Ceramic Production and Distribution in the Chavín Sphere of Influence (North-Central Andes) 9780860549642, 9781407350523

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Ceramic Production and Distribution in the Chavin Sphere of Influence (North-Central Andes)

Isabelle C. Drue

BAR International Series 731 1998

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 731 Ceramic Production and Distribution in the Chavín Sphere of Influence (North-Central Andes) © Isabelle C. Druc and the Publisher 1998 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860549642 paperback ISBN 9781407350523 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860549642 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1998. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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CONTENTS T ab le sa nd F igu r e s A cknow ledgemen t s P ref ace I n t roduc t ion 1B ackg round 1 . 1 T he C hav in s phe re d u r ing t h eE a r ly H o r izon 1 . 2 C e ram i cp roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion 1 . 3 R esea r ch o b je c t ive s

i i v v i 1 1 3 3

2R eg ion so fs t udy a nd s i t ed e sc r ip t ion s 2 . 1 S tudy a r ea 2 . 2 G eog raphy 2 . 1 G eoenv i ronmen t

5 5 9 1 0

3I n te r r eg iona lr e la t ion sh ip si nt h eE a r ly H o r izon a nd A ndean c e ram ic p roduc t ion 3 . 1 I n te r reg iona lr e la t ion sh ip si nt h eC hav in s phe re o fi n f luence 3 . 2 A ndean c e ram ic p roduc t ion 3 . 3 E thnog raph ic d a ta o n moder nc e ram i cp roduc t ion i nt h er eg ion so fs t udy

1 5 1 5 1 7 1 8

4R e sea r ch Me t hodo logy 4 . 1 C ha rac t e r iza t ion a nd p rovenance a na ly s i s 4 . 1 .1 T he c e ram ic ma te r ia l 4 . 1 .2 R e sou r ce a nd p roduc t ion a r ea s 4 . 1 .3 R aw m a te r ia l sa sc ompa ra t ive s amp le s 4 . 1 .4 T he i d en t i f ica t ion o fp roduc t ion g r oup s 4 . 1 .5 A na ly s i st e chn ique s 4 . 2 R e sea r ch q ue s t ion s 4 . 3 T he a na ly s i ss amp le 4 . 3 .1 T he a r chaeo log ica ls amp le 4 . 3 .2 C ompa ra t ive ma te r ia l 4 . 4 P r inc ip le sa nd m e thodo logy o ft h ea na ly s i s 4 . 4 .1 P e trog raph ic a na ly s i s 4 . 4 .2 EDXRF 4 . 4 .3 S ta t i s t ic s

2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 5 2 7 2 7 4 4 4 4 4 6 5 1 5 3

5A na ly s i sR e su l t s 5 . 1 C hav in d eH uän ta rc e ram ic p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion 5 . 2 Hua r ico to c e ram ic p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion 5 . 3 P a l lka c e ram ic p roduc t ion a nd d i s tr ibu t ion 5 . 4 N epe i ia c e ram ic p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion 5 . 5 A nc e in c e ram ic p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion 5 . 6 I n te r s i t ea na ly s i s 5 . 6 .1 P e t rog raph ic i n te r s i te a na ly s i s 5 . 6 .2 I n te r s i te a na ly s i sb a sed o nt h ec hem ica ld a ta

5 7 5 7 6 4 6 7 7 0 7 9 8 2 8 2 8 4

6D a ta T r iangu la t ion a nd I n te rp r e ta t ion 6 . 1 D a ta t r iangu la t ion p e rs i te 6 . 2 D a ta t r ia ngu la t ion a tt h ei n te r s i te l e v e l 6 . 2 .1 I n te r reg iona lr e la t ion sh ip s

9 3 9 3 9 7 9 7

6 . 2 .2 T ype o fc e ram ic se xchanged 6 . 2 .3 D i rec t ion a nd n a tu re o ft h ee xchange r e la t ion sh ip s 6 . 2 .4 C e ram ic p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion

9 7 9 9 9 9

C onc lu s ion s R ef e rence s S pan ish s umma ry -C ompend io e ne spa r io l

1 05 1 07 13

TABLES T ab le 1 R e la t ive c h rono logy f o rt h es i te so fs t udy T ab le 2 P rovenance a nd s i ze o ft h ea na ly s i ss amp le p e rs i te T ab le 3 a C ompo s i t ion o ft h eC hav in d eH uän ta rs amp le T ab le s3 b -e C ompo s i t ion o ft h eH ua r ico to ,P a l lka , N epef ia a nd A ncön a na ly s i ss amp le s T ab le 4 C e ram ic s amp le f r om C hav in d eH uän t a r T ab le 5 C e ram ic s amp le f r om H ua r ico to T ab le 6 C e ram ic s amp le f r om P a l lka T ab le 7 C e ram ic s amp le f r om N epef ia T ab le 8 C e ram ic s amp le f r om A nc6n T ab le 9 C ompa ra t ive ma te r ia lp e rs i te T ab le 1 0 I d en t if ica t ion o ft h ec ompa ra t ive s amp le s T ab le 1 G ranu lome t r ic c l a s se s

8 2 7 2 8 2 9 2 9 3 4 3 6 3 8 4 0 4 4 4 5 4 7

T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le

5 1 5 9 6 4 6 8 7 7 8 0 8 6 9 7

1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9

E lemen t sm ea su red a nd c ond i t ion o fa na ly s i s P e t rog raph ic c ha rac te r is t ics o ft h eC hav in d eH uän ta rc e ram ics P e t rog raph ic c ha rac te r i s t ic so ft h eH ua r ico to c e ram ics P e t rog raph ic c ha rac te r i s t ic so ft h eP a l lka c e ram ics P e t rog raph ic c ha rac te r i s t ic so ft h eN epef ia c e ram ics P e t rog raph ic c ha rac te r i s t ic so ft h eA nc6n c e ram ics S i t em embe r sh ip F o rms o fa t yp ica la nd n on lo ca lc e ram ic sw i thou ta t t r ibu t ion

P LATES P la te P la t e P la t e P la t e

1P e t rog roup s 2P e t rog roup s 3P e t rog roup s 4P e t rog roup s

a nd a nd a nd a nd

a t yp ica l a typ ica l a t yp ica l a t yp ica l

c e ram ic s c e ram ic s c e ram ic s c e ram ic s

f r om f r om f r om f r om

C hav in d eH uän ta r C hav in d eH uän ta a nd H ua r ico to P a l lka a nd N epef ia A nc6n

1

7 3 7 4 7 5 7 6

F IGURES F igu re 1 S i t e sm en t ioned i nt h et e x t F igu re 2 T he c e remon ia lc en te ro fC hav in d e Huän ta r F igu re 3 T he N ep ef ia V a l ley F igu re 4 R eg ion so fs t udy F igu re 5 G eo logy o ft h eC hav in r eg ion a nd C a l le jön d eH uay la s F igu re 6 G eo logy o ft h eC a sma -Nepe f ia r e g ion s F igu re 7 G eo logy o ft h eA ncön r eg ion F igu re 8 Moder np roduc t ion a nd r e sou r ce a rea si nt h eC a l le jön d eH uay la s F igu re 9 I n t eg ra t ion o ft h ed a ta a nd a na ly s i st e chn ique s F igu re 1 0C e ram ic sf r om C hav in d eH uän ta r F igu re 1 C e ram ic sf r om H ua r ico to F igu re 1 2C e ram ic sf r om P a l lka F igu re 1 3C e ram ic sf r om N epe f ia F igu re 1 4C e ram ic sf r om A ncön F igu re 1 5G ra in a bundance a nd r oundne s ss ca le s F igu re 1 6I mage a na ly s i so f ac e ram ic t h in s e c t ion F igu re 1 7U se o fp e t rog raphy i nt h ec ha ra c te r iza t ion o fc e ram ic p roduc t ion F i gu re 1 8X ray f l uo re scence s pec t ra F igu re 1 9G eo logy n ea rC hav in d eH uän ta r F i gu re 2 0P lo to ft h ef i r s tt wo p r inc ipa lc omponen t sw i th c l a s s if ica t ion o ft h eC hav in p e t rog roup s F i gu re 2 1 H ie ra r ch ica lc l u s te r ing o ft h eC hav in d eH uän ta rs amp le s F igu re 2 2H ie ra r ch ica lc l u s te r ing o ft h eH ua r ico to s amp le s F i gu re 2 3P lo to ft h ef i r s tt wo p r inc ipa lc omponen t sw i th c l a s s i f ica t ion o ft h eP a l lka p e t rog roup s F igu re 2 4H ie ra r ch ica lc l u s t e r ing o ft h eP a l lka s amp le s F igu re 2 5P lo to ft h ef i r s tt wo p r inc ipa lc omponen t sw i th c l a s s if i ca t ion o ft h eN epe t ia p e t rog roup s F igu re 2 6H ie ra r ch ica lc l u s t e r ing o ft h eN epef ia s amp le s

2 6 8 9 1 1 2 1 3 2 0 2 5 3 1 3 5 3 7 3 9 4 1 4 7 4 9 5 0 5 3 6 0 6 1 6 3 6 6 6 9 7 0 7 8 7 9

F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re

8 1 8 3 8 4 8 5

2 7H ie ra rch ica lc l u s te r ing o ft h eA ncön s amp le s 2 8P lo to ft h ef i r s tt wo p r inc ipa lc omponen t s ,p e t rog raph ic d a ta ,i n te r s i te a na ly s i s 2 9P lo to ft h es econd a nd t h i rd p r inc ipa lc omponen t s ,p e t rog raph i cd a ta ,i n te r s i te a na ly s i s 3 0P lo to ft h ef i r s tt wo p r inc ipa lc omponen t so nc hem ica lv a r iab le s ,i n te r s i t ea na ly s i s 3 1 P lo to ft h ef i r s tt wo p r inc ipa lc omponen t so nc hem ica lv a r iab le s , i n c lud ing t h ec e ram ic s a nd c ompa ra t ive s amp le s ,i n te r s i te a na lys i s F i gu re 3 2C hem ica ls i gna tu re o ft h es i te s F igu re 3 P lo to ft h ef i r s tt wo d i sc r im inan tf unc t ion sw i th l o ca t ion o ft h es i te sa nd c hem ica lv a r iab le s F igu re 3 4T he i n te r reg iona lr e la t ion sh ip sa nd c e ram ic e xchange si d en t if ied b yt h ea na ly s i s

8 6 8 7 8 8 9 8

T h is w ork i sd ed ica t ed t ot h eA nd ean p o t ter s ,p as ta nd p re sen t ACKNO WLEDG MENTS F ranc i s F o re s t a l so c onduc ted c omp lemen ta ry a na ly s i s w i th s t a t i s t ica l p rog ram s o f h i s o wn . Many p e r son s f r om t h e G eo logy d epa r tmen t o f t h e U n ive r s i t e d e Mont rea l a l so h e lped m e s o lve p e t rog raph ic r i dd le s , i n p a r t icu la r D r . B er na rd Mame t , J e an B eau l ieu , a nd J ohn S t ix . T hey c on tr ibu ted t o ab e t te r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e m ine ra log ica l c ompo s i t ion o f t h e c e r am ic s u nde r s t udy . T he p o t te r s I v i s i ted i n P e ru a nd C anada w e r e a l so o f g r ea t h e lp a nd p a t ience i nt h i s m a t te r , p rov id ing am o re h uman d imens ion t o t h e a na ly s i s . T he d i ff icu l t t a sk o f p repa r ing t h e t h in s e c t ion s w a st h a to fJ ean -P ie r re B ou rque , w ho a c comp l i shed t h i s w i th m a s te ry . A cknow ledgmen t s a r e a l so d ue t o t h e

Many p e r son s ,p rof e s s iona l s , f am i ly a nd f r iend sp a r t ic ipa ted i nt h er e a l iza t ion o ft h i sw o rk . F o rt h e i r mo ra lo ri n t e l lec tua l s uppo r t , t h e ir i n te re s t , a nd a dv ice , Ih ea r t i ly t h ank t h em . H e re Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank L ou is e I .P a rad i s , m y s upe rv i so r a tt h e U n ive r s i ty o f Mon t rea l , a nd R icha rd B u rge r f o r h i s a dv ice o nt h is l a s tv e r s ion o ft h ee n t e rp r i se . T h is r e sea rch w ou ld n o t h ave b een p o s s ib le w i thou t t h e f i nanc ia l s uppo r t o f t h e S oc ia l S c ience s a nd H uman i t ie s R esea r ch C ounc i lo fC anada a nd g r an t sf r om t h e U n ive r s i t8 d e Mon t r ea l . A s w e l l , t h e U n ive r se d e S he rb rooke f a c i l i ta t ed a cce s s t o i t s r e sou r ce s a nd l a bo ra to r ie s . I n S he rb rooke , Iw ou ld l i ke t o t h ank i np a r t icu la r D r . H ugh Gwyn f r om t h eg eog raphy a nd t e led e te c t ion d epa r tmen t , D r . R eg ina Z amo jska r e spon s ib le f o r t h e X ray f l uo r e scence l a bo ra to ry i n t h e a na ly t ica l c hem i s t ry d epa r tmen t , a nd D r . F ran o i s G i tzho f e r f r om c hem ica l e ng inee r ing i n A pp l ied S c ience s . T he i ra dv ice a nd e xpe r t i se a l lowed m e t oc onduc t m y a na ly s i s s a f e ly . T o t h o se i n s t i tu t ion s a nd p e r son s I w ou ld l i ke t oe xp re s s my g ra t i tude . Ia m a l so t h ank fu l t o t h e d i f f e r en t p e r son s , m u seums , a nd i n s t i tu t ion s t h a t a l lowed m e t oo b ta in t h e c e ram ic s amp le s t h a t k ep t m e b u sy f o r s o m any y ea r s , i n p a r t icu la r D r . R icha rd B u rge r f r om t h e P eabody Mu seum a nd Y a le U n ive r s i ty f o rt h e A ncon a nd H ua r ico to s amp le s , D r . D av id W i l son f r om S ou the rn Me thod i s t U n ive r s i ty f o r t h e P a l lka m a te r ia l , a nd D r . R icha rd D agge t t o f t h e U n ive r s i ty o f Ma s sa chu se t t s f o r h i s a dv i se o n t h e N ep e f ia c e ram ic s . T he Ame r ican Museum o f N a tu ra l H i s to ry i n N ew Y o rk p rov ided t h e C hav fn c e ram ics f r om t h e B enne t t c o l le c t ion , t h e Mu seo N ac iona l d e A n t ropo log ia d e L ima s upp l ied mo re C hav fn s amp le s , a nd t h e Mu seo d e C a sma l e n t t h e N epe r ia c e ram ics . F ina l ly , t h eI n s t i tu to N a c iona l d e C u l tu ra ( INC ) o f P e ru i s sued t h e e xpo r t p e rm i t t o c onduc t t h e a na ly s i s i nC anada . R omme l A nge le s F a lcon h e lped m e i n t h e c olec t ion o f c ompa ra t ive s amp le s a nd , a bove a l l , s e cu red t h e a dm in i s t ra t ive s t ep s w i th t h e I NC w h i le Iw a s n o ti nP e ru .

d epa r tmen t o f a n th ropo logy o f t h e U n ive r s i t8 d e G eneve , w he re If i r s ta cqu i red t h es c ien t if i cb a ckg round a nd r i go rou s a pp roach n ece s sa ry t oc onduc ta r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch . T he t e d iou s t a sk o f c o r rec t ing t h e E ng l i sh v e r s ion o f t h i s w o rk w a s c onduc ted b y J e s s ica G rayb i l l f r om t h e G eo logy d epa r tmen t a nd M icha l K a rp in sk i i n Mo lecu la r B iophy s ics & B iochem i s t ry , b o th a t Y a le U n ive r s i ty . J e s s ica a l so o b l iged m e t oc l a r i f y m any g eo log ica ld e scr ip t ion s . T o b o th Ia mg ra t e fu l . F ina l ly , Iw an t t o t h ank my h u sband f o r h i s c on s tan t s uppo r t , h i s q ue s t ion s , h i s p re sence i n t h e f i e ld , a nd h i s p a t ience i n s ha r ing m y t h ink ing -a loud a bou t c e ram ics , p o t te r s , m ine ra l s ,a nd c hem ica le l emen t s .

S eve ra l l a bo ra to r ies a ccep ted m y i n t ru s ion s , a s ide f r om t h e U n ive r s i t e d e S he rb rooke 's . T he s e a r e t h e g eo logy l a bo ra tor y o f P r . B ruce V e lde a t t h e t co le N o rma le S upe r ieu re i n P a r i s ; t h e C en t re d e C 8 ramo log ie o f L yon u nde rt h ed i rec t ion o fP r . Mau r ice P i con a nd s uper v i s ion o f A nne S chm i t t f o r t h e p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s ; t h e l a bo ra to ry o fD r .D av id K i l l ick f r om t h eU n ive r s i ty o fA r izona ,a nd t h e l a bo ra to ry o f D r . J ame s S to l t rnan f r om t h e U n ive r s i ty o f W i scon s in - Mad i son . F ina l ly , D r . D an ie le L ava l lee a t t h e CNRS i nP a r i s g ave m e a cce s s t oi mpo r tan t d o cumen t s o n C hav fn . It h ank t h e se d i f f e ren t p e r son s f o r t h e i r h e lp a nd s uppo r t . My g r a t i tude a l so g oe s t o D r . B e rna rd C o l in o f t h e D epa r temen t d e Ma th8ma t ique s a nd I n fo rma t ique f r om t h e U n ive r s i te d e S he rb rooke w ho o r ien ted a nd h e lped m e f o r t h e s t a t i s t ica l a na ly se s , a s d id D r . F ranc i s F o re s t o f t h e A n th ropo logy d epa r tmen t o f t h e U n ive r s i te d e Mon t r ea l . i v

PREFACE F ew s ub jec t s i n A ndean a r chaeo logy h ave a t t ra c ted m o re i n te re s t t h a t C hav in c i v i l iza t ion . S i n ce J u l io C . T e l lo 's i d en t if ica t ion o f i ta s t h e " c iv i l izac iön m a t r iz" o f a l l l a te r P eruv ian c u l tu re s , many s cho la r s h ave l a bo red t o e l uc ida te t h e n a tu re a nd d eve lopmen t o f t h is p oo r ly u nde r s tood c u l tu ra l p henomenon . I n o rde r t o d o s o , i t h a s b een n e ce s sa ry t oo ve rcome b o th c oncep tua la nd m e thodo log ica l p rob lems . A ne s sen t ia l s t ep h a s b een t oc on s t ruc t am ean ing f o r t h e p o lymo rphous t e rm " Chav in" s ot h a t i tc an s e rve a s a ne f fec t ive h eu r i s t ic d ev ice r a the rt h an as eman t ic o b s tac le . As e cond s t ep h a s b een t oe s tab l ish c h rono log ica l c on t ro l i n o r de r t o t r a ce t h e mu l t i -cen tu ry p roce s s b e tween 8 50 -200 BC d ur ing w h ich Chav in c iv i l iza t ion e me rged i n t h e h i gh land Mo sna V a l ley , f l ou r ished a nd b ecame a p an r e g iona l c en te r o f r e l ig iou s wo r sh ip a nd s o c ioeconom ic i n te rac t ion , a nd t h en a brup t ly d ec l ined . B y s o r t ing o u t p r e C hav in a n teceden t s d a t ing t o t h e s e cond m i l lenn ium BC f r om t h e C hav in p henomenon i t se l f a nd b y f o cu s ing o n s p ec if ic a spec t s o f C hav in c u l tu re a nd s o c ie ty d ur ing t h e f i r s t m i l lenn ium BC , c ons ide rab le p rog r es s h a s b een m ade i nu nde r s tand ing t h e o rgan izat ion a nd t r ans fo rma t ion o ft h e C hav in d e H uän ta r c en te ra nd i t s r e la t io n sh ip w i th h i gh land a nd c oa s ta lc u l tu res i nw ha tc an b e c a l led t h eC hav in s phe re o fi n te rac t ion . Y e t a me thodo log ica l p rob lem r ema in s c once rn ing h ow t h e se c omp lex a nd d ynam ic r e la t ion sh ip s b e d e term ined b y a r chaeo log i s t s . T rad i t iona l ly , much o f t h e l i t e ra tu re o n C hav in f o cu sed o n i c onog raphy , a nd t h es t y le a nd c on ten to f t h e se c omp lex i mages w e re i n i t ia l ly u sed t od ef ine t h e v ery c u l tu re i t se lf . O ne o bv iou sd rawback o ft h is e mpha s i s i st h a t i t i n ev i tab ly l e d t o a c oncen t ra t ion o n r e la t ive ly r a re s c u lp tu re s a nd p o r tab le o b jec t s u t i l ized i n r e l ig ious r i tua l , a nd c onsequen t ly p roduced a b ia sed v i s ion o f C hav in c i v i l iza t ion . F o r tuna te ly , n ew me thod s i n s ome c a se s i n t roduced i n to a r chaeo logy f r om o u t s ide t h e f i e ld e nhanced t h e a na ly s is o fe veryday r ema ins t o h e lp c l a r i fy t h e n a tu re o fC hav in d e H uän ta r 's r e la t ionsh ip w i th m o re d i s tan ta r ea s . O ne e a r ly e f fo r t i nt h i s d i rec t ion w a s t h e s t udy o f o b s id ian

Among

t h e

a r t ifac t s

r e f lec t ing

d a i ly

a c t iv i t ies ,

f r agmen ted p o t tery i sb y f a r t h e mo s t c ommon a nd i ti s n o t s u rp r is ing t h a t m any a r chaeo log i s t s h ave a t temp ted t o a pp roach t h e C hav in 's i n te r reg iona l r e la t ion sh ip s u t i l iz ing t h e s t y l is t ic a na lys is o f t h e se m a ter ia ls . U nfor tuna te ly , w h i le t h i s me thod m ay s h ed l i gh t o n c on tac t b e tween g roup s a nd e ven c hang ing p a t ter n s o f g roup s e lf iden t if ica t ion , i ti sr a re ly a n e f fe c t ive d ev ice f o r e s tab l i sh ing a c tua l e xchange r e la t ion sh ips , s i nce c e ram ic s t y les c an b e e mu la ted w i th r ema rkab le s ucce s s . Mo reove r , a s t h e r e sea rch a t v i l lage s n ea r C hav in d e H uän ta r r e vea led , s i gn i f ican t s t y l is t ic d i f f e rence s i n p o t tery c an o ccu r e ven o ve r s ho r t d i s tance s . C lea r ly , t h e s ou rc ing o f t h e p o t te ry i t se lf t h rough c l ay c hem is t ry o r p e t rog raphy o f f e r s t h e g rea te s tp o ten t ia l , b u t f ew s cho la r s h ave b een w i l l ing t o c onduc t as t udy o f t h is k ind , g i ven t h e c ha l lenge s p re sen ted b y h e te rogeneou s c l ay m a ter ia l s , t h e m any v a r iab le so fc e ram ic p roduc t ion a nd t h e n eed t oe mp loy ap an reg iona l a pp roach t os uch a na na ly s is . T he p i onee r ing s t udy b y I s abe l le D ruc p r e sen ted h e re o f f e r s af i r s t i mpo r tan t s t ep t owa rd s c ha rac ter iz ing a nd p roven ienc ing t h e c e ram ics u t i l ized w i th in t h e C hav in s phe re o f i n f luence . C omb in ing p e t rog raph ic a na lys i s a nd X ray f l uo re scence , D ruc i s a b le t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween t h e c e ram ics p roduced a tC hav in d e H uän ta r a nd t h o se c r ea ted a t f ou r o the r a r ea s l i nked t o t h e C hav in c en te r . Wh i le h e r s amp le i s mode s t i ns c a le , s he i ss t i l l a b le t o p roduce c ompe l l ing e v idence o f l o ng d i s tance t r anspor t o fp o t tery d u r ing t h e C hav in h or izon . H e r d emons t ra t ion t h a t as i gn if i can t a moun t o f p o t tery f r om C hav in d e H uän ta r w a s p roduced e l sewhe re i sa f a sc ina t ing d i scovery w h ich n i ce ly c omp lemen t s e a r l ie r s t y l i s t ic a na ly ses f r om t h e s i te . I ta l so r e info rce s p r io r f i nd ing s c oncern ing t h e c onsump t ion o f e xo t ic ma ter ia ls b y t h e r e s iden t s o fC hav in d e H uän ta r d u r ing t h e E a r ly H or izon . F ina l ly , t h e s t udy b y D ruc o f e r s n o t o n ly a c ont r ibu t ion t o o u r u nde r s tand ing o f C hav in

d eb i tage f r om t h eC hav in d e Huän ta rs e t t lemen t u s ing X ray f l uo re scence a nd n eu t ron a c t iva t ion ( Bu rge r a nd A sa ro

c i v i l iza t ion , b u t i ta l so p rov ide s a n i n s tr uc t ive c a se s t udy h i gh l igh t ing t h e p o ten t ia l o f p an reg iona l

1 977 , B u rge r e t a l 1 984 ) . T h is s t udy d emon s t ra ted t h a t ,

c ha rac te r iza t ion a nd a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ics .

d u r ing t h e h e igh to fC hav in d e Huän ta r , ( i . e . , t h e C hak inan i a nd J anaba r r iu p ha ses ) t h e o ccupan t so ft h e c en te rw e re a b le t o p rocu re t h e r aw ma te r ia l f o r t h e i r s t one t o o l s f r om H uancave l ica , i nt h e s ou th -cen t ra l h i gh la nd s o f P eru , s ome 4 70 km a way . I na dd i t ion , i ts howed t h a ts ma l l a moun t s o f o b s id ian r e a ched C hav in f r om a n e ven m o re d i s tan to b s id ian s ou r ce i n t h e C o tahuas i V a l ley o f A requ ipa , a n a r ea c ons ide red t ob e o u t s ide t h e C hav in s ph e re o f i n te rac t ion . S t udy o ft h e h ouseho ld f ood r ema ins a tC hav in d e H uän ta r d ocumen ted t h e i mpo r ta t ion o f f i sh a nd m o l lu sk s f r om t h e P ac if i c c oa s t a nd , o n a mo re l o ca l s ca le , i tp o in ted t o t h e c onsump t ion o f d r ied l ama mea t ( c h 'a rk i ) w h ich w ou ld h ave o b ta ined f r om n ea rby h igh a l t i t ude r e s iden t s o f v i l lages l i ke P o jo c a nd Waman Wa in , l o ca ted a d ja cen t t o v a s tg ra ss land sw he re c a rne l id sg razed . ( Bu rge r 1 983 ,M i l le r a nd B u rge r 1 995 . )

p roven ience

s t ud ie s

R icha rd L .B u rge r D i rec to r ,P eabody Mu seum o fN a tu ra l H i s tor y P rof e s so ro fA n th ropo logy , Y a le U n ive r s i ty

f o r

I NTRODUCTION My f i r s t e ncoun te r w i th C hav fn d e H uän ta r d a te s b ack t o F ebrua ry 1 982 , w hen Iw a s a s s is t ing F ede r ico K au f fmann

e t hnog raph ic d a ta a r e t r iangu la ted t ot h e a na lys is r e su l t s t o make s en se o f t h e c ompo s i t iona l g roup s a nd e n la rge t h e

D o ig i n as t udy o fC hav fn l i t h ic a r t . Iu sed t os i t f o r h ou r s

a r chaeo log ica lp e r spec t ive .

o n t h e t e non o f ac abeza c l ava w i th in a g a l lery o f t h e t emp le , t a k ing n o te s . Ig o t h ooked . T he l a nd scape , C hav fn , t h is u n ique s i te a nd c u l tu re , a t t rac ted m e l i ke a magne t . S ince my o r ig in s a r e , i np a r t , S w i ss , i ti sn o w onde r t h a t I l i ke h i gh moun ta ins a nd A lp ine l ike r eg ions . S ince t h en , I h ave u nder taken many t r ave ls , c e ram ic c o l le c t ion s , a nd e xped i t ion s , s ome u nde r t h e f r iend ly c a re o f t h e a rmed

S ince t h e c oncep t ion o ft h e w o rk t oi t sr ea l iza t ion , t h e w ay Ip i c tu re t h e p r ob lem o fc e ram ic p r oduc t ion a nd d i s tr ibu t ion c hanged . L og is t ic c ons tra in t s o r ien ted much o f t h e p ro jec t , ' ma te r ia l a va i lab i l i ty ' b e ing o ne o ft h e mos t i mpor tan t . T he s pec ia l iza t ion i n ma te r ia ls t ud ie sf u r the rd ef ined t h e w ork t o b e d one , t h e t i me r e qu i red , a nd t h e i n he ren t d if icu l t ie s o f c e ram ic a na ly s i s . A n a r chaeo log i s t i n te res ted i n c e ram ics mu s t t a ke c l a s se s d e s igned f o r g eo log is t s , c hem is t s , e ng ineer s . T he a cqu i red k now ledge i s t h en a dap ted t o a r chaeo logy a nd t h v . m a ter ia l u nde r s t udy : a man -made r ock , am u l t i compo s i te , a l te red p r oduc t c rea ted b y m an a nd t ime .

m i l i t ia n ea rP a 1 1 1 ca . Ih ave o f ten c r os sed t h e C o rd i l le ra s , a nd s poken w i th many A ndean p o t te r s . T h is manuscr ip t i st h e r e su l to ff ou ry ea r so fr e sea rch a nd o fa n e ven o lde ri n te re s t . C e ram ics i sa l so ap a s s ion . T he m a ter ia l b r ing s m e c l ose rt o t h e p eop le , i n t r y ing t o u nde r s tand t h e w ay i t w a s manuf ac tu red . I ti sn o t s o m uch i t s s hape a nd d eco ra t ion t h a t i n tere s t m e , b u t i t s p a s te , i t s c ompo s i t ion , t h e w o rk i t

T he

t e chn iques

u sed

h e re

f o r

c e ram ic

a na lys is

a r e

p e t rog raphy a nd X ray f l uo re scence . T he a na lyse s w e re c onduc ted i n s eve ra l l a bo ra to r ie s , m a in ly i n C anada , a f te r t r a in ing a t t h e P o ly techn ic i n Mon t rea l a nd A pp l ied

t ook t o mode l i t . I ti st h e e xp res s ion o f ac u l tu re , o f a t r ad i t ion . B eyond C hav fn i c onog raphy a nd t h e a r t is t ic b eau ty o ft h eo b je c ti sa n a n th ropo log ica l d imen s ion r e la ted t ot h ed ay to -day l i f e a tt h e t i me o ft h e c e remon ia l c en te ro f

S c iences a t t h e U n ive r s i té d e S he rb rooke , a s w e l l a s i n l a bo ra to r i es i n t h e U n i ted S ta te s a nd i n F rance . T hese

C hav fn d e H uän ta r . P eop le , p o t te r s , h ave p roduced , e xchanged , a nd t r an spo r ted t h ese v a ses . H ow a nd w he re w e re t h ey made? I st h e s t y l i s t ic u n i ty o bser ved t h roughou t t h e r eg ion t h e r e su l t o f i m i ta t ion o r e xchange? A re t h e re s pec ia l ized p o t te r s o r ap a r t icu la r t r ad ing n e two rk f o r

a na ly ses , h oweve r , r ema in a t t h e a r chaeo log is t ; t h ey c omp lemen t f i e ld f e e l ing f o rt h e m a ter ia l d oes t h er e s t .

c e ram ics?

s erv ice o f t h e e xpe r ience . T he

T h is i s ar e v ised v e r s ion o f t h e o r ig ina l d i s se r ta t ion i n F rench , r ewo rked a s ab ook . D e ta i l s o f t h e p e t rog raph ic

S ty l is t ic a na lys i s d oe s n o t y i e ld many a n swe r s t o t h ese

d escr ip t ions

q ues t ions . C e ram ic a na ly s i s , o n t h e o the r h and , g e t s c l ose r t o t h i s a im . C hem ica l a nd m ine ra l a na ly se s a pp roach t h e m a ter ia lf r om ac ompo s i t iona lp o in to fv i ew . A na lys is o ft h e

d eve lopmen t s s hor tened f o r e a se o f r e ad ing . Empha s i s i s g iven t o t h e a na ly s i s r e su l t s a nd d a ta i n terp re ta t ion . T he f i r s t t h re e c hap te r s o f t h e b ook i n t roduce t h e c u l tu ra l a nd

h ave

b een

s ummar ized

a nd

s t a t is t ica l

p a s te i n fo rms u sa bou t c e ram ic t e chno logy a nd p rovenance . H ence , i t i s b y w ay o f a r chaeome t ry , b y t h e s t udy o f c e ram ic p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion , t h a t It r y t ou nde r s tand b e t te r p a r t o f t h e C hav fn c u l tu re . I ti sa l so a l i t t le o f t h e A ndean w o r ld t h a t Is e ek t or e ach . A s t h e b ody o f a na ly s is i n c ludes many u t i l i ta r ian w a re s , t h e r e l ig iou s i mpor tance o f C hav fn i so n ly i n d i rec t ly a pp roached , w i th r e ga rd t o as t udy o f c e remon ia l w a re o n ly . H oweve r , t h e r e su l t s a r e

g eog raph ica l s e t t ing o f t h e r e sea r ch , i t s o b jec t ive s , a nd a r e v iew o n E a r ly H or izon i n ter reg iona l r e la t ionsh ip s a nd A ndean c e ram ic p roduc t ion . C hap t e r 4 d ea ls w i th t h e me thodo logy , r e sea r ch q ues t ion s , a nd b ody o f a na lys is .

s u rpr is ing . B eyond t h e a l ready s t a ted p r ima ry o b jec t ive o f g i v ing s ome f l esh t ot h e c oncep t o f t h e ` Chav fn s phe re o f i nf luence ' a nd i d en t ify ing i n te rac t ions w i th in i t , a mo re h uman d imens ion o fc e ram ic p roduc t ion a ppea r s .

c e ram ic p roduc t ion a nd e xchange , a nd i n ter reg iona l i n te rac t ions i nt h e C hav in s phe re o fi n f luence . T he r e sea r ch

C hap te r 5p re sen t s t h e a na lys is r e su l t s , f i rs t b y s i te , t h en a t t h e i n t e r s i te l e ve l . F ina l ly , d a ta t r iangu la t ion a nd i n terp re t a t ion a r e d i scu s sed i n C hap te r 6 . T h i s l a s t c hap te r a l lows f o r t h e a ch ievemen t o f am o re g l oba l p e r spec t ive o n

q ues t ion sa r et h en a n swe red .

T h is r e sea rch i sb a sed o n t h e c ha rac ter iza t ion o f c e ram ics f r om s i x s i te s i nf i ve d i f f e ren t r e g ions o f t h e n or th -cen t ra l A ndes a nd t h ec oa s t . T he o b jec t ive i st og a in i n forma t ion o n p roduc t ion , e xchange a nd i n te r reg iona l r e la t ion sh ip s i n t h e S uch a l a rge s c a le c e ram ic s t udy h a s n o tb e en u nd e r taken b e f o r e f o r t h i s t i me E a r ly H o r izon i n t h e a r ea s t ud ied .

p er iod . I ti sb a sed o n c ompo s i t iona l a na lyse s a nd n o t o n s t y l is t ic s t ud ie s . C onsequen t ly , t h e a r chaeome t r ic a spec t i s

U n c ompend io e x tens ivo d e l ao bra e n e spa i io l s e e neuen tra a lf i na l d e l l i bro .

mo re d eve loped , e mpha s iz ing p r inc ip le s , m e thodo logy , a nd a na lys is t e chn iques . A no the rm a jo ra spec tc oncerns c e ram ic p roduc t ion , r e sou r ce s a r ea s , a nd t h e w a re t y pe s p roduced a nd e xchanged .

S t y l i s t ic , a r chaeo log ica l , g eo log ic , a nd v i

CHAPTER 1 BACKGROUND

T h i s c hap t e r p re s en t s t he c u l tu ra l c on t ex t t h a t o r ien ted t h e o b je c t ive s o ft h ep r esen t s t udy . I tc l a r i f i e s t h ef r amewo rk i n w h ich e xchange s a nd i n te r reg iona l r e la t ion sh ip s t o ok p l ace i n t h e C hav fn s p he re . T he r e sea r ch o b jec t ive s a r e t h en e nume ra ted . 1 . 1T he Chav in s phere d ur ing t he E ar ly Hor izon A tt h e e nd o ft h e I n i t ia l P e r iod ( 1 800 -900 BC ) , t h e A ndean w o r ld i s c ompo sed o f d i f f e ren t c u l tu r a l r eg ion s s ha r ing m any s o c io -econom ica l e l emen t s w h i le p r e se rv ing as t rong r e g iona l c ha ra c t e r . T he r e l ig iou s a nd e conom ic a c t iv i ty i s o r gan ized a r ound c e remon ia l c en te r s , w i th a h eavy r u ra l p opu la t ion . T he se c en te r sr evea l t h ee x i s tence o f ac omp lex s o c ie ty , w i th a n a g ro -pa s to ra l mod e o f s ub s i s tence i n t h e A nde s , c u l tu r e i r iga t ion i n t h e c oa s ta l v a l ley s , a nd t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o fm a r ine r e sou rce s o n t h e c oa s t . I n te r reg iona l e xchange a l ready e x i s t s ,a nd g ood sm ove f r om o ne r eg ion t o a no the r . T h i s s i tua t ion c hange s i n t h e f i r s t m i l l enn ium BC , d u r ing t h eE a r ly H o r izon ,i nt ha tr eg iona l i sm i sl e s sp rom inen ta nd t r ade i s mo re i n t en se . S ty l is t ic u n i ty i so b served t h roughou t t h e A nde s u p t ot h e c oa s t , a nd d i f f e r en tr e g iona l t r ad i t ion s a r ei n teg ra t ed i n to ap an -Andean c u l tu ra ls phe r e , i nt h e f i e ld o f s t y l is t ic , i d eo logy a nd e conomy ( Benne t t 1 944 ; W i l ley 1 9 51 ; K ea t inge 1 981 ; B u rge r 1 988 ) .T h i sc u l tu ra l h o r izon i s a s soc ia ted t ot h e d i f fu s ion o f t h e C hav f n c u l t a nd c u l tu re . B e tween 8 50 a nd 2 00 BC ,a nd p a r t icu la r ly a tt h ee nd o ft h i s p e r iod , t h e A ndean s i te a nd c e remon ia l c e n te ro fC hav fn d e H uän ta r i nf luenced a v a s tr eg ion b y t h ep r e s t ige o fi t s c u l t , i t sa r ta nd i d eo logy . S ty l i s t ic a nd i c onog raph ic e l emen t s o f C hav fn c ha ra c te r a r e i n co rpo ra ted i n to l o ca l s t y le s f r om P a copampa i nt h en or the rn A nde st oA ya cucho i nt h e s ou th , a nd a l ong t h e c oa s t f r om Mo r ro d e E ten t oK a rwa a nd I c a ( W i l ley 1 945 , 1 951 ; R owe 1 967 ; L umb r e ra s 1 974b ; B u rge r 1 988 ) ( F igu re 1 ) . T he a r ea mo s t s t rong ly a s soc ia ted w i t h C hav fn e x tend s r o ugh ly 3 00 k m a r ound t h e c e remon ia l c en te r o fC hav fn d e H uän ta r . T he n o r the rn c oa s ta ll im i to ft h eC hav fn c o re i st h e N epe r la V a l ley . I n t h e n ex t v a l ley , t h e l owe r S an ta , n o C hav fn -s ty le o r C hav fn re la ted c e ram ic s h ave b een f o und ( s e e t h e s u r vey m ade b y D av id W i l son , 1 988 ) . T he S an ta m a rk s a l so t h e l i m i t w i th C up isn ique , ac oa s ta l c e ram ic s t y le p a r t ly c oeva l w i th t h a t o fC hav fn ( La r co H oy le 1 941 , 1 966 ; K au f fmann 1 973 ; Ma i t land 1 980 ) . T he s ou the rn A nd ean l im i t o f C hav fn p re sence i st h e A ya cucho r e g ion a nd n o C hav fn o rC hav ino id ma te r ia l i sf o und f u r the r s ou th ( Bu rge r 1 988 , 1 992 ) . V e ry f ew c a s e s o f C hav fn m a te r ia l h ave b een r e po r t ed b eyond t h e R ima c V a l ley o n t h e c oa s t , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o ft h e I c a V a l ley a nd K a rwa . A t I c a , t h e l o ca l c e ram ic s e xh ib i t aC hav fn i nf lu ence t h a t i s l a te r a b so rbed a nd a dap ted t oy i e ld an ew l o ca l s t y le . F ina l ly , a t K a rwa , v e ry l a rge t ex t i le s w i th r e p r e se n ta t ion o f C hav fn i c onog raphy a tC hav fn d e H uän ta r w e r e f o und i nf une ra ry c on t ex t sa l ong w i th s ome c e ram ic p i e ce s ,s ugge s t ing s t rong

r e l ig iou s t i e sw i th t h em a in c e remon ia lc en te ro fC hav fn . T he C hav in s t y l is t ic h or i zon S tud ie s o n C hav fn a r t a nd i c onog raphy i d en t if ied aC hav fn s t y l i s t ic h o r izon (W i l ley 1 945 a nd 1 951 ; R owe 1 961 ; R oe 1 974 ; B i schof 1 994 ) . T h i s h o r izon r e f e r s t o a l l r ep re sen ta t ion s o n l i t h ic , t e x t i le , c e ram ic , a nd b one w ho se e xecu t ion , s t y le , o r i c onog raphy r e semb le t h o se a tC hav fn d e H uän ta r . A cco rd ing t o t h e a u tho r s , t h e d eg ree o f r e semb lance , a nd t h e t i me o f t h e i n ves t iga t ion s , c e ram ic s w i th C hav fn e l emen t s w e r e q ua l if i ed a sC hav in , C hav ino id , C la s s ic C hav fn o r C hav fn re la ted . T he C up i sn i sque s t y le f r om t h e n o r th c oa s t w a s e ven c a l led c oa s ta l C hav in f o r a t ime . Mo s t ly k nown f r om f u ne ra ry c on tex t , t h i s s t y le i s c ha rac te r ized b y i t s p l a s t ic t r ea tmen t o f s u r f a ce f i n i sh a nd d eco ra t ion ( Lava 1 16e a nd L umb r e ra s 1 985 ) . I ts h a re s s ome i c onog raph ic e l emen t s w i th C hav fn a nd t h i s a ppa ren t s im i la r i ty o r ig ina ted m i s labe l ing a nd m any d eba t e s a mong a r chaeo log i s t s . Ac e ram ic c omp lex r e la ted t ot h e J a naba r r iu p ha se ( 390 -200 BC ) a t C hav fn d e H uän ta r w a s l a te r i d en t if ied b yR icha rd B u rge r( 1 984 , 1 988 ) . T h i s c omp lex o r e l emen t s o f i ta ppea r o n m any c oa s ta l a nd A nd ean s i te s t h roughou tP eru d u r ing t h eE a r ly H o r izon . Wi l ley a t t r ibu ted t h e d i f fu s ion o f t h e C hav fn s t y le t o a p ac if ic p ropaga t ion o f r e l ig iou s c oncep t s ( 1 948 :10 , i n Wi l ley a nd C o rbe t t 1 954 :160 ) . F o r o t he r s , t h e c u l tu ra l a nd s t y l i s t ic u n i ty d u r ing C hav in t i me sr e su l t s f r om t h ed i f fu s ion o f aC hav fn c u l t w h ich f a vo red t r ade u nde r t h e c ove r o f a r e l ig iou s p an -Andean u n if ica t ion ( Rowe 1 967 ; P a t te r son 1 971 ; K ea t inge 1 981 ; B u rge r 1 988 ) . R icha rd B u rge r( 1988 ) , h oweve r , d i s soc ia te s t h e C hav fn c u l t a nd t h e J a naba r r iu c e ram ic c omp lex . T he l a t t e rd oe s n o t b ea r w i tne s s o f ac u l t d i f fu s ion b u t s how s a n i n teg ra t ion i n to ac e ram ic t r ad i t ion . A cco rd ing ly , t h e a dop t ion o f J anaba r r iu e l emen t s w ou ld e xp re s s t h e d e s i re o f i d en t if i ca t ion t o a p an -Andean i d eo logy , a s up ra te r r i to r ia l i d en t i ty , w i thou t a ny d ependence f r om a c en t ra l ized r e l ig iou s a u tho r i ty ( 1 988 :138 ) . P roof s o f t h i s c an b e f o und i nu t i l i ta r ian w a re s t h a t i n teg ra te i c onog raph ic e l emen t s n o rma l ly o ccu r r ing i n t h e r e l ig iou s a r two rk s a tC hav fn d e H uän ta r . F u r the rmo re , t h e s ymbo l ic m ean ing o f t h e s e e l emen t s m igh t h ave b een l o s t i n t h e t r an sf e r . T he i mp re s sed c i rc le -and -do t a nd ` S ' mo t ive sd eco ra t ing c ook ing p o t sa r ea ne xamp le . C hav fn i n f luence i s , h oweve r , n o t u n i fo rm , n o r c u l tu ra l ly h omogeneou s . E ach r e g ion h a s o ne o r mo re r e l ig iou s a nd e conom ic c en te r s . T he C hav fn s t y le f o l low st h e l o ca l s t y le s , w h i le t h e C hav in c u l t i so n ly s e le c t ive ly a dop ted . C oncep t s a nd i c onog raph ic e l emen t s a r e a dap ted a u tonomou s ly . T he r e l ig iou s s ync re t i sm o b se r ved b y B u rge r ( 1 988 ) a t H ua r ico to i sa n e xamp le o ft h i s . T he s ame a u tho r s p eak s o f aC hav fn r e l ig iou s a r ch ipe lago l i nk ing d i f f e ren t c e remon ia l c en te r s r a the r t h an e n t i r e r e g ion s ( 1 992 :20 1-202 ) . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h eC hav fn c u l ti sf u r the rc ompa red t ot h a to f P a chacamac i n t h e L u r in V a l ley d u r ing t h e S pan ish 1

I s abe l le D ru c c onqu e s t , w he r e ad i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk l i nked t h e a ff i l ia t ed t emp le s( K ea t inge 1 981 ; B u rge r 1 988 ) .T he e conomy d u r ing t h e E a r ly H o r izon t h u s b enef i ted f r om t h e r e la t ion sh ip s b e twe en c e r emon ia l s i t e s . I n te r s i t e c on tac t s w e re e nhanced

t o o b ta i n r aw m a t e r ia l s a nd g ood s , a nd s p e c ia l ized p roduc t io n s a nd n ew t e chn ique s i nm e ta l lu rgy a nd t e x t i le s w e r ed ev e lop ed .

1P a i ta 2N a i ia i i ique 3P acopampa 4B a tan G rand e 5Mo r ro d eE t en 6Mon teg r and e 7C up i sn ique 8C e r ro B lanco -Punku r i 9PV31 -312 /330 1 0 P a l lka 1 Moxek e 1 2L a sH a ld a s 1 3 Huar i co to 1 4 C havi nd eH uän tar 1 5K o to sh 1 6S upe 1 7 Anci en 1 8G a ragay 1 9H ua coy 2 0A ya cucho 2 1 Qu i sp i s i sa 2 2I c a 2 3K a rwa _

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e conom i ca nd c u l tu ra l d eve lopmen t . I nt h i s l i ne o ft h ough t , C hav in d e H uän ta r c ou ld w e l l b e q ua l i f ied a s ag a t eway s i t e , a s id e f r om b e ing ap i lg r imag e c en t e r ( Kea t inge 1 98 1 ; L umb r e r a s 1 989 ) . I t i s l o ca t ed a t t h e i n t e r sec t ion o f i mpo r tan t i n t e r reg iona l r o ad s f o r t h e t r an s i t o f g ood s b e tween t h e t r op ica l f o r e s t , t h e A nde s , a nd t h e c oa s t . D i f f e r en t t y pe s o f p r oduc t s w e r e d i s t r ibu ted w i th in t h e c ommun i t ie s o f t h e I n i t ia l P e r iod a nd E a r ly H o r i zon ( s e e C hap te r 3 ) . G ene ra l ly s p eak ing , ad oub le n e two rk c ou ld b e p r opo sed , o ne r e la ted t oe conom ic n eed s a nd t h e o t he r t o t h e C hav in c u l t a nd r e l ig iou s a c t iv i t ie s . A s a n e xamp le , t h e r e i st h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fs ub s i s tence a nd u t i l i ta r ian g ood s , s u ch a ss a l t ed f i sh o ro b s id ian , a nd t h e c i rcu la t ion o fe xo t ic p r odu c t s a nd r e l ig iou s p a raph er na l ia , s u ch a s s p ondy lu s

E x change sa nd i n t er r eg iona lr e la t ion sh ip s E xchange s w i th in t h e C hav in s phe r e o f i nf luence a r e a s c r ibed t o a n i n te rp r e t ive f r amewo rk t h a t c omb ine s t h e r e l ig iou s a nd e conom ic a spec t s o f i n te r reg iona l r e la t ion sh ip s . T he H i r t g a t eway c oncep t ( 1 978 ) c an b e a pp l ied h e r e . B o rd e r c ommun i t ie s d eve lop a l ong c omme r c ia l r o u te s a nd a tt h e i rj u nc tu re s , w h i le p r e f e ren t ia l l i nk ss h ape i n t e r s i te r e la t ion sh ip sw i thou tt h e n eed f o rd i r e c t p o l i t i ca l c on t ro l . T he s i t e s b o rde r ing d i f f e r en t c u l tu r a l r e g ion s o r e cozone s g r ow b e cau se o f i n t e r reg iona l t r ade , a nd t h ey a r e i nc on ta c t w i th s e ve ra l s t y l i s t ic t r end s . T he e me rg en ce o f m any C hav ino id s t y le s a nd t h e a dop t ion o f t h e J a naba r r iu c omp lex c o r re spond t o t h i s s c heme o f 2

1-B ackg round s h els . T h is d ua l e xchange f r amewo rk a l low s u s t oe nv is ion d i f f e ren t d i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk s f o r t h e c e ram ics , t h a t m igh t b e i d en t if ied b y p rovenance s t ud ie s . C e remon ia l a nd u t i l i ta r ian w a re s m igh t n o t h ave i n teg ra ted t h e s ame n e two rk s . O ne w a re t ype p robab ly i n vo lved l o ng d i s tance e xchange wh i le t h e o t he rc i r cu la ted l o ca l ly . T he p roduc t ion m igh t a l so h ave b een d i f f e ren t . C e remon ia l w a re s u sua l ly a r e o f f i ne e xe cu t ion a nd h i gh i c onog raph ic c on ten t a nd i n c lude b o t t les a nd b ow ls . U t i l i ta r ian w a re s , f i ne a nd c oa r se , t e nd t o k eep a l o ca l c ha rac te r i n t h e i r s hape a nd manufac tu re , a nd t h e i c onog raph ic r e p re sen ta t ion s a r e l e s s c omp lex . Howeve r , t h ey e xh ib i t s t y l is t ic i nf luences a nd a dap t a t ions t h a td emons tra te i n te r reg iona lc on tac t s .

i n ve s t iga te : 1 )t h e e x i s tence o f c e ram ic e xchange b e tween d i f fe ren t r eg ion s t o p rove i n te r reg iona l i n te rac t ion s ; 2 ) w he the r t h e C hav in s ty le c e ram ics p a r t ic ipa ted i n a d i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk ; a nd 3 )t h e p a r t ic ipa t ion o f C hav in d e H uän ta ri nc e ram ic e xchange . T oo pe ra t iona l ize t h e se o b jec t ive s , i ti sn ece s sa ry t o : ( 1 ) I d en t ify t h e c ompo s i t ion o f l o ca l a nd n on loca l c e ram ics o n e ach s i te ( 2 ) I d en t ify t h ep rovenance o ft h en on loca lw a re s ( 3 ) C ompa re t h e a na ly s is d a ta b e tween t h e s i te s i no rde r t o i d en t ify c e ram ic e xchange ( 4 ) D i s t ingu ish c ompo s i t iona l o r manuf ac tu r ing d i f f e rences b e tween

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e l emen t s a nd i d en t if y w he the r t h ey r e la te t o d i f fe ren t 1 . 2 C eram ic p roduc t ion a nd d i s tr ibu t ion T h is s t udy o f c e ram ic p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion i s a pp roached f r om t h e d ua l p e r spec t ive o f e conom ic a nd c u l tu ra l i n te r reg iona l r e la t ion sh ip s . P r io r t o t h e p resen t s t udy , t h e e x i s tence o f i n te r reg iona l i n te rac t ion s i n t h e C hav in s phe re w a s s ugge s ted b y s t y l is t ic a na lyse s a nd t h e p r e sence o f n on loca l p roduc t s o n t h e s i te s s t ud ied . T he h ypo thes is o f e xchange h ad n o t , h oweve r , b een t e s ted w i th a r chaeomet r ic s t ud ies o f i n te r reg iona l s c ope , e xcep t f o r t h e o b s id ian f ound i n C hav in d e H uän ta r ( s ee C hap te r 3 ) . S t ud ies o n C hav in c e ram ics a r e u sua l ly i mbedded i n to mo re g ene ra l s t y l is t ic s t ud ie s , o r l im i ted t o t ypo log ica l a nd s t y l is t ic d escr ip t ion s o f t h e c e ram ic m a ter ia l f ound d ur ing e xcava t ions . H oweve r , t h eC hav in m a ter ia l a nd i c onog raphy f o und o n many s i te sr a ised t h ep rob lem o fu nde r s tand ing t h e n a tu re o ft h ec on tac t . Wa si ts t y l is t ic d i f fu s ion , i m i ta t ion , o r i mpor ta t ion? N o th ing w a sk nown o ft h e c e ram ic p roduc t ion , t h e t y pe o f p a s te u sed , o r t h e r e la t ive a bundance o f l o ca l a nd n on loca l c e ram ics . A f ew a r chaeome t r ic s t ud ie s c onf irm t h e p r esence o f n on loca l c e ram ics , b u t w i thou t c ompa ra t ive m a te r ia l , t h e p rovenance c anno t b e t r aced . ( A

d i s tr ibu t ion n e two rk s d en t ify t h e c e ram ics w i th a c ompo s i t ion o r ig ina t ing ( 5) I f r om C hav in d e H uän ta r . Ope ra t ions 1 t o 3a r e r e la ted t o t h e f i r s t o b jec t ive , w h i le o pe ra t ion s 4a nd 5r e f e r t ot h e s e cond a nd t h i rd o b jec t ives , r e spec t ive ly . T he r e g ion s o f s t udy , t h e s i te s a nd c e ram ic c o rpu s h ave b een c ho sen i n a cco rdance w i th t h e a f o re men t ioned o b jec t ive s . T he f o rmu la t ion o f t h e r e sea rch q ue s t ion s i s p r esen ted i n C hap te r 4 , t o ge the r w i th t h e r e sea rch m e thodo logy , t h e d escr ip t ion o f t h e c ha rac ter iza t ion t e chn ique s u s ed , a nd t h e p r e sen ta t ion o ft h e b ody o fa na ly s is .

I n s ummary , t h e E a r ly H o r izon ( 900 -200 BC ) i n P eru i s ma rked b y ah omogene i ty o f s t y le a s soc ia ted w i th t h e e x tens ion o f t h e C hav in c u l tu re . A t t h e s ame t ime , i n te r reg iona l e xchange i n ten s if ies . S ub s is tence a nd e xo t ic g ood s , c e remon ia lo b jec t s ,a nd n on loca lc e ram ics a r e f ound o n many s i te s . T he s t y l i s t ic s im i la r i t ie s b e tween t h e c e ram ics f r om m any A ndean s i te s s ugge s t i n te r reg iona l

r e v iew o f c e ram ic a na lys i s i n P eru a nd A ndean c e ram ic

c on tac t s . H oweve r , n o c onf i rma t ion o fc e ram ic t r ade e x is t s .

p roduc t ion i sp r esen ted i nC hap te r3 ) .

T he r e sea rch o b jec t ive s a im t o i d en t ify t h e e x is tence o f c e ram ic e xchange a nd b e t te r u nde r s tand c e ram ic p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion . I ta l so w an t s t ov er ify t h e p a r t ic ipa t ion o f

T he i d en t if ica t ion o ft h ep roduc t ion a r ea sa nd p rovenance o f t h e c e ram ics f ound o n o ne s i te m ay b e a ch ieved s u cces sfu l ly b y c ha rac ter iza t ion a nd c ompo s i t iona l s t ud ie s . C hem ica l a nd m ine ra l c ha rac ter iza t ion i sn ow a c ommon t o o l t o s t udy c e ram ic p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion , c e ram ic e xchange , a nd i n te r reg iona l i n te rac t ion s ( e .g . s e e B ishop e t

t h e c e remon ia l c en te r o f C hav in d e H uän ta r i n t h ese e xchange s . T o t h is a im , c ha rac ter iza t ion a nd p rovenance s t ud ie s a r e u s ed . T he se s t ud ie s a l low t o d e term ine t h e m ine ra l a nd c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion o ft h e c e ram ic p a s te , t h e p roduc t ion a r ea s , a nd v e s se ls o r ig ins . T he e x is tence o f r e la t ionsh ip s b e tween c e r ta in A ndean r e g ions a nd t h e

a l . 1 982 ; N ef f 1 992 ; R ice 1 987 , 1 996a -b ) . T he se c ompos i t iona l s t ud ies d o n o t a low f o r t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f

c oa s ta l v a l ley s a tt h e t i me o f C hav in d e H uän ta r m ay t h us b e c onf irmed . T he n ex t c hap te r p resen t s t h e g eog raph ic e x tens ion o ft h e r e sea r ch , t h e s i tes i n c luded i nt h e a na lys is , a nd t h e i rg eo log ic s e t t ing .

t h e mode o f e xchange ( h ow t h e p o t w a s d i s t r ibu ted ) , b u t h e lp i d en t ify t h e a r ea o f p roduc t ion a nd d i rec t ion o f t h e e xchange . F u r the rmore , t h ey l e nd s uppo r t t o t h e s t y l is t ic s t ud ie s t ha t a r e f undamen ta l t om any h ypo the s is r e ga rd ing i n te rcu l tu ra l i n te rac t ions .

1 . 3R esearch o b jec t ives T he r e sea rch o b jec t ives a r e a imed a tu nde r s tand ing c e ram ic p roduc t ion a nd d i s tr ibu t ion d u r ing t h eE a r ly H o r izon , i np a r t o f t h e C hav in s phe re o f i nf luence . T he se o b jec t ive s 3

CHAPTER 2 REGIONS OF S TUDY AND S ITE DESCRIPTIONS T h i s c hap te r d e l inea te s t h e s t udy a r ea a nd p re sen t s t h e c r i t e r ia f o r s i te s e le c t ion a s w e l l a s t h e g eog raphy a nd g eo logy o f e a ch r eg ion . T he se i n fo rma t ion , a nd i n p a r t icu la r t h e g eo log ica l b ackg round , i si mpo r tan t i n t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e r e su l t s o f t h e c ha r a c t e r iza t ion s t udy p r e sen ted i nC hap t e r s 5a nd 6 .

2 . 1 S tudy a rea I d ea l ly , t o i d en t i f y ac e ram ic d i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk i n t h e C hav in s phe re o f i nf luence w ou ld r e qu i r e t h e a na ly s i s o f t h e c e ram ic s f r om a l l C hav in i zed s i te s . H oweve r , s uch a n e x ten s ive s t udy i sr a re ly p o s s ib le , e i the r b e cau se o f t ime , b udge t l im i t s o r l a ck o f a va i lab i l i ty o f m a te r ia l . Mo re r e a l i s t ica l ly , t h i s s t udy f o cu se s o n p a r t o f t h e C hav in i n f luence a r ea . I ti sc en te red i nC hav fn d e H uän ta r a s t h e r e f e rence s i t e a nd t h e n e ighbo r ing r e g ion s p rone t o f a i r ly d i re c ti nf luence o rc on tac tw i th t h i ss i t e ,a nd w he re C hav in r e la ted o rJ anaba r r iu c e ram ic sa r en ume rou s . S i te s e lec t ion w a sb a sed o n s e ve ra l c r i te r ia : a )t h e p re sence o fC hav in s t y le c e ram ic a nd /o r e l emen t s o ft h e J anaba r r iu c omp lex ; b )t h el o ca t ion o ft h e s i te i n ar e g ion w i th ag eo e nv i ronmen t d i f f e r en t f r om t h e o the r s i t e s t o e n su re s i te d i sc r im ina t ion a nd i n te r s i te c ompa r i son s o f t h e c e ram ic c ompo s i t ion s ; c ) a va i lab i l i ty o f ma t e r ia l a nd a b i l i ty t o b o r row i tf o ra na ly s i s ; d )d ocumen ta t ion o n t h er eg ion , s i te a nd c e ram ic m a t e r ia l ; e ) k now ledge o f t h e c on tex t o f r e cove ry o ft h ec e ram ics . I n a dd i t ion t o C hav in d e H uän ta r , t h e s i te s s e le c ted a cco rd ing t ot h e se c r i te r ia a r e H ua r ico to ,P a l lka , PV31 -312 a nd PV31 -330 b o th i nt h eN epe f ia v a l ley ,a nd A ncön . T he i r l o ca t ion a nd t h e s t y l i s t ic p a ra l le l s o b ser ved b e tween t h em a nd C hav in d e H uän ta r s ugge s t t h e e x i s tence o f a n i n te r reg iona l c e ram ic d i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk , o r s imp ly o f c e ram ic e xchange b e tween t h e se s i t e s . T he s i te s s p read a l ong a n e a s t -we s ta x i s f r om t h e A nde s t ot h e c oa s t , a l ong w h ich t r op ica l f o r e s t , A ndean , c oa s ta l a nd m a r ine p roduc t s w e re = spo r t ed . T he s t udy ma te r ia l i s c ompo sed o f d ome s t ic a nd f i ne w a re s : b ow ls , o l la s ( c ook ing p o t s ) , j a r s a nd b o t t le s , b o th d e co ra ted a nd p l a in , f o und i nr e s iden t ia l a nd c e remon ia l c ompound s . N one c ome f r om b u r ia l o r c e remon ia l d epo s i t s . T h i sa vo id s t h ep rob lem o fa t yp ica l o r s p e c if ic p roduc t ion o f ten l i nked t ot h i st y pe o fw a re , w h ich i sl e s sr ep res en ta t ive o fc e ram ic p roduc t ion a t as i te .

r e s iden t ia l a r ea . T he U shaped c e remon ia l c en te r i n c lude s t wo m a in s t one b u i ld ing o r t emp le s ( t he s e cond r e su l t ing f r om t h e e x ten s ion o f t h e f i r s t t emp le ) , as ma l l s unken c i rcu la rp l aza a nd al a rge r e c tangu la ro ne f l anked b y l a te ra l c on s t ruc t ion s . T he s i t e i sb o rde r ed b yt wo r i ve r s : t h e Mo sna c l o s ing t h er e c tangu la ra r ea o n t h e e a s ta nd f l ow ing t owa rd t h e Ma ra t ion , a nd t h e Wa cheq sa r unn ing d own t h e Wh i te C o rd i l le ra a nd a l ong t h e n o r ther n e dge o f t h e c e r emon ia l a r ea . T he Wa cheq sa f e ed s t h e Mo sna j u s t n o r th -ea s t o ft h e c e r emon ia l s i t e . T he t emp le s a r e t r unca ted p y ram id s w i th i n te rconnec ted i n te r io r c o r r ido r s o ve r a tl e a s t t h ree l e ve l s . I n s ide o ne o f t h e se g a l le r ie s i nt h e ' o ld ' t emp le s t and s a f i ve -me t e rs c u lp tu re ( t he ` Lanzon ' ) e ng raved w i th c omp lex i c onog raphy r e p re sen t ing a m y th ica l f i gu re . O the r e ng rav ing s f l a t o ri nr e l ief d e ck t h e f aça de o ft h e e d if ice s , c o rn ices , a nd s t one c o lumn s ( s ee t h e d e ta i led d e scr ip t ion s i nR owe 1 967 a nd K au f fmann D o ig 1 973 ) . T he c e remon ia l a r ea a nd t h et emp le sa r ed ra ined b yw el -con s truc ted d uc t s . T he s i te i sv i ewed a s ap i lg r image o ro rac le c en te r a nd i t s r e l ig iou s i mpo r tance i s a t te s ted b y t h e many c e ram ic o f f e r ing s f ound i nt h e O f r enda s g a l le ry ( Lumb re ra s 1 974b ; K ea t inge 1 981 ) . B e s ide i t s r e l ig iou s f unc t ion , C hav in d e H uän ta r m ay h ave p l ayed a n i mpo r tan t e conom ic r o le , c on s ide r ing i t s l o ca t ion o n t h e t r an s -Andean r ou te b e twe en t h et r op ica l f o re s ta nd t h e c oa s t , a nd t h e n on loca l p roduc t s f ound o n t h e s i t e . T he o l d s e t t lemen t i sf i r s t c en t ra l ized a r ound t h e t emp le a nd t h en e x tended n o r th a nd s ou th . A b r idge o ve r t h e Wa cheq sa i sc on s t ruc ted a nd aw a l l w i th a w a lk ing p romon to ry c on t ro l s t h e a cce s s t o C hav in w hen c om ing n o r th f r om t h el ow land s( Bu rge r 1 984 ) . S ub s i s tence mode w a s p robab ly a g ro -pa s to ra l , a f t e r a f i r s t p e r iod o r ien ted t owa rd s h un t ing ( Bu rge r 1 984 ; L umb re ra s 1 989 ) . A cco rd ing t o B u rge r 's e xcava t ion s ( 1 984 ) , t h e max imum e x ten s ion o f t h e s i te o ccu r s d u r ing t h e J anaba r r iu p e r iod ( 3 90 -200 BC ) t or e a ch p ro to -u rban d imen s ion s , c ove r ing 4 2 t o 5 0 h ec ta re s , w i th a n e s t ima ted p opu la t ion o f 2 000 t o 3 000 i n hab i tan t s . T he se f i gu r e sp l ace C hav in d eH uän ta ra s o ne o ft h e l a rge s t s i te s w i th ar e s iden t ia l a r ea f o r t h i s t i me p e r iod i n S ou th Ame r ica , a l ong w i th P alka a nd P acopampa . T he s i te w a s t h e o b jec t o f n ume rou s e xcava t ion s a nd s ur vey s , b e i ti n t h e c e remon ia l a r ea l i ke T e l lo b e tween 1 919 a nd 1 934 , B enne t ti n1 938 ,R owe i n1 961 , L umb re ra s a nd Ama t b e tween 1 966 a nd 1 973 , K au f fmann D o ig b e tween 1 980 a nd 1 982 ; o rt h e o l d s e t t lemen tb y B u rge r i n 1 975 a nd 1 976 . T e l lo ( 1 943 , 1 960 ) a nd B enne t t ( 1944 ) r e cove red a bundan t ' c la s s ic ' C hav in c e ram ic s i nt e s t p i t s . T he i mpo r tance o ft h e i r w o rk a tt h a t t ime w a s t os how t h e a n t iqu i ty o f C hav in r e la t ive t o t h e A ndean c u l tu ra l

2 . 1 .1 S i te d e scr ip t ion s C hav in d e Huän tar

d eve lopmen t . H oweve r , n e i the r r e cogn ized a c e ram ic s equence , o u t s ide t h e m a in d i s t inc t ion b e tween C hav in a nd n on -Chav in c e ram ics . R owe 's t e s t p i t s ou th o f t h e n ew t emp le p roduced mu ch J anaba r r iu c e ram ics , b u t J ohn R owe ' s ( 1 967 ) m a in c on t r ibu t ion r e s ide s i nt h e e l abo ra t ion o f ac h rono logy b a s ed o n t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l e l emen t s a nd s t one s cu lp tu r e s o f C hav in d e H uän ta r . L umb re ra s a nd

C hav in d e H uän ta ri s al a rge c e remon ia l c en t e r i nt h e h i gh A nde sa nd t h er e f e r ence s i t ef o rt h e s t udy o fC hav in c u l tu re ( F igu re 2 ) . I t s E t h ic a r t , e ng rav ing s , a nd s t e lae s e t t h e c r i te r ia f o r C hav fn i nf luence , s t y l i s t i c a nd i c onog raph ic , e l s ewhe re . T he s i t e i sc ompo sed o f ac e r emon ia l a nd a 5

I s abe l le D ruc Ama t ( 1969 ) e xcava ted many a r ea s , d ra in s a nd c o r r ido r s , i n c lud ing t h e O f r enda s g a l le ry . I n t h e l a t te r w e r e f ound mo r et h an 6 80 c e ram ics , n i ce ly d eco ra ted b o t t le sa nd b ow l s o f d i f f e ren t s t y le s ( Lumb re ra s 1 974a , 1 977 , 1 993 ; L umb re ra s a nd Ama t 1 969 ) . S ty l i s t ic p a ra l le l s c a l l f o r n o r the rn a nd c oa s ta l o r ig in s f o r much o f t h e c e ram ics . K au f fmann D o ig w o rked ma in ly o n t h ea r ch i te c tu ra l l a you t a nd s t one s cu lp tu re s o f C hav in d e H uän ta r ( 1 973 , n . d . ) . F ina l ly B u rge re xcava ted t h e o ld s e t t lemen t a nd c onduc ted m any s u rvey s a r ound t h e s i te . H i s s t ra t if ied a nd w e l l c on t ro l led e xcava t ion s a l lowed h im t oc on s tru c t ac e ram ic s equence i na cco rdance w i th o ccupa t ion p ha se s( 1 984 ) .

s equence f o l lowed h e r e ; i ti s t h e m o s t p r ec i se f o r t h e c e ram ic s , s t ra t ig raph ica l ly c on t ro l led a nd b a cked u p b y C 14 d a t ing . T he U raba r r iu o ccupa t ion l a s t sf r om 8 50 t o4 50 BC , w h ich r ough ly c o r respond s t o t h e p e r iod o f t h e O f renda sc e ram ics . T h i s f i r s to ccupa t ion c ou ld d a t eb a ck t o 1 200 BC , a t t h e e nd o f t h e l a t e I n i t ia l P e r iod . T he C hak inan i p ha se s pend s b e tween 4 60 a nd 3 90 BC , w h ich c o r re spond s t o t h e t ype o f w a re t e rmed c l a s s ic C hav in i n c ised . T he l a s t p ha se , J anaba r r iu , d a t e s f r om 3 90 t i l l 2 00 BC , a nd c o r re spond s t ot h e max imum e x ten s ion o ft h e s i te a nd d i f fu s ion o f t h e J anaba r r iu c omp lex . T he J a naba r r iu p ha se i sf o l lowed b y an on -Chav in s t y le c a l led H ua rä s .

AC hav in c h rono logy w a s p ropo sed b y d i f f e r en t s c ho la r s . T he f ou r R owe p ha se s AB , C , D , E F a r e e l abo ra ted a f te r t h e a r ch i tec tu re a nd s cu lp tu re a tC hav in a nd t h eF o rma t ive c e ram ic s a t I c a , as ou the rn c oa s ta l s i te w i th C hav in i nf luence ( Rowe 1 967 ) . T h is s equence w a s r ef ined b y R oe ( 1 974 ) . L umb re ra s p ropo sed a c e ram ic s equence b a sed o n h i s e xcava t ion s . T h i s s equence h a s b een many t i me s r e v i sed b e tween 1 967 a nd 1 977 ( s ee B u rge r 1 984 :174 f o ra c ompa ra t ive t a b le ) . Two p r inc ipa l p ha se s ( O f renda s a nd R o ca s ) a nd f ou r c e ram ic s equence s w e re i d en t if ied ( Lumb r e ra s 1 974b ) . B u rge r p ropo sed a t r ipa r t i te c e ram ic s equence i na cco rdance w i th t h e t h ree o ccupa t ion p ha se s : U raba r r iu , C hak inan i , a nd J anaba r r iu ( 1984 ) . T h i s i st h e

B u rge rr e cogn ized t h e c o r re spond ence b e tween h i sc e ram ic m a te r ia l a nd t h e c e ram ics f ound i np r eceden t e xcava t ion s b y B enne t t , T elo , R owe , L umb r e ra s a nd Ama t , e xcep t f o r p a r t o f t h e w a re s f r om t h e O f r enda s g a l le ry ( Bu rge r 1 984 :160 f . ) . R owe a r ch i tec tu ra l s e quence i sn o t e a s i ly c o r re la ted t oc e ram ic s equence s d ue t ot h e d i f f e r ence s i n m ed ium s o f e xp res s ion . B u rge r p ropo s e s , h oweve r , a c o r re spondence b e tween t h e C hak inan i p ha se a nd R owe p ha se C , w h i le J anaba r r iu w ou ld b e c oeva l w i th p ha se s D a nd p robab ly E F ( 1984 :179 , 2 44 ) , b a sed o n s t y l i s t ic p a ra l le l s a nd s t ra t if ied c e ram ic s i n r e la t ion w i th a r ch i t ec tu ra le l emen t s .

F igure 2 T he c e r emon ia lc en te ro fC hav in d eH uän ta r . T he Mo sna R ive ri ss e en i nt h e f r on to ft h ep i c tu re . T he Wa cheq sa R ive rr un sd own t h e Wh i te C o rd i l le ra ( uppe rl e f t ) .

6

2—R eg ion so fS tudy a nd S i te D e s c r ip t ion s Huar ico to H ua r ico to i s as ma l l c e r emon ia l c en te r n ea r t h e a c tua l v i l lage o f Ma r ca rä i nt h eC a l le jön d e H uay la s , ah i gh i n te r A ndean v a l ley i nt h e c en t ra l A nde s b e tween t h e B lack a nd t h e Wh i t e C o rd i l le ra s . I tw a s b u i l t o n a n a l luv ia l t e r ra ce a bove t h e S an ta R ive r , a t 2 748 i n e l eva t ion . H ua r ico to p ro spe red f r om t h e P re ce ram ic t o t h e E a r ly H o r izon i n r e la t ion f i r s t w i th t h e K o to sh a nd l a te r w i th t h e C hav in c u l t s ( Bu rge r 1 985 ; B u rge r a nd S a laza r -Bu rge r 1 985 ) . R ooms w i th d oub le leve l h ea r th s a nd u nde rg round c ana l s c on s t i tu te t h ec e r emon ia l a r ea . As unken c i rcu la rp l aza w a s b u i l t d u r ing t h eE a r ly H o r izon , i nt h e s t y le o f t h e c i r cu la r p l a za a tC hav in d eH uän ta r( Bu rge r 1 992 ) . V e s ce l iu s a nd Ama t s urveyed t h e s i t e i n 1 961 a nd B u rge r c onduc ted e xcava t ions b e tween 1 978 a nd 1 980 ( Bu rge r 1 985 , B u rge r a nd S a la za r -Bu rge r 1 985 ) . F ive c e ram ic p ha se s w e re r e cogn ized : C haukay a n ( P rece ram ic ) , T o r i l ( I n i t ia l P e r iod ) , H ua r ico to ( c oeva l w i th U raba r r iu ) , C ap i l la ( c o eva l w i th C ha ldnan ia nd J anaba r r iu )a nd H ua rä s , ap o s t C hav in s t y le c ha rac te r i s t ic o f t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e E a r ly I n t e rmed ia te P e r iod . T he H ua r ico to p ha se c e ram ic s s how s t y l i s t ic p a r a l le l s w i th t h e c e ram ics o f t h e Wa i ra ji r ca p ha se o fK o to sh ,S h i l laco to ,l a te I n i t ia lP e r iod c oa s ta l s i te s , a nd U raba r r iu p ha se a t C hav in d e H uän ta r . T he C ap i l la p ha s e i sd i v ided i n to e a r ly , m idd le a nd l a te p ha se s . T he e a r ly p ha se c a r r ie s t h e p r e ceden t i nf luen ce s , w h i le m any J a naba r r iu e l emen t s a r e i n t roduced d u r ing t h e m idd le a nd l a t ep ha se s . C u l tu ra l c on ta c t sb e tween t h e p eop le o fH ua r ico to a nd t h e c oa s t ( La s H a lda s ) o r t h e s ou th ( Chav in d e H uän ta r a nd K o to sh ) a r e s u gge s ted b y s im i la r i ty i n c e ram ic s t y le s . I c onog raph ic r e p r e sen ta t ion so n b one a nd c e ram ic a t te s t t o l i nk s w i th t h e C hav fn c u l t , i n s ync re t ism w i th l o ca l t r ad i t ions . T he s t ronge s t i n t e r s i te r e la t ionsh ip s e em s t o h ave o ccu r red w i th C hav in d e H uän ta r d u r ing t h e m idd le a nd l a te C ap i l la p ha se ( Bu rge r 1 985 ) . N ew w a re f o rms a nd m o r e c omp lex d eco ra t ion s a ppea r , d i s c lo s ing i n t ru s ive J a naba r r iu e l emen t s . A t t h i s t ime , t h e s i te w a s l a rge s t . S ma l l o b s id ian f l ake s f r om Q u i sp i s isa 5 00 km a way a l so s u gge s t l o ng -d i s tance i n t e ra c t ion s . Much o f t h e o b s id ian f o und a t C hav in d e Huän ta r c ome s f r om t h e s ame s ou r ce a nd i ti sn o ti mpo s s ib le t h a tC hav in s e rved a si n te rmed iary i nt h i st r ad e .

P a l lka w a s t h e mo s t i mp re s s ive c e remon ia l c en te r o f t h e m idd le a nd u ppe r v a l ley s i te s a t t h e t ime o f C hav in d e H uän ta r . I tc omp r i se s many b u i ld ings a nd t emp le s w i th s upe rpo sed p l a t fo rms , as em i -sub te r ranean c i rcu la r p l a za , a nd ar e c tangu la r p l aza . A cco rd ing t oR icha rd B u rge r , t h e c en te r a nd t h e r e s iden t ia l a r ea w ou ld h ave r e ach ed a s u r f ace a r ea e qua l t o o r g rea te r t han t h a t o f C hav in d e H uän ta r ( 1 992 :202 ) . T he s i te w a s o ccup ied f r om t h e I n i t ia l P e r iod u pt ot h eE a r ly H o r izon . T h is c on t inuou s o ccupa t ion i su n ique , a s mo s t s i te s s how a n i n te r rup t ion i n b u i ld ing c ons truc t ion a r ound 8 00 BC . T h i s i n te r rup t ion i se xp la ined b y T om a nd S he i la P ozo r sk i ( 1987 ) a s t h e r e su l t o f s o c io p o l i t ica l t u rmo i l a nd i n va s ion o f t h e c oa s ta l v a l ley s b y A ndean c ommun i t ie s . P a l lka h a s n eve r b een e xcava ted , b u t many f i e ld o b se rva t ion s , s u rvey s a nd s u r f ace c o l le c t ion s h ave b een c onduc ted , i np a r t icu la rb y J u l io T e l lo ( 1 956 ) i nt h e 1 930 s a nd 1 940 s , T om a nd S he i la P ozo r sk i ( 1987 ) i n t h e 1 980 s a nd D av id W i l son ( 1 991 ) i nt h e 1 990 s . T he c e ram ic s f r om P a l lka e xh ib i t c l a s s ic C hav in s t y le a nd e l emen t s f r om t h e J a naba r r iu c omp lex . N epe i ia T he N epef ia v a l ley w a s t h e s i te o f s eve ra l s u rvey s a nd s u r f ace c o l lec t ion s ( Te l lo 1 956 , 1 960 ; P rou lx 1 968 , 1 973 ; D agge t t 1 984 ) . Two c e remon ia l c en te r s , P unku r i a nd C e r ro B lanco , w e re p a r t ia l ly e xcava ted . B o th s i te s b e long t ot h e I n i t ia lP e r iod a nd t h e re fo re p recede t h e d eve lopmen to ft h e h i gh land c en te ro fC hav in d e H uän ta r( Dagge t t 1 987 ) . O n ly C e r ro B lanco p roduced s ome u ndeco ra ted b l a ck ` Chav in ' c e ram ics ( W i l ley a nd C o rbe t t 1 954 :155 ; D agge t t p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion 1 998 ) . T he e x ten s ive s u rvey b y R icha rd D agge t t ( 1 984 ) r e vea l s t h e e x i s tence o f many E a r ly H o r izon s i t e s i nt h e v a l ley . N one o ft h e se s i te s , h oweve r , i s a s i mpo r tan t o r l a rge a s P a l lka i n t h e n ex t v a l ley . T he c e ram ics o f t h e r eg ion h ave ap ronounced l o ca l c ha ra c te r , c ha rac te r ized b y s imp le f o rm s a nd d e co ra t ion ( s ee D agge t t 1 984 a nd P rou lx 1 985 ) . C hav in i nf luence i so bse rved a nd l o ca l v a r ian t s o f t h e J anaba r r iu s t y le a r e f r equen t . T he se f e a tu re s , s u ch a s i n c i sed a nd s t amped c i rc le s w i th m any c en t ra l d o t s , l i nk N ep ef ia t ot h e C hav in -Janaba r r iu t r ad i t ion a nd i nf luence . A f ew s i t e s e xh ib i t c e r am ics o f s t y l i s t ica l ly n on loca l o r ig in , i np a r t icu la rb o t t le f r agmen t s . PV31 -312 a nd P V 31 30 s u rveyed b y D agge t t a r e a mong t ho se s i te s . T hey a r e s ma l l h ab i ta t ion s i te s o ra g r icu l tu ra l c ommun i t ie s . T he t wo s i t e s PV31 -312 a nd PV31 -330 a r e s ome 6 km a pa r t , s e pa ra ted b y t h e N epef ia R ive r ( F igu re 3 ) . B o th s i t e s l i e i n t h e Mo ro p o cke t , av a l ley e xpanse i nt h e l owe r p a r t o ft h e u ppe r N epef ia v a l ley . PV31 -330 , i n t h e Mo toca chy -San

P a l lka P a l lka i s al a rg e c e remon ia l c en te r i n t h e m idd le C a sma v a l ley , i n c lud ing ar e s iden t ia l a r ea a nd ac eme te ry . I tl i e s a bou t 3 5 km f r om t h eP ac if i c O cean a t9 00 m e l eva t ion , o n ap r omon to ry a bove t h ev a l ley f l oo r . T he R io G rande f l ow s i nt h e v a l ley , a l so c a l led Moxeke R ive r o r C a sma R ive r . T he s i te l i e s a t as t ra teg ic p o in t o n t h e r oad b e tween t h e c oa s ta nd t h eC a l le jön d e H uay la s , r e a ched b y a scend ing a n a r row v a l ley a nd c r os s ing t h eB lack C o rd i l le ra . T oday , t h e C a sma -Hua r az t r i pt a ke ss i xt oe i gh th ou r sb yb u s .

J u an a r ea , i sd e sc r ibed a s a' f la t tened a c t iv i ty a r ea w i th a m u l t i roomed s t ruc tu re ' o n ap romon to ry 5 0 m a bove t h e v a l ley f l oo r( Dagge t t 1 984 :205 ) . PV31 -312 i s as t one -f a ced r i dge top p l a t fo rm o n as ma l l r i dge o f C e r ro Qu i sque B a jo a tt h e w e s te rn e nd o ft h e p ocke t ( Dagge t t 1 984 :211 ) . I tl i e s i nt h e v i c in i ty o f t h e s ma l l c e remon ia l s i te o f V i rahuan ca A l to . T he s i t e sa r ea t4 00 m ( PV31 -312 ) a nd 5 00 m ( PV31 7

I s abe l le D ruc 30 ) e l eva t ion . T hey w e re o ccup ied i nt h e E a r ly H o r izon ( Dagge t t 's P ha se s It o I I ) a nd I n te rmed ia te P e r iod . B e cau se o f t h e s i te s p rox im i ty , t h e g r ea t s im i la r i ty o f t h e c e ram ic s , t h e s ma l l c o l lec t ion s , a nd b e cau se t h i s s t udy f o cu se sa tt h e r eg iona l l e ve l , t h e t wo s i t e s a r e d ea l t w i th a s o ne u n i t ,t h eN epe r ia a na ly s i su n i t .

P unkur i

N epef ia C e r ro B l anco

T he s e t t lemen t p a t te rn a nd l a ck o f i mpo r tan t c e remon ia l c en te r s w i th in t h e N epe i la v a l ley d u r ing t h e E a r ly H o r izon s ugge s t t h a t t h e v a l ley p l ayed a s e conda ry r o le , b o th e conom ic a nd p o l i t ic , r e la t ive t o t h e n e ighbo r ing C a sma v a l ley w he re P a l lka i ss i tua ted . T he a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l f r om t h et wo v a l ley sr ef l ec t st h i sd i spa r i ty a nd t h ec e ram ics f r om C a sma s how b e t te r q ua l i ty a nd r i che r d eco ra t ive d e s ign s t h an t h o se f r om N epef ia .

PV3 12A

i rahuanca l u. v V

• C ro Qu isque \

\ .

0

S ama

5 km

F igure 3T he N epef ia V a l ley ( a f te rD agge t t 1 984 : f i g . 2 -4 a nd 5 -28 ) . •A r chaeo log ica l s i te s •T own s

A nd en

T hese s t y le sd a te f r om t h e I n i t ia lP e r iod a nd E a r ly H o r izon ( pha se s 1t o 4o fP a t te r son 1 971 ) . T hey a r e c oeva l w i th t h e U raba r r iu a nd J anaba r r iu p ha se s o f C hav in d e H uän ta r ( R icha rd B u rge r ,p e r sona lc ommun i ca t ion 1 994 ) .

A ncön w a s( a nd s t i l l i s ) af i sh ing v i l lage a nd ac eme te ry o n t h e c oa s t n o r th o fL ima , b e tween t h e C h i l lon a nd C hancay v a l ley s . I tl i es i n ab ay p ro te c ted f r om t h e w ind s b y s a nd d une s , 1 0 km f r om c u l t ivab le l a nd . T he s i te h a s b een o ccup ied s i nce t h e P rece ram ic . T he c eme t e ry a nd r e fu se s a s soc ia ted t o t h e s i te y i e lded m any o b je c t s a nd c e ram ic s w i th C hav in i nf luence . L ong d i s tance c on tac t s a r e a t te s ted b y t h e p r e sence o f A ndean a nd t r op ica l p roduc t s , w h i le a g r icu l tu ra l r e s t s s ugge s t i n te rac t ion s w i th t h e n e ighbo r ing c oa s ta lv a l leys .

T ab le 1i s ac h rono log ica l r e v iew o ft h e p ha se s i d en t if ied f o rt h es t udy s i te si nt h eI n i t ia lP e r iod a nd E a r ly H o r izon . T ab le 1R e la t ive c h rono logy f o rt h es i t es o fs t udy N A

C hav in d e H uän ta r B u rge r 1 992

Many e xcava t ion s w e re c onduc ted a tA ncön a nd A spe ro , a c oa s ta l s i te a nd c eme te ry n ea r S upe , n o r th o fA ncön , w i th m any C hav in s ty le o b je c t s . T he e xcava t ion s o fW i l ley a nd C o rbe t t ( 1954 ) a nd P a t te r son ( 1 968 ) p roduced a l a rge q uan t i ty o f c e ram ics . P a r t o f t h e m a te r ia l e xh ib i t s t y l i s t ic

H u a rä s

H u a r ico to

P a l lka

N epe t ia

Ancön

B&SB*

W i l son

D agge t t

1 985

1 99 1

1 984

S t rong 1 925

H ua r ä s

P a ta z ca

P ha se 3 M idd le

B u rge r+

E . H .

C hav in i nf luence f r om t h e n o r th -cen t ra l A nde s a nd C up isn ique i nf luence f r om t h e n o r th c oa s t . C hav in i nf luence i ss e en i n t h e c e ram ic s d u r ing t h e A ncön -Supe

J anaba r r iu

L a t e C ap i l la

P ha se s P a l lka

1-2

A ncön J an . c oeva l

a C ha l c inan i

p e r iod ( W iley a nd C o rb e t t 1 9 54 :164 -1 6 5 ; L a r co H oy le i n

I .

W i l ley a nd C o rbe t t 1 954 :x i i ) . T he E a r ly A ncön -Supe c e ram ic s a r e q ua l if ied a s c l a s s ic C hav in b y T e l lo ( 1 943 ) a nd C hav in h o r izon b y W i l ley a nd C o rbe t t ( 1954 :153 ) . P a t te r son 's e xcava t ions i nt h e A ncön s h e l lmound a l lowed t oi d en t if y t h ree c e ram ic s t y le s , Ma le cön , B a l ta a nd A b tao , w h ich s how C hav in i n f luence ( Pa t t e r son 1 968 , 1 971 ) .

P .

U raba r r iu

M id .

E ar ly

C ap i l la

A ncön

H u a r ico to

U rab . c oeva l

* Bu rge r & S a laza r B u rge r 1 9 85 ; + Bu rge r p e r sona l c ommun i ca t ion 1 994 . N o r th Ame r i can t e rm ino logy : E .H . E a r ly H o r izon , I . P . I n i t ia lP e r iod .

8

2—R eg ion so fS t udy a nd S i te D escr ip t ions

2 . 2 G eography T he g eog raph ic a nd g eo log ic e nv ironmen t s d e scr ibed h e re u nde r sco re t h e r eg iona l d i f f e rences t o b e e xpec ted i n m ine ra l a nd c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion o f t h e c e ram ics . T h i s i n fo rma t ion w i l l b e d i scu ssed i n C hap te r 5 , w he re t h e p et rog raph ic d a ta f o r e ach s i te i s c ompa red t o t h e l o ca l g eo logy a nd r e f e rence ma te r ia l .

w he re t h e s ma l l c e remon ia l s i te o fH ua r ico to i sl o ca ted , i sa h i gh i n te r -Andean v a l ley b e tween t h e Wh i te a nd B lack C o rd i l le ra s . T he i mpo r tan t c e remon ia l s i te o f P a l lka a nd t h e t wo s ma l l h ab i ta t ion s i tes i nN epe t ia a r e l o ca ted i nt wo n e ighbo r ing v a l leys , w h ich c u t i n to t h e A ndean p i edmon t t owa rd s t h e c oa s t . F ina l ly , t h e A ncön r e g ion a nd e ponym f i sh ing v i l lage a l ong t h e s e a i sl o ca ted i nt h e c oa s ta l f r inge n o r th o f L ima . T he f i r s t f ou r r e g ion s a r e t o pog raph icaly d e l inea ted b y t h e r i ve r d ra inage f r om t h e moun ta in f l ank s t h a t f a ce t h e s i tes . T hese r e g ion s a r e i n te rconnec ted b y moun ta in p a s se s a nd i n te rva l ley c ommun ica t ion i sa t te s ted s i nce p r eh i s to r ic t imes ( Bu rge r 1 984 :249 , 2 60 ; D agge t t 1 984 :25 , 3 0 ) . T he Ancön r e g ion i sb ound b y t h e P ac if ic O cean a nd t h e c oa s ta l v a l ley s o f t h e C h i l lon a nd C hancay R ive r s .

T he f i ve r e g ion s o f s t udy ( F igu re 4 ) a r e l o ca ted i n w e l l d ef ined g eog raph ic s e t t ing s w i th in t h e A nca sh a nd L ima ( Ancön ) D epa r tmen t s . T he r eg ion o f C hav in d e H uän ta r i n t h e Mo sna v a l ley , i s ah i gh A ndean v a l ley l o ca ted t o t h e e a s t o f t h e Wh i te C o rd i l le ra . T he Cg le jön d e H uay la s ,

F igure 4 R eg ions o fs t udy : 1V a l ley o ft h e Mo sna R ive rb e tween C hav in a nd H ua r i , 2C a l le jön d e H uay la s , 3C a sma V a l ley ( Pa l lka ) , 4N epe t ia V a l ley , 5c en t ra l -coa s tr e g ion o fA ncön .

9

I s abe l le D ruc T he se r eg ion s l i e i n d i f f e ren t e co log ica l z one s . T he t e rm ino logy o f ten u s ed i nP e ru t od e s c r ibe t h e e co logy i s t h a t o f P u lga r V ida l 's ( 1 967 ) , w h ich i sb a sed o n l o ca l t e rms , s uch a sy unga , q ue chua , s un i , a nd p una . T he t e rms r e f e r t oa g r icu l tu ra la nd h e rd ing p rope r t ie s o ft h e e cozone s i n r e la t ion w i th e l eva t ion , c l ima te , t o pog raphy a nd v ege ta t ion . T he q uechua z one t ot h e w e s t o ft h e A nde s i s b e tween 2 300 t o3 200 m h i gh . C or n , s qua sh , v ege tab le s , a nd s ome t ube r s a r eg rown h e re . I nt h e s un i z one , b e tween 3 200 a nd 4 000 m , t u be r , w hea t a nd , r e cen t ly , b a r ley a r e g rown . C hav in d e H uän ta r l i e s a t t h e l im i t b e tween t h e q uechua a nd t h e s un i z one s . T he c l ima te i sc o ld a nd h um id w i th p re c ip i ta t ion f r om O c tobe r t h rough A p r i l . T he p una i st h e r e g ion a bove t h e s un i z one a nd l i e s a t4 000 4 800 m e l eva t ion . I ti so f ten c o ld a nd h um id , p rope r f o r l ama a nd a l paca h e rd ing . T he e qu iva len t z one o n t h e e a s te rn s l ope o ft h eA nde sb e tween 2 000 a nd 3 000 m i st h e c e ja d e m on tai za , w h ich b enef i t s f r om a w a rme r , mo re h um id c l ima te a nd t r op ica l v ege ta t ion . I ti si n f luenced b y t h e p rox im i ty o f t h e t r op ica l f o re s t . T he C a l le jön d e H uay la s i sl o ca ted i nt h e q uechua z one a nd i sp ro tec ted b y t h e t wo C o rd i l le ra s . I t b enef i t s a p a r t icu la r ly g ood m icroc l ima te , w i th t h e S an ta R ive r a nd many s t reams i n su r ing n a tu ra l i r iga t ion . I ti si n deed t h e m o s tp ro spe rou s a g r icu l tu ra l z one i n t h e moun ta inou s p a r t o f t h e A nca sh D epa r tmen t ,a nd t h e mo s tp opu la t ed o ne .

c ond i t ion s f a vo rab le t o t h e a ppea rance o f p l an t s i n t h e l oma s o r h i l ls w he re t h e c oncen t r a t ion o f h um id i ty i s i mpo r tan t ( Pu lga r V ida l 1 967 ) . C u l tu re a nd a n ima l g r az ing i s s ome t ime s p o s s ib le , g ene ra l ly b e tween May a nd O c tobe r . 2 . 3 G eoenv ironmen t T he m a in l i t ho log ic u n i t s i n t h e A nca sh a nd L ima D epa r tmen t s a r e t h e C oa s ta l a nd t h e Wh i te C o rd i l le ra b a tho l i th s , w h ich a r ep a r to ft h e O cc iden ta l C o rd i l le ra . E a s t o ft h e Wh i t eC o rd i l le ra i s ah i gh A ndean p l a teau w i th s ma l l v a l ley s . I ti sb o rde red b y t h e O r ien ta l C o rd i l le ra , e a s t o f w h ich b eg in t h e l ow land s a nd t h e Amazon b a s in . T he b a tho l i th s a r e i n t ru s ive u n i t s t h a t i n t rude t h rough s ed imen ta r y a nd v o lcan ic r o ck s ( Boden lo s a nd E r ick sen 1 955 ; T o ledo 1 994 ) . T he c oa s ta l f r inge i sc ompo sed o f s ed imen ta ry a nd v o lcan ic f o rma t ion s c ove red b y Q ua te rna ry a eo l ian a nd a l luv ia l d epo s i t s . T he c r e s t o f t h e Wh i te C o rd i l le ra m a rk s t h e c on t inen ta l d i v ide ; t ot h e w e s t , r i ve r s f l ow i n to t h e P ac if i c , a nd t o t h e e a s t , i n to t h e Ama zon . T he m a jo r i ty o f t h e r i ve r s r unn ing t h rough t h e B la ck C o rd i l le ra ( c oa s ta l b a tho l i th ) t o t h e P a c if i c O cean e xpo se r o ck s t h a t a r e P a leocene i n a ge . C re ta ceou s v o lcan ic l a ye r s a r e e xpo sed i n r e g ion s b e low 2 000 m e l eva t ion ( Cobb ing e ta l . 1 981 ) . G eo log ica l s t ud ie s s how n ume rou s l o ca l v a r ia t ion s o f r o ck t y pe s f r om r eg ion t o r eg ion .

P a l Lka a nd t h e N ep e f ia s i te s a r e i nt h e y unga z one , f ound b e tween 1 000 a nd 2 300 m e l eva t ion i nt h e h i gh land s , a nd b e tween 5 00 a nd 2 300 m o n t h e w e s ter n s l ope s o f t h e A nde s . H e re , w a rm c l ima te p roduc t s a r e c u l t iva t ed s u ch a s a ui( peppe r ) ,c o ca ,a vo cado , a nd f r u i t s . H oweve r , t h e B lack C o rd i l le ra p i edmon t s j u s t a bove P aaka a nd t h e N epe i ia s i te s a r e f o lded , w i th e roded b ed rock , w h ich i s p oo r ly s u i ted t oa g r icu l tu r e . M in ima l a moun t s o f r a in f a l l o n t h e B lack C o rd i l le ra a nd t h e r i ve r s , w h ich h ave t h e i r s ou rce i n

T he Mo sna V a l ley , w he r e C hav i n d e H uän ta r i sl o ca ted , e x tend s e a s t o ft h e Wh i te C o rd i l le ra . T h i s v a l ley i sb ound o n t h e w e s t b y t h e Wh i te C o rd i l le ra a nd o n t h e e as t b y a n o r the rn r am if i ca t ion o f t h e C o rd i l le ra H uayhua sh ( Boden lo sa nd E r ick sen 1 955 :6 ) . T he m ean e l eva t ion i nt h e Mo sna v a l ley i s3 100 m , w i th C hav in d e H uän ta r a t3 137 m . T he v a l ley i sn a r row , b e ing l e s s t h an 5 00 m w ide a t C hav in . T he Mo sna R ive r h eadwa te r s a r e l o ca ted b e tween t h e Wh i te a nd H uayhua sh C o rd i l le ra s s ou th o fC hav in . T he Mo sna r un s n o r th -we s t , j o in ing o t he r r i ve r s t h a t f l ow i n to t h e Ma ra t ion R ive r . T he Wacheq sa r i ve r r un s d own t h e Wh i te C o rd i l le ra a nd j o in s t h e Mo sna a tC hav in , n o r th o f t h et emp le .

t h i s moun ta in r a nge , h ave a n i r r egu la r a nd s ea sona l f l ow . R ive r s t hu s a f f e c ted i n t h e s t udy r eg ion a r e t h e N epef ia , S ech in a nd R io G rande ( Ca sma ) a nd t r ibu ta r ie s . C on sequen t ly , i r r iga ted a g r icu l tu ra l r eg ion s a nd t h eb u lk o f t h e p opu la t ion a r ec oncen t ra ted i nt h e l owe r p a r t s o f t h ese v a l ley s w he re t h e c l ima te i sw a rm a nd s em i -a r id . C o rn , c o t ton a nd s uga r c ane a r e g rown h e r e ( W i l son 1 988 ) . T he n a tu ra l i s t A n ton io R a imond i , w ho t r ave led t h rough P eru b e tween 1 850 a nd 1 870 ( Saco 1 978 ) , r e po r t s t h a t p eppe r a nd g rape sf o rw ine w e re c u l t iva ted a nd e xpo r ted f r om t h is r eg ion t o t h e C a l le jön d e H uay la s ( Ra imond i 1 973 i n D agge t t 1 984 :31 ) .

N ea r C hav in , t h e g eo logy i ss ed imen ta ry ( F igu r e 5 ) , w i th s and s tone , s ha le , l ime s tone , a nd q ua r tz i te l a ye r s f r om t h e S an ta , C a rhuaz , C e lend in a nd J uma sha s ed imen ta ry f o rma t ion s . A ren i t e a nd s i l t s tone w i th c oa l a nd s ha le l a ye r s o ft h e O yon f o rma t ion a r ea l so f ound ( Cobb ing e ta l . 1 996 ) . T he se f o rma t ion sa r e o fC re taceou sa ge . T he se s ed imen ta ry d epo s i t s c o r r e spond t ot h e C hav in b a s in o f Me sozo ic A ge , w h ich i s f i l led w i th c on t inen ta l ly d e r ived s ed imen t s ( Cobb ing , i nP i t che re ta l . 1 985 :6 ) . F luv iog lac ia l s ed imen t s a nd a l luv ia l d epo s i t s c ove r t h e l owe r p a r t o f t h e v a l ley , e spe c ia l ly a l ong t h e Mo sna . T he a l luv ium i s d e r ived i n l a rge p a r t f r om l a nd s l ide s c au sed b y t h e r e lea s e o f

A na% i ss i tua ted o n t h e c ha la o r c os ta z one , i n ab ay t h a t o pen s t ot h eP ac if i cO cean o n ad e se r tc oa s ta l s t r e tch . F re sh w a te r i s o n ly a va i lab le a t ad ep th o f 2 m e te r s , a nd n ume rous w e l l s u s ed t op rov ide d r inkab le w a te r ( Menze l 1 977 :42 ) . F i sh ing i st h e m a in mode o f s ub s i s tence . T he c os ta z one e x tend su p t o5 00 m e l eva t ion . C l ima te i sw a rm a nd d ry i nt h en o r th , w h i le s ome c o ld h aze i sc u r ren t i nt h e

s ed imen ta ry m a te r ia l f r om b eh ind m o ra ine d ams i n t h e Wh i te C o rd i l le ra . T he Wh i te C o rd i l le ra i n t h e r eg ion o f C hav in i sc ompo sed o f g ranod io r i t ic r o ck s . T o t h e e a s t o f C hav in , t h e t e r ra in i sc ha rac te r ized b y g en t le t o pog raphy ,

s ou th a nd c en t ra lc oa s t . T h i s i si nf luenced b y t h eH umbo ld t c u r ren t a l ong t h e l i t to ra l , w h ich d r ive s c o ld a nd h um id a i r a l ong t h e c oa s t ( Kau f fmann D o ig 1 973 ) . T opog raphy a nd a tmo sphe r ic p r e s su re f u r the r c r ea te s pe c if i c l o ca l

i n t ru s ive r o ck s a nd as ed imen ta ry c ove r . T h i s i si nc on t ra s t 1 0

2 —R eg ion so fS t udy a nd S i t eD e s c r ip t ion s t o t h e r ugged s l ope s a nd h i gh p eak s o f t h e Wh i te C o rd i l le r a . Two r yo l i th ic s t ock s a r e f o und e a s t o ft h e s i t e , n ea r t h e A n tam ina a nd C on tonga l e ad a nd z i nc m ine s ( Bod en lo s a nd E r ick sen 1 955 ) . F luv iog la c ia l d epo s i t s a r e f o und n ea r r i oda c i te o u t c rop s s ou th -ea s t o fC hav in a nd i n t h e Wh i te C o rd i l le ra ( Cobb ing e ta l . 1 996 ) .

i n t ru s ive s . T he i n t ru s ive u n i t s f o rm b a tho l i th s a nd s t o ck s i n t rud ing i n to t h e s ed imen ta r y a nd v o l can i c u n i t s . T he Q ua t e rna ry d epo s i t s c on s i s t o f f l uov iog la c ia l a nd a luv ia l d epo s i t s ( To ledo 1 994 ) . T he s e d imen ta r y r o ck s c on s i s t o f i n t e rbedded q ua r tz a r en i te , s a nd s tone , c a rbon if e rou s s h a le , g yp sum , c on so l ida t ed c l ay s e d imen t s , l i me , d a rk g r een t u f f , c a l c -a ren i te , m a r l a nd c ong lome ra t e s . T he v o l can ic s e qu ence i sc ompo sed o fa nd e s i te , t r a chy t e , r h yol i te ,d a c i te a nd r h yoda c i t e . V o lcan ic m a s se s ( t he . H uan t san , Q u i l loc a nd P ampa J un in v o lcan ic s i nF i gu re 5 )o u t c rop e a s t a nd w e s to ft h e Wh i te C o rd i l le ra ( Ege le ra nd D eB ooy 1 956 :24 2 8 ; C obb ing e ta l . 1 981 ; T o ledo 1 994 ) . T he i n tru s ive u n i t s a r e g r ano c l io r i t ic ( Cohup f a c ie s ) a nd t o na l i t i c ( Ca rhu i sh f a c ie s , s e e F igu r e 5 ) . T hey o u t c rop a l ong t h e Wh i t e C o rd i l le ra ( Ege le ra nd D eB ooy 1 956 ) . P y ro c la s t ic m a t e r ia l w i th a nde s i te , l a va s , a nd i g n imb r i t e o c cu r w e s t o f t h e V a l ley i nt h e B la ck C o rd i l le ra a nd a l ong t h e S an ta R ive r a bove R e cuay ( Cobb ing e ta l . 1 996 ) .

T h e C a l l e jem d e H uay la s , w he re H ua r i co to i sl o ca t ed , i s 1 00 k m l o ng a nd 5 00 m t o 1k m w ide . T he C ale jön s t r e t che s a l ong t h e S an ta R ive r , b e twe en t h e B la ck a nd Wh i t e C o rd i l le r a s , w i th e l eva t ion s o f3 090 m n ea r H ua ra z a nd 2 290 m i nC a raz . T he v a l ley n a r row s n o r th o fC a r az w hen t h e S an ta c u t s w e s t a c ro s s t h e B la ck C o rd i l le r a t o r e a ch t h e P a c i f ic O cean . T he S an ta R ive r h a s t h e g r ea te s t w a t e rf l ow i nt h e A nca sh r e g ion . P r e c ip i ta t ion i sh i gh f r om D e cembe r t h rough A p r i l , d ue t o r a in g ene r a t ed b y t h e t r op ica l f r on t ( Thoma s a nd W in te rha lde r 1 9 76 i nD agge t t 1 9 84 :22 ) .T he l i t ho log ic u n i t so ft h i sr e g ion a r e C r e ta ceou s s e d imen ta ry r o ck s a nd e a r ly T e r t ia r y v o lcan i c s a nd

! • : • : • . '::: • : s a nd s tone ,s h a le ,l i me s tone : • : • : • : • . .

I

b l a ck s h a le ,q ua r tz i t e

t o na l i t e ,g r anod io r i t e g l a c ia la n da luv ia l d epo s i t s s c h i s ta nd p hy l l i t e

Wh i te C o rd i l le ra b a tho l i th s : 1C ohup f a c ie s , l e ucog ranod io r i te ; 2C a rhu i sh f a c ie s , t o na l i t e -g r anod io r i t e . 3H uan t san v o lcan i c s ( b re cc ia , t u f f , r hyo l i t e , d a c i t e ) ; 4Q u i l lo c v o lcan ic s ( r hyo l i te , d a c i t e ) ; 5A n tam ina -Con tonga d yke s ( r hyo l i te ) ; 6 P ampa J u n in v o lcan ic s( d a c i t ic t u f f ) . F igure 5G eo logy o ft h eC hav in r e g ion a nd C a lk * d eH uay la s ( a f t e rC obb ing e ta l . 1 9 81 : f i g . 5 . 17b ; B oden lo sa nd E r ick s en 1 955 ;E ge le ra nd D eB ooy 1 9 56 ) .

T he m ean e l eva t ion i nt h e B la ck C o rd i l le r ai s4 500 m , a nd 6 000 m i nt h e Wh i te C o rd i l le ra , w i th s umm i t s a bove 6 500 m . Mu ch o ft h e Wh i t e C o rd i l le ra i nt h i sr e g ion i sg l a c ia t ed s t a r t ing a t5 000 m e l eva t ion , b u t o l d m o r a ine s a t t e s t t oa l owe r g l a c ia l l i m i t o f 300 m ( Boden lo s a nd E r ick sen 1 9 55 :40 ) . T he r e g ion i ss t rong ly s e i sm i c , o f t en c au s ing t h e r u p tu r e o ft h e m o ra ine d ams , w h i ch c on ta in g l a c ia l l a ke s

u p s t r eam . T h i s r e su l t s i n d i sa s t rou s l a nd sl ide w h i ch d e s t roy s e n t i r e v i l lage s i nt h e v a l ley , l i k e Y ungay i nJ u ne 1 970 . H ence t h e p r e sence o f f l uv iog la c ia l a nd a l luv ia l d epo s i t s i n t h e C a l le jön . T he f l uov iog la c ia l s ed imen t s c on s i s t o f s a nd s , a ngu la r l i t h ic f r agmen t s a nd c l ay o n t h e s l ope s o f t h e C o rd i l le ra a nd i n t h e q u eb radas ( r av ine s ) . T hey c on s t i tu te a s ou r ce o f r aw m a t e r ia l f o r t h e c e ram ic

1

I s abe l le D r uc p roduc t ion o f t h e r eg ion ( D ruc 1 996 ) . I n t h e C a l le jön , q ua te rna ry c l ay s a r e f ound i nl e n t icu la r , a l luv ia l d epo s i t s , a l ong t h eb ank so fr i ve r so rb e tween g r ave l a nd s and l a ye r s ( INGEMMET 1 982 ) . T he c l ay s a r e f o rmed b y t h e e ro s ion o f l o ca l ly m e tamo rpho sed s ch i s t s a nd m ica s ch i s t s o f t h e Wh i te C o rd i l le ra ( To ledo 1 994 ) . T he P a l lka a nd N epef ta r e g ion s a r e c ompo sed o f b a s ic t o i n te rmed ia ry i n t ru s ive u n i t s f r om t h e C oa s ta l b a tho l i th , w h ich c u t s t h rough b as 2 l t a nd g abb ro ( F igu re 6 ) . T he i n t ru s ive r o ck s a r e p r inc ipa l ly monzog ran i t e , t o na l i te , g ranod io r i te , a nd l e uco tona l i te . A l l r o ck s a r e h i gh ly ma f ic ( i . e . a mph ibo le a nd b i o t i te - C obb ing e t a l . 1 981) i n

t o na l i te g ranod io r i te m onzog ran i te

M i l

c ompo s i t ion . I n tru s ive a nd v o lcan ic r o ck s o u t c rop i n b o th r e g ion s . N ea r P a l lka a r e f ound b a sa l t a nd g abb ro d yke s , w i th p l ag ioc la se , h ype r s thene , a ug i te a nd o l iv ine p henocry s t s . T he r o ck s i n t h e m idd le N epef ia v a l ley a nd n ea r t h e Mo ro p ocke t a r e i n tru s ive ( g ran i te , t o na l i te , a nde s i te , h o rnb lende d io r i te ) a nd v o lcan ic ( a nde s i te w i th h o rnb lende , a ug i t e , s e r ic i t i zed p l ag ioc la se , a nd d a c i te ) . I n N epe f ia , s e d imen ta ry r ock s a r e i n te rbedded w i th t h e v o lcan ic l a ye r s a nd a r e o f ten m e tamo rphosed i n to s i l ic i l ic s i l t s tone a nd a r g i l l i te s la te ( To ledo 1 994 ) .

g abb ro -d io r i te p y roc la s t ic a nde s i te

• •• • ••

- p y roc la s t ic m a te r ia l ,l a va ,c her t •• s and s tone ,s ha le ,l i me s tone

F igure 6G eo logy o ft h eC a sma -Nepe z ia r eg ion s( a f t e rC obb ing e ta l . 1 981 : f i g .5 .30 )

T he g eo logy n ea r A ncön ( F igu re 7 ) i s c ompo sed o f s ed imen ta ry l a ye r s o f a r en i te a nd l ime s tone , i n te rbedded w i th v o lcan i c a nde s i t ic l a ye r s a nd q ua te rna ry m a r ine a nd a eo l ian d epo s i t s ( Am ie l 1 970 ) . Two v o lcan ic g roup s o f C re taceou s a ge s t re t ch a l ong t h e c oa s ta l B a th° l i th w i th o u tc rop s n ea r A ncön . T o t h e s ou th i st h e P uen te P ied ra g roup o fi n te rbedded p i l low l a va s , c he r t , m a s s ive l a va s a nd b recc ia s w i th g r an i te f r agmen t s . T he P uen te P ied ra a nd P uen te I nga f o rma t ion sa r eo fL a te J u ra s s ic a nd C re taceou s

a ge s . T he P uen t e I nga f o rma t ion i s am embe r o ft h e l a rge r P uen te P i ed ra f o rma t ion ( INGEMMET 1 992 ) . T he u ppe r m embe ro ft h e P uen te I nga f o rma t ion i s ma in ly c ompo sed o fs ed imen ta ry r o ck s . T hey a r e f e ld spa th ic a nd p y roc la s t ic s a nd s tone s , m ud s tone , a nd s ome c he r t . O n t h e P uen te I nga s i te , c l o se t oA ncön , t h e i l i te c l ay i sh i gh ly f o s s i l if e rou s a nd i n te rbedded w i th f e ld spa th ic s and s tone a nd v o lcan ic m ic rob recc ia ( INGE MMET 1 992 ) . T o t h e n o r th i s t h e C a sma g roup w h ich e x tend s n o r th t o T ru j i l lo a nd i s 1 2

2—R eg ion so fS tudy a nd S i te D e scr ip t ion s c ompo sed o f f e l s ic v o lcan ic s , p i l low l a va s , t uf , h ya lo c la s t ics i n te rbedded w i th s e d imen ta ry l a ye r s ( P i t che r a nd A the r ton 1 985 ) .F u r the ri n land a r ei n tru s ive o u t c rop so f d io r i te -g ranod io r i t e o f t h e C oa s ta l b a tho l i th . I n t h e L ima s egmen t , t wo s upe r un i t s o f i g neou s r o ck s o u t c rop : t h e P a tag g abb ro a nd t h e S an ta R o s a . T he l a t t e r g r ade s f r om q ua r tz d io r i te t ol e u cog ran i te , b u t i sm a in ly c ompo sed o f

t o na l i te -g ranod io r i te n ea rA nc6n . T he C hancay a nd C h i l lon R ive r s , l o ca ted i n t h e v a l ley s n o r th a nd s ou th o f A nc6n . T hese r i ve r s c u t a c ro s s t h e c oa s ta l b a tho l i th o f t h e B lack C o rd i l le ra a nd c a r ry s ed imen t sd e r ived f r om i n t ru s ive r o ck s t ot h ec oa s t .

e o l ian a nd mar in q ua te rna ry d epo s i t s a nde s i t i cv o lcan ic s a nde s i t i c v o lcan ic f l ow s

1 1 1 1 11 i n t rus ive d io r i t ic

c l ay a nd s ha le

s ha le a nd s and s tone

l ime s tone

F igure 7G eo logy o ft h eA ncön r eg ion ( a f te r Am ie l 1 970 :55 )

T h is c hap te r d es cr ibed t h e s i t e s o f s t udy a nd t h e i r g eog raph ic a nd g eo log ica l s e t t ing . T h i s i n fo rma t ion , s pec ia l ly t h e g eoenv i ronmen t , i s ma jo r f o r t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o f t h e a na ly s i s r e su l t s . Mo re g eo log ica l d e ta i l s a r e p re sen ted i n C hap te r 5 , w he re t h e a na ly s i s r e su l t sa r ed escr ibed .I ti sn ow t i me t ot u rn t o ab r ie fr e v iew o f t h e i n te r reg iona l r e la t ion sh ip s d u r ing t h e E a r ly H o r izon a nd o fA ndean c e ram ic p roduc t ion .

1 3

CHAPTER 3 I NTERREGIONAL RELATIONSH IPS I N THE EARLY HOR IZON AND ANDEAN CERAM IC PRODUCT ION

T h i s c hap t e r r e v iew s w ha t i s k nown o f E a r ly H o r izon i n te r r eg iona l r e la t ion sh ip s a nd A nd ean c e ram ic p r oduc t ion , b a sed o n a r cha eo log i ca l , a r chaeome t r i c a nd e t hnog raph ic d a ta . Ar e v iew o fp r io r c e ram ic a na ly se s i sa l so p r e sen ted , p a r t icu la r ly f o rt h e t i me p e r iod a nd r e g ion s o fi n t e r e s t h e r e . T he p o in t i st o e n la rge t h e r e sea r ch p e r spe c t ive o n t h e i n t e r r eg iona lr e la t ion sh ip se x i s t ing w i th in t h eC hav in s phe r e o f i n f luence . T he b r ie f r e v iew o f c e ram ic p roduc t ion a l so a low su st oe va lu a t et h e s t a t eo fr e sea r ch p r io rt oo u rs t udy . I tw i l l b e e a s ie r , t h en , t op r o je c t i t s r e su l t s w i th in al a rge r c u l tu ra l c on t ex t a nd m ea su r e i t s s i gn i f i can ce t o A ndean s t ud ie s .

S e ca . T he l a ck o fb ean a nd c o t ton s h e l l s a tT o r tuga , w hen t h ey a r ea bundan ta t Moxeke , i sf u r the r i n d ica t ion o fc oa s t v a l ley r e la t ion sh ip s . A l though t h e se r e la t ion sh ip s c on ce rn I n i t ia l P e r iod s i t e s , i ti sm o s t p r obab le t h a t t h e e xchange s c on t inued i nt h e f o l low ing p e r iod s . A tP a ll ca a nd C hav in d e H uän ta r , r ema in s o f m a r ine a nd c oa s ta l r e sou r ce s s ugge s t l o ng d i s tan ce t r ade f o r s ub s i s t en ce g ood s ( Te l lo 1 956 ; Ma t su zawa 1 974 ;B u rge r 1 984 ) . S u ch t r ade r e la t ion sh ip sa r e a t t e s t ed i nS pan i sh t i me s b e tween S an Ma r co s n ea r C hav in a nd C a sma o n t h e c oa s t t o o b ta in m a r ine a nd c oa s ta l p rodu c t s( Ma t suzawa 1 978 ) . C omp lemen ta ry r e la t ion sh ip sa r ea l so p ropo sed b e tween t h e c en t ra l c oa s t a nd t h e i n te r io r ( P a t t e r son 1 971 ) . A t A ncön , c l ea r w a t e r s ou r ce s s e em i n su ff i c ien t t op rov ide i r iga t ion f o rc u l t iva t ion ,h oweve r ,a g r icu l tu ra lr ema in sw e r e f o und o n t h e s i t e ( W i l ley a nd C o rbe t t 1 9 54 ) . T he f i sh ing v i l lage o f A n cön p r obab ly r e l ied o n i n t e r a c t ion s w i th t h e v a l ley s i t e s a l ong t h e R ima c , C h i l lon , o r C han cay r i ve r s t o o b ta in a g r icu l tu r a l p rodu c t s . T he m any c e remon ia l c en te r s a nd s e cond a ry s i t e s f o und i nt h e c oa s ta l v a l ley s n ea rby w ou ld a l so j u s t i f y t h e l a rge e xp lo i ta t ion o f m a r ine r e sou r ce s o b s e r ved a tA ncön .

3 . 1 I n terreg iona l r e la t ion sh ip s i n t h e E ar ly Hor izon w i th in t he C hav in s phere o fI n f luence T he e x i s t en ce o f i n te r r eg iona l r e la t ion sh ip s i n t h e E a r ly H o r izon i sa t t e s t ed b y s t y l i s t i c a nd p rovenance s t ud ie s , a nd b yt h ep re sen ce o fn on lo ca lp r odu c t so nt h es i te s . T he m a in p r oduc t s e x changed o r s t y l i s t i ca l ly n on lo ca l a r e o b s id ian , s p ondy lu s ,a nd o t he r m a r ine s h e l l s , c e r am i c s , r i tua l o b jec t s , a nd s ub s i s t en ce g ood s . L ong d i s ta n ce t r ade f o r t h e a cqu i s i t ion o f o b s id ian w a s c onf i rmed b y n eu t ron a c t iva t ion a nd X ray f l uo re scence a na lys e s ( Bu rge r e t a l . 1 984 ; B u rge r a nd A sa ro 1 977 ; B u rge r a nd A sa ro 1 993 ) . T rade b e twe en t h e n o r th -cen t ra l a nd c en t ra l A nde s i s d emon s t ra t ed b y t h e p r e sence i n C hav in d eH uän ta ro fo b s id ian , 9 5 .5% o fw h ich c ome f r om Q u i sp i s i s a , as ou r ce 4 70 k m d i s tan t i nt h e H uancave l ica D epa r tmen t ( Bu rge r e t a l . 1 984 ) . T h r e e o b s id ian f l ake s c ome f r om t h eC uzco a r ea 7 70 k ma way a nd o ne i sf r om t h e A ndahuay la s r e g ion , 6 30 k m f r om C hav in d e H uän ta r . O b s id ian f r agmen t s f r om Q u i sp i s i sa w e re a l so f ound i n H ua r i co to ( Bu rge r 1 985 ) . O b s id ian h ad , a ppa ren t ly , l i t t le r i tua li mpo r tance a nd a ppea r st oh av eb een a cqu i red m a in ly f o ru t il i ta r ian p u rpo se s . I ti sf o und i nd ome s t ic c on t ex t s a nd c e r emon ia la r ea s .

T he f o l low ing i s ab r ie f r e v i ew o f t h e n on loca l p rodu c t s f o und a tC hav in d eH uän ta r , H ua r i co to ,P a l lka , N epef ia , a nd A n c6n . T h i s a pe r 9u s h ow w ha t i n t e r r eg iona l r e la t ion sh ip s c an b ee xpe c t ed f o rt h e se s i t e s . C hav i nd eH uän ta r T he p a r t ic ipa t ion o f C hav in d e H uän ta r t o l o ng d i s tance e xchange i sa t t e s ted b y t h e p r e sence o fn on loca l p rodu c t s , b o th i n t h e c e r emon ia l a nd r e s iden t ia l a r ea s . T he i r a bundan ce i sm ax imum a tt h e J a naba r r iu p ha se , w hen t h e s i ze o ft h e s i te i sm o s t i mpo r tan t a nd e xchange s i n ten s i fy ( Bu rge r 1 984 ) . O b s id ian i sw e l l d o cumen ted , a s m en t ioned e a r l ie r , a s a r e g r een s tone e a r spoo l s a nd c i nnaba r , w h ich m igh t c ome f r om t h e s o u the rn h i gh land s . Many a n th r a c i te m i r ro r s w e re f o und , b u t t h ey a r e p r obab ly o f l o ca l o r r e g iona lo r ig in . Ma r ine s h e l l sf r om t h eP a c if ic w e r eb rough t t oC hav in . T he se w e r ep r obab ly n o tf o rc on sump t ion , a st h e c on s e rva t ion o ff r e sh s e a f ood m igh t h ave b e en ap rob lem , a nd m any a r e d e co r a t ed . S a l t ed d r y f i sh , o n t h e c on t ra ry , c ou ld e a s i ly h ave b e en i mpo r t ed . F i na l ly , s pondy lu s s hel , a s so c ia t ed w i th g u inea p i g b one s , w a s f o und i nt wo c ache s i nt h ec e r emon ia la r ea .

S pondy lu s a nd s t rombu s s h e l l sf r om t h e w a rm w a t e r s o ft h e E cuado r a r e v e ry o f t en f o und i n A ndean s i te s , f r om t h e P r e ce ram ic P e r iod o n . T he s h e l l s a r e e i the r c omp le te , i n p owde r f o rm , c a r ved , o r u s ed a s b ead s ; m o s t c ome f r om f u ne r a ry a nd c e r emon ia l c on t ex t s . I n t h e E a r ly H o r izon , t h ey a r e f ound i nn ea r ly e ve r y s i t e , b i g a nd s ma l l , f r om t h e c oa s tu pt ot h eh i gh s i e r r a . T he e x i s tence o fs ma l l s ca le e x change i ss ugge s ted b y t h e p r e sence o f p rodu c t s f r om d i f f e r en t e cozone s o f t h e s ame r e g ion . F o r t h e C a sma V a l ley , S he l ia a nd T om P ozo r sk i ( 1 987 , 1 991 ) p r opo se c omp lemen ta r y r e la t ion sh ip sb e tween c oa s ta l a nd v a l l ey s i te s b a sed o n s im i la r i t ie s i nf a una l a nd v eg e ta l r ema in s , l i ke f i sh b on e s f o und i nt h e r e fu se d ump s o fu p -va l ley s i t e s . Ag ood e xamp le i sf o und a t t h e l a rge c e remon ia l s i t eo fP ampa d e l aL lama s Moxeke a nd n ea rby s ma l l f i sh ing v i l lage s o f T o r tuga , H uaynuna a nd B ah ia

C e ram ic s t y l i s t i c i n f lu ence ss u gge s tl i nk s w i th t h ec oa s ta nd h i gh land s r e g ion s n o r th a nd s o u th o fC hav in . I np a r t icu la r , l i nk sa r ep ropo sed w i th K o to sh i nt h eu pp e rH ua l laga v a l ley s o u th o f C hav in , t h e C up i sn ique a r ea o n t h e n o r th c oa s t , C a jama r ca i nt h e n o r t he rn h i gh land s , t h e H uancave l ica a nd A ya cu cho r e g ion s i nt h e s o u th , a nd P a l lka a nd t h e c oa s t . C up i sn ique a nd o t he r n o r t he r n i nf luence s a r e mo s t ly o b s e rved f o r t h e c e ram ics f r om t h e O f renda s g a l le ry . T he 1 5

I s abe l le D ruc s i te w a s , h oweve r , o n ly s ub jec ted t os i t e s u r vey a nd s u r f a ce c o l lec t ion . C onc lu s ions r e ga rd ing i n te r r eg iona l r e la t ion sh ip s

i c onog raphy o f s ome O f renda s b ow l s a l so e xh ib i t p a ra l le l s w i th c l ay mu ra l s f r om t h e c en t ra l c oa s t , f r om G a ragay f o r e xamp le , s ugge s t ing n on loca l p rovenance ( Rav ine s e t a l . 1 982 ; B u rge r 1 984 :180 ) . S im i la r mo t i f s a s t h o se f ound o n t h e O f renda s c e ram ic s a r e f ound o n c e ram ic s f r om t h e c en t ra l c oa s t , i nt h e H ua rmey V a l ley , a tA nc6n , o n b o t t le s f r om t h eN epeß2 V a l ley ,a nd a tH ua r ico to i nt h eC a l le jön d e H uay la s . S ome u t i l i ta r ian w a re f r om t h e o ld s e t t lemen t a t C hav in s ugge s t p rovenance s f r om K o to sh , t h e C up i sn ique a r ea , C a jama rca a nd t h e s ou th -cen t ra l c oa s t ( Bu rge r 1 984 ) . Mo s t o f t h e K o to sh f r agmen t s a r e m ixed w i th U raba r r iu m a te r ia l , w h i le t h e l i nk s w i th t h e o t he r r e g ion s a r e p rom inen ti nt h eJ anaba r r iu P e r iod .

a r e t h u s b a sed u pon s t y l i s t ic p a ra l le l s o b ser ved o n t h e c e ram ic s f ound a t t he s i t e . W i l ley a nd C o rbe t t ( 1 954 ) i d en t if ied c oa s ta l C hav in c e ram ic s , s im i la rt os ome c e ram ic t y pe s f r om A nc6n . A c a rved s pa tu la w i th C hav in i c onog raphy w a s a l so f ound . T e l lo ( 1956 :36 ) d e sc r ibe s t h e p a s t e o f s ome P a ll ca s he rd s a ss a ndy , w i th ac r u shed s h e l l t emp e r . Many f r agmen t s h e i lu s t ra te s b ea r C hav in i c onog raphy a nd J anaba r r iu e l emen t s , l i ke s t amped c i r c le a nd -do t . T he l i nk t o C hav in , b e i tw i th t h e c e remon ia l c en t e ro rt h eC hav in i d eo logy ,i se v iden t . B e cau se o f i t s s i ze , l o ca t ion a nd i mpo r tance , P a ll ca mu s t h ave p l ayed a s i gn if i can t r o le i nt h e t r an s i t o f g ood s a nd i n fo rma t ion b e tween t h e n o r th -cen t ra l h i gh land s a nd t h e c oa s t . Ma r ine p roduc t s w e re f o und o n t h e s i t e ( Ma t suzawa 1 978 ) , a t te s t ing o f t h e e x is tence o f e conom i ca l c on ta c t s w i th c oa s ta l s e t t lemen t s . T he m ode l o f i n t e r zona l o r c omp lemen ta ry r e la t ion sh ip s p ropo sed b y T om a nd S he l ia P ozo r sk i f o r t h e I n i t ia l P e r iod s i t e o fP ampa d e l aL lama s Moxek e i n t h e L owe r C a sma V a l ley c an b e a pp l ied t o P aR i c a a s w e l l . T h i s mode l s ugg e s t s t h e c en t ra l iza t ion o f l o ca la nd r e g iona l p roduc t s t ob e r e d i s t r ibu ted f u r the ra way , u p o rd own t h e v a l ley , ma in ly f o r a g r icu l tu ra l a nd m a r ine p rodu c t s . A s u rvey b y D av id Wi l son ( 1 991 ) s ugge s t s t h a t t h e v a l ley s e rved a sr oad a x i s . P a ll ca P e r iod s i te s ( 1 000 -350 BC ) , a f te r W i lson ( 1991 ) t e rm ino log y , a r e c oncen t ra ted i n t h e m idd le a nd u ppe r C a sma V a l ley , p a r t icu la r ly n ea r P a l lka . T hey l i e a l ong a p o s s ib le r o ad b e tween t h e t wo u ppe rb ran che s o ft h e C a sma R ive r ( t he S ech in a nd C a sma R ive r s ) , t h e C a l le jön d e H uay la s , a nd C hav in d e H uän ta r . T he m any c e remon ia l c en te r s a nd s i t e s i d en t if ied b y T e l lo ( 1 956 ) , t h e P ozo r sk i ( 1987 ) a nd Wi l son ( 1 991 ) s ugge s t t h a t t h e w ho le r e g ion w a s h eav i ly p opu la t ed f r om t h e I n i t ia l P e r iod o n .

T he se o b se rva t ion s , a s w e l l a s t h e r e l ig iou s s i gn if icance o f t h et emp le o fC hav in a s ap i lg r image c en t e ra nd t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e s i te a t t h e j unc tu re o f t r an s -Andean r oad s s ugge s t i mpo r tan t e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s . T he s i t e , h oweve r , d oe s n o t a ppea r t oh ave b een ap rom inen t manu f a c tu r ing c en te r , a t l e a s tn o tf o rc e ram ic p roduc t ion . T he c l ay r e sou rce s a r e n o t p a r t icu la r ly g ood , t h e c l ima te i st o o h um id , t o o c o ld , a nd w i thou t e nough s un f o r l a rge p o t t e ry m anu f a c tu re . N o w o rk shop s f o r t e x t i le , c e ram ic , o r l i t h ic p rodu c t ion w e re f o und a to rn ea rt h es i te . T he o n ly e xcep t ion i st h e e v idence o fo b s id ian d eb i tage i no ne s e c to ro ft h e o l d s e t t lemen t a nd p o s s ib ly o f s pondy lu s s he l l ( Bu rge r 1 984 :236 -238 ) . A cco rd ing t oL umb re ra s ( 1989 ) , t o pog raph ic a nd c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s w e re a l so n o t f a vo rab le t o al a rge a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion . T h is d es c r ip t ion s peak s , r a the r , o fC hav in a sa n i mpo r tan tt r an s i tc en te rf o rg ood sa nd s e r v ice s ,e nhanced b y t h eC hav in c u l ta nd r e l ig iou sa c t iv i t ie sl i nked t ot h e t emp le . H uar ico to T he s ma l l c e remon ia l s i te o f Hua r ico to l i e s i nt h e C a l le jön d e H uay la s , o n t h e r oad f r om C hav in t o t h e c oa s t . R ega rd le s s o f t h e l o ca t ion , t h e s i te a ppea r s t oh ave h ad a r a the r l o ca l i mpo r tance a nd f ew i n te r reg iona l r e la t ion sh ip s . T he p r e sence o f o b s id ian f l akes i nd ica t e s l i nk s w i th t h e s ou the rn h i gh land s , a l though t h e m a t e r ia l c ou ld h ave b een a cqu i red a tC hav in d eH uän ta r , 1 4 -15 h ou r sa way b y f oo t . A f ew o b jec t s w i th C hav in i c onog raph ic r e p re sen ta t ion s w e re f o und ,s ugge s t ing p a r t icu la rl i nk s w i th C hav in d eH uän ta ro r i nf luence o ft h e C hav in c u l t . O ne o ft h e se i s ab one s pa tu la

N epe t ia T he N epef ia V a l ley j u s t n o r th o f t h e C a sma R ive r h a s n o g r ea tc e remon ia l c en te r d a t ing f r om t h eE a r ly H o r izon . T he f amou s s i te s o f P unku r i a nd C e r ro B lan co i n t h e l owe r v a l ley , e xcava ted b y T e l lo , a r e o f e a r l ie r d a t e s ( Dagge t t 1 987 ) . F o rt h eE a r ly H o r izon , m any s ma l l s e t t lemen t s a nd a f ew c e r emon ia l s t ruc tu re s w e re i d en t i f ied f r om s u rvey s b y P rou lx ( s ee t h e p ub l ica t ions o f 1 968 a nd 1 9 73 f o r g ene ra l i n fo rma t ion , a nd 1 985 f o r mo re s p e c if ic d a ta b a sed o n t h e s u rvey m ade i n 1 979 w i th D agge t t ) a nd D agge t t ( 1984 ) . O n ly s u r f ace c o l le c t ions w e re m ade . T he c e ram ic sc o l le c t ed e xh ib i t as t rong l o ca l c ha rac te r , b u t s ome w a re s s how s t y l i s t ic p a ra l le l s w i th t h e c oa s t a nd t h e C hav in t r ad i t ion , p a r t icu la r ly t h e J anaba r r iu c e ram ic c omp lex . T he b o t t le s , i n p a r t icu la r , h ave a n on loca l manu f a c tu re a nd s t y le , a nd J anaba r r iu e l emen t s t h a t e voke A ndean i nf luen ce s a nd c on ta c t s w i th t h e C a l le jön d e H uay la s . L ink s w i th C hav in d e H uän ta r a r e a l so p o s s ib le a cco rd ing t o D agge t t ( 1 984 ) . T he se o b serva t ion s s ugge s t t h a t t h e N epe r ia V a l ley w a s n o t i s o la ted f r om t h e A ndean a nd c oa s ta l c u l tu ra l t r end s . T he p r es en tr e sea r ch w i l l f u r the rv a l ida te t h i sh ypo the s i s .

o r namen ted w i th a r ep re sen ta t ion o f t h e L an zon , t h e m a in d i v in i ty f i gu re i n t h e C hav in o ld t emp le ( Bu rge r 1 985 , 1 992 ) . O the r i n te r reg iona l c on tac t s s ugge s ted b y s t y l i s t ic p a ra l le l s o n t h e c e ram ics a r e p ropo sed w i th L a s H a lda s o n t h e c oa s t , K o to sh i nt h e H uanuco r eg ion t ot h e e a s t , a nd , o f c ou r se , C hav in d e H uän ta r ( Bu rge r a nd S a laza r -Bu rge r 1 985 ) . T he p a ra l le l s w i th t h e c oa s ta nd K o to sh a r e o b se rved f o r t h e I n i t ia l P e r iod , w h i le t h e l i nk s w i th C hav in a r e b e s t a t te s ted d u r ing t h eJ anaba r r iu p has e . P a l lka P a I l l ca i se a s i ly r e a ched f r om t h e C a l le jön d e H uay la s b y p a s se s t h rough t h e B lack C o rd i l le ra a nd d own t h e u ppe r C a sma V a l ley . P a ll ca i st h e ma in c e remon ia l c en te r w i th in t h e C a sma V a l ley a tt h e t ime o f C hav in d e H uän ta r . T h i s 1 6

3-I n te r reg iona l R e la t ion sh ip sa nd A ndean C e ram ic P roduc t ion A ncön

p r esen ted f i r s t , w h i le t h e d a ta k nown f o r moder np roduc t ion i sr ev iewed i nt h en ex ts e c t ion ( 3 .3 ) .

E xcava t ion s a nd s u r f ace c o l lec t ions i n b o th t h e f i sh ing v i l lage a nd t h e c eme te ry p rov ided much ma ter ia l a t te s t ing t oA ncön 's i n te r reg iona l i n vo lvemen t . L lama b one s , t r op ica l b i rd f e a the r s , Amazon ian wood s , a nd A ndean o bs id ian a r e a mong t h e i t ems f o und a t A ncön ( Ca r r ion C acho t 1 948 ;

F o r t h e E a r ly H or izon , c e ram ic s t ud ie s s ugge s t t h a t t h e ma jo r i ty o f t h e p roduc t ion w a s l o ca l , w h i le a f ew c e ram ic t y pes o r i s o la ted p i ece s w e re o f f o re ign o r ig in . T he

B u rge r 1 992 ) . O n t h e n ea rby s i te o f S upe , i n f une ra ry c on tex t , w e re f o und c e ram ics , t e x t i le , c a rved g ou rd , b one a nd w ood o b jec t s w i th C hav in i c onog raphy ( K roebe r 1 944 ;

u nknown . D if f e ren t , l o ca l p roduc t ion a r ea s p robab ly e x i s ted a round t h e s ame s i t e , a cco rd ing t o t h e d i ve r s i ty o f l o ca l c ompos i t iona l t y pe s o b served . T h is i s t h e c a se a t

C a r r ion C acho t 1 948 ; Wi l ley a nd C o rbe t t 1 954 ) . A l l t h e se o b jec t s s ugge s t c u l tu ra l o r r e l ig iou s c on tac t s w i th C hav in . F u r the r c e ram ic s t y l is t ic i nf luence f r om C hav in a nd

N a t ia i l ique . T h is f o rma t ive s i te i nt h e P iu ra V a l ley n o r th o f P e ru w a s e x tens ive ly s t ud ied b y aF rench t e am l e ad b y J e an

C up in i sque o n t h en o r th c oa s ta r e s e en o n t h e c e ram ic f o und a t A ncön a nd S upe . Wi l ley a nd C o rbe t t ( 1 954 ) a nd P a t te r son ( 1 971 ) r e por t C hav in inf luenced c e ram ics i nb o th

o n 5 2 t h in s e c t ion s o f c e ram ics , c ompa ra t ive w a re s a nd

d ome s t ic a nd f u ne ra ry c on tex t s . T hese o b ser va t ion l e ad W i l ley a nd C o rbe t t t ot h ink t h a t t h e c oa s ta l c ommun i t ie s o f A ncön a nd S upe p ar t ic ipa ted f r om t h e s ame C hav in , s t y l i s t ic a nd c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion , w h i le ma in ta in ing ap o l i t ica l a u tonomy ( 1 954 :163 ,165 ) . P a t te r son ( 1 971 ) , o n t h e o the r h and , p ropo sed t h e e x is tence o f r e la t ionsh ip s w i th t h e s i te s f r om t h e i n te r io r t oo b ta in a g r icu l tu ra l g ood s a nd e xchange m ar ine p roduc t s . T he r eg ion w a s w e l l p opu la ted a nd many s i te s h ave b een i d en t if ied i nt h e n ea rby c oa s ta l v a l leys ( s ee P a t te r son 1 97 1 a nd Bu rge r 1 992 ) . H uacoy a nd G a ragay , i n t h eC h i l lon a nd R imac v a l ley s r e spec t ive ly , c ou ld w e l l h ave

p roduc t ion a r ea s o f t h ese n on loca l c e ram ics a r e u sua l ly

G u f f roy ( 1 990 , 1 994 ) . Ap e t rog raph ic s t udy w a s c onduc ted e xpe r imen ta l m a ter ia l ,b y J . Gu f f roy , G . C a r l ie ra nd G . S o sa ( Guf f roy 1 994 ) , a nd s how s t h e p resence o f s eve ra l s and t empe red p a s tes . C e ram ic g roup s w e re f o rmed a cco rd ing t o g ra in s ize m ea su re s a nd i n c lu s ion p e rcen tage s , w h i le m ine ra log ica l c ha rac ter is t ics w e re u sed t o i d en t ify p rovenance . T he re a r e t wo l o ca l c e ram ic t ype s . T he se a r e o f q u i te s im i la rc ompo s i t ion , a l though t h ey d i f f e r i ns t y le . T he c ompo s i t iona ls im i la r i ty i se xp la ined b y t h e u se o fr e sou r ce s l o ca ted w i th in t h e s ame v a l ley , b u t e xp lo i ted b y d i f f e ren t w o rk shop s . N on loca l c e ram ics o f t h e P a i ta c oa s ta l s t y le , a nd f r om t h e u ppe r P iu ra , h ave v a r ied c ompos i t ion s s ugge s t ing a d i ve r s i ty o f p roduc t ion s i tes . I mpor ted p i e ces a r e f ew . T hey w e re a cqu i red f o r t h e i r a r t is t ic v a lue o r t o

b een i n c on tac t w i th A ncön . T hese t wo s i te s f u r the r s how C hav in i n f luence i n many o f t h e i r c e ram ics ( Lude i ia , 1 970 ; B u rge r 1 988 ; S i lva 1 993 ) .

c omp le te t h el o ca l i n ven tory . A t P i ru ru , as i te i n t h e T an tamayo V a l ley i n t h e s ou th c en t ra l A nde s , e x tens ive X ray f l uo re scence s t ud ie s w e re

I n s ummary , r e la t ion sh ips w i th t h e C hav in c u l t a nd c u l tu re a r e i nd ica ted i n a l l t h e r e g ion s o f s t udy . Ob jec t s w i th

c onduc ted b y C a ther ine R ozenbe rg a nd Mau r ice P i con ( 1 990a ,b ) . T he s i te w a s o ccup ied i n t h e P rece ram ic a nd m idd le F o rma t ive P e r iod s ( 3000 -6 00 BC ) a nd i nt h e L a te

C hav in i c onog raphy a nd s t y l i s t ic i nf luence o n c e ram ics c ou ld b e t h e r e su l t o f l o ca l i m i ta t ion o r o f e xchange . T he e conom ica l o ri d eo log ica l c ha rac te r o ft h e p roduc t s , g ood s ,

I n te rmed ia te P er iod a nd L a te H o r izon ( AD 1 000 / 1460 1 460 / 1530 ) . F o r t h e F o rma t ive P e r iod , o ne l o ca l a nd t h ree

o r s e rv ice s e xchanged d e te rm ine t h e e x tens ion o f t h e

n on loca l w a re t ype s w e re i d en t if ied . T he l o ca l c e ram ics a r e o fp oo rq ua l i ty a nd l ow f i r ing , w h i le t h e n on loca l c eram ics

C hav in i n te rac t ion s phe re . T he s p read o f s t y les a nd i d ea s i s mo re e x tended t h an t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f o b je c t s a nd s ubs i s tence g ood s , a l though s ome p roduc t s o f r i tua l o r

a r e mo re a bundan t a nd o f b e t te r q ua l i ty . Two o f t h e n on l o ca l t y pes m igh t c ome f r om t h e h i gh lands o f J un in i nt h e s ou th . T he c ompo s i t iona l d i ve r s i ty s ugges t s as t ra tegy o f c e ram ic a cqu i s i t ion r a the r t h an o n -s i te p roduc t ion f o r t h e

e conom ica l f unc t ion p a r t ic ipa ted i n l o ng -d is tance t r ade . S ome c e ram ics w i th n on loca l i nf luences w e re p robab ly e xchanged . T hey m ay h ave i n teg ra t ed d i f f e ren t i n te rac t ion

n on -seden ta ry s o c ie ty t h a t w a s P i ru ru a t t h a t t ime . I n c on t ra s t , t h e c e ram ics f r om l a te r p er iod s a na lyzed f r om P i ru ru a nd t h e T an tamayo V a l ley w e re l o ca l ly o rr e g iona l ly p roduced i nt h ree s p ec ia l ized c en te r s , y e tu n iden t if ied .

n e two rk s , o f r eg iona l a nd i n te r reg iona l s ca le . T he d a ta i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e a na ly s is r e su l t s p r esen ted i n C hap te r 6 y i e ld s s ome a nswe r s t o t h i s q ues t ion o f i n te r reg iona l r e la t ion sh ip sa nd c e ram ic e xchange .

A no the r c e ram ic s t udy w a s c a r r ied o n t h e c e ram ics f r om 3 . 2A ndean c eram ic p roduc t ion

C aya sh b y aP o l i sh t e am u nde r t h e d i rec t ion o f A ndr ze j K r zanow sk i ( 1 986 ) , a s p a r t o f al a rge r s t udy o n P reh is to r ic

T he r e v iew o f A ndean c e ram ic p roduc t ion t h a t f o l lows i s b a sed o n c e ram ic , a r chaeome tr ic , a nd e t hnog raph ic s t ud ie s

C aya sh , i n t h e c en t ra l A nde s . C e ram ics f r om t h e L a te I n te rmed ia te P e r iod a nd L a te H or izon w e re a na lyzed b y p e t rog raphy a nd X ray d i f f ra c t ion . S ome t h ir ty t h in s e c t ion s

k nown f o rP reh i span ic a nd moder nP eru . T he empha s is i so n

r e p re sen t ing t h e ma in mo rpho log ica l a nd m ine ra l t ypes a t

t h e r aw ma ter ia l u sed , p roduc t ion a r ea s , c e ram ic p r ovenance , p roduc t ion , a nd d i s t r ibu t ion . T h is s umma ry w i l l h e lp e va lua te t h e p o s s ib le s t ra teg ies f o r c e ram ic

C aya sh w e re s t ud ied . F ive d i f f e ren t l o ca l r e sou r ces w e re s hown t o h ave b een u sed i n t h e p roduc t ion o f t h e s i x p e t rog roup s i d en t if ied . T h i s s ugge s t s t h e e x i s tence o f

p r oduc t ion a nd d i s tr ibu t ion f o r t h e r e g ions o f s t udy . P r eh ispan ic c e ram ic p roduc t ion a nd c e ram ic s t ud ie s a r e

r e sea r ch o ft h e t e rm p e t rog roup t od ef ine ag roup w i th s ame

s e ve ra l w o rk shop s s upp ly ing t h e s i te .

1 7

T he u s e i n o u r

I s abe l le D ruc p e t rog raph ic c ompo s i t ion i sb o r rowed f r om K rzanow sk i 's

p e t rog raph ic a na lys is b y D av id K iH ick ( 1990 ) r e vea led t h a t t h ey w e re s e lf tempe red .

s t udy . A ga in i n t h e c en t ra l A ndes , i nt h e A yacucho r eg ion , D ean

N eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na lys is w a s a l so c onduc ted o n Moche

A rno ld b egan s t ud ies i nt h e 1 970 so n M idd le H or izon H ua r i

c e ram ics b y C laude C hapde la ine a nd c o l leagues ( 1995 ) . T he ma ter ia l c omes f r om a w o rk shop o f t h e E a r ly

c e ram ics a nd moder n p roduc t ion . H is s t ud ies c omb ine e t hnog raph ic w o rk , c e ram ic e co logy , a nd m ine ra log ica l a na lys i s . H e i so ne o f t h e f i r s t i nP er u t oh ave s t ud ied r aw

I n te rmed ia te P e r iod i nt h e Moche c ap i ta l . T he c e ram ics a nd f i gu r ines a r e l o ca l b u t p roduced d i f fe ren t ly a cco rd ing t ot h e t y pe o fw a re . T he c ompo s i t ion i sv ery h omogeneou s f o r t h e mo lded p i ece s w h i le i ti si n homogeneous f o r t h e d ome s t ic

m a ter ia ls a nd p roduc t ion a r ea s ( 1 972 ) , p a r t icu la r ly f o r mode rn

p roduc t ion

a t Q u inua .

H is

1 993

p ub l ica t ion

w a r e . T he a u tho r s p ropo se t h a t p roduc t ion w a s c on tro l led f o r f i ne w a re a nd f i gu r ines , p a r t icu la r ly f o r t h e c l ay u sed ,

s umma r izes h i s w o rk o n c e ram ic p roduc t ion f r om Q u inua a nd i n c lude s ap e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s o f t h e c l ay r e sou rce s . T he g r ea t m ine ra log ica l v a r iab i l i ty o bse rved i n t h e r aw

w h i le t h e d i ve r s if ied .

m a te r ia ls p red ic t s as im i la r v a r iab i l i ty i nt h e c e ram ics , p a s t a nd p r esen t , a nd t h e d i ff icu l ty i ni d en t ify ing e xac t c e ram ic p rovenances w i th in t h e A yacucho V a l ley w i thou t l a rge c l ay

p roduc t ion

o f

u t i l i tar ian

w a re

w a s

mo re

F o r C hav in d e H uän ta r , t wo c e ram ic s t ud ie s w e re k nown

s amp l ing . A lso d i ff icu l t w ou ld b e t h e d i f f e ren t ia t ion o f t h e c l ays f r om t h e t empe r s u sed i nt h e p roduc t ion ( 1993 : 2 06 ) . A no the r p e t rog raph ic s t udy , t h i s t i me o n I n ca ic ma ter ia l

b e fo re t h e s t udy w e c onduc ted . O ne i s t h e n eu t ron a c t iva t ion , X ray d i f f rac t ion , a nd Moessbaue r a na lyse s b y

f r om

o f

S a laza r ( 1986 ) . T he o t he r i s t h e p e t rog raph ic a na lys is o f

p roduc t ion a nd n on loca l p rovenance f o r t wo o f t h e t h ree

n i ne t h in s e c t ion sb y R ober t T racy a sp a r to ft h ed i s ser ta t ion

c e ram ic g roups a na lyzed ( I xe r a nd L un t 1 991 ) . C ru shed r o ck s w e re u sed a s t empe r i nt h e n on lo ca l c e ram ics , w h i le am ixed -sand t empe rw a se mp loyed i nl o ca lp roduc t ion .

t h e s i s o f R icha rd B u rge r o n C hav in d e H uän ta r ( 1984 ) . S eve ra l m ine ra log ica l p a s te s w e re i d en t if ied . T he se t h in

t h e C uzco r eg ion ,

i d en t if ied a s pec ia l iza t ion

t h e G e rman t e ams l e ad b y U r su la Wagne r ( 1 991 ) a nd R .

s e c t ions a r e u sed a s c ompa ra t ive m a te r ia l i n t h e p resen t s t udy a nd a r e d e scr ibed i nC hap te r 5 .T he s t udy b y S a laza r a nd c o l league s ( 1 986 ) i n c luded 7 6 c e ram ics f r om ag a l lery w i th in t h e t emp le o fC hav in ( 26 C hav in a nd 5 0 p o s t -Chav in c e ram ics ) , t wo s o i ls , a nd o ne mode rn c l ay s amp le . A h i e ra rch ica l c l u s te r ing o f t h e c hem ica l d a ta p roduced f i ve c ompo s i t iona l g roup s . T he m a in g roup i sc ompo sed o f 5 7 c e ram ics a nd o ne r e cen t c l ay s amp le , w h ich l e d t h e a u tho r s a s cr ibe a l o ca l o r ig in t o t h e se c e ram ics ( Chav in a nd p o s t C hav in ) . T he Moe s sbaue r a na lys i s i n d ica ted t h a t t h e C hav in -s ty le c e ram ics w e re f i red i n a r e duc ing

F i r ing p roces se s a r e n o t w e l l k nown f o r P reh ispan ic P eru , e xcep t f o r af ew c a se s . F i r ing w a s d one o n t h e g round o r i n o pen s t ruc tu res . N o c l o sed k i ln s w e r e f ound . H oweve r , s em i -open s t ruc tu res w e re e xcava ted b y S h imada a nd h i s c o l leagues ( 1981 , 1 994 ) i nB a tan G rande o n t h e n o r th c oa s t . T he B a tan G rande c omp lex d a tes f r om t h eE a r ly H or izon . I t c ove r s aw ho le p roduc t ion a r ea , w i th m any s ma l l f i r ing s t ruc tu re s c oncen t ra ted n ea r c l ay s ou r ce s o f g ood q ua l i ty a nd n o tf a rf r om t h e c e remon ia la r ea . Two d i f f e ren t t y pe s o f c l ay a ppea rt oh ave b een u sed . T he r e duced s i ze o ft h e k i lns s ugge s tt h ep roduc t ion o fs ma l l v a ses a nd b o t t les . A cco rd ing

e nv i ronmen t , w h i le t h e p o s t -Chav in c e ram ic s w e re p roduced i n a r e duc ing a tmo sphe r e , f o l lowed b y a n o x ida t ion p ha se . T he X ray d i f f ra c t ion a l lowed t h e i d en t if ica t ion o ft h e m ine ra l s w i th in t h e c e ram ic f r agmen t s . B lack t a lc o r f e ld spa r c ha rac ter ize c e ram ics i n t h e ma in I NAA c l u s te r , w h i le s ome o u t s ide r s h ave a mph ibo le

t oe xper imen ta l s t ud ie s a nd Moe s sbaue r a na lys is , t h e f i r ing t empe ra tu res

r a nged b e tween

8 00 a nd

1 000 °C .

T hese

s t ud ie s w e re made a t B a tan G rande , Mon teg rande i n t h e J eque tepeque V a l ley , Mo r ro d e E ten o n t h e n o r th c oa s t , a nd

c rys ta ls . A no the rn eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s i sw a s p er fo rmed

a tC hav in d e H uän ta r ( Sh imada e ta l . 1 994 ; Wagne r e ta l . 1 988 ,

1 991) .

r e cen t ly b y U r su la Wagne r 's t e am o n c e ram ics f r om t h e Of t en ( la s G a l lery . Many w a re s a ppea r t o b e o f l o ca l

T he Moe s sbaue r s t ud ie s b y Wagne r a nd

c o l leagues r evea l t h a t t h e f i r ing w a s d one i n ar e duc ing

p roduc t ion (Wagne r 1 997 ) .

e nv i ronmen t , f o l lowed b y a n o x ida t ion p ha se . A n o x ida t ion p ha se c ou ld a l so h ave o ccu r red a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e

I nt o ta l , s i x s t ud ie s i n vo lv ing c e ram ic a na ly s i sa r e r e la ted t o t h e r eg ion s o r t h e t i me p e r iod o f t h e p re sen t s t udy . T he se

p roce ss , w i th t empe ra tu re v a r ia t ion a r ound 8 00 °C .

a r e t h e a na lyse s o f S h imada a nd c o l league s a t B a tan

A f ew o t he r c ha rac ter iza t ion s t ud ie s y i e ld f u r the r i n fo rma t ion a bou t e a r ly c e ram ic p roduc t ion . T hey c once rn m a te r ia l f r om t h e n or th c oa s t a nd s ou the rn A ndes , u sua l ly f o r l a te r p er iod s . N eu t ron a c t iva t ion a nd p e t rog raph ic

G rande , G uf f roy a t N a f ia i l ique ; R ozenbe rg a nd P i con a t P i ruru ; a nd S a la za r e t a l . , Wagne r e t a l . , a nd B u rge r a t C hav in d e H uän ta r .

s t ud ie s h ave b een c onduc ted o n c e ram ics f r om B a tan G rande , Mon teg rande ,a nd C hav in d e H uän ta rb y R . S a laza r

3 . 3 E thnograph ic d a ta o n modern c eram ic p roduc t ion i n t he r eg ions o fs t udy

a nd c o l league s ( 1986 ) a nd U . Wagne r a nd c o l league s ( 1 991 ) .

A t

Mon teg rande ,

t h e

p e trog raph ic

a na lys i s

i d en t if ied t wo d i f f e ren t c e ram ic p a s te s , o ne w i th p l ag ioc la se t empe r , t h e o the r w i th c l ay n odu le s . T he m ine ra l

C ompa r isons b e tween m a ter ia l f o und i n e xcava t ions a nd moder n t o o l s a nd w a re f o rm s s how f ew c hange s b e tween

c ha rac ter is t ics l a te r s e rved t od e s cr ibe t h e c hem ica l g roup s

t h e

o b ta ined b y n eu t ron a c t iva t ion . I n B a tan G rande , t h e c hem ica l s t ud ies s how t h a t t h e c e ram ics a r e l o ca l . A

P reh ispan ic

a nd

h i s to r ica l

p er iods .

T rad i t ion

a nd

c onse rva t ism o f t e chno logy a nd m anufac tu re a r e s t rong i n 1 8

3-I n te r reg iona lR e la t ion sh ip sa nd A ndean C e ram ic P roduc t ion t h e p roduc t ion o fd omes t ic w a re . T h is w a s o bse rved i nt h e T i t icaca r eg ion b y T schop ik ( 1 950 ) ; i n t h e n o r th c oa s t b y B anke s ( 1 985 , 1 989 ) , a nd C le land a nd S h imada ( 1 994 ) ; i n t h e c en t ra l A nde s f o r M idd le H or izon a nd moder n H ua r i t o o ls b y P ozz i -E sco t , A la rcön , a nd V ivanco ( 1 993 ) , a nd f o r u t i l i ta r ian w a re , o l la s , a nd s e rv ing , s t o r ing , a nd t r an spo r t d i she s ñp roduced i nI n ca t imes a nd t oday ( Hags t rum 1 987 ) . I f t empo ra l i ty d oe s n o t s e em

t o a f f ec t much c e ram ic

t e chno logy , e co logy f a c to r s d o . D ean A rno ld s t ud ied t h e e co log ica l a nd s o c io -cu l tu ra l f a c to r s i nf luenc ing M idd le H o r izon H ua r i p roduc t ion i nr e la t ion t ot h e c e ram ic e co logy c oncep t . T h is c oncep t d eve loped b y F reder ick Ma t son ( 1 965 ) e mpha s ize s t h e i mpor tance o fr aw m a te r ia ls a na ly s i s i nr e la t ion t o t h e e co log ica l a nd c l ima t ic e nv i ronmen t s i n w h ich c e ram ic p roduc t ion t a kes p l ace . C e ram ic t e chno log ica l p rope r t ies a nd manufac tu re a r e t hu s s t ud ied f r om w i th in a n e co log ica l a nd s oc io -cu l tu ra l p e r spec t ive .

p roduc t ion . H ence , t h e p o t t ing c ommun i ty o f T a r icä w a s s ub jec ted t o e t hnog raph ic s t udy b y E cheand ia ( 1 982 ) , C am ino ( 1 984 ) a nd A y l lon e t a l . ( 1 989 ) . T he se s t ud ie s e mpha s ize t h e manufac tu r ing p roce s s a nd s o c ia l o rgan iza t ion o f t h e p o t te r s . H oweve r , t h ey g i ve l i t t le i n fo rma t ion r e ga rd ing t h e t ype o f r aw m a te r ia l a nd r e sou rce s u s ed , w h ich i so f g rea t i n te res t f o r c ompa r ison w i th p rovenance s t ud ies o f a r chaeo log ica l m a ter ia l . T he e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l s t udy w e i n i t ia ted i n 1 994 m ean t t o c omp lemen t t h e se d a ta , i n c lud ing a na lys i s o f moder n m a te r ia ls ( Druc a nd Gwyn 1 998 ) . T he a r ea c ove r s t h e r eg ion s i n t h e A nca sh d epa r tmen t r e la ted t o t h e p r esen t p rovenance s t udy , t h a t i s , t h e C hav fn d e H uän ta r r e g ion u p t o H ua r i , t h e C a l le jön d e H uay la s , a nd t h e C a sma a nd N epe f ia c oa s ta l v a l ley s . T he s t udy f o cu se s o n t h e r aw ma ter ia l s , r e sou rces a r ea s , p a s te p repa ra t ion , a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e w a re s . T he i d en t if i ca t ion o f t h e e x is t ing p roduc t ion a r ea s a l so h e lped c ha rac te r ize t h e p roduc t ion

E thnog raph ic s t ud ie s d emon s t ra te t h a t c l ima te , e conom ica l c ond i t ions , r aw m a te r ia l q ua l i ty , a nd a cce s s ib i l i ty , a s w e l l a sf u e l r e sou rce s , c an d e term ine t h e l o ca t ion o f p roduc t ion a r ea s ( A rno ld 1 975 , 1 985 ) . I n P eru , t h e c l ima t ic f a c to r , a mp l if ied b y e l eva t ion , p l ays a n i mpor tan t r o le i n t h i s

p o ten t ia l f o r ar eg ion . I ta t tes t s o f t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f c l ay , w a te r , a nd f u e l r e sou rce s , a s w e l l a s f a vo rab le c l ima t ic c ond i t ions f o r c e ram ic p roduc t ion . T he r e su l t s o f t h e e t hnog raph ic s t udy a r e s umma r ized b e low a nd s e rve a s a c ompa ra t ive f r amewo rk f o r c e ram ic p roduc t ion i nt h e E a r ly H o r izon i nt h er eg ions o fs t udy .

m a t te r . I n t h e A ndes , p roduc t ion i s l im i ted t o t h e d r y s e a son , u sua l ly b e tween May a nd N ovembe r , i nr e g ions o f l ow t om ed ium e l eva t ion . H ighe r i nt h e h i gh land s , c o ld a nd h um id i ty a r e l e s s f a vo rab le t o c e ram ic p roduc t ion . C hav fn

T he C a l le jön d e H uay la s i sf a vo rab le t oc e ram ic p roduc t ion b ecause o f i t s t empe ra te c l ima te , i n c on t ra s t t o t h e r e s t o f t h e h i gh land p a r to ft h e A nca sh D epa r tmen t . T he re a r e g ood c l ay , f u e l a nd w a te r r e sou r ces , a nd d emand i ss t i l l h i gh d ue t op opu la t ion d ens i ty i n t h e v a l ley . T he m a jor i ty o f w a re s p roduced i nA nca sh a r ed one i nt h eC a l le jön .

d e H uän ta ri s , f o rt h ese r ea sons a nd f o r l a ck o fq ua l i ty c l ay , n o t ag ood p l ace f o rl a rge p roduc t ion . As t udy b y C havez ( 1992 ) i nt h ree p o t t ing c ommun i t ie s i n t h e C uzco a r ea y i e lded i mpo r tan t i n forma t ion o n t h e o r gan iza t ion o f p roduc t ion i n t h a t r eg ion . A l o ca l a nd r e g iona l v i l lage s p ec ia l iza t ion f o r as pec if i c t y pe o fw a re i s

P o t te r s l i ve , w o rk , a nd g e t t h e i r m a ter ia l o n t h e Wh i te

o b served ,

w i thou t

i n c lude s t h e v i l lages o fT a r icä , P a r iahuanca a nd o ne p o t te r

s o c ia l l i nk s b e tween t h e t r ade p a r tne r s . T he c e ram ics a r e e xchanged f o r a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t s , s o ld i n l o ca l a nd r e g iona l ma rke t s o r d ur ing af a i r i n r e la t ion t or e l ig iou s o r

f am i ly i n Ma r ca rä , w he re t h e s i te o f H ua r ico to i sl o ca ted . T a r icä i st h e mo s t p roduc t ive v i l lage , w he re n ea r ly e very f am i ly h a s i t s o wn w o rk shop , w o rk ing a l l y ea r l o ng . T he

a g r icu l tu ra l e ven t s . T he s ame r aw ma te r ia l r e sou rce c an b e v i s i ted b y p o t te r s f r om d i f f e ren t v i l lages , b u t t h e u se o ft h e m a ter ia l i sd i f f e ren t , a cco rd ing t o t h e f unc t ion a nd f o rm o f

v i l lage i s2 0 m inu te s n o r th o fH ua raz b y b u s , t h e m a in t own i n t h e C a l le jön . S eve ra l p o t te r s a r e a l so f o und i n P a r iahuanca , 5km a way f r om T a r icä . P o t te r s f r om t h e t h ree

t h e w a re . F u r the rmo re , p o t te r s o f t h e s ame v i l lage p r epa re

v i l lage sg e tt h e i rc l ay i nt h e s ame r e sou r ce a r ea , p a r t icu la r ly

t h e i r p a s te i n t h e s ame w ay . P roduc t ion i s as e a sona l a c t iv i ty c omp lemen ta ry t oa g r icu l tu re .

a tV icus ( s ou rce n umbe r 7i nF igu re 8 ) . C lay r e sou rce s a r e 3 t o1 2 km a way , i ns ma l l v e ins a l ong t h e s l opes o ft h e Wh i te

w h ich i n duce s

i n te rzona l

e xchange s

C o rd i l le ra s i de

( F igu re

8 ) .

T he

m a in p roduc t ion a r ea

C o rd i l le ra . T hey a r e f o und b e tween 2 800 a nd 3 200 m e l eva t ion , b o rder ing t h e l owe r l im i t s o f o l d g l ac ia l mo ra ine s . T he s e cond m a ter ia l u sed , ay e l low o r c o lo red e a r th , i sl o ca l a nd o b ta ined f r om d i f f e ren t l o ca t ion s n ea r

Many o ft h e se o b serva t ion s w e re a l ready n o ted b y A rno ld i n t h e Q u inua r e g ion a nd e l sewhe re i nt h e w o r ld ( 1975 , 1 985 ; f o r P e ru s e e t h e c omp i la t ion o fR av ine s a nd V i l l ige r 1 989 ) . H oweve r , C havez f s s t udy d emon s t ra te s i n te rzona l

e a ch v i l lage . I s o la ted p o t te r s a nd t wo v i l lage s w i th s ma l l -

s p ec ia l iza t ion a nd w a re d i s t r ibu t ion w e l l . I t s how s t h a t

s c a le p roduc t ion a r e f o und f u r the r n or th i n t h e Mu sho , C ancha rum i , a nd H uauya ( F igu re 8 ) . v i l lage s ,p roduc t ion i ss e a sona lo ro cca s iona l . T he p roduced b y c o i l ing a nd p add le -and -anv i l . T hey

u t i l i ta r ian c e ram ics a r e e xchanged a t ar eg iona l l e ve l , a s a l so o bse rved i n o the r s t ud ie s ( A rno ld 1 985 ; H ags trum 1 987 ; D ruc 1 996 ) . T h is r e p re sen t s ap os s ib le mode l o fw a re d i s t r ibu t ion f o rP r eh ispan ic c e ram ics .

C a l le jön : I n t h ese w a re s a r e a r e b one -

f i red i n t wo h ou r s w i th e uca lyp tu s w ood a nd s t raw . T he c e ram ics p roduced a r eo l la so fd i f f e ren ts i ze , ma ize t o a s te r s ,

s t udy w ec onduc ted i nt h e n o r th -cen t ra l A nde s ( D ruc 1 996 ) .

S im i la r o b serva t ions w e re m ade i nt h e e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l

a nd l a rge c h icha j a r s . T he l a t te r a r e a s pec ia l ty o f P a r iahuanca . T he p a s te p repa ra t ion , manu f ac tu r ing

T h i s r eg ion a t t rac ted o n ly f ew c e ram ic i n ve s t iga t ion s , a nd

t e chn ique , a nd f i r ing p rocedu re i s t h e s ame a l ong t h e

t h e se u sua l ly f o cu sed o n t h e C a l le jön d e H uay la s , av a l ley

C a l le jön . Aw h i te , k ao l in p a in ted b and d eco ra te s t h e p o t s

f amou s

f r om T a r icä .

f o r

t h e

q ua l i ty

o f i t s

c l ay

a nd

f o r c e ram ic 1 9

I s abe l le D ruc ma in ly l o ca l , o n t h e v i l lage ma rke to rb rough t b y d onkey o r o n f oo t t oh am le t s h i ghe r u p i nt h e C o rd i l le ra . T he p o t s a r e

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f c e ram ics p roduced i n T a r icä i s v e ry e x tended a nd r e ache s l o ca l , r eg iona l , a nd i n te r reg iona l

u sua l ly e xchanged f o r g ra in o r o t he r s ub s i s tence g oods ,

s ca les . I ti sf ound a l ong t h e w ho le C a l le jön , i n t h e v a l ley s

mos t ly a tt h e t ime o f h a rve s t ( J u ly -Augu s t ) . S t ud ie s r epor t

a c ros s t h e B lack C o rd i l le ra u p t o t h e c oa s t , a nd i n t h e C hav in a r ea u p t oH ua r i . I ti ss o ld o re xchanged i nt own a nd

t h e c a se o f i tne ran t p o t te r s f r om t h e C a l le jön d e H uay las , w ho u sed t o t r ave l t o t h e c oa s ta l v a l leys a c ros s t h e B la ck

v i l lage ma rke t s , s ome t imes t o i n termed ia r ie s a nd t own

C o rd i l le ra t op roduce c e ram ics ( Donnan 1 971 ; R av ine s a nd

s hops . P a r iahuanca o l la sa nd j a r s h ave t h e s ame d i s t r ibu t ion

V i l l ige r 1 989 ; D ruc 1 996 , 1 998 ) . O ne p o t te r f r om T a r icä w e

a s T a r icä 's , b u t i nl e s se r q uan t i ty . T he p roduc t ions o fo the r p o t te r s a l ong t h e C a l le jön h ave amuch s ma l le rd i s tr ibu t ion ,

w o rked w i th s t i l ld oe s t h e t r ip o cca s iona l ly .

' t .

o

V i l lage s P o t te r s

O T empe r s • C lay s C u l t iva t ion l im i t c : 7 -

R oad C e ram ic p roduc t ion a r ea s

e= 4 4m o i s i i m== 1 0 1 I 3 4 s

km

F igure 8 Modern p roduc t ion a nd r e sou r ce a r ea s i nt h e C a l le jön d e H uay la s . Ma ter ia l r e sou rces : 1C h incha , 2H uauya , 3 C e r ro A tma , 4C er ro P i scuy , 5C e r ro Y anam i to , 6C hanco s , 7V ico s , 8P ampamaca , 9C hop i j i r ca , 1 0 T a r icä , 1 Huaman tanga , 1 2P a shpa , 1 3J oncopampa ( a f te rD ruc 1 996 : f i g .2 ) .

2 0

3-I n te r reg iona lR e la t ionsh ip sa nd A ndean C e ram ic P roduc t ion O n b o th s i de s o f t h e B lack C o rd i l le ra a nd i n t h e u ppe r

T h is c hap te r r ev iewed t h e d a ta r e la t ive t o i n ter reg iona l r e la t ionsh ip s a nd c e ram ic s t ud ie s i n t h e r e g ions o f s t udy

c oa s ta lv a l leys o fC a sma , S ech in , a nd N epe t ia ,p roduc t ion i s r a re o r n onex is ten t . C lay r e sou rce s a r e f ew o r o f p oo r q ua l i ty , wa te r a nd f ue l i s s c a r ce , a nd o n ly a f ew p o t te r s k now h ow t op roduce c e ram ics . T hese p o t t e r s u sua l ly h ave

d u r ing t h e E a r ly H or izon , c omp le te w i th e t hnog raph ic i n fo rma t ion o n A ndean c e ram ic p roduc t ion . I n te r reg iona l r e la t ionsh ip s a r e a t tes ted a tC hav fn d e H uän ta r , H ua r ico to , P a l lka , N epe r la , a nd A ncön b y t h e p r esence o f n on loca l p roduc t s o r b y s t y l is t ic i nf luence i n t h e c e ram ics . T he r e la t ionsh ip sa r e o fc u l tu ra l , r e l ig iou s , a nd e conom ic n a tu re .

l e a rned t he a r t i nt h e C a l le jön d e H uay la s o ra r e i mm ig ran t s f r om t h a t r eg ion . T he p roduc t ion i sd ome s t ic a nd f o r l o ca l u s e . T he ma jo r i ty o f t he c e r am ic s a r e i mpo r ted f r om t h e C a l le jön b y t r uck s o rp roduced b y r a re i t i ne ran tp o t te r s s t i l l

C ompo s i t iona l d i ve r s i ty i n P reh ispan ic c e ram ics i s i mpo r tan t , s ugge s t ing a p lu ra l i ty o f w o rk shops o r a r eas

w i l l ing t o d o t h e t r ip . I n t h e m idd le a nd l owe r c oa s ta l v a l leys t he re a r e n o p o t te r s a nd t h e w a re s c ome f r om t h e n o r th c oas t ,L ima , o r mo re r a re ly t h eC a l le jön .

s upp ly ing t h e s ame s i te . E thnog raph ic s t ud ie s a t te s t o f c onserva t ism i n c e ram ic t e chno logy a nd m anufac tu re o f d ome s t ic w a re . I n t h e r eg ion s o f s t udy , p roduc t ion i s mo s t a bundan t i n T a r icä a nd P a r iahuanca i n t h e C a l le jön d e

T he s i tua t ion i ss im i la r i n t h e r e g ion o f C hav fn . N o p o t te r s a r e f ound i n C hav in d e H uän ta r , c l ay r e sou r ces a r e p oo r ,

H uay la s , i n teg ra t ing a w ide d i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk . E l sewhe re , t h ep roduc t ion i so cca s iona la nd f o rl o ca lu se .

a nd c o ld a nd h um id i ty d u r ing p a r t o f t h e y ea r i mpede p roduc t ion . N o c e ram ic a c t iv i ty w a s r e po r ted i n c o lon ia l t i me se i the r .F ou rt of i ve h ou r sa way b y f o o tf r om C hav fn i n d i rec t ion o fH ua r i i st he v i l lage o f Ma I la s , w he re p o t tery i s p r oduced o nce a y ea r o r e ve ry t wo y ea r s b y t wo t o t h ree f am i l ie s ( Dr uc 1 998 ) . T he p roduc t ion u sed t ob e much mo re r e gu la ra nd d one b y many i nt h ev i l lage . T he s ame i st r ue o f t h e v i l lage s o fY acya a nd A copa lca n ea r H ua r i . I n a l l t h ree v i l lages , t h e p a s te i s p repa red w i th l o ca l c l ayey e a r th , t o w h ich c rushed s l a te c a l led s hasha l i sa dded . T he s ha sha l m ine s a r e s i x t oe i gh t h ou r s a way b y f oo tf r om t h e v i l lage s . T he c o i l ing m e thod i su sed , b u t n o t t h e p add le -and -anv i l , c on t ra ry t oi t s u se i n t h e C a l le jön . T he f i r ing p rocedu re i s

T h i s r e v iew i n tend s t o c on tex tua l ize b o th i n te r reg iona l c on tac t s a nd c e ram ic p roduc t ion i nP reh i s to r ic P e ru , w h ich a r e l a te r d i s cu s sed i nr e f e rence t ot h e r e su l t s o f t h e p re sen t s t udy . T he r e sea rch me thodo logy i sn ow p re sen ted .

a l so d i f f e ren tf r om t ha tp rac t iced i nt h e H uay la sr eg ion . I ti s f i red o n t h e g r ound b u t d ry c ac tu s w ood i su sed i n s tead o f e uca lyp tu s . T he w ho le s t ruc tu re i sc ove red w i th e a r th a nd t h e f i r ing t a ke s a who le d ay o r mo re . D i s t r ibu t ion i sl o ca l a nd o ccu r si nt h e ma rke t so fH ua r i , S an Ma rco s , a nd C hav fn a ts pec if ic t i me s o f t h e y ea r . T he r e s t o ft h e c e ram ic s f ound i nt h a tr eg ion c ome f r om t h eC a l le jön . A ncön , o n t h e c en t ra l c oa s t n o r th o fL ima , i sn o t ac e ram ic p roduc ing p l ace . F ue l a nd c l ea r w a te r r e sou rce s a r e r a re . I mpor tan t c l ay r e source s a r e , h oweve r , f ound n ea r A ncön a nd e xp lo i ted f o r i ndu s t r ia l u se f r om c e ram ic f a c to r ies i n L ima . T rad i t iona l c e ram ic p roduc t ion i sf ound i nt h e u ppe r P a t iv i lca V a l ley ( no r th o f S upe ) a t H uancapon , o r a bove L ima a tS an to Dom ingo d e o l le ro s ( Qu i roz 1 981 ; R av ines 1 989 ) . T he s i tua t ion f o r c e ram ic p roduc t ion i n p r eh is tor ic A ncön mu s th ave b een f a i r ly s im i la r .

2 1

CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

T h i s c hap te r p r e sen t s t h e m e thodo logy r e la t ed t o t h ree i n t e r connec ted s u b jec t s i nt h e r e sea r ch : 1 )t h e p r inc ip le s o f c e r am i c c ha ra c t e r iza t ion a nd t h e t e chn ique s u s ed f o r a n a ly s i s ; 2 ) t h e r e sea rch q ue s t ion s ; 3 ) t h e b ody o f t h e a na ly s i s . T he r e sea rch q ue s t ion s a r e f o rmu la t ed i n a c ompo s i t iona l p e r spec t ive a nd d eve loped i nr e la t ion t ot h e o b je c t ive s s p e c if i ed i n C hap t e r 1 . T he p r in c ip le s a nd m e thodo logy o ft h ea na lys e sa r ep r e sen t ed l a s t .

4 . 1C harac t er i za t ion a nd p rovenan ce s t ud ie s C ha r a c te r iza t ion r e qu i re s i d en t if ica t ion a nd d e s c r ip t ion o f t h ec ompo s i t ion o ft h e s amp l e sa na lyz ed .T h i si sd one b a sed o n t h e p rem i s e t h a t t h e c ompo s i t ion o f ac e r am i c r e vea l s i n f o rma t ion a bou tt h e g eo log i c o r ig in o ft h e m a t e r ia l s u s ed t o p roduce i t , a nd c on sequ en t ly o n t h e g eog raph ic p r ovenance o f t h e w a re . I ti s p o s tu la t ed t h a t c hem ica l d i f f e r ence s e x i s t b e tween d i f f e r en t r aw m a t e r ia l s ou r ce s ( We igand e ta l . 1 977 ; B i shop e ta t . 1 9 82 ) , a nd t h a t t h e se d if e rence s a r e i d en t if iab le ( Rand s a nd B i shop 1 980 ) . A l though v a r ia t ion s i n c hem i ca l c ompo s i t ion d o o ccu r i n o n e s ou r ce a r ea , t h e se v a r ia t ion s a r e s ma l le r t h an i n t e r sou rce v a r ia t ion ( B i shop e ta l . 1 9 82 ) . T h i s a l low s t h e r e sou rce a r e a st ob ed i s t ingu i shed s t a t i s t i ca l ly .

c oa r sene s so ft h ec l ay . T he a dd i t iona l m a te r ia l i s a' t empe r ' i na r chaeo log i ca l l i t e ra tu r e , b u t t h e t e rm a l so r e f e r s t oa l l n on -p la s t i c g r a in s i n t h e p a s t e . T he se a p la s t ic s h ave t h e p rop e r ty o f r e du c ing t h e o ve r a l l p l a s t ic i ty o ft h e p a s t e b y l i m i t ing t h ea moun to fw a t e ra b so rbed b yt h ec l ay p a r t i c le s , w h ich , a t t h e e nd , r e du ce s s h r inkage . A dded m a t e r ia l s e nhance w o rkab i l i ty a nd t h e p hy s ica l p r op e r t ie s o f t h e c e ram ic , s u ch a s p o ro s i ty a nd t h e rma l s h o ck r e s i s tance . T hey ' o pen ' t h ep a s t ef o rt h ee s cape o fw a t e ra nd g a sd u r ing f i r ing ( Shepa rd 1 968 ; B a l f e t e t a l . 1 983 ) . A p la s t ic s a r e n a tu ra l ly p r e s en t i nt h e c l ay m a t e r ia l a nd c on s t i tu te p a r t o r t h e w ho le c omponen t o ft h e ' t empe r ' a dded b y t h e p o t t e r . T he t empe r ing m a te r ia l m ay b e c ompo s ed o f av a r ie ty o f t h ing s , f r om c oa r se r c l ay t o c r u shed r o ck s , o r o r gan ic m a te r ia l . I nt h er e g ion o fs t udy ,t h ep o t t e r st r ad i t iona l ly m ix t wo s o i l s o f d i f f e ren t p l a s t ic i ty a nd c oa r sene s s ( D ru c a nd Gwyn 1 998 ) . T he r e f o r e , t h e c l ay m a t r ix o f t h e c e r am ic s i s e xpec ted t oi n c lude c l ay p a r t i c le s o ft h e t wo m a t e r ia l s u s ed b y t h e p o t te r , a nd a p la s t i c s f r om b o th t h e se m a te r ia l s . T he p r epa ra t ion ( g r ind ing , l e v iga t ing , m ix ing , e t c . ) a nd f i r ing p roce s se s f u r the ra l t e rt h eo r ig ina l c ha ra c t e r i s t ics o ft h er aw m a te r ia l s . C on sequen t ly , t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o fn a tu ra l i n c lu s ion s ( f rom t h e o r ig ina l c l ay m a t e r ia l ) f r om a dd ed i n c lu s ion s ( f rom t h e o t he r m a t e r ia l a dded ) i so f t en p r ob lema t i c , p a r t icu la r ly i f o ne w an t st od e te rm ine t h e s o u r ce o ft h ed i f f e ren tm a t e r ia l s u sed b yt h ep o t te r .

T h i s p r inc ip le a pp l ie s t o p e t rog raphy a s w e l l . M ine ra l c ompo s i t ion i ss p ec if i c t ol o ca l g eo log ic e nv i ronmen t s . T he m in ing o f t h e s e m a te r ia l s f r om d i f f e r en t p l a ce s w i l l s how t h em ine ra log i ca ld if e r en ce s .I no t he rw o rd s ,t h eg eo log ica l o r ig in o f t h e m a te r ia l s c an b e i d en t i f ied a c co rd ing t o t h e t y p e o fm ine ra l a nd l i t h ic i n c lu s ion sp r e sen ti nt h e p a s t e . A k now ledge o fl o ca l g eo logy i st h e r e f o r e i mpo r tan t t o h e lp i d en t i fy t h e r e sou rce a r ea s o f p o t t e r y m anu f a c tu r ing o r t o d emon s t ra t et h ef o re ign c ha r a c t e ro f ap r odu c t ion .

4 . 1 .2 R e source a nd p rodu c t ion a rea s T he p r eced ing d i s cu s s ion f a vo r s i d en t i fy ing t h e p r oduc t ion a r ea , r a the r t h an t h e s o u r ce o f r aw m a te r ia l s , a s a l ready n o ted b y A rno ld ( 1 980 ) . F u r the rmo r e , r e sou r ce a r ea sc an b e c i r cum s c r ibed b y p e t rog r aph ic a na ly s i s . T he d i f f e ren t a p la s t ic s n o t o n ly p r ov ide i n f o rma t ion o n t h e o r ig in o ft h e r aw m a t e r ia l sb u to nt h em od eo fp r odu c t ion a nd p r ope r ty o r f u nc t ion o ft h e w a r e . T h i s a low s u st od i s t ingu i sh b e tween d i f f e ren tw o rk shop sa nd p r odu c t ion m ode i nt h e s ame z one , a s w i l l b e s e en i n C hap t e r s 5a nd 6 . R e sou r ce a r ea a nd p roduc t ion l o cu sa r eh a rd ly d i s t ingu i shed f r om e a ch o t he ri n c hem ica l o r p e t rog raph i c a na ly se s . T hey a r e t h e r e fo r e c on s ide r ed t ob e o ne l o ca le f o r t h e s a k e o f m e thodo logy . T ha t i s , t h e a r ea o fp r odu c t ion c o r r e spond s t ot h e r e sou r ce a r ea , f o l low ing R and sa nd B i shop ( 1 980 :19 ) .

I n s umma r y , ac e ram i c i s c ha r a c t e r i zed b y as p e c i f ic c h em ica l a nd m ine ra l c ompo s i t ion , p a r t i cu la r t ot h e r e g ion w he r e i tw a s m anu f a c tu red ( P e r lman a nd A sa ro 1 969 ) . C e ram ic s m ad e i nt h e s ame w o rk shop s h ou ld s h ow s im i la r m ine ra log i ca l a nd c hem i ca l c ompo s i t ion s a nd d i f f e r i n c ompo s i t ion f r om c e ram i c sm ad ee l s ewhe r e . 4 . 1 .1 T he c e ram ic ma t er ia l T he c e ram i c ma te r ia l , h oweve r , i s m u l t im ine ra l ic i n c ompo s i t ion , w h ich c omp l ica t e s p r ov enan ce s t ud ie s . I ti s a l so a c u l tu ra l p rodu c t r e su l t ing f r om t h e p r epa ra t ion , m ix ing a nd f i r ing o fo ne o rm o r er aw m a t e r ia l s . T he b a se i s u s ua l ly ac l ay w ho se p l a s t i c i ty a nd p u r i ty v a r ie s a c co rd ing t ot h et y pe o fc l ay m ine ra l s ( h yd r a ted a l um ino s i l ica te s s u ch a si l i t e ,m on tmo r i l lon i t e ,a nd s me c t i t e )a nd t h e i rg eo log ica l o r ig in ( V e lde a nd D ru c 1 999 ) . B e s id e t h e p l a s t ic c ompon en t ,c l ay so f t en c on ta in n on p l a s t i cg r a in so fv a ry ing c ompo s i t ion , f r om f i ne q ua r t z g r a in s t o r o ck f r agmen t s d e r ived f r om t h ep a r en tr o ck . O the rm a t e r ia l s m ay b ea dded t o t h e c l ay b y t h e p o t t e r t o c on t ro l t h e p l a s t ic i ty a nd

A cco rd ing t o e t hnog r aph i c d a ta , t h e r e sou r ce a r ea s a r e u sua l ly c l o se t ot h ep r odu c t ion l o c i , w i th in ar a d iu so f 7k m ( Arno ld 1 985 ) . H oweve r , i n ve s t iga t ion w i th A ndean p o t te r s i nt h er e g ion so fs t udy s h ow t h a tD ean A rno ld 's m od e l mu s t b e e n la rged , a sc l ay s o u r ce s a r e u s ua l ly b e tween 6 a nd 1 2 km a way f r om t h e s i t e o f p r odu c t ion ( D ru c 1 996 ) . T he c hem ica l a nd m ine ra l c l ay c ompo s i t ion s d i f f e r f r om r e g ion t o r e g ion ( D ru c 1 998 ) a nd c ha r ac te r ize t h e d i f f e ren t r e sou r ce a r ea s . F o r e xamp le , t h e r aw m a t e r ia l s u s ed i nt h e 2 3

I s abe l le D ruc p roduc t ion c en te r o f T a r icä , i n t h e C a l le jön d e H uay la s ,

( 1 ) T he s amp le s f o r c ompa r ison a r e c e ram ics a nd r aw

s how s im i la r c ompo s i t ion s a s t ha t o f P a r iahuanca 5 km

m a ter ia l s w i th k nown p rovenance ( s ee T ab le 1 0 , C hap te r4 ) .

a way , b u td i f f e ren tf r om t h ec e ram ics o fC ancha rum i , a bove Y ungay 3 0 km f u r the r n o r th . U pon a na lys is , c e ram ics a nd ma te r ia l s f r om t h e s ame p roduc t ion a r ea s hou ld c l u s te r , a nd

D epend ing o n t h e m ine ra log ic n a tu re o f t h e s amp le s , t h ey a r e s ub jec ted t o p e t rog raph ic a na lys is a nd /o r X ray f l uo res cence a na lys is ( f o r e xamp le , f i ne c l ay s a r e

b e s e pa ra ted f r om t h e c e ram ics a nd ma ter ia ls f r om t h e n e ighbo r ing p roduc t ion a r ea . Two p roduc t ion a r ea s s hou ld

u n info rma t ive i np e t rog raphy ) . T he d a ta i st h en c ompa red t o t h e r e su l t s o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic a na ly s i s . T he

b e i d en t if ied i ft h e c ompos i t ion o ft h e i rr e spec t ive r e sou rce s i sd i f f e ren t . 4 . 1 .3 R aw ma ter ia ls a sc omparat ive s amp les

c ompa r i sons a r e d one b y s t a t is t ica l p rog rams , p ar t icu la r ly f o r t h e c hem ica l d a ta . T he p e t rog raph ic d a ta a low s f o r d i rec tv i sua l c ompa r ison a nd s t a t is t ica l a na lys i s w hen moda l o rg r anu lome tr ic d a ta i sa va i lab le ( s ee s e c t ion 4 . 4 .1 ) .

P rovenance s t ud ies o f ten u se c ompa ra t ive s amp les t o i d en t if y p roduc t ion l o c i o rr e sou rce a r ea . I no rde rt od o t h is ,

( 2 ) T h rough p e t rog raph ic o bse rva t ion , g eo log ic d a ta c an b e u s ed t oc i rcumscr ibe t h e p roduc t ion a r ea s a nd t op r opo se a

l o ca l c l ay s a r e a na lyzed a nd c ompa red t o t h e c l ay m a te r ia l f r om t h e c e ram ic i no rde r t og e t b e t te r s t a t is t ica l r e so lu t ion o f c ompo s i t iona l g roup s ( B lackman 1 992 ; E lam e t a l .

l o ca l o rf o re ign c ha rac te rf o rt h ec e ram ics .

1 992 ) . I nf i ne w a re , t h i sp roces s may b e c onc lu s ive b ecau se t h e p l a s t ic p ha se i su sua l ly mo re i mpor tan t q uan t i ta t ive ly

i s b a sed o n t h e a bundance c r i te r ia w hen n o r e f e r ence m a te r ia lo rg eo log ica l d a ta i sa va i lab le . ' Loca l ' i sd ef ined a s t h e mo s t a bundan t c e ram ic t ype b y t h e a bundance c r i ter ia ( Ha rbo t t le 1 982 :16 -17 ) . I t means t h a t t h e c e ram ic g r oup

( 3 ) T he i d en t if i ca t ion o f t h e l o ca l c ha rac te r o f t h e c e ram ics

t h an t h e a p la s t ic p ha se . T hus , c e ram ics a r e c ompa red t o c l ays ,

a s sum ing

t h e

t empe r

i s

u n impor tan t ,

e i the r

r a re ly s hown t o a f fec t g roup r e so lu t ion ( B lackman 1 992 ;

w i th s ame c ompo s i t ion a nd g rea te s t n umbe r i sc on s ide red l o ca l . A typ ica l c a se s a r e s a id t o b e n on loca l . S hepa rd s howed t h e b i a s o f t h i s c r i ter ion a nd s he c i te s m any

q uan t i ta t ive ly o ri nr e la t ion t oi t s i n f luence o n t h e c hem ica l c oncen t ra t ion si nt h ec e ram ic p a s te . A l though a p la s t ic s w e re N ef fe ta l . 1 988b , 1 989 ) , t h e o ppos i te a l so o ccu r s ( Nef fe t

e xcep t ion s t o t h e r u le ( 1968 :336 , 39 ) .

a l . 1 988a ) . W i th c oa r se ma ter ia l , t h e c l ay -ce ram ic c ompa r i son r a re ly y i e ld s g ood ma tche s . R e ly ing s o le ly o n c l ay c ompa r ison f o r i d en t if i ca t ion w a s t h u s n o t a pp l ied t o

a bundance c r i te r ia c an b e a ccep ted , e spec ia l ly i ft h e re i sn o c o r re la t ion b e tween r e sou r ce a nd c e ram ic d a ta ( Rand s a nd B a rg ie l sk i We ime r 1 992 :33 ) . T h is c r i te r ion i sg rounded o n

t h i s s t udy . I n a dd i t ion , i ti sd i ff i cu l t t o s epa ra te t h e c l ay m a ter ia l f r om t h e ' t empe r ' i no rde r t o c ompa re t h e c l ay i n t h ec e ram ic t ol o ca l g eo log ic c l ays .

t h e p r inc ip le o f l e a s t -co s t , ' a bundan t ly ' u sed i n c e ram ic p roduc t ion a na lys is ( Arno ld 1 980 :148 -149 , 1 985 :32 -60 ; s e e a l so t h is c oncep t i nS hepa rd 1 968 , B i shop e t a l . 1 982 , a nd R and s 1 988 ) . A cco rd ing t ot h is p r inc ip le , d i s tance a ugmen t s t h e p r ice o f ap roduc t , mak ing a w a re p roduced o n -s i t e l e s s e xpens ive , m o re a cces s ib le a nd mo re a bundan t , t h an an on -

H e re , p e t rog raph ic a na ly s is o f p o t tery g rea t ly h e lps t o e s t ima te t h e q uan t i ty a nd c ompo s i t ion o ft h e a p la s t ics i nt h e c e ram ics , a nd t o p red ic t t h e i r i nf luence o n t h e c hem ica l a na ly s i s r e su l t s . T he a na lys is s howed t h a t a l l i n c lu s ions i n t h e c e ram ics a r e o f m ine ra log ic n a tu re , i n p ropo r t ion v a ry ing b e tween 2 0% a nd 4 5% ( t he r e s t b e ing t h e c l ay

Howeve r , t h e

l o ca lw a re d oe s . H ence , t h e ma jor i ty o fc e ram ics f ound o n a s i te h a s ah i gh p robab i l i ty o fp roduc t ion a to r n ea r t h e s i t e , a nd t h ey a r e c a l led ' l oca l ' . T he t e rm i n c lude s h e re t h e r e g ion s u r round ing t h e s i te . T he a bundance c r i ter ion i sa l so u sed i nd i scr im inan ta na lys is whe re t h e m a jo r c ompo s i t iona l g roup o f as i te i sc on s ide red t h e r e f e rence g roup f o r t h is

m a t r ix ) . I n t h i s c a se , t h e i n f luence o f a p la s t ics s hou ld n o t b lu rg roup r e so lu t ion a cco rd ing t oN eff ss t udy ( 1 988b ) , a nd a l low f o r t h e c ompa r ison o f c e ram ics a nd r aw m a ter ia ls .

s i te .

T h i s t y pe o f c ompa r ison m ay b e p e t rog raph ica l ly f r u i t fu l , b u ti sl e s s s ow i th c hem ica la na lys is , v ery s ens i t ive t os ma l l , l o ca l v a r ia t ion i n t r ace e l emen t s . A l though r aw m a te r ia l s

4 . 1 .5 Ana lys i s t e chn iques

a nd t h e c e ram ics o ft h e s ame r eg ion c lu s te re f fec t ive ly , c l ay

T he a na ly t ic t e chn ique s u sed a re p e t rog raphy a nd X ray

s amp le s r e gu la r ly s t and a s ma rg ina l s amp le s w hen i n t ra s i te

f l uo re scence ( XRF ) . T he c ho ice o f t h e se t e chn ique s w a s d e term ined b y t h e i n te r reg iona l s ca le o ft h e s t udy , b y a c ce s s

a na ly s is i sp e r fo rmed . T hey a l so i n t roduce i n homogene i ty i n to t h e c hem ica l d a ta ( s ee C hap te r5 ) .

t o ap o la r ized m ic ro scope a nd XRF i n s trumen t , b y t h e p o ss ib i l i ty o f p e r fo rm ing t h e a na lyses p e r sona l ly , b y t h e

4 . 1 .4 T he i d en t if ica t ion o fp roduc t ion g roup s

n umbe r o f s amp le s a nd t h e r e la t ive ly l ow c o s t o f a na ly s is . T he a dvan tage s a nd l im i t s o f t h ese t e chn iques w i l l b e

P a r t o f t h e a na ly s is c on s i s t s i nd e term in ing t h e n umbe r o f

b r ief ly

c ompo s i t iona l g roup s p e r s i te , i n v er ify ing t h e i r l o ca l i d en t i ty , a nd s e a r ch ing f o r t h e p rovenance o f t h e n on loca l s amp le s . T h is s e a rch i s b a sed o n : ( 1 ) c ompa r ison w i th

q ue s t ion s . T he p r inc ip le a nd m e thodo logy o ft h e t e chn ique s a r ep re sen ted i ns e c t ion 4 . 4 l a te ri nt he c hap te r .

s amp le s o f k nown o r ig in ; ( 2 ) c ompa r ison w i th g eo log ica l d a ta ; a nd ( 3 ) i d en t if i ca t ion o fl o ca l p roduc t ion b a sed o n t h e

P e trography

a bundance c r i te r ia ( t he m a ter ia l mo s t a bundan t i s c on s ide red l o ca l ) . Ad e scr ip t ion o ft h ese p rocedu re s f o l lows .

P e t rog raphy i st h e s c ience o f r o ck c l a s s if i ca t ion ( Echa l l ie r 1 987 ) . I ti st h e s y s tema t ic d e scr ip t ion a nd i n te rp re ta t ion o f r o ck t e x tu re a nd m ine ra logy ( A l laby & A l laby 1 996 :277 ) . 2 4

d escr ibed

a s

a n

i n t roduc t ion

t o t h e

r e sea r ch

4-R esea rch Me thodo logy U nde r ap e t rog raph ic m ic roscope , t h ed i f f e ren tm ine ra ls i na t h in s e c t ion c an b e i d en t if ied . Ap o l i shed s amp le a pp rox . 3 0

X -Ray F luores cence

m ic rons t h ick g l ued t o ag la s s s i de i su sed . W ide ly u sed i n t h e e a r th s c ience s , p e t rog raphy h a s b een a pp l ied t o t h e c ha rac te r iza t ion , t e chno logy a nd p rovenance s t udy o f a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l s i nce t h e e a r ly 1 930 's . Q ua l i ta t ive a nd q uan t i ta t ive a na ly s is c an b e p e r fo rmed o f t h e m ine ra l s i n t h e p a s te , d e te rm in ing t h e i r t y pe a nd n umbe r , g ranu lomet ry , d i s t r ibu t ion i nt h e p a s te , t h e m a t r ix c o lo r a nd a ny f e a ture s a low ing f o r t h e r e cogn i t ion o f d i f f e ren t c e ram ic p roduc t ion s a nd t h e g eo log ica l o r ig in o f a p la s t ics . ( Ag ood e xamp le o ft h ea dvan tage o fq uan t i ta t ive a na lys is i s

X ray f l uo rescence i s aq uan t i ta t ive t e chn ique m easu r ing m a jo r , m ino ra nd t r ace e l emen tc ompo s i t ion o f ama ter ia l . I t a l low s t h e c l a s s if i ca t ion o fc e ram ics a nd p rovenance s t ud ie s a cco rd ing t o c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion . XRF a na ly s i s w a s e ncou raged d ue t o t h e i n te r reg iona l c omponen t o f t h e r e sea rch . T he s i te s a r e l o ca ted i n r eg ion s d i s tan t e nough

f ound i n S t o l tman

h e lps i n

o f t h e c hem ica l d a ta r e qu i re s t h e u se o f mu l t iva r ia te

s e lec t ing t h e c e ram ic s f o r c hem ica l a na ly s is , i n te rp re t ing

s t a t i s t ics t of o rm t h eg roup sa nd e va lua te t h e p robab i l i t ie s o f g roup m embe r sh ip . T hese w i l l b e d e scr ibed a t t h e e nd o f C hap te r4 .

1 989 ,

1 991 ) .

P e t rog raphy

f r om e ach o t he r t o t h ink t h a t c e ram ic c ompo s i t iona l v a r iab i l i ty b e tween r e g ions w i l l b e h i ghe r t h an w i th in r eg ions . T he refo re , t h e u s e o f at e chn ique s ens i t ive t om any t r ace a nd r a re e a r th e l emen t s w a s n o t n ece ssa ry . T rea tmen t

c hem ica l r e su l t s , a nd c i r cumscr ib ing r e sou r ce a r ea s ( Shepa rd 1 968 ; W i l son 1 978 ; A rno ld 1 980 ; B i shop e t a l . 1 982 ; S chube r t 1 986 ; R ice 1 987 ) . I n fo rma t ion a bou t t h e mode a nd q ua l i ty o fc e ram ic p roduc t ion c an b e d e term ined b ecau se t e x tu r e a nd o rgan iza t ion o f t h e i n c lu s ions i n t h e p a s te a r e p r eser ved . T h is i sn o t t h e c a se i nb u lk a na lys is o f t h e c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion b ecau se t h e s amp le i s u sua l ly r educed t op owde r . T he p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s i sr e s t r ic ted t o

F igu re 9 i lu s t ra te s t h e i n teg ra t ion o f t h e a na lyzed d a ta t o

t h e s t udy o fg r a in s l a rge r t h an 0 . 39 m ic ron s , b ecause o f t h e r e so lu t ion p owe r o f t h e m ic ro scope . T h i s i s t h e

a na ly s is .

i d en t ify p roduc t ion a r ea s a nd t a ck le t h e q ue s t ion o f i n te r reg iona l c on tac t . T he m e thodo logy o f t h e a na lys i s i s d eve loped l a te r i nt h i s c hap te r . T he r e sea rch q ue s t ions w i l l n ow b e a dd re s sed , f o l lowed b y ad e scr ip t ion o f t h e b ody o f

d e term ina t ion o fs i ze d i f f e rence b e tween c l ay s a nd s i l t s . T o s t udy c l ay m ine ra ls , o ne mu s t u se mo re p ower fu l i n s trumen t s , l i ke t h e s cann ing e l ec t ron m icro scope . P e t rog raph ic m e thodo logy i s d escr ibed i n mo re d e ta i l i n s e c t ion 4 . 4 .1 .

C e ram ic a nd r e f e rence s amp le s

P owde rs amp le s—

T r iangu la t ion

A na ly s i s

EDXRF C hem ica l

G eo log ica ld a ta

P a s te a na ly s i s

c ompo s i t ion C ompo s i t iona l g r oup s T h in s e c t ion s

H

P e t rog raphy H M ine ra l c ompo s i t ion

I n te rp re ta t ion

A na ly s i so fm ine ra l

i n c lu s ion s

I

A rchaeo log ic a la nd s t y l i s t ic d a ta

P roduc t ion a r ea s C e ram ic p rovenance I n te r reg iona l r e la t ion sh ip s

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F igure 9I n teg ra t ion o ft h ed a ta a nd a na ly s i s t e chn ique s

4 . 2R esearch q ues t ion s

T he f i r s to b jec t ive i st oc ha rac ter ize t h e c e ram ic p roduc t ion f r om e ach s i te s t ud ied i no rde r t ov e r ify t h e e x i s tence o fa n i n te r reg iona l n e two rk o f c e ram ic d i s t r ibu t ion . T h is i sd one

F ou r ma in q ue s t ions a r e f o rmu la ted i n r e la t ion t o t h e

i n t h ree s t ep s : t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f ( a ) t h e l o ca l c e ram ics ,

r e sea rch o b je c t ive s e xp re s sed i n C hap te r 1 . T hey a r e e nunc ia ted i n a c ompo s i t iona l p e r spec t ive a nd b r ie f ly

( b ) t h e p rovenance o f n on loca l s he rd s , a nd ( c ) t h e e x is tence o f ac e ram ic e xchange n e two rk . O b jec t ive 1c an b ed i v ided i n to t h ef o l low ing q ue s t ion s :

d eve loped , s ugge s t ing p o s s ib le a nswe r s . T he r e so lu t ion o f t h ese q ue s t ions i n vo lve s i n teg ra t ing p e t rog raph ic , a nd t y po log ica ld a ta .

t h e

c hem ica l , Ques t ion 1Wha t a r e t h e d i f f e ren t c ompos i t iona l g roup s i n t h e c e ram ic s amp le f r om e ach s i te?

2 5

I s abe l le D ru c Ques t ion 2 D o t h e m ine ra l a nd c hem ica l p rof i le s o f t h e c e ram ic s f r om t h e r eg ion s o f s t udy p r e sen t s im i la r i t ie s a l low ing u s t oi n f e r t h e e x is tence o f i n te r reg iona l c e ram ic

Ques t ion 3 b D o t h e C hav in type c e ram ic s p r es en t an on l o ca l c ompo s i t ion , a l low ing u s t o i n f e r t h e i r n on loca l p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion?

e xchange? I n c ha rac t e r iza t ion s t ud ie s , i t i s p o s tu la ted t h a t t h e c ompo s i t ion b a re s t h e ' imp r in t ' o f t h e a r ea o f p roduc t ion . C e ram ic s w i th s im i la r c ompo s i t ion a r e g rouped t o ge the r , a nd t h e i r p rovenance i s t r aced b ack b y c ompa r ing t h e i r g eochem ica l p rof i le s t o r e f e rence m a te r ia l s . T he i d en t if i ca t ion o f c e ram ic e xchange p roceed s f r om t h i s p ro cedu re .F u r the rmo re ,t h eg eo logy o ft h es t udy a r ea v a r ie s e nough f r om o ne r eg ion t ot h eo the ra st oe xpe c tg ood g roup r e so lu t ion a nd c l ea ra t t r ibu t ion o r i d en t if ica t ion o ft h e n on l o ca lc e ram ic s .

I fc ompo s i t iona l d i f f e rence i so b se rved b e tween t h e C hav in a nd n on -Chav in t ype c e ram ic s , a nd i ft h e C hav in p rof i le s s ugge s t an on loca l p roduc t ion , t h e e x i s tence o f c e ram ic e xchange f o r t h i s t ype o f w a re c an b e p o s tu la ted . I f p roduc t ion s e ems l o ca l b u t c ompo s i t ion s d i f f e r , t h e C hav in t y pe c e ram ic s m igh t h ave b een t h e o b jec t o f as pec ia l p roduc t ion a nd p a s te p repa ra t ion . I fC hav in t y pe c e ram ic s a r e n on loca l , t h i s i nd ica te s ad emand f o rt h i s t ype o fw a re , w h ich m ay b e l i nked t ot h e d i f f u s ion o fC hav in i d eo logy o r c u l tu re . I t w ou ld c onf irm t h a t t h e s t y l is t ic h omogene i ty o b se r ved t h roughou t t h e A nde s u p t ot h e c oa s t r e su l t s f r om t h ei n te r reg iona l d i s t r ibu t ion o fC hav in m a te r ia l .

I n q ue s t ion 1 , t h e p r e sence o f d i f f e r en t c ompo s i t iona l A n ega t ive a n swe r t o q ue s t ion 3 b w ou ld i n d ica te t h a t n o i n te r reg iona l d i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk o f t h e C hav in t y pe c e ram ic si sa t te s ted y e t . T h i sa n swe rw ou ld n o tp r ec lude t h e e x i s tence o f a n i n t ra reg iona l n e two rk . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f n on -Chav in c e ram ics , f r om a no the rs t y le o rw i th n o C hav in c ha rac te r i s t ic sw ou ld i mp ly t h ee x i s tence o fc on ta c t so u t s ide t h e C hav in s phe re o fi nf luence o rc on ta c t s n o t l i nked t ot h e d i f f u s ion o f t h e C hav in c u l t o r o b je c t s b a r ing t h e C hav in m a rk . T h i si st h ec a se w i th t h eo b s id ian t r ade .

g r oup ss ugge s t st h ee x i s tence o fd i s t inc ta r ea so rp roduc t ion t e chn ique s , l o ca l o r n on loca l . T he se c an b e c o r r e la ted t o f o rma l ,s t y l i s t ic o rt empo ra lc e ram ic c a t ego r ie s . I nq ue s t ion 2 ,i fn o c ompo s i t iona l s im i la r i t ie s a r e o b se rved b e tween t h e c e ram ic s f r om t h e s i te s s t ud ied , al a ck o f c e ram ic e xchange b e tween t h ese s i te s i s s ugge s ted . H oweve r , al a rge rs amp le may p rove o t herw i se . I fn on loca l c e ram ic s a r e i d en t if ied a nd e xh ib i t c ompo s i t ion s d i f f e ren t f r om t h e s i t e s s t ud ied , t h e e x is tence o fc e ram ic e x change i s c onf i rmed ,a l though n os i te a t t r ibu t ion c an b ep ropo sed . I ti s i mpo r tan t t o r emembe r t h a t t h e s t y l i s t ic a nd f o rma l h omogene i ty o f c e ram ics i n t h e r eg ion s i n ve s t iga ted c an r e su l t f r om a d i f fu s ion o f s t y le a nd /o r t e chn ique a nd n o t f r om c e ram ic d i s t r ibu t ion . I nt h i s c a se , a l l t h e c e ram ic s a r e p roduced l o ca l ly , a nd t h e v e s se l s w i th c ha ra c t e r i s t ic C hav in d e s ign sa r ei m i ta t ion s .

Q ue s t ion 4 i s r e levan t t o t h e t h ird o b jec t ive o f t h i s r e sea r ch , w h ich i st ov e r i f y i ft h e s i t e o fC hav in d e H uän ta r p a r t ic ipa ted i nt h e i n te r reg iona l e xchange o fc e ram ic s , a nd i ft h e r eg ion c ou ld h ave p roduced a nd e xpo r ted c e ram ic s . T he q ue s t ion i sa sf o l low s : Que s t ion 4D oe s as im i la r i ty e x i s tb e twe en t h e c ompo s i t ion o f t h e n on l o ca l c e ram ic s o f t h e s i t e s s t ud ied a nd t h e c e ram ic s o fC hav in d e H uän ta r t h a t w ou ld i mp ly t h a t t h ey c ome f r om t h i sc e remon ia lc en te r ?

Q ue s t ion 3 r e la te s t o t h e s econd o b jec t ive : d e te rm in ing w he the r C hav in s t y le c e ram ic s s how m ine ra l a nd c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion s d i f f e ren t f r om t h e o t he r c e ram ic s t o s ugge s t t h e e x i s tence o f as epa ra te p roduc t ion a nd t h e p a r t ic ipa t ion o f a d i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk o f i n te r reg iona l s c ope . T he q ue s t ion i sd i v ided i nt wo :

T he e x i s tence o f ac e ram ic d i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk b e tween t h e s i te o fC hav in d e H uän ta ra nd t h e o t he r s i t e s c ho sen f o rt h i s r e sea r ch c an b e v e r if ied b y c ompa r ing t h e c ompo s i t iona l d a ta o fa l l t h e c e ram ics . I fn o s im i la r i t ie s a r e o b ser ved , t h e p a r t ic ipa t ion o f C hav in d e H uän ta r i n t h e p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fc e ram ics c anno tb e d emon s t ra ted . I td oe s n o t p rec lude i t s p a r t ic ipa t ion i no t he r k i nd s o f e xchange . I ti s a l so p o s s ib le t h a t t h e a na ly s i s o f al a rge r d a ta s e t w ou ld y i e ld ap o s i t ive a n swe rt oq ue s t ion 4 .T he a na lys i s s amp le i s n ow p r e sen ted .

Ques t ion 3 a :Do t h e m ine ra l a nd c hem ica l c ompo s i t iona l p rof i le s o ft h eC hav in t y pe c e ram ics d i f f e r o n t h e s ame s i te f r om t h ep rof i le so fn on -Chav in t ype c e ram ic s? S eve ra l c e ram ic t y pe s c an b e p roduced o n as i te w i th d i f f e ren tt e chn ique s i nt h e s ame w o rk shop o ri ns p ec ia l ized c en te r s . I ft h i s i st h e c a se , t h e c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion i s s im i la r , a s t h e r aw m a te r ia l s w ou ld c ome f r om t h e s ame r e sou r ce a r ea , b u td i f f e rence s i np a s te p repa ra t ion c ou ld b e o b s er ved p e t rog raph ica l ly , l i ke v a r ia t ion i ng r anu lome t ry o r p ropo r t ions o f i n c lu s ions . D if f e rence s i n m ine ra l t y pe s

4 . 3T he a na ly s i ss amp le T he a na ly s i s s amp le i s c ompo sed o f a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic s a nd c ompa ra t ive m a te r ia l i n c lud ing r aw m a te r ia l s , s o i l s amp le s , a nd moder n c e ram ic s . T he l a t te r a r e c ook ing p o t s a nd j a r s p roduced w i thou t t h e u s e o f t h e w hee l o r a f i r ing k i ln b y t r ad i t iona lp o t t e r si nt h er e g ion so fs t udy .

c ou ld i nd ica te t h e u se o f d i f f e ren t r e sou r ce a r ea s . I fs u ch d i f f e rence s a r e o b ser ved f o r t h e C hav in t y pe c e ram ic s , t h e e x i s t ence o f s p ec ia l ized w o rk shop s c an b e p o s tu la ted . I f c e r am ic p ro f i le s a r e t h e s ame , i tc an b e p ropo sed t h a t t h e l o ca l w o rk shop ( s ) p roduce a l l t ype , f o rm , a nd s t y le o f v e s se l sf ound o nt h es i te .

2 6

4-R esea rch Me thodo logy 4 . 3 .1 T he a rchaeo log ica ls a mp le

Af i r s t s e lec t ion w a s made i n Ma rch 1 993 a nd a s e cond i n Ma rch 1 994 , a f te r v er ify ing t h e h omogene i ty o f t h e

T he s amp le i sp r e sen ted p e r s i te , g i v ing i n forma t ion o n t h e p rovenance o ft h ef r agmen t s , ma te r ia l s e lec t ion , s amp le s i ze a nd c e ram ic c a t ego r ie s . T he c ompos i t ion o f t h e c orpus i s t h en d escr ibed .

c o l lec t ion a nd c o r re spondence t o t h e s t y l is t ic c a tegor ie s o f B u rge r ( 1 984 ) . A f ew s amp le s w e re e xc luded f r om t h e

P rovenance o ft h e c e ram ic f ragmen t s

s amp le b ecau se o f t h e i r d ub ious f o rma l a nd s t y l is t ic a t t r ibu t ion . A f u r the r p a r t i t ion o f t h e s amp le i n to c e ram ic c a tego r ies w a s d one . T h i s s e lec t ion i sp resen ted i nt h e n ex t s e c t ion ( s ee S amp le d escr ip t ion ) .

T he c o rpu s w a s c ho sen a cco rd ing t o t h e o b jec t ive s o f t h e s t udy a nd m a te r ia l a va i lab i l i ty . I tc omes f r om e xcava t ion s

C ha rac te r iza t ion a nd p rovenance s t ud ie sr e qu i re as amp le o f s u f f ic ien t s i ze t o o b ta in a b e t te r r ep re sen ta t ion o f t h e

a nd s u r f ace c o l lec t ions , i nr e s iden t ia l a nd c e remon ia l a r ea s . F o rC hav in d e H uän ta r , t h e s amp le c omes f r om t h e B enne t t e xcava t ion s i n t h e c e remon ia l a r ea a nd B u rge r 's i n t h e

c ompo s i t iona l g roup s a nd g ene ra l ize t h e r e su l t s o f t h e

r e s iden t ia l a r ea . T he H ua r ico to f r agmen t s c ome f r om e xcava t ions b y B u rge r i n s e c to r I VE , ar e fu se a s soc ia ted w i th r e l ig ious a r ch i tec tu re i n t h e c e remon ia l a r ea . T he m a te r ia l f r om P a l l I ca c ome s f r om as u r face c o l le c t ion made w i th D av id W i l son i n t h e r e s iden t ia l a r ea w e s t o f t h e

I t a l so h e lp s c oun te r t h e b i a s i n t roduced b y a t yp ica l i n c lu s ions i n t h e p a s te o r v a r iab i l i ty d ue t o h uman i n te rven t ion ( A rno ld 1 992 ) . T he r e commended s i ze v a r ie s f r om 5t o3 0 s amp le s p e rc e ram ic c a tego ry p e r s i te ( W i l son 1 978 ; B i shop e ta l . 1 982 ; R ice 1 987 ) . R andom s amp l ing i s a l so b e t te r t o g ene ra l ize t h e s t a t is t ica l r e su l t s . H oweve r , t h e se c ond i t ion s d epend g rea t ly o n ma te r ia l a va i lab i l i ty . T he s i ze o ft h e f r agmen t s mu s t a l low t h e t h in s e c t ion ing f o r p e t rog raph ic a na ly s is a nd t h e s amp l ing o f 1 00 t o4 00 mg o f p owde r f o r c hem ica l a na lys is . F ragmen t s s ma l le r t h an 3c m i ns i ze w e re e xc luded b efo re t h e s e lec t ion . T he s amp le p e r

s t a t i s t ica l a na ly s i s . Al a rge s amp le s i ze i sa l so i mpo r tan t t o a s se s s c e ram ic g roup a nd s ou rce v a r iab i l i ty ( B ishop 1 992 ) .

c e remon ia l c en te r ( c o l lec t 1 35 , s i te 3 64 , C a sma V a l ley p ro jec t ) . T he N epe t ia s amp le i sc ompo sed o fc e ram ics f r om t wo s u r face c o l lec t ion s made b y D agge t t o n t h e s ma l l h ab i ta t ion s i te s PV31 -312 a nd PV31 -330 . T he A ncön c e ram ics c ome f r om

t h e

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i n t h e

r e s iden t ia l a r ea o ft h es i te . T he se f r agmen t sa r e i lu s t ra ted i n f i gu res 1 0t o1 4 .

s i te v a r ies f r om 2 2c e ram ics f o rH ua r ico to t o1 26 f o rC hav in d e H uän ta r . T he l a t te rc ons t i tu te ar e f e rence g roup t ow h ich t h ec e ram ic c ompo s i t ions o fo t he rs i te sa r ec ompa red .

Ma ter ia ls e lec t ion a nd s amp le s i ze T he m a ter ia l w a s s e lec ted b e tween 1 993 a nd 1 994 . P a r t o f t h e C hav in s amp le ( f rom t h e r e s iden t ia l a r ea ) , a nd t h e N epe i ia a nd P a l lka s amp le s c ome f r om P eru . A n e xpor t

T ab le 2 s ums u p t h e p rovenance a nd s i ze o ft h e s amp le f o r e a ch s i te , i nd ica t ing t h e n umbe r o f f r agmen t s u sed f o r t h e

p e rm i t w a s o b ta ined a y ea r l a te r t oc onduc t t h e a na lys is i n

s ome o f t h e f r agmen t s f r om t h e B enne t t c o l lec t ion w e re u s ed f o r a p r e inves t iga t ion t o d e term ine t h e a na lys i s m e thodo logy a nd t h e p r epa ra t ion mode o ft h e c e ram ics . N o t a l l w e re a na lyzed i nt h e s ame w ay . N o t h in s e ct ion s w e re m ade o fv e ry s ma l l o rd eco ra ted s he rd st h a t c ou ld n o tb ec u t w i thou t b ad ly d amag ing t h e d i agnos t ic f e a tu re s . F o r t h e

p e t rog raph ic a nd c hem ica l a na lyse s . F o rC hav in d e H uän ta r ,

C anada ( Re so luc iön S up rema 0 48 -94 -ED ) . T h i s e xpor t d e lay d i d n o t a l low t h e a dd i t ion o f mo re a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ics f r om P e ru . T he s amp le s f r om t h e c e remon ia l a r ea o fC hav in d e H uän ta r a nd A ncön w e re a s semb led b e tween 1 993 a nd 1 995 f r om c o l lec t ions h o s ted i nt h e U n i ted S ta te s . T he A ncön m a te r ia l w a s s e lec ted w i th R icha rd B u rge r , w ho s ugge s ted t h e f u r the r i n c lu s ion o f af ew p i ece s , w h i le o t he r s w e re r e jec ted . R icha rd B u rge r a l so p rov ided s amp les f r om H ua r ico to , s e le c ted i n a cco rdance w i th t h e r e sea rch

s ame r e a sons , t h e s u r f ace o f5 0 f r agmen t s w e re a na lyzed b y X ray f l uo re scence , r a the r t h an r educ ing t h em t o p owde r . F i na l ly , 1 5 f r agmen t s w e re u sed f o r s cann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scopy ( SE M ) , 1 0 o f w h ich w e re u sed f o r t h e a na ly s is o ft h ec l ay ma t r ix . O fa l l t h e se a na lyse s , o n ly t h e n umbe ro f f r agmen t s u sed i n t h e p e t rog raph ic a nd XRF a na lyse s a r e l i s ted i nt h et a b le .

o b jec t ive s . T he c e ram ics f r om t h e c e remon ia l a r ea o f C hav in d e H uän ta rc ome f r om t h e B enne t tc o l lec t ion h o s ted i nt h e Ame r ican Museum o fN a tu ra l H is tory i nN ew Y o rk .

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2 37 2 66 'Ame r ican Mu seum o fN a t u ra lH i s to r y ,N ew Y o rk 2Mu seo N a c iona ld eA rqu eo log ia , A n t ropo log ia eH i s tor ia d e lP e r t i 2 7

I s abe l le D ruc

C eram ic c a tegor ies

S amp le d escr ip t ion

T he c e ram ics a na lyzed r ep resen t t h e m a in f o rma l , s t y l is t ic a nd t empo ra l c a tegor ie s f ound among t h e c e ram ic s o f t h e

A t l e a s t f i ve f r agmen t s f o r e ach f o rma l a nd s t y l i s t ic / tempo ra l c a tegory w e re s e lec ted . F o r t h e s amp le m ade f r om a s u r face c o l lec t ion , o n ly t h e d i agno s t ic

s i te s o f s t udy . T he f o rma l c a tego r ies a r e b ow l s , n eck le s s o l las ( c ook ing p o t s ) , j a r s a nd b o t t le s . S t y l i s t ic c a tego r ie s i n c lude C hav in , n on -Chav in , a nd a t yp ica l w a re . T he U raba r r iu , C hak inan i a nd J anaba r r iu s equence s e l abo ra ted b y B u rge r a tC hav in d e H uän ta r a r e u s ed t o c on s t ruc t t h e

f r agmen t s w e re c ho sen i no rde r t oe n su re t h e i r t empo ra l o r s t y l is t ic a t t r ibu t ion .

t empo ra l c a tego r ies . T hese a r e f ound i nC hav in d e H uän ta r , a nd a tH ua r ico to a nd A ncön w he re c oeva l p ha se s h ave b een i d en t if ied s t ra t ig raph ica l ly . T he N epef ia a nd P a l lka s amp le s

B efo re s t a r t ing t h e s e lec t ion , f r agmen t s t o o s ma l l f o r a na lys i s a nd w i thou t s t y l is t ic o r f o rma l a t t r ibu t ion w e re e l im ina ted . T he s e lec t ion w a s c onduc ted i nt wo s t ep s . T he f i r s ts t ep w a s an on random s e lec t ion f r om t h e w ho le c o rpu s

w e re s e lec ted f r om s u r face c o l lec t ion s . C onsequen t ly , t h e t empo ra l c a tegor ies a r e i n fe r red f r om s t y l i s t ic p a ra l le l s . S ome o f t h e c e ram ics w i th c l ea r J anaba r r iu e l emen t s a r e a t t r ibu ted t o t h is p hase . O therw ise , t h e c e ram ics a r e

a t d i sposa l t o i s o la te t h e p i ece s c o r re spond ing t o t h e c a tego r ies o fa na lys is ( f o rma l , s t y l i s t ic , a nd t empo ra l ) . T he s e cond s e lec t ion w a s a t r a ndom f o r t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e B enne t t c o rpus , a nd n on random f o r t h e r e s t o f t h e s amp le

c l a s s if ied a s C hav in o r n on -Chav in , a cco rd ing t o t h e ir

d ue t o m a ter ia l a va i lab i l i ty . S e lec ted s amp l ing c omp le ted

d eco ra t ive a nd f o rma lc ha rac ter is t ics .

t h e B enne t t c orpu s , a f te r v e r if ica t ion o ft h e h omogene i ty o f t h ec o l lec t ion .

T he t e rm C hav i n c eram ics d es igna te s t h e c e ram ics w i th s t y l i s t ic p a ra l le l s t ot h ec e ram ics f r om C hav in d e H uän ta ro r C hav in c e ram ics a s d escr ibed i nt h e l i t e ra tu re , i np a r t icu la r

T he f r agmen t s s e lec ted s how d i agno s t ic f e a tu re s a low ing f o r t h e i r f o rma l , s t y l is t ic , a nd /o r t empo ra l a t t r ibu t ion . T he

b y B enne t t( 1 944 ) , Wi l ley ( 1945 , 1 951 ) , L umb re ra s ( 1 974b , 1 993 ) a nd B u rge r ( 1984 ) . T h is t e rm c a r r ie s at empo ra l

j a r c a tegory i sn o t a lways w e l l r e p re sen ted . T he d i agno s t ic f e a tu re i su sua l ly t h e n eck , w h ich i sn o t a bundan t i n t h e

d imen s ion i n r e la t ion w i th t h e C hav in o ccupa t ion o f t h e

ma te r ia l a va i lab le f o r s amp l ing . T he b ow ls , o l la s , a nd j a r s

e ponym s i te . I t a l so i n c ludes t h e t e rms o f U raba r r iu , C hak inan i a nd J anaba r r iu , d ef in ing t h e c e ram ic s t y le s i n r e la t ion t o t h e t h ree o ccupa t ion p ha se s r e cogn ized o n t h e

w e re c a tegor ized i n to d eco ra ted ( d ec . ) a nd u ndeco ra ted

s i te ( Bu rge r 1 984 , 1 988 ) .

i nt h e t r iangu la t ion a nd i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h ea na ly s i sr e su l t s . F o r t h e b o t t les , s uch a p a r t i t ion i sm ean ing le s s d ue t ot h e p r ef e r red l o ca t ion o f t h e d e s ign o n t h e b ody ( wh i le s pou t s a nd r ims a r e u sua l ly p la in ) , a nd t o t h e t ype o f f r agmen t s a va i lab le i nt h ec o l lec t ions .

( u nd . ) s pec imen s ( s ee T ab les 3 a t o3 e ) . T h is p a r t i t ion h e lp s t oe va lua te t h ed i f fe ren t w a re t y pe s i nt h e s amp le . I ti su sed

T he t e rm n on -Chav in c eram ics r e f e r s t ot h e c e ram ics w i th n o C hav in c ha ra c ter is t ics , b u t c oeva l w i th t h e o ccupa t ion o f t h ec e remon ia l s i te . T hese f o rm am a jo r t y pe i nt h e a na lys i s s amp le f r om H ua r ico to , P a l lka , N epe t ia a nd A ncön . A s t h e c e ram ic s f r om C hav in d e Hu a n ta r a r e t h e r e f e rence t y pe , t h e re a r e n o n on -Chav in c eram ics t h e re , b u t c e ram ics w i th a t yp ica lc ha rac ter is t ics o ro ff o re ign s t y le o ccu r .

T he c ompo s i t ion o ft h e a na ly s i s s amp le p e r s i te i sp r e sen ted i nT ab le s 3 a t o 3 e . T he ` Chav in c a tegory ' f r om C hav in d e H uän ta rg roup s t h e B enne t t f r agmen t s f o r w h ich at empo ra l a tr ibu t ion t oa ny o ne o ft h e t h ree p ha se s d e f ined b y B u rge r w a s n o t p o s s ib le . T he c a tegory ' m i sc . ' r e f e r s t o f r agmen t s

T he t e rm a t yp ica l c eram ics r e la te s t ot h e c e ram ics w ho se s t y le i sn e i the rC hav in n o r t h e ma jo r t y pe o n t h e s i te . T hese

t h a td on o t b e long t oa ny o ft h e f o rma l c a tego r ie s c ho sen : a t r umpe t f r agmen t f r om H ua r ico to , af i gu r ine f r agmen t f r om

a r e u sua l ly i s o la ted p i eces w i th ap a s te o rs t y le s ugge s t ing a f o re ign o r ig in o r as pec ia l p roduc t ion . F ou ro ft h ese a t yp ica l

A ncön , a nd t wo b ody s he rd s w i th d eep c r o s sed i n c lu s ion s

c e ram ic p i ece s a r e p o s t -Chav in . T hey w e re i n c luded i nt h e

p robab ly f r om g ra te r s o r m o lca je tes

s amp le i no rde r t oo b serve p os s ib le c hanges i nc ompo s i t ion

H uän ta ra nd N epe t la .

a sc ompa red t ot h e p receden tp er iod .

T ab le 3 a C ompo s i t ion o ft h eC hav in d e H uän ta ra na lys i ss amp le C hav in

b ow l s d ec . u nd .

o la s d ec . u nd .

j a r s d ec . u nd .

b o t t les

m isc .

t o ta l

J an .

1 4

1 0

3

5

1

3

9

0

4 5

C hak .

5

7

0

3

0

6

1 0

0

3 1

U rab .

2

2

5

3

1

2

1

1

1 7

C hav in

0

1

0

3

0

2

9

0

1 5

a t yp .

6

1

0

1

2

3

5

0

1 8

t o ta l

2 7

8

1 5

4

1 6

3 4

1

1 26

2 1

2 8

f r om C hav in d e

4—R e sea rch Me thodo logy T ab le 3 h C ompos i t ion o ft h e H ua r ico to a na ly s i s s amp le Hua r ico to

b ow ls d ec .

u nd ,

o l la s u nd ,

j a r s u nd .

b o t t le s

m i sc .

t o ta l

c oev . J anab .

2

1 2

3

1

3

1

2 2

t o ta l

2

1 2

3

1

3

1

2 2

T ab le 3 c C ompos i t ion o ft h eP alka a na ly s i s s amp le P a l lka

o l la s u nd .

b ow l s d ec . u nd ,

j a r s d e c . u nd .

t o ta l

b o t t les

C hav in

3

0

0

0

0

9

1 2

n on C hav in

1

2

5

0

1

8

1 7

a typ ica l

1

0 5

0

0

2

5

0 2

1

t o ta l

1

1

1 7

3 1

T ab le 3 d C ompo s i t ion o ft h eN epe t ia a na ly s is s amp le N epe i la

b ow l s d ec . u nd .

o l la s d ec .

u nd .

j a r s u nd .

b o t t le s

m isc .

t o ta l

C hav in

6

0

1

0

0

1

0

8

n on C hav in

7

3

4

4

1

1

1

2 1

a typ ica l

2

0

0

0

0

1

0

3

t o ta l

1 5

3

5

4

1

3

1

3 2

T ab le 3 e C ompo s i t ion o ft h e A ncön a na ly s i s s amp le Ancön

b ow ls d ec .

o l la s

u nd .

d ec .

j a r s u nd ,

u nd .

b o t t le s

m isc ,

t o ta l

c oev . J anab .

9

5

0

5

5

8

1

3 3

c oev . U rab .

6

1 0

1

1 0

1

7

0

3 5

a t yp ica l

5

0

0

0

0

0

0

5

t o ta l

2 0

1 5

1

1 5

6

1 5

1

7 3

T he f r agmen t sa r e i lu s t ra ted i nf i gu re s 1 0t o1 4 a nd d escr ibed i nT ab le s 4t o8 .F o rC hav in d e H uän ta r , n o ta l t h e f r agmen t s a r e r ep re sen ted b ecau se many f r agmen t s a r e s im i la r ( e .g . t h e o l la f r agmen t s ) a nd o ne p i ece s u f f ice s t o i lu s t ra te t h e t y pe . A l so , s ome s amp le sa r ep e t rog raph ic c u t s made i nP eru b e fo re p ho tog raph ic r e co rd ing .

T ab le 4 C e ram ic s amp le f r om C hav in d eH uän ta r . N o .

D escr ip t ion

N o .

D e s cr ip t ion

3 700 3 708a 3 732

d eco ra ted b ow l ,r im , a t yp ica l i n c ised b ow l , r im ,C hak inan i

3 774

p a in ted j a r ,p o s t -Chav in

3 741a

b rown o l la b ody , C hav in

3 775A 3 775B

b ow l , C hav in c i r c le i mp re ssed b ow l , J anaba r r iu c i rc le i mp res sed o l la , J anaba r r iu

3 741b 3 741c 3 741d

3 778A 3 779

3 742a

r ed j a rb a se , C hav in g ray b o t t le c hambe r , C hav in b l ack o l la b ody ,C hav in c ombed d ec . b ow lr im , U raba r r iu

3 742b

r ed s l ipped o l la r im , U raba r r iu

3 780c

i n c i sed b ow l , J anaba r r iu

3 742c

j a rr im ,a typ ica l

3 780e

c i rc le i mp ressed b ow l , J anaba r r iu

3 742d

b o t t le c hambe r , C hak inan i

3 743a 3 743b

b o t t le c hambe r , C hav in

3 780H 3 781a

b o t t le c hambe r , C hav in

3 781c

i mp re s sed d eco ra ted b ow l ,Janaba r r iu o l la , J a naba r r iu r e ds l ipped b ow l , J anaba r r iu

3 744 3 745a

j a r ,C hak inan i j a r , C hak inan i

3 781d 3 781e

b l ack b ow l , J anaba r r iu b o t t le n eck , J anaba r r iu

3 775

3 780a 3 780b

2 9

b o t t le c hambe r , s t abbed d a she s ,C hav in b o t t le , a t yp ica l b l ack b o t t le n eck , C hak inan i o l la , o va lp unc tua t ion , U raba r r iu c i r c le i mp ressed o l la , J a naba r r iu

I s abe l le D ruc 3 745b 3 745c 3 745d

b rown s l ipped j a r ,C hak inan i r ed -s l ipped o l la , C hak inan i

3 781f 3 781g

b l ack b ow l , J anaba r r iu r e d -s l ipped b ow l , J anaba r r iu

b rown -s l ipped b ow l , C hak inan i b o t t le c hambe r ,C hav in

3 781h

b rown o l la , J anaba r r iu

3 781 i 3 781 j 3 781k

3 746 3 748a 3 748b 3 748c

b o t t le b o t tom , C hav in r ed s l ipped j a r , U raba r r iu j a r , C hak inan i

3 781A

b rown o l la , J anaba r r iu j a r , J anaba r r iu j a r , J anaba r r iu j a r , a t yp ica l

3 748d 3 748e

r e do l la ,C hak inan i b o t t le n eck ,C hav in

3 781D 3 783a

o l la , a t yp ica l d eco ra ted j a r , J anaba r r iu

3 749a

b o t t le n eck ,a t yp ica l

3 783b

3 749b 3 752a 3 752b 3 753a

c i c le i mp re s sed b ow l , a typ ica l b o t t le c hambe r s t abbed d a she sC hak .

3 783c 3 783d 3 783H

o l la , J anaba r r iu b ow l , J anaba r r iu

3 753b 3 753c 3 754B

b rown j a r ,C hav in r e do l la ,C hav in b o t t le n eck , C hak inan i p a in ted b ow l ,a t yp ica l b o t t le c hambe r , C hak inan i b o t t le c hambe r ,C hak inan i

3 755a 3 755b 3 755c 3 757a 3 757b 3 757B 3 758B 3 762 3 763 3 764a

d eco ra ted b ow l ,a t yp ica l i n c ised b o t t le c hambe r , C hav in

3 784a

r e d s l ipped b ow l , J a naba r r iu b o t t le c hambe r , J anaba r r iu b o t t le c hambe r , i mp res sed , J an .

3 784c 3 784d 3 784e 3 784f 3 784 1

c i rc le i mp r . b ow l , J anaba r r iu c i r c le i mp r . b ow l , J a naba r r iu c i rc le i mp r . b ow l , J a naba r r iu t h in b o t t le c hambe r , i n c i sed , a typ ica l b o t t le n eck , v e r t ica lg r ooves

3 785a 3 786a 3 786b 3 786c

mo lca je te , U raba r r iu c ombed d eco ra ted o l la , U raba r r iu o l la , U raba r r iu r e d -s l ipped b ow l , U raba r r iu

3 786d 3 786e 3 786f

c ombed d eco ra ted o l la , U raba r r iu c ombed d eco ra ted o l la , U raba r r iu r e d -s l ipped j a r , U raba r r iu

r e d -s l ipped b ow l , C hak inan i r e d -s l ipped j a r , C hak inan i s t ra igh ts i ded b ow l , C hak inan i b o t t le c hambe r , i n c i sed , C hak inan i b o t t le c hambe r ,b i chrome ,a t yp ica l g r ey b o t t le ,C hav fn j a r ,a t yp ica l r ed -s l ipped j a r ,J anab . b l ack b ow l ,J anab . r ed -s l ipped b ow l , C hak inan i

3 786g

i n c i sed j a r ,a t yp ica l

3 786h 3 786 i

r e d s l ipped b ow l , U raba r r iu i n c i sed r e dj a r , U raba r r iu

3 787a

b o t t le , r e c tangu la rb ody , a t yp ica l

r ed -s l ipped o l la , U raba r r iu b o t t le n eck , U raba r r iu b o t t le n eck , C hak inan i

3 787b 3 787c 3 787d

b l ack c i r c le i mp r . b ow l , J anaba r r iu b ow l , s t amped d eco ra t ion , J anaba r r iu i n c i sed b ow l , U raba r r iu

3 765b

i n c i sed b ow l , C hak inan i

3 787A

o l la , i n c is ion a nd p unc ta t ion , U raba r r iu

3 771

b ow l ,p o s t -Chav in

3 787B 3 790

i n c i sed r e dp a in tb ow l , a t yp ica l i n c ised b ow l , a t yp ica l

3 764b 3 764c 3 764d 3 764e 3 764f 3 765a

T ab le 4( c on t . )T he i n ven tory n umber sa r eR icha rd B u rge r 's . F ragmen t sw i th t h e s ame r e f e rence ( f rom t h e s ame b ag )a r ed i s t ingu ished b y an umer ic a dd i t ion ( * f l , * f 2 , * f 3 ,e t c . ) . N o .

I nven to ry N o .

D es c r ip t ion

N o .

I n ven to ry N o

D e scr ip t ion

B 1 B 2 B 3

1 8 -super f ic ie

b l ack c i rc le i mp r . b ow l ,J an . b l a ck d eco ra ted b ow l ,C hak inan i

B 14 B 15 B 16

1 8 -D1-vvc 1 8 -D1i i (1 ) 1 8 -D1 i i (2 )

b o t t le n eck , C hak inan i i n c i sed b o t t le c hamber , C hak inan i

B 17

D 1-k1-48 1 8 -A3 -f (1 ) 1 8 -A3 -f (2 )

b l ack c i rc le i mp r . b ow lJ an .

B 18 B 19 B 20

B 4

Machca s 1 8 -A6 -b 1 8 -El -s

B 5

1 8 -D1 -p2

B 6 B 7

1 8 -17 -c 1 8 -D2i

B 8

1 8 -A4 -g

i n c i sed b o t t le c hambe r ,J an .

B 21

1 8 -A6 -b (1 )

B 9 B 10

1 8 -A3 -e (1) 1 8 -A3 -e (2 )

b o t t le r im , J anaba r r iu b o t t le r im , J anaba r r iu

B 22 B 23

B 11

1 8 -A3 -e (3 )

b o t t le n eck , J anaba r r iu

B 24

1 8 -A6 -b (2 ) 1 8 -A6 -b (3 ) 1 8 -A6 -b (4 )

r e dc i rc le i mp re s sed b ow l , J an . b o t t le , J anaba r r iu b l ack u ndeco ra ted b ow l , J an . g r ey u ndeco ra ted b ow l , J anaba r r iu

B 12

1 8 -D1-hh

B 25

1 8 -A6 -b (5 )

g r ey u ndeco ra ted o l la , J anaba r r iu

B 13

1 8 -D1-qq

b l ack s t ra igh t s ided b ow l , J an . o l la ,C hak inan i

` S ' i mp r . o l la , J anab . c i rc le i mp re ssed b ow l , J an . c omp lex i mp res sed b ow l , J an . r e dp l a in b ow l , J anaba r r iu

3 0

1 8 -A3 -f (3 )

j a r , C hak inan i r e ds l ipped b ow l ,C hak inan i b r own b ow l r e di n c ised b ow l ,C hak inan i b l ack i n c ised b ow l , C hak inan i

4-R e sea r ch Me thodo logy

3 708a

3 700

3 742a

3 742c

3 743a 3 746

3 745b

3 745a

3 743b

3 748b

3 748c

3 745c

3 748d

3 748e

3 749b

3 752a

3 755a

3 752b

3 755b 3 762

3 757b 3 764f

3 764a

3 765a

3 764e 0

5 cm 0 D ruc

F i gu r e 1 0 C e ram ic s f r om C hav in d eH ug n ta r

3 1

I s ab e l le D ruc

3 775a 3 775A

3 780b

3 7758

3 780H

3 780e

3 778A

3 781f

3 781e

3 781A 3 781g

3 781j

3 781h

3 783H

3 783d

3 781D

3 783b 3 783a

3 784 1

3 784e 3 784c

3 784a

3 786e

3 784b

3 787a

3 786 i

I I IM IC =

0

=. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

=Zi

mb

5 cr n

Q F igu re 1 0( c on t ) C e ram ic s f r om C hav i nd e H uL ia r

3 2

D ruc

4-R e sea r ch Me thodo logy

3 787b

3 787c

3 7873

3 787c 1

3 790

3 787A

3 774

3 732

3 771

8 4

8 3

8 10

8 13

8 11

8 9

8 20

3 14

0

S c rn

F i gu r e 1 0C e ram ic s f r om C havi nd e H ug n ta r( c on t . )

3 3

0 D r : I , :

I s abe l le D ruc

T ab le 5 C e ram ic s amp le f r om H ua r ico to V e s se l d e scr ip t ion i sR icha rd B u rge r 's ( p e r sona lc ommun ica t ion 1 994 ) . T he f r agmen t sa r e f r om t h eC ap i l la p ha se , c oeva l w i th t h eJ anaba r r iu p ha se f r om C hav in d e H uän ta r .

N o .

I nven to ry N o .

D escr ip t ion

H 1 H 2 H 3 H 4

I VE -323 , 1 I VE -326 -4 1 I VE -323 1 I VE -327 -5 1

b l ack c y l ind r ica l t r umpe t b l ack n eck le s s o l la r ed -s l ipped f i ne s t ra igh t -s ided b ow l u ns l ipped c oa r se o x id ized n eck le s so l la u ns l ipped u neven ly p o l ished c onvex -s ided s ma l l b ow l

H 5 H 6 H 7

I VE -328 -lp

H 8

I VE -328 -lp I VE -325 -2n I VE -329 -4 1

H 9 H 10 H 11

I VE -326 -lp I VE -325 -3 1 I ' VE -323 ,1

H 12 H 13 H 14

I VE -326 ,4 1 I VE -329 , 1 p I VE -325 , 3 1 I ' VE -323 ,1

H 15 H 16 H 17

b l ack b eve led b ow l o x id ized r e s t r ic ted b ow l , c onvex s i des , e x ter io rr ed s l ip u neven ly p o l i shed b rown n eck le s so l la f i ne g ray r educed s t i r rup f r agmen t f i ne s t ra igh t -s ided r educed b ow l w i th e x ter io ri n c i s ion b l ack s t ra igh t -s ided b ow l , f l a t tened t h ickened l i p u neven ly f i red s ha l low b ow l o rp l a te , c onvex -cu rved s i des t h in b lack r educed f r agmen t , p robab ly b o t t le c hambe r b l ack s ha l low b ow l , c onvex -cu rved s i de s , t h ree h or izon ta l i n c is ion s b l ack s t ra igh t -s ided b ow l ,c u rved l i p

I VE -323 ,p

d a rk f r agmen to fb o t t le n eck

I VE -323 ,k

b l ack s hou lde rf r agmen to fj a rw i th e ver t ed n eck s ha l low b ow l w i th c onvex c u rved -s ide sa nd e x te r io rr ed s l ip v ery s ma l lb l ack b ow l w i th c onvex -cu rved s i de s

H 18

I VE -323 ,p

H 19 H 20

E VE -323 ,1 I VE -326 , 1

H 21

I VE -328 , 2 1

f i ne d a rk b ow l w i th c onvex -cu rved s i de s

H 22

I VE -323 ,p

d a rk b ow l w i th c onvex -cu rved s i de s

s ha l low u neven ly f i red b ow l , c onvex -curved s i de s

3 4

4-R esea r ch Me thodo logy

H 5

H

H 6,

H 10

H 14

H. 19

H 9

H 8

H13

H 11 H i 2

H 17

H 15

H2 0

H2 1

0

H 18

H2 2

SC I T Y

0 Druc F i gu r e 1 C e ram ic s f r om H ua r ico to

3 5

I s abe l le D ruc

T ab le 6 C e ram ic s amp le f r om P a l lka

N o .

D escr ip t ion

P 1-5 P 6 -7

u ndeco ra ted o l la s , b rown t ol i gh tr edd i sh f i ne b o t t le c hambe r s ,b l ack t or e db ody

P 8 P 9 P 10 P ll P 12 P 13

b l ack b o t t le b o t tom b rown j a rn eck u ndeco ra ted s t ra igh t -s ided b ow l C hav fn b o t t le c hambe r ,r e ds l ip , s t amped d oub le -c i r c le s C hav fn b ow l , d a sh -punc ta te a nd i n c ised mo t if C hav fn b o t t le c hambe r , i n c ised d eco ra t ion C hav fn b l ack b o t t le c hambe r , i n c i sed d eco ra t ion

P 14 P 15 P 16

C hav fn b o t t le c hambe r ,a pp l iqué mode l ing C hav fn b o t t le c hambe r ,a pp l iqué mode l ing

P 17

C hav fn b o t t le c hambe r ,r ed s l ip , i n c ised d eco ra t ion

P 18 P 19

C hav fn b o t t le ,r o cke rs t amped n eck

P 20

b ow l w i th i n s ide b rown s l ip a nd o u t s ide f i ne h or izon ta l l i nes

P 21 P 22

C hav fn b o t t le c hambe r ,c ur ved g roove a nd r o cke r s t amp ing b o t t le c hambe ri regu la rp unc ta t ion

P 23 P 24

b o t t le c hambe r , i regu la rp unc ta t ion

P 25 P 26 P 27

s t i r rup b o t t le f r agmen t s t i r rup b o t t le f r agmen t C hav fn b o t t le n eck ,b rown s l ip

P 28 P 29 P 30 P 31

s t ra igh t -s ided b rown b ow l s ma l l C hav fn b ow l , s t amped c i r c le -and -do t s ma l l C hav fn b ow l , s t amped c i r c le -and -do t p os t -Chav fn b ow l , c r o s sed i n c is ion

a t yp ica l d eco ra ted j a r , i n c is ion o ve ra pp l ied b and

b o t t le c hambe r , z oned d eco ra t ion w i th r o cke rs t amp ing a nd r ed s l ip

3 6

4-R esea r ch Me thodo logy

P 1

P 2

P 3

P S

P 4

P 10

0

S cm Q D ruc

F igu r e 1 2 C e ram ics f r om P a l lka

3 7

I s abe l le D ruc

T ab le 7 C e ram ic s amp le f r om N epe r ia Numbe r s 3 12 a nd 3 30 a r ed im inu t ive f o rt h e s i tes PV31-312 a nd PV31 -330 . T he n umbe r sN i t oN 32 w e re a dded f o ri d en t if ica t ion . T he E a r ly H o r izon p ha se s i nN eper ia a r eR icha rd D agge t t 's ( 1984 ) . T he b anded l o zenge mo t if r e f e r st oD ona ld P rou lx ( 1985 ) t e rm ino logy a nd i ss im i la rt ot h e D agge t t 's t e rm c ur v i l inea ri n c i s ion s( 1 984 )

N o .

D e sc r ip t ion

3 12 -N1

b ow l , b anded l o zenge p unc ta ted , p hase s 1 2

3 12 -N2 3 12 -N3 3 12 -N4

o l la a pp l ied n ubb in w i th p unc tua t ion p ha se 2 C hav in c a r ina ted b ow l s t amped c i rc le -and -do t , p hases 1 2 p o s t -Chav in b ow l ,p a in ted c ros sed l i nes , 3

3 12 -N5

C hav in o l la s t amped c i rc le -and -do tp ha ses 1 2 a t yp ica lb o t t le n eck ,b anded p unc ta ted , p ha se s 1 2

3 12 -N6 3 12 -N7 3 12 -N8 3 12 -N9 3 12 -N10 3 12 -N11 3 12 -N12

b l a ck m o lca je te , d eep n e ti n c is ion s ,p ha se 2 u nde co ra ted b ow l ,p ha se s 1 2 p a in ted p o s t -Chav in b ow l , p ha se 3 C hav in b o t t le n e ck ,p hase 2 b o t t le n eck ,p ha se 2 c a r ina ted b ow l , c i r c les w / mu l t ip le d o t s , p ha se s 1 2

3 12 -NI3 3 12 -N14 3 12 -N15 3 12 -N16 3 12 -N17

C hav in c a r ina ted b ow l , i n c ised c i r c le -and -do tp ha ses 1 2 c a r ina ted b ow lb anded l o zenge w i th d a shes , p ha se s 1 2 o l la , f i ne ly c r o s sed i n c is ion s , p ha se s 1 2 u nde co ra ted o l la ,p ha se s 1 2 u nde co ra ted o l la ,p ha ses 1 2

3 30 -N18 3 30 -N19 3 30 -N20 3 30 -N21 3 30 -N22 3 30 -N23

c a r ina ted b ow l ,b anded l o zenge w i th d a she s , p hase s 1 -2 C hav in b ow l ,g roove s , f i ne p o l i sh ,p ha se s 1 2

3 30 -N24 3 30 -N25 3 30 -N26 3 30 -N27 3 30 -N28 3 30 -N29 30 -N30 3 30 -N31 3 30 -N32

c a r ina ted b ow l , b anded l o zenge p unc ta ted ,p ha se s 1 2 C hav in c a r ina ted b ow l s t amped c i r c le -and -do t , 1 2 b ow l , c i rc le s w i th t h ree d o t s , p ha se s 1 2 u ndeco ra ted o l la ,p ha se s 1 2 j a rn eck , p ha se s 1 2 u ndeco ra ted b l ack b ow l ,p ha se s 1 2 u ndeco ra ted b ow l ,p ha ses 1 2 u ndeco ra ted o l la ,p ha ses 1 2 o l la ,c ombed d eco ra t ion , p ha se s 1 2 J anaba r r iu b ow l ,i n c i sed l i ne a nd s t amped d oub le -c i rc les , p ha se s 1 2 C hav in c a r ina ted b ow l , s t amped c i rc le -and -do t , p ha ses 1 2 s ma l l o l la , i n c i sed c i rc le sw i th t h ree d o t s , p ha ses 1 2 c a r ina ted b ow l , i n c i sed l i ne a nd b anded l o zenge p unc ta ted , p ha ses 1 2

3 8

4-R e sea r ch Me thodo logy

F igu re 1 3 C e ram ics f r om N cpe n

3 9

I s abe l le D ruc T ab le 8 C e ram ic s amp le f r om A ncön . T he c omp le te i n ven to ry n umbe r i sP V45 -2 -51-** ( 66 , 6 9 , 8 8 , e t c . ) . T he l a s t l e t te r s w e re a dded t o d i s t ingu ish f r agmen t s f r om t h e s ame b ag . T he c ap i ta l ' A ' r e f e r s t oA ncön . F ragmen t s f r om t h e e a r ly l e ve ls a r e l i s ted f i r s t . T hey c o r re spond t ot h e p ha se c oeva l w i th l i raba r r iu i nC hav in d e H uän ta r ( A66* t oA 33* ) . T he mo re r e cen t l e ve ls a r ec oeva l w i th J anaba r r iu ( Al* t oA 4* ) . N o .

D e scr ip t ion

A tea -d

u ndeco ra ted o l la s u ndeco ra ted b ow l s b ow l , p a in ted w h i te c i rc le so n r ed

•

A 66e -g A 66h A 66 i A 69a A 69b A 88a

b o t t le r im w i th s l ip

A 88b A 88c

u ndeco ra ted b ow l b ow l , z oned d eco ra t ion ,r o cke rs t amp ing

A 88d A 30a

b o t t le s t i r rup u ndeco ra ted b ow l

A 30b

b l ack b ow l , i n c ised l i ne b e low r im b o t t le c hambe r , i n c ised d eco ra t ion

A 30 c A 30d A 32a A 32b A 32c A 33a -e A 33f i A 33 j A 33k A 33 1 A 33m A 33n

u ndeco ra ted b ow l b o t t le n eck u ndeco ra ted o l la

b o t t le c hambe r , i n c ised d eco ra t ion o l la , c ombed a nd z oned d eco ra t ion b o t t le c hambe r , a pp l ied a nd i n c ised d ec . b o t t le c hambe r , i n c ised d eco ra t ion u ndeco ra ted o l la s u ndeco ra ted b ow ls b ow l , z oned d eco ra t ion , r o cke rs t amp ing b ow l , i n c ised d eco ra t ion b l ack p o l i shed b ow l w i th a pp l iqué -mode l ing ( f i sh s ca le so rb i rd f e a the r s ) j a rr im

A 33o A la

b ow l , r ed s l ip , z oned d eco ra t ion b ow l , r ed s l ip , i n c ised d eco ra t ion v ery t h in b l ack b ow l , h igh ly p o l ished

A lb A 2a A 2b

b o t t le n eck r ed s l ipped b ow l b l ack c i rc le s t amped b ow l

A 2c A 2d A 3a -b A 3c -d

j a rn eck b o t t le n eck u ndeco ra ted o l la s

A 3e

u ndeco ra ted b ow l s b ow l , e ng raved d eco ra t ion

A 3f

b ow l , b anded p unc tua t ion

A 3g

b l ack b ow l , i mp res sed d eco ra t ion

A 3h

u ndeco ra ted s t ra igh t -s ided b ow l

A 3 i j A 3k

j a rn eck s b o t t le n eck b o t t le h and le

A 3 1 A 3m A 4a -b A 4c A 4d A 4e A 4f A 4g A 4h

f i gu r ine h ead u ndeco ra ted o l la s b ow l , s l ip a nd i n c is ion b l ack b ow l , h i gh ly p o l ished b l ack b ow l , i n c is ion a nd s t amped c i rc le -do t i n c ised d eco ra ted b ow l r o cke rs t amped b ow l b l ack s t ra igh t s ided b ow l

A 4 i j

j a rn eck s

A 4k 1

b l ack b o t t le s t i r rup s

A 4m

u ndeco ra ted o l la

A 4n A 4o A 4p

b ow l , i n c i sed d e co ra t ion o n t h e i n te r io r b o t t le n eck

A 4 d a

b l ack i n c i sed b ow l

u ndeco ra ted b ow l

4 0

4-R esea r ch Me thodo logy

A 69a

A 33b

A 33d

A 32c

F igu re 1 4 C e ram ics f r om A nc6n

4 1

Q Dan :

I s abe l le D ruc

A 33f

A 33 j

A33

A 33k

A 3c

A 3 ;

F igu r e 1 4 C eram ics f r om A nc & I ( con t . )

4 2

D ruc

4-R esea r ch Me thodo logy

A4n

A 4 c . 1

5 cm

F i gur e 1 4C e ram ics f r om A ncön ( c o rn )

4 3

I s abe l le D ruc 4 . 3 .2 C ompara t ive ma ter ia l

T he n umbe r a nd t y pe o fc ompa ra t ive s amp les p e r s i t e v a ry i nf unc t ion o fm a ter ia l a va i lab i l i ty . I ti sa n i nd ica to r o f t h e

T he c ompa ra t ive m a te r ia l i sc ons t i tu ted o f r aw ma te r ia ls ,

s p a t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e r aw ma ter ia ls g ood f o r c e ram ic p roduc t ion a nd o f t h e p roduc t ion a r ea s i n e ach r eg ion ( s ee

s o i ls , a nd moder nc e ram ics . T he s amp l ing w a s c onduc ted i n S ep tembe r 1 994 . T he r aw ma te r ia ls r e p resen t o n ly a s ma l l s amp le o f t h e p os s ib le s ou r ce s u sed b y t h e p o t ter s a t t h e t ime o f C hav fn d e H uän ta r . O n t h e o ne h and , s ou rce

C hap te r 3 , s e c t ion 3 . 3 ) . A cco rd ing ly , t h e s amp le f o r t h e C a l le jön d e H uay la s w he re t h e Huar ico to s i te i sl o ca ted a nd w he re much c e ram ic i s p roduced i s c omposed o f r aw

v a r iab i l i ty a nd a na lys i s c o s t s made a n e xhau s t ive s amp l ing

m a te r ia ls a nd m oder n o l la f r agmen t s , w h i le t h e s amp le s f o r

i mpo s s ib le . O n t h e o t he rh and , t h e p o s s ib le c l ay a nd t empe r

t h e r e g ion s o f C hav in d e H uän ta r , P a l lka , N epef ia a nd

s ou r ce s u s ed i nt h e E a r ly H o r izon m ay h ave b een e xhaus ted

A ncön a r e s o i l s , a nd af ew c l ays a nd moder nc eram ic s .

o rc ove red b y m e te r s o fa l luv ions , a s i tf r equen t ly o ccu r s i n t h e a r ea o f i n ve s t iga t ion . T hu s , p ro spec t ing f o cused o n t h e

T ab le 9 i n d ica tes t h e t y pe o f ma ter ia l a nd s i ze o f t h e

ma ter ia l s u s ed b y a c tua l p o t te r s . T h i s o p t ion g ives a n i nd ica t ion o f t h e t y pe o f m a ter ia l a va i lab le i n t h e r eg ion . S ome t imes , t h e m a ter ia ls w e re g i ven b y t h e p o t ter s , a l ong w i th c e ram ic f r agmen t s made f r om t h e se ma te r ia ls . S ome

c ompa ra t ive s amp le p e r s i te a nd r eg ion , w h i le T ab le 1 0 g i ve s a mo r e d e ta i led d e scr ip t ion o f t h e s amp le . T he l a s t t wo c o lumn s o fT ab le 9l i s t t h e n umbe r o f s amp le s u s ed i n p e t rog raphy ( N P e t ro ) a nd XRF a na lys i s ( N XRF ) . B ecause o f t h e n a tu re o f t h e m a te r ia l , i tw a s n o t u sefu l t op e r fo rm

r aw m a ter ia ls w e re a l so c o l lec ted a t s ou rce s d e s igned b y l o ca l i n fo rman t s t o b e o f u se f o r p o t te ry p roduc t ion . S o i l s amp le s w e re c o l lec ted f r om e a s i ly a cces sed p l ace s , s uch a s d i tche s ,r i ve rb enches , a nd r oad c u t s . T he s o i l s amp les y i e ld c omp lemen tary i n fo rma t ion o n t h e s o i l c ompo s i t ion c l ose t o

b o th t y pe s o f a na lys i s ( i . e . n o t h in s e c t ion w a s m ade f r om f i ne c l ay , a nd n o XRF a na lys is w a s p e r formed o n v ery c oa r se s and ) . T he c o s t o f t h in s ec t ion p repa ra t ion w a s a l so l i m i t ing . T he se c ons t ra in t s e xp la in t h e d i f f e rence s o bse rved

t h e s i te s . O ne t o t h ree s amp le s w e re c o l lec ted p er s ou rce . T he l o ca t ions o ft h es ou rce s w e re r e co rded o n amap a nd t h e c on tex t o f s amp l ing d escr ibed . A l though t h e c ompos i t iona l

i nt h e t o ta l s o ft h e l a s t c o lumns . T he f i gu res i np a r en theses r e f e rt ot h e n umbe ro f s amp les c o l lec ted n ea r o r o n t h e s i te , n o t t o b e c onfused w i th t h e t o ta l f o r o ne r e g ion . F o r

v a r ia t ion c anno t b e m ea su red a tt h e l o ca l l e ve l b ecause o f t h es ma l ls i ze o ft h e s amp le , t h ea na lys i s o ft h e c ompa ra t ive

e xamp le , s e ven s amp le s a r e r epo r ted f o r t h e Mo sna -Hua r i r e g ion , s i x o f w h ich c ome f r om t h e s i te o f C hav in d e

m a ter ia l a l lowed u s t os ke tch r e g iona l c ha rac ter is t ics . T h i s i sp a r t icu la r ly t r ue f o rm ine ra la na ly s i s .

H uän ta r .

T ab le 9 C ompa ra t ive m a te r ia lp e rs i te

N

S i te a nd r eg ion

Ma ter ia l t ype

C hav fn d e H uän ta r

modern c e ram ics

Mo sna -H ua r i

r aw

ma ter ia ls

2 a nd

s o i ls H ua r ico to C . d e H uay la s

modern c e ram ics r aw ma ter ia ls s o i ls

P a l lka

moder nc e ram ics

C a sma -Sech in

r aw s o i l s

PV31 3 12 /330 N epef ia

ma ter ia ls

modern c e ram ics r aw ma ter ia l s

a nd

a nd

1

NP e t ro 2 . j( 2 )

NF RX 2 7( 6 )

1 3

7

9

8 1 9 / 7

8( 4 ) 1 ( 5 ) 1 9

8( 4 ) 1 8 ( 1 2 ) 2 6

3

3

3

1 0 1 3

2( 1 ) 5

1 0 ( 3 ) 1 3 6( 2 )

a nd

6

-

1

( 1 )

a nd

9

( 1 )

1 0

2

6 9

3 3

s o i ls A ncön c en t ra l c oa s t

moder nc e ram ics r aw ma ter ia l s s o i ls

TOTAL

4 4

( 1 ) 8( 6 ) 9 6 3

4-R esea rch Me thodo logy T ab le 1 0 I d en t if i ca t ion o ft h e c ompa ra t ive s amp le s P rs amp le ; T y s amp le t y pe =C c l ay , Tt empe r , M c l ay tempe rm ix , Pmode rn p o t , Ss o i l ; R eR eg ion = 1C hav in , 2H ua r ico to -Ca l le jön d e H uay la s , 3P a l lka , 4N epe i la , 5A ncön . P r

T y

R e

5 6 5 8

S C

1 1

s ed imen tar yr ock , C hav in d e H uän ta r , c e remon ia l a r ea n a tu ra l c l ay i nd r a in , C hav fn d e H uän ta r

5 9 6 0 6 1 6 2

S S S S

1 1 1 1

s a nd ,r i o Mo sna n ea rt h e s i te ,C hav in d eH uän ta r s a nd ,r i o Wacheqsa n ea rt h es i te , C hav in d eH uän ta r

6 3 6 4 6 5

S S S

1 1 1

6 6 6 7

T C

1 1

6 8

P

6 9

P

1 1

2 6 2 7

C M

2 2

2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 5 3 6

C C T P

2 2 2 2

C C T

2 2 2

j a rf r agmen t ,Y acya , H ua r i u np repa red b l ack c l ay ,T a r icä p r epa red b l ack a nd w h i te c l ay , T a r icä f i red b l ack a nd w h i te c l ay , T a r icä b l ack c l ay ,T a r icä y e l low e a r th ,T a r icä o l la f r agmen t , made f r om m ix ing S 29+S30 ,T a r icä u np repa red A n ta c l ay f o rf i ne c e ram ics ,T a r icä u np repa red c l ay f r om V icu s -Pa shpa ,T a r icä u np repa red t empe r ,T a r icä

3 9 4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3

M P C C T M P

2 2 2 2

m ix ( S 35+S36 ) ,T ar icä o l la f r agmen t , made w i th m ix S 37 ,T a r icä b l a ck c l ay f r om V icu s , Ma rca rä u np repa red b l ack c l ay , Ma rca rä

2 2 2

g round y e l low e a r th f r om P a r iahuanca , Ma r ca rä

4 4 4 5

T C

2

p repa red y e l low e a r th f r om P i scuy , Mu sho , Ma nco s

4 6 4 7

P T

2 2 2

p repa red b l ack e a r th f r om Y anam i to , Mu sho , Manco s o l la f r agmen t made w i th S 44+S45 , Mu sho , Manco s

4 8

C

p r epa red b l ack c l ay f r om V ico s , P a r iahuanca m ix ( S47+S48 ) ,P a r iahuanca o l la f r agmen t made w i th m ix S 49 , P a r iahuanca

3 7 3 8

4 9

M

2 2

5 0 5 1 5 3 5 4 5 2

P S

2 2

P P P S S

D e scr ip t ion

r e de a r th f r om r oad c u t 1km n or th o fC hav in d e H uän ta r s o i l i n s ide t emp le g a l lery , C hav in d eH uän ta r y e l low c l ayey e a r th , r oad c u t0 . 5 km s ou th o fC hav in d e H uän ta r s o i lf r om c u tn ea rt h e s u lfu rb a ths o fQ ue r co s , C hav in d e H uän ta r s o i lf r om r oad c u t2 0ms ou th o ft h e s i te ,C hav in d e H uän ta r s ha sha l t empe r( s la te ) , Y acya , H ua r i y e l low e a r th , Y acya , H ua r i o l la f r agmen t ,Y acya , H ua r i

m ix ( S4O+S41) , Ma rca rä o l la f r agmen t made w i th m ix S 42 , Ma rca rä

u np repa red y e l low e ar th f r om C hop i j i rca , P a r iahuanca

f i ne o l la o l la o l la

b l ack e a r th f o rb r ick a nd r oof t i l e s , C o l lahua s i ,C a l le jön d e H uay la s f r agmen tf r om C ancha rum i , Y ungay ma rke t f r agmen t , 1 V la rca rä f r agmen t , C a raz ma rke t

S

2 2 2 3 3 3

6 7 8

C C C

3 3 3

c l ay f r om c ommun i ty c ana l , C unca , S ech in i d em , 1m d i s tan tf r om S 6a nd a bove i t i d em , 1m d i s tan tf r om S 7 a nd a bove i t

9

P

3

o l la f r agmen t , C unca , S ech in

1 0 1 5

S

3 3 3

moder ni m i ta t ion o f aN epef ia E a r ly H o r izon s ma l lc up , C unca , S ech in

1 4

P S

1 6 1 7 1 8

S S P

3 3 3

3 4

s o i l f r om r o ad c u t ,P uyo r -Huaca O l iva r ,P a redone s -Huanchuy , S ech in y e l low c l ay , r oad d i tch n ea rC unca , S ech in s o i l f r om Q u i l lo , S ech in V a l ley

s a nd f r om r i oG rande , a tt h e f oo to fP alka s i te , C a sma s o i l f r om r e c tangu la rp l aza , e a s to ft h e t emp le o fP a l lka ,C a sma s o i l f r om o u t s ide t h ec e remon ia l a r ea ,P a l lka , C a sma f i ne e a r th , c i r cu la rp l aza , P a l lka , C a sma o l la f r agmen t ,C a Igoe ,C a sma

4 5

I s abe l le D ruc T ab le 1 0 ( c on t . ) T y

P r

2 1

7 0 7 1 7 2 7 3 7 4 7 5 7 6

C A

u n

7 7 7 8 8 0

u n u n u n u n r i , u n C A u n ( . . ) C )

2 5

CA

2 2 2 3 2 4

C . ) C . ) C . )

2 0

R e 4 4 4 4

D e scr ip t ion , w h i te c l ay ,q ueb rada T amba r i , N epe r ia y e l low c l ay , q ueb rada T amba r i , N epe r ia o ch re c l ay ,q ueb rada T amba r i , N epef ia s o i l i nc ons t ruc t ion c u t , l km b efo re Mo ro , N epe r ia

4

a dobe f r agmen t ,p r eh ispan ic w a l l , Mo tocach i , N epe t ia

4

a dobe , c e r ro Q u isque , n ea r PV31-312 , N epe r ia

5 5

s andy s o i l , M i rama r , A ncön y e l low e a r th ,a dobe , M i rama r , A ncön c e ram ic f r agmen t , M i rama r , A ncön

5 5

a dobe f r agmen t , M i rama r , A ncön s andy s o i l ,L a sC o l ina s , A ncön

5 5 5

P te I nga r o ck f r agmen t , a nde s i te P te I nga , c l ay

5 5 5

P te I nga , c l ay s o i l f r om r o ad c u t , l owe rC h i I lön V a l ley s o i l f r om r o ad c u t , S t aR o sa , C h i I lön V a l ley

4 . 4P r inc ip les a nd me thodo logy o ft he a na lyses 4 . 4 .1 P e trograph ic a na ly s is

( Fo r mo re d e ta i ls s e e F r &he t te 1 971 ; R oubau l t 1 982 ; MacKenz ie a nd A dams 1 994 ; C a r ra nd K omo rowsk i 1 995 ) .

T h is s e c t ion p r e sen t s t h e p r inc ip les o f p e t rog raphy a nd t h e m e thodo logy u s ed t o s t udy t h e m ine ra l c ompos i t ion o f t h e c e ram ics . T he r e su l t s o f t h e p et rog raph ic a na ly s i s f o r e ach

I d en t if i ca t ion o fr ock t y pe s i sb ased o n t h ec on ten t , s i ze a nd a bundance o f t h e m ine ra ls c ons t i tu t ing t h e r o ck f r agmen t . F o r e xamp le , ag ranod ior i te i s t y p ica l ly m ade o f 6 5 -90% m ed ium t oc oa r se p l ag ioc la se c ry s ta l s , 1 0% o r mo re q ua r tz ,

s i te a r eg i ven i nC hap te r5 . 4 . 4 .1 .1 P e trography

a nd

s ome

( MacKenz ie

h o rnb lende ,

b io t i te

a nd

1 994 :69 ) .

A dams

a nd

a l ca l i

f e ld spa r

I f t h e re

i s mo re

P e t rog raph ic a na lys is i s b a sed o n t h e o p t ica l a nd c r y s ta l log raph ic c ha rac ter is t ics o f t h e m ine ra l s o b served i n

p l ag ioc la se a nd f e r romagnes ian m inera l s a nd l e s s q ua r tz ,

t h in s e c t ion . T he p e t rog raph ic m icro scope w o rk s w i th t wo

f o rma t ion o r l o ca l m e tamorph ism c an p roduce r o ck s w i th s l igh t ly d i f f e ren t c ompo s i t ion . I n t h e A ndean b a tho l i th , f o r e xamp le , t h e g ranod ior i te a nd t o na l i te a r e d i s t ingu ished

t h e r ock i sc a l led ad i o r i te . I n terna l g r ada t ion w i th in ar o ck

p o la r iz ing f i l te r s t o o r ien t t h e t r ansm i t ted l i gh t i n s p ec if i c d i rec t ion . O ne f i l te r i su nde r t h e s amp le , t h e o t he r i ss e t a t 9 0 - a ng le a bove i t .T he u ppe r f i l te r i st h e a na lyze r a nd c an b e r emoved o r i n se r ted t o w o rk i n p la in p o la r ized l i gh t ( PPL ) o ri nc r o s sed p o la r ized l i gh t ( XPL ) . T h in s e c t ion s a r e 3 0 t i . ( 0 .03 mm ) t h ick ; d ue t o t h is t h innes s , s ome m ine ra ls

o n ly b y t h e p e rcen tage o f a lka l i f e ldspa r ; w h ich i sr a the r

b ecome t r anspa ren t a nd l i gh t c an p a s s t h rough t h em . T he manne r i n w h ich l i gh t i sr e f rac ted w hen t r ave l ing t h rough t h e c r ys ta ls d epend s u pon t h e i r c r ys ta l log raphy . T he

t y pe s . T hey a r e s ma l l a nd s e t i n ac l ay m a tr ix o u t o f t h e i r o r ig ina l c on tex t . T he p roduc t ion p roce s s a l so o f ten a l te r s t h em . C on sequen t ly , t h e r ock f r agmen t i sn amed a f te r i t s g ene ra l v a r ie ty , u n les s t h e re a re e nough e l emen t s t oi d en t ify i tp rec ise ly .

d i ff i cu l t t o e s t ima te w hen t he f r agmen t s a r e s ma l l . I n c e ram ics , t h e d e term ina t ion o f o r ig ina l r o ck t y pe i sf u r the r c omp l ica ted b y t h e f a c t t ha t f r agmen t s a r e o f d i f f e ren t

i n ter f e rence w i th t h e v ib ra t ion p lane s o f t h e c r ys ta ls p roduce s c ha rac te r is t ic c o lo r s d ue t os e lec t ive a b sorp t ion o f t h el i gh tb y t h em ine ra ls . F o rs ome m ine ra l s , t h e re i s ac o lo r v a r ia t ion o r p l eoch ro ism when m ic ro scope s t age i sr o ta ted i np l a in p o la r ized l i gh t . When c ros sed f i l te r s a r e u s ed , t h e c o lo r d i f f e rence b e tween t h e l owes t a nd h i ghes t r e f rac t ion

P e t rog raph ic s t udy y i e ld s i n forma t ion o n t h e t y pe a nd g eo log ic o r ig in o f t h e r aw ma te r ia l s a nd o n c e ram ic

i n dexe s o ft h e c r y s ta l i st h e b i ref r ingence . T he r e f rac t ion o f

c ompo s i t ion o f ac e ram ic i si nd ica t ive o f t h e r e sou rce a r ea

l i gh t a nd t h e c o lo r e xh ib i ted b y t h e c r ys ta l s a r e s pec if i c t o

a nd mode o fp roduc t ion . S i ze , a ngu la r i ty a nd d i s tr ibu t ion o f

e ach m ine ra l . O the r d iagnos t ic f e a tu re s i n c lude t h e f o rm a nd t e x tu re o f t h e m ine ra ls a nd r o ck f r agmen t s . T hu s ,

t h e g ra ins p rov ide i n fo rma t ion a bou t t h e p r epa ra t ion o f t h e p as te . T he c ha rac te r is t ics o f e ach t h in s e c t ion a l low f o r

m ine ra l i d en t if i ca t ion i sb a sed o n ( a ) p l eoch ro i sm i nP PL ;

c ompa r i son a nd c e ram ic c l as s if ica t ion , a nd f o r i d en t ify ing

( b ) b i ref r ingence i n XPL ; (c ) c rys ta l c l eavage ; ( d ) c r y s ta l

a s semb lage s ( p e t rog roups ) a nd a t yp ica l c e ram ics .

p roduc t ion . T he a s sump t ion

f o rm ; ( e ) t e x tu re a nd s hape o ft h e g ra in s .

4 6

made i s t h a t t h e

m ine ra l

4-R e sea rch Me thodo logy

4 . 4 .1 .2 Me thodo logy T he a na ly s i s i sq ua l i ta t ive a nd q uan t i ta t ive . A q ua l i ta t ive a na lys is c on s i s t s o f i d en t i f y ing t h e a p la s t ics , t h e i r r e la t ive s i ze , a l te r a t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion w i th in t h e p a s te . Q uan t i ta t iv e a na ly s is i n c lude s g r anu lome t ry a nd moda l a na ly s is .G r anu lome t ry i st h em ea su re o fi n c lu s ion s , l e ad ing t o g ra in c oun t ing b y s pe c if i ed c l a s se s o f s i ze . Moda l a na lys is i st h ec oun t ing o ft h et y pe o fi n c lu s ion s p e rm ine ra l t y pe a nd t h e i rs i ze ( i .e . t h en umbe ro fq ua r tz g ra in s o ff i ne s a nd s i ze ) . T o r e duce t h e m oda l c a t ego r ie s , t h e i n c lu s ion s a r e c oun ted b y t y pe o n ly . T he c oun t s ( g ranu lome t r ic o r m oda l ) a r e e n t e r ed i nt a b le sf o r s t a t i s t ic a na ly s is t oi d en t i f y t h e m ine ra l c ha rac te r i s t ic s o b se rved a t e ach s i te a nd t h e v a r iab le s t h a t b e s t d i s t ingu i sh t h e s i te s . T he q uan t i ta t ive d a ta c omp lemen t s t h e q ua l i ta t ive a na ly s i s a nd y i e ld s o b je c t ive c r i t e r ia f o r g roup c ompa r i son . T he p e t rog raph ic r e su l t s a r e t h en t r iangu la t ed w i th t h e c hem ica l a nd t y po log ica ld a ta .

T he d e scr ip t ive c ode s r e la te t o t h e s i ze , a bundance a nd r oundne s s o f t h e g ra in s , a nd p a s te c o lo r . G ra in s i ze i s d i v ided i n to s e ven g ranu lome t r ic c l a s se s f o r s i l t a nd s and s i ze g r a in s ( s ee T ab le 1 ) . G ra in a bundance i se s t ima ted a cco rd ing t o ar e la t ive s ca le ( F igu re 1 5 ) a nd c oded ( ++ ) f o r a bundance , ( + ) p r e sence , a nd ( ) a bsence o f t h e ma t e r ia l . G ra in r oundne s s i s q ua l if ied a s a ngu la r , s ubangu la r , s ub rounded o r r ounded a cco rd ing t o t h e d eg ree o f w ea ther ing o ra b ra s ion o ft h e s i de s ( F igu re 1 5 ) . P a s te c o lo r i np o la r ized l i gh ti sc oded y( y e l low t oo range ) ; o( o range ) ; b( b rown ) ; o r d( d a rk t ob l ack ) . T he t e rm d ense r e f e r s t oa p a s t e w i th f ew o rn o v o id s , w h i le s i l ty i su sed w hen many f e l s ic s i l t -s ize g r a in s a r e p r e sen t ( un s i l ty o t he rw i se ) . I n c lu s ion s a r e s a id t o b e c l ea r w hen t h e g ra in s a r e n o t s hadowed , u na l t e red o ra ppea rt oh ave s ha rp b ounda r ies .

F o r t h e r e f e r en ce s amp le s , o n ly q ua l i ta t ive a na ly s i s i s c onduc ted . T he p r epa ra t ion o fu ncon so l ida ted s o i l a nd s a nd s amp le s i n to t h in s e c t ion i n t roduce s ab i a s i n to t h e a na ly s i s i nf a vo r o f t h e c oa r se f r a c t ion ( b e cau s e o fg ra in s epa ra t ion d u r ing c on so l ida t ion ) . A l so , t h e s amp le s o f mode rn c e ram ics a r e t o o f ew t o j u s t i f y c ompa ra t ive s t a t i s t ic s o n q uan t i ta t ive d a ta . T he r e f e r ence s amp le s , a l ong w i th g eo log ica l d a ta , h e lp d e te rm ine t h e l o ca l o r n on l o ca l c ha rac te r o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic s . T he me thodo logy r e la t ive t ot h e q ua l i ta t ive a nd q uan t i ta t ive a na ly se s i sn ow d e s c r ibed .

v e ry f ew t of ew g r a in s -1 + 1 9%

Q ua l i ta t ive a na ly s i s

a ngu la r

T he q ua l i ta t ive a na ly s i so pe ra te si nt h ree s t ep s :

F igure 1 5 G ra in a bundance a nd r oundne s s s c a le s ( a f te r Mü l le r 1 964 i nS t ien s t ra 1 986 :f ig .5 )

r e r e la t ive ly a bundan t+ 1 0 -29%

a bundan t + + 3 0 -50%

I D

( 1 ) A n o verv iew o fa l l t h e t h in s e c t ion si sd one t oc ons t ruc t p r el im ina ry g r oup s w i th s im i la r m ine ra l a nd p a s t e c ha ra c te r i s t ic s .T h i s s t ep a l low sf o ri d en t if y ing t h e m ine ra l s a nd p e t rog raph ic f e a tu re s w i th d i sc r im ina t ing v a lue f o r g r oup f o rma t ion a nd f o r t h e c r ea t ion o f a n a na ly t ica l g r id ( a dap ted f r om S t o l tman 1 993 )t ob eu sed i ns t ep 2 .

s ubang .

s ub rounded

r ounded

T he g r anu lome t r ic c l a s se s l i s ted i n T ab le 1 f o l low t h e U dden - Wen two r th s c a le ( a f te r F o lk 1 965 ) . A p la s t ics a r e c l a s s i f ied a cco rd ing t o t h e i r m ean d i ame te r , t a k ing i n to a c coun t t h e l e ng th o f t h e p l a te s f o r o b long m ine ra l s . T he K rumbe in p h i sca le i s al o g t ran s fo rma t ion o f t h e U dden Wen two r th s c a le . I ti su sed f o rg ranu lome t r ic a na ly s is .

( 2 ) Ad e ta i led s t udy o fe a ch t h in s e c t ion i sc onduc ted u s ing t h e g r id p r ev iou s ly m ade i ns t ep 1 .T he g r id l i s t s m ine ra l s

T ab le 1 G ranu lome t r ic c l a s se s

a nd r o ck f r agmen t s w hose p r e sence o r a b sence i sc hecked . I ti sc omp le t ed w i th o bse rva t ion s o n t h e g ene ra l a spec t o f t h e t h in s e c t ion s u s ing c od ed d e sc r ip t ive c r i te r ia . T he t h in s e c t ion i s s t ud ied u nde r p l a in p o la r ized l i gh t ( PPL ) a nd c r o s sed n i co l s( XPL ) . T h is a na ly s i so f ten b r ing s t ol i gh t t h e p a r t icu la r i t ie so rd i f f e rence sb e tween t h in s e c t ion s t h a tw e re g r ouped t o ge the r i ns t ep 1 ,y i e ld ing f u r the r s ubd iv i s ion o r l ump ing o f t h e g r oup s . T he f i na l g roup c ha rac te r i s t ic s a r e d ef ined . ( 3 ) I n o rde r t o v e r ify t h e c od ing a nd p e r t inence o f a ff i l ia t ion , t h ep e t rog roup s a r e a na lyzed a ga in s eve ra l d ay s l a t e r . G roup h omogene i ty i sv e r if ied i n a cco rdance t o t h e g r oup c ha ra c te r i s t ic sd ef ined i ns t ep 2 .

G ranu lome t r ic c l a s se s

S u _p . l im i t( mm )

c l ay v e ry f i ne t om ed ium s i l t

0 . 0039

c oa r s e s i l t v e ry f i ne s a nd

0 . 0625

0 . 031

p h i 8 5 , 4 3

f i ne s a nd

0 . 125 0 . 25

m ed ium s a nd

0 . 50

1

c oa r se s a nd v e ry c oa r se s a nd

1

0

2

1

g r ave l

3

2

2

.

T he t e rm ino logy u s ed f o l low s t h e N or th Ame r ican t r end , a s f o und i n t h e d i f f e ren t A t la se s o f r o ck a nd m ine ra l

4 7

I s abe l le D ruc d e te rm ina t ion ( Ya rd ley e ta l . 1 990 ; Ma cKenz ie e ta l . 1 991 ) . T he t e rms f e ls ic a nd maf ic r e f e r t ot h e l i gh t o r d a rk c o lo r o f ar o ck o r m ine ra l . Af e ls ic r ock i mp l ie s ah i gh p re sence

m inera ls g roup sr a re s ma l l m ine ra ls w i th h i gh b i ref r ingence s uch a s o l iv ine , e p ido te , s phene , a nd w h i te m ica s . T hey a r e i nd iv idua l ly m en t ioned i n t h e q ua l i ta t ive a na lys i s i f

o f q uar tz a nd f e ld spa r , wh i le a ma f ic r o ck c on ta ins mo re f e r romagne s ian m ine ra l s , s uch a s a mph ibo le a nd p y roxene . S im i la r ly , f e ls ic r o ck s , l i ke g ran i te , c on ta in mo re s i l ica a nd

i d en t if ied . F ina l ly , t h e o paque c a tegory g roup s t h e f e r ro t i taneou s o x ide s , w h ich a r e o paque ( b lack ) i n t r an sm i t ted l i gh t . T hese c a tegor ie s a r e u s ed a s t h e moda l

K -f e ld spa r , w h i le ma f ic r ock s , l i ke g abb ro , c on ta in mo re f e r romagnes ian a nd C a -r ich p lag ioc la se ( g ro s s ly s p eak ing ) . T he t e rms b a s ic , i n termed ia te a nd a c id r o ck s a r e a l so u sed , i n r e f e rence t o t h e c on ten t o f s i l ica , i r on , m agne s ium , a nd

v a r iab le s i nt h e s t a t is t ica l a na lys i s o ft h e p e t rograph ic d a ta . T he r e su l t ing g raph w i th c l a ss if ica t ion o f t h e c e ram ic s a nd p t e t rog roup s a r e p r esen ted i n C hap te r 5 . ( For mo r e d e ta i l s e e D ruc 1 997 ) .

c a lc ium ; g abb ro b e ing ab a s ic r ock a nd g ran i te a n a c id o ne , f o r e xamp le ( A l laby a nd A l laby 1 996 ) . S and i su sed n o t o n ly i n i t s g ranu lome t r ic s ense ( t he f i ne t o c oa r se s a nd f r ac t ion ) b u t a l so t o d eno te t h e p r esence o f n ume rou s

( b ) I mage a na lys is w a s u sed f o r g ranu lome tr ic s t ud ies . T he s t udy w a s c onduc ted o n 8 0 t h in s e c t ions f r om C hav in d e H uän ta r

monocrys ta ls i n ap a s te , wh ich a r ef e l s ic i nt h e m a jo r i ty . F o r

a nd

A ncön ,

t o e xp lo re

t h e p o ten t ia l

o f t h e

e xamp le , ap e t rog roup c ompo sed o f s a nd a nd g ranod io r i te

t e chn ique w i th t h e t y pe o f c e ram ics a na lyzed . T he i mage a na lys is p rog ram a l low s f o r t h e a u toma t ic mea su remen t o f

r e f e r s t o ap a s te w i th many i nd iv idua l f e ls ic i n c lu s ion s o f

d i f fe ren t p a rame te r s : g r a in s u r f ace , d i ame te r , s phe r ic i ty

f i ne t o c oa r se s and -s ize g ra in s , a nd r o ck f r agmen t s o f g ranod io r i te t y pe .

f a c to r , e t c . S t i l l , many m an ipu la t ion s a r e r equ i red b efo re c oun t ing ( s ee b e low ) a nd t h e p roce s s w a s f ound t ob e t i me c onsum ing . S ince t h e o b jec t ives o f t h e p resen t s t udy a r e

T he t e rm o r thoquar t z i te r e fe r s t o as ed imen ta ry r o ck , w h i le q ua r tz i te i sm e tamo rph ic . A rg i l l i te i s as ed imen ta r y r o ck

o r ien ted t owa rd s p rovenance a nd n o t t e chno logy , m oda l a na lys i s w a s f ound t ob e m o re i n fo rma t ive . I ndeed , i ti st h e a moun t a nd v a r iab i l i ty o f m ine ra l t y pe s t h a t c ha rac te r ize

c omposed o fr ounded c l ay g ra ins , o x id ized o rr edd i sh , w i th

b es t t h e p e t rog roup s . H oweve r , n o m oda l a na ly s is w a s c onduc ted b y i mage a na lys is b ecau se o f t h e h igh m ine ra l d i ve r s i ty o f t h e c e ram ic ( i t w a s d one manua l ly i n s tead ) . F u r the rmo re , moda l a na lys is r equ i re s c ove rage o f as u r f ace l a rge e nough t o i n c lude r e p resen ta t ive g ra ins o f e a ch t y pe ( Schm i t t 1 993 ) . F o r g ranu lome t r ic s t ud ies , t h e a na ly s i s s u r face c an b e s ma l le r , a s o n ly t h e s i ze o f t h e g r a ins i s

r a re f e ls ic i n c lus ion s . B y d er iva t ion , t h is t e rm i su sed h e re t o r e f e r t o t h e c ompac ted c l ay n odu le s c ommon i n c l ay s ed imen t s (cha l l ie r 1 984 ) . T he se g ra ins a r e n o t t o b e m is taken f o r c hamo t te o r g rog , t h e g rounded c e ram ic f r agmen t s a dded a s t empe r . N one o f t h e l a t te r h a s b een i d en t if ied i nt h ec e ram ics s t ud ied . T hese g eo log ic t e rms a nd d escr ip t ive c r i te r ia a r e u sed i nt h e d escr ip t ion o ft h ep e t rog roup sa nd t a b le si nC hap te r5 .

i mpor tan t . T he a na ly s i s w a s d one o ve r t h ree f i e ld s o fv i ew i nt h e m ic roscope , mov ing t h e s l ide l o ng i tud ina l ly a t 1mm i n terva ls . T h is a l lowed f o rt h ec oun t ing o fa bou t 1 000 g r a ins

Q uan t i ta t ive a na lys is

p e r t h in s e c t ion . T he i n c lu s ion o f m o r e f i e ld s o f v i ew d i d n o tc hange t h eg ranu lomet r ic p e rcen tage s .

( a ) Moda l a na lys is i sp er formed b y t h e l i ne c oun t m e thod , mov ing t h e t h in s e c t ion a long a rb i t ra ry , l o ng i tud ina l l i ne s

I mage a na ly s is i n vo lve s a n a r ray o ft e chn ica l p rocedu re s t o p repa re t h e i mage a nd t o d i s t ingu i sh t h e f e a tu re t o b e

a nd d ocumen t ing t h e t y pe a nd g ranu lome t ry o fe ncoun te red g ra ins . T he g r id u sed i s a dap ted f r om a g r id b y J ame s

a na lyzed f r om t h e b ackg round ( s ee i n p ar t icu la r S chm i t t

S to l tman ( 1 993 ) . 2 00 -300 g ra ins a r e c oun ted , a nd t h e

1 993 ) . T he p o la r ized m ic roscope i sl i nked t o ac ame ra ,

p e r cen tage o f e ach t ype

i s c a lcu la ted t o e s t ima te t h e

v ideo mon i to r a nd c ompu te r . T he i mage a na lys i s p rog ram

p ropo r t ion o f m ine ra ls a nd r o ck f r agmen t s i n t h e t h in s e c t ion . T he a moun t o f g ra ins c oun ted i sd ependen t u pon

a l lows i mage c ap tu re , t r ea tmen t a nd a na lys is o f t h e i mage . T he i mage i sp i xe l la ted , c over ing a s u r face o f 6 39 x 4 80

t h e i r q uan t i ty i n t h e t h in s e c t ions , w h ich r a nge s b e tween

p ixe ls . I ti sc onve r ted t om ic rons f o rg r anu lome t r ic a na ly s i s

2 00 a nd 4 00 g ra ins i n t h e c e ram ics a na lyzed . F o r c e ram ic ma te r ia l s , t h e a moun t o f g ra in s c oun ted v a r ie s f r om 1 50 t o

( y ie ld ing a s s u r face o f 1 887 x 1 4 16µ ) . O ne s u r fa ce c or re spond s t oo ne f i e ld o fv i ew . T he d e ta i ls i nt h e f i e ld a r e r ende red b y d i f f e ren t g r ey l e ve ls . T he i mage i sf i l te red a nd

5 00 ( K r zanowsk i 1 986 ; Ma son 1 995 ; D ick inson e t a l . / 996 ) . O n ly a f ew s amp les p e r p e t rog roup a r e s ub jec ted t o moda l a na lys is , t od ecrea se t h e t i me n eces sa ry f o r a na lys i s . T he h omogene i ty o f t h e p e t rog roup s a l low s f o r c on s ide r ing t h e q uan t i ta t ive r ep resen ta t ive .

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t r ea ted t o r educe t h e b ackg round n o i se , t o h i gh l igh t c on t ra s t , a nd t os ha rpen c on tou r s . C o lo r t h resho ld s a r e u sed t o c o lo r t h e o b jec t s b e ing a na lyzed . A f te r v er if ica t ion a nd

a s

c o r rec t ion s t o i n su re t wo g ra ins a r e n o t c onnec ted ( o r e l se t h ey a r e c oun ted a s o ne ) , a u toma t ic r ou t ines m ea su re t h e p a rame te r s c ho sen f o r t h e s t udy o ft h e g ra ins : s u r f ace a r ea ,

I nt h e moda l a na lys i s , s ome m ine ra lc a tego r ie s w e re l umped t o r e duce t h e n umbe r o f v a r iab le s . T hu s , q ua r tz a nd n on -

ma jo r a nd m ino r a xe s , a nd s phe r ic i ty . S pec ia l m ac ro s a r e a pp l ied t oc o r rec t a na ly t ica l e r ro r s a nd c l a ss ify t h e r aw d a ta

p l ag io c la se f e ld spa r a r e c oun ted a s o ne c a tego ry , w h i le p l ag ioc la se i sf ound i na no the r . T he m a f ic c a tegory g roup s

i n to g ranu lome t r ic c l a s se s . T he d a ta i st h en t r an s f e r red t oa s p read s hee ta nd s ub jec ted t os t a t i s t ica l a na lys is .

f e r romagne s ian m ine ra ls , s uch a s a mph ibo le a nd p y roxene , w hen t h ey a r e f ound a s i nd iv idua l c r y s ta ls i n t h e p a s te . B io t i tes a r e c oun ted s epa ra te ly . T he c a tegory a cces so ry

T he e s t ima te o f t h e s u r f ace p e r cen tage o r a r ea c ove red b y i n c lu s ion s i nt h e p a s te i so b ta ined b y s umm ing g r a in a r ea s 4 8

4-R esea rch Me thodo logy a nd d i v id ing t h e s um b y t h e a r ea a na lyzed , mu l t ip l ied b y 1 00 . S u r f ace p e rcen tage a l one g i ve s n o i nd ica t ion o f t h e

t h e e s t ima te o f t h e n umbe r o f g ra ins p e r a r ea o r g ra in p e r cen tage i sn o t am ea su re o ft h e a moun t o fa dded t empe r ,

n umbe r o r s i ze o f t h e g ra in s i n as amp le , a s t h e s ame p e rcen tage c an b e o b ta ined b y c oun t ing a f ew v e ry c oa r se

s i nce many g ra in s c an c ome f r om t h e c l ay m a ter ia l . T he a r ea p e rcen tage s o b ta ined b y g ranu lome tr ic a na ly s i s f o r C hav in d e H uän ta r a nd A ncön c omp lemen t t h e d a ta f o r t h e

g ra ins o rm any f i ne g ra in s . T hu s , c oun t s p e r g ra in s i ze s a r e mo re i nd ica t ive o fc e ram ic p repa ra t ion p rocedu re s a nd t y pe

p e t rog roup s o ft h e se s i tes . A n e xamp le o f i mage a na ly s i s i s i lu s t ra ted i nF igu re 1 6 .

o f p a s te t h an s ur f ace p e rcen tages . T h i s i n fo rma t ion i s c o r re la ted w i th w a re t y pe a nd f o rm , t o s e e i fb o t t les a nd o l las s how g r anu lome t r ic d i f fe rence s , f o r e xamp le . F ina l ly ,

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2 8 .7

F igure 1 6I mage a na lys is o f ac e ram ic t h in s e c t ion . ( A ) F ie ld o fv i ew s ub jec ted t oi mage a na lys is . T he g r a in s a r e n umbe red a nd t h e i rs u r f a ce a r ea w a s m ea su red . T he m ea su re s f o rt h e f i r s tf i ve g r a ins a r eg i ven i n( B ) . T he g ranu lome t r ic c l as s if ica t ion f o r c oun t s o ve r t h ree T he g ranu lome t r ic c l a s s if i ca t ion f o r c oun t s o ve r t h ree f i e lds i ss hown i n ( C ) ; a nd t h e p e r cen tage e s t ima te o fs u r f a ce o ccup ied b y t h eg ra ins i nt h ep a s te a ppea r s i n( D ) . 4 9

I s abe l le D ruc (c ) S ta t is t ica l a na ly s is g ranu lome t r ic

d a ta .

i sp e r fo rmed o n t h e moda l a nd

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t h e g raphs

o b ta ined b y p r inc ipa l c omponen t a na lys is ( s ee C hap te r 5 ) a l low a v i sua l iza t ion o f t h e moda l v ar iab le s t h a t b e s t

F igu re 1 7 s umma r ize st h e u s eo fq ua l i ta t ive a nd q uan t i ta t ive d a ta i np e t rog raph ic a na lys i st oc ha rac te r ize t h e s amp le sa nd i d en t ify p rodu c t ion a r ea sa nd t e chn ique s .

d i s t ingu ish t h e s i te s a nd p e t rog roup s . P CA g r aph s a l so

P e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s

Quan t i ta t ive

Q ua l i ta t ive a na ly s i s

P roduc t ion a r ea s&

P e t rog roup s

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P roduc t ion t e chn ique s

a na ly s i s

Gr anu lome t r ic g r oup s

-1 P roduc t ion t e chn ique s

S ub -pe t rog roup s

F igu re 1 7 U se o fp e t rog raphy i nt h e c ha ra c ter iza t ion o ft h ec e ram ic s amp le s

T empe r i d en t if i ca t ion r e qu i re s t h e d i s t inc t ion o f n a tu ra l

4 . 4 .1 3Mode l ing t he p e trog raph ic d a ta

i n c lu s ion s ( i n t h e ' c lay ' ) f r om t h e a dded o ne s ( i n t h e ` t empe r ') . T he p r e sen t s t udy s howed t h a t o n ly r ock t empe r

I n t h e p et rog roup s , c e ram ic s w i th s ame p e t rog raph ic c ha rac ter is t ics a r e c l u s te red . F o r e xamp le , m ine ra l c ompo s i t ion , g ranu lome t ry , a spec t o f t h e g ra in s , a nd p a s te

c ou ld b er e l iab ly i d en t if ied b a sed o nt h ree c ond i t ion s . ( 1 ) Ar ock t empe r i si nd ica ted b y t h e h i gh p resence o fr o ck f r agmen t s o f t h e s ame t y pe ( a l l g ranod io r i te f r agmen t s , f o r

t e x tu re a r e f a c to r s t h a td e term ine t h e p e t rog roup . I nt h e l i ne o f t h e p rovenance p o s tu la te , p e t rog roup s m ay r ep resen t d i f f e ren t r e sou rce a r ea s , a nd b y e x t rapo la t ion , a r ea s o f p roduc t ion . T he u se o f d i f f e ren t r aw m a ter ia ls a l lows a

e xamp le ) . I ti s t h e o n ly r o ck t y pe p r e sen t o r t h e m os t

d i s t inc t ion t o b e made b e tween w o rk shops o r p roduc t ion c en te r s . T h is a s sume s t h a t t h e s ame w o rk shop d id n o t a cqu i re i t s m a ter ia l f r om d i f f e ren t s ou r ces . S im i la r ly , t h e a r ea o f p roduc t ion c an i n c lude m any w o rk shops t h a t

b imoda l a nd g r anu lome t r y d i s t ingu i she s b e tween n a tu ra l a nd i n ten t iona l ly a dded i n c lus ion s . T he r o ck f r agmen t s a r e o fc oa r se rs i ze t h an t h er e s to ft h e i n c lu s ions . ( 3 ) T he c ru shed r o ck f r agmen t s a r e m o re a ngu la r t h an f o r

o b ta ined t h e i r m a te r ia l f r om t h e s ame p l ace ( s ) . G ranu lome try , p a s te t e x tu re a nd c o lo r , o r g ra in d i s t r ibu t ion c an t h en d i s t ingu ish p e t rog roups ( o r w o rk shops ) w i th s ame

t h e r e s to ft h ei n c lu s ions .

m ine ra logy . T hus , t h e p e t rog roup d e f ine s ap roduc t ion a r ea

t h e f i r s t o ne i s t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t i n i d en t ify ing t h e p re sence o f r o ck t empe r . T he p repa ra t ion p roce ss c an b lu r

a bundan t . ( 2 ) When r o ck t empe r i su s ed , g ra in d i s t r ibu t ion i so f ten

T he se t h ree c ond i t ion s d o n o t a lway s a ppea r t oge the r , b u t

a sw e l l a s ap roduc t ion t e chn ique , w h i le s ubg roup s t e s t ify t o t h e u se o f d i f f e ren t p roduc t ion t e chn ique s o r p a s te

t h e s e cond c ond i t ion , w he re l e v iga t ion o r c a refu l s e lec t ion o ft h e i n c lu s ion sc an e ven o u tt h e g ranu lome tr ic d i f f e rences . T he a ngu la r i ty c ond i t ion i sa l so d ependen t u pon t h e n a tu ra l h a rdne ss a nd f r ac tu re c ha rac ter is t ics o f t h e r ock , y i e ld ing

p repa ra t ion w i th in t h e s ame r e sou rce a r ea ( s ee d i ag ram F igu re 1 7 ) . 4 .4 .1 .4 T emper i d en t if ica t ion

f r agmen t s w i th d i f f e ren t a ngu la r i ty w hen c rushed ( i . e . h a rd r o ck s w i l l y i e ld a ngu la r g r a ins , w h i le s o f t o ne s w i l l y i e ld

T he i n c lu s ions o b served i n t h e c e ram ics a na lyzed a r e

r ounded f r agmen t s ) .

m inera l ic . N o c ru shed s he l l , o r gan ic m a t te r o r g rog w a s o bserved t oh ave b een i n ten t iona l ly a dded t ot h e p a s te . O ne

T he i d en t if i ca t ion o f t h e o t he r m ine ra l t empe r ( s and o r

c an t hu s e xpec tt h a ti ft empe r w a s a dded , i tw a s i nt h e f o rm

e a r th ) i s mo re d i f f icu l t . G ra in a bundance , g ranu lome t ry , a nd

o f s and , e a r th , c oa r se c l ay o r c r u shed r o ck . E thnog raph ic

a ngu la r i ty a r e l e s s e v iden t . T empe r i d en t if ica t ion r e l ies mo re o n i n tu i t ive k now ledge d eve loped t h rough many h ou r s

d a ta f o r t h e r eg ion s o f s t udy s how t h a t t h e p o t te r s u sua l ly m ix t wo s o i l s , o r c l ayey m a te r ia ls , o ne b e ing c oa r se r a nd

o fo b serva t ion u nde r t h e m icroscope o fg eo log ica l d a ta a nd c ompa ra t ive ma ter ia l . F o r t h e se r e a sons , t empe r i d en t if ica t ion f o r t h e d i f f e ren t p e t rog roup s i s n o t a lways g i ven . I fs o , i ti so n ly i n d ica t ive .

mo re s a ndy t h an t h e o t he r ( Druc a nd Gwyn 1 998 ) . T h is p a t te rn d i f f e r so n ly i nt wo c a se s : i nt h e H ua r ir e g ion c ru shed s l a te i sa dded t ot h ep a s te , w h i le ap o t te ri nt h eu ppe rC a sma u ses o n ly o ne v e ry c oa r se c l ay w i th n oa dd i t ion o ft empe r .

5 0

4-R esea rch Me thodo logy 4 . 4 .1 .5 T h in s e c t ion p repara t ion a nd i n s trumen t s

p rope r ty o f e l ect rons w hen t h ey c hange e ne rgy l e ve l s . A

As e c t ion af ew m i l l ime te rt h ick i sc u tf r om t h e s h e rd w i th a s aw . T he c u t i sp e rpend icu la r t o t h e w a l l , y i e ld ing a c ro s s

e l ec t ron s o f t h e i nne r s he l l , w h ich i n duces t h e i r e xc i ta t ion . When e xc i ted , a n e l ec t ron i se j ec ted f r om i t s o rb i ta l a nd i s r e p laced b y a n e l ect ron f r om a n u ppe r l a ye r o f l e s se r e ne rgy . T h is o rb i ta l c hange r e lea se s q uan t if ied e ne rgy i nt h e

s amp le i si r rad ia ted b y a n X ray b eam . T he b eam h i t s t h e

s e c t ion , w h ich e xpose s b o th s i des o f t h e s h e rd . T he c u t i s i mme r sed 1 2 t o 2 4 h ou r s i n e poxy f o r c on so l ida t ion t o p r even tt h eg ra ins f r om t e a r ing d u r ing t h e p o l i sh ing p roce s s . At h in s e c t ion i sc u t f r om t h is b lock , g l ued t o ag l a s s s l ide a nd p o l ished t or each 3 0 m icron t h ickne s s ( 0 .03 mm ) . T he

f o rm o f f l uo rescence o r s e conda ry x rays , w h ich a r e c ha rac ter i s t ic o f e ach a t om . T he e l emen ta l c ompo s i t ion o f t h e s amp le i st h en d e term ined b y m ea su r ing t h e e ne rgy o r

p r epa ra t ion w a s d one b y J ean -P ie r re B ou rque , a t t h e G eo logy l a bo ra tory f o r t h in s e c t ion o f t h e U n ive r s i te d e

w ave l e ng th o ft h e s econda ry x ray s ( G i tzhof e r 1 992 ) .

Mon t rea l . T he p e trog raph ic a na lys i s w a s c onduc ted a t t h e U n ive r s i ty o f S he rb rooke o n a N ikon o p t ipho t -po l p e t rog raph ic m icroscope w i th a N ikon c ame ra f o r

T he XRF i n s t rumen tu sed f o rt h is r e sea r ch w a s aK evex 7 00

m icropho tog raphy , a nd i mage a na ly s i s w a s d one o n aL e i tz m e ta l lux 3 m icroscope c oup led t o av i deo c ame ra a nd a n I BM u s ing J a nde l S c ien t if i c S of twa re f o r i mage a cqu is i t ion a nd t r ea tmen t . Two o the r m icroscope s w e re a l so u s ed w h i le

o f t h e s amp le i s ar hod ium t ube c oo led w i th w a te r a nd a n t ige l , w i th a n e ne rgy r ange o f 4t o6 0 k V . T h ree d ife ren t t a rge t s ( x ray s ou rces ) a nd c ond i t ion s a r e u sed t oe xc i te t h e

o n s t udy t r ip s : a n O lympus BHM a tt h e g eo logy l a bo ra to ry f r om t h eE co le Norma le S upe r ieu re i nP a r i s , a nd aN ikon a t t h e p e t rog raphy l a bo ra to ry o f A n th ropo logy D epa r tmen t o f t h e U n ive r s i ty o f A r izona . A l l t h e se m ic ro scope s h ave

f r om 5 kV t o 3 5kV ( s ee T ab le 1 2 ) . T he d e tec to r w h ich c oun t s t h e p ho tons h i t t ing i t s s u r f ace i s aS i -L i s y s tem c oo led w i th l i qu id n i t rogen . T he c oun t s a r e p ropor t iona l t o e l emen ta l q uan t i t ie s p re sen t i n t h e s amp le . X ray

s im i la rf i l te r s , b u i l t in s ca le s ,a nd o b jec t ive s ( 2 .5x t o6 0x ) . 4 . 4 .2 EDXRF

p ene t ra t ion d epend s u pon t h e d en s i ty o f t h e s amp le a nd m a t r ix e f f ec t s , w h ich r e su l tf r om x ray a b so rp t ion w i th in t h e s amp le a nd f r om s econda ry f l uo re scence . T he ma tr ix e f f ec t s

X ray f l uo res cence o r ' e lemen ta l a na ly s i s b y e m is s ion s p ec t roscopy o fs e conda ry X -rays ' e xp lo i t s t h e f l uo re scence

a r e c o r rec ted b y t h e p rog ram EXACT b y K evex . A na ly t ica l e r ro r s r a nge b e tween 5 t o 1 5% a cco rd ing t o t h e e l emen t c on s ide red .

e ne rgy -d i spe r s ive d ev ice w i th 7s e conda ry t a rge t s a nd a 1 6 s amp le t r ay . T he s ou rce o f t h e x rays t h a t e xc i te t h e a t oms

e l emen t s i n t h e c e ram ic s amp le s , u s ing e ne rg ie s r a ng ing

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I s abe l le D ruc

T he ma jo r , m ino r , a nd t r ace e l emen t s m ea su red a r e l i s ted i n T ab le 1 2 . T he se e l emen t sa r er egu la r ly a na lyzed i ns o i ls a nd c e ram ics b y EDXRF a t t h e l a bo ra to ry f o r a na ly t ica l c hem is t ry o f t h e U n ive r se d e S he rb rooke . T hey a r e

T o a pp rox ima te t h e m ine ra l c ompos i t ion o f t he c e ram ics ,

e l emen t s

p e t rog raph ic a na lys i s . T hey a l so c o r re spond t o e l emen t s

c ompound s a r e t h e o r ig ina l f o rms u nde r w h ich o ccu r mo s t o f t h e ma jo r a nd m ino r e l emen t s i nc e ram ics , a nd t h i s i sa

c u r ren t ly c i ted i n p rovenance s t ud ie s ( B i shop e t a l . 1 982 ;

c ommon w ay o f p r e sen t ing x ray f l uo rescence d a ta . T he

P i con a nd L eM ie re 1 987 ; K u lef fa nd D j ingova 1 996 ) .

t r ace e l emen t s , h oweve r , r a re ly c omb ine w i th o xygen a nd t h e i r e l emen ta l v a lue i sg i ven i n p a r t s p e r m i l l ion ( ppm ) . T h i s p re sen ta t ion a l so h e lp s c o r re la te t h e c hem ica l d a ta t o

t h a t

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e xpec ted

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r e su l t s

o x ide c ompound s a r e r e con s truc ted b y r ed ist r ibu t ing t h e o xygen b e tween t h e d i f f e ren t ma jo r a nd m ino r e l emen t s mea su red , r e spec t ing o x ide s t o ich iome try . O x ide

o f

D a ta a cqu i s i t ion t a ke s 6t o 8h ou r s f o r 1 6 s amp les . E ach p eak i n t h e s pec tra ( s ee F igu re 1 8 n ex t p age ) a ccoun t s f o r t h e t o ta l o fc oun t s p e r s e cond r eg is te red b y t h e d e tec to r f o r as pec if i c e l emen t . T he b ackg round n o i se i se l im ina ted b y l i nea r i n te rpo la t ion , a nd t h e c ha rac te r i s t ic i n tens i ty o f a n e l emen t i s c a lcu la ted b y mea sur ing t h e a r ea b e low t h e h i ghes t p eak c o r respond ing t o t h a t e l emen t . T he p rocedu re i sd one m anua l ly f o r t h e l i gh t e l emen t s ( Na t oC a ) i no rde r t o v e r ify t h e i r c o r rec t a cqu i s i t ion b y t h e mach ine . T he i n tens i t ie s o f t h e o t he r e l emen ts a r e c a lcu la ted

t h em ine ra lc ompo s i t ion o b served i np e t rog raphy . P owder s amp le p repara t ion As ma l l s u r f ace o ft h e c e ram ic f r agmen t s i ss c ra tched c l ean w i th as t ee l b l ade , r emov ing t h e o u te r l a ye r o f t h e c e ram ic t o e l im ina t e a ny p a in t , s l ip , o r s u r f ace c on tam ina t ion . T he u se o f t h e s t ee l b l ade h a s n o e f f ec t u pon t h e a na lys is , b ecau se t h e e l emen t s i nt h e b lade a r e n o t d e tec ted b y XRF . T he c l eaned s u r face i sb roken a way f r om t h e f r agmen t a nd

a u toma t ica l ly .

p u lve r ized i na n a ga te mo r ta r . P owde r s amp les o f 1 20 t o 2 50 mg a r e t h en p re s sed i n to s ma l l p e l le t s o f 8 mm d iame te r , t h a ta r e 1t o 5mm t h ick .

S tandard sc a l ibra t ion Two s t anda rd s , RTS -1 a nd RTS -3 , f r om t h e C anad ian C en te r o f M ine ra l a nd E ne rgy T echno logy ( CAN MET ) ,

S o i ls a nd r aw c l ay s d i f f e r f r om f i red c e ram ics b ecau se t h ey h ave h i ghe r w a te r c on ten t . T o b a lance t h e e f f ec t o f w a te r

w e re a na lyzed a l ong w i th e ach b a tch o f s amp les t o e nsu re t h e s amp les a nd s t anda rd s w e re a na lyzed u nde r t h e s ame

e vapo ra t ion d u r ing f i r ing a nd f o rb e t te rc ompa r ison b e tween u nf ired a nd f i r ed p roduc t s , t h e w a te r c on ten t o f t h e r aw ma te r ia l s i ss ub t rac ted f r om t h e m ea su red e l emen ta l v a lue s a nd c oncen t ra t ion s a r e r e ca lcu la ted . T h i s p roces s p rov ide s a b e t te r c ho ice t h an l a bo ra tory f i r ing o f t h e r aw ma ter ia l s ,

a na ly t ica l c ond i t ions . T he s t anda rd s a r e r e gu la r ly r enewed . S tanda rd s i n ten s i t ie s a r e c a l ib ra ted i n a cco rdance w i th c er t if ied s t anda rd s f r om CANMET a nd c a l ib ra t ion c oef f ic ien t s a r e c a lcu la ted f r om t h em . T he c oef f ic ien t s a r e u sed f o rc o r re c t ing t h em a t r ix e f f ec t s .

b ecau se i n fo rma t ion o n s o i l c ompo s i t ions t ha t c an b e l a te r u sed i ng eo log ica l s t ud ie s i sn o tl o s t .

T he c a l ib ra t ion f i l ei sc on s t ruc ted b y c hoo s ing t h e e l emen ta l i n tens i t ie s o f t h e s t anda rd w h ich c o r respond b es t t o t h e e l emen ta l i n ten s i t ie s o f t h e s amp le s . F o r e xamp le , i f C a ( c a lc ium ) i n ten s i ty i n RTS -1 i s 3 20 c oun t s / s a nd 2 68

R eproduc ib i l i ty I n o rde r t o v e r ify t h e r e p roduc ib i l i ty o f t h e a na lys is , t wo s amp les p e r b a tch w e re r eana lyzed . T he w e igh t o f t h e p e l le t s w a s c hecked f o r l o ss o r g a in o f w e igh t i n s t o rage .

c oun ts / s i n RTS -3 , w h i le t h e ma jo r i ty o f t h e s amp le s h ave v a lues g r ea te r t h an 3 00 c t s / s , t h e C a i n tens i ty o f RTS -1 i s c hosen f o r t h e c a l ib ra t ion f i le . T h is p rocedu re i sr epea ted f o re ach b a tch , f o ra l lt h ee l emen t s mea su red .

T he s ame s t anda rd s w e re u sed t o m easu re c hanges i n c oncen t ra t ion a nd c oef f ic ien t f i le s w e re c ons truc ted i n t h e s ame w ay a s t h e i n i t ia l f i les . A m ea su re o f i n te rna l

E lemen ta lc oncen tra t ion s

c ons is tency r e l iab i l i ty ( A lpha c oe ff i c ien t ) w a s c ompu ted f r om t h e H oy t 's a na lys i s o f v ar iance . T he a lpha c oef f ic ien t y i e ld s af i de l i ty l e ve l f o r t wo m ea su re s t aken o n t h e s ame

T he p rog ram EXACT b y K evex c a lcu la tes e l emen ta l c oncent ra t ions a nd o x ide c oncen t ra t ions f o r t h e ma jo r a nd

s amp le . I tr a nges f r om 0 ( no r e l iab i l i ty ) t o + 1 ( per f ec t

m ino r e l emen t s i n w e igh t p e rcen t . T he c oncen t ra t ion s a r e t h en n o rma l ized t o 1 00% . T he s um o f t h e c oncen t ra t ion o f

r e l iab i l i ty ) . T he c ompa r ison b e tween t h e i n i t ia l a nd s e conda ry m ea su re s y i e lded a h i gh f i de l i ty l e ve l , w i th

t h e e l emen t s m ea su red r e p resen t s a bou t h a lf t h e a c tua l

c oeff i c ien t s r a ng ing f r om 0 .68 t o 0 . 88 , a nd a g ene ra l

e l emen ta l c ompo s i t ion o ft h e s amp le . T he r e s t i sc ompo sed o f o xygen a nd t r a ce e l emen t s n o t m ea su red b y x ray

c oeff i c ien t a t 0 . 86 . P robab i l i ty e r ro r s a s soc ia ted t o t h ese c oef f ic ien t sa r e l e s st h an 0 .0001 .

f l uo re scence . O xygen , i n t h e f o rm o f o x ide s ( s i l ica tes , c a rbona te s ,

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F igure 1 8 X ray f l uo rescence s pec t ra

4 . 4 .3 S ta t i s t ic s

s t a t is t ica l a na lys is . F o r i n t ra s i te s t udy , o n ly t h e d ef ic ien t e l emen t sf o rt h e s i te u nde ra na ly s is a r e e xc luded : C o a nd S e f o r C hav in ; N i , S e , a nd P b f o r A ncön ; S e a nd P b f o r H ua r ico to ; a nd S e f o r P a l lka a nd N epe r ia . R enormal i sa t ion o f t h e d a ta i sa u toma t ica l ly p e r formed w hen e l emen t s a r e

S t a t i s t ics i s t h e c oun te rpa r t o f c hem ica l a na lys i s . O ne o b jec t ive i n t h is s t udy i st o f i nd p a t ter n s i n t h e c hem ica l d a ta t h a t w i l l e nab le t h e c on s t i tu t ion o f c ompo s i t iona l g r oup s a nd t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f p rovenance . D if f e ren t s t a t i s t ica l p rocedu res w e re u sed t o t h i s e nd . F i r s t , d e scr ip t ive s t a t i s t ics h e lped v e r ify n o rma l i ty , l ook ing a t

e l im ina ted f r om t h e s t a t i s t ica l a na lys i s a nd c oncen t ra t ions a r e r e ca lcu la ted p ropor t iona l ly t ot h e n ew t o ta l w e igh t . T he p rocedu re o f o n ly t a k ing t h e d i sc r im inan t e l emen t s a nd

e l emen td i spe r sa l a nd s po t t ing o u t l ie r s o rp r ob lems w i th t h e

d i sca rd ing c on tam inan t s o r e l emen t s t h a t c ause e r roneous

d a ta . S econd , g roup p a t te rn s w e re s o ugh t , a nd s i te a t t r ibu t ion t e s ted , t h rough e xp lo ra to ry mu l t iva r ia te

g roup ing (W i lson 1 978 ; B i shop e t a l . 1 982 ) w a s n o t f o l lowed . T h i s i s b ecau se o f t h e d i f f icu l ty i n d e tec t ing

p r ocedu res , s u ch a s p r inc ipa l c omponen t a na lys is ( PCA ) ,

c on tam inan t s w i thou t a n e x tended c ompara t ive b a s is t h a t

c l u s te r a na lys i s , mu l t ip le d i scr im inan t a na ly s i s a nd l i nea r t y po logy a na lys i s .

s pec if ie s t h e e xpec ted c oncen t ra t ion , a nd b ecau se d i scr im ina tory e l emen t s d i f f e r f r om o ne s i te t o t h e o t he r . F u r thermo re , l ow e l emen t d e tec t ion o r t h e p r e sence o f

N o ta l l o ft h e m ea su red e l emen t s w e re t a ken i n to a ccoun ti n t h e s t a t is t ica l a na lys is . S ome p r e sen ted e r roneous d e tec t ion o r i r regu la r v a lue s d ue t o ap rob lem w i th t h e c a l ib ra t ion

c on tam inan t s c an s e r ve a sd i scr im ina t ive i nd ices ( B iebe r e t a l . 1 976 ) .

c oeff i c ien t s . T he se w ere e xc luded f r om t h e a na lys is . T h i s i s

F o r f a c to r ia l a na ly s i s , t r a ce e l emen t s a r e t r an sfo rmed i n to

t h e c a s e f o r t w o b a t che s f r om C h a v i n d eH u ä n t a r , where

w e igh t % t o o b ta in t h e s ame m ea su r ing u n i t f o r a l l

c oba l t( Co ) a nd s e len ium ( Se ) s howed n u l l v a lue s . T he s ame h appened f o r n i cke l ( N i ) i no ne b a t ch f r om A ncön , a nd f o r

v a r iab le s . T he d a ta i st h en s t anda rd ized ( i fn o ta u toma t ica l ly d one ) t o e l im ina te t h e d i f f e rence o f s c a le b e tween m a jo r a nd t r ace e l emen t s a nd t og i ve t h em e qua l w e igh t . T h i s a i d s

l e ad ( Pb ) i n 1 0 s amp les f r om H ua r ico to a nd A ncön . S e w a s a l so i r regu la r ly d e tec ted i n s e ve ra l s amp le s i na l l t h e d a ta . C onsequen t ly , C o , N i , S e , a nd P b a r e e xc luded i n t h e i n te r s i te a na ly s is , l e av ing a t o ta l o f 1 6 e l emen t s f o r

i n i n te rva r iab le c ompa r i son . T o s t anda rd ize , t h e e l emen ta l m ean i ss ub t rac ted f r om t h e v a r iab le x , a nd t h e r e su l t i s d i v ided b y t h ee l emen ts t anda rd d ev ia t ion ( x -m / sd ) . 5 3

I s abe l le D ruc

D es cr ip t ive s t a t is t ics

P r inc ipa lc omponen ta na ly s is

E lemen ta l c oncen t ra t ions a r e a s sumed t o b e n o rma l ly d i s t r ibu ted ( De B ru in e ta t . 1 976 :78 ) , a l low ing t h e u s e o f

P r inc ipa l c omponen t a na lys i s ( PCA ) i s p er formed o n a c o r re la t ion m a t r ix , w h ich p rov ides a n u nder s tand ing o f t h e l i nk s b e tween v a r iab le s ( i . e . e l emen t s o r c ompound s ) .

p a rame t r ic s t a t is t ics . I n g ene ra l , t h e e l emen t s mea su red i n t h is d a ta e xh ib i t an o rma l d i s t r ibu t ion . N o l oga r i thm ic

C ompo s i te v a r iab le s o rf a c to r s a r e f o rmed . I n t h a t w ay , t h e 1 6 d imens iona l s pace o f t h e a na lys is ( d ue t o t h e u se o f 1 6

t r ans fo rma t ion w a s n ece s sa ry . T he n o rma l i ty t e s t a ppl i ed i s t h e S hap i ro -W i lk t e s t , a nd t h e v a lue s o b ta ined r a nged b e tween 0 . 8 a nd 0 . 96 , e xcep t f o r C o a nd N i ; 0 . 53 a nd 0 . 75 ,

e l emen ta l v a r iab le s i n t h e d a ta ) i sr educed t o o n ly a f ew d imen s ions . T he f i r s t f a c to r s e xpress t h e g rea tes t v a r iance b e tween s amp le sa nd d i s t ingu ish b es tt h e s amp les f r om e ach

r e spec t ive ly . T he se t wo e l emen t s w e re s ubsequen t ly e l im ina ted f r om t h e a na ly s i s . D a ta d i spe r s ion a l so y i e ld s a f i r s t u nde r s tand ing o f t h e b ody o f a na lys i s . D if f e rences b e tween s i te s a r e s hown b y c ompa r ing t h e p a rame te r s o f d i spe r s ion a nd h i s tog rams f o r e ach e l emen t . E lemen t

o t he r . I nt h e d a ta s e t , t h e f i r s tf ou r o rf i ve f a c to r s e xp la in 6 0 o r 7 0 % o f t o ta l v a r iance , w h ich a l lows a g ood r ep re sen ta t ion o ft h e d a ta o n t h e f a c tor ia l a xes . P CA i sa l so ap r epa ra tor y m e thod f o r h i e ra rch ica l c l u s ter ing b ecause

a noma l ie s a nd m a rg ina l s amp le s w e re e xam ined t oi d en t ify t h ec ause o ft h e i rb ehav io ra nd w e re e l im ina ted i fn eces sa ry . O u t l ie r s w e re r emoved t o i n c rea se g roup h omogene i ty . I n

i n te r -e lemen tc o r re la t ion sa r et a ken i n to a ccoun t . T h i s i sn o t

t h is w ay , a bno rma l ly h i gh c oncen t ra t ions o fC r , C o , N i a nd F e a ppea red i n t wo s e r ie s f r om t h e r e s iden t ia l a r ea o f C hav in d e H uän ta r . T h is l e ad t ot h e f o rma t ion o f as epa ra te

s t a t is t ica l m e thod s u sed h e re c an b e f ound i n S he rman

g roup o f c e ram ic s . H oweve r , n o m ine ra l d i f fe rence s w e re o b served i n t h e p e t rog raphy o f t h e c e ram ics f r om t h e

C lu s ter a na lys i s

r e s iden t ia l a nd c e remon ia l a r ea s . A n a na ly t ica l p rob lem w a s s u spec ted , w h ich l a te rp roved t ob e l i nked t ot h e c a l ib ra t ion c oef f ic ien t s . T he t wo s e r ie s w e re r eana lyzed , a n m o re h omogenou s r e su l t s w e re y i e lded . A r e ana ly s is o f t h e

S amp les a r e g rouped b y h i e ra rch ica l c l u s ter ing a cco rd ing t o c ompo s i t iona l s im i la r i ty . S im i la r i ty i se va lua ted f r om t h e g eome tr ic d i s tance b e tween s amp les w i th in t h e f a c to r ia l s pace . T he c en t ro id m e thod i s u sed , w h ich d ef ine s t h e s ho r te s td i s tance t ot h ec en te ro ft h e g roup . T h is i sb a sed o n t h e s qua red E uc l idean d i s tance b e tween g roup m eans ( Snea th a nd S oka l 1 973 ) . T he s ho r tes t d i s tance e xp re s se s t h e g r ea tes t s im i la r i ty . T h i s me thod y i e ld s ag ood e s t ima te o f t h e m ean i n t rag roup v a r iance , p roduc ing c l u s te r s w i th g r ea te r i n ter na l h omogene i ty a nd m in ima l i n te rna l v a r iance ( B iebe r e ta l . 1 976 :63 ) . H oweve r , t h e p roces s o f ' s qua r ing '

t h e c a se w hen c l u s te r a na lys is i s p er formed o n r aw ( o r t r ans fo rmed ) d a ta . Mo re i n fo rma t ion o n PCA a nd t h e o t he r ( 1 988 ) o rB ax te r( 1 994 ) ,a mong o the r s .

s amp les w a s c onduc ted e very t ime a na ly t ica l e r ro r s w e re s u spec ted . I n mo s tc a ses , h oweve r , t h e ma rg ina l i ty o b se rved w a s ar e su l to ft h ec ompo s i t ion o ft h e s amp les . E xp lora tory mu l t ivar ia te a na ly s i s F ac to r ia l a na lys is t a ke s i n to a ccoun t e l emen t v a r iance a nd g roup s t h e s amp le s a cco rd ing t oc ompo s i t iona l s im i la r i t ie s . Two d i f f e ren t a pp roache s w e re a dop ted . T he f i r s t a pp roach f o cu sed o n t h e c on s t i tu t ion o f g roups w i thou t a p ree s tab l i shed r e f e rence g roup . T he r e a son f o r u s ing t h i s a pp roach w a s t od i scove r t h e l i nk s b e tween v a r iab les , t h e i r

t h e d a ta ( u s ing t h e s qua red d i s tance ) g i ve s mo re w e igh t t o t h e m a jo r e l emen t s , w h ich a r e n o t a lways t h e b e s t d i scr im ina tory e l emen t s . F u r thermo re , c l us te r a na lys is o n r aw d a ta , u s ing t h e E uc l idean d i s tance , d oe s n o t t a ke i n to a ccoun t t h e c o r re la t ion s b e tween e l emen t s t h a t o f ten o ccu r s

r o le i ng roup c ons t i tu t ion , a nd t oo b ta in a c l a s s if ica t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l o r m ine ra log ica l s i gn if i cance . T h i s w a s

i nc hem ica l d a ta . F o r t h i s r ea son , t h e f i r s t f i ve P CA f a c to r s c on s t ruc ted f r om a c o r re la t ion ma t r ix a re t a ken a s t h e

a ch ieved b y t h ree m e thod s : p r inc ipa l c omponen t a na ly s i s ( PCA ) , c l u s te r a na lys i s o n f a c tor ia l d a ta , a nd l i nea r

v a r iab le s , r a the r t h an u s ing t h e r aw d a ta . T he se f a c to r s

t y po logy ( s ee b e low ) .

p rocedu re a l lows f o r m o re r e l iab le r e su l t s t h an w i th r aw

T he s e cond e xp lo ra to ry a pp roach a ims a t v er ify ing t h e h omogene i ty o f p r ee s tab l i shed g roup s a nd a t tr ibu t ion o f

d a ta . O the r c l us te r ing m e thod s w e re u sed . N o d r a s t ic c hange s w e re o bserved i ng roup ing a nd t h ey o f ten e xh ib i ted l e s s s i gn i f ican ta r chaeo log ica l mean ing .

s amp le s t o t h e se g roup s u s ing d i s cr im inan t a na lys i s . T he f i r s t a pp roach w a s r e served f o r l ook ing a t t h e d a ta f r om

Mu l t ip le d i scr im inan t a na lys is

u sua l ly a c coun t f o r m o s t o f t h e t o ta l v a r iance a nd t h e

e ach s i te . T he s e cond a pp roach i n vo lves t h e e n t i re d a ta s e t , i d en t ify ing t h e c e ram ics w i th a t yp ica l c ompo s i t ion s a nd t h e

Mu l t ip le d i scr im inan t a na lys is e xp lo re s i n te rg roup r e la t ionsh ip s a nd a l low s f o r t h e a t t r ibu t ion o f s amp le s t o d i f f e ren t g roups ( Ove ra l l a nd K le t t 1 972 :280 ) . C on t ra r y t o

c hem ica l c ha rac ter i s t ics t h a t d i f fe ren t ia te o ne s i te f r om a no the r . T o o b ta in f u r the r i n fo rma t ion o n c hem ica l p rof i le s a nd s i te c ha ra c ter i s t ics , p rog rams o f mu l t ip le d i scr im inan t a na lys is a nd l i nea r t y po logy a na ly s is w e re u sed . T he

P CA , i td oe s n o t p rov ide i n forma t ion a bou t t h e r e la t ion sh ip

p rog rams h ave b een s pec ia l ly c r ea ted f o r a n th ropo log ica l

b e tween v a r iab les , b u t i n s tead f i nd s t h e b es t ma thema t ica l f u nc t ion s e pa ra t ing t h e g roups . T he d i scr im inan t f unc t ions

p rob lems

a r e

a r e c ompo s i te v a r iab le s r e su l t ing f r om t h e c omb ina t ion o f

d escr ibed b e low . T he i r u s e o n t h e d a ta s e t i s f ound i n C hap te r5 .

t h e i n i t ia l v a r iab le s ( Keck la 1 980 ) . T hese f unc t ion s a r e

( Fo re s t

n . d . ) .

T hese

s t a t is t ica l

me thod s

c a lcu la ted t o e xp re s s t h e

g rea te s t d i f fe rence s b e tween

g roup s r e la t ive t o t h e w i th in -g roup v a r iab i l i ty . T ha t i s , t h e 5 4

4-R e sea rch Me thodo logy s um o f t h e s qu a r ed d if e rence s b e tween t h e g roup mean s mus tb eg r ea te rt h an t h ew i th in -g roup v a r iance f o r t h e s ame d i scr im inan t f u nc t ion ( Ove ra l l a nd K le t t 1 972 ) . D isc r im inan t a na ly s i s w o rk s w i th b e tween - a nd w i th in g roup s c ova r iance ma t r ice s . Al i nea r f u n c t ion w i th mu l t ip le v ar iab le s i sc on s t ruc ted f r om t h e r a t io o f b e tween -g roup o ve rw i th in -g roup v a r iance .

L inea r t y po logy i s af a c to r ia l a na ly s i s e xp la in ing v a r iance , b a sed o n t h e s im i la r i ty m a t r ix . T h i s m e thod f o cu se s o n t h e s im i la r i t ie s b e tween s amp le s i n o rde r t o i d en t i fy ' p u re ' t ype s , o rp ro to type sw i th in t h e e n t i re s e to fd a ta . R eg r es s ion c oef f ic ien t s a r e d e te rm ined r e la t ive t o e ach t y pe f o r e ach s amp le . T he s amp le s a r e t h en a t t r ibu ted t o t h e c hem ica l t ype f o rw h ich t h ey p re sen tt h eh i ghe s tf a c to r ia lc oeff i c ien t .

Ano the r f un c t ion o f d i sc r im inan t a na ly s i s i s t o t e s t t h e p robab i l i ty o f g r oup m embe r sh ip . U sed w i th t h e P CA f a c to r s a s v a r iab le s i n t h e i n t ra s i te a na ly s i s , d i sc r im inan t a na lys is b enef i t s f r om f a c to r ia l r educ t ion a nd c an t hu s b e a pp l ied t o s ma l l g roup s . D i s cr im inan t a na ly s i s r equ i re s a n umbe r o f s u b je c t s t w ice o r t h ree t i me s t h e n umbe r o f v ar iab le s . When o n ly 4 v a r iab les ( PCA f a c to r s ) a r e u sed , g roup s o f 8t o 1 2 membe r s c an b e t e s t ed ( Keck la 1 980 ; S chm i t t 1 989 ) . F o r i n te r s i t e a na ly s i s , t h e r aw d a ta a nd 1 6 c hem ica l v a r iab le sa r e u sed s i nce t h e d a ta s e t i sl a rge r t h an when o ne s i t e i s c on s ide red a l one . S t anda rd iza t ion i s a u toma t ica l ly p e r f o rmed w hen t h e c ova r iance m a t r ice s a r e c ons t ruc ted . T he Maha lanob i s d i s tance , w h ich m ea su re s t h e d i s tance o f o ne s amp le t ot h e g rav i ty c en t e r o f t h e g roup a nd t a ke s i n to a c coun t t h e c o r re la t ion c o e ff ic ien t s b e tween e l emen t s , i su s ed t oc a lcu la t e s im i la r i t ie s . T h i s l a s t p o in t i s i mpo r tan t , b ecau se t h e p robab il i ty o f as amp le b e ing p lace i n ag roup d epend s u pon t h e p o s i t ion o ft h e s amp le r e la t ive t o t h e g roup ( S chm i t t 1 989 ) . E ach s amp le a t tr ibu t ion i s e s t ima ted b y c ompa r ing i t s m ean a nd s t anda rd d ev ia t ion t o t ho se o ft h er e f e r ence g roup ;i nt h i sc a se ,t h ed i scove ry s i te .

T he c hem ica l t y pe i sd e te rm ined b y as e t o f v a r iab le s , i n t h i s c a se , c hem ica l e l emen t s . T h i s y i e ld s a t ype c ha rac te r ized b y a s p ec if i c c ompo s i t iona l p rof i le . T he s amp le s a s soc ia ted w i th i tw i l l p r e sen t t h e s ame c hem ica l t e ndenc ie s . T h i s r e semb le s c l u s te r a na ly s is o n P CA v a r iab le s , b u t t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f t h e c e ram ics t o a c hem ica l p rof i le i s mo re d i r ec t w i th l i nea r t ypo logy . T h i s a na ly s i s p rov ide s i n fo rma t ion o n t h e d i s tr ibu t ion a nd i mpo r tance o f t h e c e ram ic s a mong t h e d i f f e ren t c hem ica l t ype s i d en t if ied . T he a na ly s i sp rog ram , h oweve r , a l lows t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f o n ly f i ve b a s ic t y pe s . C on sequen t ly , t h e r e su l t sa r el e s ss i gn if i can tw hen a pp l ied t ot h ee n t i re d a ta s e t t h an w hen i ti sa pp l ied t oo ne s i te a t at ime . I n t h e l a t te r c a se , t h e t y pe s d e te rm ined c o r re spond t o t h e d i f f e ren t c ompo s i t iona l t e ndenc ie s o b se rved a t t h e s i te . I t i s i mpo r tan t t on o t e t h e l ow s i gn i f icance o ft h e l a s t t y pe ( t ype 5 ) , w h ich i so f ten ac a tego ry c on ta in ing m a rg ina l a nd l e s se r t ype s . T he s amp le s a s soc ia ted w i th t h i s l a s t t y pe d o n o t a lway s s how a h omogenou s c ompo s i t ion , n o r d o t h ey p re sen tt h es ame c hem ica lp rof i le . T o o b ta in a t y p e i d en t if i ca t ion r e la t ing o n ly t o t h e s i te s w i thou t i n t roduc ing e x ter na l v a r iab i l i ty , c ompa ra t ive

S i te p rof i l es

s amp le s a r e e xc luded f r om a na ly s i s , e xcep t i n t h e c a se o f Hua r ico to . T h i s a l low s f o r ab e t te r c ompa r i son w i th t h e m ine ra log ica l a na ly s i s . T he c ompa ra t ive s amp le s f r om H ua r ico to a r e , h oweve r , i n c luded , b e cau se t h ey a r e mode rn c e ram ic s a nd r aw m a te r ia l s w i th a c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion s im i la r t o t h e a r chaeo log ica l s amp le s , a nd b ecau se t h e n umbe r o f s amp le s f o r t h i s s i te w a s t h e reby a ugmen ted , w h ich a l lowed f o rm o re r e l iab le s t a t i s t ica lr e su l t s .

A s t a t i s t ica l p r og ram f o r m u l t ip le d i s c r im inan t a na ly s i s , c r ea ted b y F r an c i s F o r es t ( n .d . ) i s u s ed t o i d en t i fy t h e c hem ica l c ha r a c t e r i s t ics o fe a ch s i te . Mu l t ip l ica t ion o f t h e g roup m ean s o ft h e o r ig ina l v a r iab le s b y t h e c oeff i c ien t s o f t h ed i sc r im inan tf u nc t ion sy i e ld s t h e m ean so ft h eg roup f o r e ach f unc t ion ( Ove ra l l a nd K le t t 1 972 :290 ) . T he a na ly s is w a s p e r fo rmed o nt h er aw d a ta . T he p rog ram c a lcu la te s t h e f unc t ions t h a t b e s t d i sc r im ina te t h e s i te s f r om e ach o the r , t a k ing i n to a c coun t a l l o f t h e f unc t ion s a nd i n te re lemen ta l c o r re la t ion s . T he a d ju s ted v ec to r s a r e c a lcu la ted o n t h e w e igh ted f u nc t ion s . T h i s a na ly s i s a low s f o r t h e c ha rac te r iza t ion o f e ach s i te b a sed o n t h e c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion o fi t sc e ram ic s .T he m ean f o re a ch v a r iab le ,t h e b e tween s i t e v a r ian ce o ft h e v a r iab le s a nd t h e d i sc r im inan t f unc t ions a r ec a l cu la t ed .T he m ean a nd v a r iance o fe a ch s i te w e re t h en c a lcu la t ed , p rov id ing t h e c oo rd ina te s o ft h e s i te s o n t h e g raph . M emb e r sh ip p robab i l i t ie s a r e e s t ima ted a nd c hem ica l t e nd en c ie s c ha ra c te r iz ing e a ch s i te a r e d e te rm ined . T he s i te p rof i le s a r e o b ta ined f r om a mo re c omp lex mu l t ip le d i s c r im inan ta na ly s i s , t a k ing i n to a ccoun t t h e r e la t ive v a r iance o f e a ch o f t h e d i s c r im inan t f unc t ion s ( F ranc is F o r e s t ,p e r sona lc ommun ica t ion 1 996 ) .

S ummary o ft h es t a t i s t ica lp ro cedure I n s umma ry , t h e s t a t i s t ica l p rocedu re i n c lude s e i gh t d i f f e ren ts t ep s : 1 . S tudy o f t h e d i spe r s ion p a rame te r o f t h e e l emen ta l v a r iab le so nn o rma l ized r aw d a ta . 2 . C on s t ruct ion o f t h e c o r re la t ion m a t r ice s . Ma rg ina l s amp le s a r e e l im ina ted a nd g roup h omogene i ty i s v e r i f ied u s ing t h e Ma ha lanob i s d i s tance s c a lcu la ted f o r t h ed i s c r im inan ta na ly s i s . 3 . P r inc ipa lc omponen ta na ly s i s . 4 . H ie ra r ch ica l c l u s te r a na ly s i s u s ing t h e f i ve f i r s t P CA f a c to r s . 5 .

L inear t y po logy a na ly s is

6 .

T he l a s t s t a t i s t i ca l a na lys i s c onduc ted i sl i nea r t y po logy a na lys i s ( Ove ra l l a nd K le t t 1 972 ) , T h i s a na ly s i s w a s d one b y F ranc is F o r e s t u s ing a p rog ram h e d eve loped ( n .d . ) .

7 .

5 5

D i s c r im in an ta na ly s i st ot e s tg roup h omogene i ty a te ach s i te u s ing t h eP CA f a c to r sa sv a r iab le s . D is c r im inan t a na ly s i s o n r aw d a ta , a l l s i te s t o ge the r . T h i s a na ly s i s y i e ld s t h e p robab i l i t ie s o f s i te m emb e r sh ip f o re a ch c e ram ic s amp le . Mu l t ip le d i s c r im inan t a na ly s i s . T h i s a na ly s i s i s p e r f o rmed o na l ls i te st oo b ta in s i te p rof i le s .

I s abe l le D ruc 8 .

L inea rt y po logy a na lys is f o re ach s i te .

E xp lora tory h ypo the se s T he e xp lo ra tory h ypo these s d i rec t ing t h is r e sea rch r e la te t o t h e r e sea rch q ue s t ions p o sed i n C hap te r 4 . T hey w i l l b e r e ca l led h ere a s af r amewo rk f o r t h e d a ta i n te rp re ta t ion i n t h e f o l low ing c hap te r s . T he f i r s t h ypo the s i s s t a te s t h e e x i s tence o fc ompo s i t iona l s im i la r i t ie s , m ine ra l o rc hem ica l , b e tween d i f f e ren t c e ram ics o f t h e b ody o f a na ly s i s . T h i s h ypo thes is j u s t if i e s t h e c ompa r isons t h a t h ave b een m ade . A cco rd ing t o t h e p rovenance p os tu la te p resen ted a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h is c hap te r , c e ram ics g rouped t o ge the r a r e a s sumed t ob e f r om t h e s ame p rovenance . A l so , c ompa r ison w i th r e fe rence m a te r ia l a nd u se o f t h e a bundance c r i ter ia s ugge s t al o ca l o r n on loca l c ha rac te r f o r ag roup o r a n i n d iv idua l c e ram ic . T he s econd h ypo the s i s s t a te s t h e e x i s tence o f i n te r s i te r e la t ionsh ip s a nd c e ram ic e xchange . T he h ypo thes i s i s v e r if ied i f c e ram ic c ompo s i t ions o f d i f f e ren t s i te s a r e s im i la r . T he t h i rd h ypo thes is p ropo ses t h e r e cogn i t ion o f as p ec ia l ized p roduc t ion , i nr e la t ion w i th t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o f C hav in -s ty le c e ram ics . T h i s j u s t if ie s t h e t r i angu la t ion o f t h e c hem ica l a nd p e t rog raph ic r e su l t s w i th t h e s t y l is t ic a nd c on tex tua l d a ta . T he a na lys is r e su l t s a r e n ow p resen ted .

5 6

CHAPTER 5 ANALYSIS RESULTS

F o r e a ch s i te , t h e r e su l t s o f t h e p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s a r e

T he f i r s t t ype , C h -A ( P l . l a ) , s hows a m ixed i n t ru s ive -

p re sen ted , f o l lowed b y t h e r e su l t s o f t h e c hem ica l a nd s t a t i s t ica l a na lyse s . T he c hap te r c l ose s w i th i n te r s i te a na lys i s . I n t h e p e t rog raph ic d e scr ip t ion s , p e t rog roup s a r e l a be led w i th a n a c ronym t oi d en t ify t h e s i te ( Ch f o r C hav in ,

s ed imen ta ry c ompo s i t ion , w i th many i n d iv idua l h or nb lende a nd a ug i te c ry s ta l s i n t h e ma t r ix . S ome g ran i te f r agmen t s s how my rmek i te a nd p er th i t ic t e x tu re . T h is t y pe i sd i v ided i n t wo p e t rog roup s . P e t rog roup C h -Al ( N=28 ) i s

A n f o r A ncön , e t c . ) a nd a c ap i ta l l e t te r t o r e f e r t o t h e p e t rog roup ( A , B , C , D , e t c . ) . T he n umbe r f o l low ing t h e

c ha rac te r ized b y a n a bundance o f c oa r se , i n termed ia te t o ma f ic i n t ru s ive f r agmen t s a nd 3 0% o f i n c lus ion s i n t h e

l e t te r i n d ica te s t h e s ubg roup ( A l , A 2 , e t c . ) . S ubg roups

p a s te . P e t rog roup C h -A2 ( N=12 ) h a s t h e s ame m ine ra l c ompo s i t ion , b u t f ewe rl i th ic f r agmen t s a nd 2 5% i n c lu s ions .

u sua l ly h ave t h e s ame m ine ra l c ompos i t ion a s t h e ma in g roup ( i . e . A ) , b u t m ay d i f f e r i n g ranu lome try o r m ine ra l

T he m ixed g ranu lome try , t h e p r e sence o f b o th a l te red a nd

a bundance . T he p e t rog roup s a r e a l so n amed a cco rd ing t o t h e m a in m ine ra l o r r o ck t y pe p re sen t , f o r e a s ie r i d en t if i ca t ion . T hu s , C hC l r hyo l i t ic t uf i sp e t rog roup C1

u na l te red m ine ra l s p l ag ioc la se a nd h ornb lende , t h e l ow a ngu la r i ty o f t h e g ra ins , a nd t h e v a r ie ty o f l i th ic f r agmen t s

f r om C hav in d e H uän ta r , c ha rac te r ized b y as t rong p r e sence o f r hyo l i t ic t u f f f r agmen t s . When g i v ing t h e c ompos i t ion ,

s ugge s tt h e u se o fu n so r ted d et r i t ic s ed imen t s ( s and o re a r th ) a s t empe r . P e t rog roup C h -A2 i s af i ne r v e r s ion o f C h -A l . B o th g roup s c on ta in c e ram ics o f a l l f o rms , d eco ra ted a nd

r o ck s a nd m ine ra l s a r e l i s ted i n d ec rea s ing o rde r o f t h e i r

p l a in .

r e la t ive a bundance . F o r e a ch s i te , at a b le s umma r ize s t h e p e t rog roup c ha rac ter is t ics . C ompa ra t ive ma ter ia l a nd

T he s e cond c ompos i t iona l t y pe , C h -B

( P l .

h e te rogeneou s

l a rge

g eo log ica l d a ta a r e g i ven t op rov ide ab a s is f o r p rovenance i n te rp re ta t ion . T he g eo logy o fe ach r eg ion w a s p re sen ted i n mo re d e ta i l i n C hap te r 2 . T he d e ta i l s o f t h e p e t rog raph ic a na lys i sa r ef o und i nt h eo r ig ina l manu scr ip t ( D ruc 1 997 ) .

5 . 1 C hav in d e d i s tr ibu t ion

Huän tar

c eram ic

p roduc t ion

w i th

a

l b ) , h a s a v o lcano -

s ed imen ta ry c omponen t . I ti sd i v ided i n to t h ree p e t rog roup s . T he g ranu lome tr ic a na lys is s hows t h a t t h e p e rcen tage o f i n c lu s ion s i s b e tween 2 7% a nd 2 9% . T he g r a ins a r e u n sor ted , o f ten a l te red a nd s ub rounded t o s ubangu la r i n s h ape . C h -B1 ( N=10 ) i s as and w i th m ixed l i th ic f r agmen t s ( s i l t s tone , s ha le , a r en i te , a rg i l l i te , f i ne -g ra ined v o lcan ic c l a s t s , g ran i te a nd i n termed ia te r o ck f r agmen t s , q ua r tz i te a nd q ua r tz -muscov i te s c h is t ) . T he m a jor i ty o f t h e m ine ra l i n c lu s ion s i s q ua r t z a nd f e ld spa r c r ys ta ls a nd a l e s se r

a nd

T he s amp le f o r C hav in d e H uän ta r c ons is t s o f 1 09 t h in s e c t ion s o f c e ram ics f r om t h e c e remon ia l a r ea ( N=86 ) a nd t h e o l d s e t t lemen t ( N=23 ) . T he f i r s t w e re c o l lec ted b y Wende l l B enne t t , t h e s e cond b y R icha rd B u rge r . F o r i d en t if i ca t ion s a ke , t h e B enne t t s amp les r e ta in t h e i r o r ig ina l l a be l ( Ch -37xx ) ; w h i le B u rge r 's s amp le s a r e n umbe red B1 t o B 23 ( s ee T ab le 4 i n C hap te r 4f o r c o r respondence w i th c o l lec t ion n umbe r s ) .

c ompo s i t ion

a moun t o f ma f ic m ine ra ls . S ome t h in s ec t ion s h ave s e conda ry c a rbona te g r a ins . T he c e ram ics i nt h is p e t rog roup c ome f r om f i ne ly d eco ra ted a nd p la in b ow ls , b o t t les a nd o ne j a r . P e t rog roup C h -B2 ( N=3 ) h a s am icaceou s p a s te w i th f ew r o ck f r agmen t s , w h i le C h -B3 ( N=4 ) h a s as and p a s te w i th r ounded c a rbona te g ra ins a nd m ixed l i th ics . T he t h i rd t y pe , C h -C ( P l . l c -d ) , i sc ompo sed o f p y ro c la s t ic

T h i s a l low s q u ick c ompa r ison o f

s amp le sa c co rd ing t ot h e i rp rovenance .

r hyo l i t ic

5 . 1 .1 P e trograph ic a na lys i s

p e t rog roup s a cco rd ing t ot h e p ropor t ion o fr hyo l i t ic t uf a nd d eg ree o f v i t r if ica t ion . H oweve r , t h e m ine ra l c ompo s i t ion

ma ter ia l .

T h i s

t ype

i s d i v ided

i n to

t h ree

Among t h e 1 09 t h in s e c t ions , e l even p e t rog roup s w e re

( c oa r se a ngu la rv o lcan ic q ua r t z , p l ag ioc la se , h or nb lende a nd

i d en t if ied , r e p re sen t ing f ou r v ery d i f f e ren t c ompo s i t iona l

b i o t i te ) r ema in s u nchanged i n t h e t h ree p e t rog roup s . C ompo s i t iona l v a r ia t ion i n t h e p y roc la s t ic ma ter ia l i s a f u nc t ion o f t h e d i s tance t h e m a ter ia l t r ave led f r om t h e

t y pes . T h ree t h in s e c t ion s r ema in u na t t r ibu ted a nd h ave a t yp ica l c ompo s i t ion s . A pp rox ima te ly 5 0 a dd i t iona l t h in s e c t ion s f r om u ndeco ra ted b ody s he rd s w e re a l so a na lyzed b u t e xc luded f r om t h e a na lys i s b ecause o f i n secu re f o rma l , s t y l is t ic o r c h rono log ica l a t t r ibu t ion . H oweve r , mo s t f a l l i n to t h e p e t rog roup s i d en t if ied , a nd a f ew s how a t yp ica l c ompo s i t ion s t h a t a r e d i f f e ren t f r om t h e o nes o b se rved i n t h e f i na l a na lys i s .

s ou rce o f t h e e rup t ion . H ence , p a s te c ompo s i t ion s l igh t ly c hange s a cco rd ing t ow he re t h ep o t te rg e t sh i s t empe r . T he p e rcen tage o f g ra ins i n t ype C s amp les i si n ar a nge b e tween 3 1 -36% . C h -C1 ( N=12 ) i s c ha rac ter ized b y t h e p r e sence o f f i ne t o c oa r se w e lded r hyo l i t ic t u f f ; C h -C2 ( N=7 ) c on ta ins p o rphyr i t ic r hyo l i te f r agmen t s w i th n o w e lded t u f f ; C h -C3 ( N=13 ) h a s v ery f ew l i th ic f r agmen t s

T he f ou r c ompo s i t iona l t y pes a r e d i s t ingu ished b y t h e g eo log ica lo r ig in o ft h e i rm ine ra la nd l i th ic i n c lu s ion s . T hey

a nd t h e m ine ra l si nt h e m a tr ix a r e l a rge . T he t empe r u s ed b y t h e p o t te r s i sh e re ap y roc la s t ic s and , c o l lec ted a td i f f e ren t

a r e s ubd iv ided i n to p e t rog roups o f s l igh t ly d i f f e ren t c ompos i t ion o rg r anu lome t ry . T he p e rcen tage o f i n c lu s ion s g i ven f o r t h e p e t rog roup s i s t h e mean a r ea p e r cen tage o b ta ined f r om g r anu lome t r ic s t ud ie s b y i mage a na lys i s . T he

g eog raph ic l o ca t ion , b u t d er ived f r om t h e s ame v o lcan ic s ou r ce . T he c e ram ics f r om t h is c ompo s i t iona l t y pe a r e c oa r se o l la s , j a r s , s ome b ow ls , d eco ra ted o r p la in , a nd t wo

p e t rog roup s o f C hav in a r e i lu s t ra ted i n P la te 1 , i n m id -

b o t t le s( Ch -C3 ) .

c hap te r . 5 7

I s abe l le D ruc T he f ou r th c ompo s i t iona l t y pe i sr ep re sen ted b y p e t rog roup C h -E ( P l . 1 g ) . I t i s me tamo rph ic , w i th c oa r se q ua r t z mu scov i te -sch i s t f r agmen t s a nd many l a rge i nd iv idua l

c o l lec ted f r om r oad c u t s n o r th a nd s ou th o f t he r u in s , a nd

s hee t s o f mu scov i te i n t h e p a s te m a t r ix . T he m ine ra l a nd

s ed imen ta ry l i th ic f r agmen t s . T he l i t h ic f r agmen t s a r e o r thoqua r tz i te , a r en i te a nd s ha le . T he re a r e n o v o lcan ic , i n t ru s ive o r h i gh ly m e tamo rph ic f r agmen t s . T h ree r o ck s p ec imens t yp ify ing t h e r e g iona l r o ck s a r ound w e re a l so

f r om u ncon so l ida ted s a nd s f r om t h e Mo sna a nd Wa cheq sa r i ve r s

l i th ic i n c lu s ion s a ccoun t f o r 4 7% o f t h e s u r face a r ea i nt h e p a s te . O n ly t h ree c e ram ic f r agmen t s o fd i f f e ren t w a re t y pe s h ave t h i s c ompo s i t ion ( one i sf r om ag r a te r ) .

c on ta in amean o f 1 9% i n c lu s ion s , b u t i nt h e c a se o f C h -D t h eg ra in sa r ec oa r se , wh i le t h ey a r e f i ne i nC h -F . C h -D ( N=2 ) i s mos t ly f e ls ic ( f ine q ua r t z a nd f e ld spa r , g ran i te t o g ranod ior i te r o ck f r agmen t s , a nd r a re m e tamo rph ic a nd s ed imen ta ry f r agmen t s ) c omponen t s i na v ery d a rk p a s te . B o th c e ram ics a r e f i ne b ow ls ( one p o s t C hav in ) f ound i n ar oom e xcava ted b y B enne t t , e a s t o f t h e r e c tangu la rp l aza . l i t h ic

f r agmen t s

o f m ixed

o r ig in

a na lyzed .

T he

c ompo s i t ion

s ugges t s

s amp le s

a r e

c ompo sed

o f

t h in s e c t ion s f r om C hav in , w he re s e d imen tary g ra in s a r e f ew a nd m ixed w i th i n t ru s ive a nd /o r v o lcan ic l i t h ic f r agmen t s . T h ree modern s amp les f r om o l la s w e r e a l so a na lyzed . T hey c ome f r om Y acya , as ma l l v i l lage i n t h e Wh i te C o rd i l le ra 4 0 km n o r th o f C hav in , n ea r H ua r i . I ti s , h oweve r , o ne o f t h e c l o se s t v i l lage s w he re c e ram ic i ss t i l l

c ompo sed o f e l onga te c a rbonaceou s s ha le f r agmen t s , s ome

( i n tru s ive ,

q ua r tz i te a nd c ru shed s l a te . T h i s c ompos i t ion i s v ery d i f f e ren t f r om t h a t o b se rved i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ics

s ed imen ta ry , v o lcan ic a nd /o r m e tamo rph ic ) . T he m ine ra l c ompo s i t ion i ss im i la r t ot y pe s Ao rB , a cco rd ing t ot h e t h in s e c t ions

T he se

p roduced . I tc an b e r eached b y f oo t i na pp rox ima te ly 5 -6 h ou r s b y moun ta in t r a i l s . T he c ompo s i t ion o f t h e se modern o l la s i s s ed imen ta ry a nd m e tamo rph ic . T he t empe r i s

P e t rog roup F ( N=12 ) i sc ha rac te r ized b y f i ne g ranu lome t ry r a re

C hav in .

c o l lec ted o n t h e s i te o fC hav in . T hey a r e a l l o f s ed imen ta ry f l uv iog lac ia l n a tu re ( qua r tz i te a nd c ong lome ra te ) . T h is s ed imen ta ry c omponen t i sn o t a s d om inan t i n t h e c e ram ic

P e t rog roups C h -D ( P l . 1f ) a nd C h -F ( P l . 1 h ) a r e i n termed ia ry v a r ian t s o fc ompo s i t iona l t y pe s Aa nd B . B o th

a nd

n ea r

f r om C hav in , e xcep t f o rt h ep o s t -Chav in s amp le 3 732 .

s im i la r

r e sou rce a r ea s b u t d i f fe ren t p a s te p r epa ra t ion . C e ram ics i n P rev ious p e trograph ic a na lys is

t h is g roup a r eb o t t le f r agmen t sa nd o ne d eco ra ted b ow l . T h ree t h in s e c t ions a r e w i thou t a t tr ibu t ion d ue t o t h e i r

R icha rd B u rge r( 1984 ) d i s t ingu i she st wo l o ca l t ype so fp a s te f o r t h e U raba r r iu c e ram ics h e e xcava ted , b a sed o n m ac roscop ic i n spec t ion . O ne p a s te t y pe i sc ommon t o9 9% o f t h e w a re s . I tc on ta ins many m ed ium t o c oa r se -g ra ined

a t yp ica l c ompo s i t ion . S amp le 3 708A ( P l . 1i ) i s aC hak inan i i n c i sed d eco ra ted b ow l , w h ich h a s av ery f i ne b rown p a s te , f ew q ua r tz a nd f e ld spa r g ra ins o f s i l t a nd f i ne s a nd s i ze a nd n o l i th ics . E i the r n o t empe r w a s u sed a nd t h e f i ne tex tu red c l ay c ame f r om a s ed imen ta ry c l ay b ed , o r t h e c l ay w a s c a refu l ly l e v iga ted . A S EM e l emen ta l a na ly s is o f t h e c l ay d i s t ingu i she s i t f r om t h e o t he r p a s te s f r om C hav in , c onf i rm ing an on loca lo r ig in o ft h ew a re .

i n c lus ion s i n t h e f i ne a nd d ome s t ic w a res a l ike . T he g ranu lome tr y i sr epo r ted t o b e f i ne r f o r c ups a nd b o t t le s , w h ich c o r re spond s t o t h e o b serva t ion s o ft h e p re sen t s t udy . T he c ommon p as te a l so a ppea r s i n t h e c e ram ics f r om t h e s ub sequen t p hase s , c onf irm ing t h e c on t inuous c ha ra c te r o f t h e p roduc t ion w i th t ime . T h is w a s a l so o b ser ved i n o u r a na ly s i s . Af ew c e ram ic s h ave an on l o ca l p a s te . T h is i st h e c a se o f ac ompo tera , w ho se p a s te c on ta ins t r emo l i te a nd g ran i te o r d ior i te f r agmen t s w i th e p ido te , a nd n o b i o t i te f l akes ( Rober tT racy i nB u rge r 1 984 :76 ) .

S amp le 3 781A ( P l . 1 j ) i sf r om a n a t yp ica l j a r . I t s v o lcan ic c ompo s i t ion r e semb les p e trog roup C h -C2 , b u t many s i l t s tones a nd c her t f r agmen t s o f f i ne t o v ery c oa r se s and s i ze a r ea l so p resen t .

A p e t rog raph ic s t udy w a s c onduc ted b y R obe r t T ra cy o n

S amp le 3 732 ( P l . 1 k ) c ome s f r om a p o s t -Chav in p a in ted

n i ne t h in s e c t ions . T he d e scr ip t ion s g i ven

b ow l . I t s c ompo s i t ion i sc ha rac ter ized b y t h e p r esence o f a bundan tc a rbonaceou s s ha le o fm ed ium t ov ery c oa r se s a nd s i ze , s im i la r t o t h e f r agmen t s f ound i n modern o l la s

t h is r e sea r ch . F o r b e t te r c ompa r i son , i tw a s p os s ib le t o s e e t h e se s amp les . T hey a l l f a l l i n to t h ep e t rog roups e s tab l i shed f o r t h e p re sen t a na ly s i s ; t wo t h in s e c t ion s i np a r t icu la r h ave

p roduced i n Ma l la s a nd Y acya i nt h e C hav in -Hua r i r eg ion . N o o t he r c e ram ics f r om C hav in i nt h e E a r ly H o r izon h ave

v o lcan ic w e lded t u f f f r agmen t s s im i la r p e t rog roup C hCl ( TS 1 B7 a nd 2 B5 ) .

t h is c ompo s i t ion . T ab le

1 3

( n ex t

p age )

s umma r ize s

t h e

i n B u rge r 's

p ub l ica t ion ( 1984 ) c oncu r w i th t h e o b se rva t ions m ade i n

p e t rog raph ic

t o

t h o se

i n

T he m inera log ica l s t udy b y XRD c onduc ted b y S a laza r a nd

c ha rac te r is t ics o f t h e p c t rog roup s a nd a t yp ica l c e ram ics o f

c o l leagues ( 1986 -s e e C hap te r 3 )i sn o t d e ta i led e nough , i n t h e p ub l ished v e r s ion , t o a l low f o r c ompa r ison . T he o n ly m ine ra ls men t ioned a r e w h i te t a lc , f e ld spa r a nd a mph ibo le

C hav in d e H uän ta r . C ompara t ive m a ter ia l

c r ys ta l s . F e ld spa r a nd a mph ibo le a r e , a nyhow , c ommon i n C hav in c e ram ics .

T he c ompa ra t ive s amp le s c o l le c ted i n a nd a r ound C hav in a r e s o i l s f r om t h e c e remon ia l a r ea . O the r s amp le s w e re

5 8

5-A na ly s i sR e su l t s T ab le 1 3 P e t rog raph ic c ha rac te r is t ics o f t h e C hav in d e H uän ta r c e ram ic s . P G p e t rog roup s , I NT i n t ru s ive r o ck s , VOLC v o lcan ic r o ck s , S ED s ed imen ta ry r o ck s , MET m e tamo rph ic r o ck s , g ranu l g r anu lome t ry , a ngu l a ngu lar i ty , 0n o ta bundan t , + v ery a bundan t , -a b sen t , g r g ran i te , my r my rmek i te , d id i o r i te , q z t q ua r t z i te , a r en a r en i te , s i l t s t s i l t s tone , a r g a r g i l l i te , t e c t e c ton ized , q z q ua r tz , f d f e ld spa r , h n h or nb lend , p x p y roxene , c h i c h lo r i te , o lo l iv ine , e p i e p ido te , b r b rown , yy e l low , g g r ey , rr e d , dd a rk ,b ib l ack , Ll i t h ic s ,M m ine ra ls , s rs ub rounded , a ng a ngu la r , s gs ubangu la r .

PG

I NT

A l

g r my r d i or i te b a sa l t

A 2

B

C

D

E

F

S ED

( q z t )

g ran i te b a sa l t

( f ine v o le )

( q z t s i l t s t )

( m ixed )

r hyo

s i l t s t a r en s and s t s ha le a rg

-

g ranod i o r i te -

( g ran i te ba sa l t )

0 8A

-

8 1A

-

3 2

VOLC

-

MET

m ine ra ls

p a s te c o lo r

g ranu l

a ngu l

( q z t tec s ch is t )

q z f d h n+ p x+ c h i o l iv e p i

b r

L =1 :1

L =ang -s r

M=2 :1

M=angs r

-

q z f d h n+ p x+ b te p i

y g

L =2 :0

L =s r

d en se

M=2 :1

M=sg

q z

r d

L =2 :0

L =sg -s r

M=2 :0

M=sg -s r

L =2 :0 M=2 :0

L =a r -s r

q z t s ch is t

t u f f r hyo l

( s i l t s t q z t q z -a ren )

-

( s ha le q z t a r g )

( q z t )

( q z t )

( q z -a ren q z ts i l t s t )

-

( f ine )

f i ne

-

s i l t s t

s ha le c a rbon

f d

( ma f )

-

q z f d ma f q z

y b r g

M=ag -sg

f d

b i

L =1 :0 M=2 :0

L =sg M=sg

s ch is t mu se

q z f d b t mu sc

b r

L =2 : -1 M=2 :0

L =sg -s r M=sg

( s ch i s t )

q z f d ma fe p i

d

L =2 M=2

L =s r -sg M=sg -s r

-

q z f d

b r

M=3 :2

M=s r

-

q z m a f

b r

L =2 :1 M=2 :0

L =s r

L =1 : -1

L =s r

M=2

M=sg

ma f

-

q z f d

f d

y g

M=sg

G eo log ica l d a ta f o rt h e C hav in d e Huän tar r eg ion

5 ,C hap te r 2 ) . T he m af ic c ompo s i t ion o f many c e ram ic t h in s e c t ions f r om C hav in m ay h ave b een d er ived f r om t h ese

W i th in a2 0k m r a d iu s o fC hav in , t h e t e r ra in i ss ed imen ta ry .

o u t crops . C oncer n ing t h e v o lcan ic ma te r ia l , n o m en t ion o fi t

I n te rbedded c oa l , a r en i te a nd s ha le l a ye r s a r e t h e s u r f ace f e a tu re s ( Boden lo s a nd E r ick sen 1 955 ) . Wh i te s and s tone o f

a nd c o l league s ( 1 981) , w h ich a r e t h e mo s t d e ta i led map s o f

i sr epo r ted n ea r C hav in o n t h e g eo log ica l map s o fC obb ing t h e r e g ion . H oweve r , E r ick sen a nd B oden lo s ( 1 955 ) m en t ion t h e p r e sence o f s ma l l r hyo l i t ic s t ock s n ea r t h e

t h e C h imu f o rma t ion , a nd b l ack s ha le a nd q ua r tz i te o f t h e C h icama f o rma t ion o u tcrop i n t h is r eg ion ( Cobb ing e t a l . 1 981 ) . A l luv ia l m a ter ia l i sa bundan t a round t h e s i te , d ue t o m any l a nd s l ide s o f g lac ia l ma te r ia l . S ou th , e a s t , a nd n o r thea s to fC hav in l ime s tone o u tcrop s . I ns ome p l aces , i ti s

A n tam ina a nd C on tonga l e ad a nd z i nc m ine s . T he se a r e l o ca ted s ome 1 0 -12 km n o r thea s t o f C hav in a bove S an Ma rco s ( s ee f i gu re 1 9 ) . T h is c ou ld b e t h e r e sou rce a r ea f o r

m ixed w i th a r en i te a nd s ha le f r om t h e S an ta , C a rhua z , C e lend in a nd J uma sha s ed imen ta ry f o rma t ions . T he Wh i te C o rd i l le ra b o rde r ing C hav in i s c omposed o f g r an i t ic t o g r anod ior i t ic r o ck s . N ea r R ecuay ( s ou thwe s t o f C hav in ) , o u t c rops a nd s t ock s o f t ona l i te a nd g ranod ior i te f r om t h e

t h e C a l le jön d e H uay la s ; w e lded t u f f s a r e r epor ted i n t h e r e g ion o f P ampa J un in , mo re t h an 3 0 km s ou thea s t o f

t h e r hyo l i t ic t u f f a nd p y roc la s t ic t empe r f ound i n t h e c e ram ics o f p e t rog roup s C h -C1/3 . F a r the r a way , o t he r v o lcan ic r o ck s o u tc rop s ou th o f t h e q ueb rada Q u i l loc n ea r

C hav in , a nd v o lcan ic b r ecc ia s w i th r hyo l i te s , d ac i tes , t uf s a nd l a va s a r e f o und n ea r t h e H uan t sän P eak i n t h e Wh i te

C ohup a nd C a rhu i sh f a c ies a r e l o ca ted ( s ee F i gu re

5 9

I s ab e l le D ruc C o rd i l le ra n o r th o fC hav in ( Ege le ra nd D e B ooy 1 956 :27 p l XV ; s e e f i gu re 5 ,Chap te r 2 ) . O the r p o s s ib le s ou r ce s f o r v o lcano c la s t ic m a te r ia l c ou ld b e t h e r i oda c i te o u t c rop s S E o f C hav in , a nd p y ro c la s t ic m a t e r ia l a nd i g n imb r i t e i nt h e C a l le jön d e H uay la s ( Cobb ing e ta / . 1 996 ) . T o t h e w e s t o f

R io S an ta a r e s e ve ra l r h yo l i t ic f l ow s w i th w e ld ed s h a rd s ma t r ix a nd p heno c ry s t s o f e mbayed q ua r tz , p l ag io c la se , s a n id ine a nd r e dd i sh -b rown b i o t i t e ( Robe r t S t r u s iev icz , p e r sona lc ommun ica t ion 1 998 ) .

l i me s tone ,J uma sha f o rma t ion s a nd s tone ,s ha le ,c oa l , G oy l la r i squ i sga f o rma t ion

1 1 1 1

r hyol i t eo u t c rop s v i l lage a r cha eo log i ca ls i te

F igure 1 9G eo logy n ea rC hav in d eH uän ta r( a f te rB oden lo sa nd E r i ck s en 1 9 55 :f ig .3 ) C onc lu s ion f r om t h e p e t rog raph i c a na ly s i s o f C hav i n d e H ud r i ta rc e ram i cs

C hav in b ow l . T h i s w a s , h oweve r , n o t am a t e r ia l u s ed i n C hav in t i me s . F ina l ly , t h e m i ca s ch i s t r e sou r ce a r ea f o r p e t rog roup C h -E w i th q ua r tz -mu s cov i te c ompo s i t ion w i l l p robab ly b e f o und o u t s ide t h e r e g ion . AP e r uv ian g eo log i s t s ugge s t ed t h a t H uanu co c ou ld b e t h e p rodu c t ion p l a ce o f t h e se w a re sa sm e tamo rph ic r o ck s a r e m o r e c ommon i nt h i s r e g ion .

T he g eo logy a nd c ompa ra t ive m a t e r ia l f o r C hav in s ugge s t t h e u se o f d i f f e r en t r e sou r ce a r ea s i n al a rge p e r ime t e r a r ound t h es i te o ri nt h ev a l ley .T he l ow a bundance o fs ha le , a r en i te , a nd q ua r tz i t e a nd t h e p r edom inance o fi n tr u s ive o r v o lcan ic f r agmen t si nt h ec e ram i c ss u gge s tt h a tt h er e sou r ce a r ea sw e re n o tl o ca ted i nt h es e d imen ta ry v a l ley -bo t tom ,b u t i n t h e c o rd i l le r a o r a l ong i t s s l op e s . T he c l ay s u s ed a r e p robab ly u n so r ted p r ima r y c l ay s , w i th r emnan t s o f t h e p a r en tr o ck , o r , i ns ome c a s e s , g l a c ia l ly d e r ived c l ay s . T he Wa cheq sa a nd Mo sna s a nd s w e r e n o t u s ed a s t empe r . T he t o na l i t e a nd g r anod io r i t e o u t c rop s n ea r t h e C a l le jön c ou ld c on s t i tu te t h e t emp e r r e sou r ce ( o r p r odu c t ion ) a r ea f o r c e r am ic s i np e t rog roup s C h -A , w h i le t h e m ixed s e d imen to v o lcan ic c ompo s i t ion o fp e t rogoup s C h -B c ou ld c ome f r om d epo s i t sc l o se rt oC hav in . B o th r e g ion sc ou ld h ave p r ov ided m a t e r ia l f o r p e t rog roup s C h -D a nd C h -F . C e ram ic s w i th p y roc la s t ic t empe r ( P e t ro type C h -C ) c ou ld h ave b e en p roduced w i th in a1 2k mr a d iu sf r om t h e A n tam ina r h yo l i t ic s ou r ce ,i fu s ed .T he n ume rou sb edd ing l a ye r so fc oa la r ound t h er e g ion c ou ld a t t e s to ft h el o ca lp r oduc t ion o ft h ep o s t -

I n c onc lu s ion , d i s tan ce s b e twe en a c tua l p r odu c t ion a nd r e sou r ce a r ea s i n t h e r e g ion o f s t udy , a nd t h e d i f f e r en t w o rk shop s i d en t if i ed f r om t h e p e t rog roup s i n t h e C hav in s amp le s ugge s t p r eh i s to r ic c e ram ic p roduc t ion s i n ar a d iu s o f 1 2 t o 1 5 k m a r ound C hav in . I t mu s t b e r emembe red , h oweve r , t h a t t h e c o ld , w e t e nv i ronmen t a r ound C hav in i s n o t f a vo rab le f o r l a rge sca le c e r am ic p r oduc t ion . T oday , t h e re i sn o p o t t e r i n o r n ea r t h e v i l lage , a nd n one a r e m en t ioned i nc o lon ia lt i me s a nd l a t e rp e r iod s . T he r e i sa l so n o r e po r t o f g ood c l ay f o r c e r am ic m anu f a c tu r e . N eve r the le s s , t h e m ine ra logy a nd g r anu lome t ry o f t h e p e t rog roup si nC hav in s ugge s tt h ef o l low ing t y pe so ft empe r a nd p r ovenance : P e t rog roup s C h -A ( A 1 -A2 ) : u n so r ted s e d imen t o r d e t r i t ic s a nd o f i n t r u s ive o r ig in . P o s s ib le r e sou r ce a r ea m ay h ave 6 0

5-A na ly s i sR e su l t s b een l o ca ted u p t o 2 0 km s ou thwe s t o f C hav fn a nd o n t h e

p er ta in ing t ot h e p e t rog roup s C h -A l ( 1 4 s e c t ions o u t o f2 3 ) , C h -A2 , C h -B1 , C h -B2 , C h -C1 , C h -C3 a nd C h -F . N one o f t h e t h in s e c t ions f r om t h e r e s iden t ia l a r ea c on ta in m ica -

s l ope so ft h e Wh i te C o rd i l le ra . P e t rog roup s C h -B ( B1-B3 ) : u n sor ted s a nd o f s ed imen to v o lcan ic c ompos i t ion . P o s s ib le r e sou r ce a r ea m ay h ave b een l o ca ted i nt h ev a l ley .

s c h is t me tamo rph ic f r agmen t s a nd n one s hows a t yp ica l c ompo s i t ion . F u r thermo re , t h e g ranu lome t ic s t udy o f t h e i n c lu s ions i n t h e c e ram ics f r om t h e r e s iden t ia l a r ea s hows t h a tt h ey a r ec oa r se rt han t h o se f r om t h ec e remon ia l a r ea .

P e t rog roup s C h -C ( C1-C3 ) : u n so r t ed p y roc la s t ic r hyo l i t ic s and . P o s s ib le r e sou rce a r ea s m ay h ave b een 1 2 km n or thea s to fC hav fn , n ea r t h e A n tam ina -Con tonga m ine s o r 8 km s o u thea s t whe re r i odac i te m a te r ia l i s f ound ( C ro T o r regaga ) .

S t a t is t ica la na lys is o np e trograph ic d a ta T he moda l a na lys is c onduc ted o n s amp les f r om t h e p e t rog roup s o f C hav fn d e H uän ta r a l low s , a f te r p r inc ipa l

P e t rog roup C h -D : u nso r ted s and d er ived f r om i n tru s ive r o ck s .

c omponen t s a na lys is , c ompo s i t iona l d i f f e ren t ia t ion o n a q uan t i ta t ive b a s i s . F igu re 2 0 p r e sen t s t h e p l o t o f t h e f i r s t

P e t rog roup C h -E : c ru shed muscov i te -qua r tz m ica sch is tr ock

t wo c omponen t s ( s umm ing 5 % o f t o ta l v a r iance ) w i th

t empe r . N on loca l . P o ss ib le o r ig in m ay h ave b een i n t h e H uanuco r e g ion o rn or th o f Hua r i ( Anca sh ) .

c l a s s if i ca t ion o f t h e p e t rog roup s . T he a na ly s is i sb a sed o n 1 5 moda l v a r iab les ( q z -fd -p l ( = f e l s ic m ine ra ls ) , b io t i te , m af i cs , v o lcan ic , i n t ru s ive , s ed imen tary a nd m e tamorph ic f r agmen t s ; f i ne , med ium , c oa r se a nd v ery c oa r se

P e t rog roup C h -F : s or ted o rl e v iga ted m a te r ia l ( s ) o fi n trus ive a nd /o r s ed imen to -vo lcan ic c ompo s i t ion w i th e l im ina t ion o f

g r anu lome t r ic c a tego r ie s f o r m ine ra l s a nd f o r l i t h ics ) . Ma in c on t r ibu to r s t o P C 1 a r e c oa r se l i t h ics , m e tamo rh ic f r agmen t s , a nd b io t i te ; f e ls ic g r a in s , a nd f i ne s a nd m ine ra ls . P C 2 i s d e te rm ined b y t h e b i o t i te c omponen t a nd t h e v o lcan ic f r agmen t s a nd f i ne l i t h ics c on s t i tuen t s . T he p lo t ( F igu re 2 0 ) s hows a c en t ra l g r oup ing o f s amp les a nd t h ree

t h e c oa r se -g ra ined c omponen t d u r ing p r epa ra t ion o f t h e p a s te . F o r m o s t c e ram ics , t h e r e sou r ce a rea s w e re t h e s ame a sf o r p e t rog roups A a nd B . ( The d e te rm ina t ion o ft h e l o ca l o r n on lo ca l c ha rac te r o f t h ese f i ne c e ram ics i s b es t a dd res sed b y t h ec hem ica la na lys is ) . A w o rd s h ou ld b e s a id r e lat ive t o t h e c ompos i t iona l d i f f e rence s b e tween t h e s amp le s f r om t h e c e remon ia l a nd

i s o la ted c ase s ( Ch -E , C h -C1 a nd t h in s e c t ion L 3781A ) . T he m e tamo rph ic c ompos i t ion o f C h -E a s w e l l a s t h e v o lcan ic c omponen t o f C h -C1 a nd 3 781A a r e r e spon s ib le f o r t h is i s o la t ion . O therw ise , f o r t h e c en t ra l g roup , c l u s te red a round t h e o r ig in a nd a l ong t h e P C 2a x i s , t h e r e p resen ta t ion i sn o t

r e s iden t ia la r ea s . T he s amp le f r om t h ec e remon ia la r ea h a s a m o re h e te rogeneous c ompos i t ion t h an t h e s amp le f r om t h e r e s iden t ia l a r ea , s ugges t ing t h e p re sence o f p roduc t s f r om m any d i f f e ren t w o rk shop s o r p roduc t ion c en te r s , s ome

v e ry d i scr im ina t ive . T he moda l v a r iab les d o n o t a l low f o r a f i ne r d i s t inc t ion t o b e m ade , a s t h ey a r e t o o g ene ra l . O n ly

c l ea r ly n on lo ca l . T h i s d i f f e rence b e tween t h e t wo a r chaeo log i ca l z ones may b e d ue t ot h e s i ze o f t h e s amp le , w h ich i sl a rge rf o r t h e c e remon ia l c en te r . S ome p e t rog roup s a nd t h in s e c t ion s f r om t h e t emp le a r ea s how p a r t icu la r i t ie s

t h e ma in l i t h ic a nd m ine ra l t y pe s ( i n t ru s ive , v o lcan ic , e t c ) a r e r epor ted w i thou t s ubd iv i s ion i n to s ub type s ( g ran i te , g r anod io r i te , e t c . ) . S uch a n a na ly s is o n t h e moda l v a r iab le s a tt h e i n te r s i te l e ve l i s much m o re s u cce s sfu l ( s ee s e c t ion

t h a ta r e v ery d i f f e ren t f r om t h e r e s t o ft h e C hav fn c e ram ics , w h i le t h e r e s iden t ia l s amp le i s m o re h omogeneou s ,

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5 . 1 .2 . Chem ica la nd s t a t i s t ica la na lyses

c ompo s i t ion . T he d a ta s e t f r om C hav in d e H uän ta r u sed i nt h e s t a t is t ica l a na lys is i sc ompo sed o f 7 9 a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ics a nd 8 s o i l a nd moder nc e ram ics . P r65 , as amp le t a ken f r om ar oad

T ype 1 i sr i ch i n a l um inum , p hosphoru s a nd manganese , a nd l ow i n z i r con ium , s t ron t ium , c oppe r , a nd s u lfu r . T h is

c u t s ou th o ft h e C hav in r u ins , w a s e l im ina ted b ecause o fi t s c ompos i t iona l ma rg ina l i ty .

t y pe i n c lude s 2 2 c e ram ics , 2 0 o f w h ich c ome f r om t h e r e s iden t ia l a r ea . T he c e ram ics h ave d i f f e ren t p e t rog raph ic

PCA a nd C lus ter A na lys is

c ompo s i t ion s , s t y le s a nd f o rms . Mos to ft h e c e ram ics ( 6 8% ) i nt h is g roup h ave ab a s ic i n t rus ive c ompo s i t ion ( t hey w e re

T he p r inc ipa l c omponen ta na lys i s u sed 1 8 v a r iab les ( Co a nd

c l a s sed i nt h e P e t rog roup s C h -Al/A2 ) . T he o the r c e ram ics h ave a v o lcan ic p a s te ( Pe t rog roup s C hCl t o C h -C3 ) o r a

S e w e re e xc luded f r om t h e i n i t ia l e l emen ta l s e t ) . T he f i r s t f i ve p r inc ipa l c omponen t s a ccoun t f o r 6 4% o f t h e t o ta l

m ixed c ompo s i t ion ( Pe t rog roup s C h -B1 t o Ch -B3 ) . T h is t y pe r ough ly c o r re spond s t oc l us te r 4i nt h ed end rog ram .

v a r iance . T he m a jo rc on tr ibu to r s t oP C1 a r e A 1203 a nd C u T i ; t o PC2 , MgO -P205 a nd S i02 ; t oP C3 , F e203 a nd P b ; t o P C4 , K 2O -Cr a nd S r ; a nd t oP C5 , S0 3 a nd C r .

T ype 2 i sr i ch i ns u lfu r . I ta s semb le s 2 4 c e ram ics f r om t h e c e remon ia l a r ea , many o f w h ich a r e d e co ra ted o r s t y l is t ica l ly a t yp ica l . T he w a re s p e r ta in t o d i f f e ren t p e t rog roup s ( Ch -A , C h -C , C h -E , C h -F a nd a t yp ica l

T hese f i ve P CA c omponen t s w e re t h e v a r iab les u sed i n t h e c l u s te r a na lys is . T he r e su l t ing d end rog ram ( F igu re 2 1 , n ex t

c ompo s i t ion ) . T he t h ree p ha ses U raba r r iu , C hak inan i , a nd J anaba r r iu a r e r e p re sen ted i nt h is g roup . A l l wa re f o rms a re p resen t , a l though b ow ls a nd b o t t le s a r e mo re a bundan t . Many c e ram ics i n t h is t y pe h ave a l ow p e rcen tage o f

p age )p laces t h e s amp le s i ne i gh tc l us te r s . F ou rc e ram ics a r e i nd iv idua l ly l i nked t o t h e t r ee . A cco rd ing t o d i scr im inan t a na lys is , o n ly t h ree s amp le s a r e i n co r rec t ly a t tr ibu ted t ot h e c l u s te r s ( 3748d , 3 781h a nd 3 781k ) . T he a t t r ibu t ion p robab i l i ty f o r t h ree c e ram ics ( 3 708A , 3 790 , a nd 3 748c ) i s l ow

( p