Ceramic Ecology, 1988: Current Research on Ceramic Materials 9780860546542, 9781407348056

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Ceramic Ecology, 19 8 8 Current Research on Ceramic Materials

edited by Charles C. Kolb

BAR International Series 513

1989

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S513, 1989: 'Ceramic Ecology, 1988' © The Individual Authors, 1989

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860546542 paperback ISBN 9781407348056 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546542 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

T able P ages

C hapter

i ii

o f

T itle

C ontents a nd

A uthor(s)

-

T able o f

C ontents

v -xxii

-

P reface

1 -

2 8

1

T he R ole o f P ottery i n t he R ise o f A merican C ivilizations: T he C eramic R evolution ( Thomas P . M yers)

( Charles

C .

K olb)

2 9

-

5 9

2

T echnological D iversity a nd E volut ionary V iability: A C omparison o f C ontemporary P ottery-making T echnologies i n G uatemala, P eru, a nd M exico ( Dean E . A rnold)

6 1

-

9 5

3

E nvironmental F actors i n C eramic P roduction: T he I roquois ( Kathleen M . A llen a nd E zra B . W . Z ubrow)

9 7

- 16

4

D etermining C eramic P roduction: A V iew f rom H onduras ( Marilyn P . B eaudry, R onald L . B ishop, J ohn S . H enderson, a nd Kenneth L . H irth)

1 17

- 1 54

5

F ollowing t he B ook: L essons f rom P iccolpasso ( Louana M . L ackey)

1 55

- 1 74

6

T he C lay P reparation T radition o f A gost, S pain ( Beal M . M ossman a nd M arcia S elsor)

1 75

- 2 59

7

K ushano-Sasanian S torage J ars f rom C entral A sia: A S tudy i n C eramic E cology a nd E thnoarchaeology ( Charles C . K olb)

2 61

- 3 75

8

C eramic E cology i n R etrospect: A C ritical R eview o f M ethodology a nd R esults ( Charles C . K olb)

3 77

- 4 21

9

T he C urrent S tatus S tudies ( Charles

o f C eramic C . K olb)

P reface C harles

C .

K olb

I ntroduction T he g enesis o f t his v olume o f n ine p apers o n v arious a spects o f c eramic e thnoarchaeology, p aradigms, a nd c eramic e cology ( Matson 1 965) l ies i n t he 8 4th A nnual M eeting o f t he A merican A nthropological A ssociation h eld i n W ashington, D .C. i n D ecember 1 985. A t t hat t ime L ouana M . L ackey ( a p rofessional p otter, a rt h istorian, c eramic e thnographer, a nd a rchaeologist w ho a uthored T he P ottery o f A catlan: A C hanging M exican T radition [ 1982-7 a nd I b ecame a cutely a ware o f a l ack o f p apers o n b oth a rchaeological a nd e thnographic c eramics. A s a r esult, w e d ecided t o c o-organize a nd c o-chair a s ymposium w hich w ould h ave c eramic e cology a s a f ocus, a nd w ould i nvite p articipants f rom d iverse d isciplines r anging f rom a rt h istory, c eramics, a nd p sychology t o a rchaeology, e thnoarchaeology, e thnography, g eology, a nd m aterials s cience. T he s ymposium, " A P ot f or A ll R easons: C eramic E cology R evisited," w as h eld a t t he 8 5th A nnual M eeting o f t he A merican A nthropological A ssociation i n P hiladelphia o n D ecember 6 , 1 986. T he t welve p apers w ere g iven i n h onor o f F rederick R . M atson, E meritus R esearch P rofessor o f A rchaeology a t T he P ennsylvania S tate U niversity, w ho a lso s erved a s s ymposium d iscussant ( Kolb 1 988a:xi-xvi). T en o f t he p apers o r s ubstitute c ontributions w ere p ublished i n A P ot f or A ll R easons: C eramic E cology R evisited ( Kolb a nd L ackey, e ds., 1 988), i ssued b y T emple U niversity's L aboratory o f A nthropology a s a S pecial P ublication o f C eramica d e C ultura M aya e t a l. M uriel K irkpatrick g enerously s erved a s G eneral E ditor f or t his v olume w hich, i n a ddition t o t he t en p apers, i ncluded t wo a dditional c hapters, " Frederick R . M atson: A P rofessional a nd P ersonal V iew" a nd " Selected B ibliography: F rederick R . M atson" ( Kolb 1 988b, 1 988c). T hese c hapters d emonstrated t he s ignificant c ontributions m ade b y M atson t o c eramic a rchaeology, a rchaeometry, a nd e thnoa rchaeology. T he t en c hapters i n A P ot E cology R evisited i ncluded: 1 .

f or

A ll

R easons:

C eramic

T he F unction o f N onfunctional C eramics, M arilyn P . B eaudry ( University o f C alifornia L os A ngeles, I nstitute o f A rchaeology)

- v -

b y a t

2 .

M orphological S tandardization: A n A pproach t o t he S tudy o f C raft S pecialization, b y N ancy L . B enco ( Smithsonian I nstitution)

3 .

T he C eramic P etrography o f E arly H elladic P ottery f rom L erna, b y P hilip P . B etancourt ( Temple U niversity), G eorge H . M yer ( Temple U niversity, a nd J eremy B . R utter ( Dartmouth C ollege)

) 4 .

C aches a nd C enserwares: P ottery, b y D iane Z . C hase F lorida)

5 .

A bsorption R esidues a nd V essel F unction: A C ase S tudy f rom t he M aine-Maritimes R egion, b y M ichael D eal ( Memorial U niversity o f N ewfoundland) i n c ollaboration w ith P eter S ilk

6 .

C eramic P roduction i n t he C entral A ndes, P eru: A rchaeological a nd E thnographic C omparison, M elissa B . H agstrum ( University o f C alifornia L os A ngeles)

7 .

T he C ultural E cology o f C lassic T eotihuacan P eriod C opoid C eramics, b y C harles C . K olb ( Mercyhurst C ollege)

8 .

T raditional M exican P ottery T echnology a nd T hin O range W ares, b y L ouana M . L ackey ( The A merican U niversity)

9 .

A U tilitarian P ottery T radition a nd S panish K itchen, b y B eal M . M ossman S elsor ( Eastern M ontana C ollege)

1 0.

M eaning f rom M aya ( University o f C entral

t he a nd

A n b y a t

M odern M arcia

C eramic E cology a nd P ottery P roduction i n P orvenir, H onduras, b y L aurette M ouat a nd D ean A rnold ( Wheaton C ollege, I L)

E l E .

B ecause o f t he s uccess o f t he 1 986 s ymposium, c olleagues p ersuaded L ackey a nd K olb t o o rganize a s econd, " Ceramic E cology R evisited, 1 987: T he T echnology a nd S ocioeconomics o f P ottery," h eld a t t he 8 6th A nnual M eeting o f t he A merican A nthropological A ssociation i n C hicago o n N ovember 1 9, 1 987. T his c onference i ncluded s even p resenters f rom t he i nitial m eeting i n P hiladelphia p lus f ive " new" p articipants. D ean E . A rnold ( Wheaton C ollege, I L), a uthor o f C eramic T heory a nd C ultural P rocess ( 1985), a cted a s t he d iscussant. T welve p apers w ere s cheduled a nd e leven a ctually p resented ( Kolb, e d., 1 988d:x-xiii). E leven c ontributions o riginal c ontributions o r s ubstitutes - w ere p ublished i n C eramic E cology R evisited 1 987: T he T echnology a nd S ocioeconomics o f P ottery ( Kolb, e d., 1 988), a t wo-part

-v i -

v olume, B ritish T he

B AR-S436, i ssued i n t he I nternational S eries A rchaeological R eports, O xford, E ngland. e leven

c hapters

i n

t his

v olume

o f

i ncluded:

1 .

C lay R esource S pecialization i n A ncient T anzania: I mplications f or C ultural P rocess, b y S . T erry C hilds ( Massachusetts I nstitute o f T echnology)

2 .

P rehistoric D istribution N etworks o f D omestic C eramics i n S orsogon, P hilippines: A n A rchaeometric S tudy, b y E . Z ubrow, J . F ountain, A . P elcin, K . A llen, P . B ush, K . B artoletta, a nd L . H unt ( all f rom t he S tate U niversity o f N ew Y ork a t B uffalo)

3 .

T he T hree-story K iln o f A gost, M ossman a nd M arcia S elsor C ollege)

4 .

E lite C eramics: D ishes F it f or a K ing, by L ouana M . L ackey ( Maryland I nstitute, C ollege o f A rt)

5 .

A n E thnoarchaeological I dentification o f M aya P roduction, b y M ichael D eal o f N ewfoundland)

6 .

S ocioeconomic S tatus, K inship, a nd I nnovation: T he A doption o f t he T ornete i n T icul, Y ucatan, b y D elores M . R alph a nd D ean E . A rnold ( Wheaton C ollege, I L)

7 .

L east-cost a nd F unction O ptimizing I nterpretations o f C eramic P roduction: A n E thnoarchaeological P erspective, b y R obert L . R ands ( Southern I llinois U niversity)

8 .

C eramic E cology a nd t he C lay/Fuel R atio: M odeling F uel C onsumption i n T lajinga 3 3, T eotihuacan, M exico, b y J ames J . S heehy ( The P ennsylvania S tate U niversity)

9 .

C lassic T eotihuacan G ranular E cological I nterpretations, b y ( Mercyhurst C ollege)

W ares: C harles

C eramic C . K olb

1 0.

C lassic T eotihuacan C opiod E cological I nterpretations, b y ( Mercyhurst C ollege)

W ares: C harles

C eramic C . K olb

1.

C lassic T eotihuacan A nalysis, b y C harles

S pain, b y ( Eastern

B eal M . M ontana

A pproach t o t he D omestic P ottery ( Memorial U niversity

C andeleros: A P reliminary C . K olb ( Mercyhurst C ollege)

B ackground

t o

C eramic

E cology

R evisited,

1 988

T he t hird s ymposium, " Ceramic E cology R evisited, 1 988: C urrent R esearch o n C eramic M aterials," a gain c o-organized a nd c o-chaired b y L ackey a nd K olb, w as h eld a t t he 8 7th A nnual M eeting o f t he A merican A nthropological A ssociation i n P hoenix o n N ovember 1 6, 1 988. N ine p apers w ere s cheduled a nd e ight p resented, w ith W arren D eBoer ( City o f U niversity o f N ew Y ork, Q ueens C ollege) s erving a s d iscussant. T he t heme o f t his s ymposium, s omewhat m odified f rom t he p revious s essions, a gain r eflected a n umber o f a pproaches w ithin t he f ramework o f M atson's ( 1965) c oncept o f c eramic e cology. T he p apers w ere a uthored o r c oauthored b y a d iverse g roup o f s pecialists i ncluding a rt h istorians, c eramic a rtistans, a rchaeometricians, c eramic a rchaeologists, c eramic ' ethnographers, a s ocial p sychologist/film e thnographer, a m useum d irector/archaeologist, a nd a rchaeological t heorists. O f t he f ourteen a uthors o r c o-authors, n ine w ere f ormer p resenters a nd f ive " new" p articipants. T he

p apers

C lay-mixing M ossman a nd

f rom

t he

t hird

s ymposium

T raditions o f A gost, M aria S elsor ( Eastern

i ncluded:

S pain, b y B eal M . M ontana C ollege)

D etermining C eramic P roduction: A V iew f rom H onduras, b y M arilyn P . B eaudry ( University o f C alifornia a t L os A ngeles, I nstitute o f A rchaeology), R onald L . B ishop ( Smithsonian I nstitution), J ohn H enderson ( Cornell U niversity), a nd K enneth H irth ( University o f K entucky). E stimating V essel U se-life f rom C eramic A ssemblages: A C ase S tudy i n T eotihuacan, b y J ames J . S heehy ( The P ennsylvania S tate U niversity), p aper n ot p resented S ome P roblems M anufacture, b y t ute, C ollege o f

i n S panish C olonial C eramic L ouana M . L ackey ( Maryland I nstiA rt)

I dentifying F orm a nd C ausal F actors i n t he O rganization o f C eramic P roduction: A n A rchaeological S tudy f rom t he A ndean H ighlands, b y C athy L . C ostin ( Los A ngeles M useum o f N atural H istory) T he E ssential R ole o f P ottery i n t he R ise o f A merican C ivilization, b y T homas P . M yers ( University o f N ebraska S tate M useum) A U niversal C atchment A rea f or C eramic R esources: U pdate, b y D ean E . A rnold ( Wheaton C ollege, I L)

C eramic P roduction i n a S tressful E nvironment: T he I roquoian C ase, b y K athleen M . A llen ( Tulane U niversity) a nd E zra Z ubrow ( State U niversity o f N ew Y ork a t B uffalo) K ushano-Sasanian S torage J ars f rom C entral C harles C . K olb ( Mercyhurst C ollege)

A sia,

b y

T he p apers b y S heehy, C ostin, a nd A rnold w ere w ithdrawn f rom p ublication, a nd A rnold p rovided a s ubstitute c ontribution a s h is s ymposium p aper h ad b een p romised f or p ublication e lsewhere.

C eramic

E cology,

1 988:

T he

P apers

i n

t his

V olume

T o v arying d egrees, t he c ontributions i n t his v olume u tilize c oncepts s et f orth b y M atson ( 1965) o r A rnold ( 1985), o r i nclude t hose r eviewed b y K ramer ( 1985), a mong o thers. T herefore, w e s ee c oncepts, methods, a nd p aradigms i ncluding t hose o f c eramic e cology, c eramic t heory, a nd c eramic e thnoarchaeology. T he a uthors a nd t heir c ontributions r eflect i nter- a nd multidisciplinary a pproaches t o t he s tudy o f c eramic m aterials, t he s tudy o f c eramic p roduction, a nd/or t he u se o f s uch a rtifacts. I s hall b riefly s ummarize t he s alient p oints a nd o rientations f ound i n e ach o f t he c hapters. T he g eographical d istributions o f t hese c ontributions a re i llustrated i n F igure 1 . A s m ay b e s een, c hapter c ontent r anges f rom M esoamerica t o I roquoia a nd C entral A sia, a lthough t he m ajority o f t he c ontributions r elate t o t he M esoamerican C ulture A rea ( Figure 2 ). I n t he i nitial c hapter, " The R ole o f P ottery i n t he R ise o f A merican C ivilizations: T he C eramic R evolution," T om M yers a rgues f or t he i mportance o f p ottery v essels i n r elation t o p lant d omestication, s edentary c ommunity l ife, a nd o ther a ttributes l eading t o t he e volution o f h igh c ultures i n N uclear A merica. H e c ontends t hat p ottery m ay h ave b een a mong t he e ssential i nnovations l eading t o s uch s ociopolitical l evels s ince t hroughout t his r egion b asic f oods w ere b oiled i n s uch c ontainers a t s ome p oint(s) d uring f ood p rocessing. B oiled f oods m ay b e c onsumed b y t he v ery y oung a nd t he a ged, a nd t he l atter, b ecause o f i ncreased l ongevity, h ave a n e nhanced o pportunity t o p ass t heir a ccumulated k nowledge t o t he y oung members o f t heir s ocieties. M yers' i nnovative p aper i s i llustrated w ith e thnographic e xamples d erived f rom M esoamerica ( Mexico a nd G uatemala), t he C entral A ndes ( Peru a nd B olivia), a nd t he P eruvian C entral C oast, a s w ell a s t he A mazon B asin. L ikewise , h e a rchaeologically t races t he d evelopment o f f ood p rocessing a nd t he a ppearance o f c ultigens a nd p ottery i n t he s ame c ulture a reas. U sing t he h ighland T ehuacan V al-

.= 1 J . , 4

$ +

a . • r I 3 0 = 0 . •

N

t e r / A u t h o r ( s )

i z i

1 C 0

C O 1 1

P = 1

4 5

c l )

Z F 1




0

c r 4 4 . ) 0 • , 4 . 0 c i C . ) C e 1 ) 1 1 H 4 -'

• H

-

N u m b e r o f

S o

g

R e d b r o w n

o

4 4 4 i

C o l r a f t e r F i r n g

0 )

. . c u )4 . )

0

K i n d s o f D e c o r a t i o n

O

r 4 C O

c v

V e s e l S h a p e s

0

e n

W h i t e / c r e a m

C r . 1 C / 3

T HE

V ALLEY O F

A YACUCHO

T he A yacucho B asin i s a l arge i nter-montane v alley w hich s tretches a pproximately 4 0 km s outheastward f rom t he s outhern b end o f t he M antaro R iver. M uch o f t he B asin c onsists o f l ayers o f c lay a nd s emi-consolidated l ayers o f v olcanic a sh o r t uff. I n m any p laces t he s treams h ave e roded d eep g orges i n t hese s oft s trata. T here a re f ive c ommunities o f p otters i n t he V alley. T he m ost w ell k nown i s t he v illage o f Q uinua ( Table 8 ) w here p otters m ake a w ide v ariety o f v essels f rom t wo p astes, t hree f orming t echniques, t hree p ainted s tyles, a nd a v ariety o f p lastic d ecoration ( Arnold 1 972a, 1 972b). T he c ommunity o f H uayhuas ( Table 9 ) n ear H uanta a lso p roduces p ottery, b ut m akes e xclusively u tilitarian w are w ith l imited p lastic a nd p ainted d ecoration. A nother c ommunity o f p otters l ies n orthwest o f H uanta w here p otters a re d ispersed t hrough s everal h amlets n orthwest o f t he v illage o f L uricocha ( Table 1 0). H ere u tilitarian v essels a re m ade i n r elatively f ew s hape c ategories a nd w ith l imited p lastic d ecoration. A cross t he V alley i n T icllas ( Table 1), p otters p roduce e xclusively c ooking p ottery w ith n o d ecoration. F inally, i n t he c ity o f A yacucho i tself, t here a re a f ew p otters i n t he b arrio o f S anta A na ( Table 1 2). T hese p otters m ake m iniatures p lus a f ew u tilitarian v essels. I n c ontrast t o t he p ottery-making c ommunities o f H uayhuas, S anta A na, L uricocha, a nd T icllas, t he Q uinua p otters u tilize t wo p aste t ypes ( Table 1 3) t o m ake m any m ore v essel s hapes t han a rtisans i n a ny o f t he o ther c ommunities. Q uinua h as m ore f orming t echniques t han t he o ther c ommunities i n t he V alley. T hese t echnqiues i nclude m olding a nd m odeling w hich h ave p ermitted g reat f lexibility i n p roducing a v ariety o f v essel s hapes a nd h ave b een e xtensively e xploited b y Q uinua p otters. N ot o nly a re t hese t echniques u sed t o p roduce s hapes w hich a re u sed f or r itual a nd r eflect m ythical t hemes, b ut s ome Q uinua p otters a re p roducing i nnovative s hapes l ike e laborate c andelabras, h elicopters, o r r eligious i mages by u sing t hese t echniques. F inally, Q uinua h as m ore d ecorative t echniques t han a ny o f t he o ther c ommunities. A ll o f t hese f actors h ave l ed t o t he d evelopment o f a v ariety o f c eramic v essels w hich a re w idely d istributed o utside t he V alley i n p laces l ike L ima a nd a lso s old i nternationally o utside P eru i n C hicago, M ilwaukee, S an D iego, a nd N ew Y ork.

T able 8 :

V alley o f A yacucho:

Q uinua.

S ource:

V isit t o c ommunity ( Arnold 1 972a,

D ate o f V isit:

1 967,

N umber o f H ouseholds V isited:

A bout 1 5 W orkshop i n N ucleo S chool,

T otal P otters:

A bout 4 0

1 972b,

1 975)

b rief v isit i n J une 1 978

W orkshop i n A rtesan S chool

T ype o f P aste

T empered

U ntempered

V essel F orming

M odified c oiling M odeling S ome m olding

N o d ata

C hurches P itchers ( tachu, p uynu , y ukupuynu) O pen b owls ( platos)

J ar t o c arry w ater a nd c hicha ( tumin) J ar f or m aking c hicha o r f or g eneral s torage

T echniques

K inds o f V essels M ade

C ups ( two s hapes) W ater s torage p ot ( tinaja) D ouble p ots J ar t o c arry w ater a nd c hicha ( tumin) C hamber p ot R estricted m outh b owl F lower p ots T ea p ots F igurines A nimals ( bull, s heep, d uck) H umans ( woman , m usicians w ith v arious i nstruments) M ythological o r r eligious ( cross , C hunchu ' jungle I ndian], U kumari I half m an/half b ear l . M iscellaneous ( candle h olders I many t ypes, s imple t o e laborate],

( urpu a nd m agma)

d oUhle-spouted v essels I paracas], f ace-body b ottles [ at l east t wo v arieties]) K inds o f D ecoration

S lipping, p olishing, a nd p ainting i n 3 s tyles: 1 ) B lack a nd r ed o n b uff 2 ) W hite o n r ed s lip 3 ) B lack a nd r ed o n u npoli shed w hite s lip o r z oned w hite p aint M odeling/molding/stamping

N one

C olor a fter F iring

B uff! r ed

B rown/red-brown o r g rayb rown

- 14 3

-

T able

9 :

V alley o f

A yacucho:

H uayhuas.

S ource:

O 'Neal

( 1979:44-47)

D ate o f V isit:

1 948

1 967

N umber o f H ouseholds V isited :

N o d ata

N one

T otal P otters:

M any

P robably m any

T ype o f P aste

T empered

N o d ata

V essel F orming T echniques

M odeling M odified c oiling

N o d ata

K inds o f V essels M ade

C ooking p ots C hicha a nd w ater s torage/ t ransport p ots O ne p otter m ade m odeled a nimals a nd w histles

C hicha a nd w ater t ransp ort p ots ( tumin) C ooking p ots ( manka) S ugar b owls P itcher ( porongo) W ater/liquid s torage v essel ( tina'a) M aize t oasters ( toc ito) F lower p ots C hamber p ot V essel f or m aking c hicha ( urpu) B owl P ot f or c arrying ( canasta)

K inds o f D ecoration

P olishing

P olishing R ed s lip/or p aint R ed s lip w ith w hite p aint

A yacucho p ottery v endors

I ncision C olor a fter F iring

N o d ata

R ed-brown

T able 1 0: L uricocha C uris).

V alley ( Pampay,

o f A yacucho: V arious H amlets a round L lansa, U kana, C analla, S an P edro d e

S ource:

V isit t o P ampay a nd L lansa

D ate o f V isit:

1 967

N umber o f H ouseholds

T able

V isited:

1

T otal P otters:

U nknown

T ype o f P aste

T empered

V essel F orming T echnique

N o d ata

K inds o f V essels M ade

W ater s torage j ars ( tina a s) C ooking p ots W ater c arrying j ar ( tumin) P erhaps 2 k inds o f c hicha p reparation j ars

K inds o f D ecoration

S tamping M odeling

C olor a fter F iring

R ed-brown

1 1:

V alley o f

A yacucho:

T icllas.

S ource:

I nterviews w ith s ellers o f T icllas p ottery i n A yacucho

D ate o f V isit:

1 967

N umber o f H ouseholds V isited :

N one

T otal P otters:

U nknown

T ype o f P aste

P robably u ntempered

V essel F orming T echnique

N o d ata

M ade

C ooking p ots W ater c arrying p ots

K inds o f D ecoration

N one

C olor a fter F iring

B rown

K inds o f V essels

- 4 5

-

( not o bserved)

T able 1 2: V alley o f o f S anta A na.

A yacucho:

C ity

o f

A yacucho,

B arrio

S ource:

O 'Neale 1 979:43-44)

V isit t o c ommunity

D ate o f V isit:

1 948

F ebruary a nd M ay 1 967

N umber o f H ouseholds V isited:

1

3

T otal P otters:

N o d ata

5

T ype o f P aste

T empered

T empered T wo c lays C lay a nd s and T wo c lays a nd s and

V essel F orming T echniques

M odeling M odified c oiling o n a r otating d isk

P robably m odeling M odified c oiling o n a r otating d isk

K inds o f V essels M ade

M iniature v essels f or t oys O ther t oys

C ooking p ots C hicha j ars F lower p ots W ash b asin M iniatures

K ind o f D ecoration

R ed s lip a fter f iring

R ed s lip

C olor a fter F iring

N o d ata

R ed-brown

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T HE

N ORTHERN

Y UCATAN

P ENINSULA

T he n orthern Y ucatan P eninsula c onsists o f a l imestone k arst t opography w ith n o s urface d rainage. R ainfall p ercolates t hrough t he p orous r ock l ayers d own t o t he l evel o f g round w ater. S ince t here a re n o s urface l akes o r s treams, t he o nly n atural w ater s ources e xist where t he s urface r ock h as c ollapsed i nto s inkholes a nd e xposes t he g round w ater. N ear t he s outhern b oundary o f t he S tate o f Y ucatan, a l ow r ange o f h ills r ises f rom t he f latter n orthern p lain a nd e xtends s outheastward a cross t he P eninsula. M any o f t he p ottery-making c ommunities i n t he n orthern p art o f t he P eninsula l ie n ear t hese h ills ( see T hompson 1 958:10). A t t he w estern e nd o f t he h ills l ies M axcanu ( Table 1 4), w ith B ecal ( Table 1 5) a nd T epekan ( Table 1 6) f urther s outh n ear t he b order o f t he S tate o f C ampeche. A long t he n orth s ide o f t he h ills s outheast o f M ancanu l ies T icul ( Table 1 7). N ortheast o f T icul o ne f inds M ama ( Table 1 8) a nd f inally d irectly s outh o f M ama a long t he h ills l ies A k'il ( Table 1 9). B efore a bout 1 965, t here w ere a lso p otters i n P eto ( further s outheast a long t he h ills) b ut by 1 968 a ll h ad a bandoned t he c raft. B ecause l ittle d ata e xist f or o ther c ommunities o f p otters b esides T icul, t here i s a b ias i n f avor o f T icul b ecause i t w as s tudied m ore i ntensively t han t he o ther c ommunities ( Arnold 1 971). F our o f t he p ottery-making c ommunities i n Y ucatan u se t wo p aste t ypes a nd m ost u se s ome m odeling i n c ombination w ith m odified c oiling t o f orm t he p ottery. M ost o f t he c ommunities p roduce f rom f our t o n ine v essel s hapes ( Table 2 0). T here i s a g reat v ariety i n t he n umbers a nd k inds o f d ecoration f rom n o d ecoration i n A k'il t o m ore t han t en d eocrative t echniques i n T icul. U sing s everal c riteria, h owever, T icul i s u nique. F irst T icul p otters u se m ore v essel-forming t echniques t han t hose i n a ny o ther c ommunity, a nd i t i s t he o nly c ommunity i n Y ucatan t o u se a m olding t echnique. T here a re a v ariety o f a dvantages o f t his t echnique, b ut f or t his d iscussion, t he c ombination o f m olding a nd m odeling p rovides t he c apability t o m ake c opies o f v irtually a ny i tem a nd a dd i t t o t he p otters' s hape r epertory. T icul a lso p roduces m ore v essel s hapes ( 44) a nd u ses m ore k inds o f d ecoration t han a ny o ther c ommunity. A nother d istinctive f eature o f T icul i s t he l arge n umber o f p otters w orking t here. A lthough d ata o n t he n umbers o f p otters i n M axcanu a nd T epekan a re m issing, o nly T epekan h as a p opulation o f p otters t hat c ould p erhaps m atch T icul's. T he u niqueness o f T icul i s t hus r eflected i n i ts u se o f l arger n umbers o f v essel-forming t echniques, i ts u se o f molding a nd i ts l arge n umbers o f v essel s hapes a nd d ecorative t echniques. T his e xtensive a nd f lexible t echnology, i n t urn, s upports a l arge n umber o f p otters.

- 14 8

-

T able

1 4:

Y ucatan:

M axcanu.

S ource:

T hompson

( 1958)

D ate o f V isit:

1 950-1951

1 967,

N umber o f H ouseholds V isited:

3

1

T otal P otters :

N o d ata

N o d ata

T ype o f P aste

T empered

V essel F orming

M odeling M odified c oiling

T echniques K inds o f V essels M ade

S mall h owl ( lak) I ncense b urners C andle h olders A nimal f igurine w histles C ooking p ot ( kum ) W ater b asin ( apaste) W ater s torage j ar ( tinaja) W ater c arrying j ar ( puul) W ater c anteen'

V isit t o c ommunity 1 968

1

K inds o f D ecoration

W hite s lip M ulticolored w ater-base p aints L ime c oating O rganic s tain f or c ooking p ots

C olor a fter F iring

N o d ata

1 S eldom m ade.

T able

1 5:

Y ucatan:

B ecal.

S ource :

T hompson ( 1958)

V isit t o c ommunity

D ate o f V isit:

1 950-1951

1 967

H umber o f H ouseholds V isited:

4

0

T otal P otters;

P robably n ot m ore t han

N one f ound

5 -6

T ype o f P aste

T empered w ith c uut

T empered w ith h i' ( from M axcanu)

V essel F orming T echniques

M odified c oiling/modeling

K inds o f V essels M ade

W ater c ontainers/whistles W ater s torage j ars ( tina'as) W ater c ooker ( cantarilla)

K inds o f D ecoration

S tamping/white s lip R ed s lipped/multicolored w ater-base p aints

C olor a fter F iring

N o d ata

- 4 9

-

C ooking p ot

( kum)

T able

1 6:

Y ucatan:

T epekan.

( 1958)

V isit t o c ommunity

S ource:

T hompson

D ate o f V isit;

1 950-1951

1 967 1

N umber o f H ouseholds

2 p otters

V isited:

1m iddleman

T otal P otters:

N o d ata

T ype o f P aste

T empered w ith s ah k ab

V essel F orming T echniques

P robably m odified c oiling

K inds o f V essels M ade

S mall b owl ( lak) T oy b asin ( apaste) T oy w ater-storage j ars ( tinajas) W ater c arrying j ar ( puul) W ater b asin ( cat) P edestal b owls

K inds o f D ecoration

R ed a nd b lack p aint R ed s lip

C olor a fter F iring

N o d ata

N o d ata

T empered w ith h i'

C ooking p ots

( kum)

T able

1 7:

Y ucatan:

T icul.

S ource:

T hompson ( 1958)

V isit t o c ommunity ( Arnold 1 971)

D ates o f V isits:

1 950-1951

1 965,

N umber o f h ouseholds V isited:

7

2 8/29

T otal P otters:

A bout 6 0

A bout 5 0-60

T ype o f P aste

T empered w ith s ah k ab ( white p owdery c ryptoc rystalline c alcite a nd a ttapulgite [ see A rnold 1 971]

V essel F orming T echniques

M odeling M odified c oiling M olds

K inds o f V essels M ade

W ater c arrying j ar

K inds o f D ecoration

R ed s lip S lip o f c lay , b ody M ulticolored o il-base p aint Multicolored w ater-base p aint M odeling/applique M olding N egative d esigns

S tamping O rganic s tain

C olor a fter F iring

R ed/red-orange

T an

1 966,

1 967,

1 968,

T empered w ith ( crystalline c alcite)

(1 . 2 2.1_ 1 ) C ooking p ot ( kum) T ortilla g riddles S mall b owl ( lak) I ncense b urners L arge b asin ( kat) v arious s hape v arieties W ater s torage j ar ( tina'a ) W ater c anteen ( 2h!) P itcher ( cantarilla) F lower p ots T oys B anks W histles C opies o f a rchaeological f igurines

1 970

T able

T able

1 8:

Y ucatan:

M ama.

S ource:

T hompson ( 1958)

V isit t o c ommunity

D ates o f V isits:

1 950-1951

1 967,

N umber o f H ouseholds V isited:

6 /7+

2

T otal P otters:

N o d ata

5 t hat w ork r egularly

T ype o f P aste

T empered

V essel F orming T echnique

M odified c oiling

K inds o f-Vessels M ade

B owl ( taza l ak) I ncense b urners C andle h olders W ater b asin ( apaste) W ater s torage- 3 77— ( tina a ) W ater c arrying j ar ( puul) W ater c ooler P itcher

K inds o f D ecoration

R ed s lip C ream s lip w ith r ed p aint C ream s lip

C olor a fter F iring

R ed

1 9:

Y ucatan:

A k'il.

S ource:

V isit t o c ommunity

D ate o f V isit:

1 968

N umber o f H ouseholds V isited:

2

T otal P otters:

9

T ype o f P aste

T empered

V essel F orming T echniques

P robably m odified c oiling P robably m odeling

K inds o f V essels

C andle h olders 1

M ade

W histles S mall b owls I ncense b urners 1

K inds o f D ecoration

N one

C olor a fter F iring

C ream/tan/light r ed

1L ess i mportant.

- 5 2

-

1 968

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O

K i n d s o f D e c o r a t i o n

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C ONCLUSION I n e ach o f t he t hree a reas, t here i s a t l east o ne c ommunity t hat h as a c eramic t echnology w hich s upports l arge n umbers o f p otters ( Table 2 1). T he l arge n umbers o f p otters i n t hese c ommunities i ndicate t he g reater v iability o f t heir t echnologies i n s pite o f c hanging c onditions. I n c ontrast, m ost o f t he o ther c ommunities i n t he r egions ( with t he p ossible e xceptions o f H uayhuas, P eru, a nd T epekan, Y ucatan) h ave f ewer p otters a nd t hese d ata s uggest n ot o nly t he l ack o f e conomic i mportance o f t he c raft i n t hese c ommunities, b ut i ts p recarious f uture a nd l ow s urvival v alue. W hy h as t he c raft b ecome e conomically m ore i mportant i n s ome c ommunities t han i n o thers? T o b e s ure, p art o f t he r eason i nvolves t he e cological c ontext o f t he c raft ( see A rnold 1 975, 1 978a, 1 985:168-201). L ooking a t t he t echnological c haracteristics o f t he c raft i tself, h owever, w hat p ossible e xplanation a ccounts f or t he v iability o f p ottery p roduction i n t hese c ommunities? T he m ore v iable c ommunities u tilize t wo o r m ore p aste t ypes a nd t wo o r m ore v essel f orming t echniques. M ost u tilize m odeling a nd s ome u se a m olding t echnique. W here l arger n umbers o f v essel s hapes a re p roduced, t hey a re p roduced b y a c ombination o f m olding a nd m odeling w hich p rovide m ore p otential d iversity f or t he e volution o f c eramic c omplexes t han o ther t echniques l ike c oiling o r m odified c oiling. T hese c ommunities a lso u tilize t wo o r m ore d ecorative t echniques w hich e xceed t he n umber u sed b y o ther c ommunities o f p otters i n t heir a rea. S ome c ommunities p roduce p ottery t hat f ires t o a u nique c olor ( Sacojito, D uranzo, a nd C hinautla). I n s ummary, b esides a n u nusual p aste, t he p otential f or e conomic d ependence o n p ottery m aking a nd t hus i ts g reater s urvival v alue i s r elated t o t he p resence o f t wo o r m ore p aste t ypes a nd v essel f orming t echniques, t he p resence o f m odeling a nd m olding, s everal d ecorative t echniques, a nd l arge n umbers o f v essel s hapes. S ince t he p otential o f c hanging t he u se a nd t he s hape o f c eramic v essels d epends u pon a g reat v ariety o f p aste, v essel f orming, a nd d ecorative t echniques, t hose p opulations w hich h ave t he p otential t o p roduce t he g reatest v ariety o f v essel s hapes w ill h ave t he g reatest p otential t o a dapt t o c hanging c onditions. I n o ther w ords, t hose c ommunities w ith t he g reatest n umber o f t echnological c hoices a nd g reater t echnological d iversity h ave g reater v iability t han t hose w hich h ave l ittle s uch d iversity. T hus, a w ide v ariety o f t echniques i s m ore e conomically v iable a nd c rucial f or a dapting t o c hanging s ocioeconomic c onditions a nd c an t hus s upport a l arge

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c ommunity o f p otters. L ess s tandardization a nd g reater v ariety o f c hoices e nsures a daptability a nd v iability. B y w ay o f c ontrast, t he c ommunities w ith f ew p otters p roduce f ew v essel s hapes. T hese c ommunities u se a s ingle p aste t ype a nd u tilize l ittle o r n o d ecoration o n t hese v essels. F urther, t here i s n othing d istinctive a bout t he c olor o f t he p ottery a nd i t t ends t o b e u sed f or c ooking a nd f or u tilitarian v essels l ike c ooking p ots, b eer-brewing v essels, a nd t ortilla g riddles. G reater p henotypic d iversity i n n atural e cology p ermits g reater p otential f or a daptation. S imilarly, g reater t echnological v ariability a nd d iversity i n c eramic t echnology a lso p ermits g reater p otential f or a daptation. L ess d iversity i n e cology means l ess p otential f or a daptation t o c hanging e nvironmental c onditions a nd m ay m ean e xtinction. S imilarly, l ess d iversity i n c eramic t echnology m ay m ean m ore s pecialized a nd s tandardized p roduction, b ut t he g reater t he s pecialization a nd t he n arrower t he r ange o f t echnological c hoices, t he l ess v iable t he t radition a nd t he l ess p otential i t h as f or s urvival. T his p rinciple c an b e i llustrated b y t he f act t hat p ottery m aking d isappeared i n o ne o f t hese c ommunities ( Mixco) b etween 1 970 ( when I v isited t he c ommunity) a nd 1 973 ( Reina a nd H ill 1 978:44), a nd i n a nother ( Becal) b etween 1 952 ( when T hompson v isited i t) a nd 1 967 ( when I v isited i t). F urther, s ince 1 970 p roduction c enters w ith a d iverse t echnology l ike Q uinua a nd T icul h ave s urvived a nd t hrived w ith s ome Q uinua p otters t aking t heir p roduction t o L ima. I n Y ucatan, c eramic p roduction i n T icul h as a dapted t o a n ew t ourist m arket a nd h as n ow g reatly e clipsed p roduction i n o ther c ommunities i n w hich p roduction m ay b e e xtinct. T o b e s ure, t here a re a v ariety o f f actors t hat a ffect d iversity, b ut t he p oint h ere i s t o s uggest t hat t echnological d iversity i n c eramic p roduction a ffects i ts u ltimate v iability. T hus, while i ncreased s tandardization i ndicates a m ore e volved s tate ( or s pecialized s tate) o f c eramic p roduction, i t m ay a lso r esult i n e xtinction m ore q uickly t han a l ess s pecialized, h ighly d iverse t radition.

A CKNOWLEDGMENTS A n e arly v ersion o f t his p aper w as p resented a t t he c onference, " Ceramic T echnology: E thnography a nd E xperiment," a t t he U niversity o f L eicester, E ngland, D ecember 1 8-20, 1 981. I a m g rateful t o D r. W illiam H enning, D ean o f A rts a nd S ciences, a nd D r. L ee P fund,

- 5 6 -

D irector o f t he W heaton C ollege A lumni A ssociation, f or t he f unds f rom t he F aculty D evelopment F und a nd t he W heaton C ollege A lumni A ssociation t o a ttend t his c onference. P auline R oeloffs a nd C olette P ollard t yped t he o riginal t ables. S ince a n e arly v ersion o f t his p aper w as e lectronically p rocessed b efore t he d evelopment o f p ersonal c omputers, I a m g rateful t o J eff S mallwood, L arry S wanson, D aniel T aylor, a nd C harles R eitsma o f t he D ata P rocessing D epartment o f W heaton C ollege w ho h elped w ith t he e lectronic p rocessing o f t he m anuscript f or p resentation i n E ngland.

E NDNOTES 1 O ther t echnological a spects o f c eramics l ike p aste ( for c olor a nd . porosity) a re a lso i nvolved b ut w ill n ot b e u sed h ere. 2 T hese c eramic c haracteristics a re r eadily i dentifiable e thnographically a nd n ave c lear b ehavioral c orrelates. T he c oncern i s t o s tay a s c lose t o a ctual c oncrete b ehavior a s p ossible a nd a void m ore a bstract t erms ( like " ware" o r c eramic " type") w hich m ay h ave m ore d escriptive v alue t han e thnographic v alidity.

R EFERENCES

C ITED

A rnold, D ean E . 1 971 E thnomineralogy o f T icul, Y ucatan P otters: a nd E mics. A merican A ntiquity 3 6:20-40. 1 972a

N ative P ottery 6 7:858-872.

1 972b

M ineralogical A nalyses Q uinua, D epartment A rchaeometry 1 4:93-101.

1 975

C eramic E cology I mplications f or 1 6:183-205.

1 978a

C eramic V ariability, E nvironment a nd C ulture H istory a mong t he P okom i n t he V alley o f G uatemala. I n T he S patial O rganization o f C ulture, e dited b y I an H odder. L ondon: G erald D uckworth, 3 9-59.

1 978b

E thnology o f P ottery M aking i n t he V alley o f G uatemala. I n T he C eramics o f K aminaljuyu, e dited b y R onald W etherington. U niversity P ark: T he P ennsylvania S tate U niversity P ress, M onograph S eries o n K aminaljuyu, 3 27-400.

1 985

C eramic E ngland

B enco, 1 987

N ancy L . t he E arly M edieval P ottery I ndustry a t a l-Basra, M orocco. O xford, E ngland: B ritish A rchaeological R eports, I nternational S eries, B AR-5341.

K atz, 1 974

M aking

i n

Q uinua,

P eru.

E tics

A nthropos

o f C eramic M aterials f rom o f A yacucho, P eru.

o f t he A yacucho B asin, P eru: P rehistory. C urrent A nthropology

T heory a nd C ultural P rocess. C ambridge, a nd N ew Y ork: C ambridge U niversity P ress.

S . H ., M . L . H ediger, a nd L . A . V alleroy T raditional M aize P rocessing T echniques W orld. S cience 1 84:765-773.

i n

t he

N ew

M atson, F rederick R . 1 965 C eramic E cology: A n A pproach t o t he S tudy o f t he E arly C ultures o f t he N ear E ast. I n C eramics a nd M an, e dited b y F rederick R . M atson. N ew Y ork: Wenner-Gren F oundation f or A nthropological R esearch, V iking F und P ublications i n A nthropology 4 1; A ldine: C hicago, 2 02-217. N orman, C olin 1 981 T he T hreat t o 1 24:1105-1107.

O ne

M illion

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S pecies.

S cience

O 'Neale, L ila M . 1 977 N otes o n P ottery M aking P acha 1 4(1976)-41:60. P ielou, E . C . 1 974 E cological D iversity. v ersity P ress. R eins, 1 978

R ice, 1 981

1 987

i n

H alifax,

R uben a nd J ames H ill T he T raditional P ottery o f U niversity o f T exas P ress. P rudence M . E volution o f T rial M odel. P ottery s ity o f

H ighland

N S:

P eru.

N awpa

D ahousie

G uatemala.

A ustin:

S pecialized P ottery P roduction: C urrent A nthropology 2 2:219-240.

A nalysis: A S ourcebook. C hicago P ress.

C hicago:

U ni-

A

U niver-

T hompson, R aymond 1 958 M odern Y ucatecan M aya P ottery M aking. M enasha, W I: S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology, M emoir 1 5.

C HAPTER

3 E NVIRONMENTAL

F ACTORS I N C ERAMIC T HE I ROQUOIS

K athleen

M .

P RODUCTION:

A llen

D epartment o f A nthropology T ulane U niversity N ew O rleans, L ouisiana 7 0118-5670 U .S.A. a nd E zra

S tate

W .

Z ubrow

D epartment o f A nthropology U niversity o f N ew Y ork a t B uffalo 4 29 S paulding B uffalo, N ew Y ork 1 4261 U .S.A.

I n C eramic E cology i M aterials, e dited b y

0

B .

K athleen

M .

1 988; C urrent C harles C . K olb

A llen

a nd

E zra

B .

R esearch o n C eramic ( 1989), 6 1-95.

W .

Z ubrow,

1 989

I NTRODUCTION

A ND

B ACKGROUND

T his s tudy s tems f rom c uriosity r egarding t he r elative p aucity o f c eramic p roduction a nd u se i n N ortheastern N orth A merica. T he p urpose o f t his r esearch i s t o e xamine t he f actors t hat m ay b e r esponsible. I n t he S outhwest, t here a re s everal c lear c ategories o f v essels s uch a s b owls a nd j ars. S uch d istinctions h ave n ever b een d rawn i n t he N ortheast. I nstead, N ortheastern c eramics a re c lassed u nder t he g eneral c ategory o f u tilitarian w are. T his d ifference i n t ypes i s n ot t he r esult o f i nsufficient d iscrimination o f v essel s hapes b y N ortheastern a rchaeologists, b ut r eflects t he l ack o f c lear v essel t ypes i n t he c eramics o f t he N ortheast. N ortheastern v essels w ere u nslipped, s imple i n d esign, a nd m oderate i n s ize. T hey w ere u sed i n c ooking s oups a nd s tews. I n c ontrast, v essels f rom t he S outhwest w ere u sed f or a w ider v ariety o f p urposes a nd w ere o f t wo p rimary f unctional t ypes: j ars a nd b owls. T here w ere t wo t ypes o f w are: a u tilitarian c orrugated w are a nd a m ore h ighly d ecorated, m ore f inely-made w are. W ith t hese o bservations i n m ind, w e c onsidered w hy t here a re s uch d ifferences i n f orm a nd f unction b etween w ares p roduced i n t hese t wo c ulture a reas. T wo e nvironmental f actors c ome r eadily t o m ind. F irst, o ne o bvious d ifference b etween t he t wo a reas i s t he c limate. C limate m ay h ave a c onstraining e ffect o n c eramic p roduction. S econd, i n t he N ortheast, w ood i s r eadily a vailable a nd w as u sed f or a v ariety o f p urposes by t he n ative i nhabitants i ncluding t he m anufacture o f l adles a nd i ndividual s erving d ishes. W e s uggest b oth o f t hese f actors w ere i mportant i n e xplaining w hy c eramic p roduction i s l ess v ariable a nd m ore l imited i n s cale f or t he N ortheast. I n t his s tudy, w e f ocus o n t he e ffects o f c limate o n c eramic p roduction.

C LIMATE S ince w e a re c oncerned w ith t he e ffect o f c limate o n c eramics a nd c eramic p roduction a ctivities, w e s tart b y d efining t he t erm " climate" a nd t he a ctivities a ssociated w ith " ceramic p roduction."

D efinition

o f

C limate

T he w ord c limate i s a mbiguous. I t i s o ften u sed a s a s ynonym f or w eather, o r c hanging c limatic c onditions. O ne l ay u sage i s t hat c limate i s t he e xpectation o f w hat

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w eather w ill b e l ike i n a t ime s cale c omparable w ith a h uman l ifetime. P rofessional u sage i s e rratic b ut h as f ive c omponents. F irst, i t i ncludes w eather. S econd, i t a ssumes t hat c limate e xists a t a ny g iven m oment a nd, t hird, a t a ny g iven p lace. F ourth, c limate r efers t o t he i ntegrated e xperience o f t he r ecent p ast ( Hare 1 985:39). F ifth, i t i s a p ervasive a nd c onstraining f actor o n a ll s ocieties. We a ssume t he r ules o f p arsimony. I n o rder t o o perationalize o ur d efinition o f c limate, u nless w e h ave c ontrolling e vidence t o t he c ontrary, w e a ssume t he " like i s p roximate t o l ike" p rinciple ( Zubrow a nd H arbaugh 1 978). I n t his c ase, i t m eans t hat w e b elieve t hat c limate i n t he n ear p ast i s v ery s imilar t o t he p resent. A dditionally, c limate n ear t he s tation u nder d iscussion i s m ore s imilar t o t he c limate o f t he s tation t han i s t he c limate a l ong d istance f rom t hat s tation. A s p art o f t his o perationalization, w e must c onsider t he f act t hat c limate p lays a c onstraining r ole u pon s ociety. H uman s ocieties a re a dapted t o t he a nnual r hythms o f c limate w hich w e c all s easons. P roduction, h ousing, h ealth measures, c lothing, a nd r ecreational h abits a re a djusted b oth t o m aximize s easonal b enefits a nd m inimize s easonal l osses. F ailure t o c ope w ith e xpected c hange l eads t o d islocation, d iscomfort, a nd e conomic l oss. F ailure t o c ope w ith u nexpected c hange m ay r esult i n t rue d isaster. C limate i s u npredictable w ithin c ertain m argins a nd p redictable w ithin o thers. S ocieties w ith a w ise a daptive s trategy h ave b uilt i n s afety m argins a nd a re f lexible.

F our

V iews

o f

C limate

T here a re f our s ynthetic v iews o ne c an t ake o f c limate i n t he i nteraction o f c limate a nd s ociety ( Riebsame 1 985). F irst, c limate c an b e c onsidered a s t he s etting o r t he " backdrop" f or " the p rocesses o f b iophysical a nd s ocioeconomic s ystems." C limate i n t his s ense i s c onceived o f a s t he s table b ackdrop t o l ife. T here h ave b een n umerous c lassic s tudies i n t his v ein s uch a s t he f amous c lassificatory s tudy b y K öppen a nd G eiger ( 1930). C limate c onsidered i n t his w ay m olds r esearch d esign s o p roblems o f c lassification, r egional d ifferences, a nd t he a djustment o f h uman s ocieties t o c limate a re o f g reatest c oncern. R esearch a ctivities i nclude m apping, s orting, a nd c orrelating. S econd, c limate c an b e v iewed a s a d eterminant. P eople a dapt t o c limatic c onstraints a nd t his i s a d ynamic s ystem. R esearchers w ho t ake t his v iew o f c limate i nclude H untington ( 1915) a nd D uray ( 1969). T he

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u sual l inkages t hat a re m ade h ere a re b etween c limate a nd s ubsistence. A nthropological d escriptions o f c limatic c onstraints o n c ulture a re n umerous, r anging f rom t he A rctic t o t he t ropics a nd f rom t he d eserts t o t he r ainforests. N oteworthy m onographs i nclude s tudies o f t he E skimo a nd C hukchee i n t he n orth ( Bogoras 1 907), t he ! Kung S an i n t he d esert ( Lee 1 977) a nd t he P ygmies i n t he t ropical r ain f orest ( Turnbull 1 962). T he p rimary d ifficulty i n t his t ype o f r esearch i s i n t he c omplexity o f m odeling t he r elationship b etween c limate a nd a spects o f c ulture. I n a t hird v iew, c limate i s s een a s h azard. T his i s r easoning f rom e xtremes. T he m echanisms b y w hich s ocieties a dapt t o e xtremes i s o ften m ore o bvious t han d ay t o d ay c oping. F or e xample, i n N ew O rleans, t he p recautionary b ehavior t hat o ccurs u nder t hreats o f v iolent w eather c larifies t hose a spects o f l ife t hat o ne s ees d aily b ut d oes n ot a ssociate w ith t he n eed f or p rotection f rom c limatic f orces. T hese i nclude t he p resence o f s hutters o n w indows a nd d oors t hroughout t he c ity a s w ell a s t he n umerous c oncrete b lock p ier f oundations. W hen c limate i s v iewed a s a h azard, c ritical a reas o f r esearch d esign a re s tress a nd d ecision a nalysis. F inally, i n t he f ourth a nd m ost c ontemporary v iew o f c limate, i t i s s een a s a n atural r esource. L andberg w as o ne o f t he e arly d evelopers o f t his a pproach ( Riebsame 1 985). S ociety a ttempts t o v alue, a llocate, m anage, a nd m anipulate c limate i n o rder t o e xtract b enefits a nd d iminish p roblems a nd d etriments. F rom t his p oint o f v iew, S amuelson's ( 1973:156-160) d efinition o f a p ublic g ood a pplies t o c limate. T hat i s, c limate c an b e v iewed a s a p ublic g ood s ince i t p rovides b enefits t o a ll u sers. I ndividual c onsumption l eads t o n o d ecrease i n b enefit t o a ny o ther u ser. O ne i mportant r esearch i mplication o f t his v iew o f c limate i s t hat t he v alue o f c limate c an b e measured a s a t angible g ood. O ne c an a ssess t he c ost o f p roduction p ossibilities t hat a re h elped, c hanged, o r d eleted b y c limate, a nd, p erhaps e ven m ore i mportantly, o ne c an a ssess t he w illingness o f u sers t o p ay f or maintaining o r c hanging a g iven c limate. I n t his p aper, w e v iew c limate i n s everal w ays: a s b ackdrop, a s d eterminant, a nd a s n atural r esource. I n p articular, w e a ssess t he r elationship b etween c limate a nd p roduction a nd t he e ffects ( negative a s w ell a s p ositive) t hat c limate h as o n t he e ntire p rocess. C limatic

most

V ariables

T emperature, r ainfall, h umidity, i mportant c limatic v ariables

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a nd w ind a ffecting

a re t he c eramic

p roduction. H owever, w e m ust a lso c onsider g eneral w eather c onditions a s t hey o ccur o n a d ay t o d ay b asis i n a ssessing t he e ffects o f c limate o n c eramic a ctivities. I n o rder t o u nderstand t he m anner i n w hich t hese v ariables i mpinge u pon c eramic p roduction, w e b riefly c onsider t he p rocess o f c eramic m anufacture t o i dentify t hose a ctivities t hat a re m ost s usceptible t o c limatic c onditions.

A CTIVITIES

A SSOCIATED W ITH

C ERAMIC

P RODUCTION

A s equence o f s teps a re i nvolved i n t he p roduction o f c eramics. T hese i nclude o btaining t he c lay, p reparing i t, f orming t he v essel, d rying t he v essel, a nd f iring i t. A dditional d ecoration a nd a s econd f iring o ccur a mong s ome s ocieties b ut w ere n ot u sed a mong t he I roquois a nd a re n ot c onsidered h ere. C limatic f actors m ay o r m ay n ot h ave a n e ffect u pon a ny o r a ll o f t hese p roduction s tages. O ne g oal o f t his s tudy i s t o d elineate w hich s tages a re a ffected. F irst, w e c onsider t he p hysical c haracteristics o f c lay s o t hat w e m ay b etter e valuate h ow c lay i s a ffected b y v ariations i n t emperature a nd h umidity.

D efinition

o f

C lay

D efinitions f or c lay v ary a nd i llustrate t he p resence o f a n umber o f d ifferent k inds o f c lay a s w ell a s a v ariety o f u ses. I n g eneral t erms, c lay m ay b e d efined a s a f ine-grained, e arthy m aterial t hat d evelops p lasticity w hen m ixed w ith w ater ( Shepard 1 961). I n a m ore t echnical s ense, c lay i s d efined a s a n aturally o ccurring f ine-grained m aterial c omposed p rimarily o f a n umber o f c rystalline m inerals k nown a s c lay m inerals ( Mason 1 981:12). T hese m inerals a re h ydrous s ilicates c omposed o f s ilica, a lumina, a nd w ater. I ron, a lkalies a nd a lkaline e arths m ay a lso b e p resent i n a ppreciable q uantities. T he m ost i mportant a spect o f t his d efinition i s t he p resence o f w ater i n a ppreciable a mounts i n t he c omposition o f c lay. W ater c ontent c an a ffect f reezing a nd d rying a s w ell a s e ase o f m ixing.

F ormation

o f

C lay

C lay f orms f rom t he d ecomposition o f r ocks a nd m inerals. T he t ransformation o f r ock i nto c lay i s a ffected b y a n umber o f v ariables. T hese i nclude t emperature, r ain, t opography, hydrothermal a ctivity, a nd t ime.

C lay m ay b e f ormed a s t he r esult o f s everal d ifferent k inds o f p rocesses. C lay d eposits m ay b e e ither r esidual, t hat i s f ormed i n p lace, o r t ransported ( Mason 1 981). R esidual d eposits f orm i n s itu f rom t he w eathering o f s urface o r n ear-surface r ocks o r f rom h ydrothermal a lteration o f s ub-surface r ocks. T hese r esidual d eposits m ay t hen b e t ransported t o n ew l ocations. G lacial t ransport o f c lay d eposits, s ubsequent d eposition i n m oraines, o utwash p lains, a nd g lacial l akes a nd f urther w eathering h as b een v ery i mportant i n t he f ormation o f m ost o f t he c lay d eposits i n t he N ortheast. I n a ddition, c lay d eposits a re p resent i n s tream c hannels, f lood p lains, s wamps, d eltas, a nd o ther l ocations w here r unning w ater i s p resent.

P roduction

S teps

O btaining c lay: C lay h as t o b e o btained a s t he f irst s tep i n c eramic p roduction. B ased o n t he mechanisms o f t he f ormation o f c lays, t here a re s ome l ocations i n t he e nvironment t hat a re m ore l ikely t o c ontain c lay. C ertainly, a p opulation t hat l ives a t o ne l ocation f or a ny e xtended p eriod o f t ime w ill b e q uite f amiliar w ith c lay s ources. I n t he e astern G reat L akes c lay d eposits a re p lentiful a s t he r esult o f g lacial t ransport a nd t he a ction o f r unning w ater. I n s ome a reas t hat h ave b een e xamined, c lay s ources a re l ocated i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f v illage s ites. C lay m ay b e o btained f rom s urface e xposures a nd f rom p its d ug i nto a d eposit. C lay w ould b e e asier t o p rocure d uring t he w armer m onths o f t he y ear w hen i t i s p liable. I n a ddition, s ome n ote t hat t he p rocurement o f c lay i s n ot e asy a nd a ttempts a re m ade t o e nsure t hat l arge a mounts a re s tockpiled. A mong t he C atawba, men d ug t he c lay f rom p its w hile w omen a dvised ( Fewkes 1 944). F urther, i t h as b een n oted t hat t he q uality o f c lay i mproves a s i t " ages," i .e. a s i t s its a bove g round f or a p eriod o f t ime ( Mason 1 981:46). P reparing c lay: I n s ome c ases t his i s a m inor s tep i n t ne p rocess s ince p reparation o f t he c lay i s n ot n eeded. I n m any c ases, h owever, c lay i s t ransformed i n a n umber o f w ays b efore b eing s haped i nto c ontainers. C lay m ay b e f irst d ried a nd t hen p ulverized i nto a f ine p owder. I mpurities a re r emoved i n t he p rocess o f c leaning i t. T emper m ay b e a dded t o t he c lay a long w ith w ater a nd t he c lay i s k neaded a nd r eformulated. When t he c lay i s r eady f or s haping, i t i s d ivided i nto s mall l umps i f i t i s t o b e u sed i mmediately o r l eft i n a l arge p ile c overed w ith a c loth i f i t i s t o b e s tored ( Rice 1 987:115, 1 19).

F orming t he v essel: T here a re s everal methods u sed t o c onstruct v essels. S lab c onstruction a nd c oiling a re t he t wo m ost c ommon m ethods. I n o rder t o f orm p roperly, t he c lay m ust b e s ufficiently p lastic t hat i t c an b e m olded a nd s haped y et b e a ble t o m aintain t he f orm i t i s g iven d uring t he s haping p rocess. S everal d escriptions o f v essel f ormation a mong N ative A merican g roups a re a vailable f rom t he e astern N orth A merica. S agard ( Wrong 1 939) i ndicates t hat t he w omen m ade a b all o f c lay a nd p unched i t w ith t heir f ist t o b egin t o s hape t he v essel. A s imilar p rocess f or i nitial f ormation o f v essel s hape i s d escribed f or t he C atawba ( Fewkes 1 944:77). H owever, c oiling i s a m ore c ommon m ethod o f c omplete v essel c onstruction i n N orth A merica. A fter i nitial f orming, t he v essel i s s moothed u sing f ingers a s w ell a s s craping t ools. W ater i s u sed t hroughout t his p rocess t o p revent c lay f rom s ticking t o t he w orking s urface a s w ell a s t o e ase t he p rocess o f s moothing. D rying t he v essel: T his s tage i s i mportant t o t he s uccess o f t he e ntire e ndeavor. T he v essel m ust b e p roperly d ried i f f iring i s t o b e s uccessful. T his d rying p rocess a llows f or t he r emoval o f w ater f rom t he m olded c lay. I f i t i s d one t oo q uickly c racking m ay o ccur. V ariables i mportant f or p roper d rying i nclude p aste t exture, a mount o f w ater p resent, t emperature, h umidity, a nd t he v elocity o f t he a ir ( Shepard 1 961:74, R ice 1 987:70). P aste t exture i s i mportant s ince c oarse w ares c an b e d ried m ore q uickly ( Lawrence a nd W est 1 982:89). T he m ost d ifficult a spect o f d rying i s i n g etting t he v essel t o d ry u niformly. T he r ate o f e vaporation a nd s hrinkage i s m ost r apid o n s urfaces e xposed t o t he a ir. R apid c hanges i n t emperature, h umidity a nd w ind c an c ause u neven d rying. A rnold ( 1985) n otes t hat t he a mount o f t ime n eeded f or d rying i s c losely r elated t o t he w eather. I n c ool o r r ainy c limates o r s easons, i t t akes l onger f or t he p ots t o d ry ( Arnold 1 985:65-70). I n c old c limates, f rost d amage i s r isked i f d rying o ccurs o utside a nd p ottery m ay m ore o ften b e d ried i ndoors. M odern d ay p otters n ote t hat t he h umidity h as a n oticeable e ffect o n t he l ength o f t ime i t t akes t o d ry a p ot e ven t hough t hey a re w orking i ndoors ( Magazine S treet p otter, N ew O rleans, p ersonal c ommunication 1 988). T hey o ften p ut t heir w ares o n t op o f t heir k ilns t o s peed u p t he d rying. V essels d ried o n t op o f a k iln m ay o nly r equire a f ew h ours t o a h alf-day t o d ry s ufficiently; l arger w ares m ay r equire a w eek, p articularly i f t hey a re l eft i n a n o pen r oom t o d ry r ather t han b eing p laced o n t op o f a k iln. A mong t he C atawba, d rying i s t he m ost t ime-consuming p art o f t he p rocess. D rying u sually t akes f rom o ne t o t hree d ays a lthough l arge v essels m ay n eed a w hole w eek i n o rder t o d ry ( Fewkes 1 944:88). A mong t he

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P amunkey, p ots w ere d ried i ndoors f or a t l east a w eek ( Stern 1 951). D rying t imes v ary w idely d epending a s w ell o n t he l ocation f or d rying, i .e. w hether i t i s d one o utside i n t he s un o r i ndoors. A lthough t here m ay b e o ther n on-climatic f actors t hat a ffect d rying s uccess, t heir i nfluence i s m inor c ompared t o c limatic v ariables. F iring t he v essel: T his i s t he l ast p roduction s tep. K ilns a re n ot k nown f rom m ost o f t he n ative g roups i n N orth A merica a nd a re n ot d iscussed h ere. T he I roquois p robably f ired t heir v essels i n t he s ame w ay m any o ther c eramic p roducers d id, u sing o pen f ires t hat m ight b est b e d escribed a s b onfires. F uel i s p laced o n t he b ottom a nd t hen t he p ots a re a rranged i n p iles o ver t he w ood. M ore w ood i s p laced o n t op a nd t he w hole p ile i s f ired u p ( Rice 1 987:153). A t f irst a l arge b onfire e nsues a nd t hen t he f ire c ontinues t o b urn f or s everal h ours. V ery f ew v essels a re l ost d uring t he f iring p rocess i f t hey h ave b een d ried a nd p iled p roperly. P ottery m ay b e w armed u p a head o f f iring t o i mprove t he s uccess r ate. F ewkes ( 1944) h as n oted t his a mong t he C atawba. W hen t he f ire d ies d own t hey a re l eft f or s everal h ours t o c ool a nd t hen p ulled o ut o f t he f ire. W ind i s a s erious p roblem f or o pen f irings. I t c an l ower t he t emperature i n t he f ire b y a s m uch a s 214 6° C ( Rice 1 987:156). H umidity a nd r ainfall a re a lso c rucial f actors i n s uccessful f iring. M any p art-time p otters o nly p roduce p ottery d uring t he d ry s eason i n o rder t o m inimize l osses. F ailures a re m uch m ore f requent d uring t he r ainy s eason t han d uring t he d ry s eason. Among t he C atawba, F ewkes ( 1944) r eports t hat o lder p otters u sed a s imple h earth o r, m ore r arely, a p it f or o utdoor f iring b ut t hat f iring w as m ore o ften d one i ndoors. O ften o nly a f ew v essels w ere f ired a t a t ime. T he v essel m ight b e p laced n ear t he f ire ( within 1 .5 m ) f or t he f irst h alf h our. I t w as t hen t urned a nd m oved c loser t o t he f ire s o t hat a f air a mount o f e vaporation o ccurred b efore i t w as a ctually p laced i n t he fire. F inally i t w as p laced i n t he f ire. L ittle p ost-firing t reatment i s a pparent o n N ortheastern p ottery. I n p articular, t here i s n o s econd f iring a nd g lazing. V essels m ay h ave b een r ubbed w ith a c loth o r p iece o f f at ( Fewkes 1 94 ) 4) o r s moothed a nd p olished w ith a s tone.

T HE

E FFECT

O F

C LIMATIC

V ARIABLES

O N

C ERAMIC

P RODUCTION

I t i s c lear f rom t he a bove d escriptions o f c eramic p roduction t hat t here a re a n umber o f c limatic v ariables t hat c an a ffect t he s uccess o f c eramic p roduction. T emperature, p recipitation, h umidity a nd w ind v elocity a ll p lay i mportant r oles. T his i s e specially t rue o f t he

- 6 8 -

d rying s tep o f p roduction a lthough c limate w ill i mpinge a t o ther t imes a s w ell. F or e xample, n ote t he d etrimental e ffect t hat v ery c old t emperatures m ay h ave o n c lay p rocurement. T emperature a nd h umidity a lso h ave a n a dverse i mpact o n t he v essel-forming p rocess. H owever, i t i s i n t he d rying s tep t hat a ll o f t he c limatic f actors a dversely i nfluence s uccess. P recipitation, h umidity, a nd l ow t emperatures s low t he d rying t ime w hile h igh w inds c ause u neven d rying. W inds a lso a ffect f iring p redictability a nd m ay l ead t o f ailure. W e h ave c hosen t wo v ariables, t emperature a nd p recipitation, t o e xamine i n o ur e valuation o f t he e ffect o f c limatic c onstraints o n c eramic p roduction. T emperature d ata w as o btained f rom f our l ocations. T wo o f t hese a re i n u pstate N ew Y ork a nd b racket t he e astern G reat L akes a rea. T hese a re B atavia a nd A lfred ( Figure 1 ). A t hird i s L exington, V irginia w hich i s l ocated i n t he A ppalachian M ountain r egion a nd i s m ost c ompatible w ith t he e nvironment i n w hich t he C atawba l ived. T he f ourth, U valde, T exas ( west o f S an A ntonio) i s a r epresentative o f w arm, d ry c limates a s a re t ypical o f t he S outhwest.

T emperature D aily t emperatures f or B atavia w ere o btained. T emperatures r anged f rom 7 t o 9 0 0 F a nd t he m ean w as 5 70 F . I n o rder t o i dentify t hose m onths i n w hich c eramic p roduction w ould b e d ifficult o r i mpossible, w e p lotted t he m aximum d aily t emperature t hroughout t he y ear ( Figure 2 ). T he l ine a cross t he m iddle o f t he f igure i s t he t emperature c riteria w e u sed a s t he c utoff f or c eramic p roduction. I n t his f irst f igure, w e u sed a c onservative 3 2 ° F c riteria. T hat i s, w e b elieved c eramics w ere u nlikely t o b e p roduced i n d ays w hen t he m aximum t emperature w as b elow 3 20 F . T he f irst t wo a nd o ne-half m onths o f t he y ear o ften h ave t emperatures t his l ow a s d oes a l arge p art o f D ecember. N ext w e r aised o ur t emperature c riteria s lightly t o 4 00 F . P lease r emember t hat w e a re t alking a bout m aximum t emperatures h ere s o t hat m any d ays w ith h ighs o f 4 0° F a re s till e xperiencing l ows o f 3 2 ° F o r b elow. I n t his c ase ( Figure 3 ), t he f irst 1 00 d ays o f t he y ear a nd t he l ast 4 5 f all b elow t his c riteria. C eramic p roduction i s c learly t o b e a voided d uring t his p eriod f rom D ecember t hrough M arch.

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N ext w e p lotted t he m aximum d aily t emperature o ver t he f ull y ear t o s ee m ore p recisely w hat k ind o f v ariation e xisted o n a d ay t o d ay b asis. T his i s e specially i mportant w hen w e c onsider t hat i n t he c ourse o f d rying c eramics i t i s i mportant t o h ave a n umber o f c onsecutive w arm a nd d ry d ays f or p roper d rying. T he p lot o f d aily t emperatures ( Figure 4 ) s hows m arked v ariation d uring t he f irst p art o f t he y ear. T emperatures s eem t o s tabilize s ome a fter d ay 1 60 ( in J une) a nd c ontinue t o b e r elatively s table u ntil d ay 3 00 ( in O ctober). I f o ne w ere s eeking t he o ptimum c onditions f or m aking p ottery, t he p eriod f rom J une t o O ctober w ould b e b est s ince v ariation i s l ess a t t his t ime. F inally, t he r ange o f t emperatures o n a m onthly b asis w as e xamined ( Figure 5 ). T hese v alues a re b ased o n a 3 0-year s equence o f t emperatures f rom 1 951 t o 1 980. T he Y -axis i s t he mean n umber o f d ays a nd t he X -axis i s t he m onth i n s equence, i .e. 1 o n t he X -axis i s J anuary, 2 i s F ebruary, e tc. T he s haded c ircle r epresent t he mean n umber o f d ays i n e ach m onth i n w hich t he m aximum t emperature w as b elow 3 2 °F . T he o pen c ircle r epresents t he m ean n umber o f d ays i n e ach m onth i n w hich t he m inimum t emperature w as b elow 3 2° F . F or e xample, i n t he f irst c olumn o f t he i llustration ( January), o n t he a verage o ver t his 3 0-year p eriod, t here w ere 1 9 d ays w hen t he m aximum t emperature n ever r eached a bove 3 2° F a nd 3 0 d ays - 17- 1 7fich t he m inimum n ever r eached a bove 3 2 0 F . F or t he B atavia s tation, t here w ere o nly f our m onths i n w hich b oth t he m inimum a nd m aximum t emperatures n ever r eached a s l ow a s 3 2 °F . F urther, t here were s even m onths ( April t hrough O ctober) w hen t he m aximum t emperature w as a bove 3 2° F a lthough A pril h ad a s ignificant n umber o f d ays ( ca. 1 4) i n w hich t he m inimum t emperature d id n ot r ise a bove f reezing. C learly, i f o ne w anted t o i nsure s uccess i n m aking c eramics, t he b est m onths i n w hich t o s chedule t his a ctivitiy w ould b e M ay t hrough S eptember o r O ctober. M ore s pecifically, t he m onths w hen s uccess i s most a ssured a re J une, J uly, A ugust, a nd S eptember, f ollowed by M ay a nd O ctober. We o btained c omparable d ata f or m inimum a nd m aximum t emperatures f or s everal o ther l ocations a s w ell. T emperatures f or A lfred, N ew Y ork a re p resented i n F igure 6 . A lfred i s l ocated i n t he A llegheny P lateau r egion o f s outhern N ew Y ork. A s i s e vident i n t he f igure, t emperatures t end t o b e c older a lthough t he d ifference b etween B atavia a nd A lfred i s n ot t oo g reat. T here a re s till s even m onths w hen t he m aximum t emperature d oes n ot r each b elow 3 2 0 F . H owever, b oth A pril a nd O ctober h ave more d ays w hen t he m inimums r each 3 2 0 F o r b elow. C learly, J une, J uly, a nd A ugust a re t he b est m onths f or p roduction when t emperatures w ill n ot r each 3 2 °,

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B y w ay o f c ontrast, w e e xamined s imilar d ata o n m aximum a nd m inimum t emperatures f or L exington, V irginia a nd U valde, T exas ( Figures 7 a nd 8 ). L exington i s l ocated i n t he A ppalachian M ountains i n t he w estern p art o f t hat s tate. N ote t he r elatively f lat c urve f or m aximum t emperature. T his v alue i s r arely b elow 3 2° F a nd t hat o ccurs f or f our o r f ewer d ays i n D ecember, J anuary, a nd F ebruary. M inimum t emperatures r arely f all b elow 3 2° F f rom M ay t hrough S eptember a nd d o f or o nly f ive o r s ix d ays i n A pril a nd O ctober. A gain, N ovember t hrough M arch a re l ess s uitable f or p roduction i f o ne c onsiders m inimum t emperatures. H owever, s ince m aximums a re r elatively h igh, p roduction m ay b e f easible t hroughout m ost o f t he y ear. C atawba c eramic p roduction c ould t ake p lace d uring m ost o f t he y ear a ccording t o F ewkes ( 1944). D ata f rom U valde, T exas i ndicate t hat f rom A pril t hrough O ctober, n either t he m aximum n or m inimum t emperatures f all b elow 3 2 0 F . T here w ere n o i nstances w hen t he m aximum t emperature w as b elow 3 2 0 F . C learly c eramic p roduction c ould b e d one t hrough a m uch l onger p eriod o f t he y ear t han i n o ther l ocations. I f s easonality o f p roduction o ccurs i n t his a rea ( the S outhwest), i t i s n ot b ecause o f t emperature r estrictions. I n s um, t here a re f ewer f rost-free d ays i n t he N ortheast a nd f ewer d ays w hen h ighs r each 3 2 0 F ( especially d uring t he w inter m onths). T emperature a ppears t o p lay a l imiting r ole i n c eramic p roduction. T his i s t rue e ven i f o ne b elieves t hat p ottery c ould b e b uilt i ndoors d uring c older w eather. C learly, t he s cale o f p roduction must b e s maller i f c eramics a re b eing p roduced i ndoors. I t i s l ikely t hat t he l argest a mount o f p roduction w ould o ccur d uring t he w armer m onths w hen a ll a spects o f s aid p roduction a re f acilitated. P recipitation A s n oted e arlier, p recipitation c an h ave a n a dverse e ffect o n t he d rying a nd f iring p hases o f p roduction. A verage p recipitation f igures a nd d aily c ounts o f d ry d ay s equences p rovide a n i ndication o f t he c onstraints o f r ain a nd s now o n o utdoor p roduction. D aily i nformation o n p recipitation w as a vailable f rom A lfred, N ew Y ork. F igure 9 s hows t he d ays o n w hich i t r ained o r s nowed o ver t he c ourse o f a f ull y ear ( 1984). E ach d ay h as o ne o f t wo v alues o n t he Y -axis; 1 means t hat t here w as r ain o r s now, 0 m eans t hat t here w as n one. T he X -axis i s t he

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d ays o f t he y ear. T hus, f rom t he b eginning o f t he y ear, i t w as d ry t he f irst d ay, r ained o r s nowed t he s econd d ay, w as d ry t he t hird d ay, a nd p recipitated f or e ight d ays ( #4-11), e tc. N ote t hat s tarting a t d ay 1 54, t here a re m ore d ry d ays t han w et d ays f or a p eriod o f a bout 2 00 d ays ( to d ay 3 35). T his s uggests t hat t he b est p eriod f or c eramic m anufacture i s f rom t he b eginning o f J une t o m id-November s ince t here a re m ore d ry t han w et d ays d uring t his p eriod. L et u s f or t he m oment a ssume t hat t here i s e xternal d rying o f c eramics. A lso l et u s a ccept o n t he b asis o f e thnographic a nalogy a nd m odern c eramic e ngineering t hat i t t akes a pproximately t hree d ays t o d ry a m edium-size p ot a nd a w eek t o d ry a l arge p ot. I t i s e asy t o d etermine w hat t he a pproximate p robability f or d rying b y m onth o r b y s eason i s f or t he I roquoian a reas u nder c onsideration. F rom t he i nformation i n F igure 9 , we c an d etermine t he n umber o f s equential d ays w hen n o p recipitation o ccurred a nd t hus i dentify t he p eriods w hen d ifficulty w ould b e e ncountered i n d rying a nd f iring t he p ottery. I n t he f irst 6 0 d ays o f t he y ear, t here i s o nly o ne t hree-day s equence i n w hich t here w as n o p recipitation. I n o ther w ords, o utdoor d rying w as i mpossible f or a ll o f J anuary a nd F ebruary e xcept f or o ne t hree-day p eriod. I n m id-March o ne c ould d ry m edium-sized p ots. B etween 6 0 a nd 1 00 d ays t here a re t wo t hree-day p eriods f or d rying m iddle-size p ots a nd t hen d uring m id-April. A pril 9 th b egins t he f irst s ix-day p eriod w ithout a ny p recipitation. T able 1 p rovides a f ull a ccount o f t he n umber o f s equences o f c onsecutive d ry d ays f or e ach m onth d uring t he y ear. F rom t he d ata p resented, i t a ppears t hat t he b est m onths f or d rying b ased s olely o n p recipitation a re A pril, J une, J uly, A ugust, S eptember, O ctober, a nd N ovember. T his i s a s urprisingly l ong p eriod o f t ime. I f w e a ccept t hat i t t akes t hree d ays t o d ry a m edium-size p ot a nd s even d ays t o d ry a l arge p ot, t hen A ugust a nd S eptember a re o ptimal m onths f or t he m anufacture o f m edium-size p ots a nd J uly a nd S eptember a re o ptimal f or l arge p ots. O verall, h owever, t here a re v ery f ew d ry p eriods d uring t he y ear. T he l ast c olumn s hows t he t otal n umber o f d ry d ays t hat a re p art o f t hree o r m ore d ry d ay s equences. C learly, J uly a nd S eptember a re t he o ptimum m onths t o p lan o n l arge-scale c eramic p roduction. I t a ppears t hat c eramic m anufacture i s l ikely t o b e a s easonal a ctivity t hat c ould o nly b e e ngaged i n f or a bout h alf a y ear. I f p roduction o ccurred d uring t he w inter a s w ell, w e w ould e xpect t o s ee e vidence f or t his a ctivity i nside r esidential s tructures.

- 8 1

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T able 1 : T he P otential P eriods o f E xternal D rying B ased o n t he N umber o f S equential D ays W ithout P recipitation. N UMBER

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S ix

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0

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1

3

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1

3

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2

1

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1

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1

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1

2

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1

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1

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1

1 6 1

1 2 1

1

3

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d ry d ay

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I f w e l ook a t t he a bove d ate s eparately i n t erms o f t he o verall n umber o f t hree-day a nd s ix-day d ry p eriods c ontained w ithin t he s equences, s ome i nteresting r esults e merge. T ables 2 a nd 3 a nd F igures 1 0 a nd 1 1 p resent t his i nformation. F irst, t here a re 5 6 t hree-day d ry p eriods t hat a ctually o ccurred d uring t he y ear o ut o f a t otal p ossible n umber o f 3 62 ( Table 2 ). T his m eans t hat a t a ny g iven t ime a s t hey s tarted o ut a t hree-day s equence, t hey h ad o nly a 1 5% p robability t hat t hree d ays w ould b e d ry. H owever, i f w e l ook a t J uly, t here w ere 1 2 t hree-day d ry s equences t hat a ctually o ccurred o ut o f 2 9 p ossible ( in a 3 1-day m onth). I f t hey w ere d rying t heir p ots i n J uly, t he p robability t hat t here w ould b e t hree d ry d ays a s t hey s tarted o ut a ny s equence w as 4 1%, q uite a n i ncrease o ver t hat f or t he y ear. J uly, t hen, i s c learly t he b est m onth f or t he p roduction o f m edium-size p ots. F igure 1 0 s hows t his m ore c learly. H ere w e c an s ee t hat t here a re t hree g roupings o f m onths b y n umber o f s equential d ry d ays. J uly i s t he b est m onth f or d rying, A pril, J une, a nd A ugust t hrough N ovember a re n ext b est, w hile t he o ther m onths o f t he y ear a re n ot c onducive f or d rying. N ext w e e xamined t he s ix-day d ry p eriods ( Table 3 ). T here w ere o nly n ine s ix-day d ry p eriods d uring t he y ear o ut o f a p ossible t otal o f 3 60. A t t he b eginning o f a ny g iven p eriod, t here w as o nly a 3 % c hance t hat i t w ould b e a l ong s tretch o f d ry d ays s ufficient t o d ry a l arge p ot. F or t he m onth o f N ovember, t here w as a 1 2% c hance t hat a ny g iven p eriod w ould b e a s ix-day d ry s tretch. C hances o f s uccessfully d rying a l arge p ot w ere m uch g reater i n N ovember t han a t a ny o ther t ime. H owever, w e s hould r ecall t hat l ow t emperatures h ave t he e ffect o f i ncreasing d rying t ime. T herefore o ne i s t aking a c hance w hen d rying v essels i n t he l ate f all s ince e ven m ore t ime m ay b e n eeded. I f w e o nly u se p recipitation f igures, N ovember i s t he b est m onth o f t he y ear t o m anufacture l arge p ots; F igure 1 c learly s hows t his. H owever, t he o verall p atterning i s l ess c lear-cut t han i t w as f or t he t hree-day s equences. N ext w e t urn t o m ean m onthly p recipitation d ata f or t he f our s tations p reviously i dentified. F igure 1 2 c ontains t his i nformation. I nches o f r ain a re i ndicated o n t he Y -axis w hile t he m onth i s o n t he X -axis. S haded c ircles s tand f or B uffalo, o pen c ircles s tand f or A lfred, X 's s tand f or U valde, a nd t riangles s tand f or L exington.

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0

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1

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8

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7

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A s econd i mportant d ifference b etween n ative t radition a nd t hat o f t he S panish m ay h ave i mplications f or N ew W orld a rchaeologists. I n t he E uropean t radition, b oth w heel-thrown a nd m old-made v essels w ere t hinned w hen l eather-hard, u sing a t echnique k nown v ariously a s " turning," " scraping," " shaving," " trimming," o r " fettling." R ice ( 1987:137) d efines t rimming o r f ettling a s " cutting a way e xcess c lay a nd i mperfections f rom t he v essel w hen i t i s l eather-hard." R ye ( 1981:87) m akes d istinctions b etween t rimming, s having, a nd t urning. I n t rimming " material i s c ut a way w hen t he c lay i s l eather-hard u sing a t ool, s uch a s a k nife, w ith t he b lade h eld a t a n a cute a ngle t o t he w ork s urface." S having i s a s pecialized k ind o f t rimming u sed f or f aceting t he s urface, " in w hich t he t ool i s a c lay p lane, s imilar t o t he p lane u sed i n w oodworking." T urning i s " essentially t he s ame o peration a s t rimming, e xcept t hat t he v essel r evolves v ery r apidly ( about 1 50 r pm) o n t he p otter's w heel." " Thinning" w ould m ore n early d escribe t he e ntire p rocess, i ncluding t rimming, s craping, a nd s having, a s w ell a s t urning, b ut t urning h as b ecome t he g enerally a ccepted i nclusive t erm. " Fettling" i s m ore s pecific, r eferring o nly t o t he p laning a way o f m old s eams. T he t urning p rocess w as p art o f b oth G raeco-Roman a nd I slamic c eramic t echnology - t he t wo t raditions t o w hich t he S panish w ere h eirs. R ichter ( 1923:10-15) h as d escribed t he u se o f t urning b y t he G reeks, w hile P eacock ( 1982:52-74), i n r eviewing R oman p ottery t echnology i ncluding m old u se, i llustrates t wo t ools u sed f or t he p rocess ( Peacock 1 982:Fig. 2 6, 1 a nd 3 ). T he e arliest k nown c ontemporary d escription o f t urning i s t hat o f a P ersian A bu'l-Qasim, w ho i n A .D. 1 301 ( Allan 1 973:114) w rote t hat v essels a re l eft s tanding t ill t hey a re h alf d ry. T hey a re s craped d own o n t he w heel a nd t he f eet a re a dded, a nd w hen t hey a re d ry t hey a re w ashed w ith a d amp l inen c loth i n o rder t o s mooth o ver t he l ines o n t hem s o t hat t hey d isappear. W hen t hey a re d ry a gain t hey a re r ubbed w ith a w ool c loth u ntil t hey a re c lean a nd s mooth. T urning i s s till a n i mportant a spect o f t he I slamic t radition. I n d escribing c ontemporary t echnology, W ulff ( 1966:156) r elates t hat w hile

- 1 31

-

m ost o f t he o rdinary j ars a nd d ishes h ave t heir f inal f orm when t aken o ff t he w heel, s ome o f t he b etter q uality w are i s t urned a fter h aving b ecome l eather-hard. F or a v essel w ith a w ide o pening t he p otter p laces a l ump o f c lay o n t he w heel t op, s hapes i t t o t he a pproximate s ize o f t he i nside o f t he v essel, t hus f orming a c huck, p laces t he v essel u pside d own o ver i t, a nd t urns i ts b ase t o t he r equired s hape w ith a t urning t ool. I talian R enaissance c eramic t echnology, m ore i mmediately a ncestral t o t he S panish-Mexican t radition, w as d escribed b y P iccolpasso i n t he m id-sixteenth c entury. P iccolpasso ( 1980:38) a lso d ifferentiates b etween t hose v essels t hat a re n ot t urned a nd t hose t hat a re. I n a ddition t o i llustrating t he f ive k inds o f t ools u sed f or s uch w ork, he l ater ( 1980:52) s tates t hat a ll o f t he f ine w ares a re t urned, a nd t o t urn t hem a t urning-block i s m ade o f c lay, s omewhat s maller t han t he w ares .. t he w ares a re p ut f ace d ownward o r u pside d own, s o t o s peak. T hen, t urning t hem t rue, a l arge p art o f t hem i s r emoved w ith t he i ron u ntil s uch t ime a s t he o uter s ide o r t he r ising e dge s o t o s peak c orresponds w ith t he i nner d ome a nd b ecomes a p roper t hickness, w hich i s w ell k nown t o t he e xcellent c raftsman. I t w as G isela R ichter ( 1923), a c lassical a rchaeologist, who r ediscovered t he a ncient t echnique o f t urning. D uring t he c ourse o f h er r esearch i nto a ncient G reek p ottery m anufacturing t echnology s he c onducted r eplication e xperiments a t t he N ew Y ork S chool o f C lay-Working a nd C eramics a t A lfred, N ew Y ork w here s he s tudied u nder C harles F . B inns ( Figure 1 1). B inns, w ho f ounded t he s chool a t A lfred a nd t aught t here f rom 1 900 u ntil 1 932, h as b een c alled " the f ather o f A merican s tudio-pottery" ( Donhauser 1 978:85). A s o ne o f t he m ost i nfluential t eachers a nd c eramists o f h is t ime B inns w rote e xtensively a bout c eramic t echnique. H e t hought t urning s o i mportant t hat h e d evoted a n e ntire c hapter t o t he p rocess i n h is s eminal t extbook ( Binns 1 922:99-106). T he c hapter o pens w ith t he s tatement t hat i t i s " not p ossible t o f inish w ork t o p erfection i n t he o peration o f t hrowing. T he c lay i s t oo s oft t o h andle a nd f or p roper f inishing t he p iece must b e t urned o ver t o g et a t t he b ottom" ( 1922:99).

( Lackey) F igure 1: C harles F . B inns t hrowing a v essel o n t he w heel. P hoto c ourtesy o f t he S choles L ibrary o f C eramics, N ew Y ork S tate C ollege o f C eramics a t A lfred U niversity, A lfred, N ew Y ork.

T he m achine-made a ppearance t hat t urning c an p roduce i s r eflected i n b oth B inns' o wn w ork ( Figure 1 2), a nd t he work o f t wo g enerations o f A merican a nd B ritish p otters. A fter t he e nd o f W orld W ar I I s tudio p otters r eacted a gainst t his m echanical q uality. L ed b y S hoji H amada a nd B ernard L each, t he f ashion a mong t oday's p otters i s f or v isible t hrowing m arks, t he " natural l ook" ( Figure 1 3); w ares a re o ften l eft w ithout a f oot-ring ( Figure 1 4). I n s harp c ontrast t o B inns, G lenn C . N elson ( author o f o ne o f t he m ost p opular m odern c eramics t exts), u ses j ust t wo p ages o f t ext a nd t hree i llustrations i n a d iscussion o f t rimming f oot-rings, i gnoring a ny o ther a spect o f t urning ( Nelson 1 984:159-163). M ichael B . C orbett, e xplains t hat t urning p ersonal c ommunication).

a B altimore p otter a nd t eacher, i s c onsidered a nathema ( 1988: H e f eels

s craping a nd s haping d estroys t he f reshness o f t he p iece a nd c hanges t he s urface o f t he c lay. T he t urned v essel t akes g laze d ifferently. I t m ight b e p ocked o r s cratched a s t he t rimming p rocess d rags g rit f rom t he b ody w all, o r t he p olished s teel t ool m ight b urnish t he l eather-hard s urface, o r i mpact i s s o t hat i t d oes n ot t ake t he g laze a s i t s hould. S ince c ontemporary " artist" p otters n o l onger t urn w ares i t i s n ot s urprising t hat, c ontemporary N ew a rchaeologists a re n ot f amiliar w ith t he p rocess.

t heir W orld

A lthough L ister a nd L ister ( 1972:26) b riefly m ention t rimming f oot-rings, t he t echnique o f t urning h as n ot b een d escribed f or M exican m aiolica. T he p rocess h as b een o bserved f or T alavera P oblana, a s t he l ocal t in-glazed e arthenware t radition i s c alled, a t o ne o f f our s urviving m aiolica f actories i n P uebla, t he C asa R ugerio. T he f irm h as a dded a f ew n ew f orms t o i ts i nventory t o meet c ontemporary n eeds, b ut t he m aterials a nd methods u sed t o m ake t hese f orms, t he t raditional d esigns u sed f or d ecoration, a nd t he o verall q uality o f t he f inished w ork d o n ot s eem t o h ave c hanged s ince t he c raft w as b rought t o P uebla. I n t he C asa R ugerio, a s i n o ther T alavera f actories i n P uebla, b oth w heel-thrown a nd m old-made v essels a re t hinned w hen l eather-hard. S everal t ools a re u sed i n t he p rocess t he f ierro p ara t erminar ( Figure 1 5a), o r f inishing t ool; a n e dging t ool, t he r ebajador ( Figure 1 5b); a nd a k nife u sed v ariously, t he c uchillo ( Figure 1 5c). T he f ierro p ara t erminar i s a s trip o f s teel s ome 1 6 c m i n l ength, b ent i nto a " Z" s hape w ith t wo s hort l egs v ery s imilar t o t wo p ictured b y P iccolpasso ( Figure

- 1 3 14 -

( Lackey) F igure 1 2: C overed J ar, p orcelain w ith c rystaline g laze, C harles F . B inns. P hoto c ourtesy o f t he S choles L ibrary o f C eramics, N ew Y ork S tate C ollege o f C eramics a t A lfred U niversity, A lfred, N ew Y ork.

( Lackey) F igure 1 3: S tudent w ork, C ollege o f A rt, B altimore, M aryland.

M aryland

I nstitute,

( Lackey) F igure 1 4: S tudent w ork, C ollege o f A rt, B altimore, M aryland.

M aryland

I nstitute,

( Lackey) t ool, b ) ( Drawing

F igure 1 5: a ) f ierro r ebajador, o r e dging b y M artha G atewood.)

p ara t ool

t erminar, o r f inishing c ) c uchillo, o r k nife.

a

b

0

C ENTIMETERS

5

1 0

1 6). O ne 3 .0 c m l eg h as h ad i ts c orners f iled s quare, t he o ther l eg i s r ounded. T he e dges o f b oth l egs a re k ept s harp o n t he g rinding w heel. T he r ebajador i s a 7 .0 x 8 .0 c m p iece o f r igid p lastic. T hree c orners o f t his t ool h ave b een r ounded i nto c urves o f v arying s izes, r im-form t emplates h ave b een c ut i nto t wo o f t he s ides. T he c uchillo, a k nife m ade f rom h alf o f a h acksaw b lade s harpened o n t he g rinding w heel, i s w idely u sed i n M exico b y p otters o f s everal t raditions. A f ourth t ool t he f lecha, a c ut-off t ool m ade o f w ire s tretched t aut o n a l ength o f s teel b ent i nto a b ow s hape ( Figure 1 7), i s u sed t o t rim r ims a nd f or g eneral c lean-up w ork. D epending o n t he s ize o f t he p iece, w ares u sually r each a l eather-hard c ondition i n t hree d ays o r a w eek a fter t hey a re m ade, b ut i t c an t ake a s l ong a s t hree w eeks i n t he r ainy s eason w hen d rying m ust t ake p lace i ndoors. B ecause a b atch o f s imilar w ares h as b een m ade a t t he s ame t ime a ll o f t he p ieces a re u sually d ry e nough f or t hinning t urning, s craping, s anding, s having, t rimming, a nd f ettling - a t t he s ame t ime, a nd w ill b e b rought i nto t he w orkroom a nd d ealt w ith i n s uccession a s a g roup ( Figure 1 8). T he p rocess o f t hinning s mall w ares, w hether w heel-thrown o r m old-made, d iffers s omewhat f rom t hat u sed f or l arger m old-made p ieces. C ups, b owls, f loreros, a nd o ther s mall w ares m ade o n t he w heel a re t urned o n t he w heel. T hese s mall w ares a re i nverted a nd f astened s ecurely w ith p lastic c lay t o a b ase, o r c huck, t hat i s a ffixed t o t he w heelhead. T he c huck c an b e a m ound o f p lastic c lay, a m old ( Figure 1 9), o r a ny o ther o bject o f t he p roper s ize. T he f ierro i s t hen u sed t o s have t he s ides, m ark t he f oot r im a nd t he c enter o f t he b ase, a nd t o r emove t he c lay i n b etween. C ups a nd b owls a re t hen s tacked i n g roups o f f ive t o f inish d rying. A l arge o il c an w as f ound t o b e t he r ight s ize a nd s hape t o s erve a s a c huck ( Figure 2 0) f or c ertain m acetas. T hese l arge f lower p ots a re a lso m ade o n t he w heel, a nd t hen t urned o n t he w heel. A fter t he h ole i n t he b ottom i s c leaned u p w ith a p iece o f d owel, t he v essel i s i nverted o ver t he o il c an t o t rim t he b asal r ing. T he v essel i s t hen l eveled b y s craping i t a cross a t able c overed w ith s and, t hen r eplaced o n t he w heel r ightside u p. T he c ollar i s f inished f irst o n t he o utside w ith a c uchillo h eld v ertically, a nd t hen o n t he i nside w ith a f ierro. F inally t he r ebajador i s u sed t o e dge t he r im. S aucers, p lates, a nd p latters o r p latones, w hether r ound o r o val, p lain o r f luted, a re a ll m ade o n s hallow, c onvex m olds ( Figures 2 1 a nd 2 2). S aucers a nd p lates

- 1 39

-

( Lackey) F igure 1 6: T wo i llustrated b y P iccolpasso. a fter P iccolpasso 1 980:38.)

o f t he f inishing t ools ( Drawing b y M artha G atewood

( Lackey)

F igure

1 7:

T rimming

a f lower-pot w ith

a f lecha.

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T urning a s mall

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h ave h ad a f oot-ring m ade f rom a c oil o f c lay a pplied w hile t he p iece i s s till o n t he m old a fter f orming ( Figure 2 3), b ut t he f oot-ring o n p latones i s t rimmed a t t he l eather-hard s tage i n t he o rdinary f ashion. S mall f luted p lates h ave h ad a f oot-ring a dded w hile s till o n t he m old; w hen u nmolded a nd r ighted, t he u pper s ides o f t he f lutes a re t rimmed. L arger f luted p latters n eed a l onger d rying t ime; t hese a re f irst i nverted t o t rim t he f lutes a nd c ut t he f oot-ring, t hen r ighted s o t he u pper s ides o f t he f lutes c an b e t rimmed. S uch l arge f lat f orms a re t urned w hile s upported o n a w ooden p latform, t he t arima, a ffixed t o t he b anding w heel. S ome v essels a re t urned w hile s upported o n a t ureen m old, o r o ther l arge m old o n e ither t he w heel o r t he b anding w heel. T he m old h olds t he p iece f irmly, a nd a t t he s ame t ime r aises i t t o a h eight m ore s uitable f or w orking. T ibores ( the c lassic C hinese g inger j ar f orm), u mbrella s tands, a nd o ther l arge v essels a re t urned o n a t arima p laced d irectly o n t he b anding w heel. T he p ieces a re f irst i nverted t o c lean t he b ase o f t he v essel a nd t rim a f oot-ring. T he v essel i s t hen r ighted t o f ettle t he m old m arks a nd t hin t he w alls. V ery l arge v essels a re t rimmed o n t he w orkshop f loor. W hen F elipe R ugerio, p resent o wner o f t he C asa R ugerio, w as a b oy h is f ather u sed t o l ower h im i nto o ver-sized t ibores s o h e c ould t rim t he i nterior a nd f inish t he m old s eams. I n a p hotgraph t aken i n 1 918 a nd p ublished b oth b y T ablada ( 1923:451) a nd by C ervantes ( 1939:295), t he y oung a pprentice i s p ictured a t t he a ge o f f ive o r s ix d ressed i n a s ailor s uit ( Figure 2 4). H e i s s eated o n t he g round i n f ront o f h is f ather a nd o ther w orkers a gainst a b ackground o f s uch t ibores. C ervantes ( 1939:294) d escribes t hese v essels a s 2 .15 m i n h eight i ncluding t he l id. I n a ddition t o i mproving i ts a ppearance, t he t urning p rocess c hanges t he v essel's s ize a nd w eight. O ften b etween a f ourth a nd a t hird o f t he f abric i s p ared away d uring t he o peration, c reating a g reat d eal o f d etritus ( Figure 2 0). C rumbs a nd t rimmings s wept f rom t he i nterior o f t he v essel w ith a d ry s ponge, a s w ell a s p eelings a nd s trips f rom t he e xterior o f t he v essel, a re a ll c ollected, t aken o utside a nd r eturned t o t he c lay s torage t ank. W hile R ye ( 1981:87) h as o bserved t hat " turning i s w asteful a nd t he c lay r emoved i s u sually a dded t o t he m aterial f or t he n ext b atch o f b ody," w orkers i n t he C asa R ugerio f eel t hat t hey s ave m aterial b y t urning t he w ares.

f o t r i n g C D

c

o

( Lackey) F igure 2 4: C ourtyard f abrica i n 1 918 ( Tablada 1 923:451,

o f P edro P adierna's C ervantes 1 939:295).

T he t urning p rocess i s b oth w idespread a nd a ncient. D escriptions o f t urning i n o ther t imes a nd t raditions a bound. I n C hina, f or e xample, a d ate c a. 2 500 B .C. i s g iven f or t he c lassic L ung-shan c ulture " best k nown f or i ts e xceptionally f ine b lack p ottery, w heel-made a nd i ts e xceptionally f ine b lack p ottery, w heel-made a nd t urned t o a n i ncredible t hinness" ( Rawson 1 980:32). I ndeed, t he p rimary f unction o f t urning i s t o a chieve a t hinness o f b ody w all t hat w as n ot p ossible t o a chieve i n a ny o ther w ay b efore s lip-casting w as f inally p erfected n ear t he e nd o f t he n ineteenth c entury. I n a ddition t o i ts i ntended f unction, t urning s eems d esigned t o c onfuse t he a rchaeologist b ecause i t d isguises o r e liminates m any s igns o f m anufacturing methods, i ncluding w elds, m old m arks, a nd t he s igns l eft b y t ools o r f ingers w hile t hrowing. B oth R ichter ( 1923:12) a nd R ye ( 1981:87) h ave d iscussed t he k inds o f e vidence o f t urning t hat s hould b e s ought b y a rchaeologists. R ichter ( 1923:12) s tates t hat u nless t he m arks o f t he t urning t ools a re v ery c arefully o bliterated ( with s crapers, s andpaper, a nd s ponge), t races o f t hem a re a lways v isible .. t he o utside s urfaces a re g enerally c arefully s moothed, b ut e ven t here t he r idges f ormed b y t he t ools a re o ften d iscernible; a nd o n t he i nside o f t he n ecks o r f eet o r l ids s uch r idges a nd c oncentric o r s piral s cratches a re q uite f requent. I n a ddition t o s urface m arks m ade b y t he t urning t ool, R ye ( 1981:87) l ists s everal o ther a ttributes a ssociated w ith t urning, i ncluding a d ividing l ine b etween t hrowing m arkings o n t he u pper w all a nd t urning m arkings o n t he l ower w all, s piral f aceting, a nd g rit d rag-marks. R ice ( 1987:137) d escribes e vidence f or s craping " commonly u sed i n f inishing v essels s haped b y c oiling, m olding, o r p inching," b ut o ffers n o s uggestions f or i dentifying wheel-thrown o r m olded v essels t hat h ave b een t urned. T urning m arks m ay b e e vident o n b oth t he u nglazed A thenian w ares e xamined b y R ichter a nd t he u nglazed u tility w ares f rom B aluchistan p ictured b y R ye ( 1981:89), b ut t he t hick, o paque t in-glazed u sed o n T alavera P oblana h ides m ost s uch m arks v ery e ffectively. R ye ( 1981:88) mentions s everal o ther c haracteristics o f t urning t hat a rchaeologists w ill f ind m ore h elpful i n a ttempting t o i dentify t he p ractice u nder s uch c onditions. T hese c haracteristics i nclude t hickness v ariations r esulting f rom f orming a f oot-ring b y t urning, e ccentricity o f v essel w all t hickness w hich i ndicates t hat t he a xis o f t urning w as s lightly d ifferent d uring t urning t han d uring

- 1 50

-

t hrowing, a nd t he c huck.

l ines

o n

t he w alls

m ade

d uring

c ontact

w ith

W ith a h eightened a wareness o f t he c haracteristics o f t urning i ncluding " turning," " scraping," " shaving," " trimming," a nd " fettling," a s w ell a s o ther a spects o f R enaissance c eramic m anufacture, N ew W orld a rchaeologists w ill b e a ble t o d o m uch m ore t o a nswer t he q uestions e arlier a sked - w hich a spects o f C olonial a nd m odern M exican c eramic t echnology a re P recolumbian? W hich w ere S panish i ntroductions? W hich w ere c ommon t o b oth t raditions? W e k now t hat k ilns a nd m olds w ere c ommon t o b oth t raditions, w as t he p ractice o f t urning c ommon t o b oth t raditions a s w ell? P erhaps i n t he c ourse o f f inding a nswers t o t hese q uestions w e w ill f ind t he a nswers t o o thers. P erhaps w e m ay e ven f ind t hat t urning m ade T hin O range " thin."

E NDNOTE T his c hapter i s a r evised a nd e xtended v ersion o f " Some P roblems i n S panish C olonial C eramic M anufacture" a p aper w hich I p resented a t t he 8 7th A nnual M eeting o f t he A merican A nthropological A ssociation, i n P hoenix, A rizona, o n N ovember 1 7, 1 988.

R EFERENCES

C ITED

A bascal M acias, R afael 1 973 L os h ornos p rehispanicos e n l a r egion d e T laxcala. I n X III M esa R edonda d e l a S ociedad M exicana d e A ntropologia, A rqueologia I I, p . 1 91. J alapa, M exico: S ociedad M exicana d e A ntropologia. A llan, J . W . 1 973 A bu'l-Qasim's 1:111-120.

T reatise

B inns, C harles F . 1 922 T he P otter's C raft: S tudio a nd W orkshop, N ostrand. C ervantes, E nrique 1 939 L oza b lanca y a zulejo D. F.: n .p.

o n

A P ractical G uide 2 nd e d. N ew Y ork:

d e

P uebla,

C harlton, T homas H . 1 976 C ontemporary C entral M exican t he P ast. M an 1:517:525.

F oster, G eorge M . 1 948 S ome I mplications o f P ottery. S outhwestern 4 :356-370.

2 t omos.

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D onhauser, P aul S . 1 978 H istory o f A merican C eramics: D ubuque, I A: K endall/Hunt.

1 955

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I ran

f or D .

M exico,

A V iew

S tudio

t he V an

f rom

P otter.

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C ontemporary P ottery T echniques i n S outhern a nd C entral M exico. P ublication 2 2(1). T ulane: M iddle A merican R esearch I nstitute.

F ranco C ., J ose L uis 1 955 S obre u n m olde p ara v asijas c on r elieve. E l M exico A ntiguo 8 :76-83. G arner, F . H . a nd M ichael A rcher 1 972 E nglish D elftware. L ondon:

F aber

a nd

d ecoracidn

e n

F aber.

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1 977

A rchitectural I mplications o f D aily L ife T ollan. W orld A rchaeology 9 :140-156.

i n

A ncient

K idder, A lfred V ., J esse D . J ennings, a nd E dwin M . S hook 1 946 E xcavations a t K aminaljuyu, G uatemala. P ublication 5 61. W ashington, D .C.: C arnegie I nstitution. L ackey, L ouana M . 1 982 T he P ottery o f A catlan: T radition. N orman: U niversity

A o f

C hanging M exican O klahoma P ress.

1 984

T hin O range C eramics: A L egacy o f C raftsmanship. I n A rte V ivo: L iving T raditions i n M exican F olk A rt, e dited b y J ames R . R amsey, p p. 2 9-39. M emphis, T N: M emphis S tate U niversity G allery.

1 988

T raditional M exican P ottery T echnology a nd T hin O range W ares. I n A P ot f or A ll R easons: C eramic E cology R evisited, e dited b y C harles C . K olb a nd L ouana M . L ackey, p p. 1 99-211. P hiladelphia, P A: T emple U niversity, L aboratory o f A nthropology.

L ister, F lorence C . a nd R obert H . L ister 1 972 M aking M ajolica P ottery i n M odern P alacio 7 8(3):21-32.

M exico.

E l

M acNeish, R ichard S ., F rederick A . P eterson a nd K ent F lannery 1 970 T he P rehistory o f t he T ehuacan V alley, V ol. C eramics. A ustin: U niversity o f T exas P ress. M oser, C hris L . 1 969 M atching P olychrome S ets f rom A merican A ntiquity 3 4:480-483. N elson, G lenn C . 1 984 C eramics: A P otter's R inehart a nd W inston.

H andbook.

A catlan,

N ew

V . 3 :

P uebla.

Y ork:

H olt,

P eacock, D . P . S . 1 982 P ottery i n t he R oman W orld: A n E thnoarchaeological A pproach. L ondon a nd N ew Y ork: L ongman. P iccolpasso, C ipriano 1 980 T he T hree B ooks o f t he P otters' A rt. T ranslated b y R onald L ightbown a nd A lan C aiger-Smith. I lkley, W est Y orkshire, E ngland: S colar P ress. ( Originally p ublished a s I t re l ibre d ell'arte d el v asio 1 558.) F acsimile o f t he m anuscript i n t he V ictoria a nd A lbert M useum, L ondon. R awson, J essica 1 980 A ncient C hina: H arper a nd R ow.

A rt

a nd

A rchaeology.

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N ew

Y ork:

R ice, P rudence M . 1 987 P ottery A nalysis: A S ourcebook. s ity o f C hicago P ress. R ichter, G isela M . A . 1 923 T he C raft o f A thenian U niversity P ress.

P ottery.

N ew

C hicago:

H aven,

U niver-

C T:

Y ale

R odriguez, I gnacio 1 982 U n a gora t eotihuacana. T eotihuacan 8 0-82: P rimeros r esultados, c oordinated b y R uben C abrera, I gnacio R odriguez, a nd N oel M oralos, p p. 4 9-57. M exico, D .F.: I nstituto N acional d e A ntropolgia e H istoria. R ye, 1 981

O wen S . P ottery T echnology: P rinciples M anual o n A rcheology 4 . T araxacum.

S isson, E dward B . 1 974 S econd A nnual A ndover, M A: A rchaeology.

R eport R obert

o f S .

a nd R econstruction. W ashington, D .C.:

t he C oxcatlan P roject. P eabody F oundation f or

S wezey, W illiam R . 1 973 M ound 9 1, L ambityeco, A D escription o f a n A ncient K iln. I n X III M esa R edonda d e l a S ociedad M exicana d e A ntropologia, A rqueologia I I, p p. 1 79-184. J alapa, M exico: S ociedad M exicana d e A ntropologia. T ablada, J ose J uan 1 923 M exico's N ew-Old 7 7:451-456.

C eramics.

I nternational

S tudio

W inter, M arcus C . a nd W illiam 0 . P ayne 1 976 H ornos p ara c eramica h allados e n M onte A lban. B oletin d el I nstituto N acional d e A ntropologia e H istoria 1 6:37-40. W ulff, H ans E . 1 966 T he T raditional C rafts o f P ersia: D evelopment, T echnology, a nd I nfluence o n a nd W estern C ivilizations. C ambridge, M A: P ress.

T heir E astern T he M IT

C HAPTER

T HE

C LAY

P REPARATION

B eal

T RADITION

M .

O F

A GOST,

S PAIN

M ossman

P sychology D epartment E astern M ontana C ollege B illings, M ontana 5 9101-0298 U .S.A. a nd M arcia

S elsor

A rt D epartment E astern M ontana C ollege B illings, M ontana 5 9101-0298 U .S.A.

I n C eramic E cology, M aterials, e dited b y

0

B eal

M .

1 988: C urrent C harles C . K olb

M ossman

a nd

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M arcia

-

R esearch o n C eramic ( 1989), 1 55-174.

S elsor,

1 989

I NTRODUCTION T he t raditional p ottery m anufacturing v illage o f A gost, l ocated i n s outheastern S pain a pproximately 1 8 km n orthwest o f t he c oastal t own o f A licante, t oday h as n early 3 ,800 r esidents. M ales, i n t he m ain, a re e mployed i n a gricultural p ursuits, s hoe m aking, b rick m anufacture, o r i n t he 2 1 p ottery f actories f ound i n a nd n ear A gost. I nexpensive, f unctional w ater c ontainers f or h ousehold u se w ere m anufactured f or a v ariety o f d omestic a nd s ome f oreign m arkets, b ut d uring t he p ast 2 0 y ears d ramatic c hanges h ave t aken p lace i n m arket d emands w hich h ave l ead t o c orresponding a lterations i n t he p roduction o f t raditional p ottery. T hese c hanges h ave b een t he s ubject o f a n e arlier s tudy ( Mossman a nd S elsor 1 988a), t o w hich t he r eader i s r eferred. T he 2 ,500-year b ackground t o t he p ottery t radition i s e xemplified i n t he c ontemporary t hree-story w ood-fired k ilns u sed i n A gost, w hich h ave i ncorporated I berian, R oman, a nd M oorish d esign e lements ( Mossman a nd S elsor 1 988b). R ecent m odifications i n t he o rganization o f p ersonnel a nd c hanges i n t he a cquisition o f c lays, p reparation o f c lay, t hrowing, f inishing, a nd f iring h ave b een r elated e lsewhere ( 1988a:226-231). T he p resent s tudy c ontinues o ur d ocumentation o f t he c eramic i ndustry i n A gost. T he l evel o f t raditional p ottery p roduction i n t he v illage o f A gost m ay b e c onsidered t o b e " manufactory" b ecause " mechanical p ower" i s n ot u sed i n t he p rocess ( Peacock 1 982:9). A r ealistic e stimate f or t he p roduction o f A gost w ould b e a pproximately 1 ,000,000 v essels p er y ear ( Vossen 1 984:35 )4 ) f rom t he 2 1 p otteries o perating b y m anual l abor. I n A gost t here i s a h istory o f t he c onsideration o f c ost f actors i n p roduction, f or e xample, t he t hird s tory o f t he k ilns w as a n i nnovation b ased o n t he r ate o f p ay o f " the k iln f iring" a nd t he " wood p er k iln f iring". S ince t he f iring s pecialist i s p aid b y t he k iln l oad, t he f actory owner e nlarges t he k ilns, p ays t he s pecialist t he s ame a mount, a nd b enefits f rom a dditional p rofits ( Mossman a nd S elsor 1 988b:85). T he h igh l evel o f e fficient p roduction t hrough m anual l abor h as o nly b een a chieved t hrough s ophisticated d ivision o f l abor, i .e. t he d evelopment o f t he s pecialists. T his p ressure t o m aximize t he e fficiency h as l ed t o t he s pecialization o f t he f ollowing l aborers: 1 ) t he w ood g atherers ( no l onger f unctioning); 2 ) t he c lay-mining a nd d elivery s pecialists ( no l onger f unctioning); 3 ) t he c lay-preparation s pecialists; 4 ) t he p otters; 5 ) f emale a ssistants w ho p repare t he l umps o f c lay, r emove p ots f rom t he p otters' b ench, r egulate d rying o f t he p ots, a ttach s ome p arts t o c omplex p ots, l oad a nd u nload t he k iln, a ssist i n g lazing, e tc.; 6 ) t he

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k iln-firing t echnicians; 7 ) p acking a nd s hipping s pecialists; 8 ) t he m arket r epresentatives; 9 ) t he d uer io w ho m anages t he t otal o peration; a nd 1 0) t he f acility d esign a nd r epair s pecialists. I n t his s tudy t he m ain f ocus w ill b e o n t he w orkplace b ehavior o f t he c lay-preparation s pecialist i n t he p hysical s urroundings o f t he t raditional c lay-preparation f acility. I n A gost t here a re " instruments o f l abor" f or c lay p reparation w hich r eflect t raditions i n t he M editerranean r egion t hrough m illennia. " Instruments o f l abor n ot o nly s upply a s tandard o f t he d egree o f d evelopment t o w hich h uman l abor h as a ttained, b ut a lso i ndicators o f t he s ocial c onditions u nder w hich l abor w as c arried o n" ( Marx 1 918:200). T he l ayout o f t he c lay-preparation a rea a nd t he t ools u sed i n t his s etting a re t he i nstruments o f l abor w hich s pecify t he b ehavior o f t he c lay-preparation s pecialist. . U ntil r ecently t he c lay-preparation methods i n A gost h ad n ot c hanged f or m any g enerations b ecause o f t he s table m arket f or f unctional p ottery. T he w orkplace l ayout a nd t he t ools u sed i n c lay p roduction a re a f unction o f t he v alue o f t he p roducts a s d efined b y t he m arket, w hen p roduction t echnologies a nd i nnovation a re h eld c onstant. A s t he m arket f or p ottery c hanges, t he b ehaviors o f t he s pecialists i n t he p ottery f actories a nd t he i nstruments o f l abor a lso c hange t o f it t he d emands o f t he n ew m arket. R ecently t he p roduction o f f unctional p ottery f or h ome u se h as d eclined w ith t he a dvent o f p iped r unning w ater a nd t he a vailability o f c ompeting p lastic a nd g lass c ontainers. B ecause o f t he d ecline i n t he m arket d emand f or f unctional c eramic w are a nd a n i ncrease i n d emand f or t ourist w are, p otters a re p roducing m ore p ottery f or t he t ourist m arket, l eading t o c hanges i n t heir p roduction e quipment a nd w ork b ehavior ( Mossman a nd S elsor 1 988a). I n t he p resent i nvestigation t he t raditional c lay-preparation methods u sed t o p rovide p ottery t o a s table m arket f or f unctional w are a re d escribed i n c omparison t o t he i nnovations i n c lay p roduction o ver t he l ast f ew y ears i n a nticipation o f a c hanging t ourist m arket.

T RADITIONAL

M ining

t he

N ON-MECHANIZED

S YSTEM

O F

C LAY

P REPARATION

C lay

I n 1 985, J oaquin V asalo r etired a s t he l ast c lay-mining a nd m ule-cart d elivery s pecialist i n t he v illage o f A gost. T he c lay i s m ined 0 .5 km f rom A gost i n t he c ommunal m ines o f t he v illage. A dditional f amily m ines a re t he s ource f or s ome p otteries. T he c lay-delivery s pecialist s preads t he c lay t o s un-dry b efore l oading i t i nto t he m ule c art. B y d oing t his, h e

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i s a ble t o p ick o ut l ime i mpurities w hich c ould l ater c ause l ime-popping. A ccording t o F rancisco R oman C erda, a p otter, t here h as b een a n i ncrease i n l ime-popping a nd a n i ncrease i n t he q uantity o f r ocks s ince c lay h as b een d elivered b y f ront l oader. F rom t he s ame a rea J oaquin m ined f our v arieties o f d ry c lay ( tierra) - r ed, b lue, b lack, a nd y ellow. T he f our t ypes o f d ry c lay a re m ixed i n e qual p arts b y t he c lay-delivery s pecialist. I f o nly t wo t ypes o f c lay a re u sed t hen r ed c lay i s m ixed w ith b lue c lay, o r b lack c lay i s m ixed w ith y ellow c lay.

T ools

U sed

b y

t he

C lay-delivery

S pecialist

T he c lay i s d ug f rom t he h illside a nd t hen l oaded i nto t he c art u sing a h oe ( azada) t o f ill a s hallow f lexible b ucket ( caldero, c a. 5 0 c m w ide a nd 2 0 c m d eep). A mule-drawn o ne-axle c art ( carro) i s u sed t o t ransport t he c lay f rom t he m ine t o t he c lay-making a rea o f t he p ottery f actory ( Figure 1 ). T he f ront s tays o f t he c art d etach f rom t he h arness a llowing t he b ed t o b e t ipped b ack b y t he c lay-delivery s pecialist, t hereby d umping t he l oad o n t he g round. E ach c art l oad i s p laced i n a s trip. T he s trips o f d ry c lay o f t he f our c olors a re m ixed w ith t he h oe b y t he d elivery s pecialist a nd g athered u p i nto a p ile n ear t he m ixing b asin. T his c lay m ixture i s t hen r eady f or t he c lay-preparation s pecialist.

C lay-preparation

S pecialist

A c lay-preparation s pecialist p repares c lay f or s everal f actories. T hese s pecialists h ave i nherited t heir o ccupation f rom t heir f athers a nd t heir g randfathers. T heir s eemingly d ifficult a nd a rduous t ask i s a m atter o f p ride, d uty, a nd f amily t radition. T hese s pecialists a lso s erve i n t he c apacity a s k iln-firing t echnicians a nd c ooperate w ith o ne a nother i n r otating s hifts d uring t he k iln-firings. H owever, t hey d o n ot r otate d uties f or c lay p reparation.

C lay

P reparation

T he r aw c lay ( arcilla) i s s laked w ith w ater i n t he m ixing b asin ( pilon) b y a n a gitating a ction u sing a w ooden b oard n ear t he s ides o f t he b asin o r a l ong-handled h oe i n t he c enter o f t he b asin ( Figure 2 ). T his p rocess r equires a t l east o ne d ay o f p eriodic m ixing. W hen t he m ixture h as b een t horoughly d issolved, t he s lurry ( barro c alado) i s d rained i nto t he p rimary d rying b asin ( balsa) t hrough t he s lurry f ilter t ank ( desague) which i s c overed w ith a s creen t o e liminate r ocks ( Figure 3 ).

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( Mossman a nd S elsor) t ransporting c lay f rom

F igure 1 : t he c ommunal

M ule-cart s pecialist m ine a t A gost, S pain.

A fter t he s lurry h as s ettled f or s everal d ays, t he c lay-specialist r ecycles t he t op w ater b ack i nto t he m ixing b asin ( Figure 4 ), t hrough t he w ater r eturn t ank ( secia p equei ia). T his t raditional r ecycling m ethod i s u sed t o c onserve w ater e ven t hough m odern p lumbing d elivers w ater t o t he m ixing b asin ( Figure 3 ). A gost i s l ocated i n a s emi-arid c limate w here t he a vailability o f w ater h as b een a nd r emains a m ajor c oncern. P rior t o t he i nstallation o f m odern p lumbing i n 1 965 t he w ater w as d elivered t o t he p otteries b y mules e ach c arrying f our l arge c eramic c ontainers o f w ater ( cantaros) p er l oad. T he C alle A lfareria ( "Pottery S treet") i s c lose t o t he f ountain w hich w as t he o ld w ater s ource f or t he p ottery f actories.

( Mossman a nd S elsor) F igure 2 : C lay-mixing m anually a gitating t he c lay s lurry.

s pecialist

( Mossman a nd S elsor) F igure 3 : S chematic o f c lay p reparation. A fter t he c lay s lurry s ettles i n t he p rimary d rying b asin, t he w ettest t op c lay i s b ucketed t o t he s econdary b asins. T he t hicker b ottom c lay i s t hrown o nto t he t errace.

m ix ing

p r i mary

b as in

wa ter r e turn t ank ( wa te r moved b y b ucke t

wa ter r e turn t ank ( wa te r moved b y b ucke t

b ack t o m ix ing b as in )

b ack t o m ix ing b as in )

d ry ing

b h

' i s %

b of lom

b as ins [ s l ip

s e t t les ]

t erraces [ heavy s l ip d r ies ]

S econdary

d ry ing

b as in [ l igh t s l ip d r ies ]

c lay

r ecyc l ing

t anks

( Mossman a nd S elsor) F igure r ecycling t he w ater a fter t he

4 : C lay-mixing s pecialist s lurry h as s ettled.

S even d ays o r m ore a fter t he s lurry h as s ettled i n t he p rimary d rying b asin a nd a fter t he e xcess w ater h as r ecycled, t he c lay-mixing s pecialist r emoves t he t hinner t op s lip ( barro m as f ino) f rom t he p rimary d rying b asin b ucket b y b ucket a nd t hrows i t i nto t he s econdary d rying b asin ( conserva) ( Figure 5 ). T he h eavier b ottom s lip ( barro m as d uro) i s t hrown b y h and o nto t he t errace ( secador) w hich h as b een c overed w ith f ine r ed s and ( Figure 3 ). T he h eavy s lip i s s moothed t o a void r apid d rying o f p innacles a nd b urrs w hich w ould c reate h ard b umps i n t he c lay f or t he p otters. L ines a re d rawn i n t he d rying s lip t o e ncourage p redetermined c racks a nd t o p roduce u niform-size l umps o f c lay. A fter s everal d ays o f s un-drying t hese s quares a re t aken i nto t he c lay s torage b uilding.

( Mossman a nd S elsor) F igure 5 : C lay-mixing s pecialist r emoving t he t hinner s lip f rom t he p rimary d rying b asin t o t he s econdary d rying b asins.

T he M ixing

o f

S alt

I nto

t he

C lay

T hese s quares a re s tored i n t he c lay s torage b uilding f or s everal w eeks. A fter t he c lay h as a ged t he c lay s pecialist m ixes s ea s alt ( Figure 6 ) i nto t he c lay ( barro p astado). " According t o t he p otters, t he v essels a re c olored w hite b y a dding b etween 2 % t o 5 % s ea-salt t o t he c lay" ( Vossen 1 983:352). I n t he c eramic f actory t he c lay i s t hen p ugged ( barro b lando) b y t he f emale p otter's a ssistant a nd t hrown b y t he p otter. T his s alted c lay i s o nly u sed f or b otijos a nd o ther p roducts f ired w ithout g laze, a s g lazed p ieces a re m ade w ith " unsalted" c lay.

T ypical

D ay

f or

t he

C lay

S pecialist

T he c lay s pecialist a rrives a t 7 :30 a .m. t o c ontinue t he a gitation o f a m ixing b asin o f c lay t hat w as l oaded t he p revious d ay. A t 1 0:30 t here i s a b reak f or " second b reakfast." A fter e ating, t he c lay s pecialist l oads d ry c lay a nd w ater i nto a nother m ixing b asin a t a s econd f actory a nd b egins t he a gitation p rocess. A t 2 :00 p .m. t here i s a b reak f or l unch. T he c lay s pecialist r eturns t o t he f irst f actory a t 5 :00 p .m. t o f ill t he d rying b asin w ith t he a gitated s lurry f rom t he m ixing b asin. S ince t he c lay s pecialist i s a lso r esponsible f or p reparing c lay a t a nother f actory, h e m ust d ivide h is t ime a ccordingly. H e u sually s pends a lternate d ays a t e ach o f t he t wo f actories, b ut s ince h e i s a lso t he k iln-firing s pecialist, h e m ust s et a side t ime f or t his t ask. A t t he p ottery o f L uis P ons R oman t he k iln i s f ired o nce p er m onth.

L AYOUT

O F

T HE

T RADITIONAL

C LAY

P REPARATION

A REA

A c omparison o f t he d imensions o f c lay-preparation a rea b uilt i n r ecent y ears a t t he L uis P ons f actory . w ith a n u nused a rea a t t he n ow c losed L a N ava A ntique f actory ( reported b y F rancisco R oman C erda t o h ave b een b uilt o ver a c entury a go) s upports t he n otion t hat t he t raditional c lay-preparation p rocedures h ave r emained c onstant o ver s everal g enerations o f s pecialists ( Figure 7 ). T he m ixing b asins a re 4 .39 m3 a t L a N ava a nd 4 .64 m 3 a t P ons. T he p rimary d rying b asins a re 1 3.5 m 3 a t L a N ava a nd 1 3 m 3 a t P ons. T he s econdary d rying b asins a re 9 .5 m3 a t L a N ava a nd 8 .58 m2 a t P ons. T he t erraces a re 5 .36 m2 a t L a N ava a nd 6 .81 m2 a t P ons. T hese c lay-preparation a reas a re d esigned t o f it t heir u nique l ocation a nd t herefore h ave d ifferent l ayouts, b ut t he d imensions o f t he m ixing b asin a nd t he

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( Mossman a nd S elsor) F igure 6 : C lay-mixing s pecialist a dding f rom t wo t o f ive p ercent s ea s alt t o t he c lay.

p rimary d rying b asins w hich d efine t he a mount o f c lay p roduced a re v ery s imilar. T hese d imensions a re i mportant b ecause t he s pecialist i s p aid f or t he n umber o f m ixing b asins p repared p er m onth. T he m ixing b asin i s a lso t he u nit u sed t o d efine a k iln l oad o f p ottery. I t t akes f ive m ixing b asins t o f ill o ne p rimary d rying b asin. I t t akes f ive p rimary d rying b asins t o f ill a t hree-story k iln. T he o ther t welve p ottery f actories i n A gost t hat m ix c lay b y h and h ave t he s imilar l ayouts t o t he t wo c lay p reparation a reas j ust d escribed. T he m ixing b asin a nd t he p rimary d rying b asins h ave a lmost i dentical d imensions a cross t hese t welve f actories.

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I NNOVATION

A ND

C HANGE

I N

C LAY

P REPARATION

T he c hanges i n p ottery p roduction o ver t he l ast 5 0 y ears i nvolve t he i ncreasing u se o f " mechanical p ower" i n t he p roduction p rocess. T he t raditional c lay p reparation c ontinued u sing m anual l abor u ntil t he a dvent o f t he i ncreasingly l arge t ourist m arket i n t he l ast 2 0 y ears. F actories p roducing p roducts f or t his n ew m arket s imultaneously c hanged t heir c lay p roduction t echniques w hile t hose p otters p roducing f unctional p ots f or t he t raditional m arket a lone d id n ot c hange t heir methods. T he p rocess o f i nnovations c ontinues t o p roduce c hanges i n t he c lay p reparation t echniques. A mong t he 2 1 p otteries i n A gost i n 1 986, 1 7 c ontinue t o u se t he t raditional w hite c lay f or t he p roduction o f t he f unctional p ottery. O f t hese 1 7 f actories, 1 3 u se t he t raditional m anual a gitation s ystem f or c lay p reparation d escribed i n t his s tudy ( Table 1 ). T here a re o nly f our f ull-time c lay-preparation s pecialists, e ach p reparing c lay f or t wo f actories.

T radition

R edesigned

O ne i nnovation i s i n t he a gitating p rocess w here t he u se o f m echanized b lades h as r eplaced t he m anual a gitation o f t he c lay. T his i nnovation i s n oted a t f ive o f t he p otteries u sing w hite c lay ( Table 1 ). T he m ore t raditional p otters c riticize t his s ystem b y s aying t he b lades c rush u p t he r ocks r ather t han r emove t hem, t hereby c ausing p oor q uality c lay. A nother i nnovation h as b een i n t he r edesigning o f t he d epth o f t he p rimary d rying b asin. A t L a N ava, t he p ottery f actory o f M iguel M olla M ira, t he n umber o f p rimary d rying b asins h as b een i ncreased t o e ight w ith a d epth o f 1 5 c m. A s ophisticated c anal s ystem f eeds t he s lurry t o t hese p rimary d rying b asins w ith a s eparate c anal s ystem r ecycling t he e xcess w ater a fter t he c lay s ettles. T his s ystem e liminates t he m anual c hore o f t ransferring t he c lay f rom t he p rimary d rying b asins t o t he s econdary b asin a nd t he t errace ( Figure 8 ). T he v ery s hallow d epth o f t he p rimary d rying b asins q uickens t he d rying t ime. L a N ava i s t he l argest a nd m ost p roductive p ottery u sing t he t raditional c lay f rom A gost. T he c lay s pecialist a t L a N ava i s p aid b y t he h our r ather t han b y t he t ask, i .e. p er p rimary d rying b asin p repared. H e l aments t hat h e n ow p repares m ore c lay m ore q uickly, b ut h e i s p aid b y t he h our. H e r ealizes t hat t his p ay r ate d oes n ot r eflect h ow w ell h e p erforms h is j ob.

T able 1 : C lay T ypes a nd P reparation P ottery F actories a t A gost, S pain.

C lay

P ottery

F actory

Owner

Type

a nd

P rocedures

P reparation Wh ite

M ixed

C lay o f

b y

b y

A gost

R eg ion

M an ise

H and

M ach ine

2 . A ndres B o ix A rgues

X

5 . Em il io B o ix S irvant

X -

.

X

X

8 . R ober to I vorra L lop is

X

9 . R oque M ar t inez T orregrosa

X

X

X

X

X X X

X

X X

X

1 2 . P edro M o l le C aste l lo

X

1 3 . M igue l M o l le M ira

X

X X

1 4 . J ose P iqueres

X

X

1 5 . L u is P ons

X

1 6 . E us ib io R oman C erda

X

1 7 . F ranc isco R o man C erda

X ,

X

X

X

, X

,

X

-

1 9 . J ose R o man R o man

21.E var isto V icedo B o ix

X

X -

1 . J ose M ona C aste llo

2 0 . J ose y J uan V icedo B o ix

X

X

X

7 . P edro C arbone l l

1 8 . A nton io R o man I vorra

X X

X

,

X

.

6 . J ose R a mon C aste l lo T orregrosa

1 0 . F ranc isco M o l le C aste l lo

.

X -

M ixed

R ed C lay o f .

4 . J ose B o ix I vorra

P rocedure

Wh ite

X

-

—

X X

X ,

2 1

C lay o f

1 . A ndres A nton P ons

3 . S ever t ino B o ix A rgues

i n

X X

.

X X

.

( Mossman a nd S elsor) F igure 8 : T he s hallow d rying b asins a nd t he m echanical a gitator ( center r ight) a re i nnovations i n d esign a t t he L a N ava f actory.

E limination

o f

t he

S pecialist

A t t he o ther e xtreme o f p roductivity, w here t he p otteries a re l ess a ctive, t he p otters t hemselves m ust p repare t he c lay. O f t he 1 7 p otteries u sing t he t raditional w hite c lay, f ive p otters p repare t he c lay f or t heir p ottery b ecause t hey d o n ot p roduce s ufficient n umber o f p ots t o e mploy a c lay-making s pecialist. O ther p otters, p reparing p ots f or t he t ourist m arket, p refer t o b uy c ommercial c lay r ather t han p repare i t t hemselves. T hese p otters a re n ot u sing t he t raditional k ilns, b ut f ire t he c lay i n e ither m uffle k ilns, e lectric k ilns, o r p ropane k ilns ( Table 1 ). A t t he p ottery o f R oque M artinez T orregrosa, t he p otters a re s ubcontracted t o t hrow t he g rey/white c lay o f M anises a nd r eturn t he t hrown p ieces u nfired t o t he f actories i n M anises 1 40 km f rom A gost. I n t he p ottery owned b y P iqueres, w hich m anufactures p ots f or t he t ourist m arket, t here i s a n i ndustrial p ug m ill t hat m ixes r ed c lay t o t he e xact c onsistency a s p redetermined b y g auges. T he d ry c lay i s g round, a ugured, a nd a dded t o p recise measurements o f w ater. T he c lay i s e xtruded f rom t he m achine, d eaired, a nd r eady f or t he w heel. T his f inal i nnovation h as e liminated a ll h uman c ontact f rom t he c lay p reparation p rocess ( Figure 9).

S UMMARY

A ND

C ONCLUSION

T his c hapter a ddresses N icklin's ( 1971:26) c oncern t hat " it i s u nfortunate t hat d ata o n t he a ctual s ituation o f c eramic s tability a nd i nnovation i s r are." U nder s table m arket c onditions f or f unctional w are, c lay p reparation i n A gost h as c ontinued u nchanged s ince t he l ate 1 9th c entury. T he s tability o f t his t radition h as b een d ocumented b y d escribing t he s imilarities b etween t wo c lay-preparation a reas b uilt a pproximately o ne h undred y ears a part, a nd b y p roviding a d etailed d escription o f t he t raditional t ools a nd m anual l abor methods u sed i n c lay p reparation t hrough t his p eriod. W ith t he d ecreased d emand f or f unctional w are i n t he 1 960s a nd t he s imultaneous i ncreased d emand f or c eramic p roducts f or t ourists, m any f actory o wners i n A gost b egan p roducing p roducts f or t he u nstable t ourist m arket ( Mossman a nd S elsor 1 988a:232). T his n ew t ype o f m arket, i n c ombination w ith i mproving i ndustrial t echnologies i n S pain, l ead t o i nnovations i n t he c lay p reparation methods d ocumented i n t his c hapter.

- 1 70

-

( Mossman a nd S elsor) F igure 9 : s ystem f or c lay p reparation a t

T he c ompletely m echanical t he P iqueres f actory.

M acIver ( 1973:444) d escribes t wo d evices f or i nterpreting s ocial c hanges p ointing o ut t hat " the c oncept o f e quilibrium a nd d isturbance i s l ess s erviceable t han t he c oncept e quilibrium a nd p recipitant. T he f ormer n ever i ntroduce u s t o a ny v ital s ource o f c hange, i t a lways m inimizes c hange i n f avor o f t he s tatus q uo." M acIver f urther p oints o ut t hat " it i s q uite o therwise w hen t he c hange-provoking f actors a re t hought o f a s p recipitants. F or n ow w e n eed t o p ostulate n o s elf m aintaining o rder, w e a re c ommitted t o n o d octrine o f p ermanence" ( 1973:444). H e i mplies t hat t he " equilibrium a nd p recipitant" m odel o f c hange i s t he m ore a ppropriate m odel. T he r apid, r ecent c hange i n c lay-preparation t echnology s upports M acIver's a nalysis i n t hat p ottery p repared f or t he i ncreasing t ourist m arket a llows " no s elf m aintaining o rder a nd n o d octrine o f p ermanence" a nd i nnovative p reparation t echniques ( such a s P iqueres i ndustrial p ugger) a ppear t o b e p recipitated f ull b lown i nto t he c lay p reparation e nvironment. O n t he o ther h and t he " equilibrium a nd d isturbance" m odel b est f its t he c lay p reparation f or f unctional c eramics i n t hat, o ver a c entury, o nly s mall c hanges s uch a s mechanical a gitation o f t he c lay h ave b een i mplemented, a nd c hange h as b een m inimized " in f avor o f t he s tatus q uo." W hich c hange model i s a ppropriate s eems t o h ave m ore t o d o w ith w hich a spect o f t he s ystem i s c onsidered t han w ith t he i nherent s uperiority o f e ither c hange m odel. F uture t heorizing which i ntegrates t hese t wo v iewpoints, t aking i nto a ccount t he o bservations r egarding t he c omplexities o f c hange i n f unctioning s ystems, m ay b e a f ruitful c ourse f or t he d evelopment o f b etter models o f c ulture c hange. A gost c ontinues t o b e a n i mportant l ocale f or t he s tudy o f i nnovation i n c lay t echnology b ecause: 1 ) t he work s ettings r ange f rom w orkshop t o f actory, 2 ) t he market r anges f rom f unctional w are t o t ourist w are, 3 ) t he f actory o wners a nd o ther s pecialists a ll o riginate f rom t he s ame t radition o f f unctional p ottery p roduction, a nd 4 ) A gost p otters e mphasize h igh v olume - a nd e fficiency. T he i nterrelationship b etween t he t raditional methods o f c lay p reparation o f f unctional w are p roduced f or a d ecreasing m arket, a nd i nnovative c lay p reparation methods i n a nticipation o f a g rowing t ourist m arket c ontinue t o m ake A gost a n i nteresting l ocation w ithin w hich t o s tudy t he d ynamics o f s ocial a nd t echnological c hange i n c eramic p roduction.

G LOSSARY A rcilla.

R aw d ry c lay a t

A zada.

T raditional

B alsa.

P rimary d rying

b asin.

B arro b lando. F inal p ugged a nd r eady t o b e

s tage t hrown

B arro

c alado.

B arro m as b alsa.

d uro.

A

d rinking

c lay

w ith

2 t o

V essel

C onserva. D esague. D uego. m aster

O wner p otter.

P ilon.

s lip

T errace

p equega.

T ierra.

D ry

f or

W ater

c lay

f rom

f rom

t he

f rom

t he

5 p ercent

m outh,

f rom

h andle,

s ea

a nd

a f ountain.

c art.

b asin

f or

b arro m as

f ino.

t ank. f actory,

f requently

C lay m ixing b asin.

S ecador. S ecia

t he

a

s lip

b ucket.

t wo-wheeled

f ilter

o f

w ith

c arry w ater

S econdary d rying S lurry

o f

m ixed

C antaro.

A mule-drawn

l ayer

o f

v essel

c lay

c lay.

l ayer

A s hallow f lexible

C arro.

a nd

t op

C aldero.

t o

a h oe.

c lay p reparation, p otter.

b ottom

T hinner

A ged

o f b y

w ater

H eavier

p astado.

B otijo. s pout.

r esembling

S lurry o f

B arro m as ' fino. b alsa. B arro s alt.

t ool

f actory.

d rying b arro m as r eturn

t ank.

t he m ine.

d uro.

t he

r etired

R EFERENCES M arx, 1 918

C ITED

K arl C apital, A C ritique o f P olitical E conomy, V ol. 1 : T he P rocess o f C apitalist P roduction. T ranslated f rom t he 3 rd G erman e d. b y S amuel M oore a nd E dward A veling. C harles H . K err a nd C o., C hicago, I L.

M acIver, R . M . 1 973 T he R ole o f t he P recipitant. I n S ocial C hange: S ources, P atterns, a nd C onsequences, e dited b y A . E tzioni a nd E . E tzioni-Halevy, p p. 4 43-447. B asic B ooks, N ew Y ork, N Y. M ossman, B eal M . a nd M arica S elsor 1 988a A U tilitarian P ottery T radition a nd t he M odern S panish K itchen. I n A P ot f or A ll R easons: C eramic E cology R evisited, e dited b y C harles C . K olb a nd L ouana M . L ackey, p p. 2 13-237. S pecial P ublication o f C eramica d e C ultura M aya e t a l. T emple U niversity, L aboratory o f A nthropology, P hiladelphia, P A. 1 988b

T he T hree-Story K iln o f A gost, S pain. I n C eramic E cology R evisited, 1 988: T he T echnology a nd S ocioeconomics o f P ottery, e dited b y C harles C . K olb, p p. 5 7-87. B ritish A rchaeological R eports, I nternational S eries, B AR-S436(i), O xford, E ngland.

N icklin, K eith W . 1 971 S tability a nd I nnovation i n W orld A rchaeology 3 :13-48.

P ottery

P eacock, D . P . S . 1 982 P ottery i n t he R oman E thnoarchaeological A pproach. E ssex, E ngland.

M anufacture.

W orld: L ongman

A n H ouse,

V ossen, R . 1 984 T oward B uilding M odels o f T raditional T rade i n C eramics: C ase S tudies i n S pain a nd M orocco. I n T he M any D imensions o f P ottery, e dited b y S ander E . v an d er L eeuw a nd A lison C . P ritchard, p p. 3 41-408. U niversiteit v an A msterdam, A msterdam.

C HAPTER

7 K USHANO-SASANIAN S TORAGE J ARS F ROM C ENTRAL A SIA: A S TUDY I N C ERAMIC E COLOGY A ND E THNOARCHAEOLOGY 1

C harles

C .

K olb

M ercyhurst C ollege 2 18 O ld M ain 5 01 E ast 3 8th S treet E rie, P ennsylvania 1 6546

I n C eramic E cology, 1 988: C urrent R esearch o n C eramic M aterials, e dited b y C harles C . K olb ( 1989), 1 75-259.

0

C harles

C .

K olb,

1 989

A BSTRACT P ersonnel f rom t he " Prehistoric R esearch i n A fghanistan P roject" o f t he A merican M useum o f N atural H istory, d irected b y L ouis D upree, e xcavated f our a rchaeological s ites l ocated i n t he B alkh R iver G orge o f n orthern A fghanistan n ear t he b azaar . . , own o f A q K upruk, B alkh P rovince d uring t he m id-1960s. T his r eport d ocuments a s egment o f t hat r esearch. R egional g eology w as d etailed a nd t he r elative a nd a bsolute c hronologies o f t hese m ulticomponent s ites r anging f rom c ontemporary M odern N omadic t hrough U pper P aleolithic ( ca. 2 0,000 B .C.) r eviewed. T hree c ave s ites c ontained a rtifacts d ating t o t he E arly a nd L ate I ron A ge i n t his r egion, d ated b y t wo i ndependent s ets o f r adiocarbon d ates t o B .C./A.D.-A.D. 7 00, d uring w hich t he K ushano-Sasanians w ere i n p olitical c ontrol a nd B uddhism a nd f olk r eligions w ere n otable. A mong t he c eramic a rtifacts f rom t he c ave s ites w as " Hard B uff L imestone T empered W are," a u tility p ottery w hich c omprised 1 5.9% o f a ll s herds r ecovered a nd w as s tatistically f irst a mong 4 3 c eramic w ares d efined. T he c eramics w ere d elineated w ithin t he m ethodological f rameworks o f c eramic . e cology a nd c eramic e thnoarchaeology ( Matson 1 965, K ramer 1 985). T his w are i ncluded t hree j ar f orms m assive, l arge, a nd medium-size - a nd m inor f orms i ncluding b asins, b owls, a nd v ases. T he P hysical A ttributes o f p aste c olors ( exterior, i nterior, a nd c ore), h ardness, t exture, p orosity, t emper a nd o ther a plastics, a nd f iring v ariations a nd a ccidents w ere d etailed. T he R eddish Y ellow a nd Y ellow e xterior s urface c olors w ere c aused b y a f iring p rocedure i n w hich l ime-rich c lays a nd c rushed d olomitic l imestone t emper i n t he p resence o f s alts c reated t he a ppearance o f a s lip. C ultural A ttributes i ncluding methods o f m anufacture, s urface f inish, r im f orms ( n = 2 0) a nd v essel s hapes, s urface f inish a nd d ecorative t reatments ( applique, i ncision, p unctation, a nd s tamping), v essels s izes a nd o ther d imensional a ttributes, a nd f unctions w ere r eported. Two m assive s torage j ars w ere r ecovered i n s itu i n t wo d ifferent s ites. E thnoarchaeological d ata w as a ssembled r elative t o v essel f unctions a mong s edentary a nd n omadic p eoples o f t he I ranian P lateau. A s earch o f t he a rchaeological l iterature f or A fghanistan, I ran, P akistan, a nd t he S oviet C entral A sian R epublics s uggested s imilar c eramics w ere u sed p rimarily a s s torage v essels f or w ater o r f oodstuffs s uch a s g rains. M ajor c ommercial r outes i n C entral a nd S outh A sia, a nd e specially f or n orthern A fghanistan, w ere r eviewed, a nd t he c omplex, f luctuating p olitical s ituation o f t he f irst

- 1 76 -

s even c enturies A .D. w as s ummarized. T he p astoral n omadic K ugai-Karabulak c ulture, l inked w ith t he K ushan E mpire o f e astern A fghanistan a nd a djacent r egions, a nd t he S asanians o f I ran a nd w estern A fghanistan w ere p otentially i nvolved i n t he d istribution o r u se o f t he w are. T he m assive j ars p laced i n s trategic l ocales a long c ommercial a nd/or t ranshumant n omad r outes s erved a s w ater s torage c ontainers a nd m ay a lso h ave b een p rimitive c oolers f or p erishable m ilk p roducts s uch a s m ast, r ogon-i-zard, a nd/or a rsh, o r, p erhaps, k umiss ( fermented m ares' m ilk).

D EDICATION T he a bbreviated o ral r endition o f t his c hapter w as p resented a t t he 8 7th A nnual M eeting o f t he A merican A nthropological A ssociation i n P hoenix, A rizona o n N ovember 1 6, 1 988, a nd t he c urrent r evised w ork w as c ompleted o n J anuary 3 , 1 989. T he c hapter i s d edicated t o L ouis B enjamin D upree, a n i nternationally r eknown a nthropologist a nd e ducator w ho w as t he r ecognized a uthority o n A fghanistan. L ouie's f ield w ork i n A fghanistan f rom 1 961 t hrough 1 980 w as h olistic, c overing t he a rchaeology, e thnography, e arly a nd c ontemporary h istory, a nd p olitics o f t hat n ation. H e w as a n a ssociate o f t he A merican U niversities F ield S taff ( 1959-1983) a nd a r esearch a ssociate o f t he A merican M useum o f N atural H istory ( 1959-1971). H is r esearch r esulted i n o ver 2 25 p ublications a nd h is c omprehensive k nowledge i s m anifest i n h is s eminal w ork A fghanistan ( 1973). B eyond t he e normous r ange o f s cholarship, h e w as a c onsultant t o v arious a gencies o f t he U nited S tates g overnment, t he U nited N ations, a nd s even w estern E uropean g overnments ( West G ermany, F rance, D enmark, S weden, N orway, E ngland, a nd A ustria). I n a ddition h e p rovided a ssistance t o i nnumerable s tudents a nd s enior s cholars w ho w ere i nterested i n A fghanistan, myself i ncluded. L ouie w as S enior R esearch A ssociate o f I slamic a nd A rabic D evelopment S tudies a t D uke U niversity a nd t aught a t t he U niversity o f N orth C arolina-Chapel H ill, he w as a lso A djunct P rofessor o f A nthropology a t T he P ennsylvania S tate U niversity. I n D ecember 1 988 L ouie r eturned f rom f ield w ork i n P akistan a nd r esumed h is t eaching d uties a t D uke a nd U NC, b ut d ied o f l ung c ancer a t a ge 6 3 o n M arch 2 1, 1 989 i n D urham, N C. I s hall n ever f orget h is e nthusiasm, i nspiration, a nd f riendship. H e w ill n ot b e f orgotten. C harles C . K olb E rie, P ennsylvania M arch 2 8, 1 989

T ABLE

O F

C ONTENTS

P age 1 76 1 78 1 79 1 80 X 181 )1 84 1 86 1 88 1 91 1 92 1 93 1 93 1 96 1 99 1 99 2 01 2 06 /208 2 08 2 12 2 15 2 16 2 21 2 23 2 24 2 27 2 32 2 32 2 33 2 35 2 36 2 36 2 36 2 39 2 41 •2 45 2 47

A bstract D edication T able o f C ontents L ist o f T ables, L ist o f F igures I ntroduction B ackground T he A q K upruk S ites a nd C hronology R egional G eology A nalysis a nd D isposition o f t he A rchaeological S pecimens A nalytical M ethodology P hysical A ttributes 1 . P aste C olor 2 . H ardness 3 . T exture 4 . P orosity 5 . T emper a nd O ther A plastic I nclusions 6 . F iring V ariations a nd A ccidents C ultural A ttributes 1 . M ethods o f M anufacture 2 . S urface T reatments 3 . R im F orms a nd V essel S hapes 4 . S urface F inish a nd D ecorative T reatments 5 . V essel S izes a nd O ther D imensional A ttributes 6 . F unctions T he M assive J ars C eramic E thnoarchaeology C eramic C omparisons I ran A fghanistan S oviet C entral A sian R epublics P akistan S ummary C ommercial R outes P olitical B ackground S ummary a nd C onclusions E ndnote R eferences C ited

L IST P age

T able

1 87 1 89 1 90

1 2 3

1 94 1 95

4 5

1 97

6

1 98 2 00 2 00 2 02 2 07 2 11 2 14 2 22

7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4

2 26

1 5

F igure

1 82 1 85 2 09 2 10 2 13 2 17

1 2 3 4 5 6

2 18 2 19

7 8

2 25 2 28

9 1 0

T ABLES

D escription C ulture P eriods a t A q K upruk R adiocarbon D ates f or A q K upruk I a nd I I E arly a nd L ate I ron A ge R adiocarbon D ates f rom A q K upruk I M ajor C eramic W ares f rom A q K upruk S ites H ard B uff L imestone T empered W are a t A q K upruk E xterior a nd I nterior P aste C olor D eterminations C ore C olor D eterminations H ardness D eterminations P aste T exture D eterminations T emper a nd O ther A plastics F iring V ariations R im S herd C lassification a nd D escription S urface T reatments V essel S izes a nd O ther D imensional A ttributes M assive J ars R ecovered i n S itu a t A q K upruk I a nd I I

L IST P age

O F

O F

F IGURES

D escription M ap o f C entral a nd S outh A sia M ap o f t he A q K upruk A rea R im S herds: L arge a nd M edium-size J ars R im S herds: M iscellaneous V essels R im S herds: M assive J ars M assive J ar w ith L imestone C obble C over f rom A q K upruk I I M assive J ars f rom A q K upruk I a nd I ; D ecorations: A pplique, P unctation, S tamping M assive J ar f rom A q K upruk I I ( Restored) S uggested U se o f M assive J ars

I NTRODUCTION I n t his c hapter, I r eport a s egment o f c ontinuing i nvestigations o n t he a rchaeological c eramics a nd o ther p ottery a rtifacts e xcavated d uring t hree f ield s easons i n n orthern A fghanistan. T hese s tudies a re a p art o f t he " Prehistoric R esearch i n A fghanistan P roject" c onceived b y L ouis D upree ( Dupree a nd K olb 1 972). T wo m ajor w ares, " Red S treak-Burnished V egetable F iber T empered W are" ( Kolb 1 977, 1 982, 1 983) r elated t o R oman A rretine d erivatives, a nd a s eries o f " Red-on-Buff" c eramics - i n r eality R ed/Reddish Y ellow, R ed/Pink, a nd v ariants ( Kolb 1 987) h ave p reviously b een e laborated. I n t hese i nvestigations, I h ave e mployed a spects o f t he c oncept o f c eramic e cology a s o utlined b y F rederick R . M atson ( 1965; s ee a lso S hepard 1 968:xxi-xiii, K olb 1 976, A rnold 1 985:9-10, K ramer 1 985:78, a nd R ice 1 987:314-317) a s w ell a s c oncepts o f c eramic e thnoarchaeology ( Kingery 1 982:41-43, A rnold 1 985:15-19, K ramer 1 985:78, a nd R ice 1 987:476). C eramic e cology, a s K ramer h as n oted ( 1985:78), i ncludes a b road r ange o f r esearch p ossibilities, b ut, e specially d uring t he l ast d ecade, t here h as b een a s hift f rom t he m ore d escriptive a ccounts o f p ottery p roduction a nd u se t oward m ore f ocused s tudies o f p articular a spects o f m anufacture, d istribution, u se, a nd d iscard. T his c urrent r eport o n A fghan c eramics d elineates a u tility c eramic, " Hard B uff L imestone T empered W are" ( Kolb 1 970) u sed, i n t he m ain, a s s torage v essels f or w ater o r n on-liquid m aterials s uch a s g rains. T he v essels w ere p roduced i n t hree p rimary j ar f orms ( massive, l arge, a nd medium-size), a nd r arely o ccurred a s b asins, b owls, o r v ases. T he m assive j ars w ere 6 5.0 + c m h igh, l arge j ars c a. 5 0-65 c m i n h eight a nd medium j ars w ere c a. 3 0-45 c m i n h eight. T hese a nd s imilar j ar f orms w ere f ound i n a rchaeological c ontexts a ssociated w ith t he K ushano-Sasanian p eriod i n C entral A sia, c a. A .D. 5 00-700, w hich c orrelated w ith t he L ate I ron A ge c ulture p eriod i n n orthern A fghanistan. S uch v essels, b ecause o f t heir s izes a nd w eights, w ould n ormally b e f ound t o o ccur i n s edentary v illage h ouseholds. H owever, q uantities o f t he w are - e specially t he m assive a nd l arge j ar f orms w ere r ecovered f rom c ave s ites i n t he A q K upruk a rea o f n orthern A fghanistan. T hese c aves, l ocated a long t he B alkh R iver G orge, s erved a s w ay-stations o r c onvenient o vernight c ampsites o n t he r oute t o B alkh a nd o ther c ommercial c enters l ocated i n t he C entral A sian T urkestan P lain t o t he n orth, a nd s imilar c enters i n e ast c entral A fghanistan, P akistan, a nd t he S ubcontinent ( Kolb 1 983:74-75, 8 8-90). E thnoarchaeological s tudies s uggested t he u se o f m assive j ars a s u nique s torage v essels o r c oolers f or p erishable f oodstuffs. T wo

- 1 81

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( Kolb) F igure 1 : M ap o f C entral a nd S outh A sia. M ajor p hysiographic f eatures a ppear i n C APITAL l etters, w hile m ajor c ultural r egions, c ultures, a nd s ites a ppear i n c apital a nd l ower c ase l etters ( after K olb 1 983:66, M ap

A bbreviations/Designations: K P N P S P a b c d e f g h i j k 1 m n o p q ✓ s t u ✓ w x y z a a b b c c d d M odern

K hyber P ass N il P ass S hibar P ass A i K hanoum [ site] A lexandria A rii ( Herat) [ site] A lexandropolis ( Kandahar) [ site] A nau, T urkmenistan [ site] A ntiochia M argiana ( Merv) [ site] A pauarcticia ( Meshed) [ site] A q K upruk [ modern v illage, a rchaeological l ocality] B alkh ( capital o f B actria) [ site] D abar-Kot, P akistan [ site] D ankul, F erghana V alley [ site] D eh M orasi G hundai [ site] E cbatana, I ran [ site] H elmand V alley [ archaeological l ocality] K abul ( capital o f A fghanistan) [ modern c ity] K elleli O asis, T urkmenistan [ site] K osh-tepe, F erghana V alley [ site] K uvasai C ave, F erghana V alley [ site] K uzuk-tepe, F erghana V alley [ site] M undigak [ site] M urghab, T urkmenistan [ site] N ad-i A li [ site] Q uetta, B aluchistan/Pakistan [ archaeological l ocality] S aid Q ala T epe [ site] S hahr-i-Sokhta, I ran [ site] S hamshir G har . [ site] T al-i-Iblis, I ran [ site] T ashkurgan [ modern v illage, s ite] T axila ( Sirkap), P akistan [ site] T epe G awra, I ran [ site] T epe Y ahya, I ran [ site] p olitical

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B ACKGROUND

T he m odern n ation-state o f A fghanistan a ncient A riana, " Land o f t he A fghans" - f orms t he n ortheastern p ortion o f t he I ranian P lateau o f C entral A sia, t hrough w hich p rehistoric a nd h istoric r outes l inked t he I ndian S ubcontinent w ith S outhwestern A sia, S outhern S iberia, t he F ar E ast ( especially C hina), a nd t he p resent-day S oviet C entral A sian R epublics ( Figure 1 ). T he A fghan r egion o f t he T urkestan P lain o n t he n orthern s lopes o f t he H indu K ush M ountain R ange - a w estern e xtension o f t he H imalayas - i ts a djacent p iedmont a nd f oothills w ere a rchaeologically s urveyed i n 1 959 b y L ouis B . D upree ( American M useum o f N atural H istory a nd T he P ennsylvania S tate U niversity). H e r ecorded o ver 1 00 c aves a nd r ockshelters a nd a n a dditional 1 50 m ounds ( tells o r k urgans) o f a rchaeological i nterest, a ll o f w hich e xhibited p rehistoric o r e arly h istoric a rtifacts ( Dupree 1 964, 1 967). F our a rchaeological l ocalities w ere u ltimately s elected f or f urther i ntensive i nvestigation. I n o ne o f t hese l ocalities, l ocated n ear t he m odern b azaar t own o f A q K upruk ( "White B ridge" i n U zbeki T urkish), B alkh P rovince ( specifically 3 6° 0 5' N orth L atitude, 6 60 5 1' E ast L ongitude), 1 25 km s outh o f t he p reindustrial I slamic r eligious c enter o f M azar-i-Sharif, o ver 2 0 c aves a nd r ockshelters h ad b een i nitially r ecorded. T he A rchaeological M ission o f t he A merican M useum o f N atural H istory t o A fghanistan ( Louis B . D upree, D irector) a nd t he K abul M useum, A fghanistan's n ational m useum o f h istory a nd a rchaeology, c ooperated i n t he e xcavation o f f our s ites d uring t he 1 962 a nd 1 965 f ield s easons. T he e xcavations w ere c onducted i n t hree c aves a nd o ne o pen-air s ite i n t he g orge o f t he B alkh R iver i n t he n orth A fghanistan f oothills o f t he H indu K ush ( Figure 2 ). T he s ites w ere l ocated 1 .5-2.2 km n orth o r d ownstream f rom t he m odern t own. T he b ridge o ver t he d eep a nd s wiftly f lowing B alkh R iver a t A q K uprük i s s trategic a s t here w ere ( and a re) n o o thers f or 1 00 km t o t he n orth a nd s outh, while t he d epth a nd c urrent p reclude f ording b y v ehicles e ven d uring t he d ry s ummer s eason. A pproximately 1 ,500 i ndividuals l ived i n t he t own o f A q K upruk i n 1 965, a nd t here w ere 11 b azaar s hops ( 46 p ermanently o pen, 5 1 o pen o nly o n b azaar d ays, a nd 1 4 c losed) l ocated a long t he m ain s treet a bove t he e ast f loodplain o f t he B alkh R iver ( Dupree a nd D upree 1 974a) T here a re n o p otters a t A q K upruk s o t hat e arthenware v essels m ust b e i mported f rom p ottery c enters a t B uina Q ara a nd M azar-i-Sharif. A nnually, e specially f rom M ay

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h and s moothed w hereby t he h and w as d ipped i n w ater p rior t o s moothing t o c reate a w et-smoothed s urface. T his t echnique s ubsumes t he c oarse, g rainy p aste a nd n on-plastics u nder a f ine l ayer o f c lay, a lthough s ome s triations c an r esult w hen a plastics a re d ragged b y t he h and. S uch s triations w ere r arely n oted o n j ar e xteriors a nd n ever o n o ther v essel f orms. T he b odies a nd r ims o f m assive a nd l arge j ar f orms a lso s howed t he u se o f c loth o r t extile w iping, e specially o n t he r im a nd n eck/shoulder e xterior a reas. S lipping ( with a c lay d ifferent f rom t hat u sed i n t he c eramic p aste) o r s elf-slipping ( with t he s ame c lay u sed t o p roduce t he p aste) w as n ot o bserved o n a ny j ar s pecimens. T wo r im s herds f rom b owls a nd s ix s herds f rom v ases ( two r ims a nd f our b odies) h ad p robable e vidence o f s elf-slipping. P olishing a nd b urnishing w ere t echniques n ever u sed a s s urface t reatments i n t he w are. H andles a ssociated w ith t he medium j ar f orm w ere u nslipped a nd u npolished. T he i nterior a nd e xterior r ims a nd n ecks o f a ll j ar f orms w ere f inger s moothed a nd t he m assive a nd l arge j ar f orms w ere w iped w ith a c loth a s a f inal f inishing o peration, b ut t his t reatment d id n ot e xtend i nto t he j ar i nteriors. T he i nitial u pper i nterior s egment o f t he r im a nd n eck-shoulder w ere f inger s moothed b ut n ot c loth w iped, w hile t he m iddle a nd l ower i nterior s egments o f j ar b odies w ere u ntreated. A mong t he m inor v essel f orms ( other j ars, b asins, b owls, a nd v ases), t he e xterior a nd i nterior s urfaces w ere f inger s moothed a nd m uch m ore c are w as g iven t o t hese f orms i n c omparison w ith t he m assive, l arge, a nd medium-size j ar f orms. T he 3 2 h andles a ssociated w ith t his w are w ere a ppliqued t o m edium-size j ar e xterior s houlders w ithout p erforating t he v essel w alls. F ive h andle c onfigurations w ere i dentified: 1 ) s imple r ectanguloid s trap h andles ( rectangular i n c ross s ection), n = 1; 2 ) s imple l oop h andles j oining r im a nd s houlder ( oval t o r ound i n c ross s ection), n = 7 ; 3 ) b ifacially c hannelled s trap h andles ( figure-8 i n c ross s ection), n = 6 ; 4 ) m ultiple g rooved s trap h andles ( subrectangular i n c ross s ection), n = 6 ; a nd 5 ) s imple t ab h andles, n = 2 .

3 .

R im F orms

a nd

V essel

S hapes

T he a nalytical p rocedures u sed i n t he s tudy o f r im e laborations, l ip f orms, a nd v essel s hapes h ave b een d etailed b y S hepard ( 1968:54-65, 2 24-253, 3 91-394; s ee a lso R ice 1 987:207-243). T he r im i s d efined a s t he m argin o f t he v essel o rifice, a nd m ay b e f unctional a nd/or d ecorative. R ims s erve t o s trengthen t he o rifice f or p ouring, l ifting, a nd c losure. T he v essel l ip i s

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h erein d efined a s t he t erminus o f t he r im. W ater s erving o r t ransport v essels h aving s mall r im d iameters ( ca. 1 0-15 c m), h igh v ertical n ecks, a nd g lobular b odies w ere r ecovered a t t he s outh I ndian s ite f V ijayanagara d ating t o t he 1 4th-16th c enturies ( Si D poli 1 988:586-587). T hese j ars a re d issimilar t o t he c eramics f rom A q K upruk. T wenty r im f orms w ere i dentified a mong t he 2 29 r im s herds f rom A q K upruk s ites ( Kolb 1 970), o f w hich s ix w ere a ssociated w ith m assive j ars, n ine w ith l arge a nd m edium-size j ars, a nd f ive w ith t he m iscellaneous f orms - o ther j ars, b asins, b owls, a nd v ases ( see T able 1 2 a nd F igures 3 -5). R ims w ith b ulbous l ips a nd f langes o r b olsters w ere p robably d esigned s o t hat a w ooden, l eather, o r t extile c over o r l id c ould b e a ttached. N o e vidence o f c overs w as f ound i n t he a rchaeological c ontexts; a t A q K upruk I I, t he c omplete m assive j ar f ound i n s itu h ad'a l arge r ough l imestone c obble w hich a cted a s a c over ( Figure 6 ). M assive j ars h ad s hort n ecks o r n one a t a ll, a nd t his f orm w as w idest a t t he s houlder, t apering t oward a f lat o r c arinated b ase w hich h ad a d iameter o ne-half t o o ne-third t hat o f t he v essel's s houlder d iameter ( Figure 7 ). L arge a nd m edium-size j ars h ad s hort n ecks, e rect o r p erpendicular n ecks, o r o utflared n ecks. T he l atter t wo f orms a llowed s pace f or n eck d ecorations, s uch a s a s ingle o r d ouble s et o f c hevrons f ound o n t he medium-size j ar f orm. T he l arge, medium, a nd o ther j ar f orms h ad g lobular o r s emi-globular b odies a nd f lat b ases, a lthough a f ew s pecimens o f c arinated b ases w ere n oted a mong t he l arge j ar f orm s pecimens. T he b asin/tecomate ( neckless j ar) f orm h ad a g lobular s hape a nd f lat b ase, w hile t he b owls h ad a h emispherical c onfiguration a nd f lat b ases, a nd t he v ases h ad o utflaring o r e rect w alls a nd f lat b ases. 4 .

S urface

F inish

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D ecorative

T reatments

S urface f inishes a nd d ecorative e laborations h ave b een e laborated b y S hepard ( 1968:65-69, 1 86-193; s ee a lso R ye 1 981:40-44, 8 9-90; R ice 1 987:136-152, 2 68-269). M ost s herds w ere u ndecorated ( 2,955 o f 3 ,412, 8 6.6%), w ith o nly 4 57 ( 13.4%) h aving d ecoration w hich i nvolved e ither s urface p enetration o r s urface d isplacement ( Table 5 ). T ype 2 1 ( Appliqued M otif) a ccounted f or n ine s herds ( one r im a nd e ight b ases) a nd w as a ssociated w ith t he medium-size j ar f orm, a ll f rom A q K upruk I ( Figure 8 ). T he a ppliques i ncluded f our " goat" h ead/horns l ocated o n v essel n eck/shoulder j unctures, t wo s pecimens w ith b osses o r n odes a nd t wo s herds w ith a ppliqued " lunates." T he l atter t wo a ppliqued f orms w ere l ocated o n v essel s houlders. O ne " goat h orn" a pplique w as l ocated o n t he

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( Kolb) F igure 6 : M assive f rom A q K upruk I I.

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P u n c t a i o n :

‚i s t • 0 4

r im/neck o f a m edium j ar. T he " goat h eads" a nd " goat h orns" d epicted o n c eramic v essels i n C entral A sia m ay r elate t o t he p rehistoric c ult o f t he m ountain g oat ( Movius 1 953:25-26, 5 7-58). G oat s ymbols a ppear a s a rchi tectural e lements a bove d oorways i n c ontemporary v illage dwellings, a nd g oat h orns y et a dorn g raves a nd s hrines e ven i n I slamic s ocieties. T he t otemic e fficacy o f t he v igorous m ountain g oat i s w ell d ocumented ( Jettmar 1 961). T hese a nimals a re a dmired f or s trength a nd s tamina i n a h arsh t errain, a nd f or a s exual v irility - a s ort o f " maleness" o r L atin A merican m achismo ( Dupree 1 966: p ersonal c ommunication). S uch g oat s ymbols o n c eramics, e ither a s a ppliqued o r p ainted d ecorations, a re w ides pread o n t he I ranian P lateau ( Iran, A fghanistan, S oviet C entral A sian R epublics, a nd n orthern P akistan). T ype 2 2 ( Striations, W avy L ine) w as f ound o n 2 04 s herds ( one r im, o ne b ase, a nd 2 02 b odies), a nd c onsisted o f a s et o f h orizontally p laced c omb-incised w avy l ines i mpressed i nto t he l eather-hard c lay. T his d ecoration w as u sually f ound o n t he s houlders o f m edium a nd l arge j ars, n ever o n t he m assive f orm o r a ny m inor f orm. T he c omb-like t ool, p robably m ade o f w ood o r b one, h ad f rom t hree t o n ine t ines, e ach t ine w as 0 .04-0.20 c m w ide. T ype 2 3 ( Punctation) o ccurred o n 1 00 s herds ( six r ims, o ne b ase, a nd 9 3 b odies) o n s herds f rom A q K upruk I . T his d ecoration w as m ost f requently f ound a t t he n eck/shoulder o r o n n ecks o f m edium a nd l arge j ars, a nd w as p roduced w ith a m ulti-tined c omb-like t ool s imilar t o t hat u sed i n p roducing t he w avy l ine s triations. H owever, 3 3 b odies h ad t ubular p unctation i n a h orizontal p lane a t t he s houlders o r o n t he n ecks o f m edium j ars. T he p unctation s izes a nd i mpressions s uggest a b ird b one o r h ollow r eed w as u sed t o d ecorate s ome v essels w hile t he p aste w as l eather h ard ( see F igure 8 ). T ype 2 4 ( Striations, S traight L ine) w as n oted o n 8 2 s herds, a ll b odies. A s i n t he c ase o f T ype 2 2, t he d ecoration o ccurred o n t he s houlders o f m edium a nd l arge j ars a nd c onsisted o f a s et o f h orizontally p laced c omb-incised l ines i mpressed i nto t he l eather h ard s urface. T he n umber o f t ines v aried f rom t hree t o n ine, a nd e ach t ine r anged i n w idth f rom 0 .03-0.20 c m. T ype 2 5 ( Chevron S eries) w as f ound o n 6 2 s herds ( 36 r ims, 2 4 b odies, a nd t wo h andles), a ll m edium-size j ar f orms. T he d ecoration c onsisted o f a s ingle o r m ultiple c hevron s eries m otif a pplied t o j ar n ecks b etween t he s houlder a nd r im, a nd c onsistently u tilized t he e ntire s pace a vailable b etween t he r im a nd s houlder. A w edge-shaped t ool w as e mployed t o c reate t hese " V"-shaped c hevron d esigns w hich w ere u sually b ounded o n b oth t he

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t op a nd b ottom b y w et-grooved h orizontal l ines o r a s eries o f l ines p arallel t o t he r im. T he n eck s ections m ust h ave b een r ather f resh, n ot e ven l eather-hard, w hen t hese o perations w ere c onducted. T he c hevron d ecorations o ccurred o n j ars w ith p erpendicular/erect o r o utflaring n ecks a nd s light e xterior a nd i nterior b olsters ( CRA R im C lassification). O ne b asin r im s herd ( DRS R im C lassification) h ad t races o f a p ainted b and o n t he f lattened l ip, w hile a s econd s herd, a j ar b ody, h ad a n 0 .3 c m w ide p ainted s tripe o r t wo s tripes b elow t he e xterior r im. I n b oth c ases, t he p aint w as R eddish B rown ( 5YR 4 /3 ) o n a l ight Y ellow B rown ( 10YR 6 /4) s urface. B oth s herds h ad b een e xposed t o f ire a nd t he b ody s herd h ad b ecome s emi-vitrified o n o ne s urface. S tamped m otifs w ere f ound o n t wo b ody s herds, a nd m ay r epresent p otter's s ignature s tamps o r m arks o f i dentification. O ne m otif c onsisted o f a s imple c ruciform ( raised) w ithin a c ircle 0 .9 c m i n d iameter, a nd w as s o d eeply i mpressed i nto t he v essel w all t hat i t c aused a k nob-like p rotrusion o n t he i nterior. T he s econd s tamp c onsisted o f a c luster o f f ive n odes ( 0.4 c m i n d iameter) i n a c ruciform w ithin a 2 .5 c m d iameter c ircle, a nd w as o n a b ody s herd o f a c omplete m assive j ar f ound i n s itu a t A q K upruk I . T hese s tamped m otifs a re i llustrated i n F igure 8 . N o s imilar s tamped m otifs h ave b een f ound i n t he C entral A sian l iterature ( Potts 1 981). S ome l arge s torage j ars a nd a t l east s ix o f t he m assive f orm w ere d ecorated w ith a w ash a pplied q uickly a t t he v essel s houlder. T he p igment w as p ermitted t o r un d own t he e xterior w all. T he w ash c olor w as L ight G rey ( 2.5Y 5 /2) a nd a pplied t o Y ellow ( 2.5YR 7 /5, 2 .5YR 7 /6) s urfaces, b ut w as " fugitive" o n m ost s pecimens ( 41 b ody s herds). T his d ecoration w as a lso f ound o n t he c omplete m assive j ar f ound a t A q K upruk I ( Figure 7 ). 5 .

V essel

S izes

a nd

O ther

D imensional

A ttributes

B ecause o f t he s ample s ize, s ome a ttempt w as m ade t o q uantify t he v essel s izes o f m assive, l arge, a nd m edium j ars. T he q uantities o f i dentifiable b asin, b owl, a nd v ase s herds w ere t oo s mall t o p ermit a ny e xtensive a nalysis. D ata o n t he t hree j ar f orms a re f ound i n T able 1 4, a nd s hould b e r egarded w ith c aution s ince t hese d eterminations a re b ased o n l arge s herd f ragments. A s m ay b e s een, t he j ar f orms f all i nto t hree r ather d iscrete g roupings w ith m inimal d imensional o verlaps.

M a s i v e J a r s 6 5 . 0 1 0 . 0 c m L e l •

3 1 . 5 4 5 . 0 c m

•

a

C . J

8 . 0 1 4 . 5 c m

1 4 . 5 2 5 . 5 c m

2 4 . 5 3 5 . 5 c m

1 4 . 5 2 4 . 5 c m

4 2 . 0 5 6 . 5 c m

9 . 5 1 3 . 0 c m

1 4 . 5 2 7 . 5 c m

. • •

C i " ) 1 — $

a

I L

V e s e l C l a s i f i c a t i o n

1 2 . 0 1 7 . 5

F l a t o r c a r i n a t e d b a s e s

I t

B y e xamining t he e ntire s ample o f 3 ,412 s herds ( 229 r ims, 2 ,952 b odies, 1 99 b ases, a nd 3 2 h andles), t he f ollowing g eneral measurements h ave b een c alculated o r r ecorded. B ody s herds r anged i n t hickness f rom 0 .4-2.4 c m a nd a veraged 1 .6 c m t hick ( n = 1 ,310). B asal s herds w ere t hicker, r anging f rom 0 .07-3.4 c m w ith a n a verage o f 2 .6 c m ( n = 1 72). T he r ims s herds r anged i n t hickness f rom 0 .4-4.8 c m a nd v aried i n r elation t o r im f orms a nd c lassification ( n = 2 29). 6 .

F unctions

I n t erms o f f requency, t he m ost t o l east c ommon v essel f orms w ere: medium j ars, l arge j ars, m assive j ars, b asins, v ases, b owls, a nd o ther ( large) j ars. T he m edium a nd l arge j ar f orms h ad g lobular o r s emi-globular b odies w ith f lat o r c arinated b ases a nd r estricted o rifices. S uch v essels w ould b e e xcellent s torage c ontainers f or l iquids o r s olids, i ncluding f oodstuffs, e specially g rain. B ecause a h igh d egree p orosity w as n ot a f actor d uring c lay s election o r v essel m anufacture, s uch c ontainers w ere n ot d esigned t o k eep w ater c ool. L ikewise, w ater c ontainers n early a lways h ave m ore r estricted o rifices a nd/or p ouring s pouts, a c haracteristic n ot a ssociated w ith t hese v essels. T he a bsence o f h andles o n t he l arge f orm s uggests t his v essel w as n ot m ade t o b e t ransported a ny d istance a nd w ould l ikely b e a s tationary h ousehold c ontainer. N o e vidence o f c ooking o r o ther c ulinary a ctivities c ould b e a ssociated w ith t he medium a nd l arge j ar f orms, n or w ere t here a ny m aterials a dhering t o t he i nterior v essel w alls. P alynological a nalyses o f s oil s amples a ssociated w ith t hese j ar f orms p roved i nconclusive ( Kovar 1 969:personal c ommunication). T he m assive j ars w ere d esigned f or s torage p urposes a nd, e xcept f or s ize, w ere s imilar i n m ost r espects t o t he l arge j ars d escribed a bove, b eing s poutless, h andleless, a nd w ithout a ny e vidence o f c ulinary a ctivities ( cooking o r s tiring a brasions, e tc.). V essel c apacity o f t he m assive j ar f orm a ppears t o b e i n e xcess o f 3 5 l iters ( 9.24 l iquid g allons, 0 .994 b ushels) t o j udge f rom t wo c omplete, r estored m assive j ars, o ne e ach f ound a t A q K upruk I a nd I I. S oil s amples a ssociated w ith t hese j ars p rovided n o s ignificant o r u nusual f requencies o f p ollen ( Kovar 1 969:personal c ommunic ation). B asin, b owl a nd v ase s pecimens h ad n o e vidence o f c ooking o r u se-wear a brasions.

T HE

M ASSIVE

J ARS

T wo m assive j ars w ere r ecovered i n s itu i n t wo c ave s ites, A q K upruk I a nd I I, d uring t wo d ifferent f ield s easons ( Figure 9 ). A lthough f ragmented b ecause o f t he p ressure o f t he s urrounding e arth, b oth w ere i ntact a nd a ll s herds w ere r ecovered d uring t he e xcavations. T hese v essels w ere v ery s imilar i n a ppearance a nd b asic d imensions, b ut v aried i n d ecoration ( see T able 1 5 a nd F igure 7 ). B oth w ere a t l east h alf f illed w ith s ilt ( loess-derived) w hen r ecovered. T here w ere n o m acrob otanical m aterials a ssociated, n or d id p alynological s tudies o f t he s ilt r eveal a ny u nusual p ollen o r p ollen c oncentrations. T he j ars h ad b een p urposefully b uried u p t o t heir r ims i n p its d ug i nto t he g round ( and t hrough a n umber o f a rtifical/cultural s tratigraphic l evels). T he s pecimen f rom A q K upruk I h ad b een p laced i n a l arge p it a djacent t o a p is ‘ b asin o r w all a nd w as a ssociated w ith a c rude w all o f s un-dried m ud b rick w hich e xtended b eyond t he 2 .5 m n orth-south w idth o f t he e xcavation t rench. I ndividual b ricks measured 4 0 x 4 0 x 1 0 c m a nd w ere l aid w ith m ud mortar. T he a rea a round t he j ar w as r efilled w ith s oil r emoved f rom t he p it e xcavation, s o t hat o nly t he j ar r im w as e xposed. A l arge, r ough l imestone c obble h ad b een p laced o ver t he v essel's o rifice b ut would a llow s ilt t o e nter t he i nterior ( Figure 6 ). T he A q K upruk I I m assive j ar w as p laced i n a p it w hich h ad b een d ug s lightly l arger t han t he v essel's h eight a nd d iameter. T here w ere n o p is econstruction or brick walls in association. T he l ower t wo-thirds o f t he e xterior a nd t he b ase o f t he v essel h ad b een c oated w ith a 2 .0-3.5 c m t hick l ayer o f c lay o r mud b efore t he r emainder o f t he p it w as r efilled. T his c oating m ay h ave f unctioned a s a n " insulating" m aterial, a nd h ad b een p laced o n t he v essel w alls a nd b ase b efore t he j ar h ad b een p laced i n t he p it. D uring t he a rchaeological e xcavation, most o f t his m aterial f ell f rom t he s ides o f t he v essel. T here i s n o e vidence t o s uggest t hat t he c lay o r m ud h ad b een u sed t o h old t ogether a c racked j ar. T he o rifice o f t he A q K upruk I I j ar h ad a lso b een c overed w ith a l arge, r ough l imestone c obble ( 24 x 2 0 x 7 .5 c m). H owever, i n t he A q K upruk I s pecimen, a f iber r ope h ad b een t ied a round t he v essel n eck t o h old t he c racked o r f ragmented n eck. I t c ould n ot b e d etermined i f t he r ope h ad b een t ied a t t he t ime t he j ar w as b uried o r i f t his t ook p lace a t a t ime a fter t he v essel h ad b een p ositioned. B oth b uilding c rushed

v essels h ad b een m ade u sing t he c oil a nd s labt echniques p reviously d escribed, a nd b oth h ad c alcite ( and s ome c rushed q uartzite) a dhering t o

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( Kolb) F igure 9 : M assive J ar f rom A q K upruk I I ( Restored). F ield L aboratory p hotograph b y t he a uthor.

T able 1 5: a nd I I.

M assive

J ars

R ecovered

i n

S itu

a t

A q

K upruk

I

C haracteristic/Attribute

V essel g l

V essel g 2

S ite P rovenience G eological C ontext

A q K upruk I 2 f:50-100 c m

A q K upruk I I l bb 1 : 90-125 c m

L oess

L oess/Small G ravels T ransition

D ate(s) o f E xcavation C olors: E xterior S urface

J uly 1 5,

2 .5YR 7 /5, 7 /6 ( Yellow ) 1 0YR 5 /1 ( Grey) 1 0YR 6 /1 ( Grey/Light G rey)

C ore P aste I nterior S urface D imensions: h eight: R im t o B ase R im t o B ase

( max.) ( at s ide)

6 7.5 6 4.0 3 .5 4 6.0

N eck ( Shoulder t o R im ) S houlder C urve t o B ase Diameter: R im E xterior ( Lip t o L ip) R im I nterior ( lip t o L ip) S houlder ( max.) G arinated B ase ( at a ngle) B ase ( max.) N umber o f

J uly 5 -7,

1 962

1 965

2 .5YR 7 /6 ( Yellow ) 1 0YR 5 /1 ( Grey) 1 0YR 6 /1 ( Grey/Light G rey)

7 0.0 c m

c m c m c m c m

6 2.0 c m 3 .0 c m 5 6.0 c m

2 9.0- 3 0.0 c m 2 3.5- 2 4.0 c m 5 5.0 c m

2 0.5 c m 1 4.0 c m 5 4.0 c m

3 0.0 c m 1 5.5 c m

3 0.0 c m 2 4.5 c m

S herds: 4 ( 4 l arge)

R im B ody B ase

9 6 1 4

T otal S herds W eight o f S herds

( 51 l g., ( 13 l g.,

3 ( 3 4 5 s m.) 1 s m .)

1 14 1 9.2 k g - 0 .1 k g

l arge)

3 8 ( 29 l g., 9 s m .) 6 ( 6 l arge) 4 7 1 8.8 k g - 0 .1 k g

D ecorations: G rey w ash a t S houlder

E xterior

S tamped s ymbol a t S houlder

H orizontal r ow o f d iagonal w et-grooved s lashes a t S houlder

R im F orm C lassification

A A

B raided r ope a pplique a t b asal a ngle A B

V essel I nterior

H eavy g ypsum s alt

C rudely c hipped h ole

i ncrustations o n

( 3.5 c m d iameter)

l ower 2 /3

c enter o f B ase, c hipp ed f rom e xterior t o

R ope t ied a round

V essel E xterior

N eck t o h old R im f ragments t ogether

i nterior; s ealed w ith c lay H ard c lay/mud c oating ( 7.5 YR 7 /6, R eddish Y ellow ; 2 .0-3.5 c m t hick) o n l ower 2 /3 a nd B ase

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i n

t heir b ases. A s n oted, t his m aterial w ould h ave p revented t he j ars f rom s ticking t o t he u npivoted t urning s labs d uring m anufacture a nd w ould f acilitate t ransfer t o t he k iln. T he A q K upruk I v essel h ad a n u ndulating r im p rofile d ue t o a " slump" o f o ne o f t he w all s ections d uring t he f inal s teps o f m anufacture. I t i s l ikely t hat s uch v essels c ould h ave s erved a s w ater s torage j ars, a s t he l evel o f t he B alkh R iver i s c urrently 5 -8 m b elow t he s teep, s heer b luffs o n w hich t he s ites a re l ocated, ' a nd w ater c ould h ave b een t ransported i n p ottery o r l eather c ontainers f rom t he r iver t o t he i n s itu j ars. B ecause t he j ars w ere b uried u p t o t heir r ims, t he e arth w ould h ave s erved t o h elp k eep t he w ater c ool, a nd t he " insulating" m aterial o n t he A q K upruk I I s pecimen c ould h ave s erved t he s ame p urpose. C ERAMIC

E THNOARCHAEOLOGY

When t he A q K upruk I I s pecimen w as b eing e xcavated, o ur c hief w orkman, A slam M ullah A kram, s uggested t hat t he " pot c ontained g old." A s a r esult, t he w orkers w ere e xtremely c areful d uring t he r emoval o f t he v essel, a nd w ere q uite d isappointed w hen o nly s ilt w as f ound i nside t he j ar. A nother w orkman, J egan B erdy M okul, n icknamed " Baba" ( grandfather) b ecause o f h is a ge a nd s ocial s tatus, s uggested a d ifferent i nterpretation b ased u pon h is o bservations a s a c hild. H e h ad l ived i n s edentary v illages b ut h ad a lso b een a t ranshumant n omad, t raveling f rom s ummer t o w inter p astures w ith f locks o f s heep a nd g oats, a nd p assing t hrough v arious r iver g orges s imilar t o t he o ne a t A q K upruk. H e i ndicated t hat k uchis ( nomads) s ometimes b uried l arge s torage j ars i n c ave s ites s o a s t o h ave c ool w ater f or d rinking a nd c ulinary a ctivities, b ut t hese v essels h ad a s econd i mportant p urpose. B ecause t he s ummers a re e xtremely d ry a nd h ot ( 95-120 0 F ), p erishable f oods m ust b e k ept c ool i n o rder t o r etard s poilage, s o t hat s uch c ontainers m ay h ave s erved a s p rimitive c oolers. " Baba" s uggested t hat s mall p ottery o r w ooden b owls o r o ther c ontainers p laced i nside t he m assive j ar h eld d airy p roducts s uch a s y oghurt, c larified b utter, o r a p opular n oodle a nd y oghurt d ish ( Figure 1 0). H e r ecalled s uch c ontainer u sage i n c aves a s w ell a s i n s edentary v illages. I n v illages s uch a s A q K upruk, s torerooms w ere o ften d ug i nto h illsides t o k eep p erishables c ool, o r v essels w ere b uried i n k itchen o r s toreroom f loors. " Buddhist" c eramic s torage v essels f rom t he 6 th c entury A .D. a t t he a rchaeological s ite o f D abar-Kot, P akistan w ere f ound b y F airservis i n s imilar c ontexts ( 1959:311, 3 22, 3 26, F igs. 2 8-29, P l. 2 0b).

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( Kolb) F igure 1 0: S uggested U se o f M assive J ars. W ooden o r p ottery c ontainer s hown f loating i n t he w ater o f a c ut-away M assive J ar. A l imestone c obble c overs t he j ar o rifice.

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A mong t he m ajor f oods p repared b y p eoples o f t he I ranian P lateau ( Iran, A fghanistan, S oviet C entral A sian R epublics, a nd n orthern P akistan), w ere a n umber i nvolving d airy p roducts d erived f rom t he m ilk o f m ares, c amels, s heep, a nd g oats. I n n orthern A fghanistan t hese i ncluded m ast ( yoghurt), k rut ( dried k urds), k ruti ( curds b oiled i n l ard [ rogon-i-dumbah] f rom t he f at-tailed s heep), a nd r ogon-i-zard ( clarified b utter - c alled g hee i n I ndia a nd P akistan - a nd s ometimes c alled b y t hat n ame b y A fghan p eoples). R egional c uisine a lso i ncluded a m ixture o f C entral A sian a nd I ranian P lateau e lements. P asta ( noodle) d ishes h ave a w ide d istribution f rom C hina t hrough I taly, a nd w ere d ispersed d uring t he a pogee o f t he S ilk R oute t rade. T hese n oodle d ishes c omprised a rsh ( a s paghetti-noodle d ish c ooked w ith y oghurt) e aten h ot o r c old, a nd a rshak ( a r avioli f illed w ith m eat, c heese, o r v egetables, s uch a s l eeks). T ransient n omads ( kuchis) s laughter l ambs a nd k ids f or m eat, s aving t he a dult a nimals f or d airy p roducts, w ool/hair, a nd f or b reeding, w hereas s edentary v illagers a nd t ownspeople c onsume meat u sually o nly w hen a n a nimal d ied a ccidently o r f rom n atural c auses ( Dupree 1 973:22 )4 -238). T here w as n o e vidence f or t he p ickling o f m eats a nd v egetables i n c eramic j ars a s w as f ound i n C hina a nd S outheast A sia ( Solheim 1 965:256-257). A s urvey o f t he e thnographic l iterature o n A fghanistan, I ran, P akistan, a nd t he S oviet C entral A sian R epublics r evealed n o p arallels t o t he i nformant's o bservations o n t he b uried j ars. C entral A sian n omads h ave t ypically c onsumed m eat, m arrow, m ilk p roducts p referably f ermented - a nd b lood ( less f requently) a t l east s ince t he 5 th c entury B .C., w hen H erodotus d escribed t heir f are ( Ekvall 1 968:59-60, B arfield 1 981:xv). N omadic p astoralism a nd t ranshumance w ere k nown f or t he C entral A sian S cythians, b ut h erding p ractices a t t he p resent t ime d iffer m arkedly f rom t hose o f t he p ast, a s K rader ( 1966:23-24) o bserved. K umiss ( quimis), f ermented m ares' m ilk, w as m ade a nd c onsumed b y m any n omadic p astoralists i ncluding t he 1 7th c entury M ongols ( Ekvall 1 968:60). F rom t he 6 th-8th c enturies A .D. v arious T urkics peaking p eoples i nhabited t he s teppes o f C entral A sia. T he 1 6th c entury t ranshumant p astoral n omadic K azakhs w ere T urkic-speakers w hose n ame t ranslated a s " masterless men" o r " freebooters" ( Krader 1 963:178, 2 82-28) 4, 3 17). T he r eader i s r eminded t hat A q K upruk i s U zbeki T urkic f or " White B ridge." M ilking a nd m ilk p rocessing w as a t ask c onducted b y w omen i n n omadic p astoral s ocieties ( Barfield 1 981:55-56, B arth 1 964:6-8, E kvall 1 968:59-60, K rader 1 966:23-24).

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U ncooked m ilk w as n ever d runk b ecause i t w as b elieved t o c ause s tomach a ches o r o ther i llnesses, a nd, a t t he v ery l east, h ad t o b e b oiled. M ilk w as d aily c onverted i nto m ast ( yoghurt), b uttermilk, b utter, a nd c heese. A mong t he a B rog P a, h igh p asturage T ibetan n omads w ho p ractice B uddhism a nd f olk b eliefs ( Ekvall 1 968), m ilk w as p rocessed i n o ne o f t hree t ypes o f c hurns - w ooden, l eather-bag, o r p ottery - t he l atter s aid t o b e a d irect c opy o f t he l eather o ne. W ooden t ripods s upported t he c hurns. B uttermilk w as d runk o r m ade i nto c heese, w hile t he b utter w as u sed t o f uel l amps o r a s a m edium o f e xchange, a nd t he w hey d runk b y h umans, h orses, a nd d ogs, o r u sed t o t an l ambskins. T he c hurning o f b utter i n a s kin b ag s upported b y a w ooden t ripod w as a lso n oted a mong t he A fghan M arri B aluch a nd I ranian S hirdasht ( Pehrson 1 966:5, W atson 1 979:111). T he n omadic B asseri o f s outhern I ran c hurned s our m ilk t o p roduce b utter, w hich w as e aten f resh o r c larified a nd s tored, o r b uttermilk w hich w as i mmediately c onsumed ( Barth 1 964:8). K ashk ( curds) w ere m ade i nto w alnut-sized b alls, d ried i n t he s un, a nd s tored f or w inter, w hile t he w hey w as d iscarded o r f ed t o t he d ogs. A mong t he C entral A sian A rabs o f A fghanistan ( Barfield 1 981:55-56), b oiled m ilk w as s kimmed f or g aimag ( clotted c ream), c onsidered a d elicacy. M ilk n ot u sed i n c ooking w as c onverted i nto k attaugh ( yoghurt), o r a llowed t o d ry i nto a s olid r esidue, g rut, w hich c ould b e s tored i ndefinitely. T he A rabs d id n ot m ake c heese o r b utter, b ut p roduced d oq o r c helao ( a f ermented s our m ilk s imilar t o k umiss) w hich " is q uite r efreshing b ut i s r eputed t o m ake o ne d rowsy" ( Barfield 1 981:56). M ilking o f s heep, g oats, a nd m ares c ontinued f rom t he l ambing s eason i n M arch u ntil e arly A ugust w hen t he e wes h ad g one d ry a nd t he l ambs w ere w eaned. I n I ran, m ilk a nd m ilk d erivatives i ncluded m ast ( yoghurt), c ugh ( buttermilk), s hiraz ( moist c urds), k ashk ( dried c urds), a nd p anir ( a c heese s imilar t o G reek f eta) ( Watson 1 979:110-111). A mong A fghan a nd I ranian n omads, s heep's m ilk w as n ever s old i n t he m arket o r b azaar b ecause t he p eoples t hems elves c onsumed i t a ll ( Barfield 1 981:93). S ubterranean g rain s torage p its ( approximately 1 .0 m d eep a nd 1 .2 m i n w idth o r d iameter) w ith m ud/dung " covers" w ere e thnographically n oted i n r ooms a nd s torage a reas i n t he I ranian v illages o f H asanabad, S hirdasht, A in A ll, H amadan, a nd S hahabad ( Watson 1 978:134, 1 54, 1 979:125-126; K ramer 1 979:144). T hese w ere s imilar t o p its k nown a rchaeologically f rom e arly v illage s ites s uch a s J armo i n n orthern I raq, J eitun i n s outhern T urkestan, T urlu i n T urkey, a nd M erimde a nd F ayum i n E gypt. F ooted s torage b ins u p t o 2 .0 m h igh m ade o f p acked m ud ( chineh) a re u sed t o h old h arvested p lants ( wheat, b arley, l entils, b eans, a nd c hickpeas) i n S hahabad, I ran,

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a ccording t o K ramer ( 1979:144, 1 47). T he p astoral " Black T ent" n omads a t S hirdasht, I ran, s tudied b y W atson ( 1979:263, 2 67, F ig. 1 0.4) u sed f lat r ocks ( limestone c obbles?) t o c over c eramic s tew p ots. T his i s t he o nly e thnographic r eport I h ave e ncountered o n t he u se o f s tone l ids o r c overs. V essel f orms, t echniques o f m anufacture, a nd f iring c haracteristics o bserved i n t he m assive, l arge, a nd m edium-size j ar s pecimens f rom A q K upruk d id n ot c orrespond t o t hose r eported b y M iller ( 1985:xi-xiv, 5 5-74, 2 15-226), w ho d etailed p ottery m aking i n t he c entral I ndian v illage o f D angwara. E thnographic a nd a rchaeological c ontexts w ere l ikewise d issimilar ( 1985:67-74, 8 2-83, 1 21-140, 1 97-205). C ontemporary A fghan p otters s tudied b y D elmont a nd C entlivres ( 1967) a nd b y M atson ( 1968) d o n ot m anufacture v essels s imilar t o t he m assive o r l arge j ar f orms. M assive j ars w ere a mong t he c eramics m ade d uring t he I slamic p eriod b y p otters i n t he I berian P eninsula, e specially i n S evilla a nd T oledo. T hese c ontainers, c alled t inajas ( large e arthenware j ars), d erived f rom G raeco-Roman a mphorae a nd w ere u sed t o s tore o r t ransport l iquids ( water, w ine, o r o live o il), o r f or s olid f oods ( Lister a nd L ister 1 976:85-86). T inajas w ere t hick w alled, n ecked w ith a h eavy o rifice, t hrown i n s ections, a nd l uted t ogether. C apacities w ere a bout 1 2 3 /4 g allons ( ca. 4 8.32 1 ) o f l iquid m easure. L ister a nd L ister ( 1976:86) n oted t hat I slamic p eriod t inajas m ade b y p otters i n S evilla a nd T oledo " reportedly w ere l arge e nough t o h old 5 00-700 g allons [ 1,895-2,653 1 ], s ome m odern e xamples a re 1 8 f t. h igh [ ca. 5 .49 m ] a nd h old u p t o 2 000 g allons [ ca. 7 ,570.6 1 ]." T he c hapter o n S panish c eramic t echnology w ritten f or t his v olume b y L ackey ( 1989) c oncerns n ative N ew World a nd H ispanic t echniques. S he r eports t he p roduction o f t ibores ( the c lassic C hinese g inger j ar f orm), m assive c ontainers s ome o f w hich w ere 2 .15 m i n h eight ( including t he l id), m ade d uring t he e arly 1 900s i n C asa R ugerio, E stado d e P uebla, M exico. W hile L ackey ( 1989) n oted t hat l ids w ere m ade, L ister a nd L ister ( 1976:86) s tated t hat t inajas " appear t o h ave b een s toppered w ith a w ad o f c loth, l eather, o r g rass." T herefore, i t a ppears t hat t he m assive j ars f ound a t A q K upruk I a nd I I a ctually s erved a s w ater s torage c ontainers a nd a s p rimitive c oolers f or p erishable d airy p roducts, p otentially m ast, r ogon-i-zard, a nd/or a rsh. M y i nformant r ecalled t hese f oods i n p articular a s h aving b een k ept i n s uch " underground" c eramic c ontainers.

C ERAMIC

C OMPARISONS

T he a rchaeological s ite l iterature f or I ran, A fghanistan, t he S oviet C entral A sian R epublics, a nd P akistan w as s earched i n o rder t o l ocate c eramics s imilar t o t he " Hard B uff L imestone T empered W are" p reviously d efined ( Figure 1 ). A s m ight b e e xpected, m ost r eports p rovided r ather v ague o r u nquantified d ata s ince u tilitarian c eramics a re n ot g enerally a ccorded m uch p ublication s pace. U sually, h owever, s ome g eneral c haracteristics w ere m entioned a nd s ome i llustrations p rovided. T herefore, t he l iterature s earch o ften y ielded l ess t han a dequate c omparative d ata, a nd a bsolute c hronologies w ere o ften i mprecise o r e ven l acking. I ran

D uring t he I ron A ge o f w estern I ran ( Piggott 1 980), a " Late W estern B uff W are H orizon" w as i dentified b y Y oung, b ut l ater d ivided i nto " Iron I II" a nd " Historic" p eriods b y D yson ( Levine 1 987:233). T he I ron A ge s equence i n n ortheastern a nd n orthwestern I ran i s e specially c omplex a nd i ll-defined, b ut a " Cream S lipped W are" c omprising l arge j ar f orms w as a ssociated w ith E arly I ron A ge I II, c a. 8 00-600 B .C., a nd p robably L ate I ron A ge I II, c a. 6 00-350 B .C. - A chaemenid t imes, b ut p roduction s eems t o h ave c ontinued i nto I ron I V, 3 50-150 B .C. e arly P arthian t imes ( Levine 1 987:237-242, 2 46). T he P artho-Sasanian p eriod i n w estern I ran, c haracterized b y m ixed f arming a nd h erding, w itnessed t he t ransformation o f t his c ulture i nto a n " imperial s tate," a ccording t o W enke ( 1987:251-254), c a. 2 10 B .C.-A.D. 2 25 f or t he P arthian a nd c a. A .D. 2 25-640 f or t he S asanian h egemonies. W ulff ( 1966:141-142) r eported S asanian p otters h ad c ontinued t he P arthian s tyles, i ncluding t he c onstruction o f l arge s torage j ars o ver t hree f eet h igh, w hich w ere d ecorated b y p ressing a c arved w ooden s tamp i nto t he s oft c lay. E ven d uring t he f irst c entury o f I slam, p otters c ontinued t o p roduce c eramics i n t he P artho-Sasanian s tyles, e specially i n t he c ase o f s torage v essels h omoreh o r s abba - s ome o f w hich h ad c apacities o f u p t o 2 5 g allons ( Wulff 1 966:153). S o-called " Cream S lipped W ares" w ere, t herefore, p roduced f rom a t l east 8 00 B .C. i nto K ushano-Sasanian t imes a nd i nto t he I slamic p eriods. S uch v essels w ere n oted i n K ushan s ites, s uch a s T aharee T epe, i n t he K unduz P lain ( Kohl 1 978:70-71, P l. 7 :lower l eft). M edvedskaya ( 1982:16, 2 3, 3 0, F ig. 4 ) h as c lassified I ranian I ron A ge c eramics i nto 6 7 t ypes a nd 1 8 s ubtypes. T ype I V(a)7, l arge s torage j ars w ith p ear-

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s haped b odies, w ere b uff o r g rey-black v aguely s imilar t o t he A q K upruk " Hard

i n c olor, b ut o nly B uff" c eramics.

L arge a nd m edium-size w heel-made o val-bodied j ars w ith n arrow n ecks, c ollared o r r olled r ims, a nd c ombp atterned d ecorations w ere m ade a t T epe G awra, I ran ( Cross 1 935:49-56, 1 44, 1 46, 2 03; P ls. 6 9-70). S ome v essels h ad h eights o f 2 2.0-50.5 c m a nd m aximum d iameters o f 1 0.0-49.0 c m, w hile f lat b ases p redominated, r eplacing c arinated f orms. T he c hronology i s m uch t oo e arly a nd c onfigurations o nly g enerally s imilar t o t he A q K upruk c eramics. I n t he K erman a rea o f I ran, p articularly t he B ard S ir V alley s ites s uch a s A liabad n ear T al-i-Iblis, C hase e t a l. ( 1967:78-79, 1 70-174; P l. 3 :1) r ecorded 1 55 s herds f rom l arge s torage j ars w ith r im d iameters u p t o 6 0.0 c m. T hese v essels w ere t empered w ith f ine v egetal f iber, h ad b uff s lips, a nd g rey-brown p astes. T he s ite d ated c a. 2 870 B .C. ( uncorrected C14 ) . T he P artho-Sasanian s ettlement a t T epe Y ahya, s outhwestern I ran, d ated p re-A.D. 4 00 ( Lamberg-Karlovsky 1 970:6-22, F ig 6 c). A lthough n ot f ully r eported, a mong t he c eramics w as a c oarse, g rit t empered b uff w are i n l arge j ar f orms w hich o nly g enerally a pproximated t he A q K upruk s pecimens. I n t he D amghan P lain, a P arthian c eramic, " Fabric C ategory 4 , D ecorative C ategory 7 ," d efined b y T rinkaus ( 1986:Fig. 2 2:3, 7 ) w as o nly v aguely s imilar t o t he A q K upruk v essels. R im d iameters r anged f rom 1 8.0-34.0 c m. A fghanistan

A t D eh M orasi G hundai, s outhern A fghanistan, D upree ( 1963:72-74, 7 7, 1 00-101; P l. 2 1c; F ig. 1 4t) r ecovered 1 ,083 s herds o f " Panjwai C ream S urface W are" w hich c omprised 1 7.8% o f a ll c eramics a t t hat s ite. T his w are w as m ade i n w ide m outh s torage j ar a nd i n b owl f orms f rom a c ompact, w ell-levigated c lay t empered w ith l imestone n odules. B ody s herds w ere 0 .2-1.3 c m t hick. M atson's t echnical a nalysis ( 1963:121-123) c onfirmed t hat t his c eramic w as d issimilar t o t he A q K upruk s pecimens i n t emper a nd a plastics, e specially w ith t he u se o f a nimal d ung c haff a s a n a plastic a nd t he p resence o f s andstone. D upree ( 1958:201-203, 2 83-284; P ls. 2 2a, c , 2 2 a -d) a lso c haracterized a " Red W are w ith C ream S lip" f rom t he c ave s ite o f S hamshir G har, s outhern A fghanistan. T his c eramic d ated t o E arly K ushan ( ea. 1 00 B .C.-A.D. 1 00), L ate K ushan ( ca. A .D. 1 00-300), a nd K ushano-Sassanian [ sic.] ( ca. A .D. 3 00-700) p eriods. L imestone g ranules s erved a s t emper, b ut o ther a plastics w ere d issimilar t o t he A q K upruk s pecimens ( Matson 1 958:294-298). T he t hin c ream s lip d efined b y D upree ( 1958:203-204) w as n ot a s lip a t a ll ( Matson 1 958:295), t he s urface c olor h aving

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b een p roduced f rom t he l ime-rich f iring t emperature o f 8 50-900 0 C .

c lays

a nd

s alts

a t

a

H ammond's s urvey o f 4 5 s ites i n t he H elmand V alley o f s outhern A fghanistan p roduced o nly 1 ,473 s herds w hich r anged c hronologically f rom t he B ronze A ge i nto I slamic t imes ( 1970:442). T wenty-one c eramic g roups w ere i dentified a nd e laborated ( 1970:451-457), m ostly r elated t o t he I slamic p eriods, b ut 7 3 s herds o f " Group 1: L ight-slipped," d ating t o K ushan t imes, w ere v aguely s imilar t o t he A q K upruk c eramic. T he s ite o f S aid Q ala T epe, l ocated s outhwest o f K andahar, h ad s ome K ushano-Sasanian o ccupation, i ncluding 3 5 b urials i n a c emetery d ating t o t he 3 rd c entury A .D. ( Shaffer 1 971: 9 1-92, 1 978:149-150; S haffer a nd H offman 1 971:141-142). S ome s pecimens o f " Panjwai C ream S urface" d ating t o 3 00-600 A .D. w ere n oted. D ales ( 1977:36-37, 4 0-41, 4 8-49, 1 02-103; P ls. 1 3:3, 6 , 9 a nd 1 7:1, 2 ) r eported g lobular j ars w ith w ide m ouths a nd r estricted v essel f orms f rom t he N ad-i A li s ite i n w estern A fghanistan. T ype A -1, a s mall g lobular j ar w ith e verted r im, h ad a r ed-brown p aste w ith " stony i nclusions" a nd a w hite t o c ream s lip, b ut w as a ssociated w ith t he A chaemenid p eriod ( ca. 6 00-350 B .C.). S imilar c eramics w ere n oted a t T epe Y ahya a nd M undigak I V ( Casal 1 961:658-659, F ig. 1 23). T ype C -2, a r eddish b rown l arge g lobular j ar w ith a c ream s lip, d ated t o P artho-Kushan t imes ( ca. B .C./A.D.-A.D. 4 00) a t N ad-i A li, a nd w as s imilar t o t he c omb-decorated j ars f rom S hamshir G har ( Dupree 1 958:Pl. 2 2a-c) s imilar i n v essel s hape t o s pecimens f rom A i K hanoum ( Bernard 1 973:Pl. 1 39), d ating t o P arthian o r S asanian t imes. C asal ( 1961:124, 1 52, 2 08; F ig. 1 00) n oted t hat P eriod I V M undigak c eramics f rom s outhern A fghanistan i ncluded l arge o void j ars f ired a t c a. 8 00 0 C ( see a lso S haffer 1 978:178-180). T he c eramics f rom B actrian s ites i n n orthern A fghanistan ( Gardin 1 957:31, 3 3, 4 8; P ls. 5 , 7 -8) i ncluded a " c-eramique b lanche" i n l arge j ar f orms ( Types 5 a nd 7 ). A t t imes t he p aste w as p ink o r r ed r ather t han w hite, a nd z ig-zig d ecorations w ere c ommon. V essel d iameters r anged f rom 2 0.0-35.0 c m. I n c entral A fghanistan, n ear t he s mall v illage o f Q ala A hangaran s ituated o n t he H ari R ud [ River] n ear t he K abul-Herat r oad, L eshnik ( 1967) c ollected K ushano-Sasanian s herds f rom f our m ounds ( tepes) a nd e xcavated a t rial t rench. A lthough e specially i nterested i n t he p ainted w ares, h e d efined s everal c eramics m ade o f " well-levigated c lay w ith m inuscle p ebbles a nd n odules o f l ime" ( 1970:312, 3 13). " Ahangaran W are ( Fine)" o ccurred i n c arinated b owl f orms, w as b uff-colored, h ad a p lum-red s lip, w as b urnished, a nd d ecorated w ith b lack p ainted d esins, w hile " Ahangaran W are ( coarse)," c omprising o nly

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a f ew l arge j ar s herds, h ad " large l ime n odules" a s t emper. " Grit W are" w as s imilarly t empered, h ad a t erracotta c olored s urface c olor a nd b lack c ore; s ome s herds w ere f rom h andmade v essels, b ut n one w ere s lipped o r p ainted, a nd a " bread-trough" w as t he d ominant f orm. O nly i n t erms o f a plastics w ere t hese c eramics s imilar t o t he A q K upruk " Hard B uff L imestone T empered W are." F rom B ronze A ge s ites i n N orthern B actria-Southern U zbekistan, K ohl ( 1984:151-158, P l. 2 2) r eported a T ype 7 j ar w hich b ore s ome s imilarities t o t he A q K upruk " Hard B uff" c eramic. I t s hould b e n oted t hat i n S outhern B actria-Northwestern A fghanistan, t here w as a n o verlap o f L ate B ronze A ge a nd E arly I ron A ge m aterials a t m ost s ites ( Shaffer 1 978:183-186, M acDowall a nd T addei 1 978b: 2 95-299). S oviet

C entral

A sian

R epublics

N ear t he C aspian S ea, a t t he s ite o f A nau d uring A nau I II t imes ( ca. 2 500-2200 B .C.), S chmidt ( 1908:138, 1 43-144; P l. 1 4:1, 2 ) r ecovered w heel-made, k ettles haped v essels w ith n arrow n ecks m ade o f l ight-colored c lays, g enerally g ray-green o r w hitish-green i n c olor. T he v essels w ere c a. 3 4.0 c m h igh a nd h ad r im f orms ( 1908:Figs. 1 41, 1 42, 1 45, 1 47) s imilar t o t he A q K upruk s pecimens. F rom t he T urkmenistan s ites o f M urghab a nd K elleli O asis l ocated w estnorthwest o f M azar-i-Sharif ( Afghanistan) a nd n ortheast o f M eshed ( Iran), M asimov ( 1981:201-207; F igs. 4 :14 a nd 5 :36) n oted e gg-shaped s torage j ars w ith l imestone a nd q uartz t emper. S ome v essels w ere w heel-made f rom w ell-levigated c lays, o thers w ere h and-made w ith l imestone, s and, q uartz, a nd c rushed s herd t empers b ut w ere l ow-fired M asimov s tated " brittle." T he s pecimens f rom K elleli O asis w ere q uite s imilar t o t he v essels o f " Hard B uff L imestone T empered W are" f rom A q K upruk. G orbunova ( 1986:132-134, 1 37-138, 1 50-151, 3 17, 3 19, 3 22, 3 58; P ls. 3 7:8, 3 9:24, 4 2b:6, 7 8:12) r eported l arge w heel-made s torage j ars f rom t he s ites o f K uvasai c ave, D amkul a nd K osh-tepe c emeteries, a nd f rom K uzuk-tepe a ll l ocated i n t he F erghana V alley. T hese v essels r anged i n h eight f rom 3 2.0-63.0 c m, h ad r im d iameters o f 1 0.0-27.0 c m, a nd m aximum b ody d iameters f rom 3 6.0-63.0 c m. T he w are w as a ssociated w ith t he M iddle S tage o f t he K ugaiK arabulak c ulture, 1 st-4th c enturies A .D., a s tockb reeding s ociety w ith c attle, s heep, g oats, h orses, a nd d onkeys a s a nimal d omesticates. C eramic l inks w ith t he K ushans a nd S armatians w ere n oted d uring t his t ime, a nd t he S ilk R oute p assed t hrough t he r egion ( Gorbunova 1 986:111-113, 1 77-180, 2 0 )4 ).

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P akistan

F airservis ( 1956:347; 1 959:311, 3 20-321, P l. 2 0b, F ig. 2 9; 1 961:90, F ig. 4 8) h as n oted l arge s torage j ars d ating t o t he " Buddhist" p eriod ( e.g. K ushano-Sasanian) i n s ites f rom t he Q uetta V alley a nd S eistan B asin o f P akistan. Q uetta s ites, i ncluding D abar-Kot a nd R ana G hundai, a nd s ites i n t he R ud-i-Biyaban a rea o f t he S eistan B asin p articularly h ad s uch v essels, s ome i n s itu. T hese s torage j ars w ere m ade o f a " reddish c lay," h ad i ncised, p unctate, a nd a pplique d ecorations, a nd o ccasionally h ad c overs. S ince F airservis p rovided n o d etailed i nformation, I c annot c ritically e valuate t hese c eramics v ersus t hose f rom A q K upruk. T he s ite o f D ur K ha, l ocated s outheast o f Q uetta i n t he K achi P lain, h ad t wo o ccupations - 8 00-600 B .C. a nd 6 00-300 B .C. - b ut d id n ot h ave a ny c eramics s imilar t o t he A q K upruk s pecimens ( Santoni 1 980). S ummary

B ased u pon t he e vidence c ollected f rom t he a rchaeological l iterature, i t a ppears t hat t he A q K upruk " Hard B uff L imestone T empered W are" w as m ost c losely a ssociated w ith c eramics f rom T urkmenistan a nd t he Ferghana V alley o f S oviet C entral A sia. I n p articular, c eramics f rom t he K elleli O asis i n T urkmenistan a nd f rom t he s ites o f K uvasai, D amkul, K osh-tepe, a nd K uzuk-tepe i n U zbekistan w ere s imilar. T he s tock-breeding K ugai-Karabulak c ulture o f t he f irst f our c enturies A .D. p otentially m oved i nto n orthern A fghanistan d uring t ranshumant n omadic c ycles, h owever, o ther c eramics a ssociated w ith t his c ulture d o n ot a ppear i n t he A q K upruk a ssembleges. I n t he s ubsequent s ections, I s hall b riefly c haracterize t he m ajor c ommercial r outes w hich r elate t o t he d istribution o f c ultural m aterials t hrough a nd i nto A fghanistan. T he p olitical b ackground w ill b e s ummarized a s i t r elates t o t rade, m igration, a nd c onquests d uring t he f irst s even c enturies A .D. C OMMERCIAL

R OUTES

T hree m ajor o verland c ommercial r outes h ave r elevance t o t he p roblem o f t he o rigin a nd d istribution o f c eramics r ecovered a t A q K upruk ( Figure 1 ), a nd h ave b een e laborated e lsewhere ( Kolb 1 983:75-83). T he f irst a nd most s ignificant w as t he w est t o e ast t rack f rom t he e astern M editerranean l ittoral t o t he F ar E ast v ia C entral A sia a nd C hinese T urkestan ( Schoff 1 914; S krine

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1 926; M cEvedy 1 967:85-87, 9 0-92). A s econd r oute, a n e xtension o f t he f ormer, w as t he n orth t o s outh p assage c ommencing i n C entral A sia, c ontinuing t hrough t he H indu K ush m ountain p asses t o B aluchistan a nd t he S ubcontinent. T he t hird w as t he w est t o e ast p assage f rom t he e astern M editerranean t hrough s outhern M esopotamia, s outhern I ran ( Fars P rovince), a nd B aluchistan t o t he S ubcontinent k nown f or s everal m illennia ( Wright 1 984). W ith t he e stablishment o f t he K ushan E mpire i n t he i st c entury A .D. c ame t he e laboration o f t he c ommercial r oute b etween C hina a nd t he R oman E mpire ( Charlesworth 1 924:102, W armington 1 928:18-34). T his m ajor r oute b egan i n C hina, c ontinued t hrough t he G obi D esert i nto C hinese T urkestan, t hrough D zungaria t o T ashkent, S amarkand, a nd B okara ( Schoff 1 912:268-270, S chafer 1 951:403) 422, B ivar 1 970:1-8, J ones 1 970:1-10; s ee a lso B alazs 1 964, C hu 1 972, a nd d e C respigny 1 970). T his r oute c ontinued t o A ntiochia M argiana ( Merv), a cross n orthern I ran t o P arthian E cbatana, a nd o n t o S eleucia, P etra, P almyra, a nd t he M editerranean c oast o r B lack S ea l ittoral, a nd h ence t he c ore o f t he R oman E mpire. U ndoubtedly t his r oute e xisted c enturies p rior t o t he K ushans. T he d evelopment a nd m aintenance o f t he S ilk R oute w as h indered b y s everal n omadic t ribes o f C entral A sia a nd a t t imes b y t he P arthians, a nd w as s evered o n a n umber o f o ccasions d uring i ts f our h undred y ear e xistence. T he P arthians a ttempted t o m onopolize t he C hinese s ilk t rade, w hich l ed t o t he P artho-Roman w ars ( Teggart 1 939:145; Wheeler 1 954:154; Y u 1 967:115, 1 56-158). T he r oute w as c ut d uring t he 3 rd c entury A .D. a s P arthia w as t ransformed i nto t he S asanian E mpire. T he p assage f rom t he L evant t o t he S ubcontinent w as r ecounted i n a 1 st c entury B .C. d ocument, P arthian S tations, b y I sadorus C haracenus, w ho e numerated t he w ay-stations/campsites o r c aravanserai a long t he r oute ( Schoff 1 914). T his p rimary b ut f ragmentary d ocument i s t he i ndispensible s ource f or s tudents o f c ommercial n etworks ( Charlesworth 1 924:102; W armington 1 928:18-34; F rye 1 963:173; C olledge 1 967:17, 2 6). C omposed d uring t he r eign o f A ugustus, c lose t o t he C hristian e ra, t he d ocument d etails t he r oute f rom A ntioch t o S eleucia a nd C tesiphon, h ence n ortheastward t hrough w hat i s t oday m odern I ran w ith s tops a t C oncobar, A drapana, E cbatana, R haga, t he C aspian G ates, a nd A pamia ( Schoff 1 914:16-18, 3 0-31; W armington 1 928: 1 8-20). T here w ere n orthern a nd s outhern r outes t hrough t he K opet M ountains o f P arthia, b oth o f w hich t erminated a t P arthaunisa ( modern N ishapur). F rom t his w ay-station a n orthern t rack c ontinued t o A ntiochia M argiana ( Merv), w hile a s outhern r oute c ontinued t o A lexandria o f t he A rii o r A lexandria A ria ( modern H erat i n w estern A fghanistan). T he P arthian r oute, i nstead o f c ontinuing e astward t o B actria, t urned

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s outh a nd p roceeded t hrough s everal H indu K ush p asses t o t he s tations o f P hra ( Fara) a nd G ari t o A lexandropolis o r A lexandria A rachosia ( modern K andahar i n s outhern A fghanistan), w here I sadorus' d ocumentation e nded. C harlesworth ( 1924:102) r eported t hat R oman m erchants w ould m eet t heir C hinese c ounterparts a t A lexandropolis. W armington ( 1928:18-34) d elineated s imilar r outes f rom A ntioch a nd S eleucia t o P arthian C tesiphon, w hich c ontinued t hrough n orthern I ran t o A pauarctica ( Meshed) a nd A lexandria o f t he A rii ( Herat) v ia A fghan H indu K ush m ountain p asses ( Talkh A o, S huntur K uhn, K imur, a nd N il) t o B amiyan a nd K abul, h ence v ia t he G omal P ass t o I ndia. A n a lternate r oute w as e ssentially s imilar f rom A ntioch t hrough M erv, b ut t hen t urned s outh t hrough B actria t o B alkh ( the s o-called " Mother o f C ities") a nd e astward t o t he c ommunity o f T ashkurgan i n n orth-central A fghanistan ( Schoff 1 912:269, C harlesworth 1 92 ) 4 :102). T he n orth t o s outh r oute c ommenced i n v arious c enters i n t he T urkestan P lain, i ncluding A ntiochia M argiana ( Merv) a nd B alkh i n B actria. T he H indu K ush w as c rossed p ossibly v ia t he S alang P ass o r p robably t he N il P ass t o t he c ity o f B amiyan, h ence t hrough t he S hibar P ass t o B egram a nd K abul ( Strabo B ook X I:8, 8 -9; S choff 1 914:363 7, U beroi 1 970:184-188). F ollowing t he K abul R iver e astward t o m odern J alalabad, t he r oute e ntered t he K hyber P ass a nd c ontinued t o P eshawar, T axila ( Sirkap), a nd t he S ubcontinent. A nother r oute w ent s outh f rom A ntiochia M argiana ( Merv) t o B alkh, t hen w estward t o H erat, t hen s outheast, s kirting t he H indu K ush, t hrough t he D asht-i-Margo t o A lexandropolis ( Kandahar) a nd i nto B aluchistan t o t he c ity o f Q uetta. T his p assage c ontinued f rom Q uetta t o T axila ( Sirkap) a nd C harsada v ia t he G omal, K urran, T ochi, a nd/or K hyber P asses. T his n orth t o s outh r oute i s o ften c alled t he " Oxus-Indus" p assage t hrough A fghanistan ( Pliny B ook V I:25, C harlesworth 1 924, W armington 1 928:18= 77 D upree 1 973:300-301). P rior t o A .D. 2 24 t his r oute w as u nder Y ueh-chi/Kushan c ontrol, b ut t he S asanians i nterrupted t he s tatus q uo a s t he K ushan E mpire f issioned i nto i ndependent a nd s emi-independent s tates. M acDowall a nd T addei ( 1978a:201-214) r ecounted t he n umismatic e vidence f ound a t w ay-stations a long t his n orth t o s outh r oute, i ncluding d ata o n t he A chaemenids, G raeco-Bactrians, Y ueh-chi, S aka, a nd I ndo-Parthians. R oman, K ushan, a nd K ushano-Sasanian c oins a re a lso k nown f rom s ites a long t his c ommercial p assage. T he m ore t reacherous s outhern o verland r oute a long t he M akran c oast o f I ranian a nd P akistani B aluchistan w as n ot f avored b y e ither G reek o r R oman merchants o r t ravelers. S trabo ( Book X V:2-8) r eported t hat G edrosia ( Makran) w as a n a rid l and " without f ruits a nd w ater,

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e xcept i n s ummer," b ut p roduced v arious a romatics ( nard a nd myrrh). T his s outhernmost r oute c ontinued f rom M esopotamia v ia F ars P rovince ( Iran), B aluchistan, C armania, a nd G edrosia t o t he S ubcontinent ( Warmington 1 928:18-34), a nd s ome R oman i nfluence m ay b e s een ( Ghirshman 1 956, G odard 1 965). T his h arsh s outhern r oute h as n ot b een a dequately d ocumented e ither b y h istorians o r a rchaeologists, a nd w as g radually r eplaced b y t he s ea r oute f rom M esopotamia t o t he S ubcontinent ( Arrian B ook V III:17-43, O ppenheim 1 954:12-17). A pparently t he s outhern o verland r oute a nd s ea r outes h ad b een d isrupted f or o ver a m illennium p rior t o A lexander's e xpedition, a nd t he s ea r oute w as r eactivated d uring R oman t imes ( Strabo B ook V I:104; Wheeler e t a l. 1 946:19; Wheeler 1 951:359, 1 954:118-121; Y u 1 967:159-160). T he u nknown a uthor o f t he p rimary d ocument, T he P eriplus o f t he E rythraen S ea, d ated t o t he l ate h alf o f t he i st c entury A .D., d escribed t he m aritime r outes f rom t he R ed S ea t o Z anzibar a nd f rom t he R ed S ea t o t he S ubcontinent ( Schoff 1 912, W heeler 1 954:115-125). S ettlements, m arket-towns, a nd r egional p roducts o f M akran a nd G edrosia h ave b een d escribed ( Kolb 1 982:199, 1 983:82). T he P arthians, t heir S asanid s uccessors, t he M ongols, p etty d espotic m onarchs a nd c hieftains f rom t he d isintegrating K ushan E mpire, a nd l ocal n omadic t ribes w ere a ble f rom t ime t o t ime t o t emporarily b lock o r c ompletely s ever t he m ain e ast t o w est n orthern o verland r oute a nd t he n orth t o s outh p assages d uring t he f irst f our c enturies A .D. I n o rder t o a void t hese p roblems, merchants b egan t o m ake m ore f requent u se o f t he s ea r outes f rom t he P ersian G ulf a nd R ed S ea t o t he S ubcontinent a nd t o t he F ar E ast ( Yu 1 967:157). A s m ay b e s een, n orthern A fghanistan l ay a t t he c rossroads o f t he w est t o e ast a nd n orth t o s outh t rade r outes d uring t he l ast t hree c enturies B .C. a nd t he f irst s ix c enturies A .D. ( Yadiz 1 987). P OLITICAL

B ACKGROUND

T he p olitical b ackground d uring t he p eriod B .C./A.D. A.D. 7 00 h as b een s ummarized f or n orthern A fghanistan by K olb ( 1982:198-199, 1 983:75 -7 8), f or a ll o f A fghanistan b y D upree ( 1973:296-311), a nd f or a djacent r egions b y s everal o ther a uthors ( Olmstead 1 948; F rye 1 963:205-262; C ulican 1 965; C olledge 1 967; J oshi e t a l. 1 968:182-237; S ulimirski 1 970; M atheson 1 973; a nd M acDowall a nd T addei 1 978a, 1 978b). T he p eriod m ay b e b est c haracterized a s o ne o f c ommercial i ntrigues a nd t he e xpansion a nd d isintegration o f e mpires ( Bronson 1 988, C owgill 1 988, H su 1 988, K aufmann 1 988). O f p articular c oncern i n t he h istory o f n orthern A fghanistan a nd e specially o f A q K upruk w ere t he r oles o f t he S armatians, P arthians,

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S asanians, Y ueh-chi/ K ushans, G uptas, a nd H ephthalites, i n a ddition t o t he n omadic t ribes o f t he T urkestan P lain. S armatian i nfluence d ates f rom 6 00 B .C. - A .D. 4 00, e specially i n t he r egion o f t he C arpathian M ountains a nd C aspian S ea. T he n omadic P arni ( or A parni) m igrated f rom t he r egion e ast o f t he C aspian i nto w hat i s t oday n orthern I ran a nd p erhaps a lso B actria ( northwestern A fghanistan) i n 2 47 B .C., u ltimately e stablishing t he P arthian E mpire. T he S ilk R oute t hrough t he P arthian E mpire w as e stablished b y 10 B .C., w ith t he P arthians a s e arly i ntermediaries i n t he R ome t o C hina o verland c ommercial s ystem ( Colledge 1 967:33). B y c a. A .D. 2 5 t he P arthians h ad i ncorporated t he S ind ( Cutch a nd K athiawar), s outhern a nd w estern P anjab, s outhern A fghanistan, a nd t he c ity o f T axila i nto t heir E mpire ( Marshall 1 960:27). S eleucia r ebelled a gainst P arthia i n A .D. 3 5 a nd a llied w ith t he R oman E mpire, w hile t he P arthians a lso b egan t o l ose c ontrol o ver t he e astern ( Iranian-Afghan) s ection o f t heir E mpire f rom A .D. 4 5-65. Y ueh-chi/Kushan i nvasions f rom t he n ortheast s ubsequently o ccurred, a s d id s everal i ncursions b y t he n omadic A land ( Alani) i n A .D. 7 2 a nd 1 35-136. T he R omans, a s a p olitical c ounter t o P arthia, s ought c ommercial r elations w ith t he Y euh-chi/Kushans o f A fghanistan, w ho c ontrolled t he r outes t o C hina ( Maenchen-Helfen 1 945, W ard P erkins 1 965, D upree 1 973:300-302). A n i ndigenous P ersian d ynasty, t he S asanians, c ompleted t he c onquest o f t he P arthians a nd f ounded a n ew E mpire i n A .D. 2 24, w ith i ts c apital a t C tesiphon. A t i ts g reatest t he S asanian E mpire e mbraced A rmenia, F ars, K horasan, S ogdiana, B actria, S eistan, a nd t he M akran C oast o f m odern I ran a nd P akistan ( Baluchistan), i ncluding t he c ity-state o f T axila ( Sirkap). R elations w ith C hina w ere r eestablished w ith C hina i n A .D. 4 61, a nd t he E mpire p eaked i n t erritorial e xtent d uring t he r eign o f K husraw I , A .D. 5 31-579 ( Matheson 1 973:24-25, 2 45, 2 88). I n t he meanwhile, t he K ushans, o ne o f f ive Y uehc hi t ribes, e ntered C entral A sia f rom t he n ortheast, p recipitated P arthian f ission, a nd e stablished t he K ushan E mpire i n w hat i s t oday m odern A fghanistan, r egions o f t he l ower I ndus V alley, a nd e ventually l ands w estward t o F ars P rovince ( modern I ran). W ith t he p olitical r ise o f t he K ushans i n t he e arly 2 nd c entury A .D. c ame t he i ntroduction o f B uddhism u nder E mperor K anishka ( Sharma 1 968, 1 970:110-120), b ut t he r ise o f t he S asanid E mpire i n A .D. 2 24 r esulted i n t he f ragmentation o f t he K ushan p olity i nto a s eries o f i ndependent a nd d ependent p etty s tates. S aka S atrap D ynasties e stablished a t T axila a nd e lsewhere i n t he S ubcontinent c ontinued u ntil A .D. 3 90, a nd e ncompassed A rachosia ( modern K andahar). A n ative

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I ndian d ynasty, t he G upta, e stablished i tself i n n orthern a nd c entral I ndia b y c a. A .D. 3 20, a nd f ounded t he G upta E mpire w hich c ontinued u ntil t he 7 th c entury A .D. T he G upta p artially d efeated t he K ushans, w ho r etained p olitical c ontrol o f t he u pper I ndus V alley; h owever, t he K ushans w ere u ltimately d efeated b y t he H ephthalite E mpire w hich e stablished i tself i n n orthwest I ndia a nd s outhern A fghanistan f rom c a. A .D. 4 50-565, a nd u ltimately e ncompassed t he r egion f rom C hinese S inkiang t o S asanian I ran, a nd f rom S ogdiana t o t he P anjab ( Dupree 1 973:302). T he H ephthalites w ere t hemselves d isplaced b y t he c ombined a ttacks o f t he S asanians a nd W estern T urks i n A .D. 5 52, w hen t he l atter g ained c ontrol o f t he t erritories n orth o f t he O xus/Amu D arya R iver. T he S asanians c ontrolled t he f ormer H ephthalite p rovinces s outh o f t he O xus u ntil t he s econd q uarter o f t he 7 th c entury A .D. when t he M uslim A rabs d efeated t he S asanian E mpire, t ook t he e astern ( Iranian-Afghan) s ection o f t he E mpire, a nd a rrived i n K andahar i n A .D. 6 99-700 ( 80-81 A .H. [ After H ijira]). I n s ummary, n orthern A fghanistan a nd t he A q K upruk s ites w ere e ncompassed w ithin a f luctuating p olitical s ituation d uring t he p eriod B .C./A.D.-A.D. 7 00. A t v arious p oints i n t ime t he r egion w as w ithin t he j urisdiction o f t he P arthian E mpire, S asanian E mpire, Y ueh-chi/Kushan E mpire, G upta E mpire, H ephthalite E mpire, a nd l astly t he M uslim A rabs. T he H indu K ush a nd a djacent T urkestan P lain w ere l ands w hich a lso w ere s ubject t o t he t ransitory c ontrol o f p etty c hieftains a nd m onarchs w ho s ought t o c ontrol, s ever o r d isrupt t he w est t o e ast a nd t he n orth t o s outh c ommercial r outes. S UMMARY

A ND

C ONCLUSIONS

A s a p art o f t he " Prehistoric R esearch i n A fghanistan P roject," a m ajor c eramic, " Hard B uff L imestone T empered W are," h as b een a nalyzed u sing a spects o f c eramic e cology a nd e thnoarchaeology. T he w are, e xcavated f rom I ron A ge c ontexts i n m ulticomponent c ave s ites n ear t he m odern b azaar t own o f A q K upruk i n n orthern A fghanistan, w as r adiocarbon d ated t o B .C./A.D.-A.D. 7 00, p rimarily t he L ate I ron A ge ( A.D. 5 00-700) i n t his r egion w hich w as a t t hat t ime K ushano-Sasanian p olitically a nd B uddhist c ulturally. S tatistically, t he w are a ccounted f or 1 5.9% ( 3,412 o f 2 1,433) o f t he s herds r ecovered f rom t he A q K upruk e xcavations. T he P hysical a nd C ultural A ttributes o f t his w are, manufactured i n t he m ain i n t hree s torage j ar f orms ( massive, l arge, a nd medium-size) w ere d etailed. E xterior s urface c olors w ere n early a lways R eddish Y ellow o r Y ellow, c aused b y a f iring p rocedure b y w hich

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l ime-rich c lays a nd c rushed d olomitic l imestone t emper i n t he p resence o f s alts c reated s urfaces w hich a ppeared t o h ave t o h ave b een s lipped b ut w ere n ot. T he j ar i nterior p aste c olors w ere m ost o ften G rey, w hile 9 7% o f t he s herds s howed i ncomplete c ombustion a nd G rey-colored c ores i n f resh c ross s ections. H ardness w as p redominantly 6 o n M ohs' S cale w hile o ther s pecimens h ad a v alue o f 5 . F ine c lays, medium c lays, o r a c ombination o f f ine a nd medium c lays w ere u sed i n c onstruction, a nd c rushed d olomitic l imestone w as t he p rimary t emper ( 45-85% o f t otal a plastics), a lthough c alcite, q uartz, a nd p lagioclase f eldspar w ere a lso f ound. N ine m inor c onstituents w ere a lso i dentified, a nd o ccasional c haff, s eed, a nd c harcoal/wood e xoskeletons w ere n oted o n b asal s urfaces o r i n c ross s ections. T he w are w as i ncompletely o xidized, h aving b een f ired a t t emperatures r anging f rom 8 50-900° C , w ith s ome s pecimens a ttaining 9 50 0 C . A f ew f iring " accidents" w ere n oted: f ire c louding, s mudging, a nd b lack c oring. K iln f irings w ere s uggested b ut u nconfirmed. T he v essels w ere m ade o n t he s low o r f ast w heel, o r, e specially f or m assive j ars, w holly o r p artly o n t he t ournette o r a n u npivoted t urning s lab c onditioned w ith c rushed c alcite o r s and t o p revent s ticking. C oiling a nd s lab b uilding p redominated, a lthough s ome r ims w ere modeled. E xterior s urfaces a nd r ims w ere w et-smoothed w ith t he h and o r a c loth. T wenty r im f orms w ere d iscerned a mong t he 2 29 s pecimens, a nd b ulbous l ips, f langes o r b olsters w ere a pparently d esigned t o a ssist i n f astening c overs o r l ids m ade o f n on-ceramic m aterials. M assive a nd l arge j ars h ad n o h andles, w hile medium-size j ars s ometimes h ad s trap, l oop, o r t ab h andles a s a ppendages. J ar b odies w ere t apered ( massive j ars), g lobular ( large a nd medium-size), o r s emi-globular ( medium a nd s ome l arge j ars), w ith f lat o r c arinated b ases p redominating. O nly 4 57 ( 13.4%) o f t he s pecimens were d ecorated. A ppliques ( "goat" h ead/horns, b osses, l unates), c omb-incised s triations ( straight o r w avy l ines i n s eries) p unctation ( comb o r t ubular), a nd i mpressed c hevron d esign s eries w ere n otable o n n ecks o r s houlders. t wo b ody s herds b ore s ingle s tamped d ecorations w hich m ay h ave b een p otter's s ignatures o r i dentification m arks. A g rey s urface w ash ( n = 4 1 s herds) w as c onfined t o o ne i ntact m assive j ar, w hile o nly t wo b ody s herds f rom a b asin f orm s howed p robable e vidence o f r ed s triped p ainting. T he m assive a nd l arge j ar f orms w ere d esigned f or t he s torage o f l iquids o r s olids s uch a s g rains. T wo m assive j ars f ound i n s itu w ere d etailed. B ased u pon e thnoarchaeological a nd i nformant o bservations, t hese m assive v essels p robably s erved a s w ater s torage j ars a nd a s p rimitive c oolers f or p erishable d airy p roducts,

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e specially y oghurt o r c larified b utter. T he e thnographic a nd a rchaeological l iterature f or I ran, A fghanistan, t he S oviet C entral A sian R epublics, a nd P akistan w as s earched f or c omparative m aterial. S imilar s torage j ars w ere m ade i n I ran, A fghanistan, a nd s outhern S oviet C entral A sia s ince a t l east 8 00 B .C., a nd w ere p art o f t he c eramic a ssemblages o f t he A chaemenids, e arly P arthians, a nd P artho-Sasanians ( e.g. f rom c a. 6 00 B .C.-A.D. 6 40) i n I ran. S uch v essels c ontinued t o b e m anufactured i nto t he I slamic e ra. " Panjwai C ream S urface W are" f rom D eh M orasi G hundai i n s outhern A fghanistan ( Dupree 1 963) r esembled t he A q K upruk c eramic i n s urface c olor a nd s ome a plastics, a s d id " Red W are w ith C ream S lip" p ottery f rom n earby S hamshir G har ( Dupree 1 958). T hese w ares d ated t o t he K ushan a nd K ushano-Sasanian p eriods i n A fghanistan ( ca. 1 00 B .C.-A.D. 7 00). F rom N ad-i A li i n w estern A fghanistan ( Dales 1 977), a " red-brown j ar w ith w hite t o c ream s lip" w as a ssociated w ith t he A chaemenid p eriod ( 600-350 B .C.), w hile a nother s imilar w are d ated t o P artho-Kushan t imes ( B.C./A.D.-250). C eramics f rom s ites i n s outhern T urkmenistan a nd U zbekistan w ere l ikewise s imilar t o t he A q K upruk s pecimens, b ut c eramics r eported i n R ussian-language a nd t ranslated S oviet s ources w ere o nly g enerally d efined. P ottery s torage j ars f rom K elleli O asis, K uvasai C ave, D amkul, K osh-tepe, a nd K uzuk-tepe w ere c losest i n v essel a ppearance, b ut t here w ere l ittle o r n o t echnical d ata o n t emper, a plastics, f iring t emperatures, o r o ther s uch p henomena r eported. K ushano-Sasanian/Buddhist s ites i n P akistan ( Fairservis 1 956, 1 959, 1 961) h ad s omewhat s imilar s torage j ars m ade f rom " reddish c lay" w hich w ere a rchaeologically f ound i n s itu i n v illage s ites. B ecause C entral A sian s tock b reeding o r m ixed f arming a nd h erding p eoples e specially t he K ugai-Karabulak c ulture ( 1st-4th c enturies A .D.) - were l inked w ith t he K ushans a nd S armatians, t he s ignificance o f t ranshumant n omadism a nd c ommercial r outes, i ncluding t he s o-called S ilk R oute, w ere b riefly r eviewed. T hree o verland r outes w ere n otable f or t he i nitial s even c enturies A .D., a nd t he n orth-south p asses t hrough t he H indu K ush s ummarized ( Kolb 1 983), o ne o f w hich p assed t hrough o r n ear t he B alkh R iver G orge a t A q K upruk. T he c omplex p olitical s cene i n n orthern A fghanistan a nd a djacent r egions w as a lso r eviewed. T he p recise l ocation o f m anufacture o f t he " Hard B uff L imestone T empered W are" r ecovered f rom t he A q K upruk e xcavations c annot y et b e d etermined, b ut, b ased u pon c urrent e vidence, s uch s torage j ars w ere p robably m ade i n n orthern A fghanistan o r s outhern S oviet C entral A sia. T hese v essels w ere n ormally f ound i n v illage s ites,

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o ccasionally i n c emeteries, a nd i n s ome c aves w here t hey s erved a s c ontainers f or w ater o r g rains, a nd m ay h ave b een p rimitive c oolers f or p erishable f oods. T he m assive j ars f ound i n s itu w ere p laced i n c ampsites a long c ommercial a nd/or t ranshumant n omad r outes d uring t he K ushano-Sasanian p eriod i n A fghanistan a nd a djacent r egions.

E NDNOTE

1 A n a bbreviated v ersion o f t his c hapter, " KushanoS asanian S torage V essels f rom C entral A sia," w as p resented a t t he A nnual M eeting o f t he A merican A nthropological A ssociation i n P hoenix, A rizona o n N ovember 1 6, 1 988. I nitial s tudies w ere c onducted i n t he f ield l aboratory a t A q K upruk, A fghanistan d uring t he 1 965 f ield s eason a nd l ater t hat y ear a t a l aboratory i n t he D upree c ompound i n K abul, t he n ation's c apital. I nvestigations c ontinued a t t he K abul M useum d uring t he l ate s ummer o f 1 966, a t w hich t ime a d ivision o f a rtifacts w as m ade. A ll c omplete c eramic v essels a nd m etal a rtifacts, i ncluding j ewelry, a nd m ost s herds a nd l ithic s pecimens w ere r etained b y t he K abul M useum, w hile a r epresentative s tudy c ollection o f c eramic a nd l ithic a rtifacts w as s ent t o t he U nited S tates a s p er c ont ractural a greement. T he c eramic m aterials w ere s ent t o T he P ennsylvania S tate U niversity, w here, i n c onsultation w ith F rederick M atson, I c ontinued t he t echnical a nalysis a nd p repared t hin s ections o f s pecific s herds. S tudies c ontinued a t P enn S tate's C eramic T echnology L aboratory f rom 1 967-1969 a nd a t t he A nthropology L aboratory a t B ryn M awr C ollege f rom 1 969-1972. E xcept f or a s ample r etained f or t echnical a nalyses o f a plastics a nd p aints, t he c eramic c ollection w as s ent t o t he A merican M useum o f N atural H istory i n 1 972, w here i t r emains i n s torage.

A n umber o f i ndividuals a re o wed d ebts o f g ratitude. I a m m ost g rateful t o L ouis B . D upree, t hen A djunct P rofessor o f A nthropology a t T he P ennsylvania S tate U niversity a nd a m ember o f t he A merican U niversities F ield S taff, f or h is f inancial s upport a nd e ncouragement a s D irector o f t he A merican M useum o f N atural H istory A rchaeological M ission t o A fghanistan ( 1962-1968). D upree w as r ecently S enior R esearch A ssociate i n t he D epartment o f I slamic a nd A rabian D evelopment S tudies a t D uke U niversity. L ikewise, F rederick R . M atson i s t hanked f or p roviding my i nitial t raining i n c eramic t echnology a nd a nalyses, a nd h as c ontinued t o p rovide e ncouragement a nd h elpful c riticism. T he t echnical a ssistance o f W illiam C rawford o f t he B ryn M awr G eology D epartment i s a lso a cknowledged. I n a ddition, I w ish t o t hank P hilippe G ouin, a n a rchaeologist w ith t he D414gation A rch4ologique F rangaise e n A fghanistan, f or f ield a nd l aboratory c onsultations, a nd A . A . M otamidi, t hen D irector o f t he K abul M useum, f or p roviding s tudy f acilities a nd a llowing m e t o e xamine c ollections f rom o ther A fghan s ites d uring my r esearch i n 1 966. A t B ryn M awr, S ara S tinson w as a m ost e nthusiastic a nd c ompetent l aboratory a ssistant. S he i s c urrently t eaching p hysical a nthropology a t Q ueens C ollege, C ity U niversity o f N ew

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Y ork. T hanks a re a lso e xtended t o R obert D yson, D irector o f t he U niversity M useum o f t he U niversity o f P ennsylvania, w ho p ermitted m e t o e xamine I ranian a nd o ther c ollections f rom 1 969-1972, a nd t o J ean S haw A delman, D irector o f t he U niversity M useum L ibrary a t t he U niversity o f P ennsylvania, w ho a ssisted i n v arious l ibrary a nd b ibliographic r esearch f or t his a nd o ther s tudies. D raft v ersions o f t his c hapter w ere r ead b y L ouis B . D upree, W arren D eBoer, L ouana M . L ackey, a nd F rederick R . M atson. I t hank t hem f or t heir t ime, e ffort, a nd c omments, b ut I a m r esponsible f or t he i nterpretations a nd a ny e rrors t hat m ay b e f ound.

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P ainted P ottery T raditions f rom B aluchistan: A n E thnoarchaeological S tudy. P aper p resented a t t he A merican A nthropological A ssociation A nnual M eeting, C hicago, I L, i n t he s ymposium " Ceramic E cology R evisited: T he T echnology a nd S ocioeconomics o f P ottery."

1 988

C lassic T eotihuacan G ranular W ares: C eramic E cological I nterpretations. I n C eramic E cology R evisited, 1 987: T he T echnology a nd S ocioe conomics o f P ottery, e dited b y C harles C . K olb. O xford: B ritish A rchaeological R eports, I ntern ational S eries, B AR-S436(ii):227-344.

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C . a nd M aurizio T osi a nd T epe Y ahya: T racks

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o n

t he

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t he 1 51

I ranian f igs.

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L attman, L awrence 1 969 P rovisional C omments o n t he G eology o f C ave a nd T errace S ites i n N orthern A fghanistan. U niversity P ark: T he P ennsylvania S tate U niversity, D epartment o f G eosciences. M s i n t he p ossession o f t he a uthor. L eshnik, L orenz S . 1 967 K ushano-Sassanian C eramics f rom C entral A fghanistan: A P reliminary N ote. B erliner J ahrbuch f ür v or-und F ruhgeschichte 7 :311-334. L evine, L ouis D . 1 987 T he I ron A ge. I n T he A rchaeology o f W estern I ran, e dited b y F rank H ole. W ashington, D .C. a nd L ondon: S mithsonian I nstitution P ress, 2 29-250. L ister, F lorence C . a nd R obert H . L ister 1 976 A D escriptive D ictionary f or 5 00 Y ears o f S panish T radition C eramics. S ociety f or H istorical A rchaeology, S pecial P ublication S eries 1 . M acDowall, D . W . a nd M . T addei 1 978a T he E arly H istoric P eriod: A chaemenids a nd G reeks. I n T he A rchaeology o f A fghanistan f rom E arliest T imes t o t he T imurid P eriod, e dited b y F . R . A llchin a nd N . H ammond. L ondon a nd N ew Y ork: A cademic P ress, 1 87-232. 1 978b

T he P re-Muslim P eriod. I n T he A rchaeology o f A fghanistan f rom E arliest T imes t o t he T imurid P eriod, e dited b y F . R . A llchin a nd N . H ammond. L ondon a nd N ew Y ork: A cademic P ress, 2 33-299.

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1 963

A ppendix I : N otes o n t he M anufacture o f P ottery a t D eh M orasi G hundai. I n D eh M orasi G hundai: A C halcolithic S ite i n S outh-Central A fghanistan, L ouis D upree. N ew Y ork: A merican M useum o f N atural H istory, A nthropological P apers 5 0(2): 1 21-123.

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C eramic E cology: A n A pproach t o t he S tudy o f E arly C ultures o f t he N ear E ast. I n C eramics a nd M an, e dited b y F rederick R . M atson. C hicago: A ldine, 2 02-217.

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C eramic A spects: A P reliminary R eport ( The N ational G eographic S ociety S mithsonian I nstitution R econnaissance E xpedition t o Afghanistan, I ran, a nd T urkey, A ugust - S eptember, 1 968). U niversity P ark: T he P ennsylvania S tate U niversity, D epartment o f A nthropology. M s i n t he p ossession o f t he a uthor.

1 958

M axwell, J ohn A . 1 968 R ock a nd M ineral A nalysis. N ew Y ork: J ohn W iley a nd S ons/Interscience, C hemical A nalysis S eries 2 7. M cEvedy, C . 1 967 T he P enguin H armondsworth, Medvedskaya, 1 982 I ran: g ical

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S antoni, M . 1 980 U n s ite d e l 'Age d u F er d ans l a p laine d e K achi, B aluchistan, P akistan. P aleorient 6 :287-302. S araswati, B aidyanath a nd N ab K ishore B ehura 1 966 P ottery T echniques i n P easant I ndia. G overnment o f I ndia, A nthropological I ndia, M emoir 1 3 f or 1 964. S cerrato, U . 1 962 A P robable A chaemenid Z one i n E ast a nd W est 1 3(2-3):186-197. S chafer, E . H . 1 951 I ranian M erchants i n U niversity o f C alifornia P hilology 1 1:402-422.

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T 'ang D ynasty P ublications i n

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P arthian S tations b y I sadore o f C harax: A n A ccount o f t he O verland T rade R oute B etween t he L evant a nd I ndia i n t he F irst C entury B .C. P hiladelphia: T he C ommercial M useum.

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C HAPTER

8 C ERAMIC

E COLOGY I N R ETROSPECT: A C RITICAL M ETHODOLOGY A ND R ESULTS 1

C harles

C .

R EVIEW O F

K olb

M ercyhurst C ollege 2 18 O ld M ain 5 01 E ast 3 8th S treet E rie, P ennsylvania 1 6546 U .S.A.

I n C eramic E cology, M aterials, e dited b y

0

1 988: C urrent C harles C . K olb

C harles

C .

K olb,

R esearch o n C eramic ( 1989), 2 61-375.

1 989

A BSTRACT T he l andmark c oncept o f c eramic e cology, p ostulated b y F rederick R . M atson ( ed., 1 965) i n C eramics a nd M an, w as d erived f rom t he methodologies o f h uman e cology a nd c ultural e cology, a mong o thers. M atson's c ontextural a pproach t o c eramic a nalysis, o riginally c onceived a s a p aradigm f or N ear E astern a rchaeology, s ought t o p lace p hysiochemical a nd o ther n atural s cientific d ata i nto a n e cological a nd s ociocultural p erspective b y r elating t he t echnological p roperties o f t he r aw m aterials t o t he p roduction a nd u se o f t he c eramic p roducts. T he o riginal c oncept h as u ndergone m odification a nd e laboration, a nd b een u tilized i n t he s tudy o f p ottery m aking a nd c eramic d istribution s ystems i n c ontemporary c ommunities a nd s ocieties, a nd i n a rcheological c ultures i n b oth t he O ld a nd N ew W orlds ( for e xample b y A rnold, J ohnston, K olb, L ackey, P ritchard a nd v an d er L eeuw, a nd R ice). V an d er L eeuw a nd P ritchard ( 1984:4) o bserved t hat c eramic e cology h as " provided a m ajor i mpetus f or c eramic s tudies d uring t he p ast t wo d ecades." T he c ontributions i n P ots a nd P otters ( Rice, e d., 1 984) d emonstrate h ow t he c oncept h as b een e laborated, w hile t hose i n T he M any D imensions o f P ottery ( van d er L eeuw a nd P ritchard, e ds., 1 984) r eflect a n a ssessment o f t he a pproach. C eramic e cology h as b een t he f ocus o f t hree r ecent s ymposia, p ublished a s A P ot f or A ll R easons ( Kolb a nd L ackey, e ds., 1 988), C eramic E cology R evisited, 1 987 ( Kolb, e d., 1 988), a nd C eramic E cology, 1 988 ( Kolb, e d., 1 989). T hese c ontributions d emonstrate t he i mpact o f t he c oncept o f c eramic e cology o n c eramic a rchaeology a nd t echnological a nalyses, r eplication a nd e xperimental s tudies, a rchaeometry, e thnoarchaeology, a nd t he i nvestigations o f c ontemporary p otters a nd p ottery-making c ommunities. C eramic e cology h as b ecome a r ather b road, d iffused f ield o f r esearch b ut h as " shattered s ome s tereotypes a nd a ssumptions l ong h eld b y a rchaeologists" ( Kramer 1 985:78). M atson ( 1984:43) n oted t hat h is o riginal g oal w as t o " raise o ur c eramic c onsciousness o n a w orld b asis" t hrough t he a pplication o f t his c oncept. C eramic e cology a s a p aradigm i s d iachronically r eviewed a nd c ritiqued, a nd p otential f uture o rientations a nd m odifications s uggested.

T ABLE

O F

C ONTENTS

P age 2 62 2 63 2 64 2 65 2 67 2 67 2 68 2 73 2 73 2 74 2 78 2 80 2 80 2 86 2 94 3 05 3 05 3 09 3 36 3 40 3 41 3 43 3 45 3 47 3 49 3 50 3 51 3 52

A bstract T able o f C ontents L ist o f F igures I ntroduction T he E arly S tudies o f C eramic M aterials T he B asics E arly S tudies t o 1 950: A B rief R eview T he D evelopment o f t he E cological A pproach I ntroduction C ultural E cology E cology a nd A rchaeology C eramic E cology T he B eginning: 1 950-1965 T he P eriod o f R efinement: 1 965-1980 T he 1 980s C eramic E cology i n t he F uture I ntroduction H olistic C eramic E cology S ummary a nd C onclusions E ndnote A ppendix A : C ontents o f C eramics a nd M an ( 1965) A ppendix B : C ontents o f A rchaeological C eramics ( 1982) A ppendix C : C ontents o f P ots a nd P otters ( 1984) A ppendix D : C ontents o f T he M any D imensions o f P ottery ( 1984) A ppendix E : C ontents o f A P ot f or A ll R easons ( 1988) A ppendix F : C ontents o f C eramic E cology R evisited, 1 987 ( 1988) A ppendix G : C ontents o f C eramic E cology, 1 988 ( 1989) R eferences C ited

L IST P age(s)

F igure

2 77

1

2 89

2

3 11

3

3 15-316

4

3 18

5

3 19

6

O F

D escription E cological T heory D iagrams: D uncan, B aker, a nd K atz E cological T heory D iagrams: C larke C eramic E cology D iagram T he C eramic C omplex: K olb H olistic C eramic E cology: K olb T he E nvironment o f t he P otterym aking S ystem: v an d er L eeuw D ecision-making M odel o f P aste P reparation: v an d er L eeuw L IST

P age(s)

T able

3 12-314

1

3 21-323

2

3 24-327 3 28

4

3 31-332

6

3 33-334

7

3 29

3 5

F IGURES

O F

T ABLES

D escription M ajor V ariables A ssociated w ith t he C eramic C omplex P ottery A nalysis: A B asic P roc edural O utline P ottery P roduction S ubsystem E conomic S ubsystem S ocial S ubsystem P hysical a nd C ultural P roperties/Attributes B asic a nd A dvanced C haracteriz ation M ethods: M ineralogical, C hemical, M icrostructural, C hronol ogical

I NTRODUCTION T here a re n o f ew a rchaeologists w ho h ave a pparently s old t heir b irthright f or a mess o f p ottery. T he u tility o f p otsherds f or c haracterizing a nd c ross-dating a rchaeological s trata a rose f rom t he f act t hat e arthenware i s s o e asily a nd s o o ften b roken t hat i t p rovides a n ever-ending s upply o f f airly d urable r ubbish. I t i s, o f c ourse, u ndeniable t hat p ottery s tyles c hange f rom a ge t o a ge, b oth i n f orm a nd d ecoration. I t s eems v ery d oubtful w hether t hese f acts j ustify t he e normous a mount o f d etailed c lassification a nd d escription t hat c eramic a rchaeologists d evote t o t his c lass o f f inds. I t i s q uite a pparent t hat m any o f t hem h ave l ost a ll p erspective i n l ooking a t t heir p otsherds a nd n ow r egard c eramics a s t heir p rinciple a rchaeological o bjective ( Hooton 1 937:220). W hen E rnest A lbert H ooton w rote t hese w ords i n h is b ook, A pes, M en, a nd M orons ( 1937), o ver f ifty y ears a go, t he a nalysis o f a rchaeological c eramics w as i n i ts i nfancy. I ndeed, t he s tudy o f c eramic a nd p ottery a ttributes, s ystems o f a rtifact c lassification, t echnological s tudies, p hysicochemical a nalyses, a nd e specially - t he d etailed e laborations a nd e xplanation o f t he c omplex i nteractions a mong e nvironmental v ariables, t he c raftspersons, t heir c eramic p roducts, a nd t he c ultural c ontexts i n w hich t hese i tems o f m aterial c ulture w ere m ade a nd u sed h ave - t o b orrow a p hrase f rom M adision A venue a dvertising j argon -"come a l ong w ay, b aby!" T he e xplanations a nd e xplications h ave p rogressed b eyond e ven t he i magination o f t he p racticing a rchaeologists o f t he 1 930s a nd w ould t o t hem, p erhaps, b order o n t reatises f rom s cience f iction. O ne w onders w hat H ooton m ight h ave s aid t oday r egarding t hose a rchaeologists a nd o ther s tudents o f a ncient a nd c ontemporary c eramics a nd t heir p resent o rientatiohs t o t hese a rtifacts. A lthough t he o rigin o f t he t erm " psychoceramics" ( the s tudy o f " cracked p ots") r ests i n o bscurity, H ooton m ay h ave l ooked u pon s uch i nvestigators a s " psychoceramists," o r p ossibly c ategorize t hem a mong t hose i ndividuals i ncluded i n t he l atter t erm h is t itle A pes, M en a nd M orons ( 1937) b ecause o f t heir i ntense i nterest i n c eramic m aterials a nd t he S cientific M ethod. I n t his e ssay, I b riefly r eview t he n ature o f c eramic m aterials a nd i mportant a spects o f t he h istory o f t he s tudy o f t hese i tems o f m aterial c ulture u p t hrough t he p ost-World W ar T wo p eriod, c a. 1 950. S econdly, I r eview t he d evelopment o f t he e cological a pproach,

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e specially t hose a spects l eading t o t he e lucidation o f t he method a nd t heory o f c ultural e cology, w hich w as t o p lay a s alient r ole i n t he f ormulation o f t he l andmark c oncept o f c eramic e cology p roposed b y F rederick R . M atson i n t he e arly 1 960s. T he h istorical b ackground t o c eramic e cology, i ts i nitial c onceptualization, l ater e laborations, u ses, a nd m odifications w ill b e t raced. T he d evelopment o f e thnoarchaeology a nd s ubsequent c eramic e thnoarchaeology a re a lso c ondensed. T he 1 980s h ave w itnessed a n umber o f p ublications o riented t o c eramic e cology, n amely t he c ontributions a ppearing i n P ots a nd P otters ( Rice, e d., 1 984) i n w hich w e s ee h ow t he c oncept h as b een e laborated, a nd T he M any D imensions o f P ottery ( van d er L eeuw a nd P ritchard, e ds., 1 984), i n w hich t here a re a ssessments o f t he a pproach. I n a ddition t o t he c eramic e cologically-oriented p apers i n A P ot f or A ll R easons ( Kolb a nd L ackey, e ds., 1 988), t he c oncept w as h istorically r eviewed w ithin t he c ontext o f a b iography o f M atson ( Kolb 1 988b). T hree s ets o f c eramic e cology c ontributions w hich a ppear i n A P ot f or A ll R easons ( Kolb a nd L ackey, e ds., 1 988), C eramic E cology R evisited, 1 987 ( Kolb, e d., 1 988), a nd C eramic E cology, 1 988 ( Kolb, e d., 1 989) w ere d erived f rom p apers p resented a t s ymposia a t t he l ast t hree A merican A nthropological A ssociation A nnual M eetings 1 986, 1 987, 1 988. T hese c ontributions, l ikewise, d emonstrate t he i mpact o f t he c oncept o n c eramic a rchaeology, t he t echnological a nalysis o f c eramic m aterials, r eplication a nd e xperimental s tudies, a rchaeometry, e thnoarchaeology, a nd t he i nvestigations o f c ontemporary p otters a nd p ottery-making c ommunities. A lthough c eramic e cology h as b ecome a r ather " broad, f ragmented f ield o f r esearch," a ccording t o K ramer ( 1985:78), i t w ill b e d emonstrated t hat t he i dea h as, i ndeed, a s M atson s tated i n 1 982 " raised o ur c eramic c onsciousness" ( Matson 1 984:43). T his e ssay c oncludes w ith a n e valuation o f methods u sed a nd r esults o btained, a nd s uggest t hat t he c oncept i s y et a pplicable, a lbeit w ith a r eorientation t o t he e cological c ontext f rom w hich i t w as d erived. I n t his d ay a nd a ge o f s pecialization, t he t rue a pplication o f t he c oncept y et r equires t he multia nd i nterdisciplianry o rientation o riginally p ostulated b y M atson ( 1965a:203, 2 13, 2 16). T his e ssay a lso d raws u pon t he a uthor's own e xperiences a nd o bservations w hen h e w as a n u ndergraduate, g raduate s tudent, a nd f aculty m ember i n t he D epartment o f A nthropology o f T he P ennsylvania S tate U niversity, a n e arly " hotbed" o f t he i ntera nd m ultidisciplinary e cological a pproach t o a nthropological p roblems ( Baker 1 962, S anders, 1 962).

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T HE T he

E ARLY

S TUDY

O F

C ERAMIC

M ATERIALS

B asics

T he t rue s ubjects o f t he s tudy o f c eramic m aterials m ay b e c lay, p ottery, o r c eramics. T he f ollowing w orking d efinitions, f ound i n W ebster's N ew I nternational D ictionary o f t he E nglish L anguage U nabridged, a re a pplicable. C lays, f rom t he A nglo S axon w ord c läeg, s imply d efined, a re a ny e arthy m aterials, p lastic w hen m oist b ut h ard w hen b aked o r f ired. T echnically, c lays a re w idely d istributed c olloidal l ustrous e arthy s ubstances, p lastic w hen m oist b ut p ermanently h ard w hen f ired, t hat a re c omposed p rimarily o f d ecomposed i gneous a nd metamorphic r ocks r ich i n t he m ineral f eldspar i n t he f orm o f c rystalline g rains < 0.002 m m i n d iameter, w hose e ssential c onstitutents a re k aolinite a nd o ther h ydrous a luminous m inerals a nd f ine p articles, a nd t hat a re u sed w idely i n t he m anufacture o f s uch a rticles a s p orcelain, b uilding b locks, t ile, a nd e arthenware. E arthenware o r p ottery, t he l atter f rom t he M iddle F rench w ord p oterie ( Old F rench p otier, m eaning p otter), i s a ny w are m ade f rom c lay, s haped a nd h ardened b y h eat; i n a n arrower s ense, t he c oarser v essels s o m ade; c eramics o r c layware. E arthenware i s d istinguished o n t he o ne h and f rom p orcelain a nd s toneware, a nd o n t he o ther f rom b rick a nd t ile. C eramics, d erived f rom t he F rench w ord ceramique, u ltimately c oming f rom t he G reek w ord k eramikos a nd k eramos ( meaning p otter's c lay, e arthenware, o r p ottery), i nclude a ny a rticles f ormed w holly o r p artly o f c lay a nd b aked o r f ired. T he t erm c eramics t echnically r efers t o t he m anufacture o f a ny p roduct ( earthenware, p orcelain, t ile, b rick, a nd - i n t he m ore c omprehensive d efinitions g lass, v itreous e namels, c ement, a nd p laster r efactories) m ade e ssentially f rom a n onmetallic m ineral o r m inerals b y f iring a t h igh t emperatures. F urther e laborations, i ncluding c hemical f ormulae, m ay b e f ound i n O ldfather ( 1920, 1 924) a nd R ice ( 1987:3-6, 3 1-110). B eyond t he " raw m aterials" o f c lay, p ottery, o r c eramics a re n onplastics ( aplastics, t emper, o r g rog), w hich a re d efined a s m aterials a dded t o r aw c lays i n o rder t o p revent e xcessive s hrinkage o f c eramic b odies d uring t he d rying a nd f iring p rocesses. T hese m aterials p urposefully a dded b y t he p otter, a re u sually c alled " temper" b y A merican a rchaeologists a nd s tudents o f c eramics, w hile t he t erm " nonplastics" i s n ormally r eserved t o i nclude t hose s ubstances w hich m ay n atually o ccur i n t he r aw c lays o r m ay h ave b een a dded b y t he a rtisans ( March 1 934:14-16, S hepard 1 956:24-31). T ypes o f " tempering" m aterials i nclude a w ide r ange o f o rganic a nd i norganic s ubstances ( Rice 1 987:408-411).

I n a ddition t o t he r aw c lays, n onplastics, a nd f inished p roducts a re t he f actors o f t he n atural o r p hysica] e nvironment, b iological e nvironment, a nd t he c ultural e nvironment i n w hich t hese p roducts w ere m ade a nd u sed. L ikewise, t he c raftspersons, t he t echologies a vailable t o t hem, t heir i deologies, a nd p urposes a re s ignificant v ariables. U nfortunately, m any o f t hese a spects w ere n ot r eadily r ecognized o r e xplicated b y e arly i nvestigators, b ut h ave m ore r ecently b ecome a s alient p art o f t he m ethod a nd t heory o f c eramic e cology ( Matson 1 965a) a nd c eramic e thnoarchaeology ( Kramer 1 985).

E arly

S tudies

t o

1 950:

A B rief

R eview

T he i mportance o f c eramic m aterials i n a rchaeological s tudies i s w ithout q uestion. A s hort, u p-to-date r eview o f t he h istory o f p ottery a nd c eramics, e mphasizing t he c hronological d evelopments i n p ottery a nd c eramic t echnologies i n t he N ear E ast, F ar E ast, E urope a nd t he C ircum-Mediterranean, a nd t he W estern H emisphere h as r ecently b een p ublished ( Rice 1 987:6-24). H er c hapter p rovides a m uch n eeded u pdate t o S ir L indsay S cott's ( 195 ) 4) c ontribution i n A H istory o f T echnology e ntitled " Pottery." I t i s n ot my i ntention t o r eview t he e ntire s cope o f t he e arly s tudies o f c eramic m aterials a nd a nalytical methods, b ut m erely t o h ighlight w hat I b elieve t o b e s alient o r p ioneering a chievements n ot g enerally r eferenced i n t he s tandard w orks ( Shepard 1 956, R ye 1 981, R ice 1 987). A r eview o f t he d evelopments d uring t he p eriod 1 970-1989 m ay b e f ound i n K olb ( 1989a, 1 989b). I n r eality, a b ook-length t reatment w ould b e n eeded t o d etail t he s ynchronic a nd d iachronic g rowth o f c eramic t echnological s tudies, methods, a nd i nterpretative t echniques. I s hall b egin t his b ibliographic e ssay w ith C ipriano P iccolpasso's ( 1558, 1 93) 4) I t re l ibri d ella'arte d el v asio - T he T hree B ooks o f t he P otter's A rt - w hich p rovided a d etailed r eview o f I talian R enaissance c ei .amic t echnology. T his c lassic w ork i s y et s ignificant, e specially i n t erms o f e quipment f or f orming w heel-made p ottery, t he u se o f m olds, g lazing, a nd t ypes o f k iln f iring. T he F rench a lso m ade i mportant c ontributions t o c eramic s tudies. B rougniart's ( 18) 44) T rait 6d es a rtes c 4 ramiques s ummarized c eramic t echnologies i nto t he e arly 1 9th c entury; a s econd e dition a ppeared i n 1 854. I n a p aper p resented a t t he F ifth I nternational C ongress o f A mericanists M eeting i n C openhagen, A natole B amps ( 1883) r eported t he r esults o f m icroscopic a nalyses o f P eruvian c eramics s tudied b y W ilhelm P rinz. S uch m icroscopic w ork

w as r ecognized a s p roviding i mportant e vidence o n f iring methods, a nd B amps n oted t he i mportance o f e mploying b oth c hemical a nalyses a nd m ineralogical c omposition s tudies o f p astes, r ather t han j ust r elying o n t he f ormer - a y et v alid s tatement. A merican g eologist t urned a rchaeologist W illiam H . H olmes' ( 1888) a nalysis o f C hiriqui p ottery f rom C olombia c ombined t he s tudy o f p ottery m anufacture a nd d ecorative s tyle a nalysis, a p ortent o f s tudies t o c ome. H olmes, o riginally a m ember o f t he U nited S tates G eological S urvey, w as c urator o f p ottery a t t he U nited S tates N ational M useum f rom 1 882-1893. P etrographic t hin s ection a nalyses o f M esa V erde, C olorado s herds t o d etermine c lay a nd t emper c ompositon a nd p otential l ocal r aw m aterial l oci w ere c onducted b y N ordenskiold ( 1893), w hile R ichards ( 1895) p ublished a n e arly e xcellent c hemical a nalysis o f A thenian c eramics, a lthough c hemical s tudies o f p ottery b egan s ome 4 0 y ears e arlier. B ritish i nvestigators s uch a s A tkinson ( 1893) a nd M an ( 1894) b egan t o c arefully d ocument p ottery m anufacturing t echniques a nd v essel f orms a nd f unctions i n B ritish C ommonweath a reas o f t he w orld. H enry M ercer ( 1897), a n A merican t raveler a nd s tudent o f t he h istory o f t echnology a nd c eramics, d etailed t he u se o f t he M aya Y ucatecan k abal a s a t urning d evice f or p ottery m anufacture. W illiam H . H olmes, o ne o f t he p ioneering a rchaeologists w orking i n t he E astern U nited S tates, p repared a c lassic b ut n ow d ated s ynthesis o n a boriginal p ottery i n t hat a rea i n 1 887 f or t he B ureau o f A merican E thnology, b ut i t w as n ot p ublished f or 1 6 y ears ( Holmes 1 903). F or i ts d ay H olmes' s tudy w as u nique i n t hat h e c haracterized s ome b asic p hysical a nd c ultural a ttributes ( 1903:45-79), i ncluding m aterials ( clay a nd t empering m aterials), t echniques o f m anufacture, v essel f orms, c olor, d ecoration, a nd t he u se o f t extiles i n m odeling a nd e mbelishing. H olmes w as a mong t he f irst A merican a rchaeologists - i f n ot t he f irst - t o d efine " tempering m aterials" ( 1903:46) a nd e laborate s urface t reatments ( 1903:67). L ikewise, H olmes a lso i dentified " functional g roups" a nd u se c lassifications i n h is w ork ( 1903:24-44). I n t erms o f c ontributions f rom t he n atural s ciences, H einrich R ies' v olume C lays: T heir O ccurrence, P roperties, a nd U ses ( 1906) w as u sed a s a p rimary s ource b y A merican a rchaeologists. T he s ignificance o f t he b ook i n t erms o f t he p hysics a nd c hemistry o f c lays m ay b e s een i n i ts m any r evised e ditions - 1 908, 1 914, 1 927; i t w as u pdated i n t he 1 960s by t he a ppearance o f G rim's C lay M ineralogy ( 1967). J ust a fter t he t urn o f t he c entury, B urton ( 1906) a nd B ushell ( 1910) p ublished i mportant

e arly r eviews o f t he t echnologies o f o riental p orcelain m anufacture. I n 1 911, F ranchet's C‘ ramique p rimitive w as i ssued a nd r emained a s tandard f or t echnological i nformation o n a ncient p ottery m aking u ntil t he p ublication o f S hepard's ( 1956) m anual. N onetheless t he b ook i s y et a v aluable r esource. A n e arly F rench-language e thnography o f p ottery m anufacture i n F ex, M orocco w as w ritten b y B el ( 1918). I n t he A merican S outhwest, K roeber's Z uf fi P otsherds ( 1916) w as a p ioneering t reatment o f a rchaeological c eramic a nalysis, a nd w as c omplimented b y G uthe's ( 1925) s tudy o f P ueblo p ottery m aking ( San I ldefonso). T he p ublication o f G ifford's ( 1928) b rief a rticle o n m anufacturing t echnology, a nd R uth B unzel's ( 1929) T he P ueblo P otter: A S tudy o f C reative I magination i n P rimitive A rt, s till a m asterful e thnographic a nalysis o f c eramic s tyle a nd d ecorative t echniques, a lso m ark t his d ecade. F rom t he C ircum-Mediterranean, G isela R ichter, a C lassical a rchaeologist w ho t ook p ottery-making c ourses s o a s t o b etter u nderstand a rtisan p roduction m ethods a nd p roblems, p ublished T he C raft o f A thenian P ottery ( 1923), a m onumental t reatment m ore r ecently c omplimented b y B eazley's ( 1945) P otter a nd P ainter i n A ncient A thens. B eginning i n t he e arly 1 920s, A lfred Lucas p repared t he i nitial e dition o f A ncient E gyptian M aterials a nd I ndustries ( 1926) w hich c ontained a c hapter o n p ottery t echnology. L ucas s ummarized h is m any y ears o f r esearch o n N ortheast A frican c eramic p roduction, r anging f rom t he s election o f c lay t hrough d ecorating a nd f iring, a nd h e d etailed a n umber o f E gyptian w ares. T he b ook h as p osthumously b een p ublished i n a n e dited a nd r evised f ourth e dition ( Lucas 1 962). F or t he e astern M editerranean, W right's ( 1937) d issertation, T he P ottery o f P alestine..., p rovided s tandard f or m any y ears w hile c alling f or multidisciplinary i nvestigations o f a ncient c eramics. S igvald L inn , a S wedish a rchaeologist a nd e thnographer w ho w orked i n t he A ndean R egion a nd C entral M exico, p ublished a p ioneering v olume, T he T echnique o f S outh A merican C eramics ( 1925), w hich p rovided a b road g eographical s ummary o f p ottery-making t echnologies. I n t his w ork w e s ee a n a ttempt t o b lend c ultural a nd t echnological d ata i ncipient e thnoarchaeology a nd c eramic e cology. A b rief S panish-language v ersion o f t his p ublication a ppeared i n L it in4 ( 1932). A m ost c omprehensive t reatise o n c eramic m aterials, t echnologies, e tc. w ritten i n t he l ate 1 920s p rovided i mportant t echnical a nd c ultural d ata o n p ottery a nd c eramics t hrough t he f irst q uarter o f t his c entury. T his

w as A lfred S earle's t hree-volume A n E ncyclopaedia o f t he C eramic I ndustries ( 1929-1930) w hich r emains a s a l andmark w ork a nd i s e specially u seful f or i ts e arly h istorical d ata. B enjamin M arch's S tandards o f P ottery D escription ( 1934) w as a v ery i mportant e arly a ttempt t o q uantify a nd q ualify a rchaeological p ottery. P ublished a t t he U niversity o f M ichigan, i t w as e arly u sed b y G riffin a nd M atson u ntil S hepard's ( 1956) v olume s uperceded i t. H owever, i ts u tility m ay b e s een i n t he f act t hat i t w as r eprinted w ithout a lteration i n 1 967. P artington's ( 1935) b ook o n a pplied c hemistry d evoted a c hapter t o t he c hemistry o f c lays, t he f irst t o d o s o f rom a c eramicist's a nd a rchaeologist's p erspective. T he 1 930s a lso m arked i mportant i nterdisciplinary c ooperation b etween a rchaeologist a nd a nthropologist/cer amic t echnologist. R . U . S ayce, a p rofessor a t C ambridge U niversity ( England), i n h is b ook P rimitive A rts a nd C rafts ( 1933), r eprinted i n 1 965, c alled f or s cientific s tudies o f m aterial c ulture a nd i nterpretations w ithin t he f ramework o f t he s ocial s ciences a nd h umanities - a h olistic a pproach. H e w rote ( 1933:2): O ne o f t he p rincipal c haracteristic o f m odern t hought i s a r ealization o f t he e ssential u nity o f a ll k nowledge. F ew n owadays w ould w aste t ime i n t rying t o d efine t he e xact s cope a nd l imits o f t he v arious b ranches o f s tudy. S carcely a ny s ubject i s s elf-contained a nd s elf-sufficing. E ach b orrows f rom, a nd m ay i n r eturn t hrow l ight u pon, a ny o thers. T he e xcavations a t P ecos P ueblo a nd t he a nalysis o f t he c eramics b y S hepard marked t he b eginning o f c ollaborative e fforts w here t he i mportance o f c eramic t echnological s tudies c ould b e r ecognized b y r esearchers f rom b oth t he p hysical a nd s ocial s ciences. T he t wo v olumes c omprising T he P ottery o f P ecos ( Kidder 1 931, K idder a nd S hepard 1 936) w ere a t urning p oint i n a nalytical methods, d ata p resentation, a nd i nterpretation ( Shepard 1 965), a nd s et t he s tage f or m ore c ollaborative w ork o n a rchaeological c eramic t echnology ( Shepard a nd H orton 1 939). T he A merican S outhwest a lso w itnessed t he p ublication o f C olton a nd H argrave's ( 1937) e arly h andbook o n p ottery t ypes w hich w as u pdated a q uarter-century l ater b y C olton's P otsherds ( 1953), w hich a lso s erved a s a m anual o n c eramic t echnology a nd t ypology f or t he S outhwest. T he 1 930s w ere m arked b y t he d ocumentation o f C oyotepec O axaca c eramic t echnologies l eading t o t he p roduction o f t he f amed " Black P ottery o f C oyotepec" ( van d e V elde a nd V an d e V elde 1 939). W u's ( 1938) P rehistoric P ottery i n C hina h as p roven t o b e a m ost u seful c ompendium o n t he

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h istory o f c eramic t echnology p orcelain a nd o ther c eramics.

a nd

t he

d evelopment

o f

D uring W orld W ar T wo a n umber o f i mportant s tudies w ere p ublished, i n t he m ain, b ased u pon r esearch d one i n t he m id-1930s. T echnological s tudies p ioneered b y S hepard f acilitated t he p ublication o f " A P etrographic E xamination o f P otsherds f rom A ncient T roy" b y W . M . F elts ( 19 )4 2) a s a s eparate j ournal a rticle r ather t han a n a ppendix o r f ootnote i n s ome o ther r eport. K elso a nd T horley's ( 1943) m ore c omprehensive r eport, " The P otter's T echnique a t T ell B eir M irsim ..," w as a lso a m odel f or t he t ype o f a rchaeological c eramic r eporting t hat w ould m ark t he p ost-war p eriod. A mong t he l ast e thnographic s tudies o f E astern U nited S tates' n ative p otters w ere t hose b y F ewkes ( 1940, 1 941, 1 944) o n t he C atawba, P amunkey, a nd C herokee. F or S outh A merican c eramics, T schopik's ' ( 1950) a rticle o n A ymara p ottery c ombined e thnographic, e thnohistoric, a rchaeological, a nd c eramic t echnological d ata i n a m ost u seful a pproach t o t he a nalysis o f c eramic t raditions. I n s um, w e m ay s ee a n umber o f p re-1950 t rends w hich were p ortents o f t he d ecades t o f ollow. T here h ad b een d ramatic a dvances i n t he t echniques o f a nalysis, t he methods o f r eporting c eramic i nformation, t he i nfusion o f multi- a nd i nterdisciplinary s tudies o f p ottery, a nd t he p ublication o f s ome s ynthetic t reatments. I n a ddition t o S cott's ( 1954) g eneral s ynthesis, G ordon R . W illey's ( 1949) n ontechnical e thnological s ummary o f S outh A merican c eramics f or t he H andbook o f S outh A merican I ndians, a nd G eorge M . F oster's ( 1967) s omewhat p arallel a rticle, " Contemporary P ottery a nd B asketry," f or t he H andbook o f M iddle A merican I ndians, w ere u seful e arly s ynopses. T he v oluminous l iterature o n c eramic a nd p ottery t ypological a nd c lassification s ystems w ill n ot b e r eviewed, b ut i nclude M cKern ( 1939); K rieger ( 1944); B rew ( 1946; S paulding ( 1953); Wheat, G ifford, a nd W asley ( 1958); P hillips ( 1958); a nd G ifford ( 1960). T he m ore r ecent l iterature i s c omprised o f t reatments b y W hallon ( 1972), E rickson a nd S tickel ( 1973), a nd M arquardt ( 197 . 8) a s w ell a s P rudence R ice's ( 1987:274-288) b rief r eview. T he p ost-war p eriod a lso s aw t he c ontinued a nd r edefined i nterest i n d esign a nalysis a nd s ymmetry s tudies. A p ioneering w ork o n c eramic d esigns a nd s ymmetry by S hepard ( 1948), r emained a s tandard u ntil n ew i nterpretations w ere d eveloped b y B ennett ( 1974), H ardin ( 1984) a nd W ashburn ( 1977, 1 978, 1 983) a mong o thers. T he D ynamics o f S tylistic C hange i n A n kara C eramics ( Deetz 1 965) p rovided a nother d imension t o s tylistic a nalyses t he p ostulate t hat s ociocultural d ata, e specially o n p ost-marital r esidence a nd k inship p atterns, c ould b e i nferred f rom a d etailed a nalysis o f p otsherds. T he b est t reatment a nd h istorical o verview o n s tyle a nalysis i s b y

W ashburn a nd C rowe ( 1988) T heory a nd P ractice o f P lane

T HE

D EVELOPMENT

O F

i n S ymmetries o f P attern A nalysis.

E COLOGICAL

C ulture:

A PPROACH

I ntroduction O rlov ( 1980:235), i n h is c ritique A nthropology," d efined t he c oncept a s:

o f

" Ecological

.. t he s tudy o f t he r elations a mong t he p opulation d ynamics, s ocial o rganization, a nd c ulture o f h uman p opulations a nd t he e nvironments i n w hich t hey l ive. I t i ncludes c omparative r esearch a s w ell a s a nalyses o f s pecific p opulations f rom b oth s ynchronic a nd d iachronic p erspectives. I n m any c ases, s ystems o f p roduction c onstitue i mportant l inks a mong p opulation d ynamics, s ocial o rganization, c ulture, a nd e nvironment. D efined a s s uch, e cological a nthropology p rovides a m aterialist e xamination o f t he r ange o f h uman a ctivity a nd t hus b ears a n a ffinity t o o ther m aterialistic a pproaches t o t he s ocial a nd b iological s ciences. O rlov v isualized t hree s tages i n t he d evelopment o f e cological a nthropology: 1 ) t he e ra o f J ulian S teward a nd L eslie W hite, c a. 1 930-1960 ( 1980:236-239); 2 ) N eoevolutionism a nd N eofunctionalism, c a. 1 960-early 1 970s ( 1980:239-245); a nd 3 ) P rocessural A pproaches, e arly 1 970s t o d ate ( 1980:245-261). S ee a lso O rlov's c ritical e ssay o n c ultural e cology ( 1977). H owever, t he e cological a pproach h istorically c ame f rom t he b iological s ciences. T he p rincipal meaning o f e cology i s " adaptation t o t he e nvironment" ( Steward 1 955:30), a nd t he c oncept i s h euristic d evice f or u nderstanding t he m utual i nteractions b etween o rgänisms a nd t heir e nvironments. T he e cological c oncept a nd a pproach, d erived f rom t he G reek o ikos ( household o r l iving p lace), w as i ntroduced i nto t he n atural s ciences by t he G erman b iologist E rnst H aeckel i n t he l ate 1 860s a s o ecology, t he d irect G erman t ranslation. H aeckel's a rticle, " Ueber e ntwickelungsgang u nd a ufgabe d er z oologie" ( 1870), w hich a ppeared i n t he j ournal J enaische Z eitschrift f ür M edicin u nd N aturwissenschaft, e mphasized t he i nteractions o f " animal o rganisms" w ith t he b iological a nd p hysical e nviroments. B ates ( 1953:700) t ranslated H aeckel's o ecology a s " ... t he s tudy o f t he e conomy o f t he h ousehold o f a nimal o rganisms. T his i ncludes t he r elationship o f a nimals w ith b oth t he

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i norganic [ physical] a nd o rganic [ biotic] e nvironments, a bove a ll t he b eneficial a nd i nimical r elationships t hat D arwin r eferred t o a s t he c onditions o f t he s truggle f or e xistence." T he c oncept b ecame a m ethodology, a pproach, o r " pervasive p oint o f v iew" i n t he n atural s ciences r ather t han a s pecial s ubject m atter. T he e cological a pproach w as i nitially u sed b y n atural s cientists, e specially b iologists, i n t he s tudy o f a nimal p opulations a nd c oncurrent e nvironmental i nteractions, t he h istory o f w hich h as b een d etailed b y A llee e t a l. ( 1949:13-72) a nd A ndrewartha ( 1961:3-13). A u seful s ynthesis o n e cological p rinciples b y O dum ( 1953) e mphasized t he n atural s cience p osition i n t he p eriod 1 950 t o c a. 1 965. B ates ( 1953:700-701) n oted t hat a t l east f ive s ocial s ciences e mployed t he c oncept o f e cology i n t heir o wn d isciplines. T hese i ncluded: m edicine/epidemiology, c ultural g eography, s ociology, h uman b ehavior/psychology, a nd a nthropology. T hese h uman-oriented s ciences d erived a nd a dapted t o t heir own u se t he p rinciples o f e cology f ormulated b y z oological e cologists. T he c oncept o f " community" a nd i ts r elationships t o e nvironmental f actors p ervaded a ll d isciplines a nd w as e specially u seful t o c ultural a nd e conomic g eographers a nd s ociologists c oncerned w ith d emography a nd u rbanism. A lthough t he e cological a pproach r apidly g ained f avor a mong t he " Chicago S chool" o f s ociology ( Park, B urgess, D uncan, M cKenzie, e tc.) i n t he l ate 1 920s, i t e xperienced o nly l imited u se i n c ultural a nthropology ( Redfield 1 930; P arsons 1 936, 1 940). H owever, C lark W issler ( 1926) e mployed d ata s howing t he i nfluence o f c limate, t opography, a nd n atural v egetation o n n ative A merican t raits a nd t rait c omplexes f rom a d iffusionist p oint o f v iew. C . D aryll F orde ( 1934:463), a B ritish s ocial a nthropologist, a lso r ecognized t hat " between t he p hysical e nvironment a nd h uman a ctivity t here i s a lways a m iddle t erm, a c ollection o f s pecific o bjectives a nd v alues, a b ody o f k nowledge a nd b elief; i n o ther w ords, a c ultural p attern." i t w as n ot u ntil t he p ublication o f K roeber's C ultural a nd N atural A reas o f N ative N orth A merica ( 1939) t hat A merican a nthropologists b egan t o e mphasize t he a pproach, e ven t hrough i n r etrospect i t w as i nitally u sed i n a h aphazard a nd u nstandardized m anner.

C ultural

E cology

I n O rlov's c onsideration o f e cological a nthropology, t he i nitial s tage ( ca. 1 930-1960) w as c haracterized b y t he w orks o f J ulian S teward ( 1955, 1 968) a nd L eslie W hite ( 1959). E cological a nthropology e merged f rom t he B oasian s chool o f h istorical p articularism ( Orlov 1 980:237).

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S teward w as t o e mphasize t he q uality, q uantity, a nd d istribution o f r esources, w hile W hite w as c oncerned w ith b road d etails o f e volution r ather t han s pecific a daptations, a nd e mphasized l evels o f e nergy u se a s t he d eterminant o f s ocial e volution. W hite's c onstructs w ere u nilineal a nd m onocausal, b ut S teward's c onsidered d ifferent l ines o f c ultural d evelopment a nd a n umber o f d ifferent c ausal f actors. I n h is e ssay, " The C oncept a nd M ethod o f C ultural E cology," J ulian S teward ( 1955:30-42) s et f orth t he o bjectives i n e cological s tudies a nd d istinguished t he p urpose a nd m ethods o f t he " other" e cologies b iological, h uman, a nd s ocial. H e s tipulated t hat c ultural e cology d iffered f rom o ther e cological s tudies i n a n umber o f w ays, p articularly b ecause h uman b eings p ossess t he s uper-organic f actor o f c ulture. S teward n oted t hat " the e volution o f t he H ominidae i s c losely r elated t o t he e mergence o f c ulture, w hile t he a ppearance o f H omo s apiens i s p robably m ore t he r esult o f c ultural c auses t han o f p hysical c auses. T he u se o f t ools, f ire, s helter, c lothing, n ew f oods, a nd o ther m aterial a djuncts w ere o bviously i mportant i n e volution, b ut s ocial c ustoms s hould n ot b e o verlooked" ( 1955:31). I n t he c ultural e cological a pproach, a daptation c onsituted c reative p rocesses, w hile t he e nvironment w as a s econdary c oncern, a nd t he c oncept o f e nvironmental a dapation u nderlay a ll c ultural e cology. T herefore, " cultural e cology s eeks t o e xplain t he o rigins o f p articular c ultural f eatures a nd p atterns w hich c haracterize d ifferent a reas r ather t han t o d erive g eneral p rinciples a pplicable t o a ny c ultural-environmental s ituation" ( 1955:36). H e a lso s tated ( 1955:37), " cultural e cology p ays p rimary a ttention t o t hose f eatures w hich e mpirical a nalysis s how t o b e m ost c losely i nvolved i n t he u tilization o f e nvironment i n c ulturally p rescribed w ays." T o S teward t he m ethod o f c ultural e cology ( 1955:39-42) i nvolved t hree f undamental p rocedures. I nitially, t he i nterrelationships o f e xploitative o r p roductive t echnology a nd e nvironment h ad t o b e a nalyzed. T he t echnology i ncluded m aterial c ulture ( tools, c ontainers, t ransportational d evices, s ources o f w ater a nd f uel, c lothing a nd s helter, e tc.) w hile t he e nvironment ( climate, t opography, s oils, h ydrography, v egetational c over, a nd f auna) w as a lso c omprised o f t he h abits o f w ild g ame, a nd s easonality o f t he f lora a r ld f auna. T he s econd p rocedure w as t o a nalyze t he b ehavior p atterns i nvolved i n t he e xploitation o f a p articular a rea b y m eans o f a p articular t echnology. H ere c ooperation v ersus c ompetition, i nvention a nd d iffusion o f t echnologies, a nd t ransporation m ethods f or m oving p eople t o g oods o r v ice v ersa, w ere p articular v ariables t o b e s tudied. L astly, S teward's p rocedure r equired t he

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s tudy o f t he e xtent t o w hich t he b ehavior p atterns e ntailed i n e xploiting t he e nvironment a ffected a ll o ther a spects o f c ulture. H e n oted t hat " the t hird p rocedure r equires a g enuinely h olistic a pproach, f or i f s uch f actors a s d emography, s ettlement p attern, k inship s tructures, a nd l and t enure, a nd o ther k ey c ultural f eatures a re c n sidered s eparately, t heir i nterrelationships t o o ne a nother a nd t o t he e nvironment c annot b e g rasped" ( 1955:42). I n s um, c ultural e cology w as p erceived a s a m ethodological t ool f or a scertaining h ow t he a daptation o f a s ociety t o i ts p hysical a nd b iological e nvironments m ay i nvolve c ertain c hanges i n t he o ther a spects o f c ulture. T he u se o f d iagrammatic m odels i n t he c lassroom t o i llustrate t he i nteraction o f e cological v ariables ( Paul T . B aker . 1 963:personal c ommunication, S ol K atz 1 972:personal c ommunication) a pparently o wes i ts o rigin t o d emographic s tudies c onducted i n t he p eriod 1 945-1960 b y O tis D udley D uncan ( 1959:678-712). T hese e arly d iagrams a re i llustrated i n F igure 1 . D uncan d escribed t he f our m ajor v ariables o f h uman e cology a s p opulation ( demography), e nvironment ( in t he m ain, c limate a nd t opography), o rganization ( social s tructure), a nd t echnology ( 1959:683-684). T hese c onstituted a n e cosystem ( again, a t erm b orrowed f rom t he p hysical s cience's e cological a pproach), i n w hich a ny o ne o f t he f our c ould b e t reated a s a d ependent v ariable f or i nvestigative p urposes, y et e ach w as r eciprocally c onnected t o t he o ther v ariables. B aker, a p hysical a nthropologist, p roposed a f our-component d iagram w hich h ad h uman b iology ( including d emography, g enetics, a nd a daptations a s p rimary c oncerns), t he p hysical e nvironment ( a h olistic v ariable), t he b iological e nvironment ( again, h olistic), a nd h uman c ulture a nd c ultural m anifestations a s c omponents. T he m odel p roposed b y K atz, a lso a p hysical a nthropologist, s eparated d emography ( population) f rom b iology, a nd i ncluded e nvironment ( all f actors), a nd s ocioeconomics a s c omponents. T he e cological m odel p roposed b y B aker w as a t wo-dimensional p aradigm w ith f our c lusters o f v ariables s een i n c onstant i nteraction a nd r eaction, a nd c an b e r elated t o a s ystems a pproach i n a rchaeology ( Flannery 1 968a, 1 968b). T he v ariable c lusters a re: 1 ) P hysical E nvironment. T his v ariable i ncluded t opography, t errain, h ydrology, c limatic t ype, t emperature, r ainfall, s olar r adiation, m ineral r aw m aterial r esources, e tc.

were

2 ) t he

B iological E nvironment. W ithin t his v ariable f actors o f n atural v egetation ( flora), ( Kolb)

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F igure 1 : E cological T heory D iagrams. F igure l a i s d erived f rom D uncan ( 1959:683-684); F igure l b f rom B aker ( 1963:personal c ommunication); F igure l c f rom K atz ( 1972:personal c ommunication).

a T echnology

E nvironment

4

1

P opulation

S ocial

S tructure

1

Physical Environment

Man/ Human

Culture

Biology

B iological Environment

Environment B iology

J ig e

4

I

r ) ›I

j 1 K

A l ?q D emography

b t

S ocioeconomics

f ood-energy a nd n utrition s ources, v egetable r aw m aterials, m icroa nd m acrobiological l ife ( fauna), d iseases, h uman a nd o ther a nimal p redators, e tc. 3 ) M an/Human B iology. B aker s aw t his v ariable r epresenting t he h uman p opulation ( demography), h uman p hysiology, g enetic s ystems ( gene p ool), a nd p articularly m echanisms o f h uman a daptation t o s tress ( cold, h eat, w et, d ry, a nd a ltitude). P hysiological ( behavioral) t raits w ere a lso c onsidered w ithin t his v ariable. 4 ) C ulture/Cultural M anifestations. T he f actors h ere w ere s ociocultural r ather t han b iological, a nd i ncluded s ociopolitical o rganization, l evel o f t echnological c omplexity, s ubsistence p ursuits, r eligious a ctivities, b elief a nd v alue s ystems. O ne s hould c onsider t his a s t he r ealm e ncompassing t en p rimary s ubdivisions o f t he U niversal C ulture P attern w ithin c ultural a nthropology ( human c ommunications/language, t echnology, e conomic o rganization, s ocial o rganization, p olitical o rganization, r eligious o rganization, e ducation, k nowledge/ethnoscience, r ecreation, a nd t he a rts).

E cology a nd

A rchaeology

T he h istory o f a nthropological i nterest i n t he e cological c oncept h as b een w ell d ocumented i n a s eries o f a rticles a nd b ook c hapters ( Bates 1 953; B aker 1 962; F rake 1 962; H elm 1 962; H arris 1 968:654-687; H awley 1 968:328-337; V ayda a nd R appaport 1 968:477-479; N etting 1 972:1-30; S truever 1 971; T rigger 1 971; a nd K aplan a nd M anners 1 972:32-35, 7 5-88, 9 2-94; a mong o thers). C oncern f or e cological v ariables i n a rchaeological s tudies m ay b e e arly s een i n t he c ritiques o f N ew W orld a rchaeological t heory b y R ouse ( 1939) a nd T aylor ( 1948). D uring t he 1 950s, A merican a rchaeological m ethod a nd t heory w as a dvanced b y W illey a nd P hillips ( 1953, 1 955, 1 958), w ho a lso d emonstrated s ome c oncern f or e cological c oncepts, b ut i t w as t he p ublication o f t wo a rticles i n A merican A ntiquity b y M eighan a nd h is c olleagues ( 1958a, 1 958b) i n w hich w e s aw t he e cological a pproach c oming o f a ge i n A merican a rchaeological r esearch d esigns o f t he 1 960s. T hese a rticles, c ollectively e ntitled " Ecological I nterpretations i n A rchaeology," h ad a s ignificant i mpact o n d ata-collecting methods a nd i nterpretations a s w ell a s i n t he f ormulation o f r esearch d esigns. I n O rlov's ( 1980:239-245) s econd s tage o f e cological a nthropology, N eoevolutionism a nd N eofunctionalism ( ca. 1 960-early 1 970s), t here w ere a ttempts t o a ddress t he s imilarities a nd d ifferences o f S teward a nd W hite.

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P rominent a mong t he c ultural a nthropologists o f t his e ra w ere H arris ( 1979), S ervice ( 1962, 1 971, 1 975), a nd V ayda a nd R appaport ( 1968); a mong t he a rchaeologists w ere F lannery ( 1972) a nd W right ( 1977). A n e arly u se o f t he e cological c oncept i n a rchaeology w as p romulgated b y W illiam T . S anders i n h is H arvard U niversity d issertation T ierra y A gua ( Soil a nd W ater): A S tudy o f t he E cological F actors i n t he D evelopment o f M eso-American C ivilizations ( 1957). S anders' d issertation w as p receeded b y h is a rticle o n a nthropogeography i n w hich h e c ombined c ultural g eographical, a nthropological, a nd e nvironmental d ata ( Sanders 1 952-1953). T hese i nitial f ormulations o f h ow S anders b elieved t he e cological a pproach s hould b e e mployed i n a nthropological r esearch d esigns l ed t o a s eries o f a rticles o n M aya a nd M esoamerican t opics ( Sanders 1 962a, 1 962b, 1 963). A t P enn S tate, S anders u tilized c ultural e cology a s a p aradigm i n f ormulating t he T eotihuacan V alley P roject, a h olistic i nvestigation o f t hat p hysiographic u nit o f t he B asin o f M exico a nd w hich e ncompassed a c hronological o verview f rom g eologic t o m odern t imes. T he i nitial r eport, T he C ultural E cology o f t he T eotihuacan V alley ( Sanders 1 965), s erved a s a m odel f or a n o verview o f t he p rocesses l eading t o c ivilizations i n M esoamerica ( e.g. M esoamerica: T he E volution o f a C ivilization, S anders a nd P rice 1 968). A r efined a nd e xpanded T eotihuacan V alley P roject m odel l ed t o t he B asin o f M exico P roject, a lso d irected b y S anders, a nd c ulminated i n T he B asin o f M exico: T he C ultural E cology o f a C ivilization ( Sanders, P arsons, a nd S antley 1 979). T herefore t he a nthropological u se o f t he e cological c oncept h as t aken t wo s eparate r outes, o ne b eing " human e cology" a s e xemplified b y b iological a nd b iocultural a nthropology, a nd h uman b iology, w hile t he o ther w as " cultural e cology." T he l atter, p rimarily c oncerned w ith t he f ourth v ariable o f B aker's d iagram, e xplicated a bove a nd i n F igure l b, h eld " culture" a s t he d ependent v ariable a nd w as t he m ajor p erspective f rom w hich m any a rchaeologists a nd c ultural a nthropologists d eveloped t heir r esearch d esigns. S anders ( 1952-1953, 1 957, 1 962a, 1 962b, 1 963, 1 965:1-10; S anders a nd P rice 1 968:69-73; S anders, P arsons, a nd S antley 1 979:359-369) e laborated t his c oncept f rom t he v iewpoint o f a rchaeological r esearch, p roposing t hat o rganization a rises f rom t he i nteraction o f p opulation a nd e nvironment, a v iew p romulgated b y B oserup ( 1965). I t s hould b e n oted t hat s uch a n a pproach w as n ot a r eturn t o t he 1 9th a nd 2 0th c entury c oncept o f e nvironmental d eterminism ( Sanders 1 965:1), e xemplified b y c ultural g eographers s uch a s H untington a nd S emple. N or w as i t a f orm o f c ultural m aterialism a s a r esearch s trategy ( Harris 1 979:1, 2 7, 4 6-76), a lthough t he a im o f

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c ultural m aterialism w as t o a ttempt t o a ccount f or t he o rigin, m aintenance, a nd c hange o f t he " global i nventory" o f s ociocultural s imilarities a nd d ifferences. A rchaeologists w ho c onstantly d eal w ith m aterial c ulture c annot a lways b e s aid t o b e c ultural m aterialists, b ut s ome i nvestigators h ave e pecially c hastised S anders a s b eing a n o vert c ultural m aterialist. S anders ( 1965:1-2) a nd S anders a nd P rice ( 1968:71-73), h owever, w ere i nfluenced t o s ome d egree b y t he " challenge-and-response" t heory p ostulated b y A rnold T oynbee ( 1947), a c omparative h istorian. T his t heory, S anders b elieves, i llustrated t he e cologist's p osition, e specially a s t o d ynamic e quilibria a mong t he e cological v ariables. A t P enn S tate, S anders a nd B aker f ound p articular v alue i n t he e cological a pproach i n t heir i nvestigations r espectively o n M esoamerican c ivilization a nd h uman a daptation. B aker w as t he o rganizer a nd c hairman o f a s ession, " Ecology a nd A nthropology," a t t he 1 960 m eeting o f t he A merican A ssociation f or t he A dvancement o f S cience ( AAAS). T he f ive p apers f rom t hat s ymposium w ere p ublished i n r evised f orm i n t he A merican A nthropologist ( 64:15-69) i n 1 962, a nd i ncluded t he t hen s tate o f t he a rt c ontributions b y B aker ( 1962), " The A pplication o f E cological T heory t o A nthropology"; F rake ( 1962), " Cultural E cology a nd E thnography"; H elm ( 1962), " The E cological A pproach i n A nthropology"; a nd S anders ( 1962b), " Cultural E cology o f N uclear M esoamerica." E cological r eviews, p articularly b y B ates ( 1952) o n " Human E cology," " The C oncept a nd M ethod o f C ultural E cology" b y S teward ( 1955:30-42), a nd t he A AAS p apers f rom t he s ession o rganized by B aker, w ere f ormative i n t he d evelopment o f t he c oncept o f c eramic e cology ( Matson 1 965a:202-203). L ikewise, I b elieve, S anders' c onceptualization o f t he e cological a pproach i n a rchaeological r esearch d esigns m ay a lso h ave b een a f actor i n M atson's t hinking.

C ERAMIC T he

B eginning:

E COLOGY

1 950-1965

I n a ddition t o P aul T . B aker a nd W illiam T . S anders, F rederick R . M atson w as a lso a f aculty m ember i n t he D epartment o f S ociology a nd A nthropology a t T he P ennsylvania S tate U niversity ( the d epartments s eparated i n 1 965). M atson, a c eramic e ngineer w ho h ad b ecome a n a rchaeologist, e thnographer, a nd a rchaeometrician, a lso t aught c ourses i n O ld W orld a rchaeology w hile S anders, i n t he m ain, t aught N ew W orld p rehistory. T he y ear 1 965 w ould a lso m ark t he p ublication o f M atson's C eramics a nd M an ( ed., 1 965).

L aboratory s tudies, a rchaeological a nd e thnographic f ield w ork, a nd d ramatic a dvances i n p hysicochemical a nalyses f ollowing W orld W ar T wo s et t he s tage f or a s eries o f i mportant s yntheses b y M atson i n w hich h e r elated c eramic t echnology, f ield a nd l aboratory m ethods, a nd c ultural i nterpretations. T he W enner-Gren F oundation f or A nthropological R esearch w as t he s ponsor o f a V iking F und C onference o n A rchaeological M ethods, t he p roceedings o f w hich w ere e dited b y J ames B . G riffin ( ed., 1 951). I n h is e ssay e ntitled " Ceramic T echnology a s a n A id t o C ultural I nterpretation" w hich a ppeared i n t his v olume, M atson ( 1951:106) m ade t he f ollowing s alient o bservation a bout c eramic s tudies w hich a ppear i n a rchaeological r eports: A n ice c eramic d escription a ppears i n t he r eport, b ut h ow m any p eople e ver t ake t he t ime t o r ead o r t ry t o v isualize t he p ottery o nce i t h as b een t hus d escribed a t a c ost o f m uch t ime a nd e xpense? P erhaps a l ittle l ess t ime s pent o n c eramic d escription i n t erms o f p hysical measurements a nd m ore c onsideration o f t he v ariations o f t he w are a s r elated t o t he m anufacturing p roblems o f t he p otter w ould b e q uite p rofitable. L ikewise, h e u rged a c areful e xamination o f t he e thnographic l iterature a nd a rchaeologially-oriented e thnographic r esearch d esigns s o a s t o i lluminate t he t echnical s tudy o f c eramics a nd p ottery ( 1951:114). T he i solation o f c eramic s tudies f rom s ocioeconomic p atterns w as a c oncern h e b egan t o a ddress i n t he l ate 1 950s, a nd e cological p aradigms o ffered a w ay o f r elating t hese v ariables. A t a s ubsequent c onference a lso s ponsored b y Wenner-Gren a nd h eld a t B urg W artenstein, A ustria i n 1 959, M atson ( 1960) p repared a c hapter, " The Q uantitative S tudy o f C eramic M aterials," p ublished i n T he A pplication o f Q uantitative M ethods i n A rchaeology ( Heizer a nd C ook, e ds., 1 960). T he s ignificance o f t hese c onferences o n t he d evelopment o f t he " Ceramics a nd M an" s ymposium h as b een e laborated e lsewhere ( Kolb 1 988b:8-11). T he c oncept o f c eramic e cology w as i nitially p resented a t t he " Ceramics a nd M an" c onference s ponsored b y W enner-Gren a nd h eld a t B urg W artenstein, A ustria f rom S eptember 2 -12, 1 961, w hich w as o rganized a nd c haired b y M atson. S igvald L inn‘ ( 1961:233, 2 35), a s ymposiast, w rote t hat " Professor M atson f unctioned a s o rganizing c hairman i n a n e xemplary f ashion," a nd f urther s tated t hat M atson's ( 1960) p aper o n q uantitative a nalysis " ... i s o f u tmost s ignificance t o a ll c eramic r esearchers, a nd r eprints t hereof o ught t o h ave b een d istributed t o a ll p resent o n t his o ccasion ..." T he v olume C eramics a nd M an ( Matson,

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e d., 1 965) w as t he r esult o f t his c onference. c ontributions a re d etailed i n A ppendix A .

T he

2 1

A mong t he c ontributors t o C eramics a nd M an w ere R obert W . E hrich, w hose l ead c hapter, " Ceramics a nd M an: A C ultural P erspective," r eflected a n a nthropological v iew o f t he s ubject o f p ottery a nd c eramics. H e c oncluded ( Ehrich 1 965:16): M y t hesis i s t hat, s ince t he w hole f ield o f c eramics i s a t rait c omplex i n t he m aterial c ulture s ense o f t he e thnologist, t he c ulture c oncept o f t he c ultural a nthropologist s hould p rovide t he m ost c omprehensive m eans o f a pproaching t he s ubject. W e m ay t hus v iew c eramics f rom t he c omparative s tandpoint o f e thnology, f rom t he m ore p articular o ne o f e thnography, f rom t he s equential a nd d ocumented a ssociational o ne o f h istory, f rom e lements o f a ll t hree a s r eflected i n t he a rcheological e vidence o f t he p ast, f rom c ontemporary i nstitutionalized f orms a nd v alues o f a esthetic p roduction a nd a ppreciation i n t he a rtistic s ense, a nd f rom v arying t ypes o f s ocial s ignificance. T he i mportance o f s ociocultural i nterpretations o f p ottery m anufacture, d istribution, a nd u se w as s ummarized by G eorge M . F oster, a nother c ontributor t o C eramics a nd M an. H e c oncluded ( Foster 1 965:43): I n e xamining t he v oluminous e thnographical l iterature d escribing t he m anufacture o f p ottery, o ne n otes w ith s urprise h ow l ittle a ttention h as b een p aid t o t he s ocial, c ultural, a nd e conomic s ettings i n w hich t he w ork w as d one. M ost d escriptions d eal w ith t echniques a nd p rocesses o f m anufacture, a nd w ith d esign e lements. B ut b eyond t elling w hich s ex m akes p ots, m ost a ccounts r eveal l ittle a bout s uch t hings a s t he s tatus o f t he p otter i n h is o r h er s ociety ( except, o f c ourse, i n I ndian c aste s tudies), h ow p otters l ook u pon t heir w ork a rtistically a nd e conomically, s tandards o f w orkmanship a nd t he r ange o f v ariation w ithin a c ommunity, a nd, a bove a ll, a bout t he p rocesses t hat c ontribute t o s tability i n a t radition, w hich m ake f or c hange, a nd w hich m ay b e i nvolved i n t he d ying-out o f a s tyle. Y et, f rom t he s tandpoint o f a rcheological i nterrelation, t hese a nd o ther " sociological" p oints a re j ust a s i mportant a s a re s tyle a nd c onstruction.

T he m ore e cologically-oriented c ontributions i n C eramics a nd M an i ncluded t hose b y F oster ( 1965), R ouse ( 1965), B alfet ( 1965), S hepard ( 1965), A miran ( 1965), v an d en B erghe ( 1965), S olheim ( 1965), a nd t wo c hapters b y M atson ( 1965a, 1 965b). R ouse's " Theory o f C eramic C hange" ( 1965:94-96) u sed a n a nalogy t o b iological t axonomy, i n w hich c eramic t ypes w ere a nalogous t o g enera a nd s pecies. C avalli-Sforza ( 1971) a nd H ill ( 1985) h ave a lso e mployed s imilar p aradigms, t he f ormer t o e xamine c oncordances a nd d ifferences i n s ociocultural a nd b iological e volution, a nd t he l atter t o e xplicate t he s tylistic v ariability a nd c hanges i n c eramics. A p artial e cological a pproach w as u sed b y B alfet ( 1965) i n h er e xamination o f e thnographic c eramic d iversity i n t he N orth A frican M aghreb a nd t he i mplications f or i nterpreting t he a rchaeological r ecord; h ere w e a lso s ee i ncipient c eramic e thnoarchaeology. T he p rogressive c eramic t echnological c hanges i n S outhwest A sian N atufian t hrough P ottery N eolithic p hases w as r eviewed b y A miran ( 1965), c ombining a p artial e cological a nd e thnoarcheol ogical p erspectives. T he e thnoarchaeological p erspective w as a lso e vident i n S olheim's ( 1965) s tudy o f t he u tilitarian a nd c eremonial f unctions o f p ottery f rom S outheast A sia. M atson p ublished h is c oncept i n t he c hapter " Ceramic E cology: A n A pproach t o t he S tudy o f t he E arly C ultures o f t he N ear E ast" ( Matson 1 965a) i n h is b ook, C eramics a nd M an ( Matson, e d., 1 965). T he a pproach, h e s tated, w as d erived i n p art f rom t he m ethodologies o f h uman e cology ( Bates 1 953) a nd c ultural e cology ( Steward 1 955), a mong o thers. M atson ( 1965a:203) a lso q uoted a p assage f rom C oles ( 1963:97), t hat " ... e nvironmental s tudies, u sing a n umber o f s cientific d isciplines, a re t he o nly j ustifiable w ay w ith w hich t o t reat a rchaeological m aterial." I n t his c ontextual a pproach t o c eramic s tudies, o riginally c onceived a s a p aradigm f or N ear E astern a rchaeology, M atson s ought t o p lace p hysicochemical a nd o ther n atural s cientific d ata i nto a c ombined e cological a nd s ociocultural p erspective b y r elating t he r aw m aterials t o t he c eramic p roducts. M atson b elieved " unless c eramic s tudies l ead t o a b etter u nderstanding o f t he c ultural c ontext i n w hich t hey w ere m ade u sed, t hey f orm a s terile r ecord o f l imited w orth" ( 1965a:202). H e c orrectly o bserved t hat c eramic s tudies h ad t o b ecome m ore h olistic t han t hey h ad b een, t hereby p romulgating t he i ntera nd m ultidisciplinary a pproach t o t he r esearch p roblem. L ikewise, M atson n oted t hat c eramic e cology w as b ut o ne f acet o f c ultural e cology, " that w hich a ttempts t o r elate t he r aw m aterials a nd t he t echnology t hat a l ocal p otter h as i n h is [ or h er] c ulture o f t he p roducts h e [ or s he] f ashions" ( 1965a:203). T his a pproach, h e s uggested,

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s hould h ave t he g oal a nd o rientation o f c ombining " many i nterests h istorical, t echnological, a rtistic, a nd e cological, a mong o thers - [ so] t hat t he p ottery c an b e m ade t o s erve o ur o bjective - t he b etter u nderstanding o f m an t hrough t he s tudy o f t he m aterial r emains t hat h ave b een l eft..." ( 1965a:216). I n h is c hapter, M atson d etailed s even v ariables: E nvironment, W ater, ( with c onsiderations o f W ear a nd S urface T reatments), F ood, F uel, C lay, t he P otter, T he P roduct ( with a n i ncomplete i nventory o f 4 2 c eramic c ategories), a nd I nteraction. I n t his l atter s ection, M atson ( 1965a:213) e lucidated t he dynamic e cological v ariables: T he s tate o f t ransitory e quilibrium e xisting b etween t he t hree c hief e lements o f a c eramic e cological s tudy - t he p hysical, b iological, a nd c ultural - i s e asily a ltered b y a c hange i n o ne o f t hem. S ince n one o f t he t hree c an b e c onsidered c onstant o ver e xtended p eriods o f t ime, i t m ight b e b etter t o t hink o f t heir c ontinuing i nteraction a nd t o u se c eramic d ata f rom h istorically d ocumented c ultures a s a g uide i n t he s tudy o f t he f ar e arlier o nes. H e f urther n oted t hat c hanges i n t he p hysical e nvironment were r elatively r are, a nd t hat c hanges i n t he b iological e nvironment ( drought, d isease a nd a cts o f h umankind) would h ave a m ore d irect i mpact o n t he c eramic p roducts. M atson f urther o bserved t hat " food a nd f uel a re n ecessary f or s urvival" ( 1965a:213), a p oint o f o rientation f or a c ompanion a rticle, " Power a nd F uel R esources i n t he A ncient N ear E ast" ( 1966), t o h is c eramic e cology s tatement. O f i mport i s t he f inal p ortion o f t he l ast s entence i n t he a bove q uotation i t.. u se c eramic d ata f rom h istorically d ocumented c ultures a s a g uide i n t he s tudy o f f ar e arlier o nes" i n w hich we s ee a n i ncipient p roposal f or t he s ubdiscipline a nd methodological o rientation n ow c alled c eramic e thnoarchaeology ( Kramer 1 985). L astly, M atson s tated t hat " for a l ong w hile p otsherds h ave s erved a s t he r aw d ata f or s tratigraphical a nd c hronological s tudies, a nd t he h uman a spects o f t his m an-made a nd m an-used p roduct h ave b een n eglected" ( 1965a:216). T his c all w as t o be h eeded. T he f inal c hapter i n C eramics a nd M an, e ntitled " Ceramic Q ueries" ( Matson 1 965b), c onsisted o f a t abulation o f s pecific s tatements a nd q uestions a bout c eramics a nd t heir c ultural s ignificance. T hese " queries" w ere o rganized u nder 1 7 h eadings a nd d erived f rom M atson's a nalysis o f t he p ublished p apers a nd t he s tudy o f t ranscribed s ymposium d iscussions. H e c alled t hese s tatement " gleanings, s ome o f t he h arvest" o f i deas a nd q uestions ( Matson 1 965b:277), b ut m ade n o a ttempt t o

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o rganize t hem i n a c omprehensive f orm s uch a s w as f ound i n N otes a nd Q ueries o n A nthropology ( Royal A nthropological I nstitute 1 951:276-279). T he l atter, u nder t he t opic o f " Pottery," d etailed s uch a spects a s p ottery i mportation a nd e xport, w ho m akes t he c eramic a rticles, t he r aw m aterials, p rocesses o f m anufacture, f inishing a nd d ecorating v essels, f iring t echniques, v essel s hapes a nd n ames, t he u ses o f b roken p ottery. M atson's ( 1965b) 1 7 t opics i ncluded: G eneral, O rigins, C lay, P ottery P roduction, S hape, D ecoration, T echnology, E cology, T ime S pan, R itual, C ooking, M etals, S tatus, T rade a nd D iffusion, C ulture C hange, R esistance t o C hange, a nd E conomics. T here h as b een a t l east o ne a ttempt t o m odify a nd r eorganize t hese " queries" a nd p lace c eramic e cology i n a m ore l ogical " cookbook" a pproach i n o rder t o s tudy a rchaeological o r c ontemporary p ottery ( Kolb 1 976, 1 988b:10). B alfet ( 1965:176-177), i n h er c hapter i n C eramics a nd M an, c ommented o n t he u se o f q uestionnaires o r o utlines f or o bserving p ottery p roduction, a nd l amented S hepard's ( 1956:93) p osition t hat s uch l ists " may d o m ore h arm t han g ood" b ecause s omething m ight b e l eft o ut. T o t he c ontrary, B alfet, l ike M atson ( 1951:113-114), w as m ore c oncerned w ith t he " frequently i ncomplete c haracter o f t he d escriptions" f ound i n t he e thnographic r ecord, a nd u rged t he u se o f s uch q uestionnaries s o a s t o b e a ble t o i ntegrate a ll f acets o f c eramic m anufacture. A s s he s tated ( Balfet 1 965:177), " ... a n i ncrease i n t he n umber a nd p recision o f t he o bservations i s o f l ess i mportance i n t he l ong r un t han a n u nderstanding o f t heir i ntegration i n t he t echnical e nsemble a nd t he w hole c ultural e nvironment, t hat i s t o s ay i n a t ruly e thnological p erspective." L inn g( 1965:40) c ommented t hat " as a r ule, t he l ife e xpectancy o f t heories i s b rief. O n t he o ther h and t he s ecrets w rested b y t he e thnographer f rom a ncient c raftsmen a nd i nventors v ia t heir l atter-day d escendants c onstitutes f irm a nd e nduring s tuff." M atson's ( 1965a, 1 965b) c eramic e cology p aradigm a nd " queries" a ddressed t hese i ssues. I n s um, c eramic e cology, a s p roposed b y M atson w as a c ontextural, a nalytical a pproach t o c eramics a nd p ottery i n w hich t he i nvestigator s ought t o p lace p hysical s cientific d ata i nto b oth a n e cological a nd s ociocultural ( and s ocioeconomic, s ociopolitical, e tc.) f rame r eference b y r elating t he t echnological p roperties o f t he r aw m aterial r esources ( clays a nd a plastics) t o t he m anufacture, d istribution, u se, a nd d iscard o f c eramic p roducts ( Arnold 1 971, 1 975, 1 981, 1 985:9; K olb 1 976, 1 982, 1 983a, 1 983b, 1 984, 1 986, 1 988c, 1 988e, 1 988f, 1 988g, 1 988h; L ackey 1 982; R ice 1 981, 1 982, 1 984a, 1 984b, 1 984c, 1 987:314-317; R ye 1 981:2; a mong o thers). I ncreasingly a fter W orld W ar T wo, a rchaeology w as

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s ignificantly a ffected b y t echnological d evelopments, m any o f w hich w ere t he r esult o f w ar r esearch ( e.g. r adiocarbon d ating, m agnetometric s urveying, e tc.). O ne m ajor t heoretical o rientation, p reviously d ocumented, w as a r enewed i nterest i n e nvironmental f actors a nd t he u se o f e cological m odels i n e xplaining h uman c ultural d evelopment. I n a ddition, t he i ntegration o f a rchaeological a nd e thnographic i nformation - l eading t o e thnoarchaeology s aw s ignificant d evelopment, e specially o n t he s tudies o f m aterial c ulture a nd a spects o f m anufacturing t echnologies a nd s trategies. T he 1 940-1960 p eriod w as c haracterized a s " The C lassificat ory-Historical P eriod: T he C oncern w ith C ontext a nd F unction," w hile t he p ost-1960 p eriod i n w hich c eramic e cology d eveloped, w as c alled " The E xplanatory P eriod" ( Willey a nd S abloff 1 980). T he a uthors a nd t heir p ublications c ited a bove r eflect t his o rientation. G lyn D aniel ( 1975:355), i n A H undred a nd F ifty Y ears o f A rchaeology, t ermed t he p eriod 1 940-1970 a s t he " era o f s cience a nd a rchaeology," a nd c ited " F. R . M atson's m icroscopic a nalysis a nd o bjective d escription o f t he c lays f rom w hich p ottery w as m ade .." w ithout m entioning c eramic e cology. K ramer, i n h er r eview a rticle " Ceramic E thnoarchaeology" ( 1985:78), e quated M atson's t echnological s tudies w ith t he " classical" w orks o f B unzel ( 1929), S hepard ( 1956, 1 963, 1 965), a nd T hompson ( 1958), a ll o f w hom w ere N orth A merican s pecialists.

T he

P eriod

o f

R efinement:

1 965-1980

M atson ( 1965b:277, 1 86) a nticipated t hat t he " Ceramics a nd M an" c onference w as " but a s tart." H is v olume w as w ell r eceived b y a nthropologists a nd c eramic s pecialists ( Kolb 1 988b:10-11), a nd t he c hapter o n c eramic e cology w as r eprinted i n t wo w idely-used r eaders i n a nthropology. H owever, t he i nitial i mpact o f c eramic e cology w as m ixed, b ut e specially a ttracted c eramic a rchaeologists a nd e thnoarchaeologists, b oth A merican a nd E uropean ( Arnold 1 971, 1 975, 1 981, 1 985:12-15; K olb 19 737 1 976, 1 982, 1 983b, 1 984; K ramer 1 985:78-82, 9 1-94; L ackey 1 982; P ritchard a nd v an d er L eeuw 1 984:4-21; R ice 1 981, 1 982, 1 984a, 1 984b 1 984c, 1 985:313-317; R ice, e d., 1 984; R ye 1 981:2, 1 04; v an d er L eeuw 1 976, 1 984a, 1 984b; v an d er L eeuw a nd P ritchard, e ds., 1 984; a mong o thers). G raduate s tudents a nd f aculty a t P enn S tate a nd o ther c olleges a nd u niversities, n otably h is " students" A rnold, K olb, L ackey, R ice, a nd S heehy ( all w ith M esoamerican i nterests), a nd J ohnston ( with a C ircum-Mediteranean i nterest) u sed a nd m odified t he c oncept o f c eramic e cology, a dapting i t t o t heir o wn p articular r esearch p roblems. A rnold, a s a P enn S tate f aculty m ember, w as d irectly i nfluenced b y M atson, a s

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w ere P enn S tate g raduate s tudents ( Kolb, J ohnston, R ice, a nd S heehy) a nd a t l east o ne a t A merican U niversity ( Lackey). R ice's d edicatory r emarks i n P ots a nd P otters ( Rice, e d., 1 984:xiv) w ere a pplicable a nd c ontinue t o m ark M atson's c areer, e ven n ow i n s o-called " retirement," a s h e y et c onducts f ield a nd l aboratory r esearch a nd p ublishes: H e h as a ided h undreds, p erhaps t housands o f s cholars i n t heir c omprehension o f c eramic m aterials, n ot o nly t hrough h is t eaching a t P enn S tate b ut i n h is m any y ears o f g uest l ecturing, v isiting p rofessorships, c ommittee p articipation, c onsultancies, a nd a s imple g enerosity o f h is t ime, i nterest, a nd e xpertise. T horough, m eticulous, a nd a p erfectionist, P rofessor M atson e xpected n o l ess f rom h is s tudents a nd c olleagues. T he d ecade f ollowing t he p ublication o f C eramics a nd M an w as a p eriod d uring w hich n ew a nd r evised r esearch d esigns, f ield m ethods, l aboratory p rocedures, p hysicochemical a nd t echnical a nalyses, a nd e xplanatory t echniques w ere d eveloped. A mong t hese " new" t rends, s ometimes a ssociated w ith t he " new" a rchaeology ( Binford 1 972) w ere e thnoarchaeology, s ystems t heory, a nd p rocessural a rchaeology, a ll o f w hich h ad a n i mpact o n e cological a nthropology a nd c eramic e cology. A lthough t his w as t he p eriod o f t he d evelopment o f n umerous a nd d ivergent i nnovative t rends, I s hall f ocus o n t hose l eading t o r efinements i n e cological a nthropology a nd t o s ystems t heory a nd e thnoarchaeology b efore e xamining c eramic e cology i n 1 980s. D avid C larke, i n h is b ook A nalytical A rchaeology ( 1968:102-128), d evoted a n e ntire c hapter t o c ultural e cology f rom a n a rchaeological p erspective, a nd p rovided s everal d iagrams t o i llustrate h is s ystems t heory c oncept o f s ubsystems i n e cological t heory. I n a t wo-dimensional m odel, h e p ostulated f ive n etworked s ubsystems: 1 ) S ocial S ubsystem ( inferred p ersonal r elationships, i ncluding k inship a nd r ank s tatus), 2 ) R eligious S ubsystem ( beliefs r elated t o t he s upernatural, a b ody o f d octrine, a nd s equence o f r ituals), 3 ) P sychological S ubsystem ( supra-personal s ubconscious b eliefs a nd c omparative v alues), 4 ) E conomic S ubsystem ( subsistence methods a nd e xtraction t echniques w hich f eed a nd e quip t he s ociety), 5 ) M aterial C ulture S ubsystem ( artifacts, b ehavior p atterns, a nd t echnologies), a nd 6 ) E nvironment ( surrounding t he w hole). T he P sychological S ubsystem w as c onsidered t o b e " centrally e ncased b y t he o ther s ubsystems a g enetic i nheritance m odified b y a n

i nduced f ield" ( 1968:103). F urther e laborations a nd a d iagram w ere p resented ( Clarke 1 968:102-103, F ig.13); t he d iagram i s r eproduced h ere a s F igure 2 a. W hile t his model w as c onceived a s b eing s tatic, a s econd s chematic p aradigm, i n t his c ase t hree-dimensional, w as s uggested. T he v ariables i n t his c onstruct i ncluded: 1 ) E nvironment ( surrounding t he w hole), 2 ) E conomy ( the E conomic S ubsystem a s a bove), 3 ) S ocial P attern ( the S ocial S ubsystem), 4 ) M aterial C ulture ( as a bove), 5 ) R eligious P attern ( the R eligious S ubsystem), a nd 6 ) T ime. T his m odel w as i n a n o scillating s tate o f d ynamic e quilibrium ( Clarke 1 968:104, F ig. 1 4), t he d iagram i s r eproduced a s F igure 2 b. A s m ay b e n oted, e ach v ariable i s i nteracting w ith a ll o ther v ariables, a s i llustrated b y t he a rrows. C larke a lso s aw t he e nvironment a s a s ystem w ithin s ubsystems, a nd d eveloped a s tatic m odel t o i llustrate t he i nteractions o f: 1 ) F lora, 2 ) F auna, 3 ) C limate, 4 ) Geology, 5 ) Sn ( "the s ummation o f t he e ffects o f o ther a lien s ociocultural s ystems w ithin t he s ame i nterconnected t erritory"), a nd 6 ) T ime. W ith t he v ariable o f T ime, t his p aradigm w as v iewed a s a t hree-dimensional c onstruct ( Clarke 1 968:123-124, F ig. 1 6), t he d iagram i s r eproduced h ere a s F igure 2 c. U ltimately, C larke c ombined t hese p revious m odels i nto a c omplex d iagram ( 1968:125-128, F ig. 1 7) w hich w as t hree-dimensional, b ut t o my m ind m ay b est b e v iewed a s a s phere m oving t hrough s pace ( e.g. T ime). t his f inal d iagram i s s een i n F igure 2 d. S ee a lso t he p apers i n C larke ( ed., 1 972). G eneral S ystems T heory a s a m ode o f a nalysis i n a rchaeological r esearch w as d erived f rom a n umber o f p hysical a nd b ehavioral s ciences, m ost n otably cybernetics a nd s ociology. F or a r eview o f t hese o rigins, s ee A shby ( 1956), B oulding ( 1956, 1 968), B uckley ( 1967; e d., 1 968) v on B ertalanffy ( 1962), a nd P log ( 1975). T he u se o f s ystems t heory d ated a t l east t o C larke's ( 1968) methodological t reatise, A nalytical A rchaeology, a nd F lannery's ( 1968a, 1 968b) a pplications i n M esoamerican r esearch. C larke's m odels s till r emain t he m ost c ömplex a nd c omprehensive a ttempt t o a pply G eneral S ystems T heory t o a rchaeology. W atson, L eBlanc, a nd R edman ( 1971), i n t heir e arly a ttempt t o s ummarize t he m any d istinct i nnovative t rends o f t he " new" a rchaeology, d evoted a c hapter t o s ystems t heory ( 1971:61-87) a nd o ne t o c ultural e cology ( 1971:88-107). T he b asic p remise o f G eneral S ystems T heory w as t hat s ome s ystems a re s o b asic i n n ature t hat t hey c an b e f ound o perating i n n early e very f ield, a nd t hat t he t heoretical g oal w as t o c lassify s ystems a ccording t o t he w ay t heir c omponents w ere o rganized a nd i nterrelated t o a s t o d erive " laws" o r t ypical p atterns o f b ehavior f or

( Kolb) F igure 2 : E cological f rom C larke ( 1968:102-128; A nalytical A rchaeology.

a

T heory D iagrams. R eproduced F igs. 1 3, 1 4, 1 6, 1 7) i n

E NV IRONMENT

T ime

h

ENV IRONMENT

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-

( Kolb)

F igure 2 :

E cological

T heory D iagrams

( continued).

d

F AUNA

R e l ig ious s ubsys tem

C L IMATE

F LORA

Ma te r ia l c u l tu re s ubsys tem

G EO— L OGY

T ime

t he d ifferent c lasses o f s ystems. I n c ultural s ystems, t he w hole w as g reater t han t he s um o f i ts c omponent p arts, s ome s ystems w ere o pen, o thers c losed a nd t here w ere s table o r u nstable s tates o f e quilibria. H omeostasis, a p rocess w orking i n o pen s ystems, a ssisted i n m aintaining t he s tructure w ithin c ertain l imits i n t he f ace o f c hanging e nvironments, w hile m orphogenesis c onsisted o f s tructure-maintaining f eatures p lus s tructure-elaborating a nd c hanging f eatures o f t he i nherently d ynamic, c omplex a daptive s ystem. A s imple d iagram w ith i nput ( stimulus), s ensor, t he s ystem, a ct, a nd o utput ( response), w ith a f eedback l oop w as i llustrated ( Watson, L eBlanc, a nd R edman 1 971:74, F ig. I II-1). A mong t he s ubdisciplines w ithin s ystems t heory w ere I nformation T heory a nd G ame T heory. I n t he 1 970s a nd i nto t he 1 980s, G eneral S ystems T heory b ecame u seful i n a rchaeology n ot o nly a s a t heory, b ut a lso a s a g roup o f c oncepts, a s et o f m odeling t echniques, a s ource o f t estable p ropositions a nd p aradigms, a nd a s a n e xplana tory m odel ( Flog 1 985:208). A b asic c haracteristic o f s ystems m odeling i n a rchaeology h as b een t he u se o f f low c harts a nd d iagrams t o s ummarize c omplex e thnographic d escriptions, c omplex t heoretical o rientations, a nd b uild i nterpretative p aradigms ( Clarke 1 968; C larke, e d. 1 972; S chiffer 1 972; F lannery 1 972; F log 1 974; J oachim 1 979; H ardesty 1 980). T he m id-1970s m arked a t rend i n e cological a nthropology f rom N eoevolutionism a nd N eofunctionalism t oward a n ew s tage, P rocessural E cological A nthropology ( Orlov 1 980:245-261). A more c areful e xamination o f t he i nterrelationships b etween d emography a nd p roduction s ystems ( subsistence a nd c raft), t he r esponses o f h uman p opulations t o e nvironmental s tresses ( physical, b iological, a nd c ultural), a nd t he e laboration o f c oncerns a nd m odels o f a daptative s trategies w ere s ignificant t rends. T he b asic d emographic-subsistence p ostulates o f t he 1 960s ( Boserup 1 965) were r efined ( Cowgill 1 975), a nd i ndividual a s w ell a s g roup ( e.g. p opulation) r esponses t o e nvironmental s tresses w ere e xamined. S ometimes t hese i nvolved d eveloping a ctor-based p aradigms ( an e xamination o f t he d iversity a nd v ariability w ithin h uman p opulations). S pecific m echanisms w hich r esulted i n c hange w ere p ostulated, a nd t here w ere m ore p recise s tudies o f p roductive a nd e xtractive a ctivities, s ettlement p atterns, a nd mechanisms w hich l inked h uman b ehaviors a nd a daptive s trategies t o t he e nvironmental s tresses. C ooperation a s w ell a s c onflict-resolution d ecision-making m odels w ere d eveloped i n e thnography a nd u sed i n a rchaeological a nalyses. B ehavioral c hoices a t b oth t he i ndividual a nd g roup l evels, a nd t he i nterrelationships b etween t he p hysical, b iological, s ocial, a nd c ultural s ubsystems

which i nfluenced t he p roduction r esources w ere e laborated.

a nd

d istribution

o f

O ne p articular t rend w hich g ained m omentum d uring t he l ate 1 960s a nd m atured i n t he 1 970s w as e thnoarchaeology. I n p art t his s pecialization c ame i nto b eing b ecause t raditional e thnographers l ike m any a rchaeologists i n t he p ost-World W ar T wo p eriod b egan t o c onduct f ewer h olistic s tudies a s t heir r esearch o rientations b ecame m ore a spectural o r p articularlitic. T his e mphasis o n s ome b ut n ot a ll a spects o f t he U niversal C ulture P attern, l ikewise l ed t oward i ncreasing s pecializations s uch a s p sychological a nthropology, medical a nthropology, a esthetic a nthropology, s ymbolic a nthropology, l egal a nthropology, g ender s tudies, e thnosemantics, k inship t heory, v isual a nthropology, a nd v arious f orms o f a pplied a nthropology, t o n ame o nly a f ew. T he p roliferation o f member a ssociations - t opical a nd r egional a ffiliated w ith t he A merican A nthropological A ssociation i s m oot w itness t o t hese s pecializations. E thnographers c onducted f ewer a nd f ewer h olistic i nvestigations o f s ocieties o r c ommunities, a nd t here w as e specially a d ecline i n t he q uality a nd q uantity o f d ocumentation o f h ousehold a nd c ommunity m aterial c ulture, a nd t he s o-called e veryday o r c ommonplace t echnological p rocesses s uch a s t he m anufacture o f b asketry, t extiles, a nd p ottery. T herefore, a rchaeologists, n ow m ore a nd m ore i n n eed o f p recise c ultural d ata o n h ousehold p henomena, c ommunity p ractices, e tc. i n w hich m aterial c ulture p layed a r ole, b egan t o c onduct t heir own l imited e thnographic s tudies t o o btain t he d etailed i nformation t hey n ow r equired t o i nterpret t he a rchaeological r ecord w ithin t he f ramework o f t he " new" a rchaeology ( Binford 1 962, 1 972, 1 979). T he a dage t hat a rchaeologists h ad t o b e c ultural a nthropologists f irst i n o rder t o i nterpret t he a rchaeological r ecord w as i mplicit i n t he d evelopment o f e thnoarchaeology. E thnoarchaeology d eveloped a s a s tudy w hich s ought t o i ntegrate a rchaeological f inds a nd c ontexts w ith e thnographic i nformation. S pecifically, i t g rew f rom a n a rchaeological p erspective s o a s t o b etter i nterpret m aterial c ulture w ithin t he f ramework o f o btaining i nformation a bout a rtifacts a nd t echnologies f rom i ndividuals o r t heir d irect d escendants w ho w ere i nvolved w ith a rtifact p roduction ( Oswald 1 974:3; W illey a nd S abloff 1 980:86-87, 2 06). E lsie C lews P arsons ( 1940) w as a p ioneer w ho r elated a rchaeological a nd e thnographic d ata f rom s ites i n t he A merican S outhwest, b ut a s eminal p ublication w hich a ttempted t o a nalyze e thnographic d ata a bout m aterial c ulture w ithin a n i nterpretive f ramework w as T hompson's ( 1958) s tudy o f Y ucatecan M aya p otters.

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H is s tudy, d esigned f or u se b y a rchaeologists, i nvolved c ollecting e thnographic d ata o n p ottery m anufacture t o p rovide a h ypothetical m odel f or p urposes o f e xperimentation s o a s t o r efine a rchaeological i nferences. M anufacturing t echniques f rom 1 p ottery-making c enters w ere c ollected, a nd t hese d ata a nd i nitial i nterpretations w ere a nd c ontinue t o b e o f s pecial i mportance t o s tudents o f M aya c eramics a nd a nyone w orking w ith p ottery. R ye a nd E vans' ( 1976) s tudy o f P akistani p otters w as a lso a n e xemplary e cologically-oriented s tudy. K ramer ( 1985:77-78), i n h er s alient s ummary o f c eramic e thnoarcheological r esearch, n oted t hat e thnoarchaeological s tudies h ad a s a n u ltimate o bjective a n i mproved u nderstanding o f t he r elationships b etween p atterned b ehaviors a nd t he m aterial c ulture c ontexts. W hen s uch *i nvestigations c entered o n c eramics a s t he p rimary m aterial c ulture c omponent t he r esearch w as s aid t o b e w ithin t he d iscipline o f c eramic e thnoarchaeology. B ecause c eramics a re r elatively a bundant, d iverse, a nd u sually i mperishable a rtifacts o ccurring i n n umerous c ulture a reas t hroughout r elatively l ong t ime s pans, a nd s ince t hey p lay a s ignificant r ole i n m any s ocial, e conomic, a nd r itual a ctivities ( Arnold 1 985:1), t his f orm o f m aterial c ulture w as a n e xcellent s ource o f d ata a nd i nterpretations. C eramic e thnoarchaeology, t herefore, h as p rovided a n a ttractive r esearch p aradigm, w hereas l ithic e thnoarchaeology h as n ot m anifested s uch a n i nterest. C eramic r eplication a nd e xperimental s tudies i n a rchaeology h ad b een w ell e stablished b y t he 1 930s ( Colton 1 953) a nd d eveloped f rom a n i nterest i n d etermining m anufacturing t echniques a nd f iring c onditions. While t he s tudy o f r eplication i nvolved, i n t he m ain, o bservations o f c ontemporary p otters a nd r eviews o f t he e thnohistoric l iterature ( see t he S ection " Early S tudies t o 1 950: A B rief R eview"), e xperimental s tudies h ad o ther g oals a nd d erived f rom t he p hysical s ciences. A mong t he e arly i nvestigators w ere M atson ( 1971, 1 975) a nd H ammond ( 1971). T he l aboratory r efiring o f p otsherds o r t he f iring o f s pecially p repared t est t iles o r b riquettes m ade f rom d iverse c lays ( with v arious t empers, l iquids, e tc. a s o ther v ariables) d erived f rom c eramic e ngineering. S uch f irings o r r efirings w ere u sually c onducted u nder c ontrolled c onditions i n e lectric k ilns, a nd d raw t rials ( removing s herds o r t est t iles a t a s eries o f i ncreasing t ime a nd/or t emperature i ntervals) u sed t o e stablish t he r elationships t o a n umber o f p hysical p roperties, i ncluding c olor d evelopment, s hrinkage, w eight l oss, h ardness, p orosity, e tc. ( Shepard 1 956:213-224; R ice 1 987:344-345, 4 27-428). A n a ltern ative s trategy i nvolved t he u se o f a t hermal g radient

f urnace ( Matson 1 974). S uch i ncipient i nvestigations h ave l ed t o a rchaeothermometry ( the e stimation o f f iring t emperature, a nd d eterminations o f c hemical a nd m ineralogical a lterations i n t he c lay o r s herds) a s a s pecialized s ubdiscipline ( Rice 1 987:426-435).

T he

1 980s

I n c eramic a rchaeology t he c urrent d ecade i s m arked by a s eries o f c onferences, s ymposia, f estschrift, a nd a n umber o f i mportant b ooks w hich d emonstrate t he i ncreasing i nter- a nd m ultidisciplinary o rientations t o c eramic m aterials ( see K olb 1 989a i n t his v olume). A t l east s ome e lements o f c eramic e cology, s ystems p aradigms, c eramic e thnoarchaeology, a nd o ther p ottery-oriented r ecent t rends a re t o b e f ound i n t he c onference p ublications a nd o ther w orks. T he s ymposium " Ceramics a s A rchaeological M aterial" o rganized b y J acqueline S . O lin a nd A lan D . F ranklin, a nd c o-sponsored b y t he N ational B ureau o f S tandards a nd S mithsonian I nstitution, w as h eld f rom S eptember 2 9-October 1 , 1 980 i n G aithersburg, M aryland a nd i n W ashington, D .C. T his c onference w as d esigned t o d emonstrate t he m aterials s cience a pproach t o a rchaeological p roblems a nd e xemplify t he a ctual a nd p otential i nterrelationships b etween c eramic p roblems a nd p hysicochemical methods. T wenty-two o f t he 2 8 o riginal c ontributions w ere p ublished i n a v olume e ntitled A rchaeological C eramics ( Olin a nd F ranklin, e ds., 1 962). T he c ontents o f t his b ook a re d etailed i n A ppendix B . F ive p apers w ere g rouped u nder " Methodology," n ine u nder " Physical a nd C hemical M ethods," a nd e ight u nder " Archaeological E xamples." T he i ntroductory p apers i n t he s eminar a nd i n t he v olume i ncluded t hose b y M atson ( 1982) a nd K ingery ( 1982), t he l eading a uthorities o n a rchaeological c eramics. M atson's c ontribution, " Archaeological C eramics a nd t he P hysical S ciences: P roblem D efinition a nd R esults," s erved a s t he i nitial c hapter. M atson a sked a f undamental q uestion - " What i s o ne t rying t o l earn f rom t he s tudy o f a ncient p ottery?" - a nd t hen p roceded t o d elineate i ntera nd m ultidisciplinary a pproaches u seful i n t he s tudy o f a rchaeological c eramics. H e w rote ( 1982:20): C eramic r emains f orm a m ajor p art o f m any a rchaeological r ecords, b ut d o t hey t ell u s much a bout t he p eople w ho m ade a nd u sed t hem? C ould t hey t ell u s m ore? I t i s e ssential t o a sk t he q uestion, " What i s o ne t rying t o l earn f rom t he s tudy o f a ncient p ottery?" I t i s n ot

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f rom t he s tudy o f a ncient p ottery?" I t i s n ot a lways o bvious w hat q uestions s hould b e a sked w hen u sing t he d ata p rovided b y s cientists, w ho s hould h elp f ormulate t he a rchaeological q uestions. T oo o ften, p ottery a nd g lass f ragments, u ncritically s elected, h ave b een s tudied b ecause i nteresting a nalytical a nd d escriptive p roblems w ere a pparent a nd s amples f or s tudy w ere u navailable. M atson e nded h is p resentation b y m aking e ight s uggestions f or f uture s tudies ( 1962:25-26), n oting t hat " We h ave a l ot t o d o." K ingery's c hapter, " Plausible I nferences f rom C eramic A rtifacts" ( 1962), d ocumented t he n eed t o a ddress t he q uestions o f w hen, w here, h ow, b y w hom, a nd w hy a p articular c eramic w as p roduced. T he w here, w hen, a nd h ow i nvolved i n t he m ain, p roblems i n t he r ealm o f c haracterization a nd m aterials s cience s tudies o f t he p ottery a s a m aterial, w hile t he w hy a nd b y w hom q ueries i nvolved p roblems o f p rocess a nd f unction, i n t he m ain, w ithin t he d omain o f a nthropology. H owever, K ingery s tressed t hat t he p hysical s cientist a nd measurement s pecialist d oing t he c haracterizations n eeded t o w ork c losely w ith t he a rchaeologist, w hile, c onversely, t he a rchaeologist/anthropologist n eeded t o w ork c losely w ith t he m aterials s cientist. I n h is v iew t o b e a ble t o e xtract t he m ost p lausible i nferences, t he m ulti- a nd i nterdisciplinary h olistic a pproach w as a p rerequisite, a nd t he c oncept o f c eramic e cology c ould b e u sed a s a g uide b y a ll s tudents o f c eramic m aterials. T he methodological c hapters i n A rchaeological C eramics e xplicitly o r i mplicitly m ade u se o f c eramic e cology a s a c oncept ( Matson 1 962:20, K ingery 1 962:40, R ice 1 962:52-5) 4). L ikewise, t he c oncept w as n oted i n t he c ontributions b y M aniatis, S imopoulos, a nd K ostikas ( 1962:71, 1 02); A lexander a nd J ohnston ( 1962:1) 45); B etancourt ( 1962:183); a nd K olb ( 1962:194); a mong o thers. O ral p resentations, q uestions a nd a nswers, a nd i nformal d iscussions a t t he 1 980 s ymposium f requently m ade r eference t o t he n eed f or c ontinued i nterdisciplinary r esearch a nd t he c eramic e cological i dea. A lexander a nd J ohnston ( 1982:1) 45) n oted M atson's " landmark b ook," a nd f urther s tated " In 1 970 he i nstituted t he p hrase ' archaeological p resent' t o d escribe h is e thnographic a nd e cological s tudies, a ll o f w hich a dded n ew d imensions t o t he s tudy o f a ncient m aterial." H ere w e s ee t he i nterrelationship o f c eramic e cology a nd c eramic e thnoarchaeology. A f estschrift v olume, P ots A pproaches i n C eramic A rchaeology

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a nd P otters: C urrent ( Rice, e d., 1 984), w as

p repared t o h onor M atson o n h is t ransition f rom P rofessor o f A rchaeology t o e meritus s tatus a t P enn S tate i n 1 978. T he b ook w as a n o utgrowth a nd u pdating o f M atson's ( ed., 1 965) C eramics a nd M an, a nd e laboration o f t he s tatus o f c eramic s tudies w hich s ought t o s how " ... h ow p ottery f rom a v ariety o f t emporal a nd g eographical c ontexts w hen s tudied b y a v ariety o f m ethods a nd p oints o f v iew c an b e i nformative b oth a s t o t he n ature o f t he p ottery i tself a s w ell a s t he p eople w ho m ade a nd u sed i t" ( Rice, e d., 1 984:xiii). T he 1 6 c ontributions w ere s olicited f rom a mong M atson's s tudents a nd c olleagues. R ice g rouped t he p apers i nto t hree p rimary u nits: P art I , " Potters i n t heir E nvironment" ( five p apers r elating t o c eramic e cology); P art I I, " Ethnoarchaeological S tudies" ( five c ontributions o n e xperimental a rchaeology); a nd P art I II, " Technological A nalysis o f P ottery" ( five p apers); p lus a c oncluding c hapter, " Overview a nd P rospect" ( Rice 1 984b). T he c ontributions a re d etailed i n A ppendix C . T he f ive p apers c omprising P art I d ealt o ne w ay o r a nother w ith t he c oncept o r s cope o f c eramic e cology b y d emonstrating t he i nterrelationships b etween a ncient p ottery, t he c ultural m ilieu, a nd e nvironments ( physical, b iological, a nd c ultural) i n w hich i t w as p roduced. T wo p apers ( by T hompson a nd P orada) e xemplified t he a rt h istorical a pproach i n w hich h umanistic i nterpretations o f c eramic d ecorations p rovided i nformation o n p ottery m aking a nd t he s ocial e nvironment. A t hird p aper ( by J acobsen) u sed e nvironmental v ariables, d ata o n t ranshumant p astoralism, a nd h uman a daptations t o e xplicate t he d istribution o f p ottery i n N eolithic s outhern G reece. R ice's ( 1984a) o wn c hapter t reated t he p roblem o f c raft s pecialization f rom t he v iewpoint o f c eramic e cology. S he p ostulated m ethodological c onsiderations f or t he a nalysis o f c eramic c raft s pecialization, e mphasizing t he s tudy o f l ocally a vailable r esources ( clays a nd t empers) a nd v ariability p atterns a s s een i n t he c eramic v essels. R ice ( 1984a:50) r eiterated t he f undamental p roCesses o f c eramic e cology i n h er r eview o f s pecialized p ottery p roduction: 1 ) A nalysis o f t he c eramic e nvironment a nd e xploitative t echniques, i ncluding i dentification a nd s ampling o f c eramic r esources, a nd s tudy o f m eteorological a nd/or c limatological f actors; 2 ) A nalysis o f t he b ehavior p atterns i nvolved i n p ottery-making a nd u se ( e.g. i s i t r estricted b y a ge o r s ex? i s i t a h ousehold o r c lass a ctivity? h ow i s i t

l earned? w hat t echniques a re u sed? i s i t d one i ndividually o r c ooperatively i n g roups? h ow i s i t u sed? a re b roken v essels u sed?) 3 ) H ow i s t he b ehavior o f m aking a nd u sing p ottery a ffected b y a nd h ow d oes i t i n t urn a ffect o ther a spects o f c ulture ( settlement p attern, k inship s tructure, e conomic o rganization, c eremonial l ife, a gricultural c ycle, e tc.)? V an d er L eeuw's ( 1984a) c ontribution b ridged c eramic e cology a nd c eramic e thnoarchaec' _ogy. H e d emonstrated t he c omplexity o f v ariables i nvolved i n t he s teps o f p ottery m anufacture ( clay s election t hrough f iring) a s r elated t o t he p roblem o f i dentifying t he p roducts o f d ifferent c eramic w orkshops. H is w as a c autionary t ale i llustrated w ith s alient e xamples f rom a rchaeology a nd e thnography. V an d er L eeuw n oted t hat h is p rocessural s ystems p aradigm w as d eveloped b ased u pon t he i nfluence o f t wo A merican c eramic a rchaeologists ( Shepard 1 956; M atson 1 965a; M atson, e d., 1 965) a nd t wo E uropean m entors ( Franken 1 974; F ranken a nd K alsbeek 1 969, 1 975), b oth S outhwest A sian s pecialists. T he t heoretical o rientations o f t hese i nvestigators w as r eflected i n v an d er L eeuw's ( 1976) t wo-volume d issertation, S tudies i n t he T echnology o f A ncient P ottery, a nd i n h is P ots a nd P otters ( 1984a) p aper. H e p resented d ata o n v ariables o f m anufacture a nd t he e conomics o f t rade, i llustrating h is a rgument w ith d iagrams o f t he p ottery-making e nvironment a nd a d ecision-making m odel o f p aste p reparation. s hall s ubsequently r eturn t hese p aradigms. A n umber o f o ther c hapters i n P ots a nd P otters e mployed a c eramic e cological p erspective i n e thnoarchaeological i nvestigations ( see e specially J ohnston, S olheim, V itelli, a nd A rnold [ Appendix C ]), a nd t echnological s tudies o f p articular c eramics ( see t he c hapters b y K ingery, S teinberg a nd K amilli, a nd K olb. [ Appendix C ]). S everal a uthors n oted t he c oncept o f c eramic e cology i n t heir methodological c onsiderations ( Rice 1 984a:50, v an d er L eeuw 1 984a:55, J ohnston 1 984:81, V itelli 1 984:113, K ingery 1 984:171, a nd S teinberg a nd K amilli 1 984:187). W . D avid K ingery, i n " Interactions o f C eramic T echnology w ith S ociety," b egan h is e ssay w ith t he f ollowing ( Kingery 1 984:171): A s M atson ( 1965:204) s uggested s ome t ime a go, t he s tudy o f c eramics, " in e cological t erms, c an b e a pproached t hrough a c onsideration o f t he n eeds o f t he p eople l iving i n t he r egion ..," a nd a ny s tudy o f c eramics w hich d oes n ot p rovide a b etter u nderstanding o f t he p eople

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w ho made a nd u sed t hem i s o f p retty l imited v alue. A bout t his s ame t ime, I w as i nterested i n t he r elationship b etween m odern s ociety, c eramic s cience a nd t echnological d evelopments. I c oncluded t hat " almost w ith t he f orce o f l aw, t he l evel o f t echnology a lways r ises t o m eet t he m arket f or t echnology. W hen .. a m arket f or t echnology i s e stablished a nd r ecognized a nd t echnological i nnovations a re r egarded, t echnological d evelopments p roceed a t a r apid r ate .." ( Kingery 1 966). H e w ent o n t o s urvey s ome o f t he p revious u ses o f t echnological a nalyses, a nd p rovided a n e volutionary o verview o f s ome o f t he i nterrelationships b etween t echnological d evelopments a nd t he r equirements f or s uch t echnologies i n e arly N ear E astern s ocieties. I n a ddition t o p ottery, K ingery a lso c onsidered p igments, p lasters, a nd r efactory m aterials. I n s ummary, t he p apers i n P ots a nd P otters e xamined c eramic a rchaeology f rom a n umber o f p oints o f v iew, b ut t he p resentations ( with t he e xception o f K ingery's) w ere, i n t he m ain, e laborations o f t he c eramic e cological c oncept, o ften s upplemented b y e thnoarchaeology o r e xperimental s tudies. R ice's c omments o n t he v arious p arts o f t he b ook a re w ell w orth r eading a nd s uggest s he w as a lready f ormulating p ortions o f P ottery A nalysis ( 1987), c f. R ice ( ed., 1 984:xiii-xvii, 3 -5, 7 3-79, 1 65-170; 1 984b). A dditional e vidence o f t he s ignificance o f t he c oncept o f c eramic e cology a s p roposed b y M atson ( 1965a) m ay b e s een i n t he o rganization o f a s econd i nternational c onference o n c eramics h eld i n t he v illage o f L hee, H olland f rom M arch 1 4-20, 1 962. T his s ymposium, l imited t o 2 0 p articipants, w as o rganized b y S ander E . v an d er L eeuw a nd A lison P ritchard, a nd s ponsored ( like t he o riginal " Ceramics a nd M an") b y t he W enner-Gren F oundation f or A nthropological R esearch. T he p apers, e dited b y v an d er L eeuw a nd P ritchard ( 1984) w ere p ublished i n T he M any D imensions o f P ottery: C eramics i n A rchaeology a nd A nthropology, a nd h ad a s a g oal a n " attempt t o e licit a n a ssessment r ather t han a n e laboration" o f c eramic e cology ( 1984: ) 4 ). T his s econd " Ceramics a nd M an" c onference h ad b een " deliberately p lanned a s a s equel" t o t he 1 961 s ymposium, a nd t hree p articipants f rom t he 1 961 g athering w ere a ble t o a ttend t he 1 982 c onference - n amely M atson, B alfet, a nd v an d er W aals ( van d er L eeuw a nd P ritchard, e ds., 1 984:xv). T he 1 7 p apers a re l isted i n A ppendix D . t he s ymposium t heme w as t o a ssess t he s tatus o f c eramic e cology 2 0 y ears a fter i t h ad b een i ntroduced, s ince, a s t he e ditors

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n oted, C eramics a nd M an h ad " provided a m ajor i mpetus i n c eramic s tudies d uring t he t wo d ecades a fter i ts p ublication, a nd i s p robably t he v olume m ost o ften c ited b y E nglish-speaking a rchaeologists w ith t he p ossible e xception o f A nna S hepard's b ook [ Ceramics f or t he A rchaeologist] .." ( Pritchard a nd v an d er L eeuw 1 984:4). R eferring t o C eramics a nd M an a nd P ots a nd P otters, t he e ditors i n t heir i ntroductory r emarks n oted S hepard a nd M atson's " ... i nterests l ie i n t he r ealm o f t he t echnology i nvolved i n t he m anufacture o f p ottery, t he d ating a nd s ourcing o f p otsherds, a nd t he c ontext o f c eramic m anufacture," e specially t he l atter ( Pritchard a nd v an d er L eeuw 1 984:5). T he q ueries K ingery ( 1982) r aised i n h is c hapter i n A rchaeological C eramics w ere s ignificant, b ut t he q uestions o f w hen a nd w here w ere s een t o h ave b een s uperceded b y t he q uestions o f w hy a nd h ow t he p ottery w as m ade. " As a c onsequence, much l ess a ttention i s n ow p aid t o t ypology a nd c ulture-historical r econstructions t han w as t he c ase i n t he p ast" ( 1984:6). T hey w ent o n t o i ndicate t hat " as t he s cope o f t echnological s tudes b ecome w ider, i t b egan t o i nclude m ore a nd m ore o f w hat M atson h ad e arlier t ermed ' ceramic e cology' ( the s tudy o f t he c ontext o f c eramics) . .." ( 1984:9), a nd " both M atson's t erminology ( ' ceramic e cology') a nd s ubsequent d evelopments i n t his f ield h ave s tressed t he n atural c ontext ( e.g. A rnold 1 975), a nd t he u se o f s ystems m odels f rom t he n atural s ciences ( in t his c ase, e cology) t o d escribe i t" ( 1984:14). T he i nitial c hapter i n T he M any D imensions o f P ottery b y M atson ( 1984) w as e ntitled " Ceramics a nd M an R econsidered w ith S ome T houghts f or t he F uture." H e s tated t hat h is c ontribution w as n ot a s tate o f t he a rt s urvey b ut a c ommentary o n s ome a pproaches t o t he s tudy o f c eramics, p articularly t echnological ( physicochemical) s tudies a nd c eramic e thnoarchaeology. M atson b egan h is e ssay b y b riefly t racing m ajor d evelopments f rom c a. 1 930-1960 ( 1984:28-31) b efore r eexamining t he 1 961 " Ceramics a nd M an" c onference o bjectives a nd r esults ( 1984:31-36). I n t he s ubsequent s ection o f h is c hapter, M atson - f rom a n A merican p oint o f v iew - r eviewed a n umber o f c oncerns a bout t he p resent s tatus o f c eramic s tudies ( 1984:36-39). H is f ive p ersonal c aveats d erived f rom h is r ethinking o f c eramic e cology, t he " Ceramics a nd M an" s ymposium, a nd t he c hanges t hat h ad t aken p lace d uring t he 2 0 y ears f ollowing t he p ublication o f h is v olume. H e w rote ( 1984:37) [ emphases m ine]: 1 ) T his i s a p eriod o f c reative e xpansion. A n ew g eneration w ith n on-typological c eramic i nterests h as u sed m any t echnological a nd m athematical t echniques, w ithout a lways h aving t he n ecessary g rounding o r t he c ollaboration

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o f a s cientifically e xperienced c olleague w ith t he t ime t o w ork s ystematically o n t he p roject. T he a ssignment o f g raduate s tudents, w ho h ave h ad b rief e xposure t o t he s cientific d isciplines, t o p rojects i s a dmirable, b ut h as m any p itfalls o f w hich w e s hould b e a ware. 2 ) T he q uestions f ormulated w hen a s tudy i s u ndertaken - t hey n eed n ot b e h ypotheses m ay n ot b e w orth s tudying e xcept a s p eripheral i tems o f c uriosity, o r t o g ain e xperience u sing u nfamiliar t echniques. 3 ) T he s amples u sed f or t he s tudies a re s mall t o r a re q uestionable a s t o t heir r epresentative n ature f or a v ariety o f r easons. T his m ay b e a cceptable i n e xperimental s tudies w hen a pproaches a nd t echniques a re b eing e xamined, b ut n ot b eyond t hat p oint. A c learer i ndication o f i ntent i n t he s tudy w ould b e d esirable. 4 ) T he l ength o f p apers i s t oo g reat. T here i s m erit i n p resenting a s uccinct r eport, p reserving o n f ile t he b ulk o f t he d ata a nd p ossibly d iscussions. T hey c an b e m ade a vailable f or t hose who h ave s pecific n eed f or t hem. 5 ) C eramic p apers p resented a t n ational meetings s hould b e p repared f or t he l istening a udience a nd n ot f or t he p rinting p ress. R ushing t hrough a m ajor p aper i n t he b rief t ime a llotted s erves n o o ne w ell. I a m a lso u neasy a bout t he f acile u se o f t erminology. T hese w ere c autionary t ales, b ut h e c ontinued ( 1984:38), " My o wn i nterests a re v ery s imple - t he s election a nd p rocessing o f c eramic r aw m aterials i n t heir e cological a nd c ultural m ilieu. I s hould l ike t o k now m ore a bout t he r elationships o f t he a vailable r aw m aterials a nd t echnologies t o t he f unctions o f t he c ulture w ithin w hich t he l ocal p otter f ashions h is [ or h er] p roducts. H ow d id t he p otters m aster t he e ffective u se o f l ocal c lays a nd r esolve t he p roblems o f p roduction a nd d istribution?" T he m ore r ecent w ork b y A rnold ( 1985) h as g one f ar t o a ddress t hese c oncerns a nd i nterests ( Kolb 1 989a). M atson a lso i ndicated t hat h e c onsistently a ttempted t o k eep a b road o utline i n m ind s o a s t o o rganize h is f ield n otes, a nd f ound t he f ollowing g roupings " useful" ( 1984:38-39):

1 ) I ntentional o r c hance s election o f s pecific c lays f or r ecognized p urposes f loors, w alls, p lastering, r oofing. u tilitarian p ottery ( noting c ompositional d ifferences f or h andles) - s pecialized w ares - u ses o f s lips, d ecorative p igments - t echniques o f a nd p ersonnel d oing t he d ecoration M O

. .

2 ) E valuation o f s uccess t he m aterials s elected o r o f v essel f orm, s ize, t echniques o f f abrication.

i n p roduction w ith a vailable i n t erms w all t hickness,

3 ) C ontrol o f f iring c onditions - d esign o f h earth o r k iln. . . T he l oading p atterns e mployed f or t he p ottery o f v arying s ize ( and l imestone) F uels, f iring s chedules, k iln m aintenance • •••

4 ) f or

•M•

E valuation o f s uccess i n p otting t he r ange o f w ares p roduced.

5 ) S taff h ousehold. 6 )

o rganization

o f

t he

p ractices

w orkshop

o r

P ost-firing d ispersion o f t he w ares. C onsumer a ttitudes t owards t he p roducts.

7 ) E vidence wear

o f

u se

-

b ase,

8 ) B reakage p atterns. R e-use i ncomplete p ots a s a rtifacts.

r im

o f

a nd

h andle

s herds

o r

H e n oted t he i mportance o f c eramic e thnoarchaeology, o r a s h e p refers, e thno-ceramic a rchaeology ( 1984:52), b ut s tressed t hat i deally a rchaeological e xcavations s hould h ave a f ield s taff member w ho h ad t echnological t raining a nd w ould c ollect b oth a rchaeological a nd e thnographic d ata i n s itu ( 1984:39). I n t he f uture, M atson b elieved t hat f ield a rchaeologists m ust c ontinue t o w ork c losely w ith a rchaeometrists a nd e thnoarchaeologists a nd c onsider h ow p ottery m aking r elates t o o ther v illage c raft a ctivities ( 1984:40). O ne o f t he g reatest n eeds, h e o bserved, w as t he i mportance o f p hysicochemical t echniques ( NAA a nd A AA) b ut t hat t he a rchaeologist m ust o btain i nterpretations o f t he t race a nd m inor e lements f rom t rained g eochemists ( 1984:41). T he u se o f n on-destructive t echniques s uch a s N uclear M agnetic

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R esonance a nd x eroradiography ( Alexander a nd J ohnston 1 982) w as e ncouraged. I n s ummation, M atson s tated t hat " the s ymposiast c olleagues o f J anus s hould n ot a ttempt t o p eer t oo f ar i nto t he f uture, b ut w e m ust d evelop s ound s trategies w ith a n a dequate d ata b ase f or f uture r esearch" ( 1984:42-43), a nd " I t hink t hat o ne h as t o b e b oth a n e xcavating a rchaeologist a nd a t ravelling e thno-ceramic a rchaeologist. S o i t i s f lexibility i n i nterpreting t he e vidence t hat i s r equired b y a n a rchaeologist, n ot j ust u sing t he s pecific e thnographic a nalogies ..." ( 1984:52). T he c ontributions i n T he M any D imensions o f P ottery, i ncluding M atson's ( 1984) i ntroductory e ssay a nd v an d er L eeuw's ( 1984b) c losing c omments, r eflected i mportant c hanges i n t he o rientations t o c eramic a nalyses. A lthough s ome a uthors ( Rice 1 984c:244, P apousek 1 984:477, 4 88) s pecifically r eferred t o c eramic e cology, t he c oncept w as i mplicit i n n early a ll o f t he c hapters a nd d emonstrated t hat i nvestigators w ere k nowledgeable a bout t he c eramic e cological p aradigm b ut c hose t o w rite a bout a spects o f c eramic p roduction, d istribution, u se, a nd d iscard. I n h is f inal r emarks, v an d er L eeuw ( 1984b:715) o bserved t hat " ... i n c eramic s tudies i n p articular, much m ore a ttention h as b een p aid t o t he n atural, r ather t han t he c ultural c ontext, f or e xample, t he t erm ' ceramic e cology,' w hich w as i ntroduced b y M atson .., i s m odelled f rom ' cultural e cology.' B oth o f t hese t erms i mply t hat e ither t he n atural e nvironment p lays t he d ominant r ole, o r t hat c ulture ( or c eramics) m ay p rofitably b e a nalyzed b y u sing a n a pproach w hich f ocusses o n n ature." T his v olume d emonstrated t hat t he a nalysis o f c ultural a nd s ocioeconomic v ariables w as n ow t aking i ts r ightful p lace a long w ith t he t echnological s tudies i n a t rue h olistic c onsideration. D ean A rnold ( 1988:202), i n r eviewing t he v an d er L eeuw a nd P ritchard ( eds., 1 984) v olume, r eferred t o t he o riginal c oncept o f c eramic e cology a nd h ow i t h ad b een m odified d uring t he p revious t wo d ecades. H e c oncluded t hat T he M any D imensions o f P ottery " ... i s t ruly a v olume t hat i s c oncerned w ith t he h uman d imensions o f p ottery: I t i s ' Ceramics a nd M an' a nd ' Ceramic E cology' ( in t he b roadest s ense) a t t heir b est" ( Arnold 1 988:203). T he i solation o f c eramic s tudies f rom s ocioeconomic p atterns w as n ow a t hing o f t he p ast a s b oth a rchaeologists a nd p hysical o r m aterial s cientists b ecame m ore a ware o f t he s ignificance o f o ne a nother's g oals, methods, t he l imitations o f d ata a nd m ethodologies, a nd p roblems o f i nterpreting a nd r eporting r esults. I ndeed, e thnoarchaeology ( van A s 1 984, R ice 1 984c, a nd D eBoer 1 984, a mong o thers), s tylistic a nd d esign a nalyses ( Hardin 1 984), e conomic a nd s ociopolitical r econstruction ( Papousek 1 984), a nd t he u se o f m odeling ( Rice 1 984c,

K rause 1 984, a nd v an d er L eeuw 1 984b, a mong o thers) w as e vident i n t his v olume o f c onference p apers. M atson's ( 1965b:286) s tatement t hat t he 1 961 " Ceramics a nd M an" s ymposium w as " but a s tart" h ad b orn f ruit s o t hat a t t he 1 982 c onference h e b elieved t hat w e c ould a nd s hould " raise o ur c eramic c onsciousness o n a w orld b asis" ( Matson 1 984:43). T he 1 980s w as a lso t he t ime d uring w hich a n umber o f i mportant v olumes o n c eramic s tudies w ere p ublished, m any o f w hich c onsidered o r w ere b ased u pon t he c eramic e cological c oncept. T he p ublications f or t his e ra a re r eviewed i n K olb ( 1989a), b ut t hose w hich p articularly d eserve m ention b ecause o f t heir r elevance i nclude O wen R ye's P ottery T echnology ( 1981:1, 1 04), D ean A rnold's C eramic T heory a nd C ultural P rocess ( 1985:9-11), C arol K ramer's r eview a rticle " Ceramic E thnoarchaeology" ( 1985:78-79), a nd P rudence R ice's P ottery A nalysis: A S ourcebook ( 1987:314-317, 3 28-329, 4 17). A rnold ( 1985:10-11) b elieved t hat t he e ffect o f S teward's ( 1955) c ultural e cological p erspective o n c eramic s tudies h ad b een l imited, b ut n oted t hat M atson ( 1965a) h ad r elated S teward's a pproach t o c eramic s tudies a nd e mphasized t he n eed t o u nderstand t he e nvironmental v ariables a nd t he c ultural p atterns a ssociated w ith p ottery p roduction. I t i s A rnold w ho h as c ome c losest t o d eveloping a g eneralized h olistic t heory o f c eramics, b ut e laborations a nd r efinements a re y et r equired ( Kolb 1 989a). K ramer ( 1985:78) i n r eviewing M atson's ( 1965a) c ontribution s tated t hat t here h ad b een a " ... s hift a way f rom d escriptive a ccounts o f p ottery p roduction p er s e t oward m ore f ocused s tudies o f p articular a spects o f p ottery m anufacture a nd t heir u se i n l arger s ocial a nd e conomic c ontexts a nd t heir i mplications f or a rchaeology. A lthough t he f indings o f t his b ody o f r esearch n ow s eem b anal, t hey h ave s hattered s ome s terotypes a nd a ssumptions l ong h eld b y a rchaeologists."

t he w as

R ice's c omments o n c eramic e cology p arallel a bove, i n p articular s he w rote t hat c eramic ( 1987:314):

s ome o f e cology

.. a c ontextual a pproach t o c eramic a nalysis t hat s eeks t o p lace t echnical d ata i n b oth a n e cological a nd a s ociocultural f rame o f r eference b y r elating t he t echnological p roperties o f t he l ocal r esources t o t he p roduction a nd u se o f c eramic p roducts. C eramic e cology, l ike g eneral c ultural e cology, b egins w ith s tudying t he c eramic e nvironment - l ocal r esources u sed i n p ottery m aking a s w ell a s w ith d escribing t he

S he a lso c orrectly s tated t hat " ceramic e cology i s a r estatement o f e arlier i deas o n t he r elation o f c ultural i nterpretations o f t echnical d ata .." ( Rice 1 987:328). I n h er r eview o f c haracterization s tudies, R ice ( 1987:417) w rote t hat " identifying t he g eographical s ource r egion o f r aw m aterials c lay, t emper, a nd p igments - a nd h ow t hey a re u sed i s a n a pproach a ligned w ith c eramic e cology a nd r esource s pecialization." I n s um, A rnold, K ramer, a nd R ice n oted t he s ignificance o f t he c oncept o f c eramic e cology. A rnold ( 1981, 1 985:3-19) a nd R ice ( 1981; 1 984a; 1 984c; 1 987:168-205, 2 82-288, 3 27-329, 4 66-468) i n t heir f ield a nd l aboratory s tudies, a nd t heoretical r eviews, h ave u sed a nd m odified c eramic e cology, p articularly e mploying t he c oncept a s a s tepping s tone t o n ew p aradigms a nd a ttempts .t o r esolve p roblems i n a rchaeological, e thnoarchaeological, a nd e thnographic p ottery p roduction, d istribution, u se, a nd d iscard. B ishop, R ands, a nd H olley's ( 1962) r eview o f c eramic c ompositional a nalysis a nd B ronitsky's ( 1986) e ssay o n m aterials s cience t echniques i n t he s tudy o f methods o f c eramic m anufacture a nd d etermination o f p ottery u ses h ave n oted t he i mport o f c eramic e cology a s a b ackground t o t hese i nvestigations. A s ymposium s eries o riented t o c eramic e cology, o rganized b y L ackey a nd K olb, h as b een a ffiliated w ith t he A merican A nthropological A ssociation A nnual M eetings s ince 1 986. T hese s essions h ave i ncluded p resentations f rom a w ide v ariety o f i nvestigators i ncluding a rt h istorians, C lassical a rchaeologists, f ield a rchaeologists, e thnoarchaeologists, e thnographers o f g roups o r c ommunities o f p otters, museum s pecialists, a s ocial p sychologist/film e thnographer, p rofessional p otters, g eologists, p etrographers, c hemists, m aterials s cientists, a nd t heoreticians. T he a nnual meetings h ave b een a " melting p ot" ( intended p un) f or a ny a nd a ll s tudents o f p ottery a nd c eramics r egardless o f g eographical b oundaries a nd t ime f rames. W hile c ertainly e vidence o f t he m ulti- a nd i nterdisciplinary a pproach, t hese s ymposia h ave g one f urther b y p romulgating a n i nformal " Ceramic S tudies I nterest G roup" f or n etworking i nformation e xchanges. T he g roup, f ormed a t t he s uggestion o f M atson i n 1 986, i n a ddition t o s ponsoring t he f ormal p resentation o f p apers a t t he A nnual M eetings, a lso h olds a l uncheon o r d inner a t w hich i nformal d iscussions a bout c eramic-related m atters t ake p lace a nd f ield a nd l aboratory r esearch c ontacts a re m ade. T he s ymposia h ave " holistic" c eramic e cology a s a n o rganizing p rinciple, a nd t his c oncept m ay a lso b e s een i n t he r esulting c onference p ublications. T hree s ets o f c ontributions h ave t hus f ar b een p ublished. T he i nitial

T he s ymposia h ave " holistic" c eramic e cology a s a n o rganizing p rinciple, a nd t his c oncept m ay a lso b e s een i n t he r esulting c onference p ublications. T hree s ets o f c ontributions h ave t hus f ar b een p ublished. T he i nitial v olume, A P ot f or A ll R easons: C eramic E cology R evisited ( Kolb a nd L ackey, e ds., 1 988) d edicated t o M atson, c ontained p apers f rom t he 8 5th A AA meeting ( 1986) ( see A ppendix E ). T he s econd s et o f c ontributions, C eramic E cology R evisited, 1 987: T he T echnology a nd S ocioeconomics o f P ottery ( Kolb, e d., 1 988), h as p apers f rom t he 1 987 s ymposium a t t he 8 6th A AA meeting ( see A ppendix F ). T he m ost r ecent v olume, C eramic E cology, 1 988: C urrent R esearch o n C eramic M aterials ( Kolb, e d., 1 989), h as t he 1 988 8 7th A AA meeting s ymposium c ontributions ( see A ppendix G ). E xplicitly o r i mplicitly, c eramic e cological c oncepts h ave b een e vident i n t he v ast m ajority o f t hese p apers ( e.g. A llen a nd Z ubrow, A rnold, B enco, D eal, H agstrum, K olb, L ackey, M ouat a nd A rnold, R alph a nd A rnold, a nd S heehy). M any c ontributions a lso e mploy e thnoarchaeology, G eneral S ystems T heory, m aterials s cience a pproaches, a nd o ther " recent t rends."

C ERAMIC

E COLOGY

I N

T HE

F UTURE

I ntroduction P ottery o r c eramics a re f requently s tudied t o r eveal p hysical a nd c hemical p roperties, c ultural a ttributes, a nd/or p rovide e vidence o f c ulture c hange, a s w ell a s t o d evelop r elative c hronologies. T here a re s everal o ther a nalytical a pproaches t o t he s tudy o f t hese m aterials, a mong t hem s ocial, g eographical, t emporal, a nd e thnoscientific, a s w ell a s methodologies d erived f rom I nformation T heory, G eneral S ystems T heory, a nd e cology. T he s ocial a pproach s eeks t o u nderstand t he r elationship b etween c eramic v ariation a nd s ocial s tructure/social o rganization ( Longacre 1 964, D eetz 1 985). G eographical a nalyses c onsider t he i ntera nd i ntrasite s patial d istributions o f c eramics i n c ultural c ontexts »h ouseholds, v illages, e tc. ( see W atson 1 979), w hile t he t emporal a pproach i nvolves t he s tudy o f s tability a nd c hange i n c eramic t raditions t hrough t ime ( Arnold 1 981, 1 989). T he e thnoscience a pproach e mploys t he l inguistic a nalysis o f w ords u sed t o d ifferentiate t ypes o f p ottery v essels, a nd v erbal a nd n onverbal c ommunications f or m aking c eramics ( see K empton 1 981, P log 1 980). I nformation T heory c onsiders t he w ays i n w hich c ultural i nformation i s e ncoded i n c eramics, a nd a lso r enders r elevant i nformation a nd o rganization a s e videnced b y c eramic a ttributes ( Whallon 1 972, B eaudry 1 988). G eneral S ystems T heory r elates i nformation a bout c eramics t o s ocial a nd o ther s ystems c onsidering t he i nherent

i ntegration b etween s ocial b ehavior, i deas a nd meanings, t echnology, a nd e nergy ( see F lannery 1 968a, 1 968b; H ill 1 985). V ariation i s s tudied t o u nderstand w hat a spects m ay b e a ccounted f or b y r andom f actors, f unctional f actors, e nvironmental v ariables, a nd c ultural a gents a nd a gencies ( Stanislawski 1 974). T he e cological a pproach c onsiders t he d ynamic r elationships b etween c eramic, c ultural, a nd e nvironmental v ariables ( Matson, e d., 1 965; A rnold 1 985). I n t he 1 980s, t he e cological a pproach e njoyed w idespread u se a nd m isuse w ithin e conomic a nthropology a nd c ommercial b anking ( Goodland 1 982), a nd u rban p olicy ( Waste 1 989). I n t his s ection, I s hall e xamine s ome p aradigms a nd s chema w hich h ave b een p roposed i n a n a ttempt t o h elp u s b etter u nderstand c eramic m aterials. B efore m oving t o a n a nalysis o f t hese, I s hould l ike t o r emind u s a bout s uch mental c onstructs. B raudel ( 1970:170) w rote t hat: M odels a re s imply h ypotheses, e xplanatory s ystems f irmly c onstructed i n t he f orm o f a n e quation o r f unction: A e quals B o r d etermines C ; X i s n ever u naccompanied b y Y a nd c lose a nd r egular r elationships a re t herefore e vident b etween t he t wo. A c arefully c ontructed model, a lthough i n f act b ased o n t he o bservation o f o ne p articular s ocial e nvironment, c an t hus b e a pplied t o o ther s ocial e nvironments o f a s imilar n ature o ccurring a t o ther t imes a nd i n o ther p laces. T his g ives t he m odel i ts r ecurring v alidity. L ikewise,

H olister

( 1981:361)

n oted:

I f a m odel g ives a f aithful r epresentation o f s ome a spect o f r eality t hen i t i s a g ood m odel. T he p rocedure u sed i n s cience i s t o u se t he m odel t o m ake a p rediction a bout t he b ehavior o f r eality a nd t hen t o c ompare t his p rediction w ith a ctual b ehavior i n a n e xperiment. T hen, i f t he m odel i s f aulty, a b etter m odel c an b e s ought. T herefore, m odels a re meant t o b e c hallenged, r efined, d iscarded, m odified, a nd r eapplied a s a b asic p remise o f t he S cientific M ethod. A s W arren D eBoer s tated d uring t he g eneral d iscussions a t t he e nd o f t he s econd " Ceramics a nd M an" c onference i n 1 982 ( van d er L eeuw a nd P ritchard, e ds., 1 984:797): .. b y c reating o ppositions a s a h euristic d evice, w e f ind t remendous s trength i n t he e nsuring d iversity. I t hink t his d iversity i s a p ropitious o men f or t he f uture, a nd I l ook

t he f uture, a s w e a ll g row o ld t ogether, w e s hould n ot o nly a ctivate n eutrons, b ut a lso a ctivate n eurons. R obert F oley ( 1987:380), a B ritish b iological a nthropologist i nterested i n h ominid e volution, w rote a bout t he s chism b etween a rchaeology ( culture) a nd p hysical a nthropology ( biology), n oting t hat " biology h as o nly b ecome i ncorporated i nto a rchaeology t hrough a g rowing i nterest i n e cology." H e a lso l amented t he " inevitable" b ifurcation i n a nthropology e ven t hough a rchaeological s pecializations ( paleodemography, a rchaeoeconomics, a rchaeological s ettlement p attern s tudies, e tc.) h ave c ounterparts i n c ultural a nthropology ( demography, e conomic a nthropology, e kistics, e tc.). I n r eviewing t he s tatus o f p aleoanthropology, h e v iewed t he s ubject m atter h ominid e volution a s h aving a n u nfortunate d ichotomy: a natomical e volution ( studied b y b iological a nthropologists) v ersus t echnological e volution ( investigated b y p aleolithic a rchaeologists). I n h is u nique a rticle h e m atched " bones w ith s tones" w ithin a f ramework o f e volutionary e cology i n a n a ttempt t o u nite t he d ichotomous i nvestigations i n h is o wn a rea o f i nterest. H uman e volution, h e p erceived, must b e a v iewed a s a " bush" ( adaptive r adiation, c ladistic d ivergence, e tc.) r ather t han a " ladder," b ut h e n oted t hat " technology i s c entral t o t he a daptations a nd s urvival o f m odern h umans" ( 1987:391). B y u sing e volutionary e cology h e d raws t ogether t hese s trands a nd a ttempts t o u nify t he s ubject m atter. I n m any w ays h is d iscussion p arallels w hat h as e xisted i n c eramic s tudies. O ur s ubject m atter i s p ottery, c eramics, c eramic a rtifacts o f m any t ypes, a nd o ther i tems o f b aked c lay ( collectively c eramic m aterials). L ikewise, t he s ubject m atter h as t wo b asic m ethodological a pproaches: 1 ) a rchaeology/prehistory a nd 2 ) e thnography/ethnology a nd h istoric/contemporary s tudi es. H owever, e ach d ivision, i n t urn, h as f urther s egments ( social, e conomic, t echnological, e tc.) w hich a gain h ave r estrictions ( craft s pecialization, d istribution/exchange n etworks, e nergy s ources a nd m ode o f p roduction, e tc.). T he " fragmentation" ( Kramer 1 985:78) i s e ndless, l eading t o e ven m ore f inite s pecializations l et a lone s patial p articularizations, a nd i s c haracteristic m uch o f p resent-day a nthropology a s a d iscipline a s w ell a s t he s tudy o f c eramic m aterials. I n a ddition, t he w ays i n w hich d ata i s o btained, a nalyzed, a nd r eported l acks a b asic u nity - we h ave s pecialized s o m uch o n t he s tudy o f c lays a nd p otsherds w e s eem t o h ave l ost s ight o f t he v essel f rom w hence t he l atter c ame, s pecialized s o m uch o n t he p ot w e h ave n eglected t he w orkshops a nd c raftspersons, s pent s o m uch t ime a nalyzing t he l oci a nd a rtisans w e h ave l ost s ight o f t he

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h ave l ost s ight o f t he v essel f rom w hence t he l atter c ame; s pecialized s o m uch o n t he p ot w e h ave n eglected t he w orkshops a nd c raftspersons; s pent s o m uch t ime a nalyzing t he l oci a nd a rtisans w e h ave l ost s ight o f t he p osition o f t he s ubject m atter a s a p art o f t he c ommunity o r s ociety. L ikewise, w e h ave d eveloped ( and c ome t o r ely u pon a t l east i n s ome i nstances) e xtremely s pecialized a nalytical t echniques f or c haracterization, p rovenience, e tc., n amely t echnical s tudies, p hysicochemical a nalyses, a nd m aterials s cience a pproaches. A gain, I f ear, w e m ay b e n eglecting t he p eople ( community o r s ociety) i f w e a re t oo i ntrospective o f t he s herds w ithout e xamining c ontext a nd t he l arger p arameters n oted a bove. T he s tudy o f c eramic m aterials h as, t o my m ind, f ragmented a long t he l ines o f F oley's " bush" b ut n either s hould t hese i tems o f m aterial c ulture b e v iewed f rom a " ladder" p erspective. A s F oley h as c alled f or a r eintegration o f h is t opic o f i nterest, I , t oo, b elieve i t i s t ime t o r ethink c eramic s tudies a nd t o r eorient o urselves t o " holistic" c eramic e cology j ust a s F oley s uggests e volutionary e cology m ay r esolve t he d isparity i n h ominid s tudies. W e n eed t o r eturn f rom t he t wigs a nd b ranches o f o ur " bush" t o t he s olid t runk, b ut n eed n ot n ecessarily r eexamine t he r oots w hich s upport t he t runk. I v iew c ultural e cology, e volutionary a nthropology, N eoevolutionism a nd N eofunctionalism, a nd t he B oasian t radition, a s " roots." A s M atson ( 1984:42) s uggested, w e n eed t o r aise o ur " ceramic c onsciousness," b ut a t t he s ame t ime w e n eed t o h ave a c ommon f ormat f or g etting t o o ur p rimary g oal t he b etter u nderstanding o f t he c eramic m aterials a nd t he p eople w ho m ade a nd u se t hem ( Matson 1 965a:202) a nd b eyond t his - h ow t he c eramic m aterials a nd t he p eoples i n t he c ommunity o r s ociety ( users a nd n onusers) i nteracted, m uch m ore t han " putting t he p eople b ack i n t he p ots." A s F red F log n oted ( 1975:207), " archaeologists h ave u sed c oncepts, p ropositions, a nd m odeling t echniques f rom a n umber o f d isciplines, d eveloped b y s ystems t heorists, who a rgue t hat t here a re s ystems c haracteristics a nd r egularities t hat c ross-cut t he p articular c oncerns o f m odern a cademic d isciplines." L ikewise, h e n oted t hat p rocessural a rchaeologists h ave m ajor c ommitments t o t he p hilosophy o f s cience, e cology, s tatistics, a nd o ther methodological p erspectives i ncluding G eneral S ystems T heory. A s p reviously r elated, D avid C larke's A nalytical A rchaeology ( 1968) h as b een t he m ost c omprehensive a nd t horough e ffort t o a pply G eneral S ystems T heory t o a rchaeological p roblems, i n t hat a p rimary g oal o f s uch a r esearch d esign w as t o u nderstand m aterial c ulture f rom a s ystemic p erspective. M aterial c ulture, s uch a s c eramic a rtifacts, c onstitute a s ystem o f e nvironmental

r egulation i n w hich h umans s elect s ome i tems a nd r eject o ther p otential c hoices, e .g. r aw c lays, t empering m aterials, f uels, e tc. I n a ddition, t hese a rtifacts, w hich h ave s tylistic a nd f orm/function v ariations s hould b e c arefully e valuated ( Washburn a nd C rowe 1 988, A rnold 1 989), a nd t here m ust b e a g reater s ensitivity t o v ariations i n a rtifact a ttributes a nd m ore a ttention p aid t o t he " polythetic n ature o f t ypes a nd c ontinuous v ariation" ( Plog 1 975:211). T he u se o f f low c harts a nd t wo-and t hree-dimensional d iagrams o r m odels t o s ummarize d ata a nd b uild i nterpretive m odels a t l east d ates t o C larke ( 1968), w hose p aradigms h ave e arlier b een e laborated. O ne o f t he b asic c oncepts o f c eramic e cology a s o riginally p roposed b y M atson ( 1965a) w as t o p ut t he " people b ack i nto t he p ottery," i .e. t o k now m ore a bout t he p ersons w ho p roduced a nd c onsumed c eramic m aterials. H owever, s ince t hat t ime t here h ave b een i ncreasing e fforts t o k now m ore a bout t he r elationships o f t he a rtifact a s p roduct a nd t he s patial a nd c ultural c ontexts i n w hich t hese i tems o f m aterial c ulture o ccur s o a s t o b etter u nderstand t he c ulture i n w hich t hese i tems w ere m ade a nd u sed. I n t his r egard t he a rtifacts a nd t he a nalysis o f t he m aterial c ulture a nd c ontexts a re b ut a t ransitory s tage i n t he e xplanatory a nd i nterpretive p rocess. E thnoarcheology, r eplication, a nd e xperimental s tudies w ere a p art o f t his a nalytical p rocedure.

H olistic

C eramic

E cology

I n o rder t o m ore f ully u nderstand c eramic a rtifacts a nd c ontexts I s uggest a r epositioning t oward w hat I c all " holistic" c eramic e cology. T his m odel i s s omewhat d ifferent i ncomparison w ith t he o ne I p reviously s uggested ( Kolb 1 976:46-47, F ig. 2 ) i n w hich I s tated: T he c oncept o f " ceramic e cology" m ay b e d efined by r elating p ottery m aking a nd t he dynamic v ariables i n t he i nteracting s ystem o f h uman e cology. C eramic e cology, t herefore, i s d efined a s t he r elationship o f t he p hysical e nvironment, b iological e nvironment, man a s a g enetic a nd b ehavioral o rganism, a nd m an's c ultural m anifestations, w ith s pecial e mphasis o n t he t otal r ange o f t he c eramic c omplex ( from s election o f r aw m aterials, m anufacture, a nd d ecoration, t hrough d istribution, c onsumption, a nd d iscard). T hat o riginal p roposal h ad a t hree-dimensional molecular-line s tructure w hich I e mployed t o i llustrate t he C eramic C omplex ( Kolb 1 976:40-47, F ig. 2 ; 1 982:194,

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F ig. 1 ). T he f ive p rimary v ariables i n t he d iagram e ach i nteracted w ith t he o thers i n a s tate o f t ransitory e quilibrium, a nd e ach v ariable w as a " donor" a nd " recipient" o f i nternal a nd e xternal s timuli. I n t his c onceptualization c eramic e cology r emained a m ethodology i t.. w hereby a rchaeology, c eramic t echnology ( especially t he p hysical a nd c hemical s tudies), a nd e thnology a re r elated" ( Kolb 1 982:194). I v iewed e ach v ariable a s " molecule" ( a t ightly b onded g roup o f a toms [ subsystems]) - b orrowing t erminology f rom t he p hysical s ciences e ach " atom" ( composed o f e lectrons, n eutrons, p rotons, e tc. [ the s ubsystem c omponents]) h aving f urther d ivisible i nternal s tructure. T he a ctions a nd r eactions i n t he r elatively s table e quilibric m odel w ere d epicted a s d ouble-pointed a rrows t o d emonstrate t hat a ctions a nd r eactions m oved a mong t he f ive p rimary v ariables. I n r eality t hese s hould b e p erceived a s " force f ields" i n w hich o scillations h elped m aintain a " balance" b etween t he p rimary v ariables. T his m odel i s i llustrated a s F igure 3 . E xcepting t he c entral v ariable, " Culture," t he c onfiguration h as t he b asic s tructure o f t etrahedron. T he m ajor v ariables a nd c omponents a re d etailed i n T able 1 . A lthough I a m n ot c ompletely i n a greement w ith K ramer's ( 1985:78) r emarks a bout c eramic e cology, I w ould a gree - f rom t he p erspective o f t he 1 980s - t hat t he c oncept i s n ow " banal," b ut h as l ed t o m ore f ocused s tudies o f p articular a spects o f p ottery m anufacture. T his " fragmentation" r equires r ectification w hich I b elieve c an b e a ccomplished t hrough a n u nderstanding o f " holistic" c eramic e cology. I n d evising t he r efined model I h ave k ept i n m ind t he c omments o f M atson ( 1951:113-114) a nd B alfet ( 1965:176-177), r ather t han S hepard ( 1956:93), i n b eing c oncerned a bout t he " incompleteness" o f d escriptions o f p ottery p roduction. T he p aradigm i llustrated i n F igure 4 a nd e xplicated i n T ables 2 -7 i s p artially b ased u pon B aker's ( 1962:personal c ommunication t wo-dimensional e cological t heory m odel ( see F igure l b) w hich h ad f our m ajor v ariables: 1 ) P hysical E nvironment, 2 ) B iological E nvironment, 3 ) M an/Human B iology, a nd 4 ) C ulture. I n a ddition, t he s ubsystem v ariables s uggested b y C larke ( 1968:102-128) ( see F igures 2 a-d) a re u sed i n m odified f orm, n amely: 1 ) F lora, 2 ) F auna, 3 ) C limate, 4 ) Geology, 5 ) E conomic S ubsystem, 6 ) R eligious S ubsystem, 7 ) M aterial C ulture S ubsystem, 8 ) S ocial S ubsystem, 9 ) P sychological S ubsystem, a nd 1 0) " Alien" S ociocultural S ystems, p lus " Time" a s a d iachronic d imension. T he f eedback l oop i s b ased u pon W atson, L eBlanc, a nd R edman ( 1971:70-75, F ig. I II-1).

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M ajor

V ariables

A ssociated

w ith

t he

C eramic

P hysical E nvironment: m ajor v ariables a ssociated w ith p roducers a nd c onsumers L ongitude a nd L atitude A ltitude C limate a nd W eather ( Atmospheric D ata): s easons, r anges, medians, e tc. T emperature R elative H umidity S olar R adiation L ithosphere: b edrock, m inerals, c lays, l andforms, t errain, e tc. H ydrosphere: g round w ater, p recipitation t ypes a nd p atterns, s urface w ater, b odies o f w ater ( rivers, l akes, s eas, o ceans, e tc.), i ce, e tc. B iological E nvironment: m ajor v ariables a ssociated w ith p roducers a nd c onsumers V egetation: n ative a nd i ntroduced f lora, u se o f f ood r esources, s easonality, e tc. A nimals: n ative a nd i ntroduced f auna, u se a s f ood r esources, s easonality, g ame h abits, h abitats, u se f or t ransportation i mprovement, e tc. V egetable R aw M aterials: f uel s ources, c onstruction m aterials, t ool m aterials, e tc. A nimal R aw M aterials: f uel s ources, c onstruction m aterials, t ool m aterials, e tc. M icro- a nd M acrobiotic L ife: s ources o f d isease a nd d isease v ectors, p oisons, c atalysts, e tc. H uman a nd O ther A nimal P redators H umankind/Human B iology: m ajor s elected v ariables a ssociated w ith p roducers a nd c onsumers D emography/Population: h uman g roup s ize, d istribution, d ensity, e tc. H uman P hysiology: e specially a s r elated t o E nvironmental A daptation, e tc. G enetic S ystems: M endelian P opulations, G ene P ool P hysiological a nd P sychological B ehaviors: g enetically t ransmitted, e tc. C ommunicable D iseases: e specially a s r elated t o t he B iological E nvironment, e tc. C ulture/The S ociocultural E nvironment: m ajor v ariables a ssociated w ith p roducers a nd c onsumers H uman C ommunication: l anguage, w riting, a nd o ther s ystems t o t ransmit k nowledge, e tc. T echnology: t echnological l evels a s r elated t o e nergy r esources, t ransportation i mprovement d evices, s helter, t ools a nd e quipment, e tc.

T able 1 : M ajor V ariables C omplex ( continued)

A ssociated

w ith

t he

C eramic

S ubsistence A ctivities: s ubsistence s ystem(s) a s r elated t o c aloric a vailability, e tc. E conomic O rganization/Subsystem: e specially d istribution a nd e xchange s ystems, d ivision o f l abor, e tc. S ociopolitical O rganization/Subsystem: s ocial g roups a nd g roupings, k inship s ystem, m arital p atterns, r ites o f p assage, n on-kinship g roupings a nd a ssociations, s odalities, u ncentralized v s. c entralized p olitical s ystems, e tc. R eligious O rganization/Subsystem: b eliefs, v alues, r ites a nd r ituals a ssociated w ith t he s upernatural, e tc. P sychological S ubsystem: v alues, b ehaviors, r anges o f b ehaviors, e tc. T he A rts: e specially a s r elated t o a ny o f t he a bove a nd t he p roduction a nd c onsumption o f c eramic m aterials C eramic C omplex: m ajor v ariables ( all a spects d irectly r elated t o p roducing c eramic o bjects) B ehavioral: i deas, i deals, t echnologies, s kills, t raining/learning, e tc. P roduction: r esource s election/procurement, t ransportation, s tages o f m anufacture ( preparation, f orming, s urface t reatment, d ecora tion, f iring D istribution: d isposition o f t he f inished p roduct, e xchange, r eciprocity, m arket s ales, e tc.; u se, r euse, d iscard, e tc. S ocioeconomic V ariables ( Universal C ulture P attern): o ther e conomic f actors S ociocultural V ariables ( Universal C ulture P attern): o ther s ocial f actors S ociopolitical V ariables ( Universal C ulture P att ern): o ther p olitical f actors S ocioreligious V ariables ( Universal C ulture P att ern): b eliefs, v alues, b ehaviors, e tc. L aboratory/Analytical M ethods: M ineralogical C hemical S tructural C hronological P roperty/Attribute I dentification: P hysical: c olor, h ardness/strength, t exture, p orosity, t emper/aplastics. f iring methods, e tc. C ultural: methods o f m anufacture, s urface t reatments, d ecorative t echniques, d esign p attern a nalysis, f orm/shape, d imensional

T able 1 : M ajor V ariables C omplex ( continued)

A ssociated

w ith

t he

C eramic

a ttributes e tc. G oals: C haracterization o f t he C eramic M aterial U nderstanding o f t he C ontexts, A ssociations, a nd U ses I ntra- a nd I ntersite D istributions E lucidate C eramic M aterials a s a P art o f t he L arger C ulture/Society C hronological R efinement C ultural H istorical R econstruction

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A t hree-dimensional i llustration o f

E cology

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t he C eramic C omplex.

T he v ariables a re e ncapsulated w ithin a c ylinder r epresenting T IME.

B

B iological E nvironment

P P hysical E nvironment H B human B iology/Humankind

H B

C

C ulture

A Analysis c p C ultural P roperties p p P hysical P roperties

S P PS

S ampling P ottery P roduction S ubsystem

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I nfluences f rom O ther S ocieties

(D K olb 1 /1/89

- 3 16

-

I n t erms o f c eramic m aterials ( pottery, c eramics, a nd o ther b aked c lay a rtifacts), t he s even v ariables s uggested b y M atson ( 1965a) a re c onsidered: 1 ) E nvironment, 2 ) W ater, 3 ) F ood, 4 ) F uel, 5 ) C lay, 6 ) T he P otter, a nd 7 ) T he P roduct. L ikewise, M atson's 1 7 t opics f rom h is " ceramic q ueries" ( 1965b) w ere t aken i nto a ccount, e specially: 1 ) C lay, 2 ) P ottery P roduction, 3 ) S hape, 4 ) D ecoration, 5 ) T echnology, 6 ) E cology, 7 ) T ime S pan, 8 ) R itual, 9 ) C ooking, 1 0) M etals, 1) S tatus, 1 2) T rade a nd D iffusion, 1 3) C ulture C hange, 1 4) R esistance t o C hange, a nd 1 5) E conomics. ( "General" a nd " Origins" w ere t he o ther t wo t opics.) T wo m odels p roposed b y v an d er L eeuw ( 1984a:65-66, F igs. 1 -2), " The e nvironment o f t he p ottery-making s ystem" a nd " Decision-making m odel o f p aste p roduction," w hich a ppear i n h is c hapter o n p ottery m anufacture .a nd t rade, w ere a lso c onsulted. T hese d iagrams a re r eproduced a s F igures 5 a nd 6 . I n h is s tudy v an d er L eeuw d emonstrated t he c omplexity o f v ariables i nvolved i n t he v arious s teps o f p ottery m anufacture a nd i n d etermining t he p roducts o f d ifferent c eramic w orkshops. V an D er L eeuw s pecified 1 v ariables ( each w ith s ubheadings) i n h is e xamination o f t he p ottery-making e nvironment: 1 ) C limate, 2 ) G eology, 3 ) R elief, 4 ) W ater, 5 ) G eography, 6 ) H abitat, 7 ) S ocial O rganization, 8 ) T echnology, 9 ) E conomy, 1 0) E cology, a nd 1 1) S oil F ormation. T here w ere 2 1 m ajor v ariables i n h is c onsideration o f p aste p reparation: 1 ) C lay P urity, 2 ) P urpose, 3 ) T echnique, 4 ) E lasticity, 5 ) M aximum G rain S ize, 6 ) S hrinkage, 7 ) P orosity, 8 ) T emper, 9 ) C lay A dmixture, 1 0) F iring C haracteristics, 1) K iln, 1 2 F uel, 1 3) P urpose, 1 4) F luxer, 1 5) H umidity, 1 6) H omogeneity, 1 7) T echnique, 1 8) C limate, 1 9) W ater, 2 0) P rice, a nd 2 1) P aste. T he c hapter b y R ice ( 1984c:240-243, T ables 1 -2) i n w hich s he c onsidered t he c omponents o f t he p ottery-making s ubsystem a nd t he f actors i nfluencing c eramic s tability w ere a lso i nfluential i n my r efined p aradigm. L ikewise, t he s even m ajor v ariables a ssociated w ith c eramic m anufacture s pecified b y K olb ( 1976:52-60) w ere c onsidered ( numbers o f s ubtopics i ndicated i n p arentheses): 1 ) G eological a nd M ineralogical C onsiderations ( 12); 2 ) S election o f C lay(s) b y t he P otter ( 17); 3 ) P rocessing t he R aw M aterials ( 5); 4 ) T he P otter a nd H is/Her W ork ( 39); 5 ) M anufacturing t he C eramic V essel ( 32); 6 ) D rying, F iring a nd D ecorating t he V essel ( 26); a nd 7 ) C onsumption a nd D istribution o f t he C eramic V essel ( 15). I n v iewing m odes o f d ecoration a nd d esign a nalyses, m y t hinking h as b een i nfluenced b y A rnold ( 1985), M iller ( 1985), P log ( 1980), a nd W ashburn a nd C rowe ( 1988). T echnical a nd a nalytical p rocedures

F igure 5 : T he E nvironment o f t he P ottery-making S ystem. R eproduced f rom v an d er L eeuw ( 1984:65, F ig. 1 ) i n P ots a nd P otters: C urrent A pproaches i n C eramic A rchaeology ( Rice, e d., 1 984). P ermissions c ourtesy o f S ander E . v an d er L eeuw a nd t he U CLA I nstitute o f A rchaeology.

G EOLOGY -p rimary m inerals -e roded m inerals i n 1 . p rimary s ituation 2 . s econdary s ituation

C LIMATE -s unshine - r ain -t emperature -h um idity

R EL IEF -a ltitude -s lope -d irection

S OIL F ORMAT ION f ertility: 1 . w ild f oodstuffs 2 . d om . f oodstuffs 3 . f uels

E COLOGY p lant c ommunities a nimal c ommunities -v ariety -s tability -d egree o f h uman c ontro l

P A 0

K

T

I

E CONOMY p rimary s ubsist ence e conomy o ther s econdary s ubsistence a ctivities n ature o f e conom ic s ystem c ap ital a vailab le

T ECHNOLOGY m eans o f t ransp ortation m eans o f p ropuls ion m eans o f h eating m eans o f b uilding

S OCIAL O RGANIZATION -d ivision o f l abor a ccepted s ex d iffere nces -s tructural c ohesion o f s ociety h ierarchizat i on o f s ociety s ocial ' f lux '

- 3 18 -

W ATER -d istance -d epth -s alinity -d ependability

G EOGRAPHY p op. d ensity p op. a ggregation p rim . s ubs. a ct. l and, a ggreg. p rim , s ubs, a ct. d ensity r oads

H ABITAT -p ermanence o f s ettlements l ocation o f s ettlements -m ovement b et ween s ettlements s ize o f s ettlem ents f unction o f s ettlements

( Kolb) F igure 6 : D ecision-making M odel o f P aste P reparation. R eproduced f rom v an d er L eeuw ( 1984:66, F ig. 2 ) i n P ots a nd P otters: C urrent A pproaches i n C eramic A rchaeology ( Rice, e d., 1 984)-. P ermissions c ourtesy o f S ander E . v an d er L eeuw a nd t he U CLA I nstitute o f A rchaeology.

C lay A ssessing t he c lay P UR ITY

R otting

A ssessing t he c lay E LAST ICITY

S edimentation

A ssessing t he c lay M AX. G RA IN S IZE

A ssessing t he c lay S HR INKAGE

A dm ixture I C LAY

A ssessing t he c lay P OROSITY

K ILN

A ssessing t he c lay F IR ING C HARAC.

F UEL

x ture

P URPOSE

FL I UXER I 1 T reading S toring

T ECHNIQUE

T EMPER

S ubstance w h ich s tretches v itrif ication r ange

A ssessing t he c lay H UM ID ITY

C LIMATE

W ATER A ssessing t he c lay H OMOGENEITY K nea ding

P R ICE

P ASTE

C ost o f w ork I nvo lved

c onsulted i ncluded t he w orks b y A rnold ( 1985); B ishop, R ands, a nd H olley ( 1982); B ronitsky ( 1986); R ice ( 1987:113-469); R ye ( 1981); a nd S hepard ( 1956:95-305); a mong o thers. F rom a n a rchaeological p oint o f v iew, I h ave d evised a b asic r eporting p rocedure a nd f ormat f or d ocumenting c eramic m aterials ( Table 2 ). I b elieve t his o utline p rovides s alient i nformation a nd i s o rganzied i n s uch a m anner t o f acilitate c omparisons o f my f indings w ith t hose o f o ther i nvestigators, a nd, a t t he s ame t ime, t he f ormat a ddresses c oncerns r aised a bout t he " completeness" o f c eramic d escriptions ( Matson 1 951:113-114, B alfet 1 965:176-177). T hus f ar I h ave u sed i t t o d ocument a n umber o f d istinct M esoamerican w ares a nd o ther c eramic a rtifacts - " Thin O range" w ares, G ranular w are, C opoid w are, a nd C andeleros, a t ype o f p ortable i ncense b urner ( Kolb 1 973, 1 98 ) 4, 1 986, 1 988c, 1 988e, 1 988f, 1 988g), a s w ell a s C entral A sian " Pseudo-Arretine," R ed/Buff, a nd K ushano-Sasanian s torage j ars ( Kolb 1 983b, 1 987b, 1 988h, 1 989c). W ith m inor m odifications t he f ormat m ay a lso b e u sed i n e thnographic, e thnohistoric a nd/or e thnoarcheological s tudies o f p ottery m aking ( cf. K olb 1 976:52-60). T he p rocedure a nd f ormat d etailed i n T able 2 a re s tructured w ithin t he f ramework o f t he S cientific Method. T he P ottery P roduction S ubsystem ( Table 3 ) i s t he key o r l inking c omponent i n t he C eramic C omplex ( Figure 4 ). T his s ubstystem i ncludes s even m ajor c raft-related v ariables t hat m ust b e e xamined i n r elation t o t he a nalysis o f a rchaeological c eramics a nd/or c ontemporary p ottery m aking. T hese s ignificant v ariables i n t he h olistic c eramic e cology p aradigm i nclude: 1 ) R aw M aterials, 2 ) M anufacture/Forming, 3 ) S urface T reatments, 4 ) D rying, 5 ) D ecoration: P refired, 6 ) D ecoration: P ostfired, a nd 7 ) F iring. I n t he a nalysis o f s ome c eramic " wares" which m ay b e p lain/undecorated, v ariables 5 a nd 6 m ay b e e liminated f rom t he p rocedure. C losely r elated t o t hese s even v ariables w ithin t he P öttery P roduction S ubsystem a re t wo o ther s ubsystems w hich p lay s ignificant r oles a nd a re b oth d onors a nd r ecipients ( actors a nd r eceptors); t hese t wo a re t he E conomic S ubsystem ( Table 4 ) a nd t he S ocial S ubsystem ( Table 5 ). T he E conomic S ubsystem a s r elated t o t he P ottery P roduction S ubsystem i ncludes f our p rimary c onstellations o f v ariables: 1 ) E conomic E fficiency a nd S kills, 2 ) R esources a nd R aw M aterials ( with a d irect f eedback t o t he f irst v ariable i n t he P ottery P roduction S ubsystem

T able

2 :

P ottery A nalysis:

A B asic

P rocedural

O utline.

R esearch D esign/Scientific M ethod I dentification o f t he p roblem S election o f p arameters S election o f m ethods O perationalizing t erms C ollection o f D ata: E thnographic a nd E thnoarchaeological: P articipant O bservation I nterviews: K ey I nformant(s), L ife H istory M ethod M apping t he C ommunity a nd T aking a C ensus M aterial C ulture I nventory G enealogical M ethod Q uestionnaires O ther M ethods: P rojective T ests, e tc. A rchaeological: S urvey/surface S urvey E xcavation: T esting O perations, S ondage, L arge-scale, e tc. A rchival a nd E thnohistoric A rchival, M useum, e tc. H istorical M ethods a nd A ppraisal R eports P reviously P ublished i n t he L iterature S ampling M ethods ( Bishop, R ands, a nd H olley 1 982:278-281; R ice 1 987:289-298) W hat i s Q uantified: c ounts/numbers, s herd, w eights, v essel a ssemblages, e tc. U niversal S ample P robability S ample J udgment S ampling R andom S ampling S tratified S ampling S tratified R andom S ampling C lassifications ( Kempton 1 981, R ice 1 987:270-277, 2 83-288) F olk C lassifications D evised C lassifications: t ypes, w are, g roups, h orizontal s tyles, t raditions, t ype v ariety, e tc. L aboratory/Analytical P rocedures P urpose o f C ollection A nalysis: o ne o r m ore o f t he f ollowing T emporal D istributions/Chronology C haracterization D escription S patial D istribution/Provenience ( Prove nance) E xplanatory: r elate t o c ultural d ynamics O ther P urpose(s) L aboratory M ethods ( see T ables 3 a nd 7 ) R eporting o f A nalysis:

T able 2 : P ottery ( continued).

A nalysis:

A B asic

P rocedural

O utline

S eparate R eport R eport P art o f a L arger S ynthesis R eport F ormat D efinition: S ample M ethods P urpose R eports P reviously P ublished i n t he L iterature C hronologies: R elative a nd A bsolute P hysical P roperties/Attributes: C olor H ardness a nd S trength T exture/Microstructure P lasticity P orosity/Permeability L uster T emper a nd O ther A plastic I nclusions T hermal/Pyrometric/Firing ( including A rchaeothermometry) S hrinkage D ensity C ultural P roperties/Attributes: M ethods o f M anufacture S urface T reatments D ecorative T echniques F orm/Shape A nalysis D ecoration/Design A nalysis F unction/Use A nalysis C haracterization: M ethods t o r esolve p articular q uestions ( see T able 7 ) M ineralogical: l ocal v s. n onlocal c eramics C hemical/Microchemical: l ocal v s. n onlocal c eramics M icrostructural: l ocal v s. n onlocal c eramics S tatistical P rocedures: multivariate s tatistics, e tc. C ultural I nterpretations: C eramic D istribution(s): L iterature a nd t he c urrent a nalysis I ntra-site D istribution(s) I nter-site D isbribution(s) A rea, R egion, C ulture A rea R elationships t o O ther T echnologies a nd M aterial C ulture/Artifacts C ontext a nd A ssociations: S tructures, R ooms, e tc. F eatures, e tc.

- 3 22

-

T able 2 : P ottery ( continued).

A nalysis:

A B asic

P rocedural

O utline

R efined C hronology: S ynchronic A nalysis: s tability a nd c hange D iachronic a nalysis: s tability a nd c hange R elationships t o C eramic E cology/Holistic C eramic E cology: P ottery P roduction S ubsystem: a s r elated t o S ocial S ubsystem E conomic S ubsystem R eligious S ubsystem T echnology a nd M aterial C ulture S ubsystem O ther ( External) C ultural S ubsystems C ultural P rocesses: s patial a nd t emporal C ultural D ynamics: e xplanations, p aradigms, a nalogies, e tc. P otential C hanges: i nnovation, i nvention, e nculturation, a cculturation P artial v s. C omplete C hange(s) S elective C hange(s) T ransition M echnisms: p re- a nd p ost-change R elationships t o G eneral C ulture C hange C ritique: M ethods: P rohibitions: c ollections a ccess, i nformant a ccess, s ample d es truction, e tc. L imitations: t ime, money, p ersonnel, e tc. C eramic V ariables A nalyzed: R anges a nd M odes o f P henomena A nalyzed F uture/Additional R esearch S ugg estions S ummary a nd C onclusions

T able 3 :

P ottery P roduction

S ubsystem

R aw M aterials ( Shepard 1 956:49-54; B ishop, H olley 1 982:315-318; R ice 1 987:115-124)

R ands,

S election: c lays, t empers, p igments, f uels, P rocurement S trategies: 5 t ypes N ondiscriminating D iscriminating S pecializing C ompounding I mporting P reparation: R emoval o f f oreign m atter ( impurities) L evigation K neading/wedging A ging

a nd

e tc.

M anufacture/Forming ( Shepard 1 956:54-65, 1 83-186, 3 94; R ye 1 981:58-95, 1 31-137; K ramer 1 985:78-83; 1 987:124-152) E quipment: R otational d evices, s upports, t ournette, e tc. O ther t ools/equipment M ethods: S lab/hand b uilding P inching C oiling/ring b uilding P addling/beating D rawing/ f orming J iggering/jollying M odeling M olding: p ress m old, p iece m olds T hrowing/wheel t hrowing S lip c asting/casting L uting/piece b uilding E vidence o f M anufacture: m arks C oil f ractures C asts R idges D rag m arks C ompression r idges

3 91R ice

k abal,

S urface T reatments ( Shepard 1 956:65-69, 1 86-193; R ye 1 981:40-44, 8 9-90; R ice 1 987:136-152, 3 68-369) E quipment: H ands o r f eet T ools: l eather, t extile, s moothing s tone, g ourd r ind, e tc. T reatments:

T able

3 :

P ottery

P roduction

S ubsystem

( continued).

S moothing B urnishing P olishing S lipping: s lip o r s elf-slip C oatings: t ar, p itch, b itumen, r educing p orosity D rying ( Shepard 1 987:65-71)

1 956:72-7 ) 4;

R ye

e tc.

1 981:21-24,

f or

6 5-66;

R ice

L eather-hard s urface B one-dry s urface D ecoration: P refired ( Shepard 1 956:193-213; 4 1, 8 9-91; R ice 1 987:144-152, 1 62-164) E quipment: T ools: S urface E nhancement: A pplication o f p igment A pplication o f a w ash P ainting ( prefire) G lazing S urface P enetration: B rushing C arving C ombing D rilling E xercising I ncising P erforating P iercing P lano r elief P unctation S craping S grafitto S having S triating T rimming O ther p enetrations S urface D isplacement: F luting G adrooning I mpressing R ocker s tamping R ouletting S prigging S tamping O ther d isplacements S urface A dditions: A pplique A ppendages

R ye

1 981:) 40-

T able

3 :

P ottery

P roduction

S ubsystem

( continued).

H andles: t ab, l oop, k nob, e tc. S upports: n ubbins, s labs, e tc. R im e nhancements: c astellations, O ther a dditions D ecoration: P ostfired ( Shepard 2 6; R ice 1 987:144-152, 1 62-164)

1q 56:193-213;

R ye

e tc.

1 981:25-

E quipment: T ools: S urface E nhancement: A pplication o f a p igment A pplication o f a w ash P ainting ( postfire) O rganic a nd/or m ineral p aints R esist ( so-called " negative"painting o r b atik) S tucco ( fresco s eco, f resco a l-seco) G lazing O ther e nhancements S urface P enetration: C arving D rilling E xcising I ncising P erforating P iercing P lano r elief S craping O ther p enetrations _ Ting 9122;

( Shepard 1 956:72-93, R ice 1 987:132-166)

2 13-224;

R ye

1 981:24-28,

E quipment: L ocation: f ire p it, k iln, e tc. F uel(s): t ypes, a mounts S aggars/saggers/seggers S trategies: S ingle v essel f iring M ultiple v essel f iring: s tacking p rocedures U se o f f uel(s), d rafts, e tc. T ypes: O pen f iring/bonfire/non-kiln f iring K iln/oven f iring C onsiderations: F iring s chedule(s) F iring t emperature(s) F iring a tmosphere: O xidation/oxidizing f iring

T able

3 :

P ottery P roduction

S usbystem

( continued)

R eduction/reducing f iring C ombination/mixed f iring B isque/bisket/biscuit f iring ( first o r s everal) W ater s moking P roblems a nd " accidents": U nderfiring O verfiring S intering V itrification W arping S mudging F ireclouding F racture ( coils/joints i n p iece-built v essels) D unting S hrinkage B reakage/loss r ate d uring f iring W asters: U se a nd r euse A mounts E conomic ( Rice 1 984c, 1 987:168-206, 1 985:83-88, 9 2-95) ( See T able 4 ) S ocial S ubsystem ( Steward 1 955; 1 984c, 1 987:168-206, 4 49-469; T able 5 )

4 49-468;

K ramer

S ervice 1 971, 1 975; K ramer 1 985:83-88)

R ice ( See

T able

4 :

E conomic

E conomic S ubsystem S ubsystem.

S ubsystem. a s

R elated

t o

t he

P ottery

P roduction

E fficiency a nd S kills O rganization o f t he W orkplace: s tability v s. c hange L ocation(s) a nd l ayout(s) E quipment a nd T ools P roduction G oals a nd L evels V essel U se: t ransport, s torage, c ooking, r itual, e tc. A rtisan S kills I ntroduction o f N ew T echniques C hanges i n P roduction D emands: i ntroduction o f n ew f oods, c rop f ailure, e conomic d ecline, r eplacement by m etal o r p lastic c ontainers, e tc. R esources/Raw M aterials: c lays, t empers/aplastics p igments, f uels, e tc. L ocation o f R aw M aterials: d istance f rom p roduction l ocation, l ocal v s n on-local S election o f R aw M aterials: a vailability, d epletion, e nvironmental c hanges, e tc. P rocurement S trategies ( Bishop, R ands, a nd H olley 1 982:315-318) T ransportation o f R aw M aterials: p ropulsion P rocessing o f R aw M aterials P reparation o f R aw M aterials M anufacturing S tages M anufacturing/Forming S urface T reatments D ecorating ( pre- a nd/or F iring

p ost-fire)

D istribution a nd E xchange R elationships t o S ubsistence S ystem(s): p rimary, s econdary, e tc. T ransporting t he F inished P roducts: p ropulsion C onsumption D istance: l ocal, r egional, l ong d istance M echanism: r itual, r eciprocity, r edistribution, m arket e conomy, e tc. C ommercial F actors: i ntermediaries/middlemen, s tate c ontrol, m oney e conomy, e tc. E xternal C ontact: a cculturation ( diffusion t hrough e nforced), c olonization, w arfare, e tc. S ubsistence A ctivities T ypes a nd I ntensities o f S ubsistence. S cheduling o f S ubsistence A ctivities: v s. p ottery p roduction L inking S ubsystem: S ocial S ubsystem - 3 28

-

s ubsistence

T able 5 :

S ocial

S ubsystem

S ocial S ubsystem S ubsystem.

a s

R elated

t o

P ottery

P roduction

S ocial O rganization S ociocultural O rganization ( Steward 1 955; S ervice 1 971, 1 975; e tc.) O rganization o f P roduction: s trategies, n ons pecialists v s. s pecialists O rganization o f A rtisans: i ndependent i ndividuals, g roups, g roupings, b arrio o r c ommunity p roduction, f actory-line p roduction, d ivision o f l abor, e tc. A rtisan C haracteristics: a ges a nd s exes, e tc. T raining t he A rtisans/Transmission o f K nowledge a nd S kills: i nnovation, e nculturation, a cculturation, p roduction i deals, m otor h abits, e tc. C hanges i n O rganization: s tability v s. c hange, c onservatism, e tc. S tatuses a nd R oles o f t he P roducers a nd C onsumers C ommunity S ocial V alues: i deal v s. r eal b ehaviors, i dentity, e tc. S ocicultural C onsiderations V essel F unction/use: t ransport s torage, c ooking, e tc. D omestic/utilitarian v s. C eremonial/ritual: R ite d e P assage ( birth, p uberty, m arriage, d eath/mortu ary), e tc. F inancial r ecompense: u ses o f " profits" S ociopolitical C onsiderations A rtisan C ommunity i n R elation t o O ther C ommunities O ther C ommunities i n R elation t o t he L argest S ociopolitical U nit(s) E xternal C ontact: s tability v s. c hange, e tc. D emographics: s tability v s. c hange, d ensity, a ggregation, e tc. O ther ( as a pplicable) L inking S ubsystems: R eligious S ubsystem P sychological/Behavioral

S ubsystem

[ Table 3 ]), 3 ) M anufacturing S tages ( with a d irect f eedback t o t he s econd v ariable i n t he P ottery P roduction S ystem [ Table 3 ]), a nd 4 ) D istribution a nd E xchange ( in t urn r elated t o t he t hree v ariables o f t he S ocial S ubsystem) ( see F igure 4 ). T he S ocial S ubsystem ( Table 5 ) h as t hree c lusters o f v ariables: 1 ) S ocial O rganization, 2 ) S ociocultural C onsiderations, a nd 3 ) S ociopolitical O rganizations. T he R eligious S ubsystem a nd P sychological/Behavior S ubsystem a re a ffiliated w ith t he S ocial S ubsystem ( see T able 5 a nd F igure 4 ). T he t hree c losely l inked s ubsystems ( Pottery P roduction, E conomic, a nd S ocial) c an b e s tudied a nd u sed b y e thnographers a nd e thnoarcheologists w ho a re d ocumenting c ontemporary p ottery m anufacture, w hile a rchaeologists a nd e thnoarchaeologists c an b enefit f rom t his p aradigm when s tudying p rehistoric a nd a rchaeological c eramic m aterials. I n t he l atter c ase, s ome v ariable s pecifics would h ave t o b e " reconstructed" b y e thnographic a nalogy. T he c eramic t echnologist w ould a pproach t he C eramic C omplex t hrough t he m ethodology p roposed i n T able 2 , " Pottery A nalysis: A B asic P rocedural O utline," a nd w ould e specially b e c oncerned w ith d ocumenting - by t echnical a nd p hysicochemical a nalyses - t he P hysical a nd C ultural P roperties/Attributes ( Table 6 ) o f a rchaeological a nd/or e thnographic c eramic m aterials. T he " physical" a nd " Cultural" a ttribute g roupings a re a rbitrary, b ut t he f ormer i nvolves m ore s pecific t echnical a nd p hysicochemical s tudies, w hile t he l atter i nvolves b asic measurements a nd h as c ultural v ariables a s p rimary modifiers ( e.g. t he E conomic, S ocial, R eligious, a nd P sychological/Behavior S ubsystems), s ee F igure 4 a nd T ables 3 -5. I n a ddition t o t he p articular v ariables a nd s ubvariables t hat s hould b e e xamined, I h ave i ncluded r eferences t o t he p ublications w hich p rovide d escriptive m arterials o n t hese p arameters. L astly, f or s tudying s pecial o r p articular p roblems, s uch a s l ocal v ersus n on-local o rigins o f a rchaeoloigcal c eramic m aterials, s ome a dvanced c haracterization t echniques c an b e e mployed by t he p roperly-trained a rchaeologist o r t echnicians working c losely w ith t he a rchaeologist, e thnoarchaeologist, a nd/or e thnographer. T he m ajor c haracterization method f or d iscerning m ineralogical, c hemical/microchemical, m icrostructural, a nd c hronological p arameters a re n oted i n T able 7 . A mong t he k inds o f s pecimens t hat m ay b e e xamined a re r aw c lays, t empers/aplastics ( naturally-occuring a nd/or c ult urally-added n onplastics), p astes o f a rchaeological s pecimens o r c ontemporary p ottery, t est p ieces ( briquettes) m ade i n t he l aboratory, a nd c eramic g lazes. S ome r eferences t o t hese t echniques a re a lso l isted i n T able 7 . T he C eramic C omplex ( Figure 4 ) a lso i ncludes t he p roperties/attributes a nd t echniques f or c eramic

- 3 30

-

T able 6 : P hysical

P hysical

a nd

C ultural

P roperties/Attributes.

P roperties/Attributes

C olor ( Munsell 1 954, S hepard 1 956:102-113, R ice 1 987:339-345) C lays, a plastics, p astes; s herds ( interior, e xterior, c ross-section) C olorants: o rganic m atter, i ron c ompounds, o ther E stimating f iring c onditions f rom c olor H ardness ( Williams 1 942, 1 971:869-870, B ronitsky 3 57) M ohs' S cale a nd o ther

S hepard 1 956:113-117, G rimshaw 1 986:220-223, R ice 1 987:354t ests

S trength ( Shepard 1 956:130-136; G rimshaw 1 971:832-843; B ronitsky 1 986:220-223, 2 34-249; R ice 1 987:357-363) T ensile, s hear, c ompressive, t ransverse, t orsional, a nd i mpact s trengths T exture/Microstructure ( Wentworth 1 933; P owers 1 953; S hepard 1 956:117-120; B rontisky 1 986:220-223, 2 34-249; R ice 1 987:348-350) W entworth's S ize C lassification a nd o ther m ethods P lasticity ( Shepard R ice 1 987:58-63)

1 956:14-15,

B ronitsky

1 986:212-218,

P orosity/Permeability ( Shepard 1 956:125-130; G rimshaw 1 971:417-438; B ronitsky 1 986: 2 25-231; R ice 1 987:2312 32, 3 50-354) A pparent p orosity, t rue p orosity, a nd o ther d eterm inations L uster

( Shepard

1 956:122-125;

R ice

1 987:138,

1 50)

T emper a nd O ther A plastic I nclusions ( Shepard 1 956:24-31, 1 56-168, 3 78-384; R ye 1 981: 1 3-14, 3 1-37; R ice 1 987:93-102, 4 06-413; K olb 1 988e:256-276, 3 19-334) T hermal/Pyrometric/Firing ( Shepard 1 956:83-87; B roni tsky 1 986:216-218, 2 49-259; R ice 1 987:66-71, 1 57-158, 2 30-231, 3 63-388, 4 26-435, ) 4 72) F iring t emperatures, a tmospheres, a nd s chedules; a rchaeothermometry F iring a ccidents F iring l oss r ate/breakage S hrinkage D ensity C ultural

( Rice

1 987:231,

3 52,

P roperties/Attributes

4 75)

T able 6 : P hysical ( continued). M ethods o f 3 91-394; R ye M ethods

a nd

C ultural

P roperties/Attributes

M anufacture ( Shepard 1 956:65-69, 1 83-195; 1 981:58-95, 1 31-137; R ice 1 987:124-152) ( 11), e quipment, t ools, e tc.; r esults

S urface T reatments ( Shepard 1 956:65-69, 1 983-195; 1 981:40-44, 8 9-90; R ice 1 987:136-153) M ethods, e quipment t ools, e tc.; r esults

R ye

D ecorative T echniques ( Shepard 1 956:69-72, 1 68-176, 1 93-213, 3 85-390; R ye 1 981:40-41, 8 9-91; R ice 1 987:144-152) M ethods, e quipment t ools, e tc.; r esults F orm/Shape A nalysis: a s a pplicable ( Shepard 1 956:224-255, 3 25-329; R ice 1 987:207-243) L ip, O rifice, R im ( Shepard 1 956:245-248, 2 52-253; R ice 1 987:212-223) B ody/Belly ( Shepard 1 956:224-245, R ice 1 987:223-224 N eck ( Shepard 1 956:238-245, R ice 1 987:215-218) S houlder ( Shepard 1 956:241-242, R ice 1 987:225-227) B ase ( Rice 1 987:213-215) A ppendages ( Rice 1 987:93-94, 2 23-227) W all T hickness ( Rice 1 987:226-228) V essel F orm/Shape ( Shepard 1 956:223-226, R ice 1 987:210-242) D imensions, C apacity, S tability ( Shepard 1 956:2371 956:237-238, R ice 1 987:216-226) A uthentification v s. F alsification ( Rice 1 987:443-445) D ecoration/Design A nalysis: a s a pplicable ( Shepard 1 956:255-305, R ice 1 987:244-273; W ashburn a nd C rowe 1 988) S tructure/Composition ( Shepard 1 956:264-266, 2 98-299; R ice 1 987:252-259, 4 75; W ashburn a nd C rowe 1 988:31-36, 4 0-41) E lements a nd M otifs ( Shepard 1 956:266-267; R ice 1 987:248-260; W ashburn a nd C rowe 1 988:8-10, 5 3) S patial R elationships ( Shepard 1 956:289-291, 2 95-297; R ice 1 987:264-266; W ashburn a nd C rowe 1 988:57-75, 1 94-254) S tyle ( Shepard 1 956:260; R ice 1 987:244-252, 2 58 -2 59; W ashburn a nd C rowe 1 988:24-28, 3 7 -3 9, 6 3-80) S ymmetry ( Shepard 1 956:260; R ice 1 987:260-264; W ashburn a nd C rowe 1 988:6-34, 4 4-49, 5 7-75, 9 4-25 ) 4) F unction/Use A nalysis: ( Shepard 1 956:352; 1 982:313-315; K ramer 2 32-237)

i ncluding c ontents B ishop, R ands, 1 985:89-92; R ice

a s a pplicable a nd H olley 1 987:215-217,

T able 7 : B asic a nd A dvanced C haracterization M ethods: M ineralogical, C hemical, M icrostructural, C hronological. M ineralogical ( Shepard 1 956:136-147, 3 34-335; R ye 1 981:51-53; B ishop, R ands, a nd H olley 1 982:281-286; B ronitsky 1 986:231; R ice 1 987:371-379, 4 00-404) S pecimens: c lays, t empers/aplastics, p astes, t est p ieces; p article t ypes, s izes, s hapes

g lazes,

M icroscopy: B asic: B inocular M icroscopy ( ceramic s pecimens, t hin s ections) P etrographic M icroscopy ( thin s ections) P olarized L ight M icroscopy, c rossed n icols ( thin s ections) A dvanced: E lectron S pin R esonance ( ESR) S canning E lectron M icroscopy ( SEM) ( also f or p orosity) T ransmission E lectron M icroscopy ( TEM) D ifferential T hermal A nalysis ( DTA) X -Ray D iffraction ( XRD) C hemical/Microchemical ( Shepard ( 1956:387-390; B ishop, R ands, a nd H olley 1 982:288-300; R ice 1 987:387-390) S pecimens: c lays, c ompositions

p astes,

g lazes,

t est

p ieces;

c hemical

A tomic A bsorption S pectroscopy ( AAS) B eta-Ray B ackscattering ( especially f or g lazes) E lectron M icroprobe E mission S pectroscopy L aser M icroprobe M ossbauer S pectroscopy N eutron A ctivation A nalysis ( NA, N AA, I NAA) O ptical E mission S pectroscopy ( OES) P roton-Induced X -Ray E mission A nalysis ( FIXE) P roton M agnetic R esonance S pectroscopy P roton M icroprobe X -Ray M illiprobe, X -Ray M icroprobe X -Ray F luorescence S pectroscopy ( XRF) X -Ray P hotoelectron S pectrscopy ( XPS, E SCA) X -Ray S pectrometry M icrostructural

( Rice

1 987:400-403)

S pecimens: c lays, p astes, t empers/aplastics, g lazes, t est p ieces; m ineral a nd c hemical c haracteristics

- 3 33 -

T able 7 : B asic a nd A dvanced C haracterization M ethods: M ineralogical, C hemical, M icrostructural, C hronological ( continued). E lectron E mission S pectoscopy ( EEM) E lectron M icroprobe ( EMPA) S canning E lectron M icroscopy ( SEM) T ransmission E lectron M icroscopy ( TEM) X -Ray R adiography, X eroradiography C hronological S pecimens: a tions

( Rice s herds,

1 987:438-443) v essels,

c eramics

a rtifacts,

a ssoci-

R elative D ating: S equence D ating t hrough S eriation S equence D ating t hrough S tratigraphic A nalysis: N atural S tratigraphy A rtificial/Cultural S tratigraphy A rbitrary S tratigraphy C ross-dating: c orrelations s eeking c ontemporaneity A bsolute D ating/Radiometric D ating: A rchaeomagnetic/Thermoremnant M agnetism ( TRM): hearths, f iring a reas, k ilns, e tc. T hermoluminescent D ating ( TL): f ired c eramic materials R adiocarbon D ating ( 14C) : c eramic m aterial c ontexts o r a ssociations w ith o rganic m aterials

c haracterization. E thnographic a nd e thnoarchaeological r esearch h as s ignificantly e xpanded t he a rchaeologists' u nderstanding o f t he c ultural r oles, f unctions, a nd u ses o f p ottery. S ome e thnoarchaeological i nvestigations h ave l ead, d irectly o r i ndirectly, t o t he u se o f a nalogies g eneral c omparative a nalogies b etween m aterial o bjects o f t he p ast a nd p resent, o r d irect h istorical a nalogies i nvolving e thnographic o r e thnohistorically-known g roups o r c ultures r esiding i n t he s ame g eographic o r c ulture a rea. T echnical a nd p hysicochemical a nalyses m ust f ocus u pon r egional a s w ell a s l ocalized v ariables a nd t he b asic e cological v ariables a ssociated w ith t he P hysical E nvironment a nd B iological E nvironment ( Table 1 a nd F igures 3 a nd 4 ). T he i nterrelationships b etween t he t echnological a nd e nvironmental v ariables m ust b e c arefully c onsidered, j ust a s S teward ( 1955:30-42) p roposed i n h is e ssay " The C oncept a nd M ethod o f C ultural E cology." A s p reviously n oted, S teward i ndicated t hat t here w ere t hree f undamental p rocedures: 1 ) a nalyze t he i nterrelationships o f e xploitative o r p roductive t echnology a nd t he e nvironment, 2 ) a nalyze t he b ehavior p atterns i nvolved i n t he e xploitation o f a p articular a rea by m eans o f a p articular t echnology, a nd 3 ) a nalyze t he e xtent t o w hich t he b ehavior p atterns e ntailed i n e xploiting t he e nvironment a ffect a ll o ther a spects o f c ulture. T his b asic p aradigm w ith f eedback l oop l ends i tself t o t he a nalysis o f c eramic m aterials a s o utlined b y M atson ( 1965a) w ho n oted t he i mportance o f t hree e nvironments: p hysical, b iological, a nd c ultural. M atson's i nitial c oncept o f c eramic e cology w as a s h e n oted " but a s tart." T he m odifications a nd e laborations p resented a bove, I b elieve, o ffer a m ore c omprehensive v iew t han o ther i nvestigators h ave d evised o r s uggested. H olistic c eramic e cology i ncludes n ot o nly a s eries o f b asic e cological v ariables ( Physical E nvironment, B iological E nvironment, H umankind, a nd C ultural E nvironment) b ut d irectly l inks t hese w ith t he C eramic C omplex a nd e specially t he t hree p rimary s ubsystems ( Pottery P roduction, E conomic, a nd S ocial) a s w ell a s o thers ( Religious, a nd P sychological/Behavioral). T his p aradigm a lso t akes i nto a ccount i nfluences f rom o ther ( external o r " alien") s ociocultural s ystems a nd t he d imension o f t ime ( a d iachronic p erspective), a lthough t he m odel c an a lso b e v iewed a nd u tilized w ithin a s ynchronic f ramework. T ables 1 -7 d etail t he p articular v ariables a nd v ariable i nterrelationships w hich a re g raphically i llustrated i n t he t wo-dimensional a nd m olecular t hree-dimensional m odels f ound i n F igure 4 . T he p arameters s uggested b y v an d er L eeuw ( 1984:65-66,

- 3 35 -

F igs. 1 -2) r eproduced a ccommodated w ithin t he

a s F igures 5 a nd 6 would P ottery P roduction S ubsystem.

b e

R ice ( ed., 1 984:247-248) c ommented t hat w e h ad " ... n o r eal b ody o f c eramic t heory .. n o d efined ' paradigm' o r s et o f p aradigms .." f or c eramic r esearch, a nd s he f urther s tated " ... i n t he g eneral a bsence o f a n a greed u pon p aradigm f or r esearch, t here h as b een l ittle e ffort a t a chieving a s ynthesis i n w hich t he m easurements o f c eramic p roperties i ntegrate w ith a nthropological c oncepts." A rnold ( 1985) i n C eramic T heory a nd C ultural P rocess h as a ddressed t his c oncern. L ikewise, t he p aradigm o ffered h erein i s a nother a ttempt t o r esolve t his c ircumstance. H olistic c eramic e cology c ould, o f c ourse, b e c arried t o t he e xtremes w hereby e ach s herd r ather t han e ach a rchaeological o r e thographic " ware" o r " type" i s s ubject t o i ntense s crutiny a nd i nterpretation. T his w ould b e c ounter-productive. N onetheless, h olistic c eramic e cology d oes p rovide u s w ith a w orkable p aradigm f or t he a nalysis o f a rchaeological a nd/or c ontemporary p ottery, c eramics, a nd a ll m anner o f b aked c lay a rtifacts. H olistic c eramic e cology i s a g eneralization a bout t he b ehaviors a nd p henomena a ssociated w ith a p articular c ategory o f m aterial c ulture m ade a nd u sed b y h umankind. I n t his s ense, h olistic c eramic e cology i s a g eneralization a bout n ature a nd o f s ufficient s cope t o b e a t heory i n t hat i t i s w ell d efined a nd h as c ontrolled p rocedures t hat c an b e r eplicated.

S UMMARY

A ND

C ONCLUSIONS

I n t his c hapter I h ave h istorically r eviewed s ome s ignificant e arly s tudies o f c eramic m aterials p ublished f rom 1 558-1950, p articularly n oting t hose s ources n ot mentioned i n t he m ajor s yntheses ( Arnold 1 985; M atson, e d., 1 965; N elson, e d., 1 985; R ice 1 987; R ye 1 981; S hepard 1 965). T he e cological a pproach, i nitially d erived f rom t he b iological s ciences ( Haeckel 1 870), w as b riefly t raced f rom i ts o rigin t hrough a nimal p opulation s tudies a nd t he s ocial s ciences w ith r eference t o s ociology ( Redfield 1 930), t he d evelopment o f h uman b iology ( Bates 1 953), a nd e arly a nthropological u ses d uring t he e ra o f W hite a nd S teward, c a. 1 930-1960 ( Orlov 1 980). J ulian S teward's ( 1955) p erception o f c ultural e cology a s a method a nd t heory w as d etailed, a nd t he u se o f d iagrammatic p aradigms o f t he 1 939-1972 p eriod r elated. T he e mergence o f e cological i nterpretations i n a rchaeology i n t he l ate 1 950s w as n oted, a nd t he e cological p aradigms d eveloped a t P enn S tate r eported. T he i mportance o f t he 1 961 " Ceramics a nd M an" c onference a nd r esulting p ublication C eramics a nd M an ( Matson, e d., 1 965) w as r eviewed, a nd t he t wo e cological

c oncepts i n a rchaeology - h uman e cology a nd c ultural e cology - s een a s a b ackground t o t he d evelopment o f t he c oncept o f c eramic e cology b y M atson ( 1965a). H e v isualized t hree " chief e cological e lements" - p hysical, b iological, a nd c ultural i n a t ransitory s tate o f e quilibrium, a nd e mphasized a m ultia nd i nterdisciplinary a pproach. D uring t he s ubsequent d ecade f ollowing t he p ublication o f M atson's C eramics a nd M an a nd t he c eramic e cology m odel, s ome A merican a nd W estern E uropean a rchaeologists a nd e thnographers b egan t o e mploy t he a pproach. O riginally d eveloped a s a p aradigm f or a rchaeological i nvestigations i n t he N ear E ast, c eramic e cology w as u sed a nd m odified b y a n umber o f M atson's s tudents a nd c olleagues d uring t he e mergence o f t he " new" a rchaeology. R efinements i n e cological a nthropology, G eneral S ystems T heory, e thnoarchaeology, a nd r eplication a nd e xperimental s tudies o ccurred d uring t he p eriod 1 965-1980. O f p articular i mportance w as t he a rchaeological u se o f c ultural e cological p aradigms by C larke ( 1968), a mong o thers, w ho d eveloped p aradigms t o e xplicate e cological s ubsystem i nteractions. A c omplex t en-variable t hree-dimensional m odel w as e laborated by C larke i n o rder t o i nterrelate t he s ubsystems a nd s uggest a nalytical s trategies. C eramic e thnoarcheology a rose o ut o f a n eed b y a rchaeologists f or m ore p recise d ata o n t he r elationships b etween m aterial c ulture, c ontexts, a nd t he p eople w ho m ade a nd u sed c eramic a rtifacts, t hereby p ermitting t he i ntegration o f a rchaeological f inds w ith e thnographic i nformation ( Kramer 1 985). R eplication a nd e xperimental s tudies, w hich h ad t heir o rigins i n c eramic e ngineering a nd e arly m aterials s cience, d eveloped f rom t he i nterest i n e lucidating m anufacturing t echnologies a nd f iring c onditions. T he c urrent d ecade, 1 980-1989, h as b een m arked b y a s eries o f c onferences, s ymposia, f estschrift, a nd n umerous b ooks o n c eramic m aterials, f ield a nd/or l aboratory methodologies, p hysicochemical a nd a nalytical t echniques, a nd n ew w ays o f i nterpreting d ata. C eramic e cology, s ystems p aradigms, c eramic e thnoarchaeology, a nd o ther c eramic-oriented methods a nd t heories c ame u nder s crutiny a nd w ere m odified a nd r efined. A mong t he m ajor c onferences i n w hich c eramic e cology p layed a s ignificant r ole w ere " Ceramics a s A rchaeological M aterial," r esulting i n A rchaeological C eramics ( Olin a nd F ranklin, e ds., 1 982), a nd a s econd " Ceramics a nd M an" c onference i n 1 982 which r esulted i n t he p ublication o f T he M any D imensions o f P ottery ( van d er L eeuw a nd P ritchard, e ds., T he l atter w as a n a ssessment o f t he c oncept o f c eramic e cology, w hile a f estschrift f or M atson, P ots a nd P otters ( Rice, e d., 1 984), w as a n e laboration o f t he

o riginal i dea. M atson's ( 1984) c hapter i n T he M any D imensions o f P ottery p rovided a r eview o f t rends i n c eramic s tudies o ver t he p ast 2 0 y ears a nd s ome p rojected s ome f uture n eeds a nd d irections f or r esearch. B ooks w ritten b y A rnold ( 1985) a nd R ice ( 1987) r elated t he c urrent v iew o f t he p lace o f c eramic e cology i n t he 1 980s. A s ymposium s eries a t t he p ast t hree A merican A nthropological A ssociation A nnual M eetings w as o riented t o c eramic e cology a nd r esulted i n t hree p ublications ( Kolb a nd L ackey, e ds., 1 988; K olb, e d., 1 988, 1 989), t he i nitial v olume a f estschrift d edicated t o M atson a nd m arking h is t enth y ear o f " retirement." C eramic e cology a s o riginally p roposed b y M atson ( 1965a) h as b een e mployed b y A merican a rchaeologists, e thnographers, e thnoarchaeologists, a rchaeometricians, a rt h istorians, p rofessional p otters, g eologists, a nd c hemists, a mong o thers, a s w ell a s b y E uropean a rchaeologists a nd e thnographers. A s a b asic p aradigm c oncerned w ith b etter u nderstanding t he r elationships b etween t he p hysical, b iological, a nd c ultural e nvironments a nd c eramic m anufacture ( ranging f rom s election o f r aw m aterials t hrough d istribution, u se, a nd d iscard o f t he f inished p roducts), i t h as g one f ar t o a ddress t he c oncerns r aised b y M atson ( 1951, 1 960). V arious r efinements h ave b een m ade ( Arnold 1 975, 1 981, 1 985; K olb 1 976; R ice 1 981, 1 984a, 1 984c, 1 987). I ndeed, c eramic t echnological s tudies h ave b ecome m ore r efined a nd n ow e ncompass s ignificant e lements f rom t he s ocial s ciences a nd h umanitites a s w ell a s t echnical a nd p hysicochemical a nalyses. T his i ntegration o f i ntera nd m ultidisciplinary a pproaches t o t he t opic o f c eramics h as l ed u s f rom t he p re-1960s p eriod w hen t echnical c eramic s tudies w ere m ost o ften r eferenced i n a rchaeological a nd e thnographic r eports a s " manuscripts o n f ile," o r d istilled ( sometimes " cannibalized" i ncorrectly) " studies" w hich a ppeared a s a ppendices o r e ven i ncorporated a s b rief f ootnotes i n t hese l arger r eports. C eramic s tudies o f a t echnical n ature h ave, s o t o s peak, c ome o ut o f t he c loset, a nd a re n ow f ound i n f ull-fledged t reatises, c hapters, a nd m onographs. C ertainly t he a dvent o f n ew o utlets f or p ublishing i n a rchaeological, e thnographic, a nd s pecialized j ournals ( e.g. A rchaeometry, J ournal o f A rchaeological S cience, e tc.) h ave l ikewise b een s ignificant ( Kolb 1 989a). H olistic c eramic e cology, a c ombination o f c eramic e cology a nd G eneral S ystems T heory, i s a v iable methodology a nd r eporting p rocedure, b ut i s r eally a w ay o f t hinking a bout a nd o rganizing o ne's d ata s o t hat w e c onsider t he t otal o r h olistic p icture r ather t han a n a spectual v iew. W e c ertainly h ave F red M atson t o t hank f or h elping u s s ee m ore c learly t he i nterrelationships

- 3 38 -

b etween p hysicochemical a nd t echnical a nalyses o n h and a nd s ociocultural a nd b ehavioral p henomena o ther. T hese a re s ignificant f acets o f t he C omplex.

t he o ne o n t he C eramic

I a gree w ith D eBoer's s tatement ( van d er L eeuw a nd P ritchard, e d., 1 984:797) t hat w e m ust " ...not o nly a ctivate n eutrons b ut a lso a ctivate n eurons." T he p aradigm p roposed h erein i s a n e ffort i n t his d irection. M uscarella ( 1975), a mong o thers, h as w arned t hat c eramic e vidence c an e asily b e m isinterpreted, a nd h e c alled f or c areful h andling ( and t hinking) a bout t he m aterial, a nd a c onservative a pproach t o t he i nterpretation o f b oth t he p ottery a nd d ata d erived f rom t echnical a nalyses. H e o bserved t hat " archaeology i s n ot a s cience," b ecause t he i nterpretation o f t he m aterial i s s ubject t o h uman f allibility ( 1975:65). W hile h is s tatement i s d ebatable, o ne c annot d eny t hat t he c ultural i nterpretation o f c eramic t echnological d ata i s i ntriguing a nd f raught w ith p otential d escriptive p itfalls ( Kolb 1 982:194). O n t he o ne h and w e s hould b e c autious a bout a n o ver-reliance o n p hysicochemical a nd o ther t echnical a nalytical " results" a nd m ust b e a ware o f t he l imitations a nd p roblems o f t hese " scientific" t echniques. Y et, o n t he o ther h and, w e m ust a lso b e c autious a bout a n o ver-reliance o n e thnoarchaeological a nd o ther s ocial s cience d ata. N onetheless, h olistic c eramic e cology a s a p aradigm p resents u s w ith a v iable methodology a nd w ay o f t hinking a bout a nd o rganizing o ur d ata.

- 3 39 -

E NDNOTE 1 A n a bbreviated v ersion o f t his c hapter w as o rally p resented a t t he F irst J oint A rchaeological C ongress i n B altimore, M aryland o n J anuary 6 , 1 989, i n t he A rchaeological I nstitute o f A merica-sponsored s ession e ntitled " Scientific M ethods o f A nalysis," w hich w as c o-chaired b y " Rip" R app a nd B ruce D ahlin. T he c ontent o f t his c hapter h as b een d eveloped p iecemeal s ince 1 962 w hen I w as i nitially e xposed t o t he c oncept o f c eramic e cology d uring t he p ost-conference p eriod w hen M atson w as e diting h is C eramic a nd M an v olume a nd p olishing h is o wn c hapters o n c eramic e cology ( 1965a) a nd " ceramic q ueries" ( 1965b). A s h is g raduate t eaching a ssistant a nd l ater a r esearch a ssistant, I b egan t o l earn a bout c eramic e cology i n t he F all o f 1 962. T his e xposure w as e specially h ighlighted d uring t he W inter T erm 1 968 w hen I w as a mong t he s tudents i n h is i nitial " Ceramics a nd M an" g raduate-level s eminar ( Anthropology 5 62) a t P enn S tate. O ver t he y ears, I a ttempted a r efinement o f M atson's ( 1965b) " queries" ( Kolb 1 976), a nd u sed t he c eramic e cological a pproach i n my o wn s tudies o f C lassic T eotihuacan p eriod c eramics a nd p ottery f rom e xcavations i n n orthern A fghanistan ( see t he R eferences C ited f or K olb i n t his c hapter). T hrough t he y ears, I h ave b ecome m ore a nd m ore c oncerned a bout t he u se a nd p erceived m isuse o f t he c oncept, a nd b elieve a r eorientation t o t he o riginal a nthropological c oncept o f e cology a nd t o c eramic e cology i s n eeded b ecause t he o riginal p aradigm h ad b ecome f ragmented a nd l acks t he u nity i t o nce h ad. H ence, t his c ritique.

M y t hanks a re e xtended t o S ander E . v an d er L eeuw w ho p ermitted t he r eproduction o f F igure 3 , " The E nvironment o f t he P ottery-Making S ystem," a nd F igure 4 , " Decision-making M odel o f P aste P reparation," b oth o f w hich o riginally a ppeared i n h is c hapter, " Pottery M anufacture: S ome C omplications f or t he S tudy o f T rade," i n P rudence M . R ice's P ots a nd P otters: C urrent A pproaches i n C eramic A rchaeology ( 1984:65-66). P ermission w as a lso o btained f rom M arilyn P . B eaudry, A cting D irector o f P ublications, U CLA I nstitute o f A rchaeology M onograph s eries, c opyright owners.

A PPENDIX A :

C ONTENTS

O F

C ERAMICS

A ND

M AN

( 1965)

M atson, F rederick R . ( ed.) 1 965 C eramics a nd M an. N ew Y ork: W enner-Gren F oundation f or A nthropological R esearch, V iking F und P ublications i n A nthropology 4 1; C hicago: A ldine P ublishing C ompany; L ondon: M ethuen. R obert W . E hrich, P erspective," 1 -19.

" Ceramics

a nd

S [igvald] L inn‘ , P otter," 2 0-42.

E thnologist

a nd

" The

M an:

t he

A

A merican

G eorge M . F oster, " The S ociology o f P ottery: A rising f rom C ontemporary M exican W ork," 4 3-61. A nna 0 . S hepard, " Rio G rande G laze-Paint o f P etrographic A naylsis," 6 2-87. I rving R ouse, " Caribbean T heory," 8 8-103.

C eramics:

C ultural

Q uestions

P ottery:

A S tudy

J ames B . G riffin, " Ceramic C omplexity D evelopment: T he E astern U nited S tates a s 1 04-113.

i n

A T est

M ethod

a nd

a nd C ultural a C ase S tudy,"

H . W . M . H odges, " Aspects o f P ottery B efore t he R oman E mpire," 1 14-123.

i n

T emperate

J . D . V an d er W aals, " Early Two P roblems," 1 24-139.

i n

t he

C eramics

I ndian

E urope

N etherlands:

W alter T rachsler, " The I nfluence o f M etalworking P rehistoric P ottery: S ome O bservations o n I ron P ottery o f t he A lpine R egion," 1 40-151.

o n A ge

W alter T rachsler, " Precursors o f P olychrome P ainted P ottery: S ome E xamples f rom t he P rehistory o f S witzerland," 1 52-160. H el ne A frica

B alfet, E thnographical O bservations i n a nd A rcheological I nterpretation," 1 61-177.

Z aky I skander, " The P ottery F ound i n N eferwptah a nd I ts S ignificance," 1 78-186. S aul S . W einberg, " Ceramics a nd a nd B urial E vidence i n t he A egean F rederick R . S tudy o f t he

t he

N orth

T omb

t he S upernatural: W orld," 1 87-201.

o f

C ult

M atson, " Ceramic E cology: A n A pproach t o t he E arly C ultures o f t he N ear E ast," 2 02-217.

A PPENDIX A ( continued) J ames M ellaart, " Anatolian C ultural S ynthesis," 2 40-247.

P ottery

a s

a

B asis

L ouis V anden B erghe, " Some C eramic C ontributions K nowledge o f C ulture i n P rehistoric I ran," 2 48-253. W ilhelm G . S olheim, S outheast A sia: F rom I rving R ouse, 2 74-276. F rederick

R .

" The

M atson,

f or

t o

a

I I, " The F unctions o f P ottery i n t he P resent t o t he P ast," 2 54-273. N ew

Y ork

" Ceramic

P lanning

Q ueries,"

C onference,"

2 77-287.

A PPENDIX B :

C ONTENTS

O F

A RCHAEOLOGICAL

C ERAMICS

( 1982)

J acqueline S . O lin a nd A lan D . F ranklin ( eds.) 1 982 A rchaeological C eramics. W ashington, S mithsonian I nstitution P ress. I ntroduction S ection

I :

a nd

S ummary

( Alan

D .

F ranklin),

D .C.:

1 -15.

M ethodology

F rederick R . M atson, " Archaeological C eramics a nd t he P hysical S ciences: P roblem D efinition a nd R esults," 1 9-28. F . W idemann, " Why i s A rchaeologists? , " 2 9-36.

A rchaeometry

W . D . K ingery, " Plausible A rtifacts," 3 7 -4 5. P rudence M . R ice, C lassification, a nd A nalyses," 4 7 -5 6.

S o

I nferences

" Pottery t he R ole

B oring

f rom

f or

C eramic

P roduction, P ottery o f P hysicochemical

C . L emoine, S . W alker, a nd M . P icon, " Archaeological, G eochemical, a nd S tatistical M ethods i n C eramic P rovenance S tudies," 5 7-64. S ection

I I:

P hysical

a nd

C hemical

M ethods

G arman H arbottle, " Provenience S tudies U sing N eutron A ctivation A nalysis: T he R ole o f S tandardization," 6 7 -7 7. S uzanne P . D eAtley, M . J ames B lackman, a nd J acqueline S . O lin, " Comparison o f D ata O btained b y N eutron A ctivation a nd E lectron M icroprobe A nalyses o f C eramics," 7 9 -8 7. R obert B . H eimann, P ossible A ssessment 8 9-96.

" Firing T echnologies b y M odern A nalytical

Y . M aniatis, A . S imopoulos, a nd A . I nvestigation o f A ncient C eramic M ossbauer S pectroscopy," 9 7-108.

a nd t heir M ethods,"

K ostikas, " The T echnologies b y

M . S . T ite, I . C . F reestone, N . D . M eeks, a nd M . B imson, " The U se o f S canning E lectron M icroscopy i n t he T echnological E xamination o f A ncient C eramics," 1 09-120.

A PPENDIX B ( continued) M arino M aggetti, " Phase A nalysis a nd f or T echnology a nd O rigin," 1 21-133. C . P . S wann, " The E lemental A nalyses 1 35-143.

I ts

S ignificance

P roton P robe a s a o f A rchaeological

T ool i n t he A rtifacts,"

R alph E . A lexander a nd " Xeroradiography o f A ncient M odality," 1 45-154. A lbert D . F rost, S urface L ayers," S ection

I II . :

R obert O bjects:

" Photoacoustic 1 55-163.

A rchaeological

H . A

J ohnston, N ew I mage

E xamination

o f

C eramic

E xamples

P amela V andiver, " Technological F aience," 1 67-179.

C hanges

i n

E gyptian

P hilip P . B etancourt, " Preliminary R esults f rom E ast C retan W hite-on-Dark W are P roject," 1 83-187. W illiam O . P ayne, " Kilns a nd A ncient M esoamerica," 1 89-192.

C eramic

T echnology

t he

o f

C harles C . K olb, " Ceramic T echnology a nd P roblems a nd P rospects o f P rovenience i n S pecific C eramics f rom M exico a nd A fghanistan," 1 93-208. R obert B . H eimann, " Porosimetric I nvestigation o f R oman T erra S igillata M olds f rom R heinzabern, G ermany," 2 09-217. C arole S timmell, R obert B . H eimann, a nd R . G . V . H ancock, " Indian P ottery f rom t he M ississippi V alley: C oping w ith B ad R aw M aterials," 2 19-228. R . F . T ylecote, S lags," 2 31-243.

" Metallurgical

C rucibles

a nd

C rucible

M ichael R . N otis, " Analysis o f N onmetallic P hases i n M etallic A rtifacts: T he D evelopment o f t he J apanese M okume T echnique," 2 45-256.

A PPENDIX

C :

C ONTENTS

O F

P OTS

A ND

P OTTERS

( 1984)

R ice, P rudence M . ( ed.) 1 984 P ots a nd P otters: C urrent A pproaches i n C eramic A rchaeology: L os A ngeles: U niversity o f C alifornia a t L os A ngeles, I nstitute o f A rchaeology, M onograph 2 4. P art

I :

H omer t heir

P otters

i n

t heir

E nvironment,

A . T hompson, " The N eighbors," 7 -19.

E dith P orada, " Pottery A gade?," 2 1-25.

A thenian

i n

S cenes

1 -5. V ase-Painters

o f

t he

a nd

P eriod

o f

T homas W . J acobsen, " Seasonal P astoralism i n S outhern G reece: A C onsideration o f t he E cology o f N eolithic U rfirnis P ottery," 2 7-43. P rudence M . R ice, " The A rchaeological S tudy o f S pecialized P ottery P roduction: S ome A spects o f M ethod a nd T heory," 4 5-54. S ander E . v an d er L eeuw, " Pottery M anufacture: C omplications f or t he S tudy o f T rade," 5 5-69. P art

I I:

E thnoarchaeological

S tudies,

7 1-79.

R obert H . J ohnston, " An A bandoned P ottery a t o n t he I sland o f D jerba, T unisia: A H ermenutic t o E thnoarcheology," 8 1-94. W ilhelm G . S olheim, I I, " Pottery N ortheastern T hailand," 9 5-105.

a nd

" Greek

G uellala A pproach

P rehistory

R uth A miran a nd D odo S henhav, " Experiments A ncient P otter's W heel," 1 07-112. K aren D . V itelli, E xperiment," 1 13-131.

S ome

N eolithic

w ith

P otterY

o f

a n

b y

D ean E . A rnold, " Social I nteraction a nd C eramic D esign: C ommunity-wide C orrelates i n Q uinua, P eru," 1 33-161. P art

I II:

T echnological

A nalysis

o f

W . D avid K ingery, " Interactions w ith S ociety," 1 71-178.

P ottery, o f

C eramic

F red S tross a nd F rank A saro, " Time's W heel S tops: P otter a nd C lay E ndure," 1 79-186.

- 3 45

-

1 63-170. T echnology

R uns

B ack

o r

A PPENDIX

C ( continued)

A rthur S teinberg a nd D iana C . K amilli, " Paint a nd P aste S tudies o f S elected H alaf S herds f rom M esopotamia," 1 97-208. C harles C . K olb, " Technological a nd C ultural A spects T eotihuacan P eriod ' Thin O range' W are," 2 09-226. M aureen F . K aplan, G arman H arbottle, S ayre, " Tell e l Y ahudiyeh W are: A 2 27-241. P art

I V:

C onclusions,

P rudence

M .

R ice,

a nd E dward V . R eevaluation I f 9

2 43.

" Overview a nd

- 3 46 -

o f

P rospect,"

2 45-255.

A PPENDIX D :

C ONTENTS O F T HE M ANY D IMENSIONS ( 1984)

O F

P OTTERY

v an d er L eeuw, S ander E . a nd A lison C . P ritchard ( eds.) 1 984 T he M any D imensions o f P ottery: C eramics i n A rchaeology a nd A nthropology. A msterdam: U niversiteit v an A msterdam, A lbert E gges v an G iffen I nstituut v oor P rae- e n P rotohistorie, C INGVLA V II. A lison C . P ritchard a nd S ander E . v an d er L eeuw, " Introduction: T he M any D imensions o f P ottery," 1 -23. F rederick R . M atson, " Ceramics a nd M an S ome T houghts f or t he F uture," 2 5-54. J ohn A . R iley, " Pottery A nalysis a nd o f A ncient E xchange S ystems," 5 5-78.

R econsidered

t he

w ith

R econstruction

V incas P . S teponaitis, " Technological S tudies P rehistoric P ottery f rom A labama: P hysical P roperties V essel F unction," 7 9-1227. A braham 1 29-164.

v an

A s,

" Reconstructing

t he

P otter's

o f a nd

C raft,"

B ettina H offman a nd H einz J uranek, " The R econstruction o f P roduction T echniques f or R elief-Decorated T erra S igillata ( abstract)," 1 65-169. Hglene B alfet, " Methods P ottery," 1 71-201.

o f

F ormation

a nd

H orst W . L obert, " Types o f P otter's W heels o f t he S pindle-Wheel i n G ermany," 2 03-230. P rudence M . R ice, " Change a nd P ottery-Producing S ystems," 2 31-293.

t he

a nd

S hape

t he

o f

S pread

C onservatism

i n

G ary F einman, S tephen A . K owalewski, a nd R ichard E . B lanton, " Modelling C eramic P roduction a nd O rganizational C hange i n t he P re-Hispanic V alley o f O axaca, M exico," 2 95-337. R udiger V ossen, " Towards B uilding M odels o f T raditional T rade i n C eramics: C ase S tudies f rom S pain a nd M orocco," 3 39-406. J im A llen, " Pots A pproach t o t he P apua," 4 07-473.

a nd P oor R ole o f

P rinces: A M ultidimensional P ottery T rading i n C oastal

D ick A . P apousek, " Pots a nd P eople i n L os P ueblos: T he S ocial a nd E conomic O rganization o f P ottery," 4 75-526.

- 314 7

-

A PPENDIX D ( continued) W arren R . D eBoer, " The L ast P ottery S ense i n C eramic S tudies," 5 27-571. M argaret

A .

H ardin,

" Models

o f

S how:

D ecoration,"

R ichard A . K rause, " Modelling t he M aking E thnoarchaeological A pproach," 6 15-706. S ander E . v an d er T ransformational V iew o f

S ystem

5 73-614. o f

P ots:

L eeuw, " Dust t o D ust: t he C eramic C ycle," 7 07-778.

- 3 48

-

a nd

A n

A

A PPENDIX E :

C ONTENTS

O F

A P OT

F OR

A LL

R EASONS

( 1988)

K olb, C harles C . a nd L ouana M . L ackey ( eds.), w ith M uriel K irkpatrick ( gen. e d.) 1 988 A P ot f or A ll R easons: C eramic E cology R evisited. P hiladelphia: T emple U niversity, L aboratory o f A nthropology, S pecial P ublication o f C eramica d e C ultura M aya e t a l. C harles

C .

K olb,

" Preface,"

C harles C . K olb, " Frederick P ersonal V iew," 1 -21. C harles C . F rederick R .

v iii-xx. R .

K olb ( comp.), M atson, 2 3-37.

M atson:

A P rofessional

a nd

B ibliography

o f

" Selected

L ouana M . L ackey a nd C harles C . K olb, " Ceramic E colgoy R evisited: A P ot f or A ll R easons - T he P apers," 3 9-43. M arilyn P . B eaudry, C eramics," 4 5-55.

" The

F unction

o f

N onfunctional

N ancy L . B enco, " Morphological V ariability: A n t o t he S tudy o f C raft S pecialization," 5 7-72. P hilip P . B etancourt, G eorge H . M yer, R utter, " The C eramic P etrography o f P ottery f rom L erna," 7 3-80. D iane Z . C hase, " Caches M aya P ottery," 7 0-88.

a nd

a nd J eremy B . E arly H elladic

C enserwares:

M ichael D eal i n c ollaboration w ith " Absorption R esidues a nd V essel F unction: f rom t he M aine-Maritimes R egion," 1 05-125. M elissa B . H agstrum, A ndes, P eru: A n C omparison," 1 27-145. C harles C . T eotihuacan

A pproach

M eaning

P eter A C ase

f rom

S ilk, S tudy

" Ceramic P roduction i n t he C entral A rchaeological a nd E thnographic

K olb, " The P eriod C opoid

C ultural C eramics,"

E cology 1 47-197.

L ouana M . L ackey, " Traditional M exican a nd T hin O range W ares," 1 99-211.

o f

C lassic

P ottery T echnology

B eal M ossman a nd M arcia S elsor, " A U tilitarian P ottery T radition a nd t he M odern S panish K itchen," 2 13-237. L aurette M ouat a nd D ean P ottery P roduction i n E l

E . A rnold, " Ceramic E cology a nd P orvenir, H onduras," 2 39-261.

- 3 49

-

A PPENDIX F :

C ONTENTS

O F

C ERAMICS ( 1988)

E COLOGY

R EVISITED,

1 987

K olb, C harles C . ( ed.) 1 988 C eramic E cology R evisited, 1 987: T he T echnology a nd S ocioeconomics o f P ottery. O xford: B ritish A rchaeological R eports, I nternational S eries, B AR-S436 ( iii). C harles

C .

K olb,

" Preface,"

v -xxiii.

S . T erry C hilds, " Clay R esource S pecilization i n A ncient T anzania: I mplications f or C ultural P rocess," 1 -31. E . Z ubrow, J . F ountain, A . P elcin, K . A llen, P . B ush, K . B artoletta, a nd L . H unt, " Prehistoric D istribution N etworks o f D omestic C eramics i n S orsogon, P hilippines, a n A rchaeometric S tudy," 3 3-56. B eal K iln

M . o f

L ouana K ing,"

M ossman, I II a nd M arcia A gost A paim," 5 7-87. M . L ackey, 8 9-109.

M ichael D eal, I dentification 1 11-142. D elores S tatus, T ornete

" An o f

" Elite

S elsor,

C eramics:

" The

D ishes

T hree-story

F it

f or

a

E thnoarchaeological A pproach t o t he M aya D omestic P ottery P roduction,"

M . R alph a nd D ean E . A rnold, " Socioeconomic K inship, a nd I nnovation: T he A doption o f t he i n T ikal, Y ucatan," 1 45-164.

R obert L . R ands, " Least-cost a nd F unction O ptimizing I nterpretations o f C eramic P roduction: A n A rchaeological P erspective," 1 65-198. J ames J . S heehy, " Ceramic E cology R atio: M odeling F uel C onsumption T eotihuacan, M exico," 1 99-226.

a nd i n

t he C lay/Fuel T lajinga 3 3,

C harles C eramic

C . K olb, E cological

" Classic T eotihuacan G ranular I nterpretations," 2 27-344.

W ares:

C harles C eramic

C . K olb, E cological

" Classic T eotihuacan C opoid I nterpretations," 3 45-448.

W ares:

C harles C . K olb, " Classic T eotihuacan P reliminary A nalysis," 4 49-645.

- 3 50

-

C andeleros:

A

A PPENDIX G :

C ONTENTS

O F

C ERAMIC

E COLOGY,

1 988

( 1989)

K olb, C harles C . 1 989 C eramic E cology, 1 988: C urrent R esearch o n C eramic M aterials. O xford: B ritish A rchaeological R eports, I nternational S eries, B AR S -(this v olume). C harles

C .

K olb,

" Preface,"

T homas P . M yers, " The A merican C ivilizations:

v -xxii.

R ole o f P ottery i n t he T he C eramic R evolution,"

R ise 1 -28.

o f

D ean E . A rnold, " Technological D iversity a nd E volutionary V iability: A C omparison o f C ontemporary P ottery-making T echnologies i n G uatemala, P eru, a nd M exico," 2 9-59. K athleen M . A llen a nd E zra B . W . Z ubrow, " Environmental F actors i n C eramic P roduction: T he I roquois," 6 1-95. M arilyn P . B eaudry, R onald L . B ishop, J ohn a nd K enneth L . H irth, " Determining C eramic V iew f rom H onduras," 9 7-116.

S . H enderson, P roduction: A

L ouana M . L ackey, " Following P iccolpasso," 1 17-154.

L essons

t he

B ook:

B eal M . M ossman a nd M arica S elsor, " The T radition o f A gost, S pain," 1 55-174.

C lay

P reparation

C harles C . K olb, " Kushano-Sasanian S torage J ars C entral A sia: A S tudy i n C eramic E cology E thnoarchaeology," 1 75-259. C harles C ritical

C . K olb, R eview o f

C harles C . 3 77-421.

K olb,

f rom

f rom a nd

" Ceramic E cology i n R etrospect: M ethodology a nd R esults," 2 61-375.

" The

C urrent

S tatus

o f

C eramic

A

S tudies,"

R EFERENCES

C ITED

A lexander, R alph E . a nd R obert H . J ohnston 1 982 X eroradiography o f A ncient O bjects: A N ew I maging M odality. I n A rchaeological C eramics, e dited b y J acqueline S . O lin a nd A lan D . F ranklin. W ashington, D .C.: S mithsonian I nstitution P ress, 1 45-154. A llee, W . C ., A . E . E merson, O . S chmidt 1 949 P rinciples o f A nimal S aunders.

P ark,

T .

P ark,

E cology.

a nd

K .

P .

P hiladelphia:

A miran, R uth 1 965 T he B eginnings o f P ottery-making i n t he N ear E ast. I n C eramics a nd M an, e dited b y F rederick R . M atson. C hicago: A ldine, N ew Y ork: W enner-Gren F oundation f or A nthropological R esearch, V iking F und P ublications i n A nthropology 4 1:240-247. A ndrewartha, H . G . 1 961 I ntroduction t o t he S tudy o f A nimal C hicago: U niversity o f C hicago.

P opulations.

A rnold, D ean E . 1 971 E thnomineralogy o f T icul, Y ucatan P otters: a nd E mics. A merican A ntiquity 3 6:20-40.

E tics

1 975

C eramic E cology I mplications f or 1 6:183-194.

o f t he A yacucho B asin, P eru: P rehistory. C urrent A nthropology

1 981

A M odel f or t he I dentification o f N on-local C eramic D istribution: A V iew f rom t he P resent. I n P roduction a nd D istribution: A C eramic V iewpoint, e dited b y H iliary H oward a nd E laine L . M orris. O xford, E ngland: B ritish A rchaeological R eports, I nternational S eries, B AR-S120:31-44.

1 985

C eramic T heory a nd C ultural P rocess. a nd N ew Y ork: C ambridge U niversity S tudies i n A rchaeology.

1 988

T he M any D imensions o f P ottery: C eramics i n A rchaeology a nd A nthropology, e dited b y S ander E . v an d er L eeuw a nd A lison C . P ritchard, 1 984 [ review]. A merican A ntiquity 5 3:202-203.

1 989

T echnological D iversity a nd E volutionary V iability: A C omparison o f P ottery-making T echniques i n G uatemala, P eru, a nd M exico. I n C eramic E cology, 1 988: C urrent R esearch o n C eramic

C ambridge P ress, N ew

M aterials, e dited b y C harles C . K olb. O xford, E ngland: B ritish A rchaeological R eports, I nternational S eries, B AR-S ( this v olume). A shby, 1 956

W . R . A n I ntroduction W iley a nd S ons.

t o

C ybernetics.

A tkinson, J . J . 1 893 N otes o n P ointed F orms P eoples. J ournal o f I nstitute 2 3:90-91. B aker, 1 962

P aul T . T he A pplication o f A nthropology. A merican

o f P ottery t he R oyal

N ew

Y ork:

J ohn

A mong P rimitive A nthropological

E cological T heory t o A nthropologist 6 4:15-21.

B alfet, H el ne 1 965 E thnographical O bservations i n N orth A frica a nd A rcheological I nterpretation. I n C eramics a nd M an, e dited b y F rederick R . M atson. C hicago: A ldine; N ew Y ork: W enner-Gren F oundation f or A nthropological R esearch, V iking F und P ublications i n A nthropology 4 1:161-177. B amps, 1 883

A natole L a c 4ramique a mj ricaine a u p oint d e v ue d es 4 14ments c onstituitfs d e s a p ate e t d e l a f abrication. C ompte R endu: V C ongres I nternational d e A mericanistes, C openhagen, 2 74-281.

B ates, 1 953

M arston H uman E cology. I n A nthropology T oday: A n E ncyclopedic I nventory, e dited b y A . L . K roeber. C hicago: U niversity o f C hicago P ress, 7 00-713.

B eaudry, M arilyn P . 1 988 T he F unction o f N onfunctional C eramics. I n A P ot f or A ll R easons: C eramic E cology R evisited, e dited b y C harles C . K olb a nd L ouana M . L ackey. P hiladelphia: T emple U niversity, L aboratory o f A nthropology, 4 5-55. B eazley, J . D . 1 945 P otter a nd P ainter i n A ncient A thens. E ngland: O xford U niversity P ress. B el, 1 918

O xford:

A . L es

i ndustries

d e

l a

c eramique I Fe s.

P aris:

n .p.

B ennett, M argaret A . 1 974 B asic C eramic A nalysis. P ortales: E astern M exico U niversity P ress, C ontributions

N ew i n

A nthropology 6 .

- 3 53 -

B inford, L ewis 1 962 A rchaeology 2 8:217-225.

a s

A nthropology.

P erspective.

A merican

N ew

A ntiquity

1 972

A n A rchaeological P ress.

Y ork:

S eminar

1 979

O rganization a nd F ormation P rocesses: L ooking a t C urated T echnologies. J ournal o f A nthropological R esearch 3 5:255-273.

B etancourt, P hilip P . 1 982 P reliminary R esults f rom t he E ast C retan White-on-Dark W are P roject. I n A rchaeological C eramics, e dited b y J acqueline S . O lin a nd A lan D . F ranklin. W ashington, D .C.: S mithsonian I nstitution P ress, 1 83-187. B ishop, R onald L ., R obert L . R ands, a nd G eorge R . H olley 1 982 C eramic C ompositional A nalysis i n A rchaeological P erspective. I n A dvances i n A rchaeological M ethod a nd T heory, e dited b y M ichael B . S chiffer. N ew Y ork: A cademic P ress, 5 :275-330. B oserup, E ster 1 965 T he C onditions o f A gricultural G rowth: T he E conomics o f A grarian C hange U nder P opulation P ressure. C hicago: A ldine. B oulding, K . E . 1 956 G eneral S ystems T heory: T he S keleton M anagement S cience 2 :197-208. 1 968

T he I mage. P ress.

A nn

A rbor:

U niversity

o f

o f

B raudel, F . 1 970 H istory a nd t he S ocial S ciences: T he S ocial S cience I nformation 9 :145-174. B rew, 1 946

S cience.

M ichigan

L ong-term.

J . O tis T he U ses a nd A buses o f T axonomy. I n A rchaeology o f A lkalai R idge, S outheastern U tah, e dited b y J . O tis B rew. C ambridge, M A: H arvard U niversity, P eabody M useum o f A rchaeology a nd E thnology, P apers 2 1:44-66.

B rontisky, G ordon 1 986 T he U se o f M aterials S cience T echniques i n t he S tudy o f P ottery C onstruction a nd U se. I n A dvances i n A rchaeological M ethod a nd T heory, e dited b y M ichael B . S chiffer. O rlando, F L: A cademic P ress, 9 :209-276.

- 3 5 14 -

B rougniart, A . 1 844 T rait jd es a rts D essain e t T olra.

cj ramiques,

B uckley, W . 1 967 S ociology a nd M odern S ystems C liffs, N J: P rentice-Hall. B uckley, W . ( ed.) 1 968 M odern S ystems R esearch S cientist. C hicago: A ldine.

i st

e d.

T heory.

f or

P aris:

E nglewood

t he

B ehavioral

B unzel, R uth 1 929 T he P ueblo P otter: A S tudy o f C reative I magination i n P rimitive A rt. N ew Y ork: C olumbia U niversity, C ontributions t o A nthropology 8 . ( Reprinted, N ew Y ork: D over, 1 972.) B urton, W . 1 906 P orcelain: L ondon: B .

I ts N ature, T . B atsford.

B ushell, S . W . 1 910 D escription o f O xford, E ngland:

A rt,

a nd

C hinese P ottery C larendon P ress.

M anufacture.

a nd

P orcelain.

C avalli-Sforza, L . L . 1 971 S imilarities a nd D issimilarities o f S ocio-cultural a nd B iological E volution. I n M athematics i n t he A rchaeological a nd H istorical S ciences, e dited b y F . R . H odson, D . C . K endall, a nd P . T autu. E dinburgh: E dinburgh U niversity P ress, 5 35-541. C larke, D avid L . 1 968 A nalytical C larke, D avid L . 1 972 M odels i n C oles, 1 963

A rchaeology. ( ed.) A rchaeology.

L ondon:

L ondon:

M ethuen.

M ethuen.

J . M . E nvironmental S tudies i n A rchaeology. I n S cience a nd A rchaeology, e dited b y D on B rothwell a nd E ric H iggs. N ew Y ork: B asic B ooks, 9 3-98.

C olton, H arold S . 1 953 P otsherds: A n I ntroduction t o t he S tudy o f P rehistoric a nd S outhwestern C eramics a nd t heir U se i n H istoric R econstruction. F lagstaff: M useum o f N orthern A rizona, B ulletin 2 5. C olton, H . S . a nd L . L . H argrave 1 937 H andbook o f N orthern A rizona P ottery W ares. F lagstaff: M useum o f N orthern A rizona, B ulletin 1.

- 3 55 -

C owgill, G eorge L . 1 975 O n C auses a nd C onsequences o f A ncient a nd M odern P opulation C hanges. A merican A nthropologist 7 7:505-525. D aniel, G lyn 1 975 A H undred a nd D uckworth.

F ifty Y ears

o f

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W illey, G ordon R . 1 949 C eramics. I n H andbook o f S outh A merican I ndians, V ol. 5 : T he C omparative E thnology o f S outh A merican I ndians, e dited b y J ulian S teward.

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D .C.: S mithsonian I nstitution, B ureau E thnology, B ulletin 1 43(5):139-204.

W illey G ordon R . a nd P hilip P hillips 1 953 M ethod a nd T heory i n A merican A rchaeology, A merican A nthropologist 5 5:615 -6 33.

1 955

M ethod a nd T heory i n A merican A rchaeology, A merican A nthropologist 5 7:723 -8 19.

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M ethod a nd T heory i n A merican C hicago: U niversity o f C hicago P ress.

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W illiams, S amuel R . 1 942 H ardness a nd H ardness M easurements. O H: A merican S ociety f or M etals. W issler, C lark 1 926 T he R elation o f N ature A merica. N ew Y ork: O xford W right,

1 937

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I .

I I.

A rchaeology.

2 nd

e d.

S an

C leveland,

t o M an i n A boriginal U niversity P ress.

G . E rnest T he P ottery o f P alestine f rom t he E arliest T imes t o t he E nd o f t he B ronze A ge. J erusalem a nd B aghdad: A merican S chools o f O riental R esearch, P h.D. d issertation. H enry T . R ecent R esearch o n t he O rigin o f t he S tate. A nnual R eview o f A nthropology: 1 977, e dited b y B ernard J . S iegel, A lan R . B eals, a nd S tephen A . T yler. P alo A lto: A nnual R eviews, 6 :379 -3 97.

P . P rehistoric P ottery i n C hina. L ondon: U niversity o f L ondon, C ourtauld I nstitute o f A rt/Kegan P aul. G . H uman B ehavior C ambridge, M A:

a nd t he P rinciple A ddison-Wesley.

o f

L east

E ffort.

C HAPTER

9 T HE

C URRENT

S TATUS

O F

C ERAMIC

C harles

C .

K olb

S TUDIES

M ercyhurst C ollege 2 18 O ld M ain 5 01 E ast 3 8th S treet E rie, P ennsylvania 1 6546 U .S.A.

I n C eramic E cology, M aterials, e dited b y

E D

1 988: C urrent C harles C . K olb

C harles

C .

K olb,

R esearch o n C eramic ( 1989), 3 77-421.

1 989

T ABLE

O F

C ONTENTS

P age

3 78 3 79 3 79

3 84 3 84

3 86 3 92 3 93 3 98 4 10

T able o f C ontents, L ist o f T ables I ntroduction T he M ystique o f P ottery R ecent D evelopments: T he P ast T wo D ecades S ome M ajor A ntecedents o f t he P eriod

1 989

T he D ecade 1 979-1989 N elson a nd R ice: E xemplars o f C urrent C eramic S tudies N elson: D ecoding C eramic V ariation a nd C ultural S ystems R ice: t he H olistic A pproach t o C eramic S tudies R eferences C ited

L IST P age

1 979-

T able

4 04

1

4 08

2

O F T ABLES

D escription C omparison o f S ome M ajor M anufacturing D ata f rom T hree M anuals C omparison o f M ajor M anuals o n P ottery A nalysis

I NTRODUCTION T his c hapter h ad a s i ts g enesis a m anuscript w hich w as o riginally p repared a s a r eview a rticle d esigned t o e xamine t he s tatus o f r ecent s tudies o f p ottery a nd c eramics i n t he c ontext o f c ritiquing B en A . N elson's e dited D ecoding P rehistoric C eramics ( 1985) a nd P rudence M . R ice's P ottery A nalysis: A S ourcebook ( 1987). T he b asic p remise w as t o d emonstrate t he p lace o f t hese v olumes i n c urrent i nvestigations a nd t o r elate t he h istorical b ackgrounds f rom w hich t hese b ooks d eveloped. A b rief 2 ,500 w ord r eview g rew, s uddenly b ecoming a m ajor t reatise m uch t oo l ong t o b e p ublished i n m ost j ournals. S everal a nonymous c olleagues r ead t he o riginal l engthy a rticle a nd s uggested t hat i t s hould b e p ublished a s a s tatement o f w here w e a re t oday i n o ur q uest t o u nderstand p ottery a nd c eramics. T herefore, t he m anuscript, a lbeit i n m odified f orm, i s p ublished h ere a nd a q uite d ifferent c ritique s ubmitted t o t he J ournal o f F ield A rchaeology ( Kolb 1 989). I n t his c hapter I s eek t o a ccomplish t hree p rimary g oals: 1 ) i ndicate w hy a rchaeologists, a mong o ther p hysical a nd s ocial s cientists a nd h umanists, t hink s o h ighly o f p ottery a s a nalytical m aterial; 2 ) s urvey s alient d evelopments a nd m ajor p ublications o n c eramic s tudies d uring t he p ast d ecade; a nd 3 ) r eview t he b ooks w ritten b y N elson ( ed., 1 985) a nd R ice ( 1987) i n t he c ontext o f t he " classical" s tudies ( Shepard 1 956; M atson, e d. 1 965) a nd o ther w orks p ublished d uring t he p ast t en y ears. R ecent d evelopments a re, o f c ourse, d eserving o f a f uller t reatment t han I p rovide, t herefore, t his c hapter i s n ot a " book r eview" i n t he s ense o f t hat t erm, b ut a b rief s tatus r eport o n t he m ultia nd i nterdisciplinary s tudy o f p ottery ( low-fired c lay c ontainers a nd o ther a rtifacts) a nd c eramics ( high-fired, u sually v itrified, u tensils a nd a rt o bjects). T he c hapter i s s tructured a long t he l ines o f K aplan's ( 1985) " review" o f Kempton's ( 1981) b ook.

T HE

M YSTIQUE

O F

P OTTERY

C eramics, p ottery, a nd p otsherds u ndeniably h old t he i nterest o f a w ide v ariety o f l aypersons a nd s cholars, t he l atter r anging f rom a rt h istorians, p rofessional p otters, m useum c onservators, a nd s ocial p sychologists t o e thnoarchaeologists, h istorians o f s cience, e thnographe rs, f ield a rchaeologists, a rchaeometricians, g eologists, c eramic e ngineers, a nd m aterial s cientists, a mong o thers. A s D ean E . A rnold r eminds u s, " ceramics a re o ne o f t he t angible p roducts o f m an's c ulture. T heir r elatively w idespread m anufacture a mong c ultures o f t he w orld, t heir

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r elatively i mperishable q uality, t heir p ersistence t hrough t ime a nd t heir a lmost u niversal p resence h ave m ade t hem a v ery i mportant t ool f or t he a rchaeologist i n h is s tudy o f t he p ast" ( Arnold 1 985:1). M artin M illett ( 1979:v), a B ritish a rchaeologist, r emarks t hat " to m ost a rchaeologists t heir p ottery i s a s a m ountain, v ast a nd u nassailable: a c hallenge t o b e c onquered. T his c auses a f ixation a bout t he p ottery, i t h as t o b e o vercome s imply b ecause i t i s t here" [ emphasis m ine]. A rchaeologists d isagree w ith p ortions o f h is s tatement, b ut c ertainly p ottery i s a c hallenge a nd m any i nvestigators d o h ave a " fixation" a bout t his m aterial c ulture. R . F . J . J ones, a B ritish r esearcher, i n h is a rticle, " Why P ottery?," r eminds u s t hat " it d oes b reak v ery e asily, i t w ill n ot m end v ery s atisfactorily, b ut i n f ragments i s v irtually i ndestructible. T hus i t i s t here t o b e f ound, o ften i n e mbarassing q uantities" ( Jones 1 989:1). Q uantities a side, p ottery c an b e a ppropriately s tudied b ut s uch i nvestigations d epend u pon t he a rchaeological f ield o r l aboratory g oals - c hronology o r c haracterization, f or e xample. N onetheless, f ired c lay a rtifacts r epresent a c orpus o f i nformation w aiting f or a n i nvestigator w ith t he i nclination, t ime, a nd/or f unding t o e xtract. B oth N elson ( ed., 1 985) a nd R ice ( 1987) d emonstrate w hat c an b e e xtracted a nd h ow t hese d ata c an b e u sed t o e lucidate a ncient a nd c ontemporary h uman s ocieties. W e a re i ntrigued b y t he a rtistic r enderings o f f orms a nd d ecorations u sed b y a ncient c raftspersons a nd c ontemporary p otters, w hether t he o bjects u nder s tudy a re m useum m asterpieces o r t hose d iscarded b its o f h uman e ndeavors w e c all p otsherds. P erhaps t his i nterest u ltimately s tems f rom t he h uman p roclivity o f w anting t o k now m ore a bout t hese i tems o f m aterial c ulture a nd t he p eoples w ho m ade, u sed, a nd s ometimes d iscarded t hem. F or s ome t his i nterest i s d ue t o t he f act t hat p ottery w as t he f irst, t ruly s ynthetic m aterial h uman b eings c reated, a nd b ecause t here a re n umerous p rocesses o f m anufacture, i nfinite s hapes a nd d ecorative t echniques t hat m ay b e c ombined. H owever, W . D avid K ingery ( 1988:163) n otes t he s imple c reation o f l ime p laster f or u se a s a n a dhesive c a. 1 2,000 B .C. ( Lagama N orth V III, s outhern L evant), p rior t o t he i nnovation o f p ottery a nd o bserved t hat t he " firing p rocedures f or l ime p laster w ere m ore s tringent t han f or p ottery, r equiring l onger h eating a t a bout t he s ame t emperature" [ 800-900 0 C ] ( 1988:167). S ome s tudents o f c eramics a nd p ottery, e specially c eramic a rchaeologists, a re i nitially a ttracted t o p ottery s ince i t o ffers m ore o f a n a nalytical c hallenge t han l ithic t ools a nd b ecause c eramic m aterials h ave a

h igher " survival v alue" i n a ll t ypes o f e nvironments a rctic, t emperate, a rid, a nd t ropical - t han a rtifacts m ade o f o rganic m aterials, w hich a re l ess l ikely t o s urvive t he d estructive r igors o f c yclical m icroclimatic c ontexts. L ithic a nd b aked c lay a rtifacts m ay b e s tudied b y p hysicochemists, n eutron a ctivation s pecialists, a nd o ther p hysical s cientists i n a n a ttempt t o d educe t he o rigins o f r aw m aterials. P ottery, b ecause i t i s c omposed o r r aw c lays w hich h ave n aturally o ccurring n on-plastic " impurities" a nd w hich m ay h ave p urposefully a dded a plastics ( temper, g rog, e tc.) p resents a w ider v ariety o f a nalytical p roblems t han s tone t ool r aw m aterials. M ethods o f c lay a nd a plastic p reparation, a rtifact m anufacture, a nd t echniques o f d ecoration o ccupy t he i nterest o f a d iverse n umber o f s pecialists a nd l aypersons. I t i s t he S cientific M ethod a nd a spects o f " mental g ymnastics" t hat a lso a ttract o ther r esearches t o t he s tudy o f p ottery, b aked c lay a rtifacts, a nd c eramics. We s hould r ecall F rederick R . M atson's ( 1965a:212-213) o bservations a s t o t he m ultiplicity o f c lay p roducts m ade a nd u sed j ust i n t he N ear E ast i n a ntiquity a nd t oday. H is i ncomplete i nventory, l isting 4 2 i tems, r anges f rom " pottery i n e ndless v ariety" t o f igurines, b ricks, o vens, m olds f or metallurgy, m edicinal p astilles, b eehives, o straca, a nd c offins o bjects f or u tilitarian a nd c eremonial u se s panning t he h uman l ife c ycle f rom b irth t o d eath. P ottery i s, i ndeed, a " tool" a s B raun ( 1983) d enotes, a nd a r ecent m ultidisciplinary p ottery s ymposium, " A P ot f or A ll R easons: C eramic E cology R evisited," c ould j ust a s e asily h ave b een " A R eason f or A ll P ots" ( Kolb 1 988:xii-xiv), i llustrating c hanges i n r esearch o rientation t o c eramic m aterials. T he e mergence o f p ottery, a ccording t o K ingery ( 1988:168), l ay n ot i n t echnology b ut i n s ocial f actors e ngendered b y s ocietal t ransformations t o p lant c ultivation, d omestication, a nd s tockbreeding a s p rimary s ubsistence s ources c oupled w ith t he a dvent o f s edentism. T he g rowth o f t owns, h e p ostulates, l ed t o c ircumstances where " the p reviously u sed c ompeting m aterials s uch a s s uitable w ood, b asketry m aterials, a nd s oft e asily c arved s tone w ere l ess a nd l ess a vailable i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f a t own w ith a ppreciable p opulation [ emphasis m ine]. P ottery b ecame s een a s a m ore c ost-effective a lternative i n t his n ew s ociety" ( 1988:168). M atson ( 1965b:278-279) n otes t he i ndependent d evelopments o f f ired p ottery a nd t hat " wattle-and-daub c onstruction c ould w ell r elate t o t he d evelopment o f c lay c ontainers i n m any p arts o f t he w orld." U ltimately, a s R ye ( 1981:1) s tates, " pottery m aking, l ike metallurgy a nd t he m anufacture o f g lass, p laster, a nd c ement, i nvolves a pplying h eat t o m anipulate a nd m odify a c lass o f i norganic m aterials." T his, t hen, i s t he s alient t echnology l eading t o b aked c lay, p ottery, a nd c eramics.

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O ver t he p ast c entury, s ignificant c hanges h ave t aken p lace i n t he k inds o f q uestions a rchaeologists a sk a bout c eramic a rtifacts. P ure d escriptions g ave w ay t o a ttribute a nalyses u sed t o d evelop r elative c hronologies, a n i nterest i n d etailing t he a ctual p roduction m ethods u sed b y a ncient c raftspersons, t he i nvestigation o f d ecorations a nd d esign m otifs, a nd t he s tudy o f t he p hysical c haracteristics o f c lays a nd a plastics, a nd m ore r ecently t o a g rowing i nterest i n t he d ynamics o f r elated c ultural p henomena a nd c ultural p rocesses. A s e xamples f rom t he A merican S outhwest, w e s ee p ioneering d escriptive a nd c hronological s tudies ( Kroeber 1 916, K idder 1 931, C olton a nd H argrave 1 937, e tc.) p aralleled b y i nvestigations o f t he p otters' c raft ( Guthe 1 925, B unzel 1 929, C olton 1 953:9-13), d esign m otif a nalysis ( Shepard 1 948, F riedrich 1 970, W ashburn 1 977), a nd t echnological a nalyses o f c lays a nd a plastics ( Shepard 1 936). S ometimes h olistic a nalyses t ake o n a " cookbook" a pproach ( Bennett 1 974), e specially i n t he l arge-scale r esearch p rojects w hich b egan i n t he 1 960s w hen h undreds o f t housands a nd e ven m illions o f p otsherds w ere s tudied i n d etail a nd a ttribute i nformation p laced i n c omputerized d ata b ases. A s W illey a nd S abloff ( 1980:143) o bserve, t he m ost w idespread u se o f c eramic a rtifacts b y a rchaeologists t raditionally l ay i n d evising t ypologies w hich, i n t urn, f ormed t he b asis o f r elative c hronologies w hich w ere b elieved t o r eflect d iachronic c ulture h istorical r elationships. S uch a p aradigm i s f ounded o n t he a ssumption t hat c eramics c an d irectly m irror m ajor c ultural c hanges t hat o ccur i n h uman s ocieties, a nd t hat s imilarities ( or d issimilarities) i n a ttributes w ere t he r esult o f c ulture c ontact o r d iffusion ( or t he l ack o f s uch p henomena). H owever, t he a ccumulated e vidence f rom a rchaeology, e thnohistory, a nd h istory d o n ot c learly s upport t hese p resumed r elationships o f c eramic a rtifacts a nd s ocial, p olitical, o r e conomic h istory ( Arnold 1 985:1-2, K ramer 1 985:92-95). We a lso e xamine p otsherds, measure a nd o therwise q uantify t hese b its o f h uman r ubbish p erhaps b ecause o f t he i nnate h uman q uality o f d esiring t o o rganize a nd c lassify t hings i n o ur u niverse, t hereby p lacing o bjects o f m aterial c ulture i n t heir " proper p lace" - a t rait m agnified b y " pottery-obsessed" a rchaeologists. B eyond t his, w e a sk s herds t o a pprise u s a bout r elative a nd a bsolute c hronology, c raft s pecializations, p otential c ommercial r elationships ( Kolb 1 986), s ociocultural p henomena, o r c ultural s ystems s uch a s k inship a nd s ocial s tratification ( Deetz 1 965, H ill 1 970, L ongacre 1 970), a nd e ven b elief s ystems ( Kolb 1 988:543 -5 57).

S ince t he l ate 1 960s, t he i nterest i n c eramic s tudies h as c ontinued t o e xpand a nd r esulted i n a n e normous l iterature o n p ottery, c eramic a rtisans, a nd t echnical a nd p hysicochemical s tudies r eflecting d iverse o rientations a nd c oncerns w hich, i n t urn, p roduce e ven m ore f inite s pecializations a nd n arrowly f ocused p ublications. O n t he o ther h and, a rchaeologists a nd p rofessional p otters c onduct e thnographic s tudies o f p ottery-producing g roups o r c ommunities ( Arnold 1 972, 1 975; L ackey 1 982; M iller 1 985; P apousek 1 981; R ice 1 977) f ocusing o n m anufacturing t echniques a nd v essel f unctions, b ut a lso o n t he " sociology o f p ottery" a s d escribed b y F oster ( 1965). A mong t he p henomena c onsidered a re a rtisan b ehaviors, l earning a nd t raining r outines, t he d ivision o f l abor, s ocial s tratification, s patial a spects o f p roduction, d istribution o f f inished p roducts, u se, a nd d iscard. S uch s tudies, o f c ourse, f orm t he b asis o f c eramic e thnoarchaeology ( Kramer 1 985:77). O ne b asic r evelation c oming f rom K ramer's r eview i s t hat " the e thnoarchaeological l iterature o n [ ceramic] p roduction a nd s tyle s uggests t hat s ome a rchaeological a ssumptions a re t oo s implistic" ( 1985:87), a nd s he p rovides s alient e xamples o f p roblems a nd i nterpretations ( 1985:83-88), a s h as A rnold ( 1985:15-19, 9 9-224). L ikewise, t he k inds a nd i ntensities o f c hange i n a rtisan b ehaviors, c eramic p roduction, p ottery s tyles, i mpinging s ocioeconomic f actors, e tc. a re n ow c onsidered a nd m ulticausal c auses a nd e ffects n oted ( Arnold 1 985:99-224, K ramer 1 985:92-93, M iller 1 985:75-196). T echnical a nd p hysicochemical s tudies, i n t he p ast o ften r elegated t o a ppendices o r n ot e ven p ublished a nd r eferenced a s " manuscripts o n f ile," h ave c ome o ut o f t he p roverbial c loset a nd n ow f orm i mportant s egments o f h olistic a rchaeological s tudies o r s tand b y t hemselves a s s eparate m onographs o r b ooks. A n umber o f y ears a go, M atson ( 1951:106) m ade t he f ollowing c ogent o bservation a bout c eramic s tudies w hich a ppear i n a rchaeological r eports: A n ice c eramic d escription a ppears i n t he r eport, b ut h ow m any p eople e ver t ake t he t ime t o r ead o r t ry t o v isualize t he p ottery o nce i t h as t hus b een d escribed a t a c ost o f m uch t ime a nd e xpense? P erhaps a l ittle l ess t ime s pent o n c eramic d escription i n t erms o f p hysical measurements a nd m ore c onsideration o f t he v ariations o f t he w are a s r elated t o t he m anufacturing p roblems o f t he p otter w ould b e q uite p rofitable. H e l ater s tated t hat " unless c eramic s tudies l ead t o a b etter u nderstanding o f t he c ultural c ontext i n w hich t he o bjects w ere m ade a nd u sed, t hey f orm a s terile r ecord o f

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l imited w orth" ( 1965a:202). D uring t he p ast d ecade ( 1979-1989), o rientations a nd q uestions a sked a nd a nswered h ave d ramatically c hanged. W hat L inne's ( 1925) p ioneering v olume, C olton's ( 1953) s hort t reatise, a nd S hepard's ( 1956) m anual i nitally p rovided, M atson's ( ed., 1 965) b ook a nd F ranken's ( 1974, F ranken a nd K alsbeek 1 975) w orks t ook a s tep f urther - p utting t he p eople b ack i n t he p ottery - c eramic e thnoarchaeology.

R ECENT

D EVELOPMENTS:

T HE

P AST

T WO

D ECADES

T he f ollowing t wo s ections r eflect a p ersonal v iew o f w hat I p erceive a s t he s alient d evelopments i n E nglish-language c eramic a nd p ottery s tudies, w ith e mphasis o n t he p eriod 1 979-1989. S pace p arameters d o n ot p ermit a h olistic r eview o r t he i nclusion o f a ll m ajor a nd m inor s erials, m onographs, a nd b ooks. F or t his mea c ulpa.

S ome

M ajor

A ntecedents

o f

t he

P eriod

1 979-1989

I mportant s erial a nd s eries p ublications r elevant t o c eramic s tudies m ade t heir a ppearance i n t he l ate 1 950s, a lthough t he m ajor j ournals ( Antiquity, A merican A ntiquity, A merican J ournal o f A rchaeology, J ournal o f A nthropological R esearch, e tc.) c ontinued t o h ave m ajor a rticles o r b rief r eports. T he i mportant t echnical j ournal A rchaeometry, p ublished b y t he R esearch L aboratory f or A rchaeology a nd t he H istory o f S cience a t O xford U niversity m ade i ts a ppearance i n 1 958, a nd s et t he h ighest o f s tandards f or s cientific r eporting. E ach i ssue n ormally h as s everal a rticles o n t he t echnical a nalyses o r p hysicochemical s tudies o f p ottery o r c eramics. D uring t he f irst 3 0 y ears t here h ave b een 1 36 s uch a rticles p ublished. T he y ear 1 961 m arked t he i nital p ublication o f C eramica d e C ultura M aya e t a l. ( 15 i ssues t o d ate, i rregularly i ssued), a s eries t otally d evoted t o p ottery, c urrently e dited b y C arol G ifford a nd M uriel K irkpatrick, a nd p roduced a t t he L aboratory o f A nthropology, T emple U niversity ( Philadelphia). T he J ournal o f F ield A rchaeology, b eginning i n 1 974, a lso h as a rticles o r t echnical r eports o n p ottery ( 31 t o d ate). L ikewise, t he J ournal o f A rchaeological S cience, b eginning i n 1 974, a lso i ncludes a rticles a nd r eports o n c eramics. T he S ociety f or A rchaeological S ciences h as, s ince i ts i nception i n 1 977, p ublished a N ewsletter, w hich b ecame a B ulletin i n 1 989. T hese p ublications r eport p hysical s cience a pplications i n a rchaeology, a nd i nclude n otices, b rief r esearch r eports, a nd s everal a rticles o n c eramic m aterials.

T o d ate f our v olumes d eveloped f rom s ymposia a nd i ssued a t i rregular i ntervals h ave b een p ublished i n t he A rchaeological C hemistry s eries b y t he A merican C hemical S ociety's D ivision o f t he H istory o f C hemistry ( Beck, e d., 1 974; C arter, e d., 1 978; L ambert, e d., 1 984; A llen e d., 1 989). T hese b ooks a re p articularly u seful t o a nalytical c hemists g eochemists, a rchaeologists, a nthropologists, a nd s cientists f rom o ther d isciplines i n u nderstanding t he i mportance o f c hemistry i n t he a nalysis o f m aterial c ulture. A pproximately 2 5% o f t he c ontributions r elate t o p ottery o r c eramics. A mong t he a ntecedents i n t his d ecade a re B ennett's ( 1974) v olume o n c eramic a nalysis i n t he A merican S outhwest, F ranken's ( 1974) i mportant t heoretical a nalysis o f J ericho c eramics, a nd t he p ioneering e thnoarchaeological s tudy o f P akistani p otters b y R ye a nd E vans ( 1976). D uring t he 1 970's, S hepard's C eramics f or t he A rchaeologist ( 1956) u pdated i n 1 965 w ith a " Foreward [ sic.] t o t he F ifth P rinting: C eramic S tudies, 1 954 t o 1 964," r emained a s t he m anual f or s tudents o f p ottery a nalysis. A rchaeology i tself w as c oming o f a ge a s i s s een i n t he c ompendia b y B rothwell a nd H iggs ( eds., 1 969) a nd B rill ( ed., 1 971), b oth o f w hich c ontained i mportant c eramic t echnology p apers b y M atson ( Kolb 1 988c:7-8, 1 3). I nterest i n e thnographic a nd e thnoarchaeological p ottery s tudies b enefited f rom t he w ork o f D avid ( David 1 972, D avid a nd H enning 1 972), w hile r esearch o n d esign a nalysis w as s timulated b y t he w ork o f F riedrich ( 1970) a nd W ashburn ( 1977). P rocessural q uestions w ere p osed a nd n ew a nalytical t echniques a nd i nterpretations d eveloped b y C avalli-Sforza ( 1971), W obst ( 1977), a nd R edman ( 1978), w hile i n E urope v an d er L eeuw ( 1976) p ublished h is t wo-volume d issertation, S tudies i n t he T echnology o f A ncient P ottery. T he l atter, d ifficult t o f ind i n A merican l ibraries, i s a m asterful w ork t hat g ained r ecognition a nd r ivaled S hepard's b ook a mong s ome E uropean s pecialists. O ne o ther s ignificant a ntecedent w as t he Wenner-Gren-sponsored " Ceramics a nd M an" s ymposium h eld a t B urg W artenstein, A ustria f rom S eptember 2 -12, 1 961, o rganized a nd c haired b y M atson. T his c onference w as d esigned a s a " critical s tocktaking" o f c eramic c ontributions t o a rchaeological a nd e thnographic r esearch, a nd r esulted i n t he p ublication o f C eramics a nd M an ( Matson, e d., 1 965). T his s eminal v olume c ontained 2 0 c hapters b y 1 8 a uthors, a nd i t w as i n t his w ork t hat M atson ( 1965a) p ostulated t he c oncept o f c eramic e cology a s a methodological a pproach. M atson's ( 1966) s ubsequent a rticle o n p ower a nd f uel r esources i s a c ompanion p iece ( Kolb 1 988c:8-13), a nd h is " Ceramic Q ueries" ( 1965b) l ed t o o ther a ttempts t o q ualify a nd q uantify p ottery-production p henomena ( Kolb 1 976, A rnold 1 985).

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T he

D ecade

1 979-1989

T he m onograph, P ottery a nd t he A rchaeologist ( Millett, e d., 1 979), c ontains n ine p apers f rom a c onference c elebrating t he 4 0th a nniversary o f t he o pening o f t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology a t t he U niversity o f L ondon. M ost c ontributions c oncern R oman o r B ritish c eramics, a lthough t here a re g eneral p apers ( Jones 1 979). F or t he I roquoian r egion o f N ortheastern N orth A merica, M acNeish's ( 1952) I roquois P ottery T ypes w as t he s tandard f or d escription a nd i nterpretation f or m any y ears. " The I roquois P ottery C onference," h eld a t t he R ochester M useum a nd S cience C enter o n N ovember 3 , 1 979, w as t he o ccasion t o b ring t ogether a l arge n umber o f r esearchers t o u pdate I roquois c eramic r esearch. T he 1 7 p apers, r epresenting a w ide b ut n on-comprehensive c overage, w ere p ublished a s t he P roceedings o f t he 1 979 I roquois P ottery C onference ( Hayes, I II, e d., 1 980), a nd i nclude p apers o n methodology, g eographical/tribal p ottery, d ecoration, a nd r eplication. I n S tylistic V ariation i n P rehistoric C eramics, S tephen P log ( 1980) u ses d ata d rawn, i n t he m ain, f rom t he A merican S outhwest t o d emonstrate t hat t here a re b asic p robelems w ith t he m ethods t raditionally u sed b y a rchaeologists t o a nalyze a nd c lassify p rehistoric p ottery. H is t ests s how t hat c eramic e xchange, t emporal v ariation, a nd s tylistic d ifferences a mong v essel f orms a ll h elp t o a ccount f or p art o f t he c eramic d esign v ariation a t t he s ites s elected f or a nalysis. I n a ddition, s ettlement-subsistence s ystems a re a rgued t o b e e xplanations o f s uch v ariation. H is a rguments, a pplicable t o c eramic a nd o ther a rtifact s tyles, a re e laborated i n a l ater s ummary a rticle ( Plog 1 983). K empton ( 1981), u sing e xamples o f c ognitive p rototypes f rom t he f olk c lassifications o f C entral M exican p ottery, c onducted i nterviews i n t hree T laxcalan v illages a nd t he F ederal D istrict i n o rder t o m ap v essel c ategories ( e.g. j arra, j arro, o lla, e tc.). I n h is s tudy, K empton d evelops m aps o f w ord m eanings t o d emonstrate a w ord's r ange a nd i ntensity w ithin a s emantic s pace, a nd e xamines t he o rigins o f c ognitive v ariation c hanging s ocial r oles a s w ell a s o ngoing c ulture c hange. B oth P log a nd K empton s how u s n ew w ays o f e xamining " old" t opics. L ikewise, K ingery ( 1981) s tresses t he b asic q uestions o f w hen, w here, h ow, b y w hom, a nd w hy c eramic a rtifacts w ere m ade, a nd h e r eviews i nductive e valuations o f c onjecture ( hypotheses o r p ostulates) l eading t o i nferences, h ence t o s tatements a bout t he p rehistoric d evelopment o f c eramic t echnology. A mong t he p arameters h e e lucidates a re p rovenience, e xternal c haracteristics, l aboratory r eplication, e thnographic o bservations, d ating, c hemical c omposition, p hysical p roperties, p hase c omposition, a nd m icrostructure. H erein w e s ee a b lending o f t he p hysical

a nd s ocial a pproach.

s ciences,

a nd

t he

h umanities

i n

a m ost

l ogical

O wen S . R ye, a p rofessional p otter, e thnographer, a nd a rchaeologist, w rote P ottery T echnology: P rinciples a nd R econstruction ( 1981) w hich h e d esigned, i n t he m ain, f or a rchaeologists a s a s ynthetic s urvey o f p ottery-making v ariables. T his s ystematic r eference v olume h as t wo g oals ( 1981:1): 1 ) e xplain b asic p ottery p roduction t echniques a nd t he p hysical, c hemical, a nd m echanical p rinciples i nvolved; a nd 2 ) e xplicate t he m ethods u sed t o r econstruct t he m anufacturing t echniques b y s tudying a rchaeological p ottery a nd c ontexts. T his s ystemic m anual, w hich e mphasizes w heel-made v essels, p rovides a c lear, c oncise, b asic i ntroduction t o t he v arious a spects o f t he p ottery-making c raft, a nd i s p rofusely i llustrated w ith b lack a nd w hite p hotographs a nd l ine d rawings. A u seful g lossary o f t echnical t erms, t wo e xtended c ase s tudies, a nd t hree-page a ppendix a re p rovided, t he l atter f or r ecording a rtisan b ehaviors a nd r aw m aterial c haracteristics. T he a ppendix ( "Pottery T echnology D ata S heet a nd C hecklist" a nd " Raw M aterials D ata S heet a nd C hecklist") i s l ess e laborate t han e arlier e fforts b y M atson ( 1965b) a nd K olb ( 1976:52-61), a lthough t he u se o f s uch c hecklists m ay b e c riticised. R ye e mphasizes t he u nderstanding o f p ottery manufacture b y m eans o f s equential p roduction s teps ( 1981:29-122), d etailing t he r elationships b etween t he p roperties a nd c ombinations o f c lays a nd n on-plastics. B y d rawing a ttention t o a n u nderstanding o f t he s teps, c hoices o f t echniques, a nd t he r esulting a ttributes , t he r econstruction o f t he b ehaviors o f a ncient c raftspersons m ay b e a chieved. R ye's c onsideration o f p hysical a nd c hemical p roperties o f r aw c lays a nd a plastics i s w eak o r a bsent, a nd t here i s n o r egard f or e conomic c ontraints i n c omparison t o t he t reatments o f t hese s ubjects b y S hepard ( 1956) a nd R ice ( 1987). I ndeed, R ye's v olume, a n o utline o f t echniques, i s a s ignificant c ompanion t o S hepard's b ook, b ut i s n ot a s ubstitute f or h er c ompendium n or w as i t meant t o b e. D uring t he e arly 1 980s, t wo m ajor e thnographic t reatments o f M exican p ottery-producing c ommunities w ere p ublished. P apousek ( 1981), a s ocial g eographer, s tudying t he s mall p roducers i n L os P ueblos, M exico, c hallenges t he i dea o f p otter c onservatism a nd s hows t hat w e o ften u nderestimate t he r elevance o f e cological f actors ( deforestation) a nd o ther e xternal f actors ( demographics, a daptions t o n ew k ilns, t he i mpact o f t rucks, a lternative f uel s ources, a nd v illage " modernization"). L ackey ( 1982), a p rofessional p otter, e thnographer, a nd c eramic e thnoarchaeologist w ho s tudied t he c ommunity o f A catlan, P uebla, f ocuses u pon a f amily o f p otters. H er e cologically-oriented r esearch i ncludes

t he d escription o f p roduction methods r anging f rom o btaining t he r aw m aterials t o f iring t he p ottery, a nd a s ignificant s ection o n l earning t o b e a p otter, i n w hich s he s ummarizes t raditional a nd n ew w ays o f t eaching t he c raft ( 1982:125-139). I n a ddition, s he r elates c urrent p ottery t echniques a nd t he u se o f s aggars t o t he p roduction o f a rchaeological T hin O range c eramics. A s tate o f t he a rt s ymposium, " Ceramics a s A rchaeological M aterial," c o-sponsored b y t he N ational B ureau o f S tandards ( National M easurement L aboratory, C enter f or M aterials S cience) a nd t he S mithsonian I nstitution, w as h eld i n G aithersburg, M aryland a nd W ashington, D .C. f rom S eptember 2 9-October 1 , 1 980. T he s ymposium w as d esigned t o d evelop a nd e xemplify t he m aterials s cience a pproach t o a rchaeological p roblems a nd s how t he i nterrelationships b etween c eramic p roblems a nd p hysicochemical a nalyses. T here w ere 2 2 o ral p resentations a nd s ix p oster p apers; 2 2 o f t he 2 8 c ontributions w ere p ublished i n A rchaeological C eramics ( Olin a nd F ranklin, e ds., 1 982). F ive p apers c oncerned methodology, n ine w ere o n p hysicochemical m ethods, a nd e ight p rovided e xamples o f s pecific s tudies a nd r esults. T he y ear 1 982 a lso m arked t he p ublication o f a n i mportant c omputerized, b riefly a nnotated b ibliography o n a rchaeological a nd e thnographic p ottery s ources ( Rice a nd S affer 1 982). T he v olume, i ncluding o ver o ne t housand e ntries, c overed t his " protean l iterature" t hrough 1 981. A m ajor s ynthesis w ritten b y B ishop, R ands, a nd H olley ( 1982), r eviewed c eramic c ompositional a nalyses, r eminding u s t hat s uch s tudies a re e ssentially s patial i n n ature a nd e stablish p robable r elationships o f p ottery t o g eographically-localized r aw m aterials. S pace r ather t han t ime i s t he p rimary f ocus, a s t hey i llustrate t heir s tudy w ith m ineralogical a nd c hemical a nalyses, t he i dentification o f e xchange s ystems v ersus l ocal u se, a nd v essel f unction a nd p rocurement s trategies. T he l ittle-known B ulletin o f t he E xperimental F iring G roup, e dited b y A nn W oods, p ublished b y t he U niversity o f L eicester's E xperimental F iring a nd C eramic T echnology G roup, b egan i n 1 982 a nd c ontains c ontributions o n a rchaeological c eramics. T he y ear 1 982 a lso m arked t he i nitial p ublication o f a n ew s erial, t he J ournal o f A nthropological A rchaeology, w hich o ccasionally h as a rticles r elating t o c eramic s tudies ( four t o d ate). T wo s eparate v olumes h onoring M atson a ppeared i n 1 984. P ots a nd P otters, a f estschrift o f 1 6 p apers ( Rice, e d., 1 984) c ontained f ive c ontributions o n c eramic e cology, f ive o n e thnoarchaeology, a nd f ive o n t echnical a nalyses, p lus a n e ssay b y R ice. T he s ignificance o f M atson's c oncept o f c eramic e cology m ay b e s een i n t he " deliberately p lanned" f ollow-up c onference, a lso

s ponsored b y W enner-Gren, h eld a t L hee, H olland f rom M arch 1 4-20, 1 982. T his s ymposium, l imited t o 2 0 p articipants, i ncluded t hree c ontributors f rom t he 1 961 " Ceramics a nd M an" c onference, a nd w as o rganized b y v an d er L eeuw a nd P ritchard w ho e dited a nd p ublished 1 7 o f t he c ontributions i n T he M any D imensions o f P ottery ( 198 )4 ). T he t heme o f t his m eeting w as t o a ssess r ather t han e laborate t he c oncept o f c eramic e cology w hich h as, p erhaps, a w ider f ollowing a mong E uropean s cholars r ather t han A merican r esearchers, a ccording t o t he o rganizers. D ean A rnold's i nnovative v olume, C eramic T heory a nd C ultural P rocess ( 1985), p rovides a c omprehensive, w ell-argued, j argon-free m odel f or c eramic s tudies a nd e xplication b y d rawing u pon t he t heoretical p erspectives o f G eneral S ystems T heory, c ybernetics, a nd c ultural e cology. U sing e nvironmental d ata ( resources, w eather a nd c limate) s upported b y i nformation f rom m ineralogical a nd p hysiochemical s tudies, A rnold s ynthesizes a v ast a ray o f i nformation. H is w ide-ranging s urvey o f t he e thnographic l iterature p rovided d ata o n s cheduling c onflicts, d egrees o f s edentism a mong a rtisans, p ottery d emand, " man/land r elationships" ( demographic p ressures), a nd t echnological i nnovation a nd c ultural c hanges. B y e lucidating t he c omplex r elationships b etween h uman c ulture, s ocieties, a nd p ottery, h e d evelops q uantifiable c ross-cultural g eneralizations t o e xplain t he o rigin a nd e volution o f p ottery m aking, a nd s uggests t hat f eedback mechanisms c an e ither l imit o r s timulate c eramic p roduction, p otentially r esulting i n t he t ransition f rom p art-time t o f ull-time c raft s pecialists. E specially u seful a re t he d ata o n t he c atchment a reas f or t he p rocurement o f c lays a nd a plastics ( preferred 1 km, m aximal 6 -9 km) w hich a re m uch l ess t han f or e asily t ransported s lips, g lazes, o r p aints. A lthough s ome m ay c riticize t he m odel f or " cultural m aterialism," o r f or r everting t o a p opulation p ressure a s p rime m over p aradigm, o r a n i ncompletely d eveloped s ection o n " people/people r elationships" ( e.g. t he s ociopolitical c ontexts o f t he s pecialization o f p roduction), A rnold d oes d evelop a c onvincing d iscussion o f t he a ray o f v ariables w hich a ffect c eramic d emand a nd p roduction. L ikewise, h e p ostulates t hat a n i nitial u se o f c eramics w as t o p repare a nd d etoxify o therwise i nedible f oods ( poisonous o r c ontaminated b y b acteria o f f ungi), a nd h e s uggests t he i nteresting e volutionary m odel o f c raft p roduction b eginning w ith d omestic t asks a nd p otentially e nding w ith a n i ndustry. W e h ave n ever h ad a h olistic m odel o f c eramic t heory, s o t hat A rnold h as p rovided u s w ith t he b est p aradigm t o d ate. L ike a ll m odels, i t d oes r equire e laboration, e xplanations o f c ontrary c ases, a nd r efinements, b ut h as b rought u s t o a n ew a nalytical p lateau.

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L ikewise, 1 985 a lso s aw t he p ublication o f K ramer's ( 1985) r eview a rticle, " Ceramic E thnoarchaeology," a s tate o f t he a rt a nalysis o f t he d iversity, p roblems, a nd p rospects o f t hat a pproach. M iller ( 1985) p ublished h is c omprehensive a nalysis o f w heel-made p ottery p roduced i n t he v illage o f D angwara, C entral I ndia, b ringing t ogether, w ithin a h olistic f ramework, b asic c eramic t echnology, f orm, f unction, t he a nalysis o f p ainted d esigns, s ymbolism, a nd i deology. I n t his v olume, A rtifacts a s C ategories, M iller a lso e xplores t he f actors u nderlying p ottery v ariability, a nd c ogently d emonstrates t he r itual a nd s ymbolic c ontexts. T he A merican C eramic S ociety's o ngoing s eries o n C eramics a nd C ivilization, e dited b y K ingery ( 1985, 1 986, 1 987) h as b een e specially u seful t o a rchaeologists, h istorians, m useum c urators, c eramic t echnologists, a nd e ngineers. T he i nitial v olume i n t he s eries ( 17 c ontributions) i s s ubtitled F rom A ncient T echnology t o M odern S cience ( Kingery, e d., 1 985); t he s econd ( 17 c hapters) i s T echnology a nd S tyle ( Kingery, e d., 1 986); a nd t he m ost r ecent ( 19 p apers) i s H igh-Technology C eramics P ast, P resent, a nd F uture ( Kingery, e d., 1 987). T hese v olumes p rovide a n e xcellent o verview o f c urrent c eramic d evelopments a nd t he i nfluence t his m aterial c ulture h as o n h uman s ocieties. R ice a nd S harer o rganized t he 1 985 M aya C eramic C onference ( 34 p apers), s ponsored b y t he N ational E ndowment f or t he H umanities, a nd h eld i n W ashington, D .C. f rom D ecember 3 -4 i mmediately p rior t o t he A merican A nthropological A ssociation's 8 4th A nnual M eeting. T he c ontributions a re p ublished i n M aya C eramics: P apers f rom t he 1 985 C eramic C onference ( Rice a nd S harer, e ds., 1 987). M ost p apers c oncern c eramics f rom t he M aya L owlands, b ut o ther g roups o f c ontributions a re o riented t o t he M aya H ighlands a nd S outheast P eriphery, a nd t o s pecial t opics. T he f ollowing y ears s aw a dditional s ymposia o n c eramic s tudies, o rganized a nd c o-chaired b y K olb a nd L ackey, a t t he 8 5th ( 1986), 8 6th ( 1987), 8 7th ( 1988) a nd 8 8th ( 1989) A nnual M eetings o f t he A merican A nthropological A ssociation. T hese p apers h ad c eramic e cology a s a n o rganizational t heme a nd h ad n o g eographical b oundaries o r t ime f rame l imitations s o t hat a rchaeologists, e thnographers, p rofessional p otters, g eologists, c hemists, a nd p sychologists, a mong o thers, c ame t ogether t o s hare i nformation o n t he s tudy o f c eramic m aterials. T o d ate, t he f irst t hree s ets o f p apers o r s ubstitute c ontributions h ave b een p ublished A P ot f or A ll R easons: C eramic E cology R evisited ( Kolb a nd L ackey, e ds., 1 988), a v olume d edicated t o M atson, C eramic E cology R evisited, 1 987: T he T echnology a nd

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S ocioeconomics o f P ottery ( Kolb, e d., 1 988), a nd C eramic E cology, 1 988-: C urrent R esearch o n C eramic M aterials ( Kolb, e d., 1 989). S ymposiasts a re m embers o f o f t he i nformal " Ceramic S tudies I nterest G roup," a n o rganization f ormed a t t he s uggestion o f M atson. D ecoding P rehistoric C eramics ( Nelson, e d., 1 985), p artly t he r esult o f a 1 979 s ymposium, w as p ublished; t he v olume i s c onsidered t he s ubsequent s ection. I n 1 986, e ight p ottery s tudies a ppeared i n P apers i n C eramic A nalysis ( Rice, e d., 1 986), a nd B ronitsky's ( 1986) i mportant s ummary a rticle o n p ottery m anufacture a nd u se a s a nalyzed b y m aterials s cience t echniques w as p ublished. A mong t he t opics B ronitsky c onsiders a re t he p lasticity a nd w orkability o f c lays, v essel d urability ( fracture s trength, h ardness, m icrostructure, p orosity, a nd c racking), s tatistical a nd i nstrumentation p roblems, c ompressive a nd i mpact s trengths, a nd r esistance t o t hermal s hock. H is w ork d eserves c areful r eading. S tudents o f p ottery a nd c eramics w ere j ust b eginning t o d igest t his a ray o f p ublications w hen R ice's m onumental P ottery A nalysis: A S ourcebook ( 1987) w as p ublished. T he b ook i s f urther c onsidered i n t he s ubsequent s ection. I v ividly r ecall t he U niversity o f C hicago's b ook e xhibit a t t he 8 6th A nnual M eeting o f t he A merican A nthropological A ssociation i n C hicago's M arriott H otel, N ovember 1 9-21, 1 987, a nd o bserved m ore t han a f ew a nthropological l uminaries d are I s ay " legends i n t heir o wn t ime" d iscover R ice's b ook. P rofessionals a nd s tudents a like e xamined t he v olume, j aws a gape, g oggle-eyed, a nd w ith m ouths f orming w ords o f a stonishment a nd p raise. W ashburn a nd C rowe's ( 1988) S ymmetries o f C ulture i s t he l atest a nd b est s ummary o f t he h istory o f s ymmetry a nalysis a nd a nthropological p erspectives o n d esign a nalysis r eplacing e arlier w orks ( Shepard 1 948, F riedrich 1 970, W ashburn 1 977). T his i s a u nique n on-technical h andbook a nd c omprehensive s urvey w hich c ombines a nthropological a nd m athematical p erspectives, a nd p rovides a g uide t o t he a nalysis o f t he s ymmetry o f d esign p atterns. T he p rofusely i llustrated b ook d etails m athematical p rinciples a nd t erminology, c olor s ymmetry, o ne- a nd t wo-dimensional p atterns, a nd f inite d esigns. W ritten f or a ll s tudents o f m aterial c ulture, t he v olume d eserves s pecial c onsideration b y t hose i nterested i n c eramic m aterials. S ignificant p apers b y K ingery ( 1988) a nd V andiver ( 1988) s ummarize t he l atest t hinking o n c urrent m ethods a nd s trategies o f m aterials s cience i n s tudying a ncient c eramics. T hey a lso p rovide c hronologies o f d evelopments i n p ottery a nd c eramics, a nd m aterials s cience t echniques s ince 2 5,000 B .C.

A rchaeologists w orking i n t he A merican S outhwest w hile a ssembled a t t he 5 3rd A nnual M eeting o f t he S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology p rovided t he g enesis f or a nother means o f c ommunicating i nformation b y e stablishing L a T inaja: A N ewsletter o f A rchaeological C eramics. T his p ublication, e dited b y J ames F . C orbin ( Stephen F . A ustin S tate U niversity), w hich p rovides b rief a rticles, n otices, r eviews, a nd d ata o n c urrent r esearch, h as a rchaeological p ottery a s a f ocus a nd n o g eographical l imitations. T he i nitial n umber w as i ssued i n O ctober 19 88. T he i n p ress b ook, P ottery T echnology: I deas a nd A pproaches ( Bronitsky, e d., 1 989) d ue i n J uly, c ontains c hapters b y 2 1 c ontributors a nd f ocuses u pon t he s tudy o f c eramic t echnology i n s ocioeconomic c ontext, p roviding a c ritical a ppraisal o f t he a nalytical a pproaches u sed i n c eramic s tudies. T here i s a lso a c onsideration o f t he r ole o f c eramic t echnology i n e ludidating s ocioeconomic s ystems. T he v olume d erives, i n p art, f rom a s ymposium w ith t he s ame t itle o rganized b y B ronitsky, w hich w as h eld a t t he 8 1st A nnual M eeting o f t he A merican A nthropological A ssociation i n W ashington, D .C. i n D ecember 1 982. F ive o f t he t en s ymposium p apers a re i ncluded, t he o thers h aving b een w ithdrawn. S tudents o f p ottery a nd c eramics s hould a lso b e aware o f A rt a nd A rchaeology T echnical A bstracts ( AATA), p ublished s ince 1 955 u nder v arious t itles, w hich d evotes a s ection t o " Ceramics a nd G lass." C urrently i ssued b iannually, t his m ajor r esource b egan a s I .I.C. A bstracts o f t he I nternational I nstitute f or C onservation o f H istoric a nd A rtistic W orks ( Volumes 1 -5, 1 955-1965), p ublished b y t he I nternational I nstitute f or t he C onservation o f M useum O bjects, L ondon. T he I nstitute o f F ine A rts a t N ew Y ork U niversity p resently h as e ditorial a nd p ublishing r esponsibility. T wenty-six v olumes h ave b een i ssued t hrough 1 989.

N ELSON

A ND

R ICE:

E XEMPLARS

O F

C URRENT

C ERAMIC

S TUDIES

I n p reparing t he a nalytical r eview o f N elson's e dited v olume a nd R ice's c ompendium, I w as r eminded o f a n umber o f r ules, r egulations, a dmonitions, a nd c omments o n t he e thics o f b ook r eviewing. A lthough I w rote a b rief r eview o f R ice's w ork, ( Kolb 1 988d), t he c urrent c omparative r eview i s q uite d ifferent a s I h ave n o " axe t o g rind" o r p reconceived p rejudices ( Flannery 1 988, M ontague 1 978). T herefore, t his i s n ot a " nasty r eview" ( Pool 1 988, P ritchard 1 989) b ut h opefully w ill b e i nformative, c ritical - p ro a nd c on - a nd f ollow t hose s uggestions m ade b y S arton ( 1960) i n S cience a nd W oodbury ( 1977) i n A merican A nthropologist.

T o d ate, N elson's b ook h as a pparently n ot b een c ritiqued, b ut R ice's P ottery A nalysis h as s o f ar b een r eviewed b y B ronitsky ( 1988), C ole ( 1988), K olb ( 1988d), N elson ( 1989), P eacock ( 1989) R ands ( 1988), S teponaitis ( 1989), a nd W right ( 1988), a ll o f w hom p raise h er w ork. M ost c ompare i t t o S hepard's C eramics f or t he A rchaeologist ( 1956), s uggesting R ice's v olume i s a w orthy s uccessor. R eviews o f P ottery A nalysis a re s eparately b eing p repared b y A rnold a nd M atson f or o ther j ournals. O bviously, t he b ooks b y N elson a nd R ice a re q uite d ifferent i n p urpose, o rientation, a nd f ormat, b ut t here a re s imilarities, h ence, s ome c omparisons a re p ossible.

N elson:

D ecoding

C eramic

V ariation

a nd

C ultural

S ystems

N elson's D ecoding P rehistoric C eramics ( 1985) d erives i n p art f rom h is s ymposium, " The E xplanation o f C eramic V ariation," h eld o n A pril 2 4, 1 979 a t t he 4 4th A nnual M eeting o f t he S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology i n V ancouver, B .C. O f t he n ine s ymposium p apers, f ive a re n ot p ublished i n t his v olume, o ne a uthor ( Longacre) s ubmitted a d ifferent p aper, a nother ( Washburn) a dded a c oauthor, a nd t wo s ymposiasts ( Nelson a nd S tephen P log) s ubmitted r evised v ersions o f t heir o riginal o ral p resentations. T herefore, e xcepting N elson's " Introduction" ( Chapter 1 ), 1 0 o f t he 1 5 c ontributions w ere s olicited a fter t he s ymposium, a lthough N elson ( "Preface," 1 985:xv) s tates t hat t he b ook s tems f rom t hat s ymposium, w hich h ad a s t he g oal " to c apture t he s pirit o f a n o ngoing r eorientation o f a rchaeological t hought a bout c eramics." I n t he " Introduction," N elson b riefly r eviews r ecent t echnical ( quantitative, d ata p rocessing, a nd p hysicochemical) a nd t heoretical c hanges ( Binford a nd S chiffer) i n a rchaeological i nvestigations, n oting t he s hift f rom c lassification a nd c hronology t oward p rocessural a rchaeology a nd s ystems t heory. T ime a nd s pace a re b ut " frames o f r eference t hrough w hich t o v iew t he o peration o f c ausal r elationships" ( 1985:1). C eramic v ariation i s s een a s a c ode w hich t he i ndividual c ontributors s eek t o d ecipher, a nd t he c auses o f s uch v ariation i s r ooted i n t he d ynamics o f c ultural s ystems. T he c ontributions d evelop a nswerable q uestions a nd u se methods " independent o f t he o bserver" e specially p owerful s tatistical t echniques f or m aximizing i nformation r eturns. N elson c ites a d ifficulty i n o rganizing t he c hapters i nto m utually e xclusive c ategories b ut s ettles o n f ive g roups w hich I s hall b riefly s ummarize.

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P art O ne, " Stylistic V ariation a nd S ocial O rganization" ( Chapters 2 -6), f ocuses o n q uestions a nd a nswers r elating t o " ceramic s ociology" ( 1985:3), b ut t his i s n ot t he " sociology o f p ottery" a s e xpressed b y F oster ( 1965), n or i s i t c eramic e cology ( Matson 1 965a). M ichael G raves' c hapter " Ceramic D esign V ariation w ithin a K alinga V illage: T emporal a nd S patial P rocesses" i s d erived f rom a 1 979 U niversity o f A rizona c olloquia p aper. H e e mploys e thnoarchaeological o bservations a nd l og-linear a nalysis t o i nvestigate t he r elationships o f c eramic s tylistic v ariations a nd s ocial a nd t echnical p arameters i n t he P hilippine v illage o f D angtalan i n 1 975-1976. A ssociations o f s tyle a re f ound w ith k in g roups, w ork g roups, p otters' a ge c ohorts, a nd s easonality o f p roduction. S ignificant q uestions a re r aised a s t o t he v alidity o f i nferring p ostmarital r esidence p atterns i n p rehistoric s ites s olely o n t he b asis o f d ecorative e lement d istributions, t hereby o ffering a s timulating r eplacement t o e arlier p ostulates ( peetz, S tanislawski, e tc.). K eith K intigh, i n " Social S tructure, t he S tructure o f S tyle, a nd S tylistic P atterns i n C ibola P ottery," r elates d esign v ariation i n p rehistoric p ueblos o f N ew M exico's E l M orro V alley. H is c hapter, b ased o n a 1 978 p aper, c onsiders i ntera nd i ntrasite p atterning o f d ecorative e lements a nd e lement c onfigurations u sing s tylistic i ndices a nd c luster a nalyses. P ostmarital r esidence p ractices a nd o ther s ocial f actors m ay a ccount f or t he p atterning. D orothy W ashburn a nd R . G . M atson's c hapter t itle, " Use o f M ultidimensional S caling t o D isplay S ensitivity o f S ymmetry A nalysis o f P atterned D esign t o S patial a nd C hronological C hange: E xamples f rom A nasazi P rehistory," d eveloped f rom t he s enior a uthor's 1 976-1978 w ork, g ives t he g ist o f t he c ontribution. T he c hapter s upplements W ashburn's ( 1977) p revious w ork, b ut t he methodology i s s uperceded b y W ashburn a nd C rowe ( 1988). N onetheless, A nasazi s ites l ocated i n b road r egions a nd l ocalized a reas c an b e c hronologically o rdered, a nd t he v alue o f multidimensional s caling i s c learly s een. I n " Corrugated C eramics a s I ndicators o f I nteraction S pheres," J udy B runson u ses 5 5,000 s herds f rom n ortheastern C olorado a nd S YMAPs t o i dentify e xchange n etworks. I n h er c hapter, r evised f rom a 1 979 M .A. p aper, s he d emonstrates a n onrandom d istribution o f s tyles, a nd s uggests a lternative m odels o f t he r ole o f c eramics i n d emarcating s ocial i nteraction s pheres. D avid B raun u ses d ata f rom h is 1 977 d issertation i n h is p resentation " Ceramic D ecorative D iversity a nd I llinois W oodland R egional I ntegation." M easurements o f u tilitarian c eramic d ecorative d iversity i n A .D. 2 00-600 w estern I llinois s ites i ndicate t hat i ncreasing r egional i ntegration o ccurred u nder c onditions o f d emographic g rowth a nd p roduction i ntensification. T his i nsightful

i nvestigation c hallenges s ocial p henomena a s h is m odel.

p revious c haracterizations o f d ata s upports a n a lternative

N elson's P art T wo, " The O rganization o f C eramic P roduction," c ontains t wo p apers, b oth o n M esoamerica. B arbara S tark's " Archaeological I dentification o f P ottery-Production L ocations: E thnoarchaeological a nd A rchaeological D ata i n M esoamerican c ontains a r eview o f a ll s alient i nformation o n m anufacturing l oci a s t he i nitial s tep i n a s tudy o f t he s ocioeconomic a spects o f t his c raft. S he c onsiders t he e thnographic e vidence ( specialists, l ocation i n r elation t o c lay s ources, s pecial s tructures, k ilns a nd f iring h earths, w asters a nd k iln f urniture, m olds, a nd n on-specialists) p rior t o a t abulation a nd d iscussion o f 2 4 a rchaeological s ites h aving m aterial c ulture r elated t o p roduction. L astly, S tark p resents a c ase s tudy u sing m ultidimensional s caling i n h er i nvestigation o f d omestic m anufacture o n P atarata I sland, V eracruz, w here p roduction c oncentrated o n p articular b owls d uring t he L ate C lassic. T his i s a n e xtremely v aluable p aper, a nd h er methodology c ould b e a pplied t o o ther c ulture a reas a nd r egions. I n " Change i n t he O rganization o f C eramic P roduction i n P re-Hispanic O axaca, M exico," G ary F einman d evelops a n e volutionary m odel t hat p redicts m odifications i n t he o rganizaton a nd p roduction o f e xchange o f p ottery i n c omplex s ocieties. P roduction, h e c ontends, w ill b ecome s patially c entralized a s p olitical c ontrol b ecomes c entralized a nd c eramics t end t o b e m ore s tandardized. D ata f rom t he s ite o f M onte A lban a nd t he V alley o f O axaca s urvey a re u sed t o s upport t his p aradigm. I t w ould b e v ery i nteresting t o a pply t his m odel t o o ther M esoamerican s ites a nd r egions ( e.g. T eotihuacan, T ula, C halcatzingo, e tc.) t o f urther t est F einman's p ostulate. I n P art T hree, N elson g roups C hapters 9 -12 u nder t he h eading " Assignments o f F orm, F unction, a nd C ontext." T hese c ontributions a ddress f undamental a spects o f c eramic c lassification e specially h ow s herds m ay l ead t o i nferences a bout w hole v essels. P atricia F roese u ses c lustering a lgorithm g roupings i n t her s tudy o f L ate N eolithic s herds f rom s outhern G ermany a nd S witzerland i n " Pottery C lassification a nd S herd A ssignment." O f s ignificance i s h er f inding t hat b asal m easurements a re b etter d iscriminators t han r im m easurements. H er m ethodology s hould b e t ested i n o ther c ases, e specially i n W oodland c eramics f rom t he A merican M idwest a nd E ast. A n i mportant q uestion a s t o m easurement e rror a s a p otential s ource o f d ata v ariation i s a ddressed b y S tephen P log i n h is c hapter " Estimating V essel O rifice D iameters: M easurements M ethods a nd M easurement E rror." T echnician a nd i nstrumental e rrors a re c onsidered, a nd h e f inds t hat e rrors i ncrease i n d irect p roportion t o t he

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n umber o f t echnicians a nd t hat m echanical a ids d o n ot n ecessarily r esult i n r eplicable m easurements. I n " Toward a n E conomic I nterpretation o f C eramics: R elating V essel S ize a nd S hape t o U se," ( originally p resented a t t he 4 5th A nnual M eeting o f t he S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology), M arion F . S mith, J r. s tudies p roblems o f i nferring v essel c onfiguration f rom s herd s hape a nd u se r elationships f rom v essel s hapes. H e c oncludes t hat t he d iscrimination o f v essel u se c an b e a chieved f rom v essel measurements a lone, b ased o n h is a nalysis o f 2 6 m orphological v ariables, 2 9 c ausal a spects o f u se b ehavior, a nd a n e xamination o f 3 9 e thnographic s pecimens f rom t he A merican S outhwest. N elson's " Reconstructing C eramic V essels a nd T heir S ystemic C ontexts" r elates a u seful s tatistical t echnique f or c alculating v essel c apacities f rom i mages o f c omplete o r p artial c ontainer p rofiles. I n a ddition, h e d emonstrates h ow m onitoring t he s ubsurface d ispersion o f s herds f itted i nto r estored v essels m ight f acilitate o ur u nderstanding o f d epositional p rocesses. H e a lso t ests p ropositions a bout t he r ole o f p ottery b y e xamining t he d istribution o f l arge c eramic v essels i n t wo s ettings, o ne a rchaeological a nd t he s econd e thnographic. O f e thnoarchaeological n ote i s t hat w ater-storage j ars h ave l onger l ives t han l arge c ooking v essels, d espite c onstant u se; t he n ature o f t he u se e xplains t his v ariability. C hapters 1 2 a nd 1 3 c omprise P art F our, " Further L essons f rom E thnoarchaeology." W illiam L ongacre's b rief c ontribution, " Pottery U se-life a mong t he K alinga ..," i s a c ompanion t o G raves' c hapter, a nd s eeks t o d ocument t he c auses o f d ifferences i n t he u se-life o f v arious c lasses o f v essels a s s een d iachronically i n 9 3 D angtalan h ouseholds. L ongacre c ontinues t o c ollect a nd r efine h is s ocial a nd t echnological d ata o n K alinga p ottery m aking, a nd f inds t hat i n n ormal u se s maller p ots a re m ore f requently b roken a nd t hat t he l arger t he v essel, t he l onger i t s urvives ( complimenting t he f indings o f D avid a nd H ennig 1 972, a nd D eBoer i n N elson, e d., 1 985). A t able o f mean-use l ives f or f ive c lasses o f v essels a nd a s econd t able o n v essel f requencies i n h ouseholds a re m ost u seful t o e thnoarchaeologists. T he c hapter b y W arren D eBoer, " Pots a nd P ans D o N ot S peak, n or D o T hey L ie: T he C ase f or O ccasional R eductionism," r elies o n d ata c ollected i n 1 971 f rom t he S hipibo-Conibo I ndians f rom t he P eruvian A mazon i n h is s tudy o f v essel u se-life. T he w eight o f v essels, f requency o f u se, c osts o f p rocuring r aw m aterials, a nd p roduction e xpenses a re a mong t he v ariables e xamined a nd s tatistically c onsidered ( graphed l ogarithms); l og w eight i s a p owerful p redictor o f l ife-span, u se f requency i s n egatively r elated t o l ife s pan, a nd h e c oncludes t hat t he v ariables h e s elected a re " highly i ncestuous" a nd r aises t he " spectre o f a utocorrelations." D eBoer a lso p resents e nlightening

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d ata i n h is c omparison o f t he f requency o f v essel c ategories i n e thnographic v ersus m useum s ettings; s mall j ars a nd t oy v essels a re o ver-represented - t he m ore d ecoratively e laborate a v essel, t he m ore l ikely i t w ill b e r epresented i n m useum c ollections ( at l east a t t he A merican M useum o f N atural H istory). P art F ive, " Comment," c ontains o ne c hapter, " Style: A C onceptual E volutionary F ramework," a uthored b y J ames N . H ill. T he o riginal i ntent o f t his c ontribution w as t o c ritique t he p revious c hapters, b ut H ill d oes n ot f ocus u pon t hese " excellent c ontributions" ( 1985:362), a nd r efers t o P log's ( 1983) e valuation. H ill e xamines c eramic s tyle a nd a nd d evelops a g eneral c onceptual e volutionary f ramework s o a s t o b etter c omprehend s tylistic v ariability a nd c hange. T his i s a m ost i mportant c ontribution t o c eramic s tudies a nd d eserves t o b e w idely r ead a nd t ested. H e c ritiques S ocial I nteraction T heory ( Longacre 1 970, D eetz 1 965, H ill 1 970, W ashburn 1 977, e tc.), n oting t hat t his i s r eally d iffusionist t heory ( Plog 1 983:126) a nd t hat c hange m ay r esult f rom " mistakes" ( Wobst 1 977:318-319). L ikewise, h e r eviews I nformation E xchange T heory ( Plog 1 983:138-139, W obst 1 977:321), o bserving t hat s tyle i s f unctional a nd a daptive. H ill t hen p roceeds t o d evelop t he " Conceptual E volutional F ramework" ( 1985:371-382) w hich i ncorporate i ts p redecessors ( as d id G raves' c hapter). U sing t he m odern s ynthetic t heory o f e volution a s a n a nalog, h e d efines s tyle, s tyle u nit, e tc. u sing b iological c oncepts ( individuals, p opulation, g ene p ool, mutation, g ene f low, s election/fitness, a nd g enetic d rift). I nnovation i s s een a s m utation, g ene f low a s d iffusion, f itness a s c ultural s election/adaption/choice, a nd d rift a s s tochastic p rocesses. H is c onceptualization i s n ot o riginal ( Rouse 1 965:94-96 a nd C avalli-Sforza 1 971, f or e xample), b ut i lluminating, a nd h e c oncludes w ith f our p oints ( 1985:382-383): 1 ) S ocial I nteraction T heory d oes n ot e xplain s tylistic v ariability a nd c hange, I nformation E xchange T heory d oes n ot a ccount f or v ariability a nd c hange; 2 ) a ll a spects o f s tyle s hould b e t hought o f a nd a ccounted f or w ithin a n e cological/adaptive f ramework; 3 ) t he t wo t heories a re n ot a ntithetical, a nd t herefore n ot c ompeting t heories; a nd 4 ) m odern s ynthetic b iological t heory i s h euristically u seful. H ill c ogently d emonstrates t hese f our p oints. I n s um, N elson h as c ollected a u seful s eries o f c ontributions t hat h elp i lluminate a n umber o f a spects r elated t o c eramic s tudies. N ew m odes o f a nalysis a re u sed t o f ind k eys t o d ecode a ncient p ottery a nd r eveal h ow p eople o nce l ived. T he p apers i n P art O ne g ive u s a f resh l ook a t a f ast-growing f ield t hat p artially g rew

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f rom s tylistic s tudies p ioneered b y S hepard ( 1948) a nd e laborated i n t he 1 970s. T he s tatistical p rocedures i ntroduced a nd t ested p rovide a b asis f or m uch f urther a nalysis a nd r eplication o n m aterials f rom o ther s ites, r egions, a nd c ulture a reas. G raves' t heoretical v iews a re p articularly i nteresting a nd t hought p rovoking, b ut a ll t he c hapters p rovide n ew o r r evised p erspectives. I n P art T wo, t he p apers b y S tark a nd F einman a re m ust r eading f or M esoamericanists b ut s tudents o f c eramic m anufacture w ho d eal w ith " high" c ulture a reas o f t he w orld s hould f ind m ethods a nd t estable m odels w ell w orth c onsidering. T he f our c ontributions i n P art F our g et t o t he " nuts a nd b olts" o f c eramic s tudy a nd c lassification b y o ffering s ome r efreshing w ays o f c onducting l aboratory a nalyses; t here a re i mportant c autionary t ales a nd p ractical s uggestions t hat s hould b e o f u se t o a ny a rchaeologist c oncerned w ith b aked c lay a rtifacts. L ongacre a nd D eBoer g ive i mportant i nsights o n p ottery u se-life, a nd p rovide t estable a nd r eplicable e thnoarchaeological m ethods a nd d ata. H ill's c oncluding c hapter c larifies s ome m ajor i ssues, t heories, a nd i mplications o f b ehaviorally o riented c eramic d esign, a nd p rovides a n ew l anguage o f s tyle t hat m ay a lso b e a pplicable t o o ther a rtifacts ( basketry, t extiles, c arpets, e tc.). A n umber o f t hese c ontributions r eflect B infordian " midrange" t heory. T he c hapters o ffer s ome n ew p ropositions a bout t he c auses o f c eramic c ode v ariations, a nd p rovide t ests a nd r efinements o f e arlier p ropositions, y et, a s N elson ( 1985:3) n otes, " This v olume i s n ot a d efinitive s tatement o f a pproaches t o d ecoding c eramic v ariation." N onetheless, w e h ave a n umber o f c iphers w ith w hich t o b etter u nderstand c eramic v ariations a nd w hy a nd h ow s ocial f actors o perate t o c reate s uch a lterations. I ndeed, w e h ave t he b eginnings o f c ryptoanalysis n ot d issimilar t o t he W orld W ar T wo c odebreaking o perations U ltra a nd M agic, w hereby t he G erman E nigma a nd J apanese P urple c odes w ere b roken, a lthough N elson d oes n ot r eference t hese. H owever, l inguistic c odes a re m ore e asily d eciphered a s o pposed t o t he l anguage o f c eramic s tyles a nd v ariations m odified b y t he d ynamics o f c ultural s ystems.

R ice:

T he

H olistic

A pproach

t o

C eramic

S tudies

P rudence R ice's P ottery A nalysis: A S ourcebook h as a q uite d ifferent s cope, o rganization, a nd p urpose i n c omparison t o N elson's v olume. H er b ook i s a t ype o f " Pru R eview" q uite d ifferent f rom t hose p oignant a nalyses s he g ives t o c olleagues' w ritings, o ral p resentations, a nd g rant p roposals. M y a nalysis o f h er b ook i s y et a nother f orm o f " Pru R eview," a nd i s a p ro

( 1987)

- 3 98 -

a nd c on c ritique o f h er e ffort t o p resent a h olistic s urvey o f p ottery s tudies. R ice, l ike N elson, s eeks t o a id u s i n o ur t ask t o d ecipher t his m aterial c ulture a nd e xtract a ll i nformation p ossible f rom c lays, n onplastics, v essels, s herds, a nd c ontexts. R ice ( ed., 1 984:xii) i n t he P reface t o P ots a nd P otters, w rote t hat " given t he u niversally a cknowledged i mportance o f p ottery i n a rchaeological s tudies, a nd t he d ay t o d ay s ignificance o f f ired c lay a rticles i n m any p eople's c ooking o r f ood s torage a ctivities, i t i s s urprising t hat t here a re r elatively f ew g eneral o r s urvey t exts o n c eramic s tudies. T he l iterature o n p ottery i s v ast, b ut g enerally a rea-, s ite-, o r v illage-specific." I n s pite o f t he w orks o f S hepard ( 1956), M atson ( ed., 1 965), a nd R ye ( 1981), m ore r ecently s upplemented b y v an d er L eeuw a nd P richard ( eds., 1 984), A rnold ( 1985), a nd N elson ( ed., 1 985), a mong o thers, a t rue, i ntegrative, u p-to-date, c omprehensive t ext w as l acking u ntil R ice h erself p ublished P ottery A nalysis ( 1987) t o f ill t his p erceived v oid. R ice h as l ogically o rganized h er c ompedium o n a pproaches t o a rchaeological p ottery i nto f ive p arts. I s hall b riefly r eview t hese s egments, n oting w here t he c hapters f rom N elson " fit" a nd I s hall r efer t o s ome " missing" a nd s ignificant p ost-1987 p ublications. M y r eferences t o S hepard ( 1965) a re t o t he f ifth p rinting o f t he o riginal ( 1956), w hich h as a n a dded f orward u pdating c eramic s tudies t hrough 1 964. T here h ave b een n o f urther c hanges i n t he S hepard m anual, n ow i n i ts n ineth p rinting. I n P art O ne, t he " Introduction," R ice d efines p ottery a nd c eramics b efore p roviding a r elatively u p t o d ate b ut s elective r eview o f t he h istorical o rigins o f t hose m aterials i n t he O ld W orld ( Near E ast, F ar E ast, a nd E urope a nd t he M editerranean) a nd t he N ew W orld ( American S outhwest, S outh A merica, a nd M esoamerica). H er s ummary n eglects m ost o f N orth A merica, L owland S outh A merica, a nd a ll o f S ubsaharan A frica; h owever, T able 1 .3, s howing t he c hronological s equence o f d evelopments, i s m ost u seful. R eaders w ill w ant + , o r efer t o K ingery ( 1988) a nd V andiver ( 1988) f or c hronological u pdates. N onetheless, R ice p rovides a r easonable o verview o f t he " high" c ulture a reas o f t he w orld. S uch d evelopments w ere n ot c onsidered b y S hepard o r R ye. A lthough t he h istory o f p rogress i s a d ynamic, e ver-changing s cene, i t i s h oped t hat s ome e nterprising s tudent w ill u ltimately p repare s uch a w orld-wide r eview o f p ottery i nnovations a nd d iffusion. I n P art T wo, " The ( Chapters 2 -4), R ice

R aw M aterials c onsiders -

o f P ottery M aking" f rom a m aterials

s cience a nd p hysicochemical p erspective t he r aw m aterials o f p ottery, i ncluding t he o rigins a nd d efinitions o f c lays, a nd t he e ffects o f w ater, h eat, a nd i nclusions o n c lays. T he p hysicochemical e ffects o f f iring o n c lay m inerals a nd i nclusions a nd i mpurities a re a lso d etailed, a nd t he c omposition o f g lazes b riefly r elated. S tresses, d efects, a nd t hermal t echnologies a re l ikewise r elated. H er t reatment o f t hese t opics i s m uch p referred t o t hose b y S hepard a nd R ye, s o t hat o nly t reatises i n c lay c hemistry a nd t hermal d ynamics w ould p rovide p arallel i nformation. R ice i s t o b e c omplimented f or m aking h ighly t echnical d ata s o p alatable a nd f or p roviding s uperb i llustrations. I n F igure 2 .2, " Six c ommon s tandards f or c lassification o f p article s izes," ( 1987:38), s pecific r eferences t o t hese g ranulometric s tandards w ould b e u seful. F igure 4 .3, s howing c arbon c oring a s s een i n a b riquette s eries f ired a t 5 00° C f or d ifferent l engths o f t ime i s p oorly r eproduced s o t hat t he d istinctions d iscussed a re n ot e vident f rom t he i llustration ( 1987:89). P art T hree, " Pottery M anufacture a nd U se" ( Chapters 5 -9) c omprising 2 16 p ages i s t he m ajor s ection o f t he b ook. I n C hapter 5 , R ice p rovides a d etailed t raditional e thnographic o verview o f t he t echnologies o f p ottery p roduction, l ogically p rogressing f rom o btaining r aw m aterials t o f orming, f inishing, a nd d ecorating t he v essels, a nd l astly t o d rying a nd f iring. I w ould p refer t o h ave s een a b etter d istinction a s t o " leather-hard" a nd " bone-dry," e specially i n r eference t o t he a pplication o f v arious k inds o f s urface e nhancements o r d ecorations ( 1987:144-152). T here i s m inimal c onsideration o f r esist d ecoration ( the s o-called " negative p ainting"); R ice's s ection o n p aint a nalysis i s r ather w eak ( 1987:148-152) a nd t here i s n othing a bout f resco-seco ( sometimes c alled " stucco") p ainting ( Shepard 1 965:178), p iano-relief ( Shepard 1 965:202), o r s prigging ( Rye 1 981:92). R ye's t reatment o f s urface f inish a nd d ecoration, a nd h is e xcellent i llustrations ( 1981:25-26, 4 0-44, 8 9-91) s upplement R ice's p resentation, a nd h is c onsideration o f s urface m arks ( casts, r idges, f acets, d rag m arks, a nd c ompression r idges) a nd s ome m ethods o f s urface p enetration ( carving, p erforating, a nd s having, f or e xample) a re b etter. R ice, o n t he o ther h and, d oes a f iner j ob w ith p lastic s urface m odifications ( 1987:146-152). I n s um, i n s tudying s urface e nhancement, a ll t hree v olumes r emain u seful a nd c an b e u sed i n c onjunction. R ice r eviews t he e conomics o f p ottery p roduction i n C hapter 6 , a nd i ncludes n otable m aterials o n f uel c osts a nd f iring l oss r ates ( see A rnold 1 985 a nd M iller 1 985 f or a dditional d ata). T he l ocations o f m anufacture a re a lso c onsidered ( see t he c hapter b y S tark i n N elson), a s

i s t he s cale o f t he o rganization o f p roduction ( see F einman's c hapter i n N elson [ not r eferenced b y R ice]). T he r eview o f d istribution a nd e xchange i s g ood b ut c ould b e s trengthened ( Rands 1 988:818), a nd c ommercial m odels o f p ottery i mport-export c onsidered ( Kolb 1 986). R ice's p resentation, l ike s ome o f t he c hapters i n N elson's v olume, r eflect " midrange" t heory. C hapter 7 e ncompasses a f ine p resentation o n v essel f orms a nd f unctions, p roblems o f c lassification a nd d etermining c ontainer f orms f rom s herds, a nd a s ummary o f v essel u se, i dentification o f c ontents, a nd u se-wear p atterns. C hapters b y F roese, P log, S mith, N elson L ongacre, a nd D eBoer i n N elson ( 1985) p rovide a dditional c onsiderations. S tudents i nterested i n c ontent a nalysis s hould a lso r ead D eal's ( 1988) c hapter a nd r eview h is r eferences o n p roblems o f i dentifying a nd d ifferentiating a nimal, f ish, a nd p lant f ats. P ottery d ecorative s tyles a nd s tylistic a nalyses a re c onsidered i n C hapter 8 . R ice d efines " style" a nd o ther s alient t erminology, r elates d esign e lements a nd I nteraction T heory, a nd r eviews s ymmetry a nd d esign a nalysis, u pdating S hepard ( 1948), F riedrich ( 1970), a nd W ashburn ( 1977). P roblems o f methodology a nd i nterpretation a re a lso r elated, b ut t he r eader s hould n ote t he f uller t reatments b y F log ( 1980, 1 983) a nd W ashburn a nd C rowe ( 1988). C hapters b y G raves, K intigh, W ashburn a nd M atson, B runson, B raun, a nd e specially - H ill f rom N elson's ( 1985) e dited b ook a re a pplicable. U nder " Special T opics i n A rchaeological, E thnoarchaeological, a nd E thnographic P ottery S tudies" ( Chapter 9 ), R ice c onsiders b oth d evised a nd f olk ( Kempton 1 981) c lassifications, p roblems i n c lassific ation ( real v ersus a rtificial t ypes, p urposes, e tc.), p ottery q uantification, a nd a ssemblage c omposition, a mong o ther i mportant t opics. U nfortunately, R ice d oes n ot r eference K ramer's ( 1985) s ignificant r eview, " Ceramic E thnoarchaeology," s o t hat t he r eader s hould a lso c onsult K ramer's a nalysis ( and 1 46-item b ibliography) t o s upplement t his c hapter. I ndeed, e thnoarchaeology i s r ather b riefly c onsidered a nd t he l ack o f a f ull t reatment o n t his t opic i s a w eakness, a lthough R ice d oes t ouch u pon f acets o f i t i n o ther a reas o f h er b ook. S urprising t o me, t he f ollowing i mportant e thnoarchaeological s ources a re n owhere t o b e f ound i n P ottery A nalysis: s tudies o f C atawba, P amunkey, a nd C herokee p ottery m aking ( Fewkes 1 944); F ranken's ( 1974) m ajor s tudy o f J ericho p ottery a nd p otters; a nd v an d er L eeuw's ( 1976) d issertation. P art ( Chapters i nitially

F our, " Characterization S tudies o f P ottery" 1 0-14), c omprises 1 71 p ages i n w hich w e f ind ( Chapter 1 0) a n e xcellent r eview o f w hat

c haracterization means ( the q uantification a nd q ualification o f c omposition a nd s tructure), a n h istorical b ackground o f t echnological s tudies, a n e valuation o f t he i mpact o f c eramic e cology ( Matson 1 965a), a nd c onsideration o f r esearch d esigns. C hapter 1, e ntirely d evoted t o t he c olor o f c eramic m aterials, i s d elightfully a nd c learly w ritten, a nd R ice d etails t he s ources a nd p roperties o f c olorants, a nd t he m ethods o f e stimating f iring c onditions f rom c olor. T he s ignificance t o c eramic r esearch o f t he M unsell ( 1954) a lphanumeric s ystem o f c olor i dentification i s d etailed ( 1987:339-343), b ut t he s even M unsell h ue p anels mentioned ( plus g rey) s hould b e s upplemented b y o thers t o c over v itrification a nd f iring a ccidents. N ormal M unsell b ooks a lso c ontain c harts 5 R a nd 7 .5R, a nd G ley f or a t otal o f 2 45 c olors r ather t han t he 1 99 R ice n otes. R eaders i nterested i n c olor d ynamics a nd t he h istory o f d escriptions m ay f ind M unsell's ( 1961) b ook e specially i nteresting. T he s ucceeding p resentation ( Chapter 1 2) r eveals t he p hysical, mechanical, a nd t hermal p roperties o f p ottery, i n w hich R ice l ucidly r eviews t he c omplex t opics o f m icrohardness, p orosity, h ardness, s trength, t hermal p roperties, a nd s tress. I n e xtremely u seful C hapter 1 3, s he b rilliantly s ummarizes m ineralogical ( Petrographic, X -Ray D iffraction, T hermal A nalysis, e tc.) a nd c hemical c haracterizations ( eight p hysicochemical methods), a nd s tructural/microstructural methodologies a nd r esults. T able 1 3.1, " Comparisons o f s ome c ommon m ethods o f p hysicochemical a nalysis" ( 1987:374-375) i s a n e specially i mportant r eady r eference. T he d iscussion o f p etrographic t hin s ection m icroscopy ( 1987:376-382) m ight a lso i nclude t he c onsideration o f o ther m ajor s ources ( e.g. M acKenzie a nd G uilford 1 980, M acKenzie e t a l. 1 982, M axwell 1 968, M oorhouse 1 959, R igby 1 953, S aggerson 1 975, a nd S inkankas 1 966, a mong o thers). N one o f t hese a ppear i n R ice's r eferences. A n ew t reatment b y P hilpotts ( 1989) i s p articularly u seful o n t hin s ectioning. R ice ( 1987:379) m inimizes b inocular m icroscopy w hich S hepard ( 1965:140-141) f inds s o u seful i n p aste a nalysis, e specially i n t he f ield l aboratory. T he r eview o f c hemical c haracterizations m akes e specially g ood r eading, b ut B eta-Ray B ackscattering - a m inor t echnique u seful i n l ead o xide g laze a nalysis i s o mitted ( Emelius 1 980). T hose i nterested i n c hemical a nalyses m ay w ish t o c onsult A lvarez d e l a C adena e t a l. ( 1967). I n " Special T opics i n C eramic C haracterization S tudies" ( Chapter 1 4), R ice t ackles s everal m ajor q uestions: w hat i s " temper," t he a ssumptions a nd p rocedures o f p rovenience ( provenance t o s ome i nvestigators) s tudies, p roblems a nd t echniques o f a rchaeothermometry, a nd d ating a nd a uthentication. T he

s pecial t opics r epresent a m e lange, some of which could h ave b een i nserted i nto o ther s ections o f t he v olume. F or e xample, a rchaeothermometry m ight h ave b etter b een i ncluded i n C hapter 1 2 u nder " Thermal P roperties a nd S tresses" ( 1987:363-369). I f ound t he d iscussion o f " temper" ( 1987:406-413) a nd T able 1 4.1, " Characteristics o f S ome C ommon T ypes o f T emper," e specially t houghtful a nd t hought p rovoking. L ikewise, h er c onsideration o f a rchaeothermometric t echniques ( 1987:426-435, T able 1 4.3) i s a s tate o f t he a rt s ummary o f u se t o c eramic a rchaeologists c onsidering i nter- a nd m ultidisciplinary a pproaches t o p ottery a nalysis. T o my m ind, t he c hapters c omprising P art F our a re e xtremely u seful a nd t here i s n o o ther s ingle s ource t hat d raws t ogether s o m uch c omplex d ata o n m ethods, a pplications, a nd a nalytical p roblems; b oth S hepard a nd R ye a re i nadequate a nd d ated b y c omparison s ince c haracterization s tudies a re a n e xtremely d ynamic s ubject a rea. P art F ive, " Epilogue," c onsisting o f o ne c hapter, " Continuity a nd C hange i n t he M odern W orld," m ay a ppear t o b e a n a fterthought, b ut R ice h as o nly b egun t o s cratch t he s urface i n h er s urvey o f t he i mpacts o f s ocietal c hange, a cculturation, a nd r elated c hanges i n c eramic p roduction m ethods a nd f inished p roducts. S ome i mplications f or a rchaeological r esearch a re a lso c onsidered. A lthough a dequate, I w ould h ave p referred f uller d iscussion o f c urrent c hanges e specially i n S outhwestern A sia a nd t he C ircum-Mediterranean ( the G reek i slands a nd I berian P eninsula, f or e xample), b ut t here d o n ot a ppear t o b e m any e thnographers a nd f ewer e thnoarchaeologists c urrently d ocumenting t hese r adical c hanges. D eBoer ( in N elson 1 985) b riefly n otes s uch c hange a mong t he t ribes o f t he P eruvian A mazon, a s d o G raves a nd L ongacre a mong t he K alinga ( Nelson 1 985). P ottery A nalysis i s a n a mbitious, w ell-organized, e ncyclopedic r eference m anual c onceived o n a b road s cale a nd p rovides a h olistic o rientation n ot s een i n a ny o ther v olumes w hich p urport t o c over A merican a nd B ritish a nalyses o f t his m aterial c ulture. H owever, R ice's v olume i nvites d irect c omparisons, e specially t o S hepard ( 1965) a nd R ye ( 1981), b ut n ot t o t he m ore l imited e arlier c ompendia b y M arsh ( 1934) a nd C olton ( 1953), w hich w ere u seful i n t heir o wn t imes. I n o rder t o f acilitate s uch c ontrasts, I p repared a d etailed 1 5-page t opical o utline l isting s pecific s ubject m atter a nd t he s pecific p ages d evoted b y e ach a uthor t o t hese c onsiderations. S ince t he t ables o f c ontents a nd i ndices i n b oth S hepard a nd R ye l eave m uch t o b e d esired, I c arefully r ead a nd a bstracted i nformation f rom t hese s ources. A s ummary o f s ome m ajor c onsiderations a ppears i n T able 1 .

T able 1 : C omparison f rom T hree M anuals.

o f

S ome M ajor

P age

M anufacturing D ata

N umbers

V ariable

S hepard

C olor

1 02-113

19-120

3 31-336

H ardness

13-117

1 21

3 34-357

T exture

17-121

1 47

4 83

P orosity

1 25-130

1 20-121

4 28, 4 80,

T emper/ A plastics..

9 1-93,

1 56-168

1 3-14,31-37

4 06-413

F iring

7 4-93,

2 13-224

2 4-28, 9 6-112

6 3-72, 8 0-110 1 58-163, 4 774 78

M anufact uring....

5 4-65,

1 83-186

5 8-95, 1 37

F orms/Shapes, R ims/Body.

5 4-65, 2 24-253, 3 91-394

S urface T reatm ents.... 6 5-69,

D ecora tion....

D imens ions... F unct ions...

( 1965)

R ye

6 2, 7 2, 8 5

( 1981)

6 8, 8 0,

R ice

( 1987)

4 784 84

1 31-

1 24-152

7 0, 8 1,

2 07-243,

3 69

1 86-193

4 0-44,

8 9-90

1 36-152, 3 69

3 68-

6 9-72, 1 68-172 1 93-213

2 5-26, 8 9-91

4 0-41

1 44-152, 1 64

1 62-

2 24-255

--

2 24, 2 28, 2 32-236

5 7,

-5 8-62

2 10-242

W e m ust, h owever, r emember t he a uthors' p urposes a nd t ime f rames d uring w hich t hese i mportant m anuals w ere w ritten. R ice's b ook i s u nique i n h er t reatment o f t he h istorical d evelopment o f p ottery a nd c eramics ( Chapter 1 ), a lthough t he c overage i s s elective o r s omewhat s uperficial. H er d iscussion o f " The R aw M aterials o f P ottery M aking" ( Chapters 2 -4) s omewhat o verlaps S hepard's t reatment b ut, o f c ourse, i s a n u p t o d ate a nd m uch m ore d etailed s ynthesis. R ye b arely t ouches t hese a spects. I n " Pottery M anufacture a nd U se" ( Chapters 5 -9) w e s ee c loser p arallels a mong t he t hree m anuals. R ice's p resentations a re e xcellent b y c omparison, b ut o nly a f ew t opics a re m issing i n t he t reatment ( surface m arkings, s everal s urface p enetration t echniques, s prigging), b ut s he h as f ine c onsiderations o f t opics n ot f ound i n S hepard a nd/or R ye ( wedging/kneading, j iggering/jollying, l uting a nd p iece b uilding, b urnishing, s urface d isplacement a nd p lastic e nhancements, a nd t he u se o f s aggars b eing m ost n otable). S hepard ( 1965) h as a b etter p resentation o n p ainting t han t he o ther t wo v olumes, b ut s he h as n o c onsideration o f l oss r ate a nd u se l ife w hich b oth R ye a nd R ice c onsider. I ndeed, a s ection d evoted t o p ottery d iscard a nd/or d isposal w ould b e a ppropriate. R ice's " Characterization S tudies o f P ottery" ( Chapters 1 0-14) c onstitutes a s tate o f t he a rt d escription a nd a nalysis o f t he u tility o f v arious t echnical a nd p hysicochemical m ethods, a nd i s v astly s uperior t o t he e arlier S hepard a nd R ye t reatments. T he s ections o n a rchaeothermometry a nd o n s hape a nalysis a re u niquely p resented i n P ottery A nalysis, w hile R ice's c onsideration o f s ymmetry a nalysis i s p referable t o S hepard's a nd i s a bsent i n R ye. C hapter 1 5, " Continuity a nd C hange i n t he M odern W orld," c ontains a r eview o f s ome c ultural d ynamics a ssociated w ith s tability a nd m odifications i n t echnologies a nd f inished p roducts, a nd i s a nother u nique f eature o f R ice's w ork. I n a p articularly l audatory r eview, R ands ( 1988:818) c hides R ice f or n ot a ttempting t o d evelop a " general t heory o f c eramics," b ut s uch a p aradigm w as n ot h er p rime i ntent. A s s he s tates ( Rice 1 987:xxi-xxii), t he p urpose w as t o c reate a " relatively b road r eference w ork," a nd t o " weave t he m any a pproaches t o p ottery" ( field a nd l aboratory, a rchaeological a nd e thnographic, t echnical a nd c ultural, e mpirical a nd t heoretical) i nto a " single f abric," w hile i llustrating t he r ecent d evelopments ( excavation, q uantification, c oding, t echnical, p hysicochemical, e tc.). R ice, h owever, h as p rovided t he b asis f or d eveloping s uch a p aradigm a nd, p erhaps, s he i s n ow i n t he b esG p osition t o d evelop s uch a t heory. U p t o n ow, A rnold i n h is C eramic T heory a nd C ultural P rocess ( 1985) h as c ome t he c losest t o c reating s uch a c onstruct. R ands ( 1988:818) a lso c astigates R ice

f or t aking a n e ssentially s ynchronic a pproach t o c ontemporary p ottery p roduction, a nd w ould l ike a d iachronic r eview a long t he l ines o f h is o wn f unction-optimizing a pproach. I s ee t his c riticism a s m inor i n c omparison w ith R ice's s tated o bjectives. O n a m ost p ositive n ote, R ands ( 1988:818) c omments t hat R ice a ddresses a d eficiency " ...a p aradox t hat a rcheologists a re o nly v aguely f amiliar w ith c eramics a s a p hysicochemical a nd e ngineering s ystem." H erein w e p erhaps s ee t he i nfluence o f M atson, a c eramic e ngineer, a rchaeometrician, a rchaeologist, c eramic e thnoa rchaeologist, a nd t heoretician ( Kolb 1 988c) w ho w as R ice's m entor a t P enn S tate. H e r equired t hat h is s tudents k now m ore t han a l ittle a bout t he p hysical s cientific a spects o f c eramic m aterials a s w ell a s t he t raditional a nthropological ( archaeological a nd e thnographic) v iewpoints. I n a ddition, R ice o n n umerous o ccasions a nd i n a n umber o f t opical a reas i n P ottery A nalysis - e mphasizes c autionary t ales, w arning t hat t he a rchaeologist m ust n ot o verly r ely o n t he mystique o f t he " precision" o f p hysical s cientific q uantification, t hereby d epending t oo h eavily o n t hese methods o f a nalysis a nd i nterpretation. T his p oint i s a lso r eiterated b y o ther r eviewers ( Bronitsky 1 988:2, R ands 1 988:818). P ottery s tudies i n N orth A merica o utside o f t he A merican S outhwest a re n ot a dequately c onsidered. A s a n e xample, t he O wasco-Iroquois t radition i s n either d iscussed n or k ey s ources r eferenced ( MacNeish 1 952; H ayes, I II, e d. 1 980), a nd t he W oodland a nd M ississippian c eramic t raditions a re n ot c onsidered. H olmes' c lassic, " Aboriginal P ottery o f t he E astern U nited S tates", i n which t empering m aterials w ere i nitially c onsidered ( 1903:46) i s n ot r eferenced. T here a re g ood i llustrations o f i nnovation a nd c ultural d ynamics f rom N orth A merica, a s w ell a s e xamples o f s tylistic s tudies t hat s hould h ave b een i ncorporated a t l east f or h istorical p urposes i f n ot f or c riticism. O n a p ositive n ote, R ice r eferences 1 1 o f t he 1 4 m ajor c hapters ( excluding t he " Introduction") f rom N elson's D ecoding P rehistoric P ottery ( 1985). T hose n ot c ited a re b y K intigh, B runson, a nd F einman. P ottery A nalysis ( with o ver t hree m illion w ords) i s r emarkably t ypographically e rror-free; I n ote f our m inor c orrections: p hysiocochemical [ sic.] ( p. x xiii); A STM S tandards ( p. 7 3, 3 61) r efers t o t he A merican S ociety f or T esting a nd M aterials ( not o f M aterials); H ans ( p. 4 43) i s H an; -W5 i .denskiold 1 983 ( T IT . 5 22) i s 1 883. T here a re c itation e rrors i n r eferences t o s everal o f M atson's p ublications: p . 19 ( citation o f M atson 1 974b a ctually r efers t o t he 1 974 AJA r eference [ Rice h as n o a o r b ]),

p p. 19, 1 67, 5 19 ( citation o f M atson 1 975a [ his c hapter i n B ishay 1 974] s hould b e 1 974); p 5:-- 3 44, 3 46, 5 19 ( citation o f M atson 1 975b [ his c hapter i n B eck, e d., 1 974] s hould r ead 1 974). I n s um, R ice u sed t hree o f M atson's 1 974 p ublications b ut m istakingly c ited t wo o f t hem a s 1 975; t here s hould b e t hree 1 974 l istings i n h er R eferences b ut t here i s o nly o ne ( see K olb 1 988e f or c larifications). S teponaitis ( 1989:486) a stutely n oted a s eries o f s ignificant m istakes, " a n umber o f m athematical e quations a re p rinted w ithout p roper a ttention t o t he c orrect p lacement o f p arentheses a nd t he c onventional o rder o f a rithmetic o perations," a nd r ecommends t hat " ... a r eader w ould b e w ell a dvised t o d ouble-check a ny f ormula f ound i n t his b ook b efore u sing i t." T hese e rrors l ead t o f ormulae t hat a re i ncorrect ( Rice 1 987:221, T able 7 .1; 2 24, F ig. 7 .10; 2 92); v iz, f ormulae f or c one a nd f rustrum, t he e quation f or c alculating t he r adius o f v essel c urvature, a nd t he f ormula f or t he r atios o f s urface a reas. P eacock ( 1989:143) t erms P ottery A nalysis " masterly," a w ork w hich " must n ow t ake t he p lace" o f S hepard's m anual, w hile B ronitsky ( 1988:4) c alls R ice's v olume a " landmark s tudy" a nd a " worth s uccessor" t o C eramic f or t he A rchaeologist, a nd R ands ( 1988:819) s ays R ice's b ook i s a " worthy c ontinuation o f t he S hepard t radition." C ole ( 1988:155) b elieves P ottery A nalysis i s " an e ssential b ook" a nd " updates b ut d oes n ot d uplicate S hepard's c lassic," w hile W right ( 1988:750) c oncludes t hat i t i s a " book w ithout e qual a s a r eference f or s cholars a nd s tudents i nvolved i n r esearch o n a ncient c eramics," a nd N elson ( 1989:436) s tates t hat i t " is b ound t o b ecome a s tandard r eference." S teponaitis ( 1989:486) w rites t hat R ice h ad p roduced a " magnificent s ynthesis" a nd f elt t hat h e " ... w ould n ot b e s urprised i f, 3 0 y ears f rom n ow, i t [ Pottery A nalysis] s till h olds i ts g round a s t he p rincipal r eference w ork o n p ottery." R ice's t ables a nd i llustrations a re e specially u seful, a s a re t he a bbreviated r eferences ( author a nd y ear o f p ublication) f ound a t t he e nd o f e ach c hapter. T he 1 ,003 r eferences a re a h ighlight o f h er s ourcebook, a nd t he 2 62-item g lossary i s a s uperb, m ost e ffective r esource w ithout p arallel i n a ny p ublication. N elson ( 1989:436) c omments t hat " Rice m akes n o a ttempt t o c ite e very c ontribution," b ut i s c omplimentary a bout h er l ist o f r eferences. A c omprehensive b ibliography w ould b e o ut o f t he q uestion, w itness m y o wn i ncomplete c ard f iles o n c eramics ( over 1,600 i tems). R ice h erself n oted t hat t he r eferences a re " References C ited." T he f ollowing t abulation, d erived f rom t he s tandard m anuals o n p ottery a nalysis, d emonstrates t he e normous s urge i n t he l iterature b ut a lso c learly s hows R ice's e ffort t o p rovide a h olistic

o verview o f

c eramic-related

t opics

( Table

2 ).

A s m ay b e s een, t here h as b een a d ramatic i ncrease i n t he s ize o f m anuals t hrough t ime, t he n umber o f i llustrations h ave i ncreased, a nd, b eginning w ith S hepard ( 1956), g lossaries h ave b ecome a n i mportant p art o f t hese w orks. N elson's D ecoding P rehistoric C eramics h as b een i ncluded i n t his t abulation f or c omparative p urposes. A lthough t here i s o verlap i n t he s pecific r eferences i n N elson a nd R ice, t he r eader w ill f ind s ets b oth e xtremely u seful. K ramer's ( 1985) a nd A rnold's ( 1985) r eferences a lso p rovide u seful s ources. T able

2 :

C omparison

A uthor a nd Y ear o f P ublication M arsh ( 1934) C olton ( 1953) S hepard ( 1956) S hepard ( 1965) R ye ( 1981) R ice ( 1987) N elson, e d. ( 1985)

o f

T otal P ages(n) 5 5 8 6 4 23

1

M ajor

M anuals

T otal F igures(n) 1 2 1 8 5 9

4 46

5 9

1 60

5 83

19 1 34

4 56

8 2

o n

P ottery A nalysis.

G lossary T otal R efE ntries(n) e rences 0 0 3 3

3 3

1 05 2 62 0

1 0 6 1 1 48

2

1 79

10 1 003 6 00

1 I ncludes " Foreward [ sic.] t o F ifth P rinting: C eramic S tudies, 1 954 t o 1 964." T he 5 th t hrough 9 th e ditions c ontain t his F orward.

2

F ootnotes.

I n s um, R ice's P ottery A nalysis: A S ourcebook p rovides a c omprehensive, d efinitive o verview o f d ynamic s ubject m atter a nd i s a m anual r ich i n d iversity w ithin a h olistic c overage. T he v olume i s a n i mportant r esource f or t he n eophyte i nvestigator a nd f or t he l ong-time p rofessional. W hile i t i s n ow t he c urrent r eference w ork o n t he s ubject, s tudents m ay w ish t o r etain S hepard ( 1965) a nd R ye ( 1981) f or e ven m ore d etail o n v ery s pecific t opics a nd f orming m ethods. B oth N elson a nd R ice h ave p rovided e xcellent s tate o f t he a rt s tatements a s t o w here w e a re i n t erms o f c eramic a nd p ottery s tudies, a nd t here a re s ome d irections l eading u s t o f uture r esearch a nd r efinements o f c urrent a nalytical a nd i nterpretive p rocedures. T he v olumes a re q uite d ifferent, w ritten f or v ery d ifferent p urposes, a nd b oth s ucceed i n t heir s tated o bjectives. A s a r esult, a ll s tudents i nterested i n c eramic m aterials w ill b enefit f rom a c areful r eading o f b oth b ooks. A ll

t he c ontributors t o N elson's v olume, a nd b oth N elson a nd R ice a re t o b e t hanked f or t heir c onscientious e fforts t o e lucidate t he m ysteries o f c eramics a nd/or p ottery. R ice's w ork, e specially, d eserves t he h ighest p raise.

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