Champions in the Classroom 9781475818222, 9781475818208

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CHAMPIONS IN THE CLASSROOM

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CHAMPIONS IN THE CLASSROOM Penny Turrentine

ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD Lanham • Boulder • New York • London

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Published by Rowman & Littlefield A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.rowman.com Unit A, Whitacre Mews, 26-34 Stannary Street, London SE11 4AB Copyright © 2015 by Penny Turrentine All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Turrentine, Penny, 1944– Champions in the classroom / Penny Turrentine. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4758-1820-8 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-4758-1821-5 (pbk. : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-4758-1822-2 (electronic) 1. College athletes—Education. 2. College sports. I. Title. LC2580.6.T87 2015 378.1’98—dc23 2015000458

™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Printed in the United States of America

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This book is dedicated to my wonderful family: my father, who introduced me to the exciting world of sports and showed me the value of living life with a sense of humor; my mother, who taught me the value of having integrity and a strong work ethic; and my wonderful daughter and son, Tricia and David, who, through their example, taught me caring and compassion for others.

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CONTENTS

F OREWORD Mike Candrea

xi i i

PREF AC E What I Bring to the Game Dumb Jocks or Demigods

xv xv xvii

AC K NOWLED GMEN T S

xi x

INTROD UC TION

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PAR T 1: MIN I HISTO R Y O F SP OR T S A N D C UL T UR E 1 SPOR TS G R OWS UP A N D GO E S T O C O L L E GE The Birth of Intercollegiate Sports 3 It’s a Jungle Out There: Greed and Corruption Run Rampant 4 2 STAR S AN D ST R IP E S Games on the Corner Lot 3 CAN ’T LIV E WIT H ’ E M , C A N ’ T L IV E WITHOUT ’ E M Rules of Game Birth of the NCAA Winning Is Everything? Putting an End to Underwater Basket Weaving 101 Formation of New Watch Dog Group: The Knight Commission Why Join the NCAA?

7 9 9 11 12 13 15

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4 UN DERSTAN D IN G T H E HU R D L E S Academic Success Is a Challenge

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5 SHOW ME TH E M O N E Y High School Athletics

23

PART 2: R ECIPES F OR D E V E L OP IN G A WIN N IN G SUPPOR T PR OG R AM 6 THE RIGHT ST UFF Characteristics of a Good Support Team

29

7 THE G AME CH A N GE R S Ideas for Helping High School Athletes

31

8 SUPPOR T TEA M P L A YE R S Role of Advisors and Counselors

35

NCAA: A Primer for Support Teams Professional Development C h a l l enges 9 SPECIAL TEA M S A Learning Specialist’s Contribution to Student-Athlete Success 10 THE G AME PLA N Components of the Support Program Academic Athletic Personal/Social General System

36 40 41 43 47 48 48 48 49

11 THE COACH A P P R O A C H Master Plan from a Master Coach

51

12 THE HEAD CO A C H E S Tutoring Programs

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13 FIRST THIN GS FIR ST The Fundamentals for Building a Game Plan

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Understanding the Learning Process The Linear Model The Cognitive Model

55 55 56

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Social Learning Theory Metacognition Adult Learning Theory

57 57 58

14 THE HEAD- HE A D C O A C H Directing the Tutoring Program Introduction The Prospective Tutor Tutor Training CRLA Recommendations

59 59 60 61 61

15 TEXTBOOK R E A D IN G A Tutor’s Guide

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16 TUTOR S, TA KE N OT E Strategies for Effective Note-Taking

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17 THE CLOCK’ S R U N N IN G A Tutor’s Guide to Managing Time

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18 REACH F OR T H E P R IZE Helping Athletes with Goal Setting

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19 KEEPIN G U P Helping Students Avoid Procrastination

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20 SWEATY PA L M SYN D R OM E Tutors Can Calm Exam Anxiety

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21 UN DER STA N D IN G T E ST FO R M A T S

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Multiple-Choice Tests True-False Tests Matching Tests Problem-Solving Tests Essay Tests

86 87 88 88 91

22 BEIN G CR IT IC A L IS GO OD Critical Thinking

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23 JUST DO IT Motivational Theories

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Covington’s Quadripolar Theory Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Atkinson’s Expectancy Theory

100 102 104

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Weiner’s Attribution Theory Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory Tutoring Strategies 24 LET’S CHECK T HIS OUT Assessments LASSI PEEK INCLASS MSLQ VARK

105 106 109 113 114 116 117 117 119

25 THE TUTOR S’ T O OL KIT Tutoring Strategies The Golden Rules: Tutors’ Code of Conduct Practice, Practice, and More Practice: Mastering the Basics Being an All-Around Pro: CHAMPS Life Skills Program A Win-Win Proposition: Service Learning

121 122 123 123 125

PART 3: THE PLAY BOOK: ST R A T E GIE S FO R ACADEMIC SUCCESS 26 WHER E AM I A N D H OW D ID I GE T HE R E ? G OAL SETTING Introduction Where Am I and How Did I Get Here? Goal Setting What Exactly Is a Goal? Do It the Smart Way: Understanding and Creating a S.M.A.R.T. Goal S.M.A.R.T. Goals Are Specific Example of a S.M.A.R.T. Goal Statement Goal-Setting Assessment 27 IF Y OU PLAY T HE WA IT IN G GA M E Y OU’LL LOSE Ways to Ban Procrastination Procrastination Quotient

129 129 130 130 131 132 133 134 143 146

28 KEEPIN G Y OU R HE A D IN T H E GA M E Textbook Reading Tips

151

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29 MAY BE I’LL HA V E T IM E N E XT WE E K Guide to Time Management Some Basic Guidelines to Remember about Managing Your Study Time 30 N O DOODL IN G P L E A SE Taking Good Notes Scouting Reports for the Classroom Cornell Note-Taking Method Mind Mapping Outline Method

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31 DON ’T CHO KE Winning over Exam Anxiety

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32 THE G AME P L A N Preparing for the Big Exam

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Multiple-Choice Tests True-False Tests Matching Tests Problem-Solving Tests Essay Tests

177 178 179 179 181

33 DON ’T BELIE V E E V E R YT H IN G Critical Thinking 1 8 7 34 MAK IN G F A N S O UT OF FA C U L T Y Working with Instructors

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35 SMOOTHIN G T H E B UM P Y R O A D Handling the Challenges of Travel

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36 LIF E AFTER A T HL E T IC S Out of the Uniform, into the Suit

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APPENDIX A: THE T O O L B O X Personalized Forms for Athletes Goal-Setting Assessment Procrastination Quotient The Scouting Report Study Skills

201 201 202 210 211 216

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CONTENTS

REF ERENC ES

219

IND EX

225

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

227

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FOREWORD Mike Candrea

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s a head coach at the University of Arizona for the past twenty-seven years, I have lived through many changes in college athletics. The requirements and accountability put on our student-athletes to graduate and prepare for life after their college athletic experience have become more stringent. Along with these heightened requirements and expectations put on athletic departments around the country, increasing financial support has been allocated to departments to provide advisors, learning specialists, and outstanding resources to assure athletes succeed in the classroom. This support has made a tremendous impact in the student-athlete’s ability to balance the time demands of being an athlete while also having great success in the academic arena. Coaches today are held much more accountable for academic success than in the past, and academic support is a very important ingredient in today’s college athletic environment . . . and rightfully so! I have had the pleasure of seeing the work of Dr. Penny Turrentine when she was a member of our academic support staff at the University of Arizona. Penny is a very gifted communicator, scholar, and caring individual who truly connects with every athlete who has the opportunity to work with her. I am so excited that she has been able to take the time to write this tremendous book, Champions in the Classroom. It will give everyone involved with student-athletes great insight on achieving success in the classroom, as well as in the athletic arena.

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Champions in the Classroom begins by giving an abbreviated background on sports history and showing the uncanny resemblance to American sports today. With the popularity of college sports as we now know it, Penny takes us back to early organizations that governed college sports and the birth of the NCAA. As I mentioned earlier, academic support teams are vital in the success of our programs, and Penny gives you the essentials of building a strong, effective, and winning support team. My favorite part of the book is The Playbook, written in jargon that athletes understand, and it can be removed from the book and used on a daily basis. With Penny’s vast experience and success, athletes will be enlightened by her personal stories to which they can relate and draw from the experiences of a very talented and caring professional. The Playbook is as essential as good sports equipment is to victory! I will always cherish my time with Penny at the University of Arizona, and I know that anyone who wants to make a positive impact on today’s student-athlete will enjoy this tremendous resource guide. Mike Candrea is one of the most respected coaches in the nation. He’s taken his teams to 1,343 victories in his career, which is a mind-boggling career winning percentage of 81 percent, in 23 seasons; he took his teams to twenty-one trips to the Women’s College World Series. In the last twenty-seven seasons he’s coached fifty All-Americans and four national players of the year and brought Team USA to an Olympic gold medal. Candrea has stressed academic success. Several of his athletes earned Academic All-American honors.

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PREFACE

WHAT I BRING TO THE GAME

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s a youngster, I became aware that my father wanted a son. He ended up having two daughters, and so I became the stand-in son. My dad introduced me to sports, taking me to hockey games, sharing his love of skiing, and teaching me all about the ins and outs of football. My love of sports extended to many athletic activities, and that continues to this day. I did not have the opportunity to go to college when I was young, but in my thirties, I decided it was time. As an undergraduate student at the University of Arizona, who was raising two children alone, I discovered that my son had no male role model in his life. I was fortunate to become friends with Chris, a football player in one of my classes. Chris became a big brother to my son, a hero to my daughter, and a good friend to me. The result of many conversations with Chris opened my eyes to the world of college athletics and the challenges involved. Being a highly visible football player at a Division 1 university, Chris shared his experiences with me regarding the life and difficulties of a student-athlete. He spoke of his concerns about his studies, his loneliness caused by the separation from his wife, who had to remain with his family back home because of finances. The overwhelming demands of his career as a student-athlete caused a scarcity of free time. I was moved by his

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generosity and selflessness when he gave some of his precious time to my son. I knew it came from his heart. When Chris was drafted into the National Football League, we rejoiced with him, and while I had some concerns that he was leaving school without his degree, I wished him well and we celebrated. Like so many others, Chris never quite made it in the professional ranks of football. He played off and on for several years on a number of teams and in a stint with another professional league, reinjuring an already-battered knee in the process. He knew he had to give up football and returned to his hometown. Although Chris spoke from time to time of returning to school, he never earned his degree. He works in the family’s small business, a job he can do with limited education and little hope of bettering his career opportunities. For financial reasons I, too, left school. I worked as a travel agent for a couple of years, but college athletics were never far from my thoughts. I returned to school with a mission. I believed that I could make positive changes in the lives of student-athletes. To that end I decided to change my major to achieve my goal of helping student-athletes. I looked at what the University of Arizona had to offer and discovered it had no program to fill the bill. Undaunted, I continued to investigate and found that I could create an appropriate program by enrolling in interdisciplinary studies. I applied to the program by proposing that I combine sociology, psychology, and exercise and sport sciences. I wanted to gain a better understanding of the student-athlete as an individual, where sports fit into society as a whole, and, of course, I wanted to gain an understanding of sports and exercise programs. When I completed my undergraduate work, I transferred into the College of Education and continued with exercise and sport sciences as a minor. I learned about sports psychology, peak performance, sports administration, teaching and learning, and many other valuable topics. During that time, I worked as a tutor in the athletic department and volunteered in the University of Arizona’s Commitment to Athletes’ Total Success (CATS), precursor to the CHAMPS Life Skills Program. I can picture one of my first experiences tutoring athletes, and it still makes me smile. My student was Tony C., a player on the University of Arizona basketball team. At five feet two inches I came up to his elbow. At six feet eight inches he spoke to the top of my head. Oh boy, did I need xvi

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to convey mutual respect in an instant? Yes, and a very valuable skill it turned out to be. I also taught in the College of Education’s literacy program and trained undergraduate students to become reading and writing tutors in local elementary schools. I learned to work with students at all levels, some of whom were struggling with learning disabilities. In the years leading up to the completion of my PhD it occurred to me that student-athletes had developed many skills that could serve them well in academics. Surprisingly, most of them were unaware that their athletic training transferred to the classroom. I was just as surprised, and I became fascinated and determined to learn more. The combination of a studentathlete’s inborn physical abilities and athletic skills, under the tutelage of a coach, can translate from the locker room to the classroom and beyond. I have observed and experienced this for more than twenty-five years as a learning-support professional. Many aspects of sports training can be successfully employed in academia and later in the corporate world, but teachers and tutors must become familiar with the way in which student-athletes learn. After twenty-five years of teaching, tutoring, and directing learning centers in three schools, I became familiar with the study habits and personalities of college athletes. The struggles that student-athletes have are identical to those of nonathletes in some ways. There are, however, additional and specific demands on a student-athlete. I wrote Champions in the Classroom from my hands-on work with all manner of academic challenges that affect student-athletes. I have learned “tricks of the trade” from my experiences and from the feedback of studentathletes past and present. Passing on the knowledge I have accumulated is my rationale for writing this book. It is my hope that Champions in the Classroom will inspire, motivate, and provide a practical method for studentathletes, their instructors, and tutors, to realize that the marriage of athletics, academics, and careers is a winning combination.

DUMB JOCKS OR DEMIGODS

There appears to be a polarity in terms of people’s beliefs about studentathletes. On the one hand there are the fanatic fans who see student-athletes xvii

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PREFACE

as superstars. Conversely, there are many individuals who have nothing positive to say about student-athletes. Arthur Shriberg and Frederick Brodzinki, in their book titled Rethinking Services for College Athletes, said, “College athletes are simultaneously loved and hated, admired and despised. They are seen as heroes one day and villains the next. We see them as saviors of the university for the revenue they create and as pampered, spoiled brats for the benefits they receive” (1984, p. 1). Both points of view are hackneyed stereotypes, but the “dumb jocks” cliché is an unfair, untrue, and often damaging generalization. The labels are detrimental to both the “hero” and the so-called dumb jock. Often the hero will embrace the flattering hype, perpetuated mostly by the media, and get the idea that he or she can do no wrong. This attitude can transfer to the classroom, causing underachievement in academics. After all, they think they are superior beings! Conversely, those athletes perceived as stupid also may have problems in the classroom. They may believe they are dumb and so perform that way in school. A deflated ego and negative self-image do not lead to positive academic results. After all, they believe that they are losers. As we know, there are tragic consequences to continuing prejudiced bias. There is a pressing need to set the record straight about our college athletes.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

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here are a number of people to whom I am grateful in bringing this project to fruition. First, I want to thank my copyeditors, Warren and Josie Weber. They put in an exceptional amount of hard work. Thanks to Hollis Fingold, who added her expertise, advice, and sense of humor throughout the project. I am very thankful to the athletes who shared their experiences and insights: Joseph Blair, Kevin Flanagan, Zach Schira, Amy Van Dyken Rouen, Susie Parra, Travares Peterson, Erick Marquez, Brandi Shriver, David Lockhart, Marvin Snodgrass, and Bobby Roland. Thanks also to the coaches who provided their considerable knowledge and suggestions: Mike Candrea, Dick Tomey, Stacy Iveson, Brandon Sanders, Jim Rosborough, Pulu Poumele, Pat Nugent, Jerry Stitt, Jeff Scurran, and Vincent Smith. I am also grateful to Bill Morgan for educating me about all things NCAA; to Jeff Janssen, sports psychologist, for his insights; and to Donna Swaim for her guidance about facilitating positive faculty relations. Thanks also to noted sports sociologist Jay Coakley and Father Theodore Hesburgh of the Knight Commission for their assistance. As a former executive with the Caterpillar Corporation, John Pfeiffer’s perspective with regard to the benefits that the college athletic experience can bring to the corporate world was invaluable.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My thanks also to Derek Knocke for his technical support on this project and to Janet Roff for her research expertise. And a final thank-you to Edgar Soto, athletic director of Pima Community College, for his support of this project.

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INTRODUCTION

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hampions in the Classroom is divided into three parts. To provide the best possible solution to a problem, we must first understand the problem. Little has been written about the problems studentathletes encounter in attempting to balance their sports with the grueling demand for academic success in classrooms. What makes this book unique is that it ventures into the territory of conquering academic problems that student-athletes face. Academics and sports often are asymmetric for athletics because they know their sport, but are less familiar with how to achieve academic success. This book shows how to win in the classroom. Part 1 of Champions in the Classroom offers a model and historical perspective for understanding the challenges faced by student-athletes. It describes the great wave of immigrants who landed on our shores in the nineteenth century and contributed to the growth, style, and rules of modern athletic activities. As leisure time in the United States increased, the popularity of organized sports exploded, including the formation of rival college teams. Requirements for student-athletes and colleges gave birth to early sports organizations and later the NCAA. This evolution of simple sandlot games morphing into the big business of today’s college sports created a need for helping student-athletes conquer the academic challenges they can struggle with in light of the exhausting demands made on them. Hopefully, Champions in the Classroom clarifies the challenges xxi

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INTRODUCTION

and offers solutions for guidance in putting the needed emphasis on the student in the words student-athlete. Part 2 is a resource guide I created for professionals who support studentathletes. It contains the essential who, what, how, and why of building a strong, effective, and winning support team. Part 3 is a unique feature I created especially for the student-athlete. The Playbook, written in jargon that athletes understand, offers students the methods for not only testing themselves but also for easily understanding their strengths and weaknesses. The material is useful for planning, studying, defining goals, and more. The Playbook is as essential to the studentathletes and coaches as good sports equipment is to victory.

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1 MINI HISTORY OF SPORTS AND CULTURE

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1 SPORTS GROWS UP AND GOES TO COLLEGE The Birth of Intercollegiate Sports

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he blossoming of intercollegiate sports gave birth to many of the traditions embraced by American culture today. Intercollegiate baseball demonstrates how a simple, informal game can be transformed into formal, regulated contests, which then generate large bodies of fans. Accompanying the growth of intercollegiate sports was its remarkable capacity to produce communal loyalties both on campus and within the surrounding community. Campus administrators were quick to realize the potential for increasing enrollment and elevating institutional loyalties and the benefits those loyalties bring. They seized the opportunity to recruit new students to their campuses using the success of their colleges’ teams as an enticement. Understanding the influence that successful athletic teams had to attract new students and to bond the campus community, administrators encouraged the development of intercollegiate sports. Alumni of the colleges continued to be loyal to their teams long after they had left the campuses. Alumni groups demonstrated their loyalty by providing financial support and doing whatever they could to facilitate the success of their alma mater’s teams. College sports today are embedded fixtures in American culture and seem to have been on the landscape forever. That’s the perception, but the reality is that November 8, 1869, was the kickoff date of the first intercollegiate football game between powerhouses Princeton and Rutgers. In 1893, the New York Herald declared that Thanksgiving Day “is a holiday granted by the State and Nation to see a game of football” (Rader, 1990). The 3

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Thanksgiving Day game, waged in New York City, between the nation’s two top colleges (Yale and Princeton) exemplified the theatrics that have continued to be present in college football today. In less than thirty years, football had become an American tradition (Rader, 1990). In the 1920s and 1930s attendance at football games grew faster than the rate of population growth. Part of the activities that became the spectacle of intercollegiate sports, particularly football, included the adopting of school colors to distinguish one intercollegiate team from another. School “fight” songs and college yells added to the excitement of the game, and nothing demonstrated school loyalty like the annual “Big Game” with an archrival. New football recruits are often indoctrinated with the notion that, even if the team loses other games during the season, winning the game against their school’s traditional rival constitutes a season in itself and must be won at all costs. Games bonded students from diverse backgrounds into the larger campus community. A new social form was arising out of intercollegiate sports—the college community. A remarkable irony in college sports is that the competition produces billions of dollars and yet is dependent on highly skilled athletes who are not paid. That is analogous to Fortune 500 corporations reaping billions in profits but not paying their workers.

IT’S A JUNGLE OUT THERE: GREED AND CORRUPTION RUN RAMPANT

By the 1890s, intercollegiate football in the Northeast had taken on many of the characteristics of a full-blown commercial sport with gate receipts providing the major portion of revenue for athletic departments. The interinstitutional competition to recruit athletes grew to include supporters beyond just the coaching staff: boosters, community members, administrators, and anyone else who thought they could influence outstanding athletes to join their college’s sports program. Athletic associations often provided star players with such benefits as free tuition and room and board. By the turn of the century, many alumni were recruiting athletes, raising money for sports, and assisting in the administration of college athletics. The competition to field winning teams grew even more during the twentieth century. Television contracts brought major dollars into athletic 4

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SPORTS GROWS UP AND GOES TO COLLEGE

programs, as did financial compensation for appearances in postseason bowl games and tournaments. The prize for reaching the Final Four in the NCAA basketball tournament in 1980 was one million dollars in television rights paid to each of the four competing schools (Rader, 1990, p. 288). So strong was the competition to produce winning teams and to generate revenue that schools and their alumni, boosters, and coaches began to overstep ethical boundaries in recruiting and supporting college athletes. The business of college athletics was spiraling out of control, and the best interests of college athletes were not being served. Along the way, a number of organizations were formed, with varying degrees of success, for the purpose of bringing some order to the world of college sports.

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2 STARS AND STRIPES Games on the Corner Lot

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umans like to create games out of their daily activities. For example, tossing horseshoes grew, no doubt, out of a friendly competition between a couple of individuals while performing daily chores on the farm. Over a period of time, a set of rules developed to regulate the size of the horseshoe pit, the distance between the pins, and so on. Ice skating was a means of transportation and has evolved into a highly regulated and competitive sport. Baseball and basketball (Rader, 1990, p. 99) evolved from simple informal activities into highly organized and regulated sports. At the same time, they are played in their early informal formats on the local playgrounds. Early on, those involved in such activities were active participants, but as time went on, the concept of spectator sports emerged, and one did not have to be a participant to be interested in a sport. During the mid-nineteenth century in America, informal games evolved into highly organized forms of sports that began to look more like the sports of today. Local sports activities extended to broader areas, the athletes in those sports became more specialized, and there was a sharper division between the participants and the spectators. Careful preservation of records and the increasing attention of the media became prominent components of the athletic world. At the same time, America was undergoing a revolution in electronic communication and transportation. Cities were growing rapidly as were 7

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CHAPTER 2

incomes. The amount of leisure time was increasing. All of these changes were occurring at a time when society was experiencing negative changes in traditional sources of entertainment, as well as deterioration in job satisfaction. The time was ripe for Americans to find a way to fill their leisure time with activities that provided both fun and a sense of community. The American public enthusiastically embraced professional baseball games, prizefights, football games, and the like. Americans were spending an increasing amount of their money to attend athletic events, and by the end of the nineteenth century organized sports were ensconced in American culture. It was the perfect time and the ideal conditions for intercollegiate sports to flourish. And flourish they did.

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3 CAN’T LIVE WITH ’EM, CAN’T LIVE WITHOUT ’EM Rules of Game

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n 1905, 18 football players lost their lives, and 149 were seriously injured. Football had become so violent that the sport was in danger of being banned. President Theodore Roosevelt stepped in. On December 28, 1905, in the face of the possibility that football might be outlawed by an executive order of the president, a group of representatives from sixty-two schools was called to the White House to discuss reform of football rules (Hawes, 1999).

BIRTH OF THE NCAA

The Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (IAAUS) with its sixty-two member schools (ncaa.org) was formalized in March 1906, and by 1910, the group took on its new identity as the NCAA. By 1919, the NCAA had grown to include 170 institutions. In the face of continuing abuses of the rules, the NCAA authorized its executive committee to investigate alleged violations of its regulations related to the amateur status of student-athletes. The committee also was charged with interpreting the NCAA’s constitution. While it was authorized to become an investigatory group, it lacked a way to enforce its rules and regulations. The premise on which the NCAA was built was that of home rule, a concept that means that the member schools pledged to police themselves. Article 8 of the NCAA’s constitution states: “Colleges and universities enrolled in 9

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CHAPTER 3

this association severally agree to take control of student athletic sports, as far as may be necessary, to maintain in them a high standard of personal honor, eligibility and fair play, and to remedy whatever abuses may exist” (ncaa.org). By 1921, the NCAA sponsored its first tournament, the National Track and Field Championships. The focus of the NCAA, however, was to attempt to curb abuses of the rights of student-athletes through the regulation of recruiting practices and financial aid. Unfortunately, after World War II, it became clear that its efforts were failing. In 1946, participating institutions at the NCAA Conference drafted a document called the Principles of the Conduct of Intercollegiate Athletics, later known as the Sanity Code (Brown, 1999). The principles addressed were the following: • Adhere to the definition of amateurism • Hold student-athletes to the same academic standards as the general student body • Award financial aid without consideration for athletic ability • Prohibit a coach or anyone representing a member school from recruiting any prospective student-athlete with the offer of financial aid or equivalent inducement But the NCAA ’s Sanity Code failed to curb abuses among its member schools (ncaa.org). With a resurgence of public enthusiasm for college football and basketball after 1945, the competition among colleges to field winning teams reached heights undreamed of in the years between 1918 and 1939. Many of the colleges blatantly violated NCAA rules on recruiting and subsidies. In 1954, an eight-year period of controversy about how to resolve rules infractions was finally resolved with the launching of the NCAA ’s Committee on Infractions. Each division of the NCAA has its own committee, which acts as an independent body. The Division 1 committee is made up of ten individuals, seven from member institutions and three from the general public. The Infractions Committee has the authority to make decisions with regard to determining what penalties, if any, should be levied on a member institution that breaks the rules. In 1964, the NCAA stepped in to implement standardized admission policies for student-athletes to prevent individual institutions from “march10

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CAN’T LIVE WITH ’EM, CAN’T LIVE WITHOUT ’EM

ing to their own drummer” when it came to the policies of their athletic departments. The NCAA’s admission requirement, called the 1.600 Rule, stated that a minimum admission standard for athletes was a projected 1.6 grade point average (GPA) in college, based on their high school record and test scores. Under the prediction tables, a student-athlete’s GPA is predicated on the basis of a formula using grades, their overall graduating class ranking, and their score on the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) or the American College Test (ACT).

WINNING IS EVERYTHING?

The 1.600 Rule was challenged in 1973 in the case of Parish v. NCAA. Robert Parish, a seven-feet-one-inch basketball player, requested declaratory and injunctive relief to prevent the NCAA from applying the 1.600 Rule and declaring him ineligible to play. During his senior year in high school, Parish was recognized as probably the number-one or number-two leading basketball prospect in the country and, as a result, was sought after by almost every major college in the nation. Unfortunately, he had been somewhat deprived both academically and economically and probably had begun to pursue a higher education only as a means to further his athletic career. To fulfill the requirements of the 1.600 Rule, Parish took the SAT twice and attained a score of 8. The average SAT score is approximately 1500 (Average Scores, n.d.). With such a low score, most colleges backed off, seeing that he would not meet the 1.600 requirements. Only one school, Centenary College, did not dismiss him as a recruit. The NCAA, being aware of Parish’s academic records, contacted Centenary. Coach Riley Wallace told the NCAA that the school was going to convert the SAT score to an ACT score. The average ACT score is 20.9 (“2013 ACT National and State Scores,” n.d.). In spite of being informed that this was unethical and a violation of NCAA rules, the school signed Parish anyway. The school admitted that it had done the same thing with other athletes’ scores. As a result of the Parish action, the NCAA repealed the 1.600 Rule in the 1970s and replaced it with the 2.0 Rule, which required scholarship athletes to have a 2.0 GPA from high school. The court ruled against Parish (Parish v. NCAA, 1973). 11

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PUTTING AN END TO UNDERWATER BASKET WEAVING 101

The 1980s saw a need for reform. Some big-time, entertainment-oriented athletic departments were showing disregard for the educational mission of the schools of which they were a part. That unease brought about the beginning of a major movement toward restructuring in intercollegiate athletics. Jay Coakley, a lecturer and author on the subjects of the sociology of sports, youth sports, and racial and cultural diversity in sports (1994), defined bigtime programs as those built around either football or basketball, since these are the only two sports that can be financially self-supporting (2004). He has also served as president of the Sport Sociology Academy of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance and the North American Society for the Sociology of Sport. Coakley painted the following unpleasant but too often real picture: Big-time programs, especially entertainment-oriented programs are very difficult to change. Teams in those programs are tied to many interests having nothing to do with education. Some athletes on those teams may be in school only to get the coaching needed to stay competitive in amateur Olympic sports (such as in swimming, track and field, volleyball, wrestling, rowing, etc.) or to become draft prospects in professional sports (such as baseball, basketball, football, and hockey). Coaches for those teams may view sports as businesses, and they may be hired and fired on the basis of how much revenue they can attract to the athletic program. Even academic administrators, including college presidents, may use the programs for public relations or fund raising tools (1994, p. 403).

Today there are major corporations that sponsor media coverage of intercollegiate sports and support teams for advertising purposes. These corporations have little or no interest in the academic development of athletes. When a shoe company pays a coach or school to put athletes’ feet in its shoes, or when a soft-drink company buys an expensive gym scoreboard with its logo on it, it doesn’t care if student-athletes are learning in their classes as long as they are attracting attention to the company’s product. Similarly, “The local businesses that make money when the home team attracts fans are not concerned about whether the athletes scoring touchdowns and doing slam dunks have 1.6 grade point averages or are on the 12

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honor role. They just want them to be eligible to pack spectators into the stadium or arena” (Coakley, 1994). In such programs the amount of team travel is greater, the media coverage is much more extensive, and the consequences of winning or losing are also greater. A reform movement was looming as indicated by two significant events. The first was the NCAA passing Proposition 48 in 1983 mandating changes in academic eligibility for student-athletes.

FORMATION OF NEW WATCH DOG GROUP: THE KNIGHT COMMISSION

The second event was the formation of a new “watchdog” group, the Knight Commission. Established in 1989, the blue-ribbon Knight Commission was created by one of the largest private foundations in the United States (“About: The Knight Commission,” n.d., n.p.). The Knight Foundation offered grants in the areas of journalism, the arts, and higher education. Creed C. Black, the president of the foundation, stated that the funding for the commission was a “constructive use of funds in addressing a serious problem in contemporary American society,” and the need for reform in intercollegiate athletics. James L. Knight, the foundation chairman, commented, “We fully recognize that intercollegiate athletics have a legitimate and proper role to play in college and university life” (“About: The Knight Commission,” n.d., n.p.). He added, “Our interest is not to abolish that role but to preserve it by pulling it back into perspective. We hope this commission can strengthen the hands of those who want to curb the abuses, which are shaking public confidence in the integrity of not just big-time intercollegiate athletics but the whole institution of higher education” (“About: The Knight Commission,” n.d., n.p.). Black pointed out that the role of the commission was to study the problems involved and to propose solutions. The Knight Commission continues in that role (“About: The Knight Commission,” n.d., n.p.). To curtail the recruitment of academically questionable prospects, the NCAA in 1983 adopted Proposition 48, mandating minimum test scores and high-school grade point averages for entering athletes. Proposition 48 required that first-year student-athletes were not eligible to participate in 13

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sports unless they entered college with a 2.0 GPA in 11 core subjects in high school and a score of 700 on the SAT or 15 on the ACT. There was a threefold purpose for the implementation of Proposition 48 in 1986: (1) to send a message to high schools and their athletes that a commitment to academic achievement was a prerequisite for playing big-time college sports, (2) to set new guidelines for colleges and universities that regularly recruited athletes who had no reasonable chance to be academically successful or graduate from college after five years, and (3) to give first-year student-athletes who needed to catch up on their academic work a year to focus exclusive attention on school rather than sports (Coakley, 1994). Prior to the implementation of Proposition 48, high school officials reported nothing more than the athletes’ GPA, using both academic and nonacademic courses to compute the average. Courses like weight lifting or dancing could be included, but those classes hardly prepared a student for college. As admissions officer at the University of Michigan, Cliff Sjogren drafted the proposal that became Proposition 48, requiring that students take college prep classes. The pattern of requirements included at least three years of English; two years each of mathematics, social sciences, and natural/ physical science; plus two additional academic credits (Sjogren, 1989). Also, in 1983 the NCAA created the Presidents Commission, a body of forty-four college presidents, who nominally seized the reform initiative. The commission pushed through a new set of tougher penalties for rule violators, including the so-called death penalty, which could cost a repeat offender its entire athletic program. The NCAA accepted the commission’s recommendations for sharply curtailing the activities of boosters. For example, boosters could no longer phone or write to prospects. While the 1991 report of the Knight Commission (Reports of Knight Foundation Commission, 1991–1993) proposed further reforms, it was criticized by some for being too general. As a result of the spotlight the report shed on college athletics, some major changes have taken place: the elimination of athletic dormitories, the limitation of training table to one meal per day, a limit on the number of hours a team can practice each week, and new limits on the length of sports seasons. In addition, there were new official definitions of satisfactory academic progress. Satisfactory academic progress means that student-athletes will have completed a certain percentage of their academic requirements for 14

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their chosen degree program by the end of each school year. Satisfactory academic progress determines an athlete’s eligibility to compete on a yearto-year basis. In 1992, Knight Foundation Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics supported the following proposals by the NCAA: Increasing the number of required high school core courses from thirteen to fourteen for initial eligibility. Before 1992, to maintain eligibility student-athletes were required to have completed 25 percent of their degree requirements upon entering their third year of enrollment, 50 percent the fourth year, and 75 percent the fifth year of enrollment. The Knight Commission proposed that those percentages be revised to require that studentathletes must have completed 40 percent of their degree requirements upon enrollment in the third year, 60 percent by the fourth year, and 80 percent by the beginning of the fifth year. The current requirements for eligibility to compete at the Division 1 level are as follows: The successful completion of sixteen core courses. A sliding-scale combination of high school grades and results from standardized test scores. For example, if a student-athlete earns a 3.0 GPA in core courses, the individual in question must have scored at least a 620 on the SAT or 52 on the ACT. As the GPA increases, the required test score decreases, and vice versa. The percentages of work required toward completion of the student-athlete’s degree program were incorporated from the recommendation of the Knight Commission. Student-athletes are allowed five years to graduate while receiving athletically related financial aid (“Remaining eligible,” n.d., n.p.).

WHY JOIN THE NCAA?

It is easier to find a university or college that is a member of NCAA than not. So, why would a school opt to go through the challenging process of 15

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becoming an NCAA institution? NCAA membership brings with it prestige and recognition. The biggest benefit, however, is revenue sharing. NCAA-sponsored championship competitions and bowl games produce tremendous amounts of money, primarily through television rights. Member institutions receive a portion of that money. Becoming a member school of the NCAA is a cumbersome, lengthy, and expensive endeavor. Each applicant school must decide which of the three divisions it wishes to join. Division 1-A, known as the Bowl Division, has the broadest set of requirements and is made up of those member institutions having the highest visibility programs. To become a Bowl Division member, the applicant must meet the following requirements: sponsor sixteen varsity sports including football; meet the minimum football attendance requirements; satisfy scheduling requirements for all sponsored sports; fulfill the financial aid requirements in terms of scholarships; and pay a sizable application fee of thousands of dollars, and annual dues. Having put in the significant effort and paid the hefty fees, it would seem logical to expect member institutions to be committed to abiding by the rules. While employees of the schools in question may inadvertently and, on rare occasions, fail to conform to an obscure rule in the mountain of NCAA regulations, violations are usually the result of schools trying to bend rules to give themselves the winning edge. Reforms continued to be introduced by the NCAA member schools in an effort to protect student-athletes. Ironically, many of these same schools are guilty of infractions of NCAA rules all in the name of winning. College student-athletes find themselves in an environment inundated with a flood of rules so extensive that it often takes as many as several full-time compliance officers employed by athletic departments to manage adherence to those rules. They will encounter coaches who may not always have the best interest of their student-athletes at heart. The athletes who are competing in the highly visible sports may find their lives under a microscope. Many lack the maturity or knowledge to successfully handle the challenges before them. Such is the culture into which the freshman students enter.

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4 UNDERSTANDING THE HURDLES Academic Success Is a Challenge

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n 1986, sports broadcaster Howard Cosell expressed his concern by saying, “The only choice left is to eliminate big-time college sports entirely. There is no other measure to rid ourselves of the corruption and stop the degradation of our educational system” (Greener, n.d., n.p.). Cosell’s negative opinion about college sports is still evident, as seen in a 2006 opinion poll conducted by the Knight Commission (Public Opinion Poll, 2006). Two opinions expressed these concerns: a belief that college sports were like professional sports and that commercial interests often prevail over academic values and traditions. Upon entering the world of higher education, college student-athletes may find themselves faced, to varying degrees, with a unique set of academic, social, and athletic challenges, which they are often ill-equipped to handle. In fact, there are several studies that indicate that the demands and career aspirations associated with college athletics can be linked to failure on the part of some athletes to balance academic and athletic tasks (Adler & Adler, 1991; Simons, Van Rheenen, & Covington, 1999). In my conversation with former college and professional basketball player Joseph Blair (personal communication, November 16, 2010), he described how he had focused on academics in high school. He said that once he became part of one of the best college basketball programs in the country, his priority changed to athletics. The pressures associated with performing at such a highly skilled level and the “business” of living up to the coach’s expectations got in the way of academics. It was not 17

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that Blair no longer cared about doing well academically. He, like so many other athletes, wanted to do well in school, but athletic commitments simply became overwhelming. Joy Gaston-Gayles wrote about research conducted by The Center for Athletics in 1988 (2004, pp. 75–83) that found that 95 percent of the student-athletes who aspire to compete at the professional level indicated that earning a college degree was important to them. The reality, however, is that one-third of those same athletes earned a GPA lower than 2.0. Given the enormity of the challenges and the age at which they enter, it would be unrealistic to expect the majority of college student-athletes to have the level of maturity to handle the plethora and complexity of the demands that are made of them. Unfortunately, most student-athletes have acquired a “macho” attitude and believe that asking for help is not “cool” and that they should “tough it out” when they are most in need of a helping hand. As is the case with all students, student-athletes are confronted with all of the challenging academic tasks that are part of the college experience (i.e., attending classes, putting in the required study time, and passing exams). These tasks are in themselves time-consuming on a daily basis and in the long run can require five or more years of classroom work to earn a college degree. Student-athletes are often required to invest nearly as much time in structured sport-related activities during the academic year as they would in performing a full-time job. Arthur Shriberg and Frederick Brodzinski argue, “Very few non-athletes could endure the time demands of a major intercollegiate competition schedule as well as the psychological and physiological demands of such competition” (1984, p. 1). Some studies indicate that the amount of time required for their sport can be in excess of thirty hours per week. In terms of time commitments, James Rhatigan (1984) reviewed the second semester schedule of basketball players competing in the Big Ten, Big Eight, and Missouri Valley Conferences, as they existed at the time. He found that eight away games seemed to be the norm, resulting in the players missing about thirteen class days. Based on a calculation of about 75 days of instruction during the semester, the players were absent more than 17 percent of classes held during that semester. If the basketball teams were 18

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involved in postseason competition the percentage of missed classes from January through March reached up to 30 percent. Not only is there disruption in the flow of class material to athletes when they are on the road, but relying on others to provide the missing class notes also can be problematic when those individuals do not follow through. Absence from classes may cause athletes to miss the announcement of quizzes, important information about midterms, and long-term assignments. Studying on the road can be difficult, and taking tests is troublesome. Asked to proctor tests for a women’s college basketball team while they were on a trip to play the University of Oregon and Oregon State University, I realized how challenging it was for the players to concentrate on the test questions in a hotel setting. In Rhatigan’s opinion, few students expend as much energy as athletes. He argues that emotionally preparing, getting fired up to play each opposing team, and experiencing the desire to win are profound. He says, “It must be kept in mind that these 18 to 21-year-olds play before fans who expect professional performance” (1984, p. 8). While reading his words, I was reminded of the many crowded shuttle bus rides I took to watch University of Arizona football games. Having just spent the week working with Arizona’s student-athletes, I would hear fellow bus riders speak with certainty about the lives and performances, good or bad, of the Arizona football players with whom I had recently worked. These fans did not hesitate to tell their buddies stories about the athletes on the team as if they had a “hot line to the players themselves.” As I listened to their tales, I was amazed at how absurdly incorrect a great deal of their so-called information was. Athletic commitments can leave these young people in a state of mental and physical exhaustion, frequently nursing injuries, fatigue, and precious little time for other areas of interest. The time required to train, practice, attend film sessions and meetings, and learn sport-specific material is substantial. The physical and psychological effects of sport-related injury, or the specter of injury, are often disruptive. Without a great deal of help and guidance, student-athletes may be unable or unwilling to dig deep enough to find the strength or time to complete their classwork and the other requirements in their daily lives. Many of them have been in a position of having been the star while competing at their high school. Now, they find themselves in competition with 19

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other high-school superstars. Instead of being number one in high school, they are one of many in college. They are compared to players who are just as strong, just as quick, just as big, tall, fast, and talented. Each must make adjustments to being one of the team instead of the main attraction. He may have dreamed of becoming a professional athlete but now can find his confidence shaken as his college coaches point out his weaknesses and set performance standards so high that he is no longer sure he can meet them. His playing time may be drastically reduced from what he is used to. Kevin Flanagan (personal communication, November 22, 2010), former University of Arizona basketball player, shared with me his experience. He said that it was “humbling” to find himself practicing against bigger, stronger, more experienced athletes. He spoke of the “steep learning curve” involved in trying to balance academics and athletics and how different it was from high school. This pressure, along with the new academic challenges he is facing, can be extremely daunting to a freshman athlete. College athletes are also aware that their athletic performance impacts the job security of their coaches, a heavy burden for those just out of high school. As Kevin said, “In college both the stakes and the consequences are higher than they are in high school.” Zack Schira (personal communication, October 17, 2011), former quarterback for the Pima Community College football team, thought he was well prepared for college, having taken dual enrollment courses while in high school. The courses were taught by college instructors and provided credit toward his college grades. He excelled in those courses, and, although he admits to not knowing what the differences between high school and college would be, he was, nevertheless, confident that he would do well. He said that when he looked at his college class schedule, he thought the blocks of time between classes were free time. Smiling, he told me he quickly learned that was not the case. In addition, many colleges want their athletes to participate in community service and public speaking engagements. The rationale is that such activities will enhance the leadership abilities of these young people; however, one could argue that the institution benefits from the public relations at the expense of student-athletes. Student-athletes in community colleges, Division 2, and Division 3 schools will not find themselves subjected to the magnifying glass of public scrutiny to the degree that those in Division 1 athletic programs will. In 20

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Division 1 schools, it is those athletes in the highly visible and revenueproducing sports who will be the most challenged in terms of having to deal with being constantly in the public’s eye. Week after week, these studentathletes find themselves in the role of public performers whose efforts are both praised and criticized by a public whom they have never met. Transgressions, however minor, are the topics of gossip and speculations that may extend for years beyond the alleged occurrence. Unfairly, the identical transgressions may go completely unnoticed when they involve students from the general population of the institution. In many cases, the maturity level of the student-athletes may be such that the media and public judgments can provide them with an unrealistic measure of their own relative worth. The prying of the media and the judgments of the public can profoundly affect young student-athletes on many levels. Given the complex and unique set of demands placed upon the studentathlete population, special services are essential to help them become successful and well-adjusted individuals. As Hurley and Cunningham (1984, p. 55) point out, “The institution encourages the athlete’s dream, recruits him or her to its athletic program, and creates the demands on his or her time and energy. The reward for the expenditure of his energy is room, board, tuition, and books—in other words, a college education. The reward may be something he does not want or does not think he needs. If that is the reward we offer, and if we seem to be placing obstacles in the way of achieving it, we are also bound by our consciences to provide all the help we can in overcoming these obstacles.” The consensus is that student-athletes are taken advantage of. Many of them have a surprising perspective about their athletic experience. Josephine Potuto and James O’Hanlon (2007) interviewed athletes at 18 Division IA schools. Of those, a large number reported that their athletic participation prevented them from experiencing some aspects of college life. The overwhelming majority thought that the benefits derived from their athletic experience outweighed the negatives. In evaluating how sports impacted them academically, the preponderance of them believed that faculty treated them differently just because they were student-athletes. In reporting the negatives associated with athletic participation, 66 percent of them wished that they had more time to pursue educational opportunities available at their schools; 69 percent thought that to varying degrees, their 21

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athletic participation prevented them from taking courses in which they were interested; 53 percent said that they were not able to spend as much time on all aspects of their academic life as they would have liked; and 65 percent believed that athletic participation had a negative impact on their grade-point averages. Still, most of the student-athletes interviewed felt that they learned values and skills through their sports participation that they would not have learned in other aspects of their college experience. It is not terribly surprising that the student-athlete population would, for the most part, find their athletic experience to be a positive one. They are being encouraged to do what they like and an activity at which they excel. Athletics are their comfort zone.

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5 SHOW ME THE MONEY High School Athletics

It is time for us to stand and cheer for the doer, the achiever, the one who recognizes the challenge and does something about it. —Vince Lombardi

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ore than a decade ago, the Knight Commission expressed concern about the state of high school athletics. A 2001 report by John Gehring presented a warning from the commission. The commission argued that growing commercialization and student-athletes’ low graduation rates had tainted the integrity of many colleges’ programs and those problems had trickled down to the high school level (Education Week, p.16). During the ensuing decade, a host of problems tied to high school athletic programs came to light. In 2004, Gehring wrote about a report released that year by the National Association of State Boards of Education in which that group expressed growing problems with unscrupulous agents, mercenary coaches, questionable recruiting practices, and extravagant benefits bestowed upon athletes. Their concern was that such practices would “compromise the schools’ educational mission and undermine the public’s confidence in the educational system.” Declining school funding was a major factor in forcing high schools to look elsewhere for the dollars to support their sports programs. Nike, Reebok, and Under Armor, three major movers and shakers in the athletic apparel world, have become sponsors of high school sports. Fox Sports, 23

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ESPN, ESPN2, and others have steadily increased the number of high school sports they televise at the national level, while stadium rights and advertisements on the field and on giant scoreboards are being sold to the highest bidder (Watson, 2012). As George Watson expressed in his column for the Lubbock Avalanche-Journal, “Isn’t this how college athletics began, with one team taking the initiative to bring in more money and then everyone else trying to follow suit?” Gehring’s 2004 report included some surprising examples of the growing commercialization of high school athletics. The Valdosta High School football team in Georgia raised $500,000 in 2003 and provided its football coach with a free truck to drive around town. Raymond Ferryman, an economist, did a study for the Dallas Morning News and reported that football in Texas in 2004 was a $900 million-a-year business (Gehring, 2004). Ferryman added that football helps to pay the way for other athletic programs such as soccer, tennis, and golf. In addition to athletic apparel, advertising, and television revenues, competition to provide expensive facilities to house high school teams is growing. Permian High in Odessa, Texas, has a 19,300-seat stadium for its home football games. David Gorman in his 2010 dissertation asserts that the passion for highly competitive high school sports may be tied to geographic location to some degree. Clearly, school and state high school administrators have a responsibility to address the growing commercialization before the problems overwhelm the benefits of participation in high school sports. There are a plethora of studies that agree on the positive aspects of high school students participating in extracurricular activities. Angela Lumpkin and Judy Favor (2012) indicated that of the millions of students who involve themselves in a wide variety of school activities, more than 7.5 million participate in interscholastic athletics each year. In 2008–2009, Lumpkin and Favor did a study involving 139,000 athletes and nonathletes in Kansas and concluded the following: High school athletes earned higher grades, graduated at a higher rate, dropped out of school less frequently, and scored higher on state assessments than did nonathletes. They cited studies by McCarthy (2000) in Colorado and VanDuyne (2004) that concurred with their results. David Gorman’s 2010 dissertation and the 2008 research conducted by Lee Sitkowski concur with Lumpkin and Favor’s research conclusions.

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Lumpkin and Favor argue that the reasons for the positive effects of athletic participation may be tied to some of the following: state eligibility requirements, the encouragement of coaches and other educators in influencing and helping athletes maintain their eligibility, and the fact that high school athletes may have learned greater self-discipline and better time management that help them to effectively fulfill their academic responsibilities. In addition, they assert that the competitiveness in sports may contribute to a similar work effort focused on achieving at least minimal and possible higher academic goals. Not everyone is in total agreement with Lumpkin and Favor. Jay Coakley asserts, “Usually those who try out for teams are selected by coaches and stay on teams for more than one year. They are somewhat different before they put on those uniforms” (2004, p. 489). Regardless of which of the above is correct, it is important to recognize that there are some gains to be made through participation in high school sports. As Sitkoski (2008) opines, high school sports introduce young people to teamwork, self-discipline, sportsmanship, leadership, and socialization. High school is a period of social development, and every person with any connection to high school athletics needs to recommit to the young people involved. Specifically, administrators, faculty, coaches, parents, and the community need to ensure that these young people have positive athletic experiences.

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2 RECIPES FOR DEVELOPING A WINNING SUPPORT PROGRAM

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6 THE RIGHT STUFF Characteristics of a Good Support Team

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nce an athlete has made a commitment to attend a particular school, that school and the athlete have essentially entered into a contract. The athlete agrees to provide the college with the use of his or her athletic skills. In exchange, the school agrees to provide the athlete with the opportunity to get an education. In addition, it is the responsibility of the institution to provide the best possible academic support services. Jeff Janssen, sports psychologist (personal communication, March 17, 2010), said: “We have to commit to provide the kind of services that go beyond having studentathletes ‘major in eligibility.’” Ultimately, the school must help studentathletes to become well-rounded individuals with good career, personal, and leadership skills. As football coach Dick Tomey said, “You can fill all the seats and you can win all the games, but if athletes are not better persons when they leave than they were when they arrived, you have failed to do your job” (personal communication, October 12, 2010). Tomey has years of successful coaching experience, including head coaching positions at the University of Hawaii and the University of Arizona. He also was an assistant coach with the San Francisco 49ers. Not every support program will have the same components. Hiring staff to implement such a program is the first step. There are some personal attributes that must be common to everyone associated with the program. Jobs will vary, but each individual should expect to wear many hats beyond their specific job description. 29

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As Tomey said (personal communication, October 12, 2010), during his many years of coaching he was father, mother, priest, disciplinarian, and mentor to his players. He indicated that anybody connected to studentathlete support services must care about all aspects of a student-athlete’s life, must be willing to invest emotionally, and must care about athletes on a personal level. Tomey added that everyone working with the program has a responsibility to insist that athletes show academic accountability and must be willing to go the extra mile to make that happen. Stacy Iveson, assistant softball coach at the University of Arizona and a former player for the university’s championship softball team, believes that coaches have an obligation to be involved in academics (personal communication, November 18, 2010). At Yavapai, a small Arizona community college, Stacy coached the softball team to a national championship and taught the class Becoming a Master Student. She advises that athletic directors delegate the administration of student-athlete services to someone who is completely committed to the program. Brandon Sanders, former college and professional football player and now a football coach, agreed with Tomey. He said, “Those who will be employed in the program need to make an emotional commitment to the program and to the athletes” (personal communication, September 8, 2010). Jim Rosborough, the former associate head basketball coach of the National Champion Arizona Wildcats, advises (personal communication, September 15, 2010) that the coordinator of an athletic support program have credibility, humanity, and commitment to discipline. Rosborough also talked about the need for tutors to have an appropriate background in their fields but also empathy and a depth of understanding about the culture of college athletics. The most effective people to employ in student-athlete support services are those he called “connectors,” those who by their expression of caring and interest in the athletes as individuals are able to reach out and connect to them. The emphasis from all four coaches was on the people involved in the program even more than the program’s components. While staffing needs will vary from one school to the next, there are some positions that should be part of any athletic support program. A coordinator for the tutoring/learning assistance program and a staff of advisors are the most common positions at the core of the program. The suggested credentials for the individual who will fill the role of tutoring director are described later. 30

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7 THE GAME CHANGERS Ideas for Helping High School Athletes

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aving the ability to make connections with student-athletes is as important at the high school level as it is for those working with college student-athletes. Everyone connected to high school athletic programs must remember that the young people involved are at a period of critical social development. There are lessons to be learned academically, athletically, and personally, and those lessons will determine whether high school athletes will move forward in a positive direction. The responsibility for providing those lessons rests with coaches, faculty, school administrators, state legislators, and parents. Coaches can exert a great deal of influence on their athletes. If the coach sends the message to players that winning is everything, no matter the cost, their players will echo that sentiment in everything they do. Coaches should make every effort to facilitate academic success for their student-athletes. Coaches need to be confident that they are supported in focusing on maintaining a balance among athletics, academics, and personal development for their players. Part of that demonstration of support should come in the form of professional development opportunities for coaches. It is not enough for a coach to be hired based on their knowledge of a particular sport. At this critical period in young student-athletes’ lives, it is essential that coaches understand student development—how students learn and what motivates 31

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CHAPTER 7

them. Hopefully, coaches will avail themselves of the information presented in this book to help their players move in a positive direction in their academic endeavors. Jeff Scurran, who has coached football at three levels—high school, college, and professional—shared a story about a friend and fellow coach (personal communication, February 22, 2013). That coach had a contract that included bonuses for his players’ success in areas other than football. Even though his players excelled in those areas, the coach lost his job based solely on his win-loss record. This is an example of the mixed messages that school administrators often send. On one hand, they profess a commitment to academic success, while on the other hand they put pressure on coaches to produce a winning team at all costs. All of the high school coaches with whom I have had contact clearly care about their young charges. Many become frustrated when budget cuts frequently are made to academic support programs before cutbacks are made to other aspects of the athletic programs. Former high school football coach Vincent Smith told me of his attempt to ensure the academic success of his players (personal communication, March 11, 2013). He developed a support program that included mandatory study time twice each week. He used high school teachers and tutors from the nearby university. His vision was to add a counselor who had an understanding of the culture of high school athletics, mentoring, and assistance with study skills. His monitoring of his players’ academic progress made it possible to address any problems that developed in that area. According to Gorman’s 2004 study, athletic programs must both monitor and support academic progress throughout each student’s academic career. Sadly, as has happened in high schools across the country, Smith’s program was axed in budget cuts. Such cutbacks sometimes tempt athletic program administrators to veer toward commercialization of high school sports, but many high school coaches continue to persevere in providing their athletes with the services they need. Scurran shared with me (personal communication, February 22, 2013) that he is providing a mentor for his football team whose sole purpose is to teach his athletes to address life skills. In addition, he has created a program that includes access to writing workshops, peer tutors for math, additional tutoring by content teachers, and access to labs that support instructional 32

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THE GAME CHANGERS

content. The consensus among the coaches I interviewed seems to be that they feel it is their responsibility to ensure that the following services are in place for their athletes: tutoring, mentoring, and study hall periods. In addition, monitoring academic progress by coaches should be a priority, and the chance for coaches to avail themselves of professional development opportunities is important. While caring coaches attempt to address the needs of their athletes, there are others who need to support and cooperate in the effort. Faculty members must be persuaded to always bear in mind that these are student-athletes and the emphasis must be on the student. There are so many benefits to be gained by those who participate in high school extracurricular activities, and that includes sports. Helping participants in such activities contributes to the social development of high school students, and faculty can help that development by being supportive of any program that makes an attempt to further the students’ academic careers. Teachers can communicate with coaches and work together as teams to ensure that students are supported in their academic endeavors. An hour a week of volunteer tutoring by each faculty member can make a significant difference to the program. Gorman (2004) made a case for states making a commitment to the credibility of high school athletic programs. He argues for the implementation of professional development programs for coaches. He also asserts that state boards of education should review certification and professional development requirements for coaches or establish those requirements if they are not already in place. He also believes that states should define both the standards for academic eligibility to play high school sports and for what constitutes satisfactory academic progress toward the completion of high school. Probably the most important component of a high school support program for student-athletes is their family. In spite of the popular conception that teenagers do not listen to their parents, I would argue that, in spite of appearances to the contrary, teenagers do care about what their parents think. Robert Nathanson and Arthur Kimmel, who have taught and mentored student-athletes for thirty years, said, “Student-athletes possess a host of personal characteristics, traits, and values that have helped them thrive athletically, including discipline, commitment, focus, high energy, work ethic, ability to handle pressure, and resilience. The list goes on and on. 33

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Yet, as students, they don’t often realize that these same attributes are transferable to the academic playing field” (p. 1). They advise parents to encourage their teen athletes to value academic goals just as much as athletic ones, develop an identity beyond that of being an athlete, and work equally hard as student and athlete. Just as most high school student-athletes participate as part of a team, coaches, faculty, school administrators, state legislators, and parents must work as a team in assisting their student-athletes to achieve success academically, as well as athletically. It is a constant challenge to create and maintain a balance that is in the best interest of high school athletes. Rising to the challenge is a winning prospect for all involved.

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8 SUPPORT TEAM PLAYERS Role of Advisors and Counselors

A

dvisors and counselors play a major role in the success of academic support programs for athletes. As Coach Rosborough discussed, they must have the ability to make a connection with individual student-athletes. They need to be willing to take the time to clarify the institution’s academic requirements and those of the NCAA to the athletes. Advisors and counselors need to be aware that, in addition to the NCAA’s requirements of their member institutions, they also require student-athletes to maintain full-time student status with a minimum GPA. As former college and professional basketball player Joseph Blair (personal communication, November 16, 2010) pointed out, athletes often have their schedules handed to them as a done deal. They are not told what general education classes are and why they must take them. Unlike other students, they are not involved, in any way, in the decisionmaking process where their classes are concerned. Blair said that while the rules, expectations, and so on, were made clear in terms of the business of playing basketball, he and his teammates knew very little about being a college student. Advisors can do a great deal to rectify the situation by helping college athletes understand the college academic culture. Athletes may be getting dual messages. On the one hand, they must take the course load required by the NCAA and meet the NCAA’s grade requirements, and, at the same time, their coaches may be conveying, subtly or otherwise, the message that athletics should come first. 35

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CHAPTER 8

Counselors in athletic departments may be called upon to assist studentathletes with issues related to cultural and gender prejudices. While female student-athletes spend as much time on sports-related activities as male athletes, they do so with some added challenges. Women’s sports garner fewer scholarships, there is little campus support, there are fewer sportsrelated career opportunities, and they are given second-rate facilities and equipment. They also must deal with negative stereotypes tied to women who participate in sports. Often they struggle with weight-management challenges associated with their sports participation, and in many cases, those challenges result in eating disorders. The sexual harassment of female athletes has recently become an issue at the forefront of media exposure. Culture biases are evident in college sports, and counselors and advisors should be cognizant of that fact. The most visible of these biases are seen in the underrepresentation of African Americans in sports such as swimming, skiing, hockey, soccer, and softball, while they tend to be highly represented in football, basketball, and track and field. Likewise, Caucasians are more likely to be placed into the more skilled positions in their sport, although there are some positive changes being made. For example, there are increasing numbers of African American quarterbacks leading their football teams. Native American student-athletes may be discouraged from sports participation by their own people, who believe that such participation might cut the athlete off from their cultural roots (Fletcher, Benshoff, and Richburg, 2003). In addition to the aforementioned issues, student-athletes at NCAA institutions may be dealing with financial challenges. Counselors and advisors should be aware that athletes in member NCAA institutions are not allowed to seek outside employment.

NCAA: A PRIMER FOR SUPPORT TEAMS

While counselors, advisors, and tutors are not expected to be experts on NCAA rules, they need to have some knowledge of them. Given the enormity and complexity of NCAA rules, member institutions will have a com-

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pliance office within the athletic department. These are the go-to people. They know, or have access to, the latest and most complete information about what meets the rules and what constitutes a violation. It is important to keep in mind the purpose of the NCAA rules. Those rules were created to protect student-athletes. As discussed earlier (chapter 3), schools, agents, boosters, and communities have gone to great lengths to use student-athletes to further their own agendas. School athletic programs and their fans have extended financial incentives to lure young, and often immature, athletes to commit to attending their school. The end result for the school is an increase in enrollment and greater prestige. There are occasions when the NCAA rules may seem to be somewhat punitive for the student-athletes. Limitations on the amount of money they can receive from scholarships is a perfect example. Some student-athletes are married, with children, and the prohibition on outside employment can cause severe financial difficulties. One must bear in mind that, whenever rules (or laws) are created, there are some who are going to be hurt by them. The employees of athletic support programs must bear in mind that they, too, are bound by those rules. Any infractions can negatively impact their own jobs, the eligibility of the athlete in question, and the school. Generally speaking, if a resource is not available to the general student population, then providing it for a student-athlete is a violation. Violation of NCAA rules can lead to severe penalties for the athletic department and, in nearly all cases, can be avoided. The bottom line is, if in doubt, do nothing without first checking with the compliance office. It is hard to miss the negative stories in the media describing the “sins” of college athletic programs in terms of NCAA violations. A common theme is one in which a student-athlete allegedly receives some kind of special treatment or gift he or she is not allowed by NCAA rules. Some of those extra benefits include the following: Discounts and credits on purchases (i.e., airline tickets, clothing) Free or reduced-cost services for which a fee is normally charged (unless those same benefits are available to a nonathlete) Telephone or credit card use for personal reasons without charge or at a reduced cost

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CHAPTER 8

Loans (including a staff member cosigning a note or arranging a loan with an outside agency), a guarantee of bond, an automobile or use of an automobile, transportation (even a ride home with a coach) Even if the athlete reimburses the institution or the staff member for these perks, they are still considered violations. According to the NCAA, however, there may be some exceptions to this rule. The NCAA allows certain benefits to student-athletes if it can be proven that the identical benefits are available to nonathletes. An example is an occasional dinner in the home of a staff member that may include “reasonable” local transportation for the student-athlete to attend that dinner. Academically, the NCAA requires athletes to be enrolled in no less than twelve semester or quarter hours. They must be making satisfactory progress (as defined by the member institution they attend) toward a baccalaureate or equivalent degree. By the beginning of their third college year, they must declare a major and thereafter continue to make satisfactory progress toward that degree. In support of the academic efforts of student-athletes, the institution is mandated to provide academic counseling and tutoring services either by the athletic department or the institution’s nonathletic student support services. According to NCAA rules, institutions at their own discretion may provide the following services: Drug rehabilitation services Counseling expenses related to the treatment of eating disorders On-campus student development and career counseling Counseling regarding future professional athletics career Other expenses that can legally be covered by the institution are: Computers belonging to the institution on a checkout basis (typing, word processing, and editing service costs are not allowed) The use of copy machines, fax machines, and the Internet, including related long-distance charges, if those are required for the completion of coursework

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The provision of supplies related to course completion (i.e., calculators, art supplies, computer disks, subscriptions) if such supplies are required by all students enrolled in that course The cost of field trips, if required of all students and that fee is specified in the institution’s catalog Gambling on college sports is the stuff from which news stories can be made. Betting on the outcome of games is common in some settings like Las Vegas, but college players throwing games makes headlines and brings severe punishment from the NCAA. Something as benign as playing fantasy sports is prohibited to any staff member employed by an athletic department. The same rules apply to student-athletes. Gambling, according to NCAA rules, includes providing inside information concerning intercollegiate athletic competition to those involved in gambling activities. It also bars soliciting bets on any intercollegiate team or accepting a bet on any team representing the institution. Staff members are required to report any suspicion of gambling, or any other infraction, to the compliance office. The NCAA and the Compliance Office at the University of Arizona have shared the following as indicators of possible gambling activity on the part of a student-athlete: The student-athlete under suspicion is dressing better He or she is driving a new automobile (especially four-wheel drive vehicles, which seem to be a preference now) The parents of that athlete are attending away games, especially games across the country (coaches and others who know the athlete’s family would have a good idea if such travel was unusual given the family’s circumstances) A student-athlete who does not return with the team from away contests (this is particularly suspicious if the athlete makes a request at the last minute for such a change in travel arrangements) A student-athlete frequents Western Union There is information about money being wired to an athlete’s bank account Free tickets provided by the institution for the student-athlete are being given to inappropriate recipients, such as agents

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A student-athlete possesses unusually expensive off-campus housing, or expensive electronics and cell phones The athlete has disability insurance not provided by the institution All member-institution employees are required to report suspicion of infractions of NCAA rules to the compliance office. Failure to do so is cause for dismissal. Whenever there is any doubt, consult with the athletic department’s compliance office.

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Advisors should be encouraged to become involved with the National Association of Academic Athletic Advisors (N4A), an organization founded in 1976. The N4A (http://www.nfoura.org/) works to support its member advisors through the sharing of “information, resources, and expertise in their efforts to empower student-athletes to become more productive individuals through educational and personal development.” The N4A provides professional development activities for advisors through a national conference, regional meetings, and listservs. There are more than one thousand members in colleges across the country. R. B. Hurley and R. L. Cunningham list the following as areas in which advisors may be involved: “providing information for recruiting, orientation, monitoring programs, liaison with faculty and other university services, tutoring, remediation, course advising, counseling and placement upon graduation” (1984, p. 53). It is important to note, however, that most advisors do not have extensive training in learning theories. Advisors should develop a good working relationship with the tutoring program, and the individual who is in charge of providing tutorial services to athletes should be an educator and understand the culture of college athletics. One of the areas in which advisors and the tutorial program might coordinate is involving the compliance officer in the training of their staff. Bill Morgan (personal communication, November 13, 2010), the head of the Compliance Office at the University of Arizona, works closely with both areas to ensure that tutors and advisors are clear on the NCAA rules that pertain to their work with student-athletes. 40

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CHALLENGES

One of the biggest challenges that advisors experience is finding themselves caught in between the conflicting expectations of the student, the faculty, and the athletic department. Advisors have a responsibility, first and foremost, to the student in spite of the fact that the school is their employer. When athletes are first brought on campus for a recruiting visit, advisors should take advantage of the opportunity to introduce the school’s athletic service programs. Coaches should ensure that recruits have the opportunity to meet with an advisor as part of their initial visit to the campus. During such meetings advisors should describe all service programs and academic eligibility requirements. Advisors should also take on a significant role in student-athlete orientation sessions. If coaches have not introduced recruits to key individuals in units such as the campus library, the bookstore, the learning center, and so on, advisors should ensure that those introductions are made. Over the span of the athletes’ college careers, advisors can have a very positive influence on their lives.

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9 SPECIAL TEAMS A Learning Specialist’s Contribution to Student-Athlete Success

A

ccording to professional job listings, athletics support programs are employing an increasing number of learning skills specialists. The role of these individuals is to help student-athletes develop the appropriate learning strategies to improve their success in the classroom. Football coach Dick Tomey (personal communication, October 12, 2010), emphasized the importance of including a learning specialist in an academic support program. While at the University of Arizona, he played a major role in hiring a learning specialist for the student-athletes who could benefit from help beyond tutoring. One of those who was helped by the learning specialist was Pulu Poumele (personal communication, March 18, 2011). Pulu is a former college and professional football player and now a high school coach. Pulu shared with me the difficulties he had during his first two years of college. He said that he had arrived without any knowledge of the study skills he needed to be a successful college student. He particularly had problems with time management. Socially, he had no idea what to expect. Both Pulu and Coach Tomey spoke with conviction about how important a role a learning specialist played in teaching Pulu both academic and life skills. Her ability to make a positive connection with the athletes in the specialist’s group was of great benefit. Pulu found that high school and college were very different from each other. He expressed that he needed help, particularly during his first semester, with study skills and time management. He was assigned 43

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to work with the learning specialist’s group and believes that it was that experience that helped him turn the corner. Another athlete in the same group was Amy Van Dyken Rouen. A former college swimmer and Olympian, Amy won four gold medals at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics and two additional gold medals at the 2000 Olympics in Sydney, Australia. Amy has struggled with dyslexia all her life (personal communication, November 16, 2010). The University of Arizona has an excellent program, Strategic Alternative Learning Techniques (SALT), available on its campus. Amy’s busy athletic schedule, however, did not allow her to take advantage of the service. As an alternative, she was included in the group that worked with the learning specialist in the athletic department and found the experience to be beneficial. She commented on how helpful it was to be in a group with other athletes and to have the guidance of the learning specialist during the process of learning to be a successful college student. Amy’s recommendation for a model support program was to have services centralized within the athletic department. She said few student-athletes are prepared for life after sports and would benefit from having a life-skills program available to them that includes career counseling. During our conversation, she talked about the struggles she had dealing with the demands of competitive swimming at the same time that she was experiencing an illness and the struggles associated with being dyslexic. Her story is not unusual and emphasizes the importance of life-skills support programs. Susie Parra, former star pitcher for the University of Arizona softball team, told me that while she was prepared for the academic demands of higher education she discovered she was unable to cope with the death of her roommate. She began to cut classes and her grades spiraled downward. She did not have the skills to handle the cards life had dealt her, and her academic performance suffered (personal communication, April 16, 2010). While Amy found the mandatory study time annoying at the time, she now believes that requiring athletes to put in a minimum specified number of study hours is a good idea. Surprisingly, every student-athlete and former student-athlete with whom I spoke echoed Amy’s sentiments about mandatory study time. Coach Stacy Iveson (personal communication, November 18, 2010) said she had a love/hate relationship with mandatory study table 44

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SPECIAL TEAMS

requirements. They all admitted to complaining about it but confessed that without the requirement they would have not had the motivation and selfdiscipline to study when they were fatigued from their athletic demands. Amy and a number of other former student-athletes shared how challenging it was, as novice college students, to have the self-discipline to put in sufficient study time while at the same time meeting the demands of their sport. While most coaches require student-athletes to attend study tables if their GPA is below a certain level, Joseph Blair, former basketball player, believes that it would be beneficial for all student-athletes to attend mandatory study tables. He argues that the better students could serve as role models for those who are struggling academically (personal communication, November 16, 2010). When funding is unavailable for learning skills specialists, the college learning centers can provide some assistance in this area.

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10 THE GAME PLAN Components of the Support Program

W

ho would better understand the needs of this population than the student-athletes themselves? It is their perceptions that should be examined before determining what reforms should be made in providing support for this unique population. The question of what components should make up a support program for college athletes was posed to a group of studentathletes in 1996 (Turrentine, 1996) and again in 2010. Surprisingly, every athlete advocated mandatory study tables. The majority said that without the requirement, they were too tired and lacked the self-discipline to make themselves study. College support services provided by schools for their athletes usually go beyond meeting their athletic needs (training rooms, equipment rooms, weight rooms, and the like), often assisting with their academic needs through tutorial services, advising, and, in many cases, for some of their personal/social needs. Studies have been done in which student services professionals were asked what should be done to provide for the needs of student-athletes in such a highly competitive, high-stress world. In 1984, Christine Lottes published the results of a survey taken by several student services professionals that describes a model of a comprehensive program for student-athletes (Lottes, in Shriberg and Brodzinski, 1984). The survey included a list of sixty-eight components prepared by the author under the headings (1) academic, (2) athletic, and (3) personal/ 47

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CHAPTER 10

social. She also included a fourth category listing some general questions regarding the location of the counseling program in the university structure and the use of university-wide support services. Of the sixty-eight components, those that were listed at below 3.0 on a Likert scale, which measures attitude, were discarded from the final model. A rating of 5 was considered to be an essential component of the model. A list of those components that were ranked between 4 and 5 included the following. ACADEMIC

Help with selecting a major Exploration of career options Tutorial assistance Support services for acquiring learning skills (i.e., note-taking and testtaking) Assessment of reading, writing, and math ability, and possible learning disabilities Remedial work in reading, writing, and math, if necessary Academic scheduling for student-athletes within academic departments Study table in afternoon after classes ATHLETIC

Counseling for injured athletes PERSONAL/SOCIAL

Counseling for drug users Individual counseling sessions Education on drugs, eating disorders, sexually transmitted diseases, nutrition, and pregnancy Time-management education Sanctions for drug use Goal-setting education 48

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GENERAL SYSTEM

Support of coaches for the above program Open communication between academic and athletic departments Meetings of recruits with academic departments While many coaches require mandatory study tables for new college athletes or for those having a GPA that falls below a selected cut-off point, some former student-athletes disagree with those criteria. Most freshman athletes agreed that they did not have the study skills they needed when entering college. Football coach Brandon Sanders talked about his first semester as a college student-athlete, saying that what he would have benefited from was a “learn to learn” program (personal communication, September 8, 2010). He is probably no different from most college freshmen, athlete or not. Given the demands of a college athletic career, however, providing education in study skills must be a priority in the athletic department. All of the athletes interviewed indicated that they could have used assistance in developing time-management skills. They were divided on the need for education on pregnancy prevention and transmission of sexually transmitted diseases. They think that, by the time they entered college, they knew about these issues. They all agreed on the importance of addressing the drug issue since many of them had witnessed the negative effects of drug consumption. A number of the athletes echoed Coach Rosborough’s feelings about the need to have “connectors” in the program. One of the football players expressed his appreciation that, besides me, he had several people with whom he could discuss personal problems. Goal setting was an area in which many of them indicated they could have used some help. When asked about the idea of individual counseling, they all believed that it was an essential component of a support program, both in helping injured athletes make a psychological recovery and in dealing with both athletic and personal issues. The one issue that all of the athletes, both in the 1996 study and the 2010 research for this book, kept returning to was the need for a sufficient number of tutors available during flexible hours. They all indicated that it would 49

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CHAPTER 10

be helpful to have those tutors trained to understand the culture of college athletics and to have, at least, a cursory understanding of their sport. A common complaint was that there were never enough tutors to meet their needs. A number of the student-athletes I interviewed had an additional suggestion to consider when developing a student-athlete support program. They agreed on the need for a life skills program and hoped to see career counseling included, along with advice on media/public relations and self-advocacy skills. Basketball player Kevin Flanagan thought that extensive assessments, appropriate counseling, and individualized tutoring programs based on the outcomes of the testing would be helpful (personal communication, November 22, 2010). He asserted that the provision of such services would help to build confidence in student-athletes, and ultimately, to prepare them intellectually to function effectively in the “real” world. When athletic recruits are brought on campus for visits, they are routinely taken on a tour. During their tours, they usually visit some of the units such as the campus library, computer commons, bookstore, and learning center (tutoring). What a number of them indicated was missing were introductions to key people in those units. Travares Peterson, Aztec basketball player from Pima Community College, told me that he was much more comfortable accessing those services when he knew somebody who worked there (personal communication, August 31, 2011). His sentiments were echoed by football players Erick Marquez (personal communication, September 12, 2011) and Zack Schira (personal communication, October 17, 2011), who both said that having an individual with whom they could connect in each of the service areas would be especially helpful to freshman student-athletes. Travares said that he had not returned to the campus library because he didn’t know anybody there. He indicated that he was much more comfortable going to the Learning Center because of the friendly and familiar faces he encountered. A track athlete said she would have liked the opportunity to meet the athletic director, training staff, and advisors. An assumption could be made that team athletes would automatically feel at home with their teammates, but Erick Marquez said that he would have appreciated having some sort of social event that provided an opportunity for team members to get acquainted before they got down to work. 50

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11 THE COACH APPROACH Master Plan from a Master Coach

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ike Candrea, a highly successful softball coach who has led the University of Arizona’s softball team to multiple national championships and coached two Olympic softball teams believes that giving freshman athletes a good foundation is imperative. In my many years of working with Coach Candrea, I was impressed by his level of commitment to his players academically and athletically. His philosophy is that the coach has the responsibility to provide a stable program that gives the players someone to connect with. He must provide an environment in which the players can be successful. Relationships with him, his coaching staff, their instructors, and each other must include mutual respect and caring. During my time working with Candrea, he assigned his incoming freshman players to me. I served as their mentor and tutor, providing them with a “go-to” person as they learned the ropes in their new environment. One of those freshmen, Brandi Shriver, commented on how helpful that approach was for her, particularly in making the transition from high school to college (personal communication, March 27, 2012). She said she thought of my role as that of her academic coach, helping her to balance school and athletics. Candrea uses a contract approach with his players in which violations of the contract result in a reduction of points with certain consequences attached. He is strongly committed to the presence of a life-skills program for student-athletes and in addition to the components already described he would include financial planning, knowledge about personal banking, and 51

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CHAPTER 11

taxes. His approach is that student-athletes should be provided with all of the tools necessary to be successful after they leave college. In terms of the involvement of coaches, several athletes stated that they were not particularly concerned if their coaches were not involved in anything more than practice and competition. Most, however, seemed to appreciate the attention their coaches gave to their academic and personal well-being. A 1987 study by Dale E. Gibson and Don G. Creamer examined the perceptions of academic support programs by student-athletes (pp. 43–49). They were interested in finding out what elements (the people, programs, services, etc.) of an academic support program were the most helpful to student-athletes. The athletes surveyed reported the following as being the most important factors: the academic reputation of the school, the type of student-athlete who could potentially use the services provided, the nature of the programs available, the people with whom they had contact, and the expectations in both academic and athletic arenas. A consistent emphasis on academics by all college employees has a positive effect on student-athletes. The study concluded that the athletes responded with a greater personal effort to become academically successful and took advantage of the available academic support services. The services they took advantage of included tutoring, study halls, reading and writing labs, and counseling. Even more important, according to the study, were other students, coaches, professors, and advisors. Of these, the study reported that the athletes thought that their coaches had the greatest influence on their attitudes about academics. If the coach was encouraging about their schoolwork and worked at balancing athletics and academics, the athletes responded with a much more positive approach to their classwork. Professors’ attitudes seemed to make a significant difference, also. When student-athletes perceived that professors had a negative mind-set about athletics, they often attempted to hide their association with their team to avoid potential discrimination.

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12 THE HEAD COACHES Tutoring Programs

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igh on the list of components of support programs for student-athletes must be quality tutoring/academic support units with well-trained tutors. Such services must focus on helping students define their goals, aiding them in evaluating where they are now, guiding them in devising a plan for changing or enhancing behaviors, and providing the strategies whereby the student can achieve academic success. Given the amount of time student-athletes are required to spend on their athletic careers and, in particular, travel requirements, tutors are invaluable in helping athletes keep up with classwork. Absence from regular class attendance, lack of concentration as a result of pain from injury or following strenuous practice sessions, and demands for public appearances are not conducive to academic success without a good tutoring program in place. In light of the scheduling of classes within the limited time frame available between athletic commitments, tutoring should be made available at times convenient to student-athletes. Some would argue that having a separate tutoring program for the student-athletes might be a disservice by isolating them from the general student population. There are some benefits, however, to having a tutoring program situated within the athletic department itself. By housing the tutoring program in close proximity to weight rooms, training rooms, and meeting rooms, student-athletes can access tutoring efficiently during time blocks between their workouts, meetings, training

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room visits, and so on. In that case, certain tutors who have a propensity for athletics or an interest in learning this specialty could be useful. In developing such a program, the importance of providing tutoring assistance beyond just subject content cannot be overemphasized. While tutoring content is important, providing learning assistance also is essential. Learning assistance provides instruction in study skills and learning strategies that will carry students successfully though college and throughout the rest of their lives. Learning about time management, goal setting, stress management, and the like are part of this process. It is highly recommended that the director of such a program have a strong background in education regardless of the structure where the program is located. Knowledge of and experience in the implementation of appropriate learning theories must form the basis for a learning assistance program, and educators can bring this kind of information to the table.

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13 FIRST THINGS FIRST The Fundamentals for Building a Game Plan

UNDERSTANDING THE LEARNING PROCESS

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s learning experts Casazza and Silverman point out, “for our practice to be most effective, it is imperative for us to be familiar with a broad range of theories and also to be willing to synthesize ideas from a wide range of perspectives in order to provide an integrated approach to helping students achieve” (1996, p. 35). In terms of those theories and practices applicable to the organization of a learning assistance program, there are many that are used to varying degrees.

THE LINEAR MODEL

The Linear Model of learning, based on the behaviorism approach, is the basis of tutoring programs, computer-assisted instruction, and competencybased learning. The learner is presented with one step at a time in the learning process, masters that step with reinforcement from the tutor or software program, then moves to the next step. Diagnostic tests come into play here, also. According to behavioral theory, learning requires observable changes in behavior. Diagnostic tests of basic skills and study behavior inventories can provide the basis on which a program of systematic improvement can be built. 55

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THE COGNITIVE MODEL

The Cognitive Model, as shown in figure 13.1, disagrees with the focus of the Behavioral Model on the environment as being the driving force in shaping the learner’s behavior. The cognitive theorists argue that the learner is driven by the need to organize any new information into his or her own memory system. Jean Piaget, a Swiss developmental psychologist, originated the notion that learners process new information through assimilation. His theory argues that learners already have a knowledge base in which existing schema must be modified or new ones created. A schema may be simplistically defined as a mental structure that represents some aspect of the world. For instance, a young child may call any four-legged, furry animal a “doggie.” As the child assimilates additional information, he or she will learn the difference between dogs, cats, rabbits, and so on.

Figure 13.1.

Cognitive Model 56

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FIRST THINGS FIRST

The point at which the learner is starting is significant in the tutoring process. Tutors who have some knowledge about the basics of the various sports in which their tutees/athletes are competing will be able to present new information in a way that connects to existing schema. The result will be a more effective way to help their tutees gain an understanding of the new material.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Social Learning Theory emphasizes observational learning, modeling, and generalization, all of which are important parts of tutoring. Good tutors have been trained to demonstrate how to master academic skills. They also can help learners adapt the skills they’ve mastered to new situations.

METACOGNITION

Metacognition, as shown in figure 13.2, or the act of monitoring one’s own thinking and strategies, is a significant part of achieving academic success.

Figure 13.2.

Metacognition 57

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Rings and Sheets (1991) talk about the importance of grounding tutortraining programs in theoretical models such as Metacognitive Theory. They argue that the tutor who can teach learners to consciously assess and appropriately alter the strategies they use in mastering coursework would, ultimately, teach students to become self-directed learners. The concept of assisting students to become self-directed is a foundational premise of Student Development Theory.

ADULT LEARNING THEORY

Adult Learning Theory is the basis for the work that tutors do with students in higher education. As part of Adult Learning Theory, Cazarra and Silverman emphasized the importance of respecting the learner. It also is essential to be aware of the transactional process involved in which the teacher (or tutor) and learner are constantly engaged in negotiating priorities, method, and criteria for evaluation. The learner’s participation must be voluntary. The tutor must assume the role of facilitator in fostering a collaborative approach with the learner in negotiating learning activities and objectives. The knowledge educators have, in terms of learning theories, provides the basis for the creation of tutor training programs, implementation of the most helpful assessment instruments, and selection of appropriate software for a learning support program.

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14 THE HEADHEAD COACH Directing the Tutoring Program

INTRODUCTION

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side from administrative duties, the director of the learning support center is charged with the selection of a coordinator for tutorial services. The coordinator of tutorial services will be the individual responsible for the hiring and training of tutors. Hiring and training tutors to successfully meet the academic needs of the student-athlete population must be done carefully and thoughtfully. Tutors are often hired based on their success in content areas. An assumption is frequently made that, as successful students themselves, those tutors will be able to convey their own strategies for success to the students they will be tutoring. My experience contradicts that assumption, however. During my twenty-six years in the field of learning support, I have encountered many tutor applicants who, while they may be outstanding students, were unable to communicate well. Others were unable to establish good collaborative working relationships with tutees. In terms of the hiring criteria for tutors, obviously prospective tutors must be knowledgeable in the content area in which they will be tutoring. In hiring quality tutors, the following hiring criteria are recommended.

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THE PROSPECTIVE TUTOR

Must be an undergraduate student who has demonstrated competency in their academic discipline or a graduate student Must supply transcripts reflecting competency Must have successfully completed courses or related courses they will be tutoring. Must make a commitment to complete the tutor training program in a timely manner Must submit a letter of recommendation from a faculty member in the discipline to be tutored Involving faculty in the screening of prospective tutors for content area knowledge is beneficial in a number of ways. An accurate measure of the level of the tutor’s content knowledge is gained by asking the appropriate faculty member to interview the tutor candidate. Involving faculty in making tutor selections can do much to cement a cooperative working relationship between the athletic department and faculty, and the involvement of faculty in choosing tutors lends credibility to the tutoring program. At least a passing knowledge of some, or most, of the sports supported by the institution is helpful to the success of the tutor/athlete working relationship. Robin Redmon Wright, in her article titled, “Coaching Critical Thinking: Tutoring Athletes toward Self-sufficiency” (2001), talks about the development of rapport with the student-athletes with whom she worked. Aware of an “us” versus “them” attitude that student-athletes can have, in which tutors are frequently categorized as “them,” she had to overcome that mind-set. She states, “I had to assure the student-athletes that I valued all of their abilities, including those that brought most of them to college—sports. I began going to games and nurtured an interest in televised sports, which enabled me to interject intelligent comments into student-athletes’ Tuesday morning conversations about Monday night football. I quickly developed an appreciation for the unique abilities of athletes that affected my perception of what constitutes ‘genuine truth.’ The players on the television screen, as well as those on the court or field, became people with incredible talent and drive (and a surprising natural grasp of trigonometry and trajectory)” (p. 164). 60

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THE HEAD-HEAD COACH

Tutors who are able to incorporate what they are trying to convey to student-athletes in terms related to the sport of that athlete will find that tutees will comprehend more quickly and successfully. Additionally, a tutor who is aware of the demands of various sports and the culture of college athletics can better navigate that framework.

TUTOR TRAINING

The importance of tutor training is a subject on which the experts agree (Boylan et al., 2001; Casazza & Silverman, 1996; Maxwell, 1997). Without good training, which involves learning strategies, motivational techniques, and knowledge of tutoring strategies, tutors and tutoring programs are not serving the purpose for which they were intended. Rick Sheets’s (1994) study of seventy community-college tutors led him to report that those tutors who had ten or more hours of training were able to respond appropriately in tutoring situations, while those with less training were not able to identify an appropriate course of action as defined by a panel of experts in the field. Sheets’s conclusion on the length of training time is in agreement with the recommendations of the International Tutor Training Program Certification (ITTPC) Committee of the College Reading and Learning Association (CRLA) in its certification guidelines (International Tutor Training Program Certification, 2014). The function of a tutor training program is to set standards for essential skills, to ensure the tutoring program’s credibility, and to provide a structure for recognizing the good work of tutors.

CRLA RECOMMENDATIONS

There are a number of components that should form the framework of any good training program. CRLA recommends that a minimum of eight of the following topics should be covered in Level 1 training. The exact time devoted to each item may vary. definition of tutoring and tutor responsibilities critical thinking skills 61

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compliance with the ethics and philosophy of the tutor program and understanding of the nature of and policies on sexual harassment basic tutoring guidelines/tutoring do’s/tutoring don’ts techniques for successfully beginning and ending a tutor session role modeling setting goals/planning communication skills active listening and paraphrasing referral skills study skills plagiarism modeling problem solving other Some of the topics covered in Levels 2 and 3 include: use of probing questions learning/brain dominance cultural awareness and intercultural communication/diversity identifying and using resources tutoring in specific skill/subject areas assessing or changing study behaviors self-regulated learning/brain learning/memory tutoring and dealing with target populations learning centers in higher education structuring the learning experience training and supervising other tutors (supervisory skills) learning group management skills (group interaction and group dynamics) While the amount of time devoted to each training topic may vary, the CRLA guidelines specify the overall amount of training time required for certification. Clearly, the training outlined will prepare high-quality tutors. The components described above agree, in concept, with Martha Maxwell’s recommendations for a model tutor-training program. Maxwell was a pioneer in the field of learning assistance and the author of six books and more than two hundred articles in professional journals. The unique 62

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needs of each institution’s academic support program must be taken into consideration in designing a training curriculum for tutors, and the option to address those needs is provided by the CRLA under the “other” category of the above training component list. In the case of a tutor-training program designed to train tutors to work with student-athletes, the “other” category should include teaching tutors to have an understanding of the culture of college athletics. Ideally, it also should provide the tutors with some knowledge of NCAA or NJCAA rules. Bill Morgan, head of the Compliance Office at the University of Arizona, regularly participates in tutor training in the athletic department. One of the points he emphasizes is that the tutors must be clear that they are not to do any academic work on behalf of student-athletes (personal communication, November 13, 2010). In general, some of the issues that should be addressed during tutor training fall under the “study skills” category. Those issues include: effective note-taking, study skills and time management, setting academic goals, and test-taking. Tutors should be trained so they can instruct their students in how to survey assigned reading before class; what information to extract from lectures for inclusion in their notes; how to recognize verbal and nonverbal cues given by the instructor, which indicate the material he or she considers to be the most significant; and how to take notes that allow spaces to insert additional information at a later date and that allow for more effective studying from class notes. Critical thinking is a skill that is extremely important to tutees during their college careers and throughout their lives. Consequently, tutors need to develop a thorough understanding of what critical thinking involves and how to help students become critical thinkers.

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15 TEXTBOOK READING A Tutor’s Guide

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ne of the most important skills that students must have is reading their textbooks effectively. Tutor training should include effective textbook reading techniques. Students often complain about being bored at the prospect of tackling their assigned reading. Their approach to textbook reading is probably what is behind their boredom. To get anything at all from their reading, they need to be provided with some guidance and a new approach. Tutors should teach their tutees to survey their assigned reading before going to class. Doing so will help students take better notes in class. One strategy tutors can show tutees is called TISOP. Tutors should have the students consider the: T-Title I-Introduction S-Summary O-Organization P-Pictures (including maps, graphs, diagrams, etc.) The sequence used in this strategy may be somewhat confusing to students. Tutors should explain that authors tend to lay out what will be discussed in each chapter’s introduction. Then the author usually will summarize what has been covered at the end of the chapter. Therefore, reading those two sections together will give students a clear idea what is included 65

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CHAPTER 15

in that chapter’s material. The TISOP strategy is used for surveying the assigned material before attending class. Textbook reading should take an approach different from that used for reading a novel. So many students have the misconception that all books are read the same way when, in fact, even different types of textbooks will require different methods. Textbooks are to be used to support the class curriculum, and tutors may want to give high priority to textbook reading. Staring at a textbook page is not going to do anything positive for the reader. This is where tutors need to teach their tutees to make flashcards as they complete their assigned reading. Making flash cards helps the student in a number of ways: It helps students concentrate on what they are reading. It helps students create potential test questions for upcoming exams. For kinesthetic learners, the process of creating the cards helps them learn the material easier. It helps students remember vocabulary and important facts. Tutors should guide their tutees to imagine themselves in the role of instructor and, while doing so, to look for information that could be used as exam questions. Once tutees have selected that information, tutors should show students how to write questions on the front of the flash cards and the corresponding answers on the back. The cards the students produce provide excellent tools for exam preparation. There will be times when tutors will meet with resistance from their tutees, who will argue that making cards is a lot of extra work. It is important that the tutors persist in getting their students to adopt this strategy. The payoff for the students will be well worth their efforts.

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16 TUTORS, TAKE NOTE Strategies for Effective Note-Taking

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number of note-taking strategies are useful, but the Cornell note-taking method works well in meeting objectives (complete description is provided in the Playbook, pp. 161–163). How to implement the Scouting Report to take more useful, concise notes should be part of tutor training. Tutors are encouraged to use the following steps to teach studentathletes to implement the Scouting Report for learning the process of better note-taking: Tutor and athletes observe videos together and the student-athletes fill out “scouting report” forms for each video. Tutor and student-athletes discuss the completed forms. Based on the tutor’s evaluation, the video or videos are watched one more time and discussed again. The student-athletes are instructed to do a “scouting report” for each of their classes. The student-athletes are instructed to return for a follow-up session, bringing the completed “scouting reports.” Tutors should be trained in the various methods of note-taking so that they are comfortable in imparting that information to their tutees.

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17 THE CLOCK’S RUNNING A Tutor’s Guide to Managing Time

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ime management is something we all have a problem with to varying degrees. Obviously, we all have twenty-four hours each day. Successful time management means that we use those twenty-four hours in the most effective way. Good time management provides a number of benefits: a reduction of the stress from feeling overwhelmed with all the tasks we face every day, an increase in the orderliness of our life, and a greater sense of personal control and effectiveness. The purpose of creating and using a time management plan, as demonstrated in the Playbook, is to free students from the anxiety that comes from wasted time, inadequate planning, and last-minute, inferior work. Part of developing a time management plan is learning to prioritize the tasks that come from the day’s to-do list. Tutors can help students master the art of prioritization using the Prioritized Daily Task List/Appointment Schedule form in the Playbook. Tasks should be prioritized as follows: A-priority tasks (those that are the most important) B-priority tasks (those of secondary importance) C-priority tasks (those tasks that could be put off if necessary) Tutors should continue working with students on the use of the form until it becomes automatic.

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CHAPTER 17

The popular wisdom, in terms of the time students should plan on allotting for schoolwork, is two hours of preparation for each hour spent in the classroom. To reach long-term academic goals, students have to make the best use of their time on a daily basis. Students, faced with a number of academic tasks simultaneously, will often fail to do any of them and, over time, will develop a habit of procrastination. Avoiding procrastination, managing time, and setting goals are concepts that go hand in hand. Tutors are in a position to help student-athletes handle all of these successfully.

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18 REACH FOR THE PRIZE Helping Athletes with Goal Setting

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tudent-athletes are likely to be good at setting goals in developing their sport skills, which may not be the case when they are faced with the need to set academic goals. So, what is a goal? A goal is a specific and measurable accomplishment to be achieved within a preplanned time, available energy, and cost considerations. The tutor can point out that having specific goals can make them work more productively. Another benefit of achieving specific objectives is to increase students’ sense of personal control and to build self-confidence. As with any student, athletes are likely to have some behaviors that need to be curtailed, broadened, or initiated to reach academic success. The process by which students makes these changes is called Self-Modification, a concept described by David Watson and Roland Tharp in their book Self-Directed Behavior. The tutor can play a vital role in guiding students through the process of developing and attaining goals. With proper training, tutors will be able to guide the tutee through the following steps: Step 1: Help students select a goal and make a commitment to reach that goal. Certain behaviors, called Target Behaviors, will need to be changed, defined, and precise. For example, if the tutee’s goal is to earn an “A” on his next biology quiz, he will have to commit to putting in adequate study time, he will want to make sure that he understands all of the terminology in the class materials, he will have to attend each class or meet with a designated

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CHAPTER 18

classmate to get notes, and he should make time to meet with the instructor to ensure that he has all of the information about the upcoming quiz. There may be other behavior changes he might need to recognize, such as ensuring that he gets a good night’s sleep before the quiz. The behavioral changes required to earn an “A” in this case are called the Performance Goals. The goal of earning an “A” in the biology class is called an Outcome Goal. Before committing to a new set of behaviors, students may need to use self-examination to determine what led to their current behaviors in terms of preparing for quizzes and review what the specific consequences of those behaviors were. Step 2: Once the commitment to change has been made, tutors should help students work out a plan for making those changes. The plan might include changing the thought patterns that accompanied the unwanted behaviors, such as chronic procrastination. Gradually replace the ineffective behaviors with habits that can help achieve their goal. During the process of making positive changes, tutors should work with the student to evaluate, from time to time, how things are going. Students should learn to maintain the positive changes and be rewarded for them. As the tutees become more skilled in the desired behavior, they will begin to control their new behaviors through self-reminders, practicing, and collecting feedback from others. Step 3: The third step in the sequence of behavior modification is automatization. This means that when a behavior reaches this point it has become automatic. Now, presented with a situation, students will respond using the new routine without thinking. Should an interruption occur to the desired automatic response, it is possible to retrieve the behavior and bring it back under self-regulation. Reinforcement of the behavior is recommended through a system of rewards created by students, but the tutor also must make every effort to give positive feedback to students when the desired changes are evident. According to Watson and Tharp, about two-thirds of students who use self-modification techniques are successful in attaining the positive habits they want. As there are likely to be setbacks when learning new academic skills, there are probably some difficulties in reaching performance and, ultimately, 72

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REACH FOR THE PRIZE

outcome goals. Some of those challenges may arise from setting goals that are too numerous, too general in nature, or not realistic. There may also be a lack of understanding about the time and commitment involved in implementing a goal-setting program. When things seem to be going awry, the tutor and student need to evaluate the problems and redefine the steps needed to successfully reach the desired goals. Students can and do get stuck. When that happens tutors can get them back on track by providing a series of questions to ask themselves: What is one task I can accomplish toward my goal? Pick out one that can be accomplished in about five minutes and do it. The satisfaction of getting one thing done is often sufficient to get things rolling again. Am I beating myself up? Sometimes the students’ concentration will wander, and they will get behind. The students should not berate themselves for being human. Tell them to ease up and move on. Am I being a perfectionist? When appropriate (for example, class notes do not have the same standard of grammar as a term paper) lower the standards when time is short. In what ways do I waste time? Noticing where time is wasted is likely to help prevent the same bad habit in the future. Would I pay myself for what I am doing right now? If I were my employer would I pay myself for the quality of my time usage? Can I do just one more thing? If students can be convinced to do just one more thing, completed tasks will soon add up. How does one go about setting good goals? In his book titled, Enhancing Human Performance: A Psychological Skills Approach, Ronald Smith suggests the following goal-setting guidelines: Analyze the task that needs to be completed Set specific, behavioral, and measurable goals Design a way to measure goal-relevant performance 73

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Set difficult but realistic goals Set performance, not outcome goals Set positive, not negative goals Record goals after they have been identified If multiple goals are set, prioritize them Set definite time spans for attainment Provide continuous and specific feedback Evaluate and plot progress Be ready to revise goals as necessary The bottom line is that setting and attaining goals increases self-efficacy and increases motivation.

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19 KEEPING UP Helping Students Avoid Procrastination

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rocrastination is a problem in all our lives. Faced with numerous important academic tasks, students may procrastinate because those tasks seem overwhelming when all are considered at the same time. Putting off assignments causes wasted time, missed opportunities, poor performance, self-deprecation, and increased stress. It may be evidenced by letting easy, fun, or low priority tasks come before the essential, high priority work. Three underlying issues that lead to procrastination are perfectionism, inadequacy, and discomfort. Perfectionists, who believe they must turn in the most exemplary paper, will wait until all available resources have been gathered or endlessly write draft after draft. Worry over producing the perfect project prevents them from finishing on time. Feelings of inadequacy also can cause delays, as can feelings of discomfort related to performing particular tasks. Having an awareness of the underlying causes of procrastination should help alert tutors to the need to assist their students in developing and following a specific plan to deal with the problem. Working with another person on a project is one way to combat the problem. Another way is to break the task down into smaller subtasks, setting definite target dates for the completion of each subtask, and blocking out specific times in a planner to work on each smaller piece of the job. The idea is to make continuous and measurable progress toward the goal. Some further suggestions that tutors might make to students include: 75

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CHAPTER 19

Use positive self-statements to get things rolling: “There’s no time like the present” or, as my mother used to say, “The sooner you get this done, the sooner you can go play.” Design clear, specific goals with a timetable for completing them and prioritize the steps needed to reach those goals. Don’t “catastrophize.” Expecting to fail or believing that you are no good at something will create a wall of fear that can stop you cold. Recognize that what you are feeling is probably not grounded in facts. Moving step by step through the completion of the project and using positive self-talk along the way will prove that your doubts were unfounded. Get organized. Commit yourself to doing the task. Make a contract or tell a friend, partner, or tutor. Use prompts. Put reminders in conspicuous places. And, when you have completed the task, reward yourself. Tutors can easily use these strategies when working with their students.

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20 SWEATY PALM SYNDROME Tutors Can Calm Exam Anxiety

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requently, tutors will hear their tutees claim to have anxieties about exams. We all respond to the news that there is an impending exam with some degree of worry, ranging from a mild level of concern to a fully blown panic attack. A certain amount of anxiety, as shown in figure 20.1, will actually enhance performance on a test, as it does in athletics. The tutor can remind studentathletes that they and their teammates will work at getting themselves fired up for a game with the knowledge that, by doing so, they will perform better. Being overly tense, however, will impair performance or cause athletes

Figure 20.1.

Inverted U-Hypothesis 77

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CHAPTER 20

to “choke.” In athletics, choking can interfere with muscle performance and reaction time. When exam-related stress reaches too high a level, there can be interference in the ability to think, concentrate, and remember. It is important to determine if tutees are, in fact, experiencing true test anxieties. When a tutor is presented with such a complaint from students, she may have to do a little detective work to discover what is going on. There are rare occasions when a student may have a previously undetected learning disability or the student may have failed to adequately prepare for the test. As a tutor of many years, I experienced a situation in which a studentathlete did poorly on a test in spite of the fact that I knew she had studied, and understood, the material that would be on that test. After asking her many questions about the material, the format of the test, and what questions were on the test, I went to my supervisor and explained to him that I had some concerns about what had taken place. I expressed my feeling that a learning disability was a possibility. The student went through a series of tests. The results showed that she did, indeed, have a learning disability but, with appropriate accommodations, she could successfully take exams and pass. In her case, she did very well when test questions were presented to her orally. In determining the presence of test anxiety the tutor will need to ask the student some questions: Are you aware of being so nervous on a test that you don’t do your best and lose points, in spite of the fact that you know you studied well and are prepared? Does your stomach get tied in knots or upset before or during a test? Do your hands get cold and sweaty? Do you get headaches before or during a test? Do you have trouble sleeping the night before a test? Do you ever find your mind racing or feeling foggy, so that you can’t think while taking a test? During a test, do you find that you forget material you studied and learned, only to remember it after the test is over? Do you find yourself overanalyzing and overthinking test questions and seeing too many possibilities among the answer choices? Do you often overlook and miss the simple correct answer? 78

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Do you make careless errors on tests? Have you had some bad experiences with tests, that is, made poor grades when you didn’t expect them? Do you spend a lot of time and energy studying and preparing for tests, yet fail to get the grades that represent what you know? Do you lack confidence in yourself as a student because of this? Are tests and exams a particularly miserable time for you? There are a number of simple questionnaires in this book that tutors can use to measure the level of stress experienced by a student. Studies have shown there is little relation between test scores and subject mastery, nor do tests have any relation to one’s future success (McKowan, 1981, p.42). Tests are, unfortunately, a fact of academic life and doing well on them has more to do with test-taking ability than content knowledge. An individual’s own thought processes create the psychological reality of the stress level he or she is experiencing. Four different elements are involved in appraising any situation: Appraisal of the demands Appraisal of the resources available to meet those demands Appraisal of the nature and likelihood of potential consequences if the demands are not met The personal meaning of the consequences for the individual (Smith, 1993) Cognitive restructuring and self-desensitization are two areas in which tutors can help their students by sharing strategies aimed at reducing the fear of academic challenges. Cognitive restructuring is a process in which negative thoughts are changed into positive ones. Confronted by a perceived threat, in this case the exam, we often say negative things to ourselves, for example self-statements such as, “This is awful! I always mess up on exams. I’m no good at this stuff.” Such self-talk triggers an emotional response. By changing the negative thoughts, we can, argues Smith, change our emotional responses. The first step is to examine the truth of the self-talk: 79

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CHAPTER 20

Are the self-talk statements based on objective reality? Are the statements helpful to the individuals? Do the statements help students reach their short/long-term goals or do they get in the way? Do the statements reduce emotional conflict or help the students feel the way they want to feel? Once the tutor and students have evaluated the reality of negative selfstatements, the tutor can help the students counteract this unproductive, stress-causing thinking: Some points the tutor can make to the students include the following: No human being is ever perfect all the time. As an athlete, you do not expect to win every game, nor do you expect to execute every play perfectly. As human beings, we need to allow ourselves and others to make mistakes. Strive to be the best you can be, but don’t expect to be perfect. In life, the goal is progress, not perfection. Making one error does not mean you are incompetent. As an athlete, when you make mistakes, you strive to do better the next time and you usually do just that. Another method by which students can learn to cope with stress is through self-desensitization. The process tutors may use to help students overcome exam anxiety involves leading tutees through progressively more anxiety-producing scenarios called a Stimulus Hierarchy. The scenarios are arranged in order from the least anxiety-producing to the most anxietyproducing. The students are to focus completely on Scenario 1 until they are totally relaxed. They are not to move to any other scene until they have learned to become completely relaxed with the preceding scenario. The scenarios progress in the following order: Scenario 1. Hearing that someone they know is going to have a test. Scenario 2. The instructor announces that the student is going to have a test in three weeks.

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Scenario 3. The instructor reminds the student’s class that they are having a test in two weeks. Scenario 4. The upcoming test is coming up in one week. The student overhears classmates talking about studying for the test. Scenario 5. The student’s instructor reminds the class about what they will be tested on in two days. Scenario 6. The student leaves class the day before the exam. Scenario 7. The student is cramming the night before the exam. Scenario 8. The student is getting up the morning of the exam. Scenario 9. The student is walking toward the building where the exam will be given. Scenario 10. The student is walking into the exam room. Scenario 11. The instructor is walking into the room with the tests in his hand. Scenario 12. The instructor is handing out the tests. Scenario 13. The student is reading the exam questions. Scenario 14. The student sees other students finishing the test. Scenario 15. The student sees a question he can’t answer. Scenario 16. The instructor is waiting for the student to finish the exam. The tutor can help the student evaluate his level of relaxation after visualizing each scenario by asking the student questions about the physical symptoms he is experiencing after each one. Once the tutor and student together have determined that the student has learned to neutralize the stress experienced while visualizing each particular scenario, it is time to move on to the next one. The process continues until the student has worked, one by one, through each of the scenarios in the Stimulus Hierarchy. At each stage, the student must focus on that scenario and only that scenario until he or she is able to elicit a complete relaxation response. The student can do a quick self-analysis of the state of relaxation by checking for the presence of physical symptoms, such as heart rate, rate of breathing, sweaty palms, and so on. West Virginia University offers a strategy for test taking called the Key P’s: Positive Attitude: “I can do this” Persistence: It takes work to succeed; perspiration.

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Preparation: The most vital “P” of all. Participation: Get involved with the material: Ask, “What is interesting about this course? How does it relate to my goals, my life, and me?” Pose questions. Be able to ask and respond to questions on test material. Poise: Be cool. The state of relaxed attentiveness is best. Ask, “Can I be calm enough to show what I know?” Tutors can give their students valuable advice in several areas related to exam anxiety. In terms of dealing with the tension itself, remind students that a certain level of stress is not a problem, but rather, enhances performance in both athletics and academics. With that in mind, the tutor can suggest that students take some time to relax. Some rest time and exercise such as bike riding, long walks, or a workout session will help relieve some of the tension. Encourage students to develop a positive attitude and look at the exam as an opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge rather than see it as a threat. It is important to remind students that anxiety is contagious. Staying away from classmates right before an exam is good advice because others’ nervousness can increase the student’s own apprehensions. Many athletes will wear earphones and listen to music off in a corner by themselves as a way of preparing their minds for the competition that lies ahead. The same strategy can be helpful to the anxious students before an exam. During the time leading up to the exam, the tutor might suggest a number of strategies to students, the most important of which is to start studying early and avoid last-minute cramming. Remind students to set up a study routine that includes one-hour sessions interspersed with breaks. Make sure the students remember to make a habit of carrying their vocabulary and concept cards with them. Having portable study materials handy allows students to take advantage of extra study time that can happen when they are standing in line, waiting for a friend, or between classes. The tutor should remind his tutees that careful planning would eliminate the need to stay up all night before an exam. Encourage them to spend some time the night before the test reviewing the material and, then, get a good night’s sleep. This is important because sleep deprivation prevents clear thinking.

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SWEATY PALM SYNDROME

Remind students that exams do not represent who they are as a person but are a measure of how good they are at taking tests. Having carried out all the necessary steps to prepare for the exam, the next step is to make sure to bring all the tools needed during exam time: a watch, pens and pencils, student ID, and the like. Searching for these items the morning of the test is not a good idea. Instead, suggest to tutees that they assemble everything they will need the night before and put everything by the front door. Tutors can do much to help their tutees take their tests with all of the basic skills they need and to help them approach their tests with self-confidence, knowing that they have everything necessary for success. Here are a number of things that students should do once they arrive in the exam room. Sit up front. That reduces the number of distractions. Put name on paper. It seems absurd to have to remind students that they need to write their name and other required information on the test but, unfortunately, many students forget to do this. Read the entire exam first. A tutor must convince students that they need to read over the entire exam before beginning to respond to any questions. Time spent: Students should note the number of points possible on each portion of the test, so they will know where to spend the most time to get the most points. They will also find questions that they can immediately respond to, with the result that they will accumulate points as quickly as possible. Reading and silently articulating the instructions are important. How disheartening to find that points were lost, not because test takers did not know the material, but, because the students misread the question, the response was incorrect. Especially in the case of essay questions, it is helpful to write down memorized information, keywords, and ideas. Using these strategies is a wonderful confidence-builder in a stressful situation.

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21 UNDERSTANDING TEST FORMATS

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ests come in a number of formats. Objective tests, problem-solving tests, and essay tests are common. Objective tests include multiple choice, true or false, and the matching format. Of these, the most popular is the multiple-choice form. Some tests may be a combination of formats. The purpose of objective tests is to measure the test taker’s ability to remember and recall many facts and figures and to assess their ability to understand the course content. In addition, these types of tests are looking at the test taker’s ability to determine how ideas, facts, theories, and observations differ from, or are similar to each other. Students will do better on tests if they know what type of knowledge the instructor expects students to have. Is the instructor emphasizing memorization of factual details, terms, definitions, and the like or an understanding of ideas and concepts? The tutor can help students determine the instructor’s approach to the course material by going over past tests. Whatever the format, tutors should do everything they can to convince their students that reviewing every returned test is essential. Of course, the safest approach is to ensure that the students understand the facts and the underlying ideas and concepts that support those facts. To help tutees prepare for objective tests, tutors should emphasize that students must understand the vocabulary involved. Every discipline has what amounts to its own language. For example, the vocabulary for a computer course will be very different from that of a biology course. Without a complete understanding of the vocabulary, students will not understand the 85

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textbook material or what the instructor is talking about in class. Certainly, students will not be able to understand test questions. This is where index cards come in. While the students were doing their assigned reading, they should have been creating flash cards on which they wrote and defined vocabulary and key concepts for the course. Carrying two or three of these cards at all times and looking them over when there are a few available minutes between classes, when waiting for a friend, or standing in line will help the student memorize the new vocabulary. Another helpful approach to preparing for objective tests is to use concept mapping, create charts and tables, or make lists that examine the relationships within the course concepts. There are times when tutors must recognize their own limitations in terms of helping students who experience extremely high levels of stress when facing exams. Under those circumstances, tutors should discuss these concerns with their supervisor, who may refer the students to counseling. There is much that tutors can do to help students become first-rate test takers. Collecting practice tests and administering those to tutees under conditions as close to the actual testing situation as possible will help reduce test anxiety. Giving students the hows and whys of approaching test situations with as much confidence as they bring to athletic competition is an important key to success. It will be helpful if the tutor can give students a specific set of strategies for actually taking exams. Since the multiple-choice exam tends to be the most popular form used by instructors, let’s look at what pointers the tutor can share.

MULTIPLE-CHOICE TESTS

Each multiple choice has two main parts: the stem, which is the statement or question, and the choices or answer options. There are usually three to five answer choices. Too often, students in their haste to answer the question and move on read the stem too quickly. It is important to read and process the stem before looking at the answer options. If students are allowed to write on the test, urge them to underline the key words in the stem and translate the question into their own words. 86

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Suggest that students read each of the answer options along with the stem. Instruct students to beware of negative or qualifying words such as always, never, or only. These words mean 100 percent of the time, not 99 percent, and these answers are usually incorrect. However, there are exceptions to this rule. Have students eliminate answers that are clearly incorrect. Have them reread the remaining possible answers together with the stem and predict the right answer. If students don’t know the answer, they should skip the question and come back to it later. It is important to rack up as many points as possible, as quickly as possible. When returning to the questions, students should reread the question. They may have misread the question the first time. What students may not know is that instructors often will ask the same question, using different wording, somewhere else in the exam. Finding the same question, with different wording, may trigger the right response from students. If that is the case, the student can now return to the question she skipped and answer it with confidence. If the student decides that he does not know the answer, he should eliminate those choices that are clearly incorrect and make the best guess. If a guess is made, emphasize to students that they should not question themselves. A learning assistance professional and former instructor told me that she observed many of her students second-guessing themselves by changing their first answer to an incorrect choice. She instructed her students to leave erasers at home when taking her exams. Her point was that students’ first instincts in guessing answers were usually right.

TRUE-FALSE TESTS

True-False test questions can be tricky because the test writer tends to focus on details when creating the questions. To test students’ mastery of the material, the test maker will sometimes word questions in such a way that, unless students pay close attention to what the question means, mistakes can be made in choosing the answer. Since the odds of choosing the correct response are 50-50, students tend to have false confidence that they will do well on this type of test and do not read each question carefully. For a statement to be true on this type of test, 87

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it must be true 100 percent of the time. Consequently, tutors should make sure that their tutees understand that words such as always or never mean without exception. If students can think of any exception, the statement is false. Words like some, usually, and not often denote true statements. Each question, however, must be carefully interpreted to avoid making an error in selecting a response.

MATCHING TESTS

Matching tests also allow students some opportunity for guessing. Two columns of items will be presented, and students must establish the relationship between items in the first column to those in the second. Tutors can provide their tutees with the following advice: Remember that the relationship is the crucial factor in matching items. To do well, there must be an understanding of how concepts relate to each other. Therefore, students must be clear that just memorizing facts and concepts are not enough. Students need to process information presented in class and make sure that they understand the class material. Have students cross out the items in both columns each time they use it as a match. Remind tutees that, if only one match per item is allowed, as items are eliminated, a few of the latter items may be guessed.

PROBLEM-SOLVING TESTS

Problem-solving tests involve taking material presented in class and applying that information to solve problems. Math exams are the most common of this type of test. To prepare for problem-solving tests, show students the following steps: Review notes and the textbook, underlining or listing the concepts and formulas covered. 88

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Highlight those topics, concepts, and problems that were emphasized and know why they were emphasized. The most important factor in preparing for problem-solving tests is practice, practice, practice. Solving as many new problems as possible will ensure that students understand all of the concepts presented in class. When working with tutees, have them use the “think-aloud” approach: Have the students describe each step as they work through each problem. Have each tutee analyze the problem by answering the following questions out loud: What concepts, rules, and formulas did I use? What methods did I use? How did I begin? Have I seen this problem before? Is this particular problem similar to, or different from, other problems I have previously solved? How does my solution to this problem compare with the examples from the text and class? Could I have solved this problem using a different method? Can I simplify what I did? The process of verbalizing the steps and the thinking behind solving problems will allow the tutor to discover any existing gaps in tutees’ understanding of the material and the opportunity to remedy any potential problems before the test. To further help tutees prepare for a problem-solving exam, set up exam conditions by having them solve as many problems as possible in a set time limit. The tutor can show students valuable tips in taking problem-solving tests: If it is permissible to write on the test, turn it over and write down formulas, definitions, and relationships that are in their memory. Alternatively, request scratch paper on which to write these items. Have students look over the entire test before answering any questions. As they look through each problem, suggest that students make any notes about their thoughts related to those problems. 89

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Emphasize planning time for the entire exam, allowing more time for the questions with the highest point values. Encourage students to allow some time at the end of the test to review responses. To reduce anxiety, have students do the easiest problems first. For the more difficult problems, tutors should share the following strategies with their tutees: Emphasize the importance of reading through the problem carefully to ensure that it is understood. Instruct them to underline key words, draw a diagram of the problem, and identify the givens and the unknowns in their own words. Suggest that they make notes in symbols, diagrams, graphs, or tables of all the information provided in the question. For complex problems, students should list all the formulas that might be relevant to solve the question and then decide which formula will be needed. If students are faced with problems for which they have no solution method, suggest the following: If possible, write out an equation that expresses the relationships among all the givens and unknowns, being sure to include all of the data and facts of the problem. Think of similar problems done in the past to select a solution method. Break the problem into smaller chunks and work through each piece, thus building up to a solution. Try a solution and check it. Sometimes, the process of checking will suggest the correct solution method. If all of the above fail to bring about a solution, mark the question and move on to other questions. Subsequent questions may trigger a solution to the marked ones. Be sure to check each solution for consistency and completeness. All notations must be easily read and legible. Try to answer all questions. Sometimes partial solutions are given some points.

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Review all your solutions to make sure that your answers make sense. If you are running out of time, set up the problems so that you have the possibility of earning partial credit.

ESSAY TESTS

Essay exams often cause the most anxiety for students. The idea of having to put together a cohesive piece of writing in an exam situation can seem like a nearly impossible task. Tutors can show students how to prepare for and take essay exams successfully. To prepare for essay exams: Tutors should go over the instructor’s course description, teaching objectives, and syllabus with their tutees. Doing so will give students some place to start to create a list of possible questions that the instructor might ask on the exam. Go through the class text and notes and determine how that information relates to the class description and the course objectives. Look at how the course topics relate to each other. From these sources, generate a series of potential essay exam questions. From course notes, texts, and other assignments, write complete answers to the generated questions keeping in mind the course objectives and description. When writing answers to the generated questions, relationships among topics are learned in addition to the factual material. Relationships are often what the instructor will focus on when creating exam questions. One of the most important parts of studying to take an essay exam is to have a thorough understanding of the terminology that the instructor might use in formulating essay questions. Tutors can provide valuable assistance in helping their tutees prepare for essay exams by having students take the Essay Exam Matching Quiz (see appendix A). Tutors should impart the following strategies to help students successfully take essay exams:

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Always read the entire exam before responding to any of the questions. While reading over the questions, ideas and examples should be jotted down on a piece of scratch paper or on the back of the exam if writing on the exam is permitted. Note the points allowed for each question and budget time accordingly, allowing time for proofreading and any surprises such as the exam taking longer than expected or drawing a temporary blank on a question. Underline key words such as compare, explain, justify, define, or the like as you read the questions. Begin with the easiest questions to help reduce anxiety. Before beginning responses, take the time to create an outline and keep in mind relationships between the concepts and words stated in each question. In spite of appearances to the contrary, creating outlines for each response will save time in the long run and lead to well-thought-out and properly organized answers that ultimately earn more points. Create a working title for your essay, and check back to make sure you are not deviating from the topic. Change the title if necessary. Be sure to define a thesis that directly refers to the issues. The thesis must be stated in the first few sentences of your response to the question. Be sure to include examples, supporting facts, and relevant details in your response. Use terminology appropriate to the course. Each course will have its own vocabulary, and the instructor will expect students to understand and use that terminology. Write on every other line and only on one side of each page. Doing so will allow additions to answers. It is better to provide partial answers to a question than nothing at all. If you run out of the time you have allotted for a particular question, leave it and move on. Turning in at least an outline for those questions may earn you partial credit. Be sure to reread your responses to ensure that you have answered completely and clearly. Check your answers for spelling, grammar, and punctuation.

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One of the most helpful habits a tutor can teach students is to review all past tests and exams. Reviewing tests can provide insights into what the instructor is likely to focus on when it comes to final exams. Analyzing errors can help the tutor and students create a plan to fix such mistakes in the future. The plan may address problems with how students are taking the exam itself. It can also uncover gaps in understanding of the course material. If tests are not returned, students should be instructed to go to their professor’s office where the test and the graded answer sheet will be available. Regardless of the test’s format, students should read all comments and suggestions from the instructor. The process for reviewing objective tests should include the following steps: Review each question to determine its origin. Did it come from the text, class notes, outside assignments, or the lab? Check the questions you answered incorrectly. Determine why the correct answer is different from the answer you gave. Did you misread the question? Were questions asked for which you had not prepared? Reread the questions to determine if the instructor tends to focus on concepts and ideas as opposed to specific details from the course content. Did the instructor want test takers to be able to analyze information from a broad range of materials? Did you have trouble concentrating on the test because you were experiencing a high level of anxiety? Were you able to complete all of the test questions? As is the case in analyzing objective tests, the analysis of problem-solving tests should include reviewing any comments and suggestions from the instructor. In addition, the following steps should be taken: How were the problems presented in the test different from those in the class notes, textbook, and other class materials? Determine if errors were the result of carelessness. Were negative signs used where positive ones should have been used or vice versa? Were questions not read completely, thereby missing some of the essential data? Did the test taker consistently make errors on the same kinds of problems?

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Did the test taker forget formulas learned in class? Did the test taker run out of time? Was the test taker ill-prepared to solve specific types of problems? Reviewing the results of essay tests requires the same attention to the instructor’s remarks, suggestions, and a determination of the origin of the test questions. There are, however, other issues to be examined. In going over the returned test with their students, tutors should look at the following: Ask students if the problem in answering any of the questions was because of a lack of preparation or did students misread or misunderstand the question itself? Was the problem related to a failure to budget the available test-taking time? Did anxiety get in the way of concentration and the development of good responses to the question or questions? Testing is not a pleasant experience for anyone, but with the proper preparation, and with practical strategies in place, students can become accomplished test takers.

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22 BEING CRITICAL IS GOOD Critical Thinking

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ritical thinking is a skill that benefits anyone who masters it. Mastering the ins and outs will help tutors and tutees throughout their lives. Critical thinking is many things: Critical thinking provides a means by which truth can be separated from fiction and accuracy from distortion. Critical thinking provides a way to determine what something really means. Critical thinking means not taking information at face value but looking for what information might be missing and why. Critical thinking opens the door to the consideration of a wide variety of ideas and encourages learners to be cautious while analyzing and examining ideas. Critical thinking looks at ideas and divides complete information from that which is incomplete. Above all, critical thinking can open the door to a change in the ideas and beliefs of the thinker. Critical thinking is essential to being a good student. We are living in the “information age,” and during our college years we are presented with an overwhelming amount of information on a wide variety of subjects. Processing all of that information can seem like an enormous task, and 95

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there may be temptation to avoid tackling the process. Tutors need to have a thorough understanding of how it works to have the capability to help their tutees become accomplished critical thinkers. Tutor training should always include guidance for the tutors in understanding critical thinking and, in addition, strategies and tools for helping their tutees implement critical thinking processes. Tutors should be aware of the points to emphasize in explaining critical thinking to their tutees. Look at the source of the information and check to see if the author in question is knowledgeable. Determine if the author has a particular bias or prejudice that might have an impact on how the information presented is expressed. Use more than one source for information. An issue can have many sides and can have a significant impact on one’s life and one’s choices. Tutors should be trained to ensure that they make clear to their tutees the importance of considering different points of view before making decisions on how those issues impact their own lives. Choose a primary source of information instead of a second- or thirdhand source. Tutors will want to make sure that their tutees understand that information can become distorted as it passes from one source to another. Check the date of the information. The more recent it is, the more likely it is to be correct. Be cautious in accepting information produced from surveys or polls. Often polls are distorted to reach a covert, biased conclusion. The survey questions may be worded in such a way that the results are prejudiced. Methods of analyzing data may produce slanted results. Ensure that tutees understand that information that comes from media sources may be biased by covert values and beliefs of their authors and editors. Point out to tutees that the field of advertising is particularly prone to providing information containing hidden messages, slanted statistics, and outright untruths to sell products. Tutors should be able, through their training, to guide students in understanding what the commercial is really saying and analyzing it to determine its veracity. Understand the basics of statistics and how they are used. Tutors need to guide their students in evaluating how data are collected, the appropriateness

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of the sample size, the inclusion of a sample group, the length of the study, and what the conclusions based on the statistical information represent. The concept of statistical probability should be included in tutor training. In the Playbook portion of this text, the following example is included. As captain of a football team, you are asked to choose heads (H) or tails (T) during the coin toss at the beginning of the game. Which of the following is the most likely to occur: HHHHH, TTTTT, HTHTH? The truth is that any of these sequences has the same chance of occurring because a coin has no memory. So, should you choose heads or tails? It doesn’t matter which choice is made because there is a 50-50 chance that either choice will be the right one. Including the above example in tutor training will help tutors and their tutees have a clear grasp of the concept of statistical probability in a way that may clarify its meaning and importance in the critical evaluation of statistical information. It is important that tutors be able to convey to their tutees that they should not allow themselves to be locked into conventional wisdom. Critical thinking can uncover misinformation. Being open to a thoughtful analysis of new information may change the conclusion. Tutors should remind their tutees that an anecdote is just one person’s experience and therefore does not provide sufficient evidence on which to base conclusions. Tutors need to remind their students to check for exceptions when considering theories presented. Theories are just suppositions. Any exception disproves its absolute truth. The search for evidence to support facts is crucial to the critical-thinking process. Tutors need to ensure that their tutees understand that, without this piece, tutees cannot make intelligent decisions about accepting or rejecting the information presented to them. In terms of guiding students to become accomplished critical thinkers, tutors should provide the following framework for their tutees: Be prepared to change your own thinking. Don’t be afraid to think outside the box. Dare to think the “unthinkable.” Practice, practice, practice critical thinking.

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Critical thinking is one of those incredibly important skills that tutors can share with their students. Based on the extensive information presented to students during their college careers, whether in the classroom or in their sport, critical thinking is essential. Beyond college, those students who learn to be effective critical thinkers will have the edge in being successful in their career paths—wherever those paths take them.

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23 JUST DO IT Motivational Theories

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here are situations in which it would be valuable for the tutor to have knowledge of motivational techniques. Academic motivation is important in determining future academic success. Training sessions are recommended to address factors that may negatively impact a student’s motivation. The concept of motivation is difficult to define. Raymond Wlodkowski, in his research on motivation, found that most psychologists and educators define motivation as “those processes that can (a) arouse and instigate behavior, (b) give direction and purpose to behavior, (c) continue to allow behavior to persist, and (d) lead to choosing or preferring a particular behavior” (1986, p. 12). Some of the issues tutors may encounter in working with student-athletes are those who are finding school too difficult, those who feel that their problems are overwhelming or hopeless or both, those who are passive and don’t contribute to the session, and those who want a tutor to write a paper or do their homework for them. There are many situations that are difficult and, if not handled correctly, can destroy a good working relationship between the tutor and the student-athlete. It is incorrect to conclude that students are not motivated. Many are just not inclined to do what we want them to do at that particular time in that particular setting. Student-athletes, who are highly motivated to excel in their chosen sport, are often not as motivated academically.

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There are many possible reasons for this apparent contradiction. Student-athletes may feel conflicted about attempting to implement new study strategies. They have worked hard to develop a self-image as a winner. By choosing to opt out of changing their approach to academics, they allow themselves to maintain that image. Robin Redmon Wright (2001, pp. 157–170) points out that athletes have focused their energy on developing their athletic skills to allow them to compete at the college level. They have had experiences and developed skills that are not necessarily valued or understood by their instructors. They have a demonstrated ability to be successful athletes and should be encouraged to continue. While “lip service” is given to the notion that student-athletes should be equally passionate about academics, the demands of their sport tend to interfere with academics. Making changes academically requires both moving out of their comfort zone and some hard work. Given the amount of time and energy required for their athletic endeavors, student-athletes may decide that focusing on athletics should be their priority. They may be getting subtle messages from their coaches that support that belief. Getting coaches’ support in convincing their players that academics should receive equal attention is an essential piece of the academic support program.

COVINGTON’S QUADRIPOLAR THEORY

Martin V. Covington (1984) described four motivational types of students (pp. 5–20). His research was based on John Atkinson’s theory that motivation fell into two categories: the motivation to strive for success and the motivation to avoid failure. Covington called his four types of students success-oriented, over-strivers, failure-avoiders, and failure-acceptors. His research identified students who are success-oriented as follows: They score high on measures of approaching success. They score low on failure avoidance. They have a strong sense of self-worth. They believe that they have the ability to compete academically. They have good study skills. 100

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They are able to accurately judge the difficulty of tasks. They expect to succeed. They take pride in their academic achievement. They tend to be intrinsically motivated. They work hard and efficiently. They have a history of strong academic performance, which reinforces their feeling of self-worth and gives them confidence in their ability to succeed academically. They attribute failure to factors they can control, such as inadequate study. Any guilt they have arising from failure spurs them on to more efforts in the future. Those who fall into Covington’s over-strivers category exhibit the following characteristics: They score high on both measures of approaching success and avoiding failure. Their fear of failure leads them to strive hard to succeed, which they often do. They work extra hard and have good study skills. They have a more fragile sense of self-worth than failure-avoiders. Small setbacks can have lasting effects. Because of the emotional significance of failing, they often experience test anxiety. Covington’s failure-avoiders demonstrate the following traits: They exhibit low motivation to attempt success. They receive high scores on measures of failure avoidance. Their low scores on self-worth measures stem from a history of academic failure. They may develop maladjusted motivation. They may focus more on avoiding failure than on striving for success. They may be negatively motivated by the fear of failure and the anticipation of shame. They may be likely to limit the effort expended. 101

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They may be likely to engage in self-handicapping behaviors such as procrastination, handing in assignments late, exhibiting test anxiety, and so forth. These behaviors provide excuses for poor performance. They are likely to rationalize that the above are the factors that kept them from succeeding, rather than low ability, thus protecting an already fragile sense of self-worth. Covington labels his final category as failure-acceptors, those who exhibit the following characteristics: They score low on both measures of approaching success and avoiding failure. They are not particularly attracted to success. They are not too concerned about failing. They have a history of failing. They have a low sense of self-worth. They are not confident in their ability to succeed academically. They do not try very hard. They exhibit some of the same self-handicapping behaviors and excuses as the failure-avoiders. They are not really interested in academics. They may have given up entirely on academics. They may at one time have been failure-avoiders, whose history of continued academic failures produced a learned helplessness. While teachers and tutors have no direct control over students’ motivation, they can have some influence over it by creating the best possible circumstances in which they can be successful. An understanding of some of the theories of motivation will help tutors understand the benefits of a number of recommended approaches.

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

One of the best known and widely accepted theories of motivation is presented by Abraham Maslow (McLeod, 2012.). His theory, shown in 102

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figure 23.1, is based on a hierarchy of needs that drive human behavior, differentiating between those needs related to survival and those that are acquired through learning. At the bottom of the hierarchy are those needs most basic to human survival: food, water, shelter, and the like. Maslow identifies the levels as follows: Physiological needs—air, water, food, sleep Safety needs—security, freedom from fear, order Belongingness and love needs—friends, spouse, children Esteem needs—self-respect, achievement, and reputation Self-actualization—becoming what the individual is most suited for It is obvious that without food, water, and air to breathe, we will die. Likewise, if our internal organs cannot get rid of the body’s waste products and our internal systems are out of balance, we cannot survive. Beyond that, if we did not have sex, our species would die out. According to Maslow, once our most basic survival needs are met, we tend to want some organization, order, and protection in our lives. Having a set of rules to live by gives all of us comfort. We want to be safe in our homes and secure in our jobs.

Figure 23.1.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Motivation 103

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As shown in level three, the Love/Belonging tier of Maslow’s pyramid, our species will begin to look to others to alleviate loneliness and social anxiety. We desire to have affection and love from friends, spouses, children, and our community. In the case of student-athletes, they will look to teammates and coaches, as well as friends, family, and significant others, for a sense of love, companionship, and belonging. Maslow’s fourth level, Esteem Needs, is divided into two categories: The lower category includes the need for dignity, appreciation, recognition, attention, status, fame, and glory. The upper category encompasses feelings of competence, achievement, confidence, self-respect, independence, and mastery. Looking at Covington’s Quadripolar Theory, it becomes evident that Maslow’s fourth level comes into play in the case of failure-acceptors and failure-avoiders. Tutors working with student-athletes who appear to fall into one or both of these two groups should ask probing questions. The inquiries should attempt to discover the possible presence of unmet basic physiological needs from the lower level of Maslow’s pyramid. It is at this point that the tutors may find it necessary to use their referral skills by introducing the students to someone on the counseling staff. According to Maslow’s theory, only when lower-level needs are satisfied will higher-level needs be addressed and the individual motivated to meet those needs. Self–actualization, at the highest level, is, according to Maslow’s Theory, uncommon and achieved by mature individuals who have reached their full potential. It is certainly not up to the tutor to meet these needs but to be aware that they might be a factor in academic performance.

ATKINSON’S EXPECTANCY THEORY

Atkinson’s Expectancy Theory argues that people’s motivation to act depends on two factors: (1) their estimation of the probability of being successful and (2) the incentive value they place on success in the activity (Hohn, 1995, p. 278). This belief can be represented by the formula: M=P × I where M=motivation, P=probability of success, and I=incentive value. Another way to look at motivation according to expectancy theory is that motivation is a combination of: valence, the value of the perceived outcome 104

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or “What’s in it for me?”; instrumentality, the belief that completing certain actions will bring about a certain outcome; and expectancy, the belief that one has the ability to complete the actions. If an advisor recommends a particular course to students indicating that it provides a good opportunity for achieving a high grade and that a high grade is necessary to raise their GPA, the students are likely to be motivated to do well in that class (Hohn, 1995). The tutor, with the proper training, is able to address the “P” in the equation by showing their students the study strategies that will increase the possibility of success.

WEINER’S ATTRIBUTION THEORY

Bernard Weiner, in his Attribution Theory (1985, pp. 548–573), argues that people are driven by a need to have causal understanding of their world or, in other words, to understand what causes certain outcomes in their lives. He claims when people attribute their past successes and failures to particular events or traits those outcomes will determine the extent of their motivation in attempting things in the future. In other words, attribution theory, as it applies to motivation, is that one’s own perceptions or attributions for success or failure determine the amount of effort that will be put into that activity in the future. Those students who attribute academic success to internal factors, such as, “I really put some time into studying for that test,” earn better grades than do equally competent students who relate success to external factors, “Dr. X always rewards his favorites” (Hohn, 1995). Four factors related to attribution theory that influence motivation in education are ability, task difficulty, effort, and luck. These four factors are defined as follows: ability: a relatively internal and stable factor over which the learner does not exercise much direct control; task difficulty: an external and stable factor that is largely beyond the learner’s control; effort: an internal and unstable factor over which the learner can exercise a great deal of control; luck: an external and unstable factor over which the learner exercises very little control. According to Weiner, the individual also considers whether or not he can control the situation (e.g., difficulty of a test) as a factor in his expectations 105

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for future successes. Stability or instability is the last of the attributions in Weiner’s theory. Success or failure under stable conditions would ordinarily lead to anticipation of future success or failure, and as Hohn puts it, “causal conditions that are perceived as likely to change will be less affected by present successes or failures because the present outcome is not expected to be repeated” (1985, p. 18). Through self-modification techniques and strategies designed to help attain academic success, tutors can show students that they have the power to improve their academic skills and outcomes.

BANDURA’S SELF-EFFICACY THEORY

In 1977, Albert Bandura introduced the concept of self-efficacy, which is the belief that one can accomplish a given task and is an important part of student motivation (Bandura and Schunk, 1981, pp. 586–598). Selfefficacy drives how people feel, think, and behave. Those with high levels of self-efficacy look at difficult tasks as challenges to be readily approached and mastered rather than as threats to be avoided. They are rarely defeated by setbacks or failures but remain committed to the task they have set for themselves. In the face of a failure, they will attribute the failure to a lack of effort on their part or a deficiency in knowledge or skills, a situation that they perceive as easily rectified. Those with low self-efficacy, however, will not demonstrate high levels of commitment to tasks they assign themselves. They tend to dwell on their own deficiencies, potential obstacles, and possible negative outcomes. They are quick to abandon their efforts, have difficulty bouncing back from adversity, and are more likely to experience stress and depression. Dale Schunk (1991) identifies the following variables as enhancing the students’ sense of self-efficacy: (1) goal setting, (2) using cognitive strategies, (3) using classroom models, (4) receiving feedback, and (5) teacherprovided rewards. Of these, the first two are under the control of the students. Schunk argues that students should set and attain their own goals because, by doing so, their self-efficacy is enhanced. He advises that students focus on proximal (short-term) goals before setting distal (long-term) goals and specific goals rather than general ones.

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According to Bandura, there are four major sources of self-efficacy: mastery experiences, social modeling, social persuasion, and psychological responses. The first of these, mastery experiences, simply means that performing a task successfully will build self-efficacy. Social modeling is the observation of someone who has achieved success and is therefore deemed an example for achieving success. That raises the belief that the observer has possession of the same capabilities and can therefore complete similar tasks. Bandura also asserted that people could be persuaded to believe that they have the capabilities to succeed. Consequently, he believes that giving verbal encouragement will help people overcome self-doubt and instead focus on putting forth their best efforts to complete the task at hand. Students’ academic efforts are tied to their perceptions about what contributes to their successes or failures. The factors to which they attribute their results may include ability, task difficulty, effort, and luck. Task difficulty and luck are beyond their control, and there is not a great deal they can do to control their innate abilities. Students have complete control over their efforts, however, and it is the job of everyone associated with the academicsupport program to convince them that effort equals success. Most schools, whether they are two-year or four-year institutions, offer some form of instruction in study strategies. The expectation for providing this assistance is that if student-athletes are taught study strategies their grades will improve as a result. Research conducted by Dembo and Praks Seli (2004, pp. 2–11), however, found that this is not necessarily the case. They believe that motivational factors provide an explanation for the failure of students taking study skills classes to change. To be specific, the failure to change is attributed to the following: Students believe they can’t change, they don’t want to change, they don’t know what to change, or they don’t know how to change. For those who work directly with student-athletes, there are some things identified that can increase students’ motivation. Students require help to develop a belief that they are academically competent and that occasional failures are the result of insufficient effort or even bad luck. Students must be assured that success is not entirely related to ability. They must understand that successes are, in fact, a combination of ability and hard work.

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When students do fail, they then are more likely to continue to improve if they attribute the failure to a lack of sufficient effort. If, however, they continue failing after they put forth appropriate effort, they are likely to give up and conclude that they are incompetent. The job becomes to help them start with small successes and build on those. It is important to help students understand that achieving academic success is up to them and not the result of outside factors, such as the teacher or the test. Along with their own effort, showing them strategies will help get them on the right track and ultimately help them to achieve academic success. Helping students change their self-concept from negative to positive is something to be especially focused on with student-athletes who are struggling academically. Find the areas in which the student-athletes are successful and help them see the connections between those sports successes and academics. Changing students’ mind-set about the importance of effort to improve their grades, and their will to commit to the process, can be very challenging. It will take time. Start with the small successes and repeatedly show students how their effort and the implementation of appropriate study strategies can make a positive difference. The focus here needs to be on convincing students that they are perfectly capable of changing. Those students who are most in need of courses on learning-to-learn are usually the ones who are reluctant to seek help. There is, however, the option of requiring that they attend these courses. Pat Nugent, the former head football coach at Pima Community College, required all of his football recruits to attend a series of workshops provided by the Learning Center on campus. While some recruits grumble about the requirement, most of the players come to accept the idea and ask when the next workshops are scheduled and what the topic will be. Some show up early, and almost all actively participate in the workshop. One of his players, Zach Schira, a quarterback, commented that the workshops were “absolutely helpful,” especially, in his opinion, the time-management and note-taking workshops. A resistance to making changes after attending study skills classes may be, in some cases, the result of overconfidence on the part of the student. The danger is that overconfident students may have an unrealistic view of their academic skills and may refuse to take responsibility for failures, shifting the blame to instructors or to the tests. 108

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As Dembo and Seli (2004, pp. 2–11) point out, people cannot change behaviors that are unconscious. They cite a number of studies that demonstrate that when behaviors are repeated to the point where they become automatic, such as driving a car or tying shoelaces, it is difficult to give a description of what those processes are. Coaches often have to take an athlete aside and provide some individualized coaching instruction to undo some bad habit that the athlete has developed. That athlete is often unaware of what is causing the problem and continues to struggle with it. It will take practice and repeated coaching sessions to help the athlete feel comfortable with the changes being demonstrated. The athlete then understands that making those changes leads to athletic success. A study skills assessment should be provided to show the athlete which study skills need improvement. Based on the results of the study skills assessment, which can be provided by the learning center or the advising/counseling office, it becomes evident exactly what type of assistance is needed. The applicable instruction can then be provided to show students how to implement those skills and make them academically successful when used in conjunction with their efforts. There are some general guidelines for tutors to use in motivating their tutees: Always be positive. Believe that students can always be successful and show them the possibilities of reaching their academic goals. Divide problems or projects that seem overwhelming into manageable parts. Help students to set reachable goals within deadlines. Encourage working ahead of schedule to allow for an occasional day off.

TUTORING STRATEGIES

If students are finding school too difficult: Help students to see their past successes in their academic endeavors. Help students to set some reachable short-term goals. 109

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Determine if students are putting in the required time and are using effective study strategies by asking probing questions. If students perceive their problem is overwhelming and/or hopeless: Have students meet with the professors concerned. Suggest that students meet with their academic advisor. Make students aware of the resources available to them (tutoring, counseling, research librarians, etc.). If students are passive and don’t contribute to the session: Ask students to work at the board. Make sure that you are not doing all of the talking. Try to elicit active responses from students by asking questions that cannot be answered with a yes or no. Make sure to wait (count to ten) for a response. If students want you to write a paper or do homework for them: Never do students’ work for them! Try to help students feel capable of doing the work themselves. There are many ways of doing this, but one example is to praise the students for successfully completing some portion of their work. Be sure that students understand the school’s rules regarding academic integrity. The most important thing to remember when working with studentathletes whose motivation seems to be lacking is to refrain from making hasty judgments. It is vital to the academic success of students to take the necessary time to uncover the reasons that are contributing to the apparent lack of motivation. Then, the tutor and students together can create a strategy that will help them move forward in a positive direction. Bear in mind that student-athletes are recruited mainly because of their athletic talents. Their athletic prowess has been developed and rewarded by coaches, parents, and peers and, consequently, the student-athlete has both 110

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commitment and confidence. Those who have had significant influences in their lives have valued their athletic successes. On the other hand, their academic background may have been one of success or repeated failure. The bottom line is that support services and programs for athletes must be designed to focus on increasing academic motivation and, ultimately, improving academic performance. There must be a commitment to balancing athletic demands with academic demands.

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24 LET’S CHECK THIS OUT Assessments

T

he first step in providing support services for student-athletes is to know in what area(s) they need support. Knowing at what level each athlete is in terms of academics and life skills informs service providers where to focus their attention. Most colleges assess the cognitive skills, such as reading, writing, and math, of all entering freshmen. Two commonly used assessment instruments are the Compass and Accuplacer tests. There are a number of tests available and choices will vary according to each school’s preference. In most cases, cognitive tests, combined with scores on the ACT or SAT tests, are used as predictors of future success in college academics. Regarding cognitive skills testing, W. E. Sedlacek (1989) argues, “If success is measured as retention or graduation, non-cognitive variables have more validity than other measures for all students in terms of predicting college success” (pp. 33–39). In 1985, Tracey and Sedlacek (Gaston-Gayles, 2004) did a study in which they assessed seven noncognitive variables: positive self-concept, realistic self-appraisal, understanding and dealing with racism, setting longterm goals, strong support system, leadership experiences, and community service experience. The purpose of the study was to determine the relationship among these variables and academic performance. They found that, across four years of

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college, noncognitive variables accurately predicted academic performance. Interestingly enough, Sedlacek and Adams found that noncognitive variables, particularly self-concept, self-appraisal, support systems, and community service, were better predictors of academic performance in the first year of college than were SAT scores (Gaston-Gayles, 2004). It would appear, therefore, that tests that measure noncognitive variables should be administered to all incoming athletic recruits. There are a plethora of assessment instruments available on the market, but the following are comprehensive tools for assessing both cognitive and noncognitive variables. Clare Weinstein, PhD, is an author of both the Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI) and the PEEK (perceptions, expectations, emotions, and knowledge) tests. In an e-mail message to her learning-assistance colleagues, Weinstein described the differences between LASSI and PEEK in terms of the purpose of each test. The purpose of LASSI is to provide measures of students’ cognitive skills and strategies, their motivation and attitude, and their self-regulation for learning. PEEK, on the other hand, addresses students’ perceptions and expectations about their personal, social, and academic environment in their particular higher education setting.

LASSI

Of the tests available on the market, LASSI is probably the most widely used. Of the three testing methods described here, LASSI is the most comprehensive and, arguably, the most useful for assessing a wide range of variables. LASSI is made up of eighty items that provide information on ten scales (Weinstein et al., 2002). It examines covert and overt thoughts, behaviors, attitudes, motivations, and beliefs that relate to successful learning in college. The variables that are measured are those that can be altered through academic interventions. The diagnostic aspect of LASSI reveals strengths and weaknesses of a student compared to other students nationally. Prescriptively, LASSI

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provides feedback about areas where students may be weak and where they need to improve their knowledge, skills, attitudes, motivation, or beliefs. The author identifies three components: skill, will, and self-regulation. The skill component measures information-processing ability, the ability to select main ideas, and test strategies. Measurements in the will component include anxiety, meaning the degree to which students worry about school and their grades, and their attitude and interests in college and in achieving academic success. The third piece of the will component is a measure of motivation, the students’ diligence, self-discipline, and readiness to exert the effort necessary to successfully complete academic requirements. The last component of LASSI is self-regulation. It measures concentration, self-testing, the students’ skill in reviewing and monitoring comprehension in order to determine their level of understanding the information to be learned, time management, and students’ ability to use study aids such as practice tests and other available resources. LASSI is useful in many ways: It can serve to increase students’ awareness of their own learning/studying strengths and weaknesses. It provides a diagnostic measure to identify areas in which students can benefit the most from academic interventions. It helps the school to plan individual prescriptions for remediation. It provides pre- and post-measures of achievement for students who have participated in “learn to learn” classes. It provides a tool to assess the degree to which intervention courses or programs have been successful. It provides an advising/counseling tool for orientation programs, advisors, developmental education programs, learning assistance programs, and learning centers. The purpose of LASSI is to provide measures of students’ cognitive skills and strategies, their motivation and attitude, and their self-regulation for learning. PEEK, on the other hand, addresses students’ perceptions and expectations about their personal, social, and academic environment in their particular higher education setting.

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PEEK

The functions of PEEK as a measure of college expectations dictate that it be used early in students’ college careers. In addressing the rationale for using PEEK, its authors point out that “many academically able and gifted students drop out of college during their first year because of personal, social, or academic expectations that are not fulfilled or are not accurate” (Weinstein et al., 2006). The results of PEEK help to identify students’ expectations, ideas, beliefs, and attitudes about what college will be like for them. The instrument consists of three categories: academic, personal, and social. The academic category measures students’ expectations with regard to the difficulty of college courses and the nature of learning at the college level, as well as the nature of college instruction and the roles and responsibilities of the instructors. The personal category measures what students believe they will experience in terms of their emotional reactions to college, the degree to which they are prepared to do college-level work, how college fits into their plans for the future, and the degree to which they will take personal responsibility for their own learning. The third category is social. It measures a student’s expectations about the social pressures they will face in college. This section also measures their expectations about what their future interactions with instructors might be, the nature and makeup of their college’s populations, and relationships with friends, family, and other students while they are in college. PEEK is essentially used to do the following: Assess students’ expectations about what college will be like for them Provide baseline data about students’ readiness to profit from learning experiences they will have in college Aid student affairs and orientation specialists in comparing students’ expectations to the expectations and characteristics of the school Help students to identify possible discrepancies between their expectations and the expectations and characteristics of the institution so they can adapt more effectively to college Provide baseline data for orientation programs, student advisors, and counselors, bridging from high school to college Provide useful information for institutional data gathering 116

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INCLASS

The seven scales of the INCLASS test measures (Miles and Grumman, n.d., n.p.): Interest in lifelong learning (Interest in lifelong learning is defined by the test’s authors as the students’ ability and desire to continue to learn, whether from formal schooling or on their own.) Sense of Quality (Sense of Quality is a measure of the extent to which students take pride in their work and the willingness to invest the time and energy to produce high quality work.) Taking Responsibility (The Taking Responsibility category examines the students’ desire to complete tasks they have begun and their willingness to ensure that all aspects of tasks have been done well.) Persistence (The Persistence category provides a measure of the extent to which students will go to stay with a task until it is satisfactorily completed.) Working in Teams (The Working in Teams category looks at how comfortable students feel when working in teams and whether they are able to use the skills associated with effective teamwork.) Problem Solving (The Problem Solving category measures the students’ interests and skills at using systematic problem-solving methods for complex problems.) Adapting to Change (Adapting to Change evaluates students’ level of comfort with frequent or major changes in their environment.)

MSLQ

The Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) was developed at the University of Michigan in 1986. Designed to measure college students’ motivation and use of specific learning strategies, the test has been used extensively internationally and across several disciplines, such as educational psychology, social science, biology, and dietetics (Pintrich and DeGroot, 1990).

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Intrinsic goal orientation means the students’ perception of why they are engaging in a learning task. Extrinsic goal orientation is the degree to which students perceive themselves to be participating in a learning task for the purpose of earning grades, rewards, evaluation by others, and competition. Task value is the students’ evaluation of how important the task is, how useful it is, and how interesting it is. Control beliefs about learning are the students’ beliefs that learning efforts will result in a positive outcome. Self-efficacy for learning and performance are the students’ beliefs about their ability to accomplish a task. Test anxiety is the extent to which students experience a level of stress that may interfere with performance when taking exams. Rehearsal means those strategies used for the retrieval of information from working memory and for tasks such as reciting or naming items from a studied list. Elaboration refers to the ability to use paraphrasing, summarizing, creating analogies, and other strategies that help students store information in long-term memory. Organization is a measure of the students’ ability to cluster, outline, and identify main ideas when reading passages for the purpose of selecting appropriate information and to find connections within the information being learned. Critical thinking is the students’ ability to apply previous knowledge to new situations to solve problems, reach decisions, and make critical evaluations. Metacognitive self-regulation is the students’ ability to check and correct their behaviors as they complete a learning task. Time and study environment is the students’ ability to schedule, plan, and manage their study time and to create a quiet, organized, and distraction-free study environment. Effort regulation is the students’ ability to control their effort and attention in the face of distractions and uninteresting tasks. Peer learning is the extent to which the students will collaborate with peers on learning tasks, a behavior that has been shown to improve student performance. 118

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Help seeking. The test’s authors cite research that shows that seeking peer help, tutoring, and assistance from faculty has a positive effect on student achievement.

VARK

The VARK questionnaire (Visual, Aural, Read/write, and Kinesthetic) is a sixteen-item test that is a popular measure of learning styles. It is widely used and is available in a version for athletes. The version for athletes can be found at http://www.vark-learn.com/english/page.asp?p=athletes. Copyright information and permission forms are available at http://www. vark-learn.com/english/page.asp?p=copyright. Under the help sheet section, there are a series of help pages for study strategies directed toward different learning styles. Aside from the comprehensive tests described above, there are additional approaches that focus on specific measurements. Assessment of learning styles can be useful to students by increasing their self-awareness about how they learn best. The information can be helpful to tutors who, by knowing their own best approach to learning as well as that of their tutees, can adjust their tutoring techniques to create the most effective learning environment. A concise and straightforward assessment form can be found at www.columbiabasin.edu/onlineadvising under learning preferences. Students can take the test online and get immediate results by clicking on the submit button. While there is a cost involved in putting each athlete through a battery of tests, doing so will, in the long run, allow the athletic program to focus its efforts on providing services tailored to their student-athletes. The end result is actually more cost effective and fulfills the moral responsibility to support the young people who commit their time, energy, and athletic ability to the school. While the attainment of good study skills and time management are important to the success of any student, for the student-athlete they are absolutely essential given the extra demands of an athletic career. In 1994 the University of Arizona Wildcats won the national softball world series, one of many championships for Arizona softball. The winning pitcher for that team was Susie Parra, who told me that as a freshman student-athlete, time 119

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management was one of her biggest challenges (personal communication, August 21, 2011). Tutors should be trained to help their tutees determine when the daily study time should be for maximum efficiency, how to determine semester goals, and how to prioritize their daily tasks. All student-athletes should be sure to have the name and telephone numbers of two or more people in each class on whom they can depend for notes when they are required to be on a road trip. The athlete should expect to return the favor. They should select classmates who are either nonathletes or athletes from sports that will not be on road trips that coincide with their own. Exams and tests can create a great deal of stress for any student, but using good test preparation and test-taking strategies can significantly reduce that stress. The tutor should always ask for the dates of tests. They should know how to guide the student-athletes in studying effectively and how to analyze the results to help them learn from their mistakes. Tutors should also be able to demonstrate for the student-athlete how to anticipate possible exam questions from their assigned reading and their notes. Providing learning assistance for student-athletes requires that the tutors go beyond working with the student-athletes on course content. The tutors are teaching their tutees skills that will translate into the life skills that will significantly benefit student-athletes in their future careers. Some tutors will need to learn new skills to manage tutoring sessions. Provide tutors with some guidelines as to what should be done before the first tutoring sessions, and what should be accomplished during that first and subsequent sessions. Proper training should allay any anxieties that a novice tutor may experience.

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25 THE TUTORS’ TOOL KIT Tutoring Strategies

A

n essential component of tutor training is providing them with strategies aimed at moving them from success in their content areas to their development as skilled tutors. These strategies include paraphrasing, demonstrating writing or diagramming acumen, using reference resources, testing, summarizing, and remaining silent when appropriate. Paraphrasing involves rephrasing students’ responses to tutor questions to help clarify concepts and to fill possible gaps in the tutees’ understanding. Demonstrating serves to show how something is done. It will help students grasp an abstract idea as the tutor describes how to gain an understanding of something. At the same time it will give tutees a sense of the process involved. Writing or diagramming on the board is an exceptionally effective strategy when working with a visual learner. The use of the board also keeps the tutee actively engaged in the learning process and allows the tutor to better evaluate if the students understand the material. Using references shows no one has all of the answers and that includes tutors. In fact, it is much more advisable for the tutor to admit to their tutees that they do not know the answer but will share ways to find the information. One of the most useful skills a tutor can share with tutees is how to access information, since this is a skill that tutees will find useful throughout their lives. Testing by developing and administering practice tests can be an excellent way for a tutor to evaluate and reinforce students’ learning. Professors 121

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may be willing to provide practice tests to be kept on file in the library or the learning center. Summarizing is a process whereby the student takes the information the tutor and the student have discussed and gives it back to the tutor in the student’s own words. While most tutors think of summarizing as an activity to be used at the end of tutoring sessions, it may prove useful to stop during the tutoring session and ask for a summary of what has been learned up to that point. Summarizing can be done verbally or in writing. Breaking down the information in small pieces proves useful to most students. Remaining silent will encourage students to play an active role in the session. Try counting to ten before answering a question for the student. The silence gives the tutee a little extra time to answer or comment on the subject. It also prevents the student from being rushed and will help the student to develop confidence. Rushing to fill a void in conversation can often cause communication to break down, resulting in the tutoring session being a one-way process. Checking notes taken by student-athletes will determine if they have been attending class.

THE GOLDEN RULES: TUTORS’ CODE OF CONDUCT

The issue of confidentially cannot be ignored with respect to tutor training. Tutors must understand that to violate students’ privacy is to violate the law. The fact is that many student-athletes are grist for the media mill. Tutors may find themselves in a position where they are tempted to disclose information about the student-athletes with whom they work to inappropriate recipients. The right to privacy of educational records is protected by the Family Education Rights and Privacy Act of 1974, which stipulates that students’ educational records and personal information shall not be accessible or released without the consent of the students. The tutor must understand that any conversation or information about students outside of the tutoring setting is grounds for immediate dismissal. There are certain expectations that must go hand in hand with the tutoring position. Those expectations are as follows:

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THE TUTORS’ TOOL KIT

Students are to be treated with RESPECT and as adults. All students are to be considered academically capable. Preparation should be made for each session, and every session should be worthwhile for each student. Tutors must demonstrate academic integrity.

PRACTICE, PRACTICE, AND MORE PRACTICE: MASTERING THE BASICS

Intensive tutoring during student-athletes’ first year, along with guidance in making behavioral changes, will provide the first step on the road to academic success. There are those who would argue that such intensive tutoring creates a dependence on the tutor. According to Watson and Tharp (1988) any new behavior, as it is being learned, however, is regulated by external sources, in this case, the tutor. As students become more skillful in the desired behavior, they begin to be in control through reminding, practicing, goal setting, and collecting observations.

BEING AN ALL-AROUND PRO: CHAMPS LIFE SKILLS PROGRAM

Helping our college athletes learn life skills is very important even though developing excellence in academics is undeniably a priority. We need to use a holistic approach in developing our support services, and that means that we also must address the building of personal, career, and community service skills in a comprehensive program. With a holistic approach in mind in 1991, the NCAA Foundation began efforts to create a comprehensive development program for student-athletes. Through a collaborative effort with the Division 1A Athletic Directors’ Association, the CHAMPS Life Skills Program was created. CHAMPS stands for challenging athletes’ minds for personal success (NCAA CHAMPS/ Life Skills Program, 2009, n.p). The development of the program was a three-year process, and in 1994, the NCAA Foundation made the program

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available to NCAA-member institutions. During the summer of 1994, representatives from forty-six schools participated in the first orientation for NCAA-member institutions. Since then, participation in the CHAMPS program has grown. Development of the program continues today under the direction of the NCAA Educational Affairs Department. The NCAA ’s Leadership and Advisory Board and the NCAA national office promote and financially support the CHAMPS program. It is the role of the educational affairs staff to oversee the further development of the program and to provide services, support, and programs to the participating institutions. Like NCAA membership, any institution and any conference office may join the CHAMPS program and access any of the program’s resources available from the national office. The CHAMPS program addresses the mission of the NCAA, which states: The mission of the NCAA is to maintain intercollegiate athletics as an integral part of the campus educational program and the student-athlete as an integral part of the student body. With this in mind, the CHAMPS Life Skills Program was created to support the student-athlete development initiatives of the NCAA member institutions and to enhance the quality of student-athletes’ experiences within the context of higher education. According to the web page for the CHAMPS Life Skills Program, they have the following objectives: To promote student-athletes’ ownership of their academic, athletic, career, personal, and community responsibilities To meet the changing needs of student-athletes To promote respect for diversity and inclusion among student-athletes To assist student-athletes in identifying and applying transferable skills To enhance partnerships between the NCAA member institutions and their communities for the purpose of education To foster an environment that encourages student-athletes to effectively access campus resources To encourage the development of character, integrity, and leadership skills The program does not specifically dictate what the member institution will provide in terms of support services for its student-athletes. Rather, it provides a framework upon which each institution can build its life-skills 124

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program. In response to the program’s commitment to academics, member institutions may choose to provide, for example, workshops on goal setting, time management, study skills, and other related topics. Development of career skills might include training in résumé writing, interview skills, dressing for success, and networking. Scheduling appointments with career services might be included. In the area of personal development, member institutions may include education in personal growth and decision-making skills, counseling and other services that promote emotional well-being, teaching stress-management skills, and education about substance abuse and sexual responsibility. The CHAMPS Life Skills Program also encourages student-athletes to serve their communities by becoming involved in community service. Visits to local elementary schools are one way to involve athletes in serving their community. Contributing their time and talents to Habitat for Humanity projects also is rewarding and helpful. Service learning provides a win-win situation in which student-athletes can serve community organizations, enhance classroom learning, and gain insight into possible future career choices.

A WIN-WIN PROPOSITION: SERVICE LEARNING

Service learning, or experiential learning as it is sometimes called, is a strategy that enhances classroom teaching and learning by integrating instruction with community service as shown in figure 25.1. Service learning opportunities are becoming increasingly available as part of many college classes. Not only do students enrolled in classes that include service learning components have the opportunity to make a contribution to the community, they also, in many cases, have a chance to learn more about possible careers. Coach Brandon Sanders (personal communication, September 8, 2010) spoke about his regret that he did not have the time to explore future career possibilities because of time constraints of his college athletic career. Advisors of student-athletes might want to investigate what service learning opportunities are available on their campuses. For student-athletes there is the appeal of receiving college credit while at the same time providing service to their community. 125

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Figure 25.1.

Kolb’s Cycle of Experiential Learning

At the present time the National Junior College Association (NJCAA) does not have a program like the NCAA ’s CHAMPS/Life Skills Program. A study of thirty-three two-year colleges in eleven states (Keim and Strickland, 2004, pp. 36–44), however, showed that 100 percent of schools in the study provided orientation/transfer activities, academic advisement, and basic skills instruction, as opposed to only 94 percent of four-year institutions. The two-year schools provided support services for their athletes at a higher percentage than did the four-year schools across the scope of student-athlete support services. In the case of the community colleges, the support services are the responsibility of student services department rather than athletic departments as is the case in four-year schools.

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3 THE PLAYBOOK: STRATEGIES FOR ACADEMIC SUCCESS

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26 WHERE AM I AND HOW DID I GET HERE? GOAL SETTING Inherently, each one of us has the substance within to achieve whatever our goals and dreams define. What is missing from each of us is the training, education, knowledge and insight to utilize what we already have. —Mark Twain INTRODUCTION

A

s a student-athlete, you have developed some skills that give you some advantages in the classroom. Becoming aware of the skills you already have and learning how to use those skills to become a very successful college student will give you academic self-confidence. You will find that your attitude toward school will improve and your motivation will increase. A study conducted by Gaston-Gayles (2004) argues that the ability to transfer skills from the athletic domain to the academic domain can make a significant difference in the level of confidence with which student-athletes approach academics. Having spent twenty-six years in the field of academic support services, my hope is that I can show you the incredible potential you have to be an outstanding college student, in addition to being a very good student-athlete. Nobody comes to college with the intent to do poorly. I am convinced that everyone who enters a college or university wants to be a good student but may 129

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lack the skills to reach that goal. So, I hope that you will try all of the strategies I will outline in the following pages and that you will, as you do in your sport, practice each strategy. You already know that practicing the basic skills of your sport leads to success on the court or the field. The same truth applies here. WHERE AM I AND HOW DID I GET HERE? GOAL SETTING

As an athlete, you constantly set goals. Those goals include performance goals and outcome goals. So, what is the difference between the two? You have a big game coming up next weekend. Your team’s goal is to beat the opponent. That’s an outcome goal. But what do you, as an individual, have to do to win that game? You will have specific performance goals that prepare you to do your part in the game: watching films of the other team, spending time in the weight room, visiting the training room if necessary, and putting yourself in the right mind-set to perform at your peak. In this scenario, is the outcome goal or the performance goal the more important part of the equation? You can’t control all aspects of the game to achieve a win. What you can control are the performance goals that will, hopefully, bring about the desired outcome. It is up to you to define those performance goals. In academics, it is just as important to set goals. Would you get on an airplane if you didn’t know where it was going? Of course, it is always best to know exactly where you are going if you want to achieve success. So, let’s find out how to do that. WHAT EXACTLY IS A GOAL?

A goal must be specific and measureable. You must be conscious of your goal and know the specific energy and time it will require of you. Writing down a goal statement will clarify what your future might look like. A well-defined goal statement is the foundation for goal achievement. The goal is only as good as its statement of desire and intent to: Fulfill one’s responsibilities, Solve a problem, Be creative and innovative, and Have a better personal, academic, athletic, and business life. 130

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The “S.M.A.R.T.” way to ensure that all of the elements of a well-defined goal are included in each goal statement is to include the following principles: SPECIFIC MEASURABLE ACTION-ORIENTED REALISTIC TIME- AND RESOURCE-CONSTRAINED A goal statement that contains these elements will provide an excellent basis for setting and monitoring progress and achieving the goals. DO IT THE SMART WAY: UNDERSTANDING AND CREATING A S.M.A.R.T. GOAL

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S.M.A.R.T. GOALS ARE SPECIFIC

Specific means detailed, particular, or focused. Being specific means spelling out the details of the goal. Rate the following statements. Are they specific enough to spell out the details of the desired goal? Measurable goals are quantifiable. That means there must be a way to determine whether you have reached your goal. Doing something “better” or “more accurately,” or even “precisely” are not specific enough to tell you much because they are words that can be interpreted differently by different people at different times. What you need in a goal statement is wording that leaves no doubt that you have, in fact, reached the mark. Action-oriented goal statements tell what is to be done to reach the goal. What that means is naming the activity, performance, operation, or something that will produce results. There must be an action verb in the statement like earn, reach, do, or some word that indicates that something is going to be done. Realistic goals are practical, achievable, and possible. Goals must motivate you to improve and to attain reachable ends. For a goal to be motivational, you must think that it can be achieved. You must believe in the goal before you are willing to expend the effort and energy toward reaching that goal. Realistic goals are practical, achievable, and possible. Are the following goals realistic?

Time-constrained refers to the time limitations or deadlines you set for your goals. Which of the following statements actually represent examples of deadlines and which just express times in general?

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Write your own specific deadlines below. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________

EXAMPLE OF A S.M.A.R.T. GOAL STATEMENT

One year from today, I will reach a body-fat composition of 18 percent, running on a treadmill for a minimum of one hour each day, six days a week. Sometimes, you can experience some difficulty getting started at writing goal statements, so here’s what you do. Just write down any possibilities that come to mind. Don’t be critical about whether what you have written meets the criteria of a good goal statement. Just brainstorm the possibilities. Once you have completed this step, it’s time to pick apart each possibility and determine: Is this an idea I truly want to pursue as a goal? What do I need to do with this idea to turn it into a S.M.A.R.T. goal statement? 133

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Setting goals, as a college student-athlete, is one of the most empowering things you can do for yourself, both in the academic and athletic arenas. And learning how to set goals now will stand you in good stead whatever career you choose. GOAL-SETTING ASSESSMENT

Read the following statements and rate yourself as you generally are (not as you would like to be) with respect to setting and reaching your goals. For you to learn more about yourself, it is important to be honest in your responses. Answer YES if the statement is generally true of you, and NO if it is not.

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Athletic Goals Life Goal: Imagine what you want to achieve and where you want to be in the next 10–20 years.

College Goal: What do you want to accomplish while you are in college? This should help you attain your life goals.

Semester Goal: What do you want to achieve this semester? This should help you attain your life and college goals.

Now identify three short-term goals that will help you reach your semester goal. For example, to increase your vertical jump by 5 inches, you may list increasing your leg strength by 20 percent.

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Athletic Goals For each short-term goal, identify achievement strategies you will need to reach your goals successfully. For example, to increase your leg strength 20 percent, you could do squats three times a week in the weight room, four sets of stadium stairs three times a week, and plyometrics twice a week. Achievement Strategies for Short-Term Goal No. 1:

Achievement Strategies for Short-Term Goal No. 2:

Achievement Strategies for Short-Term Goal No. 3:

List below any obstacles you might face in trying to reach your semester or subsemester goals. Identify a plan for overcoming each one.

Now that you have defined your athletic goals, share this information with at least one trusted person who will be able to support you. Ask this person to help you stay true to your goals. Also, keep this goals sheet visible as a reminder of what you are trying to accomplish. For example, rewrite in your own words, tape them to your bathroom mirror, or tape them to the refrigerator. 136

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Academic Goals Life Goal: Imagine what you want to achieve and where you want to be in the next 10–20 years.

___________________________________________________________ College Goal: What do you want to accomplish while you are in college? This should help you attain your life goals.

___________________________________________________________ Semester Goal: What do you want to achieve during this semester? This should help you attain your life and college goals.

Now identify three short-term goals that will help you reach your semester goal. For example, if earning a B in your economics class was your semester goal, you might list earning at least B’s on all exams and earning an A average on your two group projects as your short-term goals.

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___________________________________________________________ Academic Goals For each short-term goal, identify achievement strategies you will need to reach your goals successfully. Your strategies might be: to attend all your classes, go for tutoring, review all your class notes, join a study group, talk with your instructors each week to discuss any questions you have, and begin studying for each exam at least five days in advance.

Achievement Strategies for Short-Term Goal No. 1:

_________________________________________________________ Achievement Strategies for Short-Term Goal No. 2:

_________________________________________________________ Achievement Strategies for Short-Term Goal No. 3:

_________________________________________________________ 138

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List below any obstacles you might face in trying to reach your semester or subsemester goals. Identify a plan for overcoming each one.

Now that you have defined your academic goals, share this information with at least one trusted person who will be able to support you. Ask this person to help you stay true to your goals. Also, keep this goals sheet visible as a reminder of what you are trying to accomplish. For example, rewrite in your own words, tape them to your bathroom mirror, or tape them to the refrigerator. Career Goals Life Goal: Imagine what you want to achieve and where you want to be in the next 10–20 years.

___________________________________________________________ College Goal: What do you want to accomplish while you are in college? This should help you attain your life goals.

___________________________________________________________

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Semester Goal: What do you want to achieve during this semester? These should help you attain your life and college goals.

Now identify three short-term goals that will help you reach your semester goal. For example, if earning a B in your economics class was your semester goal, you might list earning at least B’s on all exams and earning an A average on your two group projects as your short-term goals.

Career Goals For each short-term goal, identify achievement strategies you will need to reach your goals successfully. Your strategies might be to network with professionals in your field and speak with the hiring department where you’d like to work. Achievement Strategies for Short-Term Goal No. 1:

_________________________________________________________

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Achievement Strategies for Short-Term Goal No. 2:

_________________________________________________________ Achievement Strategies for Short-Term Goal No. 3:

_________________________________________________________ List below any obstacles you might face in trying to reach your semester or subsemester goals. Identify a plan for overcoming each one.

___________________________________________________________ Now that you have defined your career goals, share this information with at least one trusted person who will be able to support you. Ask this person to help you stay true to your goals. Also, keep this goals sheet visible as a reminder of what you are trying to accomplish. For example, rewrite in your own words, tape them to your bathroom mirror, or tape them to the refrigerator.

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27 IF YOU PLAY THE WAITING GAME YOU’LL LOSE Ways to Ban Procrastination A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step. —Lao-tzu, The Way of Lao-tzu Chinese philosopher (604 BCE–531 BCE)

I

f anyone has ever told you that they never procrastinate, don’t buy it. We are all guilty of procrastinating to varying degrees. What is procrastination? Technically, procrastination is the avoidance of a certain task or some kind of work that needs to be accomplished. Procrastination can be tied to a multitude of emotions connected to the word itself. For most of us, the word “procrastination” is associated with thoughts of guilt, laziness, anxiety, inadequacy, or stupidity and, perhaps, to a combination of perceptions. Ultimately, the word has a negative connotation. There are many causes of procrastination including: Lack of relevance: “This just isn’t part of my world.” “This just doesn’t matter to me.” Lack of interest: “This is so boring.” Perfectionism: “I just have to do this perfectly.” Evaluation anxiety: “I just can’t do this because people will think that what I do is not good enough.” Ambiguity: “I really don’t understand what I am supposed to be doing.”

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Fear of failure and self-doubt: “What if I totally mess this up?” “I’m not sure I can do this.” Fear of success: “If I do this really well, everyone is going to expect me to do well every time.” Inability to handle the task Lack of information needed to complete the task Environmental conditions: Clutter and disorder in work area Unavailability of needed materials Inadequate lighting Distractions Uncomfortable room temperature Physical conditions, such as fatigue You are actually overextended, trying to do too much. Whatever your sport, you know that you may not want to go to practice, team meetings, or work out in the weight room, but you do it because you know that by doing those things, you become a better athlete. You show up on time and do what has to be done. The same approach works for eliminating the procrastination that will sabotage you as a student. For instance, if you think that you lack the training or skills that will win a game, your coach is there for you. For winning the academic game, you also have coaches. Those coaches are called tutors, advisors, counselors, and faculty members. Let’s look at some of the ways you can help yourself overcome procrastination. One of the most important steps is to change the way you think about the excuses you make for not getting things done. Some of the things procrastinators tell themselves include: “I work best under pressure.” “I’ll watch just fifteen more minutes of television and then I’ll do it.” “It won’t matter if I’m a little late; no one else will be on time.” “One more day won’t make a difference. I’ll just put it off until tomorrow.” 144

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“As soon as I know how I want the first paragraph to read, I’ll be able to start on this paper.” Take note of the cop-outs you commonly use. In fact, write them down in a column on one side of a piece of paper. Start challenging those excuses by writing down realistic thoughts that contradict those excuses. Here are a couple of examples. If you use the excuse, “I’m just not in the mood to do this right now,” challenge that statement by telling yourself, “If I wait until I am in the right mood, I may never get this done. It’s my actions that will get it done, not my mood.” If your inner voice says, “I’m just lazy,” remind yourself that such a label will only bring you down, does nothing for your self-confidence, and may make you procrastinate even more. Tell yourself that you can prove this is just not true and get started on the task at hand right now. Getting started is the key to finishing the job. As an athlete, positive self-talk is a big part of becoming a champion. Whether or you are practicing a new skill or competing, you must keep telling yourself, “I can do this.” Some positive self-statements that can help are: “There’s no time like the present.” “The sooner I get done, the sooner I can go meet my friends and have some fun.” “There’s no such thing as always being perfect. I am human and, as such, I am allowed to make mistakes, so I am not going to let my fears stop me.” “It’s less painful if I do it now than it will be if I have a deadline staring me in the face, and I haven’t even started this project.” Don’t believe the negative thoughts that you are bound to fail and that a catastrophe will be the result. That can only create a wall of fear that will stop you cold. As an athlete, you know that you have fears that you might fail in a competitive situation, and you also know how to overcome those fears to perform well on the field or on the court. Recognize that predictions of failure are not facts. Instead of rerunning the same old tapes, decide to play positive ones. Just move forward one step at a time. Plan the steps from beginning to end to get the results you want. 145

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Are you a procrastinator? As we talked about earlier, we all procrastinate at one time or another. Find out if you are a chronic procrastinator by filling out the Procrastination Quotient.

PROCRASTINATION QUOTIENT

For each item indicate the column that most applies to you.

Multiply the TOTAL RESPONSE row by the corresponding WEIGHT to get a SCORE for each column. Add up the SCORE row to determine your total score. That number is your Procrastination Quotient. Procrastination Quotient: Procrastination Quotient: Procrastination Quotient:

Below 20 21 to 30 Above 30

Occasional Procrastinator Chronic Procrastinator Severe Procrastinator

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Using the Prioritized Daily Task List/Appointment Schedule form in the Tool Box section (Appendix A), write down everything that needs to be done in order to complete the task and prioritize those items. The greater the importance or urgency involved in each step, the higher the step should be on your list. Tasks should be prioritized as follows: A-priority tasks (those that are the most important) B-priority tasks (those of secondary importance) C-priority tasks (those tasks that could be put off if necessary) Within the A category tasks should be ranked in order of importance: A-1 (the one of highest importance or urgency), then A-2, A-3, and so on. Projects can seem overwhelming when viewed as a whole. Break the project into small manageable pieces. Think about it this way: If you are working out in the weight room and you are doing bench presses, is it harder to do forty repetitions without stopping or to do four sets of ten repetitions? Of course, it is easier to do the latter. You will make any project easier if you break it down into “sets.” It will seem much less intimidating if you work through a portion of the project, keeping your timetable in mind. You will find that this approach makes unpleasant tasks much easier to deal with. Most of us can handle unpleasant tasks when they are done for a short time and in small pieces. In his book titled Enhancing Human Performance: A Psychological Skills Approach, Ronald Smith describes the 80/20 misdistribution rule. He argues that people, as a rule, fail to use their time wisely. He claims that we spend 80 percent of our time on things that have 20 percent of the value (1993, p. 37). When you find you’re getting off track, remind yourself that once you finish the portion of the task you have assigned yourself for the day, you can reward yourself. Being organized will help. Having all your materials ready to go and your timetable and list of priorities at hand actually reduces the amount of time it will take you to complete each item on your list. Be sure to check items off your list as you complete them. The sense of satisfaction you get as you do so will remind you that you are getting closer to your goal. Commit yourself to completing the project. I would bet that you would not walk out of the weight room before you have finished your workout, nor would you walk out of practice before it is over. There are so-called friends, 147

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and maybe even some family members who, unwittingly or otherwise, will try to distract you from what you are doing. Firmly focus on what you are doing whether it is athletics or academics. Use reminders to keep you on track. Sticky notes are a great way to remember that you have something to do. You can stick them in any number of places where you will see them, such as the bathroom mirror, the refrigerator door, the inside of the front door, or your car’s dashboard. Ask yourself, “What can I get done in the next fifteen to thirty minutes?” Reward yourself for a job well done each time you complete a task on your list. You have cause for celebration. You are one step closer to completing the project, so go ahead, pat yourself on the back. I remember the days when I was still ice skating. The thought of going to practice always made me think of all kinds of excuses not to go. One step onto the ice, however, and I found two hours or more of practice flew by. It’s the first step that counts.

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28 KEEPING YOUR HEAD IN THE GAME Textbook Reading Tips

S

tudents often are heard complaining about how boring their textbooks are and how hard it is absorb anything they are reading in the book. But you, as a student-athlete, can understand the importance of keeping your head in the game even during those times when you are on the bench, sidelines, or in the bull pen. As a textbook reader, you also must keep your head in the game, and the best way to do that is to be more involved with the textbook by making index cards with unfamiliar terms, concepts, and possible exam questions. Surveying assigned reading before going to class will provide important benefits. It will increase the level of engagement in class and will guide you in taking better notes. An easy way to survey the reading is to use the TISOP method. The TISOP method is as follows: T – Look at the title(s) in the assigned reading. I – Read the introduction of the chapter(s) or introductory paragraph. S – Jump to the summary or conclusion of the chapter(s). O – Look at the organization of the chapter(s): the subheadings or bolded headings. P – Check the pictures, maps, graphs, or anything of a pictorial nature. Why read the introduction and then jump to the conclusion? Authors usually present an overview of what the reading will cover in the first paragraph 151

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or the introduction. At the end of the chapter, in the summary or concluding paragraph, writers pull together what has been written about in that chapter. Using 3 × 5 index cards is a terrific way to stay focused on the reading, learn new vocabulary, and prepare for exams. During the process of reading assigned material, you should imagine yourself in the role of the class instructor. With index card in hand, examine the text with the purpose of looking for material that would make good exam questions. On the front of each index card, write questions based on the material in the book. On the back of the index card the response to each question should be given. The index cards will provide a means for you to selftest in preparation for exams and will help keep your “head in the game.” Any new word or concept should be written on the front of the index card and a definition on the back, because most academic subjects have a vocabulary of their own. Understand that vocabulary can make the difference between passing and failing a class. Not having a complete grasp of the vocabulary unique to the subject can prevent comprehension of the class material and also can cause you to answer test questions incorrectly. Here again the key is interaction with the material. But to make this process work, there must be “follow-through.” Just like when making a free throw, a good follow-through is the key to accuracy. In this case, the follow-through consists of drawing a small picture on the back of the card along with the definition so the image conveys the meaning of the term or concept. This is not an art contest and the drawing need not mean anything to anyone else but you. What makes this piece so important is that by making such a drawing you are linking this new piece of information to previous knowledge or schema. The bottom line is that if you don’t put effort into the process of reading your textbook, you are not going to get anything out of it. Textbook reading is an active process, not a passive one. Sitting and staring at the pages in the book will not result in you learning anything. Keeping your head in the game requires that you be an active participant.

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29 MAYBE I’LL HAVE TIME NEXT WEEK Guide to Time Management

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tudent-athletes have many demands on their time. Particularly during their seasons, they become very good at ensuring that they get to practices, team meetings, video sessions, and the like on time. Accomplishing all of this and integrating academics necessitates planning. All athletes take a look at their competition schedule for the upcoming season as soon as it is available. Knowing what the season has in store helps you prepare for what lies ahead. Knowing who the opponent is, where the game will be played, and at what time of the day sets the groundwork for planning how to compete at the highest level. The same concept applies to planning for a successful academic semester. One of the best tools to help plan is called Semester-on-a-Page. College students tend to buy a planner of some sort into which they enter test dates, assignment instructions, and so on. These do serve a purpose because you can enter all of the details relative to each paper, project, presentation, exam, and the like into the book. There are, however, some problems if you stop there. Imagine entering information for something due in a month or more. With the schedule of busy student-athletes, it is easy to forget about that important deadline until you turn the page and find that that deadline, entered too far in advance, is tomorrow. Panic sets in because there is little or no time to prepare. The solution is to have the entire semester’s deadlines on one page where they can be viewed on a daily basis. Not only should you have one copy of 153

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the completed Semester-on-a-Page with your school materials, you should also have a copy posted in a visible spot at home. Imagine student-athletes being able to stay away from the refrigerator for one whole day. I think you would have to agree that doing so would be highly unlikely. So post a copy of the Semester-on-a-Page on the refrigerator door. To complete the form: Assign a highlighter color to each class. Review the syllabus from each class, marking the important dates, including papers, presentations, tests, projects, and any other deadlines that require advance preparation. That does not mean that every reading assignment should be entered. The key is to include those deadlines that need significant prep time. There may be research to be done, materials to be purchased, meetings with classmates, and the like. These are all things that cannot effectively be done at the last minute. Using a particular color for each class, place a stripe of that color on the appropriate date on the form (see figure 29.1). The reason for using only one stripe of color is that there may be two or more deadlines for one date. Label each stripe of color, denoting what the deadline is for your paper, project, etc. Just a hint: It is best to place the colored stripe of highlighter and let it dry before writing the label. This approach prevents smudges. Once the above step has been completed for each class, take note of the block of days on the form that indicate there are no deadlines for those days. The blocks of days that are free from deadlines provide an opportunity for you to be proactive in entering any assigned tasks for any class and, thus, manage your time. The end result of this strategy is a reduction of stress and an improvement in the quality of academic work because you have had time to refine your work. No matter what your sport, you know that you need time to practice and refine your skills to be a successful competitor. The same is true for academics.

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Figure 29.1.

Semester Calendar

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SOME BASIC GUIDELINES TO REMEMBER ABOUT MANAGING YOUR STUDY TIME

Some people are more alert early in the morning while others are more energetic in the late afternoon or evening. Plan your study time to take advantage of the time your energy level is at its highest. This may be challenging in that practice for your sport may cut into your study time. Choose the best possible time, bearing in mind that your studying should be planned for the same time period each day and should be done in the same location. Doing so will put your mind into study mode more quickly thereby making more efficient use of your study time. Libraries are excellent places to study. The noise level is low, and the atmosphere is conducive to study. Prioritize the things you have on your daily schedule and include some free time. Study the most difficult subjects first. Don’t let yourself get too comfortable. Doing so can put your body into sleep mode rather than study mode. Make it clear to family or roommates that you are not to be interrupted during your study time. Keep in mind that study sessions should be broken down into periods of no more than an hour with brief breaks in between. Make efficient use of wait time. Use the index cards you made when you were doing your assigned reading for your classes. Always carry two or three cards with you, and when you find yourself waiting for a friend, standing in line, or with time between classes, study those cards. You will find that you remember the material from your cards if you study just a few at a time. TURN OFF YOUR CELL PHONE DURING STUDY TIME. Believe it or not, you and your friends will survive without talking or texting each other during your study time. There is probably nothing that can distract you from studying faster than a phone call. By turning off your phone and focusing on your schoolwork you will get through it much faster and do a far better job. Learn to say “no” to those who would interfere with your opportunity to get an education. Whether you are on an athletic scholarship or a “walkon,” you paid for that opportunity and nobody has a right to steal it from you. There are those who may not realize that they make a habit of inter156

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rupting your study time. Remind them that this is your study time, and you will talk to them later. Ask yourself if what you are doing needs to be perfect. Class notes do not have the same standards of grammar as a term paper. The basketball player who waits for the perfect shot opportunity may find himself never taking a shot. You need to evaluate the potential return for your time and energy. Ask yourself if there is just one more thing you can accomplish toward reaching your goal or, if there is one more thing you can get done before your study period is over. You will be surprised at how these small steps can earn you a “day off” down the road as a reward for your hard work. Let me share with you a couple of myths about time management. Myth Number 1: My life is completely controlled by external events. Fact: You do have control over many aspects of your life, but you and you alone are responsible for implementing that control. Learn which things you have control over and those that are beyond your control. Determine what you can do and within what time frame, despite the external demands. Myth Number 2: I must meet everyone’s expectations. Fact: The needs and demands of others may not be appropriate for you. Their priorities may not be yours. By attempting to meet the expectations of others, you may be shortchanging yourself. Know what your own needs and priorities are first. Then consider the expectations of others. The main thing to remember about time management in your academic life is that the athletes who feel they are doing a good job of time management in their academic life will experience a sense of self-confidence that will carry over into athletics and vice versa. What does that mean to you as a student-athlete? Don’t feel bad if you come to college without good time management skills. In high school, your classes fill most of your day, and you are not required to take on the responsibility of scheduling your classes or ensuring that your schoolwork is done. As Zach Schira, former quarterback for the Pima College Aztec football team, said (personal communication, October 17, 2011), “I looked at my college class schedule and thought that the blocks of time between my classes were free time. I quickly learned that those periods of time were when I was supposed to do my schoolwork.” Put a good time management system in place and you will perform at your full potential both on and off the field or court. 157

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30 NO DOODLING PLEASE Taking Good Notes

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n college, listening intently is essential for good note-taking. It is a skill that must be learned. Concentrating on what the speaker is saying and making an effort to determine why it is important to you are parts of being an active listener. Sitting where distractions are at a minimum will help you pay attention. Surveying assigned reading before class provides background information, which will facilitate taking better notes. You need to understand that the responsibility for developing interest and understanding the information presented in class is yours alone. A suggested method for approaching assigned reading is the TISOP method described in the Keeping Your Head in the Game chapter. During their athletic careers, student-athletes are trained by their coaches to develop a heightened awareness of the behaviors of those with whom they will come in contact in competition. In football, defensive linemen and linebackers watch the eyes of the opposing quarterback to predict to whom the quarterback will pass. Linebackers can ascertain who the receiver of an upcoming pass will be by observing which of the possible receivers adjusts his gloves before the ball is even snapped to the quarterback. Knowing who the quarterback’s favorite receivers are is often learned by studying film of the next team on their schedule. Films, along with written materials, are presented by coaches as “scouting reports.”

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Basketball players study films to learn the behaviors of their next opponents. They look for how players on the other team will respond to an aggressive offense. They learn in which direction opposing players are most likely to move, knowing that forcing the opponents out of their comfort zone can disrupt their game. Similar attention to athletes’ behaviors occurs in other sports using scouting reports with the sole purpose of contributing to athletic success. Transferring the heightened awareness of physical behaviors from the athletic realm into the classroom can contribute to academic success. An added benefit is increased engagement with what is going on in the classroom.

SCOUTING REPORTS FOR THE CLASSROOM

Athletes are always observing, anticipating: “How does my opponent move? How does she react? Where is he looking? What is his footwork?” In nanoseconds, a sharp athlete reads his opponent’s movements and reacts accordingly. And those who do that quickly and cleanly are ones that we say “Got game.”   You can “get game” in the classroom, too, by employing some of the same strategies you use on the court or on the field. And who are you scouting this time? The instructor, of course. They may not be as fast as your opponent in competition, but they have moves worth watching. Following is a list of cues that student-athletes should use as a guide for taking good, useful notes: The instructor writes something on the board. Always include such items in your notes. The instructor says something that could be on a test or would make a good exam question. The instructor talks about some point that is controversial or some contrasting ideas using words like: “Some people argue that . . . while others feel that . . .” The instructor talks about some point or issue about which there is widespread agreement using words such as: “Experts agree . . .” The instructor repeats a point using words like: “Again . . .” or “As I said before . . .” 160

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The instructor indicates that something he or she is about to say is very important: “Here’s the key . . .” or “What’s significant is . . .” The instructor uses words indicating absolutes: always, never, none, all, everyone. The instructor itemizes key points through reviewing: “In conclusion . . .” “In summary . . .” “So, to sum up . . .” The instructor uses gestures that could indicate the importance of a point: pointing, waving arms, tapping, or the like. The instructor changes his or her movement: If the instructor has been sitting and then stands; the instructor is leaning and then walks; the instructor is pacing and then stops. The instructor demonstrates facial expressions that may indicate he or she is making an important point: grimacing, raising eyebrows, intense staring. The volume of the instructor’s voice changes. The instructor’s tempo of delivery changes. There is an obvious pause in the instructor’s delivery, called a “loaded silence.” Once you have developed your skills in terms of discerning what should be included in your class notes, the format in which to take those notes is the next step. There are a number of good note-taking methods.

CORNELL NOTE-TAKING METHOD

The Cornell note-taking method provides an excellent system for recording and reviewing notes. There are two basic formats for using this system. The most common format involves creating two vertical columns on the page. The left column is about two and one half inches wide while the right column makes up the remaining six inches of the page. During class, make your notes in the right-hand column, leaving a few spaces as the instructor moves to each new point. After class, additions should be made to the points in the right-hand column so that that the notes can be easily understood. For each piece of significant information on the right, a corresponding cue is placed in the left-hand column. 161

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When it is time to study those notes, you should place an index card over the notes on the right. As you look at the cues on the left, you should recite as much as possible of the associated information from the right column. A second version of the Cornell system is to reduce the width of the right column by one inch to allow a third column of one inch to the extreme right side of the page. In this new column, you can add reflections, ideas, and relevant questions about the lecture notes. You can make your own Cornell forms, buy Cornell paper from many sources available online, or download a template from http://www.tidyform .com/download/cornell-notes.template-2html.

Figure 30.1. 162

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Figure 30.1.

(continued)

MIND MAPPING

A mind map (see page 164) consists of a diagram using words, ideas, and information arranged around a key concept or idea. It allows for quickly recording the main points as they are being presented and is very appealing to the visual learner. This system allows you to critically evaluate the material being presented but can distract you when the instructor jumps to another point in the lecture. Mind mapping provides an excellent tool in chapter reviews, test preparation, and generating ideas for creative writing or research papers. Mind mapping can be very useful in restructuring and putting together relevant points and forces you to critically evaluate materials in terms of main ideas, secondary points, and details, and to structure the content in an organized and coherent fashion. Mind mapping’s use is not limited to review of notes. Its use extends to chapter reviews, test preparation, report-writing, and generating ideas for creative writing and research. Mind mapping can be done by hand or by using Inspiration software, a relatively inexpensive and user-friendly program. See figure 30.2 for an example of a mind map using Inspiration. • General Terms/Concepts ∘ Cognition
High-Level representations that operate on perceptual information ∘ Perception
Low-Level functions that organize sensory information ∘ Physical Causality
Mechanical cause-effect relations, which are observable ∘ Agency
Ability to take an active role in producing an effect

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Figure 30.2.

Inspiration Mind Map

∘ Dishabituation
Infants should be more interested in the “impossible” event than the “possible” event. ∘ Degraded Sensory Representation
Failing to maintain the representation when it’s gone ∘ Psychological Causality
Desires and beliefs, which are often not observable • Summary, Reflection, Analysis ∘ The perceptual information in dynamic cross-modal displays is very rich. ∘ The motion of even simple geometric shapes gives information that is interpreted as casual or animate. 164

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∘ A. Cognition
High-Level representations that operate on perceptual information ∘ B. Perception
Low-Level functions that organize sensory information ∘ C. Physical Causality
Mechanical cause-effect relations, which are observable ∘ D. Agency
Ability to take an active role in producing an effect ∘ E. Dishabituation
Infants should be more interested in the “impossible” event than the “possible” event. ∘ F. Degraded Sensory Representation
Failing to maintain the representation when it’s gone ∘ G. Psychological Causality
Desires and beliefs, which are often not observable • Summary, Reflection, Analysis ∘ The Perceptual information in dynamic cross-modal displays is very rich. ∘ The motion of even simple geometric shapes gives information that is interpreted as casual or animate

OUTLINE METHOD

The outline method is a well-organized system if done well. Many lecturers will present their material in a way that is clearly organized and, when that is the case, the outline method works well. The notes are organized into main points, subheadings, and supporting details. Example: Main Topic 1 Sub-topic 1 Supporting Detail 1 Supporting Detail 2 Sub-topic 2 Supporting Detail 1 165

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Main Topic 2 Sub-topic 1 Supporting Detail 1 Supporting Detail a Supporting Detail b Supporting Detail 2 Sub-topic 2 Sub-topic 3 It can be problematic, however, when the instructor moves rapidly through her lecture because you will not have time to mentally think through and organize your thoughts into a cohesive outline. Always date your notes. Reviewing notes should be done as soon as possible after each class. Failure to do so within twenty-four hours, or at least before the next lecture, will cause a sharp drop in retention of the information presented and you will find yourself relearning rather than reviewing the material. Reviewing notes also helps to clean up illegible writing, check for errors, and fill in further facts and examples while the lecture is still fresh in your mind. This is the time to correct misunderstandings or fill in missing information with the help of the lecturer, classmates, the text, and so on. Retention of the material is aided by reorganizing and having you put it in your own words.

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Figure 30.3.

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31 DON’T CHOKE Winning over Exam Anxiety

History has demonstrated that the most notable winners usually encountered heartbreaking obstacles before they triumphed. They won because they refused to become discouraged by their defeats. —Bertie C. Forbes

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s an athlete you do not expect to win every game during your athletic career. Nor do you have an expectation that you will execute every play perfectly. Most athletes learn to bounce back from adversity and resolve to do better the next time. Often, they succeed in elevating their performance in the next competitive event. Athletes understand that one loss in competition does not define who the athlete is as a person. Some of these same athletes experience exam or test anxiety. As one game or one screwed-up play does not define the athlete, neither does one failed exam or one low score. Bouncing back from adversity during competition is nothing new to a student-athlete. Carrying this mind-set into the academic realm is helpful in reducing exam anxiety. When an individual perceives a situation as stressful his body reacts to the threat with the fight or flight response. Exam anxiety is manifested in a number of physical symptoms: loss of sleep, loss of appetite, nervousness, fear, dread, irritability, headaches, an inability to concentrate, sweaty palms, rapid heart rate, upset stomach, confusion, panic, and even attacks of high blood pressure and asthma. 169

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Figure 31.1.

Inverted U-Hypotheses

According to the Inverted U-Hypothesis, as seen in figure 31.1, a certain amount of stress will enhance performance. When the level of arousal becomes extremely high, however, performance can seriously deteriorate to the point where there is interference in the ability to think, concentrate, remember, and perform. In sports, the athlete understands the concept of “choking” during competition. He also understands the concept of pregame rituals. To the outsider, these rituals can seem like an exhibition of superstition at their extreme. Some of these rituals are, in fact, superstition. The night before former University of Arizona basketball player Jason Terry participated in the 1997 NCAA basketball tournament championship game, he wore his uniform to bed. Did this enhance his performance the next day? Probably not. The routine athletes develop before a game, or free throw, or stepping into the batter’s box, however, may carry them into their comfort zone. It is the sense of the familiar that reduces the stress of the moment. Harold Miner, who was a basketball player at the University of Southern California, had a very elaborate ritual he performed before each free throw 170

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attempt. He would move the ball from hand to hand around his body several times in a very intricate pattern before stopping to take a deep breath, bend his knees deeply, and launch the ball. Without fail, he performed the identical ritual every time. So while getting “fired up” for a competition is a good thing, the performance of a familiar routine brings the stress to a manageable level. The same concept works for controlling exam anxiety. To avoid confusion in terms of what is a superstition and what is a stressreducer, the term pre-performance routine will be used to denote those forms of preparation that repeat certain activities and, by doing so, help to reduce stress. Dr. Patrick Cohn, a sports psychologist, in discussing the theoretical and empirical backup for using pre-performance routines in sport said, “Preperformance routines are prevalent in a variety of sports. Physical and mental preparation strategies used prior to motor skills execution have reportedly been employed by athletes in closed skill sports as well as open skill sports” (Cohn, 1990, p. 301). The same concept provides the basis of a strategy to reduce exam anxiety. First, you need to determine if you do, indeed, have exam anxiety and not just a case of exam dislike. Take the Test Anxiety: Self-Evaluation Inventory in the back of this book. An understanding of what causes exam anxiety is the first step in dealing with the problem. Certainly, a history of bad experiences with tests and exams can cause anxiety. A lack of proper preparation, poor study skills, procrastination in beginning exam preparation, and a lack of self-confidence are all contributors to exam anxiety, as is cramming and checking on how your friends might be doing. Sometimes students can be so afraid of “blanking out” on an exam that worrying about how their anxiety can impact performance on a test can destroy any possibility of a satisfactory outcome in an exam situation. Tying self-esteem to the outcome of an exam also increases anxiety. Developing a routine whereby you assemble all the necessary tools, such as writing instruments, calculators where appropriate, a watch, and any other items needed the night before the exam will help. Other preperformance routines may involve taking a walk or doing a workout before the exam. 171

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Think about the strategies or rituals used before each athletic competition. Several of the football players for the Pima Community College Aztecs told me how their coach’s pregame talks inspire them to do their best. In the case of preparing yourself for an exam, be your own coach and use positive self-talk to build your confidence. Don’t dwell on any past poor performances. Prepare adequately. Tell yourself, “I am prepared for this exam and I know what I am doing.” As you practice for your sport, practice taking exams. An advisor or a tutor can help you with this. Remember that, as a competition gets closer, your coach will have you practice under competition conditions. Do the same for exams. Have a tutor present you with a practice test you have not seen before. With a specified time limit and under exam conditions, take the exam and, with the tutor, evaluate how you did. Repeat the process with other practice exams until you are just as comfortable taking tests as you are in a competition situation. Remember, however, that you and you alone are responsible for putting in sufficient study time to adequately prepare yourself to be successful on the exam. Visualization is a strategy that champion athletes learn to help them grow beyond being a talented athlete to becoming a champion. The process involves seeing yourself performing well in your mind’s eye. Studies have shown that visualization is a very successful strategy. You can do the same when preparing to become an accomplished test taker. See yourself confidently walking out of your house or apartment with all of the tools you need to take the exam, a smile on your face, and a confident stride. Feel the excitement you experience when you are getting ready to compete. Tell yourself, “I can do this.” See yourself walking into the exam room and taking a seat near the front of the room, determined to eliminate distractions and focus on the task at hand, which is acing that exam. Visualize yourself handing in your exam knowing that you did well. Finally, see yourself leaving the room with a big smile on your face knowing that you have won this game and you have beat your toughest opponent—your fear of exams.

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Practicing to be successful at taking tests may seem like a lot of work. Rest assured that, like any new skill, learning to be a successful test taker takes a little work. Maybe if you think about it this way, it will help: Throughout our lives we face all kinds of tests, whether it is in school or getting a job. Learning to control your fear and having a system for successfully taking tests are tools that will serve you well for the rest of your life. The key is to develop a set of behaviors that become very familiar and work well for you. A comment from former University of Arizona football player, David Lockhart (personal communication, October 19, 2011): “It is okay to fear losing or not being successful, but I learned to control the fear of failing and use it as an ally.” You can make your fear of exams make you more successful if you embrace it and make it work for you.

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32 THE GAME PLAN Preparing for the Big Exam

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ootball players can certainly relate to the whole concept of the Playbook. Coaches expect players on the team to learn all the plays before their games. So, how does the coach know that his players have learned what’s in the Playbook? The usual way to check is to give the players a test. The players know that, and to prepare for the test, they study. Those same players often panic at the idea of taking tests in their classes. The fact of is that there is absolutely no difference. Granted, you might know more about your sport than you do about biology. And you are likely to be much more motivated to study for a test related to your athletic pursuits. But if you want to be eligible to play, you have to pass those class tests. So let’s find a way to give you the tools to get through those tests with flying colors. Let’s start by going back to the index cards you made while you were reading your textbooks. If you recall, you were to make up possible exam questions as you read the material. From that process, you should have a stack of cards from which you should select a few each day and carry them with you. Remember to study the vocabulary that is unique to the subject you are studying. If you don’t have that down, you will not understand the questions on the test. Another helpful approach to studying the material is to diagram ideas and concepts, create tables, or make lists. Athletes often learn best using a “hands-on” approach, and the process of making the cards, tables, and 175

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diagrams actually helps you to learn the material you are studying. Reviewing your index cards when you find a free moment or two will prevent you from committing the worst sin of test taking—cramming. The reason that cramming is ineffective is that your brain can remember only those things you studied at the beginning and the end of your cramming session but can’t retain the information you covered during the rest of the time. You, most certainly, do not want to pull an all-nighter before an exam. Sleep deprivation will prevent you from thinking clearly during test time. The solution to avoid cramming is to review those cards on a regular basis until you get close to exam time. Spend some time reviewing the night before the test just as you do before a game, and then get a good night’s sleep. Before you get ready for bed, make sure that you have assembled the items you will need during exam time: pencils, pens, a watch, your ID, and anything else you might need to have with you. Place your collection by the front door. Searching for these necessities the morning of the exam is not a good idea. Remind yourself as you get ready to go to sleep that exams DO NOT represent who you are as a person. When you get to the exam site, think about those pregame rituals that almost all athletes use. You have probably noticed how many athletes put on a set of earphones and listen to music before a game. They are mentally removing themselves from the outside world so that they can focus to give their best in the competition. You should use the same approach right before a test. One thing you do not want to do just before entering the exam room is to stand around talking to other test-takers. At this point, you cannot do any more studying. That time has passed. Others who are about to take the same exam are bound to make you aware of some areas of the course content to which you did not give as much attention to as you did to other areas. In no time, a sense of panic can set in, making you so anxious that you are likely to “choke,” forgetting what you do know. Panic is very contagious and can spread rapidly when a group of students is waiting to enter the testing room. So, prepare like the pros do by meditating, zoning out with music, or doing whatever you do that relaxes you in preparation for getting your head in the game. Once you enter the exam room, grab a seat near the front of the room. By doing so, you will reduce the number of distractions. 176

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It may seem a little silly to remind yourself to write your name on the exam, but unfortunately, many students forget this small task and find themselves dealing with some very large consequences. I cannot emphasize enough how important it is for you to read over the entire exam before answering a single question. Before competing, you ensure that you know the game rules, how to score points, and how much time you have to accomplish your goal. In the case of an exam, you need to have an idea of what the questions cover, what the time constraints are, and what points you can get for each question. Read the instructions carefully to make sure that you understand what you are supposed to do. Now that you have the information you need to play the academic game, what should you do to score the most points you can? Having read all the questions, immediately return to the questions where you are sure you know the answers. Remember that there is a time constraint so you want to run up your score as quickly as possible. Once you’ve done that, go next to the section of the test that gives the highest number of points and work your way through that. As you respond to each question, double-check its wording to ensure that you have understood what the question is asking. If you don’t think you know the answer, don’t panic. Move on for now. It is not unusual for the same question to be included elsewhere on the test using different wording. Let’s create a game plan for each type of test that you might encounter. Since the multiple-choice test seems to be the most popular form used by instructors, let’s look at that one first.

MULTIPLE-CHOICE TESTS

Each multiple-choice question has two main parts: the statement or question, called the stem, and the choices or answer options. You usually have three to five options from which to choose. Too often, students are too hasty in reading the question and, as a result, misunderstand what the question is asking. Be sure that you read and reread until you are sure you understand the question before looking at the answer options. Ask if you are allowed to write on your test. If you are, underline the key words and translate the question into your own words. Now, read each of the answer options. Look 177

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out for negative or qualifying words such as always, never, or only. These words mean that the answer is true or false all of the time. Any answer choice that uses the words always, never, only, or similar words is usually incorrect. There are exceptions to this rule, however. Start by eliminating the answer choices that are clearly incorrect. Reread the remaining possible answers together with the question and predict the right answer. If you still don’t know the answer, don’t stress about it. Go back to it later. Remember that the key to winning this game is to rack up as many points as possible, as quickly as possible. When returning to this question, be sure to reread it carefully. You may have just misread the question the first time. Bear in mind that instructors often ask the same question more than once, using different wording. The questions worded differently may trigger the information hiding in your memory. If that happens, you then return to the question you skipped and confidently choose the answer. If you decide that you don’t know the answer, eliminate those choices that are clearly incorrect and make the best guess. If you do make a selection that way, don’t second-guess yourself. Your first guess is usually the right one.

TRUE-FALSE TESTS

True-false questions can be tricky because the test’s creator tends to focus on details when writing the questions. To test your mastery of the class material, the test maker will sometimes word questions in such a way that, unless you pay very close attention to what the question means, you can make mistakes in choosing the answer. Since the odds of answering the question correctly are 50-50, you are in danger of being overconfident that you will do well on this type of test and not read each question very carefully. Here are some things to be particularly cautious about. For a statement to be true on this type of test, it must be true 100 percent of the time. As in the multiple-choice format, be aware that words such as always or never mean with no exceptions. If you can think of even one exception, the statement is false. Words, such as some, usually, and not frequently mean the statement could be true. Each question must be carefully interpreted to avoid making a simple error when choosing your answer. 178

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MATCHING TESTS

Matching tests allow you some opportunity for guessing. Two columns of items will be presented, and it is up to you to see the relationships between the items in the first column and those in the second. Remember that the relationship between the two items is the key to success with the matching format. To do well, you must understand how concepts taught in class relate to one another. Therefore, you must be clear that merely memorizing facts and concepts is not enough. You need to process the information presented in class and make sure that you understand the class material and how, or if, the ideas relate. Cross out the items in both columns each time you find a match. Eliminate items, when only one choice per match is allowed. When you get toward the end of the test and have not matched everything, you should guess instead of leaving it unfinished.

PROBLEM-SOLVING TESTS

Problem-solving tests involve taking material presented in class and applying that information to solve problems. The most common form of this type of test is the math exam. To prepare for problem-solving tests, review notes and the textbook, underlining or listing the concepts and formulas covered. Highlight those topics, concepts, and problems that were emphasized and know why they were emphasized. The most important factor in achieving success on problem-solving tests is to practice, practice, practice. Solving as many sample problems as possible will ensure that you understand all of the concepts presented in class. As you practice, analyze the problems by asking yourself: What concepts, formulas, and rules did I use? What methods did I use? How did I begin? Have I seen this problem before? Is this particular problem similar to, or different from, other problems I have solved? 179

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How does my solution to this problem compare with the examples from the text and class? Could I have solved this problem using a different method? Can I simplify what I did? Some of the keys to success when taking a problem-solving test include: Make sure it is permissible to write on the test. Turn the test over and write down formulas, definitions, and relationships from your memory. If writing on the test paper is not allowed, request some scratch paper on which to write down these pieces of information. Look over the entire test before answering any questions. As you look through each problem, make any notes about your thoughts related to those problems. Plan your time for the entire exam, allowing more time for the questions with the highest point values. Be sure to allow some time at the end of the test to review your responses. To reduce anxiety, do the easiest problems first. Read through the entire problem carefully to ensure that you understand it. Underline key words, draw a diagram of the problem, and identify the givens and the unknowns in your own words. Make notes in symbols, diagrams, graphs, or tables of all the information provided in the problem. For complex problems, list all the formulas that might be relevant in solving the question, and then decide which one you will use. If you are faced with a problem for which you have no solution method, try the following: If possible, write out an equation that expresses the relationships among all the givens and unknowns, being sure to include all of the data and facts of the problem. Think back to similar problems done in the past to select a solution method. Break the problems into smaller chunks and work through each of the pieces, thus building a solution. 180

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Guess a solution and check it. Sometimes the process of checking will suggest a solution method. If all of the above fail to bring about a solution, mark the question and move on to other questions. Subsequent questions may trigger another solution to the marked one. Be sure to check each solution for consistency and completeness. All notations must be easily read and legible. Be sure to try all questions. Often partial solutions will be given some points. Review all your solutions to make sure that the answers make sense. If you are getting close to running out of time, be sure to set up the problems so that you have the possibility of earning partial credit. ESSAY TESTS

Essay tests often cause the most anxiety for students. The idea of having to put together a cohesive piece of writing in an exam situation seems to be an almost impossible task. Here are some strategies to help you win the essayexam game. At the beginning of the semester, your instructor gave you a syllabus that tells you everything you need to know about the class. Near the beginning of the syllabus, you will find a description of the course, and something called the teaching or learning objectives. The purpose of the objective portion of the syllabus is for your instructor to let you know what you are to get out of the course. These will give you a starting place for possible questions the instructor might ask on the exam. Go through the textbook and your notes to determine how that information relates to what the syllabus says about the final goal for the course. See how the course topics relate to one another. From these sources, create some possible exam questions. From course notes, the text, and other assignments, write out your complete answers to the questions you created, keeping in mind the course objectives and description. The process of writing out complete answers helps you to tuck this information into your long-term memory from where you will be able to retrieve it on the exam. 181

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Be sure that, in writing answers to the questions you created, relationships among topics are learned in addition to the factual material. Relationships are often what the instructor will focus on when creating exam questions. One of the most important parts of studying to take an essay exam is to have a thorough understanding of the terminology that the instructor might use in formulating the essay questions. To ensure that you have that terminology down, take the Essay Exam Matching Quiz in Appendix A. Here is your game plan for taking an essay exam: Read the entire exam before responding to any of the questions. While reading over the questions, write down your ideas and insight on a piece of scratch paper or on the back of the exam if that is permitted. Check the number of points given for each question and spend the most time on them. Allow time for proofreading and any unexpected surprises, such as taking longer than planned for a question or temporarily drawing a blank on a question. Remember that good clock management can make the difference in winning the game. Begin with the easiest question to help reduce any anxiety. Before you begin responding to essay questions, take the time to create an outline, keeping in mind relationships among concepts and words stated in each question. Creating outlines for each response will save time in the long run and lead to well-thought-out and properly organized answers that ultimately earn more points. Creating a working title for your essay will help you stay focused on your topic. Be sure to define a thesis statement that directly answers the question. The thesis should be stated in the first line or two of your response to the question. Be sure to include examples, supporting facts, and relevant details in your response. Use terminology appropriate to the course. Each course has its own vocabulary, and the instructor will expect you to understand and use those words. Write on every other line and only on one side of each page. Doing so will allow additions or deletions without making a mess.

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It is better to provide partial answers to a question than nothing at all. If you run out of the time you have allotted for a particular question, leave it and move on. Provide at least an outline for those questions you can’t answer. Be sure to reread your responses to ensure that you have answered completely and with clarity. Don’t forget to check your answers for spelling, grammar, and punctuation. You may encounter exams that combine a number of formats. Often one test will include multiple-choice questions, matching questions, and an essay question. Prepare yourself for all varieties of formats and start with the type of questions with which you are the most comfortable. One of the most important things athletes can do to improve their performance is to review their most recent performance to evaluate what went well and what performance aspects could use improvement. You need to do this evaluation to pave the way for improvement. You need to do the same things when tests are returned to you. If your test is not returned to you, it is absolutely essential that you ask your instructor to allow you to review the test as soon as possible so that you have time to understand where you made errors so you don’t repeat them. The process for reviewing objective tests should include the following steps: Review each question to determine its origin. Did it come from the text, the class notes, or from outside assignments? Note the questions you answered incorrectly. Determine why the correct answer differs from the answer you gave. Did you misread the question? Were you not prepared for some questions? Look at the questions to determine if the instructor tends to focus on concepts and ideas as opposed to specific details from the course content. Did the instructor want you to be able to analyze information from a broad range of materials? Did you have trouble concentrating on the test because you were experiencing a high level of anxiety? Were you able to complete all of the exam questions?

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As is the case in analyzing objective tests, the analysis of problem-solving tests should include reviewing any comments and suggestions from the instructor. In addition, the following steps should be taken: How were the problems presented in the test different from those in the class notes, textbook, and other class materials? Determine if the errors you made were the result of carelessness. Were negative signs used when positive ones should be used or vice versa? Did you fail to read the questions completely thereby missing some of the essential data? Did you consistently make errors on the same kinds of problems? Did you forget formulas learned in class? Did you run out of time? Were you unprepared to solve specific types of problems? Reviewing the results of essay tests requires the same attention to the instructor’s remarks and suggestions. You also need to determine the origin of the test questions. Did the questions come from the textbook, class notes, or assignments? There are, however, some other issues to be examined. In going over the returned test, ask yourself: Was the problem in answering any of the questions the result of lack of preparation in terms of learning the course material or did you misread or misunderstand the question itself? Was the problem related to a failure to budget the available testing time? Did anxiety get in the way of your concentration and your development of good responses to the question or questions? Testing is not a pleasant experience for anyone, but with a good game plan, a proper mental focus, and an athlete’s determination to win, you can become an accomplished test-taker.

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33 DON’T BELIEVE EVERYTHING Critical Thinking

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ritical thinking is a term that can seem a little intimidating. So let’s not think about that right now. Let’s have some fun instead.

1. Do they have a 4th of July in England? 2. If there are seven months that have thirty-one days in them and eleven months that have thirty days in them, how many months have twentyeight days in them? 3. How many birthdays does the average man have? 4. What is boiled then cooled, sweetened then soured? 5. A woman gives a beggar fifty cents; the woman is the beggar’s sister, but the beggar is not the woman’s brother. How come? Note: See the answers at the end of the chapter (http://www.teachnology. com/worksheets/critical_thinking/brain/). What you are doing in solving these brainteasers is actually critical thinking. Let’s look at some more examples. Consider the following statement: “Statistics show that a good quarterback will win the game.” Is this a true statement? How would you determine that the statement is, in fact, true? Would you take this at face value? Is there any missing information that you need before accepting this statement as fact? Let’s consider another statement: “The 2010 Gulf oil spill was the worst environmental disaster in history.” What is your reaction to that 187

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statement? Do you agree with the statement as it is written? If so, why do you agree with it? Critical thinking is so many things. Critical thinking is: Separating true from false Separating accurate from distorted Looking at what something means Looking to see what might be missing in the information given Not taking something at face value Learning to be open to a wide variety of ideas Looking at how something is known Dividing complete from incomplete information Learning to be cautious and to analyze and examine ideas Examining all ideas and arguments Being willing to examine your own ideas and beliefs to see if they have a rational base Being willing to change your own thinking Critical thinking is an essential part of being a good student. Every day during your college career you will be presented with new ideas. As a consumer of information, you owe it to yourself to examine the ideas being presented to you. I would be willing to guess that you doubt the importance of critical thinking in your athletic world. Consider the following quote from the American Institute of Learning and Cognitive Development: “At the collegiate level and especially at the professional level it is even more important (to have good thinking skills) because often physical abilities between athletes are very minor, and it is the way athletes think and use good judgment that will make the biggest differences. In fact, the better your mental abilities are, the better your physical skills” (“The mental part of the game,” n.d., n.p.). Given that we live in an age when we are presented with an overwhelming amount of information on just about every subject and even on some subjects we have not ever thought about, it can be tempting to accept statements on their face value. Much of this information, however, can have a profound effect on our lives. Advertisers and politicians spend millions and a great

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deal of effort trying to convince us to spend our money on their products and to sway us to believe their point of views. Have you ever heard small children repeatedly ask “why” about everything? Sometimes their incessant questioning can make their parents feel a little frustrated. These children are only trying to make some sense of their world. As we grow older, we lose that sense of wonder and, in too many cases, stop questioning what is happening around us. The basis of critical thinking is asking questions to make sense of the information that bombards us daily. Does that mean we should take the time to examine each piece of information we encounter as we move through life? To think that we could actually do that would be unrealistic. There are, however, many pieces of information that will have a significant impact, and we need to learn to ask questions to discover truths before taking action or making decisions. Some of the tools used in critical thinking follow. Look at the source of the information. Is the author knowledgeable? Does the author have a particular bias or prejudice that might impact how the information is expressed? Use more than one source for information. There can be many sides to every issue. If the information could have an important impact on you and your choices, you need to look at what each of those opinions has to contribute to your decisions. Choose a primary source of information rather than a second- or thirdhand source. Information can become distorted as it passes from one source to another. Check the date of the information. The more recent the information is, the more likely it is to be accurate. Scientific studies, for example, may show the results of previous studies to be incorrect. Be cautious in accepting information produced from surveys or polls. Those who conduct those surveys may be doing so with a bias. Their survey questions may be worded in such a way that the results of the survey are prejudiced. The analysis of their survey results may produce biased results depending on how the data are analyzed. Look for statements that have some meaning. I heard a campaign message for an election ballot proposal. The message was that we should vote

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for the proposition in question because it “is simple, unlike the Obama health care plan.” The notion that I should vote for something because it is simple is meaningless. Be aware that information that comes from media sources may be biased by the political beliefs of their publishers. Advertising is particularly prone to providing information that has hidden messages, slanted statistics, and outright untruths to get you to buy the products. Ask yourself what the commercial is really saying. Have you noticed how many commercials use celebrities to endorse their products? Does that mean that if you use that particular product, you will be just as famous, just as beautiful, or just as wealthy as they are? If an athlete is telling you to buy the product, does that mean that you will be just as talented as he or she is? Have a basic understanding of statistics and how they are used. Statistics are the end products of studies. How is the data collected? How big was the sample? Was there a control group? How long did the study go on? What do the numbers produced represent? Be cautious of statistics where probability is concerned. Say, as captain of your football team, you are asked to choose heads (H) or tails (T) during the coin toss at the beginning of the game. Which of the following is the most likely to occur: HHHHH, TTTTT, HTHTH? The truth is that any one of these sequences has the same chance of occurring because a coin has no memory. So should you choose heads or tails? It doesn’t matter which choice you make because there is a 50-50 chance that you will make the right choice. Don’t necessarily be locked into current wisdom. The church excommunicated Galileo when he opposed the church doctrine that the sun, planets, and stars revolved around the Earth. We now know that Galileo’s argument that all of the stars and planets, including the Earth do, in fact, revolve around the sun. Beware of anecdotes when you are making decisions about information presented to you. An anecdote is one person’s experience, hardly sufficient evidence to make a decision on anything. Check for exceptions. Remember that theories are just that. If there is one exception to a theory that is presented as an absolute truth, then it is not a truth. 190

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Always look for evidence that supports information. You may have heard that many Americans believed that Saddam Hussein was behind the bombing of the World Trade Center. What was the evidence that could substantiate that belief? Look for what is missing in the information. Do you have the whole picture? As a critical thinker, you should: Be prepared to change your own thinking. Don’t be afraid to think “outside the box.” Dare to think the “unthinkable.” Practice, practice, practice critical thinking. Remember those children who drive everyone around them a little crazy with their incessant “why, why, why?” Take a page out of their book and have an inquiring mind. Let’s go back to the claim that “The 2010 Gulf oil spill was the worst environmental disaster in history.” Who said that? Was the claim made by the people who live in the area and whose lives were directly impacted by the spill? Was the claim made by some environmental group? Did the federal government make the statement? Was the claim the opinion of British Petroleum, the company that owned the oil rig that exploded? How are environmental disasters measured? Was this the slant of the media that wanted to sell a sensational story? What about the claim that there are statistics that show that a good quarterback wins the game? You should ask who gathered that data, how was it gathered, and whether a good quarterback can win the game without good players around him. Before you come to your own conclusions, ask yourself lots of questions to uncover the truth for yourself. Learning to be a good critical thinker will be a skill that will be valuable to you throughout your life. Answers to the brain teasers at the beginning of the chapter: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Yes. It comes after the 3rd of July. Twelve. One. Iced tea with lemon. The beggar is her sister. 191

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34 MAKING FANS OUT OF FACULTY Working with Instructors

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don’t believe that student-athletes come to college with the idea that they want to do poorly in school. But many do start off on the wrong foot from the very beginning by having an “us versus them” mentality when it comes to their instructors. Professors are not your enemy. In fact, you may encounter some who, if you are not careful, can get you in trouble with the NCAA by providing assistance to you that they do not make available to other students. You must be aware of the NCAA rules. Understanding them will keep you from getting yourself into a possible investigation of NCAA violations. It is not the instructor who is going to suffer the consequences of NCAA actions but your school’s athletic program. If that happens, you will pay the price. On the other hand, you may encounter those faculty members who have no use for student-athletes and make no attempt to hide their hostility. They may even refuse to give you excused absences for those road trips that you are required to make. Rather than get upset with them, make an appointment to speak with those instructors as soon as possible. This is not something to put off doing. If you are unable to get a resolution to the problem, see your advisor. But above all, be respectful and courteous. Let’s talk about what you can do to establish a positive relationship with professors. The most important thing for you to understand is that they are human, too. 193

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They are passionate about the subject they are teaching and, in most cases, have spent years studying and teaching it. They want to share their passion with students, so, if you walk into their classroom with a bad attitude, you are going to have a problem with that professor for the remainder of the semester. Here are some specific strategies for winning over faculty members. Learn their names and use it when you speak to them. It is extremely disrespectful to refuse to make the very small effort it takes to learn someone’s name. How would you like it if your coach never bothered to learn your name? Make yourself known in a positive way. Maybe that professor had a negative experience with a student-athlete in the past. You have the opportunity to change that professor’s attitude by letting him or her know that you are a student-athlete and demonstrating the positive qualities that student-athletes usually have—focus, commitment, willingness to work hard, and dedication. Go to office hours. Attending office hours will show the instructor that you have an interest in the class. Ask questions about class notes or the material in the textbook to show that you have been doing your schoolwork. Donna Swaim, faculty fellow in the University of Arizona’s Athletic Department, offers the following advice (personal communication, March 17, 2010): “Come up with several questions based on what was covered in class or in the textbook. Take your questions to your professor during his or her office hours. Doing so shows that you want to do well in the class.” Be respectful and courteous. This can’t be said too many times. It is the single most important thing you can do for yourself and your fellow studentathletes. Be on time for class. Being late for class is insulting to the professor and to your classmates. You will be thought of as arrogant and selfish. Give your teachers your travel schedule early in the semester and give them a reminder a few days before your road trip. It is even better to have something in writing from the coach. Many athletic departments provide a form that advises instructors, in a formal way, of upcoming road trips. Ask about the possibility of getting assignments and handouts in advance. Ask if a classmate can record the lecture, and let faculty know that you have arranged to get class notes. 194

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Use your Semester-on-a-Page to help you prepare assignments in advance if possible. Don’t try to con professors. They’ve heard it all before. The bottom line is that if you want professors to work with you, rather than against you, you have a responsibility to behave courteously and to act like an adult in their classes.

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35 SMOOTHING THE BUMPY ROAD Handling the Challenges of Travel

If I have the belief that I can do it, I shall surely acquire the capacity to do it even if I may not have it at the beginning. —Mahatma Gandhi

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oad trips are the name of the game in the life of college student-athletes. Whether those trips are long bus excursions or a flight across the country, they take athletes out of the classroom. But while you must be absent from class, road trips in no way excuse you from your academic responsibilities. You know that you’re leaving town, and you know what to do to prepare. You plan for your road trip in advance, perhaps by getting someone to take care of your dog, making sure you have packed everything you need, and calling people to let them know you are leaving town. Make these same routines work for you when you plan for studying on the road. Trying to keep up with your schoolwork while traveling may seem to be an overwhelming prospect. It really isn’t if you plan ahead. Remember that it is up to you to inform your instructors when you are required to be away representing your school at an athletic event. Often athletic departments provide a written notification to faculty when certain athletes must be away on a road trip, but it is up to you to make sure that your instructors are aware that you will be gone. Absolutely do not ask your instructor if you will miss anything while you are gone. Of course you will. Ask instead if it is possible to get copies of any 197

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assignments or other materials that will be passed out while you are away. If the instructor is willing, have a classmate record the lectures you are going to miss. At the very least, have someone take notes for you or ask to copy their notes. Remember to check your Semester-on-a-Page for upcoming assignments and prepare, as much as you can, to complete those assignments before you leave town. Realistically, studying on a road trip is difficult. Take only what you need to complete, the work that is due soon after your return. The ideal situation is to carry the flash cards you should have already prepared while you were going over your textbook and your class notes. They are very portable and work well for the short periods of study time you have on the bus, in the airport, or in your hotel room. Concentration can be a challenge when traveling. This is an appropriate time to use your headset and music to block disruptions. A number of the athletes interviewed for this book had some advice to share with current student-athletes. From former football player Marvin Snodgrass (personal communication, September 12, 2011): “Don’t waste valuable study time. Do your studying at school and attend all your classes. And above all, take responsibility for your own academic success.” He added, “Get used to being part of the team, not the star. Understand that the physical demands in college are greater than in high school and that athletics are more demanding.” Former junior college football player Erick Marquez, who is now playing at a four-year college, said (personal communication, September 12, 2011): “Developing self-discipline is essential in making the transition from high school to college.” Zack Schira, a former quarterback with the Pima Community College Aztec football team, stresses the importance of using study tables and other resources available to student-athletes (personal communication, October 17, 2011). In conclusion, David Lockhart, former football player (personal communication, October 19, 2011), points out, “Successful student-athletes either have, or must acquire, a certain skill set at some point in their lives in order to be prepared for success in the classroom, as well as on the playing fields.” Learning the skills presented to you in this Playbook will serve you well now and in your future. As you do in your sport, you must practice them until they become comfortable for you. 198

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36 LIFE AFTER ATHLETICS Out of the Uniform, into the Suit

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art of the rationale for teaching study skills is that, not only will they help student-athletes be successful academically, but they also will provide necessary skills to be successful in life after college. Josephine Potuto and James O’Hanlon’s 2007 study found that the student-athletes they interviewed believed that athletics helped them to develop traits that would serve them well in their future careers. More than 95 percent of those surveyed said that athletic participation would help them in getting the job they desired. John Pfeiffer, a retired executive from Caterpillar Corporation, described the connection between the skills of a student-athlete and those his company sought as part of the hiring process in all phases of operations. He said that the best employees hired by Caterpillar were those student-athletes who graduated because of the things they had learned as student-athletes in college: juggling a very busy schedule through good time management, showing teamwork, being able to focus on more than one problem at a time, and being able to bounce back from defeat. He added that former college student-athletes know how to put adversity into perspective and get on with solving the problem at hand. He was impressed with the ability of studentathletes to become great supervisors and managers. Amy Van Dyken Rouen, former Olympic Gold Medal swimmer (personal communication, November 16, 2010), commented that she learned

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time management skills and teamwork from her experience as a studentathlete and said these skills are serving her well in her current career as a radio personality. She added that she also learned how to bounce back from adversity, an important skill whenever her radio show ratings were not where she wanted them. Kevin Flanagan, former University of Arizona basketball player (personal communication, November 22, 2010), said he learned a number of valuable things as a result of his experience as a student-athlete. He said he learned to be a “coachable” employee, to accept constructive criticism, to bounce back from adversity, to deal with pressure, and to use pressure to make his working situation better. In addition, he believes that he learned to “lead from a place of intellect and passion.” I had a conversation with former college and professional football player Bobby Roland, one of the players I worked with at the University of Arizona many years ago. He is now the father of a very talented young athlete and stays involved in athletics as a coach. Speaking from the perspective of someone who has been there and done that and a father who cares very much about his son’s welfare, Roland shared with me some of the advice he has given his son (personal communication, June 14, 2012): “Understand that you are more than this game. Remember that there is life after football. Play your best in life as you do in the game.” In conclusion, we should take the words of Father Theodore Hesburgh of the Knight Commission to heart when he said, “Athletes deserve to be honored for their heroic accomplishments, and the honoring should far outlive their athletic days” (personal communication, March 11, 2012).

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APPENDIX A The Tool Box

PERSONALIZED FORMS FOR ATHLETES

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APPENDIX A

GOAL-SETTING ASSESSMENT

Read the following statements and rate yourself as you generally are (not as you would like to be) with respect to setting and reaching your goals. For you to learn more about yourself, it is important to be honest in your responses. Answer YES if the statement is generally true of you, and NO if it is not.

Take a moment to review your responses. Pay attention to the items to which you responded “YES”; these are strengths. Now consider the items to which you responded “NO.” These represent areas where focus and growth are needed. Now complete the following statements:

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Athletic Goals Life Goal: Imagine what you want to achieve and where you want to be in the next 10–20 years.

College Goal: What do you want to accomplish while you are in college? This should help you attain your life goals.

Semester Goal: What do you want to achieve this semester? This should help you attain your life and college goals.

Now identify three short-term goals that will help you reach your semester goal. For example, to increase your vertical jump by 5 inches, you may list increasing your leg strength by 20 percent.

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Athletic Goals For each short-term goal, identify achievement strategies you will need to reach your goals successfully. For example, to increase your leg strength 20 percent, you could do squats three times a week in the weight room, four sets of stadium stairs three times a week, and plyometrics twice a week.

Achievement Strategies for Short-Term Goal No. 1:

_________________________________________________________ Achievement Strategies for Short-Term Goal No. 2:

_________________________________________________________ Achievement Strategies for Short-Term Goal No. 3:

_________________________________________________________ List below any obstacles you might face in trying to reach your semester or subsemester goals. Identify a plan for overcoming each one.

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___________________________________________________________ Now that you have defined your athletic goals, share this information with at least one trusted person who will be able to support you. Ask this person to help you stay true to your goals. Also, keep this goals sheet visible as a reminder of what you are trying to accomplish. For example, rewrite in your own words, tape them to your bathroom mirror, or tape them to the refrigerator. Academic Goals Life Goal: Imagine what you want to achieve and where you want to be in the next 10–20 years.

___________________________________________________________ College Goal: What do you want to accomplish while you are in college? This should help you attain your life goals.

___________________________________________________________

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Semester Goal: What do you want to achieve during this semester? This should help you attain your life and college goals.

___________________________________________________________ Now identify three short-term goals that will help you reach your semester goal. For example, if earning a B in your economics class was your semester goal, you might list earning at least B’s on all exams and earning an A average on your two group projects as your short-term goals.

___________________________________________________________ Academic Goals For each short-term goal, identify achievement strategies you will need to reach your goals successfully. Your strategies might be: to attend all your classes, go for tutoring, review all your class notes, join a study group, talk with your instructors each week to discuss any questions you have, and begin studying for each exam at least five days in advance.

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Achievement Strategies for Short-Term Goal No.1:

_________________________________________________________ Achievement Strategies for Short-Term Goal No. 2:

_________________________________________________________ Achievement Strategies for Short-Term Goal No. 3:

_________________________________________________________ List below any obstacles you might face in trying to reach your semester or subsemester goals. Identify a plan for overcoming each one.

___________________________________________________________ Now that you have defined your academic goals, share this information with at least one trusted person who will be able to support you. Ask this person to help you stay true to your goals. Also, keep this goals sheet visible as a reminder of what you are trying to accomplish. For example, rewrite in your own words, tape them to your bathroom mirror, or tape them to the refrigerator. 207

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APPENDIX A

Career Goals Life Goal: Imagine what you want to achieve and where you want to be in the next 10–20 years.

___________________________________________________________ College Goal: What do you want to accomplish while you are in college? This should help you attain your life goals.

___________________________________________________________ Semester Goal: What do you want to achieve during this semester ? These should help you attain your life and college goals

Now identify three short-term goals that will help you reach your semester goal. For example, if earning a B in your economics class was your semester goal, you might list earning at least B’s on all exams and earning an A average on your two group projects as your short-term goals.

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Career Goals For each short-term goal, identify achievement strategies you will need to reach your goals successfully. Your strategies might be to network with professionals in your field, speak with the hiring department where you’d like to work. Achievement Strategies for Short-Term Goal No. 1:

_________________________________________________________ Achievement Strategies for Short-Term Goal No. 2:

_________________________________________________________ Achievement Strategies for Short-Term Goal No. 3:

_________________________________________________________ 209

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List below any obstacles you might face in trying to reach your semester or subsemester goals. Identify a plan for overcoming each one.

___________________________________________________________ Now that you have defined your career goals, share this information with at least one trusted person who will be able to support you. Ask this person to help you stay true to your goals. Also, keep this goals sheet visible as a reminder of what you are trying to accomplish. For example, re-write in your own words, tape them to your bathroom mirror, or tape them to the refrigerator.

PROCRASTINATION QUOTIENT

For each item indicate the column that most applies to you.

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Multiply the TOTAL RESPONSE row by the corresponding WEIGHT to get a SCORE for each column. Add up the SCORE row to determine your total score. That number is your Procrastination Quotient. Procrastination Quotient: Procrastination Quotient: Procrastination Quotient:

Below 20 21 to 30 Above 30

Occasional Procrastinator Chronic Procrastinator Severe Procrastinator

THE SCOUTING REPORT

Athletes are always observing, anticipating: “How does my opponent move? How does she react? Where is he looking? What is his footwork?” In nanoseconds, a sharp athlete reads his opponent’s movements and reacts accordingly. And those who do that quickly and cleanly “got game.”   You can “get game” in the classroom, too, by employing some of the same strategies you use on the court or on the field and transferring them to the classroom. And, who are you scouting this time? The teacher, of course. He or she may not be as fast as your opponent in competition, but they have moves worth watching. Following is a list of cues that student-athletes should use as a guide for taking good, useful notes. The instructor writes something on the board. Always include such items in your notes. The instructor says something they are talking about will be on a test or would make a good exam question. The instructor talks about some point that is controversial or some contrasting ideas using words like: “Some people argue that . . . while others feel that” The instructor talks about some point or issue about which there is widespread agreement using words like: “Experts agree . . .” The instructor repeats a point using words like: “Again . . .” or “As I said before . . .” The instructor indicates that something he or she is about to say is very important: “Here’s the key . . .”, “What’s significant is . . .” 211

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The instructor uses words indicating absolutes): always, never, none, all, everyone. The instructor itemizes key points through reviewing: “In conclusion . . .”, “In summary . . .”, “So, to sum up . . .” The instructor uses gestures that could indicate the importance of a point: pointing, waving arms, tapping, or the like. The instructor changes his or her movement: if the instructor has been sitting and then stands; the instructor is leaning and then walks; the instructor is pacing and then stops. The instructor demonstrates facial expressions that may indicate he or she is making an important point: grimacing, raising eyebrows, intense staring. The volume of the instructor’s voice changes. The instructor’s tempo of delivery changes. There is an obvious pause in the instructor’s delivery, called a “loaded silence.” Other noticeable cues: _______________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________

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APPENDIX A

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APPENDIX A

STUDY SKILLS

Internet Resources Study Guides and Strategies http://www.studygs.net/ Study Skills Self-Help Information http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html

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How to Study http://www.howtostudy.org/ University of Central Florida http://www.sarc.sdes.ucf.edu/index.php Concentration Control of the Environment http://www.ucc.vt.edu/academic_support_students/study_skills_informa tion/study_environment_analysis/index.html Online Learning Distance Learning Tutorials https://onlinelearninginsights.wordpress.com/2012/09/28/five-step-strategy -for-student-success-with-online-learning/ Evaluating Internet Resources Evaluating Internet Resources from Illinois State University http://www.library.illinois.edu/ugl/howdoi/webeval.html Note-Taking Five Systems for Note-Taking from Cal Poly http://www.sas.calpoly.edu/asc/ssl/notetaking.systems.html NCAA http://www.ncaa.org

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REFERENCES

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INDEX

advisors and counselors, xiii, 30, 35–36, 40–41, 50, 52, 115–16, 125, 144 assessment, 24, 48, 50, 58, 109, 113–14; Goal-Setting, 134–41, 202; LASSI, 114–15; PEEK, 115–16; INCLASS, 117; MSLQ, 117–19 VARK, 119 boosters, 4–5, 14, 37 CHAMPS Life Skills Program, xvi, 123–26 compliance, 16, 37, 39–40, 62–63 critical thinking, 60–63, 95–98, 118, 187–91 exam anxiety, 77–82, 169–71 faculty, xix, 21, 25, 31, 33–34, 40–41, 60, 119, 144, 193–94, 197 Family Education Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA), 122 flash cards, 66, 86, 198

gambling, 39 goal setting, 49, 54, 71–73, 106, 123, 125, 129–41 high school, 11–15, 19–25, 31–34, 43, 51, 113, 116, 157, 198 Inspiration software, 163–64 Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (IAAUS), 9 International Tutor Training Program Certification (ITTPC), 61 Inverted U-Hypothesis, 77, 170 Knight Commission, xix, 13–17, 23, 200 learning process, 55, 121 learning theories 40, 54; Adult Learning Theory, 58; Cognitive Model, 56; Linear Model, 55 Metacognition, 57; Social Learning Theory, 57 learning skills specialists, 43–45

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INDEX

mandatory study tables, 45, 47, 49 mandatory study time, 18, 32, 44 motivational theories, 99–109; Atkinson’s Expectancy Theory, 104– 5; Bandura’s Self–Efficacy Theory, 106–9; Covington’s Quadripolar Theory, 100–3; Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, 102–4; Weiner’s Attribution Theory, 105–6 National Association of Academic Athletic Advisors, 40 NCAA, xiv, xix, xxi, 5, 9–16, 35–40, 63, 123–26, 170, 193, 217 note-taking, 48, 63, 67, 108, 159; Cornell Notes, 161–62; Mind Mapping, 163–65; Outline Method, 165–66; Scouting Report, 160 notes, 19, 63, 89–91, 120–22, 138, 151, 157, 159–66, 179 Prioritized Daily task List/Appointment Schedule, 69, 147 procrastination, 70, 72, 75–76, 102, 143–46, 171, 210–11; Procrastination Quotient, 146, 210–11 Proposition 48, 13–14 reading, xvii, 48, 52, 61–63, 65–66, 81, 83, 86, 90, 92, 113, 118, 120,

151–56, 159, 175, 177–78, 182; TISOP, 65–66, 151, 159 S.M.A.R.T. Goals, 131–33 sanity code, 10 satisfactory academic progress, 14–15, 33 scouting report, 67, 159–60, 211 self-efficacy, 74, 106–7, 118 Semester-on-a-Page, 153–54, 195, 198 service learning, 125 staffing needs, 30 Stimulus Hierarchy, 80–81 study skills, 32, 43, 49, 54, 62–63, 100–1, 107–9, 119, 125, 171, 199, 216 test anxiety, 78, 86, 101–2, 110, 169–71 test-taking, 63, 79, 81, 94, 120, 176; multiple-choice, 177–78; true-false, 178; matching, 179; problemsolving, 179–81; essay, 181–84 time management, 25, 43, 48–49, 54, 63, 69, 108, 115, 119, 125, 153, 157, 199–200 travel, xvi, 13, 39, 53, 194, 197–98 tutor: training, 58, 60–67, 96–97, 121–22; tutoring, xvi, 32–33, 38, 40, 43, 50, 52–62, 109–10, 119–23, 138, 206

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Penny Turrentine, PhD, earned her BA in Interdisciplinary Studies from the University of Arizona. Her program of studies included sociology, psychology, and exercise sport sciences as preparation of her goal to work with college student-athletes. She also earned a Master’s degree from the University of Arizona College of Education with a minor in exercise and sport sciences before moving on to earn her doctorate. During her twentyseven years of working with student-athletes, she has been employed by Pima Community College, East Campus, before moving to the University of Washington, and subsequently, moving back to Tucson to work at Pima Community College’s West Campus. She is currently the director of the West Campus Learning Center. Dr. Turrentine has collaborated with the Athletic Department at Pima College to design and implement a series of student success workshops that are mandatory for incoming freshmen athletes. She has also developed a mentoring program for a number of the athletic teams and facilitates tutor-led study hall sessions for the athletes. She designed and developed the Student-Athlete Center for Academic Excellence at Pima’s West Campus and continues to be a consultant to the Athletic Department in all facets of academic support. In the field of learning assistance, Dr. Turrentine has achieved the highest level of recognition from the National College Learning Center Association (NCLCA). In 2007, Dr. Turrentine earned Level 4 certification, the highest level of learning center leadership credentials awarded by NCLCA. 227

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Level 4 certification requires presenting at the national level, conducting research, publishing, and mentoring others in the field, a minimum of ten years of experience, and an advanced degree. Dr. Turrentine has also served in a leadership position in the College Reading and Learning Association (CRLA), and has been a Master Level reviewer for the International Tutor Training Program Certification Committee of CRLA for over ten years.

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