Careers in Psychology - Opportunities in a changing world [5 ed.] 9781544359731

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Careers in Psychology Fifth Edition

To Fred H. Martell ~TKM To Stacy W. Morgan ~RDM

Sara Miller McCune founded SAGE Publishing in 1965 to support the dissemination of usable knowledge and educate a global community. SAGE publishes more than 1000 journals and over 600 new books each year, spanning a wide range of subject areas. Our growing selection of library products includes archives, data, case studies and video. SAGE remains majority owned by our founder and after her lifetime will become owned by a charitable trust that secures the company’s continued independence. Los Angeles | London | New Delhi | Singapore | Washington DC | Melbourne

Careers in Psychology Opportunities in a Changing World Fifth Edition

Tara L. Kuther

Western Connecticut State University

Robert D. Morgan Texas Tech University

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19 20 21 22 23 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

• Brief Contents • Preface xv Acknowledgments xix About the Authors

xx

PART I

• MAKING DECISIONS ABOUT PSYCHOLOGY

1

Chapter 1

•

Choosing a Major

2

Chapter 2

•

Majoring in Psychology and Preparing for Your Career

31

PART II

• PRACTICE-ORIENTED FIELDS IN PSYCHOLOGY 47

Chapter 3

•

Clinical and Counseling Psychology

48

Chapter 4

•

School Psychology

67

Chapter 5

•

Legal and Forensic Psychology

82

Chapter 6

•

Health Psychology

100

Chapter 7

•

Sport Psychology

114

PART III

• RESEARCH AND APPLIED RESEARCH FIELDS IN PSYCHOLOGY

Chapter 8

•

129

Biopsychology, Cognitive Neuropsychology, and Clinical Neuropsychology

130

Industrial-Organizational Psychology, Cognitive Psychology, and Human Factors Psychology

143

Chapter 10 •

Experimental and Quantitative Psychology

164

Chapter 11 •

Social and Consumer Psychology

183

Chapter 12 •

Developmental Psychology

198

Chapter 9

•

PART IV

• PREPARING FOR THE FUTURE

215

Chapter 13 •

Getting a Job With Your Bachelor’s Degree

216

Chapter 14 •

Graduate-Level Careers in Psychology

240

Chapter 15 •

Getting Into Graduate School in Psychology

255

References 281 Index 287

• Detailed Contents • Preface xv Acknowledgments xix About the Authors

xx

PART I  •  MAKING DECISIONS ABOUT PSYCHOLOGY

1

Chapter 1 • Choosing a Major

2

What Is Psychology?

3

Careers in Psychology With Bachelor’s, Master’s, and Doctoral Degrees

4

Bachelor’s Degree in Psychology Master’s Degree in Psychology Doctoral Degree in Psychology

4 6 6

Why Major in Psychology? Obtain Transferable Skills Develop Psychological Literacy Careers for Psychology Majors

Understand Yourself and Choose a Major via Self-Assessment Identify Your Skills Identify Your Values Identify Your Occupational Interests Use Career Assessment Tools

How to Choose a Major

7 7 9 10

13 13 14 18 21

24

Follow Basic Rules for Choosing a Major and Career Learn About Your Options Seek Information From Students, Graduates, and Professors

24 25 26

Is a Psychology Major for You? Checklist 1.1: Is Psychology for You? Exercise 1.1: Using O*NET and the Occupational Outlook Handbook to Identify Careers

27 28 29

Suggested Reading

29

Resources 30

Chapter 2 • Majoring in Psychology and Preparing for Your Career

31

Psychological Literacy and Your Career

32

Psychology Curricula

33

American Psychological Association Goals for Psychology Education Psychology Coursework

Research Experience in Psychology

33 34

35

Get to Know Professors Benefits of Obtaining Research Experience How to Obtain Research Experience What to Expect as a Research Assistant Seek Opportunities for Independent Study

36 37 38 38 39

Internship Experiences for Psychology Students

40

What Does an Internship Entail? Benefits of Internships How to Find an Internship

Round Out Your Education Participate in Extracurricular Activities Take Classes or a Minor in Another Discipline Get Work Experience

40 40 41

42 42 43 43

Exercise 2.1: Developing Skills and Acquiring Experiences

44

Suggested Reading

45

Resources 46

PART II  •  PRACTICE-ORIENTED FIELDS IN PSYCHOLOGY

47

Chapter 3 • Clinical and Counseling Psychology

48

Clinical Psychology

49

Counseling Psychology

50

Other Mental Health Professions

50

Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree

52

Human Services Worker Social Worker Substance Abuse Counselor

Opportunities With a Graduate Degree

52 53 53

56

Graduate Education and Training Considerations 58 Practice 62 Program Development and Evaluation 63 Administration 63

Checklist 3.1: Is Clinical or Counseling Psychology for You? Exercise 3.1: Learning About Clinical and Counseling Psychology

64 65

Suggested Reading

66

Resources 66

Chapter 4 • School Psychology

67

School Psychology

67

Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree

68

Teacher 68 Childcare Worker 69 Teaching Assistant 70 Early Childhood Behavior Specialist 73

Opportunities With a Graduate Degree School Psychologist School Counselor

73 75 78

Checklist 4.1: Is School Psychology for You? Exercise 4.1: Learning About School Psychology

79 80

Suggested Reading

80

Resources 81

Chapter 5 • Legal and Forensic Psychology

82

Legal and Forensic Psychology

83

Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree

84

Police Officer Correctional Officer Juvenile Detention Worker Probation and Parole Officer Forensic Interviewer

Opportunities With a Graduate Degree Correctional Psychology Forensic Examiner Police Psychology Trial Consultant Politics and Public Policy

84 85 86 86 87

87 87 90 94 94 95

Checklist 5.1: Is Legal or Forensic Psychology for You? Exercise 5.1: Learning About Legal and Forensic Psychology

96 97

Suggested Reading

98

Resources 99

Chapter 6 • Health Psychology

100

Health Psychology

101

Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree

101

Recreational Therapist Occupational Therapy Assistant Physical Therapy Assistant Health Educator

101 102 103 104

Opportunities With a Graduate Degree

105

Academic and Research Settings

105

Service Delivery Settings Public Health Settings

107 110

Checklist 6.1: Is Health Psychology for You? Exercise 6.1: Learning About Health Psychology

111 112

Suggested Reading

112

Resources 113

Chapter 7 • Sport Psychology

114

Sport Psychology

115

Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree

115

Fitness Instructor, Recreation Worker, and Recreation Supervisor Sport Instructors and Coaches Physical Education Teacher Athletic Trainer Sport Reporter

Career as a Sport Psychologist Academic and Research Settings Practice Settings

116 117 120 120 121

121 123 123

Checklist 7.1: Is Sport Psychology for You? 124 Exercise 7.1: Learning About Sport Psychology 125 Suggested Reading 126 Resources 126

PART III  •  RESEARCH AND APPLIED RESEARCH FIELDS IN PSYCHOLOGY

129

Chapter 8 • Biopsychology, Cognitive Neuropsychology, and Clinical Neuropsychology

130

Biopsychology, Cognitive Neuropsychology, and Clinical Neuropsychology 131 Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree Science Technician Psychiatric Technician Medical or Clinical Laboratory Technologist and Technician Pharmacy Technician

Opportunities With a Graduate Degree

132 132 133 134 134

135

Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology Research 137 Practice 137

Checklist 8.1: Is Biopsychology, Clinical Neuropsychology, or Cognitive Neuropsychology for You? 139 Exercise 8.1: Learning About Biopsychology, Cognitive Neuropsychology, and Clinical Neuropsychology 140 Suggested Reading 141 Resources 141

Chapter 9 • Industrial-Organizational Psychology, Cognitive Psychology, and Human Factors Psychology

143

Industrial-Organizational Psychology

144

Cognitive Psychology

145

Human Factors Psychology

145

Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree

146

Human Resources Commercial or Industrial Design Assistant Administrative Assistant and Administrative Services Manager Manager or Project Manager User Experience Strategist

Opportunities With a Graduate Degree

146 148 151 152 153

153

Human Resources Professional 153 Consultant 156 Usability Specialist 158 Design Psychologist/Environmental Designer 158

Checklist 9.1: Is Industrial-Organizational Psychology, Cognitive Psychology, or Human Factors Psychology for You? 160 Exercise 9.1: Learning About Industrial-Organizational, Cognitive, and Human Factors Psychology 161 Suggested Reading 162 Resources 162

Chapter 10 • Experimental and Quantitative Psychology

164

Experimental Psychology

165

Quantitative Psychology Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree

165 166

Underwriter 166 Computer Programmer, Software Developer, and Web Developer 167 Computer Support Specialist 168 Budget Analyst 168 Behavior Technician and Assistant Behavior Analyst 169

Opportunities With a Graduate Degree

170

Board Certified Behavior Analyst 170 Operations Research Analyst 175 Systems Analyst and Systems Architect 176 Data Architect and Database Administrator 177 Actuary 177 Financial Analyst 178

Checklist 10.1: Is Experimental or Quantitative Psychology for You? 179 Exercise 10.1: Learning About Experimental and Quantitative Psychology 180 Suggested Reading 181 Resources 182

Chapter 11 • Social and Consumer Psychology

183

Social Psychology

184

Consumer Psychology

184

Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree

185

Advertising 185 Real Estate 186 Public Relations Specialist 187 Social Media Coordinator and Social Media Strategist 190

Opportunities With a Graduate Degree

190

Marketing 192 Advertising, Public Relations, and Sales Management 193 Data Mining 194

Checklist 11.1: Is Social or Consumer Psychology for You? Exercise 11.1: Learning About Social and Consumer Psychology

195

Suggested Reading

197

196

Resources 197

Chapter 12 • Developmental Psychology

198

Developmental Psychology

199

Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree

199

Gerontology Service Coordinator Child Life Specialist Student Activities Director or Director of Student Services Program Assistant, Coordinator, and Director Fundraising Assistant and Coordinator, Development Coordinator, and Fundraising Manager

Opportunities With a Graduate Degree Grant Director Foundation Director Developmental Consultant to Products and Media User Experience Designer and User Interface Designer Applied Developmental Psychologist

200 200 201 203 204

205 205 208 208 209 210

Checklist 12.1: Is Developmental Psychology for You? 211 Exercise 12.1: Learning About Developmental Psychology 212 Suggested Reading 213 Resources 214

PART IV  •  PREPARING FOR THE FUTURE

215

Chapter 13 • Getting a Job With Your Bachelor’s Degree

216

What Do Employers Seek?

217

Social Media and Your Job Hunt

218

Clean Your Social Media Accounts Cultivate Your Digital Profile

219 220

Locate Job Openings

220

Where to Look Use Your Network

221 221

Prepare a Résumé Parts of the Résumé Types of Résumés Prepare a LinkedIn Profile

Solicit References

221 222 223 228

231

Write a Cover Letter

231

Ace the Interview

232

Preparation 233 Dress Appropriately 235 During the Interview 236 Thank-You Note 237

The Job Offer 237 Exercise 13.1: Résumé Preparation 238 Suggested Reading 238 Resources 239

Chapter 14 • Graduate-Level Careers in Psychology Psychologists as Professors

240 241

What Professors Do 241 Training 242 Evaluating Careers as Professors 243

Psychologists as Researchers

244

Research Careers in Academia 244 Research Careers in Industry 245 Research Careers in Government 246 Research Careers in Social Service Agencies, Nonprofits, and Think Tanks 247

Publishing and Writing

248

Careers in Publishing 248 Writer 250

Checklist 14.1: Is a Graduate Career in Psychology for You? 252 Exercise 14.1: Interesting Careers in Psychological Science 252 Suggested Reading 253 Resources 254

Chapter 15 • Getting Into Graduate School in Psychology Is Graduate School Right for You? Can You Afford Graduate Study? Are You Prepared for the Personal Demands of Graduate Study?

255 256 256 257

Plan Ahead for Graduate School

258

Degrees in Psychology: MA, PhD, and PsyD

259

Master’s Degree Doctoral Degrees

259 260

Selecting Graduate Programs

262

The Application

263

Graduate Record Exam: General Test GRE Psychology Test Admissions Essays Curriculum Vitae Letters of Recommendation

263 267 268 270 272

Interview 274 Interview Prep Skype Interviews

274 274

Checklist 15.1: Is Graduate School for You? Exercise 15.1: Your Personal Timeline for Applying to Graduate School

277

Suggested Reading

279

278

Resources 279 References 281 Index 287

• Preface •

I

s psychology for you? Most students who major in psychology—or consider a psychology major—ask themselves at least once: “What can I do with a degree in psychology?” Most also confront this question from their friends and families. Careers in Psychology: Opportunities in a Changing World is intended to help students and instructors answer their own and others’ questions about career prospects for psychology majors. Our message throughout Careers in Psychology is that a baccalaureate in psychology is highly flexible, marketable, and useful. Psychology offers students insight into human behavior, which is useful to all careers and is perhaps why psychology is consistently one of the most popular undergraduate majors. Our goal in writing this book is to discuss the broad range of careers that psychology students might choose. Many students are unaware of the breadth of psychology and its many subdisciplines, and this book will introduce them to the wide range of possible undergraduate- and graduate-level careers in psychology. A guiding principle of Careers in Psychology is that education in psychology is valuable. Psychological literacy, a primary outcome of psychology education, prepares students for careers in many fields. However, students have the onus of determining their career interests and tailoring their psychology degree by adding courses and experiences to round out their preparation and enhance their marketability for their chosen career. This principle holds true for undergraduate as well as graduate degree holders in psychology. Careers in Psychology is appropriate for a range of students, including prospective and declared psychology majors. It complements a variety of psychology courses, including introductory psychology, careers in psychology, methodology courses, capstone courses, and seminars for psychology majors. We view this book as a resource for psychology students and their advisors, and we encourage students to discuss the career opportunities they find within these pages with their advisors, mentors, and career counselors. This book is divided into four parts. Part I emphasizes making decisions and preparation. In Chapter 1, students are introduced to psychology, reasons to consider a psychology major, and guidance in self-assessment. Chapter 2 explains what it means to be a psychology major, what students develop, and what they can do to enhance their skills and their college experience. Part II examines practice-oriented careers. Chapters 3 and 4 explore the applied fields of clinical, counseling, and school psychology. In Chapters 5 through 7, readers are introduced to baccalaureate- and graduate-level careers xv

xvi   Careers in Psychology in three popular subspecialties: legal and forensic psychology, health psychology, and sport psychology. Part III focuses on the traditionally more research-focused (both basic and applied) areas of psychology. Chapter 8 covers careers related to biopsychology, cognitive neuropsychology, and clinical neuropsychology. Chapter 9 discusses careers in industrial-organizational, cognitive, and human factors psychology. Chapter 10 examines careers for students who are interested in experimental and quantitative psychology. Chapters 11 and 12 present career options for students of social, consumer, and developmental psychology. Part IV examines life after college. Chapter 13 discusses getting a job after graduation and includes advice on locating jobs, writing a résumé and cover letter, and interviewing. Chapter 14 examines careers relevant to graduate degree holders in all areas of psychology in academic, research, and applied settings. Finally, Chapter 15 discusses how to apply to graduate school in psychology and provides an overview of the process, including the various graduate degrees that students may obtain, getting information about programs, completing the application, and interviewing.

What’s New in the Fifth Edition of Careers in Psychology? The fifth edition includes updated job descriptions, salaries, and job outlooks for each position in every chapter. In addition, the suggested coursework and experiences tables, suggested readings, and resources have been updated in every chapter. Also new to this edition is an end-of-chapter exercise that encourages students to learn more about a specific field and explore additional job opportunities in that field. Chapter 1 was reorganized in light of the addition of a chapter new to the fifth edition and includes new sections on the following topics: • Degrees in Psychology • Transferrable Skills and Psychological Literacy • Self-Assessment • Careers in Psychology • Exercise 1.1 (“Using O*NET and the Occupational Outlook Handbook to Identify Careers”) Chapter 2 (“Majoring in Psychology and Preparing for Your Career”) is new to this edition. The contents of this chapter include the following: • Psychology Curricula, including the American Psychological Association Goals for Psychology Education

Preface  xvii

• Research Experience in Psychology • Internship Experiences • Suggestions for Rounding Out One’s Education • Exercise 2.1 (“Developing Skills and Acquiring Experiences”) New bachelor’s and graduate-level positions and career opportunities have been added throughout: • Advertising, Public Relations, and Sales Management • Athletic Trainer • Behavior Technician and Assistant Behavior Analyst • Data Architect • Data Mining • Forensic Interviewer • Foundation Director • Fundraising Assistant and Coordinator, Development Coordinator, and Fundraising Manager • Gerontology Service Coordinator • Grant Director • Manager or Project Manager • Market Research Manager • Program Assistant, Coordinator, and Director • Social Media Coordinator and Social Media Strategist • Software Developer and Web Developer • Student Activities Director or Director of Student Services • Systems Architect • User Experience Designer and User Interface Designer • User Experience Strategist Other changes to this edition include the following updates to Chapters 13 and 15: Chapter 13 (“Getting a Job With Your Bachelor’s Degree”) • Added new sections on “Social Media and Your Job Hunt” and “Skype Interviews”

xviii   Careers in Psychology • Updated the “Parts of the Résumé” and “Interviews” sections • Added the new Table 13.2 (“Action Verbs for Your Résumé”) • Provided new examples of chronological and functional résumés • Added Exercise 13.1 (“Résumé Preparation”) Chapter 15 (“Getting Into Graduate School in Psychology”) • Added the following new sections: �

“Can You Afford Graduate Study?”

�

“Are You Prepared for the Personal Demands of Graduate Study?”

�

“Plan Ahead for Graduate School”

�

“Selecting Graduate Programs”

�

“Skype Interviews”

• Updated the GRE statistics • Updated the GRE Psychology Test to the new 2017 format • Updated the “Interviews” section • Added Exercise 15.1 (“Your Personal Timeline for Applying to Graduate School”)

• Acknowledgments •

W

e are most appreciative of the constructive comments and helpful suggestions that we received from reviewers of prior editions: Mary Jo Carnot, Chadron State College; Keith Colman, California State University, Long Beach; Karen Jackson, Texas Lutheran University; Cheryl Lynch, University of Louisiana; Cynthia Magistro, Seton Hall University; Colleen Seifert, University of Michigan; Donna Stuber-McEwen, Friends University; Linda M. Subich, University of Akron; Frank Vattano, Colorado State University; Paula Waddill, Murray State University; Todd J. Walter, D’Youville College; and Valerie Whittlesey, Kennesaw State University. We thank Lara Parra for helping us make a seamless transition to SAGE. We thank our team at SAGE, especially Bennie Clark Allen for guiding us through production, Gail Buschman for designing a creative and beautiful cover, and Katherine Hepburn for her marketing insight. Christina West’s copyediting skills are much appreciated. In addition, we thank Vicki Knight, who first signed this project and guided us through the first two editions. We thank Jon-David Hague and Tim Matray for their work on the third and fourth editions. We thank Lauren Schwarz for her creativity, feedback, and research skills. Much of what appears in these pages is the result of conversations with students; I (Tara) thank them for asking the questions that prompted us to write this book. I thank my parents, especially my father, who was the first to ask me, “What can you do with a degree in psychology?” and trusted that I would discover the answer. I thank Fred, my husband, for supporting all of my endeavors, career-related and otherwise. I (Robert) thank my students for challenging me to explore the boundaries of psychology. I continue to offer a special thanks to Robert Ax and Steven Mandracchia for teaching me to think outside of the box. Finally, I thank my wife, Stacy, for her unyielding support.

xix

• About the Authors • Tara L. Kuther is an award-winning author and professor of psychology at Western Connecticut State University, where she has taught courses in child, adolescent, and adult development for over 2 decades. Dr. Kuther earned her PhD in developmental psychology from Fordham University. She is a Fellow of the Society for the Teaching of Psychology (American Psychological Association, Division 2), has served in various capacities in the Society for the Teaching of Psychology and the Society for Research on Adolescence, and is the former chair of the Teaching Committee for the Society for Research in Child Development. Dr. Kuther is the author of over 20 books in developmental psychology and professional development. Her research interests include social cognition and risky activity in adolescence and adulthood as well as professional development for undergraduate and graduate students. Robert D. Morgan completed his PhD in counseling psychology at Oklahoma State University and a postdoctoral fellowship in forensic psychology in the Department of Psychiatry at the University of Missouri– Kansas City and the Missouri Department of Mental Health. He is currently the John G. Skelton Jr. Regents Endowed Professor in Psychology, Chairperson for the Department of Psychological Sciences, and Director of the Institute for Forensic Science at Texas Tech University. Dr. Morgan’s research and scholarly activities include treatment and assessment of justice-involved persons with mental illness, effects of incarceration including in restricted housing units, and forensic mental health assessment. His research has been funded by the National Institute of Mental Health, the National Institute of Justice, and the Center for Behavioral Health Services and Criminal Justice Research. He has authored or co-authored over 95 peerreviewed articles and book chapters and authored or edited four books, including Changing Lives and Changing Outcomes: A Treatment Program for Justice-Involved Persons With Mental Illness and A Clinician’s Guide to Violence Risk Assessment. He has over 20 years of experience in correctional and forensic psychology, and consults with state and private correctional agencies to inform practice. xx

PART I

Making Decisions About Psychology

1 Choosing a Major What Is Psychology? Careers in Psychology With Bachelor’s, Master’s, and Doctoral Degrees Bachelor’s Degree in Psychology Master’s Degree in Psychology Doctoral Degree in Psychology Why Major in Psychology? Obtain Transferable Skills Develop Psychological Literacy Careers for Psychology Majors Understand Yourself and Choose a Major via Self-Assessment Identify Your Skills Identify Your Values

I

Identify Your Occupational Interests Use Career Assessment Tools How to Choose a Major Follow Basic Rules for Choosing a Major and Career Learn About Your Options Seek Information From Students, Graduates, and Professors Is a Psychology Major for You? Checklist 1.1: Is Psychology for You? Exercise 1.1: Using O*NET and the Occupational Outlook Handbook to Identify Careers Suggested Reading Resources

t’s the first day of class in introductory psychology. The professor asks the class the following question: “What is psychology?” Here are some typical student responses:

2

Chapter 1  •  Choosing a Major  

3

“Psychology is the study of the mind.” “Psychology helps people solve problems.” “Psychology looks at the things inside us that make us do what we do.” Then the professor asks: “What does someone trained in psychology do?” “Studies the mind and thought processes of an individual to find causes of a problem that cannot be explained by physiology.” “Works as a doctor who does not use medication or drugs to look at issues that cause a person to experience disharmony in life, whether difficulty in personal relations, sleep disruption, or behavioral problems.” “Gets training in scientific and social analysis to help patients suffering from mental disorders and/or problems by listening.” Are these student responses accurate? Yes and no. Psychology is the study of mind and behavior and it permits us to help people who are experiencing problems. However, the discipline of psychology encompasses much more than therapy, as we will discuss throughout this book. Each of the roles described above are held by psychologists, professionals with doctoral training in psychology. The final question the professor asks her class is: “What does someone with a bachelor’s degree in psychology do?” This question is often met with silence. A student might cautiously respond, “Be a therapist?” Another student might call out, “Get an MBA” or “Go to graduate school!” and the class might laugh nervously. Sure, these are humorous responses, but are they accurate depictions of the average bachelor’s degree recipient in psychology? Nope. A graduate degree is required to become a therapist, yet most students who major in psychology do not go on to graduate school. Nearly all psychology students are asked repeatedly, “What can you do with a psychology degree?” Yet they are often unaware of their career options and unable to answer careerrelated questions with confidence. The authors of this book faced that very question a seemingly endless number of times (and still do!). We found our answer to that question, and this book is intended to help you find yours. In this chapter we discuss the diverse field of psychology and how to figure out if psychology is the major for you.

What Is Psychology? Many people first become acquainted with the field of psychology informally through their everyday experience. Turn on the television to see a psychologist

4  Part I •  Making Decisions About Psychology on a daytime talk show explaining how parents can help their troubled teens. Change the channel and you might come across a fictional drama depicting a psychologist conducting therapy across from a patient sitting in a comfortable chair or perhaps laying back on a sofa. Open a magazine and you may find an article written by a psychologist about mindfulness and the benefits of becoming more aware of your daily existence. Psychology has ingrained itself into American pop culture. But how much do you really know about psychology and the work of those trained in psychology? You may be surprised to learn that the field of psychology extends beyond therapy, self-help books, and parenting advice. What is psychology, then? Psychology is the scientific study of behavior— anything an animal or a person does, feels, or thinks. Psychologists are scientists who apply precise methods of observation, data collection, analysis, and interpretation to learn about what makes people and animals behave like they do. Psychologists generate hypotheses, or educated guesses, about what might cause a particular behavior or phenomenon, and they conduct careful scientific research to test those hypotheses. The field of psychology examines interactions among the brain, the environment, psychological functioning, and behavior. Topics of psychological study include social relationships, the brain and the chemicals that influence it, vision, human development, the causes of normative and atypical behavior, and much more. Psychology is a rich field with many opportunities. A wide range of topics fall under the umbrella of psychology and each topic is its own specialized field of study. Table 1.1 presents an overview of the most common specialties within psychology that we will discuss in this book. The many subdisciplines within psychology present varied career opportunities. Each chapter within this book examines one or more subdisciplines within psychology to provide a taste of the many fields in which people with interests in psychology (perhaps, like you) may work.

Careers in Psychology With Bachelor’s, Master’s, and Doctoral Degrees The most important theme of this book is that there are many career opportunities for psychology students at all levels of education. Here we examine degree options and present a brief overview of the types of careers available with each. We examine these options in more depth throughout this book.

Bachelor’s Degree in Psychology The bachelor’s degree, a BA (bachelor of arts) or BS (bachelor of science) degree, typically is the culmination of 4 years of undergraduate study. Whether a student earns a BA or BS often depends on the university he or she attends, rather than the program’s rigor. Psychology students are awarded BA degrees in

Chapter 1  •  Choosing a Major  

5

TABLE 1.1  ●  Subfields in Psychology Subfield

Emphasis

Behavioral Neuroscience

Interrelation of brain and behavior

Clinical Psychology

Study and treatment of emotional, behavioral, and psychological problems or disorders

Cognitive Psychology

How we think; specifically, how we take in information, store it, learn, and use it to make decisions

Community Psychology

Interactions between individuals and their communities; how communities influence individuals as well as how individuals influence their communities

Counseling Psychology

Study and promotion of normative function and healthy adaptation

Developmental Psychology

Human development; the ways in which people grow, change, and stay the same, across the lifespan

Experimental Psychology

Scientific methodology and research

Forensic Psychology

Applying psychology to inform and study legal issues

Health Psychology

Study of psychological, biological, and social influences on health and wellness

Human Factors Psychology

People’s interactions with machines, environments, and products

Industrial-Organizational Psychology

Application of psychological principles and scientific research findings to the workplace

Quantitative Psychology and Psychometrics

Devising techniques for acquiring, measuring, and analyzing information and human characteristics

School Psychology

Fostering the intellectual, emotional, educational, and social development of children in school settings

Social Psychology

People’s interactions with each other and the social environment

some universities and BS degrees in others, yet their education usually is identical. Most students who earn bachelor’s degrees enter the work world after graduation, working in business and human service settings. Some enter graduate school to earn a master’s degree or doctorate. A critical theme of this book is that a bachelor’s degree prepares students for a wide range of careers. Graduate study entails more specialized training but is not needed to have a successful career.

6  Part I •  Making Decisions About Psychology

Master’s Degree in Psychology The master’s degree is a graduate degree that typically requires 2 years of study beyond the bachelor’s degree. There are many different types of master’s degrees, most commonly the MA (master of arts) and MS (master of science). Requirements for service-oriented fields such as clinical, counseling, and school psychology usually include practical experience in an applied setting, which may span longer than the 2 years of coursework. What can you do with a master’s degree? Depending on the program and curriculum, a master’s degree enables graduates to: (a) teach psychology in high school (other certification may be needed); (b) become more competitive for jobs in government and industry; (c) practice industrial/organizational psychology in business settings; (d) obtain certification to practice school psychology (depending on the state); and (e) obtain certification as a counselor or marriage and family therapist and practice counseling. Students who are interested in graduate study for the sole purpose of becoming a therapist should carefully consider a master’s degree, as it is a quicker, cheaper alternative to a doctoral degree that can fulfill certification requirements to practice. Can master’s trained individuals provide effective therapy? Studies have suggested no convincing differences in therapeutic outcomes as a function of the practitioner’s level of training (Montgomery, Kunik, Wilson, Stanley, & Weiss, 2010). A far greater number of students pursue master’s degrees than doctoral degrees in psychology.

Doctoral Degree in Psychology A doctoral degree provides a greater range of flexibility and autonomy than the master’s degree, but it requires a greater commitment of time and money. A doctoral degree usually requires 5 to 7 years of graduate work to complete (and for some individuals as many as 8 or 9 years). In clinical, counseling, and school psychology, the requirement for the doctoral degree generally includes a year or more of internship or supervised experience. Why do students seek doctoral degrees? Generally, students pursue doctoral degrees for any of the following reasons: (a) to teach college; (b) to conduct research in a university or private organization in industry or business; (c) to practice clinical psychology without supervision; or (d) to engage in a variety of consulting roles allowing autonomy. There are two types of doctoral degrees in psychology; each provides training that prepares students for specific professional activities. The PhD refers to the doctor of philosophy. Like the master’s degree, the PhD is awarded in many fields. It is a research degree that culminates in a dissertation based on original research. PhD graduates may work as researchers and as practitioners in a variety of settings. The PsyD refers to the doctor of psychology. It is offered only in clinical, counseling, and school psychology and is considered a professional degree, much like a JD (doctor of jurisprudence, a lawyer’s degree). The PsyD emphasizes practice; students

Chapter 1  •  Choosing a Major  

7

become expert practitioners but do not become researchers. The EdD (doctor of education), a third doctoral option for psychology students, is not as popular as the PhD and PsyD. The EdD is offered in departments of education, rather than psychology. Typically, EdD graduates work in the field of education and educational psychology as researchers, administrators, and professors. We discuss graduate degrees in more depth in Chapter 15.

Why Major in Psychology? Psychology is consistently among the top five most popular bachelor’s degrees awarded each year. In the 2015–2016 academic year, nearly 117,000 students earned bachelor’s degrees in psychology (National Center for Education Statistics, 2017b). Why are so many students attracted to psychology? Psychology courses cover a range of fascinating topics, such as how we think, learn, use our memory, feel emotions, cope with adversity, and change throughout our lives. Much of what we study in psychology is directly relevant to our everyday life. We all seek to understand human behavior and the environment around us. Moreover, psychology students develop a host of transferrable skills that are useful across many settings.

Obtain Transferable Skills The psychology major prepares graduates for “lifelong learning, thinking, and action” (McGovern, Furumoto, Halpern, Kimble, & McKeachie, 1991, p. 600). Like other liberal arts majors, psychology students learn valuable thinking and communication skills. Psychology education, however, is unique because it emphasizes learning and applying principles of psychology to understand human behavior. Psychology majors develop a host of transferrable skills that prepare them for a variety of careers.

Knowledge of Human Behavior The content of psychology, knowledge about human behavior, is intrinsically useful. Undergraduate education in psychology is intended to expose students to the major facts, theories, and issues in the discipline. Understanding human behavior entails learning about physiology, perception, cognition, emotion, development, and more. Consequently, psychology majors construct a broad knowledge base that serves as the conceptual framework for lifelong learning about human behavior as well as the capacity to apply their understanding in everyday situations.

Information Acquisition and Synthesis Skills The knowledge base of psychology is constantly expanding. Successful psychology students learn how to gather and synthesize information. They learn

8  Part I •  Making Decisions About Psychology how to use a range of sources, including the library, computerized databases, and the Internet, to gather information about an area of interest. More important, psychology students learn how to weigh and integrate information into a coherent and persuasive argument. In addition, successful psychology students apply their advanced understanding of cognition and memory to enhance their own processing and recall of information.

Research Methods and Statistical Skills Psychology students learn how to apply the scientific method to address questions about human behavior. They learn how to identify a problem, devise a hypothesis, choose and carry out scientific methods to gather information about the problem, conduct statistical analyses to evaluate a hypothesis, and interpret data summaries to devise a conclusion. In other words, psychology students become able to pose and answer questions about human behavior and experience.

Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills Exposure to the diverse perspectives within psychology trains students to think flexibly and to accept some ambiguity. Introductory psychology students often ask for the “right” answer; they soon learn that answers often aren’t black or white, but many shades of gray. Psychology students acquire skills in thinking critically about complex problems. They learn to weigh multiple sources of information, determine the degree of support for each position, and make a reasoned decision about which position has more merit and how a problem is best solved.

Reading, Writing, and Speaking Skills Psychology students develop reading, writing, and presentation skills for effective oral and written communication. They learn how to think critically about what they read, as well as comprehend and present arguments from a psychological standpoint. Moreover, their understanding of human behavior aids students in constructing arguments that are easily comprehended by others. Information derived from psychology regarding cognition, memory, listening, persuasion, and communication enhances psychology majors’ ability to communicate orally and in writing.

Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Skills Psychology students develop the ability to communicate their ideas and use their knowledge of human behavior to devise persuasive arguments. Successful students can lead, collaborate with others, and work effectively in groups. Psychology students are primed to be effective communicators because they are trained to be sensitive to issues of culture, race, class, and ethnicity. Students of

Chapter 1  •  Choosing a Major  

9

psychology also develop intrapersonal awareness, or self-knowledge. They are able to monitor and manage their own behavior, which is critical in succeeding in academic and interpersonal tasks.

Adaptability Psychology students quickly learn that the perfect experiment is an unattainable goal toward which all researchers strive. Students learn how to design the best research studies possible, given limited resources. The capacity to evaluate and adapt to changing circumstances is highly valued in a volatile economy and workplace. All of these skills emphasized by undergraduate education in psychology will help you grow into a well-rounded and educated person who is marketable in a variety of fields. The psychology major satisfies the objectives of a liberal arts education, which include critical and analytical thinking, independent thinking, leadership skills, communication skills, understanding how to learn, being able to see all sides of an issue, and understanding human diversity (Roche, 2010). However, it is the training in research design and statistical analysis, as well as human behavior, that makes the psychology major unique among liberal arts degrees.

Develop Psychological Literacy The transferrable skills developed with education in psychology enable graduates to view the world more complexly. Sure, they understand facts and theories about human behavior, but their competence goes well beyond memorized facts. Students become able to discriminate relevant from trivial information. They learn how to find and pull together—what professors often refer to as synthesize—information from a variety of sources. Psychology majors develop psychological literacy, the ability to apply psychological knowledge in everyday life to improve lives, their own and others’ (American Psychological Association, 2013; Cranney, Botwood, & Morris, 2012; McGovern et al., 2010). Individuals who are psychologically literate: • Have basic knowledge and vocabulary of psychology • Value and apply critical thinking and creative problem solving • Apply psychological principles to address issues at home, work, and in the community • Act ethically • Can gather and effectively evaluate information • Can use technology effectively • Can communicate effectively with different audiences

10  Part I •  Making Decisions About Psychology • Demonstrate sensitivity, understand, and foster respect of diversity • Are self-reflective Psychological literacy develops as individuals move from learning facts about psychology to applying bodies of knowledge and modes of thinking. The undergraduate psychology curriculum is designed to provide students with opportunities to develop psychological literacy.

Careers for Psychology Majors The majority of students who graduate with a bachelor’s degree in psychology do not go to graduate school. It is estimated that about one-quarter of psychology undergraduate degree recipients attend graduate school immediately after graduation (Goldstein, 2010). Instead, psychology baccalaureates head into the job market and find success. A recent study of bachelor’s degree recipients found that about 2.9% of psychology bachelor’s degree recipients age 25 to 29 were unemployed in 2016, compared with the national average of 3.1% (National Center for Education Statistics, 2018). Moreover, between 2010 and 2016, the unemployment rate of psychology majors dropped 3% (from 5.9% in 2010).

Skills and Career Settings The skills that employers seek can be categorized into two sets of competencies: research skills and interpersonal skills (human service skills, commonly referred to as “people skills”). Employers seek research skills such as the ability to identify problems and locate, analyze, and apply information to solve problems, carry out research, conduct statistical analyses, and write reports. Interpersonal skills include the relational, communication, and selfmanagement skills we have discussed, such as understanding of psychological principles, group dynamics, and persuasion. The psychology curriculum provides opportunities for students to develop and integrate both sets of skills, setting psychology majors apart from other graduates. All jobs entail both types of skills but in differing degrees. Your career options are varied if you think creatively and focus on these skills. Psychology degree recipients work in a variety of settings. Surveys of working adults age 24 to 54 with bachelor’s degrees suggest that about one-third work in human service settings (Julian, 2012). Nearly 40% work in business, management, and human resource positions (including advertising, marketing, finance, and public relations). About 20% work in sales and the remaining 10% to 15% work in education. Table 1.2 lists common job titles psychology majors have obtained after graduation, by setting. It is not a complete list; many other opportunities are out there waiting for you. Although the jobs are grouped by the degree to which they emphasize research and inter­personal skills, remember that both sets of skills, in differing ratios, are needed for all jobs.

Chapter 1  •  Choosing a Major  

11

TABLE 1.2  ●  Positions Obtained by Psychology Majors Business and Academic Settings

Social and Human Service Settings

Administrative assistant

Activities coordinator

Admissions evaluator

Administration

Advertising sales representative

Animal trainer

Advertising trainee

Army mental health specialist

Affirmative action officer

Behavioral specialist

Alumni director

Career counselor

Benefits manager

Case worker

Claims specialist

Childcare provider/worker/supervisor

Community relations officer

Child protection worker

Computer programmer

Clinical coordinator

Customer relations

Coach

Data management

Community outreach worker

Department manager

Conservation officer

Disability case manager

Correctional treatment specialist

Disability policy worker

Corrections officer

Employee counselor

Counselor assistant

Employee recruitment

Crisis intervention counselor

Employee relations specialist

Data management

Financial aid counselor

Dietician

Fundraiser

Employee health maintenance program specialist

Health care facility administrator Host/hostess Human resources coordinator/ manager/specialist

Employment counselor Group home attendant Mental health assistant

Information specialist

Mental retardation aide

Job analyst

Occupational therapist

Lab coordinator

Parent/family education

Labor relations manager/specialist

Patient resources and reimbursement agent

Laboratory assistant Loan officer Management analyst

Police officer Preschool teacher (Continued)

12  Part I •  Making Decisions About Psychology TABLE 1.2  ●  (Continued) Business and Academic Settings

Social and Human Service Settings

Management trainee

Probation officer

Marketing

Program manager

News writer

Psychiatric aide/attendant

Occupational analyst

Psychiatric technician

Personal recruiter

Recreation leader

Personnel manager/officer

Recreation supervisor

Polygraph examiner

Recreational therapist

Product and services research

Rehabilitation counselor

Programs/events coordination

Residence counselor

Public opinion surveyor

Social service assistant

Public relations

Social worker

Purchasing agent

Social worker assistant

Real estate agent

Substance abuse counselor

Research assistant

Veterans contact representative

Retail sales management

Veterans counselor

Sales representative

Victims’ advocate

Special features writing/reporting

Vocational training teacher

Staff training and development

Volunteer coordinator

Systems analyst

Youth counselor

Teaching assistant Technical writer Trainer/training officer Writer Source: American Psychological Association (2013) and Appleby (2016).

Occupational Outlook Handbook The U.S. federal government recognizes nearly 1,000 different occupations. How many can you name? How do you learn about these opportunities? Your first stop is the Occupational Outlook Handbook, published by the U.S. Department of Labor and available online as a searchable database (http://www.bls.gov/ ooh/). The Occupational Outlook Handbook provides information about hundreds of careers. Details include training, job outlook, wages, related careers, as well

Chapter 1  •  Choosing a Major  

13

as websites to help you explore further. The Occupational Outlook Handbook can help you identify job titles that you can Google to learn more about. The U.S. Department of Labor also sponsors a search tool for career exploration and job analysis: O*NET OnLine (http://www.onetonline.org/). O*NET includes much of the information from the Occupational Outlook Handbook as well as information on key attributes of workers. Most notably, job seekers can search for jobs by skills, interests, knowledge, work contexts, and other factors. As you read through the chapters of this book, take a moment to review O*NET entries for careers that you find interesting. It’s an excellent source of information that can help you decide if a particular career is for you and can assist you in devising a plan to achieve your goals. Finally, the U.S. Department of Labor’s CareerOneStop (http://www.careerone stop.org) and California CareerZone (http://www.cacareerzone.org) are two other sources for free online tools, information, and resources on a broad variety of employment paths. Each site provides self-assessments, career videos, salary, and education requirements to help users determine their fit to specific jobs based on their skills, interests, and values. These are useful places to begin exploring careers, especially for students who are just beginning the career search process and prefer access to a very broad selection of options (Golding, Lippert, & Malik, 2018). As we will discuss throughout this book, a bachelor’s degree in psychology offers a range of opportunities. Is the psychology major right for you? The first step in choosing a major—any major—is to understand yourself.

Understand Yourself and Choose a Major via Self-Assessment Who are you? Your ability to answer this question will shape your life, although your answer to this question will likely shift over your lifetime. Choosing a college major that’s right for you requires that you understand yourself and identify your career goals. Self-assessment is the process of examining your skills, abilities, interests, values, and experiences. Understand yourself and you’ll be more likely to choose a major that fits you. It’s easier to succeed in college when you like what you’re studying. How do you determine your interests and skills? The following written exercise can help you think about what you like, what you do well, and what’s important to you. Writing out your answers will permit you to put them aside to review later, even years later, to consider how your views have changed (or not).

Identify Your Skills What do you know about your abilities? What are you good at? One way to gain insight into your abilities is to write an experiential essay or journal entry. Write about any times you can think of when you encountered a problem and took action to solve it. Write freely, letting all of your achievements flow onto

14  Part I •  Making Decisions About Psychology the page. Don’t edit. This assignment is for your eyes only. The problems that you list don’t have to be huge or life-changing. Even learning to play a song on your guitar or managing your annoying roommate are accomplishments. In other words, the successes that you list can be small, and they don’t have to be acknowledged by anyone else. This is your list composed of what is important to you. Write as much as you can, and don’t stop when it becomes challenging. Instead, probe further. Even writing about the difficulty of thinking about additional accomplishments might jog your memory. Once you have completed your list of accomplishments, take a close look at it and analyze the skills needed for each accomplishment. For example, sorting out problems with your roommate taps interpersonal skills. Also identify specific skills that you’ve learned, like the ability to use computer programming languages or speak a non-native language. List your skills on a separate page. After you have considered all of your accomplishments and noted the related skills and abilities, review the skills listed in Table 1.3. Check off additional skills as needed. Review your list and the skills you have checked. Can you identify examples of how each skill has developed or how you’ve used it to achieve a goal? Based on your consideration, what are your top three to five skills? Why? These skills are your strengths. Next, consider the other skills you checked. Do any of these skills need further development? Which of these skills do you prefer using? Why? Do you dislike engaging in any of your skills? Why? Are there any skills that you don’t currently have but would like to develop?

Identify Your Values Review your list of accomplishments and skills. Which are most personally relevant to you? Why? Which are most satisfying? Identifying the skills and achievements you cherish will help you understand your interests and values, which can help you in choosing a major. Next, consider your values in more depth. Values are the things that are important to you, that you see as desirable in life (Table 1.4). Spend time thinking through your priorities. How do you define success? What do you believe is important in life? What experiences do you hope to have? What do you hope never to experience? How should your work mesh with your personal life? Is personal time and flexibility important to you? Is financial success important? Job security? Would you rather live in a city or in a rural area? Would you like a family (and if so, large or small)? While choosing a major does not tie you to a particular career, it is useful to consider your career aspirations and life goals in order to seek the educational experiences that will prepare you for them. What do you want out of life? As you evaluate careers and life choices, return to these notes to remind yourself of your perspective on yourself—your values and skills. It’s easy to lose focus on our own values when an opportunity arises. You will encounter many opportunities throughout life. Not all promising opportunities will be right for you. You are more likely to identify and choose opportunities that will make you happy if you keep your own perspective in mind.

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TABLE 1.3  ●  Assess Your Skills ❑ Acting or performing

❑ Illustrating

❑ Administering

❑ Implementing

❑ Advising

❑ Improving

❑ Analyzing data

❑ Initiating with strangers

❑ Applying

❑ Innovating

❑ Arranging social functions

❑ Interpreting

❑ Budgeting

❑ Interviewing

❑ Calculating

❑ Investigating problems

❑ Checking for accuracy

❑ Judging

❑ Coaching

❑ Leading

❑ Collecting money

❑ Listening to others

❑ Communicating

❑ Managing

❑ Compiling statistics

❑ Measuring

❑ Conceptualizing

❑ Mediating

❑ Controlling

❑ Motivating

❑ Coordinating events

❑ Navigating

❑ Counseling

❑ Negotiating

❑ Creating new ideas

❑ Observing

❑ Decision-making

❑ Organizing

❑ Designing

❑ Painting

❑ Dispensing information

❑ Persuading

❑ Dramatizing ideas or problems

❑ Photographing

❑ Editing

❑ Planning

❑ Entertaining people

❑ Problem solving

❑ Evaluating

❑ Programming

❑ Expressing feelings

❑ Promoting

❑ Finding information

❑ Proofreading

❑ Fundraising

❑ Questioning

❑ Generalizing

❑ Reading

❑ Goal setting

❑ Reasoning

❑ Handling complaints

❑ Recording

❑ Identifying problems

❑ Record keeping (Continued)

16  Part I •  Making Decisions About Psychology TABLE 1.3  ●  (Continued) ❑ Recruiting

❑ Teaching or training

❑ Researching

❑ Team building

❑ Scheduling

❑ Thinking logically

❑ Selling

❑ Tolerating ambiguity

❑ Singing

❑ Translating

❑ Sketching

❑ Troubleshooting

❑ Speaking

❑ Visualizing

❑ Supervising

❑ Writing

❑ Synthesizing information

TABLE 1.4  ●  Values Service

Adventure

Leadership

❑ Active in community

❑ Excitement

❑ Help others

❑ Risk taking

❑ Influence people and opinions

❑ Help society and the world

❑ Travel

❑ Work with and help people in a meaningful way

❑ Drama ❑ Exciting tasks ❑ Good health ❑ Travel

❑ Supervise others ❑ Power, authority, and control ❑ Make decisions ❑ Direct work of others ❑ Leadership ❑ Coordinate people, data, and stuff ❑ Hiring and firing responsibility

Creativity

Relationships

Financial Reward

❑ Aesthetic appreciation

❑ Organization affiliation

❑ High earnings

❑ Artistic creativity

❑ Work friendships

❑ Creative expression

❑ Family

❑ Develop and express new ideas

❑ Work with others, teamwork

❑ No routine

❑ Public contract

❑ Work on own or as creative team

❑ Friendly work atmosphere

❑ Flexible working conditions

❑ Work with people you like

❑ Commission-based work ❑ Material possessions ❑ Very high salary ❑ Extra pay for extra work ❑ Long hours

Chapter 1  •  Choosing a Major  

Prestige

Meaning and Purpose

Variety

❑ Recognition

❑ Spirituality

❑ Status

❑ Personal fulfillment

❑ Changing work responsibilities

❑ Respect stature ❑ Professional position ❑ Responsibility ❑ Responsibility and pay are related to education and experience

❑ Work related to ideals ❑ Make a difference ❑ Express inner-self in work ❑ Integrate belief system into work

❑ Diversity of tasks ❑ New projects ❑ Varied tasks ❑ Meet new people ❑ Range of settings and situations

Security

Independence

Physical Activity

❑ Stability

❑ Time freedom

❑ Outdoor work

❑ Predictably

❑ Autonomy

❑ Physical challenge

❑ Low pressure

❑ Work alone

❑ Physical fitness

❑ Job assurance

❑ Set own pace and working conditions, flexible hours

❑ No desk job

❑ Guaranteed annual salary in secure, stable company ❑ Retirement benefits ❑ Live in familiar location

❑ Choose team or work alone

Intellectual Challenge

Productivity

Advancement

❑ Address challenging problems

❑ Competence and proficiency

❑ Promotions

❑ Pursue/obtain knowledge

❑ Fast-paced work

❑ Constant updating of information and ability to deal with new ideas ❑ Work with creative and intellectually stimulating people ❑ Acknowledged expert ❑ Research and development

17

❑ Efficient work habits ❑ Hard work is rewarded ❑ Quality and productivity rewarded by rapid advancement

❑ Work under pressure ❑ Competition ❑ Limited only by energy and initiative

18  Part I •  Making Decisions About Psychology

Identify Your Occupational Interests Another way to use what you know about yourself to choose a major and career is to identify your occupational interests. Holland (1959, 1997) proposed that people’s interests and the matching work environments can be loosely categorized into six themes or codes: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional. The six categories are presented in Table 1.5. Most people find that they are a combination of several personality types.

TABLE 1.5  ●  Identify Your Holland Personality Type Realistic ❑ I am mechanically inclined. ❑ I am athletically inclined. ❑ I like working outside with tools, plants, or animals. ❑ I like creating things with my hands. ❑ I am practical. ❑ I like to see direct results of my work. ❑ I am a nature lover. ❑ I am systematic.

Someone with a realistic personality type is athletically or mechanically inclined. He or she would probably prefer to work outdoors with tools, plants, or animals. Some of the traits that describe the realistic personality type include practical, candid, a nature lover, calm, reserved, restrained, independent, systematic, and persistent.

❑ I am persistent. ❑ I am calm and reserved. ❑ I am independent. ❑ I dislike vagueness and ambiguity. Investigative ❑ I like learning, observing, problem solving, and working with information. ❑ I like solving abstract, vague problems. ❑ I am curious. ❑ I am logical. ❑ I am reserved. ❑ I am introspective. ❑ I am independent. ❑ I am observant. ❑ I am interested in understanding the physical world. ❑ I like working alone or in small groups. ❑ I like to be original and creative in solving problems. ❑ I enjoy intellectual challenges.

The investigative type enjoys learning, observing, problem solving, and analyzing information. Traits that describe the investigative type include curious, logical, observant, precise, intellectual, cautious, introspective, reserved, unbiased, and independent.

Chapter 1  •  Choosing a Major  

Artistic ❑ I am imaginative and creative. ❑ I like to express myself by designing and producing. ❑ I prefer unstructured activities. ❑ I am spontaneous. ❑ I am idealistic. ❑ I am unique. ❑ I am independent.

19

Imaginative and creative, the artistic personality type likes to work in unstructured situations that allow for creativity and innovation. Personality characteristics of the artistic type include intuitive, unconventional, moody, nonconforming, expressive, unique, pensive, spontaneous, compassionate, bold, direct, and idealistic.

❑ I am expressive. ❑ I am unconventional. ❑ I am compassionate. ❑ I am bold. ❑ I prefer to work alone. Social ❑ I am compassionate. ❑ I like helping and training others. ❑ I am patient. ❑ I am dependable. ❑ I am supportive. ❑ I am understanding. ❑ I am perceptive.

The social personality type enjoys helping and training others. Characteristics that describe the social type include friendly, cooperative, idealistic, perceptive, outgoing, understanding, supportive, generous, dependable, forgiving, patient, compassionate, and eloquent.

❑ I am generous. ❑ I am idealistic. ❑ I am cheerful, well liked. ❑ I am people-oriented and friendly. ❑ I am concerned with the welfare of others. ❑ I am good at expressing myself and getting along well with others. Enterprising ❑ I like to work with people. ❑ I like persuading people. ❑ I like managing situations.

The enterprising personality type likes to work with people in persuasive, performance, or managerial situations to achieve goals that are (Continued)

20  Part I •  Making Decisions About Psychology TABLE 1.5  ●  (Continued) ❑ I like achieving organizational or economic goals. ❑ I am a leader. ❑ I am talkative. ❑ I am extroverted. ❑ I am optimistic. ❑ I am spontaneous and daring. ❑ I am assertive.

organizational or economic in nature. Characteristics that describe the enterprising type include confident, assertive, determined, talkative, extroverted, energetic, animated, social, persuasive, fashionable, spontaneous, daring, accommodating, and optimistic.

❑ I am energetic. ❑ I am good at communicating. ❑ I am good at selling and persuading. ❑ I prefer tasks that require quick action. Conventional ❑ I am good with numbers. ❑ I like to work with data and carry out tasks in detail. ❑ I am persistent. ❑ I am practical. ❑ I am conforming. ❑ I am precise. ❑ I am conscientious. ❑ I am meticulous. ❑ I am adept. ❑ I am practical. ❑ I am frugal. ❑ I am stable and dependable. ❑ I am well controlled. ❑ I prefer tasks that are structured. ❑ I prefer to know what’s expected. ❑ I prefer a well-defined chain of command. Source: Adapted from Holland (1966, 1997).

The conventional personality type is well organized, has clerical or numerical ability, and likes to work with data and carry out tasks in detail. Characteristics that describe the conventional type include meticulous, numerically inclined, conscientious, precise, adept, conforming, orderly, practical, frugal, structured, courteous, acquiescent, and persistent.

Chapter 1  •  Choosing a Major  

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Although they were created half a century ago, the Holland Occupational Codes remain the most commonly used assessment of career interests (Ruff, Reardon, & Bertoch, 2007). Another option is the O*NET Interest Profiler, a selfassessment inventory that applies Holland Codes to help individuals identify their work-related interests (Lewis & Rivkin, 1999). The O*NET Interest Profiler is a free computer program sponsored by the U.S. Department of Labor/Employment and Training Administration and the American Job Center Network (available at http://www.onetcenter.org/CIP.html). A short version of the O*NET Interest Profiler is also available (http://www.onetcenter.org/IPSF.html). These tools are a good start, but an accurate Holland career assessment is conducted by a career professional using specialized tools. The career development center at your college can help you determine and interpret your Holland Code. Understanding your career interests may make it easier to choose a major because some majors are better suited to particular constellations of interests than others. Table 1.6 lists college majors, organized by Holland Code. Remember that this is simply a guide. Not all possible careers are listed, and the categories are much more fluid than they appear. Notice that many college majors fit more than one Holland Code. College majors tap multiple interests and abilities—and foster similar skills in students, such as critical thinking and communication skills.

Use Career Assessment Tools While you can learn a lot about yourself through reflection and surveying your own interests, a visit to the career center at your college can provide you with an objective and detailed profile of your interests. A career counselor can administer several inventories to help determine what career path is right for you. The two most commonly administered inventories are the Strong Interest Inventory (Strong, Donnay, Morris, Schaubhut, & Thompson, 2004) and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Myers, McCaulley, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998). Administered at your college’s career center, the Strong Interest Inventory contains 291 items that survey your occupational interests and values. It takes about 40 minutes to complete and yields a detailed report that includes your Holland Code, a list of your top interests and what you find most motivating and rewarding, and comparisons of your interests with those of people working in 122 occupations. The Strong Interest Inventory also lists occupations in which people whose interests most closely match yours work. Finally, your values (that is, preferences regarding work style, learning environment, leadership style, risk taking, and team orientation) are listed. A summary provides a graphic representation of your results. The career counselor will discuss your results with you. Remember that although a number of compatible careers are listed, you are free to pursue whatever career appeals to you. The Strong Interest Inventory provides a more detailed look at the aspects of career assessment that we have discussed in this chapter. It’s especially useful

22  Part I •  Making Decisions About Psychology TABLE 1.6  ●  Careers by Holland Personality Type Realistic

Investigative

Artistic

Agriculture/Forestry

Animal Science

Advertising

Architecture

Anthropology

Architecture

Criminal Justice

Astronomy

Art Education

Engineering

Biochemistry

Art History

Environmental Studies

Biological Sciences

Communications

Exercise Science

Chemistry

English

Geology

Computer Science

Foreign Language

Health and Physical Education

Engineering

Graphic Design

Geography

History

Geology

Interior Design

Mathematics

Journalism

Medical Technology

Music

Medicine

Music Education

Nursing

Speech/Drama

Medical Technology Plant and Soil Sciences Recreation and Tourism Management Sport Management

Nutrition Pharmacy Philosophy Physical Therapy Physics Psychology Sociology Statistics Social

Enterprising

Conventional

Audiology

Advertising

Accounting

Counseling

Broadcasting

Business

Criminal Justice

Communications

Computer Science

Elementary Education

Economics

Economics

History

Finance

Finance

Human Development

Industrial Relations

Mathematics

Library Sciences

Journalism

Statistics

Nursing

Law

Nutrition

Management

Chapter 1  •  Choosing a Major  

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TABLE 1.6  ● (Continued) Occupational Therapy

Marketing

Philosophy

Political Science

Physical Education

Public Administration

Political Science

Speech

Psychology Religious Studies Social Work Sociology Special Education Urban Planning Source: Adapted from Holland (1966).

if you have tried the activities in this book and still find yourself puzzled about what really interests you. Another assessment option available in your college’s career center is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). With over 100 items, the MBTI assesses individuals’ perceptions, preferences, and judgments in interacting with the world (Myers et al., 1998). Created by mother and daughter, Katharine Cook Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers, the MBTI is based on Carl Jung’s theory that there are 16 personality types in which people may be categorized based on their preferences along four dimensions or subscales. The MBTI contains several subscales. The extraversion/introversion subscale refers to the degree to which you turn outward or inward—that is, the degree to which you are oriented toward people and actions or the internal world of thoughts and ideas. The sensation/intuition subscale examines how you prefer to understand information: Do you focus on the facts or do you prefer to interpret and add meaning? Do you focus on logic and reasoning when making decisions or do you first look at circumstances and people (thinking/feeling)? Your preference for structure is assessed by the judging/ perceiving scale, which examines whether you prefer to make decisions or remain open to new ideas and options. Finally, the measure categorizes takers into a “personality type,” suggesting their own set of preferences. If you choose to take the MBTI, remember that it is simply a tool to help you learn about yourself. In fact, some psychologists argue that despite its popularity, there is insufficient research to conclude that the MBTI is an effective measure of personality (Pittenger, 2005). Ultimately, it’s up to you to determine if the results make sense to you. The happiest and most successful students choose majors that they find engaging and that match their skills, values, and interests. Self-assessment is a process. Allow yourself opportunities to explore. Exploration is a critical part of

24  Part I •  Making Decisions About Psychology career development because it allows you to become aware of and test options for career paths that you might take. Some students decide on a major before they understand themselves. They take courses for a semester or two and then realize that they’ve chosen a major in which they have little interest or ability. Engaging in self-assessment early in your college career can save you from changing majors and potentially extending your time in college.

How to Choose a Major Now that you’ve learned some principles of self-assessment, apply what you have learned to narrow your choices of college majors. Lots of students find career planning stressful and confusing. Sometimes it seems like everyone else knows what they want to do with their lives but you. Finding the right major and determining your career goals doesn’t require magic, innate abilities, or luck. What does it take? Choosing a major that is right for you requires the willingness to do the hard work of looking deep within and disentangling what you think you should do, what others want you to do, what you truly want to do, and what you realistically have the ability to do.

Follow Basic Rules for Choosing a Major and Career Several general principles should guide you through the process of choosing a major, as follows.

Be an Active Participant in Choosing a Major Choosing a major that is right for you entails more than filing papers with the university registrar’s office. Being an active participant means that you recognize that the process of considering and narrowing down possible majors must be your own. Frequently students feel subtle pressure to select particular majors from family members or friends. Maybe your parent majored in finance and everyone’s always told you that you’re just like him or her. Or maybe several of your friends have decided to major in communications or theater arts and take classes together. We all face subtle expectations from others. Regardless, the process of choosing and your choice of major must be your own. You must actively participate, perhaps even struggle, in the decision. No one cares as much about what major you choose as you do, because the only person truly affected by your choice is you.

Your College Major Will Not Determine Your Career Choosing a major is not the same as choosing a lifelong career. For example, many people assume that students who major in humanities, sciences, and social science fields, including English, history, biology, sociology, and psychology, are qualified only for careers in those specific areas. This isn’t true. A

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history major does not have to become a historian, a biology major does not have to become a biologist, and a psychology major does not have to become a psychologist in order to be gainfully employed. This is especially fortuitous because each of these professions requires years of graduate study beyond the baccalaureate degree. Your college major is simply a starting point. It will not limit you to one career choice because every major provides training in many skills. Choosing your college major is an important decision, but it is not a high-pressure decision that will irrevocably shape the course of your life.

Career Planning Is a Process Career planning is not a one-time event. It is not begun and finished quickly in a single session or over a short period, say in your first semester or first year in college. Instead, career planning is a lengthy process that may begin in college but persists throughout life. You likely will not decide what you want to do for the rest of your life suddenly and definitively—and your decision will likely change throughout your life. Most people have many careers over their lifetimes. To determine your life path, you must be willing to engage in the process and do the work of looking within and evaluating your aspirations, expectations, and opportunities.

Every Major Has Value As you begin the process of selecting a major, remember that there is no bad choice. Every college major offers opportunities to develop competence in communication, information management, and critical thinking skills. However, majors differ in the specific set of competencies emphasized. For example, the emphasis on scientific reasoning and problem solving, coupled with a focus on understanding how people think and behave, is what makes psychology unique among majors.

Learn About Your Options The first step in making any decision is to become informed of your options. What majors does your college offer? Some majors, such as psychology, English, and economics, are available at all colleges and universities. Other majors, such as engineering, can be found only at some institutions. What options does your college offer? How do you find out what majors are offered? Every college has a student handbook. Check the “students” area of your school’s homepage or use the search function. The handbook will likely list the available majors at your school. Another way to learn about your options is to examine each academic department (our preferred option—it’s thorough!). Your school’s homepage likely has a link to a webpage listing academic departments or you can use the search function to find this page. Scroll through and click on each department, one by one. You’ll probably want to do this in more than one sitting because

26  Part I •  Making Decisions About Psychology you’ll scan a lot of pages. Take a moment to review each department’s program, even if at first glance you think it isn’t interesting or right for you. You might spend just a few minutes studying most programs, but some will likely strike your interest and cause you to probe further. It is important to review a wide range of programs—even those that you think you might not like. Sometimes we have preconceived biases and incorrect information about a discipline or major. For each major, ask yourself the following questions and quickly note your responses so that you can easily revisit your work and compare majors later. • What are some of the required classes? • Are any clubs or activities listed? • Who are the faculty? What are their research interests? Does it look like students are involved in their research? • What other experiences do majors typically obtain (for example, internships and/or research experiences)? • What jobs have recent graduates obtained? After you’ve scanned each academic department and major, list all of the majors that sound interesting to you, without making judgments.

Seek Information From Students, Graduates, and Professors Internet research can get you only so far. In order to learn about majors and career options, it’s essential to gather information from knowledgeable people. Students, graduates, career counselors, and professors can offer invaluable information and perspectives.

Current Students Ask other students how they chose their major and why they think it’s a good choice. What do they think about their courses, the topic, professors, and opportunities after graduation? What are the required courses like? Every major has its most challenging set of courses: What are those courses? Why are they considered challenging? What about the professors? Do students have out-ofclass interactions with faculty? What kind? What out-of-class experiences are available? Is there a student club?

Recent Graduates Ask recent graduates about their experiences. Ask them some or all of the questions you asked current students. Also ask about their experiences after graduating. If you don’t know any recent graduates, visit the department

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and/or your college’s career center. Most college career centers maintain records of recent graduates and may be able to put you in contact with a few graduates to help you learn more about their work and career experiences.

Professors Don’t forget to talk with professors to learn more about majors. Visit during the office hours of a professor who teaches a class in which you are enrolled, seems approachable, or works in a field of interest to you. Ask questions about the undergraduate major and what kinds of jobs recent graduates hold. Do some homework beforehand to ensure that your questions are informed. For example, read the department website to learn a little bit about the major; basic course requirements; and, if possible, what courses the professor teaches. Visit the professor’s website to learn about his or her courses and research. It will be easier to know what to ask if you know a little bit about the program and professor. You might begin by explaining that you’re thinking about becoming a major and would like to know more about the field. Students sometimes feel uncomfortable approaching a professor, but remember that office hours are times specifically allocated to interacting with students. Take advantage of this time to ask the questions that will help you determine if a given major is for you. As you can see, there are multiple sources of information about any given major. Approach the task of choosing a major as if you were solving a puzzle. Each source provides a unique bit of information and perspective. Sources may disagree about particular qualities or characteristics of a major. Compile all of the information and weigh it based on the person’s perspective (as a student, graduate, or faculty, for example), perceived accuracy (Does the information seem accurate? What is the source’s perspective?), and perceived similarity (How similar are your and the source’s views?). What are the most important commonly mentioned positive and negative features of this major? How well do you think you could overcome any challenges?

Is a Psychology Major for You? The psychology major offers many opportunities, but only you can decide what major is right for you. Carefully consider your skills, values, interests, and options. Each chapter in this book describes a different subdiscipline of psychology and careers that are appropriate for individuals with bachelor’s degrees and graduate degrees in psychology. These possibilities are simply a starting point. At the end of this reflective process, you may find that psychology is the major for you or you may make another choice. Listen to yourself and make the decision that is right for you. As a final piece of advice, be open to new possibilities. Flexibility is an important life skill critical to coping and optimal development throughout adulthood. Employers rate adaptability as highly desired in new employees

28  Part I •  Making Decisions About Psychology (National Association of Colleges and Employers, 2018). Adaptability and tolerance for ambiguity are important characteristics for psychology students because science, like life, isn’t always clear-cut and obvious. As you read through the chapters in this book and explore various career opportunities, practice being open to new possibilities. Actively consider each subdiscipline and career opportunity to determine if it’s a good fit for your interests and aspirations, even if you first think it isn’t a good fit. Stretching your mind to consider what a particular career might be like is a helpful exercise in flexibility and may help you consider a career differently. You might be surprised at what you learn about yourself. Above all, keep a open mind and explore multiple possibilities. You will be more likely to find a job and career that you will love. Throughout this book, we discuss tips for students who are interested in careers related to specific areas of psychology and provide suggestions on helpful ­experiences to obtain for various jobs.

CHECKLIST 1.1 IS PSYCHOLOGY FOR YOU? Do you: ❑ Have an interest in how the mind works? ❑ Want to learn how to think critically? ❑ Have an interest in research? ❑ Feel comfortable with computers? ❑ Want to learn how the brain works and its effect on behavior? ❑ Have an interest in mental illness? ❑ Like mathematics? ❑ Have an interest in how we grow and change over the lifespan? ❑ Have an interest in personality and what makes people unique? ❑ Wonder how we perceive stimuli in our environment? ❑ Have an interest in learning how research findings can be applied to solve real-world problems? ❑ Want to learn how to work well with others? ❑ Want a well-rounded education? ❑ Have an interest in biology and how physiology influences behavior? ❑ Have the ability to be flexible and deal with ambiguity? ❑ Want to help people? Scoring: The more boxes you checked, the more likely it is that you’re a good match for the psychology major.

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EXERCISE 1.1 USING O*NET AND THE OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK TO IDENTIFY CAREERS This exercise requires that you run several O*NET searches as follows (http:// www.onetonline.org/), to identify jobs that match your interests and capacities. 1. Search by interest. Use the advanced tab on O*NET to search by interest. Note that the interests listed are Holland Codes (see your responses in Table 1.5 to view your specific interests). List two occupations that you find interesting (and list the interest terms used in your search). 2. Search by skills. Use the advanced tab to search by skills. List two occupations that you find interesting (and list the skills you selected). 3. Search by one other means. Use another search option under the advanced tab (e.g., abilities, knowledge, work activities, and so on). Discuss the option you chose and list two resulting occupations. 4. Choose two of the six occupations that you have identified in this exercise. Look up the two occupations in the Occupational Outlook Handbook (http://www.bls.gov/ooh/). For each, consider the information in both O*NET and the Occupational Outlook Handbook and answer the following: a. What duties are performed in this occupation? b. What education or training is needed? c. What is the typical salary? d. What is the projected job outlook for this occupation? 5. Evaluate the results of item 4. What do you think of these positions? How well do they fit your skills, interests, and values? Do you want to learn more? Are you interested in pursuing any of these positions?

Suggested Reading Helms, J. L., & Rogers, D. T. (2012). Majoring in psychology: Achieving your educational and career goals (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. Kuther, T. L. (2020). The psychology major’s handbook (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

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Liptak, J. J. (2011). College major quizzes: 12 easy tests to discover which programs are best. Indianapolis, IN: JIST. Shatkin, L. (2011). Panicked student’s guide to choosing a college major: How to confidently pick your ideal path. Indianapolis, IN: JIST.

Resources American Psychological Association: Careers in Psychology https://www.apa.org/careers/resources/guides/careers.aspx Career Key http://www.careerkey.org College Board: The Ultimate Guide to Choosing a Major https://blog.collegeboard.org/the-ultimate-guide-to-choosing-a-major Occupational Outlook Handbook https://www.bls.gov/ooh/

2 Majoring in Psychology and Preparing for Your Career Psychological Literacy and Your Career Psychology Curricula American Psychological Association Goals for Psychology Education Psychology Coursework Research Experience in Psychology Get to Know Professors Benefits of Obtaining Research Experience How to Obtain Research Experience What to Expect as a Research Assistant Seek Opportunities for Independent Study

Internship Experiences for Psychology Students What Does an Internship Entail? Benefits of Internships How to Find an Internship Round Out Your Education Participate in Extracurricular Activities Take Classes or a Minor in Another Discipline Get Work Experience Exercise 2.1: Developing Skills and Acquiring Experiences Suggested Reading Resources

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sychology is consistently one of the top undergraduate majors. Why? Most people would like to understand human behavior, what makes people tick. Moreover, the psychology major offers opportunities to develop a host

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32  Part I •  Making Decisions About Psychology of transferrable skills. What can you expect as a psychology major? This chapter examines what a psychology major entails and, more important, how to steer your own education and obtain experiences to prepare you for your career after college.

Psychological Literacy and Your Career Psychology majors learn a distinct set of transferrable skills that fall under the umbrella of psychological literacy. Recall from Chapter 1 that psychological literacy is the ability to apply psychological knowledge in everyday life to improve lives, their own and others’ (American Psychological Association, 2013; Cranney et al., 2012; McGovern et al., 2010). Psychological literacy includes basic knowledge about psychology that students are often tested on in classes as well as the ability to apply psychological principles in everyday settings, such as at home, work, and in the community. These are the competencies that most people ascribe to psychology majors; however, psychology students learn many more useful transferrable skills. Today’s workplace calls for employees who are skilled processors and manipulators of information. Information gathering, the ability to find useful information, is the first step toward making decisions and solving problems. All majors provide opportunities to practice information gathering or acquisition, but psychology students are specifically trained in the next step: evaluation and synthesis. Evaluating the credibility of sources and synthesizing information from multiple sources into a coherent and persuasive argument relies on critical thinking and analysis skills. Psychology students practice this process because they are exposed to multiple perspectives on behavior. Students learn how to weigh multiple points of view, compare and contrast evidence, and make reasoned decisions—valuable skills in today’s complex world. Psychological literacy includes the ability to pose questions and devise procedures to gather new information about human behavior. Undergraduate students in psychology gain a basic understanding of research methodology and statistics and learn how to interpret data summaries. These skills in question asking and answering, also known as problem solving, are applicable to everyday problems encountered in the workplace and make psychology graduates unique among liberal arts graduates. Students who are psychologically literate apply psychological knowledge to understand the world around them but also to understand themselves. Psychologically literate students have interpersonal skills that enable them to work well with others and to be effective communicators because they are trained to be sensitive to issues of culture, race, class, and ethnicity. Notably, however, psychology students have opportunities to develop intrapersonal awareness, or selfknowledge. They can monitor and manage their own behavior, which is critical in succeeding in academic and interpersonal tasks. Self-awareness, self-monitoring, emotional regulation, and self-motivation are skills useful in all areas of life.

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We hope it is apparent that the psychology major is quite useful, with its blend of liberal arts and science. However, students cannot rest on their laurels. Regardless of your major, obtaining a job and entering a career require preparation and planning, and this is especially true in difficult economies. To enhance your marketability and help your psychology education work for you, you must plan your career goals, match your skills to your goals, and develop and refine your skills (review Chapter 1). Next, we examine what coursework you can expect as a psychology major.

Psychology Curricula Every college major at your institution likely has three sets of requirements: (1) general education requirements that all students must complete to obtain a well-rounded education, (2) elective courses that provide opportunities to learn about a variety of topics or complete a minor, and (3) required courses to complete the major. The specific requirements for a psychology major will vary by department and institution, but most psychology departments model their curricula on the American Psychological Association (2013) goals for education.

American Psychological Association Goals for Psychology Education The American Psychological Association (2013) has outlined five broad goals for psychology education. Goal 1: Knowledge Base in Psychology 1.1 Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology 1.2  Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains 1.3  Describe applications of psychology Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking 2.1  Use scientific reasoning to interpret psychological phenomena 2.2  Demonstrate psychology information literacy 2.3  Engage in innovative and integrative thinking and problem solving 2.4  Interpret, design, and conduct basic psychological research 2.5  Incorporate sociocultural factors in scientific inquiry

34  Part I •  Making Decisions About Psychology Goal 3: Ethical and Social Responsibility in a Diverse World 3.1  Apply ethical standards to evaluate psychological science and practice 3.2  Build and enhance interpersonal relationships 3.3  Adopt values that build community at local, national, and global levels Goal 4: Communication 4.1  Demonstrate effective writing for different purposes 4.2  Exhibit effective presentation skills for different purposes 4.3  Interact effectively with others Goal 5: Professional Development 5.1  Apply psychological content and skills to career goals 5.2  Exhibit self-efficacy and self-regulation 5.3  Refine project-management skills 5.4  Enhance teamwork capacity 5.5  Develop meaningful professional direction for life after graduation Do you notice a correspondence among the APA goals, characteristics of psychological literacy, and the competencies developed with a psychology major, described in Chapter 1? Most psychology departments model their programs after the APA goals, with the intention of promoting psychological literacy. Psychology students develop lifelong skills that are relevant to their personal and professional lives. Psychology departments implement these goals through required coursework and other experiences.

Psychology Coursework As a psychology major, you can expect to learn about human behavior and the methods that psychologists use to study human behavior. Specific requirements may vary by university; however, you can expect to complete the following.

Introductory Psychology/General Psychology Your first course in psychology will provide a whirlwind and fast-paced tour of the field, including each of the subdisciplines discussed in Chapter 1.

Methodology and Statistics It is the methodology courses that will teach you how psychologists learn about human behavior. Students learn the research methods that psychologists

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use to ask and answer questions about behavior. They also learn statistics and the methods psychologists use to compile and draw conclusions from the information they collect. Finally, students gain experience in designing and carrying out research studies that give them practice in asking and answering questions about human behavior.

Breadth Courses Just as the general education curriculum is designed to provide students with a broad knowledge base for a well-rounded education, the psychology breadth requirement imparts psychology majors with a well-rounded education in human behavior. The particular sets of requirements vary across psychology departments, but all will include courses in the clinical, developmental, cognitive, biological, and social/personality subfields. Common courses offered by psychology departments are listed in Table 2.1.

Elective Courses You can expect to take several elective courses in your major—courses that are not required but are your choice. These courses are opportunities to explore your interests or gain knowledge and skills that you think will be helpful in the future.

Capstone Course The capstone course is intended as the crowning achievement for majors, a course that requires them to synthesize all that they have learned to demonstrate that they have mastered the curriculum. It is an advanced course that is intended to require you to integrate your knowledge about how to study psychological phenomena: how to ask research questions, devise methods of addressing questions, and draw conclusions. You might conduct an independent research study or write a lengthy review paper or senior thesis. Ask your professors for more information about the capstone requirement and get advice so that you can plan ahead and take the courses that you believe will best prepare you for this experience.

Research Experience in Psychology Completing coursework is essential to earning a college degree, but the best educational and professional development opportunities occur outside of the classroom. Most students interact with their professors only in the classroom. If this is true for you, then you’re not taking advantage of your college’s most valuable resource. There’s much more to learn from professors than content knowledge. Get to know your professors and you might get involved in their research, learn about professional development, learn about special opportunities like internships, and see what it’s really like to work in the field.

36  Part I •  Making Decisions About Psychology TABLE 2.1  ●  Psychology Courses Applied Psychology

History, Methods, and Statistics

Family Psychology

Research Methods

Health Psychology

Experimental Psychology

Industrial Psychology

Psychological Statistics

Organizational Psychology

History of Psychology

Psychology and Law Sport Psychology Consumer Psychology Biological Psychology and Neuropsychology Physiological Psychology Sensation and Perception

Learning and Cognitive Psychology Psychology of Learning Psychology of Creativity Educational Psychology Behavior Modification Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Neuroscience

Psychopharmacology Clinical Psychology

Personality, Social Processes, and Measurement

Clinical Psychology

Group Dynamics

Abnormal Psychology

Social Psychology

School Psychology

Psychology of Motivation

Developmental Psychology Adolescent Psychology Adulthood and Aging Lifespan Development Developmental Psychopathology Child Psychology

Psychology of Personality Psychological and Educational Testing Psychology of Adjustment Psychology of Gender Psychology of Women Cross-Cultural Psychology

The above courses may be grouped in several ways, depending on department. Some psychology courses are required for majors at nearly all schools, while others are electives found at a handful of schools.

Get to Know Professors How do you get to know professors? Talk to them after class. Stop by during office hours. What do you talk about? Psychology. Ask questions about material—theories, research, cases—discussed in class. Ask about their experiences as students, how they decided to go to graduate school, and what led

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them to their research interests. Share an interesting website about the brain, for example, or tell the professor about a relevant program you viewed. The goal is to learn from these conversations and to show your interest in the subject. Remember, professors are people too: smile and be friendly and you’ll be surprised at how easy it is to get to know faculty. Relationships with faculty provide opportunities for mentorship. A mentor is a person with expertise who takes a special interest in you; he or she may be a college professor, advisor, or job, research, or practicum supervisor. Mentors provide their protégés with opportunities to learn, be advised, and obtain moral support. They are often a source of research experience.

Benefits of Obtaining Research Experience Research generates new knowledge. When we engage in research, we make new discoveries and learn new things. Sure, you read about psychology research, but carrying it out is an altogether different animal that will help you learn more than you have in any class. It’s an opportunity to be on the cutting edge of psychology. Aside from the thrill of generating new knowledge, assisting a professor with research provides many other valuable opportunities (Grover, 2006; Landrum, 2008), such as the following: • Gaining specialized skills and knowledge by working one-on-one with a faculty member • Learning methodological techniques that will be helpful in completing your senior thesis or, perhaps, graduate work • Practicing written and oral communication skills by learning how to express research findings and preparing papers for submission to, and presenting at, professional conferences and journals • Developing a mentoring relationship with a faculty member • Obtaining experiences that will enhance your applications to employers and graduate programs • Acquiring outstanding letters of recommendation, as faculty who work closely with you can write more detailed letters that fully demonstrate your capacities and strengths Research experience demonstrates your ability to work independently and sharpens your analytic and critical thinking skills. You will develop important skills, learn what it’s like to generate new knowledge, and have an experience that looks great from the perspectives of employers and graduate school admissions committees. It also provides employers with evidence of your motivation, initiative, and willingness to go beyond basic requirements.

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How to Obtain Research Experience How do you seek research opportunities? First and foremost, you should perform well in class and be motivated and visible in your department. Let faculty know that you’re interested in getting involved in research, but do not send out a mass or form e-mail notifying them of your availability. Instead, approach professors during their office hours and ask for leads on who might be looking for research assistants. Before you approach a professor you would like to work with, learn about his or her work. Read some of the professor’s articles, especially the most recent ones. When you find a professor who is looking for an assistant, carefully and honestly describe what you can offer (computer skills, Internet skills, statistical skills, and the number of hours per week you’re available). Let the faculty member know that you’re willing to work hard (be honest). Ask questions about the professor’s expectations and how you will be evaluated. For example, what will you do? What will be your responsibilities? Are the work hours set or will they change each week? Is the project ongoing? How long is the commitment (semester, year)? Professors are often unintentionally vague in describing their expectations for students during the research assistantship as well as for the products of the collaboration (such as a paper). It may be tempting to consider turning the professor down because the hours don’t fit your schedule or the research isn’t interesting enough, but the opportunity to work as a research assistant will enhance your academic and professional development in many ways. Don’t be hasty in turning down such an important opportunity. You may not work on a project that you find mind-blowingly exciting, but you will obtain excellent experience. Also, research projects often become more interesting once you’re immersed in them. Your academic interests most likely will change as you gain more experience and education. In most cases, there is no pay involved for assisting professors with their research. Instead, you’ll get a free learning experience that will improve your skills and abilities as well as make you more appealing to graduate schools and employers. Sometimes you may earn course credit for your work. Finally, volunteer to work closely with a professor only if you have the time to commit. Remember that falling behind or dropping out will reflect negatively on you—much more so than if you hadn’t become involved at all.

What to Expect as a Research Assistant If you work with a professor on his or her research project, you’re doing the work of a research assistant. The specific tasks that research assistants complete vary with the project, faculty member, and area of psychology. Some research assistants collect data by administering surveys or maintaining and operating lab equipment. Others code and enter data, make photocopies, or write literature reviews. Here are some general tasks that research assistants perform (Landrum & Davis, 2014):

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• Collect data by administering surveys, interviews, or running research protocols. • Score, code, and enter data into a spreadsheet or statistical analysis program. • Conduct library research, including literature searches using databases (e.g., PsycINFO, Social Sciences Citation Index, PsycARTICLES), making copies of articles, and ordering unavailable articles and books through interlibrary loan. • Assist in developing new research ideas. • Use computer skills such as word processing, spreadsheet, scheduling, and statistical analysis programs. • Assist in preparing submissions for local or regional conferences and, if accepted, work on poster or oral presentations for professional conferences. • Assist in preparing a manuscript to submit the results of your collaborative research to a scientific journal.

Seek Opportunities for Independent Study Students who assist faculty in research often develop their own research ideas and hypotheses that stem from the professor’s work. Others develop ideas on their own or as class projects. Conducting an independent study is another important way of obtaining research experience. As you’re aware, research generates new knowledge. When we engage in research, we make new discoveries and learn new things. Sure, you read about psychology research and may have assisted faculty with their research, but carrying out your own study to examine your own hypothesis is a very different experience that will help you learn more than you have in any class. Although student-developed studies are often referred to as independent studies, they are far from the isolated experiences that the name conveys. All are closely supervised by faculty. Some psychology departments require students to carry out their own research projects in order to demonstrate their competence; these studies often take place in capstone courses. If you are interested in developing and conducting your own study, take the steps we have described to find a faculty member whose interests match yours and who is willing to oversee your study. Together you will determine your research question and how to address it. Frequently students’ ideas for independent studies come from their work on faculty projects. It is often said that research often generates more questions than answers. These are often the best studies to conduct, as they already have a faculty member’s attention and interest. However, you may also consider approaching faculty with whom

40  Part I •  Making Decisions About Psychology you have not conducted research. The specific steps entailed in designing and conducting your research study will be determined by the topic and by your interactions with your faculty supervisor.

Internship Experiences for Psychology Students Employers want to hire skilled employees. How do you demonstrate your useful skills? Real-world experience. One of the best ways to learn about career options, develop skills that match your career goals, and get attention from employers is to get experience outside of the classroom. An internship provides hands-on experience in a work setting for a specific period of time (typically a summer, semester, or year). Internships vary by field and employer. Some internships are paid and some are not. Some internships are organized through the psychology department and others through the college career center or co-operative education office. Sometimes students obtain their own internships by contacting local businesses and social service agencies. Often students earn course credit for completing an internship. Ideally, internships are supervised by a faculty member as well as by an on-site supervisor.

What Does an Internship Entail? Internships vary dramatically, so it is difficult to predict any one student’s experience. Some internships will be exciting and others less so. Virtually all internships will entail some tasks that are repetitive or dull, such as filing, answering phones, or entering data. However, that is the nature of most entry-level positions. Examples of internship settings include social service agencies (where you might observe or assist in intake of clients, psychological testing, report writing, and behavior modification) and human resource departments (where you might observe and assist in administering structured interviews, writing performance appraisals, and coordinating special projects or programs). The best internship opportunities provide experiences that are similar to entry-level jobs.

Benefits of Internships The most obvious benefit of an internship is that you’ll learn and practice skills that are relevant in everyday work settings, such as professional styles of communication. Many students are surprised and gratified by the recognition that they already have useful skills that employers desire. Internship experiences can hone these skills and help you learn new ones. An internship lets you try out a career setting. You’ll learn about a particular job, duties, and support. You’ll learn about the types of colleagues and clientele or customers you might encounter and what you can expect in terms of responsibilities and resources.

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Moreover, internships offer opportunities for personal development. You’ll learn how to adapt to new settings, circumstances, and people. Perhaps the most valuable lesson that accompanies an internship experience is that you’ll learn about your own interests, likes, and dislikes. Your internship experiences may confirm your interest in a given career or you might be surprised to learn that your chosen career setting isn’t right for you. Sometimes an internship tells you about what you don’t want to do. For example, it is not uncommon for some students to believe that clinical or counseling psychology is for them until they gain some experience and realize that they don’t enjoy the challenges of working closely with people. Therefore, one of the most important reasons for seeking field experience is to clarify your career choice. There is no “unsuccessful” internship, because learning about yourself—your interests, skills, and also your disinterests—prepares you to seek job opportunities that are right for you. Working in the field helps you to identify not only what work-related outcomes you value (e.g., pay, autonomy, responsibility) but also what interests and abilities you need to be satisfied in that work. Internships offer practical benefits too. Internships can lead to contacts in the field and someone who can provide a reference or recommendation based on your ability to apply your knowledge of psychology in a real-world setting. For example, in an annual survey, employers consistently rated internships and job-related experiences as very desirable (National Association of Colleges and Employers, 2018). Interns are evaluated positively by recruiters, are hired more quickly, and earn higher salaries in the workplace than students who have not interned (Guarise & Kostenblatt, 2018; National Association of Colleges and Employers, 2018). In addition, students who work as interns are more likely to be satisfied with their jobs after graduation. Students who obtain field experience are able to consider the match between their academic preparation and work requirements (e.g., students are often poorly equipped for the stresses of work, including the realities of politics, difficult clients, and the conflict between theory and application) while they are still in school. Doing so gives you time to learn more and to resolve the conflicts early. Therefore, it may not be surprising that after graduation, students who obtain field experience often have a smoother, easier transition to work, without the “reality shock” that other graduates often experience.

How to Find an Internship There are several ways to obtain an internship. The organization of field experiences varies by institution and department. Many departments have a faculty member who serves as a campus coordinator for field experience and internship programs. He or she makes sure that internship sites are appropriate, develops working relationship with them, and evaluates student performance. Other departments may not have one coordinator; in some cases, different faculty are responsible for each internship site, depending on their relationship with the site. Some colleges have an office that specializes in placing students

42  Part I •  Making Decisions About Psychology in internships. Sometimes these offices and opportunities are referred to as cooperative education. Typically these centers offer workshops or job expos in which employers visit the campus. Check with your advisor, another professor, or the career or co-operative education center at your institution. Some departments offer an internship course in which students are matched with applied settings and earn credit for their work. Other departments require students to find their own internships. If you are in this position, begin this process at least 2 to 3 months early because it takes time to locate a site, make contact and meet with the director, obtain a faculty supervisor, and get permission to proceed. For example, if you are interested in an internship at a social service agency, look up the social service agencies in your area, such as women’s centers, shelters, and not-for-profit agencies that help individuals and families. Sometimes professors have contacts at companies, such as alumni, who can direct you toward internship opportunities. E-mail the director and explain that you are a student and are looking for internship or, depending on the setting, volunteer opportunities and perhaps get course credit for your work. Attach a résumé (see Chapter 13). Alternatively, you might call and ask if they’d like more information. Anticipate meeting and interviewing with the agency staff. Be prepared to have a faculty member speak with the agency, vouching for you and taking responsibility for providing academic supervision.

Round Out Your Education You are more than your major. Your college major indicates your specialty, but much of what you learn in college will come from experiences that are outside of your major. Seek opportunities to learn about yourself and about career paths and recognize that opportunities often arise unexpectedly. We often don’t know when we will encounter an opportunity to learn about ourselves or our futures. Instead, successful students attempt to remain open to new perspectives and opportunities.

Participate in Extracurricular Activities Extracurricular activities, such as clubs, teams, and out-of-class activities, can help you develop useful teamwork and leadership skills and enhance your marketability. Similar to internships and work experience, extracurricular activities can give you opportunities to test career paths, develop contacts, and work on your communication and interpersonal skills. In addition, employers value volunteer work for campus and community organizations because it shows that you’re a good citizen. Take advantage of the extracurricular activities available at your institution. Extracurricular participation gives employers evidence about your leadership skills, your ability to work effectively in a group, and your initiative and motivation.

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Take Classes or a Minor in Another Discipline Take a range of classes. You’ll fulfill your college’s general education requirements and learn about areas in which you might want to major. If you find a class interesting, take another in that discipline. After you’ve considered where you’d like to be (i.e., your ultimate career goal), take a few elective courses outside of psychology that are specific to your goals. For example, if you plan to enter the business world, a course in management or accounting certainly wouldn’t hurt. If you would like a job in human services, take courses in social work, communication, criminal justice, sociology, or anthropology. Regardless of your career plans, classes and experiences that enhance your communication skills (e.g., courses in writing, speech, and communications; writing for the campus newspaper) are a good investment because employers view communication skills favorably. Consider learning a language. For example, the ability to speak Spanish is useful in all settings. Once you know what you’d like to do, consider adding a minor or even a double major to your curriculum to enhance your experience and skill set. For example, students interested in human resource careers might consider a business minor while those interested in law enforcement might consider a minor in justice and law administration. One survey of graduates with bachelor’s degrees in psychology found that the happiest and most successful graduates took coursework in a field related to their career—especially a minor or double major (Landrum, 2009). However, weigh the costs and benefits of a double major or minor given your situation. If it delays your graduation, can you afford the additional time and money to complete a double major?

Get Work Experience Employment is another source of applied experience. Psychology students often work in childcare, office, and retail settings. There is something to learn in every setting, but the students who benefit the most from employment are those who are aware of the skills they are developing and seek additional opportunities to learn. Most institutions offer on-campus work-study opportunities in which students are employed on campus for a set number of hours each week. The positions vary and students may be placed in any setting on campus. Work as an administrative assistant in an academic department or administrator’s office can give you the opportunity to learn what’s entailed in managing an office. Working in a high-traffic setting, such as the registrar’s or cashier’s office or the library, can put you in contact with many people—students, faculty, and administrators—and offer opportunities to practice and improve communication and interpersonal skills. Working as a tutor can help you to broaden your understanding of your field and learn how to teach and motivate others. Colleges with residential programs often offer students the opportunity to

44  Part I •  Making Decisions About Psychology serve as a resident assistant (RA), a peer leader who supervises and offers support to students living in an on-campus residence or dormitory. RAs are often students’ first stop for seeking help with a range of issues, such as resolving conflicts with peers and adjusting to college. They are involved in planning programs, disseminating information to students, and monitoring facilities. RAs develop skills in communication and interpersonal relations, planning and decision-making, and leadership.

EXERCISE 2.1 DEVELOPING SKILLS AND ACQUIRING EXPERIENCES Over the college years, your goal is to develop transferrable skills, obtain real-world experiences, and establish ongoing relationships with faculty. This exercise encourages you to consider these tasks.

Skill Development Consider how psychology majors can develop the following competencies desired by employers. For each competency, identify at least two psychology courses, two courses from other departments, and at least one out-of-class experience that can aid its development. 1. Interpersonal and teamwork skills 2. Thinking and problem-solving skills 3. Written communication skills 4. Data analysis skills 5. Computer literacy 6. Self-management and adaptability

Relationships With Faculty Learn about the faculty in your department. Visit the psychology department website and review faculty biographies. Visit their websites. Review their lists of publications. 1. Choose two or three faculty to study in more depth. Who are they and why did you choose them? 2. Next, choose one professor. Review his or her research. Look up the abstracts of articles that sound interesting. Write a two-sentence summary of the professor’s area of expertise and research. Do you find it interesting? Why or why not?

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3. If you’re interested in the professor’s work, read more and devise three questions to ask about his or her work. List them. 4. Visit the professor’s office hours to discuss his or her research. What did you learn? 5. Consider your overall impressions: How comfortable do you feel speaking with this faculty member? If you’re uncomfortable, try to identify why. 6. Complete this process for each faculty member, and you’ll begin to get ideas about which faculty you’re more inclined to work with. Discuss the results of this exploration.

Applied Experiences Identify specific opportunities for outside-of-class experience, through internships, work experience, or volunteer work. The psychology department course catalog and website, your advisor, and the career services office at your school are useful sources for completing this task. 1. Describe the opportunity. 2. Who do you contact to learn more? 3. When should you obtain this experience? How far ahead must you plan? 4. How will this experience enhance your education? What will you learn? What skills will you gain? What are the outcomes of this experience?

Suggested Reading Dunn, D. S., & Halonen, J. S. (2017). The psychology major’s companion: Everything you need to know to get where you want to go. New York, NY: Worth. Landrum, R. E., & Davis, S. F. (2014). The psychology major: Career options and strategies for success (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Silvia, P. J., Delaney, P. F., & Marcovitch, S. (2009). What psychology majors could (and should) be doing: An informal guide to research experience and professional skills. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Wegenek, A. R., & Buskist, W. (2012). The insider’s guide to the psychology major: Everything you need to know about the degree and profession. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

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Resources American Psychological Association http://www.apa.org American Psychological Society http://www.psychologicalscience.org APS Observer Student Notebook https://www.psychologicalscience.org/members/apssc/observer_student_ notebook Eye on Psi Chi https://www.psichi.org/page/eye_main#.XDOEee8KuZE.link Psychology Student Network http://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/psn

PART II

PracticeOriented Fields in Psychology

3 Clinical and Counseling Psychology Clinical Psychology Counseling Psychology Other Mental Health Professions Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree Human Services Worker Social Worker Substance Abuse Counselor Opportunities With a Graduate Degree Graduate Education and Training Considerations

D

Practice Program Development and Evaluation Administration Checklist 3.1: Is Clinical or Counseling Psychology for You? Exercise 3.1: Learning About Clinical and Counseling Psychology Suggested Reading Resources

id you know that 55% of psychology doctoral graduates are from the subfields of clinical, counseling, or school psychology (Christidis, Stamm, & Lin, 2016)? Why are these subfields so popular? Many students explain their career choices by stating simply, “I want to help people.” The mental health service provider subfields afford students opportunities to gain specialized skills and knowledge that can assist people suffering from mental illness, emotional or behavioral problems, or other psychological distress. Because the mental health service field is so large, we’ll discuss it within the next two 48

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chapters; in this chapter we examine clinical and counseling psychology, and in Chapter 4 we’ll explore the subfield of school psychology. Do clinical and counseling psychologists do the same thing? Do they have the same jobs? If not, how are they different? These are important questions for students at the baccalaureate, master’s, and doctoral levels considering careers as mental health service providers. Before reviewing the two subdisciplines of clinical and counseling psychology, it is worth exploring the question of how are they different. Results of empirical research suggest that there are few quantitative differences between clinical psychology PhD, PsyD, and counseling psychology PhD programs (Morgan & Cohen, 2008). In fact, there appear to be greater discrepancies within each specialty than between the two specialties of clinical and counseling psychology. Nevertheless, there are subtle differences in training requirements as well as historical and philosophical differences (see Morgan & Cohen, 2008).

Clinical Psychology Clinical psychology is the integration of science, theory, and practice to explain and understand, predict, and alleviate psychological problems and distress, as well as promote healthy human development. Assessment and diagnosis, intervention or treatment, consultation, research, and application of ethical and professional principles are the necessary skills historically developed by training in clinical psychology, with more modern training focused on cutting-edge science and practice issues such as neuroscience, cognitive science, genetics, and psychopharmacology, to list a few examples (McFall, 2006). Clinical psychologists work to help people alleviate distress or to improve their functioning via (1) psychological practice, or the provision of services such as assessment, diagnosis, and treatment (for example, psychotherapy); (2) consultation; or (3) by conducting research aimed at understanding human phenomena with the goal of helping people. But where are clinical psychologists found and how do they spend their time? Primary employment settings of clinical psychologists include private practice (41%), university settings (26%), outpatient clinics and community mental health centers (6%), medical schools (8%), Veterans Affairs (VA) Medical Centers (5%), hospital settings (4%), and “other” settings such as correctional facilities, child and family services, rehabilitation centers, and so on (8%) (Norcross & Karpiak, 2012). Clinical psychologists spend approximately 35% of their time involved in direct client intervention (for example, psychotherapy) and approximately 14% of their time in assessment- and diagnostic-related activities (Norcross & Karpiak, 2012). Somewhat less frequent activities of clinical psychologists include research/writing activities (15%), administrative responsibilities (11%), teaching (11%), supervision of other mental health service providers (6%), and professional consultation (6%).

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Counseling Psychology Counseling psychologists, like their clinical psychology colleagues, work to alleviate distress and emotional or behavioral difficulties associated with psychological problems; however, counseling psychology maintains an equal focus on helping people improve their well-being across the lifespan, including emotional, social, vocational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns. Additionally, counseling psychologists have been instrumental in sensitizing psychologists to an understanding and appreciation of human diversity, particularly as multicultural issues relate to human functioning. Defined more simply, counseling psychology is a field of study that works to improve human functioning, either by enhancing current functioning or by alleviating distress. The roots of counseling psychology can be found in five unifying themes: (1) focus on intact or normative functioning rather than profoundly disturbed functioning; (2) focus on the client’s assets and strengths, and positive mental health; (3) emphasis on brief interventions (for example, fewer than 15 counseling sessions); (4) emphasis on person-environment interactions, rather than a focus on person or environment as separate entities; and (5) emphasis on educational and career development and vocational environments. Counseling psychologists are more likely to identify themselves primarily as practitioners, although some counseling psychologists pursue academic careers. Surveys of psychologist service providers (counseling as well as clinical), suggest that nearly one-half work in private practice, about one-quarter in hospitals or organized human service settings, one-fifth in college and other education settings, and about 10% in other work settings such as government or business (Hamp, Stamm, Lin, & Christidis, 2016).

Other Mental Health Professions It is also worth noting that there are mental health professions that are not based in the discipline of psychology. That is, some mental health training does not have psychology as the disciplinary root. Many students may find marriage and family therapy (MFT) programs, licensed professional counselor (LPC) programs, and social work programs a better fit for their career interests. A student in one of these programs may earn a doctoral-level degree (for example, a PhD or EdD), but a terminal master’s degree (MS or MA) is more common. Licensure as a mental health professional (for example, an LPC or a licensed master social worker [LMSW]) is then typically required to provide counseling or related clinical services. MFT programs provide students training in brief and solution-focused counseling with training in family systems. MFTs assess and treat family relationships and dynamics contributing to distress, rather than distress at the unit

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or individual level. MFTs are not limited to treating family-related concerns, child-parent conflict, and marital distress; they also treat individually experienced problems, including psychopathology (e.g., depression, anxiety) and general psychological distress. After graduating with a master’s or doctoral degree, MFTs must pursue state licensure to practice. A baccalaureate in psychology provides excellent preparatory work for graduate training in MFT. For more information, visit the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy website (https://www.aamft.org/). Social work is quite possibly the broadest of the mental health professions. Social workers provide counseling and therapeutic services to help clients with everyday problems and concerns, personal or emotional problems, psychopathology, and relationship and family problems; however, they are uniquely trained to assist in case management including helping clients obtain federal and statement benefits (e.g., housing accommodation, disability benefits). An advantage of a career in social work is that the master’s of social work degree (MSW) is the entry-level degree with state licensure having reciprocity across the country, making for easy mobility (reciprocity refers to obtaining licensure in one state essentially being accepted in a subsequent state to facilitate ease of movement across state lines). Those with a PhD in social work are more likely to seek academic than clinical positions. Social workers are prominent in most health and mental health settings, so the job market remains very strong for this discipline. Although an undergraduate major in social work is the degree of choice for entering a graduate program in social work, supplementing this with psychology coursework (such as Abnormal Psychology and Introduction to Interviewing and Counseling types of courses may prove particularly valuable). For more information on social work careers, please visit the National Association of Social Workers website (https://www.socialworkers.org/). LPCs obtain a master’s degree in counseling or a counseling-related field (including a master’s degree in clinical and counseling psychology, as psychologists at the master’s level are not licensed in most states). A doctoral degree is not recommended for those seeking to practice; rather, pursuing a PhD in counseling is for those interested in pursuing an academic or research career. LPCs provide counseling services to help clients with a myriad of problems, including emotional distress, psychopathology, and behavioral problems. They work with individuals, couples, families, or groups (i.e., group counseling). LPCs are licensed at the state level and can practice independently (private practice), but most LPCs are employed in various state and federal agencies (e.g., community mental health centers, schools, psychiatric units, correctional facilities, etc.). For more information on LPC careers, readers should visit the American Counseling Association website (https://www.counseling.org/). As is likely obvious from the above descriptions, there is significant overlap between marriage and family therapy, licensed professional counselors, social work, and clinical and counseling psychology, in the form of professional

52  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology services provided and employment settings. The primary distinction with regard to clinical services is that psychologists are trained to administer and interpret psychological tests. Additionally, psychology-based programs at the master’s and doctoral levels typically place greater emphasis on conducting research. This is not to say that students in other mental health programs are not trained in research—they are, particularly at the doctoral level; however, research appears to be more heavily emphasized in clinical and counseling psychology training programs than in other mental health training programs. Regarding employment settings, these mental health professionals overlap with clinical and counseling psychologists and will be found in community mental health centers, psychiatric hospitals, private practice, medical facilities, correctional facilities, family services, and rehabilitation agencies.

Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree Although a graduate degree is the entry-level degree to practice professional psychology, several opportunities to help people exist for undergraduate psychology majors who choose not to pursue graduate education. Let’s take a look at service opportunities for bachelor’s degree holders in psychology.

Human Services Worker Human services workers (also referred to as social service assistants or human service assistants) occupy a range of positions, including social service worker, case management aide, social work assistant, community support worker, mental health aide, community outreach worker, life skills counselor, youth worker, psychological aide, client advocate, and gerontology aide. Human services workers provide services, both direct and indirect, to clients, which typically include assessing clients’ needs and eligibility for services, helping clients obtain services (for example, food stamps, Medicaid, transportation, and other human services programs), and providing emotional support (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). In community settings (such as group homes or government-supported housing programs), human services workers assist clients in need of counseling, assist with daily living skills, and organize group activities. In clinical settings (for example, psychiatric hospitals and outpatient clinics), human services workers support clients’ participation in treatment plans, assist with daily living skills, help clients communicate more effectively, and promote social functioning (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). An advantage to a position in human services is the opportunity to help others in need. Social service positions such as case workers and human services workers are expected to grow much more rapidly than the average for all occupations through 2026 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Given extended life expectancies, there is likely to be an increasing need for human or social service workers with interests in the geriatric population. Long hours,

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understaffing, difficult cases, and low income often lead to burnout. A human services worker with a bachelor’s degree and no experience can expect to earn about $26,000 per year (Salary.com, 2018). With experience, a human services worker can advance to supervisory positions with an average salary of about $40,000 per year. Notably, positions with local and state governments tend to offer better salaries and benefits than individual or family service agencies, vocational rehabilitation agencies, or residential mental health, substance abuse, and mental retardation facilities. Career Profile 3.1 illustrates a career in case management.

Social Worker Although a degree in social work is sometimes a prerequisite, entry-level social worker positions often can be obtained with a bachelor’s degree in psychology. Social workers aim to help people improve their lives through counseling and identifying needed resources (such as housing or food stamps). Frequent duties include providing individual and group counseling sessions and identifying federal and state program assistance as needed (for example, housing assistance, disability benefits, food stamps, and so on). Social workers are employed in a variety of settings, such as hospitals, schools, community mental health centers, social service agencies, and courts and correctional institutions; thus, social workers can seek settings that best suit their needs and abilities. Salaries for bachelor’s-level social workers average about $50,000 (Salary.com, 2018). Master’s-level social workers earned an average salary of about $63,000 in 2018. However, salaries vary with experience, employer, and geographic location. For example, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2018), social workers at all educational levels earned a median salary of $47,980 in 2017. Employment of social workers is expected to increase by up to 16% by 2026, which is much more quickly than the average career (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). A primary benefit of this career is the satisfaction of helping people at the grassroots level. Challenges include stress and feelings of helplessness resulting from difficulty identifying or securing appropriate resources for clients. Although it is possible to obtain many social work positions with a bachelor’s degree, continuing education in the form of a part-time master’s program will increase your job security, opportunities for advancement, and ability to start a private practice. Salary will also increase with increased education. All states have licensing or certification requirements for private practice and the use of the title “social worker.” Standards for licensing vary by state, so it’s a good idea to check with your school’s career development office and the Association of Social Work Boards (http://www.aswb.org/), to ensure that you are not disappointed.

Substance Abuse Counselor Although most counseling professions require graduate degrees (a master’s degree at minimum) for employment, substance abuse counselors are an

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CAREER PROFILE 3.1 CLINICAL AND COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY: IRENE DUFFY Who Am I? My name is Irene Duffy and I am a 26-year-old woman who received my bachelor’s of science in psychology from the University of Idaho in Moscow, Idaho. During my baccalaureate training, I was a member of the university’s marching band, the Student Alumni Relations Board, and Kappa Gamma Sorority. As a senior, I volunteered with the Companion Program—a community-based network in which I was partnered with individuals suffering from a mental illness. I assisted these individuals in managing their symptoms and behaviors within the community.

Putting Psychology to Work I am currently employed as an adult psychiatric case manager for an outpatient psychiatric clinic in Boise, Idaho, funded by state Medicaid. I have held this position for approximately 2 years. My primary job responsibilities include monitoring service delivery from providers for treatment efficacy and to prevent duplication of services, documenting interactions between providers and clients, tracking treatment progress according to state and agency guidelines, completing required documentation for intake and ongoing services (e.g., records collection to verify diagnosis and treatment plans), and conducting assessments for service collaboration. I also coordinate annual and semi-annual reviews with clients and modify treatment plans as necessary to ensure that client needs are met.

How I Got Here Prior to my present employment, I worked as an after-school program supervisor with children ages 6 to 12 years through a community center in Boise, served as a member for the AmeriCorps City Year program, and spent several years as a youth summer camp counselor.

Inside My Job: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly The most enjoyable aspect of my job is knowing every day that I am helping others live a better, healthier life. The least enjoyable aspect of my job is keeping track of all the paperwork and rules! For example, there are many state Medicaid regulations that are constantly changing. I also find that it can be difficult not to take adverse attitudes and behaviors of clients personally. I recommend remaining cognizant of the fact that many such behaviors are a product of their mental illness or medication side effects. Additionally,

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it is often challenging to remember the importance of self-care. Anytime you work with people or for people, it’s easy to find yourself worrying about things out of your control, talking about your work stress outside of work, or working harder than your client to get things accomplished. You are just as important as your job. While we’d all like to think that we can fix all the world’s problems in a day, it just simply won’t happen, and you’re not a failure if you don’t.

Take It From Me . . . My background in psychology definitely gave me an edge as a case manager. I was familiar with the DSM-IV so I was able to recognize what symptoms and behaviors were common with my clients. My education in psychology also provided me with knowledge about effective coping strategies that enable me to assist clients through crisis situations. My ability to convey understanding, patience, and empathy to those around me has also contributed to my success. My advice to undergraduate students pursuing a similar career path is to get experience early. Working in the mental health field during my baccalaureate training helped me understand the types of behaviors and symptoms that people with mental illnesses present with. I see too many people get lured in by the idea of setting their own hours and “fixing people” who later become burnt out because they are unsure how to handle an actively psychotic individual with schizophrenia. Before starting this job, I wish I’d had a greater understanding about how to set boundaries and manage my time at work. There were too many nights in the beginning where I would stay far too late trying to fix all the world’s problems before I went home. I would then go home and worry about all the things that I had not been able to get to that day. I was also a big pushover when I started, allowing everyone else’s poor planning to become my crisis. The fact of the matter is, I’m only one person and tomorrow is always going to be there. Poor planning on someone else’s behalf should never become your crisis. If you are on top your work, why take on others’ burdens? By setting these boundaries with my clients and coworkers, I have developed a better relationship with all, and I would like to think that my clients are more independent because I do not enable them, but rather give them the resources to do things independently.

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56  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology exception. Substance abuse counselors provide counseling or rehabilitation services in residential treatment programs or as part of comprehensive outpatient substance abuse programs. The substance abuse counselor often is the primary therapist working with clients on their alcohol or drug dependence or abuse. Substance abuse counselors may spend their days facilitating therapy groups (particularly focused on educating clients about addiction and its related problems), as well as meeting individually with clients. Individual sessions allow therapists one-on-one time to focus on a client’s specific problems. The demand for drug and alcohol abuse counselors is strong, with an expected growth of 23% by 2026 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). The median salary for substance abuse counselors in 2018 was about $45,000 (Salary.com, 2018). Similar to social worker positions, higher salaries for substance abuse counselors typically come with a master’s degree. Job availability and salary vary across the country, so examine the range of opportunities in your desired location as you plan for a career as a substance abuse counselor. As with other mental health positions, one of the primary benefits of this career lies in the opportunity to assist people who are in desperate need of help. In addition, the opportunity to enter the helping field at the baccalaureate level is attractive for students who want to enter the mental health profession but don’t want to go to graduate school. Limitations of this career choice include the difficulty of professional advancement at the bachelor’s level and the challenges of working with substance abusers, who often are resistant to change. Substance abuse counselors often are employed at the associate or bachelor’s level, with certification. The requirements for certification as a drug and alcohol abuse counselor vary by state. Some states accept national accreditation (offered by NAADAC, the National Association for Addiction Professionals); however, other states maintain their own accreditation requirements. Most states require the completion of four courses in drug and alcohol abuse counseling and 300 to 600 hours of supervised training. For more information about certification as a drug and alcohol abuse counselor, contact NAADAC (http:// www.naadac.org). Table 3.1 presents suggested coursework and applied experiences that will prepare you for careers in fields related to clinical and counseling psychology. Although applied career opportunities exist for students who earn a bachelor’s degree in psychology, many more opportunities exist for those earning a graduate degree. For example, students completing their masters (MA, MS), PhD, or PsyD may pursue applied careers as practitioners, program developers or evaluators, or consultants.

Opportunities With a Graduate Degree Your career options and financial prospects in clinical- and counseling-related careers expand dramatically with a graduate degree in psychology. Before we discuss graduate-level careers for students with interests in clinical and

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TABLE 3.1  ●  P  reparation for Bachelor’s-Level Careers Related to Clinical and Counseling Psychology Coursework • Abnormal Psychology or Psychopathology • Communications • Community Mental Health • Developmental Psychology • Family Systems • Interviewing, Counseling, or Helping Skills • Professional Issues • Psychological Assessment • Psychopharmacology • Social Work • Substance Abuse • Writing Applied Experiences Volunteer opportunities, internships/practica, or paid part-time positions in any of the following settings: • Any mental health setting • Big Brother/Big Sister programs • Boys and Girls Clubs • Inpatient psychiatric unit • Mental retardation facility • Residential treatment facilities • Substance abuse center Research Experiences* Experiences studying and participating in research in any of the following areas: • Study of abnormal behavior research • Psychopathology research • Substance abuse research • Specific disorders (for example, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression, or anxiety) • Any treatment-, assessment-, or diagnostic-oriented research *Note that the content area of the research is less important than the experience itself, which enhances reasoning, quantitative, writing, and organizational skills.

58  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology counseling psychology, let’s take a look at graduate training and related issues. Students interested in these fields have several choices with regard to training. Following our discussion of graduate education in clinical and counseling psychology, we discuss three career trajectories for applied psychologists: practice, program development and evaluation, and administration.

Graduate Education and Training Considerations Do your homework before entering graduate programs in counseling or clinical psychology. The most successful students are those who enter programs that are right for them (meaning there is a good fit between the type of graduate program and their professional interests). As you read this book, you will realize that there are many different types of graduate programs available to you, such as clinical and counseling but also nonservice fields such as experimental psychology. In this chapter, we examine the issue of choosing a graduate program in clinical or counseling psychology, but we recognize that the decisionmaking process is similar in other fields (see Chapter 15 for more about applying to graduate school). Critically evaluate programs in light of your interests and career goals. Ask yourself: • Do I understand the differences between the various programs? (How are clinical and counseling psychology different? What is a combined program?) • What type of degree program is right for me (for example, PhD or PsyD)? • How do I get licensed after graduation? • Are there other practice-related issues of which I should be aware?

Differentiating Clinical and Counseling Psychology As we have discussed, counseling and clinical psychology overlap yet are distinct fields with different emphases. It has commonly been suggested that one difference between the two disciplines is that clinical psychology is based on the medical model (meaning assess, diagnose, and treat an ailment), whereas counseling psychology is less pathology focused and favors a holistic perspective emphasizing all aspects of a client’s life. Not surprisingly, counseling psychologists, compared to their clinical psychology counterparts, tend to work with healthier individuals who are experiencing less psychopathology or distress. Consistent with a holistic perspective across the lifespan, counseling psychologists are more likely to conduct career and vocational assessments, whereas clinical psychologists focus on providing assessment and diagnosing pathology for treatment purposes (meaning the medical model). Counseling

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psychologists tend to be employed in university counseling centers more often than clinical psychologists, whereas clinical psychologists are more likely to be employed in hospital settings; however, based on the employment data noted above, some of these employment differences appear to be more historically correct than currently reflected. Another difference between the disciplines of clinical and counseling psychology is found in therapists’ theoretical orientations. Clinical psychologists are more likely to endorse a behavioral or psychodynamic theoretical orientation, whereas their counseling psychology colleagues are more likely to endorse a person-centered (or Rogerian) theoretical orientation. With regard to training, results of empirical research suggest that there are few differences in clinical psychology PhD, PsyD, and counseling psychology PhD programs (Morgan & Cohen, 2008). Given the few differences between training in clinical and counseling psychology, there appears to be more variation within each specialty than between the two specialties. Despite this, there are subtle differences in training requirements (see Morgan & Cohen, 2008, for a detailed description of these differences) as well as historical and philosophical differences. Carefully evaluate each subdiscipline and each program to determine how each fits your interests and needs.

Opportunities for Graduate Education If you’re planning to seek graduate training in clinical or counseling psychology, understand that there is a large discrepancy in the number of graduate programs for each discipline. As of this writing, there are 237 American Psychological Association (APA)–accredited doctoral programs in clinical psychology compared to 76 APA-accredited doctoral programs in counseling psychology. It is not surprising that clinical and counseling psychology students accounted for 50% of all psychology doctorate degrees granted in 2013 (Christidis et al., 2016). Both clinical and counseling psychology programs remain very competitive for admission, with admission rates of 11% for clinical psychology programs and 12% for counseling psychology programs in 2015–2016 (Michalski, Cope, & Fowler, 2017). Admission criteria for clinical and counseling psychology programs are very similar. One important difference is in the percentage of students admitted with a master’s degree versus a bachelor’s degree. Historically, counseling psychology programs are much more likely to admit a student who has already obtained a master’s degree than are clinical psychology PhD programs, which tend to admit students who have a bachelor’s degree. Counseling psychology programs also appear to be more ethnically diverse than their clinical counterparts (Morgan & Cohen, 2008). Less common than clinical and counseling programs are combined programs that integrate training from two or three of the subfields (counseling, school, and clinical psychology programs) without distinguishing among the disciplines. In other words, students in combined programs are trained in the

60  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology principles of each of the specified subfields (for example, both clinical and school subfields). It should be noted that all combined programs are not alike; some integrate all three of the applied psychology disciplines (clinical, school, and counseling), whereas other programs incorporate either clinical or counseling psychology with school psychology. Although fewer combined programs (13 as of this writing) exist compared to traditional counseling and clinical psychology programs, combined programs may offer increased diversity and a broader-based training experience for students; however, this has not been empirically examined.

PhD Versus PsyD Degrees There are two types of doctoral degrees that a student interested in clinical or counseling psychology may obtain: the PhD and PsyD. How can we distinguish between these degrees? The first level of distinction can be found in their history. Generally speaking, the history of the PsyD is in training practitioners; thus, graduate training focuses more heavily on service provision than research (in other words, clinicians are generally taught to be consumers rather than producers of research). The history of the PhD, on the other hand, is based equally on science and practice (the so-called scientist-practitioner model), and PhD programs thus provide a greater focus on research skills than do PsyD programs. Students earning a PhD complete a doctoral dissertation based in empirical research, whereas a nonempirical written project is often sufficient to complete requirements for the PsyD. Alternatively, students in PsyD programs often accrue many more hours of clinical experience than do students in PhD programs. So how do you know which degree is for you? We recommend you consider two key issues. First, what do you hope to be doing in 10 years? Although programs offering both the PhD and PsyD train students to be clinicians, PhD programs are more likely to train students to be scientists. If you’re interested in becoming a practitioner and seek a program that emphasizes practice, the PsyD may fit your needs. However, if you’re interested in developing your skills as a scientist-practitioner (that is, as a scientist and a clinician), then the PhD is in order. Professional schools offering the PsyD degree typically admit many more students per year than do universitybased PhD programs (with one estimate of four times more students in PsyD as compared with PhD programs; American Psychological Association Center for Workforce Studies, 2011). The second issue to consider is whether you prefer to attend a professional school or a more traditional university. The majority of, albeit not all, PsyD programs are housed in professional schools, whereas programs offering the PhD are primarily housed in major state or private universities. What’s the difference? We’ve already discussed the philosophical differences between the PhD and PsyD, but there’s one more difference to consider: finances. Universities and private school–based PhD programs generally are less expensive and offer

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more funding to students. Professional schools, on the other hand, are not only more expensive but also tend to offer less financial assistance in the form of research and teaching assistantships. Consequently, graduates from PsyD programs tend to have more debt upon graduation than those in PhD programs. We discuss considerations in graduate study (including financial considerations) in Chapter 15. Finally, we recommend that prospective students examine the disclosure data for any APA-accredited program to which you consider applying. It is now an accreditation requirement that programs report (usually on their program website) outcome data such as graduate rate, employment rate, licensure rate, and so forth. These data will help students identify programs that best suit their graduate school and long-term professional needs.

Licensure The title of “psychologist” is protected; in order to provide psychological services (meaning therapy, assessment, or consultation) as a psychologist, you must be licensed in the state in which you wish to practice. Each state has a slightly different path to licensure; however, the basic process is roughly equivalent for all states. First, a potential licensee must complete a doctoral program in clinical or counseling psychology (in a small minority of states, master’s-level psychologists can seek licensure). Most states require that the doctoral degree is obtained in a program accredited by the APA, thereby certifying its rigor and training emphases, but it is possible in some states to seek licensure with a degree from a program that is not APA accredited. In addition to a doctoral degree, at least 2 years of supervised practice are required. Historically, most students complete the first year as part of their degree requirements, such as a 1-year full-time internship (or a 2-year parttime internship) in which they receive supervision for providing psychological services (for example, therapy, assessment, or crisis intervention). After completion of the doctoral degree (including completion of the internship), the licensee would acquire an additional year of supervised experience. This experience can be in the form of a formal postdoctoral program, but it can also be less structured (for example, in a private practice setting) as long as it includes providing psychological services under the supervision of a doctoral-level licensed psychologist. Although this model remains the majority licensure model, there is movement to license psychologists who complete all clinical training and experience prior to graduation. This would allow graduates to be immediately eligible for licensure. This licensure model is consistent with the medical field, in which medical doctors are eligible for full practice benefits immediately upon graduation. Notably, several states have or are in the process of instituting this new licensure model (see the APA Model Act for State Licensure of Psychologists for more information).

62  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology After all degree and supervision requirements are met, the next step is to apply for licensure, which entails a national written examination and a jurisprudence examination. The national examination is multiple choice, covering a broad range of issues and topics relevant to the practice of psychology. Because this is a national examination, the test is written for licensure applicants in all states and is thus of a generalist nature. A 70% accuracy rate is necessary to pass in most states, although states vary slightly in score requirements. The jurisprudence examination is also a written test; however, it is specific to the rules and regulations of psychological practice as well as licensure laws of each state. Thus, if you’re applying for licensure in California, you will be asked questions regarding California law and professional rules and regulations, but if you’re applying for licensure in New York, you’ll answer questions about New York statutes and professional rules and regulations. After completion of the written examinations, many states require an additional oral examination in which licensees are presented with a case vignette and asked questions regarding diagnosis, treatment planning, and ethical concerns, as well as what multicultural issues might impact the case. As you can see, the process of obtaining licensure is time-consuming; it’s also costly. For example, in Texas the expense of pursuing licensure from start to finish costs approximately $1,500 after the examination and application fees. Furthermore, the expense and time commitment increases if a licensee doesn’t pass a particular examination and therefore must repeat it (people fail the exams for various reasons). Despite the challenge of seeking licensure, it enables you to earn your stripes, so to speak. With licensure you are eligible to practice psychology without supervision.

Practice Undoubtedly, the greatest number of applied psychologists use their knowledge and skills as practitioners. As previously noted, practitioners work in a variety of settings, including private practices, hospitals and medical centers, community mental health centers, schools, university or college counseling centers, criminal justice settings, and specialty clinics, to name just a few examples. In addition to selecting the setting where they will practice, psychologists also have an opportunity to decide if they want to specialize in a particular kind of client or problem. For example, some practitioners prefer to specialize in forensic or sport psychology, whereas other psychologists prefer to specialize in a particular type of presenting problem (for example, ­depression, anxiety, or relationships). One of the primary benefits of a graduate degree in clinical or counseling psychology is the flexibility to pursue career opportunities that match one’s own interests and skills or abilities. Advanced degrees also afford practitioners salaries that are competitive with other psychology-related positions. In 2015, the median salary of all clinical and counseling (and school) psychologists (regardless of experience) was $85,000 (Lin et al., 2017).

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Another benefit for those interested in the practice of psychology is the expansion of the field. Psychology continues to break new ground, and recent advances include delivering mental health services via telehealth and legislated prescription privileges. Work with apps and other technological innovations will continue to alter the professional landscape, and those willing to embrace a new type of psychology will find a plethora of opportunities. Although the days of seeing individual clients in one’s private office are not extinct, neither is this type of service delivery necessarily the all-encompassing method of mental health services in the future. This is exciting for current students; innovative opportunities abound for those of you with imagination and foresight.

Program Development and Evaluation In addition to direct service delivery, clinical and counseling psychologists often pursue career opportunities in program development and evaluation. Psychologists may choose to develop the programs that schools or community placements offer, for example, rather than being the practitioner who provides the service. Careers in program development and evaluation offer several benefits that practitioners don’t always have. First is the opportunity to identify and develop the types of programs that are warranted for a particular agency or type of client. Working at the grassroots level such as this can be extremely rewarding, especially when a program is successful in helping the intended audience. Second, program developers avoid the stress of daily service provision to clients. On the other hand, psychologists involved in program development may miss the intimate contact and satisfaction from client progress that practitioners experience regularly. Typically, psychologists who take positions in program evaluation work as research associates at nonprofit organizations or as consultants. We discuss research careers in a variety of settings, including salaries, in Chapter 14.

Administration In addition to careers in practice or as researchers, many clinical and counseling psychologists choose careers in administration. Administrators may be specialists who manage clinical services, or generalists who manage an entire agency or organization. Administrators are responsible for overseeing the operation of an agency, including staffing and budget issues, health care delivery systems and technological advances, as well as daily operations (for example, mental health service delivery). If you’re interested in a career in administration, take additional coursework in business administration, finance, and management. Psychologists work in administrative roles within hospitals and clinics, community mental health centers and community organizations, correctional

64  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology and rehabilitation centers, and nursing homes, to name just a few examples. Administrative positions in medical and mental health settings offered a median salary of $98,000 in 2017, and jobs in this area are expected to grow faster than the average through 2026 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Another benefit of an administrative career is the direct influence administrators have on the services an organization delivers and the care clients or patients receive. On the other hand, administrative work typically requires long hours and has jobrelated stress, particularly when dealing with personnel and budgetary issues. In this chapter we’ve covered just a few of the myriad possibilities available with a bachelor’s degree in psychology or a graduate degree in clinical or counseling psychology. Much of the remainder of this book highlights additional clinical-oriented opportunities, including legal and forensic psychology (Chapter 5), health psychology (Chapter 6), and sport psychology (Chapter 7), to name just a few.

CHECKLIST 3.1 IS CLINICAL OR COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY FOR YOU? Do you: ❑ Like working with people? ❑ Have an interest in helping people with problems? ❑ Want to work with healthy people to improve their current functioning? ❑ Have an interest in why people do the things they do? ❑ Have an interest in identifying people’s abilities or personality functioning? ❑ Think you would enjoy working in a hospital, clinic, university counseling center, or other health care setting? ❑ Find that you are a person others feel comfortable talking to about their problems? ❑ Find yourself interested in other people’s problems? ❑ Have good listening skills and avoid tuning out when people talk about their lives? ❑ Have an interest in mental illness? ❑ Enjoy reading about abnormal psychology? ❑ Enjoy reading research about mental illness? ❑ Think you would enjoy a career providing psychotherapy and assessment?

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❑ Have an interest in applied research that can be used to better people’s lives? ❑ Keep secrets and protect information that others feel is personal? ❑ Find that people consider you trustworthy? ❑ Have compassion and feel for other people when they are suffering? Scoring: The more boxes you checked, the more likely it is that you’re a good match for clinical or counseling psychology.

EXERCISE 3.1 LEARNING ABOUT CLINICAL AND COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY Search online for information about either clinical or counseling psychology. Respond to the following: 1. Identify two useful websites for someone interested in this topic. 2. List some of the topics that psychologists in this field study. 3. Identify two researchers in this field. What do they study? 4. Identify two books that, based on the table of contents, description, and perhaps a perusal of Google Books, might provide useful information about this topic.

Considering Careers in Clinical and Counseling Psychology Identify a career option for someone interested in either of these fields (either one that we have discussed or another). Conduct a search on a job search website, such as Indeed.com, LinkedIn.com, Glassdoor.com, or any of the many other job search sites online. Locate one or two job ads that appeal to you. Answer the following for each: 1. What is the job? 2. What education or experience requirements are listed? 3. What skills are needed to succeed in the job? If the ad does not list them (and it likely will not), brainstorm what skills would be coveted by the employer. (Continued)

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(Continued) 4. Consider the assessments that you conducted in Chapter 1. What is your skill set? How does it compare with that needed for the job? 5. What skills might you improve to enhance your fit to the job? 6. List courses or a minor that might improve your fit to the position. 7. Describe applied experiences, such as internships, that might prepare you for this position.

Suggested Reading Helkowski, C. (2018). SAGE guide to careers for counseling and clinical practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Hodges, S. (2018). 101 careers in counseling (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Springer. Metz, K. (2016). Careers in mental health: Opportunities in psychology, counseling, and social work. Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons.

Resources Considering Graduate Study in Clinical Psychology http://www.wcas.northwestern.edu/psych/undergraduate_studies/considering_ graduate_study_in_clinical_psychology/index.html Society of Clinical Psychology Division 12 of the American Psychological Association http://www.div12.org/ Society of Counseling Psychology Division 17 of the American Psychological Association http://www.div17.org/

4 School Psychology School Psychology Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree Teacher Childcare Worker Teaching Assistant Early Childhood Behavior Specialist Opportunities With a Graduate Degree

School Psychologist School Counselor Checklist 4.1: Is School Psychology for You? Exercise 4.1: Learning About School Psychology Suggested Reading Resources

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s we discussed in Chapter 3, the majority of psychology graduate students specialize in the mental health service provider subfields. We have discussed the fields of clinical and counseling psychology, but for those interested in working with children, school psychology is an attractive third mental health service provider subfield in psychology. School psychology offers unique training and professional opportunities that diverge from those of counseling and clinical psychology.

School Psychology School psychology overlaps with clinical and counseling psychology with regard to job activities, but school psychologists work with a more specific population. Trained in both psychology and education, school psychologists work

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68  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology with children, families, and school systems. Consistent with the title “school psychologist,” the majority of school psychologists are found in school districts or school systems. School psychologists are also employed in clinics (such as community mental health centers), medical centers, correctional facilities, colleges and universities, and private practices. School psychologists provide assessment and treatment services for children and families, consult with teachers and school officials, develop and evaluate programs, conduct research, and promote health in children and adolescents. They work with children and adolescents who present a broad array of psychological needs that are of a developmental or school-related nature. Typical presenting problems school psychologists work with include the following: fears about starting school, time management and study skills deficits, family and relationship problems, psychopathology (such as depression or anxiety), drug and alcohol problems, developmental and life-stage problems (for example, sexuality, college, and work issues), and concerns regarding academic aptitude and intellectual abilities. The school psychologist’s task is to help families, teachers, and the educational system understand and resolve these problems while promoting the child’s overall health and development.

Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree Many psychology students are interested in working with and helping children and adolescents. If these are your interests, consider a career in teaching, school counseling, or childcare.

Teacher Few career paths enable you to have as much day-to-day contact with children as teaching. Teachers clearly need an understanding of behavior, learning, and development. If you’re interested in a position where you can make a difference in the lives of others, consider teaching. Given your school experiences, you’re probably aware of the instructional duties required of teachers, but there are many other duties and obligations that occupy a teacher’s day. Teachers are responsible for supervising study halls, homerooms, and extracurricular activities, all of which provide extended contact with students and therefore afford teachers the opportunity to identify physical or mental health problems and refer the child for the appropriate services. Thus, a background in psychology (e.g., a minor) may assist teachers, not only in their work in the classroom but also in identifying and helping students who are experiencing problems. The average income for elementary, middle, and high school teachers was about $58,000 in 2017, usually for 9 months of work (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Salaries vary with geographical location, academic level, and school system. An important benefit of a teaching career is time off. Schools

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routinely allow for traditional holidays (such as Thanksgiving), with extended holiday leave around Hanukkah and Christmas (approximately 2 weeks) as well as spring and (of increasing frequency) fall breaks. So, during the 9-month academic year, it is reasonable that an educator may expect to receive anywhere from 3 to 5 weeks of time off. In addition, as the educator is tied to a 9-month salary, summers are unaccounted for. This allows for extra vacation time, pursuit of additional occupational interests, family time, or any other number of ways in which you wish to spend time. As we’ve indicated, the primary benefit of a career as a schoolteacher may be the opportunity to be involved in and influence the lives of the children or adolescents who will lead our country into the future. As a schoolteacher, you’ll have the opportunity to make a difference in a young person’s life. The primary drawback to a career as a schoolteacher is the limited availability for professional advancement. Although some opportunities exist for advancement (for example, administrator, teaching mentor), these positions are less common than teaching positions and require additional education. Thus, most schoolteachers remain in the classroom for the majority of their careers, which may lead to burnout for some. If you’re considering a career as a schoolteacher, understand that all teaching positions require the completion of a bachelor’s degree and an approved teacher education program, plus certification, which is obtained after completing a specified number of courses in education and passing a standardized exam. An education major usually is not required as long as the required classes and experiences are obtained. Many universities offer a 1-year program for bachelor’s degree holders who wish to respecialize and become teachers. The exact requirements for becoming a teacher vary by state, so consult your advisor and the Education Department at your college or university.

Childcare Worker Students who are interested in school psychology often seek positions as childcare workers in childcare centers, nursery schools, preschools, public schools, private homes, and after-school programs. Childcare workers care for children and engage them in activities that promote their development while their parents are at work. They teach children and stimulate physical, emotional, intellectual, and social development. They keep records on children’s progress and maintain contact with parents to discuss children’s needs and progress. In other words, childcare workers provide children with care and opportunities to learn through play and more formal activities. As a childcare worker, you’ll prepare day-to-day and long-term schedules of activities that include quiet and active time and individual and group play. Childcare is strenuous work that can be physically and emotionally taxing. Although childcare workers interact with parents or guardians, the majority of the work is with children. Thus, the work requires high energy, with frequent

70  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology bending and stooping as well as lifting of children in times of need (for example, the child who is sad when his parent drops him off). The work may become routine and hours may be long because childcare centers are open year-round and typically have extended hours to allow drop-off and pickup times that are flexible for parents’ schedules. An important disadvantage to a career in childcare is that there is a high degree of burnout and employee turnover. In a large childcare center or preschool, you might advance to a supervisory or administrative position; however, other opportunities for advancement are limited. Other disadvantages of a career in childcare are dealing with children who have behavioral problems and working with difficult parents (unless difficult family situations and childhood behavioral problems are a specialty or interest of yours). Nevertheless, few careers are as intrinsically rewarding as that of a childcare worker. Few careers allow for greater influence in the learning, growth, and development of children. The working conditions will vary by agency or employment setting (for example, in a private residence versus an agency), and turnover in childcare work is high. High turnover, however, creates opportunities for those recently graduating from college, and beginning as a childcare worker may provide a professional stepping-stone to other opportunities or career paths. Unfortunately, childcare workers often earn income that is very low relative to their education and responsibility. The average salary for a childcare worker in 2018 was $25,000 (Payscale.com, 2018). Salary, however, is contingent upon education and experience such that employees with more education typically receive higher salaries. Salaries vary by setting (for example, public or private childcare, home based, or center based) and geographic location. At many centers there may be opportunities to advance to supervisory positions. If childcare interests you, take additional courses in child development and early childhood education. It’s essential that you develop an understanding of normative childhood development because childcare providers often help to identify children with disabilities or special needs. Good communication skills with children and parents are important, and childcare workers must be able to anticipate problems and act to promote children’s welfare. Career Profile 4.1 illustrates the work of a daycare teacher.

Teaching Assistant If you’re interested in teaching but have not obtained certification, consider becoming a teaching assistant. Teaching assistants typically perform a combination of instructional and clerical duties (for example, monitoring students in nonacademic activities such as recess and eating) to allow teachers more time for lesson planning and teaching. Assistant teaching affords opportunities to significantly impact the learning and well-being of children without the daily responsibilities of developing lesson plans and serving as the principal monitor and communicator of student progress to administrators and parents.

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CAREER PROFILE 4.1 SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY: CHRISTINA MENA Who Am I? My name is Christina Mena and I am a 25-year-old woman who received my bachelor’s of arts degree in psychology from Pennsylvania State University in University Park, Pennsylvania. I was involved in three different child psychology research labs throughout my college career. My duties included behavioral coding, transcribing audio recordings, video recording, data entry, and assisting graduate students in research participant data collection. I was also a member of the campus choir and a cappella group.

Putting Psychology to Work I have been employed for approximately 4 years as a daycare teacher with a countywide childcare program located within the public school system of Fairfax, Virginia. I am responsible for providing supervision and ageappropriate experiential learning activities to children in kindergarten through sixth grades. Specifically, I teach children in a before-school, afterkindergarten, and after-school program. In the before- and after-school programs, I work with up to 80 children; in the after-kindergarten program, I am responsible for approximately 25 children. Most of my students do not have developmental delays or concerns, but I also teach several students with special needs.

How I Got Here My job in childcare is the extent of my postgraduate work experience, as I obtained this position shortly after receiving my baccalaureate.

Inside My Job: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly The most pleasurable aspect of my job is the opportunity to interact with children every day. I have enjoyed seeing the same group of children mature and develop over the past few years. I also enjoy teaching a new group of kindergarteners each year. In addition, I appreciate that my job schedule allows time to plan out daily activities without having to take work home after-hours. However, working a split shift (i.e., starting before regular school hours and returning at the end of the day) can be difficult. This type of schedule means an early start and late finish to your day. Another challenging part of this job is supervising large groups of children and not being able to work with each child on an individual level as much as I would like. For example, some special needs children require more attention than others and may struggle being (Continued)

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(Continued) surrounded by so many other children. My challenge is balancing my attention and making every child’s experience as positive as I can.

Take It From Me . . . My background in psychology—and particularly the developmental psychology courses I took—helped me to understand and identify the different milestones of expected childhood development. Furthermore, my experience with behavioral coding in a child clinical research laboratory gave me a greater ability to accurately interpret children’s emotions. Within my time at that research lab I also learned to interact with both children and their parents, which is very similar to a childcare situation. I also believe that my many years of working as a babysitter in high school contributes to my success as a daycare teacher, as it made me more comfortable relating with children. My ability to be caring, patient, and act as a leader for children has served as an additional advantage in my current career choice. My advice to undergraduate psychology majors is to have an idea of your end goal after graduation so that you can tailor your experience. Psychology is a very broad field, especially at the bachelor’s level. I would start thinking early on about what types of job positions you could see yourself in after you complete your degree. For example, I realized I was most interested in my introductory psychology course during the developmental unit. That is when I made sure I signed up for a developmental psychology course and started working in a child clinical research laboratory. Students who are considering a career in childcare likely already know that they love working with children, but it is also important to realize that these children are of all ages and come from different family backgrounds. What works for relating to a group of kindergarteners may not work when dealing with sixth graders. You have to be flexible and willing to adapt your teaching style. Depending on the type of parenting a child is used to, they may or may not live up to a teacher’s expectations of behavior. There is also the added factor of the school setting being a large-group environment. A group dynamic with children is different than working one-on-one with a child. I also recommend getting involved in research labs early as an undergraduate. This will give you ample time to explore different laboratories and find which subfield of psychology is most interesting. Additionally, early lab experience allows undergraduates more time to devote themselves to a particular lab of interest and build expertise. Such applied experiences help when it comes time to write your résumé for job searches your senior year. Additionally, I suggest getting to know psychology professors either through research labs or classes so they can act as references later. Take a wide variety of courses so you have the opportunity to experience all the different fields of psychology.

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Teaching assistant positions offer a stable employment opportunity, with average growth projections through 2026 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). The median salary for a teaching assistant was $27,000 in 2017. Increased salaries are available with increased education and experience.

Early Childhood Behavioral Specialist Early childhood behavioral specialists develop behavioral interventions for children, generally from infancy to 7 years of age, experiencing a variety of behavioral difficulties. Behavioral interventions are developed in consultation with parents, daycare providers, and early childhood teachers and include observations of the child in his or her natural environments, including home and childcare or educational settings. Children served may be diagnosed with a range of disorders (such as autistic spectrum disorder, attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder, or intellectual disabilities), or display severe actingout behavior (such as aggression or self-injurious behavior). Early childhood behavioral specialists will work with parents, other family members, and the identified child to implement planned interventions. Although many early childhood behavioral specialist positions require a master’s degree, many positions are available for graduates with a bachelor’s degree. In fact, several colleges and universities now offer specialty training in applied behavioral analysis beginning at the bachelor’s level. Early childhood behavioral specialists understand theories of childhood development, including social, emotional, cognitive, and other verbal and nonverbal domains, and are grounded in theories of early childhood interventions. Childhood behavioral specialists earned an average salary of $48,000 in 2018 (PayScale.com, 2019). Disadvantages of this job are the emotionally taxing client load, which often includes maltreated and neglected children; however, opportunities for significant client improvement are available, which can be extremely professionally and personally rewarding. Table 4.1 presents suggested coursework and experiences for the bachelor’s-level career options that we have discussed.

Opportunities With a Graduate Degree If you’re interested in school psychology and desire a wide range of professional opportunities, consider earning a graduate degree in school psychology or school counseling (often available through departments of education). Training in school psychology emphasizes mental health services (such as assessment and counseling), child development, school organization, and learning/behavior and motivation theory. Like their counseling and clinical psychology counterparts, many school psychologists earn doctoral degrees; however, a school psychologist may practice with a specialist’s degree, which is a degree that falls between the master’s and doctoral degrees. Typically a specialist degree requires 3 years, or about a year longer than the master’s degree.

74  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology TABLE 4.1  ●  P  reparation for Bachelor’s-Level Careers Related to School Psychology Coursework • Abnormal Psychology/Child Psychopathology • Behavior Analysis • Child Psychology • Communications • Developmental Psychology • Early Interventions • Education courses focusing on assessment and intervention • Family Systems • Human Development/Child Development in nonpsychology departments • Math • Other courses related to practical application of psychology for children • Professional Issues • Special Education courses • Writing Applied Experiences Volunteer opportunities, internships, or paid part-time positions in any of the following settings: • Any child/adolescent mental health setting • Big Brother/Big Sister programs • Boys and Girls Clubs • Child/adolescent psychiatric unit • Daycare and preschool settings • Head Start • Mental retardation facility for children • Residential treatment facilities for children with behavioral disorders • Teaching assistantship (particularly in Special Education) Research Experiences* Experiences studying and participating in research in any of the following areas: • Child Psychology or Child Psychopathology • Childhood Behavioral Problems • Early Intervention • Education *Note that the content area of the research is less important than the experience itself, which enhances reasoning, quantitative, writing, and organizational skills.

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In addition, to become a school psychologist you must seek certification from the National Association of School Psychologists, which includes supervised experience and passing an exam. Now let’s take a look at graduate-level careers in school psychology.

School Psychologist Although school psychologists are known for their work in schools, they are found in a variety of settings and in private practice.

School Settings The primary responsibilities of the school psychologist in a public or private school setting are to provide consultation, assessment, intervention and prevention, educational or training services, and research and program development. Consultation and educational services are primary tasks of the school psychologist in a school setting. School psychologists consult with administrators, teachers, and parents to help them better understand how child development affects learning and behavior. For example, a school psychologist in a school setting may facilitate coordination between parents and the school system to ensure that all parties are promoting the best interest of the child. Similarly, educational services are offered to administrators, teachers, and parents to facilitate effective learning environments and address problem behaviors. Educational services may take the form of classroom management techniques, teaching educators new learning strategies or ways to identify at-risk children. Assessment is also an emphasis of the school psychologist in school settings. School psychologists use a myriad of instruments and techniques to evaluate the nature of a student’s problem and identify the most appropriate intervention. School psychologists may be asked to evaluate students’ academic skills and learning aptitudes, personality and emotional development, social skills, learning environment and school climate, eligibility for special education, and effectiveness of intervention strategies. In other words, although school psychologists provide direct services (such as counseling), they more typically assess a problem and then teach other people (for example, parents and teachers) more directly involved with the student how to be helpful to the child. School psychologists also provide direct services via preventive and intervention strategies. Prevention strategies are designed to identify at-risk children and provide services to prevent the onset of learning or behavioral problems. Prevention services that school psychologists may provide include program development and teacher education for identifying children at risk for learning disorders or mental health problems, skills training for parents and teachers to cope with disruptive behavior, developing school initiatives to facilitate school safety (for example, preventing bullying and aggression), and facilitating tolerance of individual differences and diversity. Intervention services, on

76  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology the other hand, are designed to help children who already have learning or behavioral problems. Examples of intervention services a school psychologist may provide include individual or group counseling, skills training (for example, social skills, time management, study skills, problem-solving skills, coping strategies), crisis management, grief counseling, family therapy, and substance abuse counseling. Finally, school psychologists may be involved in research and program development within school settings. School psychologists evaluate the effectiveness of their services, academic programs, and behavior management systems, as well as develop new programs (for example, best practices) to facilitate student learning and development or for educational reform or restructuring. The median salary of full-time, school-based practitioners in the United States in the 2014–2015 school year was $63,000 (Walcott & Hyson, 2018). Note that psychologists who worked in elementary, middle, and high school settings, including clinical, counseling, and school psychologists, earned a median salary of $91,000 in 2015 (Lin, Christidis, & Stamm, 2017). A primary benefit for the psychologist in a school setting is flexibility. Because school psychologists engage in a range of activities, they have diverse daily schedules and routines. An additional advantage is that psychologists in school settings adhere to the academic schedule, which affords extended leaves for winter holidays, fall and spring breaks, and possibly summer breaks. Some school districts may employ their psychologists throughout the summer, although this usually includes increased pay. A disadvantage for psychologists working in the school system is limited access to colleagues. Most school districts employ one school psychologist (although this is tied to the size of the school district, with larger districts employing more school psychologists), so a sense of professional isolation may occur. One school psychologist may be responsible for all students in the district and across all grade levels, which can easily amount to overseeing the needs of hundreds and perhaps greater than a thousand students spread across several schools, requiring frequent travel between settings. Traveling among schools can leave some school psychologists feeling that they lack a “home base”; however, this diversity and travel between schools may be refreshing for some, preventing feelings of boredom or staleness.

Private Practice School psychologists in private practice engage in similar activities to those in school settings. Although some psychologists debate the appropriateness of school psychologists in private practice, a child’s behaviors at school are not always directly related to the school or educational system. Thus, private practitioners are equally capable of providing consultation, assessment, and prevention and intervention services for learning and behavioral problems as are psychologists employed in school settings. Furthermore, not all school districts

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employ school psychologists, so school psychologists in private practice afford families access to services not available via the school. School psychologists in both private practice and school settings provide similar services and perform similar tasks. School psychologists in private practice, however, have unique advantages over their counterparts in the schools. First, school psychologists in private practice have greater flexibility in the scheduling of their appointments—with the exception that many students will not be seen until after 4:00 p.m., necessitating evening work. Nevertheless, this schedule may prove desirable for individuals who aren’t “morning people.” Second, school psychologists in private practice spend less time traveling from school to school and are more likely to see clients in their office. Thus, they have a central office from which to work and are less distracted by shuffling about. Finally, school psychologists in private practice are not limited in their clientele by an agency. Therefore, they have opportunities to branch out and provide other services (for example, relationship counseling, individual counseling to nonstudents) if they receive the appropriate training and supervision. Salary for school psychologists in private offices may also be slightly higher than for those working in elementary and secondary school settings, although they miss out on the benefits (e.g., time off with pay, insurance, sick leave, retirement plan). A limitation for the private practitioner is the lack of availability and access to a child’s learning environment. Whereas a school psychologist employed in a school setting has immediate access to a child and the classroom, the private practitioner must seek permission and approval from the school to observe a classroom and must wait for the student to be transported to his or her office. An additional disadvantage for the private practitioner is the overhead cost of maintaining a private practice (for example, office space, clerical assistance, and so on). Psychologists in school settings have little to no overhead costs, because the school district provides office space, computer access or computing services for report writing, and testing materials. The private practitioner must cover these expenses as business costs.

Other Settings In addition to school settings and private practice, school psychologists are found in many other settings, including clinics and hospitals, criminal justice settings, universities and medical schools, businesses, and residential settings. Similar to graduate degrees in counseling and clinical psychology, a graduate degree in school psychology affords great flexibility with regard to professional settings and responsibilities. Regardless of where a school psychologist works, however, he or she focuses on providing services that help students (children, adolescents, or adults) succeed academically, emotionally, and socially by engaging in consulting and educational services, providing assessments, developing prevention and intervention programs, and conducting research.

78  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology A final note regarding training: licensure as a school psychologist will be made easier if you graduate from a graduate program that is accredited by the APA. Graduate training in school psychology, like training in clinical and counseling psychology discussed in the previous chapter, is under the purview of the APA, and APA-accredited programs ensure a greater likelihood of getting licensed.

School Counselor Remember the school counselor (sometimes called a guidance counselor) in your high school—a trusted professional who would help you or your friends when you needed information about colleges and college admissions, or who offered assistance in times of need, or who simply offered a friendly smile and a comfortable place to talk about “stuff” that was occurring in your life? This, in essence, is the career of the school counselor, typically a master’s-trained professional. School counselors help students understand and cope with social, behavioral, and personal problems. School counselors use counseling skills to emphasize prevention of problems before they arise, as well as skill development to enhance personal, social, and academic growth. School counselors may provide special services such as substance abuse prevention programs, conflict management, and parenting education training, as well as supervise peer counseling programs. School counselors may work with individuals, small groups, or entire classes. Although this job description may appear to overlap with the school psychologist’s, the school counselor is vastly different. Whereas school psychologists work with children with special needs, school counselors are available for all children and maintain regular school hours to help students as they navigate the educational process. Furthermore, unlike school psychologists, school counselors typically have less formal training in psychopathology, assessment, and counseling skills. When students are encountering severe problems or distress (academic, personal, behavior, social), they are referred to the school psychologist (or other mental health professional), who has specialized training to deal with such issues. Career opportunities for the school counselor are very good. The job outlook for school counselors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2026 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Other advantages of a career as a school counselor include the salary and work schedule. School counselors earned a median salary of $55,000 in 2017 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Note that this annual salary typically is based only on a 9- or 10-month contract. An additional benefit is the work schedule. School counselors, like teachers, have 2 or 3 months off every year to pursue other interests or other employment. In addition, they receive generous vacation packages that include major holidays, spring and fall breaks, and an extended Christmas break. Finally, their work day usually ends around 4:00 p.m., leaving evenings available for other personal or professional pursuits. Generally speaking, a master’s degree is required for work as a school counselor. In addition, all states require school counselors to hold state school

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counseling certification. Some states require public school counselors to have both counseling and teaching certificates. The opportunities available to you will vary by geographic location, as there are substantial differences in requirements across the nation. If you’re considering a career as a school counselor, look into the education and certification requirements in your state (the American School Counselor Association is a great place to start your research: http://www.schoolcounselor.org/).

CHECKLIST 4.1 IS SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY FOR YOU? Do you: ❑ Want to work with healthy people to improve their current functioning? ❑ Find that you are a person others feel comfortable talking to about their problems? ❑ Have good listening skills and avoid tuning out when people talk about their lives? ❑ Think you would enjoy a career providing assessment? ❑ Have an interest in applied research that can be used to better people’s lives? ❑ Keep secrets and protect information that others feel is personal? ❑ Find that people consider you trustworthy? ❑ Have compassion and feel for other people when they are suffering? ❑ Have a preference for working with children, rather than adults? ❑ Have an interest in working in a school system? ❑ Prefer identifying the source of people’s problems rather than working with them directly to resolve their problems? ❑ Enjoy working with children? ❑ Have the courage to report people who abuse children? ❑ Like to see children succeed? ❑ Enjoy developmental psychology? ❑ Enjoy watching children play? ❑ Consider children and their problems to be as important as adult problems? Scoring: The more boxes you checked, the more likely it is that you’re a good match for a school psychology career.

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EXERCISE 4.1 LEARNING ABOUT SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY Search online for information about school psychology and answer the following: 1. Identify two useful websites for someone interested in this topic. 2. List some of the topics that psychologists in this field study. 3. Identify two researchers in this field. What do they study? 4. Identify two books that, based on the table of contents, description, and perhaps a perusal of Google Books, might provide useful information about this topic.

Considering Careers in School Psychology Identify a career option for someone interested in school psychology (either one that we have discussed or another). Conduct a search on a job search website, such as Indeed.com, LinkedIn.com, Glassdoor.com, or any of the many other job search sites online. Locate one or two job ads that appeal to you. Answer the following for each: 1. What is the job? 2. What education or experience requirements are listed? 3. What skills are needed to succeed in the job? If the ad does not list them (and it likely will not), brainstorm what skills would be coveted by the employer. 4. Consider the assessments that you conducted in Chapter 1. What is your skill set? How does it compare with that needed for the job? 5. What skills might you improve to enhance your fit to the job? 6. List courses or a minor that might improve your fit to the position. 7. Describe applied experiences, such as internships, that might prepare you for this position.

Suggested Reading Curry, J., & Milsom, A. (2013). Career counseling in P–12 schools. New York, NY: Springer.

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Gordon Biddle, K. A., Harven, A. M., & Hudley, C. (2018). Careers in child and adolescent development: A student’s guide to working in the field. New York, NY: Routledge. Grapin, S. L., & Kranzler, J. H. (2018). School psychology: Professional issues and practices. New York, NY: Springer. Metz, K. (2016). Careers in mental health: Opportunities in psychology, counseling, and social work. Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons. Simon, D. J. (2015). School-centered interventions: Evidence-based strategies for social, emotional, and academic success. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Resources American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP) http://www.aacap.org/ American School Counselor Association http://www.schoolcounselor.org/ Association for Behavior Analysis International https://www.abainternational.org/welcome.aspx Division 16 of the American Psychological Association (School Psychology) https://apadivision16.org/ International School Psychology Association (ISPA) http://www.ispaweb.org National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) http://www.nasponline.org/

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5 Legal and Forensic Psychology Legal and Forensic Psychology Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree Police Officer Correctional Officer Juvenile Detention Worker Probation and Parole Officer Forensic Interviewer Opportunities With a Graduate Degree

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Correctional Psychology Forensic Examiner Police Psychology Trial Consultant Politics and Public Policy Checklist 5.1: Is Legal or Forensic Psychology for You? Exercise 5.1: Learning About Legal and Forensic Psychology Suggested Reading Resources

rriving at a crime scene with a badge in hand, analyzing the scene, exploring the intimacies of the alleged offender’s life, and ultimately assisting in the offender’s apprehension—certainly this must be the interface of psychology and the law, right? Given Hollywood’s depictions of forensic psychologists, it is not surprising that when we think about careers in legal and forensic psychology, criminal profiling springs to mind. As most moviegoers would attest, crime brings excitement and an increasing number of psychology majors express the desire to become forensic psychologists. Consequently, psychology and law courses are increasingly offered across the United States, 82

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but what exactly is a forensic psychologist? Popular films like Silence of the Lambs and television shows like Hannibal, Mindhunter, and Criminal Minds depict forensic psychology as an action-packed career of contributing to or actually apprehending dangerous criminals. Is it? These exciting dramas pique the interest of many psychology students, but their depictions of forensic psychology are often inaccurate. Although the popular media portray forensic psychologists as active criminal investigators, this is rarely the case. So then, what is the field of psychology and law? This chapter explores career opportunities for students at all educational levels who are interested in the interface of psychology and law.

Legal and Forensic Psychology Psychologists study human behavior, whereas judges and attorneys study the law and, to a lesser degree, the legal system. Clearly, each discipline is its own distinct field. Yet both disciplines aim at improving the quality of human life. Psychology, for example, studies human behavior to assist people in understanding their own behavior and to maximize human functioning. The law provides a recognized set of rules to ensure that we may all coexist equally. Legal psychology (often referred to as psychology and law) is the merging of these two disciplines. Before we discuss career options in psychology and law, let’s consider a further distinction in the field: forensic psychology. Forensic psychology is a narrow application of psychology to the legal system. Although many undergraduate students express interest in becoming forensic psychologists with the explicit intent to engage in criminal profiling, understand that criminal profiling is a rare professional activity and very few forensic psychologists do it. Forensic psychology is a mental health discipline, whereas profiling is an activity, a criminal investigative technique. Students specifically interested in the opportunity (albeit rare) to be involved in profiling are encouraged to pursue a career in law enforcement. Although forensic psychology does not typically include profiling activities, it remains a dynamic and challenging field. A forensic psychologist is any psychologist (although usually trained in clinical or counseling psychology) who works within the legal system, including the following settings: secure forensic mental health units, jails, prisons, court-related services and/or community mental health centers, other specialized agencies, and private practice (providing forensic assessment and treatment services). Forensic psychologists are probably best known as practitioners; however, researchers (for example, attorney consultation or jury selection) and educators (for example, in colleges, medical schools, and law enforcement agencies) can also be engaged in forensic psychology–related activities. Forensic psychology refers to any application of psychology (by a doctoral-level psychologist) to the legal system, whereas

84  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology psychology and law also includes broader applications such as social/public policy, trial consultation, and law enforcement, to name just a few.

Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree A doctorate in psychology is not required to be involved in the legal or the criminal justice system. Bachelor’s-level positions that incorporate aspects of psychology and law include law enforcement positions such as police or correctional officers, probation and parole officers, and juvenile detention workers, to name a few. Few professions are as noble or vital to societal functioning as law enforcement and criminal justice support. Police and correctional officers work within the legal system to enforce the law, and psychology is an important component of their job. This is particularly true today because persons with mental illness are increasingly present within the criminal justice system. Police, correctional, probation, and parole officers and juvenile detention workers are responsible for managing human behavior and frequently must de-escalate volatile situations. Psychology, with its emphasis on human behavior, is clearly essential to their success and safety.

Police Officer Policing is one of the most demanding and taxing of all service positions because officers hold the ultimate responsibility of protecting our lives and property. Depending on seniority and promotional opportunities, typical activities of police officers include: maintaining regular patrols, responding to calls for service, directing traffic as needed (for example, at the scene of a fire), investigating a crime scene, or providing first aid to an accident victim (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). As an officer matures through the police ranks, other opportunities develop. For example, a police officer may be promoted to detective with a primary responsibility of investigating crime scenes. Also, with experience, administrative positions (Sergeant, Captain, Chief of Police) may be available in which an officer can more directly influence or administer policing within a given community. In large police departments, officers usually are assigned to a specific type of duty. Many urban police agencies are becoming more involved in community policing, a practice in which an officer builds relationships with the citizens of local neighborhoods and mobilizes the public to help fight crime. Given the diversity of activities and the direct nature of public service, an understanding of the principles that govern human behavior is beneficial to the law enforcement officer. The median salary for police officers in 2017 was $61,050 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). If you are interested in criminal profiling, remember that with advancement, a police officer may become a detective, and detectives occasionally use profiling as an investigative technique. In addition to increased professional opportunities, promotions carry financial incentives.

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The median income of police and detective supervisors in 2017 was $79,970 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). As you might imagine, a primary disadvantage to policing is job-related stress, as well as safety concerns and sometimes negative stereotyping of police officers by the public and media. Perhaps the chief advantage of law enforcement is that few professions offer such a direct opportunity for public service; rarely does anyone have as great an opportunity to influence others as does the police officer. Police hiring rates continue to expand, with an expected 7% increase by 2025 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018).

Correctional Officer Correctional officers are similar to police officers in that they protect public safety as well as are responsible for the safety and well-being of others; in this case, “others” refers to staff and inmates. Once people are arrested, they are housed in jail and prison facilities, and these facilities are stressful (and dangerous) for inmates as well as staff. Correctional officers maintain peace in a violent world by monitoring the activities and work assignments of inmates; searching inmates and their living quarters for contraband (such as drugs or weapons); managing inmates (to include enforcing discipline and settling disputes between conflicting inmates); as well as maintaining security by routinely inspecting locks, window bars, doors, and gates for malfunction or signs of tampering. Because correctional officers work in the inmates’ living environment, it’s easy to see why an understanding and healthy appreciation of psychology is beneficial. On a typical day, for example, a correctional officer might resolve a dispute between inmates, console an inmate who has lost a family member and is unable to attend the funeral, and work with inmates on correcting their behavior to increase the likelihood that they will be successful upon release. Correctional officers rely on interpersonal skills and knowledge of human functioning to navigate these difficult situations. An advantage of this career is the opportunity to serve those typically forgotten by the rest of society as well as protect society from those too dangerous to live in our world. Another advantage is relative job security, given the increasing prison population; however, few occupational environments present as many challenges as a penitentiary. Correctional officers work in a potentially volatile environment, and although this may add a level of excitement and novelty to one’s job, stress and burnout are occupational hazards (Morgan, 2002). Salaries for correctional officers are slightly less than those of police officers, with a median salary of $43,540 in 2017 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Furthermore, for the first time in a number of years, the job market has weakened, with an expected decline of 7% for correctional officers by 2025 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Correctional settings also offer opportunities for working with inmates one-on-one and in group settings in counseling roles.

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Juvenile Detention Worker Like correctional officers, juvenile detention workers work within a setting of confinement, but they focus on juveniles (meaning offenders typically younger than 18 years of age) rather than adults. Juvenile detention workers have many of the same responsibilities as correctional officers and probation or parole officers, but they may have a more desirable work setting because many hold the hope that juveniles can change. Specifically, working with juvenile offenders who are stereotypically seen as less hardened offers the perceived potential for effective change. A primary disadvantage of juvenile detention work is coping with juvenile attitudes and impulsivity, which often results in frustration and feelings of futility. Salaries and benefits for juvenile detention workers are generally consistent with those of correctional officers working in adult facilities.

Probation and Parole Officer Probation and parole officers also work with offenders within the criminal justice system, but they work outside of correctional institutions (e.g., jails, prisons). Rather, probation and parole officers supervise offenders while they are in the community, to ensure that they are in compliance with the stipulations and conditions of their parole or probation. At times, probation and parole officers must enforce the law (for example, when offenders fail to comply with the conditions of their parole or probation and must be returned to prison or the court), but they also aim to assist offenders in getting the help or treatment needed to remain in the free world. These job activities necessitate an understanding of human behavior and an appreciation of the mental health and psychological needs of offenders. The primary advantage of this career is that, while it is a law enforcement position, it typically affords greater safety than does policing; however, like all law enforcement positions, it is a stressful occupation. Probation and parole officers earn salaries comparable to other law enforcement officers, with a median salary of $51,410 in 2017 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). If you’re interested in any of these careers in law enforcement, a psychology major will suit you well. Seek additional coursework in criminal justice and political science. Sociology classes in criminology, deviance, the criminal justice system, policing, and corrections can provide background knowledge that will be useful in deciding whether law enforcement is for you. Political science classes on the legal and criminal justice system will provide you with a broader understanding of how the legal and criminal justice systems operate. Also, seek practicum experiences (field experiences taken for course credit) with local police or sheriff’s departments or in the local jail to get some experience and determine whether this really is the career for you.

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Forensic Interviewer Unlike police officers, correctional officers, and probation and parole officers who primarily work with criminal offenders, forensic interviewers work with victims of crime. For example, a forensic interviewer might work with a division or center for child protection and conduct interviews with child victims of crime. Forensic interviews are structured interviews designed to obtain specific information about criminal events, whether the interviewee is the victim or a witness. Such interviews aid in the conviction of criminal offenders. Forensic interviews require delicate interpersonal interactions, so a background in psychology prepares candidates well for this line of work. Specifically, classes in abnormal psychology, emotion, learning and memory, and forensic psychology will aid forensic interviews when dealing with victims of traumatic events and witnesses relaying their memories of criminal acts. Forensic interviewing can be a rewarding job because the interviewer aids victims in obtaining justice; however, given the nature of obtaining detailed information about traumatic events from victims, forensic interviewing is a stressful job that can take an emotional toll on workers. The salary is also not commensurate with the significance or difficulty of the work, with the average salary for a forensic interviewer in 2017 being $38,766 (PayScale, 2018).

Opportunities With a Graduate Degree At the graduate level, there are a variety of career opportunities in psychology and law. Practitioners may conduct forensic assessments, provide treatment services for offenders, or assist law enforcement officers. Research psychologists may seek opportunities to be directly involved in the legal system through trial consultation, or they may conduct research that impacts the legal system (for example, research about children’s developmental level and their ability to participate in court proceedings). Psychologists of any discipline (such as counseling/clinical, developmental, social, or cognitive) may pursue political careers. Psychologists have been elected to both federal and state legislative bodies, and opportunities for psychologists to be active in public policy have never been greater. The doctoral degree provides even greater flexibility for those seeking careers in psychology and the law. More specifically, the PhD in psychology (typically in counseling or clinical psychology) affords much greater flexibility in forensic psychology than does the master’s degree.

Correctional Psychology Although prison growth has finally stabilized and begun to decline after years of increasing inmate populations, correctional psychology remains a popular career option for many psychologists with forensic interests. Correctional

88  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology TABLE 5.1  ●  P  reparation for Bachelor’s-Level Careers Related to Legal and Forensic Psychology Coursework • Abnormal Psychology or Psychopathology • Behavior Modification • Communication • Community Mental Health • Criminal Justice or Criminology • Developmental Psychology or Human Development • Ethics • Interviewing, Counseling, or Helping Skills • Juvenile Delinquency • Law • Learning and Memory • Professional Issues • Psychological Assessment • Psychology of Emotion • Psychopharmacology • Social Psychology • Social Work • Substance Abuse • Writing Applied Experiences Volunteer opportunities, internships/practica, or paid part-time positions in any of the following settings: • Any mental health or criminal justice setting • Big Brother/Big Sister programs • Boys and Girls Clubs • Inpatient psychiatric unit • Juvenile treatment facilities • Residential treatment facilities • Substance abuse center

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Research Experiences* Experiences studying and participating in research in any of the following areas: • Antisocial personality disorder • Correctional psychology • Forensic psychology • Juvenile delinquency • Study of abnormal behavior • Study of violence and aggressive behavior • Substance abuse *Note that the content area of the research is less important than the experience itself, which enhances reasoning, quantitative, writing, and organizational skills.

psychologists enjoy their work (Boothby & Clements, 2001); however, correctional environments are stressful for both inmates (Toch, 1992) and staff (see Keinan & Malach-Pines, 2007), including mental health professionals (Senter, Morgan, Serna-McDonald, & Bewley, 2010). Nevertheless, correctional mental health can be an enjoyable and rewarding career choice through its opportunity to make a difference with an underserved population.

Options With a Master’s Degree Although the doctorate in psychology is the entry-level degree for many psychology and law-related activities, master’s degree holders in clinical and counseling psychology frequently work as treatment providers for offenders in institutional or correctional settings, such as prisons. Such correctional settings provide basic mental health services to all inmates and include both assessment and treatment services that focus on symptom reduction and coping within the correctional environment. The hiring of master’s-level clinicians is debated (for example, Campbell, Worrell, Dailey, & Brown, 2018), but it remains a common practice, particularly for state correctional systems, and affords mental health professionals with job security. An important benefit of correctional mental health is that the salaries are slightly higher than similar entry-level positions in noncorrectional settings. While the median salary for a master’s-level clinician in 2017 was approximately $43,300 annually, in corrections, this salary likely rises to a median of about $50,600 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). No specific training

90  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology beyond psychotherapy and assessment skills is generally required to secure employment in a correctional facility; however, any practicum experience working with offenders or other difficult clients (for example, clients mandated to attend treatment, psychiatric inpatients, or clients with substance abuse disorders) is beneficial, or even recommended.

Options With a Doctoral Degree Similar to master’s-level clinicians, doctoral-level psychologists in correctional facilities typically are involved in direct service, but doctoral-level providers have more opportunities to become involved in rehabilitative efforts through program development. In other words, master’s-level correctional mental health professionals frequently engage in service delivery, while doctoral-level providers may become more involved in developing specialized programs for offenders and evaluating the effectiveness of these programs. Correctional mental health careers are often stressful. Some psychologists might feel a dissociation from correctional administrators who have a goal of incarceration (by necessity) as opposed to the rehabilitative preference of most mental health professionals (Morgan, Winterowd, & Ferrell, 1999). A scan of classified ads (for example, The Monitor on Psychology) indicates that correctional psychology positions are readily available and have been for several years. As noted, master’s-level clinicians tend to earn on average $50,000 in correctional settings, and their doctoral-level counterparts earn significantly more. In the Federal Bureau of Prisons, for which the doctoral degree is the entry-level degree, the starting salary is approximately $63,600 (Federal Bureau of Prisons, 2018). No specialized experience beyond doctoral training is required for employment as a correctional psychologist; however, field experience is always a plus. If you’re interested in this career, consider pursuing internship or postdoctoral experiences in correctional settings (for example, the Federal Bureau of Prisons currently has several accredited doctoral-level internship sites across the United States) or secure forensic institutions.

Forensic Examiner Because of high-profile cases such as John Hinckley Jr., Andrea Yates, James Holmes, or Ted Kaczynski (the Unabomber), most students are familiar with psychologists’ involvement in criminal cases. In criminal cases, psychologists may be asked to assess a defendant’s competency to stand trial or mental state at the time of the alleged offense (evaluating the insanity plea); however, other issues may be raised regarding a defendant’s competency during the criminal justice process. For example, a defendant’s competency to consent to search or seizure, to confess, to plead guilty, to waive the right to counsel, to refuse an insanity defense, to testify, and to be sentenced or executed may also be questioned. (Several sources provide much greater detail on the nature and purpose of these evaluations, including Melton et al., 2018.)

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Forensic psychologists are also heavily involved in noncriminal cases. Child custody evaluations and personal injury assessments are common forms of noncriminal forensic work. These cases differ from criminal cases in that a person’s liberty is not in jeopardy; instead, a plaintiff seeks to obtain something that is in dispute (for example, custody of children, financial compensation for damages in personal injury suits). Child custody evaluations are often requested in divorce proceedings. When this occurs, a psychologist is often asked to assist the court by conducting a child custody evaluation. Such evaluations are requested in approximately 10% of custody hearings, with the aim of assisting the court by investigating the facts that would be relevant to a judge or jury making a custody decision (Melton et al., 2018). Psychologists are also increasingly involved in personal injury litigation cases. Personal injury cases include any situation where a person is injured either physically or psychologically, and compensation for damages is sought. Worker’s compensation cases, medical malpractice suits, and sexual harassment cases are just a few examples of personal injury cases where a psychological evaluation may be requested as part of the legal process. The role of the psychologist in personal injury cases, in general, is to assist the court in determining if a mental injury occurred as a result of some specific incident. This evaluation is similar to the insanity evaluation, because the examiner conducts a retrospective study (Melton et al., 2018); that is, the examiner determines the plaintiff’s mental functioning before and after said incident. The psychological evaluation and assessment activities of forensic psychologists are illustrated in Career Profile 5.1. In what setting do forensic examiners work? Many are in private practice, but some criminal forensic psychologists work in state institutions such as secure forensic mental health units, community mental health centers, and hospitals. Entry-level psychologists providing forensic services in hospitals and community settings will likely obtain beginning salaries consistent with that of clinical and counseling psychologists in other settings (see Chapter 3); however, due to the nature of specialized work, forensic psychologists in private practice typically bill between $150 and $300 per hour. The primary advantages of forensic evaluation are the job satisfaction that most evaluators experience and the potential to earn a relatively lucrative income. One disadvantage of this career path is the necessity for advanced training beyond academic coursework, such as postdoctoral training that specializes in forensic assessments. Another disadvantage is the potential for lawsuits and ethics complaints filed against forensic examiners. Even frivolous lawsuits or ethics complaints can be costly in terms of finances, time, stress, and professional image. In order to conduct forensic evaluations, you must receive training in psychological assessment (for example, personality assessment, intellectual assessment, neuropsychological assessment), as well as specialized training in forensic issues. Most forensic psychologists receive their training during the predoctoral internship (a field experience obtained while pursuing the doctoral degree) or in

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CAREER PROFILE 5.1 LEGAL AND FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY: SHAWN ROBERSON Who Am I? My name is Dr. Shawn Roberson and I am a 47-year-old licensed psychologist. I completed a bachelor’s degree in psychology and a master’s degree in experimental psychology, both from the University of Central Oklahoma. I then obtained a doctorate in counseling psychology from the University of Missouri– Kansas City and completed a predoctoral internship at Western Missouri Mental Health Center in Kansas City, which first exposed me to criminal forensic evaluations. I have a private practice specializing in forensic psychology, and although my doctorate was in counseling, I no longer conduct therapy. In 2014, I was appointed by the governor of Oklahoma to the Oklahoma State Board of Examiners of Psychologists, which serves as the licensing authority for psychologists in my state. I have served as the chairperson of the board for the past 2 years. I am married and have one child. My hobbies include fishing and spending as much time at the lake as I can with friends and family.

Putting Psychology to Work My private practice includes a diverse array of activities but focuses mainly on psychological assessment and consultation. I am licensed as a psychologist in Oklahoma, Texas, and Kansas. I perform evaluations for both prosecutors and defense attorneys, including both public and private attorneys at the state and federal levels. These cases address issues such as adjudicative competency, mental state at the time of the offense, dangerousness, and other topics. Oftentimes they require expert witness testimony and occasionally they include high-profile criminal cases garnering local or national media attention. In addition to criminal forensic evaluations, I frequently perform psychological evaluations of parents involved in custody disputes, threat assessments for school settings, or evaluations of persons involved in civil litigation. I have contracts with multiple law enforcement agencies to evaluate candidates for their psychological suitability to become police officers. One of my main professional interests is the methods attorneys use to discredit expert witnesses, which was the topic of my dissertation. It is not uncommon for me to serve as a consultant for attorneys, assisting in writing crossexaminations for experts. In addition to my private practice, I teach as an adjunct professor at the University of Central Oklahoma Forensic Science Institute and serve as volunteer faculty at the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences. I also occasionally do professional writing, speaking, and media interviews.

How I Got Here I initially thought I might want to become an attorney, but during my undergraduate years I found a passion for psychology once exposed to the scientific side of the field. My initial career goal was to become a university professor and research forensic areas. However, based upon my desire to live in my home state, I found

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an employment opportunity with the state department of mental health. I initially worked at the state forensic mental health hospital as a psychologist, providing court-ordered evaluations and some therapy. Within a few years I was promoted to the director of forensic psychology, where I primarily served as the administrator of the psychology department and the chair of an American Psychological Association (APA)–approved predoctoral internship program. While working for the state government, I also developed a part-time private practice focused on forensic evaluations. After 13 years of government service, I decided to make the leap to full-time private practice, which is where I remain today.

Inside My Job: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly Forensic psychology is often not the exciting portrayal you see on television. A lot of time is spent in facilities with less than optimal working conditions, including jails and prisons. It also exposes one to the dark side of human nature, including severe antisocial conduct, violence, and victimization of innocent persons. Nonetheless, it can also be a fascinating and intellectually challenging career. It affords an opportunity to delve into the depths of severe psychopathology and analyze large amounts of data to try to determine what has happened or will happen. In addition, everything you do could be scrutinized under a microscope by attorneys, which necessitates a high degree of conscientiousness and precision. You must be willing to work in an adversarial setting where your opinions will be challenged, sometimes in a public forum. Finally, I find it professionally rewarding to believe that I am contributing objective and scientific opinions to serve the justice system.

Take It From Me . . . In order to pursue a career in forensic psychology, it requires a graduate degree (typically doctoral level) in psychology and licensure as a mental health professional. The APA does not accredit doctoral degrees in “forensic psychology.” Rather, one obtains a degree allowing licensure as a psychologist (typically a doctorate in counseling or clinical psychology) and then obtains specialty training in forensic mental health during one’s education and career. Procuring a predoctoral internship and/or postdoctoral fellowship specializing in forensic psychology is optimal, but “on-the-job” training is also frequently available when working for state forensic mental health systems. Unless you obtain employment with an established forensic psychologist, developing a private practice can be challenging. In my experience, attorneys most often hire psychologists with whom they are already familiar. Initially working in an institutional setting might be the most conservative means to break into the private arena, while also honing one’s skills. It is beneficial to maintain a diverse practice with multiple revenue sources, including both criminal and civil areas. Private practice is typically more lucrative than the public sector, but it also comes with risk and uncertainty.

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94  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology specialized postdoctoral training programs where the focus is specific to forensic psychology. There are very few training programs that provide specialized training in forensic psychology practice, so field experience in the form of predoctoral and postdoctoral internships is essential. Some master’s-level practitioners receive training in assessment on the job; however, without a doctoral degree and license, independent practice is not possible in most states.

Police Psychology Police psychology has become increasingly necessary in law enforcement despite law enforcement officers’ sometimes negative perceptions toward such services. Police psychologists provide a variety of services, including management consultation (consulting on administrative decision-making that has agency-wide implications); pre-employment psychological assessments and fitness-for-duty evaluations (evaluations to help determine if a person is suitable for law enforcement work or fit for continued duty); special unit evaluations (assessments to assist with promotional decisions for specialized police assignments such as Special Weapons and Tactics [SWAT], Tactical Response Teams [TRTs], and Hostage Negotiation Teams [HNTs]); hostage negotiation team consultations (consulting and assisting with hostage negotiations); deadly force incident investigations (assisting with investigations regarding the appropriateness of an officer’s use of deadly force); field consultation, such as assisting an officer in the apprehension or security of a mentally ill person; and, less frequently, investigative activities. Stress is a prevalent problem in law enforcement and police psychologists who provide counseling services help officers cope with their stress. The most common activity of police psychologists is to provide pre-employment evaluations. Pre-employment evaluations are requested to determine if would-be officers have the disposition and personality style to cope with stress and serve in the capacity of a law enforcer. Typically, police psychologists hold doctoral degrees and may be consultants to law enforcement agencies or may be employed (often actually sworn in as law enforcement officers) by an agency. Entry-level salaries appear commensurate with other entry-level doctoral psychology positions. As with other forensic psychology positions, if you’re interested in police psychology, seek specialized training through predoctoral internships or postdoctoral training, because there are few formal opportunities for training in police psychology during graduate school.

Trial Consultant Psychological practitioners and nonpractitioners engage in trial consultation, another career opportunity for graduate degree holders in psychology. In fact, social and cognitive psychologists may have particular skills and expertise that translate well to courtroom consultations. Trial consultation refers to any service provided to assist in the process of a trial, including focus group

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research, mock trials, pretrial case analysis, or jury selection. Trial consultations usually include case analysis, review of reports and forensic evidence, identification of expert witnesses, development of examination (direct and cross) strategies, and preparation of expert and lay witnesses for testifying (Drogin & Barrett, 2007), with a primary goal of developing a better understanding of how the judge or jury will understand and process information. A trial consultant may conduct research that influences the trial process, such as decision-making by the trier-of-fact (meaning the judge or jury), the impact of evidentiary psycholegal research, and eyewitness identification and recall. In addition to research, psychologists may advise attorneys regarding jury selection and the effects of courtroom trial procedures on jury decisionmaking. For example, trial consultants often use jury simulations or mock jurors to assist attorneys in developing strategies for jury selection, as well as trial strategy itself. Trial consultation occurs in both criminal and civil trials, and although high-profile cases such as the tobacco settlement bring notoriety to this profession, it appears to remain a relatively infrequent occupational consideration for psychologists in training. The largest advantage of a career as a trial consultant is the potential income; however, it may be difficult initially to establish yourself in the private industry, limiting income in the early years of this career. Nevertheless, psychologists with appropriate experience and legal connections who are fortunate enough to be hired for high-profile cases have been known to earn incomes in excess of $1,000,000 annually; however, this figure is unusually high. Entrylevel positions appear comparable to other entry-level psychology positions. As in most careers, holding a doctoral degree affords additional opportunities and autonomy over holding a master’s degree.

Politics and Public Policy A bachelor’s degree in psychology may enable you to become involved in the political process, but your opportunities increase with advanced education. Psychological research has implications for public policy. For example, research on child and adolescent development can inform education and health policy as well as questions such as whether zero tolerance policies work or how to implement lockdowns in school settings in ways that children can understand. Considering the social and public policy implications of psychologists’ work, it is not simply an opportunity; rather, it is a duty to apply the techniques of their trade to meet the larger public needs. Just as professional (clinical, counseling, or school) psychologists seek to achieve the betterment of the client, so can the political psychologist use psychological principles to the betterment of the public. What do psychologists do in politics? Some run for office. Others work behind the scenes. They may assist in developing briefs, conduct psycholegal research, or become involved in planning strategies and drafting laws. To prepare psychologists for politics, the APA developed a congressional fellowship

96  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology program in 1974. The purpose of this fellowship program is to provide “psychologists with an invaluable public policy learning experience, to contribute to the more effective use of psychological knowledge in government, and to broaden awareness about the value of psychology-government interaction among psychologists and within the federal government” (American Psychological Association, 2018). Psychologists who enroll in this training program spend 1 year assigned to a member of Congress or a congressional committee and have the opportunity to perform such tasks as assisting in congressional hearings and debates or preparing briefs. Initially, this program was geared exclusively to entry-level psychologists; however, it now targets advanced (senior-level) psychologists as well. Salaries of psychologists holding political positions are governed by the U.S. federal government or the state they represent, and vary accordingly. A member of the U.S. Senate or U.S. House of Representatives earns $174,000 (Brudnick, 2018). Salaries of political employees vary according to level of government and jurisdiction. Entry-level psychology fellows in the APA fellowship program earn approximately $75,000, with the range increasing to $90,000 depending on level of experience (American Psychological Association, 2018). In addition, fellows receive the cost of relocation and/or travel expenses during the fellowship year. Although any U.S. citizen has the opportunity for political involvement, specialized training such as that provided by the APA fellowship program affords psychologists specialized knowledge and experience that is directly applicable to their political interests. Throughout this chapter, we’ve examined many opportunities for those who are interested in the interface of psychology and law at both the baccalaureate and graduate-degree levels. Psychologists’ specialized training as scientists, and in many cases practitioners, offers opportunities for combating crime and many social problems. A bachelor’s degree offers a range of options, and a graduate degree offers opportunities for more advanced positions. As we have discussed, although psychology and law rarely includes activities such as analyzing a crime scene or conducting profile analyses, it affords exciting and rewarding career options.

CHECKLIST 5.1 IS LEGAL OR FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY FOR YOU? Do you: ❑ Enjoy shows like Law and Order, CSI, or COPS? ❑ Have an interest in politics?

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❑ Think offenders have rights and should be treated justly and fairly? ❑ Think some people are so mentally ill that they shouldn’t be punished for the bad things they do? ❑ Think you could try to help someone who murdered or raped someone? ❑ Think you could try to help someone who abused a child? ❑ Like solving puzzles? ❑ Like reading about criminal activity in your local newspaper? ❑ Like reading biographies about high-profile criminals? ❑ Think you would like to work in a prison? ❑ Like studying about mental illness? ❑ Like a good debate? ❑ Like people to challenge your thoughts and opinions? ❑ Like to write? Scoring: The more boxes you checked, the more likely it is that legal or forensic psychology is for you.

EXERCISE 5.1 LEARNING ABOUT LEGAL AND FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY Search online for information about legal and forensic psychology. Respond to the following: 1. Identify two useful websites for someone interested in this topic. 2. List some of the topics that psychologists in this field study. 3. Identify two researchers in this field. What do they study? 4. Identify two books that, based on the table of contents, description, and perhaps a perusal of Google Books, might provide useful information about this topic.

Considering Careers in Forensic Psychology and Psychology and Law Identify a career option for someone interested in this field (either one that we have discussed or another). Conduct a search on a job search website, such (Continued)

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(Continued) as Indeed.com, LinkedIn.com, Glassdoor.com, or any of the other job search sites online. Locate one or two job ads that appeal to you. Answer the following for each: 1. What is the job? 2. What education or experience requirements are listed? 3. What skills are needed to succeed in the job? If the ad does not list them (and it likely will not), brainstorm what skills would be coveted by the employer. 4. Consider the assessments that you conducted in Chapter 1. What is your skill set? How does it compare with that needed for the job? 5. What skills might you improve to enhance your fit to the job? 6. List courses or a minor that might improve your fit to the position. 7. Describe applied experiences, such as internships, that might prepare you for this position.

Suggested Reading Anumba, N. M., & Packer, I. K. (2017). Forensic psychologists. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Career paths in psychology: Where your degree can take you (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Bonta, J., & Andrews, D. A. (2017). The psychology of criminal conduct (6th ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. Fagan, T. J., & Ax, R. K. (2011). Correctional mental health: From theory to best practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Johnston, C. H. (2018). Careers in criminal justice. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Melton, G. B., Petrila, J., Poythress, N. G., Slobogin, C., Otto, R. K., Mossman, D., & Condie, L. O. (2018). Psychological evaluations for the courts: A handbook for mental health professionals and lawyers (4th ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Morgan, K. (2018). Probation, parole, and community corrections work in theory and practice: Preparing students for careers in probation and parole agencies. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press. Weiner, I. B., & Otto, R. K. (2014). The handbook of forensic psychology (4th ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.

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Resources American Psychology—Law Society http://www.ap-ls.org/ American Psychology—Law Society: Careers in Psychology and Law https://www.apadivisions.org/division-41/education/students/careers American Society of Trial Consultants http://www.astcweb.org Corrections Connection http://www.corrections.com/ Criminal Justice and Police Psychology sections of Division 18 (Psychologists in Public Service) https://www.apa.org/about/division/div18 Federal Bureau of Prisons http://www.bop.gov/ Law and Society Association http://www.lawandsociety.org/ National Criminal Justice Reference Service https://www.ncjrs.gov/ National Institute of Corrections http://www.nicic.org/ National Institute of Justice http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/ Police Psychology: A Journal for Law Enforcement and Public Safety http://www.policepsych.com

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6 Health Psychology Health Psychology Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree Recreational Therapist Occupational Therapy Assistant Physical Therapy Assistant Health Educator Opportunities With a Graduate Degree

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Academic and Research Settings Service Delivery Settings Public Health Settings Checklist 6.1: Is Health Psychology for You? Exercise 6.1: Learning About Health Psychology Suggested Reading Resources

ecord rainfalls in spring of 2011 led the Mississippi River to flood to unprecedented levels. Parts of Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, ­ Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana were flooded, killing over 400 people and forcing tens of thousands to evacuate. In May 2011, much of the city of Joplin, Missouri, was destroyed by the deadliest tornado since 1947. These traumatic events generated feelings of chaos, anxiety, fear, and anger among those living in these areas and in the country as a whole. These traumatic events, accompanied by the health concerns of U.S. citizens—not only those directly traumatized but also those exposed to toxins, disease, and other hazards in relief efforts—are one focus of health psychologists. How do people cope with such life-altering medical situations? What interventions are helpful for those suffering medical complications from disasters, injuries, or other medical hardships? Questions such as these are at the heart of health psychology. 100

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Health Psychology Health psychology is the study of psychological influences on health, why people become ill, and how people respond when they become ill, as well as the application of preventive strategies and interventions aimed at helping people maintain or improve their health. Health psychologists study the interactive influences of biological, environmental, and behavioral factors on health and illness. In other words, health psychologists examine how our emotions, thoughts, behaviors, and social interactions influence our physical well-being (meaning health and wellness) and response to illness. Health psychologists study ways to promote healthy behavior (for example, help people stop smoking, urge use of sun block, and promote healthy eating). They also study how to prevent and treat illnesses through the use of behavioral management, stress management, and coping techniques. What are the effects of stress? Can stress lead to illness? Health psychologists study the role of psychological and social factors, like stress and social support, in the development of disease. Before proceeding with our discussion of careers in health psychology, let’s first clear up some potentially confusing terminology. Health psychology is a subfield of psychology and has frequently been referred to as medical psychology, psychosomatic medicine, and most commonly, behavioral medicine, but these terms are neither accurate nor appropriate (Belar & Deardorff, 1995). Behavioral medicine is an interdisciplinary term that includes a variety of fields, such as psychology, epidemiology, physiology, pharmacology, and neuroanatomy, behavioral and biomedical. Psychologists focus on the behavioral aspects of health; thus, health psychology is the most appropriate term for this specialized field, and it will be used throughout this chapter.

Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree If you are interested in health psychology, you’ll be glad to know there are many opportunities for bachelor’s degree holders to work in rewarding careers that challenge them to use their general training in psychology as well as specialized knowledge in health psychology. Examples of such careers include recreational therapist, occupational therapy assistant, physical therapy assistant, and health educator.

Recreational Therapist Recreational therapists provide treatment and recreational activities to individuals with physical or emotional disabilities in a variety of settings, including medical settings, community-based programs (for example, parks and recreation, special education programs for students, adult living programs, community mental health centers), and prisons. Recreational therapists are different from recreational workers (discussed in Chapter 7).

102  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology Recreational therapists assess and treat individuals with physical or psychological problems, whereas recreational workers lead activities, often in group settings such as camps and nursing facilities. Recreational therapists use standardized assessments and observations, medical records, and collateral information to assess clients’ problems and develop treatment strategies targeting physical, mental, or emotional well-being of clients. Typical treatment activities include arts and crafts, animals (e.g., pet therapy), gardening, sports, games, dance and movement, drama, music, and community outings, as well as specific strategies such as stress management and relaxation techniques. Recreational therapists frequently are employed in hospitals, nursing homes, community-based programs (e.g., assisted living and outpatient physical and psychiatric rehabilitation facilities), residential and correctional centers, adult care facilities, and social service agencies. Entry-level positions in recreational therapy might carry the title of “assistant” (and earn a mean salary of about $30,000; PayScale, 2018). Many employers require recreational therapists to be certified by the National Council for Therapeutic Recreation Certification (NCTRC) and a small handful of states require recreational therapists to be licensed. Generally there are two paths to NCTRC certification: a bachelor’s degree in physical therapy and passing an exam, or a minor in physical therapy or related coursework, several years of experience in a services setting, and passing an exam. For more information, visit the NCTRC website (https://nctrc.org). The median salary for recreational therapists was $47,680 in May 2017 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Job opportunities for recreational therapists are expected to grow about as much as the average for all occupations through 2026. Employment opportunities may be even greater than estimated, given the rapidly increasing number of aging adults; thus, recreational therapy will remain a viable profession for many. Another benefit of this profession is the opportunity for advancement. Therapists may grow weary of the therapeutic contact and physical energy required to provide recreational therapy on a daily basis, particularly as they themselves age; however, there are opportunities within this profession to advance to supervisory positions or to pursue teaching interests in the field. Although a psychology degree is not the entry-level degree for this career option, psychology’s emphasis on understanding behavior, coupled with training in therapeutic recreation, will suit you well in this career. Coursework (e.g., minor) in psychology can be particularly helpful for understanding human behavior, including grief, motivation, and resistance as these factors relate to therapy.

Occupational Therapy Assistant Occupational therapy assistants help occupational therapists provide rehabilitative services to patients with physical, developmental, or psychological impairments. Occupational therapy assistants are not limited to working with

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patients who are attempting to re-enter the labor force; rather, this work is much broader and focuses on any aspect of a patient’s life (for example, developing the skills necessary for independent living such as cooking, cleaning, and accessing transportation). Aides to occupational therapists are intimately involved with all aspects of a patient’s rehabilitation from disabilities caused by injuries (for example, from an automobile accident); they also help individuals with developmental disabilities (such as mental retardation) to acquire skills for independent living. Occupational therapy assistants may work with occupational therapists in hospitals, outpatient clinics, and offices. The hours may vary for work in a private medical office to include evenings or weekends in order to be flexible with client schedules; however, the hours tend to be more traditional in clinics and hospital settings (8 a.m. to 5 p.m.). The job outlook for occupational therapy assistants is outstanding, with the market for occupational therapists expected to grow more rapidly than the average job over the next 8 years (29% compared with the average growth of 7%). Salaries of occupational therapy assistants are competitive, with a median salary of about $60,000 in 2017 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). One disadvantage of this career choice is the physical demand. Occupational therapy assistants must be strong enough to help lift patients as well as to stand, kneel, bend, stoop, and move from station to station for long periods. Note that a bachelor’s degree is not sufficient to be an occupational therapy assistant; the completion of a 2-year occupational therapy program is also required. Occupational therapy assistant programs are found at 2-year and 4-year colleges. An understanding of human behavior, motivation, and emotion will aid in this career. Most states regulate this career option and occupational therapy assistants must pass a national certification examination before being appropriately credentialed to practice. Do your homework and learn about your state’s requirements. For more information, consult the American Occupational Therapy Association website (http://www.aota.org).

Physical Therapy Assistant A career option that is related to occupational therapy assistant is the physical therapy assistant. Physical therapy assistants assist physical therapists in the provision of treatments and interventions for individuals suffering pain, loss of mobility, or other physical disabilities. Although the work is demanding, including necessity of core body strength to assist or physically move patients with mobility issues, this career choice offers hands-on treatment that can be very rewarding. Like the occupational therapy assistant, this occupation requires the equivalent of 2 years of coursework and passing an exam to become certified, the standard for practice. For more information about certification, visit the American Physical Therapy Association website (http://www.apta.org). Coursework in psychology, with an emphasis on health psychology–related

104  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology content, will help you meet the emotional and motivational needs of patients requiring physical therapy. The occupational outlook for students interested in a career as a physical therapy assistant is promising, as the field is expected to grow about four times more rapidly than the average position through 2026 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). The median salary for physical therapist assistants was $57,430 in May 2017.

Health Educator Health educators teach individuals and communities about healthy lifestyles and wellness. In providing education and information, health educators work to prevent illnesses and increase healthy lifestyles. For example, health educators will share knowledge and information on health-related issues such as diet and nutrition, sleep and exercise hygiene, problem behaviors (for example, risky behaviors such as promiscuous sexual behavior and substance abuse), and general health hygiene (for example, dental care, self-examinations for breast or testicular cancer, or medical check-ups). Health educators identify the needs of diverse populations, especially those that are underserved, including older adults, people of color, and individuals and communities of low socioeconomic status. Health educators design and implement educational programs (for example, classes, promotional pamphlets, community activities) to meet people’s health-related informational needs. A career as a health educator affords a diverse work setting, as health educators typically transition between office and individual or group field placement settings (for example, individual home or community center). A career in health education can also be very rewarding, both professionally and personally, with an opportunity to reach and help marginalized and underserved populations. Additionally, a career in health education necessitates creativity in developing and implementing programs that will impact behavior. Although training and education in health education is likely a prerequisite for a career in health education, a dual major (or minor) in psychology can also make one very competitive. Understanding cultural differences, including attitudes and principles of behavior change, will serve one well when educating and confronting resistance to change that is inevitable when attempting to change behavior. Salary in health education is another benefit, with an annual median 2017 income of about $64,800 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Finally, health education is a growing industry, with an expected growth rate much higher than the average. Disadvantages to a career as a health educator include an unstable schedule, as many programs will need to be implemented during evening and weekend hours to accommodate clients’ school and work demands. Additionally, given the nature of the work, some of the targeted clientele, and the grassrootslevel work, some of the homes and/or community centers encountered are

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impoverished and lacking in cleanliness; however, such settings offer opportunities for immediate progress. If you are interested in a career related to health psychology, seek specialized coursework and applied experiences (Table 6.1).

Opportunities With a Graduate Degree The specialized nature of a career in health psychology requires training at the doctoral level (meaning completion of a PhD or PsyD program); however, master’s-level counselors may work in medical settings and engage in some of the practice activities of health psychologists. To become a health psychologist, you must earn a doctoral degree in psychology, typically clinical or counseling psychology, and specialize in health psychology during internship and postdoctoral training. Because scientific knowledge in health psychology has experienced considerable growth in the past 2 decades, there are many career opportunities for health psychologists and the potential to expand clinical practice in this area is dramatic. In fact, the management of health and disease remains one of the most rapidly growing research and practice specialties in professional psychology. Health psychologists are employed in a myriad of settings, and the professional activities in which they engage often are determined by the setting in which they work. Health psychologists may engage in applied activities (such as providing psychological services for the prevention or treatment of health-related problems and behaviors) or research and academic activities (such as conducting research to investigate health-related issues and behaviors or teaching at a university). Health psychologists are also found in medical settings, such as primary care programs, inpatient medical units, medical schools, and specialized health care programs (for example, pain management centers, long-term care facilities, or rehabilitation centers). Let’s take a closer look at the settings and activities in which health psychologists engage.

Academic and Research Settings In academic and research settings, health psychologists teach, conduct research to understand and treat illnesses, and develop preventive and treatment programs to avoid or reduce health-related problems and concerns. Like other professors, health psychologists in academia teach undergraduate and graduate students about the field and conduct research to expand the field. Although health psychologists engaged in research may not be directly involved in client care, their work often holds profound implications for the services that clients receive. Research conducted by health psychologists provides practitioners with information about lifestyle and personality factors

106  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology TABLE 6.1  ●  P  reparation for Bachelor’s-Level Careers Related to Health Psychology Coursework • Abnormal Psychology or Psychopathology • Anatomy • Biology • Epidemiology • Health (courses in health and wellness at introductory and advanced levels) • Health Education • Health Psychology • Interviewing, Counseling, or Helping Skills • Mathematics • Substance Abuse • Writing Applied Experiences Volunteer opportunities, internships/practica, or paid part-time positions in any of the following settings: • Any medical setting • Burn unit • Rehabilitation unit • University wellness center • Health/lifestyle center • Physical/occupational therapy clinic Research Experiences* Experiences studying and participating in research in any of the following areas: • Health psychology • Wellness • Health behaviors such as smoking and obesity • At-risk behaviors such as unsafe sex and substance abuse • Sleep disorders • Behavioral decision-making or health decision-making *Note that the content area of the research is less important than the experience itself, which enhances reasoning, quantitative, writing, and organizational skills.

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as well as the psychosocial factors that influence health. Researchers develop and evaluate therapeutic programs aimed at improving healthy functioning or reducing the likelihood of illness (for example, smoking cessation programs), as well as treating existing conditions (for example, stress-reduction programs for persons with coronary heart disease). Thus, researchers have a hand in influencing the health and care of today’s medical patient. Health psychologists who focus on program development actively work to create and assess the efficacy of wellness and health-related programs such as smoking cessation programs, healthy eating and exercising programs, and stress-management programs, to name just a few. The goals of these programs are to increase the well-being and health of individuals in high-risk groups (for example, patients with high blood pressure) or those actively engaged in risky behaviors (for example, smokers). Information about the benefits and pitfalls of an academic career as well as the credentials, job responsibilities, and salary of this career can be found in Chapter 14. We will note here that health psychologists tend to have specialized training that frequently includes postdoctoral experience, which can lead to slightly higher salaries than most other assistant professors. If you’re considering a career in health psychology research, consider the advice for undergraduates in Career Profile 6.1.

Service Delivery Settings Health psychology service providers are employed in hospitals, long-term care facilities, rehabilitation centers, medical schools, or private practice. In each of these settings, health psychologists provide assessment and intervention services and usually collaborate with other health care professionals such as physicians, dentists, nurses, physician’s assistants, dietitians, social workers, pharmacists, physical and occupational therapists, and chaplains in an effort to provide comprehensive and holistic health care. The clinical activities of health psychologists generally include assessment activities or prevention/ intervention services. Health psychologists often conduct assessments in conjunction with other medical professionals to determine the etiology (cause of) and correlates of healthy living and health-related problems. Assessments conducted by health psychologists may include cognitive and/or behavioral assessments, psychophysical assessments, personality assessments, demographic surveys and clinical interviews, and other clinical protocols. Treatment services, on the other hand, refers to prevention or intervention services. The goal of prevention is to help people improve their lifestyles and avoid major illnesses or health complications, whereas interventions target existing health-related problems with a focus on helping people cope with or adjust to health-related problems. Examples of preventive care are programs aimed at educating at-risk populations (for example, the Drug Abuse Resistance

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CAREER PROFILE 6.1 HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY: TAYLOR MORGAN Who Am I? I am Taylor Morgan, a 23-year-old woman. I received my bachelor of arts degree in psychology with a minor in child development from Oklahoma State University (OSU). As an undergraduate, I was the lab manager of a child trauma research lab and a member of a health psychology research lab. Working in these labs, I learned the basics of research, including research methodology, basic data analytic strategies, and disseminating results through conference poster presentations. Through this work, I found I was most interested in child and family adjustment in the context of serious illness. While at OSU, I was also a member of the psychology club and Alpha Chi Omega sorority.

Putting Psychology to Work I am currently employed as a research coordinator at Nationwide Children’s Hospital in Columbus, Ohio. My primary responsibility is coordinating a research study examining decision-making and communication about fertility preservation in youth newly diagnosed with cancer and their parents. My other responsibilities include data collection, as well as conducting, coding, and transcribing qualitative interviews; attending research lab meetings and writing groups; analyzing data; and presenting research results in the form of posters and manuscripts. I have been in this position for 1 year and plan to apply to clinical psychology PhD programs in fall 2019. I accepted this position specifically because it aligns with what I am interested in and I was certain I would enjoy working with this patient population.

How I Got Here Prior to working at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, I was a research assistant in a tobacco regulatory science lab at the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center for 1 year. I acquired solid research skills beyond what I learned at OSU and ultimately decided I wanted to apply these skills to pediatric populations, thus leading me to seek a position better suited to my research interests. I maintained connections with graduate students and my mentor in the health psychology lab I was in as an undergraduate, which is how I learned about the opportunity for the position I have now. In particular, I was looking for a position that both met my specific research interests and would also provide me with mentors and training for graduate school.

Inside My Job: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly I do not take for granted the fact that I am approaching families to participate in research on arguably the worst day of their life. The resilience

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these families show never ceases to impress me. However, I have also witnessed families struggling with the reality of very sick kids. While these days are challenging, I know if I can positively impact these families, even in a small way, on the day of a new cancer diagnosis, my job is worth it. Further, it has been exciting to be a part of the research process, from study development to dissemination of results. I thoroughly enjoy getting to partake in creating and carrying out research studies that I believe will positively impact families facing serious health conditions now and in the future.

Take It From Me . . . Taking psychology courses as an undergraduate student was an important foundation to getting where I am now. Not only did it teach me the fundamentals about the science of psychology, it provided information about research labs and opportunities that were particularly interesting to me. Getting involved in research labs early in my undergraduate career let me discover what interested me most and what career path I wanted to pursue. If your goal is to work in a research career, working hard in labs early on can set you up well and prepares you for the “real world.” One thing I’ve had to come to terms with is that employment with an undergraduate psychology degree doesn’t pay as well as someone perhaps with a business degree. At times it has been difficult not to be envious of my peers who are more financially secure. It is important to know that with a bachelor’s degree in psychology you can have a wonderful job, but the pay will be limited unless you continue on to graduate school. Starting a career in psychology takes more time than graduating with a business degree, and being okay with that is key. Originally, I never planned to work for 3 years before going back to graduate school, and while I felt like my life was being delayed, I have found working in an area that I love and makes me happy is very rewarding. My biggest advice to undergraduate students is to seek input and advice from your mentors, but ultimately do what is best for you. Your mentors may not understand your timing or reasoning for decisions you are making, but that is okay. It is easy to get swept up in what your mentor thinks is best and start to follow the path they want for you, but realize only you can make decisions about your career path and what is most important for you.

110  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology Education program, or D.A.R.E.) or the general population about the importance of lifestyle improvements (for example, programs advocating the health benefits of exercise and a proper nutritional diet). Examples of interventions include stress management for medical patients with high blood pressure and pain management for persons who have been injured in an accident. Health psychologists not only design and implement treatment strategies but also conduct research to assess the effectiveness of prevention and intervention programs. The benefits of a career in health psychology service delivery include the opportunity to directly influence the quality of life and wellness of clients in a relatively short period of time because treatment gains in health psychology are often more rapid than treatment gains by psychologists treating other problems or concerns such as severe mental illness. A benefit of becoming a health psychologist in private practice or developing a consulting career is the flexibility in scheduling clients. One limitation of a career choice in health psychology service delivery is the challenge of working in the medical community, where the MD is prized. However, psychologists’ contributions to wellness and healthy living are becoming increasingly recognized, particularly as the biopsychosocial model of health and illness becomes more widely accepted within the medical community. Salaries for psychologists in service settings are discussed in Chapter 14, with an overall median of $85,000 (Lin et al., 2017).

Public Health Settings Health psychologists also pursue careers in public health. Psychologists in public health settings are involved in research of health issues, teaching and training future professionals, provision of public health services, and consulting with health organizations, professionals, and political leaders. For example, psychologists in public health work may be involved in developing or evaluating programs for public health organizations or may pursue involvement in social policy. Program developers are responsible for developing and implementing health-related programs in communities to promote wellness and healthy living or to treat health-related problems or concerns. Community-based HIV/AIDS education and support programs are an example of the type of work in which program developers may be involved. Health psychologists in social policy positions, on the other hand, spend their time developing and drafting legal statutes and proposals in an effort to create federal or state legislation that promotes wellness and health. An example of such legislation is the requirement that tobacco products carry warning labels on their packaging to warn customers of the health risks associated with tobacco products. A primary benefit of seeking employment as a health psychologist in public health is the opportunity to influence directly the services available to

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communities and persons in need. Unfortunately, the time to develop and implement services can be extensive, and that can be very frustrating when there are people in need or there is an urgent problem to be addressed. Salaries in public health are comparable to other psychology-related positions discussed in this text. The field of health psychology offers knowledge and training that are relevant at both the bachelor’s and graduate levels. At the bachelor’s level, careers tend to be multidisciplinary. If you are interested in pursuing a health-related position with your baccalaureate degree, supplement your academic training in psychology with courses in other health areas such as health education, nutrition, and safety. Careers at the doctoral level are more specialized. If you are considering a graduate-level career in health psychology, pursue generalist training during graduate school (meaning clinical or counseling psychology programs), followed by specialized training in health psychology during internship and/or postdoctoral work.

CHECKLIST 6.1 IS HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY FOR YOU? Do you: ❑ Want to work in a medical setting? ❑ Want to better understand medical problems? ❑ Want to conduct research with the aim of helping people with health problems? ❑ Enjoy reading about health problems or concerns? ❑ Find satisfaction in the recent tobacco settlements? ❑ Want to help people live healthier lives? ❑ Want to understand the effects of stress and lifestyle choices on health? ❑ Have interest in the growing health concerns across the globe? ❑ Want to understand how the mind influences the body? Scoring: The more boxes you checked, the more likely it is that health psychology is a good match for you.

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EXERCISE 6.1 LEARNING ABOUT HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY Search online for information about health psychology and answer the following: 1. Identify two useful websites for someone interested in this topic. 2. List some of the topics that psychologists in this field study. 3. Identify two researchers in this field. What do they study? 4. Identify two books that, based on the table of contents, description, and perhaps a perusal of Google Books, might provide useful information about this topic.

Considering Careers in Health Psychology Identify a career option for someone interested in health psychology (either one that we have discussed or another). Conduct a search on a job search website, such as Indeed.com, LinkedIn.com, Glassdoor.com, or any of the other job search sites online. Locate one or two job ads that appeal to you. Answer the following for each: 1. What is the job? 2. What education or experience requirements are listed? 3. What skills are needed to succeed in the job? If the ad does not list them (and it likely will not), brainstorm what skills would be coveted by the employer. 4. Consider the assessments that you conducted in Chapter 1. What is your skill set? How does it compare with that needed for the job? 5. What skills might you improve to enhance your fit to the job? 6. List courses or a minor that might improve your fit to the position. 7. Describe applied experiences, such as internships, that might prepare you for this position.

Suggested Reading Gerdin, J. (2017). Health careers today. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier. Gurung, R. (2018). Health psychology: Well-being in a diverse world. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Morkes, A. (2017). Hot health care careers: 30 occupations with fast growth and many new job openings. Chicago, IL: College & Career Press.

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Resources American Psychological Association: Pursuing a Career in Health Psychology https://www.apa.org/action/science/health/education-training.aspx American Psychological Association Center for Psychology and Health https://www.apa.org/health/index.aspx Society of Behavioral Medicine http://www.sbm.org/ Society for Health Psychology http://www.health-psych.org/

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7 Sport Psychology Sport Psychology Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree Fitness Instructor, Recreation Worker, and Recreation Supervisor Sport Instructors and Coaches Physical Education Teacher Athletic Trainer Sport Reporter

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Career as a Sport Psychologist Academic and Research Settings Practice Settings Checklist 7.1: Is Sport Psychology for You? Exercise 7.1: Learning About Sport Psychology Suggested Reading Resources

n October 27, 2018, an armed terrorist (allegedly Robert Gregory Bowers) entered the Tree of Life synagogue in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and opened fire on the congregation. In total, 11 individuals were murdered and seven more were seriously injured. Events such as these (see also shootings in Las Vegas, Nevada, and Orlando, Florida, among others) create fear, anxiety, anger, and a myriad of other feelings and emotions for people in the United States and around the world. Despite the devastation following these attacks, major U.S. sporting events continued. After a moment of silence for those lost and injured, games continued for the National Football League and Major League Baseball. What is the role of athletics in fostering the morale and often patriotism of U.S. citizens? Do sports—watching and playing—help us deal

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with life-altering events and stressors? Furthermore, how do professional athletes remain focused on their sport while the remainder of the country (and oftentimes the world) focuses on the tragedies at hand? What psychological factors underlie the performance of professional athletes? Questions such as these are at the heart of sport psychology.

Sport Psychology Sport psychology is the “study of the psychological aspects of sport” (Anderson, 2000, p. xiii) and may address any aspect of athletes’ or performers’ lives, competitive or otherwise, to assist them in their performance and life endeavors. Sport psychology is not limited to sports; the principles may apply to any type of physical activity or exercise or to sports organizations and agencies. Sport psychologists examine topics such as how an athlete can use visualization techniques to improve performance, how to manage performance anxiety, and ways athletes on sports teams can cooperate to work more effectively together. Sport psychologists may also examine team culture and its impact on performance and outcomes. Or sport psychologists may examine social benefits of youth sports leagues (e.g., Little League Baseball, U.S. Youth Soccer) on health and community outcomes. Like other psychologists, some sport psychologists conduct research in academic, clinical, government, and business settings. Others engage in clinical or consulting practice, helping individuals and teams improve their athletic performance and training coaches to help them become more efficient and productive in leading athletic teams. It is easy to see why students are intrigued by sport psychology: the philosophy and principles of improving performance work for more than just athletes—they are effective beyond the field as well.

Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree If you are interested in sport psychology, you’ll be glad to know that there are many opportunities for bachelor’s degree holders to work in rewarding careers that challenge them to use their general training in psychology as well as any specialized knowledge in sports. It should be noted that a history as an athlete is not a prerequisite for a career in the sport psychology arena; however, former athletes may find such careers highly rewarding, as they are able to remain close to competitions and the athletes competing in sports. There are a wide variety of sports-related careers at the bachelor’s degree level for which psychology majors and those interested in psychology will find themselves competitive. Some of the careers we discuss closely match the strengths of psychology majors; others are best pursued with another major coupled with a psychology minor, as we discuss in the following sections.

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Fitness Instructor, Recreation Worker, and Recreation Supervisor Fitness instructors and recreation workers work to improve people’s fitness and help them stay active. Fitness instructors guide and motivate individuals and groups in exercise activities, such as cardiovascular, strength, and stretching activities. Recreational workers develop, plan, organize, and direct recreational activities (such as aerobics, arts and crafts, performing arts, camping, or recreational sports) for both children and adults (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Typical activities of recreation workers vary depending on agency type and clientele. For example, camp counselors are recreation workers who “lead and instruct” children and adolescents in outdoor activities such as swimming and boating, horseback riding, camping, hiking, sports, music, drama, art, and computers (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Recreation workers may assume more of a therapeutic role in residential camps where they provide assistance in skill building to individuals lacking daily living skills, social skills, and problem-solving skills. Fitness workers, on the other hand, coach groups or individuals in sporting or exercise activities with the goal of developing skills or promoting physical fitness and healthy living (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Fitness instructors and recreational workers are employed in educational and university settings, nursing homes, parks and recreational centers, community activity centers, health clubs and fitness centers, country clubs, and medical and rehabilitation centers. A position as an entry-level recreation worker generally does not require a bachelor’s degree and the median salary is commensurate with this level of education ($24,540 in 2017; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). However, a college degree and experience create opportunities for advancement to supervisory positions. A recreation supervisor oversees recreational workers, organizes and oversees activities and programs in an organization of community, prepares budgets, publicizes events, and oversees maintenance of equipment and facilities. The mean salary for a recreation supervisor was about $44,000 in 2018 (PayScale, 2018). Directors of parks and recreational programs spend the majority of their time developing and managing recreational programs in parks, playgrounds, and other child-oriented settings (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). They may be responsible for park and recreational budgets, but they also have an opportunity for direct involvement with program participants. In 2018, directors of parks and recreational programs earned a mean salary of about $57,000 (PayScale, 2018). Fitness instructors and personal trainers work one-on-one with clients, often provide nutrition and lifestyle advice, and prepare fitness programs for clients. Most employers of fitness instructors and personal trainers tend to require a bachelor’s degree in a health or fitness field, such as health or exercise science and physical education, but a degree in psychology coupled with courses in exercise science, health, and nutrition is generally suitable. Fitness instructors

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and personal trainers are certified by the American Council on Exercise (https:// www.acefitness.org) or the National Academy of Sports Medicine (https:// www.nasm.org/). Both require Emergency Cardiac Care (CPR) and Automated External Defibrillator (AED) Certification and a passing score on a certification exam. Some fitness instructors and personal trainers become managers of gyms and fitness facilities, as discussed in Career Profile 7.1. Fitness instructors and recreational workers earned a median 2017 salary of $39,210 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). A benefit of these careers is the opportunity to advance to supervisory positions or to pursue self-employment as a personal trainer, both of which offer salary increases. The job market for fitness instructors and recreational workers is expected to grow faster than average (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Advantages of these jobs include the employment setting; the nature of the work necessitates much time spent outdoors in parks, the wilderness, or near water, as well as other unique employment settings including tourist and vacation getaway spots. Imagine the enjoyment of working as a recreational worker on a cruise ship, on an island resort in the Bahamas, or at a secluded mountain spa. Although such positions remain highly coveted, and therefore competitive, such opportunities do exist. Another benefit is health related—a fitness career or one engaged in activity will require you to maintain your fitness.

Sport Instructors and Coaches With increased interest in youth sports, a growing field is sport instruction. Sport instructors work with individuals or a team of athletes to enhance skills. Sport instructors typically function in a consultant role, whereby they are hired to teach particular skills (for example, hitting coach for Little League baseball players, serving coach for youth tennis players, and so on). Coaches, on the other hand, are hired to lead a team (for example, baseball or football) or group of athletes (for example, golfers or cross-country runners) into competition. Whereas sport instructors work with people of all ages involved in sport, coaches are generally employed at the middle-school level and above. In middle and elementary schools, coaches are often dual-hires, meaning that they are hired both to teach a subject matter and to coach an athletic team (in the cases of smaller school districts, coaches may coach multiple team sports). A bachelor’s degree in psychology offers many advantages for sport instructors and coaches. The study of human behavior, including attitudes and motivation, will assist sport instructors and coaches trying to motivate athletes to improve. Additionally, studying psychology, including learning and motivation, will provide those in this field with the necessary knowledge to best teach athletes. Athletes of all ages and levels learn differently. The astute sport instructor or coach is able to modify his or her teaching style to best reach athletes. A bachelor’s degree in psychology offers such a skill set and knowledge. In addition, a bachelor’s degree in psychology affords coaches the opportunity

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CAREER PROFILE 7.1 SPORT PSYCHOLOGY: KATE COLVIN Who Am I? My name is Kate Colvin and I am a 21-year-old woman. I completed my baccalaureate training at the University of Idaho in Moscow, Idaho. In college, I was a member of the campus volleyball club, the Student Alumni Relations Board, and Gamma Phi Beta sorority.

Putting Psychology to Work I am currently employed as a general manager and fitness director for a private gym in Seattle, Washington. I have held this position for approximately a year. My major job responsibilities include meeting monthly sales quotas for general membership and personal training sales and supervising 25 staff (5 in the sales division and 20 personal trainers). I am in charge of making sure that the interactions between staff and clients are positive, and that clients are treated safely and with respect. I also provide continuing education to staff with the goal of improving the health and fitness of our members.

How I Got Here I applied for my current job directly out of college. Although I do not have any other job experiences following my baccalaureate work, I was employed in the fitness industry during my 4 years as an undergraduate. I was a student manager at the University of Idaho Recreation Center during my junior and senior years. As a manager, I conducted personal training sessions and coordinated fitness programs. I also obtained various personal training and group fitness certifications along the way.

Inside My Job: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly The best part about my job is the opportunity to aid individuals in bettering the quality of their lives. However, the amount of hours I am required to work can be overwhelming. I am often at the gym for 50 hours or more per week. It can also be challenging to identify the diverse needs of our clientele. Each day various types of people walk through the door in hopes of changing their lives. My task is to understand the reason(s) why that particular person has come into our gym. Once I figure out their goals and how best to meet their needs, I can make a meaningful connection with the client.

Take It From Me . . . My education in psychology has been beneficial when dealing interpersonally with both staff and clients. For example, psychology greatly increased my success in

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sales because I can effectively relate to others with a helping attitude. Additionally, the problem-solving skills I acquired in my training have improved my ability to work through and cope with adverse issues among my staff. My advice to undergraduates who want to pursue a degree in psychology is to identify a field that you would eventually like to work in. Create a link between that career choice and your education throughout your bachelor’s degree; that is, build your college experiences around your career objectives. For me, I knew I was interested in sports and health, so I applied to work at fitness facilities even before I graduated. This kind of experience will help prepare you for when you are ready to begin your career once you’ve finished college. Before entering this profession, I wish I had known how much of a role psychology actually plays in different facets of the fitness industry, including sales, personal training, group fitness, and managing. The skills and knowledge you learn in psychology are evident in almost every domain. I wish I had been able to make these connections while I was completing my bachelor’s degree. I believe that would have helped me to be more prepared when beginning my career.

to teach diverse and interesting courses (for example, psychology, family studies, sociology) at the high-school level. This is a potential advantage in the hiring process in school districts that must juggle multiple demands with a hire, meaning hire a coach that can also teach. Sport instructor and coaching careers offer many benefits. First, the typical athlete is highly motivated and eager to improve; thus, resistance is generally minimal. Sport instructors and coaches frequently work outdoors, which is attractive for many, and the constant movement and teaching require some level of fitness, so opportunities for long-term fitness are good. Finally, sport instructors and coaches typically instruct or coach in sports of their choice, so interest remains high. The median annual income for coaches is $32,270 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018); salaries typically rise as one develops a reputation and moves up the athletic hierarchy (high-school coaches typically earn more than middle-school coaches; college coaches typically earn more than high-school coaches; professional coaches typically earn more than college coaches). A disadvantage to a career in sport instruction or coaching is irregular work hours (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Sport instructors and coaches often can’t begin their work day until after school hours, when athletes are available. Additionally, they must frequently attend events in the evenings and weekends.

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Physical Education Teacher Although physical education (PE) teachers employed in school settings typically major in education or health education, training in psychology (for example, a double major or minor in psychology) is an asset to PE teachers. Knowledge of learning strategies, such as principles of reinforcement and the value of overlearning for skill development, makes for an effective PE teacher who can help students learn healthy habits. The understanding of cognition and psychological development that comes with psychology coursework can help PE teachers understand and interact effectively with their students. In addition, PE teachers are rarely restricted to the gym. Most teach health and other classes as well. Your degree in psychology, especially coupled with an interest in sport psychology, may make you more competitive as you market yourself dually as a teacher of physical education as well as psychology-related classes. Like other teachers, PE teachers must be certified by the state. Most teachers major in education at the undergraduate level. However, psychology majors who wish to enter education can usually complete a post-baccalaureate teaching program (often 6 months to a year in length) to obtain certification to teach in public schools. The salary, advantages, and disadvantages for a PE teacher are similar to those of other educators; we refer you to Chapter 4 for a review of this information.

Athletic Trainer Students who are interested in sport psychology might consider careers as athletic trainers. Athletic trainers work to keep athletes healthy as well as identify, diagnose, and rehabilitate injuries. They might provide first aid and emergency care on an athletic field or apply protective or injury-preventive tape, bandages, and other materials to athletes. Athletic trainers create and implement rehabilitation programs for injured athletes. Beyond the individual care provided to athletes, athletic trainers are often involved in administrative planning, including designing and budgeting programs, in athletic departments (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). A college major in athletic training is required to take the exam to become a Certified Athletic Trainer, the credential recognized by 49 states for eligibility to practice athletic training. Nevertheless, a minor or double major in psychology, with understanding of attitudes, motivation, reinforcement, and the mind-body interaction, will translate well to this career option. Furthermore, injuries can be traumatic experiences for athletes, so having a compassionate trainer versed in basic counseling skills can often alleviate significant psychology fear in the immediate aftermath of an injury. Not surprisingly, given sustained interests in sport at all levels from youth programs through professional sports, the occupational outlook for athletic trainers is very strong and expected to grow by 23% (well above average) by 2026, with a median 2017 salary of $46,630 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018).

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Sport Reporter A career in sport reporting (both in print and televised outlets) is best served by a major in journalism, but psychology education offers opportunities to develop vital skills. Specifically, the writing, statistics, and analyzing of data that are required of psychology majors afford excellent training for sport reporting. Sport reporters gather information (data), prepare stories (analogous to writing a research paper based on the obtained data), and publish or broadcast the information (similar to published psychological reports or professional presentations at a research conference). With increased media focus on celebrityathlete behavior, a background in psychology—specifically social psychology with a focus on group behavior, attitudes, and decision-making—offers compelling insights into individual and team behavior. Thus, when editors request a special report on why a sports team engaged in a certain type of behavior or bonded better than other teams, a background in psychology may offer the advantage to get the special assignment. Work hours vary by season (for example, the fall and winter include many weekend hours because collegiate and high-school football games, volleyball matches, basketball games, and wrestling matches, for example, typically occur on weekends). Additionally, the work schedule is frequently hectic (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018), as reporters struggle to meet deadlines for on-air reporting, often with minimal preparation, or for newspapers to go to press. A career as a sport reporter, however, offers the potential for great excitement, as coverage of sporting events will often include highly contested and riveting games or competitions. Sport reporters are often very close to the action, with a close-up of the stress and strain endured by the athletes. Reporters, in general, earned a median annual wage of about $39,000 in 2017. Sport broadcasters, a more advanced position in which the individual provides on-air analysis, commentary, and perhaps anchoring, earned a median salary of about $62,000 in 2017 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Coursework and applied experiences suggested for students with interests in sport psychology are listed in Table 7.1.

Career as a Sport Psychologist Sport psychology is a stimulating field offering a variety of career opportunities. Individuals with interests in sport psychology may earn degrees in several areas in addition to psychology, such as physical education, counseling, athletic training, or sport science. In fact, sport psychology is a multidisciplinary field and coursework should be taken in psychology, counseling, kinesiology, and sport science departments as well as specific courses in exercise physiology, sport sociology, and biomechanics. A master’s degree prepares graduates for all of the positions described, but at more advanced and supervisory levels. Master’s-level individuals who wish to practice must seek state certification and/or licensure as an athletic trainer or licensed professional counselor. At

122  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology TABLE 7.1  ●  P  reparation for Bachelor’s-Level Careers Related to Sport Psychology Coursework • Abnormal Psychology or Psychopathology • Anatomy and Physiology • Biology • Biopsychology • Communication • Education • Exercise and Sport Science • Health Education • Interviewing, Counseling, or Helping Skills • Management • Nutrition • Physical Health • Principles of Sport Coaching • Psychology of Motivation (or Attitudes) • Sport Psychology • Writing Applied Experiences Volunteer opportunities, internships/practica, or paid part-time positions in any of the following settings: • University athletic department • Youth/adult sports programs (for example, Little League, Parks and Recreation) • University recreational center Research Experiences* Experiences studying and participating in research in any of the following areas: • Exercise psychology • Goal setting • Leadership • Motivation • Performance enhancement • Sport psychology *Note that the content area of the research is less important than the experience itself, which enhances reasoning, quantitative, writing, and organizational skills.

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the doctoral level, sport psychologists engage in three primary roles: research, teaching, and practice. Specifically, sport psychologists tend to be employed in academic settings and private practice. The following sections discuss the various settings in which sport psychologists work.

Academic and Research Settings Within academia, sport psychologists may be affiliated with departments of psychology, sport exercise programs, and physical education programs. Most academic sport psychologists spend their time teaching and conducting research; some also engage in consulting or service delivery activities. The aim of sport psychology research is to identify the effects of athletic participation (including exercise and other physical activities) on development, health, and overall wellbeing throughout the lifespan. Much of this research focuses on strategies for improving athletic performance; however, sport psychologists also are interested in the overall life functioning of athletes and performers. Therefore, issues of life satisfaction, vocational plans for retired athletes, and relationship issues are a few examples of the varied research interests of sport psychologists. As is true with other psychological specialties, academic careers in sport psychology afford the opportunity to collaborate with other professionals. Also of benefit is the potential for access to an athletic population via college sports teams, as well as a flexible schedule to pursue practice or consultation interests. In fact, many collegiate athletic departments are moving to a model of hiring full-time sport psychologists, which affords great opportunity for research collaborations and the development of consultation relationships. The primary pitfall for academically inclined sport psychologists is the job demand, as there appear to be a limited number of available positions within higher-education settings during any given year, and competition is at a premium. However, this is true of most academic positions within and outside of psychology. Generally speaking, entry-level assistant professors earned a median salary of about $61,000 in 2016–2017 (Christidis et al., 2017; see Chapter 14).

Practice Settings The goal of the practicing sport psychologist is to use psychological principles to help athletes and performers achieve optimal physical performance (Tod, Hutter, & Eubank, 2017). This increased performance is accomplished through techniques such as relaxation, imagery, goal setting, and self-talk. Relaxation strategies are taught to athletes and performers to reduce anxiety and stress in order to maximize performance. Sport psychologists direct athletes to use imagery and self-talk before, during, and after an event to improve their focus and mental clarity with the expectation of improved performance. Goal setting is used with athletes and performers to increase their sense of selfcontrol and to enhance performance over the long term. Sport psychologists tend to enjoy a flexible work environment. A sport psychologist may see an athlete in the office but may also travel to the relevant

124  Part II •  Practice-Oriented Fields in Psychology athletic arena for service delivery. For example, a sport psychologist may work with a golfer at the driving range or putting green to implement focusing strategies previously discussed in the office. A sport psychologist working with a basketball player may meet the client at the arena to implement relaxation strategies while the athlete shoots free throws. Thus, careers in sport psychology require flexibility and often creativity for service delivery. Sport psychologists who provide services are employed in university counseling centers, athletic departments, sports medicine clinics, consulting agencies, and in private practice. Sport psychologists who work in private practice provide clients with performance enhancement, life-skills training, organizational consulting, psychotherapy and counseling interventions, and rehabilitation. Private practice, however, tends to be less financially stable for sport psychologists than academia because it relies on “drumming up business.” Many private practitioners supplement their income by providing nonsports-related psychological services. Generally speaking, psychologists who provide professional services earned a median salary of about $85,000 in 2015 and those in private practice earned a median salary of $100,000 (Lin et al., 2017). Note, however, that these figures refer to all psychologists, across specialties. In addition, sport psychologists who are fortunate enough to be affiliated with collegiate or professional teams and athletes are likely to have higher incomes than sport psychologists not working with elite athletes and their teams. Throughout this chapter, we have seen that sport psychology offers knowledge and training that is relevant to many careers. If you are interested in pursuing a sports-related position with your baccalaureate degree, supplement your academic training in psychology with courses in other health- and recreation-related areas such as health education, nutrition, and safety. Careers at the doctoral level are more specialized. If you are considering a graduate-level career in sport psychology, recognize that there are few sport psychology programs. Most sport psychologists have degrees in clinical or counseling psychology and have specialized in sport psychology after graduate school. If a career as a sport psychologist appeals to you, pursue generalist training during graduate school (meaning clinical or counseling psychology programs), followed by specialized training in health or sport psychology during internship or postdoctoral work.

CHECKLIST 7.1 IS SPORT PSYCHOLOGY FOR YOU? Do you: ❑ Want to help people maximize their physical capabilities? ❑ Like learning about health?

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❑ Enjoy working with athletes? ❑ Want to help people live healthier lives? ❑ Enjoy sports? ❑ Want to work with athletes? ❑ Enjoy physical fitness? ❑ Like conducting research? ❑ Want to learn more about athletic performance? ❑ Often wonder why some people succeed whereas others fail? ❑ Want to understand how the mind influences the body? Scoring: The more boxes you checked, the more likely it is that sport psychology is a good match for you.

EXERCISE 7.1 LEARNING ABOUT SPORT PSYCHOLOGY Search online for information about sport psychology and answer the following: 1. Identify two useful websites for someone interested in this topic. 2. List some of the topics that psychologists in this field study. 3. Identify two researchers in this field. What do they study? 4. Identify two books that, based on the table of contents, description, and perhaps a perusal of Google Books, might provide useful information about this topic.

Considering Careers in Sport Psychology Identify a career option for someone interested in this field (either one that we have discussed or another). Conduct a search on a job search website, such as Indeed.com, LinkedIn.com, Glassdoor.com, or any of the many other job search sites online. Locate one or two job ads that appeal to you. Answer the following for each: 1. What is the job? 2. What education or experience requirements are listed? (Continued)

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(Continued) 3. What skills are needed to succeed in the job? If the ad does not list them (and it likely will not), brainstorm what skills would be coveted by the employer. 4. Consider the assessments that you conducted in Chapter 1. What is your skill set? How does it compare with that needed for the job? 5. What skills might you improve to enhance your fit to the job? 6. List courses or a minor that might improve your fit to the position. 7. Describe applied experiences, such as internships, that might prepare you for this position.

Suggested Reading American Kinesiology Association. (2011). Careers in sport, fitness, and exercise. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Karageorghis, C. I., & Terry, P. C. (2011). Inside sport psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Sanderson, C. (2016). Sport psychology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Sullivan, J. P., Coppel, D. B., Maniar, S., & Minniti, A. M. (2017). Sport psychologists. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Career paths in psychology: Where your degree can take you (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Van Raalte, J. L., & Brewer, B. W. (2014). Exploring sport and exercise psychology (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Resources American Psychological Association: A Career in Sport and Performance Psychology https://www.apa.org/action/science/performance/education-training.aspx American Psychological Association of Graduate Students: Hot Careers: Sport Psychology https://www.apa.org/gradpsych/2012/11/sport-psychology.aspx

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Association for Applied Sport Psychology http://www.appliedsportpsych.org/ European Federation of Sport Psychology http://www.fepsac.com/ International Society of Sport Psychology http://www.issponline.org Society for Sport, Exercise, & Performance Psychology https://www.apadivisions.org/division-47/

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8 Biopsychology, Cognitive Neuropsychology, and Clinical Neuropsychology Biopsychology, Cognitive Neuropsychology, and Clinical Neuropsychology Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree Science Technician Psychiatric Technician Medical or Clinical Laboratory Technologist and Technician Pharmacy Technician Opportunities With a Graduate Degree

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Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology Research Practice Checklist 8.1: Is Biopsychology, Clinical Neuropsychology, or Cognitive Neuropsychology for You? Exercise 8.1: Learning About Biopsychology, Cognitive Neuropsychology, and Clinical Neuropsychology Suggested Reading Resources

o children act aggressively because they inherited an aggressive gene or do they learn aggressive behavior early in life? Are quiet people born shy or do they develop shyness in response to their early environment? You have undoubtedly been asked to think about such “nature versus nurture” issues by now in your college education and you’ve probably found it difficult to

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develop satisfactory answers. Don’t worry, you’re not alone! In fact, an entire field of psychology is devoted to one aspect of these questions—the study of the biological bases of behavior. Technological breakthroughs are rapidly advancing scientific knowledge in the biological sciences (for example, DNA research, cloning, stem cell research). What do these advances mean for psychology? With increased technology and refined research methods, we are able to identify more accurately the biological processes and neurological functioning that impact human behavior. Thus, biopsychology, cognitive neuropsychology, and clinical neuropsychology have enormous potential for altering our understanding of human behavior, not only to increase our knowledge base but also to influence how psychology is applied in the real world. Before discussing applications of biopsychology, cognitive neuropsychology, and clinical neuropsychology, let’s spend some time defining the fields.

Biopsychology, Cognitive Neuropsychology, and Clinical Neuropsychology Biopsychology, or physiological psychology, is the branch of psychology that studies the relationship between biology and behavior. Biopsychology integrates various areas of neuroscience (for example, neuroanatomy, the study of the structure of the nervous system; neurochemistry, the study of the chemical composition of neural activity; neuroendocrinology, the study of the interplay between the nervous system and endocrine system; neuropathology, the study of disorders that affect the nervous system; and neuropharmacology, the study of how drugs affect neural activity) to explain the biological bases of behavior. For example, a biopsychologist might study how genetics and experience interact to influence behavior. Others study the influence of hormones and other chemicals on behavior (e.g., Is there a “love” hormone? Do risky behaviors such as gambling release endorphins into the bloodstream?). Biopsychologists predominantly are researchers and academicians, employed by universities, government agencies, research institutes, and pharmaceutical companies. Cognitive neuropsychology is a branch of cognitive psychology that aims to understand cognition from the perspective of the brain—it represents the merge of cognitive psychology and biopsychology. Cognitive neuropsychologists study the brain to understand the neural bases of mental processes like thinking, memory, attention, and language. A cognitive neuropsychologist may use brain imaging techniques to study what happens in people’s brains when they tackle math problems. How does the brain of someone with dyslexia function differently from a typical brain? What areas of the brain are responsible for language, short-term memory, or decision-making? Cognitive neuropsychologists conduct research to examine how neural activity translates into mental activity: How do collections of neurons communicate, and how do

132  Part III •  Research and Applied Research Fields in Psychology we interpret that communication as thought? As you might guess, cognitive neuropsychology is primarily a research-oriented field and cognitive neuropsychologists are found in a variety of research and academic settings. Whereas cognitive neuropsychology represents the joining of cognitive psychology and biopsychology, clinical neuropsychology applies findings from biopsychology within clinical and counseling contexts. Clinical neuropsychology is the application of psychological assessments and interventions based upon the study of human behavior in relationship to the central nervous system. In other words, clinical neuropsychology integrates biopsychology and clinical/ counseling psychology to assist clients suffering from brain dysfunction (for example, a patient suffering memory loss following a traumatic brain injury). Clinical neuropsychologists conduct neuropsychological assessments to identify the extent of brain damage or severity of client impairment. They also develop interventions to help clients adapt or regain function in order to maximize the potential for independent living and quality of life. Like other psychologists, clinical neuropsychologists are employed in applied settings such as medical hospitals, clinics, and private practice and in academic positions within university settings or research positions in academia, government, or industry.

Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree Although much training in biopsychology or neuropsychology occurs at the graduate level, students with interests at the baccalaureate level have many career options available to them, including science technician, psychiatric aide, psychiatric technician, clinical laboratory technician, and pharmacy technician. These positions provide students an opportunity to apply their knowledge of psychology along with their knowledge and interest in biopsychology.

Science Technician Science technicians assist researchers, conducting experiments and working as a scientist’s “hands,” so to speak. They maintain scientific laboratories, operate and maintain laboratory instruments and equipment, monitor experiments, make observations and record data, and work with scientists who are forming conclusions based on experiments and lab work. There are many different kinds of technicians, because many fields require technical assistance. Thus, professional titles are designated according to the specific field (for example, biological technician, forensic science technician, and chemical laboratory technician). Bachelor’s degree holders in psychology with interests in biopsychology may choose positions as biological technicians or research technicians. In collaboration with biologists, biological technicians study living organisms and may be involved in medical or pharmaceutical research or work in microbiological or biotechnological laboratories. Examples of such research include studying cures for physiological diseases (for example, Alzheimer’s or

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AIDS) or analyzing organic substances and the effects of chemicals on the treatment of mental illness. Other research technicians may assist biopsychologists with their research. Science technicians typically work in research laboratories; however, they may occasionally work in other settings (for example, the “laboratory” of a forensic science technician may be the crime scene under investigation). The job outlook for science technicians varies by field, with medical laboratory technicians showing stability and biological technicians growing faster than the average career through 2026 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Similar to other career fields, science technician salaries fluctuate with employer and position, but the median annual wage for biological and chemical science technicians was about $44,000 and $47,000 in 2017 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Perks of this job include a comfortable work environment (laboratories are typically made to be comfortable), casual dress codes (the laboratory can get messy, so most science technicians wear jeans and casual clothing to work), and a 40-hour work week with normal business hours. The primary disadvantage of this career is the limited opportunity to develop and design research projects of your own interest. Although science technicians may have input into the research on which they are working, the employer or agency being served will typically determine the focus of research studies. If you’re interested in this career choice, supplement your biopsychology training with additional research and laboratory-related coursework, such as biology, chemistry, and physics. The more laboratory experience you have, the greater your marketability.

Psychiatric Technician A career as a psychiatric technician involves assisting psychiatrists or other mental health professionals in their care of mentally ill or emotionally disturbed patients. A psychiatric technician follows both a physician’s instructions and hospital procedures, monitors patients’ physical and emotional well-being, reports to medical staff, and may also provide therapeutic services and administer medications. Psychiatric technicians may also develop specialized skills, such as providing biofeedback in a clinic or for a private practitioner or providing electroencephalography services in a sleep disorders clinic. Rewards of a career as a psychiatric technician include direct work with clients, the chance to make a difference in someone’s life, and the opportunity to work with an interdisciplinary team. Unfortunately, the work can be stressful, with limited opportunities for advancement. Entry-level positions as psychiatric technicians do not require a college degree. The median salary for psychiatric technicians in 2017 was about $32,000 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). This field is expected to grow about as fast as the average career through 2026. If you’re interested in becoming a psychiatric technician, supplement your psychology coursework with courses in nursing and seek certification as a psychiatric technician (available through many colleges and universities).

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Medical or Clinical Laboratory Technologist and Technician Graduates with biopsychology interests sometimes obtain positions within medical or clinical laboratories as medical or clinical laboratory technicians or technologists, where they play a vital role in detecting, diagnosing, and treating diseases through their work analyzing a patient’s physical samples (for example, body fluids, tissues, and cells). Medical and clinical laboratory technicians conduct work similar to science technicians. They work under the supervision of laboratory technologists or managers and assist in the medical process. Clinical laboratory technicians maintain the laboratory, prepare specimens, and conduct basic tests either manually or with automated analyzers. Medical and clinical laboratory technologists supervise technicians and conduct all of the sophisticated medical tests that your physician orders when you visit for a routine exam (for example, blood glucose and cholesterol levels) or if he or she suspects that you are ill (for example, searching for microscopic signs of pathology in blood and tissue samples). Clinical laboratory technologists test body fluid and tissue samples to identify microorganisms such as bacteria or parasites. Although psychology research coursework and experience will be beneficial for this career choice, both types of laboratory technologists must seek American Medical Technologists (AMT) certification and most employers prefer laboratory technicians to be certified as well. AMT certification as a medical or clinical laboratory technician requires earning an associate’s degree in medical laboratory technology or its coursework equivalent, experience in a lab, and passing an exam. Certification as a medical or clinical technologist requires earning a degree in biomedical science, science, or substantial science coursework and passing an exam. More information is available from the AMT website (http://www.americanmedtech.org). The job outlook for clinical laboratory workers through 2018 is very good, with growth expected. In 2018, medical laboratory technicians earned an average salary of about $52,000 and medical technologists earned an average salary of $68,000 (Salary.com, 2018). Disadvantages to a clinical laboratory career include the physical hazards: as a clinical laboratory worker, you may handle infectious agents. In addition, clinical laboratory personnel often are exposed to fumes for significant time periods and spend a significant portion of their work day on their feet.

Pharmacy Technician Pharmacy technicians often work in retail pharmacies, where they help pharmacists distribute medication and information to customers. Pharmacy technicians verify customer and prescription information, perform the many clerical duties that arise within a pharmacy, and prepare medications for patients, including counting medications and preparing bottle labels.

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Benefits of a career as a pharmacy technician include a very good job market that is expected to increase more rapidly than average for both full-time and part-time work and an opportunity to work directly with the public (public relations are an important aspect of this career). As pharmacies are increasingly open evenings and weekends, expect to work evenings and weekends. Pharmacy technicians earned an average salary of about $34,000 in 2018 (Salary.com, 2018). Opportunities for job advancement are limited. Although formal pharmacy technician programs and certification are avail­ able, and preferred by many employers, many pharmacy technicians are trained on the job; thus, psychology graduates with emphasis in biopsychology should find themselves very marketable for this career. Nevertheless, supplemental coursework in chemistry is likely to enhance your application. For the most opportunities, pursue certification via the Pharmacy Technician Certification Board, which administers a national exam for certification (visit http://www.ptcb .org/). Many (but not all) states require it. Positions such as science, psychiatric, laboratory, and pharmacy technicians require broad scientific knowledge of biology and neuropsychology as well as applied experiences, as suggested in Table 8.1.

Opportunities With a Graduate Degree A graduate degree in biopsychology, cognitive neuropsychology, or clinical neuropsychology is versatile, provides training for a career in teaching or research, and also enables the pursuit of applied interests. Although counseling-related opportunities are available to master’s degree holders, if you’re interested in research or neuropsychology applied work, a doctoral degree is preferred. You may obtain training in biopsychology, cognitive neuropsychology, or cognitive psychology within programs that specialize in cognitive neuropsychology, or in clinical/counseling psychology programs that emphasize neuropsychology followed by specialized training in clinical neuropsychology during a yearlong internship and/or postdoctoral training. As is true for all psychologists, biopsychologists, cognitive neuropsychologists, and clinical neuropsychologists often find employment in academic settings. We discuss academic careers in detail in Chapter 14, but biopsychologists, clinical neuropsychologists, and cognitive neuropsychologists in academia face a challenge that is often specific to their fields: They usually require expensive laboratory equipment to conduct their research. Thus, getting a laboratory established and functioning can be problematic because significant space and money are required. Although a university may provide funds to assist new faculty in developing a psychophysiological or neuroanatomy lab, additional funds are often required to fully establish and maintain the laboratory. These psychologists spend a great deal of time writing grants to fund their work, yet grant writing is time-consuming and detracts from the research and publication that new professors are expected to do. Once received, however, grants offer faculty many perks, including increased salary via summer pay, course release time, paid research

136  Part III •  Research and Applied Research Fields in Psychology TABLE 8.1  ●  P  reparation for Bachelor’s-Level Careers Related to Biopsychology, Cognitive Neuropsychology, and Clinical Neuropsychology Coursework • Abnormal Psychology • Anatomy • Biopsychology • Brain and Behavior • Chemistry • Cognitive Psychology • Genetics • Math • Microbiology • Neuropsychology • Neuroscience • Psychological Assessment • Writing Applied Experiences Volunteer opportunities, internships/practica, or paid part-time positions in any of the following settings: • Doctor’s office • Hospital • Mental retardation facility • Pharmaceutical company • Pharmacy (as an aide behind the counter) Research Experiences* Experiences studying and participating in research in any of the following areas: • Biology • Chemistry • Cognitive psychology • Neuropsychology • Psychopathology *Note that the content area of the research is less important than the experience itself, which enhances reasoning, quantitative, writing, and organizational skills.

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assistants, and status within the department. For more on academic careers, see Chapter 14. Let’s take a closer look at the work of biopsychologists, cognitive neuropsychologists, and clinical neuropsychologists outside of academia.

Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology Research In addition to academia, biopsychologists, clinical neuropsychologists, and cognitive neuropsychologists may pursue research careers in pharmaceutical or biotechnology companies (as well as within government settings) that work to develop medications and evaluate the effectiveness of existing medicines. Researchers in biotechnology manipulate biological organisms to make products (for example, food products and medicines) to benefit the human race. Psychologists employed in biotechnology agencies or companies may evaluate the effectiveness of a product or assist in developing new products. A research career with a pharmaceutical or biotechnology company can be very rewarding because you’ll have the opportunity to develop and evaluate products, whether food or medicine, designed to benefit people. Salaries vary with employer and setting, but in 2015 psychologists who worked in for-profit research settings earned a median salary of $130,000 (Lin et al., 2017). Research positions with pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies can be stressful because fluctuations in the stock market and product development continually push developers and evaluators to produce new and better products. In this career your work is never done, as you will always be looking for ways to improve current products or produce new, more effective products.

Practice Of the subfields discussed in this chapter, clinical neuropsychology most lends itself to an applied career. The most common practice of clinical neuropsychologists is neuropsychological diagnostic assessment to identify the extent of brain damage or severity of impairment. They may, for example, be asked to conduct an evaluation to discriminate between neurological and psychiatric symptoms, to identify a neurological disorder or help distinguish between different neurological conditions, or to assist in the localizing of a lesion site. Other reasons for neuropsychological assessments include patient care and planning (including cognitive capacities), rehabilitation and treatment evaluations, and research purposes. The goals of clinical neuropsychological assessment are different from those of the general psychological evaluation. In the neuropsychological evaluation, four primary goals exist: (1) to localize and diagnose cortical damage or dysfunction; (2) to facilitate patient treatment and rehabilitation; (3) to identify the presence of mild disturbance that is unrecognized in other examination procedures; and (4) to examine brain dysfunction in clients with a preexisting condition. Aside from these goals, the neuropsychological assessment serves four primary functions in the treatment of mental health patients and includes diagnosis, treatment planning, rehabilitation evaluations, and research.

138  Part III •  Research and Applied Research Fields in Psychology As psychologists, clinical neuropsychologists are interested in behavior; behavior in this career refers to cognition, emotionality, and executive functioning. According to Lezak, Howieson, and Loring (2004), cognition includes receptive functions (meaning the ability to “select, acquire, classify, and integrate information”) and includes expressive functions (for example, speaking), memory, constructional abilities (for example, building blocks), attention and concentration, consciousness, and mentation (speed of mental activities). Emotionality refers to personality or emotional changes that occur following a brain injury. Finally, Lezak et al. (2004) refer to executive functioning as the abilities that contribute to the expression of behavior (meaning functions that enable a person to engage in independent, goal-directed, and self-serving behavior). Referral questions may include one or any combination of these behaviors, and the type of neuropsychological evaluation conducted is determined by the referral question. Examination procedures may include any or all of the following: a clinical interview, detailed case history, mental status examination, and standardized neuropsychological assessments (Halstead-Reitan Battery, Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery); standardized psychological instruments such as intelligence tests (for example, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale III, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children IV, Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale–Fifth Edition); memory tests (Wechsler Memory Scale III); other brief examination instruments to assess specific deficits (for example, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test, Finger-Tapping Test); personality assessment (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory 2); and vocational/ occupational assessments. A thorough clinical neuropsychological assessment can be completed in as little as 4 to 6 hours, but may require as much as 8 to 12 hours of testing. Thus, neuropsychologists in full-time practice may spend the majority of their time conducting and reporting the results of their assessments. Clinical neuropsychologists may also be involved in providing treatment and rehabilitation services. Thus, they can provide therapeutic services to help patients adapt to their injuries or develop new skills to compensate for lost abilities. Although psychotherapy or counseling is occasionally implemented to assist patients and their families struggling to cope with the life-altering effects of a brain injury, therapeutic services implemented by clinical neuropsychologists are typically cognitive in nature. In other words, the behaviors previously discussed as the targets of neuropsychological evaluations are the same behaviors that will be treated following a brain injury. For example, a patient suffering from short-term memory loss due to a cardiovascular accident (such as a stroke) may by presented with memory strategies (for example, developing chunking strategies where information is remembered in chunks rather than individual units of information). In addition, the patient may be encouraged to participate in a game (for example, “concentration” or the “memory” card game) that requires remembering information during the course of play. Interventions, particularly rehabilitation, are a primary role for clinical neuropsychologists. Rehabilitation psychology is the application of psychosocial

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principles to people with physical, sensory, cognitive, developmental, or emotional difficulties, with a goal of helping clients “relearn” lost functions or develop new functions or altering the environment to maximize quality of life. An applied career as a clinical neuropsychologist has many benefits. First, clinical neuropsychology is a very specialized field that typically allows for hourly billing at a rate greater than general psychological billing; thus, salaries of clinical neuropsychologists are often greater than those of nonspecialized psychologists (see Chapters 3 and 15). In addition, clinical neuropsychologists are often afforded special status in medical settings because they work in conjunction with physicians and of all psychological professionals are the most closely aligned with the medical field. They may even be required to be present during brain surgery, for example, to map cognitive function, or to localize a lesion or a particular cognitive function. Finally, clinical neuropsychology training affords a psychologist flexibility with regard to employment settings, and clinical neuropsychologists are employed in medical settings (for example, hospitals, rehabilitation centers, specialty medical clinics, medical schools), private practice, private and public agencies, and other settings typical of the counseling and clinical psychologist without clinical neuropsychological training. A primary drawback to an applied career as a clinical neuropsychologist is the amount of time spent writing reports. For every evaluation conducted, the clinical neuropsychologist must write a report, and these reports can be quite lengthy and time-intensive. For example, you may expect to spend hours on a single report. Another disadvantage is the stress of continued work with severely injured people, including children. Automobile accidents, violent crime, and terrorism are a few examples of the types of incidents that lead to neurological damage, and clinical neuropsychologists must deal with these issues and their effects on an ongoing basis. On a positive note, clinical neuropsychology is one of the most rapidly growing fields in professional psychology, and it will continue to be as our society continues to age. In fact, many consider clinical neuropsychology to be one of the leading careers for psychologists in the 21st century.

CHECKLIST 8.1 IS BIOPSYCHOLOGY, CLINICAL NEUROPSYCHOLOGY, OR COGNITIVE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY FOR YOU? Do you: ❑ Enjoy biology classes? ❑ Remember dissecting frogs in biology class as a pleasant or nonaversive experience? (Continued)

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(Continued) ❑ Enjoy reading about the functions of the human brain? ❑ Get excited about human anatomy and biological functioning? ❑ Think you would enjoy conducting research aimed at identifying specific brain functioning? ❑ Want to work in a medical setting with brain-injured patients? ❑ Enjoy solving complex puzzles? ❑ Want to work in a hospital? ❑ Have an interest in technology? ❑ Believe that much of human behavior has a biological cause or component? ❑ Want to conduct neurological assessments? ❑ Want to help people overcome brain injuries and neurological problems? ❑ Like science? ❑ Want to go to graduate school? ❑ Want to conduct research (for example, psychosurgery) with animals? Scoring: The more boxes you checked, the more likely it is that a career in biopsychology, cognitive neuropsychology, or clinical neuropsychology is for you.

EXERCISE 8.1 LEARNING ABOUT BIOPSYCHOLOGY, COGNITIVE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY, AND CLINICAL NEUROPSYCHOLOGY Choose one or more of these fields. Search online for information about each and answer the following for each: 1. Identify two useful websites for someone interested in this topic. 2. List some of the topics that psychologists in this field study. 3. Identify two researchers in this field. What do they study? 4. Identify two books that, based on the table of contents, description, and perhaps a perusal of Google Books, might provide useful information about this topic.

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Considering Careers in Biopsychology, Cognitive Neuropsychology, and Clinical Neuropsychology Identify a career option for someone interested in biopsychology, cognitive neuropsychology, or clinical neuropsychology (either one that we have discussed or another). Conduct a search on a job search website, such as Indeed.com, LinkedIn.com, Glassdoor.com, or any of the many other job search sites online. Locate one or two job ads that appeal to you. Answer the following for each: 1. What is the job? 2. What education or experience requirements are listed? 3. What skills are needed to succeed in the job? If the ad does not list them (and it likely will not), brainstorm what skills would be coveted by the employer. 4. Consider the assessments that you conducted in Chapter 1. What is your skill set? How does it compare with that needed for the job? 5. What skills might you improve to enhance your fit to the job? 6. List courses or a minor that might improve your fit to the position. 7. Describe applied experiences, such as internships, that might prepare you for this position.

Suggested Reading Frank, R. G., Rosenthal, M., & Caplan, B. (Eds.). (2009). Handbook of rehabilitation psychology (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Ward, J. (2015). The student’s guide to cognitive neuroscience. New York, NY: Psychology Press.

Resources American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology http://www.theaacn.org/ American Board of Clinical Neuropsychology http://www.theabcn.org/

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American Board of Professional Neuropsychology http://abpn.net/ American Psychological Association: About Brain Science and Cognitive Psychology https://www.apa.org/action/science/brain-science/index.aspx International Neuropsychological Society http://www.the-ins.org/ National Academy of Neuropsychology http://nanonline.org/ Rehabilitation Psychology http://www.div22.org/ Society for Behavioral Neuroscience and Comparative Psychology https://www.apadivisions.org/division-6/ Society for Clinical Neuropsychology https://www.scn40.org

9 Industrial-Organizational Psychology, Cognitive Psychology, and Human Factors Psychology Industrial-Organizational Psychology Cognitive Psychology Human Factors Psychology Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree Human Resources Commercial or Industrial Design Assistant Administrative Assistant and Administrative Services Manager Manager or Project Manager User Experience Strategist Opportunities With a Graduate Degree

Human Resources Professional Consultant Usability Specialist Design Psychologist/ Environmental Designer Checklist 9.1: Is IndustrialOrganizational Psychology, Cognitive Psychology, or Human Factors Psychology for You? Exercise 9.1: Learning About Industrial-Organizational, Cognitive, and Human Factors Psychology Suggested Reading Resources

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n understanding of human behavior can improve the efficiency and performance of any business. Several subdisciplines of psychology address the needs of business and industry: industrial-organizational psychology, cognitive psychology, and human factors psychology. Degree holders in these fields work with owners, managers, and employees of business and industry to select, train, and manage employees; design and market products; and organize work environments. Those with interests in industrial-organizational psychology apply psychological principles to the workplace. An interest in cognitive psychology and human factors can inform the design of equipment, work spaces, software, and more. In this chapter, you’ll learn about each of these areas of psychology and explore careers that integrate psychology into business and industry settings.

Industrial-Organizational Psychology Industrial-organizational psychologists, commonly referred to as I-O psychologists, study how individuals behave in work settings. Some I-O psychologists focus on the hiring process, such as selecting and placing employees to ensure employees’ job satisfaction and productivity. They might create, validate, and choose tests and interviews to administer to job applicants to determine whether they should be hired and where they should be placed. I-O psychologists participate in performance evaluation of employees. They determine the criteria or standards by which employees will be evaluated. They may train supervisors to assess employees’ abilities and performance, providing feedback and documentation about the quality and quantity of an employee’s work to support pay increases and promotions. At the organizational level, I-O psychologists coordinate training and development activities for an organization. They conduct needs analyses to determine the skills and technical needs of employees and develop training programs to impart those skills. I-O psychologists study employee turnover and factors associated with job satisfaction, including absenteeism, age, pay, motivation, and attitudes toward the organization. They also study how employee services (for example, office-based childcare, gym facilities) influence morale, job satisfaction, and productivity. Promoting job satisfaction entails understanding workers’ needs and creating incentives that build job commitment and loyalty. I-O psychologists advise management on how to tailor employee incentives and redesign or reframe jobs to make them more challenging, meaningful, and satisfying to employees. I-O psychologists also study leadership and how it contributes to the functioning of an organization. They create individual and group training programs to improve the leadership and communication skills of supervisors and managers. Organizations grow and change over time. Professionals with training in I-O psychology help companies analyze the organization’s functioning and

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determine when changes are needed. They identify problems, study potential solutions, and make recommendations. I-O psychologists help organizations manage and resolve interpersonal problems, such as using conflict-resolution skills to work out a solution for feuding departments or team members. They also might examine the lines of authority or communication and advise their redesign when necessary. Industrial and organizational psychology is applicable to all work settings—businesses, consulting firms, government, the military, and universities.

Cognitive Psychology Cognitive psychologists study human thought. They examine how people take in, manipulate, store, and retrieve information, as well as how they make decisions and solve problems. They conduct research to extend our knowledge about the mind and to construct theories that explain why our minds work the way they do. Cognitive psychologists are interested in topics like attention, visual and auditory perception, memory, reasoning, retrieval and forgetting, and problem solving. Similar to other psychologists, cognitive psychologists usually specialize in one or two topics, such as attention or memory. Applied activities of cognitive psychologists might include studying how people learn in order to develop effective teaching methods. They might devise ways to help people learn memory skills and other cognitive abilities or might inform teachers about cognition and how to apply what we know about thinking to help children learn. Cognitive psychologists may also share information about attention and memory, for example, in consulting with individuals and companies that create software. Those who specialize in human-computer interaction apply cognitive research findings to improve apps, software, and other computer applications. People engage in many activities, encounter a great deal of information, and make countless decisions each day, giving cognitive psychologists a wealth of research topics and opportunities to apply their knowledge.

Human Factors Psychology Human factors psychology, sometimes called engineering psychology, is concerned with the interaction between people and their environments, and especially people and machines. Human factors psychologists design work environments to optimize productivity, employee satisfaction, and safety, and limit stress, fatigue, and error. They also participate in designing products. Like cognitive psychologists, human factors psychologists study humancomputer interaction to help companies construct software and hardware that suit users’ needs and abilities. A human factors psychologist might study how to make websites more user-friendly or engage in device testing and new product design. They might develop warnings and other labels for products. Others

146  Part III •  Research and Applied Research Fields in Psychology may conduct research and develop programs in military command, aircraft, and ship control systems. Psychologists with interests in human factors often study human error in order to predict and prevent errors through excellent design. An understanding of how people use products and the common mistakes that people are likely to make aids in designing products that prevent error and misuse. For example, a professional might work to reduce human error in medicine by improving the accessibility of software for recording patient information, streamlining reporting procedures, or adding cross-checks before surgeries or other medical procedures are conducted. Human factors are also important in promoting aviation safety and preventing pilot error. Ergonomics, the study of work environments and how to modify them to enhance productivity, is an important subarea of human factors. Ergonomic professionals adapt work environments, including computer interfaces and other equipment, to compensate for the limitations and qualities of people, increasing safety and reducing accidents. They study the effects of environmental factors such as light, noise, temperature, and work schedules (for example, night shifts or compressed work weeks) on worker safety, productivity, and satisfaction. Others work to improve the safety and comfort of spaces. Examples include investigating the capacity and comfort of aircraft seating and studying the user interface of anything with which an airline customer will interact.

Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree A bachelor’s degree prepares graduates for a variety of entry-level positions within business and industry. Because of the solid liberal arts background, psychology majors with interests in business, cognition, and human factors are prepared for positions in many settings, as described next.

Human Resources Human resources departments, also known as personnel departments, are responsible for managing an organization’s employees, including recruitment, placement, administering salaries and benefits, training, and conducting research on employee needs and satisfaction. Human resources personnel work to attract the most qualified employees, match them to the jobs for which they are best suited, help them to succeed in their jobs, and ensure that the organization complies with labor laws. Depending on your interests and experience, there are a variety of positions at all levels of education within human resource departments located in businesses, government, and private and nonprofit agencies. Recognize that the level of opportunities, responsibilities, and autonomy varies with expertise, experience, and education. Entry-level employees likely will not serve all functions described, but they will have the opportunity to learn and the potential to grow into positions with more responsibility.

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Human resource generalists engage in all aspects of managing personnel, including recruitment, placement, training, and development. They often administer salary and benefits and develop and communicate personnel policies. Entry-level generalist positions typically fall under titles such as human resource assistant, human resource specialist, and human resource representative. Employee relations specialists are tasked with communicating with employees. They administer human resources policies and procedures. Employee relations specialists work closely with management and with employees, reporting employee relations issues to management and brainstorming possible solutions. The job description of a recruiter includes soliciting potential employees, collecting applications and résumés for jobs, assembling applicant files, and performing background checks. Recruiters contact potential candidates, schedule interviews, and may participate in interviews. They may administer or oversee the administration of pre-employment assessments and tests, convey the results to management, and contact applicants with job offers. They also orient new employees and may educate them about salary and benefits. The specific activities of recruiters will vary by setting. Entry-level positions for recent graduates will likely entail more organizational activities such as filing, managing applicant files, and so on. More advanced activities and responsibilities, such as interviewing, come with experience. Benefits administrators manage an organization’s benefit programs. They inform and guide employees on benefits matters such as eligibility and coverage, as well as compile and maintain records. Benefits analysts not only administer benefit plans and programs, but they also analyze and evaluate plans, patterns of use, and the impact of new programs. A compensation analyst aids in designing, analyzing, and administering employee compensation including salary, bonuses, and performance management incentives. They evaluate jobs, determine compensation, and ensure that pay adjustments comply with the organization’s compensation policies. Training specialists, also known as trainers and training and development analysts, deliver an organization’s training programs and workshops to employees. They conduct training sessions, provide on-the-job training, maintain records of employee participation, and monitor the effectiveness of training and development programs. They help employees improve their knowledge and skills (such as sales techniques, safety guidelines, and productivity), and assist supervisors and managers to improve their interpersonal skills in dealing with employees. More advanced training and development positions involve human resource planning and organizational development. For example, a training specialist might create a leadership development program to develop employees’ leadership potential and prepare them for promotion and advancement. Organizations increasingly use social media, visual simulations, and mobile technology in their training programs. A career in human resources offers many advantages, including an office environment, a 40-hour work week, and opportunities for advancement with

148  Part III •  Research and Applied Research Fields in Psychology a bachelor’s degree and job experience. As a human resources employee, you’ll have the opportunity to directly help people, solve practical problems, and use your knowledge of psychology. You will interact with a wide range of people, which will require flexibility, patience, and excellent communication skills. Sometimes the “people” part of the job can be stressful and challenging. For example, you may interact with employees who are angry over changes in work conditions or who have been laid off. Human resources positions also entail administrative work that requires attention to detail and can sometimes be tedious. Entry-level positions often include the title of assistant and generally include fewer responsibilities and entail providing support to supervisors. Most human resource departments offer opportunities for promotion and advancement. Generally, the human resource field is expected to grow about as fast as average through 2026 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Employment of training and development specialists, however, is expected to grow faster than average through 2026, especially for those with experience developing online and mobile training programs. Salaries for the entry-level human resources positions that we have discussed generally fall between $46,000 and $54,000 (Salary.com, 2018). If you are interested in pursuing a career in human resources, psychology offers a solid background in communication skills, statistics, research methods, presentation skills, and human behavior. Additional courses in communication, writing, business administration, labor law, and accounting will enhance your employability. Seek an internship to obtain experience and make contacts that can help you find a human resources position after graduation. Some of the rewards and challenges of a career in human resources are illustrated in Career Profile 9.1.

Commercial or Industrial Design Assistant Commercial and industrial designers develop the concepts for products and equipment that people use every day, such as toys, computer equipment, furniture, home appliances, and medical, office, and recreational equipment. They combine artistic talent with research on customer needs, ways products are used, the consumer market, and production materials and methods to create a design that is functional, appealing, and competitive with others in the marketplace. Bachelor’s degree holders work as commercial or industrial design assistants to support designers’ needs. Depending on the particular field or industry, design assistants may help designers in planning packaging and containers for products such as foods, beverages, toiletries, or medicine, or they might assist in creating and designing packaging, illustrations, or advertising for manufactured materials. Design assistants help the designer to coordinate design concepts among engineering, marketing, production, and sales departments in order to produce a product that is safe, well designed, and marketable.

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CAREER PROFILE 9.1 INDUSTRIAL-ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: KATE IRELAND Who Am I? My name is Kate Ireland, and I am a 37-year-old woman. I graduated with a bachelor of science in business and psychology from Baker University in Baldwin City, Kansas. I entered college undecided in terms of major. I was very interested and active in journalism in high school but had second thoughts about pursuing it as a major and career. I ultimately decided that business and psychology represented a combination that was both practical and interesting. Most of my cohorts in the psychology program were graduate school bound, whereas I never strongly considered grad school and instead planned to enter the business world. There was some overlap in the coursework required by my two majors, which was redundant in some cases and rewarding in others. I was required to take Statistics I and II for both majors, and these classes were infinitely more meaningful and enjoyable to me due to the statistical applications I experienced in Psychology Research Methods I and II.

Putting Psychology to Work I am currently employed as a senior human resources (HR) manager for an engineered products corporation. I started working for my current employer a few days after graduating from college. I have been in HR management positions for almost 6 years, and I held various HR generalist positions for 8 years prior to that. I am currently the HR business partner for several global departments and focus on employee relations, organizational design, performance management, compensation, and process improvement. In other words, most of my job involves helping make sure that our corporation is rewarding to work for and giving employees the training, feedback, and incentives they need to maximize their potential—all tasks that involve practical working knowledge of social psychology. I have rounded out my knowledge of full-cycle employment through integral involvement with compensation analysis, development and recognition programs, acquisitions, and divestitures.

How I Got Here Like many entry-level positions, my first HR role was largely administrative and focused heavily on data entry and scheduling. Despite the seemingly mundane tasks, I gained a deep understanding of employee data that still benefits me to this day. I also had the opportunity to interact with even the (Continued)

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(Continued) highest levels of employees early in my career. Any interaction is a valuable one, even if tied to an administrative task and not a major business decision. One of my first projects was revamping job descriptions. Although it seemed tedious at the time, this project helped me understand which roles existed in the company and how the various departments interacted to design, develop, and ultimately construct or manufacture our products. I also did a lot of recruiting throughout my first several years with the company, which was another great way to understand roles within the company and the skill sets needed for our ongoing success.

Inside My Job: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly I enjoy working with a group of driven, intelligent, collaborative people and find it rewarding that HR plays an important role in attracting and retaining those people. Our environment is fast-paced and challenging, and rarely boring. I think a lot of my satisfaction with HR is tied to the coworkers and environment associated with my specific company as well as my company’s view of HR as a true business partner. I would not want to work in HR just anywhere. Job satisfaction in any role is largely tied to company culture and employee engagement, both of which are closely linked to HR. Of course, there are some less desirable aspects of my job, like terminations and employee discipline. Fortunately, those are not my main areas of focus on a daily basis.

Take It From Me . . . My interest in human behavior helped lead me to pursuing a degree in psychology, and I am glad I did, even though I could have entered my chosen profession with only a business degree. During most of college, I really had no idea what HR did and was not particularly interested in it despite people pointing out that it was a logical intersection between business and psychology. Working in HR has given me a much better understanding of that intersection than I had from the classroom, but I still have the opportunity to apply information and ideas from both my majors on a daily basis. Success in my field largely depends on being able to work effectively with many different personality types, understanding what motivates and drives specific behaviors, and being analytical with regard to both data and people. I feel that my psychology degree helped me develop these strengths—and probably contributed to both my hiring and longevity at my current employer.

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Designers and design assistants are employed by manufacturers, corporations, and design firms. They tend to work regular 40-hour weeks in an office setting. At the entry level, design assistants often provide administrative support including clerical tasks; as they demonstrate competence, assistants will take on more design-related tasks. Employment of industrial designers is expected to grow 4% through 2026, slower than the expected average for all occupations (7%) (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). However, growth will vary across fields. Employees with technical skills, such as computer-aided design (CAD), will be more marketable. In 2018, the average salary for an entry-level bachelor’s-level assistant designer was about $50,000 (Salary.com, 2018). If you’re interested in becoming a design assistant, creativity is essential and sketching ability will help you to advance to design positions. Psychology’s emphasis on research methods and problem solving will suit you well in this field. In addition, take courses in merchandising, business administration, engineering, architecture, and marketing, and seek training in art—especially a course in CAD.

Administrative Assistant and Administrative Services Manager Traditionally, the administrative assistant was a secretary who spent her (as decades ago the majority were women) days typing memos on an oldfashioned typewriter (the machine in which you roll the paper and each letter is stamped onto the page as you press the keys). Today’s administrative assistants have much more varied duties participating in office management and supporting executive staff. Increasingly, office automatization and executives’ use of word processing software have relieved most administrative assistants from typing. In addition to coordinating administrative and information management activities within an office, many administrative assistants train and orient new staff and conduct research on the Internet. Administrative assistants schedule meetings and appointments, maintain files, conduct research, manage databases, create reports, and manage projects. Executive assistant is a more advanced position providing detailed support to a department head, team, or group. More senior positions as administrative services managers or office managers entail overseeing various components of an office, varying from administrative assistance and reception services to data processing, conference planning, payroll, and other office functions. The responsibilities will vary with the position and organization, but the role is to organize and supervise office functions, including records management, mail distribution, and office upkeep. Employment of administrative assistants is expected to decline overall by about 5% through 2026; however, the employment of administrative assistants in medical fields may grow much faster than the average (over 20%) in response to the growth of the health care industry with the aging population of

152  Part III •  Research and Applied Research Fields in Psychology the United States (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Administrative services manager positions are expected to grow faster than the average of all occupations through 2026 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). An administrative assistant position offers several advantages, including an office environment, a 40-hour work week, and the opportunity to help others solve practical problems. Administrative services manager positions have similar advantages as well as the opportunity to lead others, exercise relative autonomy, and show creativity in solving office problems. Managing administrative staff can be particularly stressful because it entails coordinating the activities of several employees in order to achieve goals and requires excellent interpersonal and planning skills. According to Salary.com (2018), a bachelor’s degree holder with little office experience can expect to earn about $43,000 in an administrative assistant position, about $56,000 as an executive assistant, and about $76,000 as an administrative services manager. Skills in organization, communication, research, and stress management, as well as understanding of human behavior, leadership, and groups, make the psychology major competitive for administrative assistant and manager positions.

Manager or Project Manager Most organizations have a range of managerial positions, from entry-level to mid-level managers who supervise other managers, to the chief executive officer who manages the entire organization. Bachelor’s degree holders often are qualified for entry-level manager, project manager, or supervisor positions. Entry-level management positions include the responsibility of guiding one or more people in fulfilling a particular part of a company’s operations (often referred to as a “project”). The manager provides guidance, training, and coaching to his or her team and acts to ensure that the work is completed in line with the company’s plan and standards. Managers write reports documenting their team’s work, evaluate team members, and may play a role in hiring employees. Successful entry-level managers and project managers tend to be promoted to mid-level managers who supervise larger teams with more specialized functions. Success as a manager requires excellent interpersonal skills to act as a liaison between a manager and team. The project manager must understand the task, devise a plan to solve it, and lead a team to carry out the plan and complete the task. Competence in problem solving, creativity, and communication is essential. Project managers monitor the project from start to finish and are accountable for any errors a team makes, which can be stressful. Managers’ hours vary with the field and project. Depending on the setting, some managers have regular hours, others work evenings or rotating shifts, and many may spend more hours at work during crunch times when a deadline looms. Salaries and growth projections vary with the specific field, but management positions in general are expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2026 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Salaries

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vary with the field, level of experience, and geographic location. According to Salary.com (2018), a bachelor’s-level project manager can earn about $64,000.

User Experience Strategist An effective website puts user, or visitor, experience at the forefront by anticipating and meeting their needs. User experience strategists, also known as user experience developers, analyze website design to ensure that users’ experience aligns with the goals of the organization or business. They work with technology teams and provide input to coordinate website design and function to engage users and achieve a business’s goals, such as increasing sales or encouraging users to read articles and click through online content. Entry-level user experience strategists often work as part of a team advised by a more senior strategist. User experience strategists must have excellent interpersonal skills, as they work with others (such as team members, management, and analysts) to identify goals, collect and analyze customer data, and guide a team responsible for creating engaging digital user experiences. They are responsible for improving user response rates, such as user click-through on website pages, and converting page views into sales. Success requires creating problem solving, research skills, and leadership skills. Courses in management, qualitative and quantitative research, and website design are valuable. Entry-level user experience strategists work under supervision. Salaries for entry-level user experience strategists with a bachelor’s degree and little experience begin on average at about $52,000 (Salary.com, 2018). The growing popularity of e-commerce and mobile phones means that the demand for user experience strategists is projected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2026 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). A wide range of coursework and applied experiences will prepare you to work in job settings that apply knowledge and skills related to industrialorganizational, cognitive, and human factors psychology, as shown in Table 9.1.

Opportunities With a Graduate Degree Although a bachelor’s degree in psychology prepares graduates for entry-level jobs, graduate degree holders have more opportunities for advancement. A master’s degree can serve as the basis for supervisory and advanced opportunities in human resources, usability, and market research fields. Doctoral degrees offer additional opportunities, especially in upper management, consulting, and product design and development. With extensive experience, master’s degree holders often obtain positions comparable to those of doctoral degree holders.

Human Resources Professional Graduate degree holders may work in any of the human resources career tracks that we have discussed: human resource generalist, employee relations

154  Part III •  Research and Applied Research Fields in Psychology TABLE 9.1  ●  P  reparation for Bachelor’s-Level Careers Related to Industrial-Organizational, Cognitive, and Human Factors Psychology Coursework Human Resources Positions • Accounting • Business Administration • Communication • Economics • Human Resources Management • Labor Economics • Labor Law • Management Information Systems or Database Applications in Business • Organizational Behavior • Writing Commercial or Industrial Design Assistant Positions • Advertising • Architecture • Art: Sketching, Design, and Computer-Aided Design (CAD) • Business Administration • Engineering • Industrial Design • Marketing • Mathematics • Product/Brand Management • Certification in art and design from the National Association of Schools of Art and Design is available at some institutions (about 250 in the United States) Administrative Assistant and Administrative Services Manager Positions • Accounting • Business Administration • Business Law • Communication • Finance • Human Resources Management • Management Information Systems or Database Applications in Business • Purchasing and Sales • Writing

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Manager or Project Manager • Business Administration • Communication • Human Resources Management • Management Information Systems • Purchasing and Sales • Writing • Organizational Behavior User Experience Strategist • Advertising • Art: Sketching, Design, and Computer-Aided Design (CAD) • Communication • Computer Programming • Mathematics • Research Methods • Statistics • Visual Design Applied Experiences Volunteer opportunities, internships/practica, or paid part-time positions in any of the following settings: • Advertising department • Any office setting • Architect • Engineering firm • Human resources department • Leadership programs • Product design firm Research Experiences* Experiences studying and participating in research in any of the following areas: • Human factors • Industrial psychology • Management and leadership • Organizational behavior • Social psychology

*Note that the content area of the research is less important than the experience itself, which enhances reasoning, quantitative, writing, and organizational skills.

156  Part III •  Research and Applied Research Fields in Psychology specialist, recruiter, benefits administrator, benefits analyst, compensation analyst, and training specialist. Other advanced positions in human resources include benefits manager and benefits director. Benefits managers develop, administer, and maintain benefits policies, procedures, and programs. They determine whether programs meet employee needs, are competitive with other companies, and fit trends. Benefits directors are found in larger organizations. They oversee staff and other managers. Additional roles for human resource professionals with advanced experience include employee communications manager and employee communications director. Employee communications managers oversee an organization’s communication with employees. They manage staff who evaluate employees and they monitor the accuracy and timeliness of information communicated to employees, including the content of brochures, handbooks, and memos or e-mails. Large organizations may include an additional level of oversight by hiring an employee communications director who engages in similar activities but may supervise managers in several departments (Table 9.2).

Consultant Consultant is an umbrella term for a variety of individuals who engage in problem solving within organizations. Consultants specialize in many areas, including management of employees or an organization’s resources, strategy

TABLE 9.2  ●  Human Resource Salaries Title Benefits administrator

Mean 2018 Salary $69,000

Benefits director

$130,000

Benefits manager

$95,000

Compensation analyst

$87,000

Employee communications director

$135,000

Employee communications manager

$97,000

Employee relations specialist

$85,000

Human resource generalist

$91,000

Recruiter

$90,000

Training specialist

$94,000

Source: Salary.com (2019).

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development and long-range planning, training, organizational development, and recruitment. Consultants in each of these areas engage in the same basic task: they advise organizations on how to solve problems, such as researching a new market, reorganizing a company’s structure, hiring top executives, or improving productivity. Consultants solve business problems by applying a scientific approach through testing hypotheses and analyzing data. They offer their clients perspective and insight (an understanding of the big picture and the problem at hand), analysis (an examination of potential solutions), and recommendations (a strategic plan to address the problem). There are many different types of consultants. Business process systems consultants, also known as management analysts or management consultants, analyze the systems and processes implemented by an organization to make it more competitive and cost-efficient. Organizational development consultants help companies with team building, training, dealing with change, and professional development. Marketing consultants help companies advertise and market products and services. Mediation consultants help organizations to solve interpersonal conflicts in the workplace (conflicts among individuals, and within and between departments and teams) and teach communication and conflict management skills. Some consultants emphasize developing leadership skills in executives; these consultants are sometimes referred to as executive coaches. Advanced analytical skills developed in graduate school make graduate degree holders well suited to careers in consulting. They understand how to analyze data, manage databases, and present data simply and elegantly through the use of tables and graphs. Graduate degree holders’ knowledge of computer software and statistics is an asset to any organization, and their communication skills, honed through writing papers, theses, and dissertations, as well as making conference presentations, are valuable in the office setting. There are many advantages to a career in consulting. As a consultant, you’ll collaborate with colleagues from a variety of educational and experiential backgrounds. You’ll be challenged to devise and implement useful solutions to real problems. As a recent graduate, you likely will find that your lack of experience is an important challenge to doing your job, so you will find yourself working hard to catch up. The pace is quick and the problems constantly change: One day you might analyze the potential market for a new product and the next day consider reorganizing the management structure of an organization. The main disadvantage of a career in consulting is that it can require long hours and travel. However, many professionals find that the salary compensates for the long hours. Doctoral-level I-O professionals who work as consultants earned a median income of $93,000 in 2016 and master’s-level professionals earned a median salary of $75,000 (Poteet, Parker, Herman, DuVernet, & Conley, 2017). Finally, management consulting is expected to grow much more rapidly (14%) than the average for all occupations through 2018 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018).

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Usability Specialist Many professionals with graduate degrees in I-O, cognitive, or human factors psychology obtain positions in product design and development, often specializing in promoting product usability or ease and pleasure of use. Usable, or user-friendly, products are easy for users to learn how to use, are efficient and memorable, minimize errors, and are pleasing or satisfying to use. Usability specialists ensure that product designs fit users. They work with all kinds of products: toys, computer hardware and software, electronic equipment, cars, and more. Usability specialists serve as user advocates in that their goal is to create products that meet the needs of the user. They research a product and work with a production team to create product prototypes, and they test and modify them based on input from potential users. For example, in designing the interior of an automobile, they might create a life-size prototype in which all of the instruments and controls can be moved (for example, by attaching them with Velcro). Potential users then provide feedback on the best location for each of the instruments and controls, moving them as necessary. Other usability specialists study how to create aircraft that meet pilots’ needs and thereby reduce pilot error. User experience strategists, described earlier, are another example of a usability specialist. For example, knowledge of cognitive psychology can be applied to explain why a particular app or web interface design is confusing for users. Psychologists record and analyze users’ behaviors when they try to accomplish a task using a software product, such as a spreadsheet program or computer game. For example, how easily can consumers navigate software programs designed to manage pictures? Psychologists interview users about their experience with the product: Was it easy to use? What confused them about the interface? The resulting knowledge is used to improve the software design. This problem-solving technique is applied in many contexts. For example, human factors psychologists might assess the credibility of a computer program that simulates medical surgeries, permitting medical students and doctors to practice surgical techniques. Psychologists who choose careers in product design and development have the opportunity to engage in research that improves people’s experiences with products. Their research has practical implications and they get to see the results of their work. A regular 40-hour work week, excellent opportunities for master’s-level psychologists, and high rates of compensation are other advantages. The median salary was $95,000 for usability professionals with a master’s degree and $125,000 for doctoral degree holders in 2018 (User Experience Professionals Association, 2018).

Design Psychologist/Environmental Designer Professionals trained in I-O, cognitive, or human factors psychology often work as design psychologists. They study the interactive relationship

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between environments and human behavior and seek to understand why people find some spaces comfortable and others threatening, as well as why some spaces are easier to navigate than others. They then apply this information to design and enhance environments, such as the layout of offices, the design of office buildings and shopping malls, and even the design of neighborhoods and communities, to reduce stress, create more efficiency, and minimize accidents. Design psychologists work for corporations, local and federal governments, and consulting firms. Some participate in city and community planning, designing buildings, and enhancing the interior layout of existing structures. A career in environmental design requires good communication skills and the ability to work as part of a team. Design psychologists who are assigned to large projects will work closely with professionals from many fields, including politicians, architects, urban planners, economists, and engineers, to complete projects. Working with many disciplines can be interesting but challenging. Good listening and research skills are essential to success in this field, because environmental designers spend lots of time interacting with people—consumers, community members, and other professionals. For example, when a city plans to rebuild a run-down neighborhood, an environmental design professional may interview people who live in the neighborhood to obtain their ideas and perspectives about how to improve the area. An important advantage of a career as a design psychologist is the opportunity to be part of a large project and to make a difference. A design psychologist who participates in designing a new community housing project, for example, will find that the work influences residents’ day-to-day lives. The teamwork needed to complete large-scale projects can sometimes lead to frustration, because when many people are involved, decisions can take a long time. Also, projects generally take a long time to implement, which can be challenging for someone who is looking for more immediate results from their work. Design psychologists who can take criticism well and deal with pressure without becoming burned out are at a distinct advantage in this stressful field. Salary information is difficult to obtain; however, in 2015, doctoral holders in I-O psychology with less than 2 years of experience earned a median salary of $85,000. Master’s-level I-O professionals with less than 2 years of experience earned a median $61,000 (Poteet et al., 2017). Those who worked in manufacturing settings earned a median income of $140,000 for all doctoral psychologists (at all levels of experience) and $86,000 for master’s degree professionals (at all levels of experience). If you’re interested in a career as a design psychologist, seek additional training in communications, research design and statistics, and related fields such as economics, urban planning, and architecture. Also, seek an internship with an environmental design firm, city planning office, or related placement to obtain hands-on experience in this exciting field.

160  Part III •  Research and Applied Research Fields in Psychology There are many career opportunities for psychology students with business interests. Many entry-level positions are open to bachelor’s degree holders in psychology who have taken coursework and obtained experience in relevant areas. Opportunities expand for graduate degree holders. Remember that these are just a sampling of possible careers. More await your exploration. Finally, note that many other careers described in this book are pertinent to students with interests in industrial, organizational, and human factors psychology. See Chapter 14 to learn about careers in research, publishing, and academia, as well as Chapter 10 for other career options for graduates with quantitative skills.

CHECKLIST 9.1 IS INDUSTRIAL-ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY, OR HUMAN FACTORS PSYCHOLOGY FOR YOU? Do you: ❑ Have an interest in business? ❑ Want to understand how psychological methods can improve employee selection and placement? ❑ Want to help others gain skills? ❑ Want to apply cognitive psychology to improve people’s lives? ❑ Want to devise methods to evaluate employees? ❑ Want to advise businesses and corporations on personnel policies? ❑ Want to promote teamwork in an office environment? ❑ Want to study leadership, understand the qualities of an effective leader, and help supervisors and managers to improve their leadership skills? ❑ Want to create products and environments that suit people’s skills and abilities? ❑ Have an interest in helping organizations make transitions and changes? ❑ Have an interest in the way the environment shapes our behavior? ❑ Want to design and organize work environments to maximize efficiency? ❑ Have an interest in producing products or software?

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❑ Have good communication skills? ❑ Feel comfortable working in groups? ❑ Enjoy conducting research? ❑ Have the ability to be flexible and deal with ambiguity? Scoring: The more boxes you checked, the more likely it is that you’re a good match for a career in industrial-organizational psychology, cognitive psychology, or human factors psychology.

EXERCISE 9.1 LEARNING ABOUT INDUSTRIAL-ORGANIZATIONAL, COGNITIVE, AND HUMAN FACTORS PSYCHOLOGY Choose industrial-organizational, cognitive, or human factors psychology. Search online for information and answer the following: 1. Identify two useful websites for someone interested in this topic. 2. List some of the topics that psychologists in this field study. 3. Identify two researchers in this field. What do they study? 4. Identify two books that, based on the table of contents, description, and perhaps a perusal of Google Books, might provide useful information about this topic.

Considering Careers in Industrial-Organizational, Cognitive, and Human Factors Psychology Identify a career option for someone interested in this field (either one that we have discussed or another). Conduct a search on a job search website, such as Indeed.com, LinkedIn.com, Glassdoor.com, or any of the many other job search sites online. Locate one or two job ads that appeal to you. Answer the following for each: 1. What is the job? 2. What education or experience requirements are listed? 3. What skills are needed to succeed in the job? If the ad does not list them (and it likely will not), brainstorm what skills would be coveted by the employer. (Continued)

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(Continued) 4. Consider the assessments that you conducted in Chapter 1. What is your skill set? How does it compare with that needed for the job? 5. What skills might you improve to enhance your fit to the job? 6. List courses or a minor that might improve your fit to the position. 7. Describe applied experiences, such as internships, that might prepare you for this position.

Suggested Reading Blanton, J. S. (2017). Consulting and organizational psychologists. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Career paths in psychology: Where your degree can take you (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Bobbitt, B. L. (2017). Psychologists in management. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Career paths in psychology: Where your degree can take you (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Resources A Career in Cognitive Psychology https://www.apa.org/action/science/brain-science/education-training.aspx A Career in Human Factors Psychology https://www.apa.org/action/science/human-factors/education-training.aspx Academy of Management http://www.aomonline.org/ Human Factors and Ergonomics Society http://hfes.org/ Pursuing a Career in I/O Psychology https://www.apa.org/action/science/organizational/education-training.aspx

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Society for Human Resource Management http://www.shrm.org/ Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology http://siop.org/ Understanding Human Factors and Engineering Psychology https://www.apa.org/action/science/human-factors/index.aspx Understanding Industrial and Organizational Psychology https://www.apa.org/action/science/organizational/index.aspx

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10 Experimental and Quantitative Psychology Experimental Psychology Quantitative Psychology Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree Underwriter Computer Programmer, Software Developer, and Web Developer Computer Support Specialist Budget Analyst Behavior Technician and Assistant Behavior Analyst Opportunities With a Graduate Degree Board Certified Behavior Analyst

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Operations Research Analyst Systems Analyst and Systems Architect Data Architect and Database Administrator Actuary Financial Analyst Checklist 10.1: Is Experimental or Quantitative Psychology for You? Exercise 10.1: Learning About Experimental and Quantitative Psychology Suggested Reading Resources

ab rats, IQ tests, number crunching, and pocket protectors are just some of the things that come to mind when many people think of experimental psychology and quantitative psychology. Whereas the media often depict these topics as nerdy, these subfields of psychology are critical to understanding and 164

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predicting human thought and behavior, the very definition of psychology. Moreover, expertise in research methodology and statistics is valuable and offers graduates some of the most flexible career paths in psychology.

Experimental Psychology All psychologists learn how to conduct and interpret research, but experimental psychologists specialize in these areas. Experimental psychologists tend to study research methods and the process of conducting research in greater detail than do other psychologists and they apply these methods to learn about how people perceive the world, think, make decisions, and behave. Experimental psychologists study a wide variety of topics including learning, sensation, perception, human performance, motivation, memory, language, thinking, and communication. Some experimental psychologists study animals to apply what they learn to humans, or simply because animal behavior is interesting. We usually identify experimental psychologists by the area in which they conduct research (such as sensation and perception psychologist or learning psychologist). For example, a sensation and perception psychologist studies the way we use our senses to become aware of the world around us; he or she might study vision, hearing, taste, smell, touch, or all of the senses. A learning psychologist studies processes of learning, such as classical and operant conditioning. There are a wide variety of experimental psychologists, because there are many areas in which to conduct research.

Quantitative Psychology Quantitative psychologists specialize in quantifying or measuring human behavior. Quantitative psychologists are specialists in designing, conducting, and interpreting experiments to measure behavior and physical and psychological attributes and function. Psychometrics is a branch of quantitative psychology that refers to the science of measuring human characteristics. Psychometricians design surveys and tests to measure people’s abilities and potential in the intellectual, emotional, and social realms of functioning. Psychometricians create and revise personality tests, intelligence tests, and aptitude tests and assist other psychologists who develop interventions, treatment plans, and diagnostic schemes. A second branch of quantitative psychology is mathematical psychology. Mathematical psychologists create mathematical models to explain and predict perceptual, cognitive, and motor processes. In other words, they construct equations and formulas that can account for the range of behavioral phenomena that people show. Today there are mathematical theories of cognition, perception, social interactions, memory, decision-making, abnormal behavior, and many other psychological phenomena.

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Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree If you’re interested in experimental and quantitative psychology, there are a variety of career options at the undergraduate level. However, as with all the careers we discuss in this book, most bachelor’s degree holders will begin in entry-level positions that generally entail fewer responsibilities and more clerical, data entry, and supervised activities. With experience comes greater autonomy and responsibility. Graduate degrees open doors to additional career opportunities. Note that the following sections present national data on job growth and salaries. However, job availability and the typical salary that you can expect for each varies by geographic region. Seek advice and do your homework when considering careers.

Underwriter An underwriter assesses risk. Some underwriters work for insurance companies. Others work for banks and mortgage companies. Before a mortgage or insurance company takes on a new client (whether an individual or organization), an underwriter evaluates the risk of loss. An underwriter who works for an insurance company analyzes information that potential clients provide in insurance applications and supplements the analyses with information from loss control reports, medical reports, and other data to determine if a client is an acceptable risk. The underwriter then determines the appropriate insurance premium to charge. Mortgage underwriters conduct a similar process, but they draw conclusions about a client’s risk to default on a mortgage loan. Entry-level positions as underwriters carry the titles of assistant underwriter or underwriter trainee, with duties and salaries commensurate with experience. Entry-level underwriters may collect information on applicants and help evaluate routine applications, under the supervision of an experienced underwriter. Underwriters usually work 40-hour weeks in an office environment. Senior underwriters who seek advancement often move into management positions. Insurance underwriting is not a growth field. Employment of underwriters is expected to decline slowly through 2026 (about a 5% decline is expected), but opportunities are expected to remain strong for workers in the health insurance field (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). The average salary for entrylevel underwriter positions was about $45,000 in 2018 (Salary.com, 2018). The median salary for all insurance underwriters was $70,000 in 2017 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Psychology majors have a solid liberal arts background, computer skills, and quantitative abilities that are useful for careers as insurance underwriters. Successful underwriters pay attention to detail, have good communication and interpersonal skills (to interact with insurance agents and other professionals), and demonstrate sound judgment. Underwriters must be willing to engage in job-related computer training throughout their careers, as the computer

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software programs used to assess risk are updated often. If you’re interested in this career, supplement your psychology major with additional courses in statistics, business administration, finance, or accounting. Consider a minor in business administration. Coursework with computers is also helpful. Also, consider seeking an internship with an insurance company to learn more about the field and gain the experience that attracts employers.

Computer Programmer, Software Developer, and Web Developer Computer programmers write the code—detailed instructions that allow computer applications and software to function. They create, install, test, and debug programs to meet the information technology needs of an organization. For example, they might write code to solve specific problems, such as a program to help a company track its inventory, permit an organization’s computers to communicate with each other, and enable an organization’s website to function. They also write the code that underlies all software apps and websites. A software developer, on the other hand, is responsible for guiding the creation of a software program or app from start to finish, idea to product. A software developer must understand computer programming and might write code in a small company, but generally software developers have a project manager role overseeing the teams that collectively create the software. One type of software developer, a web developer, specializes in building web applications. If you are interested in writing code, programming, and developing software, be prepared to engage in career-long continuing education to keep pace with the frequent updates to programs and creation of new programming languages. This field requires creativity, good problem-solving skills, and logical reasoning skills. Most computer programmers and web and software developers work 40-hour weeks in office settings. Long hours or weekends sometimes are required to meet deadlines or to fix bugs in computer programs. Career opportunities for software and web developers are projected to grow much faster than the average for all jobs through 2026 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Across all levels of education and experience, the median annual wage for computer programmers, web developers, and software developers was about $70,000–$80,000 (PayScale, 2018; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Psychology students’ experience with computers and critical thinking are useful in this field. The analytical approach that cognitive psychologists take toward understanding human problem solving is similar to the methodical step-by-step approach that computer programmers take toward writing computer programs and solving glitches in programs. Helpful courses to take include mathematics, computer programming, and management information systems. A minor in computer science or management information systems will help you develop proficiency, and courses in various programming languages, such as Python, C++, and JAVA, will demonstrate breadth of knowledge. Employers

168  Part III •  Research and Applied Research Fields in Psychology value relevant programming skills and experience. Employers primarily are interested in programming knowledge, so a degree in computer science isn’t necessary if you understand programming and have hands-on experience. Internships and summer employment are important ways for students to obtain applied experience and contacts in the field.

Computer Support Specialist A computer support specialist provides technical assistance to users of hardware, software, and computer systems, acting as a troubleshooter who interprets problems and provides technical support. Computer support specialists work in at least two capacities: computer network support specialists and help desk technicians. Computer network support specialists, also called technical support specialists, are employed by companies to test and evaluate network systems. They perform maintenance, such as backing up files. They respond to inquiries from users, identify and troubleshoot problems, and may install, modify, clean, and repair computer hardware and software. Help desk technicians answer telephone calls and e-mail inquiries from customers seeking technical assistance for a given hardware or software product. They help users by listening, asking questions to diagnose the problem, and walking the user through steps to solve the problem. Many companies consult help desk technicians about customers’ experiences with the product, what gives them the most trouble, and other customer concerns. Other labels for computer support positions include technical support representative, help desk support, and systems support assistant. The average salary for bachelor’s degree–level computer user support specialists and computer network support specialists is about $50,000 (Salary.com, 2018; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Employment of computer support specialists is projected to grow faster than the average through 2026. Psychology majors have experience with computers, interpersonal skills, and communication skills that are useful for careers in computer support. Completing additional computer classes will increase your marketability.

Budget Analyst Budget analysts provide data to an organization’s leaders that help them to decide how to allocate an organization’s financial resources. Budget analysts develop and analyze an organization’s budgets. They analyze spending to determine ways of improving efficiency and increasing an organization’s profits. Budget analysts provide advice and technical assistance to managers and department heads in preparing their annual budgets. They examine budgets for accuracy, completeness, and conformance with organizational procedures, objectives, and budgetary limits. Throughout the year, budget analysts monitor the budget to alert management to risks of overspending and avoid financial deficits.

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Budget analysts work in office settings. Long hours and tight deadlines are common. A bachelor’s degree in psychology is sufficient for entry-level positions in budget analysis because psychology majors are skilled in communication, quantitative analysis, and computer use. Additional courses in business, accounting, economics, finance, and statistics are helpful. Advancement in this field requires experience and/or a master’s degree. In 2018, a typical entry-level budget analyst with a bachelor’s degree earned an average salary of about $52,000 (Salary.com, 2018). The median annual salary for all budget analysts (regardless of education and experience) was $75,240 in May 2017 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Employment of budget analysts is projected to grow 7% from 2016 to 2026, which is about as fast as the average for all occupations.

Behavior Technician and Assistant Behavior Analyst The field of behavior analysis applies scientific principles of learning and behavior to understand why people do what they do and, when necessary, applies learning principles, such as operant conditioning, to change people’s behavior. A master’s degree is required to become an applied behavior analyst, as discussed later in this chapter, but two options are available for individuals who have not earned graduate degrees. Assistant behavior analysts support the work of applied behavior analysts. They assist in gathering data or information about clients, monitoring client progress and maintaining records, and administering assessments and treatment under the supervision of the applied behavior analyst. They work under supervision with many types of child and adult clients with behavioral issues related to traumatic brain injuries, pervasive developmental disorders, and autism spectrum disorders, for example, as well as their families. They are employed in a large number of settings including schools, private practice, community clinics, and in-home care. Behavior technicians, sometimes called behavioral health technicians, provide care and implement protocols under the close supervision of assistant behavior analysts or behavior analysts. The standard credential for behavior technicians is the registered behavior technician certification through the Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB), although many states do not require certification or licensure. A college degree is not needed but candidates must take 40 hours of training that includes principles in behavioral analysis and ethics, completion of a competency assessment, and passing the Registered Behavior Therapist Exam. Assistant applied behavior analysts are required by most states to seek BACB certification and become licensed as board certified assistant behavior analysts. A bachelor’s degree with coursework in principles of learning and behavior analysis and ethics, 500–1,000 hours of supervised experience, and a passing score on the Board Certified Assistant Behavior Analyst Certification Examination are basic requirements for becoming a board certified assistant behavior analyst.

170  Part III •  Research and Applied Research Fields in Psychology In 2018, assistant behavior analysts across all levels of education and experience earned a mean salary of about $43,000 (PayScale, 2018). Registered behavior technicians earned a mean salary of about $30,000 to $35,000 in 2018 (Glassdoor.com, 2018; PayScale, 2018). Salaries rise with experience and especially with a graduate degree, as discussed later in this chapter. Generally speaking, jobs in behavioral disorder treatment are expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). These are just a few of the career opportunities available to bachelor’s degree holders with interests in experimental and quantitative psychology. Statistical skills are useful in a variety of career settings. For example, Career Profile 10.1 provides a glimpse at a career as a psychometrist in a hospital setting. A wide range of coursework and applied experiences will prepare you to work in job settings that apply knowledge and skills related to industrialorganizational, cognitive, and human factors psychology, as shown in Table 10.1.

Opportunities With a Graduate Degree The undergraduate psychology degree offers useful preparation to entry-level positions in a variety of areas, especially when it is accompanied by relevant coursework. Individuals with a graduate degree might hold advanced positions in any of the careers we have discussed. Responsibilities increase with advancement, as does compensation. Advanced positions in underwriting and programming earn average salaries of $80,000 to $100,000 or more, depending on position, employer, location, and experience (Salary.com, 2018). Additional career opportunities, such as those discussed in the following sections, come with a graduate degree (or in some cases, additional undergraduate coursework and experience).

Board Certified Behavior Analyst As described earlier in this chapter, applied behavior analysts apply scientific principles of learning to modify people’s behavior. Specifically, applied behavior analysis is a type of therapy that focuses on improving social, communication, academic, and adaptive skills in children, adolescents, and adults. Applied behavior analysts teach parents, teachers, and support professionals how to implement behavioral procedures, skills, and interventions in a variety of settings, such as homes, schools, and workplaces. They work with clients to set goals, devise and implement treatments, and monitor change. They write curricula, collect data, and write reports. Behavior analysts typically supervise assistant behavior analysts and behavior technicians who often carry out treatments. Most states require that applied behavior analysts be licensed. The first step to licensure in most states is becoming a board certified behavior analyst.

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CAREER PROFILE 10.1 EXPERIMENTAL AND QUANTITATIVE PSYCHOLOGY: BRYAN SENN Who Am I? My name is Bryan Senn and I am a 49-year-old man who received my baccalaureate training from the University of Washington in Seattle. I worked the nightshift at United Parcel Service (UPS) to put myself through college. I also participated on an intramural collegiate soccer team. While in school, I obtained a laboratory assistant position for a professor who was conducting experiments on memory functioning. My primary task was to administer memory tests involving verbal and visual stimuli. I held another assistantship with a different professor who studied borderline personality disorder. In this lab, I was responsible for conducting role-play exercises with participants.

Putting Psychology to Work I am currently employed as a psychometrist at the Seattle Children’s Hospital. I have worked at the hospital since 1988 but was promoted to senior psy­ chometrist in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine 3 years ago. My major job responsibility is to administer and score a variety of neuropsychological tests to patients (e.g., memory capacity, executive functioning, intelligence, academic achievement, etc.), as well as make note of any pertinent behavioral observations. As a senior psychometrist, I am involved in training and mentoring novice psychometrists and rotating psychology residents, and supervising quality assurance checks.

How I Got Here Before coming to the Seattle Children’s Hospital, I was employed as a psychometrist at the University of Washington Hospital and Harborview Medical Center in Seattle for approximately 4 years. Throughout my career, I have worked in various departments, including the Department of Rehabilitation Medicine and the Department of Psychiatry at both hospitals, where I have given test batteries to patients with severe trauma, head injuries, and psychiatric disabilities. I have also been involved in several large-scale, grantfunded research projects.

Inside My Job: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly My job as a psychometrist has many positive aspects. Intellectually, I really enjoy quantifying the qualitative (that is, boiling down such hard-to-define concepts as memory, problem-solving ability, and intelligence into measureable (Continued)

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(Continued) quantities). On a more general note, it is very rewarding knowing that I am eliciting data that will directly contribute to a patient’s recovery plan. Another plus is the fact that the job is very self-contained. You complete an assessment, score and write it up, hand the data off to the neuropsychologist, and attain some satisfying closure. In other words, you need not take work home with you, and you start afresh the next day with a new patient and a new set of challenges. However, there are several aspects that are not as enjoyable. Patients can be difficult to work with, and encountering such emotional or mentally unstable patients can lead to a sense of failure. For me, I am often able to obtain at least some information, and find that overcoming the challenge of a difficult patient is one of the job’s greatest rewards. The repetition of scoring and entering data can also become tedious, but this typically does not encompass a large portion of the day’s work. Occasionally I encounter supervising neuropsychologists who are not sensitive to the capacities of patients, and request lengthy test batteries that can overtax both the evaluee and evaluator. Furthermore, learning new measures and applying them with speed and precision takes intensive attention to detail and much practice.

Take It From Me . . . My background in psychology is what landed me a job interview postgraduation. When I applied for the job of a psychometrist right out of school, I literally had no idea what a psychometrist was. Fortunately, they didn’t hold that against me, and gave me the job and the subsequent comprehensive assessment training I needed. More generally, my training in psychology as an undergraduate helped me develop the interpersonal skills and attention to detail necessary for psychometric testing. Having knowledge about child development also enhanced my ability to relate to and manage the behavior of young patients. A background in writing and statistics proved to be important for my job, as well. My upbeat and outgoing personality has been a great advantage in my career success. Setting patients at ease and establishing rapport is crucial to the assessment process. I also believe that my prior experiences as a sports instructor and coach improved my ability to elicit performance efforts from patients. My advice to undergraduate psychology majors is to make sure they have a keen interest in the subject, and if they do, pursue a career to the best of their ability by understanding and evaluating the various opportunities that are available. Students can also investigate, and even participate in, the field before they graduate and are ready to enter into a full-time career. Assisting in research studies or even volunteering at the local hospital can expose students to various avenues of psychology, including psychometry. I also recommend keeping an open mind and taking advantage of whatever opportunities present themselves.

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TABLE 10.1  ●  P  reparation for Bachelor’s-Level Careers Related to Experimental and Quantitative Psychology Coursework Underwriter Positions • Accounting • Business Administration • Business Law • Communication • Finance • Math • Statistics • Writing Computer Programmer, Software Developer, and Web Developer Positions • Communication • Computer Science • Database Systems such as DB2, Oracle, or Sybase • Management Information Systems • Mathematics • Programming Languages Computer Support Specialist • Communication • Computer Science • Computer Software Applications • Information Systems • Writing Budget Analyst • Accounting • Business Administration • Communication • Economics • Finance • Mathematics • Statistics (Continued)

174  Part III •  Research and Applied Research Fields in Psychology TABLE 10.1  ●  (Continued) Registered Behavior Technician and Board Certified Assistant Behavior Analyst • Behavior Analysis and Modification • Communication • Ethics in Health Care • Learning • Lifespan Development • Statistics • Writing Applied Experiences Volunteer opportunities, internships/practica, or paid part-time positions in any of the following settings: • Accounting firm • Evaluation, measurement, or assessment department or company • Finance firm • Information technology department • Insurance company • Social service setting Research Experiences* Experiences studying and participating in research in any of the following areas: • Cognitive psychology • Experimental psychology • Human factors • Program assessment • Psychometrics • Quantitative psychology • Test development *Note that the content area of the research is less important than the experience itself, which enhances reasoning, quantitative, writing, and organizational skills.

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This generally requires completing a graduate degree that includes coursework in behavior analysis, 790–1,500 hours of supervised experience (depending on placement), and passing the Board Certified Behavior Analyst Exam. In many states applied behavior analysts are licensed as professional counselors; however, the applied behavior analyst designation is increasingly common. In 2018, the average salary for applied behavior analysts was about $57,000 (Salary.com, 2018). Generally speaking, jobs in behavioral disorder treatment are expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018).

Operations Research Analyst Operations research (sometimes called management science) is a scientific approach to analyzing problems that applies mathematics, statistics, and computer science to quantify situations and make decisions. Operations research analysts engage in problem solving by studying the problem, gathering data, analyzing the data, and coming up with practical solutions. For example, operations research analysts might conduct research to determine the most efficient amount of inventory a business must keep on hand by talking with engineers about production levels, discussing purchasing levels and arrangements, and examining data on storage costs. In the public sector, an operations research analyst might determine the most efficient route for buses or schedule transit. Operations research analysts may provide critical information to run companies by devising ways of managing multiple departments with different functions and resources. If you choose a career in operations research analysis, you’ll use statistical software and mathematically model problems on computers to predict the potential outcomes of alternative solutions to a problem in order to determine which is best. Operations research analysts are found in all work settings (military, government, business, and industry) and under various titles (operations analyst, management analyst, policy analyst). As an operations research analyst, you can expect an office environment and high salary, but also stressful deadlines and long hours. Employment of operations research analysts is projected to grow 27% through 2026, much faster than the average for all occupations (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). As technology advances and companies seek efficiency and cost savings, demand for operations research analysis should continue to grow. The median annual salary of all operations research analysts, regardless of education and experience, was $81,390 in 2017 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Graduate degree holders in senior-level positions in operational research analysis earned an average of $106,000 in 2018 (Salary.com, 2018). A graduate degree in the quantitative areas of psychology (experimental, quantitative, psychometrics, and even cognitive psychology) offers excellent mathematical, statistical, and analytical preparation needed for a career in operations research. In addition to quantitative skills, operations research

176  Part III •  Research and Applied Research Fields in Psychology analysts need excellent communication and computer skills, including statistical software packages and programming. Courses in computer science, business, information systems, and management science are useful. The advanced understanding of how the human mind works that accompanies graduate training in psychology is always useful for operations research analysts who want to minimize the effects of human error on their work (meaning understanding the kinds of mistakes that workers might make can help operations research analysts make useful decisions).

Systems Analyst and Systems Architect A systems analyst helps a company or organization use its computer software resources effectively to achieve its goals and determine what changes need to be made to suit a company’s needs. A company or organization typically uses a variety of software applications. Systems analysts work to make the computer systems within an organization compatible in order to share information. They assess needs, determine areas for improvement, determine how to improve existing software systems, compare costs of upgrades, and teach staff how to use new software. Systems architects (sometimes known as systems engineers) help organizations select the network and systems infrastructure that comprise the organization’s computing and information management resources, both hardware and software. They assess problems and modify computing systems or design new systems to solve problems and address the needs of a company. They consult with managers to determine the organization’s computing needs, research technologies, specify technical standards, conduct cost-benefit analyses, oversee the installation and configuration of new hardware and software technology, document system architecture (or organization), and prepare training materials for employees. In some organizations, individuals might fulfill both systems analysis and architectural functions. Systems analysts work in offices with a standard 40-hour work week, but evening and weekend work is sometimes needed to meet deadlines or resolve problems. Systems analysts and architects must communicate with management, employees, and teams. Good communication skills are important. Systems analysts and architects must have skills in problem solving, analysis, and the ability to document findings and make recommendations in writing. Graduate degree holders in experimental and quantitative psychology typically gain experience in computer programming, understand the use of databases, think analytically, work on a number of tasks simultaneously, and can concentrate and pay attention to detail, all essential to a career in systems analysis and architecture. Interpersonal and communication skills, particularly the ability to work as part of a team to tackle large projects, are required. If you are interested in a career in systems analysis or architecture, seek experience in information technology. Courses in computer science or other information

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technology areas such as programming, data structures, and software development are needed. Employment of systems analysts and architects is expected to grow through 2026. The mean annual salary for systems analysts with a graduate degree was about $94,000 in 2018 (Salary.com, 2018). Systems architects earned a mean salary of about $113,000 in 2018 (Salary.com, 2018).

Data Architect and Database Administrator A data architect determines how to manage an organization’s digital information. Data architects determine the data analysis needs of the organization and make decisions about what technology systems to use and how to use them. They design and build technology systems and databases for storing and processing data, including strategies for acquiring, accessing, manipulating, archiving, and recovering data. Database architects create databases that are easily navigated and ensure that users can find the information that they need. A database administrator implements the data architect’s plan and is responsible for daily operations. They set up, test, update, test, and repair computer databases. Database administrators are responsible for ensuring database performance, backing up and archiving information, and ensuring database security. Some organizations combine data architect and administration functions into one position. If you’re interested in a career in data architecture and database administration, seek experience with popular programs such as Oracle, SQL, or Sybase. Most colleges and universities offer courses in these programs. It is also possible to obtain certification from courses that are developed by software manufacturers. Motivated users can purchase software and related books to explore independently. Courses in computer science, information science, and management information systems are also useful. Employers look for excellent problem-solving skills and interpersonal skills, skills that graduate study in psychology imparts. Advantages of a career in database administration include intellectual challenge and never-ending learning, because technology is constantly changing. Like computer systems analysts, database administrators work in an office environment, but they often put in long hours to solve problems and debug databases. Employment of database administrators is expected to grow faster than the average of all occupations through 2026 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). The average salary for a graduate-level data architect was about $108,000 in 2018 (Salary.com, 2018). Database administrators earned a mean salary of about $105,000 in 2018, and a more advanced position in database administration management (a supervisor role) earned a mean salary of $126,000 in 2018 (Salary.com, 2018).

Actuary Actuaries use statistics and mathematical models to estimate the statistical probability of particular types of risk, such as death, injury, property loss, or financial risk. Most actuaries are employed by insurance companies. They

178  Part III •  Research and Applied Research Fields in Psychology gather and analyze data to determine who will and will not receive insurance coverage, as well as the price to charge for insurance that will cover claims and ensure profitability. Some actuaries are employed in finance industries to help organizations manage credit or plan new investment tools to help their company compete against others. Actuaries work with businesses and organizations to help them minimize the cost of risk. Actuaries are also employed as consultants, engaging in similar functions but usually on a contractual basis. The strong background in mathematics and statistics that graduate degree holders in experimental and quantitative psychology obtain is excellent for a career as an actuary. Actuaries also require strong communication and computer skills, including spreadsheets, databases, and statistical analysis software. Knowledge of computer programming languages, such as Visual Basic for Applications, SAS, or SQL, is useful. Additional courses in business, economics, and finance will improve your application. If you seek a career as an actuary, be prepared to pass a series of examinations to become certified by the Society of Actuaries (SOA), which certifies professionals in the fields of life insurance, health benefits systems, retirement systems, and finance and investment, or the Casualty Actuarial Society (CAS), which certifies actuaries in the property and casualty field, including automobile, homeowners, medical malpractice, workers’ compensation, and personal injury liability. Most actuaries complete licensure exams and become certified while they work and most employers pay some or all of the costs of licensure. In 2018, the median annual salary for all actuaries, regardless of experience and education, was about $102,000 (Salary .com, 2018). Employment of actuaries is expected to increase much faster than the average through 2026, but it is a small field and the growth will result only in about an additional 5,300 jobs over a 10-year period.

Financial Analyst Financial analysts (also called security analysts and investment analysts) provide organizations (typically banks, insurance companies, mutual and pension funds, and securities firms) with guidance in making investments. They synthesize financial information by combining data from financial statements, commodity prices, sales, costs, expenses, and tax rates to determine a company’s value. They then make recommendations on how to best manage an organization’s financial assets and avoid risk. They evaluate current and historical financial data, study trends, and recommend investment strategies. The broad background in statistics that graduate education in experimental and quantitative psychology provides is an asset to a career in financial analysis. Psychologists in these areas understand how to use mathematics and statistics as a means to an end: to arrive at a practical solution. As a financial analyst, your knowledge of the scientific method will come in handy, because financial analysis entails developing hypotheses, designing tests to validate them using available data, and drawing conclusions. Graduate training offers other

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benefits to this career, such as experience in giving presentations, strong communication skills, and the ability to work independently. Courses in finance, business administration, accounting, economics, financial analysis methods, or risk management will broaden your knowledge base and demonstrate your interest in applying your statistical skills to financial analysis. Some financial analysts are required to be licensed by the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA). Licensure must be sponsored by an employer, so individuals are not expected to be licensed before starting a job. Advantages of a career in financial analysis include intellectual challenge and a comfortable working environment. However, financial analysts also may face long hours, stressful deadlines, and sometimes frequent travel. Financial analysis is a growth occupation; employment of financial analysts is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2026 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). In 2017, the median wage for financial analysts was $84,300 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Annual bonuses increase the salary substantially; however, bonuses fluctuate with the organization’s profits. As you can see, there are a variety of careers for undergraduate and graduate degree holders that require the expertise of experimental and quantitative psychology. In addition to psychology courses, take a range of courses to round out your skills and make you more competitive for jobs in these areas. In addition to the careers discussed in this chapter, remember that many individuals with these interests seek careers in research (Chapter 14), teaching (Chapter 4), consulting (Chapter 9), human factors and business (also in Chapter 9), and marketing research (Chapter 11). Quantitative skill is one of the most highly sought skills in the workplace today. Regardless of your career interests, the statistical and methodological knowledge provided by a degree in psychology is excellent preparation for entry-level (for undergraduate degree holders) and more advanced (for master’s and doctoral degree holders) quantitative careers.

CHECKLIST 10.1 IS EXPERIMENTAL OR QUANTITATIVE PSYCHOLOGY FOR YOU? Do you: ❑ Enjoy conducting research? ❑ Like working with numbers? ❑ Enjoy problem solving? (Continued)

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(Continued) ❑ Like science? ❑ Find computers fun to work with? ❑ Take an analytical approach toward understanding problems? ❑ Know how to use a computer programming language? ❑ Pay attention to detail? ❑ Enjoy writing research reports? ❑ Enjoy intellectual challenges? ❑ Like “fixing” computer problems? ❑ Like math? ❑ Find research methodology courses fun? ❑ Like statistics? ❑ Enjoy using new computer programs? Scoring: The more boxes you checked, the more likely it is that you’re a good match for a career in the experimental or quantitative areas of psychology.

EXERCISE 10.1 LEARNING ABOUT EXPERIMENTAL AND QUANTITATIVE PSYCHOLOGY Choose experimental or quantitative (psychometrics or mathematical) psychology. Search online for information and answer the following: 1. Identify two useful websites for someone interested in this topic. 2. List some of the topics that psychologists in this field study. 3. Identify two researchers in this field. What do they study? 4. Identify two books that, based on the table of contents, description, and perhaps a perusal on Google Books, might provide useful information about this topic.

Considering Careers in Experimental and Quantitative Psychology Identify a career option for someone interested in this field (either one that we have discussed or another). Conduct a search on a job search website, such

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as Indeed.com, LinkedIn.com, Glassdoor.com, or any of the many other job search sites online. Locate one or two job ads that appeal to you. Answer the following for each: 1. What is the job? 2. What education or experience requirements are listed? 3. What skills are needed to succeed in the job? If the ad does not list them (and it likely will not), brainstorm what skills would be coveted by the employer. 4. Consider the assessments that you conducted in Chapter 1. What is your skill set? How does it compare with that needed for the job? 5. What skills might you improve to enhance your fit to the job? 6. List courses or a minor that might improve your fit to the position. 7. Describe applied experiences, such as internships, that might prepare you for this position.

Suggested Reading Camara, W. J. (2017). Psychologists in educational testing and measurement organizations. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Career paths in psychology: Where your degree can take you (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Fitch, T. (2007). Career opportunities in banking, finance, and insurance. New York, NY: Checkmark Books. Henderson, H. (2011). Career opportunities in computers and cyberspace. New York, NY: Facts on File. Info Tech Employment. (2017). Information technology jobs in America: Corporate & government career guide. New York, NY: Info Tech Employment. Stam, K. (2016). Career spotlight: quantitative psychology. Psychology Student Network, 4(1). Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/ psn/2016/01/quantitative-psychology.aspx

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Resources American Psychological Association: Understanding Experimental Psychology https://www.apa.org/action/science/experimental/index.aspx American Psychological Association: Understanding Quantitative Psychology https://www.apa.org/action/science/quantitative/index.aspx Be an Actuary http://www.beanactuary.org Careers in Finance http://www.careers-in-finance.com

11 Social and Consumer Psychology Social Psychology Consumer Psychology Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree Advertising Real Estate Public Relations Specialist Social Media Coordinator and Social Media Strategist Opportunities With a Graduate Degree

Marketing Advertising, Public Relations, and Sales Management Data Mining Checklist 11.1: Is Social or Consumer Psychology for You? Exercise 11.1: Learning About Social and Consumer Psychology Suggested Reading Resources

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hat causes social problems like interpersonal violence, prejudice, and stereotyping? How do we change people’s attitudes? What influences purchasing patterns? Why do people buy what they buy? Social psychology and consumer psychology address a variety of interesting and important questions. Traditionally, social psychologists have obtained careers in academia as professors and researchers; however, the increasing emphasis on application within social psychology has translated into a variety of new career options outside of academia. By its very nature, consumer psychology is an applied discipline offering careers in industry and consumer settings.

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Social Psychology Social psychology is the study of how people interact with each other and the social environment. Social psychologists study personality (for example, why do we act the way that we do?), attitude formation and change, and interpersonal relations such as attraction, prejudice, group dynamics, and aggression. Like many of the other psychologists you’ve read about, social psychologists engage in both basic and applied research. Basic research advances knowledge about fundamental questions: How do culture and our social environment shape us? The application value of basic research is not inherent to its worth. In other words, basic research results in knowledge for its own sake. Applied research, on the other hand, is conducted to gain insight and solve everyday problems. For example, applied social psychologists conduct research on practical questions: How can we reduce aggression among school children? How can we reduce the effects of prejudice in the classroom or office environment? How can we increase public engagement in social issues and increase voter turnout? Social psychologists who emphasize basic research are found in academic and research settings, as described in Chapter 14. Social psychologists who are interested in applied questions can be found in the settings described in this chapter, as well as in social policy settings (Chapter 12) and business and organizational settings (Chapters 9 and 10).

Consumer Psychology If you’re interested in understanding subliminal suggestions and why some commercials and marketing campaigns are more successful than others, consumer psychology may be for you. Consumer psychologists study how we process information and make decisions about purchasing products and services to help businesses and organizations improve their marketing and sales strategies. A consumer psychologist might design a study to evaluate which type of ketchup container (such as glass or squeezable plastic) consumers are more likely to purchase. They study consumer behavior to aid companies in their marketing strategies. For example, a consumer psychologist might study factors that contribute to the effectiveness of fast food commercials, conclude that we are more receptive to such commercials when we are hungry, and therefore suggest that fast food companies place their commercials in the late afternoon, before dinnertime. Consumer psychologists study the effectiveness of different types of sales techniques and provide advice to businesses based on their research. They train salespeople, conduct consumer satisfaction surveys, and study the growth of consumers’ emotional attachments to products. In other words, consumer psychologists attempt “to understand the processes by which consumers search for goods and services, decide which goods and services to purchase, and consume the items they purchase” (Beall & Allen,

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1997, p. 199). They try to understand changing needs of consumers and help companies adapt their products and services accordingly. Consumer psychologists are found in business, government, and nonprofit environments, where they work as consultants and employees in departments of marketing research.

Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree Persuasion is an important topic of study in social and consumer psychology. Perhaps it shouldn’t be surprising that bachelor’s degree holders with interests in these areas often find work in fields where the ability to persuade others is prized, such as advertising, real estate, and public relations.

Advertising Advertising is a broad field concerned with helping companies to market their products. There are many jobs in advertising and at all levels of experience, from entry level to senior executives. Entry-level positions in advertising are often in the account management and media departments and include advertising clerk, media coordinator, media planner, and media buyer. The account management department serves as the link between agency and client; it brings the client to the agency and is responsible for ensuring that the various components of the agency work smoothly so the client’s advertising needs are met. An advertising clerk (sometimes called an assistant advertising manager), an entry-level position, assists advertising managers (discussed later in this chapter) in identifying and soliciting new clients, determining client needs, and communicating those needs to the individuals who create advertisements. Advertising clerks complete paperwork, scheduling, and other administrative tasks that support the agency’s work. Social psychological principles underlie much of their work because account managers must have good interpersonal and sales skills and must understand persuasion and attitude formation, in order to attract new clients and assist them in developing marketing plans to advertise their products. The media department places ads and is responsible for placing the right ad at the right time in order to reach the appropriate audience cheaply and effectively. Entry-level positions in media departments include assistant media coordinators, assistant media planners, and assistant media buyers. Assistant media coordinators, planners, and buyers help media planners and media buyers, positions that bachelor’s degree holders may obtain with additional experience. Media planners examine the public’s reading and viewing preferences, study the demographics of various types of media (what consumers read and watch), and evaluate the content of newspapers, magazines, and television programs to determine where to place advertising. Media buyers purchase ad time and space, make sure that ads appear as planned, and create ad budgets. Psychology students’ firm grasp of research methods and statistical analysis

186  Part III •  Research and Applied Research Fields in Psychology and understanding of attitude formation and change are essential to studying the public’s preferences and designing effective advertisements. Careers in advertising are fast paced and exciting. As individuals move up the ladder from entry level to more advanced levels, they have increasing opportunities to exercise creativity, solve problems, engage in research, and advance in the field. The ability to handle stress and work in a team environment is essential to this career path. In 2018, advertising clerks with bachelor’s degrees earned a mean salary of about $40,000 and media coordinators earned about $35,000 (Salary.com, 2018). Media buyers and media planners with bachelor’s degrees earned about $51,000 and $59,000 in 2018, respectively (Salary.com, 2018). Despite the competitive nature of entry-level positions, there is plenty of room for growth. Employment in advertising is expected to grow by 10% through 2026 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). To prepare for a career in advertising, hone your communication, creative, and organizational skills. Take classes in social psychology, consumer psychology, marketing, accounting, advertising, business management, communications, and design.

Real Estate If you are buying, selling, or renting a home, you will likely interact with a real estate agent. Real estate agents bring buyers and sellers together and act as intermediaries in the sale of land and residential and commercial properties. They generate lists of available properties, learn as much as possible about them, market them through open houses and advertisements, show them to clients, and assist clients in obtaining financing and drawing up contracts to purchase properties. Real estate agents must understand the neighborhoods and surrounding communities in which they sell properties. They must be both interpersonally skilled and competent at number crunching, because they must be able to assess which neighborhoods best fit clients’ needs and budgets. Real estate agents spend much of their time obtaining listings (agreements from property owners to sell their properties through a particular real estate agency). When a property is sold, both the agents who sold the property and obtained the listing usually receive a commission. Effective sales techniques rely on an understanding of persuasion and attitude formation and change, important social psychological principles used daily by real estate agents in their marketing, advertising, and client activities. The best real estate agents can “read” clients to determine which homes are an appropriate fit. Persuasive techniques are used in describing the home and its benefits (for example, the home is “cozy” rather than “cramped and tiny,” or “lively” instead of “next to a late-night pub”). An advantage to a career in real estate is the flexibility. Much of the administrative work can be completed out of a home office. However, a great deal of

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time will be spent showing properties to clients. Real estate agents often work long hours and often must be available to meet clients on evenings and weekends. As agents gain experience, they may earn higher commission rates as well as become more efficient, and thereby can handle more business. With experience, some agents are promoted to supervisory positions or open their own businesses. The primary disadvantage to a career in real estate is the reliance on commission income. Income is irregular and there are periods without income, especially for beginning agents. Real estate agents earned a median salary of about $48,000 in 2017 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Employment of real estate brokers and sales agents has slowed in recent years but remains comparable to all other occupations, with expected growth of 6% by 2026 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). If you are considering a career in real estate, recognize that all real estate agents must be licensed. Each state has different requirements, but all include a written test with questions on basic real estate transactions and laws about the sale of property. Many states require 30 to 90 hours of classroom instruction. Licenses must be renewed every 1 to 3 years (without an exam) and continuing education is often required because zoning restrictions and laws change (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). For more information about obtaining a real estate license, contact the Association of Real Estate License Law Officials (http://www.arello.org/). Classes in real estate, finance, business administration, economics, or law will provide a helpful background for a career in real estate. Career Profile 11.1 illustrates another sales-related career, sales and account manager.

Public Relations Specialist Public relations is a field that specializes in communicating information to the public. Public relations specialists work to communicate an organization or company’s message to the community, consumers, employees, public interest groups, and the media. They build and maintain positive relationships with the public by informing the community and media about an organization’s policies, activities, and accomplishments (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Public relations specialists write and distribute press releases to media contacts, who print or broadcast the releases. They keep organization representatives in contact with the community by arranging speaking engagements and often prepare and edit speeches for company leaders. Public relations specialists anticipate, analyze, and interpret public opinions about organizations to influence an organization’s future decisions and business practices. They keep an organization’s management and administrative personnel aware of the attitudes and concerns of the public and special interest groups. They give advice to management about the public ramifications of policy decisions and communications and how to build good public relations, which are critical to an organization’s success. Public relations also entails

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CAREER PROFILE 11.1 SOCIAL AND CONSUMER PSYCHOLOGY: ADAM FRANKS Who Am I? My name is Adam Franks and I am a 28-year-old man. I graduated with a bachelor’s of science in psychology from Texas Tech University in Lubbock, Texas. At the university, I was a member of the Saddle Tramps fraternity, an all-male organization that supports men’s athletics at Texas Tech. I was also involved in a research lab examining the impact of positive psychology on personal growth. My duties included data collection, data entry, and brainstorming project ideas. I also had the opportunity to develop and complete an independent research study.

Putting Psychology to Work I am currently employed as a district sales manager and account manager at Pepperidge Farm industries in Lubbock, Texas. I have held this position for approximately 3 years. As a district sales manager, I supervise 11 independent distributors who are responsible for delivering and selling Pepperidge Farm products to grocery stores along their designated routes. I am responsible for monitoring the distributors’ progress, as well as training and supervising employees according to company policies. For example, I may request that lower-performing distributors sell their routes to other distributors. My primary objective is to increase sales while managing out-of-date products. As an account manager, I develop sales plans that I then present to the buyers of United Supermarkets (a local grocery chain). I collaborate with United Supermarkets personnel to create new sales and negotiate display space and product pricing.

How I Got Here Prior to my employment at Pepperidge Farm, I worked for the Pepsi Bottling Group, also in Lubbock, Texas. I started there as a pre-sales representative providing direct sales services to 118 convenience and drug stores. After 1 year, I was promoted to territory sales manager. In this position, I managed 10 pre-sales representatives serving 30 major grocery outlets, supervised aspects of sales employment (e.g., hiring, payroll, performance evaluations), developed and implemented training programs, and led sales meetings resulting in approximately $11.8 million in annual sales. Aside from these experiences, I also believe that being personable and knowing how to relate to others has helped me succeed in my current job.

Inside My Job: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly I enjoy being involved in a variety of tasks. One day I might be selling product, the next day I might be analyzing sales deals, and the following day I could be training. What I enjoy the least is being responsible for irresponsible people. The most challenging part of my career is learning workplace politics; it’s

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something you don’t learn about and if you don’t understand how policies and people work, everything can be a challenge.

Take It From Me . . . My psychology degree has helped me learn to look at a problem, talk with others to develop the best plan of action, and use data to analyze if it was the right decision or not. In both of my jobs—with Pepperidge Farm and Pepsi—I have demonstrated such proficiency in data mining that I began to show other managers how to find the most appropriate data on which to base effective sales decisions. My advice to undergraduate students pursuing a similar career path is to get as much experience as possible. While going to school is great, take every opportunity to volunteer and work. Even if you don’t need the money, work a challenging job that you will be able to use to speak to your abilities. Do extra things like join a research project. Before entering my chosen profession, I wish I realized that perception is reality. That is, the perception others have about your work ethic can be the determining factor in whether or not you advance at a given company. Regardless of the grades I received as an undergraduate, I believe that my ability to sell my skills to others (i.e., employers) was key to my career success. I recommend maintaining organized records of all the good things you do and share them as much as possible. I also suggest that psychology graduates should be prepared to explain to potential employers why their degree gives them an advantage in that particular job, especially if that job is not specific to psychology. I went into sales and said, “Psychology gave me a better understanding of people, so that I will be able to recognize individual differences and sell to consumers more effectively.”

research on the public’s attitudes and opinions, as well as evaluating the effectiveness of an organization’s fundraising, marketing, community relations, and other programs. Public relations specialists are found in a variety of settings, including businesses, government, universities, hospitals, schools, and other organizations. Titles include public relations specialist, information officer, press secretary, communications specialist, public affairs specialist, and others. A career in public relations offers exciting and varied work. Psychology majors are well suited to careers in public relations because of their background in survey research, interpersonal skills, writing skills, and understanding of human behavior, attitude formation, and attitude change. Some of the disadvantages of a career in public relations include long hours, irregular work schedules that are frequently interrupted, and stress (often resulting from

190  Part III •  Research and Applied Research Fields in Psychology high-pressure deadlines). Sometimes public relations can be frustrating because, unlike advertising, which pays for media coverage and therefore controls the advertisement message and its distribution, public relations professionals must earn their media coverage and have little control over how the ultimate message is conveyed. In 2017, the median salary for a public relations specialist was $59,300 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Entry-level positions in public relations are competitive; therefore, preparation is important. Take courses in communication, journalism, and business to enhance your marketability. Perhaps most important is hands-on experience, through internships with public relations firms, corporate departments, or nonprofit organizations. Employment of public relations specialists is expected to increase at about the same rate as other occupations, with expected growth of 9% by 2026 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018).

Social Media Coordinator and Social Media Strategist Nearly every business and organization has an online presence. Customers routinely ask questions, provide feedback, and voice concerns to companies by posting on social media sites such as Twitter, for example. Most companies respond swiftly to customers’ posts to solve their problems but also to maintain and enhance their reputation. Sensitive and timely responses earn an organization points, but analyzing a problem and determining the appropriate response requires skill. Social psychology—an understanding of social interaction, persuasion, and communication—is useful when interacting though social media. Social media coordinators and social media strategists focus on an organization’s social media presence. Social media coordinators are responsible for interacting with users through social media. They are the face of the company. They handle daily postings on social networks. They represent a brand online, not only by posting but also monitoring and responding to comments on social media. Social media strategists (also known as social media analysts) analyze traffic from various social media platforms to determine the most effective strategies for reaching users. They help an organization decide which social media networks to focus on, which content gets the most attention, and when to post content in order to reach as many users as possible. Some organizations combine social media coordinator and strategist roles. Entry-level social media coordinators earned a mean salary of about $48,000 in 2018 and social media analysts earned a mean salary of $58,000 (Salary.com, 2018). If you’re interested in social and consumer psychology, the following coursework and applied experiences will prepare you for the careers we have described (Table 11.1).

Opportunities With a Graduate Degree Graduate degree holders in psychology with interests in social and consumer psychology are employed in many of the fields discussed, but at more advanced

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TABLE 11.1  ●  P  reparation for Bachelor’s-Level Careers Related to Social and Consumer Psychology Coursework • Accounting • Administration • Advertising • Art • Business Administration • Business Law • Communication • Finance • Marketing • Math • Public Relations • Statistics • Website Design • Writing Applied Experiences Volunteer opportunities, internships/practica, or paid part-time positions in any of the following settings: • Advertising department or firm • Business settings • Marketing department or firm • Real estate firm • Retail Research Experiences* Experiences studying and participating in research in any of the following areas: • Consumer behavior • Decision-making • Group behavior • Social psychology *Note that the content area of the research is less important than the experience itself, which enhances reasoning, quantitative, writing, and organizational skills.

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Marketing Marketing refers to all the activities a company pursues to sell products or services. It includes advertising, sales, and delivery of products or services. Market research is the process of gathering information about advertising and sales activities to improve a company’s reach to customers and sales. Market research analysts gather data on people’s opinions regarding consumer products and services. They are found in a variety of organizations, including public relations firms, advertising agencies, and corporations. Market research analysts design methods of gathering information on products or services, as well as consumers’ needs, tastes, purchasing power, and buying habits. They examine consumer reactions to products, services, and advertising methods. Through research, they identify advertising needs; measure the effectiveness of advertising and other promotional techniques; gather data on competitors’ products, services, and locations; and analyze their marketing methods and strategies (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Market researchers who work for public relations firms or in government positions often conduct opinion research to determine public attitudes on various issues, which may help political and business leaders evaluate public support for their positions or advertising policies. Market researchers work on a variety of projects, and project turnover is quick. In addition to conducting research with practical implications, another advantage of a career in market research is that it is a growth field. Employment of market researchers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2026, with job opportunities being strongest for those with a master’s degree or PhD (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Long hours are common during crunch times. Finally, salaries in market research are generally quite competitive. In 2011, the median salary for a market research analyst position that a graduate degree holder might hold was $71,757 (Salary .com, 2011). The Occupational Outlook Handbook lists a more conservative median salary of $63,230 in 2017 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). There are a variety of management positions in marketing that are suitable for graduate degree holders or those with advanced experience. A marketing manager leads the marketing or sales activities and programs for a department or perhaps the company (e.g., in small organizations). The marketing manager oversees market research analysts and applies research findings to devise marketing plans. They coordinate advertising and public relations. Larger organizations employ marketing directors, more senior positions that typically oversee the entire company’s marketing efforts. The managing director oversees the marketing process from research and initial planning to implementation to analysis and evaluation. In 2018, the mean salary was $93,000 for marketing managers with a graduate degree and $128,000 for marketing directors.

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Market research managers (or marketing managers) plan and oversee research operations for an organization and supervise market research analysts. They coordinate the work of market researchers to determine the demand for products and services offered by a company and develop a marketing strategy (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). They confer with advertising managers and market researchers to promote products and services and devise strategies to attract new customers, as well as develop pricing strategies that maximize profits while ensuring customer satisfaction. In 2017, market research managers earned a median salary of $109,353 (Salary.com, 2018).

Advertising, Public Relations, and Sales Management A degree in social or consumer psychology prepares graduates for management careers in advertising, public relations, and sales. Advertising managers oversee advertising and promotional activities within a firm. If a firm contracts an advertising agency to handle promotions, then the advertising manager may serve as a liaison between the firm and the advertising agency (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Larger companies have their own advertising staff, overseen by advertising managers. In 2017, the median salary for advertising managers was $94,760 (Salary.com, 2018). Some companies have several levels of advertising staff that are overseen by the advertising sales director, a senior position that is responsible for developing and implementing a company’s strategy through a variety of media. The advertising sales director manages a company’s image and branding. In 2018, advertising sales directors earned a mean salary of $161,000 (Salary.com, 2018). Public relations managers supervise the work of public relations specialists and direct publicity programs. They determine the target of publicity programs and evaluate their effectiveness. In a large company, public relations managers may examine the compatibility of the advertising and public relations programs and suggest changes, when needed, to the company’s top management. Public relations managers keep abreast of social, economic, and political trends and make recommendations on how to enhance the company’s visibility and positive image in light of current trends (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). The median salary for public relations managers was $103,446 in 2017 (Salary .com, 2018). Public relations director is a senior position that is typically found in large companies. The public relations director oversees public relations managers. They are responsible for devising and carrying out public relations strategies within a company, including media relations, announcements, and speaking engagements. In 2018, public relations directors earned a mean salary of $125,000 (Salary.com). Sales managers direct a company’s sales program. They hire sales representatives, devise programs to train sales representatives, assign sales territories, set sales goals, and oversee the work of sales representatives (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). They determine the sales potential of products, assess

194  Part III •  Research and Applied Research Fields in Psychology inventory requirements, monitor customer preferences, and communicate this information to other departments to help develop and modify or maximize products. Like other careers, salaries for sales managers vary by geographic location, experience, and company. In 2017, the median salary for sales managers was $113,631 (Salary.com, 2018). Overall, management careers in each of these areas share similar benefits and challenges. Long hours, including evenings and weekends, are common. In 2017, more than 80% of advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers worked 40 hours or more a week (often more) (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Managerial careers often entail substantial travel (for example, attendance at meetings sponsored by associations or industries, or meetings at national, regional, and local offices or with dealers, distributors, and clients). In addition, tight deadlines can make for stressful work. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2018), management positions in advertising, marketing, public relations, and sales are expected to grow faster than average through 2026; however, such positions will remain competitive. If you’re interested in a career as an advertising, marketing, public relations, or sales manager, take additional courses in business administration, marketing, business law, advertising, accounting, public speaking, and finance. Graduate degree holders’ expertise with statistics is especially valuable. Finally, managerial careers require maturity, creativity, motivation, resistance to stress, flexibility, and the ability to communicate persuasively—all skills that are developed with graduate study in psychology.

Data Mining Graduate degree holders in social and consumer psychology are especially prepared for careers in data mining, also referred to as data science. Data mining entails using statistical analysis to examine large databases for patterns and trends that shed light on consumer habits and potential marketing strategies. Social and consumer psychologists’ skills in data analysis combined with their understanding of human nature and persuasion suits them well for positions in data mining. Data mining is the extraction of useful information, or “nuggets,” from large databases of information with the use of statistical methods and computational algorithms. It is akin to finding a needle in a haystack, where the needle is critical information that an organization needs and the haystack is the large database with information stored over a long period of time. Frequently the specific “needle” is unknown and the job is to study patterns to determine what variables come into play. Data mining is used in all industries. For example, discovering new patterns and trends through data mining can help executives to develop highly targeted marketing programs, analyze economic trends, detect credit fraud, determine which customers present the highest risk of defaulting on a loan, and forecast financial markets. Professionals in this field carry several titles. A business data

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analyst applies data mining strategies within business settings. Others carry more generic titles, such as data analyst or data scientist, and can be found in a variety of settings. This is a challenging career that requires analytic thinking and problem-solving skills. If you’re interested in a career in data mining, learn about the most popular databases, like SQL, DB2, and Oracle. The main challenges of a career in data mining and data warehousing are the stresses of meeting goals, rolling out database upgrades, learning new analysis techniques, working long hours, and analyzing data and drawing conclusions on tight deadlines and with limited budgets and staffs. In 2018, mean salaries for graduate-level business data analysts and data scientists were about $94,000 and $104,000, respectively (Salary.com, 2018). Graduate degrees in social and consumer psychology are among the most marketable of psychology degrees. If you are interested in other alternatives, consider writing and publishing careers (Chapter 14), trial consulting (Chapter 5), consulting (Chapter 9), or social policy careers (Chapter 12). With creative thinking and innovation, you’ll design and achieve the career of your dreams.

CHECKLIST 11.1 IS SOCIAL OR CONSUMER PSYCHOLOGY FOR YOU? Do you: ❑ Enjoy travel, meeting new people, and recruiting on college campuses? ❑ Wonder what influences people’s purchases? ❑ Have an interest in attitude formation and change? ❑ Like solving problems? ❑ Enjoy persuading others? ❑ Like watching the Super Bowl for the commercials? ❑ Like “reading” people? ❑ Find research enjoyable? ❑ Think quickly on your feet? ❑ Like working with numbers? Scoring: Add up your checkmarks; the greater the score the more likely a career in social or consumer psychology is for you.

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EXERCISE 11.1 LEARNING ABOUT SOCIAL AND CONSUMER PSYCHOLOGY Research either social or consumer psychology. Search online for information and answer the following: 1. Identify two useful websites for someone interested in this topic. 2. List some of the topics that psychologists in this field study. 3. Identify two researchers in this field. What do they study? 4. Identify two books that, based on the table of contents, description, and perhaps a perusal of Google Books, might provide useful information about this topic.

Considering Careers in Social and Consumer Psychology Identify a career option for someone interested in social or consumer psychology (either one that we have discussed or another). Conduct a search on a job search website, such as Indeed.com, LinkedIn.com, Glassdoor.com, or any of the many other job search sites online. Locate one or two job ads that appeal to you. Answer the following for each: 1. What is the job? 2. What education or experience requirements are listed? 3. What skills are needed to succeed in the job? If the ad does not list them (and it likely will not), brainstorm what skills would be coveted by the employer. 4. Consider the assessments that you conducted in Chapter 1. What is your skill set? How does it compare with that needed for the job? 5. What skills might you improve to enhance your fit to the job? 6. List courses or a minor that might improve your fit to the position. 7. Describe applied experiences, such as internships, that might prepare you for this position.

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Suggested Reading Beall, A. E. (2017). Consumer psychologists. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Career paths in psychology: Where your degree can take you (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Rutledge, P. (2017). Media psychologists. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Career paths in psychology: Where your degree can take you (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Resources About Advertising http://advertising.about.com/ Consumer Behavior: The Psychology of Marketing http://www.consumerpsychologist.com/ Society for Personality and Social Psychology http://www.spsp.org/ Understanding Social Psychology https://www.apa.org/action/science/social/index.aspx Your Career in Public Relations: Get It Started Right http://aboutpublicrelations.net/uckelly8a.htm

12 Developmental Psychology Developmental Psychology Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree Gerontology Service Coordinator Child Life Specialist Student Activities Director or Director of Student Services Program Assistant, Coordinator, and Director Fundraising Assistant and Coordinator, Development Coordinator, and Fundraising Manager

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Opportunities With a Graduate Degree Grant Director Foundation Director Developmental Consultant to Products and Media User Experience Designer and User Interface Designer Applied Developmental Psychologist Checklist 12.1: Is Developmental Psychology for You? Exercise 12.1: Learning About Developmental Psychology Suggested Reading Resources

abies, children, teenagers. That’s often what comes to mind when people consider the field of developmental psychology. Developmental psychologists are interested in topics such as how vision changes over the first year of life or the ways in which the media influence children’s behavior. However, developmental psychologists are also interested in adults. Is there a midlife crisis? What is the role of social support in health and well-being in older 198

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adulthood? Developmental psychologists examine questions pertinent to our everyday lives. Historically, graduate training in developmental psychology led to academic and research careers, such as those described in Chapter 14. Increasingly, however, developmental psychologists engage in applied activities. In this chapter we explore careers for students who are interested in developmental psychology.

Developmental Psychology Developmental psychology is the study of how people grow, develop, and change across the lifespan. Developmental psychologists study the emotional, intellectual, and physical development of children, adolescents, and adults. Many developmental psychologists specialize to study specific age groups, such as infants and young children, adolescents, young adults, or older adults. Developmental psychologists conduct research on a diverse array of topics, such as the effects of divorce on adults and how they parent, how infants learn language, and influences on antisocial activity during adolescence. Perhaps the most rapidly growing field within developmental psychology is gerontology, or the study of the aging process from middle age through later life. Gerontologists study physical, emotional, social, and psychological changes that older adults experience as they age, how our society is changing as the population of the United States ages, and how knowledge about development can be applied to create and modify policies and programs to assist older adults and their families. A growing number of psychologists study applied developmental psychology (part of the larger, multidisciplinary field of applied developmental science). Applied developmental psychologists conduct research on practical problems in everyday settings, such as the scope and nature of children’s exposure to violence and how to promote resilience in children and adolescents reared in disenfranchised neighborhoods. Applied developmental psychologists create and evaluate interventions that promote optimal cognitive, emotional, and social development. They disseminate knowledge about developmental processes to policymakers, businesses, industry, health care professionals, and parents. Some applied developmental psychologists engage in direct service delivery by constructing, administering, and interpreting assessments of developmental strengths and vulnerabilities, developing behavioral management programs for individuals and groups, and delivering psychological services in various mental health settings.

Opportunities With a Bachelor’s Degree Students who are interested in developmental psychology might consider service positions as gerontology service coordinators and child life specialists, for example, or positions in nonprofit settings as program or fundraising coordinators.

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Gerontology Service Coordinator There are many types of service coordinators who work to ensure that clients, whether children, families, or adults, obtain the health and social services that they need. Service coordinators generally work with specific populations, such as families with children who have special needs or disabilities. Gerontology service coordinators, sometimes called case workers, specialize in working with older adults and oversee direct and indirect services to clients. Gerontology service coordinators coordinate and may develop programs for older adults, such as health promotion, senior theater groups, and intergenerational activities for older people in senior centers, community agencies, and retirement communities. They may also participate in managing a group home. Some gerontology service coordinators begin as gerontology aides, human services workers who provide direct care to older adults in hospitals, clinics, and nursing homes, or through adult daycare or home care programs. Gerontology aides report to gerontology service coordinators or other supervisors. Gerontology aides may accompany clients to group meal sites, adult daycare centers, or doctors’ offices; telephone or visit clients’ homes to make sure services are being received; and help some with daily living needs. An important advantage to obtaining a position as a gerontology aide is the ability to help others and contribute to their welfare. Social service positions such as case workers and human services workers are expected to grow much more rapidly than the average for all occupations through 2026 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). The rapidly aging U.S. population means that opportunities are particularly great for those who work with older adults. If you’re interested in working with older adults, your psychology curriculum will prepare you well. Additional courses in communication, gerontology, and social work will round out your skills. Helping others is very rewarding, but gerontology aide positions can be emotionally draining and are associated with a high turnover. As a human services worker, a gerontology aide with a bachelor’s degree and no experience can expect to earn about $26,000 per year (Salary .com, 2018). A service coordinator or case worker is a more advanced position suitable to the skills that come with a bachelor’s degree and earns on average $43,000 per year (PayScale, 2018).

Child Life Specialist Child life specialists typically work in hospital settings, helping children and families adjust to a child’s hospitalization. They educate and support families in the physically and emotionally demanding process of caring for hospitalized or disabled children. Child life specialists implement pediatric programs, therapies, and activities with children. Specifically, they engage children in play activities that encourage free expression and promote social and emotional development and feelings of competence.

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Helping families in crisis can be very rewarding, but it is also challenging, and some child life specialists burn out. Most child life specialists work 40 hours per week but the specific hours may vary, as most agencies that employ child life specialists, such as hospitals, are open 24 hours a day and 7 days a week. If you are interested in a career as a child life specialist, take courses in child and family studies, human development, and early childhood education and obtain knowledge of common medical terms and familiarity with some of the most common serious illnesses of children. Volunteer work in hospital and social service settings will provide much-needed experience. Becoming a child life specialist requires certification. In addition to a bachelor’s degree, certification requires 600-hour internship experience and completion of the certification exam offered by the Child Life Council (visit http:// www.childlife.org). Additional coursework is required in child development, family systems, death and dying, and research. According to the Association of Child Life Professionals, bachelor’s-level child life specialists surveyed in 2012 reported a median salary of $41,000. Child life specialists with leadership responsibilities earned about $47,000 and bachelor’s-level child life specialists who advanced to manager positions earned a median salary of $64,000 (Child Life Council, 2013). In 2017, child life specialists across all levels of education and experience earned a median salary of about $52,000 (Salary.com, 2018). Career Profile 12.1 examines the perspective of a child life specialist.

Student Activities Director or Director of Student Services Every college and university sponsors student activities, such as clubs, student government, and fraternities and sororities. The student activities director, also known as director of student services, oversees the development and organization of the college or university's extracurricular programs. The director identifies and implements strategies for increasing student use of services and involvement in programs. Activities include approving funding for student activities and overseeing students and staff who organize and supervise student activities. Bachelor’s degree holders with less experience may be hired as assistant director of student services. This position reports to the student activities director and engages in similar activities but with less responsibility. Benefits of a career overseeing student activities include the excitement of being on a college campus and interactions with students and faculty. Campus activities occur every day of the week, so student services directors might work some evenings and weekends, particularly during busy times of the year, such as the beginning of the fall semester. In 2018, the average salary was about $60,000 for a director of student services and about $49,000 for an assistant director of student services (PayScale, 2018). Generally, the field of postsecondary administration is expected to grow faster than the average (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018).

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CAREER PROFILE 12.1 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: ANDREA MCGINNIS Who Am I? My name is Andrea McGinnis and I am a 27-year-old woman. I received my baccalaureate training in industrial and organizational psychology at the College of New Jersey in Ewing, New Jersey. During college, I was involved in the Delta Phi Epsilon sorority.

Putting Psychology to Work I am currently employed by the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia (CHOP), where I work as a certified child life specialist. I have been with CHOP for approximately 3 years. My primary job responsibilities are to provide children, teens, and their families with developmentally appropriate play and recreational activities, education and preparation for medical procedures, and emotional support to help reduce stress, increase adaptive coping mechanisms, and enhance positive growth within the hospital environment.

How I Got Here Prior to obtaining this position, I worked as a mortgage consultant following graduation; however, I decided to change my career path and enroll in a child life practicum placement at CHOP, where I completed 100 hours of unpaid work experience. I also completed a 480-hour child life internship at the St. Christopher’s Hospital for Children, also located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Inside My Job: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly The best part about my job is that every day is completely different than the one before. Meeting new patients and families keeps me on my toes and stops my work from becoming monotonous. The least enjoyable aspect of my job is the difficulty of handling grief experiences. For example, I provide bereavement support and present families with memorial keepsakes when patients die. Climbing the clinical ladder can also be a challenge in this job. Although CHOP offers the opportunity for upward mobility that affords more leadership experience, not all institutions have room for such professional development. Even with the ladder, being a child life specialist is not a career that has much salary growth.

Take It From Me . . . My background in psychology has helped me understand how to look at a situation from different perspectives. This capacity is valuable for empathizing with a child or parent’s view of a particular event, and being able to explain information in ways that effectively comfort their concerns. My development of

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­ roblem-solving skills is beneficial for creating adaptations in play for patients p who have mobility restrictions such as a broken arm or an IV in their dominant hand or are required to lay flat. Furthermore, my ability to navigate and integrate information quickly has been an advantage when dealing with changing diagnoses and procedures; I need to use a variety of resources like asking other staff, consulting the Internet, speaking with the family, etc., to find out pertinent information. I also believe that flexibility is a key feature of a successful child life specialist. We are constantly asked to jump into situations at the last moment to prepare a child for a procedure or help him or her cope with pain or a procedure that is currently happening. Changes are always being made in the hospital setting, so it is important to remain flexible and calm to be able to react in the moment. However, my bachelor’s degree in industrial and organizational psychology, given its specificity, was not sufficient by itself to obtain my current position at the hospital. Before completing my degree in psychology, I wish I had known that it is beneficial to tailor my training to a particular area (e.g., developmental, counseling, or organizational). Choose a concentration of psychology rather than a broad approach. I think it is difficult to pursue a specific career with a general psychology degree. I also suggest applying for internships and taking advantage of shadowing opportunities while in college to narrow down the career path you are most interested in following. Prior to entering into a career like mine, I recommend having a strong background in counseling. Child life specialists are often asked to talk to children and teenagers about a variety of issues ranging from injuries caused by abuse, behavior changes following a traumatic experience, and regressive or withdrawal behaviors due to hospitalization.

Program Assistant, Coordinator, and Director Program assistant, coordinator, and director positions are often found in nonprofit organizations (also referred to as nonprofits). Such organizations do not operate to earn a profit to benefit stockholders, directors, or any other entity. Instead, income is funneled back into the organization to assist it in meeting its goals. There are a variety of nonprofit organizations, and most work to advance a cause or interest. For example, some nonprofits promote educational, scientific, cultural, civic, or social welfare causes. Many psychology graduates are hired by nonprofit organizations that work to improve the lives of individuals, families, and children. A program assistant helps the program director by analyzing issues and implementing programs. Tasks might include data entry and analysis, report writing,

204  Part III •  Research and Applied Research Fields in Psychology and office work. Some might help in fundraising, budgeting, marketing, or community outreach. The activities will vary with the organization’s mission, size, and funding. In 2018, the average program assistant salary was $38,000 (PayScale, 2018). A program coordinator is a more advanced position responsible for running specific programs or parts of the organization. They may engage in fundraising, budgeting, and community outreach and work to promote the nonprofit within the community and oversee program staff and volunteers. Program coordinators earned an average salary of about $41,000 in 2018 (PayScale, 2018). Program directors oversee and manage all of a nonprofit’s programs. This may include assessing program needs, ensuring that objectives are met, coordinating the work of committees to plan procedures, overseeing fundraising, and writing grant proposals to secure funding. Other duties include hiring and all administrative and management functions. An experienced program director at a nonprofit earns on average $61,000 (PayScale, 2018). Salaries for program assistants, coordinators, and directors generally are higher in health care and for-profit organizations. Program-related positions offer the opportunity to help others and to improve their health and welfare. With experience, there are opportunities for advancement within an organization, taking on additional supervisory and administrative tasks, and to move from small to larger nonprofit organizations. A disadvantage to a career in the nonprofit sector is that most nonprofits depend on a variety of funding activities including grants, public donations, and fundraising events. Uncertainties in funding can contribute to a stressful work environment because resources for staff development, quality equipment, and office space often depend on success in fundraising.

Fundraising Assistant and Coordinator, Development Coordinator, and Fundraising Manager Nonprofit organizations rely heavily on contributions and grants to fund their organizations. A fundraising assistant provides administrative support to the fundraising staff and director as well as participates in fundraising activities, such as maintaining donor records and recruiting and training volunteers for fundraising events. In 2018, the average fundraising assistant salary was $37,000 (PayScale, 2018). Fundraising coordinator is a more advanced position, responsible for coordinating more complex fundraising tasks. Fundraising coordinators might develop a budget for fundraising events, produce communications materials (posters, websites, and newsletters), manage and train volunteers, and oversee fundraising events. The average fundraising coordinator earned about $41,000 in 2018 (PayScale, 2018). Fundraising positions require strong communication, public relations, and organizational skills in order to mobilize public support. An appreciation for

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how people respond to solicitations and requests for help is also useful. The psychology major’s people skills, problem-solving ability, understanding of social psychological principles such as persuasion and attitude formation and change, and critical analysis skills are very useful to a career in fundraising. Courses in marketing, accounting, communication, and business administration will broaden your skills. Fundraising positions in nonprofit settings have similar advantages and disadvantages as the program-related positions discussed earlier. Table 12.1 lists coursework and other experiences that will boost your employability.

Opportunities With a Graduate Degree A graduate degree in developmental psychology opens up a number of interesting career doors. Graduate degree holders in developmental psychology who choose to apply their skills to solve everyday problems have a great many opportunities.

Grant Director Grant directors tend to work for nonprofit and educational organizations as well as government agencies. Grants are nonrepayable funds given by an organization (or grant maker) to a recipient, such as a nonprofit organization. Grant directors oversee the funding activities of an organization or, in the case of a large organization, one of its departments. Whereas fundraisers prepare grant proposals to request funding, grant directors determine which proposals are funded. Grant directors read and analyze grant proposals, communicate with applicants, and determine which proposals are suitable for funding. Grant directors often participate with management and board members of their organization to develop funding opportunities and calls, or requests, for grant proposals. Grant directors often oversee employees who summarize and evaluate proposals, correspond with organizations requesting or awarded funding, and track payment information. Grant directors often give presentations to supervisors, funders, and potential grant applicants. Successful grant directors have graduate degrees related to the field in which they work. Evaluating grant proposals requires knowledge of the discipline. For example, the grant director of an organization that funds grants to promote children’s development must understand the nature of research and current findings in this area to effectively evaluate proposals, or requests for grant funding. Strong communication and public speaking skills as well as analytic and quantitative skills are useful for this position. In 2018, the average salary for a grant director was about $70,000 (PayScale, 2018).

206  Part III •  Research and Applied Research Fields in Psychology TABLE 12.1  ●  P  reparation for Bachelor’s-Level Careers Related to Developmental Psychology Coursework • Communication • Developmental Psychology or Human Development • Family Studies • Gerontology • Health and Wellness • Social Work Child Life Specialist • Child Development • Child Psychopathology • Communication • Early Childhood Education • Family Studies • Health and Wellness • Human Development • Seek Certification by the Child Life Council (visit http://www.childlife.org) Student Activities Director or Director of Student Services • Business Administration • Communication • Developmental Psychology or Human Development • Marketing • Public Speaking • Writing Program Assistant, Coordinator, and Director • Accounting • Communication • Developmental Psychology or Human Development • Family Studies • Gerontology • Health and Wellness • Human Resources Management • Social Work • Writing

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Fundraising Assistant and Coordinator, Development Coordinator, and Fundraising Manager • Accounting • Business Administration • Communication • Developmental Psychology or Human Development • Family Systems • Marketing • Mathematics • Social Work • Writing Applied Experiences olunteer opportunities, internships/practica, or paid part-time positions in any of V the following settings: • Boys and Girls Clubs • Children’s hospitals or pediatric units • Daycare center • Geriatric facility • Human resources department • Mental retardation facility • Nonprofit organizations, such as shelters, women’s centers, or advocacy centers • School Research Experiences* Experiences studying and participating in research in any of the following areas: • Aging • Child Development • Child Psychopathology • Developmental Assessment • Developmental Psychology • Geriatric Psychology • Program Development and Evaluation *Note that the content area of the research is less important than the experience itself, which enhances reasoning, quantitative, writing, and organizational skills.

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Foundation Director A foundation director is the chief executive of an organization, typically a nonprofit. The foundation director is responsible for overseeing all activities within an organization, including program delivery, program evaluation, finance, and staffing. Foundation directors usually report to a board of directors that oversee the organization and develop the mission statement, or purpose, for the foundation. The foundation director develops goals and strategies in line with the mission statement and is then responsible for meeting those goals. The director must hire staff, train them and provide ongoing staff development, oversee program development and implementation, and ensure that programs reach their intended clients or audience. Foundation directors also prepare budgets and monitor expenses. In large organizations, foundation directors oversee other administrators in charge of the various arms of the organization, such as human resources, membership, program development, grant development, and so on. Most foundation directors play a large role in fundraising by developing relationships with donors and overseeing grant preparation. Foundation directors must have a firm grasp of the field that comes with graduate study and experience. For example, a director of a foundation that advocates for adults diagnosed with neurocognitive disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease, must be knowledgeable about normative and atypical adult development and family processes. In addition, graduate study imparts the skills needed to develop and evaluate programs. In 2018, the average foundation director earned about $118,000 (Salary.com, 2018). However, salaries vary with the size of the organization and its financial resources.

Developmental Consultant to Products and Media Psychologists often work as consultants in product development and marketing. Developmental psychologists help companies and organizations to design materials, such as toys, products, and media, that meet people’s needs and are appropriate to their abilities. For example, developmental psychologists might determine the developmental appropriateness of toys and provide insight into children’s abilities and play styles. They test prototypes of toys with children and modify them based on their input. Consultants might conduct focus groups with parents and children to determine their views about specific products and to get feedback on toy designs. The resulting knowledge is used to improve the product. Developmental psychologists might also conduct market research by examining children’s and parents’ reactions to particular toys, advertising, and promotional techniques, as well as their needs, tastes, purchasing power, and buying habits. Developmental psychologists also advise companies in developing and evaluating children’s media. For example, psychologists provide developmental

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and educational advice to creators of children’s programs. They might conduct and interpret research on children’s attention spans to inform creative guidelines for television programs such as Sesame Street. Similar to product development, focus groups and market research form the information base that is used to target viewers of television programs and radio shows. Other developmental psychologists assist companies in developing and marketing products that are appropriate for older adults. They apply developmental knowledge to improve the design of products and environments (such as a residential home). For example, a consultant might suggest modifying the design of product packaging by using contrasting colors and larger print that’s easier for older adults to read. Developmental psychologists might consult with usability professionals (see Chapter 9) to provide a developmental perspective on the appropriateness of products and software for given ages. Through focus groups and research, consultants determine older adults’ needs and preferences, and they provide organizations with the information needed to design better products and marketing techniques. Product development and marketing consultants work for companies, consulting firms, and in private practice. An important reward of a career as a consultant in product development and marketing is that you’ll engage in work with practical implications and you’ll get to see the results of your work. You’ll work on a variety of projects and the research often is needed quickly, as clients must make swift business decisions. Salary information is difficult to determine, but the median salary for product development consultants (across field and level of education) is about $85,000 to $90,000 per year (Glassdoor .com, 2018). In 2015, psychologists conducting research in product development and design earned median salaries of $96,000 and $90,000, respectively (Lin et al., 2017).

User Experience Designer and User Interface Designer Recall from Chapter 9 that a user experience designer designs apps, websites, and software products that people perceive as accessible, functional, and attractive. Whereas a user experience designer is concerned with the overall feel of a software product, a user interface designer is responsible for how it is laid out. A user interface designer determines, for example, the size of an icon or button and its best placement on a screen. A developmental psychologist might work in either of these roles to consult or participate in creating websites, apps, and video games with individuals’ development in mind. As a user experience designer, a developmental psychologist might work with software developers to create an educational video game that is attractive, easy for young children to understand and use, and engaging. As a user interface designer, a developmental psychologist might apply his or her understanding of cognitive development to determine a video game’s layout; whether buttons are tapped,

210  Part III •  Research and Applied Research Fields in Psychology pressed, or swiped; and the shapes, sizes, and colors of game characters and other visual items such as icons. Software products designed for older adults can also benefit from the expertise of a developmental psychologist. An understanding of how attention, perception, and cognition changes with age can help user experience designers create software whose format is easily understood, meaningful, and engaging for older adults. Developmental psychologists in user interface design roles might create software layout and backgrounds that are sensitive to older adults’ needs, by including, for example, larger text and icons, contrasting colors that are easily distinguished, and slower movements. Careers in user experience or interface design offer opportunities to think creatively and solve complicated problems. In smaller companies the user experience and interface roles might be combined into one position. Generally, average salaries in these fields range from $80,000 to $90,000, depending on the data source (Glassdoor.com, 2018; Indeed.com, 2018; PayScale, 2018).

Applied Developmental Psychologist Many developmental psychologists conduct scientific research, as discussed in Chapter 14. Here we discuss some of the applied activities that are unique to developmental psychologists. Developmental psychologists apply developmental science in everyday settings, including medical facilities, schools, social service agencies, and private practice. Some developmental psychologists serve as consultants who provide teachers with information about behavioral management and instructional techniques appropriate for individuals with a wide range of developmental needs, including those with developmental disabilities. Others conduct developmental assessments of children who have suffered injuries or who are suspected of having a developmental delay. Frequently, applied developmental psychologists in hospital and service settings work with a multidisciplinary team of physicians, social workers, physical therapists, and other professionals to determine the best course of treatment or intervention for patients. Applied developmental psychologists design and empirically evaluate programs provided by hospitals, social service agencies, mental health clinics, and schools. For example, an applied developmental psychologist might evaluate the impact of a behaviorally oriented program administered in a hospital or clinic setting, such as the effect of maternal prenatal care and education on infant health outcomes. Applied developmental psychologists who work in residential care settings might evaluate the effectiveness of a program to help improve feelings of self-efficacy (or control) in older adults. Applied developmental psychologists are also found in social service agencies and court settings, where they evaluate families who wish to provide foster parenting, determine parental fitness for regaining child custody after loss of parental rights, or participate as part of a multidisciplinary team to assist children who have suffered abuse during the subsequent investigation and court process. Applied developmental psychologists conduct evaluations of children and

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families during divorce and child custody cases, determine the developmental status of adolescents in criminal cases in which they might be tried as adults, and serve as expert witnesses in custody, child abuse, and civil and criminal trials in which the defendants are children and adolescents. If you are interested in a career in applied developmental psychology, recognize that a master’s degree will prepare you for engaging in developmental assessment activities under the supervision of a licensed psychologist. A master’s degree will also prepare you for many positions in program design and evaluation. Doctoral degrees enable graduates to engage in more advanced activities but also hold additional responsibilities, including seeking licensure. Applied developmental psychologists who plan careers as scientist-practitioners must seek state licensure in order to offer psychological services to the public. Typically, licensure eligibility requires at least 4,000 hours of supervised field experience, with at least 2,000 hours postdoctoral, passing a written national examination and a written examination covering ethical and legal issues within a particular state, as well as an oral examination in some states. It should be noted that the requirements for licensure vary from state to state. Licensure offers scientist-practitioners additional employment and professional advancement opportunities. Although this discussion has emphasized the applied and practice activities of applied developmental psychologists, recognize that many of these professionals conduct applied research in university, hospital, government, and private settings. For example, a researcher in a university might study risk factors for adolescent delinquency and then develop a prevention and intervention program to help at-risk adolescents. For more information about research careers in a variety of settings, see Chapter 14. Salaries are difficult to quantify, but we know that psychologists who provide professional services earned a median salary of $85,000 in 2015 and those in research positions earned a median income of $95,000 (with psychologists who conduct applied research earning a median salary of $100,000) (Lin et al., 2017).

CHECKLIST 12.1 IS DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY FOR YOU? Do you: ❑ Want to know how people change as they age? ❑ Like solving problems? (Continued)

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(Continued) ❑ Like learning about older adulthood? ❑ Have the ability to consider multiple perspectives? ❑ Like working with theories? ❑ Find infants interesting? ❑ Have the ability to tolerate ambiguity? ❑ Want to do work that helps people? ❑ Like children? ❑ Not want to be a clinician? ❑ Have interests in social policy? ❑ Think adolescents are interesting? ❑ Wonder how we change as we progress through adulthood? ❑ Enjoy conducting research? ❑ Find all ages interesting? ❑ Enjoy reading books about developmental issues (for example, What to Expect the First Year, What to Expect During the Toddler Years)? Scoring: Count the number of checkmarks; the higher the number, the more likely a career in developmental psychology is for you.

EXERCISE 12.1 LEARNING ABOUT DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Search online for information about developmental psychology and answer the following: 1. Identify two useful websites for someone interested in developmental psychology. 2. List some of the topics that developmental psychologists study. 3. Identify two researchers in this field. What do they study? 4. Identify two books that, based on the table of contents, description, and perhaps a perusal of Google Books, might provide useful information about developmental psychology.

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Considering Careers in Developmental Psychology Identify a career option for someone interested in developmental psychology (either one that we have discussed or another). Conduct a search on a job search website, such as Indeed.com, LinkedIn.com, Glassdoor.com, or any of the many other job search sites online. Locate one or two job ads that appeal to you. Answer the following for each: 1. What is the job? 2. What education or experience requirements are listed? 3. What skills are needed to succeed in the job? If the ad does not list them (and it likely will not), brainstorm what skills would be coveted by the employer. 4. Consider the assessments that you conducted in Chapter 1. What is your skill set? How does it compare with that needed for the job? 5. What skills might you improve to enhance your fit to the job? 6. List courses or a minor that might improve your fit to the position. 7. Describe applied experiences, such as internships, that might prepare you for this position.

Suggested Reading Cryer, S. (2008). The nonprofit career guide: How to land a job that makes a difference. St. Paul, MN: Fieldstone Alliance. Gordon, K. A., Harven, A. M., & Hudley, C. (2018). Careers in child and adolescent development: A student’s guide to working in the field. New York, NY: Routledge. Grabinsky, C. J. (2014). 101 careers in gerontology. New York, NY: Springer. Hinrichsen, G. A., & Karel, M. J. (2017). Geropsychologists: Psychologists specializing in aging. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Career paths in psychology: Where your degree can take you (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Joiner, S. (2010). The idealist guide to nonprofit careers for first-time job seekers. Atlanta, GA: Hundreds of Heads Books. Klein, W. M. P., Ferrer, R. A., & Dickerson, S. D. (2017). Psychologists giving grants through government organizations. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Career paths in psychology: Where your degree can take you (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

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Resources Academy for Gerontology in Higher Education http://www.aghe.org Academy for Gerontology in Higher Education: Careers in Aging https://www.aghe.org/resources/careers-in-aging American Geriatrics Society http://www.americangeriatrics.org National Association for the Education of Young Children http://www.naeyc.org Pursuing a Career in Developmental Psychology https://www.apa.org/action/science/developmental/education-training.aspx Society for Research on Adolescence http://www.s-r-a.org Society for Research in Child Development http://www.srcd.org Understanding Developmental Psychology https://www.apa.org/action/science/developmental/index.aspx

PART IV

Preparing for the Future

13 Getting a Job With Your Bachelor’s Degree What Do Employers Seek? Social Media and Your Job Hunt Clean Your Social Media Accounts Cultivate Your Digital Profile Locate Job Openings Where to Look Use Your Network Prepare a Résumé Parts of the Résumé Types of Résumés Prepare a LinkedIn Profile

P

Solicit References Write a Cover Letter Ace the Interview Preparation Dress Appropriately During the Interview Thank-You Note The Job Offer Exercise 13.1: Résumé Preparation Suggested Reading Resources

sychology is one of the most common bachelor’s degrees awarded annually. Most graduates immediately enter the workforce. We have discussed a wide range of careers for psychology majors. In this chapter we discuss the job-search process, from locating positions to constructing résumés, preparing for interviews, and accepting a job offer.

216

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What Do Employers Seek? Your first step in the job search is learning about what employers seek in new hires. Table 13.1 lists the top 10 skills the employers seek on a candidate’s résumé. In Chapter 2 we discussed psychological literacy and the transferrable skills developed in the psychology major. Let’s compare these skills with employers’ wish list. The number one attribute that employers seek is problem-solving skills. The psychology curriculum trains students to analyze and think critically about phenomena, weigh multiple sources of information, determine the degree of support for each position, and make reasoned decisions about solutions. Psychology students quickly learn that there are often many potential solutions to a problem, each with pros and cons. They learn how to apply the scientific method to solve problems by devising hypotheses, gathering scientific information, conducting statistical analyses to evaluate a hypothesis, and interpreting data summaries to draw conclusions. These analytical and quantitative skills are highly desirable.

TABLE 13.1  ●  Top Skills Employers Seek in Job Applicants Attribute

Percentage of Respondents

Problem-solving skills

82.9%

Ability to work in a team

82.9%

Communication skills (written)

80.3%

Leadership

72.6%

Strong work ethic

68.4%

Analytical/quantitative skills

67.5%

Communication skills (verbal)

67.5%

Initiative

67.5%

Detail oriented

64.1%

Flexibility/adaptability

60.7%

Source: Job Outlook 2018, National Association of Colleges and Employers.

218  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future Psychology students develop oral and written communication skills through their coursework. Conducting research in small groups and as lab members gives students experience in teamwork. Psychology students’ understanding of human behavior aids students in constructing persuasive arguments that are easily comprehended by others, contributing to skills in leadership. Students of psychology learn about human behavior. They also learn about themselves and how to monitor and manage their behavior. Successfully conducting psychological research requires attention to detail and the best students tend to have a strong work ethic to persist in research even when experiments turn out unexpectedly or fail. Finally, psychology students learn that the perfect experiment is an unattainable goal toward which all researchers strive. Students strive to design the best research studies possible, given limited resources. The ability to adapt to changing circumstances, to be flexible and adaptive, is highly valued in a volatile economy and workplace. How might psychological literacy contribute to your career tool kit? You may be better prepared for the career world than you think; employers covet the skills that psychology majors develop. Your skills are valued, but how do you find and secure an employment setting in which to apply them? Let’s consider the job-seeking process. Today, an important part of the job search entails managing your reputation.

Social Media and Your Job Hunt Over the last decade, social media sites (such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snap Chat) have made it possible to instantly share experiences and thoughts with others. A status update makes it possible to quickly connect with everyone you know but, often, also people you don’t know, such as potential employers. A quick Internet search can reveal posts and photos on social media sites that can negatively sway an employer’s hiring decision. In one recent survey, nearly three-quarters of employers reported Googling candidates and reviewing their social media profiles (Salm, 2017). Social media profiles and posts likely won’t boost your application, but unprofessional profiles that suggest poor judgment can send an employer packing. Employers invest money and time into the hiring process and expect to hire an employee who is mature, responsible, and reliable. Successful applicants are deemed trustworthy and capable of handling an employer’s valuable business. In prior decades, employers relied only on interviews and references. Not all employers conduct Internet searches on potential employees, but you can never be sure. Monitor your social media profiles, as the following can prompt an employer to eliminate a candidate (Salm, 2017): • Provocative or inappropriate photographs or information • Information about drinking, drug use, or criminal behavior

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• Posts bad-mouthing employers or colleagues • Poor grammar, poor spelling, and texting/illiterate language • Discriminatory comments related to race, gender, religion, and so forth • Lies about qualifications • Sharing of confidential information from previous employers • Unprofessional screen name

Clean Your Social Media Accounts Many people believe that setting social media accounts to private means that they don’t have to worry about their profile’s content because only friends or followers will see it. Unfortunately, there is no way to be absolutely certain that a post will stay private. Protect yourself by curating your social media pages. Untag or, preferably, remove drunken party photos and any other photos that portray you in a negative light. As you review photos, think about whether an employer would want you as an employee. Look at the content of your wall. Are there any particularly negative status updates? Do you trash any faculty or schools? Are there any comments that might be interpreted as racist, sexist, or homophobic? Have you used profanity? Sarcastic comments and jokes that your friends know are flippant remarks likely won’t be taken as such by employers.

Maintain an Appropriate Profile Photo Even if you set your privacy settings high, your name and profile photo may still be visible. Make sure that your profile photo is what you want employers, professors, and admissions committees to see.

Filter Your Friends It’s not uncommon for individuals to have 1,000 or more “friends.” Consider restricting your friends to people you actually know.

Restrict Public Search Make it difficult for people to find your Facebook profile by going private and making your profiles visible to “friends only.” Some candidates change their profile name (such as by using their middle name as a last name). Others deactivate their accounts altogether. It’s not necessary to deactivate your account, as there is no need for paranoia, but restricting public search is a good idea. However, remember that setting a profile to private is not a guarantee. Students sometimes worry that employers will think that a candidate has something to hide when his or her Facebook or other profile is private. On the contrary, a private profile is a sign of maturity. It shows that you recognize a separation between your

220  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future professional and private life. Moreover, be cautious about what you post online and recognize that even the tightest privacy settings can fail. Make sure that your online profiles reflect you as you’d like employers to see you.

Cultivate Your Digital Profile Rather than focus only on cleaning up your social media profiles, be proactive. Create the digital profile that depicts the ideal you—how you wish to be portrayed. Use your social media presence to show your expertise in a given subject. Tailor your profile to demonstrate your passion. LinkedIn is particularly useful for self-promotion, as it is essentially a social résumé. We will discuss LinkedIn later in this chapter; for now, recognize that unlike other social media, you should keep your LinkedIn profile visible to the public. If you use Twitter, post professional tweets about your interests. Likewise for Instagram and Pinterest. Your profiles don’t have to be limited to professional interactions, as they’re personal accounts; however, before you post personal material, consider how a potential employer might interpret it. Your online reputation follows you and is hard to erase. Control what you put online to ensure that your best, most professional self is portrayed. You can never be sure whether an employer will review your digital reputation, but it is always a good idea to put your best foot forward. Later in this chapter we discuss the professional networking site, LinkedIn, an excellent tool to help you cultivate a helpful digital profile.

Locate Job Openings Your first step in getting a job is to determine where to apply. Perhaps the most important thing to remember about looking for a job is that it is very unlikely that you will encounter a job ad seeking a psychology major. Generally speaking, most job ads do not mention specific majors. Although now and then an ad might list a preference for psychology majors, don’t hold your breath waiting. When looking for job openings, think in terms of skills rather than job titles. Job titles can be misleading—what skills are required? Throughout the job-search process, it is helpful to remember that most employers and the public at large have mistaken beliefs about psychology and psychology majors, such as the belief that psychology students become psychologists, conduct therapy, and so on. Your task throughout the job-search process is to educate potential employers by discussing the competencies that you have developed and how the psychology curriculum has improved your knowledge and skill base. The first stop on your job search should be the career services office at your college, where you’ll find skilled professionals who can help you with all aspects of the job search. Career services offices have a variety of resources for locating available positions, including books, databases, and lists of employers who have contacted them seeking to employ college students and recent graduates.

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Where to Look There are several places to look for job advertisements. Job ads are often posted in local newspapers that are also published online; most maintain searchable online databases of job ads. Job search sites permit job hunters to comprehensively search the job market. Some examples of job search sites include the following: • Careerbuilder.com • Idealist.org (for nonprofit jobs and volunteer opportunities) • Indeed.com • Monster.com • Simplyhired.com • USAJobs.gov (for government jobs) Contact the human resources department of major businesses, corporations, and agencies in your area to inquire about job openings. Many businesses and organizations advertise jobs on their website, typically linked from the human resources webpage.

Use Your Network Remember the most important job-hunting resource of all: You! Applicants commonly overlook their own personal networks when scouting for available positions. Through school, friends (and friends’ parents), part-time jobs, and internships, you’ve already made many connections. Tap into these professional connections. If you’ve completed an internship or practicum, you may already have a foot in the door and a potential employer has already had a peek at your work habits. Even if the organization where you did your internship is not hiring additional staff, your supervisor probably has outside contacts. Tap into your personal connections to locate job openings because most jobs are not advertised in newspapers or other ads. You can learn about these unadvertised positions only by word of mouth. Networking—establishing connections—will help you to become more knowledgeable about positions within the hidden job market.

Prepare a Résumé A résumé is a summary of your educational history, work experience, and career objectives. Employers always expect to see a résumé (even if it isn’t stated in the advertisement). As you prepare yours, remember that your résumé often is the only impression that an employer has of you. It is a chance to present your strengths, to communicate your valuable skills, and to emphasize the aspects

222  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future of your educational and employment background that make you unique. A résumé is your ticket through the door; its purpose is to convince an employer to interview you, but most employers glance at a résumé for only 20–30 seconds and sometimes as little as 6 seconds (Sanburn, 2012). If the initial scan of your résumé doesn’t catch the employer’s attention, the opportunity is lost. How do you make it past the 20-second test? Consider the main question that employers ask themselves as they read résumés: Why should I learn more about this applicant? Keep this question in mind as you prepare your résumé, consider your experience and the corresponding skills as you answer it, and you’ll have a unique résumé that will get you to the next stage of the job hunt. Employers study résumés with the awareness that prior behavior predicts future behavior. Think about your successful experiences and what characteristics and abilities influenced your success. What contributions have you made and what skills underlie those competencies? What transferrable skills (skills that are useful in many jobs) have you learned? The work that you describe need not be paid. Volunteer experiences that demonstrate your competencies are valuable. Employers care about whether you can do the job. It doesn’t matter whether the evidence you give is from paid or unpaid experiences. There are several ways of organizing résumés, but all contain similar information.

Parts of the Résumé There are several ways of formatting résumés, but all include the same type of information: contact, objective, summary, education, and experiences (and related skills).

Heading/Contact Information All of your contact information should go at the top of your résumé. Include your name, permanent address (this is particularly important if you live on campus and are moving home after graduation), phone (with area code), and e-mail. If you’re graduating college soon, think twice about using your university e-mail, as some graduates lose access to university e-mail soon after graduating. Use a professional e-mail address rather than a fun, personal e-mail address (silly usernames such as “Butterflygirl,” “Temptress,” or “JediMaster” are unprofessional and send the message that you are not ready for hiring). If possible, use your name as your e-mail address and choose a provider that will be around for years to come, such as Gmail or Outlook. Add your LinkedIn profile link (more on this later). Include your website or blog only if the content reflects your professional ambitions.

Objective This is the first component of the résumé, usually placed after the contact information. The objective is a simple statement of the position and industry

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in which you’re prepare to work. You will likely tailor this to each position to which you apply.

Summary of Qualifications Sometimes just referred to as a summary, this section is a newer addition to the résumé. Not all candidates use this section, but it can help an employer quickly zero in on your competencies. It appears at the top of your résumé and contains a very short overview of your major qualifications—what you want the employer to remember about you. Place the most important and relevant information first.

Education Report the name of the degree that you received or will receive; institution name and city/state; month and year of graduation; major, minor/concentration; grade point average (only if it is higher than 3.0); and academic honors, if applicable.

Experience Cover your work experience. List your most recent job first and work your way backward. For each job, indicate the position title, company or organization name, address, and dates of employment. Include all relevant employment experiences: part-time, internships, cooperative education, or self-employment. Recruiters are interested in the skills that you’ve developed, not whether or how much you were paid. Experiences also include activities that are relevant to the objective stated on your résumé. Include activities and awards only if they are significant experiences that speak to your capacities as an employee (such as leadership experience). If you can draw a valid connection between your professional goal and the activity, keep it in. If not, take it out. For each position, briefly describe your duties and responsibilities as they relate to the position you are seeking and emphasize specific skills and achievements. Use active words to describe your duties and the results that you produced. Table 13.2 provides a list of action verbs to help you construct this section of your résumé.

Types of Résumés There are at least two types of résumés. The chronological résumé is organized by position or job. All jobs are listed in reverse chronological order starting with the most recent. Duties and skills are highlighted within each work experience. Table 13.3 illustrates the chronological résumé. Chronological résumés are challenging when a job seeker has little experience. The functional résumé is a good option for recent graduates, as it is organized by skills and competencies, regardless of when they were obtained. Each skill is listed and the work experience and duties are discussed within. The material that appears first in a résumé tends to get the most attention. Table 13.4 illustrates a functional résumé.

224  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future TABLE 13.2  ●  Action Verbs for Your Résumé Analytical and Critical Thinking analyzed

deciphered

formulated

questioned

ascertained

deliberated

integrated

rated

assessed

determined

investigated

recommended

compared

devised

justified

researched

computed

diagnosed

measured

studied

conceptualized

estimated

negotiated

substantiated

concluded

evaluated

prescribed

synthesized

confirmed

examined

prioritized

validated

critiqued

forecasted

projected

verified

addressed

composed

informed

publicized

apprised

convinced

involved

reported

arbitrated

corresponded

marketed

represented

authored

drafted

mediated

spoke

canvassed

edited

persuaded

summarized

clarified

elicited

presented

welcomed

collaborated

explained

promoted

wrote

Communication

communicated

Quantitative and Research analyzed

detected

fabricated

researched

appraised

dissected

formulated

reviewed

audited

envisioned

gathered

shaped

cited

estimated

illustrated

studied

classified

evaluated

inspected

summarized

collected

examined

investigated

surveyed

compiled

exhibited

measured

tested

computed

experimented

quantified

visualized

critiqued

explored

recorded

Leadership and Management administered

delegated

enhanced

led

advised

designated

facilitated

moderated

allocated

directed

fostered

monitored

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allowed

educated

founded

motivated

appointed

elicited

guided

recruited

approved

employed

influenced

sanctioned

assigned

empowered

instructed

supervised

authorized

enabled

interviewed

trained

chaired

encouraged

judged

coached

endorsed

225

Planning and Organization arranged

classified

linked

purchased

assembled

collected

orchestrated

recorded

budgeted

compiled

organized

regulated

calculated

consolidated

oriented

scheduled

catalogued

correlated

planned

systematized

centralized

indexed

processed

tabulated

adapted

developed

procured

repaired

alleviated

elevated

produced

restored

ameliorated

foresaw

reconciled

retrieved

analyzed

formulated

rectified

revived

brainstormed

fulfilled

reduced

solicited

composed

generated

refined

solved

conceived

identified

reinforced

streamlined

conceptualized

invented

rejuvenated

strengthened

constructed

lightened

relieved

supplemented

created

modeled

remedied

transformed

debugged

modified

remodeled

decided

performed

Problem Solving

Teamwork accommodated

contributed

mediated

aided

cooperated

participated

assisted

helped

collaborated Sources: Adapted from Michigan State University Career Services Network (n.d.) and Yale University Office of Career Strategy (n.d.).

226  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future TABLE 13.3  ●  Chronological Résumé JANE R. DAVIS 123 Gammon Street, Dunkin, Connecticut 12345 [email protected] | 555-555-5555 | linkedin.com/jane-davis OBJECTIVE An entry-level position in human resources with opportunities to apply interpersonal and research skills EDUCATION University of Connecticut, Storrs Bachelor of Arts in Psychology, Cum Laude, May 2021 GPA: 3.5/4.0 WORK EXPERIENCE Waterbury Neuroscience, Storrs, CT

April 2020–Present

Administrative Assistant • Entered data for psychiatric research team resulting in published articles • Applied skills in SPSS, Microsoft Word, Excel, and spreadsheet development • Interacted with patients in person and by phone • Maintained weekly schedule of appointments for 3 psychiatrists Macy’s, Waterbury, CT

Sept. 2019–March 2020

Sales Associate • Greeted and helped customers, restocked merchandise, and arranged displays • Operated the register and accurately balanced the cash drawer Olive Garden, Waterbury, CT

June 2019–August 2019

Server • Interacted with customers, and took and served orders in a fast-paced environment Takiki Summer Camp, Warren, CT

Summer 2017, 2018

Counselor • Supervised and engaged 12 special needs and at-risk youth in activities for 7 hours each day • Developed camp-wide crafts, activities, and games

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HONORS AND AWARDS • Connecticut Scholarship for Excellence in Community Leadership Award  2020 • Psi Chi

2019

ACTIVITIES • Academic peer mentor for first-year students

2019–2020, 2020–2021

• Volunteer: Foundation for Families

Fall 2019

• Volunteer: Food for All

Spring 2020

• President, Psi Chi, University of Connecticut chapter 2020–2021 Source: Kuther (2020).

TABLE 13.4  ●  Functional Résumé JANE R. DAVIS 123 Gammon Street, Dunkin, Connecticut 12345 [email protected] | 555-555-5555 | linkedin.com/jane-davis OBJECTIVE An entry-level position in human resources with opportunities to apply interpersonal and research skills EDUCATION University of Connecticut, Storrs Bachelor of Arts in Psychology, Cum Laude, May 2021 GPA: 3.5/4.0 RELEVANT SKILLS Research and Data Management Supported a psychiatric research group with data entry in SPSS and participated in research discussions of a project that resulted in a publication Interpersonal Communication Communicated with customers, patients, and at-risk youth, in a range of settings, including medicine, sales, and education Organization/Administration Maintained medical office, insurance files, and weekly schedule of appointments for a team of psychiatrists Technical Skills Proficient in Excel, spreadsheet development, PowerPoint, Microsoft Word, and SPSS (Continued)

228  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future TABLE 13.4  ●  (Continued) WORK EXPERIENCE • Administrative Assistant, Waterbury Neuroscience, Storrs, CT

April 2020–Present

• Sales Associate, Macy’s, Waterbury, CT

Sept. 2019–March 2020

• Server, Olive Garden, Waterbury, CT

June–August 2019

• Counselor, Takiki Summer Camp, Warren, CT

Summer 2018, 2019

HONORS AND AWARDS • Connecticut Scholarship for Excellence in Community Leadership Award  2020 • Psi Chi

2019

ACTIVITIES • Academic peer mentor for first-year students

2019–2020, 2020–2021

• Volunteer: Foundation for Families

Fall 2019

• Volunteer: Food for All Spring

2020

• President, Psi Chi, University of Connecticut chapter 2020–2021 Source: Kuther (2020).

Be concise; a new graduate’s résumé should be no more than one page in length. Carefully proofread your résumé, because typographical, spelling, and grammar errors are unacceptable and will cost you an interview. Make your résumé as professional looking as possible. Print your résumé on white or off-white paper, using a laser (not ink jet) printer. Review Table 13.5 for more résumé tips. Also note that many employers request that applicants upload electronic résumés to their website or e-mail them to the human resources department. Convert your résumé to a .pdf file so that the formatting is retained regardless of what computer system the employer uses. Appearances count, so check your résumé pdf file for errors in formatting even if the copy in your word processing file is flawless. Also consider preparing a plain text version of your résumé. Sometimes an online application will require that you cut and paste your résumé into a form or e-mail rather than attach a file. Remove all formatting: bold, tabs, centering, and bullets. Include straight text that will not confuse the scanner. Instead of bullet points, use asterisks (*). Save your résumé as a plain text file (.txt) and cut and paste as needed.

Prepare a LinkedIn Profile The largest and most popular social networking site for professionals is LinkedIn.com. Similar to other social networking sites, LinkedIn allows users to

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TABLE 13.5  ●  Résumé Checklist ❑ Clearly communicate your purpose and value. ❑ Communicate your strongest points first. ❑ Don’t make statements that you can’t document. ❑ Be direct, succinct, and expressive with language. ❑ Don’t use lengthy sentences and descriptions; sentence fragments are acceptable, but use them judiciously. ❑ Don’t use the passive voice. ❑ Don’t change the tense of verbs throughout the résumé. ❑ Confine your information to one page. ❑ Use space to organize your résumé; it should not appear cramped. ❑ Aim for overall visual balance on the page. ❑ Use a font size of 10 to 14 point. ❑ Choose a simple typeface and stick to it (i.e., don’t change fonts). ❑ Use spacing and bold for emphasis. ❑ Don’t fold or staple your résumé. ❑ Check spelling, grammar, and punctuation. ❑ Proofread. ❑ Ask someone else to proofread. ❑ Get outside help. Get feedback from two or three people, including someone who regularly evaluates résumés and hires employees. ❑ Do not include your reference information on your résumé (see sample). ❑ Before giving their names to a potential employer, ask your references if they are willing to serve as references.

connect, share information about themselves, and communicate. It is never too early to work on developing a professional network. An account on LinkedIn makes it easy to create a professional persona and develop useful contacts that will influence your career. A basic account is free and permits you to access a great deal of information to aid your job hunt and professional development. You can search for companies, research employees in companies, make contact with professionals, and find communities of students and professionals who share your interests in psychology. To establish a presence on LinkedIn, you must create a professional profile. It should concisely present your skills, accomplishments, education, and career

230  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future goals. Use the information in your résumé to prepare your LinkedIn profile. Compose simple text for each of the following sections: 1. Headline: Your headline is a short, memorable professional slogan. 2. Education: Include all your schools, major(s) and minor, courses, and study abroad or summer programs. 3. Experience: List the jobs you held, even if they were part-time, along with what you accomplished at each. 4. Organizations: List any clubs you’ve joined at school or outside of school. Describe what you did with each organization. 5. Skills and Expertise: List at least five key skills. 6. Volunteer Experience: List unpaid experiences that illustrate your skills. 7. Honors and Awards: List them. 8. Courses: List the classes that show off the skills and interests you’re most excited about. 9. Summary: Write a concise and confident statement about your qualifications and goals, as well as aspirations. Unlike your résumé, a LinkedIn profile contains a headshot photo. Most people prefer to connect with a face and so a photo is an important addition to your profile. However, be sure that it is appropriate and professional. An effective LinkedIn photo: • Looks like you. • Avoids a distracting background. • Includes only your head and tops of your shoulders. • Shows you wearing a collared shirt or a neat T-shirt. • Makes you look approachable (you are looking at the camera and smiling or holding a natural expression). • Uses photo editing apps or software sparingly, if at all (e.g., to remove a blemish, but not to contour your cheekbones). After you have created your profile, proofed it carefully, and are ready for the world to see it, adjust your profile’s privacy settings to “Public.” Your profile will show up in search results. Take great care in preparing your profile, as employers will see this before they see you. A poor profile can hurt your search more than a good profile can help.

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You’re not taking full advantage of LinkedIn if all you do is post a profile. The purpose of LinkedIn is to establish connections or links with others—especially people at companies where you want to work. When you view a profile, you can determine if you know any people in common or if you are connected through second-degree relationships (such as you share a friend of a friend in common). Make the most out of LinkedIn by joining groups or communities. There are more than 200,000 groups. Consider joining college and alumni groups and search for psychology-related groups. Examples of psychology-related groups include the Psychology Network (over 140,000 members), Psychology Students Network (over 40,000 members), and Psi Chi (nearly 10,000 members).

Solicit References Nearly all positions to which you apply will require you to provide several references—people who can verify your qualifications and abilities. Who should you use as a reference? Employers are interested in your potential as an employee, so your references should be able to comment on your professional abilities and personal characteristics that directly relate to job performance, like dependability, resourcefulness, and attitude. Professors, research supervisors and managers, supervisors for your practica or other applied experiences, and former employers are good choices for references. As you choose your references, remember that you must ask before listing them on your résumé or application. Specifically, ask if they are able to give you a helpful recommendation (you don’t want just any recommendation). Provide them with a copy of your résumé and ask them what other materials they may need. Whenever you are searching for a job (especially after graduation), contact your references to fill them in on your experiences as well as to request their assistance and simply remind them of who you are. When a prospective employer contacts one of your references, you don’t want that person to ask, “Who?” Don’t surprise your references. Ask their permission first so that you make a good impression and ensure that they feel comfortable recommending you for a job.

Write a Cover Letter As you prepare a job application, do your homework to know exactly why you want to work for the employer. Employers want to hire people who are interested in them, not just those who want a job. The cover letter is an introduction to your résumé that enables you to tailor your application to the prospective employer. Your cover letter must be concise and explain what you can offer an employer. An employer might spend a few seconds scanning your cover letter—get your message out quickly and efficiently. In no more than three paragraphs explain your interest in the position and how you can contribute

232  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future to the organization. Highlight the most important aspects of your background that are relevant to the position and/or organization. Finally, provide contact information (a phone number and e-mail address), thank the reader, and reiterate your interest in the position. Remember that the cover letter is an introduction that should motivate the reader to examine your résumé. An effective cover letter is written with the needs of the audience (i.e., prospective employer) in mind. Before writing a cover letter, ask yourself, “What is the purpose of this letter? What are the needs of the reader? What benefits will an employer gain from me? How can I maintain the reader’s interest? How can I end the letter persuasively, so that the reader will want to examine my résumé and contact me?” Be explicit and communicate what you can do for the employer, not what the job will do for you. Remember that this is a “free sample” of your work and indicates what the employer can expect of you. Table 13.6 provides tips for writing your cover letter. If you are submitting your résumé by e-mail, shorten your cover letter to simply identify the position to which you are applying and why you are a good fit (in about two to three sentences).

Ace the Interview If you have been asked to come for an interview, you have made it past the first round of reviews and have an opportunity to land the position. The interview is the most important criterion for hiring; it beats out grades, related work experience, and recommendations. The interview is your one chance to impress the

TABLE 13.6  ●  Cover Letter Checklist ❑ Address the letter to an individual, using the person’s name and title. If answering a blind advertisement, use the following address: “To Whom It May Concern.” ❑ Indicate the position for which you are applying and explain why you are qualified to fill it. ❑ Include a phone number and e-mail address where you can be reached. ❑ Ask someone to proofread your letter for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. ❑ Indicate how your education and work skills are transferable and relevant to the position for which you are applying. ❑ Keep a copy of each cover letter for your records; write notes from any phone conversations that might occur on your copy of the cover letter. ❑ Make a connection to the company through a person you know, some information you’ve researched, or a specific interest.

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prospective employer. If it goes well, it’s not uncommon to have a second, and even third, interview. How do you stand out? Display good communication skills, clearly defined professional goals, and an honest upbeat demeanor. Be sure to prepare beforehand because your interviewer is interested in understanding why you want to work for them, what you’re suited for, and your qualifications. Interviews are stressful, but you can increase your confidence by being thoroughly prepared.

Preparation Understand the purpose of the interview and keep the interviewer’s objectives in mind. From your perspective, the purpose of the job interview is to get a second interview or job offer; but for employers, the purpose of the job interview is to whittle down the list of applicants to one or two finalists. The interviewer is interested in answering several questions: • Why does this person want to work for us? • What position is this person suited for? • What are his or her qualifications? • Why should I hire him or her? • Does this person meet my employment needs? • Is he or she trustworthy? Because many applicants apply for each position, the interviewer often looks for reasons why you should not be hired. Interviewers are interested in identifying your weaknesses. Your job is to communicate your strengths. This means that you must understand yourself, but you also must understand the company or organization to determine how to package your strengths in order to appeal to the interviewer. Research the company. Learn as much as you can about the company and the people with whom you’ll interview. What is the relative size and growth of the industry? What product lines or services are offered? Where is the headquarters? Identify the competition. Be familiar with any recent items in the news. Try to predict what will be asked during the interview and prepare answers. Expect to be asked to identify a challenge you faced and how you overcame it. It’s a difficult, but predictable, question. Think about it now and you’ll be better equipped to respond during your interview. Be ready to show that you are interested in and enthusiastic about the company. Table 13.7 presents common questions asked during interviews and questions to consider asking during your interview. You also will be judged on the questions that you ask. Ask thoughtful and intelligent questions about the company and position.

234  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future TABLE 13.7  ●  C  ommon Interview Questions and Questions to Ask During an Interview What do you hope to be doing 5 or 10 years from now? Why did you apply for this job? Tell me about yourself. What are your strengths and weaknesses? What can you offer to us and what can we offer to you? What are the two or three accomplishments in your life that have given you the greatest satisfaction? Do you work well under pressure? Have you ever held any supervisory or leadership roles? What do you like to do in your spare time? What other jobs are you applying for? Is there anything else we should know about you? Why do you feel that you will be successful in this position? What courses did you like best? Least? Why? What did you learn or gain from your part-time and summer job experience? Why did you choose your major? What can a psychology major do for this organization? If you could do it all again, what would you change about your education? Did you do the best you could in school? Why or why not? Why did you leave your last employer? What job did you like the most? The least? Why? What did you like least about your last job? Describe your best or worst boss. Have you ever been fired? Why do you want to join our organization? Why should we hire you? When will you be ready to work? Do you have any actual work experience? How would you describe your ideal job? Are you a team player? Explain. What motivates you? Tell me about some of your recent goals and what you did to achieve them. Have you ever had a conflict with a boss or professor? How did you resolve it?

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If I were to ask one of your professors to describe you, what would he or she say? Describe a situation when you made a mistake. How did you handle it? Why did you choose to attend your college? What qualities do you feel a successful manager should have? What do you know about our company? What kind of salary are you looking for? What was the last book you read? What questions do you have for me? Questions to Ask During an Interview Tell me about the duties and responsibilities of this job. What is the career path for this position? How long has this position been in the company? What is the person who performed this job doing now? What would be the ideal type of person for this position? What kinds of skills or personality characteristics are ideal for this position? For whom would I be working? Are there training opportunities in this position? Are there opportunities for professional growth in this position? What are the most critical skills needed to perform this job? What am I expected to accomplish during the first year? What are the most critical challenges that I may encounter in the first year? How will I be evaluated? Are promotions and raises tied to performance criteria? What is unique about working for this company? Why did you choose to become a part of this organization? What is the next step in this process? Source: Adapted from Greene and Martel (2014) and Johnston (2014).

Dress Appropriately It may not be nice, but we are judged on our appearance. Dress appropriately for your interview because your appearance communicates messages about your level of seriousness and professionalism. During the first 5 minutes of an interview, interviewers make initial judgments or create expectations about your professionalism and “fit” for a position based on your appearance and

236  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future demeanor. Use this to your advantage by dressing appropriately. Even if you are applying to a company with a casual dress code, dress better than you would for work. Dressing up conveys your enthusiasm and interest in the position. Whether you’re a man or a woman, you can’t go wrong with a basic dark suit or separates. Some fields are more dressy than others. Men generally should wear a white or blue oxford shirt with an understated tie. Women should wear a modest blouse, with understated hair and makeup. Keep jewelry to a minimum. Consider removing facial piercings. Err toward the side of conservative, as you want to be remembered for what you say and not what you’re wearing. Also note that these are merely general rules. You might want to see how others in your field dress for appropriate cues. You can’t go wrong if you dress for the position, wearing attire that you might wear to work, but dressier.

During the Interview Greet the interviewer with a firm handshake and say their name after they introduce themselves (for example, “Pleased to meet you, Sally.”). Be enthusiastic. Remember that your interviewer is committed to his or her position and the company and wants to hire someone who is similarly committed. Demonstrate your enthusiasm by discussing what you’ve learned from your research and preparation. Ask questions to fill in any gaps in your understanding. Convey a sense of long-term interest by asking about opportunities for further professional education and advancement. Throughout the interview, be aware of your body language and keep fidgeting to a minimum. Lean very slightly toward the interviewer to communicate your interest in what he or she is saying. Maintain eye contact to convey interest and trustworthiness. Smile to convey your positive attitude. Don’t forget that your tone of voice can indicate how interested you are in the interview and the organization. Here are some other helpful tips for interviews: • Bring a copy of your résumé. It comes in handy if you have to fill in applications and provides initial information for your interviewer. • Allow the interviewer to direct the conversation. • Answer questions in a clear and positive manner. • Never speak negatively about former employers or colleagues, no matter what. • Let the interviewer lead the conversation toward salary and benefits. Try not to focus your interest on these issues (at least not during the initial interview). • When discussing salary, be flexible.

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• If the employer doesn’t say when you’ll hear about their decision, ask when you can call to follow up. • Thank the employer for the interview. Above all remember that employers anticipate applicants to be on their best behavior during an interview. They recognize that any perceived flaws, such as arrogance, impoliteness, or poor listening skills, will likely be more exaggerated when the applicant becomes an employee. Be self-aware because any negative interactions or ambivalent signals can stop your application in its tracks.

Thank-You Note Immediately after your interview, e-mail a thank-you note and follow it up with a mailed note. Surprisingly few applicants do, so you’ll stand out as a professional (Greene & Martel, 2014). A mailed note signifies extra effort and is especially memorable. Express your appreciation for the opportunity to meet the employer and his or her time and consideration. Restate your interest, and highlight any noteworthy points made in your conversation. Be brief.

The Job Offer Usually job offers are made over the phone or in person; however, an offer may also be delivered by e-mail. No matter how the offer is delivered, you’re likely to be surprised. The most appropriate response to an offer in person or by phone is to ask any questions that come to mind, and then request time (a day or two) to think about the offer. Before accepting an offer, be sure that you understand the conditions and elements of the job. In many cases, salaries for entry-level positions leave little room for negotiation. Take your lead from the employer as to whether the salary is negotiable. If the salary is lower than you hoped and it isn’t negotiable, you must decide whether you’re still willing to accept the position and what, if anything, would make it more attractive. As you think about whether to accept the job offer, consider the scope of the position, how it fits your career goals, opportunities for professional growth, and pragmatics (geographic location, benefits, salary, work hours, etc.). If you decide to accept the offer, be sure to inform any employers still actively considering you. Also contact your references to inform them of your new job as well as to thank them for their assistance. If you decide not to accept the job, notify the employer as soon as possible by telephone. Timeliness is important because other applicants also are waiting for a response. Be polite, thank the employer for the offer, and wish him or her success. Follow up with a polite e-mail as well, which ensures that your reply is recorded.

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EXERCISE 13.1 RÉSUMÉ PREPARATION Write the Experience Section for Your Chronological Résumé 1. List all of the jobs that you have had, along with the dates of employment. 2. What did each job entail? Free write about your activities, responsibilities, and everything you did. What were you particularly good at? Identify achievements. 3. Condense each description into one to two sentences. 4. Identify action words to describe each job and further condense each job description into one sentence. 5. Format the experience section of your chorological résumé.

Write the Skill Section for Your Functional Résumé A functional résumé is useful as it presents your skills in light of your experience. Translate your experiences into skills, as follows: 1. List the skills that employers value (see the beginning of this chapter). 2. Review the list of jobs and duties generated in item 1. Brainstorm the various skills that you used in completing the duties for each of your jobs. 3. Look for patterns in your skills. Are some used more than others? Explain. 4. Choose several main skills to promote in your functional résumé. Consider the skills employers value. 5. Create the skill section of your functional résumé by listing each skill, then the place you developed it and your duties (how you developed and demonstrated it).

Suggested Reading Bolles, R. N. (2018). What color is your parachute? A practical manual for jobhunters and career-changers. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press.

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Kuther, T. L. (2020). The psychology major’s handbook (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Landrum, R. E. (2009). Finding jobs with a psychology bachelor’s degree: Expert advice for launching your career. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Morgan, B. L., & Korschgen, A. J. (2014). Majoring in psych? Career options for psychology undergraduates. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Reeves, E. G. (2009). Can I wear my nose ring to the interview? A crash course in finding, landing, and keeping your first real job. New York, NY: Workman Publishing Company.

Resources CareerBuilder http://www.careerbuilder.com College Grad Job Hunter http://www.collegegrad.com/ LinkedIn http://linkedin.com

14 Graduate-Level Careers in Psychology Psychologists as Professors What Professors Do Training Evaluating Careers as Professors Psychologists as Researchers Research Careers in Academia Research Careers in Industry Research Careers in Government

T

Research Careers in Social Service Agencies, Nonprofits, and Think Tanks Publishing and Writing Careers in Publishing Writer Checklist 14.1: Is a Graduate Career in Psychology for You? Exercise 14.1: Interesting Careers in Psychological Science Suggested Reading Resources

hroughout this book we have discussed career options for graduate degree holders in specific subdisciplines of psychology, such as clinical, counseling, social, experimental, and developmental psychology. Some career options are appropriate for psychologists of all subdisciplines. In this chapter, we examine teaching, research, and writing careers. As is true throughout this book, you are by no means limited to the careers we summarize here.

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Psychologists as Professors Aside from the therapist, perhaps the most familiar career path for those with graduate degrees in psychology is that of the college professor. Professors have the opportunity to share information they find fascinating with their students. Psychologists work as professors in a variety of academic departments of psychology and schools of education. Psychologists also are professors outside of psychology departments, sometimes in places you might never have imagined. Psychologists who are trained in industrial/organizational psychology, human factors psychology, or social psychology might work in business schools and within departments of engineering. Psychologists trained in clinical, health, or developmental psychology and neuroscience might work as professors in medical schools.

What Professors Do Expectations and activities of professors vary by institution. There are several types of colleges and universities, each with different expectations. For example, 2-year community colleges tend to focus heavily on teaching, with few requirements to engage in research. In these settings, faculty often teach five courses per semester, leaving little time to conduct research or engage in scholarly writing. Performance evaluations of faculty in community colleges are based on teaching and service to the community. Liberal arts colleges also emphasize teaching and contact with students. Faculty often teach three courses each semester and are expected to have scholarly contacts with students in and out of the classroom. Faculty are expected to incorporate students into their research programs and work closely with students on research projects, publishing jointly when appropriate. Teaching, however, is the top priority and therefore research is often viewed as pedagogy, a tool for teaching. At the other extreme of community and liberal arts colleges are research universities. Research universities are large schools with prestigious graduate programs where faculty teach only one to two courses per semester and focus heavily on research. Because they are judged on their reputations as scholars, teaching contributes less to their professional advancement. Many 4-year universities fall somewhere between the two extremes and encourage faculty to engage in both research and teaching. As you can see, even within academia there are several career tracks for psychologist-professors. Despite the different types of institutions, all academic careers share certain features. As you consider a career as a professor, recognize that there is more to the professorate than lecturing in front of a classroom. Before a professor steps into the classroom, a great deal of time and effort has gone into preparation. Each lecture requires background reading of chapters and journal articles in addition to the text, note taking, and preparation of PowerPoint presentations, activities, and discussion questions. This work is never complete, because even

242  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future experienced professors must update their notes to remain current with the ever-changing field. Professors who teach three, four, or even five courses per semester may find that preparation takes all of their time, especially in the early years of a career. A professor’s teaching activities extend beyond the classroom to include grading, writing letters of recommendation for students, meeting with students to answer questions and discuss course content and professional issues, and advising students on career choices. In addition to teaching, professorial careers entail many roles, usually including research and service to the campus and community (such as advising, committee work, or administrative work). During a typical week, professors often divide their time among multiple research tasks, including writing an article or book, conducting statistical analyses, planning research, writing grant proposals, searching the literature, reading research articles, meeting with student research assistants, advising students on their research, and preparing or giving talks at professional meetings. Professors also must spend time serving the university and community. They participate in faculty meetings as well as some of the many committees that administer and run the university. Some faculty engage in consulting work or serve as consultants and advisors for ­community agencies.

Training Many students seek a graduate degree in order to teach in a college or university setting. With a master’s degree, it is possible to become a community college professor. However, faculty positions at community colleges have become more competitive in recent years; many are held by psychologists with doctoral degrees. Similarly, although master’s degree holders may be hired to teach at 4-year colleges on a part-time basis, they are unlikely to be hired for full-time positions. If your goal is to teach at the college level, it’s in your best interest to pursue a doctoral degree that will provide you with the most opportunities for employment, mobility, and advancement as a faculty member. An additional aspect of training that may not be covered in graduate school, but is necessary for success as a professor, is training in pedagogy. Pedagogy refers to the art of teaching. Successful professors master the techniques of their trade and learn how to compose lectures; lead discussions; create syllabi; enhance student learning through effective use of the whiteboard, PowerPoint presentations, and other technology; and model best practices for interacting with students and handling disagreements. We hope you have experienced a professor who made the course material “come to life” and whose class you looked forward to attending. Such skill comes with work and effort. Good teachers are made, not born. If you’re interested in becoming a professor, seek a graduate program that helps to prepare students for the teaching aspects of the professorate. Many graduate programs present seminars or courses in how to teach. Preparing

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Future Faculty, a program designed to prepare aspiring academics for the variety of teaching, research, and service roles entailed in the professorate, has also created a wealth of resources and a website (http://www.preparing-faculty .org). As a graduate student, seek practical experience as a teaching assistant or adjunct professor at your university or a nearby college. You can also volunteer to teach a class or two for your primary instructors or for instructors teaching courses in your area of interest. Most importantly, find a mentor in graduate school who can help you with these essential aspects of training.

Evaluating Careers as Professors There are many advantages to the professorate, but perhaps the greatest advantages are academic freedom and the autonomy and flexibility of academic life. Academic freedom means that professors are intellectually free; they may conduct whatever research interests them and may “teach the truth as they see it” (Vesilind, 2000, p. 10). In other words, professors decide on the best methods to teach their courses. Texts, reading assignments, grading, and evaluation procedures are often up to the professor. Aside from class time, professors’ schedules tend to be flexible. Most develop work habits that fit their lives, allowing time to pick up children from school, spend time with their families, and complete preparation and writing in the late evenings or early mornings. Another advantage is tenure, a permanent job contract, typically offered after a probationary period of 6 or 7 years. Tenure provides complete academic freedom because it prevents professors from being fired for airing unpopular views or pursuing controversial research. Professors with documented teaching histories, excellent student evaluations, publications, campus committee work, and outreach to the community earn tenure and its associated job security. The professorate also offers intangible benefits, such as the excitement of discovery and innovation, as well as the rewards of imparting knowledge and introducing students to a life of the mind. The disadvantages of the academic life are related to the scarcity of academic positions. According to the Occupational Outlook Handbook, positions in postsecondary education are expected to increase faster than the average through 2026 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). However, the academic job market is very competitive. Despite the expected increases, there are many more applicants than available positions. Some applicants spend several years in the job market, working in postdoctoral research, in 1-year instructor appointments, or in adjunct positions (teaching part-time, often in several colleges at once). The most successful applicants do not limit their job search to one specific geographical location but are prepared to relocate for work. Applicants also cannot afford to limit themselves to positions in psychology departments, but must consider academic positions in other departments, medical schools, and business schools. Once a position is obtained, new professors juggle many demands. In addition to teaching loads and service responsibilities, most new

244  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future faculty are expected to begin a research program that is independent of their graduate school advisor. Faculty may experience pressure to win grants to fund their research and to publish in reputable journals. Salaries for professors vary with experience and by type of institution, as shown in Table 14.1. Many of the advantages and disadvantages of a career in academic research, discussed next, apply to professors.

Psychologists as Researchers A graduate degree in psychology offers many opportunities for careers in research. Most of the careers in this book include some research activity, such as generating hypotheses or identifying problems, gathering information, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. Some psychologists work specifically as researchers. Research psychologists conduct basic and applied studies of human and animal behavior. They conduct research in universities, government agencies, private organizations, and businesses and corporations. Let’s take a look at the variety of settings in which psychologists conduct research.

Research Careers in Academia Many psychologists work in university settings as research scientists, conducting basic and applied research. For example, a research scientist might study how neurotransmitters affect learning in rats. Another research psychologist might design a research program to examine smoking cessation. Her basic research might explore the environmental factors that help or

TABLE 14.1  ●  M  edian Salaries for Tenured/Tenure-Track Psychology Faculty by Academic Rank and Institution Type, 2017–2018

All Institutions

Private Independent Institutions

Private Religious Institutions

Public Institutions

Professor

$88,977

$99,637

$84,827

$88,906

Associate Professor

$71,586

$76,818

$66,507

$72,162

Assistant Professor

$62,031

$66,625

$59,319

$72,162

Source: Christidis et al. (2018).

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hinder quitting smoking. She might conduct applied research as well, developing and evaluating school-based programs to prevent smoking in children. Medical schools are also an employment setting for research psychologists, who work on multidisciplinary teams addressing health problems in people of all ages. Interdisciplinary study and the merging of scientific fields such as anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, and microbiology have led to research opportunities for psychologists outside of psychology departments. Research scientists gain independence and autonomy as they progress in their careers. By writing and winning research grants, research scientists are able to fund and study problems of their choosing. With advancement, research scientists take on supervisory roles, run their own labs, and train graduate and postdoctoral students. There are also opportunities for travel and contact with the public through speaking at conferences, consulting, and writing for the popular press. A disadvantage of a research career in academia, similar to a teaching career, is the competition. Applicants may need to be geographically mobile and able to relocate for available positions. In addition, publishing research is a competitive process. Another consideration is that many researchers find that they must “publish or perish.” Publish or perish means publish many articles in prestigious journals or lose your job! As you might imagine, the pressure to publish—to churn out high-quality research that makes new discoveries—is challenging and stressful. Some researchers are funded by “soft money,” meaning that their salary is paid partially or in full by grants. Their success in writing and winning research grants funds their work and their salaries. The responsibility of securing one’s salary through grants is stressful because funding is uncertain and relies on factors outside of one’s control, such as the availability of grant funding and the quality of competing grant proposals. Many researchers may spend evenings in the lab or at the computer preparing grants, completing research, or writing research results for publication. Once completed, however, the sense of accomplishment, contribution to the field, and seeing one’s name in print are benefits of a research career. Many of these stresses and rewards are also experienced by professors whose positions include research responsibilities.

Research Careers in Industry A rapidly increasing number of psychologists conduct applied research in business and industry settings. Many of the graduate-level careers throughout this book entail applying research skills to business and real-world settings. It is impossible to list all of the job titles appropriate for research psychologists. Our advice is for you to consider the skill set rather than the job title. Psychologists in business might conduct surveys of consumer opinion. Others who work for pharmaceutical companies might test the effectiveness of drugs or work as statisticians, analyzing the data from a variety of research projects. Psychologists in

246  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future industry design and test products for human use. For example, a psychologist might design a car’s dashboard to allow drivers the ability to easily reach the displays and knobs while viewing the road. Or a psychologist might design a computer monitor to reduce glare and eyestrain. A career in industry is different from academia because in industry the focus is on promoting the success of the company. The goal is to create products that benefit the company, employees, and shareholders. Research takes place at a faster pace in industry than in academia because information must be gathered quickly to help create and sell products. Teams conduct the research, enabling greater productivity. In addition, psychologists in business and industry settings tend to have access to more funding than do those in academia, often permitting them to work with newer and more sophisticated equipment. Research also progresses quickly in industry because publication is usually not part of the research cycle. Once the results of a study are completed and implemented into the business, you can move on to the next study. A possible drawback of conducting research in business and industry is that your research questions are informed by the needs of the company, not necessarily your interests. A benefit of working in industry is the contact with people of diverse fields and educational backgrounds. Other benefits are the high salaries and regular work schedule; in business and industry, your weekends generally are your own.

Research Careers in Government Although research psychologists engage in similar activities regardless of work setting, whether universities, industry, or government, the three settings differ in terms of the autonomy afforded researchers. As with researchers in industry, those employed by the government and military usually examine research questions not conceived by them. Instead, researchers in government examine questions that are created by politicians and policy-makers, designed to promote the security and well-being of the American people. As Copper (1997) points out, The critical aspect of working in a public-policy environment is that many people can be directly affected by decisions over a very long period of time. Therefore, the research questions and hypotheses are often more complex, sensitive, and require much broader data collection efforts and greater coordination with staff from federal branch agencies and the private sector. An advantage of a research career in government is that you’ll be exposed to many different projects. Unlike academia, where researchers spend a career focused on a particular research problem or area, research psychologists in government work on a diverse range of projects and become generalists. Most research projects initiated by the government are short in duration because the

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research is intended to help resolve practical problems. Also, shifts in public opinion and interest lead political leaders to eliminate some projects and initiate new ones. Whether this is an advantage or disadvantage perhaps depends on your interest in the project. If you’re interested in a research career in government, be prepared to engage in lots of supervisory work because contractors conduct much of the hands-on work under supervision by government researchers. This enables government researchers to work on multiple projects at once and not become overly involved in any one project. Like industry, government research involves working on a team, because the research topics that the government is interested in are applied in nature, requiring creativity and planning by an interdisciplinary team of researchers consisting of psychologists, sociologists, statisticians, computer scientists, economists, and others.

Research Careers in Social Service Agencies, Nonprofits, and Think Tanks Research psychologists employed at social service agencies, nonprofits, and think tanks conduct research to gather information about social problems and policies; assess and improve programs for children, youth, and families; and write reports and other documents to inform policy-makers and the public. Social service agencies, nonprofits, and think tanks are often contracted by the government to conduct policy analyses, literature reviews, and research to improve decision-making by political leaders and consumers. A psychologist at such an agency might examine the effectiveness of new drug-control interventions like mandatory minimum sanctions, residential and group home treatments for youthful offenders identified as drug users, and school-based prevention programs. Other psychologists might study ways of preventing adolescent pregnancy or how to increase the prevalence of girls and underrepresented minorities in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics at all levels of education. Researchers at educational nonprofit organizations such as the Educational Testing Service might study ways of accommodating standardized test takers with disabilities. The primary benefit of working for social service agencies, nonprofits, and think tanks is that your time is focused on research that may lead to social change. Such agencies tend to conduct interdisciplinary research, enabling research psychologists to work with a diverse range of specialists from other fields. Although the salaries at nonprofits and social service agencies tend to be lower than in other research settings, the research often directly benefits consumers and families. Bachelor’s degree holders may obtain research assistant positions in any of these research environments discussed. Opportunities for advancement, however, come with graduate degrees. Many research positions are available to master’s degree holders, especially in industry, government, nonprofits, and social service agencies. In academic settings, the doctoral degree offers the

248  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future most flexibility, opportunities for advancement, and opportunities to serve as the primary investigator of federal grants. Research psychologists in academia often obtain 2 to 3 years of postdoctoral training after obtaining the doctoral degree. To be competitive for research positions within academic and nonacademic settings, hone your skills in research methods and statistics. As shown in Table 14.2, median salaries for research positions vary by setting and activity.

Publishing and Writing Publishing and the media offer new career opportunities for students of psychology. Some psychologists pursue careers in publishing as acquisitions editors and development editors. Others become science writers for print, Internet, radio, and television.

Careers in Publishing Many graduate degree holders find careers in publishing, especially for textbook publishers. Publishing generally is an apprenticeship field, so most successful editors begin in entry-level positions and work their way up. Many begin as assistants to acquisitions editors (we’ll talk more about acquisitions

TABLE 14.2  ●  M  edian 2015 Salary for Research Psychologists, by Setting Setting

Median Salary

Educational institution (all)

$68,000

Public

$80,000

Private

$50,000

Government

$90,000

Private sector (all)

$130,000

For profit

$132,000

Private

$125,000

Self-employed

$100,000

All Source: Christidis et al. (2017).

$95,048

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editors in a moment) or sales representatives who ensure that every customer (professor or bookstore) is informed of the publisher’s book offerings. Sales representatives are often on the road, traveling to their customers, sales conferences, and professional conferences, where they market books. With time, some sales representatives gain the experience and contacts to become acquisitions editors. An acquisitions editor is responsible for acquiring books for a publishing company. The job entails a variety of tasks, including reading book proposals, making decisions about the financial viability of proposals and whether to offer book contracts to authors, ensuring the quality of proposals and completed manuscripts by getting reviews from specialists in the field, interpreting reviews, approaching potential authors with book ideas, attending conferences to meet potential authors and reviewers, and discussing works-in-progress with authors. The acquisitions editor often oversees all stages of the publication process, including contract negotiation, promotional planning, manuscript delivery, and financial planning. The position is appropriate for individuals who like the messiness of problem solving in the real world and have broad interests, because acquisitions editors often oversee manuscripts in multiple subfields, not just the ones in which they have extensive training. Large publishing houses often include more senior editorial positions, such as senior acquisitions editor. Salary information is difficult to obtain, but surveys of over 200 editors suggest a mean salary of about $60,000 for editors and about $90,000 for senior editors (Glassdoor.com, 2018). With a graduate degree in psychology and writing experience, you might consider a position as a development editor. A development editor handles the day-to-day work of coordinating and editing manuscripts for large publishing projects such as psychology textbooks. The development editor is involved in all aspects of developing a textbook, beginning with the early stages of conceptual and structural planning before and as the author writes. Development editors often nurture authors through the writing process. Some focus solely on the written manuscript. Others coordinate the artwork, writing style, and preparation of supplements or ancillaries (large textbooks may include instructor’s manuals, student study guides, test banks, websites, and more). As online textbooks and course materials become more common, new editorial titles and roles, such as content development editor, have emerged. Content development editors develop and manage ancillary and digital content for books and other publications. Digital resources include interactive e-books, assessments (e.g., test banks, quizzes, remediation), PowerPoint slides, various types of video, interactive media, online activities and simulations, web resources, journal articles, and study tools. A content development editor might plan and oversee creation of video clips to accompany books and oversee the various freelancers needed to complete these parts. They may oversee development editors, or sometimes take on the development editor role. During

250  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future production, they monitor projects’ workflow and quality by attending to page proofs (or drafts of the final design), art, user testing, and functionality. In addition to editorial and sales positions, publishing houses are also a source for marketing jobs, such as those discussed in Chapter 11. Positions in publishing offer opportunities for psychology degree holders at all levels who have interests in writing and the ability to think critically and problem solve effectively. Entry-level opportunities for bachelor’s degree holders usually carry the title of “assistant.” Applicants with graduate degrees and editorial skill may be hired to more advanced positions in editorial departments. Individuals who seek careers in publishing must be able to juggle multiple tasks, meet budgets, and cope with the pressure of deadlines. Generally, editorial careers are predicted to show little to no change through 2026 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). A survey of about 100 employees suggests an average salary of about $50,000 for development editors and about $70,000 for senior editors (Glassdoor.com, 2018). Editorial careers are also found outside of publishing houses. Most large companies communicate to customers and investors through newsletters, blogs, and other publications. A communications editor coordinates a company’s publications. He or she might write, prepare, and review articles to be posted in a publication or online. Communications editors coordinate with several departments to gather information for newsletters. They confirm facts, edit articles, and oversee details such as editorial standards, typeface, article length, layout, and distribution. According to Salary.com (2018), communications editors earned an average salary of about $70,000 in 2018.

Writer There are many types of writing careers. Graduate degree holders might work as technical writers, science writers, grant writers, and in public relations. A technical writer translates large amounts of information into useful and easily digested forms for specialized readers. Technical writers create user guides, repair manuals, online help files, and reference manuals for new products, computer software, hardware, and toys. Technical writers must be able to explain complex phenomena for general readers. Scientific training is preparation for a career in technical writing because researchers must describe methods and procedures in detail in research reports and articles. A survey of nearly 5,000 technical writers suggested an average salary of about $74,000 (Glassdoor.com, 2018). Other science writing positions are found in public relations. Universities, medical centers, hospitals, and other institutions where research is conducted have a public information officer and writers prepare press releases to distribute to the media and report on faculty research findings and events at the institution. They contribute to institutional publications and alumni magazines. Public information officers may monitor news and media trends and suggest faculty,

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researchers, and other employees to comment and offer expert opinions. They act as liaisons between journalists and the institution’s staff. In 2018, the average salary for a public information officer was about $55,000 (PayScale, 2018). Some writers work in research or human services settings as grant writers. Grant writers seek research funding to support an organization’s activities. They consult with researchers and administrative staff to determine funding needs and goals. They research sources of funding and write proposals. When an organization’s researchers or staff prepare a grant proposal, the grant writer may assemble the pieces and check for style, accuracy, formatting, grammar, and spelling. They monitor the proposal process and ensure that funders’ policies and legal requirements are followed during the proposal process. Grant writers earn a mean salary of about $63,000 (Salary.com, 2018). Medical writers work with a medical research team. They report on research conducted by the team. They research, write, and edit reports summarizing study protocols and findings and summarize data from clinical studies to report to the Food and Drug Administration and other regulatory bodies. An average starting salary for a master’s-level medical writer is about $65,000 (Salary.com, 2018). Some psychologists engage in science writing as staff members and freelancers for newspapers, magazines, Internet, radio, and television. They learn about scientific findings and translate them accurately into a form that will interest the general reader. Science writing requires omnivorous reading of newspapers, books, reports, journals, and Internet news groups to look for story ideas. Writers attend scientific conventions, interview scientists, and regularly check in with laboratories, factories, hospitals, universities, and government agencies for breaking news and interesting stories. Science writing offers an opportunity to write about science without becoming immersed in the lab, focusing on one specific area of research, or being confined to the stilted and formal academic style of writing. Individuals with broad scientific interests who love learning, are fluent writers, and like challenges are well suited to careers in science writing. However, science writing is a highly competitive field. Writers must be able to juggle multiple stories at once, meet deadlines, and deal well with criticism (no thin skins allowed!). Freelancers must be prepared to pay for their own benefits, save for retirement, and weather ups and downs in work. If you’re interested in a writing career, seek opportunities to publish in nonacademic publications. Write for the university newspaper, local organizations, or any other sources to earn writing clips. Clips, or clippings of your published articles, are your ticket to a writing career. Understand that science writing is very different from the academic writing that you learned in college or graduate school. Aspiring science writers should seek training opportunities such as media fellowships, internships (often unpaid), and science journalism programs to gain excellent training, sources of networking contacts, and clips. A graduate degree in psychology opens doors to a variety of careers for individuals with diverse interests ranging from therapy to research, teaching to publishing, and more. Remember that the advice in this chapter is offered as a

252  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future first step. Seek assistance from your advisor and the career center at your university to help you learn more so that you can choose career goals that match your interests and aspirations.

CHECKLIST 14.1 IS A GRADUATE CAREER IN PSYCHOLOGY FOR YOU? Do you: ❑ Want to teach college? ❑ Think you would enjoy a career interacting with students? ❑ Like to challenge others? ❑ Think broadly and have a unique ability to apply psychology to many different fields? ❑ Have an interest in applying psychology to a nonpsychology career? ❑ Like to write? ❑ Think quickly on your feet? ❑ Enjoy giving presentations and speeches? ❑ Enjoy research? ❑ Think analytically? ❑ Want to work for an agency or the government? ❑ Want to have a career with flexible hours? ❑ Want to attend graduate school? Scoring: The more boxes you checked, the more likely it is that a graduatelevel career in psychology is for you.

EXERCISE 14.1 INTERESTING CAREERS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE The American Psychological Association has amassed a collection of articles by psychologists who describe their careers in a wide range of settings. Visit

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the APA page Interesting Careers in Psychological Science (http://www.apa .org/science/resources/careers/) or Non-Academic Careers (https://www .apa.org/careers/resources/profiles/index.aspx) and choose a specific career. 1. Describe the psychologist’s position. What are his or her job and duties? 2. In what field of psychology did the author specialize? 3. What experience and education led the author to enter this career? 4. What advice do you glean from the article?

Suggested Reading Allen, M. A. (2018). Starting your career as a freelance writer. New York, NY: Allworth Press. Davis, S. F., Giordano, P. J., & Licht, C. A. (2009). Your career in psychology: Putting your graduate degree to work. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. Heard, S. B. (2016). The scientist’s guide to writing: How to write more easily and effectively throughout your scientific career. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Helms, J. L., & Rogers, D. T. (2012). Majoring in psychology: Achieving your educational and career goals (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. Iding, M. K., & Thomas, R. M. (2015). Becoming a professor: A guide to a career in higher education. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Siegfried, C. (2014). The insider’s guide to a career in book publishing. Charlotte, NC: Chickadee Books. Sternberg, R. J. (2017). Career paths in psychology: Where your degree can take you (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Urban, J. B., & Linver, M. R. (2018). Building a career outside academia: A guide for doctoral students in the behavioral and social sciences. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Yager, J. (2009). Career opportunities in the publishing industry. New York, NY: Checkmark Books.

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Resources A Guide to Careers in Science Writing http://casw.org/booklet.htm AAAS Science: Careers https://www.sciencemag.org/careers American Psychological Association: Preparing Diverse Students for Academic Careers (Podcasts and Video Clips) https://www.apa.org/apags/governance/subcommittees/academic-career.aspx Office of Teaching Resources in Psychology http://teachpsych.org/otrp/index.php Preparing Future Faculty http://www.preparing-faculty.org/ Society for the Teaching of Psychology http://teachpsych.org/

15 Getting Into Graduate School in Psychology Is Graduate School Right for You? Can You Afford Graduate Study? Are You Prepared for the Personal Demands of Graduate Study? Plan Ahead for Graduate School Degrees in Psychology: MA, PhD, and PsyD Master’s Degree Doctoral Degrees Selecting Graduate Programs The Application Graduate Record Exam: General Test

GRE Psychology Test Admissions Essays Curriculum Vitae Letters of Recommendation Interview Interview Prep Skype Interviews Checklist 15.1: Is Graduate School for You? Exercise 15.1: Your Personal Timeline for Applying to Graduate School Suggested Reading Resources

I

f you’re like most psychology students, the possibility of attending graduate school has probably crossed your mind, even for just a moment. Yet, as we have discussed, most people with bachelor’s degrees in psychology enter the workforce immediately after graduation. Graduate study is not a prerequisite for a fulfilling career. A graduate degree is not necessary to help people, use your research skills, or apply your understanding of psychology in a career

255

256  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future setting. Only about 20% to 25% of new bachelor’s degree recipients enter graduate school, but that figure rises 43% over the course of their careers (Doran, Kraha, Marks, Ameen, & El-Ghoroury, 2016). In this chapter we discuss the process of applying to graduate school and how to compile an effective graduate school application.

Is Graduate School Right for You? Why do students seek graduate degrees? Perhaps the most important reason for graduate study is to satisfy a thirst for knowledge about human behavior. Successful graduate students have a love of learning and thrive on discovery. Many students consider attending graduate school to become therapists and work one-on-one with clients. If you would like to work with people, recall that we have discussed lots of alternatives to a doctoral degree in psychology (and some are preferable for reasons of time and expense). Some students choose graduate study to avoid job hunting in a challenging market. Others believe that a graduate degree equates to a high salary. These reasons are not likely to sustain you through the years it takes to earn a degree and, if you complete the degree, may lead to disappointment. Think carefully about your reasons for attending graduate school and, especially, what you hope to do with your graduate degree. Questioning your intentions is important in order to make a decision that you can live with for the next 2 to 7 years or longer. Below are some considerations in determining whether graduate study is right for you.

Can You Afford Graduate Study? Without a doubt, higher education is expensive, and most people find that graduate study is more expensive than their undergraduate degrees. The 2015– 2016 median annual graduate school tuition was about $18,000 ($11,000 for public institutions and $24,000 for private institutions) (National Center for Education Statistics, 2017a). Room and board, books, supplies, and fees are additional expenditures. One of the costs that many students don’t consider is the loss of income from full-time employment. Many full-time graduate programs frown on—or even prohibit—outside employment. Part-time students often find it difficult to juggle employment and their studies. Dealing with the loss of income—or delay of earning an income—is often easier for students who attend graduate school right out of college, but this is an expense related to graduate study that you should consider. For example, a student who chooses a 4-year graduate program over a full-time job with a salary of $40,000 per year forfeits $160,000 of earned income to attend graduate school. Most graduate students carry debt after graduation. A recent study of early career psychologists revealed that PsyD recipients are the most likely to carry debt (91%), compared with 77% of PhD recipients in the practice fields and 63% of PhD recipients in research fields (Doran et al., 2016). PsyD recipients

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also carried the most debt ($146,000, on average), followed by PhD practitioners ($80,000) and PhD academics and researchers ($63,000). Despite these differences in debt, this sample of about 600 early career psychologists earned similar starting salaries ($62,000 for PsyD practitioners, $65,000 for PhD practitioners, and $63,000 for PhD researchers). Whether to pursue graduate study is a decision with lifelong financial repercussions.

Are You Prepared for the Personal Demands of Graduate Study? The academic demands of graduate study are easy to predict and include conducting library and Internet research, writing lengthy papers, completing multiple statistics and research methods courses, and conducting research under the supervision of a mentor, as an assistant, and independently. Satisfying these demands requires a distinct set of personal qualities. Motivation is perhaps the most obvious quality needed for success in graduate school. Do you have a strong desire to learn? Are you a self-starter? Successful graduate students are self-reliant, disciplined, committed, and intellectually curious. Success in graduate school and beyond also relies on strong interpersonal skills. Can you receive and respond appropriately to critical feedback? Can you give constructive criticism? Graduate students may supervise other students in conducting research. Skills in communication and collaboration are essential. Successful graduate students are socially skilled, are able to work well with others, and are good at managing their own emotions. A less obvious, but essential, quality necessary to succeed in graduate school is the ability to tolerate ambiguity and to manage uncertainty. The nature of knowledge is often uncertain. Research uncovers new information that can challenge existing views. Sometimes the results of research are not clear. Often psychologists must make treatment decisions with incomplete information. Can you live with ambiguity? Can you progress through several years of education without knowing your ultimate career? Success in graduate school relies largely on self-management skills. Are you organized? Can you concentrate your attention at will? Do you manage your time well? Can you delay gratification, such as put off socializing until after a paper is complete? Don’t underestimate the value of time management, emotional regulation skills, and self-management in succeeding in graduate school. As you mull your options, include the people close to you in your decision. Discuss your reasons for graduate study, your career goals, and the challenges of graduate study with your advisor, other faculty, family, and friends. Be honest about your goals and what it truly takes to meet them. Choose the level of education—whether bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral degree—that offers the training and coursework to prepare you for the career to which you aspire. Finally, if you are considering graduate school, remember that you don’t have to attend graduate school right away. In one national sample of clinical psychology PhD

258  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future students, nearly two-thirds of current graduate students postponed their studies after completing their undergraduate degree; only 33% went directly into a doctoral program (Zimak et al., 2011). In addition, students who postponed entry to graduate school reported greater satisfaction with graduate education.

Plan Ahead for Graduate School Many students do not begin to consider their postundergraduate lives until late in their college career. However, if you think graduate school may be in your future, plan ahead because graduate admissions are very competitive. About 48% of applicants gain admission to master’s programs and only about 13% to doctoral programs (Michalski, Cope, & Fowler, 2017). Preparing to apply to graduate school is not simply about assembling paperwork—it’s about obtaining experience. If you think that graduate school might be in your future—even if you’re not entirely sure—prepare. Take a conservative approach to ensure that you don’t prematurely close doors. The content of your graduate school admissions application takes years to create, so begin early, even while you are still considering whether to apply to graduate school. What should you do to prepare for graduate school? Consider the criteria that faculty find important. In one recent survey, graduate departments of psychology rated applicants’ goals, recommendation letters, and GPA of high importance and research, GRE scores, and the interview of medium importance in evaluating applicants (Michalski et al., 2017). The match between the applicant’s interests and goals and that of the program’s goals and specifically whether a member(s) of the selection committee is interested in working with a particular applicant determines an applicant’s fate. Faculty are interested in the students who will benefit most from their program, who are interested in their work, and who will be competent research assistants. Research experience is another important criterion for success in gaining admission to graduate school, especially research that results in conference presentations and publications. Many students focus on grades, but GPA and standardized test scores are important in different ways than students often believe. Typically the question with regard to grades and test scores is whether they are good enough: Do they make the cut? Frequently grades and test scores are used as cutoff criteria to weed applicants out. This is particularly true in graduate programs that receive a large number of applications, such as clinical PhD programs, which can receive hundreds of applications for a handful of slots. The files of applicants who do not make the cut don’t make it to the admissions committee and are never viewed. The wide range of skills and experiences valued by graduate programs take time to develop. Begin early. If you ultimately decide that graduate school is not for you, you’ll be well-educated and have marketable skills. Chapter 2 provides advice on how to obtain these skills and get useful experiences.

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Degrees in Psychology: MA, PhD, and PsyD We referred to the different graduate degrees throughout this book. What degree is right for you? Lots of misinformation circulates about graduate study and the various graduate degrees. In this section, we briefly explore the different types of graduate degrees that a psychology student may pursue.

Master’s Degree Psychology students often hear less about graduate programs at the master’s than doctoral level. However, more psychology students earn master’s degrees (nearly 28,000 in 2015–2016) than doctorates (about 6,500 in 2015–2016) (National Center for Education Statistics, 2017b). A master’s degree typically requires 2 years of full-time study. Master’s degrees in service-oriented fields such as clinical, counseling, and school psychology usually include additional practical experience in an applied setting. Most master’s degree programs require a master’s thesis based on a research project; however, some programs offer alternatives to the research thesis in the form of qualifying examinations, or a written project. There are many different types of master’s degrees—the most common are the MA (master of arts) and MS (master of science). What’s the difference between an MA and an MS? The letters MA and MS seldom indicate any great difference in program curricula. Whether a university offers the MA or MS degree depends on the policies of the university, not the characteristics of the program. Many students are unaware that the MA and MS degree are interchangeable and become needlessly concerned that the one set of letters (MA or MS) is better or worse than the other. This also holds true at the undergraduate level; BA and BS degrees are usually indistinguishable in terms of content. What can you do with a master’s degree? Depending on the program and curriculum, a master’s degree enables graduates to do the following: (1) teach psychology in high school (other certification may be needed) and junior colleges, (2) become more competitive for jobs in government and industry, and (3) practice psychology or counseling (with the title and degree of supervision varying by state). About two-dozen states permit master’s degree recipients in psychology to practice under titles such as psychological associate, licensed psychological practitioner, and psychological examiner (North American Association of Masters in Psychology, 2011). In addition, every state permits master’s-level counselors to be licensed to practice, but states differ in specific requirements and the titles administered to master’s-level practitioners. If you’re considering a master’s in clinical or counseling psychology with the intention of setting up an independent practice, plan on seeking licensure as a professional counselor. Carefully research your options beforehand because requirements for licensure as counselors vary by state. Pay attention to requirements such

260  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future as specific coursework, examinations, and the number of supervised hours in practice settings. Do your homework so that you get the experiences you need for your chosen field and you’re not disappointed later. In 2018, the average salary of master’s-level psychology clinicians was $87,000 (Salary.com, 2018). As we have discussed, master’s degree recipients in research-oriented fields such as quantitative psychology, developmental psychology, general psychology, and experimental psychology develop methodological and quantitative skills as well as content knowledge that aids their employment in research positions in university research centers, government agencies, businesses, and private organizations. Some master’s degree programs serve as springboards to doctoral programs. If you plan to obtain a doctoral degree but some of your undergraduate credentials prohibit your acceptance to your desired doctoral programs, 2 years at a reputable and rigorous (meaning it requires the completion of a research thesis) master’s degree program may elevate your credentials to succeed in your doctoral application. In fact, many students may not be serious about psychology until their junior or senior years of college and may not have the GPA or research experience desired by doctoral programs. One of the authors of this book experienced this dilemma and this route allowed him entry to doctoral study.

Doctoral Degrees Graduate programs in psychology follow one of three basic models of training. Choose a program whose model best fits with your interests, because most psychologists engage in the same type of activities that they experienced in their graduate program of study.

Research-Scientist Model (PhD) Programs that follow a research-scientist model focus on molding students into scholars who will make new discoveries and advance the knowledge in their field. From a historical perspective, this was the first training model to emerge because it characterizes the emphasis of the PhD, or doctor of philosophy degree. Most of your college professors hold this degree; it is conferred in nearly all academic fields. The PhD in psychology provides training in experimental methods, methodological skill, and a background in a particular specialty area (such as cognitive or social psychology). Individuals trained in the research-scientist model conduct original research, teach, and write about their research findings, typically in the core academic areas of psychology such as experimental, social and personality, quantitative, physiological, and developmental psychology. PhD recipients tend to be employed as researchers or college and university professors and some work as consultants or conduct research for the government or corporations.

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Scientist-Practitioner Model (PhD) Programs adopting the scientist-practitioner model seek to train scholars who integrate their research training with human service. Graduates engage in practice activities and conduct basic and applied research. This model is commonly found in PhD programs in clinical, counseling, school, and industrial psychology. Similar to the research-scientist model, students trained in the scientist-practitioner model receive training in research and methodology; but they take more courses in applied areas and complete more internships and practica than do students trained in the research-scientist model. Graduates trained in the scientist-practitioner model may be employed by hospitals and clinical practices, teach in colleges and universities, practice in medical centers and mental health centers, work in industry and government, and may own private practices. The extent to which a particular psychologist engages in each of these activities depends on his or her job setting and commitment to research; many practicing clinicians do little to no research.

Professional Psychologist-Practitioner Model (PsyD) Graduate programs that adopt the professional psychologist-practitioner model train students to provide psychological services and award the PsyD, a practitioner degree that emphasizes clinical training or the practitioner model of training. The PsyD and the practitioner model of training place greater emphasis on clinical practice than in the scientist-practitioner model, and much less emphasis on research. PsyD programs train students to be consumers of research rather than producers of it. PsyD programs tend to be larger than PhD programs and accept more students, so your chances of acceptance are much higher. For example, acceptance rates for PhD programs in clinical psychology fall somewhere between 9% and 13%, compared with about 30% of PsyD programs (Kohout & Wicherski, 2010; Michalski et al., 2017). The PsyD degree is often offered at private or professional schools and is generally more expensive than a PhD. Most funding for PhD students comes from faculty research grants. Because little research is conducted in PsyD programs, there are fewer opportunities for funding. PsyD students earn their degrees a little quicker yet they usually graduate with more debt than do PhD students. Practice-oriented students often find the curricula of professional programs to be better aligned with their own interests and career aspirations than those of traditional scientist-practitioner programs. Some psychologists are skeptical about the PsyD because acceptance rates are high, quality varies, students may have difficulty obtaining American Psychological Association (APA) accredited internships (more on APA accreditation later in this chapter), and PsyD students graduate with substantially more debt than PhD students. If you’re interested in practicing psychology and do not want to teach in a university

262  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future setting or conduct research, the PsyD might be for you. However, a master’s degree in a helping field can prepare you to engage in many of the same activities—in fewer years and, usually, with less debt. Graduates from professional schools are at a disadvantage when they apply for positions in research or academic settings. Understand your interests, abilities, and professional goals in order to choose a training model and degree that will prepare you for the career you desire.

Selecting Graduate Programs After you have decided on a subfield of psychology and a training model, your next step is to gather and evaluate information about graduate programs. APA’s Graduate Study in Psychology includes information on every psychology graduate program in the United States and Canada and is updated annually. Organized alphabetically by state and by school, this guide provides the following information: criteria for admission, program emphasis, number of faculty, enrollments, and additional admissions information, including the average GPA and GRE scores for each school. An online version is searchable and contains the most up-to-date information about programs. A 3-month subscription to the database costs about $20; visit http://www.apa.org/pubs/databases/gradstudy/ for more information. Once you have selected potential programs, visit the department and program websites for more information so that you can make informed decisions about where to apply. All too often students state that they want to go to graduate school “anywhere I’m accepted.” It’s understandable that you’d like to get into graduate school, but it’s also important to be an educated consumer and look for a program that you want, not just one that accepts you. It is critical that you evaluate the program to see whether it fits your needs. Is it someplace where you can spend the next few years? Visit each school’s website to review the program, degrees, coursework, research and applied opportunities, and faculty. As you read the information about programs, you’ll notice that there are differences among departments in goals, program philosophies, theoretical orientations, facilities, and resources. What are you looking for as you peruse the volumes of information obtained through your research? Basically you’re looking to see how well each program matches your goals and aspirations—the “fit” between you and the graduate program. Consider the department’s emphasis and program philosophy: • What are the program goals? Do they fit with your own? What courses are you required to take? Is the curriculum heavily research oriented, or is it more theoretical or applied? • Do you share research interests with any of the faculty? Do the faculty publish often and in refereed journals? Google faculty members to

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view their webpages. Use Google Scholar or PsycINFO to find their publications. Do they publish with students? • Where do graduates go? Do they find jobs in academia, practice, or the other settings? • What funding opportunities exist? Are research and teaching assistantships used to fund students? If you are applying to graduate study in an applied field, such as clinical, counseling, or school psychology, look for APA accreditation. The APA is a national association of psychologists. One of APA’s many activities is to evaluate practice-oriented doctoral psychology programs (clinical, counseling, and school psychology) to ensure that the educational criteria meet the public’s needs. In order to be accredited, a program must meet and maintain standards for clinical training, including faculty credentials, specific coursework, research and clinical opportunities, and internships. A site visit confirms that these requirements are met, and they must be maintained over time. If you are applying to clinical, counseling, or school programs, it is in your best interest to be sure that they are accredited. Accredited programs are stringent and meet the requirements for state licensure, and students in accredited programs are more likely to obtain an internship (which is needed for licensure) and obtain employment more easily than those who enroll in programs that are not accredited. In fact, many states require applicants to have earned doctoral degrees from APA programs in order to apply for licensure. Finally, remember that APA accreditation applies only to the practiceoriented fields, such as clinical, counseling, and school psychology. Programs in research (nonpractice) areas, such as experimental and social psychology, are not part of the APA accreditation program. Accreditation applies only to programs that train students to be practicing psychologists. If you’re applying to a research program, do not look for APA accreditation.

The Application Once you have narrowed your choice of programs, you’re ready to begin the application. Most graduate programs use online applications. The process varies but usually you will create a login on the school’s website. The online application will include forms for entering your personal information as well as information for all of the components described in the following section. Table 15.1 provides a timetable for applying to graduate school. Now let’s examine the typical components of a graduate application.

Graduate Record Exam: General Test The Graduate Record Exam (GRE) is a standardized test that all applicants to graduate programs must complete. The GRE General Test is an aptitude test

264  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future TABLE 15.1  ●  Timeline for Preparing for Graduate School First Year ❑ Complete your general education mathematics requirements. ❑ Begin taking the required methodology and statistics courses in psychology. ❑ Take a class in writing. ❑ Take several lower-level psychology classes to learn about the field. ❑ Get to know at least one professor outside of class. ❑ Participate in department activities (e.g., attend speaker presentations, participate in the psychology club). Second Year ❑ Take a least one more math and science course beyond the general requirements. ❑ Learn about the research interests of the faculty and identify potential mentors. ❑ Ask a faculty member if you can help with his or her research. ❑ Attend a regional psychology conference. ❑ If you are interested in the clinical or counseling areas of psychology, seek volunteer experiences. ❑ Join Psi Chi and get involved. ❑ Get to know at least one other professor outside of class. ❑ Ask professors for their opinions on what courses and other experiences you should obtain to prepare for graduate school. Third Year ❑ Participate in an independent research project with a faculty member. ❑ If you are interested in the clinical or counseling areas of psychology, seek an internship. ❑ Attend a psychology conference. ❑ Get to know at least one other professor outside of class. ❑ Study for the Graduate Record Exam (GRE). ❑ Explore graduate programs. ❑ Study for the Psychology GRE. Take it either in April of your third year or October of your fourth year.

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Summer Prior to Fourth Year ❑ Take the GRE. ❑ If you have not yet taken it, study for the Psychology GRE. ❑ Draft your curriculum vitae (CV; discussed later in this chapter). ❑ Review your transcript for errors. ❑ Narrow your list of graduate programs. ❑ Begin drafting your admissions essay. Fourth Year: September ❑ Share your list of graduate programs with faculty, ask for input, and ask them if they will write recommendation letters when the time comes (bring your CV). ❑ Prepare your admissions essay and get feedback. ❑ Finalize your list of graduate programs. ❑ Begin online applications. ❑ Take the GRE Psychology Test, if you have not already. Fourth Year: October ❑ Take the GRE Psychology Test, if you have not already. ❑ Formally request recommendation letters from faculty. ❑ Complete online applications. Fourth Year: November ❑ Finalize your applications (pay attention to deadlines, as they may come as early as November and as late as March). ❑ Check back with professors and thank them for writing your recommendations.

that is administered by computer and measures a variety of skills, acquired over the high school and college years, that are thought to predict success in graduate school. The GRE General Test yields three scores: verbal ability, quantitative ability, and analytical ability. As shown in Table 15.2, the verbal section assesses your ability to understand and analyze written material. The quantitative section tests basic math skills and your ability to understand and apply quantitative skills to solve problems. The analytical writing section examines critical thinking and analytical writing skills. It examines your ability to explain and support complex ideas, and engage in focused and coherent discussion and analysis of arguments. The GRE General Test takes nearly 4 hours to complete, plus time for breaks and reading instructions.

266  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future TABLE 15.2  ●  Overview of the Graduate Record Exam (GRE) GRE Verbal Section Overview

You will be asked to read passages and analyze information obtained from your reading, analyze sentences and the relationships among component parts of sentences, as well as recognize relationships between words and concepts within written material. This section measures your ability to analyze and evaluate written material and synthesize information obtained from it, analyze relationships among component parts of sentences, and recognize relationships among words and concepts.

Types of Questions

Reading comprehension questions measure your ability to read analytically, identify the main idea, identify explicitly stated information, identify implied ideas, apply the author’s ideas to other situations, identify the author’s logic or persuasive techniques, and identify the attitudinal tone of the passage. Text completion questions omit crucial words from short passages and ask the test taker to use the remaining information in the passage to select words or phrases to fill in the blanks and create a coherent, meaningful whole. Sentence equivalence questions consist of a single sentence with just one blank, and they ask you to find two choices that lead to a complete, coherent sentence while producing sentences that mean the same thing.

GRE Quantitative Section Overview

The quantitative section does not require mathematic skills beyond the high school level. It measures problem-solving ability, focusing on basic concepts of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, data analysis, and data interpretation.

Types of Questions

Problem-solving questions are word problems that assess your understanding of, and ability to apply, arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. Quantitative comparison questions ask you to compare two quantities, one in column a and one in column b. Your task is to determine if they are equal, if one is larger than the other, or if not enough information is presented to make the determination. Data analysis questions require use of basic descriptive statistics, the ability to interpret data in graphs and tables, and elementary probability. Numeric entry questions. Rather than multiple choice, questions of this type ask you to enter the answer either as an integer or a decimal in an answer box.

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GRE Analytical Writing Section Overview

The analytical writing section examines your ability to communicate complex ideas clearly and effectively, support your ideas, examine claims and supporting evidence, sustain a focused and coherent discussion, and effectively use the elements of standard written English.

Subsections

Analyze an issue: This task assesses your ability to think critically about a topic of general interest and to clearly express your thoughts about it in writing. Each issue statement makes a claim that you can discuss from various perspectives and apply to many different situations or conditions. The issue statement is followed by a set of specific instructions. Analyze an argument: This 30-minute task presents you with an argument. Your task is to critique the argument, assess its claims, and conclude whether it is reasoned.

Source: ETS.org.

The GRE General Test is administered by computer year-round. Plan to take the GRE well in advance of application due dates. Generally, plan on taking it in the spring or summer before you apply to graduate school. Remember that it may take a few weeks for scores to be reported to schools. If you take the GRE too late in the fall, the scores may not arrive in time for your application to be considered. Also, you will want to have enough time to retake it if necessary. You can always retake the GRE, but remember that you’re allowed to take it only once every 21 days per calendar month, up to five times in 12 months. If you retake the GRE, you have the option of sending all scores to graduate schools or scores only from a particular test date. What score should you strive for? The verbal and quantitative subtests yield scores ranging from 130 to 170, in 1-point increments. Most graduate schools consider the verbal and quantitative sections to be particularly important in making decisions about applicants. The analytical writing section yields a score ranging from 0 to 6, in half-point increments. Among all test takers from 2014 to 2017, the average GRE scores were 150 for Verbal, 153 for Quantitative, and 3.5 for Analytical Writing (Educational Testing Service, 2018). The average GRE scores for incoming students are often listed on program webpages in addition to the APA Guide to Graduate Study in Psychology.

GRE Psychology Test Many but not all doctoral programs require that applicants take the Psychology Test. The GRE Psychology Test consists of 205 questions drawn

268  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future from commonly offered courses at the undergraduate level and is designed to measure what an undergraduate psychology major who plans to attend graduate school should know about the field of psychology. Until recently the Psychology Test yielded three scores: (1) a general score, (2) an experimental subscore, and (3) a social subscore. In September 2017, the GRE Psychology Test was revised to yield a general score and the following six subscores (Educational Testing Service, 2017): 1. Biological (17%–21% of the questions): sensation and perception, attention, physiological function, and cognitive and behavioral neuroscience. 2. Cognitive (17% to 24%): learning, conditioning, language, communication, memory, thinking, decision-making, and intelligence. 3. Social (12% to 14%): social cognition, attribution, beliefs, attitudes and behavior, conformity, persuasion, group processes, and cultural and gender issues. 4. Developmental (12% to 14%): physical and motor development, perception, cognition, language, learning, and social and emotional development. 5. Clinical (15% to 19%): personality and behavior, stress, conflict, coping, diagnostic systems, causes, development, and treatment of disorders, neurophysiological factors, and health psychology. 6. Measurement/Methodology/Other (15% to 19%): history, industrialorganizational, educational, psychometrics, test construction, research designs, statistical procedures, scientific method, ethics and legal issues, and analysis and interpretation of findings. Unlike the General Test, the GRE Psychology Test is administered only by pencil and paper three times a year, typically in September, October, and April. Ideally, you should take the GRE Psychology Test in April so that you have time to retake it, if needed. Scores are sent several weeks after the test date. If you are taking it as a senior, take it in September to allow enough time for scores to be reported. However, you will not receive your test scores early enough to retake it.

Admissions Essays The personal statement or admissions essay is your chance to communicate directly with the admissions committee, to present yourself as you would like to be viewed, the person behind the GPA and GRE scores. It’s the place where you can make yourself stand out because you have the opportunity to

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talk about your interests, career aspirations, and values. Your essay will tell the admissions committee about your ability to write, to stick to the task at hand, and to persuade readers. Your essay is your chance to show your enthusiasm for the program but especially to highlight how your interests fit with the program and particular faculty members. Faculty look for applicants who are interested in the program, share their research interests, and are prepared to engage in collaborative research or scholarship. Keith-Spiegel and Wiederman (2000) have noted that there is a remarkable similarity among essay topics requested by graduate programs. Most questions posed by graduate programs fall into one of several categories, as shown in Table 15.3.

TABLE 15.3  ●  Common Admissions Essay Prompts Topic

Sample Essay Prompt

Career Plans

What are your long-term career goals? Where do you see yourself 10 years from now?

General Interest Areas

What academic or professional areas interest you?

Research Experiences

Discuss areas in which you might like to do research, research experiences you have had, or both. Describe your research interests.

Academic Objectives

Why are you undertaking graduate study? Describe how graduate training is necessary for your goals.

Clinical or Other Field Experience

Describe your clinical experience. How have your field experiences shaped your career goals?

Academic Background and Achievements

Discuss your academic background.

Personal

Is there anything in your background that you think would be relevant in our evaluation of applicants? Describe your life up to now: family, friends, home, school, work, and particularly those experiences most relevant to your interests in psychology and you. Write an autobiographical sketch.

Personal and Professional Development

Describe your values and your approach to life.

Source: Keith-Spiegel & Wiederman (2000).

270  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future Although many graduate applications will request essays on similar topics, you should not write a generic essay. Tailor your essay to the specific question and the program. Many essays ask the applicant to discuss how the program or faculty matches his or her individual needs. This means that you must demonstrate that you have researched the program and are familiar with its faculty and curriculum. Explain how the specific program will prepare you for the career you desire, offering clear examples. While writing your essay, remember that your goal is to come across as someone with an interest in the specific program and the potential to succeed. The admissions essay is sometimes called a personal statement, but don’t take that term literally. Do not get too personal. The essay is a professional essay, not a place to discuss your own mental health, experiences with therapy, or heartaches. Instead, explain the experiences that have prepared you for graduate school and have led to your decision to apply to graduate school. Use concrete examples whenever possible. Your essay should include at least these four components: your previous research experience, research interests, relevant experience, and career goals (Bottoms & Nysse, 1999). Seek feedback from others—especially faculty. Faculty are aware of what graduate programs seek and their advice is invaluable. If you seek feedback, be sure to approach faculty early and well before the due date to give them time to read and respond to your essay—and to give you time to revise it. Finally, carefully proofread your essays (or have a trusted family member or friend proofread for you as well), as typos will stop your application in its tracks. Your admissions essays are your chance to present your strengths and really shine, so take advantage of the opportunity to discuss your accomplishments, describe valuable experiences, and emphasize the positive.

Curriculum Vitae Not all graduate programs request a curriculum vitae, or CV, but it’s always a good idea to provide one. A CV is an academic résumé that summarizes and highlights your scholarly experiences, accomplishments, and interests. Unlike a résumé, which is one page in length, a curriculum vitae contains more information and grows in length throughout your academic career. The goal is to construct and depict your identity as a scholar. What goes into a CV? The contents of a CV differ across disciplines and expands as one progresses through graduate school. Your CV probably will not have all of these sections yet, and that is to be expected. Contact Information: Include your name, address, phone, and e-mail for home and office, if applicable. The same rules for professionalism apply (no silly e-mail addresses). Education: Indicate your college major, type of degree, and the date each degree was (or is expected to be) awarded for each postsecondary school attended. Do not list your high school degree.

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Academic Achievements: List each award, describe it, and note the granting institution and the date awarded. If you have completed a thesis, list the title and your advisor. If you have only one award (e.g., graduation honors), consider incorporating this information within the education section. Research Experience: List assistantships, practica, and other research experience you have had working under a faculty member. List the institutions at which the research was conducted, the dates during which it was conducted, the topics researched, and any resulting papers or publication. Publications: If you have a publication, list it here in APA style. Most students begin writing this section during graduate school. Eventually you’ll separate publications into sections for articles, chapters, reports, and other documents. Conference Presentations: List any poster presentations that you’ve given at conferences. It is unusual for a college student to have presented a paper (talk) at a conference, but if you have, list it here. Similar to the section on publications, separate this category into sections for posters and papers. Teaching Experience: If you have teaching experience as a teaching assistant or tutor hired by the university, list it. Most students will not include this section. Professional Experience: List your employment history. List the name of the employer, location, position you held, dates of employment, and a brief description of your duties and responsibilities. The description does not need to be extensive unless it is related to your field of study. Relevant Coursework and Technical Skills: List statistical and computer programs and data analysis techniques with which you’re competent. Consider listing specialized courses. This section is especially relevant for researchoriented doctoral programs. What skills can you “sell” faculty? Grants Awarded: It’s unusual for undergraduate students to have been awarded grants, so don’t worry if you don’t have anything for this section. If you do, include the title of the agency, projects for which funds were awarded, and dollar amounts. Research Interests: Briefly summarize your research interests with four to six key descriptors. Admissions committees pay attention to your research interests: Are they consistent with what you say in your essay? How well do they fit faculty interests? Professional Affiliations: List any professional societies with which you’re affiliated (for example, Psi Chi, or student affiliate of the American Psychological Association or Association for Psychological Science). References: Provide names, phone numbers, addresses, and e-mail addresses for your referees. Usually this is left off of CVs but given that you’ve already requested recommendation letters, include your referees here.

272  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future As you organize your CV remember that the education section typically goes first. Research experience, publications, and presentations should go next. After these sections, order the other items in your CV as you see fit. Keep in mind that the items toward the beginning receive more attention than those later on. Format your CV neatly, similar to the résumé examples presented in Chapter 14.

Letters of Recommendation Virtually every graduate program requires applicants to submit three letters of recommendation. Recommendation letters are typically written by a faculty member and discuss a student’s personal qualities, accomplishments, and experiences that make them unique and a good match to the programs to which they’ve applied. Graduate programs typically ask recommendation writers to comment on various qualities of the applicant. The top characteristics that graduate recommendation forms ask faculty to discuss are listed in Table 15.4. As you can see, grad programs are interested in more than your academic abilities. The persons you ask to write your letters should know you well and have known you long enough to write with authority, describe your work positively, and know your career goals. They must be able to favorably compare you with your peers, have a high opinion of you, and be able to write a detailed letter. Letters should address your academic and scholastic skills, research abilities and experiences, and applied experiences (e.g., co-operative education, internships, and related work experience). It is unlikely that one letter can address all of these skills. Instead, aim for a set of letters covering the range of your skills. TABLE 15.4  ●  T  op Characteristics Assessed by Recommendation Forms Motivation Intellectual/scholarly ability Research skills Emotional stability and maturity Writing skills Speaking skills Teaching skills or potential Ability to work with others Creativity Knowledge of area of study Source: Adapted with permission from “Applicant characteristics valued by graduate programs in psychology,” by D. Appleby, J. Keenan, and B. Mauer, Eye on Psi Chi, 3(3) p. 39. Copyright 1999 by Psi Chi, the International Honor Society in Psychology.

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Note that faculty are not obligated to write recommendation letters. When you approach potential recommenders (in person), ask if they know you well enough to write a meaningful letter. Pay attention to their demeanor. If you sense reluctance, thank them and ask someone else. If they deny your request, don’t push, because it likely means that they feel that they are unable to offer you a helpful letter. Instead, thank them because a lukewarm letter will not help your application. Remember that it is best to ask early in the semester and well before application deadlines. The best thing you can do to ensure that your letters cover all the bases is to provide your referees (those who will write your letters of recommendation) with all the necessary information. Ask each professor about his or her preference for receiving material, in hard or electronic copy. If he or she chooses a hard copy, provide one folder with all of your background information neatly arranged. If your professor requests an electronic copy, offer it by e-mail or a cloud service such as Dropbox. Organize the material into one folder and clearly label each file. Don’t make your referee open multiple files to find what he or she needs. What do you include? • Transcript • CV • GRE scores • Courses you’ve taken with them and grades that you’ve earned • An excellent paper from their class • Thesis or other capstone paper • List of research experiences and an explanation of each • Internship and other applied experiences • Honor societies to which you belong • Awards you’ve won • Relevant work experience • Professional goals • Due date for the application • Copy of the application recommendation forms Finally, ask referees if they need anything further from you. Don’t underestimate the importance of recommendation letters. While your transcript, standardized test scores, and admissions essay are vital components of your application, an excellent letter of recommendation can bolster a weak

274  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future application. The letter of recommendation gives admissions committees information that isn’t found elsewhere in the application.

Interview Some programs conduct phone or Skype interviews, some conduct onsite interviews, and some don’t interview at all. The interview gives admission committees an opportunity to meet candidates and see the people behind the GPAs and GRE scores. It’s a chance for them to meet you, to see how you react under pressure, and to assess your verbal and nonverbal communication skills. In-person interviews might range from a 30-minute conversation with one or two faculty to a full day or more filled with meetings with students and faculty. Activities might range from small-group discussions to larger-group interviews and even social hours or parties.

Interview Prep To prepare for a graduate admissions interview, learn as much about the program as possible. Review the program description, department website, and faculty websites. Understand the program’s emphasis and be aware of the faculty’s research interests. Consider how you will answer common interview questions, such as those in Table 15.5. In addition to answering questions, admissions committees expect you to ask questions. Prepare some thoughtful questions about the program, faculty, and students. Use this opportunity to learn about the program and whether it meets your needs. Table 15.6 presents some sample questions to help you determine what you’d like to ask. During your visit, try to get a sense of the department’s emotional climate. What do graduate students call professors? Doctor? Do they use first names? Are students competitive with one another? Try to get a sense of whether the atmosphere matches your personality. Is it formal or informal? Would you be happy there? Remember that all interactions you have are part of the interview process. Interactions with current graduate students count, so be careful of personal disclosures. Similarly, social events are part of the interview. You may, for example, be offered alcohol at these events. The safest option is to decline a beverage, but if you choose to accept an alcoholic beverage, limit it to one.

Skype Interviews Many graduate programs conduct interviews by video conferencing via platforms like Skype. Skype interviews permit graduate programs to interview students cheaply and efficiently—and perhaps squeeze in even more applicant interviews than they would in real life. An interview for admission to graduate study, regardless of whether it’s on campus or by Skype, means that the admissions committee is interested in you and this is your opportunity to

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TABLE 15.5  ●  Common Graduate Admissions Interview Questions • Why are you interested in our program? • What do you know about our program? • What are your career goals? • Why did you choose a career in psychology? • What are your research interests? Describe your research experience. Regarding research, what are your strengths and weaknesses? • What are your academic strengths? What was your favorite course, and why? • What do you like best about yourself? • With whom would you like to work? Why? • Describe the accomplishment you’re most proud of. • If you were to begin a research project now, what would be the topic? • Describe your theoretical orientation. • Discuss your experiences in clinical settings. Evaluate your clinical abilities. • What are your strengths and weaknesses? • Tell us about yourself. • Describe your greatest academic accomplishment. Personal? • Tell me about your experience in psychology thus far. What is the most challenging aspect? What is the most rewarding? • What are your career goals? How will this program help you achieve your goals? • How do you intend to finance your education? • What skills do you bring to the program? How will you help your mentor in his or her research? • Are you motivated? Explain, and provide examples. • What do you plan to specialize in? Why? • If you’re not accepted into graduate school, what are your plans? • Why did you choose this career? • Why did you choose to apply to our program? • What other schools are you considering? • In what ways has your previous experience prepared you for graduate study in our program? • Any questions? • What do you believe your greatest challenge will be if you are accepted into this program? • What courses did you enjoy the most? The least? Why?

276  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future TABLE 15.6  ●  Q  uestions to Ask During a Graduate Admissions Interview • What characteristics distinguish this program from others? • Where are recent alumni employed? What do most students do after graduation? • What types of financial aid are offered? What criteria are used for choosing recipients? • Are there any scholarships or fellowships available? How do I apply? • Are there teaching opportunities, such as teaching assistantships and adjunct positions, for current students? • Do most students publish an article or present a paper before graduation? • What planned practical experiences are included in the program (for example, internships)? [Ask for examples of internship placements.] • What is the relative importance of admissions test scores, undergraduate grades, recommendations, statements on applications, experience, and other requirements? • Does the department prefer applicants immediately out of undergraduate programs or do they prefer applicants with work experience? If they prefer or require experience, what kind of experience are they looking for? • How do graduate students obtain research experience? Are they assigned to labs or do they choose labs on their own? • How are mentors assigned to students?

demonstrate your fit to the faculty and graduate program. Treat a Skype interview like a campus interview: Dress up. Also do a practice run with a friend so that he or she can give you feedback on what you look and sound like (and what’s in the background). Skype interviews pose special challenges. Overcome them by doing the following. Be Prepared.  Plug in your laptop. Do not rely on its battery. Also, have the phone number for the admissions chair at hand in case tech problems arise. Log out of messaging programs, Facebook, and other apps with sound notifications. Mute notifications in Skype. Make sure that you will not be interrupted by any sounds on your computer. Whatever you hear, your interviewers hear. Attend to Visuals.  What will the committee see behind you? Pay attention to your background. Posters, signs, photos, and art can detract from your professional demeanor. Don’t give professors an opportunity to judge you on anything other than your words and persona. Choose a well-lit space. Make Eye Contact.  Sit at a desk. The camera should be level with your face. Sit far enough away that your interviewer can see your shoulders. Look into the

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camera, not at the image on the screen—and certainly not at yourself. If you look at the image of your interviewers, you’ll appear to be looking away. Challenging as it may seem, try to look at the camera to simulate eye contact. Be Heard.  Be sure that the interviewers can hear you. Know where the microphone is located and direct your speech toward it. Speak slowly and pause after the interviewer finishes speaking. Sometimes video lag can interfere with communication, making it harder for interviewers to understand you or making it appear as if you are interrupting them. Eliminate any potential sources of background noise, such as barking dogs, crying children, or insensitive roommates. After the interview, another period of waiting begins. Every graduate program has a different method and style of handling admissions. Some programs review applications and make decisions early, and others wait. How quickly applications are reviewed depends on a variety of factors including the number of applications received, how many people are on the committee, academic demands, conferences, holidays, how well the members of the committee work together, and so on. Most programs inform applicants of their acceptance from February through early April. In most cases, your decision on whether to accept an offer is due by April 15. Accepting an offer of admission to graduate school may seem like a happy ending, but it’s only the beginning of the next phase of your career.

CHECKLIST 15.1 IS GRADUATE SCHOOL FOR YOU? Answer the following questions, yes or no.   1. Are you tired of studying?   2. Do you like to write papers?   3. Do you hope never to take another statistics course?   4. Are you comfortable with uncertainty?   5. Do you dislike library and database research?   6. Do you like to read psychology books or articles even if they are not assigned?   7. Do you put off studying for tests or writing papers?   8. Are you able to earn very little income for the next 2 to 7 years?   9. Are you sick of school? (Continued)

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(Continued) 10. Do you enjoy reading and studying? 11. Do you prefer group projects rather than individual papers? 12. Will you give up a social opportunity (like a party) to study for a test or to finish a paper? 13. Are your grades mainly Bs or lower? 14. Do you keep up with current research in psychology? 15. Do you find it difficult to name several careers available to psychology majors? 16. Are you driven to learn more about human behavior? 17. Do you like to keep up with your friends who have the latest technology or go to the best restaurants, clubs, and concerts? 18. Can you concentrate and study for hours at a time? 19. Are there other careers aside from psychology that you’d like to explore? 20. Did you earn a high grade in statistics? 21. Do you frequently hand assignments in late or forget to do them? 22. Do you enjoy conducting research? Scoring: Assign one point for each even item to which you answered yes and one point for each odd item to which you answered no. Sum the points to obtain a total score. Higher scores indicate a greater potential for graduate study.

EXERCISE 15.1 YOUR PERSONAL TIMELINE FOR APPLYING TO GRADUATE SCHOOL Construct your personal timeline for applying to graduate school. Review the general timeline in Table 15.1. Now consider your own situation. 1. How much time do you have to prepare? Are you a sophomore, junior, or senior? 2. How far along are you in completing required coursework, especially methodology and statistics requirements? What additional coursework do you need to become competitive?

Chapter 15  •  Getting Into Graduate School in Psychology  

279

3. Map out your plan for coursework for each semester over the next 2 years. What will you take in the fall? What will you take in the spring? 4. What out-of-class practical experiences do you need? Will you seek an internship? If so, where does it fall in your 2-year plan? Planning ahead is especially important if internships are awarded competitively so that you can be prepared. 5. What is your plan for obtaining research experience? Have you gotten to know professors? Have you worked with them on their research? Determine how to obtain these experiences—and how to eventually conduct independent research with a professor. 6. Flesh out your 2-year plan. When do you plan to apply to graduate school? Will you carry out your plan in time to apply? If you have extra time, how will you spend it? (I suggest on more research!)

Suggested Reading American Psychological Association. (2018). Graduate study in psychology. Washington, DC: Author. Kracen, A. C., & Wallace, I. J. (2008). Applying to graduate school in psychology: Advice from successful students and prominent psychologists. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Kuther, T. L. (2008). Surviving graduate school in psychology: A pocket mentor. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Privitera, G. J. (2014). Getting into graduate school: A comprehensive guide for psychology and the behavioral sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Sayette, M. A., & Norcross, J. G. (2018). Insider’s guide to graduate programs in clinical and counseling psychology. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Smith, S. R. (2018). Psychology graduate school: A user’s manual. New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield.

Resources A Suggested Plan for Grad School Admission http://www.psych.iupui.edu/Users/dappleby/Undergrad/timeline.htm

280  Part IV •  Preparing for the Future

American Psychological Association: Applying to Graduate School in Psychology https://www.apa.org/education/grad/applying.aspx American Psychological Association of Graduate Students (APAGS) http://www.apa.org/apags/ Association for Psychological Science: How to Get In: Applying to Psychology Grad School https://w w w.psychologicalscience.org/observer/how-to-get-in-applyingto-psychology-grad-school Eye on Psi Chi (Search for Articles Using the Category “Graduate School”) https://www.psichi.org/page/eye_main#.XDUQrlxKiUl

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Final_Report_231112_Final_pdf.pdf Doran, J. M., Kraha, A., Marks, L. R., Ameen, E. J., & El-Ghoroury, N. H. (2016). Graduate debt in psychology: A quantitative analysis. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 10(1), 3–13. doi:10.1037/tep0000112 Drogin, E. Y., & Barrett, C. L. (2007). Off the witness stand: The forensic psychologist as consultant. In A. M. Goldstein (Ed.), Forensic psychology: Emerging topics and expanding roles (pp. 465–488). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc. Educational Testing Service. (2017). GRE psychology subject test (for test takers). Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Retrieved from https://www.ets.org/gre/ subject/about/content/psychology Educational Testing Service. (2018). GRE guide to the use of scores. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Retrieved from https://www.ets.org/s/gre/pdf/gre_ guide.pdf Federal Bureau of Prisons. (2018). Clinical psychologist (job series number: 0180). Retrieved

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Psychologist Glassdoor.com. (2018). Salary search. Retrieved from https://www.glassdoor.com/ Salaries/index.htm Golding, J. M., Lippert, A. M., & Malik, S. E. (2018). Using the Internet to facilitate career choices in psychology-related fields. Teaching of Psychology, 45(1), 60–66. doi:10.1177/0098628317745450 Goldstein, R. (2010). Major developments in undergraduate psychology. Observer, 23(3). Retrieved from http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/ observer/2010/march-10/major-developments-in-undergraduate-psychology.html Greene, S., & Martel, M. C. L. (2014). The ultimate job hunter’s guidebook. Stamford, CT: Cengage. Grover, S. F. (2006). Undergraduate research: Getting involved and getting into graduate school (a student’s perspective). Eye on Psi Chi, 11(1), 18–20.

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284   Careers in Psychology Lezak, M. D., Howieson, D. B., & Loring, D. W. (2004). Neuropsychological assessment (4th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Lin, L., Christidis, P., & Stamm, K. (2017). 2015 salaries in psychology. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/workforce/publications/2015-salaries/index.aspx McFall, R. M. (2006). Doctoral training in clinical psychology. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2(1), 21–49. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095245 McGovern, T. V., Corey, L., Cranney, J., Dixon, W. E., Holmes, J. D., Kuebli, J. E., . . . Walker, S. J. (2010). Psychologically literate citizens. In D. F. Halpern (Ed.), Under­ graduate education in psychology: A blueprint for the future of the discipline (pp. 9–27). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/12063-001 McGovern, T. V., Furumoto, L., Halpern, D. F., Kimble, G. A., & McKeachie, W. J. (1991). Liberal education, study in depth, and the arts and sciences major: Psychology. American Psychologist, 46(6), 598–605. Melton, G. B., Petrila, J., Poythress, N. G., Slobogin, C., Otto, R. K., Mossman, D., & Condie, C. O. (2018). Psychological evaluations for the courts: A handbook for mental health professionals and lawyers (4th ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Michalski, D. S., Cope, C., & Fowler, G. A. (2017). Summary report, graduate study in psychology 2018: Admissions, applications and acceptances. Retrieved from http:// www.apa.org/education/grad/survey-data/2018-admissions-applications.aspx Michigan State University Career Services Network. (n.d.). Action verbs. Retrieved from http://careernetwork.msu.edu/resources-tools/resumes/action-verbs.html Montgomery, E. C., Kunik, M. E., Wilson, N., Stanley, M. A., & Weiss, B. (2010). Can paraprofessionals deliver cognitive-behavioral therapy to treat anxiety and depressive symptoms? Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 74(1), 45–62. doi:10.1521/ bumc.2010.74.1.45 Morgan, R. D. (2002). Basic mental health services: Services and issues. In T. Fagan & R. K. Ax (Eds.), Correctional mental health handbook (pp. 59–69). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Morgan, R. D., & Cohen, L. M. (2008). Clinical and counseling psychology: Can differences be gleaned from printed recruiting materials? Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 2(3), 156–164. doi:10.1037/1931-3918.2.3.156 Morgan, R. D., Winterowd, C. L., & Ferrell, S. W. (1999). A national survey of group psychotherapy services in correctional facilities. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 30(6), 600–606. Myers, I. B., McCaulley, M. H., Quenk, N. L., & Hammer, A. L. (1998). MBTI manual: A guide to the development and use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (3rd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

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• Index • Accreditation: clinical and counseling psychology, 61 school psychology, 78 Actuary: certification, 178 education/training, 178 experimental/quantitative psychology, 177–178 job description, 177–178 licensure, 178 occupational outlook, 178 salary, 178 Administration, clinical and counseling psychology, 63–64 Administrative assistant: career preparation, 154t education/training, 152 industrial-organizational psychology, 151–152 job description, 151 occupational outlook, 151–152 salary, 152 work schedule, 152 Administrative services manager: career preparation, 154t education/training, 152 industrial-organizational psychology, 151, 152 job description, 151 occupational outlook, 152 salary, 152 Advertising: advertising clerk, 185, 186 assistant advertising manager, 185 assistant media buyer, 185, 186 assistant media coordinator, 185, 186

assistant media planner, 185, 186 education/training, 185–186 job description, 185 occupational outlook, 186 salary, 186 social/consumer psychology, 185–186 Advertising clerk: job description, 185 salary, 186 Advertising manager: education/training, 194 job description, 193 occupational outlook, 194 salary, 193 social/consumer psychology, 193, 194 work schedule, 194 Advertising sales director: job description, 193 salary, 193 social/consumer psychology, 193 American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy, 51 American Council on Exercise, 116–117 American Counseling Association, 51 American Occupational Therapy Association, 103 American Physical Therapy Association, 103 American Psychological Association (APA): accreditation, 61, 78 congressional fellowship program, 95–96 educational goals, 33–34 licensure, 61

287

288   Careers in Psychology American School Counselor Association, 79 Applied behavior analyst: education/training, 169, 170, 175 experimental/quantitative psychology, 169, 170 job description, 170 licensure, 170, 175 salary, 175 Applied developmental psychology: education/training, 211 job description, 199, 210–211 licensure, 211 salary, 211 Applied experience: biopsychology, 136t clinical and counseling psychology, 57t developmental psychology, 207t experimental/quantitative psychology, 174t health psychology, 106t industrial-organizational psychology, 155t legal and forensic psychology, 88t school psychology, 74t social/consumer psychology, 191t sport psychology, 122t Assistant advertising manager, 185 Assistant behavior analyst: experimental/quantitative psychology, 169–170 job description, 169 salary, 170 Assistant director of student services, 201 Assistant media buyer: education/training, 185–186 job description, 185 salary, 186 social/consumer psychology, 185, 186 Assistant media coordinator: education/training, 185–186 job description, 185 salary, 186 social/consumer psychology, 185, 186

Assistant media planner: education/training, 185–186 job description, 185 salary, 186 social/consumer psychology, 185, 186 Assistant underwriter, 166 Association of Real Estate License Law Officials, 187 Association of Social Work Boards, 53 Athletic trainer: certification, 120 education/training, 120 job description, 120 occupational outlook, 120 salary, 120 sport psychology, 120 Bachelor’s degree: bachelor of arts (BA), 4–5 bachelor of science (BS), 4 defined, 4–5 Bachelor’s degree opportunities: biopsychology, 132–135 clinical and counseling psychology, 52–56 developmental psychology, 199–205 health psychology, 101–105 industrial-organizational psychology, 146–153 legal and forensic psychology, 84–87 school psychology, 68–73 social/consumer psychology, 185–190 sport psychology, 115–121 Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 169 Behavior technician: certification, 169 experimental/quantitative psychology, 169–170 job description, 169 occupational outlook, 175 registered behavior technician, 169, 170, 174t salary, 170 Benefits administrator, 147, 153, 156 Benefits analyst, 147, 153, 156

Index  289

Benefits director, 156 Benefits manager, 156 Biopsychology: academic setting, 135, 137 applied experience, 136t bachelor’s degree opportunities, 132–135 biotechnology research, 137 career checklist, 139–140 career preparation, 136t career settings, 135, 137–139 characteristics of, 131 clinical laboratory technician, 134 clinical neuropsychology, 132 cognitive neuropsychology, 131–132 coursework, 136t graduate degree opportunities, 135, 137–139 internet resources, 134, 135, 141–142 medical laboratory technician, 134 pharmaceutical research, 137 pharmacy technician, 134–135 practice setting, 137–139 psychiatric technician, 133 research experience, 136t research setting, 135, 137 science technician, 132–133 study exercise, 140–141 Board certified assistant behavior analyst: career preparation, 174t education/training, 170, 175 experimental/quantitative psychology, 169, 170, 175 licensure, 169, 170, 175 Breadth courses, 35, 36t Budget analyst: career preparation, 173t education/training, 169 experimental/quantitative psychology, 168–169 job description, 168 occupational outlook, 169 salary, 169 work schedule, 169

Capstone course, 35 Careerbuilder.com, 221 CareerOneStop, 13 Career preparation: administrative assistant, 154t administrative services manager, 154t biopsychology, 136t budget analyst, 173t clinical and counseling psychology, 57t commercial design assistant, 154t computer programmer, 173t computer support specialist, 173t developmental psychology, 206–207t experimental/quantitative psychology, 173–174t health psychology, 106t human resources, 154t industrial-organizational psychology, 154–155t legal and forensic psychology, 88–89t manager, 155t project manager, 155t registered behavior technician, 174t school psychology, 74t social/consumer psychology, 191t software developer, 173t sport psychology, 122t underwriter, 173t user experience strategist, 155t web developer, 173t Career profile: childcare worker, 71–72 child life specialist, 202–203 developmental psychology, 202–203 experimental/quantitative psychology, 171–172 forensic examiner, 92–93 health psychology, 108–109 human resources, 149–150 human services worker, 54–55 industrial-organizational psychology, 149–150 legal and forensic psychology, 92–93 school psychology, 71–72

290   Careers in Psychology social/consumer psychology, 188–189 sport psychology, 118–119 Casualty Actuarial Society, 178 Certification: actuary, 178 athletic trainer, 120 behavior technician, 169 child life specialist, 201 clinical laboratory technician, 134 fitness instructor, 116–117 medical laboratory technician, 134 occupational therapy assistant, 103 personal trainer, 116–117 pharmacy technician, 135 physical education teacher, 120 physical therapy assistant, 103 psychiatric technician, 133 recreational therapist, 102 registered behavior technician, 169 school counselor, 78–79 school psychology, 75 social worker, 53 substance abuse counselor, 56 teacher, 69 Childcare worker: career profile, 71–72 education/training, 70 job description, 69–70 salary, 70 school psychology, 69–70, 71–72 Child custody cases, 91 Child Life Council, 201 Child life specialist: career preparation, 206t career profile, 202–203 certification, 201 developmental psychology, 200–201, 202–203 education/training, 201 job description, 200 salary, 201 work schedule, 201 Chronological résumé, 223, 226–227t Clinical and counseling psychology: accreditation, 61 administration, 63–64

applied experience, 57t bachelor’s degree opportunities, 52–56 career checklist, 64–65 career preparation, 57t clinical psychology, 49, 58–59 counseling psychology, 50, 58–59 coursework, 57t doctor of philosophy (PhD), 60–61 doctor of psychology (PsyD), 60–61 examinations, 62 graduate degree opportunities, 56, 58–64 graduate degree programs, 59–60 human services worker, 52–53, 54–55 internet resources, 51, 53, 56, 66 internship, 61 licensed master social worker (LMSW), 50, 51 licensed professional counselor (LPC), 50, 51 licensure, 61, 62 marriage and family therapy (MFT), 50–51 practice setting, 62–63 program development and evaluation, 63 research experience, 57t social worker, 50, 51, 53 study exercise, 65–66 substance abuse counselor, 53, 56 Clinical laboratory technician: biopsychology, 134 certification, 134 education/training, 134 internet resources, 134 job description, 134 Clinical laboratory worker: occupational outlook, 134 salary, 134 Clinical neuropsychology. See Biopsychology Coach: education/training, 117, 119 job description, 117 salary, 119

Index  291

sport psychology, 117, 119 work schedule, 119 Cognitive neuropsychology. See Biopsychology Cognitive psychology. See Industrialorganizational psychology College major selection: active participation in, 24 advisory information, 26–27 career assessment tools, 21–24 career determinants, 24–25 career planning process, 25 careers by personality type, 22–23t current student advice, 26 departmental programs, 25–26 former student advice, 26–27 guidelines for, 24–27 internet resources, 21, 29, 30 occupational interests, 18–21 opportunities of, 25 options for, 25–26 personality assessment, 18–20t professor advice, 27 self-assessment tools, 13–24 skills identification, 13–14, 15–16t values identification, 14, 16–17t See also Psychology major selection Colvin, Kate, 118–119 Commercial design assistant: career preparation, 154t education/training, 148, 151 industrial-organizational psychology, 148, 151 job description, 148 work schedule, 151 Commercial designer: industrial-organizational psychology, 148, 151 job description, 148 work schedule, 151 Compensation analyst, 147, 153, 156 Computer network support specialist, 168 Computer programmer: career preparation, 173t education/training, 167–168 experimental/quantitative psychology, 167–168

job description, 167 salary, 167 work schedule, 167 Computer support specialist: career preparation, 173t computer network support specialist, 168 education/training, 168 experimental/quantitative psychology, 168 help desk technician, 168 job description, 168 occupational outlook, 168 salary, 168 Congressional fellowship program, 95–96 Consultant: education/training, 157 industrial-organizational psychology, 156–157 job description, 156–157 management analyst, 157 management consultant, 157 marketing consultant, 157 mediation consultant, 157 occupational outlook, 157 organizational development consultant, 157 salary, 157 work schedule, 157 Consumer psychology. See Social/ consumer psychology Correctional officer: education/training, 86 job description, 85 legal and forensic psychology, 85 occupational outlook, 85 salary, 85 Correctional psychology: with doctoral degree, 90 education/training, 89–90 job description, 87, 89 legal and forensic psychology, 87, 89–90 with master’s degree, 89–90 occupational outlook, 87, 90 salary, 89, 90

292   Careers in Psychology Counseling psychology. See Clinical and counseling psychology Coursework: biopsychology, 136t breadth courses, 35, 36t capstone course, 35 clinical and counseling psychology, 57t developmental psychology, 206–207t elective courses, 35 experimental/quantitative psychology, 173–174t health psychology, 106t industrial-organizational psychology, 154–155t legal and forensic psychology, 88t psychology education, 33, 34–35 school psychology, 74t social/consumer psychology, 191t sport psychology, 122t Criminal profiling, 83, 84 Data architect: education/training, 177 experimental/quantitative psychology, 177 job description, 177 salary, 177 Database administrator: education/training, 177 experimental/quantitative psychology, 177 job description, 177 occupational outlook, 177 salary, 177 work schedule, 177 Data mining: education/training, 194, 195 job description, 194–195 salary, 195 social/consumer psychology, 194–195 work schedule, 195 Design psychologist: education/training, 159 industrial-organizational psychology, 158–159

job description, 158–159 salary, 159 Developmental media consultant: developmental psychology, 208–209 job description, 208–209 Developmental product consultant: developmental psychology, 208, 209 job description, 208, 209 salary, 209 Developmental psychology: applied developmental psychology, 199, 210–211 applied experience, 207t assistant director of student services, 201 bachelor’s degree opportunities, 199–205 career checklist, 211–212 career preparation, 206–207t career profile, 202–203 characteristics of, 199 child life specialist, 200–201, 202–203, 206t coursework, 206–207t developmental media consultant, 208–209 developmental product consultant, 208, 209 foundation director, 205 fundraising assistant, 204–205, 207t fundraising coordinator, 204, 207t gerontology, 199 gerontology aide, 200 gerontology service coordinator, 200 graduate degree opportunities, 205, 208–211 grant director, 205 internet resources, 201, 214 program assistant, 203–204, 206t program coordinator, 204, 206t program director, 204 research experience, 207t student activities director, 201, 206t study exercise, 212–213 user experience designer, 209–210 user interface designer, 209–210

Index  293

Director of student services. See Student activities director Doctoral degree: clinical and counseling psychology, 60–61 defined, 6–7 doctor of education (EdD), 7 doctor of philosophy (PhD), 6, 60–61 doctor of psychology (PsyD), 6–7, 60–61 Duffy, Irene, 54–55 Early childhood behavioral specialist: education/training, 73 job description, 73 salary, 73 school psychology, 73 Education/training: actuary, 178 administrative assistant, 152 administrative services manager, 152 advertising, 185–186 advertising manager, 194 applied behavior analyst, 169, 170, 175 applied developmental psychology, 211 assistant media buyer, 185–186 assistant media coordinator, 185–186 assistant media planner, 185–186 athletic trainer, 120 budget analyst, 169 childcare worker, 70 child life specialist, 201 clinical laboratory technician, 134 coach, 117, 119 commercial design assistant, 148, 151 computer programmer, 167–168 computer support specialist, 168 consultant, 157 correctional officer, 86 correctional psychology, 89–90 data architect, 177 database administrator, 177

data mining, 194, 195 design psychologist, 159 financial analyst, 178–179 fitness instructor, 116–117 forensic examiner, 91, 94 forensic interviewer, 87 foundation director, 205 fundraising assistant, 204–205 fundraising coordinator, 204–205 gerontology service coordinator, 200 grant director, 205 health educator, 104, 105 human resources, 147–148 human resources professional, 153, 156 industrial design assistant, 148, 151 juvenile detention worker, 86 manager, 152 medical laboratory technician, 134 occupational therapy assistant, 103 operations research analyst, 175–176 personal trainer, 116–117 pharmacy technician, 135 physical education teacher, 120 physical therapy assistant, 103–104 police officer, 86 police psychology, 94 political careers, 95–96 probation/parole officer, 86 professor career, 242–243 project manager, 152 psychiatric technician, 133 public relations manager, 194 public relations specialist, 190 real estate agent, 187 recreational therapist, 102 recreation worker, 116 sales manager, 194 school counselor, 78–79 science technician, 132, 133 social worker, 51, 53 software developer, 167–168 sport instructor, 117, 119 substance abuse counselor, 53, 56 systems analyst, 176–177 systems architect, 176–177 teacher, 68, 69

294   Careers in Psychology trial consultant, 95 underwriter, 166–167 usability specialist, 158 user experience strategist, 153 web developer, 167–168 See also Bachelor’s degree opportunities; Certification; Coursework; Graduate degree opportunities; Licensure Elective courses, 35 Employee communications director, 156 Employee communications manager, 156 Employee relations specialist, 147, 153, 156 Environmental designer. See Design psychologist Executive assistant: industrial-organizational psychology, 151 job description, 151 salary, 151 Experimental/quantitative psychology: actuary, 177–178 applied behavior analyst, 169, 170 applied experience, 174t assistant behavior analyst, 169–170 bachelor’s degree opportunities, 166–170 behavior technician, 169–170 budget analyst, 168–169 career checklist, 179–180 career preparation, 173–174t career profile, 171–172 computer programmer, 167–168 computer support specialist, 168 coursework, 173–174t data architect, 177 database administrator, 177 experimental psychology, 165 financial analyst, 178–179 graduate degree opportunities, 170, 175–179 internet resources, 182 learning psychologist, 165 mathematical psychology, 165 operations research analyst, 175–176 psychometrics, 165, 171–172

quantitative psychology, 165 registered behavior technician, 169, 170 research experience, 174t sensation and perception psychologist, 165 software developer, 167–168 study exercise, 180–181 systems analyst, 176–177 systems architect, 176–177 underwriter, 166–167 web developer, 167–168 Extracurricular activities, 42 Financial analyst: education/training, 178–179 experimental/quantitative psychology, 178–179 job description, 178 licensure, 179 occupational outlook, 179 salary, 179 work schedule, 179 Financial Industry Regulatory Authority, 179 Fitness instructor: certification, 116–117 education/training, 116–117 internet resources, 116–117 job description, 116 occupational outlook, 117 salary, 117 sport psychology, 116 Forensic examiner: career profile, 92–93 child custody cases, 91 criminal cases, 90 education/training, 91, 94 job description, 90–91 legal and forensic psychology, 90–94 personal injury litigation, 91 salary, 91 Forensic interviewer: education/training, 87 job description, 87 legal and forensic psychology, 87 salary, 87

Index  295

Forensic psychology. See Legal and forensic psychology Foundation director: developmental psychology, 205 education/training, 205 job description, 205 salary, 205 Franks, Adam, 188–189 Functional résumé, 223, 227–228t Fundraising assistant: career preparation, 207t developmental psychology, 204–205 education/training, 204–205 job description, 204 salary, 204 Fundraising coordinator: career preparation, 207t developmental psychology, 204 education/training, 204–205 job description, 204 salary, 204 Gerontology, 199 Gerontology aide: developmental psychology, 200 job description, 200 salary, 200 Gerontology service coordinator: developmental psychology, 200 education/training, 200 job description, 200 occupational outlook, 200 salary, 200 Graduate degree opportunities: biopsychology, 135, 137–139 clinical and counseling psychology, 56, 58–64 developmental psychology, 205, 208–211 experimental/quantitative psychology, 170, 175–179 health psychology, 105, 107–111 industrial-organizational psychology, 153, 156–160 legal and forensic psychology, 87–96

school psychology, 73, 75–79 social/consumer psychology, 190, 192–195 Grant director: developmental psychology, 205 education/training, 205 job description, 205 salary, 205 Health educator: education/training, 104, 105 health psychology, 104–105 job description, 104 occupational outlook, 104 salary, 104 work schedule, 104 Health psychology: academic setting, 105, 107 applied experience, 106t bachelor’s degree opportunities, 101–105 career checklist, 111 career preparation, 106t career profile, 108–109 career settings, 105, 107, 108–109, 110–111 characteristics of, 101 coursework, 106t graduate degree opportunities, 105, 107–111 health educator, 104–105 internet resources, 102, 103, 113 occupational therapy assistant, 102–103 physical therapy assistant, 103–104 public health setting, 110–111 recreational therapist, 101–102 research experience, 106t research setting, 105, 107, 108–109 service delivery setting, 107, 110 study exercise, 112 treatment service, 107, 110 Help desk technician, 168 Holland Occupational Codes, 18–20t, 21 Human factors psychology. See Industrial-organizational psychology

296   Careers in Psychology Human resource generalist, 147, 153, 156 Human resources: benefits administrator, 147, 153, 156 benefits analyst, 147, 153, 156 career preparation, 154t career profile, 149–150 compensation analyst, 147, 153, 156 education/training, 147–148 employee relations specialist, 147, 153, 156 human resource generalist, 147, 153, 156 industrial-organizational psychology, 146–148, 149–150 job description, 146–147, 148 occupational outlook, 148 recruiter, 147, 153, 156 salary, 148, 156t training specialist, 147, 153, 156 work schedule, 147–148 Human resources professional: benefits director, 156 benefits manager, 156 education/training, 153, 156 employee communications director, 156 employee communications manager, 156 industrial-organizational psychology, 153, 156 job description, 153, 156 salary, 156t Human services worker: career profile, 54–55 clinical and counseling psychology, 52–53, 54–55 job description, 52 occupational outlook, 52 salary, 53 work schedule, 52–53 Idealist.org, 221 Indeed.com, 221 Independent study, 39–40 Industrial design assistant: career preparation, 154t education/training, 148, 151

industrial-organizational psychology, 148, 151 job description, 148 salary, 151 work schedule, 151 Industrial designer: industrial-organizational psychology, 148, 151 job description, 148 occupational outlook, 151 work schedule, 151 Industrial-organizational psychology: administrative assistant, 151–152 administrative services manager, 151, 152 applied experience, 155t bachelor’s degree opportunities, 146–153 career checklist, 160–161 career preparation, 154–155t career profile, 149–150 characteristics of, 144–145 cognitive psychology, 145 commercial design assistant, 148, 151 commercial designer, 148, 151 consultant, 156–157 coursework, 154–155t design psychologist, 158–159 engineering psychology, 145–146 ergonomics, 146 executive assistant, 151, 152 graduate degree opportunities, 153, 156–160 human factors psychology, 145–146 human resources, 146–148, 149–150 human resources professional, 153, 156 industrial design assistant, 148, 151 industrial designer, 148, 151 internet resources, 162–163 manager, 152–153 project manager, 152–153 research experience, 155t study exercise, 161–162 usability specialist, 158 user experience strategist, 153

Index  297

Internet resources: American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy, 51 American Council on Exercise, 116–117 American Counseling Association, 51 American Occupational Therapy Association, 103 American Physical Therapy Association, 103 American School Counselor Association, 79 Association of Real Estate License Law Officials, 187 Association of Social Work Boards, 53 biopsychology, 134, 135, 141–142 Careerbuilder.com, 221 CareerOneStop, 13 Child Life Council, 201 clinical and counseling psychology, 51, 53, 56, 66 clinical laboratory technician, 134 college major selection, 21, 29, 30 developmental psychology, 201, 214 experimental/quantitative psychology, 182 fitness instructor, 116–117 health psychology, 102, 103, 113 Idealist.org, 221 Indeed.com, 221 industrial-organizational psychology, 162–163 job-search process, 221, 239 legal and forensic psychology, 99 marriage and family therapy (MFT), 51 medical laboratory technician, 134 Monster.com, 221 National Academy of Sports Medicine, 116–117116–117 National Association for Addiction Professionals, 56 National Association of Social Workers, 51 National Council for Therapeutic Recreation Certification, 102

Occupational Outlook Handbook, 12, 29 occupational therapy assistant, 103 O*NET Interest Profiler, 21 O*NET Online, 13, 29 personal trainer, 116–117 pharmacy technician, 135 Pharmacy Technician Certification Board, 135 physical therapy assistant, 103 psychology education, 46 psychology major selection, 12, 13, 30 real estate agent, 187 recreational therapist, 102 school counselor, 79 school psychology, 81 Simplyhired.com, 221 social/consumer psychology, 187, 197 social worker, 51, 53 sport psychology, 116–117, 126–127 substance abuse counselor, 56 USAJobs.gov, 221 Internship: benefits, 40–41 clinical and counseling psychology, 61 opportunities, 41–42 in psychology, 40–42 settings, 40 tasks, 40 Interviews. See Job interview Ireland, Kate, 149–150 Job description: actuary, 177–178 administrative assistant, 151 administrative services manager, 151 advertising, 185 advertising clerk, 185 advertising manager, 193 advertising sales director, 193 applied behavior analyst, 170 applied developmental psychology, 199, 210–211 assistant behavior analyst, 169

298   Careers in Psychology assistant media buyer, 185 assistant media coordinator, 185 assistant media planner, 185 athletic trainer, 120 behavior technician, 169 budget analyst, 168 childcare worker, 69–70 child life specialist, 200 clinical laboratory technician, 134 coach, 117 commercial design assistant, 148 commercial designer, 148 computer programmer, 167 computer support specialist, 168 consultant, 156–157 correctional officer, 85 correctional psychology, 87, 89 data administrator, 177 data architect, 177 data mining, 194–195 design psychologist, 158–159 developmental media consultant, 208–209 developmental product consultant, 208, 209 executive assistant, 151 financial analyst, 178 fitness instructor, 116 forensic examiner, 90–91 forensic interviewer, 87 foundation director, 205 fundraising assistant, 204 fundraising coordinator, 204 gerontology aide, 200 gerontology service coordinator, 200 grant director, 205 health educator, 104 human resources, 146–147, 148 human resources professional, 153, 156 human services worker, 52 industrial design assistant, 148 industrial designer, 148 juvenile detention worker, 86 manager, 152 marketing, 192, 193 medical laboratory technician, 134

occupational therapy assistant, 102–103 operations research analyst, 175 personal trainer, 116 pharmacy technician, 134 physical education teacher, 120 physical therapy assistant, 103 police officer, 84 police psychology, 96 political careers, 95–96 probation/parole officer, 86 program assistant, 203–204 program coordinator, 204 program director, 204 project manager, 152 psychiatric technician, 133 public relations director, 193 public relations manager, 193 public relations specialist, 187, 189 real estate agent, 186 recreational therapist, 101–102 recreation director, 116 recreation supervisor, 116 recreation worker, 116 sales manager, 193–194 school counselor, 78 science technician, 132–133 social media coordinator, 190 social media strategist, 190 social worker, 51, 53 software developer, 167 sport instructor, 117 student activities director, 201 substance abuse counselor, 56 systems analyst, 176 systems architect, 176 teacher, 68, 69 teaching assistant, 70 trial consultant, 96–97 underwriter, 166 usability specialist, 158 user experience designer, 209, 210 user experience strategist, 153 user interface designer, 209–210 web developer, 167

Index  299

Job growth. See Occupational outlook Job interview: guidelines for, 232–237 interviewee questions, 235t interviewer questions, 234–235t interview process, 236–237 preparation, 233 professional appearance, 235–236 thank-you note, 237 See also Résumé Job résumé. See Résumé Job schedule. See Work schedule Job-search process: employee skills, 217–218 internet resources, 221, 239 interview, 232–237 job offer, 237 job openings, 220–221 LinkedIn profile, 228–231 résumé preparation, 221–232 social media profile, 218–220 study exercise, 238 Juvenile detention worker: education/training, 86 job description, 86 legal and forensic psychology, 86 salary, 86 Learning psychologist, 165 Legal and forensic psychology: applied experience, 88t bachelor’s degree opportunities, 84–87 career checklist, 96–97 career preparation, 88–89t career profile, 92–93 characteristics of, 83–84 correctional officer, 85 correctional psychology, 87, 89–90 coursework, 88t criminal profiling, 83, 84 forensic examiner, 90–94 forensic interviewer, 87 forensic psychology, 83–84 graduate degree opportunities, 87–96 internet resources, 99

juvenile detention worker, 86 legal psychology, 83 police officer, 84–85 police psychology, 96 political careers, 95–96 probation/parole officer, 86 research experience, 89t study exercise, 97–98 trial consultant, 96–97 Licensed master social worker (LMSW), 50, 51 Licensed professional counselor (LPC), 50, 51 Licensure: actuary, 178 applied behavior analyst, 170, 175 applied developmental psychology, 211 financial analyst, 179 real estate agent, 187 recreational therapist, 102 social worker, 51, 53 LinkedIn profile, 228–231 Management analyst, 157 Management consultant, 157 Manager: career preparation, 155t education/training, 152 industrial-organizational psychology, 152–153 job description, 152 occupational outlook, 152 salary, 152–153 Marketing: job description, 192, 193 marketing director, 192 marketing manager, 192, 193 market research analyst, 192 market research manager, 193 occupational outlook, 192 salary, 192, 193 social/consumer psychology, 192–193 work schedule, 192 Marketing consultant, 157 Marketing director, 192

300   Careers in Psychology Marketing manager, 192, 193 Market research analyst, 192 Market research manager, 193 Marriage and family therapy (MFT), 50–51 Master’s degree: defined, 6 master of arts (MA), 6 master of science (MS), 6 Mathematical psychology, 165 McGinnis, Andrea, 202–203 Mediation consultant, 157 Medical laboratory technician: biopsychology, 134 certification, 134 education/training, 134 internet resources, 134 job description, 134 Medical laboratory worker, 134 Mena, Christina, 71–72 Mentors, 37 Minors, 43 Monster.com, 221 Morgan, Taylor, 108–109 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), 23 National Academy of Sports Medicine, 116–117116–117 National Association for Addiction Professionals, 56 National Association of School Psychologists, 75 National Association of Social Workers, 51 National Council for Therapeutic Recreation Certification, 102 Occupational outlook: actuary, 178 administrative assistant, 151–152 administrative services manager, 152 advertising, 186 advertising manager, 194 athletic trainer, 120 behavior technician, 175 budget analyst, 169 clinical laboratory worker, 134 computer support specialist, 168

consultant, 157 correctional officer, 85 correctional psychology, 87, 90 database administrator, 177 financial analyst, 179 gerontology service coordinator, 200 health educator, 104 human resources, 148 human services worker, 52 industrial designer, 151 manager, 152 marketing, 192 occupational therapy assistant, 103 operations research analyst, 175 pharmacy technician, 135 physical therapy assistant, 104 police officer, 85 project manager, 152 psychiatric technician, 133 public relations manager, 194 public relations specialist, 190 real estate agent, 187 recreational therapist, 102 recreation worker, 117 school counselor, 78 science technician, 133 social worker, 53 student activities director, 201 substance abuse counselor, 56 teaching assistant, 73 underwriter, 166 user experience strategist, 153 Occupational Outlook Handbook (U.S. Department of Labor), 12–13, 29 Occupational therapy assistant: certification, 103 education/training, 103 health psychology, 102–103 internet resources, 103 job description, 102–103 occupational outlook, 103 salary, 103 work schedule, 103 O*NET Interest Profiler, 21 O*NET Online, 13, 29 Operations research analyst: education/training, 175–176

Index  301

experimental/quantitative psychology, 175–176 job description, 175 occupational outlook, 175 salary, 175 work schedule, 175 Organizational development consultant, 157 Personal injury litigation, 91 Personality: careers by personality type, 22–23t self-assessment, 18–20t Personal trainer: certification, 116–117 education/training, 116–117 internet resources, 116–117 job description, 116 sport psychology, 116–117 Pharmacy technician: biopsychology, 134–135 certification, 135 education/training, 135 internet resources, 135 job description, 134 occupational outlook, 135 salary, 135 work schedule, 135 Pharmacy Technician Certification Board, 135 Physical education teacher: certification, 120 education/training, 120 job description, 120 salary, 120 sport psychology, 120 Physical therapy assistant: certification, 103 education/training, 103–104 health psychology, 103–104 internet resources, 103 job description, 103 occupational outlook, 104 salary, 104 Police officer: criminal profiling, 84 education/training, 86

job description, 84 legal and forensic psychology, 84–85 occupational outlook, 85 salary, 84–85 Police psychology: education/training, 94 job description, 96 legal and forensic psychology, 96 salary, 94 Political career: education/training, 95–96 job description, 95–96 legal and forensic psychology, 95–96 salary, 96 Probation/parole officer: education/training, 86 job description, 86 legal and forensic psychology, 86 salary, 86 Professor career: advantages of, 243 disadvantages of, 243–244 education/training, 242–243 expectations/activities, 241–242 salary, 244t Professor relationship: college major advice, 27 for research experience, 36–37 Program assistant: career preparation, 206t developmental psychology, 203–204 job description, 203–204 salary, 204 Program coordinator: career preparation, 206t developmental psychology, 204 job description, 204 salary, 204 Program director: career preparation, 206t developmental psychology, 204 job description, 204 salary, 204 Project manager: career preparation, 155t education/training, 152

302   Careers in Psychology industrial-organizational psychology, 152–153 job description, 152 occupational outlook, 152 salary, 152–153 Psychiatric technician: biopsychology, 133 certification, 133 education/training, 133 job description, 133 occupational outlook, 133 salary, 133 Psychological literacy, 9–10, 32–33, 34 Psychology education: APA goals, 33–34 breadth courses, 35, 36t capstone course, 35 course requirements, 33, 34–35 coursework, 34–35, 36t curriculum, 33–35, 36t disciplinary minors, 43 elective courses, 35 extracurricular activities, 42 general psychology course, 34 internet resources, 46 internships, 40–42 introductory psychology course, 34 mentors, 37 methodology course, 34–35 professor relationship, 36–37 psychological literacy, 32–33, 34 research experience, 35–40 statistics course, 35 study exercise, 44–45 subdisciplinary courses, 36t transferable skills, 32–33 work experience, 43–44 See also Bachelor’s degree opportunities; Graduate degree opportunities; specific disciplinary subfield Psychology major selection: academic careers, 11–12t bachelor’s degree, 4–5 business careers, 11–12t career settings, 10, 11–12t checklist for, 28

doctoral degree, 6–7 field defined, 3–4 general considerations, 27–28 internet resources, 12, 13, 30 interpersonal skills, 10 master’s degree, 6 occupational outlook, 12–13, 29 psychological literacy, 9–10 research skills, 10 social/human services careers, 11–12t study exercise, 29 subdisciplines, 5t transferable skills, 7–9 value of, 7–10 Psychometrics, 165, 171–172 Public relations director: job description, 193 salary, 193 social/consumer psychology, 193 Public relations manager: education/training, 194 job description, 193 occupational outlook, 194 salary, 193 social/consumer psychology, 193, 194 work schedule, 194 Public relations specialist: education/training, 190 job description, 187, 189 occupational outlook, 190 salary, 190 social/consumer psychology, 187, 189–190 work schedule, 189–190 Publishing career, 248–250 Quantitative psychology. See Experimental/quantitative psychology Real estate agent: education/training, 187 internet resources, 187 job description, 186 licensure, 187 occupational outlook, 187

Index  303

salary, 187 social/consumer psychology, 186–187 work schedule, 186–187 Recreational therapist: certification, 102 education/training, 102 health psychology, 101–102 internet resources, 102 job description, 101–102 licensure, 102 occupational outlook, 102 salary, 102 Recreation director: job description, 116 salary, 116 sport psychology, 116 Recreation supervisor: job description, 116 salary, 116 sport psychology, 116 Recreation worker: education/training, 116 job description, 116 occupational outlook, 117 salary, 116, 117 sport psychology, 116, 117 Recruiter, 147, 153, 156 Registered behavior technician: career preparation, 174t certification, 169 experimental/quantitative psychology, 169, 170 salary, 170 Research career: academic setting, 244–245 government setting, 246–247 industry setting, 245–246 nonprofit organizations, 247–248 salary, 248t social service agency, 247–248 think tanks, 247–248 Research experience: benefits, 37 biopsychology, 136t clinical and counseling psychology, 57t

developmental psychology, 207t experimental/quantitative psychology, 174t health psychology, 106t independent study, 39–40 industrial-organizational psychology, 155t legal and forensic psychology, 89t mentors, 37 opportunities, 38 professor relationship, 36–37 in psychology, 35–40 research assistant tasks, 38–39 school psychology, 74t social/consumer psychology, 191t sport psychology, 122t Résumé: action verbs, 224–225t checklist for, 229t chronological résumé, 223, 226–227t contact information, 222 cover letter, 231–232 education, 223 electronic résumé, 228 functional résumé, 223, 227–228t information organization, 222–223 length, 228 LinkedIn profile, 228–231 objective statement, 222–223 preparation guidelines, 221–232 printing, 228 proofreading, 228 qualifications summary, 223 references, 231 work experience, 223 Roberson, Shawn, 92–93 Salary: actuary, 178 administrative assistant, 152 administrative services manager, 152 advertising, 186 advertising clerk, 186 advertising manager, 193 advertising sales director, 193 applied behavior analyst, 175

304   Careers in Psychology applied developmental psychology, 211 assistant behavior analyst, 170 assistant director of student services, 201 assistant media buyer, 186 assistant media coordinator, 186 assistant media planner, 186 athletic trainer, 120 behavior technician, 170 budget analyst, 169 childcare worker, 70 child life specialist, 201 clinical laboratory worker, 134 coach, 119 computer network support specialist, 168 computer programmer, 167 computer support specialist, 168 consultant, 157 correctional officer, 85 correctional psychology, 89, 90 data architect, 177 database administrator, 177 data mining, 195 design psychologist, 159 developmental product consultant, 209 executive assistant, 151 financial analyst, 179 fitness instructor, 117 forensic examiner, 91 forensic interviewer, 87 foundation director, 205 fundraising assistant, 204 fundraising coordinator, 204 gerontology aide, 200 gerontology service coordinator, 200 grant director, 205 health educator, 104 human resources, 148, 156t human resources professional, 156t human services worker, 53 industrial design assistant, 151 juvenile detention worker, 86 manager, 152–153 marketing, 192, 193

marketing director, 192 marketing manager, 192 market research analyst, 192 market research manager, 293 medical laboratory worker, 134 occupational therapy assistant, 103 operations research analyst, 175 pharmacy technician, 135 physical education teacher, 120 physical therapy assistant, 104 police officer, 84–85 police psychology, 94 political careers, 96 probation/parole officer, 86 professor career, 244t program assistant, 204 program coordinator, 204 program director, 204 project manager, 152–153 psychiatric technician, 133 public relations director, 193 public relations manager, 193 public relations specialist, 190 real estate agent, 187 recreational therapist, 102 recreation director, 116 recreation supervisor, 116 recreation worker, 116, 117 registered behavior technician, 170 research career, 248t sales manager, 194 school counselor, 78 science technician, 133 social media coordinator, 190 social media strategist, 190 social worker, 53 software developer, 167 sport instructor, 119 student activities director, 201 substance abuse counselor, 56 systems analyst, 177 systems architect, 177 teacher, 68.69 teaching assistant, 73 trial consultant, 95 underwriter, 166 usability specialist, 158

Index  305

user experience designer, 210 user experience strategist, 153 user interface designer, 210 web developer, 167 Sales manager: education/training, 194 job description, 193–194 salary, 194 social/consumer psychology, 193–194 School counselor: certification, 78–79 education/training, 78–79 internet resources, 79 job description, 78 occupational outlook, 78 salary, 78 school psychology, 78–79 work schedule, 78 School psychology: accreditation, 78 applied experience, 74t bachelor’s degree opportunities, 68–73 career checklist, 79 career preparation, 74t career profile, 71–72 career settings, 75–78 certification, 75 characteristics of, 67–68 childcare worker, 69–70, 71–72 coursework, 74t early childhood behavioral specialist, 73 graduate degree opportunities, 73, 75–79 internet resources, 81 private setting, 76–77 research experience, 74t school counselor, 78–79 school setting, 75–76 study exercise, 80 teacher, 68–69 teaching assistant, 70, 73 Science technician: biopsychology, 132–133 education/training, 132, 133

job description, 132–133 occupational outlook, 133 salary, 133 Self-assessment tools: career assessment, 21–24 for college majors, 13–14 Holland Occupational Codes, 18–20t, 21 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), 23 occupational interests, 18–21 O*NET Interest Profiler, 21 personality type, 18–20t skills identification, 13–14, 15–16t Strong Interest Inventory, 21, 23 values identification, 14, 16–17t Senn, Bryan, 171–172 Sensation and perception psychologist, 165 Simplyhired.com, 221 Skills assessment, 13–14, 15–16t Social/consumer psychology: advertising, 185–186 advertising manager, 193, 194 applied experience, 191t assistant media buyer, 185, 186 assistant media coordinator, 185, 186 assistant media planner, 185, 186 bachelor’s degree opportunities, 185–190 career checklist, 195 career preparation, 191t career profile, 188–189 consumer psychology, 184–185 coursework, 191t data mining, 194–195 graduate degree opportunities, 190, 192–195 internet resources, 187, 197 marketing, 192–193 public relations director, 193 public relations manager, 193, 194 public relations specialist, 187, 189–190 real estate agent, 186–187 research experience, 191t

306   Careers in Psychology sales manager, 193–194 social media coordinator, 190 social media strategist, 190 social psychology, 184 study exercise, 196 Social media coordinator: job description, 190 salary, 190 social/consumer psychology, 190 Social media profile, 218–220 Social media strategist: job description, 190 salary, 190 social/consumer psychology, 190 Social worker: certification, 53 clinical and counseling psychology, 50, 51, 53 education/training, 51, 53 internet resources, 51, 53 job description, 51, 53 licensure, 51, 53 occupational outlook, 53 salary, 53 Society of Actuaries, 178 Software developer: career preparation, 173t education/training, 167–168 experimental/quantitative psychology, 167–168 job description, 167 salary, 167 work schedule, 167 Sport instructor: education/training, 117, 119 job description, 117 salary, 119 sport psychology, 117, 119 work schedule, 119 Sport psychology: academic setting, 123 applied experience, 122t athletic trainer, 120 bachelor’s degree opportunities, 115–121 career checklist, 124–125 career preparation, 122t career profile, 118–119

career settings, 121, 123–124 characteristics of, 115 coach, 117, 119 coursework, 122t fitness instructor, 116–117 internet resources, 116–117, 126–127 personal trainer, 116–117 physical education teacher, 120 practice setting, 123–124 recreation director, 116 recreation supervisor, 116 recreation worker, 116, 117 research experience, 122t research setting, 123 sport instructor, 117, 119 sport reporter, 121 study exercise, 125–126 Sport reporter: education/training, 121 job description, 121 salary, 121 sport psychology, 121 work schedule, 121 Strong Interest Inventory, 21, 23 Student activities director: assistant director of student services, 201 career preparation, 206t developmental psychology, 201 job description, 201 occupational outlook, 201 salary, 201 work schedule, 201 Substance abuse counselor: certification, 56 clinical and counseling psychology, 53, 56 education/training, 53, 56 internet resources, 56 job description, 56 occupational outlook, 56 salary, 56 Systems analyst: education/training, 176–177 experimental/quantitative psychology, 176–177 job description, 176

Index  307

salary, 177 work schedule, 176 Systems architect: education/training, 176–177 experimental/quantitative psychology, 176–177 job description, 176 salary, 177 Teacher: certification, 69 education/training, 68, 69 job description, 68, 69 salary, 68.69 school psychology, 68–69 work schedule, 68–69 See also Professor career Teaching assistant: job description, 70 occupational outlook, 73 salary, 73 school psychology, 70, 73 Technical support specialist. See Computer network support specialist Training specialist, 147, 153, 156 Transferable skills, 7–9, 32–33 Trial consultant: education/training, 95 job description, 96–97 legal and forensic psychology, 96–97 salary, 95 Underwriter: assistant underwriter, 166 career preparation, 173t education/training, 166–167 experimental/quantitative psychology, 166–167 job description, 166 occupational outlook, 166 salary, 166 underwriter trainee, 166 work schedule, 166 Underwriter trainee, 166 Usability specialist: education/training, 158

industrial-organizational psychology, 158 job description, 158 salary, 158 work schedule, 158 USAJobs.gov, 221 U.S. Department of Labor: CareerOneStop, 13 Occupational Outlook Handbook, 12–13 O*NET Interest Profiler, 21 O*NET Online, 13 User experience designer: developmental psychology, 209–210 job description, 209, 210 salary, 210 User experience strategist: career preparation, 155t education/training, 153 industrial-organizational psychology, 153 job description, 153 occupational outlook, 153 salary, 153 User interface designer: developmental psychology, 209–210 job description, 209–210 salary, 210 Values assessment, 14, 16–17t Web developer: career preparation, 173t education/training, 167–168 experimental/quantitative psychology, 167–168 job description, 167 salary, 167 work schedule, 167 Work experience, 43–44 Work schedule: administrative assistant, 152 advertising manager, 194 budget analyst, 169 child life specialist, 201 coach, 119 commercial design assistant, 151 commercial designer, 151

308   Careers in Psychology computer programmer, 167 consultant, 157 database administrator, 177 data mining, 195 financial analyst, 179 health educator, 104 human resources, 147–148 human services worker, 52–53 industrial design assistant, 151 industrial designer, 151 marketing, 192 occupational therapy assistant, 103 operations research analyst, 175

pharmacy technician, 135 public relations manager, 194 public relations specialist, 189–190 real estate agent, 186–187 school counselor, 78 software developer, 167 sport instructor, 119 student activities director, 201 systems analyst, 176 teacher, 68–69 underwriter, 166 usability specialist, 158 web developer, 167