitting change, the old rules-bound control system is out. The new control system for all professionals includes: •

'Share values, standards, and priorities

•

adequate information about how people's tasks fit into the organizational strategy

•

ongoing process measures and feedback given directly to people to help them judge and guide their own performances

•

systematic transfer of best practices to learn from what works elsewhere

•

rewards, recognition, and future opportunities that build commitment.' (Kanter, 1997, p. 14)

All library and information services then, whatever their parent organization and its sector, call for a combination of common principles, aims and approaches including: •

cost effectiveness

•

performance measurement

•

quality and reliability

•

user-friendliness.

Equally, services are based on the same core technologies, skills and applications - all requiring an appropriately educated and developed

Implications for the information profession

professional. Additionally, many elements not traditionally sought or developed in the profession are encompassed or extended: extreme time limitations; political involvement; commercial presentation of services; a consultancy approach; leadership and vision. Professionals are effectively skilling-up, building up management and technological abilities, while simultaneously de-skilling as technology partially replaces or alters their role - as online search intermediaries or cataloguers for instance. This mix of new and old requirements falls simply into three overall categories: •

familiar, if extended, professional skills

•

far trickier, increasingly vital, personal and communications skills

•

essential, apparently irrelevant and/or uninteresting, business and management skills.

Professional abilities Many organizations have undoubtedly been missing out on the 'information' part of IT for years, if not decades. As already stressed frequently, the profession can still take a lead in enabling and organizing the technologies and their contents, in 'the identification, acquisition, structure and dissemination of information which is usable and relevant to knowledge workers' (TFPL, 1997). Of the many changes evident in the area of professional skills, two with slightly more of a potential for impact are: •

Predictions that online search specialists are already heading for extinction. In Japan, professional searchers are seen to be heading for retirement but with no successors (Yamakawa, 1998).

•

Queries over whether the role of reference librarians is 'a wholly benevolent one or has it been created by librarians to cover their inability to organize information for the benefit of users?' (Biddiscombe, 1996, p.79). Whatever the truth in this, the positive side in the Information Age is that such massive amounts of information are far too much for people to search through themselves, they just do not have time.

Pick and mix collections of professional abilities are thoroughly listed in sets of competencies (see the section later in this chapter) among other documents offered by most of the professional associations, as well as in many journal articles (often quoted in this book). The Information Age information professional is founded on: •

'Technical' skills - those which are traditional library and information

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strengths combined with newer applications of them •

Technological abilities - at the very least, an understanding and appreciation of computer systems and new media technologies.

Technical skills •

First and foremost, core library and information expertise (cataloguing, classification, online/Internet searching, information retrieval and evaluation - see the section on competencies and the Special Libraries Association listing for more detail).

•

Take these foundation skills out into the organization, 'selecting, analysing and synthesizing data for the value creation process; a core competency for information staff as well as managers' (Keary, 1996, p.37). Moving into the 'internal consultancy' role is one example of this.

•

Ongoing awareness of 'the nature and dynamics of information and . . . new methods of handling it', emphasizing 'problem solving, rather than custodial, and broader communications' (Dubois, 1996).

•

A wide-angle viewpoint. On top of pure information developments, monitoring and responding to the implications of: - competition (within the profession as well as outside) - the changing environment (national and international legislation, economics and business) - innovation (technologies, processes).

Systems and technology From a position where computer literacy meant the ability to retrieve information and produce documents, information managers now increasingly 'have to understand how the technologies work, what opportunities the technology offers, how it could work better, what new products are emerging and how to utilize them to enhance our information capture, storage, retrieval and manipulation capabilities' (Duncan, 1998b, p.24). •

Strong, constantly updated, IT skills and knowledge - 'although it was always essential for library professionals to be up-to-date on resources, the pressure is greater than ever' (Fecko, 1997, p.111). Additional to this core knowledge, a good level of technical understanding, especially of such areas as networking and the Internet: 'Librarians need to become ever more alert to the threats and opportunities that the web age has brought. They need to reinvent themselves as computer literate information managers (or recruit an IT savvy assistant)' (Gamlen, 1998, p.6).

Implications for the information profession

Even if the option is available, the suggestion of the assistant should be additional to a sound understanding - essential if IT departments and salespeople are not to take advantage of the lack of knowledge. The advantage of other sources of reliable and more in-depth IT experience within the service then allow information managers to keep the overview and rein back over-enthusiasm (bearing in mind just how much time IT matters absorb). A linked factor is that all levels of information staff must be trained to use their information systems, 'no senior should be in a position that they don't know what to do' (Boddy and Gunson, 1996, p.96). Develop services and systems 'to help users sift through the mountains of irrelevance which pass across their desks for the core of what they need to know in a form they can use directly' (MacLachlan, 1994, p.lll). Recognize and build on the fact that computers have a wider value and impact than only 'running the business better' i.e. 'getting an edge in an existing market' and 'repositioning the business' (Boddy and Gunson, 1996, p.243). These factors apply both to the immediate reality of the information service and the entirety of its wider environment. Information services and staff have to 'link into the IT strategy of the company. It is not a matter of being able to talk programming, it's a matter of taking information as a business process and looking at it strategically - its relationship to IT procedures such as putting in intranets and distributed networks' (Thackray, 1998, p.25). Emphasize and promote the achievement of business success 'when the system is contributing significantly to the competitive position of the business, by improving performance on variables which are valued by customers'. This is the opposite of pure technical success, 'when technology is installed . . . teething troubles overcome, and with little down-time' (Boddy and Gunson, 1996, p.244). Ensure ongoing commitment and support from the users of the technologies, through regular communication of new developments and requests for feedback. Provide proactive guidance and backup on: searching techniques and problems; database/information system quality; interface designs for electronic products. For all new projects (and ideally existing or relaunched systems), obtain an executive-level sponsor: 'The more senior the "sponsor" the less likely that the network project will be subject to middle management resistance and implementation problems as the "sponsor" acts as a "change agent'" (Boddy and Gunson, 1996, p.5).

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•

Liaise with the finance department to ensure that all IT costs are clearly justified and analysed. Factors such as setting up the necessary charging codes provide useful material throughout and after projects - as well as ensuring that another part of the organization is convinced of the value of the whole enterprise.

•

Liaison again is essential in working with the IT function/s within the organization. Among the delicate matters to be resolved and used productively are: - 'While there is a recognition that librarians and technologist have to work more closely together, there is also a deep, visceral division that must be overcome . . . although the recognition is threatening to many because it implies the need for changing organizational structures and erasing territorial boundaries.' (Hawkins and Battin, 1998, p.266) - 'Technologists tend to view the work of librarians, however excellent it may be, as slow and expensive. The technological approach places emphasis on speed and efficiency - on brute force rather than elegance to achieve results.' (Matson and Bonski, 1997).

Lastly under the general technology heading, some rather more fundamental suggestions for librarians attempting to help corporations 'derive the missing benefit from IT' which can also not be faulted: •

'Give up trying to control: enable instead.

•

Proselytize the new future.

•

Use your influence with the digit-heads who are building the Superhighway.

•

Digitize everything that moves, then add information value to it.

•

Wear "hype" deflectors at all times.' (Withey, 1994, p.49-50)

In more specific areas of technology, there are many openings and demands for information services input Internet and EDI Rising usage of the Internet, electronic commerce and electronic data interchange (EDI) provides yet more potential openings. However, another key flash point for territorial battles is the Internet, particularly intranets and tailored gateways to Internet resources. The stimulating nature of the technologies involved and the massive potential to develop (apparently) low-cost services can only prove highly attractive to any computing department worth the name. Again the sides involved

Implications for the information profession

could achieve far more by jointly developing and supporting Internet technologies, contributing significantly to the organization in business terms. Preferably jointly, make the technologies work for the information service, not against it. Looking purely at the information content of the Internet, 'it is the librarian's challenge to address those forms, evaluate them using all their skills and integrate them into the libraries of tomorrow. Because the Internet will write a chapter in the human endeavour' (Solock, 1997). More widely, the implications and role of the Internet in business and production operations, especially electronic commerce and EDI, could stimulate a further need for the training and support capabilities of information staff (e.g. searching principles; history of the Internet, how to manage and weed the influx of e-mail). Basic perhaps, but another chance to spread the information unit's skills and reputation through the organization. Also providing the chance to learn from the users, to develop services, access and training in accordance. Intranets A number of emerging roles for information professionals in the world of intranets have been suggested: •

manage the launch team

•

liaise with and support the IT department

•

initiate an information audit

•

develop the information architecture

•

rationalize external database access

•

use your professional networks (to exchange ideas)

•

satisfy the need for training

•

lead by example (the information services' part of the intranet should act as a catalyst for other departments' design and use). (White, 1998c)

A quandary for informational professionals arising from such roles is whether 'a successful developer of an internal information system move on to develop knowledge management within the company or concentrate on the professional information work without which an intranet could not properly survive?' (Basker, 1998, p. 14). Desktop delivery Perhaps closer to the traditional functions of a special library, the proactive delivery of news and information. One aim is to infiltrate publications and updates throughout the wider organization perhaps targeting tips and pointers for valuable information sources at specific departments; publicizing company-wide information develop-

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ments or highlighting projects that have benefited from information services. All can be published in electronic or print formats, or both if this will better suit the marketplace. In addition, dedicated information services newsletters offer advantages which include setting the service's identity and capabilities; publicizing networked services and encouraging feedback. Tailored delivery of information and promotion of the use of desktop services extends traditional mechanisms of current awareness bulletins and selective dissemination of information. The requirements are regular, timely, high-quality updates - with an emphasis on user-friendly and professional presentation, ideally flexible enough to be incorporated into internal databases and other IT applications. IT training Using (or ensuring involvement in) internal computer training sessions further helps to market and promote the information service. There are many variables determining how feasible this is long or short term e.g. computing development/plans, whether external trainers are brought in to run company-wide courses and how supportive and open relations with computing staff are. Offering information skills to form at least an element of any relevant courses, or to integrate library services sessions with the IT department's schedule, can contribute towards establishing constructive partnerships with that IT department.

Personal and communication skills The softer, and more fundamental side concerns people. First, 'much of what has to be done to change organizations involves people, and we attempt to use logic and reason when people are illogical and irrational. Our moods guide our actions and responses' (Jackson, 1997, p.21). Then within the organization, the perceived success and relevance of the professional skills already covered - and offered by the information services function - is entirely dependent on how effectively the information professionals communicate. The wide-ranging nature of communication and skills extends far beyond what would traditionally be seen as the customer base, which is usually the focus of any communications: 'Those who don't exercize their right to communicate in organizations are inviting others to forget they exist' (Handy, 1997, p.25). For the information workers concerned, much concerns personalities, building up the confidence of a profession and the individuals within it. It is based on the 'realization that simply to "stay in place" is to fall behind, and to fall behind rather drastically' (Morgenstern, 1998, p.6). Finally, human nature also has to be tackled across the board. It has been found that workers take comfort in habitual patterns and behaviours. Staff have developed confidence and expertise through these experiences.

Implications for the information profession

They focus internally - rather than recognizing and working with external change, adapting and developing as a result of it (TAPin, 1998). One particularly brutal description of a syndrome affecting many organizations - as well as professions - is CIA: complacency, ignorance and arrogance. Certainly the information profession can be seen as suffering from all three factors, but rarely is this conscious. As dealt with in the first chapter, one of the major dangers facing dedicated information professionals is that of focusing so totally on providing a high quality, effective and cost-efficient service, that the real world passes by. Also dealt with earlier, the ongoing, stop-start debate about a potential merger between the UK's Institute of Information Scientists and The Library Association reveals the peaks, troughs and extremes of the profession in its entirety. It is these people, their actions and their personal qualities that will take us forward. It is a recognition that change is not another fad, that certain personal qualities and skills must take priority, building on and exposing those that are already implicit in much of what is done as part of the job: The challenge to the profession with its tremendously strong service ethic was that it was essential to be much more selective about the jobs that were done. Also, information professionals needed to be ambitious and assertive - for themselves, for their skills and their organizations They needed to want to get somewhere, and to extend and improve other people's perceptions of the information profession. This culture change was essential for the profession's health and well-being in a much more overtly competitive environment. (Ward, 1998a, p.8)

Personal strengths •

Questioning and entrepreneurial thinking - why is something done, is there a better way?

•

Assertiveness and perseverance - pushing yourself and the information services forward.

•

Managing your manager.

•

Risk-taking and proactiveness.

•

Thoroughness and reliability.

•

Ability to build and establish a persistently professional profile - part is inevitably through personal presentation and the organization's perception of that.

•

Ability to maintain and develop that credibility.

•

Seeing 'each advance in communication as enriching and enhancing the universe of knowledge, not narrowing and destroying choices' (Crawford and Gorman, 1995, p.9)·

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•

Ability to adopt a balancing view that 'those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it'! (Santayana, 1927).

•

Stress and time management skills to cope with the many changes affecting personal, professional and working environments.

•

Vision.

•

Adaptability and readiness to welcome change.

•

Introspection, self-knowledge and realism.

•

Overall, meet the demand that has been strengthening for over a decade now to create and provide employers with enthusiastic, motivated, innovative all-rounders with good social skills.

Interpersonal qualities •

Teamworking/building abilities - within the information services, whatever their size or form, and across the organization. Cross-functional/ departmental thinking and working have to be instinctive.

•

Across the organization, identify a clear group of supporters - a formal committee, informal mentors or some combination. Advice, updates, working groups - involvement has to be maintained and two-way.

•

A wide network of contacts, internal and external, within and outside the profession. Seeking opportunities for joint ventures and partnerships, whether in creating new services for the organization or acquiring a new product or system. The danger is that all remotely free time goes into these contacts, 'one has to be selective in their use but balance this against becoming isolated, introverted and instantly forgettable' (Ettinger, 1994, p. 102).

•

Strong writing, presentation and verbal skills. As with many of the items listed, this is a subject in its own right - taking persistent hard work to develop and refine skills as necessary. It can be a painful process, first analysing your weaknesses, then doing something about them. However, the combination of these skills helps to build up the persistently professional profile already referred to. While image and appearance may seem shallow indicators of ability, your workload is effectively doubled if you have to overcome a poor initial impression to convince colleagues that your contribution is worthwhile. One key aim is to create a bookmark in people's minds that where information-related matters are concerned you are absolutely critical. The end results of this effort include the ability to: - assemble succinct mental summaries of views and points on perti-

Implications for the information profession

nent/timely subjects, ready to feed in (prompted or otherwise) to questions, meetings, presentations etc. - create businesslike reports and proposals in terms of structure, style and terminology. - above all, to enthuse, involve and convince colleagues - especially senior management. •

Combing the professional and interpersonal skills, 'the information worker understands what an information need is, and the ways in which information can be used in the holistic view. This requires nothing short of an understanding of the human spirit, its foibles, and its strengths' (Myburgh, 1998).

•

The overriding principle is that 'people who are good at managing change spend time with people, with all the constituencies affected, not just the managers, in describing what the new world will be like' (Jackson, 1997, p. 164).

Customer service •

Customer focus - 'if we don't listen to the needs of our clients and modify our services accordingly we will die' (Sylge, 1996a, p.30).

•

Listening and observing are two vital elements of the communication skills which must be developed and enhanced. Constant monitoring and awareness of customer usage, views, perceptions and their alternative information sources are built on 'a sensitivity to use, uses and users of information, and a strong tradition of service, which demands attention to client satisfaction' (Biddiscombe, 1996, p.80).

Customer education and training •

Effective training skills. However many formal training sessions are actually likely in the course of the job, developing these skills builds up confidence and communication abilities.

•

The ability to translate the subject or system meaningfully to the level of the user, and target their precise needs, is key.

•

Awareness of those needs changing - and thus the necessary content of training and instruction sessions, as well as more informal teaching and guiding.

•

Reflect the move away from 'classes, appointments and "catch-ascatch-can" opportunities and move toward just-in-time, on-demand, appropriate training' (Ardis, 1998). Coming back to the technological understanding, this is increasingly likely to involve exploitation of Internet and Web technologies to a greater or lesser extent.

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Business and management acumen Business skills •

Knowledge of the organization's objectives, its goals and mission.

•

Understanding and maintaining awareness of the 'business' - the sector's markets, the competition and the industry. Whatever field the organization is involved in, commercial or otherwise, the outside world has to be monitored.

•

Where markets are changing, think ahead in terms of information resources and activities (plan for new markets, review sources for old ones).

•

Negotiation - understand the influences on suppliers' markets - and how they can be used to negotiate the best deal for the organization.

•

Ongoing evaluation of what is provided and how it is done, where the information service fits into and meets organizational objectives.

•

Marketing - full understanding of the principles and practice of effective marketing will prove invaluable. At the very least in promoting information services, knowledge management and information skills.

•

Financial awareness, always 'mentally cost and sell' (Sylge, 1996a, p.2 6).

•

Constantly evaluate costs - 'use outsourcing when it is financially and/or politically the best way to get the job done' (Heifer, 1998, p.29).

•

Constant strategic planning, and refocusing, based on all of these factors. Leading and influencing the future is impossible without that strategy.

•

Understanding, supporting and integrating into any management initiatives such as learning organizations, business process reengineering or total quality. The information-related elements should both feed off the skills offered by information professionals, and contribute to those professionals' own development.

•

Learning in turn to manage such changes is essential - any that affect all fundamental aspects of the information service (services, staff, collective skills). This implies continuous improvement and its associated flexibility.

Leadership skills •

A strong leadership role is evident in bringing islands of information together across the organization.

Implications for the information profession

•

Within teams and departments, gurus call for the promotion of 'discomfort'. The reasoning is that feeling comfortable can create false security, as can dealing with problems too quickly before the full implications have been worked through. The aim then is to 'create challenging workplaces with highly charged emotional peaks and valleys' (Kanter, 1997, ρ.6θ).

•

Learning, 'a personal responsibility and an attitude of mind' (Sharman, 1997, p.5), is also key - to gain the breadth of perspective and understanding vital for leadership vision.

•

Trust - inspiring colleagues and customers to trust both the information manager's organizational knowledge and their appreciation of the work and its pressures.

Political

skills

•

Communication with senior and executive management, ensuring support and developing champions wherever possible.

•

Measurement, monitoring and publicizing of the information department's processes and contribution to corporate success.

•

'Confront tactless questions' - those to obtain the right information are often uncomfortable, but 'effective intelligence professionals will help executives ask the unthinkable' (Linder, 1992, p. 144). Another delicate political area reliant on the supreme interpersonal skills already covered.

•

Personal networks - within the organization as a whole (i.e. including international branches and subsidiaries); its customers and supply chain; the industry and any relevant professions (not restricted to other information managers). The Internet makes this process very much more direct, effective and quicker, if skilfully employed.

Education and learning The common thread running through all the preceding sections, is that of change: •

being able to change on an individual level to suit professional and organizational demands

•

being able actively and positively to manage the changes occurring within the information services environment

•

being able to initiate change, to work as a change agent inside the organization (or wider environment), to achieve 'change mastery'.

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The very practical concept of 'change mastery' refers to the use of 'foresight and insight to initiate change' - 'managing change successfully, and not being taken unawares by it, depends critically on human beings having essential knowledge and applying it effectively' (Orna, 1999, p.44). Its implication is one of continuous learning and regular progress reviews, followed by the necessary actions. On a personal level, individuals have to adopt a more proactive and deliberate approach to gaining an appropriately tailored collection from the range of skills and abilities detailed. Higher education; on the job, action learning; specific courses, conferences and meetings; professional awareness and networking; books and journals. The selection, and its quality, is more than wide enough to suit individuals' personal lives and careers - but the choice has to be an active one. All have to 'recognize and to question the biases of our existing mindset' (Malone and Laubacher, 1999, p.4). On the formal education front, although made in the context of US universities and library schools, it is a hard-hitting (and much broader) point that 'the traditional patterns of preparation are not adequate to the new age of information and technology, though demand is at its highest point' - or has the potential to be (Hawkins and Battin, 1998, p.26l). Where innovative courses are underway, it will take 10-15 years for their products to gain the experience to take on leading roles again applicable to the entire profession, not only academic libraries. 'Consequently, people already in the pipeline need to make a major commitment to their own personal and professional development' (Hawkins and Battin, 1998, p.26l). Further emphasis on these facts also comes from the UK, where key business-related skills are quite regularly demanded from both the professionals and their education process: Ά challenge to information studies schools, to incorporate more business practice in their programmes, as well as to us all as professionals to increase our business knowledge' (Foster, 1998a, p.42). In Europe as a whole there is a strong focus on information and communication technologies, with a matching radical transformation of library schools and librarianship, but again emphasizing the requirement for continuing education, with much of it self-directed. Non-Western and underdeveloped countries inevitably lag behind in this area - globalization of economies has effectively led to these nations being 'dumped or falling off the table' in terms of educational research and technology (Council on Library and Information Resources, 1999). Much concrete support is being provided, from the European Union among other bodies, but bringing these areas into the next century remains a massive task. Generally, the foundations to create information workers built to cope with and manage the many aspects of change facing them must

Implications for the information profession

The building blocks are skills, knowledge and behaviours - the latter being the most lacking in the traditional view of library and information workers. Individuals have to work on (and in) situations where 'the ability to take on new skills is paramount . . . we need to be less protective of our jobs and information . . . to welcome change and look to ways to enhance our job and help users manage the volume of information' (Bysouth and Sullivan, 1996, p.58). Integrating with higher education and professional development, are well-structured, constantly monitored and updated sets of 'core competencies' from the various bodies involved. These offer a guiding hand to steer and support the profession. Taking the integration to extremes, there will have to be a very necessary forging of new professional alliances with sectors such as human resources, business analysts and IT - the form of such alliances is a subject no doubt for intense debate. Those with stakes in the knowledge management domain could act as a useful starting point. Professional development programmes Although time consuming, it is a useful exercise to establish a personal professional development programme: assessing strengths, values, aspirations, interests, knowledge and weaknesses; producing an action plan of how to build on the interests and skills, while developing weaker areas; then reviewing it regularly. Such a process also reveals 'the givens, intervening factors, the outcomes' (Pinfield, 1995, p.34). This refers to the existing personal qualities; the areas that can be changed and influenced; and the desired results i.e. new or stronger skills, greater productivity, organizational recognition. However, as far as the range of additional and extended required skills are concerned, it is almost certainly physically and mentally impossible for any one individual to excel in all these roles. It has to be noted that this is particularly true of hard core librarians. The aspects of the profession that were originally attractive to this group centre around the service ethic, not organizational politics or strategic thinking. Then there are the simple logistics that 'without the ability to spend 24 hours a day in intense training, we have to pick and choose the skills we want to develop ourselves and build relationships that provide the ones we don't develop' (Miller, 1997, p.33). One appropriate transitional approach could be based on Moore's 'three complementary groups of information professionals: Creators, Communicators and Consolidators' (Moore, 1996, p.24): Creators develop and produce information services and products, with the greatest understanding of technology. Communicators concentrate on tailoring and presenting information 'information comes best wrapped in a person' (Moore, 1996, p.25).

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Consolidators act as filters, translating information analysing and presenting data to senior management.

meaningfully,

A fourth category, Collectors, was later added to the original three, encompassing the traditional role of the profession, building up collections of information to satisfy both current and predicted future needs (Moore, 1997). Mentoring has been another term used with little meaning, but perhaps applied in reality rather more on an informal basis - the focus being individual support and attention for the learner concerned. A survey ending in 1996 found that there was a high level of demand for the support associated with the concept, but little in existence. Those who had experienced or been involved in some form of mentoring - both mentor and learner - found it rewarding, challenging and satisfying (Shoolbred et al., 1997). Something to seek out and encourage. Competencies and ethics Competencies have been summed up as 'the interplay of knowledge, understanding, skills and attitudes required to do a job effectively from the point of view of both the performer and the observer' (Special Libraries Association, 1996). The SLA also emphasizes the flexibility of this set of skills and behaviours, allowing information managers 'to function in a variety of environments and to produce a continuum of value-added, customized information services that cannot be easily duplicated by others'. By being aware of them, developing and exploiting them, 'the effort to polish the diamond of your experience will be rewarded in the appreciation and recognition you deserve' (Bender, 1998). While the entirety of the SLA competencies is not necessarily relevant to those outside the special libraries sector, the majority actually is - as summarized in the following list. One of the values is that the full listing (see Appendix 1) provides practical examples, with the whole report providing useful pointers to professional and personal areas that need development: 1

Professional Competencies

1.1

has expert knowledge of the content of information resources, including the ability to critically evaluate and filter them.

1.2

has specialized subject knowledge appropriate to the business of the organization or client.

1.3

develops and manages convenient, accessible and cost-effective information services that are aligned with the strategic directions of the organization.

Implications for the information profession

1.4

provides excellent instruction and support for library and information service users.

1.5

assesses information needs and designs and markets value-added information services and products to meet identified needs.

1.6

uses appropriate information technology to acquire, organize and disseminate information.

1.7

uses appropriate business and management approaches in to communicate the importance of information services to senior management.

1.8 develops specialized information products for use inside or outside the organization or by individual clients. 1.9

evaluates the outcomes of information use and conducts research related to the solution of information management problems.

1.10 continually improves information services in response to the changing needs. 1.11 is an effective member of the senior management team and a consultant to the organization on information issues. 2

Personal Competencies

2.1

is committed to service excellence.

2.2

seeks out challenges and sees new opportunities both inside and outside the library.

2.3

sees the big picture.

2.4

looks for partnerships and alliances.

2.5

creates an environment of mutual respect and trust.

2.6

has effective communications skills.

2.7

works well with others in a team.

2.8

provides leadership.

2.9

plans, prioritizes and focuses on what is critical.

2.10 is committed to lifelong learning and personal career planning. 2.11 has personal business skills and creates new opportunities. 2.12 recognizes the value of professional networking and solidarity. 2.13 is flexible and positive in a time of (Copyright © 1996 SLA. All rights reserved)

continuing

change

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A more recent summary of the competencies required for current and future information professionals encompassed: •

'Business knowledge, commercial judgement and ability to build partnerships.

•

The ability to source knowledge - internal and external.

•

Information management (and knowledge management) skills.

•

IT capability.

•

Leadership skills.

•

Process and project management.

•

Communication and negotiation skills.

•

The ability to quantify benefits and "measure" values'. (Ward, 1998a, p.8).

Further, while these fundamental skills and competencies have not changed much in principle, 'radically new types of behaviour were needed at work. Information professionals must be convinced that their skills were valuable, and had an important role; they needed to be creative in their use of information; they needed to be proactive, confident and willing to take risks; they needed to be focused; to be prepared to build teams and work in partnership; and to be ambitious' (Ward, 1998a, p.8). St Clair takes the SLA competencies still further, linking them with the basic principles of total quality management (TQM) and quality information management (QIM) to become 'a knowledge management expert, an insourced information specialist whose information management responsibilities are identified, codified, and positioned at the same management level (within the organizational management structure) as other important management functions' (St Clair, 1997). Broader competencies, counted as 'most-wanted' qualities in any professional by leading companies, include: •

'open-mindedness to new situations, challenges and changes

•

tolerance to ambiguous contexts

•

external orientation, both to other departments and to clients

•

clarity of purposes and sense of priorities

•

ease in interpersonal relationships and social competencies

•

professional integrity

•

self-knowledge and inner-balance

Implications for the information profession

0

the capability to leam from experience, other people and, most especially, from mistakes'. (Alvarezis, 1997)

Ethics in turn tend to be encompassed by such phrases as 'privacy', 'responsibility' and 'professional integrity'. Impartiality and confidentiality; the pursuit of the 'truth' that is implicit when carrying out research; the moral, intellectual property rights of the creators and distributors of information - these are among the many ethical issues that run fairly much as a matter of course through the working life of an information professional. Backup and advice on these factors are best obtained from those with an up-to-date, wide-angle view of events and development in the field - the professional associations. The bigger the library and information service, and the more exposed to the public, the more ethical issues form part of day-to-day events. As with all other professional matters, 'the flow of our work requires short-term adjustments to incremental changes and rarely gives us the opportunity to speculate about the overall effect of change on our professional mission' (Alfino and Pierce, 1997, p.5) - the sum being much more than the individual parts.

Change And underlying all areas? Change. As has been strongly and continuously emphasized throughout this volume, predicting, managing, working with and exploiting that change in all areas of working life is no longer an option. Change management is a key extended skill - which must be to be added to the repertoire. The personal aspects have been thoroughly covered already - the acquisition of new skills and capabilities when (and ideally before) needed; the development and enhancement of existing abilities and skills - all due to never-ending cycles of change within both the profession and the hosting organizations. Looking at change management, there have always been courses on specific areas that also form vital components of the overall change management skill set. Examples taken directly from two such courses follow.

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SLA (USA): Management skills 1998 Every manager's toolbox includes a group of key management skills that provide a foundation for success. During this unit, participants will concentrate on enhancing these skills and learning resultsoriented approaches to achieving professional goals. Through problem-solving exercises, group discussion, and interactive lecture, participants will gain a better understanding of: The role of corporate cultures •

The balance of management and power

•

Power vs authority

•

Building a positive power base

Management style and group dynamics •

Analyzing management styles

•

The assertive manager

Management

communications

•

Overcoming barriers to communication

•

Improving listening skills

•

Communicating up and down the organization

Problem-solving and decision-making •

Analyzing problems

•

Developing solutions

•

Evaluating consequences

The planning process •

Analyzing values and recognizing needs

•

Setting goals

•

Developing a strategic plan

•

Implementing operational and management plans.

The most recent courses are precisely targeted.

Implications for the information profession

Aslib (UK): Management of change 1999: Holding the reins during turbulent times Change is an ever-present feature in LIS and this course provides a structured approach to managing change in a turbulent environment. This workshop covers the following themes: •

The changing context of LIS

•

The current and changing context in your organization/sector

•

Developing a strategy for managing changes

•

Gaining support - both internal and external

•

Communicating the changes

•

Managing the transition

•

Managing resistance to change

•

Looking after yourself

•

Keeping going and delivering the results.

This course is aimed at managers, team leaders and project managers who are committed to working with change in a constructive way. It will help LIS staff to anticipate and manage change within their own context. You will learn how to develop a strategy for managing change. You will learn how different people respond to change and how to work with them. You will also learn how to identify your own responses to change so that you are able to support yourself through the change process. This will enable you to overcome obstacles and blockages, win hearts and minds, and deliver the required results. On completing the course, you will be able to: •

identify and evaluate the current and changing context

•

construct a strategy for managing change

•

develop and implement a communications strategy

•

understand and intervene constructively in the people side of change

•

apply change management skills in your own context

•

develop a strategy which will support you as a manager in the change process.

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Again, as well as the formal and professional training available, it is a matter of reviewing and renewing the current mind-set of the profession and its members. One study found originally that information staff 'needed to recognize the important role they played in changing the cultures, of not only their library and information services, but of their institutions as a whole. They were 'gateways' to the wider information available to academics and seldom recognized their roles as agents for change' (Newall et al., 1997). The aim of the second example programme (in UK academic libraries) had been to develop a model for introducing training and awareness to support academics in computer networked information environments. Understanding culture change, and the whole language and meaning of change management, proved one of the keys - and in later stages more forward-looking views had developed, such as Ί see myself as a change agent' (TAPin, 1998). Change agents, or change masters, is the formal term for the set of individuals behind the implementation of change. These are 'people and organizations adept at the art of anticipating the need for, and of leading productive change' (Kanter, 1983, p.13). While this is part and parcel of what the information profession often does as a matter of course - equally often, this is instinctively as part of an individual project or service. One of the change-related items needed is an overt recognition that the information workers do act as change agents - combined with a practical understanding and application of the relevant techniques.

Summary Whatever direction is taken, whatever form the structure of the profession and its representative bodies takes, the profession's traditionally weak areas of management and political skills have to be tackled as a matter of urgency. Most organizations have had no choice but to adopt new and innovative management techniques, as always whatever their sector, so must the information professionals. They must act as 'a team leader, a facilitator, must be able to monitor programs and evaluate programs and services, and must be willing to train. And at the same time, the manager is required to balance management skills, professional skills and interpersonal skills. It's a tall order, but there's no choice' (Lawes, 1993, p.9). Within organizations, the apparently new theories will seem to be more difficult to work towards where organizational/departmental cultures, or ways of being, have yet to change - say to absorb the principles of learning organizations. Where new technologies have been taken on board, the necessary changes are likely to have started filtering its way through naturally (consciously or not), making whatever is left easier to incorporate.

Implications for the information profession

As a profession, 'most of the significant developments that have taken place in the information world over the past few years took place despite us'. Consolation comes from the fact that we are not so different from any other group in the past 'that has found itself in the midst of radical, technology-driven change. It is immensely difficult to break out of longcalcified ways of thinking about things' (Miller, 1996, p.42). The ever-constant pressure throughout the profession, overt or otherwise, is to prove the value of its staff, services and existence. Even if a commercial approach is not demanded, whether the information unit is based in a charity or a global pharmaceuticals corporation, justifying current expenditure and future investment is considerably more straightforward and very much less stressful if the organization already appreciates the unit's contributions and strengths. Ultimately, disintermediation is arguably less likely as information flows (of variable quality) mount up and professional assistance is more valued. While the 'job is changing, [but] it will be a long time yet until it is gone. People have far too much to do these days and by searching and finding information they are creating even more work for themselves' (Dieckmann, 1998b, p.21). Unified, strong and effective professional associations are also called for. Ones that promote and sell the value of its members to organizations, making sure that official developments in information and knowledgerelated areas have input from those whose livelihood it is. Ones that talk the same language of the organizations being promoted to, focusing on the commodity of information and adding value to it. Ones that: •

'make sense of change

•

ensure that members had sufficient skills

•

ensure that there were enough individuals of calibre and with appropriate skills to supply market needs

•

focus on continuing professional development, training and education

•

collect and share knowledge of best practice

•

develop the profession via professional visibility and influence

•

enter partnerships with related organizations and individuals'. (Ward, 1998a, p.8)

An example of one such was an early, blunt statement from the Chief Executive of UK information association Aslib warning the profession: 'Make sure you are ready to surf the crest of the emerging Information Age, so you are not left wondering "What happened?'" (Bowes, 1996, p.l). Well-documented pitfalls within organizations include jumping on bandwagons such as knowledge management - yet failing to justify the costs or measure the business benefits. Equally, failing to be involved in

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initiatives where information skills are paramount - possibly due to internal politics or to focusing so entirely on providing a good-quality service that the opportunity passes by. A warning specifically related to knowledge management, but applicable far more widely is simply: 'Whatever the hype, there are elements in knowledge management which are vital to the development of organizations. Let us information professionals stop worrying about whether or not it's a bandwagon. If we prevaricate, we may get run over by it' (Foster, 1998b, p.32). One final complicating factor here is that while 66 per cent of companies apparently see information management as a 'boardroom item' and a business-critical issue, IT departments believe they have the most clearly defined role and greatest responsibility for information - as do finance and marketing departments (Inform, 1998). All have parts to play - but perhaps the library and information sector is being offered the opportunity to: •

take control of organizational information strategies

•

co-ordinate and drive the technologies

•

promote business use and benefits.

What these factors, needs and requirements bring together is a fundamental change in mind-set and viewpoint for the profession as a whole. Political, communication and strategic skills are at least as important as core information and technology competencies. Supplying high-quality, relevant and timely information through a user-friendly, reliable network to well-trained and supported users may be professionally fulfilling, but is in itself pointless. 'Perception is reality' (Lettis, 1999, p.26) - the organization must see consistent, clear evidence of the impact on existing business functions as a minimum, and, preferably, also on its bottom line and on future business developments. The guiding principles overall relate more to interpersonal skills - all vital to make the most of the opportunities on offer: We need to embrace Innovation, eschew modesty and display . . . 'constructive arrogance'. Our approach to meeting the needs of the early twenty-first century requires us to be positive, participative and professional.' (Heery and Morgan, 1996, p.147)

Chapter Six

Change management theory

The change process is very tough. It can be very bloody and very painful. But. . . over the years everyone . . . will begin to appreciate the fundamental necessity and inevitability of the change itself (Lewis andLytton, 1995, p.131)

Relevance Within the broader and more general context of organizational change, information managers must at the very least be able to translate the meaning of events, plans and theories into the implications for their services. The ultimate aim should be a melding together of the strategic, business and change management aspects with information management practices, applying the same wider principles to the provision of information services. To the greatest possible extent, the organization should seek to avoid major, painful change - working towards a 'dynamic organization' where 'the mechanisms and culture to anticipate and introduce change are heightened; where the need for drastic change is reduced' (Jackson, 1997, p.55). Yet while surveys of a range of sectors and professions find that change is expected to be more far-reaching and challenging, few feel they are remotely prepared. The following review of change management theory is intended to encapsulate the state of the art - bearing in mind that from an organizational perspective, change management is a subject area in its own right, well covered in business bookshops. Those elements most relevant to information services are emphasized, and the whole provides the background and context for the framework which follows in Chapter 7. The crucial success factors are recognized as: •

commitment from senior management

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nature and intensity of resistance to change

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culture of the organization

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knowledge and skill of the 'change agents', those who help to execute the change. (Conner, 1998a)

There is a fundamental conflict in that change 'is often a random process which outwits the predictions of rational, intelligent and orderly people' and we are advised to 'avoid the belief that change falls into steps or categories and perceive change as an incremental process of flow' (Atkinson, 1998, p.181). However to cope with it, to manage change and successfully transform activities, functions and organizations, some form of logical methodology has to be applied. To bring the two apparently opposite extremes together, a musical metaphor is often used here - various instruments and activities brought together as an orchestra, creating and at the same time evolving a special sound. The individuality of this 'sound' is essential. There are many high quality models, definitions and checklists on offer to help understand the nature of the change and how to progress. The difficulty is having to also handle 'the sheer messiness of handling organizational change and the absence of validated models and theories' (Leigh and Walters, 1998, p.8). Nevertheless, the toolkit of methods available to those leading, managing and undergoing change can prove invaluable in producing constructive results. Flexibility in their application and development is absolutely vital. One key building block is another subject in its own right, and one well covered in the information profession literature, that is strategic management - both within the information service and at the highest organizational levels.

The context of change management First, a definition: 'Change management is crafting a more fluid, focused and adaptive organization so that, no matter what the next big change looks like, your people and processes will continually adjust. And your company will find new and better ways to work for its customers' (Ransom and Knighton, 1996, p. 16). An alternative, perhaps more instinctive, description is that: 'The goal of change management is to dupe slow-witted employees into thinking change is good for them by appealing to their sense of adventure and love of challenge. This is like convincing a trout to leap out of a stream to experience the adventure of getting deboned. (Trout are not team players.)' (Adams, 1996, p. 198). A good proportion of the challenges of change management are succinctly contained in that one cynical viewpoint. Traditionally, organizational change is of two basic forms:

Change management theory

•

incremental - gradual, common and relatively easy to cope with

•

transformational - a rarer, major and difficult leap forward.

Incremental change decreases the risks, and allows time to redeploy resources, overcome political resistance and build understanding and commitment. One danger of transformational change is that 'the desire for continuity becomes a dysfunctional mirage . . . The mirage of continuity encourages well-meaning efforts to modify or reform discrete units rather than to recognize the need for fundamental reorganization of the enterprise' (Hawkins and Battin, 1998, p.5). Forcing what actually needs to be radical change into an ineffective, 'safer' approach is one of the many recipes for disaster where change management is concerned. In the context of turning a traditional operation into a 'learning cybercorp' for instance, it has been claimed that this cannot be achieved in an evolutionary way (or by brute force): 'Learning operations come into existence only by a strong deliberate well-thought-out act of top management' (Martin, 1999, p.42). Ongoing investigations into the relevance of complexity theory (applying non-linear logic to subjects traditionally studied in a linear, cause-andeffect fashion) indicate that neither approach is adequate: 'Organizations respond best to fundamental change if they are not perfectly aligned with their environment but poised on the edge of chaos' (Turner, 1996, p. 14). A finding on the subject in 1998 indicated that managers coping with change (already probably suffering from change fatigue, information and initiative overload), also have to understand that complexity theory will have unforeseen, unpredictable and unintended results (Eadie, 1998, p.A24). However, the potential is apparently there for 'chaordic organizations' - 'self-organizing, self-regulating, organic, adaptable and complex' - there is order, there are rules, but the change is unpredictable (Wind and Main, 1998, p. 17). All forms require strong leadership, a comprehensive set of vital skills at all levels and a clear sense of where the organization and its processes are heading. A well-honed awareness of what type of change is underway, what the implications are and how to tackle them forms an essential foundation. A simplified view of the change process comes from Leigh and Walters (1998, p.7) (see Figure 6.1). The starting point is that organizations experience two main classes of change: •

strategic - a major switch in what the organization does and how it does it; generally over months or years

•

operational - constant, day-to-day change; causing and responding to events (also seen as opportunity change, where situations are taken advantage of to make changes).

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Diagnosis

Interventioi Planning

Figure 6.1 A simplified view of the change process

Stepping up the scale, Sadler's clear classification is based on timescale and magnitude (see Figure 6.2): 1

incremental or evolutionary - ongoing, no time limits, moderate linked steps

2

transformational or radical - extremely traumatic, 3-7 year average timespan

3

'quick fix' - attractive, short-termist, doomed to failure

4

'tinkering' - sporadic, unrelated, relatively minor. (Sadler, 1995, p.55)

There are many similarly structured lists, one of the more recent ones (from Andersen Consulting) focuses more on causes than typologies and incorporates: A 'Quick fix'

Transformational or radical change

'Tinkering'

Incremental or evolutionary change

Magnitude of the change

Timescale in years Figure 6.2 The change process based on timescale and magnitude

•

transformational

•

organizationally driven (such as after a merger or acquisition)

Change management

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technology driven

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streamlining (involving a cost reduction of 10-15 per cent)

•

outsourcing. (Houlder, 1997b)

theory

Broader management models, which affect how change is viewed and handled within organizations again provide a useful explanation for what is happening and the most appropriate ways of handling it: •

traditional/classical model - machine; hierarchical layers of management; control

•

human relations model - living organism; flat hierarchy; groups and teams

•

systems model - everything is related to everything else; interdependence; analytical; understanding the parts by looking at the whole

•

loosely coupled system - loosely linked subsystems; decentralization; autonomy; understanding the whole by looking at the parts. (Leigh and Walters, 1998)

Strebel's 'contrasting change paths' model is based on the levels of resistance to change and the intensity of the force behind the change, indicating the different responses required. As with any such model, 'change is too uncertain to be predictable. Once an organization starts out on a path, the forces of change and resistance may respond in unexpected ways, making continual adaptation a necessity. Many change journeys involve more than one path' (see Figure 6.3): Discontinuous paths - intended to break the dominance of resistance to change, converting or clearing out the resistors and changing the mind-sets and structure Mixed paths - building on 'pockets of change agents and team-oriented cultures', dealing directly with resistors then accelerating the change process throughout the organization Continuous paths - change builds up organically within the organization, then takes over; longer-term but ownership of the change is more complete. (Strebel, 1996a, p.7) Specific triggers of change, identified by Ashridge Management Research Group (Sadler, 1995, p.22), include: • financial loss/drop in profits •

increased competition/loss of market share

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industry in recession

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new chief executive officer

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proactive (opportunities or events foreseen)

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technological development

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staff utilization

Proactive change is a rarity, most involves reacting to some event or situation. Increasingly frequently, when proactive change does occur, it is when those foreseen events are 'industry breakpoints' or 'strategic inflection points'. These are massive, dramatic changes in the forces and influences within a sector, looming on the horizon for long enough for the organization actively to chose whether to effectively renew itself - or stagnate (Grove, 1997, p.6). Basic causes of organizational change are: •

change of purpose such as privatization or deregulation

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change in strategy but not purpose;

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search for more effective implementation and delivery of strategy. RAPID

PROACTIVE

REACTIVE

Closed to

Radical

Organizational

change

leaderships

realignment

Can be

Top-down

Process

Autonomous

opened to

experimentation

reengineering

restructuring

Open to

Bottom-up

Goal cascading

change

experimentation

Resistance ' ' Downsizing and Discontinuous restructuring

paths

Mixed paths

change

Weak

Rapid adaptation Continuous paths

Moderate

Strong

Figure 6.3 The 'contrasting paths' model of change

Change force

Change management theory

The all-encompassing driver of change is that the 21st century organization must be highly adaptive, able to: 'Move and shift direction quickly in uncertain territory, reacting rapidly to the changing nature of the environment, the changing nature of competition and the changing needs of the customer' (Gibson, 1997, p.8). The three organizational components affected by change are: •

structure (the hierarchy, divisions, project groups, committees)

•

systems, procedures and processes (the formal, prescribed and standardized way of doing things)

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culture (espoused/practised shared values, common mind-set, characteristic behaviours, various symbols).

The extensive reach of the culture cannot be underestimated and is founded on: •

geographical origins of its parent

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background of senior management

•

core activity

•

the organization's history, structure and systems (all of which influence and are influenced by culture).

The traditional culture, or mind-set, views change as pain. The change required in turn is to view change as positive, as a source of growth. This Catch-22 situation means that 'mind-sets must change before the mindsets can change. People who have internalized the old culture have deepseated beliefs that change is dangerous, complicated and painful. They can't believe that everything could change immediately if the people within the culture simply decided to adopt, and act on, a new set of beliefs. In fact, it is that simple' (James, 1997, p.219). But not so simple when encouraging people and professions towards that immediate adoption of a new way of being. Sadler, based on Handy, identified six categories of culture (Sadler, 1995, P-70): •

role (or bureaucratic) - emphasizing rationality, order, integrity, service efficiency, conformity, seniority

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power - all decision-making and control is vested in one individual

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person - the individual is key

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task - adaptive, focused on achievement, teamwork, openness and trust, autonomy

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entrepreneurial - mix of power and task, lively and exciting

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family business cultures - some power elements, paternalistic, traditional.

Whatever the culture, or mix of cultures, 'organizational myopia' is a major trap where the environment is built on complacency, arrogance and a focus only on internal performance. Even where this is not the case (and there are numerous examples), an instinctive reaction to a major shift in circumstances is to go into 'denial'. One factor here is the strength of the organization's 'dominant logic' ('the way in which managers conceptualise the business and make critical resource location decisions' (Turner, 1996, p. 14)). Another is that 'frame-breaking change' requires people to 'discard what is comfortable, avoid groupthink and break free from constraining corporate prejudices and assumptions' (Coulson-Thomas, 1997, p.296). That Catch-22 again. Toffler stresses that 'adaptive corporations' must 'ruthlessly review their basic premises - and stand ready to jettison them': company structures must be appropriate for the full span of their external environment; obsolete structures must be identified and changed before they damage the organization; the validity of the shared management beliefs which drive policies must be questioned and planning based on simple extrapolation of trends is 'inherently treacherous' (1985, p. 19)· As with all strategic management, this ruthless review is not a one-off occurrence and must be an inherent part of everyday working life. The three levels of change management are: Change projects - 'discrete, specific streams of action designed to address a particular problem or need' (often with no long-term impact). Change programs - 'interrelated projects designed to have major cumulative organizational impact' (and which frequently fail). Change-adept organizations - 'asset-building aimed at the future'; 'investments that create the capability for continuous innovation and improvement, for embracing change as an internally desired opportunity before it becomes an externally driven threat; by mobilizing many people in the organization to contribute'. (Kanter, 1997, pp.4-5) Another organizational element is the set of individuals behind the implementation of change - change agents, or change masters. Extending the earlier definition, change agents are the 'catalysts for making things happen, precipitating and often leading the change effort. They may be: •

existing managers

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project teams

Change management theory

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a representative group charged with a task

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a team of consultants from elsewhere in the organization

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specialists recruited from outside

•

and sometimes the entire staff group'. (Leigh and Walters, 1998, p. 116).

The role is primarily to ensure 'ownership' of the change project or programme, to make sure it all happens, that there is long-term continuity. Their success, or otherwise, is partly dependent on selecting the right person/group for the task; partly on the scale, pace and complexity of the change, the risk and uncertainty involved and the likely resistance. Top management expectations and support inevitably also have a major impact on the agents' success. The basic set of essential competencies for a change agent includes: •

clarity in specifying goals

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team-building and networking abilities

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courage and patience

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tolerance of ambiguity

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excellent communication and interpersonal skills

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personal enthusiasm

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negotiating, selling, political and influencing skills

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a 'helicopter perspective' (i.e. standing back to take a broader view).

The individuals, or team, concerned need to offer between themselves: extreme flexibility, mental agility and being 'simultaneously able to cope with potentially conflicting ways of managing' (Johnson and Scholes, 1993, p.412). Looking at the wider workforce, statistics indicate that 20 per cent of staff in most organizations are actively improving their jobs and output, often unrecognized; 60 per cent conform to requirements, but have the potential to respond to the need for change; 20 per cent are 'dinosaurs', who will never change and tend to take the 'if it ain't broke, don't fix it' viewpoint. The active 20 per cent require support, the 60 per cent need to be drawn into the active sector and the dinosaurs tend either to find a quiet niche or will move on, prompted or otherwise (Lewis and Lytton, 1995, p.53). The implications lie in the complex areas of instinct, psychology and communications - prime elements in change management.

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Services

Implications On an organization-wide level, the only certainty will be more pressure and stress to change and remain competitive, which result in a 'tendency to revert to their most primitive behaviours . . . management control, time pressure, do it faster, do it cheaper' (Senge, 1997, p. 138). The human elements, especially resistance to change, often remain on the periphery, or are totally unrecognized - particularly in a purely mechanistic approach to change. One very simple consideration is that 'changing the structure . . . inevitably challenges the existing 'pecking order' and this is undoubtedly a major, if unacknowledged, factor in much resistance' (Sadler, 1995, p.35). Another is that staff feel 'that their autonomy, skills, status and interests are threatened; their competence is invested in the old system and they dislike risk' (Boddy and Gunson, 1996, p. 189). Other more obvious effects, equally likely to create insecurity, include: •

redundancies and job layoffs

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changes in job content

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changes in social and work groups

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loss of earnings or potential earnings

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changes in location

•

changes in beliefs, values and assumptions.

All are concerns which are 'felt in the stomach rather than formulated in the brain' (Sadler, 1995, p.62). Job losses, employment insecurity and rising workloads due to fewer staff were the main reasons for stress in the early 1990s. By the end of the 1990s, the causes included rapid change, information overload and long working hours. Stress management is once again an entire subject requiring awareness - and corrective action where necessary - as part of change management. The other side of security is naturally that it is a motivator. This is somewhat contrary to much traditional management based on the premise that staff work harder if they feel insecure, with no knowledge of how their organization is performing. Providing those staff with feedback and linking developments to market successes is far more productive and loyalty engendering than treating them as mere mechanical components. Reaction to change involves a transition curve of seven stages: Immobilization - people are frozen, overwhelmed and unable to plan or understand. Minimization - trivialization and denial of the change.

Change management theory

D e p r e s s i o n - awareness of the realities. Letting g o - acceptance of the reality, letting go of the past, becoming optimistic. Testing - actively trying out the new situation. Understanding - analysing earlier behaviour and how/why things are different. Internalization - incorporation of what has been learned into daily life. This can also be viewed as a simpler four phase process: Negation - impossible. Self-justification - rationalizing their reasons for rejecting the change. Exploration - the survival instinct, recognizing the advantages and possibilities. Resolution - welcoming and committing to change. As with all change management models and methods, these offer some insight into what people are going through, or need to be prepared for. Sensitivity to all such issues is a key component in the set of skills that change managers must create, develop and employ. Alternatively they may need to realize that they do not have the capability to develop these skills - and therefore need to ensure that someone with those capabilities takes on a key role. In general, there has to be a new work ethic, 'trust, openness, fairness and by encouraging genuine involvement by everyone', combined with a thorough understanding of 'what motivates people to work and what will motivate them in the future' (Lewis and Lytton, 1995, p.29). The ultimate is examining and developing 'personal compacts' between employees and organizations - the 'reciprocal obligations and mutual commitments, both stated and implied' (Strebel, 1996b, p.87). Any change programme alters the terms of these compacts, which must then be revised by management and bought into by the workforce (not necessarily an explicit or deliberate process). Certainly the formal, psychological and social aspects encompassed by the compacts must be fully understood and catered for. One of the earliest steps in planning change must be working through a checklist of such key people factors as: •

Who will be directly/indirectly affected?

•

What areas will be affected for those people (e.g. reporting relationships, earnings, job satisfaction, training needs, security)?

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Who communicates information about change, when and how?

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What management style - autocratic, persuasive, consultative, fully participative?

The foundation of all plans and communications, to draw people in to the change process, should be genuine enthusiasm among those driving it.

Conditions for success All of the 'softer' aspects of change just detailed are very much easier said than done, but must act as overall guiding principles. Developing a thorough understanding of why people react and deal with change in the way they do, will provide any change management initiative with the soundest foundations possible. Success is partly dependent on having established 'pain management' mechanisms, along with the more concrete (but always flexible) change plans and strategies. Change-related pain is split into 'current pain' (the level of discomfort when a person's goals are not being met), or 'anticipated pain' (when they're not expected to be met) - both due to the 'circumstances of the status quo' (Conner, 1998b, p. 103). To tackle the issue, Conner recommends developing 'a critical mass of information and then orchestrate it to motivate a discontinuation of the status quo' - so establishing commitment to whatever change is underway. Information professionals have to be top of the list of those suited to put together that mass of information, in user-friendly formats, then to distribute it appropriately. More tangible building blocks include employee involvement and ownership, leadership, learning and analytical skills. (Some of the more practical publications cover these in more appropriate detail and language, and are listed in Appendix 2.)

Involvement, communication and ownership Involvement by the workforce is the key factor - to harness energy from employees, you must: •

'listen well

•

keep employees focused on external (customer) issues

•

trust employees

•

and lead with a clear and consistent direction'. (Laabs, 1996, p.59)

The need (or reason) for change must be 'owned' by the staff, as well as the process to reach the solution. This means spelling out how the

Change management theory

problem, or cause of change, affects the staff and their jobs; then inviting them actively to participate in developing the processes to cope with the change. Not so simple if redundancies are part of the process, which needs handling with the greatest feasible sensitivity and generosity. Empowerment, autonomy, recognition by the workforce that they are respected and valued. The standard message from all change management experts is that there can never be such a thing as too much communication. Consistency in the messages sent is vital, whether by formal means such as newsletters or presentation, or those from such actions as abolishing cultural symbols (i.e. executive dining rooms). Seven key steps to supporting change through communication are: •

'Be clear what you want to achieve and why.

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Evaluate the likely impact.

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Understand the climate for communication.

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Listen to the fears, concerns and ideas.

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Manage the messages.

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Measure the changes in perception and behaviour.

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Celebrate success'. (Conner, 1998b, p.ix)

Other conditions for encouraging and maintaining participation are: •

stability and time (other developments need to be 'on hold')

•

continuity of people

•

security and an understanding that the flow of resources will continue. (Kanter, 1983, p.122)

The aim is 'buy-in', building up acceptance, support and active involvement in a high-trust environment. Once a critical mass of people has been reached (estimated at 20-30 per cent of the key individuals within the culture of the organization), others will fall into line. Wherever possible, staff must be encouraged to cut through the formal hierarchy to obtain information or support - yet without being seen as violating organizational protocol. Awareness of people's strengths and weaknesses, and preferred method of working is another building block - implying team-development exercises if necessary. Other key skills to be widely disseminated include project management, problem-solving and meeting/presentation. Performance management takes a much wider role: enabling and inspiring; acting as a communication channel; linking performance to purpose and strategy; and mobilizing expertise and potential.

Change Management for Information Services

Overall, 'participation is not a "program" or a "formula", and it may not necessarily be a permanent way of doing everything . . . participatory processes should be seen as task-oriented, integrative rituals of high involvement and transformation!' (Kanter, 1983, p.277).

Learning As Handy spells out, 'change . . . does not have to be forced upon us by crisis and calamity. We can do it for ourselves . . . Those who are always learning are those who can ride the waves of change and who see a changing world as full of opportunities not damages' (1995a, p.44). Because learning is often practiced as more limited problem-solving, Handy's 'wheel of learning' - or 'life's special treadmill' (1995a, p.46) also offers a useful analogy. The sequence of Question-Theory-TestReflection (the same principles as Plan-Do-Check-Act referred to later) is a reminder that learning creates change. Without turning the wheel, without learning and changing, the result is ossification. Taking this further, the learning needs to be of the 'double-loop' variety. Professionals have been found to be particularly good at 'single-loop' learning - they master their field, then should they fail, defence mechanisms shut down their learning abilities when they most need it (Argyris, 1997, p.201). Double-loop means questioning basic beliefs and assumptions, effectively a continuous improvement approach, applicable to both individuals and organizations. The openness indicated by this type of continuous learning also recognizes that unexpected sources - perhaps 'juniors' or outsiders - can sometimes provide more knowledge than veterans within the organization. Another pragmatic analogy is that change tolerance (and by implication, learning) is like building muscles. The more they're exercised, the stronger they become - with light warm-ups being essential to avoid injury and over-exertion. 'People who have successfully weathered a series of significant changes in their working or personal lives tend to develop a different perspective, a frame of reference that gives them confidence in their ability to handle new challenges, whether expected or not. Yet even where people are used to frequent change, the "dumping" of an unexpected need for adjustment can temporarily overstretch them' (Conner, 1998b, p.vii). Stamp recommends an 8-step process to push continual learning through the organization: 1

Surfacing and aligning values and visions.

2

Thinking strategically.

3

Focusing resources and staying flexible.

4

Managing priorities.

Change management theory

5

Achieving the delicate balance between quantity and quality.

6

Taking ownership, responsibility and accountability.

7

Influencing while maintaining interpersonal relationships.

8

Implementing a continuous improvement process. (1994, p. 13)

Perhaps one of the most important aspects of learning is how things can go wrong, although undeniably 'organizations and societies still seem to prefer to bury their past rather than learn from it' (Handy, 1996, p.27). Among the many lists of learning-related pitfalls, Ranter's 'Rules for stifling innovation' is perhaps most illuminating: 1. Regard any new idea from below with suspicion - because it's new, and because it's from below. 2. Insist that people who need your approval to act first go through several other levels of management to get their signatures. 3. Ask departments or individuals to challenge and criticize each other's proposals. (That saves you the trouble of deciding; you just pick the survivor.) 4. Express your criticisms freely, and withhold your praise. (That keeps people on their toes.) Let them know they can be fired at any time. 5. Treat identification of problems as signs of failure, to discourage people from letting you know when something in their area isn't working. 6. Control everything carefully. Make sure people count anything that can be counted, frequently. 7. Make decisions to reorganize or change policies in secret, and spring them on people unexpectedly. (That also keeps people on their toes.) 8. Make sure that requests for information are fully justified, and make sure that it is not given out to managers freely. (You don't want data to fall into the wrong hands.) 9- Assign to lower-level managers, in the name of delegation and participation, responsibility for figuring out how to cut back, lay off, move people around, or otherwise implement threatening decisions you have made. And get them to do it quickly. 10. And above all, never forget that you, the higher-ups, already know everything important about this business. (Kanter, 1983, p. 101)

Analytical and strategic skills Successful change management relies on being linked to both operational changes and the day-to-day workings of the organization. Such integration calls for consistently strong, coherent strategic planning and management: Ά corporation without a strategy is like an airplane weaving through stormy skies . . . without some explicit assumptions about the long-range future, and strategic guidelines for dealing with them, without a vision of its own future form . . . organizations face disaster' (Toffler, 1985, p. 172).

Change Management for Information Services

Strategic planning and management are yet more massive topics in themselves - and are also far more entrenched within the information profession. Certain elements are absolutely key here, and are incorporated into the following framework for information services. However, while a strategic approach (combined with understanding) is vital, there are several prime dangers. One is becoming bogged down in planning. Another that a strategic focus on cost-cutting will in the long term damage organizational health, particularly by affecting its innovative capability. Another, trying to force change that should take many years into shorter timeframes that match that of the strategic plan for the organization, department or function. Another still, is that 'absolutes' (flawless plans, strategies without mid-course adjustments) have no relevance to modern management - 'order is a temporary illusion, strategy a moving target. Leaders cannot impose authority on a world of constant motion; they can only hope to steer some of that action towards productive ends' (Kanter, 1997, p.6l). One specific strategic aspect required is introducing a 're-framing' ability throughout the organization, a capacity to see things as opportunities not problems. It is a matter of looking at issues in their entirety, not pigeonholing experiences and solutions or being constrained by standard practices. The opposite approach falls under Kanter's 'segmentalist' category, where organizations compartmentalize problems, departments and events; creating a system 'designed to protect against change, to protect against deviation from a predetermined central thrust' (1983, p.29). Another valuable, if extremely delicate and difficult, strategic area is 'organizational theatre'. This is aimed at convincing staff that change is 'rational, logical and also congruent with the strategic direction', and is based on 'genuine user involvement, technical elegance and strategic logicality'. Frontstage and backstage activity ('logical and rationally planned change linked to widespread and convincing participative mechanisms') are combined with 'power skills; influencing, negotiating, selling, searching out and neutralizing resistance' (Boddy and Gunson, 1996, p. 198). An emerging area of strategy is that required in the digital world, an approach which 'doesn't pretend to create strategies so much as to create an environment where lucky foresight is more likely to make an appearance' (Downes and Mui, 1998, p.72) - based on the view that truly innovative strategies are due to that lucky foresight. Many of the requirements are extremely close to those in change management, i.e. dynamism, intuition, total employee involvement. There are many strategic planning structures available, which need to be used as flexible guidelines and which tend to be based around the same elements i.e. 1 'Initiate and agree upon a strategic planning process. 2 Identify organizational mandates.

Change management theory

3 Clarify organizational mission and values. 4 Assess the organization's external and internal environments to identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. 5 Identify the strategic issues facing the organization. 6 Formulate strategies to manage these issues. 7 Review and adopt the strategic plan or plans. 8 Establish an effective organizational vision. 9 Develop an effective implementation process. 10 Reassess strategies and the strategic planning process'. (Bryson, 1995, p.23). Leadership The highest profile in any change initiative belongs to the organization's leadership, encompassing both the top management and the change agents at grassroots level. The extremely demanding role and conditions mean that they 'must be orchestral conductors, developing, nurturing and encouraging their team players . . . understand what makes people tick and have considerable moral insight' (Lewis and Lytton, 1995, p. 129). Transformational leaders, able to pilot their organizations through constant change, need characteristics based around 'vision, an inspirational charisma, an attitude of questioning assumptions and encouraging others to do the same, and a gift of creating leadership in others' (Alimo-Metcalfe, 1998). Top management especially is faced with a phenomenal balancing act in its own required shift from 'compliant implementation' to fostering entrepreneurial initiative. One additional limitation is that the new effective 'job specification' for executives bears little resemblance to the expertise that most will have spent decades acquiring. One of their main principles is that all their actions and communications must embody the spirit of new strategies and projects consistently. If this is not so, all plans and communications will be seen as hollow, providing the organization's cynical terrorists with ample ammunition. Simultaneously, senior executives' political awareness and ability to use political power is key in exploiting (and aligning) vested interests and stimulating collective action: Ά multifaceted understanding of power is necessary for both pragmatic and ethical reasons. Without it, managers are left without an important means of realizing change' (Hardy, 1994, p.31). Power and influence throughout organizations as a whole are among the delicate areas needing attention and understanding as part of change management. Despite the fact that they can seem to 'imply the

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infringement of an individual's freedom over his or her actions' (Merriden, 1998, p.92), their fundamental nature and impact has to be understood, because 'they are the means by which the people of the organization are linked to its purpose' (Handy, 1993, p. 123)· Part of this understanding is that power is of three types: •

resource - stemming from the control of information, expertise, credibility etc

•

process - based on organizational procedures and routines

•

meaning - focused on symbols and their manipulation.

Also important is recognizing the tactics used to block change e.g. diverting resources to other projects; keeping goals vague and complex; dissipating energies (surveys, data collection, reports); harming the change agent's influence and credibility (Johnson and Scholes, 1993, p.410). There is one final condition for success - awareness of the many myths of change management. While these tenets are mostly based on reality, they can be destructive if followed: •

'Change management is about envisaging the future of the organization in some detail and then working out how to get there' - the concrete nature of this view does not account for a changing environment or build in flexibility.

•

'Good change management is built on good detailed analysis' leading to 'analysis paralysis' ('80 per cent of the benefits of a radical change program can be obtained from 20 per cent of the analysis').

•

'First decide business strategy, then align the culture with radical change' - but business strategies tend to work on 1-3 year cycles, while major change could take 5-15 years.

•

'People will resist change if there is nothing in it for them' - but success is dependent on everyone understanding the full facts - and what has often been found is that individuals will understand the full case for change, despite a lack of their direct benefit.

•

'To effect positive change, the CEO must win the hearts and minds of employees with broad-gauged communications programs, focus groups, videos, newsletters and so on' - consensus is impossible, so balancing the communications against unproductive cost and time has to be part of the change management. Extra effort still has to be put into winning over the key influencers, those who 'represent the organization's "will to act'". (Dauphinais and Price, 1998, pp.84-5)

Change management theory

Process The one principle that should underlie any change programme is that 'change comes from small initiatives which work, initiatives which, imitated, become the fashion' (Handy, 1994, p.271). These may form part of an all-encompassing, 'big-bang' programme, but given the practical constraints of time, human resources, operational/production requirements and finances, it is rarely feasible to take this route. Additionally, 'trying to force change at the same pace across the organization . . . is bound to lead to frustration' - it is better to concentrate on areas with the interest and energy for change as 'success in one part of the organization is the best way of creating an appetite for change elsewhere' (Binney and Charlton, 1994, p.44). This project-by-project approach may therefore be more realistic, but each component must reinforce the others. The planning and preparation stages must take a holistic viewpoint from the start - isolated projects taking no account of inputs and impacts, immediate and future, throughout the organization would be pointless. Considerable flexibility and adaptability throughout whatever programme is implemented is an absolute must - this cannot be a rigid, prescriptive, off-the-shelf approach. It may be appropriate to establish a formal change management team, or a series of cross-functional working groups - whatever is best suited to the organization's structure, nature of the change and resources available. The leading individuals must possess the credibility, power and communication skills to move the change processes forward and win people's support, then their involvement. Of the many models available, from practical step-by-step structures to overall guiding principles, all are founded around the same basic concepts (see Appendix 2 for some of the more constructive publications). Drawing from those available, the following three sections are intended to collate the most relevant factors and indicate the range of approaches to choose from.

Three-stage process Hardy's three-stage process (1994, p. 11) provides more of an overall picture. Strategic intent •

Development of the vision driving the organization to its competitive position

•

goal-setting, to focus attention and encourage the spread of enthusiasm

•

formulation of strategy, which 'despite the plethora of techniques, basically revolves around defining the business, conducting a

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situational analysis, establishing planning assumptions or premises, setting objectives and priorities, and developing action plans' •

key words are: strategic stretch, core competencies and continuous improvement.

Strategic

alignment

•

The heart of implementation, requiring the 'right kinds of skills, reward systems, coordination mechanisms, structures, leadership, culture and control systems'

•

building up the structural and human resource (recruitment, training, motivation) aspects

•

emphasizing the importance of leadership and the culture; 'unless the total sum of their organizational experience leads them in the same direction [as the new initiatives], change will be difficult'.

Strategic

realization

•

Actions converge in a new pattern and strategy

•

acceptance that this is 'a constantly shifting, transient phenomenon'; there will always need to be transitions, quantum leaps, fine-tuning and incremental steps.

Ten keys A summary of these keys to successful change management offers a full mixture of actions and principles to bear in mind:

•

'Defining the vision

•

mobilizing

•

catalysing

•

steering

•

delivering

•

obtaining participation

•

handling the emotional dimension

•

handling the power issues

•

training and coaching

•

communicating actively.' (Pendlebury et el., 1998)

Change management theory

Unfreeze-move-refreeze The following four stages are based on Lewin's 'unfreeze-move-refreeze' model (Boddy and Gunson, 1996, p. 189). Preparation The groundwork for successful change management involves a series of analyses (informal or formal), and target setting. Each phase requires painstaking, tailored crafting of the approaches and methods used. Boddy's checklist of the 'agendas' involved will help to ensure that the success factors are in place (Boddy and Gunson, 1996, p. 193): •

content agenda - technical, organizational and people aspects (the relative importance of content and process depend on the complexity of the project and the vulnerability of the change agent)

•

process agenda - political skills in communicating, consulting, influencing, negotiating, team-building

•

control agenda - intervention strategies, project management planning, budgeting and monitoring (common to all projects).

Identification of the existing culture and its influences looks at: •

cultural artefacts and symbols

•

espoused values

•

underlying assumptions

•

strong subcultures and power groupings.

Having analysed the current state, the target culture can then be identified, indicating what behaviours need to change - based on a realistic timescale. Establishing a shared vision and mission, incorporating the target culture, forces the identification and clarification of organizational objectives. They also contribute to the likelihood of achieving them. Vision acts as a guiding beacon and encapsulates the desired future state, what it is possible to achieve or become and new opportunities. It must be believable, within people's grasp, exciting, inspiring, and provide some indication of how it will be turned into reality. Mission spells out the ultimate purpose, values and standards. It must appeal to both minds (strategy) and hearts (cultural values). The Ashridge mission model has four linked and reinforcing elements: •

purpose (why the company exists)

•

strategy (competitive position and competencies)

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•

behaviour standards (standards of performance and patterns of behaviour)

•

values (underlying beliefs). (Sadler, 1995, p.93)

A downside of these statements is that 'the complexity and art of creating such a mission has been simplified to the point where it has become a mockery of the original idea' (Perren and Tavakoli, 1997, p. 14). Establishing a real sense of mission is of immense value, but has to be done as a project in its own right - not something imposed and not demonstrated in reality. These elements, packaged with other information such as the organization's objectives, core competencies and business plans, should provide a clear view of the current status. Unfreeze old systems and attitudes Next comes, the long, hard process of changing values, beliefs and behaviours. Developing mission and vision statements may form the initial stage, if nothing appropriate exists. Each step must be reinforced by training (meeting skills, problem-solving) and other actions (workshops, seminars) to progress and sustain changes in mind-sets and cultures. A combination of participation, education/communication and guidance needs to be employed - tailored to the circumstances and activities. Coercion (and/or edicts) can rear its head, but such impositions are only more likely to strengthen opposition - unless the organization is undergoing a major crisis and really does require forceful leadership to that extent to survive at all. One set of suggested strategies for dealing with 'roadblocks' to change are simplistic and brutal, but have at least an element of truth: 'Denial of the problem

Directly confront denial.

Disbelief in cultural change

Sacrifice the sacred cows.

Obsolete speech patterns

Transform the vocabulary.

Outmoded rules and practices

Reinforce the new culture'. Qames, 1997, p. 176)

Benchmarking is a useful teamworking and evaluative exercise. The results of the objective assessment of performance against best practices in other relevant organizations (whatever their industry or sector) need then to be widely disseminated. Surveys of customers and/or staff may also be appropriate, provided they are well focused, designed and analysed. Reviews of all aspects of organizational performance, management and strategy need to be built in, as does identification of how customer-facing

Change management

theory

processes work. Each of these could be subjected to SWOT analyses, and PEST where relevant. Teamworking initiatives, cross-functional project groups, quality circles if appropriate, are important methods in breaking down barriers and moving people forward in the same direction. Internal alliances, champions, contacts and sympathizers are all vital in tackling the inevitable pockets of resistance. Move towards new attitudes and systems This is where the action really starts, focusing on 'information-building' (making sense), testing, questioning and experimentation. The result should be a new organizational paradigm, or way of being. Key areas include: •

Empowering people to change systems and structures that stand in the way of the vision; cutting the reporting lines and hierarchy; ensuring they are involved in workshops, planning groups, feedback etc.

•

Creating short-term 'wins', then consolidating the credibility from those wins to encourage more change.

•

Development of working methods and structure - how should major processes work (ideally and in reality). This may take the form of: introducing entirely new products, people, services, systems, procedures or attitudes; improving the current situation in terms of quality, procedures, skills, attitudes, working relationships or productivity; or abandoning old and inappropriate behaviour, structures and procedures.

•

Redesigning the organizational structure and support systems to reflect and support the reworked processes if appropriate.

•

Formalizing a change programme if relevant to the situation; either launching it as a major initiative if that has not been done already, or ensuring that regular updating mechanisms are established and do occur, so that staff understand the aims, impacts and future of the changes, as well as progress, alterations and developments.

•

Setting up pilot projects to test new methods fully and to start dealing with some of the political/emotional resistance.

Refreeze in new form Lastly, 'institutionalizing' the changes into a new culture, a fresh but flexible paradigm: 'The rapidity of response to change is more important than the ability to predict what is going to happen' (Munroe-Faure and Munroe-Faure, 1996, p.255).

Change Management for Information Services

This is a matter of learning from the results of the pilot projects and building on the involvement and feedback. Ensuring an organization-wide review of what happened and what went wrong. Planning the full rollout and communicating why the changes are being implemented in the way that they are. Measuring the impact and business benefits (responding quickly if fine-tuning is still necessary). Making sure the impetus and interest does not falter, that the changes are maintained and then working towards the next set of changes and new processes. Leadership and communication skills are equally as important at this stage as in the beginning. Close working with all departments and functions to monitor reactions and problems, provide encouragement, stimulate interest and recognize/reward achievements are all essential - 'Never, ever underestimate how extraordinarily inventive people are in thwarting any change, however minor management may believe it to be' (Glass, 1996, p. 119)·

Resistance Denial, cynicism, sabotage (conscious or otherwise) - resistance to change is human nature. People and organizations are both fundamentally conservative. Further, change forces them to face truths about themselves that they would rather avoid. Types of resistance are: •

cultural - when the values, the way of being, the culture of the organization are affected

•

social - if relationships are threatened, such as teamwork or group solidarity

•

organizational - when the formal status quo may be interfered with, the hierarchy for instance

•

psychological - 'selective perception', where change is seen as harmful (Leigh, 1998, p.85).

Resistance can also be split in positive and negative responses to change, where the individuals go through different stages - which clearly have implications for the way that the resistance is coped with, particularly should individuals get stuck in a particular stage (Conner, 1998b). Negative response to change: •

stability (status quo, pre-announcement of change)

•

immobilization (shock)

•

denial (inability to assimilate new information)

Change management

theory

•

anger (frustration and hurt)

•

bargaining (negotiating to avoid the negative impact of change)

•

depression (disengagement from work, lack of energy)

•

testing (exploring ways to redefine goals, regaining control)

•

acceptance (realistic response to the change, if not actually liking it).

Positive response to change: •

uninformed optimism (naive enthusiasm)

•

informed pessimism (inevitable, may lead to 'checking out' or withdrawing from the change)

•

hopeful realism (light at the end of the tunnel)

•

informed optimism (increasing confidence)

•

completion (strong confidence and support of the change).

Specific reasons for resisting include: •

'They think that your analysis is wrong and thus your proposals are wrong.

•

Their data is (sic) different.

•

Their implicit and explicit theories of cause-and-effect are different and thus their predictions of the effect of change initiatives differs.

•

Their data and theories are the same but their values are different, so they resist the changes as undesirable.

•

They think the change will harm their self-interest.' (Kitchin, 1997, p. 14)

Alternatively, they may feel they are losing something. This could be intangible, such as dignity, self-respect or their sense of involvement. Listening comes into full play here, working with the individuals, groups or teams to try and understand what is being seen as vanishing. The worst way of tackling resistance is to try and overcome it, giving a 'we know best' message and probably reinforcing the resistance (or proving that it was based on the right reasoning). One successful tack was to present resistance as a valuable part of the change process - and to provide the leaders and change agents with the skills to work through that particular phase. Commonsense guidelines for handling resistance are:

Change Management for Information Services

•

'Identify the type of resistance (expected as well as in evidence).

•

Analyse (based on the factors of intensity, source and focus).

•

Look for behavioural (emotional) and rational (system) factors.

•

View resistance as rational, not irrational.

•

Ask what useful purpose the resistance is serving.

•

Identify real or perceived negative consequences of the change.

•

Weaken the apparent link between the change and the negative consequences.

•

Reduce rather than eliminate resistance (e.g. avoid surprises; ensure participation).

•

Work directly with the individuals affected to deal with their personal concerns.

•

Use a mix of push and pull styles to influence individuals, dependent on each situation and individual' (Leigh and Walters, 1998, p.97).

Frameworks and approaches Holistic approaches which apparently provide all the elements required for change in one package can have much to offer, dependent partly on the motives for their introduction, and the resources allocated. The successes and failures, dangers and principles of such programmes are equally applicable to change management in general, so offering useful guidelines and examples. The danger according to Obeng (Barthorpe, 1996, p.22) is in leaping from fad to fad, turning 'to the latest solution from the gurus . . . they re-engineer part of the business, usually leaving managerial hierarchies and habitual ways of doing things intact'. 'Flavour of the month' change programmes will also only result in a deterioration in performance and widespread disillusion. This has certainly proved applicable to two of the most prominent frameworks, Total Quality Management (TQM) and Business Process Reengineering (BPR). A further danger stems from the models resulting in (or being used to create) huge swathes of redundancies - so removing the skills, experience and potential leaders needed for the future, both in terms of physical expansion and as sources of innovation and competitive advantage.

Total Quality Management (TQM) The value of TQM is that it neatly encapsulates the principles and processes of change management, is long established and is supported by a number of succinct and proven models such as Baldrige, European

Change management theory

Foundation for Quality Management, or the more focused UK Service Excellence Awards. The latter assesses four broad criteria: understanding customers; operational excellence; success in engaging the hearts and minds of employees; and leadership,,vision and values. Perhaps one of TQM's most valuable concepts is that of 'Kaizen', 'a day-by-day striving for continuous improvement, a dedication to doing better, a search for personal excellence, a building of self-respect' (Morris, 1996, p.2). Again, fundamental aims of any change management programme. Companies which have proved successful in implementing TQM: Maintain control over standards and operations and give employees the scope to use their initiative and the information and the training which they need to find better ways of doing thing . . . are very good at taking short-term actions and having a clear vision of the long-term . . . establish what best practice is today and constantly seek to be open to learning and improve on today's standards. (Binney and Charlton, 1994, p.46).

There are inevitably many failures, one of the causes of which is a lack of management commitment to see the entire process through. Instead the managers fail to understand their personal role and treat the programme as a short-term, quick fix. Other basic problems include: •

becoming so 'obsessed with the tools themselves that they forget that tools are there only for a purpose' (Macdonald, 1996, p.7).

•

quality becomes institutionalized - all quality problems are seen as being owned by the 'quality people' (the teams, facilitators and co-ordinators established to start the process)

•

a lack of involvement by the workforce.

Business Process Reengineering (BPR) 'Reengineering is the radical redesign of business processes for dramatic improvement', questioning both the need for every organizational process ('a complete end-to-end set of activities that together create value for a customer'), as well as the way in which they are carried out (Hammer, 1996, p.xii). BPR's original emphasis was on radical reorganization, streamlining/removing bureaucracy and making processes more efficient. Enthusiastic adoption throughout the USA and Europe in the early 1990s in reality led to extensive delayering of organizational structures, subsequent managerial redundancies and a major lack of improvement in the bottom line (apart from that of the consultancies which capitalized on the lack of methodology provided by the BPR gurus, Davenport, Hammer and Champy). Despite the controversy and 'slash and burn' image of reengineering, the underlying theories are still valid e.g. information should only be

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captured once, technology should be used to integrate and co-ordinate work activities, work should be multiskilled. The mistaken concentration only on hard processes, technology and systems ignored the softer, people issues. Successful BPR initiatives incorporated the full range of strategy, organization and human factors, while the actual process reengineering is 'just one wheel of the change vehicle' (Mumford and Hendricks, 1996, p.26). Work has carried on into the 'nuggets' of reengineering, and it may yet rise from the ashes.

Balanced scorecard The balanced scorecard is a sophisticated 'performance management tool for aligning strategy and optimising business performance' (Knowledge Management, 1998, p. 14). Financial measures are combined with operational measures of customer satisfaction, internal processes and innovation and learning. Its function is often likened to modern cockpit technology in aircraft - the banks of information and measurement about conditions work with the pilot's knowledge and skill to ensure a successful trip. While complex software has formed part of its implementation in large, scattered corporations, it is not essential. Among benefits of seeing precisely how the organization is changing and improving or how much further there is to go to reach specific goals, the scorecard also acts as a valuable communications tool. As part of the change armoury, 'exponents see it as a way of implementing strategy, linking strategy to action and making strategy understandable to those on the front line as well as to senior managers' (Van de Vliet, 1997a, p.78). Other areas to which it has links are performance measurement, succession planning and personal development.

Learning organization Lastly, the ideals of the learning organization. Although covered in earlier chapters, this 'has woven a continuous and enhanced capacity to learn, adapt and change into its culture. Its values, policies, practices, systems and structures support and accelerate learning for all employees. The learning results in continuous improvement in areas such as work processes, products and services, the structure and function of individual jobs, teamwork and management practices' (Bennett and O'Brien, 1994, p.42). The principles again reflect general change management requirements, for example: •

'People are interested in analyzing incidents and events so as to learn from them.'

•

The 'not invented here' attitude is rejected. Ideas and experience are shared across teams.

Change management

theory

•

The organization continually benchmarks itself against 'best practice'.

•

'Spontaneous and informal networks exist and are seen as legitimate.'

Conditions required include: • •

'Role-modelling by top management. Effective horizontal and diagonal as well as vertical communication channels.

•

Rewards which reinforce the motivation to learn.

•

Effective systems for scanning the environment' (Sadler, 1995, p. 130).

The final word on change belongs to Handy. 'It is only by constant learning and constant rethinking that we stay alive, be we individuals or businesses' (1995b, p. 154).

Chapter Seven

Managing change: information services framework

The future belongs not to those who are buffeted by change, cautiously adapting to it as needed, but to those with the foresight to recognize the potential offered by the very changes that others find so unsettling. (Malone, Morton and Halperin, 1996, p. 7)

Context The foundation for successful change - especially where introducing a technology or approach that is totally foreign (for example, an intranet and end user searching, where all information searching has previously been done by information staff using traditional online hosts) - must be reviewing where the information service is now. Otherwise 'there is a danger that current technical solutions relate to problems that will soon no longer be relevant. It is easier to solve existing visible problems than to create a framework for more effective working, particularly when the move is away from structure towards greater flexibility' (Cropley, 1998, p.30). Once the whole picture has been ascertained, or updated, it is then possible to see where the new technology, approach or development fits in, what the implications are and how to manage them. More importantly, such preparation and planning may justify to the parent organization the initial (and future) investment in the library and information service as a whole - as well as in specific new services or developments. Strong evidence of the value of this approach is seen in Zurich Reinsurance's strategic information plan and subsequent developments, which aimed to solve an 'info-famine' and create a responsible 'information culture'. The work started in 1995 when 'the level of understanding about information usage and the tools available were not sufficiently advanced to support end user information services'. The Information Centre established as a result is now making a 'significant contribution to meeting the company's strategic objectives and helping it to succeed in a

Managing change: information services framework

changing marketplace'. More importantly, the strategy and services steadily progress towards end user access and information-sharing across the company (Dyson, 1998). Communicating with the hierarchy and the wider organization in meaningful business terms is often half the battle - as always, whatever the sector or size of organization. Proving that the information service and staff are adding value to the organization, know what the wider strategy is, understand where they fit in and are constantly looking to the future puts the service on a very different footing. Such recognition is frequently painful to win - and takes equal effort to maintain. However, ensuring that the information function's strategies and plans are regularly reviewed, updated and expanded where necessary, is essential - ideally making it part of the parent's business planning process if it is not already.

Aim The framework is based on the needs of information professionals and their customers, drawing together strategic, change and information management. It is intended to act both as a step-by-step guide for those starting from scratch, and a checklist for those w h o already have some form of strategic and/or change management underway. The ideal setting would be an organization, already strategically oriented at least, preferably with a change and/or quality initiative underway, and which strongly supports its information service. In theory, senior management backing, interest and input should be in place before the information service initiates a change management programme. As the reality is often very different, particularly for small information teams and one-person libraries, the information manager may have to g o it alone, at least in the early stages. This does, however, provide ample opportunity to raise the profile of the information service by reporting back on progress, requesting feedback, publicizing achievements and ultimately, aiming for full integration into corporate strategic processes and initiatives. What is important is that the process is started, even though this may well mean putting in time (or extra time) outside official work hours. If at all feasible, taking the entire team out of running the information service for a day, or half-day, can be extremely productive in getting all staff on board. The same principle applies to one-person libraries - allocating a specific day and time, preferably away from the service's physical location and if possible, bringing in the line and/or senior management. Maintaining momentum will also take time that is not apparently available, but it must be found - breakfast or lunch meetings; dedicated, regular meeting times (with a limit of say 30 minutes); review sessions, inside or outside work hours.

121

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The intention of the framework is to signpost a suitable range of processes and stages, also indicating some of the wide range of tools available. The structure is firstly an overview of the stages and their purpose, followed by a fuller description of some proven approaches (the 'toolkit')· These are not described in detail partly because all are covered in full by the ample literature on strategic and change management, but primarily because there is no out-of-the-box, plug-and-play solution. Any change programme, any element of a change process, has to be carefully tailored to the specific situation and requirements of the information service concerned. What are increasingly available are excellent examples of successful change. Combined with the rising number of reliable, pragmatic publications, these provide ample (if time-consuming) guidelines to show the way.

Changing organizational culture Change-adept organizations, those with adaptive and flexible cultures, which encourage employees to work at the their highest achievement level, have been found to have much in common with an 'information culture'. Highly developed information cultures exhibit the most successful business performance and have the characteristics vital for long-term growth. Coming full circle, 'the way that information is managed and used is very much a product of the culture and management style of the organization' (Owens, 1996, p.3)· Similarly, 'using information as the focus of change programs has the potential to allow organizations to retool people rather than replace them'. What have been defined as 'information-centric' organizations can firstly navigate each bout of change more effectively, then should have the technologies and approaches to facilitate retraining staff both technically and attitudinally (Luke, 1996). Bringing the two areas together, information and a change-adept culture, should both be an aim of the change process and a natural result of it. Full understanding of all the cultural implications and approaches for changing it was covered in Chapter 6, and really does benefit from a reasonable amount of reading round the subject.

Changing attitudes More specifically, information services staff have to work as a team if the change is to be remotely successful or lasting. Specific teamworking training may be beneficial - or may fall naturally into the change process.

Managing change: information services framework

All those who have a stake in the information services, customers and executive management alike, also need to be brought in to the process as appropriate. However willing or otherwise, the input of the stakeholders is essential to ensure that the changed services match requirements. Additionally, this is a perfect opportunity to change perceptions of the information department and staff as part of the process. It may also gain or improve recognition throughout the organization of just how valuable information and knowledge are; how much the department has to offer in managing those assets and how strategically valuable the library and information services is (or could be).

Skills audit Before heading into the change process, the information professional must first step back and review their own skills and, if applicable, those of their team. Individually, there are various personality tests available. The more detailed analyses can be unexpectedly constructive, indicating skills that are unseen, unused or under-used, as well as areas requiring development. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator test is complex, but worth the effort. The Self Perception Inventory is useful for showing how teams are made up, how their strengths and weaknesses work together - and so what additional capabilities are required. Personnel departments, employment agencies and self-help guides should be able to come up with relevant contacts and sources for such tests. Areas that are particularly important to develop in the change management context are effective meeting, project management and presentation skills. Again individually and as a team. For the team, it is often extremely constructive to have an experienced facilitator to guide through the elements that need to be analysed, to ensure that whatever conflict arises has positive results, and that appropriate actions are agreed. Some of the questions to be asked as a team include: •

Do we have important skills not covered by the formal role or job description?

•

Can leadership roles be taken by someone other than a manager?

•

Can some people build skills in other areas, and help strengthen the overall capabilities of the team?

Principles to be agreed before the team session starts include: •

All ideas have a fair hearing.

Change Management for Information Services

•

Open and honest opinions are welcome.

•

Members will actively listen to each other.

•

Rank does not have its privileges. (Olshen, 1998)

Because of the invariably sensitive nature of such issues, particularly for a well-established information department or ingrained individual, dealing with conflict is one of the most difficult areas to cope with. Viewing conflict as 'differences of opinion' begins turning it into a positive and constructive part of the change process. Allowance should at least be made to call in outside help - whether within the organization, a professional contact or a formal consultant. If the situation and people involved warrant it, a teamworking session of some form may need to be built in from the very start. This could either be focused specifically on team development, or on the change project and incorporating teamworking within that.

The framework overview Stage 1 - Review What are you doing? The first stage investigates what is currently done - using one method or a combination. The depth and extent of the analysis is dependent partly on how integrated the service is into the organization's business planning system, how much has already been carried out, how old that is and whether it is on an ongoing basis. Useful frameworks are: SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) - addresses the questions: Where is the service particularly strong (and weak)? How could it develop? What are the dangers (such as a rival company being especially strong on competitive intelligence)? PEST (political, environmental, social and technological) - identifies the trends in these categories affecting services, the unit, the company, the profession and the sector. Computing skills shortages under the social heading for example, or the Year 2000 issue under technological. Both need to look at: •

'The macro-environment - the outside world in general

•

our own industry environment - library and information services

•

and the corporate or internal environment'. (Corrali, 1994 p. 10)

Managing change: information services

framework

PEST and SWOT can also be used on a specific project basis, preferably once the entire service and organization have been covered. Information audits/information mapping - based on what information the organization has; where it is located; who uses it; how it is maintained; how new information is acquired; how much time and money it absorbs. Existing plans and strategies need to be taken into account - general business and departmental, as well as those specific to information and/or the library unit. What references are there to information needs and future developments? Where have existing information services been missed - or where is the potential to develop services to underpin broader aims within the organization? What corporate initiatives are underway, or planned - and where can the library fit in? Stage 2 - Analysis Why are you doing it? Who are you doing it for? What are the users' needs? Next comes looking at why services are provided, who for and what those users actually need. Produce summaries or statements along the following lines: Vision and mission - where is the service heading? What is its overall purpose? How does it then fit with any other organizational visions and missions? Aims and objectives - what are the general goals? How are they then quantified? Critical success factors — the key efforts, areas of activity and conditions necessary to achieve the goals. Establish weak links and restraining factors, using methods such as forcefield analysis, the service-quality model and theory of constraints. Define the information customer - assess their requirements and generate ideas for meeting them, both in blue skies terms if the resources were available (are these then achievable in the longer term?), and on a pragmatic basis. Benchmarking - comparison of services and processes against other information units and across other sectors. Establishing, or further developing, this clear picture of why services exist and what is required (again using appropriate business methods and

Change Management for Information Services

terminology) reveals what is currently of value and where the information services need developing - leading naturally on to the next stage. Stage 3 - Planning What must we provide? What can we provide? Arguably the most complex part of the process, establishing what must be provided, what is possible and how. Although an apparent contradiction in terms, flexibility is a must where the planning is concerned. Particularly with the speed of change and technological advances, it is usually a matter of adopt - and, once implementation is underway - adapt as often as needed. Strategic planning - build on the foundations provided by the earlier steps, covering targets, tasks, priorities, project champions (where appropriate) and timescales. A tactical plan, covering the current year's projects may also be helpful (developing into full project management methods if necessary). A useful mnemonic in the planning context is SMART: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Timetabled. Service levels - what services are provided, to whom, at what performance requirements? Stage 4 - Implementation How? People underpin the successful implementation of a change project. Perfect plans are pointless in themselves. Communication, in all its forms and at all levels, cannot be overrated - similarly staff and team development. Communications - building and consolidating the library's credibility and influence is a constant process in itself. The focus is on team participation and relationships - again both within the service and the entire business. Obtaining feedback on plans, service levels, statements and suchlike is useful both in developing and refining them further, and in sending very clear messages to senior management about the information unit's capability and value. Lastly, wellpresented and succinct annual reports are essential. Staff development - what training or other form of development is needed to provide the 'team' (whether an individual in the case of a one-person library - or as many professional/administrative staff as are involved in providing the information services) with the necessary skills? How can these be cascaded through the team (and wider organization if relevant)?

Managing change: information services framework

Stage 5 - The way forward Maintaining momentum Assessing the impact Marketing and promotion - market research, customer satisfaction surveys, training and publicity. All should be on an ongoing basis, promoting new services and ways of using existing ones. Constant drip-feeding of useful and/or interesting information, from examples of how competitors are using technology to news about library personnel. Targeted training sessions (for departments, for individuals obviously needing assistance but not asking for it, for specific subject areas). A proactive stance is essential, time consuming and easy to get wrong, but the impression created and the rise in usage of services should be well worthwhile. Strategic involvement - if not already there, the library should be established as an internal consultant on matters involving information management and dissemination, from databases to intranets, knowledge management to web sites. As a minimum, it should be involved in any organizational strategic planning or developments. Continuous evaluation and improvement - ongoing reviews and revisions, measuring results, identifying problems, starting the planning cycle once more i.e. the 'plan-do-check-act' model. Adopt, then adapt, is inevitable: 'Realized strategies are a blend of what is intended with what emerges in practice' (Bryson, 1995, p. 166). Cost analysis and financial management - last, but certainly not least, rock-solid budgets and proposals, measurement of hidden costs and evidence of business benefits. Not the most professionally stimulating tasks, but such management information will prove the unit's value to the organization, and more importantly, that of the information services provided.

The framework toolkit Stage 1 — Review The focus of the review is primarily on the information service, understanding where it fits into the wider organization and how it is perceived. Knowledge of the organization's business plans, objectives, performance and industry provides the backdrop, particularly in terms of constraints and opportunities. SWOT and PEST structures and examples are easily obtainable Corrall's 1994 strategy guide is useful because it is related to the library and information world.

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Other frameworks - industry or governmental - can also assist. The UK Department of Trade and Industry (1997) for example has a best practice guide based on innovative and successful organizations with balanced environments in which staff thrived. The 'Five Paths to Sustained Success' resulting from this analyses organizations under the headings of: Shared Goals; Shared Culture; Shared Learning; Shared Effort and Shared Information - and then offers ways of moving forward. The W3 (W cubed) model helps to unveil what the 'value-added' components are (what the information service offers against the competition). The three questions are: •

What do we want?

•

What do they want?

•

What can we do?

It then maps these out as sets of three overlapping circles, one set for each user group (Schulz, 1998). Whether or not strategic reviews have been carried out on the entire organization (and are openly available), it may prove illuminating to do such a review from the viewpoint of the information service. Gaps and mismatches in perceptions and directions could prove equally valuable in terms of results. Information auditing examines the entire range of information collections and usage, throughout the whole organization, using methods from informal discussions to formal surveys and interviews. The findings have a multiplicity of uses, from raising awareness to tailoring systems to suit the organization's information needs (stated and implicit), through to eventually controlling procedures and regulating costs. The most important finding is just how the information services are contributing to the organization's objectives. What should also be revealed are the main information users and distributors within the organization (the gatekeepers and pulse takers), for both formal and informal resources and services. The underlying ethos is that 'information is valuable only to the extent that it serves the company's mission' - with one important proviso, that if the only reason for conducting the audit is to improve the standing of the information service, it will be transparent to all involved (Bertolucci, 1996, p.35). Woody Horton's InfoMapping model is one extremely powerful commercial application, using the InfoMapper database software to track down, log and manipulate resources.

Stage 2 — Analysis 'If you are going to take the time to develop mission, vision and values, there should also be a commitment that these are going to be used as

Managing change: information services

framework

anchors against which all future decisions will be measured' (Crow, 1996). These are based on simple questions, but if well facilitated, can stimulate considerable creativity, draw teams together and improve morale which has often been hit by resource cuts. The Service-Quality Model from Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry (Kotier, 1994, p.474) identifies how current strategies fail to meet objectives and is particularly relevant to information services, which often suffer from the first and fifth gaps (between management perceptions of customer expectations and actual expectations; and between the expected service and service as perceived by the customer). Goldratt's theory of constraints is aimed at strengthening any weak links in the chain of processes that produce the services, indicating the core problem and its knock-on effects; also identifying existing core competencies and future ones to be built (Goldratt, 1994). One last helpful tool is forcefield analysis. This reveals potential barriers to change (in terms of skills and resources; structures, systems and information; culture, style and values), examining the forces pushing towards the required state and those resisting.

Stage 3 — Planning Having established a thorough understanding of the operating environment, the customer and where the service should be heading, it is time to move on to strategic planning: The link between the present and future. It tells you what you should be doing now, which new competencies you should be building, what new customer groups you should be trying to understand, which new distribution channels you should be exploring, in order to create a winning position for yourself in a new opportunity arena. (Prahalad, 1997, p.67)

Dependent on the political situation of the information service, it may initially be wise to ascertain strategically important areas for the organization, then concentrate on those to get the change process underway and recognized. Whatever the organizational conditions, any planned developments must be 'mission-critical', or the service risks spreading itself too thinly. While the elements of strategic planning and implementation are often listed as sequential, it is actually 'an iterative and interactive team process, ideally involving people at all levels' (Corrali, 1994, p.2). This is seen in the 3M Information Services' single management process, which incorporates TQM and strategic planning (and which indicates both what is conceptually feasible and practicable) (see Figure 7.1). Large organizations may have developed their own, personalized strategic programmes. One such is Unipart, with its comprehensive Creative Problem-Solving model. Staff at all levels and in all functions are trained in using the model and selected problem-solving techniques.

Change Management for Information Services

The framework breaks down into: Problem-Causes-Options-SolutionImplement-Results. The techniques include: brainstorming, fishbone diagrams and the five whys (asking 'why' five times to get to the real problem). Involvement in any such initiative at least helps to get started, providing the groundwork for taking the information service's strategic development forward in ways that better suit its staff and aims.

Figure 7.1 3M single management process (Peterson, 1994, p.15) Scenario planning, or 'futuring', is one technique that has been specifically used in the information world. This should take forward such initial work as opportunities and threats analysis, combining facts and perceptions. Multiple futures - alternative images, projections or visions can stimulate thinking about changes and make views of the future more positive, as well as supporting strategic planning (Corrali, 1998). Directional planning, is another method applied within a library, serving to reveal what had to be done in terms of where the service was attempting to go. Measuring performance levels and establishing indicators has been much discussed, and abused. A simple formula is: 'Identify what is important to your customers, formulate these issues into key performance indicators; set these as company targets; and then, measure achievements over time' (Van de Vliet, 1997b, ρ.66). Full-blown service level agreements do have particular value in large organizations, but can be immensely time consuming. As another element in profile-raising and communications with customers and stakeholders, it also has its uses. Critical factors in any strategic change model are simplicity, responsiveness, speed and realism: 'Planning in an uncertain world . . . can eventually involve thinking the unthinkable. That doesn't mean giving up on planning, just being realistic, flexible and positive about change' (Lyon, 1995, p.9).

Stage 4 - Implementation Communications encompasses a variety of skills and forms, including:

Managing change: information services framework

•

access to senior decision making

•

presentation (skills; professional and personal 'decorum')

•

establishing a keen understanding of individuals, their likes, dislikes and power bases.

Most important are communications within the information team - morale and motivation must be high (resulting in a positive image of the service being presented to customers), which will depend partly on their involvement and professional/personal development. Empowerment and autonomy are vital where dealing with change is concerned. Building up staff in terms of confidence, skills and authority may seem to take an inordinate amount of time, but in the long term is more than worth it. The personal integrity and credibility of the information manager will also have considerable impact. The teamworking exercises should have taken staff development forward at least a few steps, but effective appraisal should in any case occur regularly - although an annual, bureaucratic nightmare often does more harm than anything else. If detailed strategic analyses, missions and objectives are available then they can form part of the appraisal as a checklist of areas to match against progress and required development. For the full value of appraisal to be released, it has to be an open, sensitive and productive ongoing process - benefiting from the double-loop learning already discussed. Customer service within the information profession has steadily grown to its current importance and proactivity. Looking further than customer satisfaction, customer confidence in the capability of the information service to understand and match its needs is a valuable indicator of how much work needs to be done in changing the service. Monitoring and encouraging customer feedback should be another ongoing process, revealing among other things how effective the change process is from the customers' side of the fence. Project management is one other technique that can prove invaluable, particularly with an extensive change programme. The main difficulty (apart from being time consuming to acquire the skills o f ) is that it can force an over-rigid or excessively complicated approach on the project.

Stage 5 — The way forward Marketing and promotion of the services, achievements, value and contributions has to be an essential component of information management. The common foundations of strategic planning, TQM and the like, serve to further reinforce the need for analysing the current situation and meeting customer requirements. Related to marketing, promotion and communications in general, ultimately in political terms, the perception of an information service's

Change Management for Information Services

contribution is more important than the reality. This is never more evident that when it comes to cutting resources or winning funds. Awareness of what that perception is has to be maintained, with appropriate remedial action if required. Three questions that are useful when considering reputations and perceptions are: •

Who matters to me?

•

What matters to me?

•

How do I best communicate my contribution to 'what matters to them'?

However far through the process and change, as the information service continues to consolidate its strategy, services and image, it needs to make its presence felt on a wider organizational basis. This is a neverending task. Specifically on the information front, the obvious entry point (certainly for the near future) is that of knowledge management, intellectual capital and corporate memory. It may be appropriate to develop a formal information policy (not to be confused with information technology policies), which defines: the objectives of information use in relation to corporate objectives; information resources and the resources for managing them; the people who manage information and their responsibilities; criteria for assessing the costs and benefits of information; criteria for monitoring and evaluating information activities (Orna, 1993, p. 196). Information mastery aims to ensure that information management systems present their information in the best way to the cognitive system ('thinking brain'), to meet exactly customers' current needs. Its emphasis is on making a full variety of information resources accessible and used; concentrating on design, filtering and preparation; linking personal and formal processes of gathering and handling information. Having also gained the necessary depth of organizational understanding through establishing strategic foundations for the information service, it may be possible then to develop and take advantage of a wide range of services and programmes within the parent organization. Some of these techniques, or similar, may already be underway. Either throughout the organization as a whole, or in individual departments. If any are currently in place on a wider scale and the information function is not an active participant, then some form of involvement is imperative as soon as feasible. The minimum could be just ensuring that progress updates from those concerned are obtained regularly. Making the information service part of the communications loop at least provides an initial foothold - and the chance to put forward useful information or suggestions. The information manager's deep knowledge of the organization and its politics will indicate whether most will be achieved initially through a softly softly

Managing change: information services framework

approach or a more proactive stance. There will certainly be various contributions that information professionals can make throughout such initiatives - with the potential to be at the forefront. Finally, to ensure that what has been achieved does not deteriorate, but does actually progress further, it is a matter of building in continuous improvement, regularly reviewing and questioning what is done, why, how and where it can be bettered: There is no perfect answer in a changing world. We must therefore be forever searching. (Handy, 1994, p.59)

Chapter Eight

Where next?

It would be sad if we missed our future because of our past. (Handy, 1995b, p. 12) The most positive view of the information profession's future is that 'our positions in business are unique and uniquely diverse. We enable visions for organizational change as well as attend to typographical details . . . This ability to build bridges, to team, to "look for partnerships and alliances", makes us hot properties as paradigms and millennia shift' (Fye, 1998, p.42). Several years ago it was claimed that we were at a crossroads with a choice between taking a strong lead by providing organizations with cohesive information strategies, or becoming a tenth-rate profession because other disciplines had taken the lead. That crossroads is still there. Although there may now be considerable volumes of business literature on what can be viewed as fads (or more dangerously employed as such), strategic planning and change management really can offer the information profession immeasurable benefits. One area in particular is resolving the view that 'libraries seem to be either extrovert - focusing on market research and customer satisfaction surveys - or introvert - focusing on goal-setting and planning activities' (Johannsen, 1996, p.242). Information managers are therefore challenged with drawing both the extrovert and introvert approaches into one cohesive, coherent package. Change management provides both the practical techniques and down-to-earth know-how. As frequently stressed, at a more basic level it is a simple matter of survival. One of the key principles in the change process is to 'believe that the status quo is far more expensive that the cost of transition' (Conner, 1998b, p. 104) - definitely the case where the future of the profession is concerned. Maintaining the strengths of the profession, leaving behind the weaknesses that do the image so much damage and setting information services on a course to thrive in the future is now an imperative. This course has to be based partly on a thorough understanding of

Where next?

business issues and tools, heading towards full strategic integration into the workings of the host organization. On a personal level, information managers must think out of their box, break their unproductive automatic responses, work on their political skills and above all, build a deep understanding of people. Such massive demands, and such comparatively short timeframes, do require persistence, time, considerable background reading and a very practical understanding on the part of information professionals. But there is no doubt that: Managing change is not a matter of choice any more, and in today's information society, any information services manager who doubts the need for developing expertise in change management simply hasn't been paying attention. (Morgenstern, 1998, p.6)

Chapter Nine

Real-world examples

Overview The organizations selected for this section all represent excellent use of applications and elements of change management; however they are not necessarily described, presented or seen as any form of 'change management' experience within the organizations concerned. Each of the studies is intended to show clearly what worked for the subjects when undergoing major change - whatever heading that change actually fell under. Coverage ranges from Hewlett Packard's emphasis on communications, communications, communications to Washington State University at Vancouver's very human factors thrown up by a massive merger of services. Lastly, a collection of summaries of published studies which fully reflect the relevance of change management to all organizations and information services, whatever their size, sector and location.

Contents SmithKline Beecham Pharmaceuticals Hewlett Packard Laboratories Washington State University at Vancouver Pennsylvania State University Published case studies synopses

SmithKline Beecham Pharmaceuticals Research and Development, Information Management Department Based on an interview with Elisabeth Goodman, Assistant Director, Information Management and Emma Delaney, Information Analyst

Real-world examples

Information services overview SmithKline Beecham is a transnational pharmaceutical company organized on a global basis, with its information activities operating transnationally to the greatest possible extent. SmithKline has a representation in 130 countries with over 50 000 employees. The research and development (R&D) function alone employs 6000 staff - mostly based at the main research sites in Philadelphia and Harlow, England. The R&D Information Management Department in turn has about 180 staff servicing approximately 4500 customers worldwide - a mix of scientists, clinicians, administrative and managerial staff. SmithKline has recognized that management of its information resources is key to business success. Investment has accordingly followed to make information as accessible as possible, using all the potential of current technology to do so. SmithKline's emphasis on and support of such innovation is proved by its application of the Lotus Notes groupware system since 1993, and an intranet since 1996. There has also been a longer term focus on cross functional working in the Information Management Department, using 'technical lunches' and 'All Hands Meetings' amongst other methods to bring staff together to share ideas and knowledge as well as information. In additional to traditional information services to support R&D information requirements, the department provides a range of desk top products for accessing and managing published and internal R&D information. Current and ongoing developments in library systems were recently described in an open day to celebrate 50 years of the SmithKline Beecham R&D libraries (Hyams, 1998). These included: Virtual library management system (VLMS) uses a transactional database developed by Fretwell Downing based on the OLIB7 library system. This hosts the library catalogue and allows users to order documents electronically. A document can be sourced and ordered using the same database, without needing to key requests into a separate system. All SmithKline R&D staff have access through their desktop computer and its Web interface. Launched in 1997 the server handles 10 000 requests a month, and whether the customers are searching the USA or UK they will retrieve the same information. The system also provides library staff with a Windows domain interface, can deliver full text electronic documents to users and features EDI links to vendors. Database access provides almost universal desk top access to information sources. Still in its developmental phase, the aim is to make key reference sources available to all in R&D, whilst reducing duplication of hard copy and CD-ROM holdings of those sources. Delivery will be via a Web interface, and the range of Internet, extranet and intranet technologies available is being researched to find the best solution. Content on the system must meet strict selection criteria: reference products must have a wide potential audience; bibliographic databases are specifically being

Change Management for Information Services

avoided as they fall within other projects; country-specific content is excluded due to SmithKline's transnational nature. Electronic journals provided in full text to scientists via the desktop are under evaluation. These are seen as forming part of a cohesive package of services available at the desktop. Changing patterns of information use have been observed during the six month pilot in the USA and UK. In turn, this implies that the project's focus will probably change shape and emphasis over time. The next phase will involve gathering feedback from users, and there is a mix of both positive and negative findings to date. Added functionality for instance, because documents can be downloaded and extracts incorporated into other working documents (subject to licensing agreements), weighed against the loss of serendipity obtained through casual browsing of hard-copy journals. Perhaps the biggest threat to the entire gamut of such projects in the shorter term - within both SmithKline and the global information industry - was evidence of an inevitable reluctance to use computers for everything. This particularly related to eye strain and the difficulty of obtaining sufficiently high quality definition. In time of course, the technologies will finally evolve to acceptable levels of cost and ergonomie design, but whether they will finally overcome the basic physiological and psychological human makeup is another matter. Starting point for change A major driver of change within the Information Management Department over the last few years has been knowledge management. Massive, radical change had been originally planned in 1996 as part of a general reorganization initiative. High-level consultants were brought in to facilitate the process, a consultancy firm that was at the forefront of knowledge management at the time. The clearly-articulated aims then were to refocus the department's work, engendering a more focused, responsive and creative approach: •

'For stronger customer alignment;

•

to consolidate end user information products/support;

•

to more rapidly evaluate and adopt developments in associated 'technologies';

•

to proactively respond to advances in R&D strategies and technologies;

•

to better accumulate, store, collect and disseminate knowledge' (Goodman, 1998b).

Individuals from each of the sub-groups within Information Management (seven in total) were involved to a high level of detail, far down

Real-world examples

into the process. However, SmithKline's senior management did not support the justification for the planned, extensive organizational change. Agreement was therefore reached to take more of a progressive, evolutionary and educational line.

Process What strongly impacted on the Information Management Department during the time spent working on the plans for radical change was an awareness of knowledge management and its potential. Through 1997, the department rebolstered its confidence, recovering and establishing a Knowledge Management Programme: 'Objective: increase education, understanding and applicability of knowledge management throughout Information Management Achievements: article and book collections; special sections in the Information Management discussion database followed by redesign of the database; Information Management knowledge sharing plan; Information Management statement on knowledge management, Q&A; key theme in "All Hands Meetings" ' (Goodman, 1998b). Thus the aims were clearly set, the methods and plans were established and actioned, resulting in very evident successes. Formalization and enhancement of these simple steps followed quite naturally. Meanwhile, the department had developed a project management technique - one which has been consistently applied by the department since 1995. This 'performance support' methodology 'incorporates approaches and concepts from marketing, instructional design and organizational change (see Figure 9-1). It also continues to evolve and improves as each project team discovers new, more creative ways to make use of it'. Whilst intended to enable the 'user-sensitive' implementation of information systems, the broader principles (and more detailed descriptions in the full article) provide a useful guide to introducing whatever change is on the horizon. The emphasis in SmithKline on the evolving nature of the methodology, and the 'final' stage of monitoring and revising (effectively starting the whole cycle off again) are also equally valid in the wider context.

Change Management for Information

Define the Change Event Identify the target audience

Services

Define the communication & training objectives

W O

Chart the vehicles or approaches and timescales

Define the support infrastructure & materials

Determine the evaluation criteria

Implement, monitor, revise

Outline communication messages and training content Project cycle

Figure 9.1 Performance support methodology (Goodman, 1998a)

Experience Overall, in 1996 Information Management staff were certainly concerned about the extent of the proposed major changes but also generally agreed they did need to get closer to their customers. A clear move from distinct divisions within the department to greater cross-communication was underway. 1997 was a period of recovery, with projects and operations starting to fall into place. The approach to knowledge management was very much lower-key, deliberately down-played and reliant on enthusiastic volunteers. 1998 concentrated on understanding and stabilizing the value of knowledge sharing, with staff being encouraged to do precisely that - and making much more conscious efforts to do so. Political aspects also openly entered the field, included in the 1998 Knowledge Management Programme objectives: •

'Foster a knowledge culture (e.g. educate);

•

remove barriers for creation and sharing (database, guidelines, crossInformation Management Department teams);

•

incentives for sharing (measures and rewards);

•

link with performance development and review;

•

quantity/quality 'impact' awards;

•

tie sharing to Information Management Department's business objectives;

•

demonstrate value/impact to senior management;

Real-world examples

•

leadership role of Information Management management' (Goodman, 1998b).

1999 has meant working on spreading the initiative and consolidating achievements, focusing on tangible deliverables and improvements from the knowledge sharing beyond the department into R&D. A specific area is that as the department's Lotus Notes database has grown, the proportions are such that information can be difficult to find. Enhancements to the database and guidance on its use are continuous, aiming to structure and encourage contributions and use. This situation reflects the fact that Lotus Notes has been found elsewhere to support less structured information sharing than intranets. Senior management also emphasize the need to progress the focus of the programme from an inward-looking stance within the Information Management groups, to more external applications in R&D. One significant advantage since 1997 must have been that no formal financing (nor justification) for the Knowledge Management Programme was required. Costs from areas such as All Hands Meetings, the rewards scheme and staff time have been absorbed into the general department budget. Sandwich students have also been readily available to work on specific projects, including a knowledge management newsletter (on the intranet). Again these principles of working within existing resources to at least get a specific change underway can be more generally applied.

Approaches Buy-in Methods used to involve and convince top managers have included transnational workshops (arranged at a corporate level) and a monthly report to the vice-president to provide tangible evidence of the benefits of knowledge management. Looking externally, case studies are regularly reported in the department database and are periodically collated as bestpractice benchmarks to provide competitive intelligence. In 1998, key names in knowledge management (Larry Pruzak for one) spoke at All Hands Meetings - stimulating input whilst also widely publicizing and emphasizing the value placed on the subject. Cross-departmental teams are being actively encouraged. Activities in 1998 confirmed that customer involvement was valuable and underlined the strong message that the work should be extended throughout R&D. Motivation A rewards programme is underway with recipients quite widely spread across the Information Management groups, but possibly amongst those who are most customer-facing. A monthly review of knowledge sharing

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is carried out by a team of knowledge management representatives across the department. The departmental Lotus Notes database is used as the most visible marker of the extent and value of this factor, indicating best practice and best quality. 'Knowledge Catalyst' rewards are given out to individuals or teams twice a year at a department meeting. A process for inviting nominations from the department as a whole, and for knowledge sharing beyond the database, is also being implemented. The reward itself takes the form of a squidgy lightbulb and a meal at a restaurant and is seen as a subtle encouragement towards continuous improvement and a constructively competitive working environment. Seasonal variations in the quantity of postings to Lotus Notes have been observed in the first 12 to 15 months of implementation, rising in January as business plans and objectives are set, peaking mid-year, then dropping again at the end of the year as people focus on completing objectives. Whether this is a consistent pattern is yet to be determined. Over time, the quality and value of the contributions have increased despite the fluctuations in the numbers, and the nature and thought put into the items has been much improved. Another example of the importance of cross-department communications and staff development for enhanced customer focus has been an 'Ambassadorial Role Training Programme' for those representing customers. Measurement Both qualitative and quantitative metrics are sufficiently highly rated that they appear as part of the Mission Statement: 'Information Management is committed to being evaluated on the basis of customer satisfaction as well as by its contribution to measurable improvements in R&D processes' (Goodman, 1998b). Numeric indicators for general information services such as fulfilling requests and literature searches are already in place, as are records of the amount of knowledge sharing activities. Qualitative measures are being investigated to ensure that resources are used more effectively. Feedback on knowledge management shows that all Information Management Department staff are aware that the programme exists, and some groups have knowledge sharing as a regular agenda item. Results Building the culture required has plainly taken several years - a process that has encountered a certain amount of unavoidable cynicism and insecurity from staff. There are always the unavoidable few who will not change and will resolutely not be enthusiastic about any initiative. A strong structure of processes and measurements has been established, balanced on the human side with a professional development planning system and an underlying emphasis on sharing and communications. The gentler

Real-world examples

approach overall, whilst admittedly second choice, meant that the concept gradually infiltrated daily working life, gaining momentum and causing less resentment as people are possibly less aware of the underlying major implications. The downside of this evolutionary style has been an element of impatience at the slowness of change, and that contributing to the programme has taken a lower priority than would have been desirable. Whilst active resistance has not occurred, the initial sensitivity to staff time commitments meant that meetings were minimized and electronic communications were essential. In order to strengthen and upgrade the standing of the Knowledge Management Programme, more meetings will be held and other methods of creating a higher priority will be investigated. The department's achievements in terms of marketing, communications and the efficient roll out of new services are now a particularly good example of best practice within R&D. The ongoing, unrelenting efforts to bring senior management on board have started to pay off. The current R&D goals incorporate knowledge management, emphasizing the storing and compiling of knowledge from projects, reviewing what was learned from the projects and passing it on to other teams. Connecting with SmithKline's Performance Development and Review Programme and so involving the Human Resources Department, means that knowledge management competency now forms a standard requirement. Staff have to cite where they have shared knowledge, or formed part of specific initiatives. The completed performance development plans have also been analysed to reveal where there are knowledge management gaps and opportunities to enhance knowledge sharing activities. In the Information Management Department jobs have evolved, but generally in directions that they would have travelled anyway. Contributions from the team of knowledge management representatives vary, with some participating more than others and so impacting on the way their groups contribute. Roughly 10 per cent of the working week is expected to be allocated to knowledge management. Where the rewards are concerned, feedback has been mixed, probably representing all the extremes of human nature that would be expected: •

'it should be happening anyway';

•

value is limited as the rewards are based purely on the discussion of database contents;

•

and unsurprisingly, some are insulted by the concept.

One constraint is an attitude that individuals don't always recognize that they have something valuable to pass on.

Change Management for Information Services

Future developments Current aims include: •

tangible R&D deliverables;

•

successful senior management buy-in;

•

service delivery improvements;

•

participation in corporate level SmithKline knowledge management initiatives;

•

knowledge management becomes a way of life (and ultimately leads into the emergence of whatever the next initiative proves to be).

In relation to the last point, the Information Management Department feels that knowledge management should ideally lead to an enhanced way of working, rather than being singled out as something different and separate. The department also believes that applying knowledge management techniques will result in better decision making and more integrated functions. Additionally, just as the total quality management 'movement' was amalgamated into the 'SBWay', so the Knowledge Management Programme will surely merge into the next form of organizational improvement. One underlying factor is that knowledge management has been estimated at being 80-90 per cent about culture, and the approach used (as with any form of change and its management) must suit that culture. In SmithKline's case, technology has been instrumental in facilitating the way forward, as have some early influences for cultural change, leading to the all-essential initial successes which provided the foundations to build on.

Key success factors •

Understand where the support within the hierarchy lies, before major involvement in any organizational level initiative.

•

Support must then be seen to come from the top - in this case specifically for the knowledge management programmes.

•

Rather than keeping staff updated at every step, it was actually felt that it would have been preferable to inform people at later stages, instead of worrying them throughout the process.

•

Rewards and encouragement are important motivators (if well thought through).

•

Measurements must be both qualitative and quantitative.

Real-world examples

•

Implementation of the programme as a formal process resulted in demonstrable (measurable) improvements and changes.

•

Discussion databases are useful but with clear guidelines on contributions.

•

Endorsement from Human Resources is valuable (incorporating relevant competencies in reviews and development schedules).

•

Lastly, a point applicable to change management in general: 'Starting with understanding and building a culture does work - but don't underestimate the knowledge sharing in existence (i.e. don't set the project leaders up as gurus); - don't get hooked on definitions' (Goodman, 1998b).

References Goodman, E.C. (1998a) A methodology for the 'user-sensitive implementation' of information systems in the pharmaceutical industry: a case study. International Journal of Information Management, 18(2), 121-138 Goodman, E.C. and Law, D.T. (1998b) Introducing knowledge management in an information management department: a case study from a pharmaceutical company. [Conference paper] Institute of Information Scientists, University of Sheffield, July, 1998 Hyams, E. (1998) SmithKline Beecham celebrates half a century of excellence in information management. Inform, December, 11-12

Hewlett Packard Laboratories Based on an interview with Stanley Tattersall, Manager, Informatics and Wayne Davies, Computer Services Manager Overview Hewlett Packard (HP) Laboratories' purpose-built European research centre in Bristol, England is focused on research and development in personal systems and enterprise network systems. One driving force is that 'our challenge in this exploding information age is to give people the tools to create and explore uncharted worlds' (Hewlett Packard, 1998a). Research is also carried out at HP's main Palo Alto, California site. Whilst the geographical boundaries have the potential to cause major barriers in transferring and developing skills and knowledge between the two, these factors are recognized and considerable effort is put into overcoming them.

Change Management for Information Services

As well as the computing research laboratories, there are currently separate measurement and components laboratories at Palo Alto. Around 200 researchers at Bristol (a third of HP Laboratories' total) have access to a sophisticated computing and communications infrastructure with state-of-the-art software development platforms and hardware prototyping facilities. Operating as a global organization, the business must have 'any time, any place' access. 'As technology advances it becomes increasingly feasible to give a mobile workforce the information tools to do their job anywhere at anytime' (Hewlett Packard, 1998a). At Bristol, there is a support organization covering a number of different functions including information technology (IT) and information service. IT support is split into three: •

PC support

•

infrastructure

•

informatics

The focus of this study is on the informatics and information service teams and on the impact of two specific changes within Hewlett Packard Laboratories and the Hewlett Packard corporation on the support teams. Informatics consists of business analysts, software developers, and support staff who create business solutions in the area of knowledge and information management. These solutions are based around •

web technologies

•

databases (e.g. SQL)

•

information exchange (e.g. e-mail & Groupware, Notes/Domino, RealMedia, eRoom)

•

business applications (finance systems, facilities such as Roombooker).

The Informatics team acts as a partner with the Information Service and other internal business service providers in delivering electronic information products. Current projects include a knowledge base system, incorporating 'IT hot tips', assisted by an IT engineer from Palo Alto who has already created such a facility. This type of project is managed on a reciprocal basis with plans for the web-based room booking service developed at Bristol to be installed at Palo Alto.

Starting point Radical change, physically and organizationally, has been very evident within HP Laboratories over recent years. Since 1997 the focus has moved towards virtual centres, as opposed to physically situated divisions.

Real-world examples

Information services and support have to reflect this. An indication of HP's overall way of working is that the research functions have the autonomy to decide on their priorities and decide the research agenda. Supported by a philosophy of the best people for the team, during the late 1990s there were two major change events. Bristol move Expansion at HP's existing Bristol site, which housed both manufacturing and research functions, meant a decision to move the UK laboratories to a purpose-built research facility. This gave its support services major opportunities to create anew what they and their customers needed. As part of that move, the Library and Information Service worked from initial user focus groups in 1995, through a briefing which led to an apparently ideal physical and technological setting by early 1998. Centrally located within an atrium, the Library and Information Service opens off an 'internal street' and on to a coffee shop, encouraging and enticing customers to make use of the facilities. The IT support teams, working closely with the information service, were able to set up technologies from scratch, based around concepts such as enabling communications - internal and external, formal and informal. This was within a culture that is basically oral (and not traditionally good at recording its knowledge). Their other key guiding principles included keeping an open mind, trying not to focus on today's practices (and limitations), performance, resilience, flexibility and mobility. HP realignment A split of the parent Hewlett Packard Company into two independent companies was announced in March 1999- The aim was 'to sharpen the strategic focus of our businesses, improve their agility and increase their responsiveness to customers and partners. This will offer exciting opportunities for our employees and will enhance the two new companies' growth and earnings potential' (Hewlett Packard, 1999a). A strong emphasis was placed on innovation, on building value for employees as well as stockholders and customers, on autonomous operation and the ability to react to changing business needs quickly. The very full and direct press releases specifically stated that significant overall workforce cuts were not expected. Realigning the workforce to support the new companies was planned through HP's traditional approaches of redeployment, 'flex-force' adjustments and natural staff departures. Continuing the emphasis on HP staff, was a statement in the press releases warning of the risks that could cause considerably different results to those expected i.e. 'the ability of HP to successfully manage and complete the realignment process, including the ability to retain and motivate key employees; the potential for business disruption; risks relating to

Change Management for Information Services

the worldwide allocation of assets and people between the two companies during the process' (Hewlett Packard, 1999a). The split was into a computing and imaging company, continuing to operate under the Hewlett Packard name and incorporating all of HP's enterprise computing systems, software and services, personal computer, and printing and imaging solutions businesses. The other side of the split - an as yet unnamed measurement company - comprises HP's test-and-measurement, components, chemical-analysis and medical businesses. Importantly for HP Laboratories, the new companies will have their own central research and development organizations. Causes of the split included HP's awareness that the $40billion turnover barrier had felled many corporations in the past, and HP hit $47.1 billion in 1998. It had two very different manufacturing companies, with equally different models of turnover and profitability, which could not be supported by exactly the same best-working practices and policies. Annual growth within HP had been 20 per cent-plus over the last 50 years, so the need was to update the organizational structure to continue productive growth. The computing side is still a $38-39billion organization, but it is much closer to the way its competitors operate.

Process What is extremely evident throughout HP Laboratories' experiences during such unsettling times is that the implementation of change is underpinned by clearly expressed sets of values, objectives and strategies. The 'HP Way' (the HP way of doing business) is based on a set of corporate objectives and underlying corporate values that shape HP strategies and practices. The emphasis in these statements - some quoted in detail below due to their relevance to HP's current handling of major change - is on the value of their people, on adaptability and a forward looking approach. Organizational Values •

'We have trust and respect for individuals.

•

We focus on a high level of achievement and contribution.

•

We conduct our business with uncompromising integrity.

•

We achieve our common objectives through teamwork.

•

We encourage flexibility and innovation. We create an inclusive work environment which supports the diversity of our people and stimulates innovation. We strive for overall objectives which are clearly stated and agreed upon, and allow people flexibility in working toward goals in ways that they help determine are best for the organization. HP people should personally accept responsibility and be

Real-world examples

encouraged to upgrade their skills and capabilities through ongoing training and development. This is especially important in a technical business where the rate of progress is rapid and where people are expected to adapt to change.' (Hewlett Packard, 1998b) Strategies and practices •

'Management by wandering around.

•

Management by objective. Individuals at each level contribute to company goals by developing objectives which are integrated with their manager's and those of other parts of HP.

•

Open door policy

•

Open communication.' (Hewlett Packard, 1998b)

Corporate objectives: •

'Profit

•

Customers

•

Fields of interest

•

Growth

•

Our people. To help HP people share in the company's success which they make possible; to provide them employment security based on performance; to create with them an injury-free, pleasant and inclusive work environment that values their diversity and recognizes individual contributions; and to help them gain a sense of satisfaction and accomplishment from their work. We are proud of the people we have in our organization, their performance, and their attitude toward one another, their jobs and the company. The company has been built around the individual, the personal dignity of each and the recognition of personal contributions. Relationships within the company depend upon a spirit of co-operation among individuals and groups, a commitment to teamwork, and an attitude of trust and understanding on the part of managers toward their people. These relationships will be good only if employees have faith in the motives and integrity of their peers, managers and the company itself.

•

Management

•

Citizenship' (Hewlett Packard, 1998c).

Guided by these principles and value sets, infringement is taken seriously - an important factor in obtaining buy-in to those values from the workforce. In the HP realignment, the new companies have confirmed

Change Management for Information

Services

that the 'core values that comprise the HP Way will remain central to how the company conducts business... Trust and respect for individuals, focus on high achievement and contribution, uncompromising integrity, achievement through teamwork, and flexibility coupled with innovation are as relevant and vital today as they were at any point in our past' (Hewlett Packard, 1999b). Whilst the two new companies have subscribed to maintaining the 'core values', they may well alter their compensation and benefits packages to better suit their different needs. HP as an organization is communications intensive. Within HP laboratories, critical areas providing the foundations for the HP Way are communications, setting objectives and empowerment. Research and Support functions invest considerable time in ensuring free-flowing communications. In the informatics team, communications are consistently maintained and developed through monthly audio conferences between sites and virtual meetings using Microsoft NetMeeting. Meetings and visits are regular occurrences between the Palo Alto and Bristol sites: managers meet twice a year; engineers periodically visit the other site to exchange specific knowledge, to understand the location's needs and culture and to develop new projects and knowledge. Support operations do operate on a global footing with other parts of HP laboratories and there is a joint planning process. HP laboratories' long-term (generally three to five year) support plans are regularly reviewed through off-site meetings, which involve both Palo Alto and Bristol staff. One such off-site meeting for IT support was underway when news of the HP realignment broke. The managers involved immediately broke up the meeting and returned to base to support their teams. A clear indication of their priorities. Experience Bristol move The 1997/1998 move of the European laboratories to Bristol saw a massive workload for the teams under discussion, teamworking being essential for the planning and implementation. One of the keys was to dedicate resources to planning the process well ahead of the deadline. For example, IT support started with one IT person a year beforehand. This grew to a team of 10 to 12 permanent and contract staff by the last month. The results included excellent technological plans and effective sequencing of restarting services. The last element of the planning continued on the fly throughout the move process in the form of morning meetings where the teams involved reviewed events and planned tasks then decided priorities for the day. These teams, each working on a specific IT area for the move, were basically self organizing, focusing on critical areas, then dealing with others dependent on their combined skill sets that day.

Real-world examples

HP realignment In splitting the laboratories between the new companies, two new directors were appointed to head research. The laboratories' directors established transition teams covering topics such as communications. They have sole responsibility for investigating the issues and producing the new organizational models. It has not been a matter of waiting for the HP organization's directors to dictate the new set-up. Whereas other organizations would be likely to enforce a new structure from the top down, HP has a ladder approach, building from the bottom up whilst providing leadership and guidance from the top. The transition teams are intended to work together early on in the split, but will later divide and concentrate on the individual companies. The laboratories' directors are reworking the research contracts with the two new companies. Through the new contracts and the change process, it is likely that new working practices and principles will be introduced within the laboratories. The emphasis must be on realigning research to the two different business models about to emerge. There is clear recognition that the laboratories add value and the new companies' chief executive officers do all fully support the laboratories, seeing them as essential to their business success and to moving forward. HP laboratories receive strong support from their HP customers, being funded from those customers' bottom lines. As the focus moves more to a cost-recovery basis, the laboratories must be seen to be providing clear added value to the new HP businesses. The currency of communications is ensured through •

internal web sites for current news and information, including a general 'HP in Transition' site, as well as 'HPL in Transition' tailored to the laboratories.

•

regular meetings with the laboratories' directors to provide updates as they are obtained and to solicit feedback.

Overall, the strong existing communications culture has come to the fore, with full use being made of standard channels such as e-mail, meetings, 'newsgrams' and 'coffee talks'. The latter - a monthly community gathering with the laboratories directors - are viewed as being of real value and are certainly not just a one way delivery of information, and this was never more so than following the news of the realignment.

Results Bristol move For information services and IT, the move most definitely saw their goals successfully achieved. Both viewed it as a greenfield opportunity to review

Change Management for Information Services

where their services were going and where they wanted to end up. Within IT, the major goals lay around creating a reliable and effective working environment. Specifically, the new infrastructure worked extremely well, and the informatics services were successfully transplanted rather than reworked. Evidence of a strong emphasis on the human factors side of the move, with its associated changes, was apparent. Useful signs of HP's instinctive good communications, recognition and reward were seen in the small unexpected bonus given to the team combined with clear recognition from the laboratories' staff that the support teams (including IT and information services) had done an excellent job where the move was concerned. Ultimately the team members acquired valuable knowledge from the work. IT managers were kept in the loop, ensuring that the right things were happening and taking a strong leadership role, not simply directing operations. The team were brought into a closer working relationship as a result, and the IT management team was proven not to be a heavyweight, remote entity but clear leaders, without the hindrance of a bureaucratic hierarchy.

HP realignment Early responses included an understandable, short phase of denial. Confusion was then perhaps the strongest feeling, with one camp delighted at the opportunity to reengineer processes, to progress and not be restricted by old practices. Others felt that the proverbial rug had been pulled from under their feet. Coming to terms is occurring naturally as a result of time; views are changing, becoming more positive, and the foundations are laid by the work of the transition teams and directors. There is no direct evidence that staff are leaving as a result - a good indicator of the way that the change is being handled. The most saleable staff would undoubtedly have started to disappear had there been less of a supportive and open approach. In the early stages of the realignment the situation does not seem to be dominated by internal politics (perhaps due to a focus on the opportunities rather than a jostling for position, attributable again to the reality of the HP Way?). Certainly there seems little awareness that there are any negative internal politics in existence. One of the big challenges ahead is to move to a more global setting in the research arena, changing mindsets so that Palo Alto and Bristol work as equal, global partners.

Current status The process of the move saw benefits in terms of team-building and team dynamics. Benefits from the move centred around the teams' co-location and improved interactions, resulting in evident customer service improvements. Having settled into their entirely new operating environment, informatics, IT and the other Bristol staff now face an entirely new

Real-world examples

organizational environment as well, due to the realignment. As applies to all of the 120 000 to 130 000 HP staff worldwide, their known territory could be transformed into something quite different. Most HP staff are probably viewing it as an opportunity. At the laboratories level, they have the chance to focus on innovation and their contribution to the new groups. The two new companies can develop at a pace to suit their individual requirements. For the laboratories, the biggest effect will be on operations and support, which is where most of the concern lies. The research teams tend to be clearly aligned, intact, with one of the new businesses or the other. Bristol will see a degree of stability in the forthcoming phase of short-term, tactical change, as the type of research carried out will not go through Palo Alto. However, enmeshed, widespread support functions are another matter. Indications and messages from work on the new research contracts are that Bristol will have to change, will have to become more commercial, less ivory tower oriented and work more on a business footing. How this translates into organizational change is unclear as yet. Informatics is amongst those considering how to work better by sharing support for the same services. Potential problems include the duplication of libraries, which would be hugely expensive, or does one buy in services from the other? There is a single communications network serving the entire HP group, so how does corporate IT and support get split - or is there inevitable duplication to some extent? These overhead costs will have to be covered in the operational details. The 'common operating environment', whereby all computers are updated at the same time with the latest software patches and versions will require duplication, if retained. The biggest discussion presently taking place is whether a 'clone and go' approach can be taken to support functions. Any part of the support organization could be cloned, creating one in each company. The division of intellectual property is an especially thorny area. Drilling down through such levels of detail is quite mind-boggling and care is needed to ensure that the new structures match the new business needs. The timescale allowed for the HP realignment is 18 months to 2 years. A minimum of nine to twelve months is needed just to get past the legal hurdles in the USA. The laboratories plan to operate as two separate entities from November 1st 1999, in logistical terms at least. June 1999 is the deadline for finalizing who lies in which company or laboratory and how to handle the division and/or duplication of services. The two companies plan to work collaboratively for at least the first few years, especially in areas such as IT sharing and cross-licensing.

Future plans/scenarios Many of the implications and changes to come through HP's realignment have yet to reveal themselves. Inevitably, interconnected working will be

Change Management for Information Services

required, as will a global approach to research requirements and to Support services. Resource leverage across the HP companies will be another important issue to resolve. Press releases have stated that 'activities necessary to maximize value across the entire company will be strengthened. Other activities, such as intellectual property, corporate-governance functions and HP Laboratories, also will remain centralized. We must present a consistent face to the marketplace; it's key to leveraging the HP name for the benefit of all our businesses' (Hewlett Packard, 1999b). Again, here is evidence of HP's openness relating to intentions, combined with confirmation of the value of functions such as the laboratories. One specific technology area requiring attention - with a number of internal implications for actually achieving the change — is the way that HP organizes its IT geographically (so the Bristol laboratories are part of the Europe IT division). Although the geographical basis is cost effective on a business level, much greater flexibility and robustness than ever is needed for both the technologies and their uses. Aligning business needs, infrastructures and a global organization is set to be a long-term debate. The resultant impact on, and involvement of, all information services and systems functions in making the changes ultimately needed will probably spawn multiple projects for years to come.

Key success factors •

•

Strong senior management -

existing respect for senior management was strengthened by their business orientation, fresh approach and honesty in admitting that they didn't know all the answers.

-

'walking the talk', the ability to communicate the necessary messages into the business and to actively demonstrate their own buy-in to those same messages.

Communications -

over-communication in such times of change is impossible.

-

considerable care must be taken with what is communicated, ensuring that it is properly worded to the right audiences, otherwise the rumour mill will go into overdrive.

- the laboratories' staff made it clear that they did not appreciate the same messages time over, but once there was something new to report, it was needed at the earliest opportunity. •

Planning - the process of planning was already a strength within HP and the support teams, gaining as much from the process of working

Real-world

examples

together as from the resultant plans. Specifically where these major changes were concerned, a communications plan was particularly vital following the realignment; whilst the project planning for the new Bristol site proved itself by the success of the move. - a clear picture of where the change, whatever its form, is heading is essential. Shared understanding from the very start will also help enormously should a project go off the rails and need bringing back online. - just as important as the planning and resultant plans, is the flexibility to replan and to work through an iterative process, ensuring that any plan reflects the lessons learned from its implementation. - set deadlines, ideally around an event that cannot be avoided, to strengthen the focus on completion. •

'Do first' - view the change as an opportunity. - take a proactive stance, work out what you want the change to mean for your customers, for you and for your team. Then present it as a positive set of plans and actions to the decision makers.

•

Resources - understand what the requirements are and do not fall into the trap of underestimating them. - find human resources you can really count on, a core of people who will be totally committed to the change project. - be generous with estimates of time, the project will always take longer than seems likely.

References Hewlett Packard (1998a) Hewlett Packard Laboratories Bristol brochure. Hewlett Packard (1998b) The HP Way. Available at www.hp.com/ abouthp/hpway.html Hewlett Packard (1998c) Corporate objectives. Available at www.hp.com/abouthp/corpobj.html Hewlett Packard (1999a) HP announces strategic realignment to create two companies. News release, March 2, 1999. Available at www.hp.com/pressrel/ Hewlett Packard (1999b) HP Computing and imaging business executives get greater authority/accountability. News release, April 6, 1999· Available at www.hp.com/pressrel/

Change Management for Information Services

Washington State University at Vancouver Leslie Wykoff, Director of Vancouver Information Services

Starting point Washington State University at Vancouver is a branch campus that was ten years old in 1999. It offers upper division and graduate level programs. In spring 1995 the campus dean convened a task force to study the delivery of computing services at the campus. Members of the Dean's Cabinet, the faculty, the information technology department and the library were part of the task force. The task force recommended that the campus library, the information technology, and the educational video conferencing departments should be merged into one division directed by the campus librarian who had previous experience with an integrated academic information services environment. In August 1995 the campus dean implemented the task force's recommendation, and the three departments began the autumn semester by integrating their services. The services offered were office workstation maintenance, e-mail management, database creation and support, audio visual services, LAN administration, liaison with the main campus IT department, technical assistance for professors using new technologies, staffing a computing laboratory for student use, library systems support, video conferencing for state-wide classes and meetings, standard library services, including reference, interlibrary and document delivery services.

Process The objectives of the integrated information services division were •

to improve the customer service response of the information technology group;

•

to organize effective systems support for a technology dependent campus library operation;

•

to build a creative, co-operative culture within Vancouver Information Services (VIS) in order to work with faculty on adopting the use of multimedia in the academic curriculum.

The 'new' branch campus enabled the integration of three young departments. The campus librarian's past experience with merging very entrenched information services departments was extremely useful in the implementation phase. VIS began its existence by adopting a group process model for shared decision making. By using the nominal group process, which involves brainstorming and voting on priorities, VIS staff members felt 'in control' of their destinies. Everyone was encouraged to

Real-world examples

think creatively about programs and projects that the integrated division could undertake, while still continuing to champion their own professions' concerns. The support of the campus dean was essential. The branch campus was thriving under his leadership, and people trusted his judgement.

Experience In the early months of the autumn semester 1995, the new director and the IT staff discovered they each had a great appreciation for the nominal group process. This process provides for the spaciousness of democracy, and the efficiency of priorities. The IT staff felt that with the use of this process they would be able to keep the computing agenda vital under the supervision of a librarian, while the director felt that the entire staff would be able to learn about each other's professional priorities. The original difficulties within the IT group, begrudging service response and uncomfortable professional jealousies, and within the library, an irritated impatience and professional superiority complex toward their collaborators, have been muted after four years of working together as a team. The team members have learned to differentiate personal differences from professional differences. They have come to admire and depend upon the strengths each profession brings to the table. Also, they can see similarities between the various functions they perform in the maintenance of their systems. A hardware/software inventory control geek in IT has come to recognize his long lost sister in the acquisitions/cataloguing department of the library. Affection is beginning to blossom.

Results This year WSU had a visit from the accreditation team. It has been ten years since the last accreditation visit, which was when the branch campus was started. The faculty and students who convened to give comments on the library and information technology services at the campus were quizzed on whether an integrated services unit was helpful to them in their academic endeavours. The faculty was adamant that the VIS had made their efforts toward integrating technology into the curriculum much easier, and their research was enabled by successful implementation of cgi scripts, authentication procedures, and full-text information delivery. The students thought that it was normal that computer lab monitors could give advice about database searching, and librarians could help them through the intricacies of dialling into the campus network from home. The following is excerpted with permission from: Serving academic information literacy needs with an integrated information services team by Karen Diller, Assistant Campus Librarian, and Leslie Wykoff, Director of Information Services, Washington State University Vancouver

Change Management for Information Services

Presented at the Living the Future II Conference, University of Arizona, April 1998. What is our advice to you for building new partnerships whether you are building an information literacy program or other programs on your campus?

Look before you leap Find out what your campus' biggest needs are. You aren't going to do everything in the first semester and you will have the greatest impact if you choose needs which are widespread. First impressions are important - to those outside and within the organization. (Karen) VIS decided that the campus' biggest need was for computer and library skills training. By providing an instructional program that offered frequently repeated, short, free classes co-taught by approachable teachers and capable technologists we hoped to demonstrate our customer-focused attitude early in VIS' existence. Another big campus need was for an IT services request intake procedure. We implemented an email-based procedure for requesting services from VIT called wsuvhelp. The model was based on the generally respected library tradition of first-come-first served. (Leslie)

Honesty is the best policy Be honest with one another. Because you will be looking at the organization from a new viewpoint and trying to create something that may seem 'unnatural'. At first everyone is going to be a little confused. That is okay. Leaders and participants should feel comfortable with admitting that they are not sure what to do, that they are all experimenting. (Karen) The Director of Information Services had experienced integrating information services functions at another university that had received an Integrated Academic Information Management System (LAIMS) grant from the National Library of Medicine of the National Institutes of Health. The process of changing organizational roles and relations is very disturbing and uncomfortable for staff members. VIS staff knew someone in VIS had experienced similar confusions and anxieties before, so maybe things weren't so unusual. This background is invaluable in developing a culture of openness in VIS. It also helps to be situated at the terminus of the Oregon Trail. We frequently use a pioneering metaphor when confronted with confusion. Our honesty helps our teamwork. (Leslie)

To thine own self be true Start with individual projects. Choose ones that the members of your organization can see as making sense for them to work on together - like our VIS workshops or the authentication programme. Do what seems natural first. Don't try integrating everything at once. Give people a chance to imagine and develop their own ideas for working together. (Karen) Everyone worries, when organizations decide to reorganize, that they won't be able to do the 'new' job expected of them. We wanted to have initial successes so that the enthusiasm for the integrated model could

Real-world examples

be sustained and that people could see that they were succeeding at this integration business. So, we teamed up the most complementary staff members to be on the project teams. The project teams were given complete authority to develop and implement their plans. The idea was to have people work and problem solve across professional disciplines. Now we have VIS staff saying 'we should try this new thing because these two functions look like they would go together'. (Leslie) Take a page from Madison Avenue Sell the integrated programme. Show your campus and members of your team why it makes sense for these departments to be working together. Let your staff and your constituents know that you are a team. (Karen) All new projects that are undertaken by collaboration are called VIS projects, not library/IT projects. These projects get the most publicity on campus and project planners are publicly thanked. VIS started a newsletter at the beginning our integration efforts so that our clients would be informed of our changes. We sold our integrated information literacy program in our newsletter. (Leslie) Make strange bedfellows Pair your technologists with your librarians. Each has valuable skills and they can learn a lot from each other. But don't pair everyone. Personalities and philosophies will conflict. You want your first partnerships to be successful so pick those who can work well together. (Karen) Of course there are people who are reluctant to change and people who are just grumpy about teams. Our strategy was to have so much fun and be so successful that these people eventually would want to join the team. It takes patience and flexibility to play this waiting game but this strategy has worked for us. It also takes a firm belief in the integral sensibility of the merger. (Leslie) Don't stick your head in the sand Collaborate outside of the department as much as possible. This strengthens the programme because not only do you get a greater pool of experts to help you but you also build your reputation. Word-of-mouth is still your best advertiser. (Karen) Our information literacy programme, the VIS Workshops, is very popular. Our attendance at these workshops includes students, staff members, and faculty members. We are all learners together. Many of the workshops' students have volunteered to teach a class on a technology or software technique that is important these days, like HTML or SPSS or PhotoShop. The VIS Workshops have become a program which is 'shared' by the entire campus community. (Leslie) Source Living the Future II: Organizational Changes for Success Conference, University of Arizona Library (Tucson, Arizona, USA), 21-24 April 1998. Available at www.library.arizona.edu/conference/ltf2.htm

Change Management for Information Services

Pennsylvania State University Recipe for change (Poster session - Living the Future II Conference. Reprinted with authors' permission.) Cordelia Swinton - Head, Access Services, Barbara Coopey - Interlibrary Loan Coordinating Team and Joyce Harwell - Interlibrary Loan Coordinating Team

Abstract Interlibrary Loan staff were suffocating under a heavy burden of an ever-increasing workload. Was it possible to change from an environment where the process controlled the staff, to an atmosphere where staff control the process? Interlibrary Loan had to get ready for change. Staff needed time to shift from being apprehensive about change, to embracing it as solution for a better workplace. A Continuous Quality Improvement Team was formed, out of which emerged a new culture and a new structure. The reorganization formed two process teams (Borrowing and Lending) and a management team (Coordinating). Interlibrary Loan had to get set for change. Reorganization into teams removed many familiar routines and structures that apply meaning to one's job. Each team member sought to define his role as he learned to work unsupervised in a team-directed atmosphere.

Interlibrary loan changes Interlibrary Loan staff members successfully moved from an environment where the process controlled the staff, to an atmosphere where staff control the process. During this transition, staff members gained invaluable experience in teamwork and developed quality service guidelines. Equipped with these new skills, ILL teams are prepared and empowered to meet the challenges of continuous change. This is Penn State Interlibrary Loan's recipe for incorporating change. This is what worked for us. Instead of trying to make our department fit into a textbook team structure, we took the concept of teams and teamwork and applied them to our office culture, working within the University Libraries' hierarchical structure.

Ready for change Antiquated procedures could not keep up requests. Budgetary constraints resulting in a hiring freeze compounded the problem. and poor staff morale were commonplace,

with increasing volume of decreased acquisitions and Patrons' shortened tempers and timely service suffered.

Real-world examples

The 1991 ARL/RLG ILL Cost Study indicated that our interlibrary loan operation was expensive compared to other research libraries. Our Associate Dean proposed a CQI (Continuous Quality Improvement) Team to examine the borrowing of non-returnables. This team laid the foundation for a new way of thinking in all ILL. Was it possible to transform from an atmosphere of powerlessness, fatigue, and antiquated processes into one of creative, proactive and energizing co-operation? Complaints: Six weeks backlog? You're kidding! We can't take on one more thing. Too much to do and not enough time. It takes forever to get materials. Everyone wants everything yesterday.

Set for change Familiar routines and the old structure were gone. ILL teams struggled with discovering a new sense of identity and clarifying their purpose and mission. Confrontations and 'gripe sessions' slowly healed past wounds. An emphasis was placed on communication, co-operation, and developing interpersonal and interactive skills. Each team searched to define its role as it learned to work unsupervised in a team-directed atmosphere. Meetings and teambuilding sessions seemed endless. Dedicated staff members realistically improved processes and their working relationships. Recipe cards: techniques that worked for us Seek administrative support and guidance Utilize individual strengths Get staff buy in

Everyone gains

Challenging but worth the effort

Work within library organizational structure Take practical approach to teamwork Drop team buzz words Let go of the past

Requires special handling

Crowd pleaser

Somewhat easy

Good for company

Somewhat difficult

Spice bottles: attributes and skills acquired to build successful teams Celebrate Coach

Change Management for Information Services

Commitment Listen Patience Respect Reward Support

Tasting spoons: putting our training to the test Communication Co-operation Empowerment Meetings Ownership Teambuilding Training

Measuring cup: how are we doing? Customer surveys Forums Initiate new ideas and services Job satisfaction Staff morale Streamlined processes Turnaround time

ILL changes ILL staff successfully traversed from an environment where the process controlled the staff, to an atmosphere where staff control the process. Team members have commitment and pride in their job. The invaluable experience of focusing on teamwork and process improvement has equipped members to face future challenges in a continually changing work environment.

Four-star reviews Feedback from customers has been overwhelmingly positive:

Real-world examples

Your good work and diligent hunting for difficult items has greatly advanced my research. Thanks! (Interlibrary Loan patron) If the processes are excellent, the results will be superb! (Gloriana St Clair, Associate Dean, Information Access Services) We control the process, the process doesn't control us! (Mark Leskovansky, Interlibrary Loan Borrowing Team) Really a very fine office - perhaps the best department in the library - which is saying a lot because all are fine. (Interlibrary Loan patron)

See us at our web site at: http://www. libraries, psu. edu/iasweb/ill/illmain. htm Source: Living the Future II. Organizational Changes for Success Conference, University of Arizona Library (Tucson, Arizona, USA), 21-24 April 1998. Available at www.library.arizona.edu/conference/ltf2.htm

Published case studies synopses A wide collection of case studies is available although these do not necessarily focus on the specifics of change within projects and developments, they still usefully illustrate how organizations, information services and information professionals have dealt with the implications and changes required. The following are synopses of some case studies that you may find useful to read in their entirety. Case study: Amerada Hess Ltd Bird, J. (1997) (ed.) The Reuters guide to good information strategy. London: Reuters Ltd. US-based oil group Amerada Hess is a massively data-intensive operation. An extremely mechanistic approach is taken to production data, which works well in the context. Applying the same mechanistic approach to Amerada's exploration division failed dismally, leading to the realization that the 'hearts and minds' of the people had to be won. A slower, steadier tack involved people in the business processes side of information management working towards short-term wins to show its value and eventually 'to push the ownership onto the individuals' (p.40). The aim is to become a learning organization stimulating major changes in working practices for a company where traditionally, knowledge is power. Implementing Lotus Notes. The people factor at ICI Campbell, S. and Hare, C. (1998) Managing Information, 25-27.

5 (1/2),

Change Management for Information Services

ICI is a global chemicals organization, founded on a sound technology base, constantly experiencing rapid change and undergoing cultural change. Lotus Notes is seen as the powerful backbone of ICI's communications infrastructure, essential to their management of information and knowledge and an enabler of change. The authors detail their investigations into how 'organizational culture and individual behaviour affects the sharing of information and knowledge' (p.25). A survey found that 90 per cent of staff agreed there was an information sharing culture, but there was still a considerable percentage who perceived a reluctance to share and had a fear of overload. Mixed feelings on changes in jobs due to Lotus Notes were evident. Most ICI managers recognized the importance of soft, communication-based skills, which combined with the beliefs and values within ICI strongly influence information sharing behaviours. The research ended with the view that ICI 'needs to be shaped to allow speedy, efficient exploitation and management of its corporate knowledge and information' (p.27) - the tool being Lotus Notes, combined with attention to the human factors.

Scenario planning. A strategic management tool for the future Corrali, S. (1998) Managing Information, 5(9), 34-35, 37 Reading University Library (UK) found the scenario planning technique valuable in preparing 'compelling' business cases and in stimulating creative thinking. Scenario development combines 'environmental scanning and strategic visioning' to provide alternative views of the future. Scenarios merge facts and perceptions, being particularly useful in areas of high uncertainty and also of value 'where strategic thinking has become bureaucratic or routinized' (p.35). As well as being used for strategic planning and vision building, scenarios can help to predict changes in roles and to make decisions about future service development. Reading organized a 'visioning day' based on the technique, resulting in stronger relationships with major stakeholders and in a radical vision which was contained in the core scenario. The process involves: •

'establish the scope of the exercise

•

identify the key influences

•

pick out some initial scenario themes for consideration

• flesh out the themes to form two to four coherent stories •

put the scenarios to use by considering their implications and looking for warning signs of which one is emerging.'

One fundamental tip from Reading was 'beware of putting everything that is desirable into one scenario, and all the undesirable things into another' (p.37).

Real-world examples

Consultancy made easier. The knowledge agenda at Booz-Allen & Hamilton Dieckmann, H. (1998) Managing Information, 5(10), 35, 37 World-leading management and technology consultancy, Booz-Allen & Hamilton, believes in 'Learning Organization' theory and implements it based on 'creation and usage of knowledge, on organizational changes and the development of an enabling infrastructure' (p.35). Part of a Vision 2000 development plan in 1994 was to create an 'intellectual capital engine'. The resultant Knowledge On-Line intranet has seen the company focus transformed to 'a collectively shared knowledge environment' (p.37). Daniel Berhin, Booz-Allen's European Information Professional Community Director, emphasizes this team-based learning culture in this interview. Important factors in the process of change included: senior management commitment and changing their attitudes to a very different way of thinking about sharing expertise and knowledge; technology acting as a critical enabler (not a driver); and the speed of implementation. A strategic plan for information at Zurich Reinsurance Dyson, C. (1998) Managing Information, 5(9), 30-32 Zurich Reinsurance (London) Ltd - or Zurich Re - recognized information as a strategic management key success factor in its Revolution strategy project, which led on to the creation of a Zurich Re Information Strategic Plan. Having established four key information categories, an Information Centre was established in 1995 which then agreed information priorities and an operational plan. An information audit followed, taking a bottom-up approach, revealing various forms of 'info-famine'. These early steps saw the emergence of an information culture at Zurich Re, which is a continuing process. Knowledge gained from the work included the fact that 'widespread recognition of the importance of information sharing within the company as a result of its structural and cultural changes was apparent' (p.32). One of the Information Centre's guiding philosophies was specifically to change the way that Zurich Re underwriters worked. The result of the Centre's work is 'a significant contribution to meeting the company's strategic objectives and helping it to succeed in a changing marketplace' (p.32). Turning the library upside down: reorganization using total quality management principles Fitch, D.K., Thomason, J. and Crabtree Wells, E. (1998) fournal of Academic Librarianship, 19(5), 294-299 The Harwell G. Davis Library of Samford University (US) started planning for restructuring and vast organizational changes in Summer 1990.

Change Management for Information Services

Starting with a few projects suggested by staff - partly to prove that change was possible - a team was set up to plan the reorganization. This incorporated more staff as the enormous impact of the sweeping changes ahead began to emerge. The entire philosophical, physical and staffing structures were rethought - a process incorporating the University's Deming-based approach to quality. Total quality management (TQM), as applies to so many management methodologies, is one way of implementing changes within an organization's way of doing business. After evaluating and voting on the resultant plans, a circular structure was selected and staffing thoroughly reviewed. Benefits from the project included teamwork, increased service, improved service and improved processes. The guiding principle that emerged from the work, 'professional and support staff must be empowered to participate in planning and changing their library to produce a responsive, customer-centred environment. The library can be turned upside down and land on its feet' (p.298). Organizations and people: what difference does an 'empowering' or 'enabling' culture make to an organization? The effect on teams and individuals Forrest, A. In HERTIS (1994) The value of information to the intelligent organization. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire Press, 23-42 Rover, Ford, Bosch, Reuters, The Body Shop and Rank Xerox are among the examples used in this Industrial Society paper on the potential benefits from empowering a workforce. As well as the valuable aspects of effective empowerment, the negatives are also covered, such as the counter-productive nature of corporate values if they have no visible impact on practices and behaviour. The impact on traditional management structures means that bureaucracy and hierarchies are doomed to obsolescence. The two profound changes to the role of managers are seen as: Ί

They have to spend more time anticipating the future and less time fire-fighting today's problems.

2

They have to convert from decision-maker to coach.' (p.29).

Training, learning, team-working, re-engineering and learning organizations are all dealt with - all have their links with empowerment, all imply change to a greater or lesser extent. Learning organizations in particular are viewed as combining the best aspects of two seemingly contradictory worlds: the 'open, freewheeling creativity' of all staff and a 'systematic, analytical approach' to operations. A final question was whether the managers and employees of many British organizations would 'have the imagination and courage to see what they might become?' (p.38).

Real-world examples

Managing change in the voluntary sector Forrester, C. In Grimwood-Jones, D. and Simmons, S. (1997) (eds) Information management in the voluntary sector. London: Aslib, 45-58 The voluntary sector consists of organizations such as charities, community groups and housing trusts which are all experiencing the same major forces of change as other organizations, but having considerably less in the way of resources, staff and funding to cope. Smaller voluntary units in particular are quoted as viewing change as threatening. Considerable emphasis is put on the essential role of managing formal and informal communications throughout these changes - an area that easily falls by the wayside in this field. The keys are given as strategic planning; staff involvement and communication; performance measurement and monitoring. This also acts as a useful quick summary of what change management in general entails, working through the requirements, steps, approaches and methods. A number of examples, such as Scottish Homes HomesPoint and Open Door Housing Trust are used to highlight these factors - as well as problems and downsides (but not all are named due to confidentiality reasons).

Organization im Wandel (Organizational Change in Libraries) Deutsches Bibliotheksinstitut (German Libraries Institute), Berlin. Web site: www.dbi-berlin.de/oiw/index.html Organizational Change in Libraries (OiW) is a combination of electronic publication and online discussion forum, but unfortunately for nonGerman speakers it is only available in German. OiW details new models of organization in German public and academic libraries, along with methods of improving the efficiency of workflows. The organizations covered are: •

Stadtbibliothek Bremen

•

Stadtbibliothek Göppingen

•

SuB Göttingen

•

Stadtbibliothek Hamm

•

Bibliothek der Universität Konstanz

•

HBZ Köln

•

Stadtbibliothek Münster

Well-presented charts and texts help readers to understand innovative ideas and structures. Visitors are invited to submit opinions and suggestions on each issue presented.

Change Management for Information Services

TQM at 3M: planning with customer and staff input Peterson, B.J. (1994) Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science, April/May, 14-16 3M Information Services developed a single management process in the early 1990s, combining 3M's quality initiative Q90s (Quest 90s based on the Baldridge award continuous improvement principles) and strategic planning. An actual strategic plan is just one phase of the process, which is not a rigid, sequential set of steps, but an often simultaneous group of activities. Communications and obtaining buy-in from staff are strongly emphasized, as is customer feedback and involvement. Also in evidence is a continuous circle of knowledge obtained from the activities within the process being constantly integrated into everyday working life. The interlinked elements which form the strategic planning process are •

'gather customer input

•

assess customer satisfaction

•

assess environment

•

develop plan

•

solicit staff buy-in and participation

•

plan staff development' (p. 15).

Implementation of the process to deal with the changing world around the Information Services improved both staff morale and customers' perceptions of the service's future. Strategic planning in a university library Schulz, L. (1998) Marketing Library Services, 12(5), July/August. Website : http ://www. infotoday. com/mis/jul/story. htm Maryville University of St Louis' Library in Missouri spent six months revisiting its strategic planning process. This started with several brainstorming and SWOT sessions to obtain a clear view of its situation, culture and assumptions. One valuable maxim that came out of this stage - indicating an underlying need for change - was that 'perception is not truth. But where there is perception, it needs to be addressed'. Having then established key goals, a W3 Model was applied to reveal the value added elements of their services. W3 maps out as sets of three overlapping circles answering: •

What do we want?

•

What do they want?

•

What can we do?

Real-world examples

After validating the findings, the issues were weeded and prioritized, measurable goals, agreed and action plan set. Follow-up planning was to form the next step.

Turning the library inside out: radical restructuring to meet the challenge of sudden change Smith, N.R. (1996) In Computers in Libraries International 1996 Proceedings (London 1996), Oxford: Learned Information, pp.71-82 Aston University Library & Information Services in Birmingham, England was faced with an inflexible requirement to radically cut its funding in 1994. There was no doubt that certain staff contracts would not be renewed which lead to a fundamental, strategic review, followed by a reinvention of the structure. Ultimately this was seen as turning 'a threat into an opportunity, rather than just making the best out of a bad situation' (p. 78). Smith firstly sets the scene with the general changes occurring in organizations and a brief history of information technology in libraries. This is based around a list of the most important factors in what he sees as a critical transitional phase where 'IT enables significant organizational change' (p.72). IT was an important area to the Aston Library and Information Services which saw itself as being at the leading edge in introducing new technology. A general sum-up of people in organizations incorporates an emphasis on libraries' needs for flexibility and team working. The increasingly unstable environment that library and information services operate in must lead to more organic, or fluid, structures. Aston Library and Information Services' reinvention began with a 'priority base budgeting exercise' to identify core services and those which could be sacrificed. A radical restructuring option fitted-in best with the new organizational requirements, with very clearly analysed advantages. Planning took nine months, including physical moves of staff locations and logical restructuring of roles and responsibilities. The main benefit was along the lines of working smarter not harder, with a much more effective and customer focused structure.

The joy of just browsing the library shelves Thomson, S. (1999) Information World Review, February, 19-20 Ford Motor Company's Research Library and Information Services (RLIS) web site was originally produced in 1995. Growth had been mostly organic, with regular revisions and amendments, but the site had not kept up with the changing user profile. Customers were becoming more information-literate and demand for information was increasing. A team of seven set clear objectives, aiming to get maximum usage by key audience groups through a maxim of 'simplicity via a single access point' (p. 19).

Change Management for Information

Services

Having established what was required, the team planned and created an entirely new concept, then relaunched. The team sees vast challenges ahead for information managers as a result of 'shape changing' web technology - very different challenges to those a relatively short five years ago. One of the main benefits of the process for the team was 'discovering that information organization is a lot harder than it looks!' (p.20).

Appendix A

SLA Competencies Extract from the full report

Competencies for special librarians of the 21st century prepared for the SLA Board 1996 Reprinted with the permission of the Special Libraries Association

The Environment As we move towards the millennium, library and information professionals are facing at least three major paradigm shifts. •

The first shift is the transition from paper to electronic media as the dominant form of information storage and retrieval. Linked to this transition is the convergence of previously separate media, such as text, graphics, and sound, into multimedia resources.

•

The second shift relates to the increasing demand for accountability, including a focus on customers, performance measurement, bench marking and continuous improvement. All of this is taking place in an era when the financial resources available for providing library and information services are shrinking.

•

The third shift comes from new forms of work organization such as end user computing, work teams, management delayering, job sharing, telework, outsourcing, downsizing and re-engineering.

All three of these shifts are related to a combination of factors such as global competition, new computing and communications technologies, and the perceived need to measure the productivity of knowledge and service workers. We are facing these paradigm shifts at a time when the workforce is aging and when we as a profession are aging. In an earlier era, we might have looked for innovation and change to come from increasing numbers of new entrants to the field of special

Change Management for Information Services

librarianship; however, the demographics and the current economic situation have determined that those of us who are currently in the field must continue to play a vital and active role. This is why this document on competencies is addressed to both new entrants and practicing special librarians - we must all learn and change together if we are to reach our full potential as information professionals in the information age. We must also communicate the broad range of competencies held by special librarians to current and prospective employers. Professional competencies relate to the special librarian's knowledge in the areas of information resources, information access, technology, management and research and the ability to use these areas of knowledge as a basis for providing library and information services. Personal competencies represent a set of skills, attitudes and values that enable librarians to work efficiently; be good communicators; focus on continuing learning throughout their careers; demonstrate the value-added nature of their contributions; and survive in the new world of work. The following sections highlight the major professional and personal competencies of special librarians and provide practical examples of the multitude of roles and tasks that special librarians can perform.

1. Professional competencies 1 . 1 has expert knowledge of the content of information resources, including the ability to critically evaluate and filter them Practical examples: Evaluates print, CD-ROM and online versions of databases. Knows 'the best' textbooks, journals and electronic resources in specific areas such as biology, marketing or accounting. Evaluates and selects key information resources, print and electronic, for a small research center. Sets up a desktop news wire service for a petrochemical company. Controls the over supply of information by selecting what is relevant and usable for the customer. Uses strategic thinking to perform information selection and analysis that meets specific organizational goals. 1.2 has specialized subject knowledge appropriate to the business of the organization or client Practical examples: In addition to their Masters degree in library and information studies, many special librarians have subject degrees at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. Librarians frequently take additional courses in finance, management or other subjects related to their host organization. Maintains a view of the organization's business by reading core journals and other key sources. This enables the

SLA competencies - extract from the full report

development of in-depth, subject specialty information services, including current awareness. 1.3 develops and manages convenient, accessible and cost-effective information services that are aligned with the strategic directions of the organization Practical examples: Develops a strategic plan linked to the business goals of the organization. Sets up effective management, supervision and budget processes. Builds an effective staff team to manage information services. Conducts intermediary searches for complex, difficult or multifoil searches. Obtains documents in print or electronic form. Builds a core in-house library collection. Analyses and synthesizes information as required. Develops specialized thesauri and lists of indexing terms for databases. 1.4 provides excellent instruction and support for library and information service users Practical examples: Teaches Internet courses for employees. Develops specialized end user searching courses on information resources related to current business goals. Keeps up-to-date with latest training and instructional techniques. Provides trouble-shooting service for employees who are accessing information services from the desktop. Provides online reference and assistance. 1.5 assesses information needs and designs and markets value-added information services and products to meet identified needs Practical examples: Conducts regular needs assessments using research tools such as questionnaires, focus groups and key informant interviews. Reports the results to management and demonstrates the relationship between needs and services provided. Identifies and meets information needs by becoming a member of project teams. Contributes unique or unusual needs assessment findings to the professional literature. 1.6 uses appropriate information technology to acquire, organize and disseminate information Practical examples: Creates an online catalog of the library collection. Links catalog searching to a document delivery service. Works with the information management team to select appropriate software and hardware for desktop access to the library catalog and other databases. Provides a support service for electronic information service users. Keeps up-to-date with new electronic information products and modes of information delivery.

Change Management for Information Services

1.7 uses appropriate business and management approaches to communicate the importance o f information services to senior management Practical examples: Develops a business plan for the library. Calculates a return on investment for the library and its services. Develops a marketing plan for the library. Conducts a bench marking study. Reports to management on continuous quality improvement efforts. Demonstrates how library and information services add value to the organization. Acts as a resource for the organization on quality management, including ISO 9000 certification. 1.8 develops specialized information products for use inside o r outside the organization o r by individual clients Practical examples: Creates databases of in-house documents such as reports, technical manuals or resource materials used for special projects. Creates searchable full-text document files. Mounts online technical manuals created in-house. Creates a home page on the World Wide Web for the organization. Links the home page to other sites of interest on the Internet. Participates in knowledge management activities that create, capture, exchange, use and communicate the organization's 'intellectual capital' (Remeikis, 1996). 1.9 evaluates the outcomes of information use and conducts research related to the solution o f information management problems Practical examples: Gathers data related to needs assessment, program planning and evaluation. Develops measures of frequency of use of services, customer satisfaction and impact of information on organizational decision-making. Actively seeks opportunities for improvement and strives to be the best-in-class on key services such as current awareness, reference and resource sharing. Participates in research projects. 1.10 continually improves information services in response to the changing needs Practical examples: Monitors industry trends and disseminates information to key people in the organization or to individual clients. Refocuses information services on new business needs. Uses just-in-time document delivery to retain maximum flexibility. Monitors purchases of information products by departments to ensure that they are cost effective and aligned with current business needs.

SLA competencies - extract from the full report

1.11 is an effective member of the senior management team and a consultant to the organization on information issues Practical examples: Participates in strategic planning in the organization. Participates in bench marking or re-engineering teams. Informs management on copyright issues and monitors compliance with copyright law. Negotiates contracts with database vendors. Obtains patent information. Develops information policies for the organization.

2. Personal competencies 2.1 is committed to service excellence Practical examples: Seeks out performance feedback and uses it for continuous improvement. Conducts regular user surveys. Asks library users if they found what they were looking for. Celebrates own success and that of others. Takes pride in a job well done. Shares new knowledge with others at conferences and in the professional literature. Uses the research knowledge base of special librarianship as a resource for improving services.

2.2 seeks out challenges and sees new opportunities both inside and outside the library Practical examples: Takes on new roles in the organization that require an information leader. Uses library-based knowledge and skills to solve a variety of information problems in a wide range of settings, both for individuals or for organizations. Does not limit the library collection or the information search to traditional media such as books and journals.

2.3 sees the big picture Practical examples: Recognizes that information-seeking and use is part of the creative process for individuals and for organizations. Sees the library and its information services as part of the bigger process of making informed decisions. Gives the highest priority to urgent demands that are critical to the organization's competitive advantage. Monitors major business trends and world events. Anticipates trends and pro-actively realigns library and information services to take advantage of them.

2.4 looks for partnerships and alliances Practical examples: Seeks alliances with management information systems (MIS) professionals to optimize complementary knowledge and skills. Provides leadership on the information management team. Forms partnerships with other libraries or information services inside or outside the

Change Management for Information Services

organization to optimize resource sharing. Seeks alliances with database vendors and other information providers to improve products and services. Seeks alliances with researchers in faculties of library and information studies to conduct research.

2.5 creates an environment of mutual respect and trust Practical examples: Treats others with respect and expects to be treated with respect in return. Knows own strengths and the complementary strengths of others. Delivers on time and on target and expects others to do the same. Creates a problem-solving environment in which everyone's contribution is valued and acknowledged.

2.6 has effective communications skills Practical examples: Listens first and coaches staff and others to develop their own solutions. Supports and participates in mentorship programs and succession planning. Runs meetings effectively. Presents ideas clearly and enthusiastically. Writes clear and understandable text. Requests feedback on communications skills and uses it to make improvements.

2.7 works well with others in a team Practical examples: Learns about the wisdom of teams and seeks out opportunities for team participation. Takes on responsibility in teams both inside and outside the library. Mentors other team members. Asks for mentoring from others when it is needed. Constantly looks for ways to enhance own performance and that of others through formal and informal learning opportunities.

2.8 provides leadership Practical examples: Learns about and cultivates the qualities of a good leader and knows when to exercise leadership. Can share leadership with others or allow others to take the leadership role. Exercises leadership within the library and as a member of other teams or units within the organization. Acknowledges the contribution of all members of the team.

2.9 plans, prioritizes and focuses on what is critical Practical examples: Recognizes that in order to use resources most effectively, ongoing, careful planning is required. Develops an approach to planning and time management that incorporates personal and professional goals. Reviews goals on a regular basis, prioritizes them and makes sure that an appropriate proportion of daily activities are related to the most critical personal and professional goals. Mentors others to do the same.

SLA competencies - extract from the full report

2.10 is committed to lifelong learning and personal career planning Practical examples: Committed to a career that involves ongoing learning and knowledge development. Takes personal responsibility for long-term career planning and seeks opportunities for learning and enrichment. Advocates for an approach that encourages and supports ongoing knowledge development and that values the contribution of people. Maintains a strong sense of self-worth based on the achievement of a balanced set of evolving personal and professional goals.

2.11 has personal business skills and creates new opportunities Practical examples: Recognizes that, in the changing world of work, entrepreneurship and the ability to function as a small business professional are essential skills. Seeks out opportunities to develop these skills. Willing to take employment in a variety of forms including full-time, contract and project work. Uses the entrepreneurial spirit in the organizational environment to revitalize products and services.

2.12 recognizes the value of professional networking and solidarity Practical examples: Active in SLA and other professional associations. Uses these opportunities to share knowledge and skills, to bench mark against other information service providers and to form partnerships and alliances. Recognizes the need for a forum where information professionals can communicate with each other and speak with one voice on important information policy issues, such as copyright and the global information infrastructure.

2.13 is flexible and positive in a time of continuing change Practical examples: Willing to take on different responsibilities at different points in time and to respond to changing needs. Maintains a positive attitude and helps others to do the same. Never says it cannot be done. Looks for solutions. Helps others to develop their new ideas by providing appropriate information. Always on the lookout for new ideas. Sees and uses technology as an enabler of new information ideas, products and services. Source: Remeikis, Lois A. (1996) Knowledge management - roles for information professionals. Business and Finance Division Bulletin, 101, 41-43 The Full Report (May 1996) and an Executive Summary version (October 1996) of this document are available on the SLA Web site: www.sla.org. A printed paper brochure is available from SLA headquarters:

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Special Libraries Association 1700 Eighteenth Street, NW Washington DC 20009, USA Fax: +1 202 265 9317 Copyright © 1996 SLA. All rights reserved.

Appendix Β

Recommended reading

Change management Carnali, C.A. (1997) Strategic change. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann Conner, D. (1998) Managing at the speed of change. How resilient managers succeed and prosper where others fail. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Jackson, D. (1997) Dynamic organizations. Basingstoke: Macmillan Press

The challenge

Kanter, R.M. (1997) Rosabeth Moss Kanter on the frontiers of Boston: Harvard Business School Press

of

change.

management.

Leigh, A. and Walters, M. (1998) Effective change. 2nd ed. London: Institute of Personnel and Development Pendlebury, J. et al (1998) The ten keys to successful change Chichester: John Wiley & Sons

management.

Sadler, P. (1995) Managing change. London: Kogan Page

Library and information Biddiscombe, R. (1996) The end user revolution. CD-ROM, Internet and the changing role of the information professional. London: Library Association Publishing Corrali, S. (1994) Strategic planning for library and information services. London: Aslib Crawford, W. and Gorman, M. (1995) Future libraries: dreams, and reality. Chicago: American Library Association

madness,

Davenport, T.H. and Prusak, L. (1998) Working knowledge: how organisations manage what they know. Boston: Harvard Business School Press

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HERTIS (1994) The value of information to the intelligent Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire Press

organization.

St Clair, G. (1994) Power and influence. Enhancing information services within the organization. London: Bowker Saur Thew, D. (1998) Taking your career in hand: the need for creativity and vision. Business Information Review, 15(1) pp.35-39-

Web sites SLA (Special Libraries Association), www.sla.org TAPIN (Training & Awareness Programme in networks), www.uce.ac.uk/ tapinAapin2.htm TFPL: www.tfpl.com

Organizations Coulson-Thomas, C. (1997) The future of the organization. Achieving excellence through business transformation. London: Kogan Page Gibson, R. (1997) Rethinking Publishing

the future.

London: Nicholas Brealey

Handy, C. (1995) The age of unreason. 2nd ed. London: Arrow Books. Handy, C. (1994) The empty raincoat. Making sense of the future. London: Hutchinson

Technology Boddy, D. and Gunson, N. (1996) Organizations London: Routledge

in the network age.

James, G. (1997) Giant killers. London: Orion Business Books

Appendix C

References and bibliography

Abbey Information Systems (1996) Pyramids or volcanoes: building active information resources. Sales literature Adams, S. (1996) The Dilbert principle. London: Boxtree Alfino, M. and Pierce, L. (1997) Information ethics for librarians. Jefferson, USA: McFarland & Co Alimo-Metcalfe, B. (1998) New models of leadership needed for era of constant change. [Unpublished conference paper] National Conference, October. London: Institute of Personnel and Development Allday, D. (1998) Spinning straw into gold. Managing intellectual capital effectively. London: Institute of Management Allen, K.B. (1997) Enhancing competitiveness in the Information Age [book introduction], available at www.slapublishing.org Alvarezis, J.L. (1997) Are we asking too much of managers? FT Mastering Management, available at www.ftmastering.com Ardis, S.B. (1998) Creating Internet-based tutorials. Information Outlook, October, available at www.informationoutlook.com/oct98/octtoc.html Argyris, C. (1997) Teaching smart people how to learn. In Strategic change, C.A. Carnali, pp.201-15. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann Armstrong, C.J. (1996) The third undertow. In The end user revolution, R. Biddiscombe, pp.20-34. London: Library Association Publishing Arthur, C. (1994) The future of work: it's all in the mind. New Scientist, 16 April, 28-3 Atkinson, P. (1998) The iceberg agenda. Mastering corporate potential. London: B.T. Batsford Bakken, F. (1996) National Librarian Bendik Rugaas new minister in Norway, lis-iis Internet mailing list, 4 December, available via e-mail at [email protected]

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Daily

Schorr, H. and Stolfo, S.J. (1997) Towards the digital government of the 21st century, available at www.isi.edu/nsf/final.html Schulz, L. (1998) Strategic planning in a university library, available at www.infotoday.com/mls/jul/story.htm Scientific American (1997) The Internet: bringing order from chaos. Scientific American, March, available at www.sciam.com Senge, P. (1990) The fifth discipline: the art and practice of the learning organisation. New York: Currency Doubleday Senge, P. (1997) Through the eye of the needle. In Rethinking the future, R. Gibson, pp. 123^5. London: Nicholas Brealey Shaar Murray, C. (1996) Waiter, beam me up noodles. Daily Connected, 17 December, 7 Sharman, C. (1997) Looking for tomorrow's leaders. Management August, 5

Telegraph Today,

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Smith, G. (1998) Annual business information resources survey, 1998. Business Information Review, 15(1), March, 5-21 Solock, J. (1997) Librarians - gatekeepers of the Information Age or the new Luddites: views from the 116th ALA conference, available at www. rs. internic. net/nic-support/nicnews/aug97/enduser. html Special Libraries Association (1998a) BLS drafts new definition of 'librarians', available at www.informationoutlook.com/oct98/grcolumn.html Special Libraries Association (1998b) Knowledge management: a new competitive asset [book excerpt]. Information Outlook, September, 27-28, 30 Special Libraries Association (1998c) As the non-traditional becomes typical. Information Outlook, February, available at www.information outlook.com/feb/research.html Special Libraries Association (1996) Competencies for special librarians of the 21st century, available at www.sla.org Spectrum Strategy Consultants (1998) Moving into the Information Age an international benchmarking study 1998. London: Department of Trade and Industry, available at www.isi.gov.uk/isi/bench Stamp, D. (1994) White-water management. Executive Excellence, April, 13-14 Steel, J. (1996) Applications development: Synaptic Corporations, the Internet, and transaction processing. London: International Data Corporation Stephens, C.S. (1993) Five CIOs at work: folklore and facts revisited. Journal of Systems Management, March, 34-40 Stephens, D.O. (1998) Megatrends in records management. Management Bulletin, (86), 3-9

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Stephenson, K. (1998) Organisations' DNA holds key to unlock knowledge. Press release. London: Institute of Personal and Development

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Strebel, P. (1996a) Choosing the right change path. Financial Mastering Management, Part 14, 5-7 Strebel, P. (1996b) Why do employees resist change? Harvard Review, May-June, 86-92

Times Business

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Information,

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Index

3M Information Services single management process 129, 130, 168 TQM 168 Adaptive corporations 98 Amazon.com 12 Amerada Hess 163 American Library Association - alternative careers 65 American Society for Information Science - abilities 67 Analysis paralysis 108 Andersen Consulting knowledge management processes 42 causes of change 94 Annual reports (information services) 126 Ashridge Management Research Group 95 Ashridge mission model 111-112 Aslib 6, 87, 89 Aston University Library & Information Services 169 Balanced scorecard 118 Benchmarking 112, 125 Benton Foundation 15 Boeing 9 Boots Company - Business Information Services 65 Booz-Allen & Hamilton 165 intranet 32, 165 BP Nutrition - library 14 British Library 14, 58 BS 7799 - information security management 17 Business benefits 58, 127, 141 Business and management skills 77-78, 80, 86, 88, 90 Business process reengineering 116, 117-118 Change abilities and skills 39, 79, 84-85, 149 dangers 93, 106, 108-109, 112

incremental 93 operational 93 organizational 28, 35, 42, 96-119, 146-151 paths 9 5 - 9 6 programmes 98, 113, 116, 145, 151 projects 98 resistance and reaction 74, 91, 94, 95-97, 100-101, 108, 113-116, 142-143 152, 157, 161 strategic 31, 67, 93 transformational 93 triggers 9 5 - 9 6 Change adept organizations 98, 122 Change agents 71, 79, 88, 92, 98-99, 107 Change management 48-49, 77-79, 85, 8 7 - 8 8 definition 92 myths 108 people factors 98-99, 100-105, 108, 126, 152 success factors 91-93, 98-99, 102-114, 154-155, 166-167 theory, models and frameworks 91-119, 124-133 Change mastery 79, 88 Chief information officers 64 Chief knowledge officers 47 China - Internet access 21 CLA (complacency, ignorance and arrogance) syndrome 74 Communication - as part of change 43, 102-104, 108, 110, 114, 126, 130-131, 144, 150, 151-152, 154-155, 161-162, 168 Communications skills {see Interpersonal skills) Competencies 62, 81, 82-84, 143, 145, 171-178 Complexity theory 93 Computer services - convergence and co-operation 16-18, 72, 74, 90, 156-157, 159

202

Change Management

for Information

Services

Computers ( s e e Information technology) Conflict 16, 72, 124 Continuous improvement 78, 117, 127, 133, 160-162 Continuous learning 104-105, 118-119 Convergence 7, 61, 70, 72, 81, 90, 156-157, 159 Copyright (see Intellectual property) Corporate memory 39, 132 Corporate memory manager 67 Creative Problem-Solving model 129-130 Creators, Communicators, Consolidators and Collectors 81 Culture 45, 48, 111, 113, 145, 147 change 31, 42, 55, 74, 88, 92, 97-98, 100-105, 110, 112, 122, 142-143 Customer service 77, 131 Cybrarian 66 Davenport, T.H. 41-43 De-jobbing 27 De-skilling 69 Deloitte & Touche Consulting Group 22 Desktop delivery 33, 59, 61, 73-74 Developing countries 8, 27, 80 Digital libraries 14-16, 36, 56-57, 138 Disintermediation 9, 89 Document longevity and storage 10, 33, 55 Downsizing 26, 30, 41 Drucker, P. 19, 27, 29, 39 Dynamic organizations 91 Economics 24-26, 54 Economist Intelligence Unit survey 35 Electronic commerce 26, 72-73 Electronic data interchange (EDI) 72-73 Electronic elite 31 Employment 26-29 Empowerment 166 end users 13, 14, 61, 137-138 Ethics and responsibility 68, 85 European Commission 63 Financial implications and skills 58, 71, 78, 127 Five paths to sustained success 128 Flexible working ( s e e also Teleworking) 28, 59 Forcefield analysis 129 Ford Motor Company Research Library 169 German library and information services 167 Goldratt, E.M. 129 Great Technological Deceit 23 Handy, C. 26-27, 30, 32-33, 104 Hardy, C. Political wisdom matrix 1-2

Three-stage process 109—110 Hewlett Packard Laboratories 145-155 HP Way 148, 152 Informatics 146, 152-153 Information service 146-147, 151-152 success factors 154-155 values 148-150 virtual centres 146-147 Horton, W. 128 Hughes Aerospace intranet 9 ICI 163-164 ICTs ( s e e Information and communication technologies) Informating organizations 33 Information addiction 22 Information architect 66 Information auditing 73, 125, 128, 165 Information and communication technologies (ICTs) 17, 33-37, 51-55, 63 Information culture 122, 164-165 Information, data and knowledge 3 - 4 Information development cycle 22 Information management - role 3, 5, 7, 15, 18, 29, 44, 46-47, 52, 91, 127 Information mapping 125 Information mastery 23, 132 Information overload 21, 23, 51, 57, 60 Information policy 132 Information poverty 23 Information profession change and future xvi, 2-3, 8-18, 47, 49, 61-62, 66, 75, 85, 88-91, 134 change management 91-92, 120-123, 134-135 competencies ( s e e Competencies; see also Professional skills) competition/convergence ( s e e Convergence) confidence 74, 131 definition 67, 69, 82-S4 higher/graduate education 80-81 paradigm shifts 63, 75, 171 political, economic, social, technological factors (PEST) 54-55 role 5-7, 8-10, 15, 18, 26, 32, 34, 40, 45, 49, 58-59, 63-64, 74 strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats (SWOT) 50-54 Information security management (BS 7799) 17 Information services framework 124-133 aim 121-122 analysis (Stage 2) 125-126, 128-129 implementation (Stage 4) 126, 130-131 overview 124-127 planning (Stage 3) 126, 129-130 review (Stage 1) 124-125, 127-128 the way forward (Stage 5) 127, 131-133 Information society 19-21, 56-57, 63

Index Information strategy 5, 18, 120-121, 125, 134, 165, 173-74 Information technology 10-12, 55 (see also Information and communication technologies) abilities 7, 57, 61, 63-64, 69, 70-74 convergence 16, 18, 34-36, 60 ergonomie factors 36, 138 strategy 71 InfoMapping 128 Innovation 21, 105-107 Institute of Information Scientists - merger 6, 75 Institute of Management - survey on quality of working life 28 Institution of Mechanical Engineers - library 8 Insularity 7 Intellectual capital/property 13, 32, 37, 51, 132 Internal consultancy 70, 127 Interpersonal skills 27, 33-34, 63, 65-69, 74-79, 81, 83-84, 88, 90, 172, 175-177 International Data Corporation 30 Intranets 4, 9, 32, 40, 44, 55, 71, 73, 141, 165 Internet skills 70, 72-73, 77 technology 12-14, 34, 53, 70, 72-73 employment 28, Justification 5, 62, 89, 90, 121, 132 Kaizen 117 Kanter, R.M. 26, 29, 68, 78, 88, 98, 105 Killer applications 26 Knowledge economy 24-25 Knowledge management 4, 32, 38-49, 52, 73, 132 Booz-Allen & Hamilton 165 British Petroleum (BP) 48 dangers 45, 89-90 definition 40-41 Hewlett Packard Laboratories 146 ICI 164 Monsanto 4, 48 SmithKline Beecham 138-145 principles 42-43 skills 64-66 success factors 43-44 Knowledge navigators 66 Knowledge Resource Centre 60 Knowledge silos 40 Knowledge workers 26-29 KPMG Internet 12 knowledge management 48 Law of Diminishing Firms 30 Leadership 78-79, 107-108, 110, 113

Lean organizations 28, 30, 41 Learning (.see also Professional development) 104-105 double-loop 104 wheel of learning 104 Learning organizations 39, 48, 93, 118-119, 163, 165-166 Lewin, Κ. I l l Librarianship alternative careers 65 future 5-7, 60, 62-63, 66, 69, 80 Library Association - merger 6, 75 Lotus Notes 137, 141-142, 146, 163-164 Luddites 7, 55 Marketing 5, 8, 61, 73-74, 76, 78-79, 121, 127, 131-132, 159, 174 Maryville University of St Louis Library 168 Measurement (see also Performance) 142, 162 Mentoring 82 Metcalfe's Law 34 Mission 111-112, 125, 128, 142 Moore's Law 10, 34 Motivation 28-29, 60, 99-101, 110, 131 141-142, 148-150 National Grid for Learning 21 Networking (personal) 57, 76, 79 New York Science Industry and Business Library 15 Nonaka, I. and Takeuchi, H. 40 Norway 63 Obeng, E. 116 Objectives 78, 110, 112, 125, 129, 149, 165, 169 Online services - future 12-14, 25, 69 Opportunities 5, 19, 24, 62, 64-65, 102, 104, 106, 155, 169 Organization im Wandel (Organizational Change in Libraries) 167 Organizational change (see Change organizational) Organizational myopia 98 Organizational politics (see Politics organizational) Organizational structure (see Structure organizational) Organizational theatre 106 Outsourcing 9, 54, 59-60, 78 Overload (see Information overload) Owens-Corning 59-60 Ownership 102-104 Pain management 102 Paradigms 113 Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry 129

Change Management for Information

Services

Pennsylvania State University I6O-I63 Continuous Improvement Quality Team 160-161 Recipe for change I 6 I - I 6 2 Perception 2, 5, 8, 62, 75, 76, 90, 121, 123, 128 131-132, 134, 158, 168 Performance indicators 130 Performance management 103, 118 PEST (see Political, economic, social, technological factors) Pharmaceuticals industry 25, 32 Plan-Do-Check-Act 104 Political, economic, social, technological factors (PEST) 124, 127 Political wisdom matrix 1-2 Political skills 1, 71, 79, 88, 90, 107, 111, 129, I3I-I32, 134 Politics - organizational 38, 41^42, 6l, 90, 107-108, 144, 152 Portfolio working 27 Presentation skills 76, 131 Professional associations 6-7, 81, 89 Proactivity 47, 73, 75, 84 Professional development 65, 78-82, 85-87, 89, 126, 131 Professional skills 57, 60-63, 65-90 Project management 57, 111, 126, 131, 139-140, 150, 155 Public libraries 57-58 Quality information management 84 Quality of information 10, 13, 60, 68 Quality of working life 28 Quaternary economy 24 Question-Theory-Test-Reflection 104 Reaction to change 100-101 Reading University Library 164 Red Queen principle 29 Reuters information surveys 21-22, 32 Rules for stifling innovation 105 St Clair, G. 84 Samford University - Harwell G. Davis Library 165-166 Scenario planning 130, 164 Senge, P. 39 Service levels 126 Service level agreements 130 Service-Quality Model 129 Shamrock organization 27, 30 Sheffield University Personal Skills Unit 27 Skills audit 123 SmithKline Beecham 16, 136-145 performance support methodology 139-140 SBWay 144 TQM 144

Special Libraries Association 46, 86 SLA Competencies 82-83, 171-178 Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Timetabled (SMART) 126 Stakeholders 123 Strategic focus and involvement 67, 71, 77-78, 90, 127, 132-133 Strategic management 92, 105-106, 108, 125, 149 Three-stage process 109-110 Strategic planning 78, 105-107, 125, 126, 129-130, 134, 164, I68-I69, 175 Strategic review 127-128 Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats (SWOT) 124, 127 Stress management 63, 75, 100 Structure - organizational 29-32, 35-36, 50-53, 58-60, 147-148 Success factors for change 102-108, 110

Sweden - libraries 5 Swiss Bank Corporation 24 SWOT (see Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) Synaptic Corporation Model 30 TAPin (Training & Awareness Programme in Networks) 74, 88 Teamworking 60, 76, 103, 113, 122, 123-124, 131, 149-150, 152, I6I-I62, 166, 169 Technology change 10-12, 51-55, 70 investment success factors 17 Year 2000 57 Teleworking 28, 55, 58-59 Ten keys 110 TFPL - skill requirements 65-66 Theory of constraints 129 Time management 59, 75 Toffler, A. 19, 32, 98 Total Quality Management (TQM) 39, 59, 84, 116-117, 165-166 Training by information professionals 73-74, 77, 158 of information professionals 80-81, 85-87, 142 Triple I Organization 32 Trust 101, 103, 149, 158 UK Service Excellence Awards 117 Unfreeze-move-refreeze 111-114 Unipart 129-130 US Bureau of Labor Statistics definition 64 Value of information 2, 5, 32, 54 Virtual libraries (see Digital libraries)

Index Virtual library management system 137 Vision 111, 125, 128 Voluntary sector 167 W3 (W cubed) model 128, 168 Washington State University at Vancouver 156-159 honesty and openness 158

nominal group process model 156-157 Vancouver Information Services (VIS) 156-157 Web (see World Wide Web) Work (see Employment) World Wide Web 12, 169-170 Zurich Reinsurance 120-121, 165