Cannibal Culture: Art, Appropriation, and the Commodification of Difference 0813320887, 0813320895, 9780813320892, 9780429501890

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Cannibal Culture

Cannibal Culture A r t , Appropriation, and the Commodification of Difference

Deborah Root

Routledge Taylor & Francis Group New York London

First published 1996 by Westview Press Published 2018 by Routledge 711 T h i r d Avenue, N e w York, N Y 10017, USA 2 Park Square, M i l t o n Park, A b i n g d o n , Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Copyright © 1996 Taylor & Francis A l l rights reserved. N o part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised i n any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, n o w k n o w n or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or i n any information storage or retrieval system, w i t h o u t permission i n w r i t i n g from the publishers. Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation w i t h o u t intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Root, Deborah. Cannibal culture: art, appropriation, and the commodiflcation of difference / Deborah Root, p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8133-2088-7 (he) — ISBN 0-8133-2089-5 (pb) 1. A r t and society. I . Title. N72.S6R66 1996 701'.03—dc20

ISBN 13: 978-0-8133-2089-2 (pbk)

95-20261 CIP

Contents

Freface Acknowledgments

viii xv

I F a t - E a t e r s and A e s t h e t e s : T h e Politics of Display

1

The W h i t e C a n n i b a l , 8 A r i s t o c r a t i c Dreams, 12 F r o m Spectacle t o Display, 16 A l i b i s o f A p p r e c i a t i o n , 18 Entitlement, 2 1 A N e w W o r l d Order, 2 4

2 T h e Luxurious A m b i v a l e n c e of Exoticism

27

A l l u r i n g Foreigners, 2 9 E x o t i c Histories, 32 Tropes o f Difference, 34 Fragments o f C u l t u r e , 4 1 Connoisseurs o f A m b i v a l e n c e , 43 C o l o n i a l Desires, 4 7 E x o t i c Sites: B l o o d a n d Flowers, 49 E x o t i c Imaginaries, 5 1 Surrealist Dreams, 53 Bataille, 55 Eisenstein: M e x i c o as R e d e m p t i o n , 60 A r t a u d : Redemptive Madness, 63

v

vi

Contents

3

C o n q u e s t , Appropriation, and C u l t u r a l Difference

67

Salvaging C u l t u r e , 73 A u t h e n t i c i t y a n d C u l t u r a l Integrity, 78 D e t e r r i t o r i a l i z a t i o n a n d Recoding: N a t i o n a l Agendas, 82 The N e w Age: A p p r o p r i a t i n g the Spirit, 87 Desperate People: H o n k y Shamans a n d W a n n a b e Indians, 9 7 Grey O w l a n d the P r o b l e m o f Identity, 102

4 A r t and Taxidermy: T h e W a r e h o u s e of Treasures

107

Resacralization o f the A u t h e n t i c Object, 110 T e m p o r a l i t y a n d W r i t i n g , 112 N e c r o p h i l i a , 116 A u t h e n t i c Details, 118 C o m m o d i t y Fetishism, 120 The C o m m o d i f i c a t i o n o f the Proper N a m e , 1 2 7 Class a n d Gender Anxieties, 130 D e a d A r t , 136 C r i t i c a l Styles a n d D e a t h , 142 The M a r k e t i n g o f M a r g i n a l i t y , 145 A r t and Commerce, 147

5 D r e a m s and Landscapes: T h e Delineation of W i l d Spaces Western C u l t u r e a n d H o w I t G o t T h a t Way, 153 H o w Ideas A b o u t L a n d Structure Ideas A b o u t People, 159 Orientalist Dreams, 161 C o l o n i a l Representation a n d Landscape, 165 Colonial Nightmares, 171 Travel a n d D e l i r i u m , 173 A r i s t o c r a t i c D r e a m s , 176 Sexual Ambivalences, 1 7 7 L a n d a n d Madness, 179 Escape a n d A u t h o r i t y , 183

151

Contents vii

6

T h e S m o k i n g Mirror

187

The State, A g a i n , 195 Signs a n d Omens, 1 9 7 Refusing the C a n n i b a l , 2 0 2

Notes Bibliography About the Book Index

and Author

207 219 225 227

Preface

I t is N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 4 i n T o r o n t o , a n d performance artist G u i l l e r m o GomezPena sits i n a b a m b o o cage i n the D u f f e r i n M a l l . H e wears studded d r i v i n g gloves a n d a feathered hat beaded w i t h a N a t i v e eagle design. H e devours a h u m a n heart made o f rubber. H e repeatedly raises a clenched fist. Sometimes he speaks t o the audience i n a language meant t o sound unfa­ miliar, t h e n turns a n d clutches a package o f A n c i e n t Grains breakfast ce­ real, the f r o n t o f w h i c h displays a p h o t o g r a p h o f a carved head unearthed at Teotihuacan. Sometimes he slumps d r u n k e n l y against the bars o f the cage. As w e stare at the m a n i n the cage, Coco Fusco w o r k s the c r o w d . Dressed i n feathers a n d face p a i n t , she offers free interviews t o shoppers, i n q u i r i n g i f w e w o u l d prefer t o h o l i d a y i n a n indigenous village i n Chiapas or scuba dive o f f Port-au-Prince. She w a n t s t o k n o w i f w e imagine grass skirts t o be inconvenient. She assigns interviewees a number, a n d they m o v e obediently t o stand i n f r o n t o f Gomez-Pena's cage, a w a i t i n g the perfor­ mance o f w h a t the artists call "ethnic t a l e n t " t h a t he has created, seemingly just for t h e m . I n Fusco a n d Gomez-Pena's performance the m u s e u m collapses i n t o the s h o p p i n g m a l l , where c u l t u r a l difference becomes another c o m m o d i t y t o be b o u g h t a n d sold. T h e m a l l has become the true axis o f Western culture as m o st o f us experience i t i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . H e r e , as elsewhere, c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n w o r k s by r e p e t i t i o n a n d the r e c o g n i t i o n this fosters: M o s t o f the shops are franchises, a n d the p r o d u c t s o n e x h i b i t i o n are i d e n t i c a l t o those o n display i n other cities. T h i s p a r t i c u l a r m a l l lies at the center o f " m u l t i ­ c u l t u r a l " T o r o n t o , a n d o n a t y p i c a l a f t e r n o o n y o u can see people w e a r i n g West A f r i c a n lappas, I n d i a n saris, o r r o c k - a n d - r o l l clothes, shoppers w h o are l i k e l y t o k n o w a t h i n g or t w o a b o u t c o l o n i a l history. Despite the ap­ pearance o f p l u r a l i t y , T o r o n t o remains a c o l o n i a l city i n w h i c h m a n y prefer t o forget the past or, rather, t o assume t h a t c o l o n i a l h i s t o r y is s o m e t h i n g t h a t is finished, over a n d done w i t h , as archaic as the B r i t i s h N o r t h A m e r i c a A c t a n d the fur traders o f the H u d s o n Bay C o m p a n y . M u l t i p l e his­ tories exist here, those o f w h a t the newspapers call " n e w Canadians" w a t c h i n g the performance at the D u f f e r i n M a l l , those o f the M o h a w k s a n d Anishnabe, those o f the Scots a n d I r i s h w h o settled here, those o f exAmericans like myself. Some histories are m o r e visible t h a n others, a n d i t is

viii

Preface ix perhaps t o o easy t o ignore those stories t h a t challenge the i l l u s i o n t h a t c u l ­ ture is fixed a n d unitary. I n the zocalo i n M e x i c o C i t y hundreds o f dancers h o n o r C u a u h t e m o c , the last Aztec k i n g w h o was t o r t u r e d t o death by H e r n a n Cortes. O n the site o f the great ceremonial center o f i m p e r i a l T e n o c h t i t l a n , they dance i n precise movements, each dancer p e r f o r m i n g the gesture o f a p a r t i c u l a r star, all together b e c o m i n g a constellation, a c o m m u n i t y t h a t remembers h i s t o r y a n d culture. T h e d r u m p o u n d s o u t the heartbeat o f the n a t i o n , w h i l e the s m o k i n g c o p a l mingles w i t h the a u t o m o b i l e exhaust a n d factory effluvia t h a t blanket the largest m e t r o p o l i s i n the w o r l d . Banners a d o r n the square, a n n o u n c i n g t o passersby, Q U E T Z A L C O A T L : Y O U A R E N O T W H I T E , Y O U H A V E N O B E A R D . As I lingered i n the zocalo, I was r e m i n d e d o f other dancers I h a d witnessed a few years earlier. N e a r M o n t r e a l , after the barricades have been d i s m a n t l e d i n one o f the M o h a w k territories besieged by the C a n a d i a n A r m y i n the O k a summer o f 1 9 9 0 , bundles o f sage b u r n as d r u m m e r s i n K a h n a w a k e beat o u t the A m e r i c a n I n d i a n M o v e m e n t song, a n d people— b o t h N a t i v e a n d non-Native—press a r o u n d the circle, singing a n d raising clenched fists. (Later w e hear t h a t a w h i t e entrepreneur i n Quebec is seek­ ing t o m a r k e t a M o h a w k w a r r i o r s b o a r d game.) It was i n M e x i c o C i t y a n d K a h n a w a k e t h a t I began t o grasp the elision o f m u l t i p l e histories t h a t h a d been at the base o f m y intellectual t r a i n i n g , a n d I u n d e r s t o o d t h a t the universalist discourses o f h i g h t h e o r y were unable t o account f o r or at times even recognize the subtleties o f c u l t u r a l difference a n d c o l o n i a l representation. These questions are being w o r k e d o u t else­ w h e r e , o n the g r o u n d , i n a m u l t i t u d e o f sites where p o w e r advances a n d re­ treats, mutates a n d coalesces, a n d is displaced. The w r i t i n g o f Cannibal Culture came o u t o f an a t t e m p t t o find a different w a y t o t a l k a b o u t c u l ­ t u r a l difference a n d the c o r r e s p o n d i n g ambiguities o f p e r c e p t i o n a n d u n ­ derstanding. T h i s n o t o n l y meant t h a t i t was t i m e t o lay the b i g books aside, b u t t h a t i t also h a d become necessary t o recognize the l i m i t s o f u n ­ derstanding: There are things a b o u t other cultures I w i l l never quite grasp, histories I w i l l never quite k n o w , even i f I have friends i n these c o m m u n i t i e s w h o are w i l l i n g t o e x p l a i n nuances t o me. The fiction t h a t i t is possible t o stand back a n d make judgments a b o u t difference o r authenticity, t h a t i t is possible t o k n o w i n advance w h a t this difference w i l l l o o k l i k e , was re­ vealed t o me as n o m o r e t h a n intellectual arrogance. Sometimes—and perhaps especially f r o m the rather n a r r o w vistas o f aca­ demic institutions—there is a tendency t o imagine t h a t the c u l t u r a l w o r l d dreamed up by people w o r k i n g for c o r p o r a t i o n s is seamless, t h a t the cornm o d i f i c a t i o n o f culture has i n some p r o f o u n d w a y succeeded. C y n i c i s m can be seductive a n d can itself presuppose a universalist stance. B u t the d r u m -

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Preface

mers i n M e x i c o C i t y a n d K a h n a w a k e , the o n g o i n g struggles over l a n d rights a n d N A F T A , the sometimes bitter debates over representation a n d power, m a k e i t clear t h a t c o l o n i a l i s m is n o t s o m e t h i n g over a n d done w i t h , even i f efforts t o address questions o f p o w e r q u i c k l y become c o m m o d i t i e s i n their o w n r i g h t . I f c o l o n i a l histories c o n t i n u e t o p l a y o u t , t h e n c u l t u r e continues t o be a b a t t l e g r o u n d . I f c u l t u r e remains a site o f contestation, t h e n the c o l o n i a l histories t h a t have i n f o r m e d the w a y c u l t u r a l difference was t a k e n u p i n the West w i l l c o n t i n u e t o be a n issue. People sometimes speak o f " p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m " as i f s o m e t h i n g has been decided, as i f the m i x i n g a n d f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f c u l t u r e a n d h i s t o r y such as occur i n the D u f f e r i n M a l l are n e u t r a l a n d n o t t h e m ­ selves a f u n c t i o n o f i m p e r i a l agendas p u t i n t o p l a y l o n g ago. T h e m a l l re­ mains a place w h e r e c o l o n i a l histories c o n t i n u e t o be reenacted, as do the m u s e u m a n d the university, even i f these sites can become p o i n t s o f disrup­ t i o n a n d performance art. T h e m a n i n the cage forces us t o consider the dif­ ferences a n d similarities between museums a n d s h o p p i n g malls a n d be­ t w e e n the a r t w o r l d a n d mass media. C o l o n i a l representation w o r k s m u c h as i t has always done. Gomez-Pena's display o f his o w n b o d y as a l i v i n g m u s e u m specimen underlines the extent t o w h i c h a vast range o f sites o f Western c u l t u r a l practice are u n d e r p i n n e d by an i m p e r i a l project t h a t c o n ­ t i n u a l l y seeks t o exercise a n d display p o w e r over foreign bodies. I n one sense the l i n k between m a l l a n d m u s e u m is o b v i o u s . T h e real p r o b l e m is finding a w a y t o t h i n k t h r o u g h the concept o f Western c u l t u r e , t h a t vast construct t h a t seems able t o encompass a n infinite n u m b e r o f sites, histories, a n d forgettings. O n the one h a n d , I believe i t is i m p o r t a n t t o h o l d o n t o a set o f generalities a b o u t w h a t Western c u l t u r e is or, rather, w h a t k i n d s o f mentalities a n d practices m a k e u p this a p p r o a c h t o the w o r l d . I t t h e n becomes possible t o recognize the sites w h e r e this m e n t a l i t y is m a n i ­ fested, f r o m malls t o museums, h i g h art t o television, a n d t o l o o k at the dif­ ferences a n d similarities o f each site. O n the other h a n d , i t is i m p o r t a n t t o keep seeing w h e r e the pretensions t o universality have b r o k e n d o w n , b o t h inside a n d outside Western centers a n d b o t h i n the past a n d present. H o w can w e learn t o remember, a n d t o t h i n k t h r o u g h issues o f c o l o n i a l i s m a n d power, w i t h o u t t a k i n g the p o s i t i o n o f the conquerors a n d w i t h o u t r e p r o ­ d u c i n g the mentalities t h a t made conquest t h i n k a b l e again a n d again? There exists a set o f practices a n d ideas that can be recognized as Western culture, b u t t h a t c u l t u r e is n o t n o w n o r has i t ever been one t h i n g , one his­ t o r i c a l m o m e n t or site f r o m w h i c h p o w e r is seamlessly t r a n s m i t t e d across the globe. I t l o o k s this w a y sometimes because o f h o w certain m o d a l i t i e s o f hierarchy a n d a b s t r a c t i o n are able t o m i g r a t e across t i m e a n d space. Part o f the p r o b l e m is the persistence o f a h i s t o r i c a l legacy o f a p p r o p r i a ­ t i o n . As the West sought t o a f f i r m c o l o n i a l d o m i n a t i o n over t e r r i t o r y , the w o r l d increasingly came t o be imagined as a vast warehouse o f images: O t h e r

Preface xi cultures became signs a n d fragments o f a w o r l d destroyed i n advance and of a difference and authenticity that c o u l d be aestheticized and consumed i n the West. A l t h o u g h the West was always able t o i n c o r p o r a t e difference i n t o its agendas, i t nevertheless sought t o m a i n t a i n a r i g i d line o f demarcation between " t h e m " and "us," between Europe and its "others." This is the true ruse o f c o l o n i a l i s t t h i n k i n g a n d one t h a t continues t o underlie m u c h c o n ­ t e m p o r a r y t h i n k i n g a b o u t c u l t u r e . T h e apparent a v a i l a b i l i t y i n the m a r k e t ­ place o f a vast range o f c u l t u r a l a n d h i s t o r i c a l i m p e d i m e n t a can elide the persistence o f the system o f values that has always fueled the colonial machine. Because c u l t u r a l difference has l o n g been conceived as a redemptive solu­ t i o n t o the ambivalence o f a Western culture established i n the destruction of its o w n t r a d i t i o n s , the a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f other aesthetic a n d s p i r i t u a l modes is u l t i m a t e l y self-referential. T h i s means t h a t any a t t e m p t t o perceive another culture based o n the c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n a n d c o n s u m p t i o n o f differ­ ence w i l l fail. U n d e r s t a n d i n g never really was the p o i n t . T h i s self-referent i a l i t y has permeated intellectual practices as w e l l , even some streams o f t h o u g h t t h a t seek t o address questions o f difference. I n the stretch-limo w o r l d o f the 1980s the p o w e r brokers o f this city e m b a r k e d o n a c a m p a i g n to attach the adjective world-class t o T o r o n t o ' s c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s . (The i m ­ m i g r a n t c o m m u n i t y o f the D u f f e r i n M a l l was never i m a g i n e d as w o r l d class.) Large segments o f the intellectual c o m m u n i t y scurried t o keep u p , t a k i n g their orders f r o m Paris, N e w H a v e n , o r other centers o f discursive a u t h o r i t y . B u t i n the end the self-referentiality o f the project w e n t n o w h e r e , a n d the city was left w i t h the N e w W o r l d O r d e r a n d the i l l u s i o n o f seamlessness t h a t goes a l o n g w i t h i t . W h a t underlies this desire t o be w o r l d class, t o speak t o a n d o f the w o r l d , t o possess a master discourse t h a t w i l l e x p l a i n a n d account for vast m u l t i p l i c i t i e s o f experience a n d history? We a l l have o u r b l i n d spots, a n d those o f us schooled i n the Western t r a ­ d i t i o n have often been t o o q u i c k t o assume a universality t h a t does n o t ex­ ist. O u r conceptual maps t e n d t o lack a w a y t o conceive the immanence o f violence a n d p o w e r i n the ideals a n d practices t h a t have become d o m i n a n t i n the Western t r a d i t i o n . Mass death has tended t o be conceived as some­ t h i n g accidental, something outside the o r d i n a r y r u n o f events. I t h i n k the difficulty i n c o m i n g t o terms w i t h the peculiarities o f the Western w i l l t o p o w e r has t o do w i t h the absence o f a central m e t a p h o r capable o f describ­ ing the l i n k between c o n s u m p t i o n a n d death. T h e c o n s u m p t i v e m e n t a l i t y has i n m a n y respects been n o r m a l i z e d , as has the violence t h a t underpins a n d is the effect o f systems o f universal j u d g m e n t . C e r t a i n l y the aesthetic i z a t i o n o f difference is coextensive w i t h the romance w i t h violence t h a t has become so characteristic o f c o n t e m p o r a r y Western society. There have been m a n y w r i t e r s a n d artists i n the West w h o have ad­ dressed these p r o b l e m s , b u t these have tended t o be i d i o s y n c r a t i c t h i n k e r s . I have learned a great deal a b o u t the nature o f p o w e r f r o m w r i t e r s such as

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Friedrich Nietzsche, Gilles Deleuze a n d Felix G u a t t a r i , and M i c h e l Foucault, b u t I have also come t o understand the i m p o r t a n c e o f a s o m e w h a t different range o f issues f r o m t h i n k e r s w h o locate their practice o n the rather m o r e distant margins o f the Western t r a d i t i o n . T h i s is n o t t o suggest t h a t t h e o r y is less valuable t h a n practice, or vice versa; m y concern is t o o p e n u p these questions t o other k i n d s o f k n o w l e d g e a n d other ways o f t h e o r i z i n g hierar­ chy a n d violence a n d their r e l a t i o n t o the c o n t r o l o f nature. After reading the w o r k s o f First N a t i o n s w r i t e r s Jack Forbes a n d Leslie M a r m o n Silko, after t a l k i n g t o c u l t u r a l activists i n the N a t i v e c o m m u n i t i e s i n Canada, a n d after a t t e m p t i n g t o t h i n k t h r o u g h questions o f Aztec h i s t o r i o g r a p h y , I felt I c o u l d begin t o address issues o f p o w e r a n d c u l t u r e f r o m a rather m o r e de­ tached perspective a n d do so i n a w a y t h a t does n o t assume the c e n t r a l i t y o f Western concerns. O n e w a y t o conceive o f the issues at stake i n this t e x t is t o t u r n t o the metaphors o f other cultures. T h i s can be t r i c k y , as i t can easily veer i n t o ap­ p r o p r i a t i o n a n d i n t o t h i n k i n g o f ideas as existing i n a k i n d o f s h o p p i n g m a l l , w h e r e w e can select b r i g h t , shiny objects o f t h o u g h t o f f the shelves i f w e possess the r i g h t currency. I came t o t h i n k t h a t the p r o b l e m lies, n o t i n t a l k i n g a b o u t or d e r i v i n g lessons f r o m other c u l t u r a l p a r a d i g m s — m a n y o f us t e n d t o d o this anyway, regardless o f w h e t h e r w e w r i t e a b o u t i t — b u t i n d o i n g so w i t h i n a r h e t o r i c o f r a d i c a l difference. T h i s means i m a g i n i n g an­ other c u l t u r e as w h o l l y other, exaggerating a n d aestheticizing the differ­ ences t h a t d o exist, a n d p l a c i n g a l l f i r m l y i n the past. T h e task becomes h o w t o recognize a n d respect differences w i t h o u t r e p r o d u c i n g the us-them couplet o f c o l o n i a l i s t t h i n k i n g or a master code t h a t treats difference as i f i t were one t h i n g . A l l cultures face the p r o b l e m s o f h o w t o live o n the earth a n d h o w t o organize p o w e r a n d address questions o f c o n s u m p t i o n . M a n y cultures possess a conceptual m a p t h a t grasps the nature o f violence a n d p o w e r a n d explains i t t h r o u g h a m e t a p h o r o f c o n s u m p t i o n . O f t e n this is conceived as a c a n n i b a l t h a t visits the c o m m u n i t y i n h a r d times a n d t h a t m u s t be faced u p t o a n d addressed c e r e m o n i a l l y so t h a t i t w i l l n o t devour its o w n . L o o k i n g the monster i n the face is a technique f o r c o n t r o l l i n g i t , a n d the lesson o f the c a n n i b a l stories is t h a t violence a n d p a r a n o i a are m o s t l i k e l y t o become p r o b l e m s i n societies t h a t refuse t o acknowledge the can­ n i b a l at the heart o f a l l c u l t u r e a n d a l l c o m m u n i t y . I n this w a y the failure o f Western c u l t u r e t o come t o terms w i t h the cen­ t r a l i t y o f its c o n s u m p t i v e impulse is b o t h a failure o f reflexivity a n d a func­ t i o n o f the aestheticization a n d c o n s u m p t i o n o f difference. Violence u l t i ­ mately turns against itself, a n d sick societies p r o d u c e sick people w h o n o longer go elsewhere t o live o u t their fantasies o f c o n t r o l . As I w r i t e these lines, a serial k i l l e r is h u n t i n g w o m e n i n m y T o r o n t o n e i g h b o r h o o d . W e have a l l begun t o w a t c h one another, t o search f o r the visible m a r k s o f the c a n n i b a l o n passersby. Such people are i m a g i n e d t o be w h o l l y other, some-

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h o w separate f r o m the society i n w h i c h they live. T h e k i l l e r is perhaps the most o b v i o u s a n d extreme i n c a r n a t i o n o f the w i l l t o consume, b u t the can­ n i b a l has m a n y other guises. T h e displacement a n d p r o j e c t i o n o f ferocity a n d rage o n t o the outsider are a fiction t h a t l i n k s up t o the n o t i o n t h a t the Aztecs or the A r a b s were the bearers o f a violence t h a t Europe h a d gone be­ y o n d . B u t these qualities have always been inside, always p a r t o f us. Cannibal Culture is an a t t e m p t t o construct a t o p o g r a p h y o f the West's w i l l t o aestheticize a n d consume c u l t u r a l difference. T h e various sites i n w h i c h this occurs are organized a r o u n d the central image o f the legendary c a n n i b a l monster w h o consumes a n d consumes, o n l y t o become hungrier a n d m o r e destructive. T h i s monster takes m a n y forms a n d has been called by m a n y different names. I imagine the c a n n i b a l as a m a p t h a t at times m a y be called "Tezcatlipoca," sometimes "wetiko" sometimes " d e t e r r i t o r i a l i z a t i o n a n d r e c o d i n g , " a n d sometimes " e m p i r e . " I have located several sites where this c a n n i b a l i z a t i o n o f difference is manifested, i n c l u d i n g ethno­ graphic a n d art museums, various k i n d s o f t o u r i s t attractions, French surre­ alist t h i n k i n g , the N e w Age industry, nineteenth-century p a i n t i n g a n d opera, c o n t e m p o r a r y film, a n d advertisements for cosmetics a n d perfume. Some o f these are sites o f p r o j e c t i o n , w h i c h reveal m o r e a b o u t Western o b ­ sessions t h a n a b o u t the places t h a t are the objects o f interest. A r a b y a n d M e x i c o are examples o f this. O t h e r sites are i n s t i t u t i o n s i n w h i c h versions o f c u l t u r a l difference are displayed t o the p u b l i c at large, as i n ethnographic e x h i b i t i o n s or, somewhat differently, i n operas such as Madama Butterfly. T h e t e x t is structured a r o u n d a series o f p r o b l e m a t i c s , i n c l u d i n g e x o t i c i s m , a p p r o p r i a t i o n , a n d l a n d , t o underline h o w such abstractions can i n f o r m m y r i a d seemingly disparate practices. A l t h o u g h Cannibal Culture is c r i t i c a l o f m a n y Western i n s t i t u t i o n s , I a m not suggesting that museums or o i l paintings are by definition c o r r u p t or p u r e l y propagandistic or are s o m e h o w p a r t o f a colonialist conspiracy t o pervert the t r u t h a b o u t other cultures. N o r a m I a t t e m p t i n g t o juxtapose an i n a u t h e n t i c m o d e o f representation against an authentic one. I do n o t t h i n k i t useful t o seek a pure or o r i g i n a r y space f r o m w h i c h t o judge representa­ tions o f c u l t u r e , a n d i t w o u l d be extremely difficult t o locate u n c o m m o d i fied forms o f c u l t u r e , even assuming w e w a n t e d t o do so. Cultures have a l ­ w a y s been m i x e d a n d i n f l u x , a n d t o assume a p u r e space o f resistance o r a u t h e n t i c i t y is t o refuse t o recognize the extent t o w h i c h w e are a l l c o m ­ p l i e d w i t h systems o f p o w e r a n d a u t h o r i t y , as w e are a l l c o m p l i c i t w i t h the cannibal. I was able t o t h i n k t h r o u g h m a n y o f these issues t h r o u g h the h i s t o r i c a l encounter between the Spaniards a n d the Aztecs, a n d for this reason the Aztecs are present t h r o u g h o u t this t e x t , at times i m p l i c i t l y . I begin Cannibal Culture w i t h an Aztec story for t w o reasons. First, the M e x i c a have been treated as the n i g h t m a r e o f Western culture i n a w a y t h a t has always made

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me suspicious. T h e m a i n reason for this treatment is h u m a n sacrifice; never m i n d t h a t various k i n d s o f h u m a n sacrifice saturate Western i n s t i t u t i o n s f r o m the t i m e o f the Greeks a n d R o m a n s t o the present. Reading account after account o f the pious h o r r o r (and sometimes delight) experienced by Europeans i n the face o f Aztec M e x i c o , I felt t h a t there has been a n u n w i l l ­ ingness t o recognize the extent t o w h i c h the Aztec state d i d w h a t a l l states do, regardless o f the fact t h a t i t organized the displays o f death rather m o r e e x p l i c i t l y t h a n i n the West. I t was precisely this explicitness t h a t i l l u m i n a t e d questions t h a t h a d been suppressed i n the West. I realized t h a t i f I w a n t e d t o understand the nature o f i m p e r i a l p o w e r i n general, I w o u l d have t o l o o k at the lessons offered by the M e x i c a rather t h a n treat t h e m as something i n ­ comprehensible. Second, as I sought t o piece together the Aztecs' stories o f their transformation f r o m nomadic wanderers into an imperial power, I came t o understand t h a t , despite their w i l l t o conquer, the M e x i c a possessed a m e t a p h o r i c m a p able t o account f o r the ruses a n d seduction o f i m p e r i a l violence. T h e Aztec stories are a s m o k i n g m i r r o r t h a t reveals the true nature o f the state w i t h o u t the pretensions o f the benign polis a n d the redemptive g o d . T h e y are able t o articulate the l i n k between violence a n d representation. T h u s , the stories t h a t circulate i n this b o o k also circulate a r o u n d a m i r r o r a n d w h a t can happen w h e n w e l o o k i n t o i t . Deborah

Root

Acknowledgments

The w r i t i n g o f a b o o k is t r u l y a collective process a n d g r o w s o u t o f m a n y discussions a n d chance encounters w i t h people a n d ideas. I have benefited f r o m the willingness o f friends a n d colleagues t o c o n t r i b u t e their ideas a n d expertise a n d t o argue w i t h m a n y o f m y conclusions. W r i t e r s L a n g Baker a n d D o t Tuer graciously read drafts o f the m a n u ­ script (despite their o w n deadlines) a n d p r o v i d e d intellectual s t i m u l a t i o n a n d m o r a l s u p p o r t d u r i n g the often onerous process o f w r i t i n g this b o o k . T h e i r willingness t o engage i n debate was extremely valuable i n h e l p i n g me clarify the ideas i n this b o o k . V i s u a l artist Christine Davis engaged i n o n g o i n g a n d i l l u m i n a t i n g discus­ sions a b o u t art t h e o r y a n d practice a n d was generous w i t h b o o k s a n d a r t i ­ cles. H e r w o r k was always very t h o u g h t p r o v o k i n g . Special thanks t o L a r r y Lyons for m a n y o f the p h o t o g r a p h s t h a t appear i n this b o o k . I also w i s h t o t h a n k those w h o helped m a k e this b o o k possible: Shonagh A d e l m a n , D o n n a Baker, Kass B a n n i n g , Jody B e r l a n d , Jake Boots, Sharon B r o o k s , Rosemary C o o m b e , Barbara Freedman, Jamelie Hassan, T a r i q H a s s a n - G o r d o n , A m y I r w i n , Peter K u l c h y s k i , D v o r a L e v i n s o n , Susan L o r d , Janine Marchessault ( w h o consistently offered special encouragement a n d s u p p o r t ) , Kellie M a s t e r s o n , Jen M e t c a l f , M a h m u t M u t m a n , A m a n d a Pask, A n d y Payne, Beverly Pierro, A l l i s o n Roberts, A m r e s h Sinha, W e d l i d i Speck, M e y d a Yegenoglu, a n d D i l i p Y o g a s u n d r a m . T h e editors at W e s t v i e w Press were supportive t h r o u g h o u t the w r i t i n g o f this t e x t , a n d I w i s h t o t h a n k G o r d o n M a s s m a n , p r o d u c t i o n editor Jane Raese, a n d c o p y e d i t o r Jess L i o n h e a r t . T h e R o y a l O n t a r i o M u s e u m courte­ ously p r o v i d e d p h o t o g r a p h s . I a m also indebted t o the Province o f O n t a r i o A r t s C o u n c i l , w h i c h p r o v i d e d generous s u p p o r t . T h i s b o o k is f o r L a n g , whose love a n d care have sustained me far b e y o n d a project such as this. The m e m o r y o f sweet M a i a suffused the w r i t i n g o f the t e x t because she w e l l u n d e r s t o o d the p r o b l e m s o f p o w e r a n d difference. D . R.

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I Fat-Eaters and Aesthetes: The Politics of Display few years before Cortes landed o n the coast o f M e x i c o , evil omens be­ gan t o appear i n the capital city o f T e n o c h t i t l a n t h a t w a r n e d o f the i m m i n e n t a r r i v a l o f the Spaniards a n d the destruction o f the Aztec empire. One o m e n was a strange, ashen-colored b i r d fished o u t o f the lake s u r r o u n d i n g the city. T h i s b i r d w o r e a m i r r o r i n its forehead i n w h i c h c o u l d be seen the n i g h t sky a n d certain constellations. As M o t e c u z o m a gazed i n t o the m i r r o r , the black starry n i g h t dissolved t o s h o w strange w a r r i o r s c o m i n g t o w a r d h i m , r i d i n g deer a n d fighting a m o n g themselves. W h e n the k i n g asked his magicians t o l o o k i n t o the m i r r o r , b o t h the image a n d the b i r d suddenly disappeared. W h a t made this o m e n so p a r t i c u l a r l y d i s t u r b i n g t o E m p e r o r M o t e c ­ u z o m a a n d so clearly a p o r t e n t o f the d e s t r u c t i o n o f the city? T h e appear­ ance o f the b i r d meant i t was a message f r o m Tezcatlipoca (see Figure 1.1) t o his subject a n d surrogate, M o t e c u z o m a . Tezcatlipoca is the S m o k i n g M i r r o r , the black g o d o f the n o r t h , o f n i g h t , a n d o f magicians a n d robbers. H e sometimes appears as a handsome, flute-playing y o u t h a n d sometimes as a jaguar. S m o k i n g M i r r o r c o n t r o l s the forces o f death a n d destruction a n d was referred t o i n T e n o c h t i t l a n as "the enemy o n b o t h sides" a n d "the t y r a n n i c a l one," yet he also creates a n d bestows w e a l t h a n d dignity. The presence o f Tezcatlipoca saturates the i n s t i t u t i o n s o f k i n g s h i p a n d h u m a n sacrifice i n Aztec M e x i c o . T h e story o f a d o o m e d k i n g gazing i n t o a m i r r o r recalls the demise o f an­ other ruler, the g o d - k i n g Q u e t z a l c o a t l - T o p i l z i n o f T u l a , the Toltec k i n g d o m o n w h i c h the M e x i c a people, or Aztecs, based their l e g i t i m a c y a n d whose h i s t o r y a n d m y t h o l o g y they a p p r o p r i a t e d . H e r e , Quetzalcoatl's b r o t h e r f o ­ mented a r e v o l u t i o n i n order t o impose h u m a n sacrifice a n d m i l i t a r i s t ideals o n the Toltec city. T h e evil b r o t h e r was, o f course, Tezcatlipoca the S m o k i n g M i r r o r , a n d he bested his b r o t h e r by a ruse: t h r o u g h t r i c k e r y a n d malice, Tezcatlipoca made his b r o t h e r l o o k i n t o a m i r r o r , a n d the sight o f his face so shocked a n d h o r r i f i e d Q u e t z a l c o a t l t h a t he became d r u n k a n d 1

I

2

Fat-Eaters and Aesthetes

FIGURE

1.1

Tezcatlipoca (after Codex Borgia, D. Root)

c o m m i t t e d incest w i t h his sister. I n shame Q u e t z a l c o a t l was forced t o flee the city, leaving i t t o Tezcatlipoca a n d the forces o f h u m a n sacrifice a n d m i l ­ i t a r i s m . Bad omens began t o announce Tula's i m p e n d i n g collapse. I n the cyclical histories o f M e x i c a cosmology the fall o f T u l a m i r r o r e d the i m m i ­ nent fall o f T e n o c h t i t l a n , w i t h Tezcatlipoca appearing as the m o c k i n g de­ stroyer. Tezcatlipoca plays a double game. H i s a m b i v a l e n t r e l a t i o n t o his subjects exemplifies h o w despotic a u t h o r i t y operates a n d seduces again a n d again. N o matter h o w p o w e r is represented, n o matter h o w often i t appears as something k i n d l y , benevolent, or beautiful, Tezcatlipoca w a i t s t o h a n d us the m i r r o r , revealing the connections between w e a l t h a n d death, p o w e r a n d disaster. I n the c o n t e m p o r a r y i m p e r i a l systems o f the Western t r a d i t i o n v i o ­ lence a n d beauty continue t o go h a n d i n h a n d , fragments endlessly reflect­ i n g each other b u t a l l p o i n t i n g t o the scornful hunger o f Tezcatlipoca. I f the despot is i m a g i n e d as the sign t h a t a l l other signs refer t o , w e can see t h a t the various manifestations o f despotic a u t h o r i t y are able t o devour images as m u c h as h u m a n bodies. T h e Aztecs recognized t h a t h u m a n flesh was necessary t o the f u n c t i o n i n g o f the state, a n d they k n e w the extent t o w h i c h violence a n d the consump-

Fat-Eaters and Aesthetes

3

t i o n o f bodies were i m m a n e n t t o empire. A t some p o i n t a deal was cut: T h e Aztecs were a l l o w e d t o consume the w e a l t h o f the people they conquered, b u t i t cost t h e m b l o o d . T h e S m o k i n g M i r r o r was very e x p l i c i t i n his de­ m a n d f o r b l o o d , a n d the Aztecs were r i g o r o u s i n u p h o l d i n g the ceremonies t h a t h o n o r e d this d e m a n d . T h e sacrificial v i c t i m c l i m b e d the p y r a m i d t o meet the o b s i d i a n knife, a n d after the heart h a d been cut o u t o f the b o d y a n d the b l o o d offered t o the gods, the arms a n d legs were d i s t r i b u t e d t o the priests w h o administered the sacrificial cult. T h e eating o f h u m a n flesh was strictly r i t u a l i z e d i n T e n o c h t i t l a n , a n d c o m p l e x c o s m o l o g i c a l questions re­ g a r d i n g the t r a n s m u t a t i o n o f matter c i r c u m s c r i b e d the c a n n i b a l cere­ monies. A t the same t i m e , however, the Aztecs made a p o i n t o f eating for­ eign enemies rather t h a n M e x i c a . I t is always someone else's flesh t h a t is the meal o f choice. Does Tezcatlipoca w a l k i n the West? Does Tezcatlipoca still d e m a n d b l o o d i n exchange f o r power? Is i t possible t h a t , despite the E u r o p e a n c l a i m t o r a t i o n a l i t y a n d the ideal o f the democratic polis, violence a n d c a n n i b a l ­ i s m have a ceremonial f u n c t i o n here s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f the Aztec state? Elaborate systems o f representation distract a t t e n t i o n f r o m the extent t o w h i c h o u r system also depends o n the r i t u a l i z e d k i l l i n g o f h u m a n beings. T h e Western p o w e r s launched a w a r i n the Persian G u l f a n d bodies were consumed a m i d a ceremonial display a n d r e p e t i t i o n o f images o f the Western family, o f i n d i v i d u a l h e r o i s m , a n d o f c u l t u r a l self-congratulation. " B a g h d a d l i t u p l i k e a Christmas tree," one p i l o t said, thus a r t i c u l a t i n g a display o f p o w e r t h a t was m o r e e x h i l a r a t i n g t h a n negotiations o r sanctions c o u l d ever be because i t aestheticized the idea o f dead bodies. Violence be­ came s o m e t h i n g beautiful. T h e Christmas tree image elides w h a t was oc­ c u r r i n g o n the streets o f Baghdad as the b o m b s fell, a n d a l l w e are left w i t h is the pilot's pleasure o f mastery. T h e w o r d s o f the U.S. p i l o t offer n o m o r e t h a n a glimpse o f h o w c a n n i b a l p o w e r w o r k s , b u t they p r o m i s e so m u c h m o r e . T h e s m o k i n g m i r r o r offers a d r e a m o f p l e n t i t u d e a n d perfection, b u t as Tezcatlipoca a n d L o u i s Althusser have s h o w n i n their different w a y s , the image o f the face o f p o w e r can operate o n l y as another ruse. Different societies a p p r o a c h questions o f p o w e r a n d representation dif­ ferently, a n d some are m u c h m o r e suspicious o f a u t h o r i t y t h a n the Western t r a d i t i o n is a n d have developed techniques t o c o n t a i n the representation o f power. Some societies see p o w e r as quite dangerous a n d u n a t t r a c t i v e (al­ t h o u g h always i n t e r e s t i n g ) . Others b r i n g the p r o b l e m r i g h t o u t i n t o the open a n d give p o w e r a name, w h i c h can be another version o f the same t h i n g . I n recognizing t h a t p o w e r can be n a m e d as such, w e can see h o w the M e x i c a stories i l l u m i n a t e the nature o f power, w h i c h remains b e h i n d the m i r r o r i n the Western t r a d i t i o n because w e are u n w i l l i n g t o gaze i n t o its face. T h e Aztec m e t a p h o r suggests another w a y t o a p p r o a c h Western a m ­ bivalence a b o u t representation a n d i m p e r i a l a u t h o r i t y . I t is w o r t h p a y i n g 2

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a t t e n t i o n t o Tezcatlipoca because he demonstrates t h a t the state is a n d a l ­ ways has been a c a n n i b a l monster c o n t i n u a l l y seeking flesh t o consume. Let us r e t u r n t o the story o f the t w o brothers. T h a t the fall o f the Toltec state appeared i n the Aztec w r i t i n g s as the re­ sult o f a conflict between enemy brothers was i n d i c a t i v e o f h o w destructive the a n t a g o n i s m between these t w o figures was. Each b r o t h e r represented a r i v a l v i e w o f m i l i t a r i s m a n d h u m a n sacrifice—in short, h o w violence s h o u l d be organized a n d represented by the state. I sometimes w o n d e r i f these sto­ ries suggest t h a t the o u t c o m e o f the struggle c o u l d have been different a n d t h a t , b a r r i n g Tezcatlipoca's treachery, the M e x i c a c o u l d have created a dif­ ferent k i n d o f state, w h e r e bodies were n o t consumed by w a r s a n d the sac­ rificial b l o c k . I t is i m p o r t a n t t o remember t h a t the expansionist ideals o f i m p e r i a l T e n o c h t i t l a n , the e c o n o m y based o n t r i b u t e , a n d the mass h u m a n sacrifice o f prisoners o f w a r were a l l i n s t i t u t e d a n d m a i n t a i n e d by the m i l i ­ tary-religious-merchant elites o f the city. As i n Europe, i t was n o t the hunters, farmers, or o r d i n a r y people l i v i n g i n s m a l l villages w h o established the c a n n i b a l regimes. C e r t a i n l y i t was at least i n p a r t t h r o u g h the h o n o r i n g o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l t h a t people were able t o m a i n t a i n n o n m i l i t a r i s t i c ideals w i t h i n a m i l i t a r i s t i c economy. Q u e t z a l c o a t l was presented as a dupe a n d v i c t i m o f sorcery a n d t r i c k s , yet was always m o r e benevolent a n d helpful t o people t h a n Tezcatlipoca. B u t the v e n e r a t i o n o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l as the Toltec g o d par ex­ cellence—and as the g o d o f l e a r n i n g , science, a n d the p r i e s t h o o d — d i d n o t change the fact t h a t i t was the sorcerer Tezcatlipoca, the S m o k i n g M i r r o r , w h o u l t i m a t e l y w o n . I n i m p e r i a l T e n o c h t i t l a n , Tezcatlipoca was elevated t o the supreme g o d a n d w o r s h i p e d as T l o q u e N a h u a q u e — M a s t e r o f the N e a r a n d the Close—the g o d w h o was always there. Q u e t z a l c o a t l , i n contrast, was t a k e n u p by the p r i e s t h o o d . H i g h priests were given the title o f " Q u e t z a l c o a t l , " w h i c h at first glance seems f i t t i n g given the v i e w o f the Toltecs as the source o f a l l k n o w l e d g e a n d c u l t u r e a n d o f the figure o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l as the e x e m p l a r y Toltec sovereign. Q u e t z a l coatl's peaceful r e i g n i n T u l a ( u n t i l a l l the t r o u b l e at the end, o f course), his i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the p r i e s t h o o d a n d w i t h the virtues o f h a r m o n y , w i s ­ d o m , a n d l e a r n i n g , were evoked again a n d again i n the M e x i c a priestly texts, w h i c h seems s o m e w h a t c o n t r a d i c t o r y given Quetzalcoatl's w e l l k n o w n o p p o s i t i o n t o h u m a n sacrifice a n d the priests' rather intense dedica­ t i o n t o i t . T h e ideals e x t o l l e d i n the Q u e t z a l c o a t l literature were neverthe­ less presented as a n t i t h e t i c a l t o the sorcery a n d d i s c o r d w r o u g h t by Tezcatlipoca, a n d the M e x i c a w r i t i n g s were careful t o distinguish between the t w o figures a n d the qualities a n d values w i t h w h i c h each was associ­ ated. Because o f the constant emphasis o n the differences between the t w o brothers, i t is easy t o forget t h a t Q u e t z a l c o a t l was a ruler as w e l l as a priest,

Fat-Eaters and Aesthetes 5 w h i c h meant t h a t he m a i n t a i n e d p o l i t i c a l sovereignty i n T u l a , w i t h a l l the hierarchy a n d violence i m p l i e d by an i n s t i t u t i o n o f r o y a l a u t h o r i t y . The priestly ideal personified by Q u e t z a l c o a t l occluded his despotic f u n c t i o n or, rather, p u r i f i e d a n d rendered benign the idea o f the despot or supreme l o r d . Quetzalcoatl became the ruse o f i m p e r i a l power, appearing as w h a t the state was at its best a n d w h a t kings at their best were capable o f offering the people. B u t w e k n o w better. T h e despotic face o f the wise k i n g was re­ vealed by Tezcatlipoca, w h o b r o u g h t a b o u t the fall o f T u l a by displaying t o Quetzalcoatl his face: " T h e n he gave h i m the m i r r o r a n d said: ' L o o k a n d k n o w thyself m y son, for t h o u shalt appear i n the m i r r o r . ' T h e n Quetzal­ coatl saw himself; he was very frightened a n d said: T f m y vassals were t o see me, they m i g h t r u n a w a y . ' " Tezcatlipoca's sorcery is stronger t h a n Quetzalcoatl's arts a n d sciences because i t is capable o f revealing the despot t o be n o t the benign face o f Quetzalcoatl b u t the fearsome face o f the enemy o n b o t h sides. Illusions fall d o w n , a l l is revealed, a n d the face i n the m i r r o r is t h a t o f the sign a l l other signs refer t o : power. Tezcatlipoca teaches that the state operates a n d m a i n ­ tains its a u t h o r i t y t h r o u g h violence a n d terror. The sovereign o f T e n o c h t i t l a n himself recognizes this a n d indeed becomes k i n g by revealing Tezcatlipoca's absolutist demands a n d by enacting a performance i n w h i c h this is displayed f o r a l l t o see. T h e h u m a n sovereign's relationship t o the de­ i t y is one o f abjection a n d self-abasement before a greater power, here the despotic a u t h o r i t y o f the g o d . I n the f o r m a l speech made by the M e x i c a k i n g t o Tezcatlipoca o n the occasion o f his ascension t o the t h r o n e , the k i n g says, " O master, O o u r l o r d , O l o r d o f the near, o f the n i g h , O n i g h t , O w i n d , t h o u hast i n c l i n e d t h y heart. Perhaps t h o u hast m i s t a k e n me for an­ other, I w h o a m a commoner, I w h o a m a labourer. I n excrement, i n filth h a t h m y lifetime been—I w h o a m unreliable, I w h o a m o f filth, o f vice. A n d I a m an i m b e c i l e . " T h e device o f m a k i n g the sovereign say such things p u b l i c l y was insti­ t u t e d , n o t o n l y I t h i n k , t o underline his h u m i l i t y before the g o d b u t also t o absolutize the idea o f despotic a u t h o r i t y in itself. The king's willingness t o express his s u b o r d i n a t i o n becomes a w a y t o represent the broader concept o f f o r m a l a u t h o r i t y , a n d the p o i n t emphasized i n the speech is that the sym­ bolic system must be ordered hierarchically, w i t h a c h a i n o f c o m m a n d i n w h i c h everyone is i m p l i c a t e d . Even a sovereign has a master. T h i s is w h a t is i m p o r t a n t , n o t any p a r t i c u l a r g o d or ruler. T h e story o f the t w o brothers explains despotic violence a n d m i l i t a r i s m w h i l e seeming t o m a i n t a i n an ideal o f the benign state, b u t the t r i u m p h o f Tezcatlipoca functions as a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y is always u n d e r l a i n by chaos a n d death. T h e other p r i n c i p a l gods, a n d their functions a n d activities, t u r n o u t t o be different guises or aspects o f the Smoking M i r r o r . The god o f war, H u i t z i l o 3

4

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p o c h t l i , is revealed as the blue Tezcatlipoca o f the south; the flayed g o d , X i p e Totec, is the r e d Tezcatlipoca o f the east, a n d even the brother-enemy Q u e t z a l c o a t l becomes the w h i t e Tezcatlipoca o f the west. L a m e n t i n g the fate o f the u n f o r t u n a t e Q u e t z a l c o a t l distracts us f r o m the extent t o w h i c h the ideals associated w i t h Tezcatlipoca's t r i u m p h — t h a t is, the ideals o f the state, o f m i l i t a r i s m , a n d o f h u m a n sacrifice—were affirmed i n the M e x i c a cities. O n e o f the attributes o f Tezcatlipoca is i n v i s i b i l i t y — i n some paintings he is represented o n l y by f o o t p r i n t s — a n d this a b i l i t y t o become invisible at w i l l increases his p o w e r a n d fearsomeness. Indeed, even t h o u g h the name Tezcatlipoca is generally translated as " S m o k i n g M i r r o r , " a m o r e accurate r e n d i t i o n w o u l d be " T h e Smoke T h a t M i r r o r s . " O b s i d i a n m i r r o r s were used f o r d i v i n a t i o n by the M e x i c a (and the Aztec m i r r o r s t h a t reached Europe after 1 5 2 1 were used f o r the same purpose by magicians such as J o h n Dee a n d N o s t r a d a m u s ) . M a g i c i a n s gazed i n t o the m i r r o r a n d w a i t e d for images t o f o r m . T h e sense o f a smoke t h a t m i r r o r s is suggestive o f a double q u a l i t y o f veiling a n d revealing t h r o u g h reflection; the smoke b o t h obscures a n d reflects the image o f the inquirer. T h e face o f p o w e r is never fully revealed b u t always veils itself. A n d here i t is the g o d himself, the despotic deity Tezcatlipoca, w h o reflects the image o f the people a n d o f the priests w h o seek k n o w l e d g e o f the future a n d o f the affairs o f state. Tezcatlipoca's m i r r o r has a name; i t is called " T h e Place f r o m W h i c h H e Watches." T h e invisible g o d sees a l l a n d k n o w s a l l . T h e shock a n d h o r r o r p r o v o k e d i n b o t h Q u e t z a l c o a t l a n d M o t e c u z o m a by the presence i n the m i r r o r are n o t difficult t o u n d e r s t a n d — b o t h figures were r e m i n d e d t h a t the w a t c h i n g eye o f p o w e r was o n t h e m , t h a t the despotic gaze was every­ w h e r e , even o n the supreme leaders o f the state. T h e y were also r e m i n d e d t h a t they, t o o , reflected the face o f the despot, a t r u t h t h a t Q u e t z a l c o a t l f o u n d impossible t o bear. A n d this despotic gaze implies a destructive q u a l ­ ity t h a t b o t h observes a n d reflects the p o w e r o f kings. I chose (or perhaps a p p r o p r i a t e d ) the example o f the t w o M e x i c a n brothers t o illustrate s o m e t h i n g t h a t can be o v e r l o o k e d i n Western c u l t u r e : Power is never benign. W h e n the mask o f the g o o d k i n g is stripped away, the face u n d e r n e a t h is always t h a t o f Tezcatlipoca, w h e t h e r he is called G o o d Queen Bess o r J o h n F. Kennedy. Tezcatlipoca—or at least his m a n i ­ festations i n the h u m a n w o r l d — i s a c a n n i b a l , an e n t i t y t h a t needs neverending streams o f b l o o d a n d h u m a n bodies t o consume a n d whose de­ sires are organized a r o u n d death. I n societies w i t h hierarchies t h a t c o n t r o l bodies a n d determine w h i c h ones w i l l live a n d w h i c h ones w i l l die, there is always some spectacle o f violence (even i f i t sometimes takes place b e h i n d closed doors, w i t h o n l y a few witnessing or p a r t a k i n g ) . M o s t sacrificial spectacles, w h i c h take e x p l i c i t a n d i m p l i c i t f o r m s , display a n d symbolize the l i n k between p o w e r a n d representation f o r a l l t o see. A l l are i m p l i c a t e d , a n d people are k e p t i n line. Power s w a l l o w s life.

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7

T h e story o f the t w o brothers shows us t h a t the M e x i c a recognized the nature o f a hierarchical p o l i t i c a l system, b u t once social a n d religious p o w e r was concentrated i n the hands o f a n elite, the system became ex­ tremely difficult f o r o r d i n a r y people t o change, even assuming they w a n t e d t o d o so. T h e M e x i c a sacrificial system is n o t , I t h i n k , a n a n o m a l y a m o n g hierarchical social systems, w h i c h is w h y i t can i l l u m i n a t e the b l i n d spots a n d failures i n the Western t r a d i t i o n . T h e specific f o r m this system t o o k — the p y r a m i d s , the lines o f prisoners a w a i t i n g the sacrificial b l o c k — w a s m o r e e x p l i c i t t h a n m a n y others a b o u t its need t o consume h u m a n bodies a n d t o display this a b i l i t y t o consume f o r a l l t o see. I a m n o t describing the M e x i c a state as a c a n n i b a l system i n order t o separate Aztec M e x i c o f r o m the equally cannibalistic E u r o p e a n social orders a n d derisively m a r k i t as " b a r b a r i a n " (or some such epithet). M u c h like the system t h a t has come t o d o m i n a t e the West, the M e x i c a s y m b o l i c a n d p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y h a d t o feed o f f violence i n order t o reproduce a n d survive. T h e Aztecs u n d e r s t o o d the ambivalence o f power, its a b i l i t y t o simultaneously seduce a n d d e m a n d , a n d its facility i n t a k i n g o n a life o f its o w n . T h e p a r t i c u l a r manifestations o f i m p e r i a l a u t h o r i t y (as demanded by Tezcatlipoca) became extremely dif­ ficult t o d i v e r t f r o m the c a n n i b a l p a t h once i t h a d reached a certain p o i n t . A n d , again, some people benefited f r o m such a system. T h e story o f the t w o brothers also shows t h a t Tezcatlipoca is perhaps easier t o recognize, i f n o t c o n t r o l , i f he is u n d e r s t o o d w i t h i n a sacred order. Because m o s t Spaniards w h o i n v a d e d M e x i c o i n the sixteenth century re­ fused t o l o o k squarely at the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f power, they c o u l d n o t tolerate the explicitness o f the M e x i c a state's o r g a n i z a t i o n o f violence a n d mass death. For example, i n T e n o c h t i t l a n prisoners o f w a r were sent t o the sacri­ ficial p y r a m i d s , w h i l e i n Paris i n the same years thousands were slaughtered i n the streets i n the Saint B a r t h o l o m e w ' s D a y massacre. T h e E u r o p e a n state w a s — a n d is—as m u c h a c a n n i b a l as the Aztec, b u t mass death i n Europe tends t o be classified as a n accidental p h e n o m e n o n rather t h a n as some­ t h i n g i n t r i n s i c t o the f u n c t i o n i n g o f the system. Despite example after ex­ ample o f Western atrocities, i t is always someone else w h o is the cruel a n d pitiless b a r b a r i a n . These harsh w o r d s are n o t intended t o negate the m a n y c r i t i c a l streams i n E u r o p e a n t h i n k i n g t h a t have addressed questions o f violence a n d p o w e r a n d , i n particular, the ambivalence these are able t o generate. B u t I t h i n k w e m u s t face the possibility t h a t s o m e t h i n g is dreadfully w r o n g w i t h soci­ ety a n d t h a t this is s o m e h o w connected t o the b l o o d y h i s t o r y o f Western culture, a bloodiness t h a t surpasses a l l others, i n c l u d i n g the Aztecs a n d their h u m a n sacrifice. B u t is i t even possible t o l o o k at o u r c a n n i b a l nature? We remember the consequences o f l o o k i n g i n Tezcatlipoca's m i r r o r — Q u e t z a l c o a t l lost his p o w e r a n d h a d t o leave the city. T h e Aztec state rendered absolutely a n d u n m i s t a k a b l y e x p l i c i t the nature a n d consequence o f a hierarchical a n d i m p e r i a l social order, s o m e t h i n g t h a t

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is p r e t t i e d up i n the Western t r a d i t i o n w i t h n o t i o n s o f " c i v i l i z a t i o n , " the aesthetics o f h i g h c u l t u r e , a n d the Greek polis as the source o f democratic p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h i s d i s a v o w a l continues t o o b t a i n today. The M e x i c a are presented as a horrific, incomprehensible society where violence was t o t a l l y o u t o f c o n t r o l — u n l i k e us. E u r o p e a n w r i t i n g a b o u t Aztec society focuses almost exclusively o n h u m a n sacrifice, w h i c h is described i n such a w a y as t o obscure the l i n k s a m o n g the different versions o f violence f r o m above. ( A great deal o f perplexed head-shaking goes o n as Western acade­ mics a t t e m p t t o account for Aztec state i n s t i t u t i o n s ; Claude Levi-Strauss refers t o the Aztecs as " t h a t open w o u n d o n the flank o f A m e r i c a n i s m . " ) This refusal has its consequences i n the classiflcatory schemes o f b o t h Western art a n d science, p a r t i c u l a r l y those o f ethnologists a n d museologists: T h e Aztec c o u r t art t h a t was n o t i m m e d i a t e l y destroyed or melted d o w n is housed i n E u r o p e a n museums w i t h the egalitarian societies defined as " p r i m i t i v e " a n d "savage" rather t h a n w i t h the real savages, the c o u r t cultures o f Europe a n d the ancient N e a r East. 5

T h e W h i t e Cannibal Power dazzles a n d b l i n d s , a n d those closest t o its heart are often unable t o see a n y t h i n g b e y o n d its reflections. Those w h o affirm a m o r e m a r g i n a l rela­ t i o n t o the d o m i n a n t culture sometimes m o r e easily see the nature o f t h a t system a n d notice w h a t those closer t o the center m a y o v e r l o o k . I n the 1 9 9 1 n o v e l by N a t i v e A m e r i c a n w r i t e r Leslie M a r m o n Silko {Almanac of the Dead), the o l d w o m a n Yoeme recognizes the p r o f o u n d b o n d between M e x i c a a n d Spaniard, p a r t i c u l a r l y the resemblances between the w a y the Aztec a n d E u r o p e a n states organized violence: Yoeme alleged the Aztecs ignored the prophecies and warnings about the ap­ proach of the Europeans because Montezuma and his allies had been sorcerers who had called or even invented the European invaders w i t h their sorcery. Those who worshipped destruction and blood secretly knew each other. Hundreds of years earlier, the people who hated sorcery and bloodshed had fled north to escape the cataclysm prophesied when the "blood worshippers" of Europe met the "blood worshippers" of the Americas. Montezuma and Cortes had been meant for each other. 6

Silko is suggesting t h a t the Spanish a n d Aztecs a c k n o w l e d g e d a n d under­ stood each other i n the b e g i n n i n g because b o t h societies were organized a r o u n d violence or, m o r e accurately, a r o u n d a conceptual system t h a t gen­ erated i n d i v i d u a l a n d collective excitement f r o m b l o o d a n d suffering. I t h i n k t h a t she is r i g h t a n d t h a t this m o m e n t was so s h o c k i n g t o the i n v a d ­ i n g C h r i s t i a n s t h a t t h e y h a d t o i m m e d i a t e l y deny t h a t Aztecs a n d E u -

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ropeans h a d a n y t h i n g i n c o m m o n . T h e Aztecs were n o t " c i v i l i z e d , " the Spanish said, a l t h o u g h they manifested the same traits as other civilized so­ cieties, even i f they were n o t C h r i s t i a n . L o o k i n g i n t o t h a t p a r t i c u l a r m i r r o r was a b i t t o o unsettling. To a d m i t the Aztecs i n t o the ranks o f civilized soci­ eties was t o p u t the n o t i o n o f c i v i l i z a t i o n itself i n t o question. W h a t are the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f this m u t u a l recognition? A n d w h a t m a y be learned f r o m the refusal o f this m o m e n t i n Western t h i n k i n g ? Let us begin by l o o k i n g at h o w violence has become aestheticized i n Western c u l t u r e . We have seen t h a t the M e x i c a stories articulate a c o m p l e x c h a i n o f religious a n d p o l i t i c a l concepts w h e r e b y the o r i g i n o f violence a n d the state is ex­ p l a i n e d t h r o u g h Tezcatlipoca's trickery. By l o o k i n g at h o w Tezcatlipoca is situated w i t h i n the Aztec s y m b o l i c economy, w h i c h is t o say h o w i t is repre­ sented i n various sites i n the c u l t u r e , w e can see h o w questions o f a u t h o r i t y permeate areas o f c u l t u r e t h a t at first glance seem entirely unrelated t o is­ sues o f p o l i t i c a l power. The conceptual d i a g r a m I call " T e z c a t l i p o c a " l i n k s Aztecs a n d Europeans a n d reveals otherwise o v e r l o o k e d affinities between different sites a n d different representational f o r m s . W h e n l o o k i n g at differ­ ent sites i n the Western s y m b o l i c economy, w e w i l l keep w a t c h for the traces o f Tezcatlipoca's presence, for those m o m e n t s w h e n despotic a u t h o r ­ i t y is a r t i c u l a t e d a n d w h e n h u m a n (and other) bodies are consumed. W i t h i n Western culture there has been a tendency t o project the categories o f violence and o f bloodthirsty, barbaric religious practices o n t o colonized people. This is n o t h i n g new; w e can trace i t as far back as Herodotus's con­ ceptions o f Persian and Scythian cultures. W h a t is less immediately obvious is the extent t o w h i c h a European cannibal spirit (or Tezcatlipoca-type figure) animates our o w n relation t o culture and violence i n a w a y that continues t o be elided and disavowed i n our t r a d i t i o n . This is less extreme t h a n i t first ap­ pears: The cannibal seeks h u m a n bodies t o eat, and the desire for flesh gener­ ates escalating desire. This hunger for flesh is generalized i n t o society as a w h o l e w h e n c o n s u m p t i o n is treated as a virtue and seen as a source o f plea­ sure and excitement i n itself. C o n s u m p t i o n is power, and the ability t o con­ sume excessively and w i l l f u l l y becomes the most desirable aspect o f power. A t the same t i m e , b o t h Aztec and European are constructs that elide the internal conflicts and dissension w i t h i n each society and that therefore f u n c t i o n as gen­ eralizations imposed f r o m the outside. (Comanche w r i t e r Paul Chaat S m i t h remarks, " W e never imagine sullen teenagers i n Tenochtitlan, that fabled Aztec metropolis, i n some p r e - C o l u m b i a n Z o n a Rosa dive, b a d m o u t h i n g the wretched w a r economy and the ridiculous h u m a n sacrifices that drove their e m p i r e . " ) There are syncretic elements i n b o t h cultures. But generalizing about h o w violence is organized and represented m a y tell us something about the links between c o n s u m p t i o n and b l o o d sacrifice. By reading this p r o b l e m t h r o u g h the figure o f the cannibal, as an image that continues t o evoke fear and horror, we can argue that w h a t is really at stake here is c o n s u m p t i o n . 7

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Wasichu, the L a k o t a t e r m used for w h i t e people, delineates a p a r t i c u l a r mentality, a bizarre obsession t h a t is organized almost entirely a r o u n d c o n ­ s u m p t i o n a n d excess. Wasichu means "fat-eater," or "greedy one w h o takes the f a t , " a n d describes someone whose desires are o u t o f c o n t r o l , en­ tirely w i t h o u t l i m i t o r t h o u g h t for the f u t u r e . T h e cravings o f the fat-eater have a n a t e m p o r a l q u a l i t y a n d m u st be satisfied regardless o f the eventual consequences for future generations or the c o m m u n i t y as a w h o l e . T h e t e r m describes a real p h e n o m e n o n , an endless hunger t h a t results i n the l i t ­ eral c o n s u m p t i o n o f l a n d a n d bodies, a hunger t h a t can o n l y be t e m p o r a r i l y satisfied a n d t h e n breaks o u t anew. T h e hunger g r o w s a n d g r o w s , a n d the provisions r e q u i r e d t o feed i t can o n l y increase as the desire t o c o n t r o l a n d organize people a n d cultures intensifies. Lust for "the f a t " continues t o ca­ reen unchecked across the earth. Wasichu does n o t s i m p l y describe a r aci a l category o r set o f characteristics; wasichus have been n o t i c e d a m o n g those non-Europeans w h o subscribe t o Western values. Rather, wasichu is a state o f m i n d t h a t L a k o t a people observed i n E u r o p e a n invaders, i n i t i a l l y d u r i n g the Black H i l l s g o l d r u s h o f the 1880s, w h e n w h i t e desire was w h o l l y orga­ nized a r o u n d a n obsession w i t h g o l d . As i n M e x i c o , where N a t i v e w r i t e r s also spoke w i t h some astonishment a b o u t Spanish greed as exemplified by a fetishization o f g o l d , the cost o f t h a t g o l d t o people a n d l a n d was n o t a consideration for colonizers obsessed w i t h dreams o f w e a l t h . N a t i v e A m e r i c a n w r i t e r Jack Forbes has e x p l o r e d this idea a n d i n Columbus and Other Cannibals situates the essential failure o f the Western or E u r o p e a n m o d e l o f society i n the unchecked w i l l t o consume t h a t is at the heart o f the Western m e n t a l i t y . A g a i n , this is n o t a r aci al matter b u t a p a r t i c u l a r state o f m i n d . W e need t o be very clear t h a t this mentality, w h i c h has been d o m i n a n t i n the West for the past several centuries, h a d t o be i m ­ posed by force o n E u r o p e a n p o p u l a t i o n s (as i t later was o n N a t i v e p o p u l a ­ tions), a process t h a t i n v o l v e d the v i o l e n t suppression o f heretics a n d others defined as h e t e r o d o x a n d c u l t u r a l l y deviant. Regardless o f w h e t h e r w e speak o f Europe or o f c o l o n i z e d territories, the i m p o s i t i o n o f the wasichu values was, a n d is, always l i n k e d t o violence. Forbes attributes the desire for unfettered c o n s u m p t i o n t o the phenome­ n o n o f c a n n i b a l psychosis, or w h a t i n the Cree language is t e r m e d wetiko, w h i c h is possession by evil c a n n i b a l monster spirits. Forbes suggests t h a t m a n y o f us—and " u s " means a l l those w h o i n some w a y live o f f a n d i n re­ l a t i o n t o Western c u l t u r e , w h i c h is nearly everyone—have literally been t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o cannibals, c o n s u m i n g h u m a n bodies f o r p r o f i t . The wetiko psychosis, like wasichu, is characterized by a need o r desire t h a t g r o w s a n d g r o w s u n t i l i t is completely o u t o f c o n t r o l a n d i n effect possesses the person w h o succumbs t o i t . People are consumed, their bodies devoured by other, m o r e rapacious people i n m a n y different w a y s , some o f the mos t i m m e d i a t e l y o b v i o u s being i n systems o f slave labor, i n pointless a n d de9

1 0

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I I

structive w a r s u n d e r t a k e n for p r o f i t , a n d i n the k i l l i n g o f people t o "free" their l a n d for development projects. Forbes describes the Western ethos as a h i g h l y contagious disease w i t h hideous effects whose sufferers are neverthe­ less h i g h l y r e w a r d e d i n this culture. I was i n i t i a l l y uneasy w i t h Forbes's use o f a disease m e t a p h o r t o charac­ terize Western c o n s u m p t i o n . Such metaphors must be approached w i t h ex­ treme c a u t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n generated by people w i e l d i n g coercive au­ t h o r i t y w h o are j u x t a p o s i n g a " h e a l t h y " p o p u l a t i o n (always themselves) against a deviant a n d troublesome p o p u l a t i o n whose l a n d or w e a l t h is cov­ eted. I n some cases these metaphors have been used t o justify genocide. Yet i t seems evident t h a t Forbes does n o t speak as someone p o s i t i o n e d t o b u t ­ tress i n s t i t u t i o n a l p o w e r b u t as someone seeking t o account f o r the levels o f violence i n m a i n s t r e a m society. M o r e o v e r , Forbes does n o t really use the concept o f wetiko as a m e t a p h o r b u t as a technical m e d i c o - s p i r i t u a l t e r m for a p a r t i c u l a r a p p r o a c h t o the w o r l d . T h i s disease is able t o cross p o p u l a ­ tions t o produce certain k i n d s o f recognizable effects i n the people w h o have contracted i t . B o t h wasichu a n d wetiko emphasize c o n s u m p t i o n , w h i c h exists at the heart o f Western culture, a n d b o t h t r a d i t i o n s character­ ize c o n s u m p t i o n i n very l i t e r a l a n d concrete terms. By c o n s u m p t i o n I a m n o t necessarily t a l k i n g a b o u t visits t o the m a l l ( a l t h o u g h this m a y w e l l be a site o f c o n s u m p t i o n ) b u t rather m o r e generally a b o u t an o n t o l o g i c a l c o n d i ­ t i o n i n v o l v i n g an a p p r o a c h t o reality a n d state o f m i n d t h a t have as their central obsession "the f a t . " I n the o l d stories the wetiko monsters always come f r o m the far n o r t h a n d possess hearts o f ice. T h i s association o f c o n s u m p t i o n w i t h coldness i n i t i a l l y seemed curious t o me, as I i m a g i n e d g l u t t o n y t o be d r i v e n by h e a t — i n other w o r d s , by a k i n d o f lust. B u t Nietzsche reminds us t h a t "the coldest o f c o l d monsters" is the state, w h i c h endlessly feeds o f f lies a n d death: " I t is the destroyers w h o set snares for m a n y a n d call i t the state: they hang a s w o r d a n d a h u n d r e d desires over t h e m . " Nietzsche p a i d a very h i g h price for his insights (and one t h a t m a y have been t o o dear), a n d he is r i g h t t o l i n k the p r o d u c t i o n o f infinite, destructive desire t o a fixed hierarchical system. W h e n a u t h o r i t y is organized a r o u n d a r i g i d l y predetermined scale o f values, people cease t o believe t h a t they be­ l o n g t o the w o r l d i n w h i c h they live. The state engenders p r o f o u n d passiv­ i t y i n its citizens ( w h i c h is, after a l l , the p o i n t ) , a n d kindness has no place i n the balance books o f the palace functionaries. I f w e understand wetiko psy­ chosis as a description o f the state, a n d vice versa, i t is n o longer surprising t h a t every act o f c o n s u m p t i o n seeks t o break t h r o u g h this paralysis, this system t h a t seems frozen i n place a n d hence itself exudes a glacial quality. T h e state can be a t r i c k y adversary, i n p a r t because o f its a b i l i t y t o pre­ sent itself as a n e u t r a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the w i l l o f the people. I n this w a y the state conceals its presence. M i c h a e l Taussig eloquently shows h o w state 1 2

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t e r r o r operates t h r o u g h silence a n d produces t h a t f r i g i d i s o l a t i o n i n w h i c h the c a n n i b a l monster thrives. Speaking o f h o w C o l o m b i a n death squads distribute fear a n d silencing t h r o u g h o u t the populace, Taussig w r i t e s , " T h e p o i n t a b o u t silencing a n d the fear b e h i n d silencing is n o t t o erase m e m o r y . Far f r o m i t . T h e p o i n t is t o drive the m e m o r y deep w i t h i n the fastness o f the i n d i v i d u a l so as t o create m o r e fear a n d uncertainty i n w h i c h d r e a m a n d reality c o m i n g l e . " U l t i m a t e l y , the state b o t h produces a n d consumes fear. T h e i n d i v i d u a l be­ comes her o w n police force, her o w n i m a g i n a r y torturer. A n d thus the so­ cial order reproduces itself: I f a n y t h i n g can happen, t h e n i t is better t o toe the line. T h i s is another example o f the w a y p o w e r pacifies by i n t e r m i t ­ tently a l l o w i n g a glimpse o f its face, a sight t h a t i n v a r i a b l y stuns people i n t o fearful silence a n d submission. Taussig explains h o w the different sites o f t e r r o r operate by concealing the extent o f their t e r r o r - p r o d u c i n g a c t i v i ­ ties ( i n other w o r d s , their c a n n i b a l natures), w h i c h reminds us o f Nietzsche's insistence t h a t the state exists t h r o u g h lies. T h e t o p o g r a p h y o f t e r r o r always turns o u t t o be a m a p o f the face o f the state, b e h i n d w h i c h the countenance o f the b l o o d - l o v i n g Tezcatlipoca is visible. 13

Aristocratic Dreams I t is a l l t o o o b v i o u s t h a t i n c o n t e m p o r a r y society people are taught t o de­ fine themselves by the goods they possess a n d t o f o l l o w orders so they can acquire m o r e goods. I t is n o t so m u c h t h a t w e a l t h equals p o w e r b u t t h a t w e a l t h equals c o n s u m p t i o n equals power. We can imagine o u r o w n seduc­ t i o n : "Let's go t o Paris! W h y not? H i r e somebody t o clean the house; hire somebody t o p r o v i d e a range o f pleasures (and t o smile w h i l e d o i n g so), t o w a l k the d o g , t o m i n e g o l d . " There are m a n y versions o f the dream. (A few years ago I was transfixed by a p r o v i n c i a l l o t t e r y ad i n w h i c h a folksinger sang i n a soft, i n s i n u a t i n g voice; " H a v e the freedom t o do w h a t y o u w a n t t o d o ; it's a g o o d life, o h yeah," w h i l e the camera panned people sleeping i n the m o r n i n g sun. W e a l t h was never m o r e seductive.) Some streams o f the Western t r a d i t i o n have recognized t h a t excessive c o n s u m p t i o n leads t o m o r a l a n d s p i r i t u a l death, b u t m a n y o f these critiques appear i n p u r i t a n versions o f C h r i s t i a n discourses t h a t r h e t o r i c a l l y frame the s o l u t i o n t o the p r o b l e m a r o u n d r e n u n c i a t i o n . M o r e interesting are those critiques t h a t o r i g i n a l l y came o u t o f so-called f o l k cultures, most o b v i o u s l y the v a m p i r e stories. I n the E u r o p e a n t r a d i t i o n the figure o f the v a m p i r e can be t h o u g h t o f as a v a r i a n t o f the wetiko c a n n i b a l monster (and possibly as a less a r t i c u l a t e d a n d c o m p l e x version o f Tezcatlipoca). I a m n o t suggesting any h i s t o r i c a l l i n k s between wetikos a n d vampires a n d a m i n fact focusing o n the differ-

Fat-Eaters and Aesthetes

13

ences between the t w o figures. I t h i n k t h a t the different ways t h a t the w i l l to consume has been made flesh are each i n d i c a t i v e o f a larger attitude t o ­ w a r d violence a n d c a n n i b a l i s m a n d , by extension, o f the r e l a t i o n o f the i n ­ d i v i d u a l t o the c o m m u n i t y as a w h o l e . V a m p i r e stories seem t o be o f e n d u r i n g interest—witness the enormous success o f the A n n e Rice novels—perhaps because for the E u r o p e a n v a m ­ pire the c o n s u m p t i o n o f flesh is eroticized. T h e desire t h a t g r o w s o u t o f bal­ ance is represented as being u l t i m a t e l y sexual i n nature. T h e E u r o p e a n v a m p i r e usually has a n attractive, seductive side d e r i v i n g f r o m his (less of­ ten, her) air o f aristocratic dissipation, itself fascinating t o m a n y a n d a sign of the ambivalence a n d danger he embodies. We see this again a n d again. The aristocratic g l a m o r o f G a r y O l d m a n ' s D r a c u l a i n the recent Bram Stoker's Dracula ( 1 9 9 2 ; see Figure 1.2) exemplifies this dangerous male a l ­ l u r e — D r a c u l a is as irresistible t o the audience as he is t o his victims. We are r e m i n d e d o f other aristocrats, such as the m a r q u i s de Sade a n d Gilles de Rais, a n d h o w their apparently pure i n d i v i d u a l i s m a n d lack o f conscience were manifested i n extreme, yet affectless violence t o w a r d others, especially those considered w e a k — i n other w o r d s , w o m e n , peasants, a n d c h i l d r e n (always the preferred sacrificial v i c t i m s ) . These aristocrats also seem t o be of e n d u r i n g interest, a n d their w i l l t o violence has been aestheticized i n ways very similar t o v a m p i r e stories. Because o f the vampire's allure, w e ex­ perience ambivalence t o w a r d his p o w e r over life a n d death. T h e vampire's a b i l i t y t o seduce, a n d his p o w e r over h u m a n bodies, appears t o us as a k i n d of absolute freedom a n d m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f personal w i l l . We are t a u g h t t o w a n t t o "eat the f a t " because t o do so is t o possess a n d experience a n i l l u s i o n o f t o t a l p o w e r a n d freedom. T h u s , freedom appears as the a b i l i t y t o do as w e please w i t h other bodies a n d , by extension, w i t h other species a n d w i t h the l a n d itself. Respect—and c o m m u n i t y — b e c o m e s n o m o r e t h a n an i r r i t a t i n g l i m i t o n desire, something best left t o peasants a n d drones. T h e c o n t i n u i n g a b i l i t y o f the v a m p i r e t o fascinate, erotically o r other­ wise, is o n l y one i n d i c a t i o n o f the extent t o w h i c h c o n t e m p o r a r y society has aestheticized wetiko sickness a n d w e ourselves have become c a n n i b a l . We can see this aestheticization i n films, c o m m o d i t i e s , a n d various other c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s i n w h i c h the a b i l i t y t o take or c o n t r o l life is g l a m o r i z e d . As I understand the c a n n i b a l stories, i n t r a d i t i o n a l societies the c a n n i b a l spirits are recognized as beings t o be a v o i d e d except i n very specific cere­ m o n i a l contexts, whereas i n the c o m m o d i f i e d version o f the E u r o p e a n t r a ­ d i t i o n those w h o w o u l d be recognized as cannibals elsewhere are seen as sexy a n d f u n . A g a i n , this e r o t i c i z a t i o n o f the v a m p i r e refers t o the aristo­ cratic ideal o f excess c i r c u l a t i n g a r o u n d a l a n g u o r o u s figure w h o has n o af­ fect, the despotic sign a l l the other signs refer t o . B u t there are different kinds o f vampires. Power is g l a m o r o u s , a n d w e learn t o feed o f f evil. We

FIGURE 1.2 Mina (Winona Ryder) is seduced by Dracula's (Gary Oldman) nal charms in Bram Stoker's Dracula. (Copyright © 1992 Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc. All rights reserved. Used by permission.)

eter­

Fat-Eaters and Aesthetes

15

see i t again a n d again: P o w e r f u l people are always s u r r o u n d e d by lackeys w h o are eager t o please, even i f this means abasing themselves. I f w e t h i n k a b o u t the matter carefully, bearing i n m i n d a l l the c a u t i o n a r y tales i n the Western f o l k t r a d i t i o n , a wiser course o f a c t i o n w o u l d be t o back a w a y s l o w l y f r o m , rather t h a n t o associate w i t h , those w h o seek t o manifest r a w power. Indeed, this is the response o f people w h o understand p o w e r as a f o r m o f cannibalism. Because p o w e r is a desirable a s p i r a t i o n i n Western c u l t u r e , i t is difficult t o m a i n t a i n a conceptual f r a m e w o r k t h a t recognizes sites o f dominance a n d a u t h o r i t y a n d t h a t is able t o call these i n t o question. A process o f n a t u r a l ­ i z a t i o n renders a u t h o r i t y shifting, even invisible, a n d at times w e can see o n l y the glamor. H o w e v e r , the ambivalence a n d unease t h a t the n o t i o n o f abstract p o w e r over life a n d death generates are often displaced o n t o those w h o have been directly subject t o this power. H i s t o r i c a l l y , Europeans' tendency t o a t t r i b u t e c a n n i b a l i s m t o people they sought t o colonize (as w e l l as t o i n t e r n a l "de­ v i a n t s , " such as Jews a n d witches, b o t h o f w h o m were subjected t o b l o o d libels) seems t o have been a w a y o f displacing a n d d r a w i n g a t t e n t i o n a w a y f r o m the extent t o w h i c h E u r o p e a n elites were prepared t o consume bodies. The fascination remains, p r o v i d e d i t does n o t come t o o close t o h o m e . E u r o p e a n a n d N o r t h A m e r i c a n tourists t r a v e l t o see " c a n n i b a l s " i n N e w Guinea a n d others w h o m they believe t o celebrate f r i g h t f u l , b l o o d t h i r s t y , yet fascinating r i t e s . T h i s fascination w i t h other people's customs, o f course, also displaces c a n n i b a l i s m t o somewhere far away. I n the movies c a n n i b a l i s m continues t o be displaced o n t o foreigners o l d a n d n e w as w e l l as o n t o c o n t e m p o r a r y serial k i l l e r - t y p e psycho c r i m i n a l s , w h o are pre­ sented as c u l t u r a l outsiders by v i r t u e o f their madness. (Interestingly, nei­ ther the audience n o r the v i c t i m characters ever recognize the insane m u r ­ derers i n advance, as they are i n i t i a l l y indistinguishable f r o m " n o r m a l " people.) People v i s i t i n g museums i n Western capitals can see the signs o f unspeakable rituals f o r m e r l y practiced elsewhere a n d breathe sighs o f relief t h a t " w e " have gone b e y o n d such h o r r o r s . 14

T h e urge a n d the willingness t o consume h u m a n bodies, entire cultures, a n d species o f plants a n d animals have c o n t i n u e d , i n p a r t , because there are i m m e d i a t e rewards f o r d o i n g so. There are profits t o be made f r o m such ex­ p l o i t a t i o n . B u t there are other reasons people w i l l f u l l y t u r n themselves i n t o cannibals a n d vampires. Wetiko psychosis isolates us f r o m other people— a n d indeed makes the idea o f p r o f o u n d attachments w i t h others appear as impossible, naive foolishness—from the l a n d , a n d f r o m other forms o f life. I t is, I t h i n k , this separation f r o m the w o r l d i n w h i c h w e live t h a t makes us susceptible t o the disease. T h e c a n n i b a l monster is able t o invade o u r b o d ­ ies at this w e a k p o i n t a n d t r a n s f o r m i s o l a t i o n i n t o a r o a r i n g , p a i n f u l e m p t i ­ ness before presenting us w i t h w h a t seems the o n l y certain cure for t h a t iso­ l a t i o n : m o r e c o n s u m p t i o n , m o r e a c c u m u l a t i o n , a n d , for some, m o r e i r o n i c

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distance a b o u t the process. People a t t e m p t t o connect w i t h one another t h r o u g h objects a n d t h r o u g h the shared excitement those objects generate. Those w h o are unable t o d o so sometimes resort t o m o r e e x p l i c i t l y v i o l e n t means: The person w h o unloads a semiautomatic i n t o a c r o w d e d s h o p p i n g m a l l is simultaneously d e n y i n g a n d expressing intense i s o l a t i o n . W h a t feeds the c a n n i b a l a n d makes i t g r o w ? To c o m p r e h e n d a n d account for the c a n n i b a l , w e have t o be w i l l i n g t o use a different k i n d o f language, one t h a t can describe certain k i n d s o f phenomena as evil. As I understand i t , the c a n n i b a l is able t o live a n d g r o w where there is a v o i d — w h i c h is t o say, a n absence o f a p a r t i c u l a r element (or cluster o f elements) t h a t is neces­ sary t o the cohesion a n d balance o f the w h o l e . T h i s is true o f i n d i v i d u a l s as w e l l as societies. M o s t t r a d i t i o n a l societies recognize the existence o f evil. I f evil is denied or repudiated i n a c u l t u r e , there w i l l be n o ceremonies t o deal w i t h i t . There w i l l be o n l y a n e m p t y space where evil w o u l d , i n another system, be recog­ nized a n d ceremonially c o n f r o n t e d . I t h i n k t h a t because w e have dis­ placed c a n n i b a l i s m o n t o deviants a n d foreigners, the desire t o consume, a n d the t e m p o r a r y excitement p r o d u c e d by the act o f c o n s u m p t i o n , is able to e x p a n d a n d metastasize, c o l o n i z i n g a n d destroying Western culture f r o m w i t h i n . T h e chickens d o come h o m e t o roost, as w e can see f r o m the rising a n d apparently u n c o n t r o l l a b l e levels o f violence t h a t permeate c o n t e m p o ­ r a r y c u l t u r e . Because w e have refused t o recognize the extent t o w h i c h the c a n n i b a l lives inside us a n d at the heart o f o u r c u l t u r e , the c a n n i b a l m o n ­ ster becomes larger a n d larger. I said p r e v i o u s l y t h a t w e o f Western culture are u n w i l l i n g t o stare the monster i n the face: A t r a d i t i o n a l person w o u l d e x p l a i n t h a t this is w h y the monster's appetite increases. I t h i n k societies t h a t refuse t o glamorize p o w e r understand t h a t the o n l y w a y t o keep wetiko value systems f r o m t a k i n g r o o t is t o recognize the seductiveness o f c o n s u m p t i o n a n d t o collectively devise ways o f m i n i m i z i n g i t . T h i s is w h a t m o s t anthropologists a n d other "experts" f r o m the wetiko-dominated out­ side fail t o understand: The ceremonies t h a t various societies e m p l o y t o ad­ dress destructive c a n n i b a l spirits c o n f r o n t a real, concrete social issue i n a p r a c t i c a l manner. We i n the West can see the results o f c a n n i b a l psychosis everywhere b u t seem paralyzed, unable t o recognize a n d name i t for w h a t i t is, unable t o do a n y t h i n g a b o u t i t . 15

F r o m Spectacle to Display The Aztec state h a d t o display its a b i l i t y t o consume bodies, a n d the p u b l i c nature o f m a n y o f the sacrifices a n d the e x h i b i t i o n o f h u m a n skulls o n s k u l l racks seem t o have been as i m p o r t a n t as the k i l l i n g itself. We are dazzled a n d seduced by the display o f c o n s u m p t i o n , a n d there seems t o be a direct

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l i n k between a c c u m u l a t i o n o f w e a l t h a n d the a b i l i t y t o display for a l l t o see the p o w e r o f life a n d death. M a n y o f the displayed things are beautiful, w h i c h produces an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p o w e r a n d beauty a n d thereby further entrenches a n d normalizes c o n s u m p t i o n as the defining q u a l i t y o f the c u l ­ ture. T h e w a y beauty a n d art have been used t o justify a very w i d e range o f c a n n i b a l behaviors is central t o the n o t i o n s o f e x o t i c i s m a n d a p p r o p r i a t i o n that are the subject o f this b o o k . Certainly, wetiko psychosis appears a n d is manifested i n aesthetics—and i n b o t h the h i g h a n d l o w versions—and aes­ thetics continue t o be the site where the disease is manifested i n some o f its most c o m p l e x a n d a m b i v a l e n t ways. C o n s u m p t i o n can be displayed i n m a n y ways. B o t h objects a n d people can serve t o e x h i b i t cannibalistic qualities, a n d specific i n d i v i d u a l s can be presented i n such a w a y t h a t they e m b o d y c o n s u m p t i o n itself: Lifestyles o f the R i c h a n d Famous. There is a r e l a t i o n between the relatively harmless experience o f pleasure w h e n b u y i n g , for instance, a n e w p a i r o f earrings a n d the pleasure a n d excitement supposedly felt i n the presence o f famous, w e a l t h y people. Celebrities are often cannibals, b u t their g l a m o r gives ca­ chet t o their cannibalistic practices or, rather, celebrity is i n m a n y respects dependent u p o n wetiko behavior. (There are also h i s t o r i c a l reasons for this, a n d Forbes notes that the heroes o f Western h i s t o r y have almost always been m a j o r wetikos. ) I n c o n t e m p o r a r y capitalist culture celebrities are marketable. T h u s , they exercise a great deal o f p o w e r because o f their w e a l t h a n d fame, a n d this p o w e r — w h i c h comes d o w n t o p o w e r over other bodies—is presented again a n d again i n various media as fascinating, a n d erotic, i n itself. I n p a r t this e r o t i c i z a t i o n o f p o w e r has t o do w i t h h o w celebrity is generated i n o u r soci­ ety, b u t i t is also because these people are able t o satisfy cannibalistic de­ sires, i f a n d w h e n they so please, m u c h as the aristocratic vampires o f an­ other era d i d . N o t everyone responds t o the same precise m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f abstract power, o f course: One person m a y become aroused by contact w i t h a w e a l t h y i n d u s t r i a l i s t , whereas another m a y find musicians or actors m o r e e x c i t i n g . Famous celebrity artists are c o n t i n u a l l y s u r r o u n d e d by syco­ phants, i f A n d y W a r h o l ' s diaries are a n y t h i n g t o go by. T h e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t is t h a t i n o u r culture c a n n i b a l types continue t o be g l a m o r i z e d a n d repre­ sented as r o m a n t i c objects o f desire a n d their ways o f life held o u t as some­ t h i n g t o strive for. T h i s g l a m o r i z a t i o n o f wetiko a n d this l i n k i n g o f i t t o n o t i o n s o f celebrity can i n some instances become an extremely c o n t r a d i c t o r y a n d a m b i v a l e n t m o d e o f desire. We read newspaper a n d magazine stories f r o m t i m e t o t i m e a b o u t mass murderers w h o , a l t h o u g h they are o n death r o w , have devoted f o l l o w i n g s o f w o m e n w h o w i s h t o m a r r y t h e m . B u t are such extreme exam­ ples really any different f r o m the generalized fetishization o f c o n s u m p t i o n a n d celebrity? T h e c a n n i b a l faces constantly change, a n d w h o a m o n g us 16

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can really remember w h a t D o n a l d T r u m p l o o k s like? A l l w e remember is the excess. F o l l o w i n g Jack Forbes, I have stressed t h a t wetiko is n o t a m e t a p h o r b u t a real p h e n o m e n o n w i t h real effects. C a n n i b a l psychosis involves the c o n ­ s u m p t i o n o f real bodies. B u t i t is also useful t o extend the definition o f can­ n i b a l i s m t o f o r m s o f c o n s u m p t i o n t h a t occur b e y o n d the physical b o d y o f the i n d i v i d u a l or even the c o m m u n i t y . I t is possible t o consume somebody's spirit, somebody's past or history, or somebody's arts a n d t o d o so i n such a w a y t h a t the act o f c o n s u m p t i o n appears beautiful a n d heroic. T h e sites where this c o n s u m p t i o n takes place can be some o f the mos t cherished i n ­ stitutions i n Western culture: art galleries, libraries, museums, universities.

Alibis of Appreciation A r t can operate as a n a l i b i for c a n n i b a l p o w e r because o f its a b i l i t y t o g i l d ugly social a n d h i s t o r i c a l facts w i t h the p a t i n a o f taste a n d beauty. C e r t a i n forms o f aesthetic practice are believed t o be able t o elicit l o f t y sentiments (particularly, b u t n o t exclusively, those t h a t fall i n t o the category o f h i g h culture) a n d hence can obscure the c o n d i t i o n s under w h i c h these same l o f t y sentiments are made possible. T h e presence o f art can d r a w a t t e n t i o n a w a y f r o m the extent t o w h i c h its practice continues t o be dependent o n a r h e t o r i c o f exclusion a n d mastery. T h i s is n o t s i m p l y t o say that, for i n ­ stance, oppressed serfs t o i l e d so t h a t the lords c o u l d appreciate o i l p a i n t i n g . Rather, the issue is the w a y i n w h i c h ideas o f beauty (especially i n the h i g h l y aestheticized incarnations o f o l d master p a i n t i n g , s y m p h o n i c music, ballet, opera, a n d the like) have been abstracted f r o m their social a n d c u l ­ t u r a l m a t r i x , i m a g i n e d as something separate a n d transcendent t h a t makes all the violence a n d repressions o f h i s t o r y t h i n k a b l e . T h e o l d idea t h a t beauty is s o m e h o w g o o d i n itself has excused m a n y unattractive m o m e n t s . A r t is often u t i l i z e d t o e x p l a i n a n d naturalize the display o f a u t h o r i t y (and o f dead bodies), a n d the effects o f this display can be extremely subtle a n d c o m p l e x , p r o f o u n d l y influencing h o w w e understand c u l t u r a l , sexual, a n d other differences. Every n o w a n d t h e n the smoke dissolves, a n d w e recognize the m y s t e r i ­ ous affinity between c o n s u m p t i o n — o f images as m u c h as bodies—and the representation a n d aestheticization o f violence a n d a u t h o r i t y . There are m a n y p e r m u t a t i o n s o f this l i n k ; p o w e r is never seamless, n o r is i t absolutely confident at a l l times, w h i c h is one reason aesthetics can appear t o c o n ­ struct a space outside o f power, the space ostensibly necessary t o liberate the i m a g i n a t i o n . B u t the existence o f conceptual zones supposedly u n ­ t o u c h e d by banal a u t h o r i t y is so often possible o n l y because this a u t h o r i t y hovers nearby a n d i n such a w a y t h a t the artist or connoisseur is able t o

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benefit f r o m i t . Power is merely one step r e m o v e d f r o m the art object, w h i c h i n the end means o n l y t h a t art is n o t b a n k i n g o r law. N o w I a m n o t saying t h a t because aesthetic p r o d u c t i o n i n late or any other k i n d o f capi­ t a l i s m is l i n k e d t o the economic a n d p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h i t occurs, a l l artistic endeavors are completely pointless a n d c o r r u p t . N o n e o f us is u n c o n t a m i n a t e d by the m a r k e t , a n d p a r t o f the p r o b l e m is the insistence t h a t a pure space can indeed be located a n d occupied i f o n l y w e are v i r t u o u s enough. I t is a m o r e difficult a n d p a i n f u l task t o l o o k i n t o the complicities, b o t h h i s t o r i c a l a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y , o f m a i n s t r e a m a n d " a l t e r n a t i v e " aes­ thetics w i t h power, c o l o n i a l i s m , racism, a n d a host o f other oppressions a n d t o do so i n such a w a y t h a t goes b e y o n d self-congratulatory condemna­ t i o n o f the artists a n d w r i t e r s w e do n o t l i k e . Because o f the h i g h ideals associated w i t h Western art, m a n y people have been u n w i l l i n g t o recognize t h a t aesthetics are dependent o n very explicit sets o f p o w e r relations. T h i s unwillingness seems disingenuous at best. T h i s dependency is o b v i o u s i n the w a y p a r t i c u l a r k i n d s o f images o f colonized cultures are carefully a n d h a b i t u a l l y m a i n t a i n e d as sources o f w h a t gets called " i n s p i r a t i o n . " W i t h i n Western aesthetics other c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s have been assigned the role o f artistic resource, t o be harvested p r e t t y m u c h at the pleasure o f the colonizers (this is similar t o the w a y images o f w o m e n o f a l l colors have c o n t i n u a l l y f u n c t i o n e d w i t h i n the same aesthetic), a l ­ t h o u g h the specifics o f this a p p r o p r i a t i o n have shifted over t i m e . G o l d a n d images, images a n d g o l d : b o t h were carried o f f t o Europe. T r e a t i n g another culture as an aesthetic resource can w o r k i n m a n y different ways. For i n ­ stance, i n 1845 Parisian critic T h e o p h i l e Gautier w r o t e : It is strange, we believe we have conquered Algeria, but Algeria has con­ quered us. Our women already wear scarves interwoven w i t h threads of gold, streaked w i t h a thousand colours, which have served the harem slaves, our young men are adopting the camel hair burnous. ... Hashish is taking the place of champagne; our Spahi officers look so Arab one would think they had captured themselves in a smala; they have adopted all the Oriental habits, so superior is primitive life to our so-called civilization. If this goes on, France w i l l soon be Mahometan and we shall see the white domes of mosques round­ ing themselves on our horizons. ... We should indeed like to live to see the day.i?

A n u m b e r o f issues are raised i n this q u o t a t i o n . By 1845 France h a d fi­ nally subdued m o s t o f A l g e r i a i n one o f the bloodiest c o l o n i a l w a r s o f the nineteenth century. Conquest o f t e r r i t o r y meant c o n t r o l over the people i n ­ h a b i t i n g the t e r r i t o r y , a n d the n e w p o w e r relationship between the t w o countries meant t h a t the external trappings o f A l g e r i a n aesthetics a n d c u l ­ t u r e — G a u t i e r mentions costume, hashish, a n d architecture—were n o w available for French aesthetes t o investigate a n d consume. Gautier was an

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extremely influential critic i n France; indeed, he coined the n o t o r i o u s t e r m art for art's sake (he was interested i n a certain k i n d o f excess, a n d as p a r t o f his project t o epater les bourgeois he used t o w a l k a live lobster d o w n the Champs Elysees). I t is perhaps t o o easy t o o v e r l o o k the extent t o w h i c h Gautier's comments reflect the c o l o n i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between France a n d A l g e r i a because he r h e t o r i c a l l y frames his remarks as a d m i r a t i o n . H e loves A l g e r i a ! H e adores the clothes a n d the w a y o f life o f the people, a l l the w a y f r o m hashish t o I s l a m . H e happily, w h i c h is t o say, ironically, insists t h a t the " p r i m i t i v e " life o f A l g e r i a is superior t o the " c i v i l i z e d " life o f Paris (and assumes his readers are Frenchmen w h o k n o w w h a t he means by these terms). Yet Gautier continues t o w h o l e h e a r t e d l y s u p p o r t b r u t a l French policies i n A l g e r i a . H o w can this be? Gautier is n o t unusual i n his willingness t o take u p the paraphernalia o f a culture w h i l e calling for or r e m a i n i n g indifferent t o the suppression o f the people whose objects he acquires a n d esteems. N o r is he unusual i n his ten­ dency t o frame his desire for this exotic culture i n a n i r o n i c m o d e . I n m a n y ways Gautier epitomizes the double m a n , the m a n o f m o d e r n i t y w h o plays the double game, o n the one h a n d presenting himself as a n antiestablishm e n t b o h e m i a n aesthete a n d o n the other s u p p o r t i n g the governments t h a t funnel m o n e y i n t o his pocket. Gautier is one o f the first t o occupy the n e w role o f culture broker, based o n a n e w k i n d o f elitism, ostensibly m o r e dem­ ocratic t h a n the elitism o f the ancien regime b u t m u c h m o r e cynical. H i s use o f i r o n y exemplifies this cynicism; i t implies a c o m m u n i t y o f s i m i l a r l y i n c l i n e d people w h o are i n o n the j o k e , as i t were, because they are able t o recognize w h a t the speaker is d o i n g a n d k n o w h o w t o interpret ambiguous statements. T h i s use o f i r o n y further implies a s y m b o l i c order i n w h i c h every statement c o u l d be made t o m e a n s o m e t h i n g else b u t i n w h i c h a despotic e n t i t y at the center decides the " t r u e " m e a n i n g o f the statement a n d uses i t as a w a y t o adjudicate w h o is i n a n d w h o is o u t . Because a re­ m a r k can m e a n a n y t h i n g , the interest i n c u l t u r a l difference can appear as pure c o n s u m p t i o n , w i t h o u t affect or respect a n d finally w i t h o u t connec­ t i o n . A g a i n , w e are r e m i n d e d t h a t some cannibals have as their p r i m a r y i n ­ terest h u m a n bodies; some, precious, beautiful, or grotesque objects; a n d others, aesthetic sensibilities. I w a n t t o be very careful here. People are curious a b o u t one another, w h i c h is n o t necessarily s o m e t h i n g h o r r i b l e . W e mus t n o t assume t o o m u c h i n advance a b o u t people's motives, even i f these people happen t o be male or w h i t e or seem t o share traits w i t h the oppressor. N o r is this a question o f enforcing the one true w a y or a n o t i o n o f c u l t u r a l p u r i t y t h a t , however t e m p t i n g , puts us back i n the same conceptual b o x f r o m w h i c h w e started. But, this said, i t seems o b v i o u s t h a t Gautier's b r a n d o f a p p r e c i a t i o n has something quite nasty b e h i n d i t a n d t h a t this w a y o f t h i n k i n g has i n m a n y respects been n o r m a l i z e d i n the d o m i n a n t stream o f Western c u l t u r e . A fas­ c i n a t i o n w i t h other cultures has been a w a y for a certain type o f aesthete t o 1 8

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imagine an outside t o the e x h a u s t i o n a n d disasters o f E u r o p e a n c u l t u r e . Fantasizing a space o f pure difference can be the result o f battle fatigue or o f battle fatigue as a sophisticated pose. Susan Sontag, i n her i n t r o d u c t i o n t o A n t o n i n A r t a u d ' s w r i t i n g s , describes the m o d e r n i s t interest i n A s i a n soci­ eties, Western magic, a n d earth-based cultures: " W h a t unites the East, the ancient a n t i n o m i a n a n d occult t r a d i t i o n s i n the West, a n d the exotic c o m m u n i t a r i a n i s m o f pre-literate tribes is t h a t they are elsewhere, n o t o n l y i n space b u t i n t i m e . " I n effect, a n aestheticized taste f o r societies far re­ m o v e d f r o m w h e r e w e actually are can become a w a y o f never h a v i n g t o p u t the assumptions o f o u r o w n culture i n t o question or recognize w h a t constitutes the line o f d e m a r c a t i o n between inside a n d outside, here a n d there. T h e Westerner remains i n charge, a n d the outside remains inside, the aesthetic p r o p e r t y o f the avant-garde. 1 9

A d m i r a t i o n o f a foreign c u l t u r e or a f o r e i g n aesthetic system can connote broad-mindedness a n d at the same t i m e flatter the aesthetic or p o l i t i c a l pre­ tensions o f the connoisseur. T h e regard f o r difference can also become an­ other w a y t o c o n t r o l w h a t has been determined t o fall i n t o the category m a r k e d " f o r e i g n " ; certainly this can be its effect o n the g r o u n d , especially w h e n people are s t r i p p e d o f their art a n d ceremonial objects so t h a t Western admirers can l o o k at t h e m i n conveniently located museums. I n this w a y a p p r e c i a t i o n a la Gautier becomes n o m o r e t h a n another manifes­ t a t i o n o f the c o l o n i a l m e n t a l i t y . I t can operate as an a l i b i f o r various f o r m s o f c o l o n i a l encroachment a n d can serve as a n a t t e m p t t o domesticate a n d b r i n g under c o n t r o l difference n o t o n l y w i t h respect t o bodies b u t also i n terms o f aesthetic codes a n d conventions. M o r e i m p o r t a n t , i t can presup­ pose the r i g h t t o decide w h a t is valuable a n d interesting. W h a t this comes d o w n t o is the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t the c o l o n i s t possesses the master code w i t h i n w h i c h a l l data, a l l people a n d customs, a l l art objects, can be assim­ ilated a n d j u d g e d . I n this w a y o f t h i n k i n g i t is the c o l o n i s t — o r the m u s e u m expert, the an­ t h r o p o l o g i s t , the judge at the l a n d claims c o u r t — w h o w i l l decide w h a t is authentic a n d , by extension, w h a t is w o r t h p a y i n g a t t e n t i o n t o , saving, or stealing. T h e w o r l d exists as a warehouse o f treasure, w i t h the p l u n d e r o f choice this t i m e m o r e aesthetic t h a n e x p l i c i t l y m a t e r i a l . T h e aestheticized a p p r e c i a t i o n o f difference can elide the extent t o w h i c h the possibility o f this a p p r e c i a t i o n continues t o be based o n ugly a n d u n e q u a l p o w e r rela­ tions. I t still comes d o w n t o a question o f w h o takes a n d w h o gives.

Entitlement T h a t Gautier's love o f A l g e r i a veils a c o l o n i a l i s t agenda seems evident. T h e l i n k between aesthetic a p p r e c i a t i o n a n d i m p e r i a l expansion is m i r r o r e d i n other, m o r e e x p l i c i t f o r m s o f c u l t u r a l c o n s u m p t i o n i n w h i c h sacred objects

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are seized (and often renamed art i n the process) a n d r e m o v e d t o the capi­ tals o f Europe a n d N o r t h A m e r i c a . Gautier's elegant discursive style draws a t t e n t i o n a w a y f r o m his certainty t h a t he has a r i g h t t o a n y t h i n g t h a t catches his eye i n the n e w c o l o n y o f A l g e r i a . Bombastic enthusiasm can per­ f o r m a similar f u n c t i o n a n d elide the fact t h a t questions o f possession have already been decided by the n e w masters. I t also seems t o be a w a y o f d e m o n s t r a t i n g this r i g h t t o a p p r o p r i a t e for a l l t o see. A t a certain p o i n t i n h i s t o r y the o l d smash-and-grab c o l o n i a l m e n t a l i t y merged w i t h n o t i o n s o f scientific expertise, w h i c h was t o have p r o f o u n d i m p l i c a t i o n s for h o w the w o r l d was i m a g i n e d i n the West. Nineteenth-century colonialists believed t h a t the art a n d artifacts o f people across the globe were by definition for the t a k i n g , precisely because the Westerners' supposedly greater, scientific perspective entitled t h e m t o b r i n g the arts o f a l l other cultures under their purview. A m e r i c a n explorer J o h n L l o y d Stephens, w h o w r o t e the influential Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan i n 1 8 4 1 , ex­ emplified the confidence o f the p e r i o d w h e n he enthused t o his partner i n 1 8 4 1 a b o u t a project he h a d i n i t i a t e d t o purchase C o p a n , a classic-period M a y a n ceremonial center located i n H o n d u r a s : " A n o p e r a t i o n ! ( H i d e y o u r heads, ye speculators i n u p - t o w n lots!) To b u y C o p a n ! remove the m o n u ­ ments o f a by-gone people f r o m the desolate r e g i o n i n w h i c h they were b u r i e d , set t h e m up i n the 'great c o m m e r c i a l e m p o r i u m ' [ N e w Y o r k C i t y ] , a n d f o u n d an i n s t i t u t i o n t o be the nucleus o f a great n a t i o n a l m u s e u m o f A m e r i c a n a n t i q u i t i e s ! " Stephens's h y p e r b o l i c , e x c l a m a t o r y style was t y p i ­ cal o f his t i m e ( I a m strangely r e m i n d e d o f W a l t W h i t m a n ) , a n d his rather s t u n n i n g confidence led h i m t o t r y b u y i n g n o t o n l y C o p a n b u t also other M a y a n cities. H i s r e m a r k t h a t these m o n u m e n t s are situated i n "desolate r e g i o n s " — w h e n i n fact these areas are populated—is s y m p t o m a t i c o f the belief t h a t i f these arts a n d m o n u m e n t s are n o t recognized by w h i t e people or located i n a place t o w h i c h Westerners have easy access, they do n o t re­ ally exist. I f a tree falls i n the forest, does a listener have t o be w h i t e t o hear it? Does he have t o be a scientist? T h e idea t h a t there must be a central geo­ graphical locus i n w h i c h the people w h o matter w i l l have access t o the frag­ ments o f w o r l d culture t h a t they have decided are w o r t h preserving c o n t i n ­ ues t o persist i n some circles i n the West. H e r e the p r o p e r nucleus is i m a g i n e d as N e w Y o r k (Stephens was an A m e r i c a n ) ; other times i t is L o n d o n or Paris. The d o g m a t h a t N o r t h A m e r i c a n o r E u r o p e a n cities are the a p p r o p r i a t e depots o f w o r l d culture is shifting, b u t n o t w i t h o u t a fight. Stephens w r o t e i n the m i d - n i n e t e e n t h century, b u t his insistence o n Western entitlement has n o t been entirely l a i d t o rest i n the West. A univer­ salized n o t i o n o f art, w h i c h has always sought t o encompass the arts o f other cultures, has been t a k e n even further as museums a n d other art insti­ t u t i o n s come under fire for r e t a i n i n g c u l t u r a l p r o p e r t y t h a t was confiscated d u r i n g the c o l o n i a l p e r i o d or t h r o u g h other d o u b t f u l means. 20

Fat-Eaters and Aesthetes

23

A Shiva figure was r e m o v e d f r o m a temple i n S o u t h I n d i a i n the 1970s a n d sold a few years later t o a p r i v a t e collector f o r $ 4 0 5 , 0 0 0 . T h e I n d i a n g o v e r n m e n t w a n t e d the figure (called the N a t a r a j a ) back, a n d the case w e n t to c o u r t i n L o n d o n , where the sale h a d t a k e n place. There were a n u m b e r o f interesting legal arguments, some o f w h i c h t u r n e d o n the question o f w h e t h e r the deity (or the deity's l i n g a m ) i n fact o w n e d the w o r k . T h e c o u r t decided i n favor o f I n d i a a n d ordered the N a t a r a j a r e t u r n e d t o the temple. T h i s p r o f o u n d l y i r r i t a t e d A m e r i c a n arts w r i t e r Stephen W e i l , w h o w r o t e , " O u r great Western collections have themselves become c u l t u r a l artifacts. A r c h i n g above o n c e - i n d i v i d u a l cultures, there is t o d a y a collective c u l t u r a l p a t r i m o n y t h a t has been f o r m e d by the flow, m i n g l e a n d merge o f history. . . . W h a t ' s at stake has become our heritage, t o o . " 2 1

W e i l takes the B r i t i s h court's decision as a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o argue against the r e t u r n o f c u l t u r a l treasures i n general, an a r g u m e n t I suspect is n o t en­ tirely a t y p i c a l o f Western curators a n d collectors. H i s agenda is o b v i o u s i n the w a y he constantly constructs his audience as Western by r e i t e r a t i n g the p r o n o u n our, f r o m w h i c h I n d i a is clearly excluded. L i k e Gautier, W e i l m a ­ nipulates n o t i o n s o f i n c l u s i o n a n d e x c l u s i o n t o justify possession o f foreign c u l t u r a l m a t e r i a l . W e i l evidently imagines t h a t the connoisseur o f such a piece w o u l d be a Westerner a n d has n o t i m e f o r the idea t h a t the N a t a r a j a m i g h t be a n object o f religious veneration; his a r g u m e n t a b o u t Western c o l ­ lections assumes t h a t a religious image can be classified a c c o r d i n g t o Western c r i t e r i a as art, w h i c h is t o say, as s o m e t h i n g dead a n d w i t h o u t spirit. H e seems t o be saying t h a t because certain a r t treasures have been re­ m o v e d t o the West, the cultures f r o m w h i c h they were r e m o v e d n o longer have any specificity o r indeed any say i n the matter; they can o n l y be "oncei n d i v i d u a l . " I t is a peculiar logic: W e i l is suggesting t h a t because I n d i a (and elsewhere) i n some respects has become Westernized, I n d i a n art s h o u l d re­ m a i n i n the West because these are m o r e o r less the same place. I t is w h a t W e i l leaves o u t t h a t is interesting a n d the w a y he deploys seem­ i n g l y n e u t r a l b u t universalized terms, such as " h i s t o r y , " as a w a y o f ex­ p l a i n i n g a n d j u s t i f y i n g the presence o f religious objects i n Western collec­ tions. These collections have been f o r m e d by h i s t o r i c a l forces, he asserts, w h i c h appear as b o t h an i m p a r t i a l e n t i t y a n d a fait a c c o m p l i . W e i l seems t o find the idea u n t h i n k a b l e t h a t the connoisseur o f fine art w o u l d have t o travel t o D e l h i instead o f L o n d o n or N e w Y o r k t o see art objects, a v i e w t h a t echoes Stephens's c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f H o n d u r a s as a "desolate r e g i o n . " Western collectors a n d museums are o b v i o u s l y under pressure b o t h f r o m foreign governments d e m a n d i n g the r e t u r n o f c u l t u r a l m a t e r i a l a n d f r o m the c u r r e n t economic c l i m a t e , w h i c h demands t h a t p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s gen­ erate i n c o m e . M u s e u m s need i m p o r t a n t a r t pieces t o attract p a y i n g cus­ tomers. T o d a y museums have t o construct f a i r l y extreme arguments t o jus­ tify their o w n e r s h i p o f certain pieces, yet b o t h the great Western museums a n d the non-Western governments t h a t seek the r e t u r n o f art treasures are

24

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c o m p l i c i t i n defending the p r i m a c y o f the m u s e u m itself. B o t h seek t o pre­ vent ceremonial items f r o m g o i n g back t o the people w h o made t h e m a n d to the c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t m i g h t use such objects i n a n o n m u s e u m c o n t e x t . B o t h agree t h a t the n a t i o n a l m u s e u m is the o n l y p r o p e r house f o r such o b ­ jects, a n d the q u i b b l i n g really concerns w h i c h n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n w i l l ad­ minister w h i c h version o f heritage. T h i s is n o t t o say t h a t the N a t a r a j a s h o u l d n o t r e t u r n t o I n d i a . B u t this does n o t solve the p r o b l e m s o f j u d g ­ m e n t a n d expertise t h a t led t o the seizing o f such objects i n the first place. I t also does n o t address the a b s t r a c t i o n o f aesthetic a n d ceremonial objects f r o m the c u l t u r a l contexts i n w h i c h they were made a n d used. As l o n g as museums validate ceremonial objects as fine art, the illegal trade i n these objects w i l l c o n t i n u e t o flourish.

A New World Order Gautier w r o t e at a t i m e w h e n m o s t Europeans t o o k f o r granted their " r i g h t " t o decide the g o o d a n d t o c o n t r o l a n d determine the fate o f the rest o f the w o r l d . Yet his remarks seem c u r i o u s l y c o n t e m p o r a r y , even "postc o l o n i a l , " i n the w a y he juxtaposes a superior p r i m i t i v e against a n infe­ r i o r c i v i l i z a t i o n as p a r t o f an a p p a r e n t l y a d m i r i n g e m b r a c i n g o f a foreign aesthetic. T h e evidence lies i n his i r o n i c remarks a b o u t I s l a m . I r o n y can f u n c t i o n as a s m o k i n g m i r r o r t h a t veils a n d displaces power, a n d a l t h o u g h we k n o w where Gautier stands, his breathless remarks p r o d u c e a sense o f ambivalence t h a t , again, can m e a n a n y t h i n g . A m b i v a l e n c e really is the p o i n t here because i t means t h a t p o w e r w i l l never quite reveal its face a n d t h a t , as Rene Descartes w o u l d have i t , w e are f u l l y i n charge o f w h a t w e are experiencing. Gautier articulates his a p p r e c i a t i o n o f A l g e r i a n aesthetics w h o l l y w i t h i n the c o n t e x t o f c o l o n i a l conquest a n d does n o t begin t o ques­ t i o n his evident belief t h a t A r a b c u l t u r e exists o n l y f o r French aesthetes. Gautier supports a physical conquest o f t e r r i t o r y as the basis o f a E u r o p e a n conquest o f A l g e r i a n aesthetics, a v i e w t h a t at first glance l o o k s like a n an­ t i q u a t e d , t y p i c a l l y nineteenth-century c o l o n i a l i s t p o s i t i o n , one t h a t has been tossed o n t o the ash-heap o f h i s t o r y everyone has heard so m u c h about. 2 2

But t h i n k , H o w m a n y n o n - N a t i v e collectors w h o adore, say, t r a d i t i o n a l N a t i v e A m e r i c a n b e a d w o r k also w o r k t o s u p p o r t N a t i v e sovereignty a n d l a n d rights? W h a t are the l i n k s between past a n d present w h e n i n s t i t u t i o n s such as the R o y a l O n t a r i o M u s e u m m o u n t a s h o w o n classical M a y a n art f r o m M e x i c o at a t i m e w h e n M a y a n - s p e a k i n g people i n Chiapas are under extreme pressure f r o m a p r o - f r e e trade M e x i c a n government? H o w m a n y N o r t h Americans w h o wear c l o t h i n g f r o m " e x o t i c " countries or select "ex­ o t i c " designs f o r their bedsheets question E u r o p e a n a n d N o r t h A m e r i c a n

Fat-Eaters and Aesthetes 25 economic a n d p o l i t i c a l policies i n the countries i n w h i c h the beautiful o b ­ jects originated? Perhaps m o r e t o the p o i n t , do these consumers k n o w any­ t h i n g at a l l a b o u t the people w h o create these designs? For most, these questions d o n o t exist, or, m o r e correctly, they briefly emerge before being suppressed a n d displaced o n t o the k n i c k - k n a c k being purchased. T h i s is possible because so m a n y people i n the West have been subject t o a concep­ t u a l system t h a t separates people f r o m the art a n d c u l t u r e they create. N i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y - s t y l e c o l o n i a l enterprises have f o r the m o s t p a r t be­ come t o o expensive f o r the Western p o w e r s t o engage i n , b u t the conquest a n d c o m m o d i f l c a t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n a l aesthetic f o r m s a n d t r a d i t i o n a l s p i r i t u ­ ality r e m a i n possible. T h e question o f the extent t o w h i c h cultures w i l l be able t o exist outside o f w o r l d c a p i t a l or, rather, o n whose terms h y b r i d i t y w i l l occur h a r d l y ever comes u p w h e n images o f differences are being "ap­ p r e c i a t e d " a n d consumed. Colonists have sought g o l d i n various f o r m s , scientific a n d art i n s t i t u ­ tions have sought objects, a n d aesthetes have sought images. A l t h o u g h i n recent years some a t t e n t i o n has been p a i d t o the c o n d i t i o n s o f a c q u i s i t i o n , c o l l e c t i o n , a n d display o f m u s e u m objects, the m a n i f o l d ways i n w h i c h complexes o f images have been t a k e n u p a n d aestheticized need m o r e c r i t i ­ cal a t t e n t i o n . C a p i t a l moves very quickly, a n d m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s operate unchecked by borders. A mere one h u n d r e d years ago the configu­ rations o f w o r l d p o w e r apparent t o d a y w o u l d have been u n i m a g i n a b l e t o m o s t l i v i n g i n the heart o f the West. As I a i n Chambers p o i n t s o u t , Lagos a n d M e x i c o C i t y have i n m a n y respects become m o r e t y p i c a l centers o f w o r l d c u l t u r e t h a n Paris or N e w Y o r k . Despite the fact t h a t the o l d dis­ t i n c t i o n between center a n d p e r i p h e r y has altered, m a n y people i n the West c l i n g t o fantasies o f power, a n d the West's f o r m e r colonies c o n t i n u e t o be u t i l i z e d as a source o f images. M a n y o f these images have a l o n g h i s t o r y i n the Western i m a g i n a r y a n d are b o t h e x p l i c i t l y a n d i m p l i c i t l y associated w i t h c o l o n i a l sensibilities—for instance, supposedly free approaches t o sex­ uality, great l u x u r y , absolute power, a n d adventure. M y task is t o consider the ways i n w h i c h these i m a g i n a r y meanings can attach t o p a r t i c u l a r o b ­ jects a n d the ways specific meanings are able t o migrate over t i m e a n d space. I n this sense I a m describing w h a t can be n o m o r e t h a n a trace, the shade o f a Western c o l o n i a l ideal t h a t is dead b u t , like the v a m p i r e c o u n t , continues t o live o n a n d o n . 2 3

2 The Luxurious Ambivalence of Exoticism

What would you say if a blonde homecoming queen fell in love with a short Japanese businessman? He treats her cruelly, then goes home for three years, during which time she prays to his picture and turns down marriage from a young Kennedy. Then, when she learns he has remarried, she kills herself. Now, I believe you would consider this girl to be a deranged idiot, correct? But because it's an Oriental who kills herself for a Westerner—ah!—you find it beautiful. 1

Song Liling's retelling o f the M a d a m e Butterfly story i n D a v i d H e n r y H w a n g ' s 1988 p l a y M . Butterfly reminds the spectator t h a t the death o f the foreign w o m a n has been t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a sacrificial m o m e n t i n a Western dream. Butterfly is a p h a n t o m , she is insane, she is a n aestheticised object whose s e l f - i m m o l a t i o n offers a tableau o f submission t o the w o r l d l y c o n ­ sumer o f images. Butterfly's death becomes another s w i r l i n g f o r m i n Tezcatlipoca's m i r r o r , one t h a t veils a n d reveals Western preoccupations w h i l e p r o m i s i n g a n answer t o the mystery o f difference a n d ambivalence. Tezcatlipoca promises t o tell the t r u t h , b u t his p r o m i s e , as always, is a t r i c k . T h e M a d a m e Butterfly story, m o s t famously rendered i n G i a c o m o Puccini's 1 9 0 4 opera (see Figure 2 . 1 ) , continues t o absorb a n d enchant Western audiences. We can trace this e n d u r i n g fascination i n a w i d e range o f venues; for instance, i n p o p culture i n M a l c o l m M c L a r e n ' s 1980s dance tune t h a t featured Puccini's famous death aria, a perennial favorite o f opera companies large a n d small; i n D a v i d H e n r y H w a n g ' s p l a y M . Butterfly, w h i c h turns the story o n its head by revealing the Butterfly character t o be a Chinese m a n ; a n d i n D a v i d Cronenberg's 1993 m o v i e version o f the play, w h i c h transforms H w a n g ' s script i n t o a relatively s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d narrative o f r o m a n t i c betrayal. Recently M a d a m e Butterfly has been relocated t o V i e t n a m i n the blockbuster musical Miss Saigon (see Figure 2 . 2 ) . I n Puccini's opera the stereotypically exquisite Japanese w o m a n kills herself for the love o f a n a r r o g a n t A m e r i c a n m a n . I n H w a n g ' s M . Butterfly the 27

28

FIGURE 2.1 Toronto)

Madama Butterfly (courtesy of the Canadian Opera

FIGURE 2.2 Toronto)

Miss Saigon (courtesy of the Princess of Wales

Company,

Theatre,

The Luxurious Ambivalence of Exoticism

29

French f u n c t i o n a r y Rene G a l l i m a r d a l l o w s himself t o be seduced by his ex­ pectations o f Asia a n d o f exotic sexuality; t h i n k i n g he is seducing a Chinese w o m a n w i t h his E u r o p e a n c h a r m a n d expertise, he is i n t u r n deceived by a M a o i s t male agent w h o understands h o w t o m a n i p u l a t e G a l l i m a r d ' s c u l ­ t u r a l blindness a n d obsession w i t h his o w n a u t h o r i t y . T h e f u n c t i o n a r y longs t o be seduced a n d enchanted by difference, a n d everything he sees a n d experiences i n Beijing can be subsumed under this desire. Indeed, G a l l i m a r d never questions his fantasy c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the A s i a n w o m a n b u t instead m a i n t a i n s a n d affirms his make-believe opus f o r years, believing himself t o be i n love w i t h the p r o p e r l y submissive w o m a n o f his c o l o n i a l i s t dreams. H w a n g ' s retelling o f the Butterfly story reminds us t h a t t o d a y w e cannot be quite so sanguine a b o u t such q u a i n t conceits as the price o f fixed gender a n d ethnic identities becomes m o r e evident. T h e " t r u t h " o f these identities is increasingly called i n t o q u e s t i o n . T h e conse­ quences o f essentialist n o t i o n s o f e t h n i c i t y a n d c u l t u r e were always b r u t a l l y o b v i o u s t o the w o m a n w h o was directed by the operatic narrative t o sacri­ fice herself, a n d the rest o f us are increasingly c o m i n g t o understand racism as a system t h a t fixes everyone i n her or his place i n a w a y t h a t damages a l l . There are m a n y spectacles o f death a n d o f sacrifice i n Western c u l t u r e , a n d there are m a n y ways t o render these displays intensely beautiful a n d m o v i n g . Sometimes sacrificial events are made t o seem m o r e splendid or m o r e sublime i f they use a foreign vocabulary, or, rather, the strangeness o f the images d r a w s the spectator's a t t e n t i o n a w a y f r o m the didactic f u n c t i o n o f the story a n d f r o m the question o f precisely w h a t is being displayed. T h e foreign w o m a n dies. T h i s is h o w one version o f the story is supposed t o go, as w e can see f r o m the r e p e t i t i o n o f Butterfly's suicide. B u t the autosacriflcial event does n o t float i n t i m e a n d space b u t is given m e a n i n g t h r o u g h its fictional c o n t e x t , its essential foreignness: T h i s death makes sense t o the Western spectator precisely because the w o m a n is coded as Japanese. T h e death o f the w o m a n occurs w i t h i n a structure o f r e c o g n i t i o n i n w h i c h sur­ r o u n d i n g objects e x p l a i n a n d bracket the event—the scarlet brocade, the i n ­ cense, the paper lanterns, a n d the dagger direct the spectator t o f i n d the death e n t h r a l l i n g . T h e foreign w o m a n dies i n a n apparent act o f self-sacri­ fice, b u t , as usual, i t is o n l y v e n t r i l o q u i s m .

Alluring Foreigners W h y do certain manifestations o f foreignness c o n t i n u a l l y reappear as a source o f fascination i n so m a n y streams o f Western culture? W h y have cer­ t a i n cultures, objects, a n d people been coded as exotic i n Western aesthetics a n d others not? E x o t i c i s m i n its c o m m o d i f l e d f o r m appears as a sophisti-

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The Luxurious Ambivalence of Exoticism

cated a p p r e c i a t i o n o f other cultures or as a n aestheticized nostalgia for a different place or t i m e , b u t the content o f exotic images l i n k s i t closely t o c o l o n i a l i s m a n d t o c o n t e m p o r a r y systems o f economic a n d c u l t u r a l d o m i ­ n a t i o n . T h e process o f e x o t i f i c a t i o n is another k i n d o f c u l t u r a l c a n n i b a l i s m : T h a t w h i c h is deemed different is consumed, its aesthetic f o r m s t a k e n u p a n d used t o construct a d r e a m o f the outside a n d sometimes o f escape f r o m the Western n i g h t m a r e . E x o t i c images feed p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r a l , social, a n d p o l i t i c a l needs o f the a p p r o p r i a t i n g c u l t u r e . T h i s is w h y c o l o n i a l adventures continue t o be r o m a n t i c i z e d a n d w h y the c o n s u m p t i o n o f the spectacle o f difference is able t o m a ke the alienated Westerner feel alive. T h e w o r d exotic technically means " f o r e i g n , " a n d biologists speak o f an exotic p l a n t or species w i t h o u t the w o r d i m m e d i a t e l y suggesting the fasci­ n a t i o n a n d ambivalence i t evokes i n a c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t . Different places have come t o stand for different sensibilities i n Western t h i n k i n g , a n d i m ­ ages a n d c o m m o d i t i e s f r o m those places have been able t o s u m m o n , p o i n t t o , a n d substitute for these sensibilities. I t is these complexes o f ideas, a n d the acquisitions a n d a p p r o p r i a t i o n s t h a t u n d e r p i n t h e m , t h a t can mos t p r o p e r l y be called e x o t i c i s m . As w i t h Rene G a l l i m a r d ' s fantasy o f the per­ fect A s i a n w o m a n , the content o f exotic images is generally extremely c o n ­ v e n t i o n a l a n d hackneyed b u t continues t o reappear, a n d t o w o r k , again a n d again. People everywhere do seem t o be interested i n a n d curious a b o u t c u l t u r a l differences, a n d I a m n o t suggesting t h a t the p r o b l e m o f e x o t i c i s m lies i n this interest. Some people find c u l t u r a l a n d social differences interesting a n d s t i m u l a t i n g , a n d a l t h o u g h s o m e w h a t questionable i n certain contexts, this is n o t necessarily a n issue i n itself. Differences clearly d o exist between cultures, a n d the issue is n o t t h a t these are n o t i c e d b u t h o w these come t o be aestheticized a n d by w h o m . T h e p r o b l e m seems t o occur w h e n c u l t u r a l difference is construed t h r o u g h p a r t i c u l a r systems o f a u t h o r i t y a n d is charged or energized for its o w n sake or, t o p u t the issue s o m e w h a t differ­ ently, w h e n this interest goes o u t o f balance i n such a w a y t h a t the fact o f difference itself is able t o produce intense excitement a n d pleasure at the cost o f negating the people o r culture t h a t is the source o f interest. T h i s i m ­ balance seems m o s t l i k e l y t o occur w h e n a n o t i o n o f abstract difference is m a i n t a i n e d , as opposed t o a r e c o g n i t i o n o f m a n y everyday differences. The key issue is h o w a culture comes t o be aestheticized by people w h o have n o stake i n t h a t c o m m u n i t y a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r by those w h o exercise a u t h o r i t y over the culture or people being rendered exotic. T h i s aestheticization is de­ pendent o n a mechanism w h e r e b y differences are abstracted f r o m their cul­ t u r a l c o n t e x t a n d rendered strange o r curious (a process t h a t seems t o relate t o the fascination w i t h c u l t u r a l difference as display o f grotesquerie i n early museums).

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E x o t i c images a n d c u l t u r a l fragments do n o t d r o p f r o m the sky b u t rather are selected a n d n a m e d as exotic w i t h i n specific c u l t u r a l contexts; certain fragments o f a c u l t u r a l aesthetic are selected a n d rendered exotic, whereas others are rejected. The reason for this has t o d o w i t h power, t h a t is, w i t h w h o is i n a p o s i t i o n t o decide w h i c h fragments are interesting a n d t o w h o m . T h i s is n o t t o suggest t h a t faceless a u t h o r i t y decides i n advance w h a t the rest o f us are t o see, r e p r o d u c i n g repressive culture seamlessly a n d effortlessly ( a l t h o u g h this m a y sometimes seem the case). C u l t u r a l a u t h o r ­ i t y is n o t a question o f a conspiracy b u t o f the existence o f a c o n t e x t i n w h i c h decisions a b o u t c u l t u r a l value can be a r ticul at ed a n d p u t i n t o prac­ tice: Madame Butterfly can usually find the f u n d i n g t o be staged because the music is l o v e d , because i t supports the status q u o , because i t replenishes prejudices a b o u t w o m e n , a b o u t Asia, a b o u t the U n i t e d States. A t the same t i m e , a n abstract category o f phenomena determined t o be exotic o r inter­ esting implies the existence o f a fictional i n d i v i d u a l at the center w h o adju­ dicates w h a t w i l l be o f interest a n d t o w h o m . T h i s process o f abstraction means t h a t the encounter between different cultures is rarely framed as a series o f events i n w h i c h exchange o r dialogue takes place; rather, the w o r l d appears as s o m e t h i n g f r o m w h i c h a universalized, E u r o p e a n " o n e " selects traits. A n d because this selection is always a m b i v a l e n t , a single, decontextualized a t t r i b u t e can be u t i l i z e d t o evoke nearly a n y t h i n g the w o u l d - b e colonist fancies. The aestheticization o f c o l o n i z e d peoples can always be differentially v a l o r i z e d , at times seen as fascinating a n d at other times seen as a sign o f decadence o r i n s u b o r d i n a t i o n . W h e n difference itself is a l l t h a t is necessary t o create excitement, or t o resuscitate a t i r e d n a r r a tiv e , w h a t has been determined t o be different is p o ­ sitioned so t h a t i t is unable t o m o v e o u t o f the conceptual b o x i n w h i c h i t has been placed. Questions o f power, representation, a n d veracity o f the images are displaced. T h i s p o s i t i o n i n g constructs fixed i d e n t i t y o n b o t h sides, for b o t h the creator o r consumer o f the exotic image a n d the person standing i n for the source. T h i s , o f course, was G a l l i m a r d ' s t r o u b l e i n M . Butterfly: The fixed racial a n d sexual identities he assigned t o Song L i l i n g shackled h i m equally t o a p a r t i c u l a r identity, a l t h o u g h he c o u l d n o t see this. I n the streams o f e x o t i c i s m t h a t locate a u t h e n t i c i t y i n other cultures, the image o f a u t h e n t i c i t y a n d the p o t e n t i a l for l i b e r a t i o n a t t r i b u t e d t o c u l t u r a l difference are based o n the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t E u r o p e a n culture is dead; be­ cause c u l t u r a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is n o longer possible, Westerners m u s t l o o k elsewhere for m e a n in g . Does this belief serve t o close o f f the margins t h a t d o exist w i t h i n Western culture? T h i s extremely c o m p l i c a t e d p r o b l e m is the subject o f Chapter 6, b u t i f w e keep i n m i n d t h a t racism is a system t h a t c o n t r o l s everyone under its p u r v i e w , w e can begin t o see h o w n o t i o n s o f fixed i d e n t i t y a n d c u l t u r a l p u r i t y have l i m i t e d understandings o f Western culture, as m u c h as they have o f societies subject t o Western c o l o n i a l i s m .

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Exotic Histories I n the early eighteenth century the balance o f p o w e r between Europe a n d the t r a d i t i o n a l centers o f w e a l t h a n d m i l i t a r y power, specifically the Islamic w o r l d a n d the prosperous A s i a n countries, began t o shift. I t was at this p o i n t t h a t " f o r e i g n " traits t h a t h a d f o r m e r l y been anathematized i n the West came t o be v a l o r i z e d a n d seen as a source o f excitement a n d inspira­ t i o n for w r i t e r s a n d artists. A t first this process i n v o l v e d the E u r o p e a n aris­ tocracy t a k i n g u p stylistic elements, such as dressing a la t u r q u e or b u y i n g carpets a n d other l u x u r y goods. As c o l o n i a l adventures became m o r e c o m m o n , a n d as bourgeois stan­ dards o f sexual c o n d u c t began t o be universalized i n E u r o p e after the eighteenth century, n o t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l i z e d , erotic " f r e e d o m " a n d ad­ venture began t o be l o c a t e d elsewhere, sometimes i n the past b u t m o r e frequently a n d c o n v e n i e n t l y i n the colonies. M a n y Europeans l o o k e d t o other societies t o p r o v i d e aesthetic t i t i l l a t i o n b u t at the same t i m e re­ q u i r e d sites w h e r e v a r i o u s k i n d s o f adventures c o u l d be u n d e r t a k e n a n d p u t i n t o practice. T h e E u r o p e a n countries h a d colonies n o t o n l y t o ex­ t r a c t p r o f i t s b u t also t o have access t o t e r r i t o r y w h e r e dreams o f absolute p o w e r c o u l d be i m a g i n e d a n d l i v e d o u t . Fantasies c o u l d be p l a y e d o u t i n c o l o n i a l situations i n a w a y t h a t was impossible at h o m e a n d w i t h m u c h less a n x i e t y a b o u t the process, a n o b v i o u s e x a m p l e being a l l the p e t t y b u ­ reaucrats i n B r i t i s h I n d i a w h o were able t o live as i f they were l o r d s . Because the ancien regime f u n c t i o n e d as the p r i m a r y m o d e l o f unfettered desire, the specific p o w e r fantasies played o u t i n the colonies tended t o refer t o aristocratic values a n d p r o t o c o l s , b u t n o w a l l the peasants were b r o w n . W h a t came t o be called "the o t h e r " became a p r e t e x t for t a l k i n g a b o u t E u r o p e a n concerns, as i n Montesquieu's Lettres persanes, w h i c h u t i l i z e d an image o f A s i a n despotism t o criticize absolutist rule before the 1 7 8 9 r e v o l u ­ t i o n i n France. A t the same t i m e , n o t i o n s o f "progress" ( w h i c h has always h a d its critics) came t o be c o u p l e d w i t h a nostalgia for so-called p r i m i t i v e life, w h i c h was believed t o exist i n a state o f nature, w i t h o u t rules o r c o n ­ straints. Sans loi, sans roi, sans foi, the saying w e n t , e v o k i n g a society w i t h ­ o u t lawyers, kings, a n d priests, a state o f affairs t h a t m a n y felt was a l l t o the g o o d . Social practices such as p l u r a l marriage or w a r r i o r societies came t o be seen as e x e m p l a r y o f this pristine state o f nature, a n d h a l f - u n d e r s t o o d versions o f land-based peoples, a n d o f their social o r religious i n s t i t u t i o n s , circulated i n E u r o p e a n intellectual c o m m u n i t i e s (a relatively recent exam­ ple being the interest, o r i g i n a t i n g w i t h M a r c e l M a u s s , i n the K w a g i u t l p o t latch). D u r i n g the nineteenth century the c o l o n i a l process was u n d e r t a k e n i n an increasingly w i d e a n d b r u t a l manner a n d accompanied by endless r h e t o r i c a b o u t Europe's " c i v i l i z i n g m i s s i o n " a n d the enormous favor the West was

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d o i n g the w o r l d . T r a d i t i o n a l , land-based people were, by definition a n d i n ­ deed by their very essence, seen as threats t o this mission, a n d i f they re­ fused t o be subdued were subject t o e x t e r m i n a t i o n attempts. C o l o n i a l ter­ m i n o l o g y f r o m this p e r i o d is instructive: I n the U.S. West a b o r i g i n a l people w h o f o l l o w e d the o l d ways were termed "renegades," as opposed t o the socalled progressives w h o supported U.S. assimilation policies. Yet one result o f the policies o f assimilation, p u t i n t o place a l l over the w o r l d by mission­ aries a n d c o l o n i a l functionaries, was the emergence—at the heart o f Europe a n d articulated i n a variety o f E u r o p e a n aesthetic f o r m s — o f an ever-in­ creasing nostalgia for w h a t people i m a g i n e d the o l d ways t o be. Europe ap­ peared n o t o n l y as the site o f progress b u t also as a dead, i n d u s t r i a l i z e d place where everything h a d already been decided. I w a n t t o be very clear here: M o s t Europeans (including critical thinkers such as K a r l M a r x and Friedrich Engels) d i d not w a n t t r a d i t i o n a l societies to actually exist as such but rather t o operate as a set o f signs that, like M a d a m e Butterfly, ultimately referred t o and reinforced the hegemony o f the West. Westerners w i t h rarefied tastes w a n t e d the fascinating art forms, the foods, and the amusingly costumed people t o remain available for various forms o f consumption. The nostalgia for the o l d ways was, and i n m a n y respects con­ tinues to be, no more t h a n regret for the loss o f aesthetic styles, not for the loss o f the social, political, economic, and ceremonial institutions o n w h i c h the aes­ thetic traditions were dependent and t h r o u g h w h i c h meaning was achieved. Because m a n y Europeans believed i n some version o f the end o f history and asserted the w o r l d - h i s t o r i c a l destiny o f Western culture, they consequently as­ sumed the inevitable disappearance o f other cultures, w h i c h meant that cul­ t u r a l difference c o u l d be imagined o n l y as something existing i n relation to and at the pleasure o f the West. This k i n d o f t h i n k i n g remains a p r o b l e m . By the t w e n t i e t h century i n most parts o f the w o r l d aesthetic t r a d i t i o n s were even further disarticulated f r o m the societies i n w h i c h they occurred, a l t h o u g h new, syncretic styles were generated i n c o l o n i a l contexts, often as a w a y o f resisting the assimilation process. T h e older styles h a d for some t i m e been inserted i n t o a system o f c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n , w i t h Western gal­ leries, museums, a n d private collectors influencing the p r o d u c t i o n o f aes­ thetic objects. F i l m became a n e w m e d i u m for the o l d c o l o n i a l tale, a n d m a n y people's ideas o f w h a t cultures other t h a n their o w n were like came f r o m the movies. I m p e r i a l messages were p r o m u l g a t e d i n film after film. E d w a r d Said talks a b o u t the shift i n Western perceptions o f the Islamic w o r l d i n his seminal w o r k Orientalism, focusing o n the l i n k s between the European m i l i t a r y d o m i n a t i o n o f the M u s l i m w o r l d a n d the w a y the latter also came t o be represented i n aesthetic a n d scholarly w o r k s . I t is a mistake t o separate these areas as they reinforce a n d give credence t o each other. For instance, the Western fascination w i t h c u l t u r a l difference can be orga­ nized t o p r o m o t e the a p p r o p r i a t i o n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f an exotic aesthetic 3

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a n d t o enforce n o t i o n s o f science a n d " k n o w l e d g e . " T h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n o f e x o t i c i s m further p r o m o t e s a n o t i o n o f expertise a n d o f the professionals w h o are believed t o be qualified t o elucidate different c u l t u r e s . So-called p r i m i t i v e societies c o n t i n u e d t o be l o o k e d t o as a source o f au­ t h e n t i c i t y as Western intellectuals became increasingly pessimistic a b o u t the d i r e c t i o n E u r o p e a n c u l t u r e was t a k i n g . M a n y p o s t - W o r l d W a r I w r i t ­ ers a n d artists i n Europe believed t h a t non-Western, t r a d i t i o n a l societies were able t o clarify the nature o f c o m m u n i t y a n d collective a c t i o n , w h i c h i n their v i e w h a d been debased by m o d e r n systems o f p r o d u c t i o n a n d i n d i ­ v i d u a l i s m . These societies were accessible t o Europeans p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h e t h n o l o g i c a l texts, a n d t h r o u g h the insights o f w r i t e r s such as M a u s s , whose h i g h l y influential "Essai sur le d o n " (1923) a t t e m p t e d t o account for the processes u n d e r l y i n g social phenomena, i n p a r t i c u l a r the b i n d i n g o f the c o m m u n i t y t h r o u g h r i t u a l i z e d gift exchange. T h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f a supposedly authentic t r i b a l society w i t h a c o r r u p t u r b a n one persists t o ­ day, a l t h o u g h less i n scientific discourses such as e t h n o l o g y t h a n i n o b v i ­ ously aestheticized venues t h a t range f r o m movies t o c l o t h i n g t o N e w Age religions. 4

Tropes of Difference The specific f o r m s o r tropes o f e x o t i c i s m t h a t f u n c t i o n i n the West have p a r t i c u l a r histories a n d e m p l o y p a r t i c u l a r narrative structures; for instance, the sacrificial death o f the A s i a n w o m a n i n the opera Madame Butterfly a n d , m o r e recently, i n the musical Miss Saigon. A c c o r d i n g t o l i t e r a r y the­ ory, a trope is a conceptual mechanism t h a t organizes images. So whereas a narrative strings together events, a t r o p e binds together or organizes m a n y diverse concepts, symbols, a n d associations i n t o one idea, like a rope b i n d ­ i n g together m a n y strands. T h u s , n o t i o n s o f sublimity, violence, or e r o t i ­ cism, a l l o f w h i c h can fall under the general r u b r i c o f e x o t i c i s m , f u n c t i o n as tropes t h a t continue t o structure o u r perceptions o f c u l t u r a l difference. T h e precise ways i n w h i c h tropes o f difference are able t o f u n c t i o n can be ex­ tremely c o m p l e x a n d often i n v o l v e a m b i v a l e n t v a l o r i z a t i o n s o f specific traits or qualities. Because e x o t i c i s m w o r k s by generating excitement a n d d e l i r i u m precisely f r o m the viewer's a m b i v a l e n t r e l a t i o n t o difference, q u a l ­ ities t h a t i n one c o n t e x t are classified as negative—such as violence—can w i t h the p r o p e r distance produce delight, desire, a n d , o f course, the edge o f danger a n d a m b i g u i t y t h a t supplies a n added frisson. A p a r t i c u l a r image can be used t o suggest almost a n y t h i n g . Tropes differ f r o m stereotypes pre­ cisely because o f this a b i l i t y t o d o so m a n y things at once; consequently tropes are harder t o challenge t h a n stereotypes because they are m u l t i f a r i ­ ous a n d d r a w f r o m a range o f sources, some o f w h i c h precede E u r o p e a n

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c o l o n i a l i s m . T h e t r o p i c images continue t o w o r k even after the stereotypes are challenged. For example, W i l l i a m M c G r e g o r Paxton's The New Necklace (1910) utilizes exotic paraphernalia t o b i n d together long-stand­ i n g n o t i o n s o f class a n d gender (see Figure 2 . 3 ) . A l t h o u g h the w e a l t h y w h i t e w o m a n is the bearer o f exotic images, the p a i n t i n g reinforces the trope o f Asia as the source o f l u x u r y a n d opulence as w e l l as a range o f

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ideas a b o u t w o m e n as consumers. T h e messages conveyed by this w o r k are layered a n d c o m p l e x . A q u i c k glance across the exotic conventions apparent i n b o t h p o p u l a r a n d h i g h culture can p r o v i d e a schematic sketch o f some o f these tropes. There are, o f course, m a n y other possible examples, b u t for the m o m e n t I a m interested i n the tropes o f violence, the p r i m i t i v e a n d the savage, the sublime, passivity a n d timelessness, a n d the erotic a n d the people a n d c u l ­ tures w i t h w h o m these are associated. Violence appears m o s t c o m m o n l y a n d u b i q u i t o u s l y i n representations o f M e x i c o , the M u s l i m w o r l d , a n d I r o q u o i s people, a m o n g m a n y others. The trope o f violence includes specific stereotypes: T h e oldest example, I s l a m , has been represented as c o m b i n i n g the g l i t t e r i n g , barbaric splendor o f the sultans w i t h hideous executions a n d religious fanaticism. N o t i o n s o f v i o ­ lence a n d fanaticism constantly appear i n c o n t e m p o r a r y characterizations o f the Islamic w o r l d , a n d the Western filmgoer or newspaper reader has learned t o recognize these characterizations as accurate. T h e A m e r i c a n - i n a-foreign-prison d r a m a Midnight Express (1978) made a p o i n t o f p u n c t u ­ a t i n g each instance o f g r a t u i t o u s violence w i t h the Islamic call t o prayer, just i n case the viewer failed t o grasp the p o i n t o f the narrative. Aztec M e x i c o is incessantly described i n terms o f h u m a n sacrifice, whereas the c o n t e m p o r a r y c o u n t r y seems pervaded w i t h evil bandidos a n d dangerous, hostile federales. I r o q u o i s people continue t o be presented i n h i s t o r y books a n d recent films such as Last of the Mohicans (1992) a n d Black Robe (1991) as extremely frightening a n d opaque, always eager t o t o r t u r e i n n o ­ cent C h r i s t i a n colonists. T h e key p o i n t is t h a t violence has become a floating category t h a t can be retrieved a n d used t o characterize nearly any culture o r people i n a range o f c o l o n i a l histories a n d i n representations o l d a n d new. T h e Western t r o p e o f the inherent violence o f non-Western peoples is always available t o e x p l a i n acts o f resistance or anti-Western sentiment or t o a d d a j o l t t o a story line i n need o f one. T h e t r o p e o f the primitive and the savage has u n d e r p i n n e d Western de­ scriptions o f A f r i c a , N o r t h a n d South A m e r i c a , a n d Melanesia, a m o n g o t h ­ ers. T h i s trope often reflects an apparently irreconcilable discursive tension between the n o t i o n o f the g o o d a n d gentle p r i m i t i v e a n d t h a t o f the b a d a n d violent savage. T h i s d i v i s i o n continues t o be apparent i n c o n t e m p o r a r y discussions o f " h u m a n n a t u r e , " w i t h m u c h i n k spilled over the question o f whether h u m a n beings are inherently aggressive. I n Western texts that range f r o m p o p u l a r films t o canonical " l i t e r a t u r e , " A f r i c a appears again a n d again as the h o m e o f c a n n i b a l i s m a n d fear, e x e m p l i f y i n g i n the E u r o p e a n t r a d i t i o n w h a t Sally Price calls "the n i g h t side o f m a n . " ( A s o m e w h a t dif­ ferent version o f this is apparent i n some accounts o f A f r i c a as the source o f the A I D S virus.) 5

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N o r t h a n d South A m e r i c a are the site where the conflict between g o o d a n d b a d images o f the p r i m i t i v e plays o u t m o st exhaustively a n d has done so since the earliest E u r o p e a n invasions o f these lands. As early as 1 5 5 0 the famous debate between Juan Gines de Sepulveda a n d B a r t o l o m e de Las Casas o n the essential nature o f the people o f the Americas t u r n e d o n a dis­ t i n c t i o n between a v i e w t h a t a b o r i g i n a l people were i n h e r e n t l y slavish a n d w i c k e d a n d a belief t h a t they were in n o c e n t c h i l d r e n o f nature w h o m a n i ­ fested a n inherent godliness. Europeans have consistently been fascinated w i t h the c a n n i b a l i s m a n d sacrifices they saw or t h o u g h t they saw i n the Americas, b u t indigenous people have also been presented as gentle c h i l ­ dren o f nature. We can see this tension i n f i l m after f i l m , a n d the represen­ t a t i o n o f N a t i v e people as gentle a n d pure continues t o appear almost en­ tirely as a f u n c t i o n o f their willingness t o accept c o l o n i a l i s m , as i n the 1 9 8 6 f i l m The Mission. Those w h o fight against w h i t e people t e n d i n s t a n t l y t o be t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o v i o l e n t savages, w i t h o u t p i t y or other " c i v i l i z e d " senti­ ments. Melanesians are rarely presented as k i n d l y p r i m i t i v e s ; rather, their territories, like A f r i c a , appear t o be r i d d l e d w i t h h e a d h u n t i n g a n d c a n n i b a l ­ ism. D e a n M a c C a n n e l l has recently w r i t t e n o n the e x e m p l a r y status o f N e w Guinea i n a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l discourse for precisely this reason. Sublimity appears i n representations o f C h i n a , Japan, a n d I n d i a . T h i s trope seems t o be used p r i m a r i l y for Asia, fabled lands o f w e a l t h a n d mys­ tery (a s o m e w h a t different version o f the t r o p e appears i n representations o f Islamic countries, especially w i t h respect t o Suflsm). For instance, C h i n a has t r a d i t i o n a l l y been described i n terms o f l u x u r y ; rarefied elegance; c o m ­ modities such as silk, jade, a n d i v o r y ornaments; a n d other exquisite o b ­ jects. (This l u x u r y can be a m b i v a l e n t l y v a l o r i z e d as a sign o f degeneracy, as i n the treatment o f the A n n a M a e W o n g character i n the 1934 f i l m Java Head, i n w h i c h — a s Butterfly w o u l d have i t — t h e silk-clad M a n c h u princess o b l i g i n g l y kills herself as a favor t o the w h o l e s o m e English girl.) Asia has historically been seen as a source o f w e a l t h . T h e t r o p e o f s u b l i m i t y c o m ­ bines a n o t i o n o f l u x u r y w i t h t h a t o f r e l i g i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y the rarefied forms o f s p i r i t u a l i t y t h o u g h t t o exist i n Asia. T h e E u r o p e a n interest i n Buddhist t h o u g h t , a l o n g w i t h Confucius a n d Taoist philosophies, can re­ flect this n o t i o n . Japan, w h i c h is t o say the o l d Japan o f the p r e w a r era, tends t o be seen m o r e i n terms o f the aesthetic p u r i t y o f the Z e n t r a d i t i o n . I n d i a is described as a n almost m y t h i c a l place characterized by immense w e a l t h , as exemplified by enormous rubies a n d tiger hunts, b u t has m o r e recently been t h o u g h t i n the West i n terms o f c o m p l i c a t e d (and possibly vulgar) s p i r i t u a l i t y a m i d squalor. T h i s m i x t u r e o f l u x u r y , poverty, a n d spiri­ t u a l i t y seems t o f u n c t i o n as a source o f excitement for some Westerners, w h i c h m i g h t also have s o m e t h i n g t o do w i t h the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f hashish. Passivity and timelessness are n o t i o n s t h a t have been u t i l i z e d t o charac­ terize nearly a l l societies outside o f the Western t r a d i t i o n a n d carry w i t h 6

38

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t h e m an assertion o f the supposedly inherent d y n a m i s m o f E u r o p e a n c u l ­ tures. A l t h o u g h speed is a characteristic o f m o d e r n i t y , a l l societies are dy­ namic a n d adaptable. T h e a s s u m p t i o n o f passivity i n f o r m s a range o f venues, f r o m the different social theories t h a t m a k e arguments a b o u t the i n a b i l i t y o f t r a d i t i o n a l societies t o change u n t i l E u r o p e a n influence forces t h e m o u t o f their t o r p o r , t o the idea t h a t some version o f "the past" can be visited i n a t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e , t o the v i e w t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l people do n o t have histories (and, indeed, i n m a n y N o r t h A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y t e x t b o o k s the section o n A f r i c a still begins w i t h the p e r i o d o f E u r o p e a n c o l o n i a l i z a t i o n ) . I n articles o n Canadian N a t i v e issues appearing i n the mainstream media the m o n t h s p r i o r t o the 1990 O k a standoff, w e see a peculiar tendency t o at­ t r i b u t e substantive issues facing N a t i v e c o m m u n i t i e s , such as l a n d rights a n d poverty, t o abstract entities o r causes such as "change." A c c o r d i n g t o these articles, N a t i v e c o m m u n i t i e s are forced t o wrestle w i t h change rather t h a n w i t h the effects o f l a n d theft, p a r t i c u l a r government decisions, p o l l u ­ t i o n o f specific rivers, a n d the l i k e . T h i s device underscores w h a t appears t o be the i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f change (and the n o t i o n o f progress t h a t underlies this) as w e l l as the supposed passivity o f N a t i v e c o m m u n i t i e s i n the face o f n e w c o n d i t i o n s . I n reports o f the standoff, the t r o p e o f violence was always l u r k i n g i n the b a c k g r o u n d , t o be t r o t t e d o u t w h e n r e q u i r e d . T h e n o t i o n o f timelessness can be v a l o r i z e d a n d used t o u n d e r p i n a r o ­ m a n t i c i z e d v i e w o f non-Western people, b u t m o r e c o m m o n l y i t appears as a sign o f i n f e r i o r i t y a n d stasis. T h i s has o b v i o u s p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s , as i t ignores b o t h the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s t h a t occur a n d have always occurred w i t h i n t r a d i t i o n a l societies a n d the reality o f w h a t change means i n a c o l o ­ n i a l o r n e o c o l o n i a l s i t u a t i o n . There are very g o o d reasons for being suspi­ cious o f change. T h i s trope also o v e r l o o k s the extent t o w h i c h Western c o n sumerist culture a n d economic structures systematically w e a k e n land-based economies. We can see h o w m a n y o f these tropes come together i n a recent ad for Casmir perfume, w h i c h evokes sublimity, timelessness, a n d l u x u r y . T h e l o ­ tus flower l o g o refers t o u n n a m e d A s i a n religious philosophies, whereas the name o f the perfume itself ( p r o n o u n c e d Kashmir/cashmere) refers b o t h t o a geographical site a n d a l u x u r y p r o d u c t . Timelessness is evoked by the i m ­ age o f the river. Eroticism has been used as a w a y o f f r a m i n g most o f the w o r l d b u t has perhaps most frequently been associated w i t h the M u s l i m w o r l d , nearly a l l o f A s i a , a n d Polynesia. T h i s is one o f the most persistent tropes o f e x o t i ­ cism a n d indeed floats t h r o u g h a n d i n f o r m s the other four. T h e n o t i o n t h a t sex is s o m e h o w m o r e interesting i n a c o l o n i a l setting, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f accom­ p a n i e d by accoutrements the Westerner finds unusual, such as c o l o r f u l c l o t h i n g or o d d l y shaped f u r n i t u r e , is extremely persistent. E x o t i c accou­ trements o f sex have always t i t i l l a t e d the colonist, w h i c h fits i n w i t h M a l e k 7

39

FIGURE

2.4

Casmir perfume

advertisement

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The Luxurious Ambivalence of Exoticism

A l l o u l a ' s study o f erotic postcards i n French c o l o n i a l A l g e r i a i n w h i c h he observes t h a t French colonists w a n t e d t o see M o o r i s h w o m e n b e h i n d bars. T h e sex t o u r i n d u s t r y i n B a n g k o k a n d M a n i l a e x p l i c i t l y uses e x o t i c i s m as a selling p o i n t i n the flyers circulated i n Western Europe; the i n d u s t r y also mixes e x o t i c i s m w i t h an evocation o f w h a t is f o r b i d d e n i n the West by p r o m i s i n g access t o extremely y o u n g w o m e n a n d boys. T h e p o i n t o f these flyers is t o arouse sexual c u r i o s i t y by suggesting t h a t sex is s o m e h o w differ­ ent w i t h twelve-year-old T h a i girls a n d t o promise the Western male the fantasy o f absolute p o w e r over foreign w o m e n once enjoyed by his g r a n d ­ father i n the colony. M a n y A s i a n airline companies also c o m b i n e sex ap­ peal a n d exotic images i n advertisements directed t o w a r d the presumably male business traveler. T h e p a r t i c u l a r site o f eroticism can shift a n d is de­ pendent o n h i s t o r i c a l factors. For instance, u n t i l the fifteenth century A f r i c a n w o m e n were used t o represent sexual desire i n European paintings b u t t h e n seemed t o disappear f r o m such art. Somewhat later A f r i c a n w o m e n became the source o f a p a r t i c u l a r l y nasty strain o f the European sexual i m a g i n a r y i n w h i c h absolute a u t h o r i t y was eroticized a n d p l a n t a t i o n scenes became sites o f erotic adventures for w h i t e m e n . I include the M u s l i m w o r l d as a locus o f European erotic desire p r i m a r i l y because o f its status i n this regard for the last t w o h u n d r e d years, f r o m the fascination w i t h the h a r e m t o R u d o l f Valentino's sheik. M o r e recently, however, this l o ­ cus seems t o be changing as the attractively seductive A r a b is increasingly replaced by the figure o f the terrorist, w h o is always s h o u t i n g or s h o o t i n g someone a n d hence is t o o " f a n a t i c a l " t o be appealing. Polynesia remains a site o f Western desire i f t o u r i s t advertisements are any i n d i c a t i o n . A l s o , films such as the 1980 adolescent sex fantasy Blue Lagoon draws o n no­ tions o f the South Sea islands where a l l is p e r m i t t e d . 8

One o f the most persistent tropes o f e x o t i c i s m is the fascination w i t h the erotic possibilities o f the colony, w h i c h i n effect becomes the e r o t i c i z a t i o n o f racial power. E x o t i c i s m always seems t o p e r t a i n t o sex i n some way, even i f i t focuses most o b v i o u s l y o n violence or s u b l i m i t y . T h i s interest i n sexual­ i t y l i n k s up i n fairly obvious ways t o h o w a u t h o r i t y is articulated i n c o l o ­ n i a l situations. E x o t i c images o f w o m e n have t o do w i t h c o l o n i a l fantasies o f power, a n d the sexual a v a i l a b i l i t y o f w o m e n classified as exotic is for the m o s t p a r t dependent o n the a b i l i t y o f the colonist t o coerce, that is, t o m i l i ­ t a r i l y a n d economically c o n t r o l the colony. A t some level c o l o n i a l p o w e r ensures the sexual a v a i l a b i l i t y o f colonized w o m e n . I t seems that difference equals danger equals excitement, b u t still the colonist remains i n c o n t r o l , or at least this is the w a y the story is supposed t o go. I believe this is the source o f the n o t i o n t h a t sex is s o m e h o w better, freer, or m o r e interesting i n the colonized w o r l d : A g a i n , i f w e keep i n m i n d the self-referentiality o f power, the excitement for Western m e n seems less t o do w i t h a desire for exotic w o m e n t h a n w i t h a (false) belief t h a t finally, at l o n g last, Western m e n are

The Luxurious Ambivalence of Exoticism

41

i n charge. I n other w o r d s , a u t h o r i t y functions as m o o d enhancement, a p h e n o m e n o n also apparent i n the West. These tropes are able t o w o r k as efficiently as they do because, i n extremely subtle a n d c o m p l e x ways, they refer t o w h a t is lacking or expelled f r o m Western culture. Projecting certain qualities o n t o other societies permits peo­ ple t o t a l k about w h a t cannot otherwise be t a l k e d about. Violence, p r i m i t i v i s m , sublimity, and sexuality are reformulated w i t h i n an aesthetic o f cul­ t u r a l difference a n d displaced o n t o specific communities i n order t o legitimize t h e m as an area o f interest for Europeans. For instance, the trope o f p r i m i t i v i s m a n d savagery p r o b a b l y draws o n European pagan histories a n d legends o f the Green M a n a n d transfers these t o colonized people. Similarly, the trope o f s u b l i m i t y seems t o d r a w o n o l d legends o f far-off lands o f unimaginable w e a l t h , for example, the Prester J o h n stories o f the M i d d l e Ages. Examples o f this r e f o r m u l a t i o n and displacement are i n some cases very close t o the sur­ face: For instance, i n nineteenth-century European p a i n t i n g , sexual or erotic themes were permissible i n scenes o f O r i e n t a l i s m or a n t i q u i t y b u t n o t i n con­ t e m p o r a r y settings. This has continued w e l l i n t o the t w e n t i e t h century, w i t h National Geographic being the o n l y acceptable venue for bare female breasts i n the 1940s and 1950s (as l o n g as they were n o t w h i t e , o f course), and the sex and violence spectacle Caligula (1979) almost achieving mainstream ac­ ceptability at the end o f the 1970s because o f its cast a n d classical theme.

F r a g m e n t s of C u l t u r e D a v i d H e n r y H w a n g ' s d e p i c t i o n o f Rene G a l l i m a r d i n M . Butterfly reveals w h a t i n the l o n g r u n is the key failure o f c o l o n i a l t h i n k i n g a n d the failure o f e x o t i c i s m , as i t has been constructed i n some streams o f Western t h i n k i n g . G a l l i m a r d decided i n advance w h a t Asia was g o i n g t o be l i k e , a n d he as­ sumed he w o u l d understand C h i n a because his privilege a n d status as a E u r o p e a n m a n gave h i m access t o a universal a n d supposedly superior k n o w l e d g e o f the w o r l d . ( O f course, he lacked basic c u l t u r a l k n o w l e d g e , such as the fact t h a t m a n y female roles i n Chinese opera are sung by males.) Indeed, because o f his relationship w i t h the opera singer Song L i l i n g , he further assumes k n o w l e d g e o f a l l Chinese a n d confidently i n f o r m s his a m ­ bassador, " T h e Orientals s i m p l y w a n t t o be associated w i t h w h o e v e r shows the m o st strength a n d p o w e r . " Because G a l l i m a r d ' s supposed comprehen­ sion o f difference is based o n an i l l u s i o n o f universalized E u r o p e a n a u t h o r ­ ity, i t can f u n c t i o n o n l y as a n a t t e m p t t o aggrandize his o w n p o s i t i o n . G a l l i m a r d is thus seduced by a n o t i o n o f the exotic i n w h i c h he m i s t a k e n l y assumes he is i n charge by v i r t u e o f his E u r o p e a n identity. T h i s a n t i c i p a t i o n o f difference leads t o closure a n d blindness a n d , i n the end, t o G a l l i m a r d ' s o w n u n d o i n g , disgrace, i m p r i s o n m e n t , a n d death. 9

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E x o t i c i s m is m u l t i f a r i o u s a n d w o r k s , n o t t h r o u g h single images o r stereo­ types, b u t t h r o u g h entire complexes o f n o t i o n s t h a t evoke, bleed i n t o , a n d reinforce one another. " A s i a " has appeared t o Westerners n o t o n l y as a fan­ tasy o f submissive a n d beautiful w o m e n b u t also as a place o f l u x u r y , p h i l o ­ sophical s u b l i m i t y , a n d exquisite manners. These qualities can be evoked t h r o u g h objects a n d t h r o u g h fragments o f objects: I n Puccini's opera the evil A m e r i c a n P i n k e r t o n speaks o f Butterfly as being " l i k e a figure o n a p a i n t e d screen" w h o frees herself " f r o m her g l i t t e r i n g b a c k g r o u n d o f lac­ q u e r . " Song Liling's seduction o f G a l l i m a r d is made possible because the F r e n c h m a n expects C h i n a t o c o n f o r m t o certain expectations a n d t o be " e x o t i c " a n d f o r this e x o t i c i s m t o p l a y o u t e r o t i c a l l y a n d aesthetically, sat­ u r a t i n g the events he experiences a n d the objects t h a t s u r r o u n d h i m . 10

For G a l l i m a r d , as f o r so m a n y other Europeans, difference is c o n n o t e d by signs he can recognize because they were p a r t o f his conceptual frame­ w o r k l o n g before he a r r i v e d i n Beijing. T h e p a r t i c u l a r signs used t o repre­ sent difference rarely constitute a c u l t u r a l w h o l e , yet are made t o stand f o r entire concepts a n d c u l t u r a l categories. C u l t u r a l , ethnic, a n d sexual differ­ ence is c o n n o t e d by fleeting, fragmentary images. Each fragment evokes an­ other—the f l u t t e r i n g silk scarf refers t o the d o w n c a s t eye, w h i c h refers t o the s m o k i n g incense b u r n e r — a n d these together m a k e possible the European's seduction o f himself t h r o u g h the i l l u s i o n o f the exotic Chinese w o m a n . T h i s fragmentary nature o f exotic signification contributes t o G a l l i m a r d ' s w i l l f u l ignorance. Because the Westerner b o t h devises a n d ex­ periences e x o t i c i s m t h r o u g h a structure o f r e c o g n i t i o n i n w h i c h p a r t i c u l a r objects or fragments connote difference, the w o m a n i n the story is i d e n t i ­ fied w i t h the objects t h a t have come t o signify her c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d . T h e objects t h a t evoke certain cultures, as have p a i n t e d screens a n d lacquer f o r C h i n a , further p e r m i t a shortcut t o the exotic experience desired a n d antic­ ipated by the Westerner. I r e t u r n t o the question o f experience i n Chapter 5, b u t the type o f e x o t i c i s m t h a t is manifested as a desire t o possess foreign objects o r bodies seems increasingly represented i n experiential terms: T h e Westerner desires a u n i q u e , authentic experience i n w h i c h he or she remains f i r m l y i n charge. Vacations are experienced i n this w a y as w e l l , b e c o m i n g a fragment i n t i m e t h a t is i m a g i n e d a n d experienced as separate f r o m the everyday experience o f real life a n d i n w h i c h a n y t h i n g is possible. E x o t i c i s m , t h e n , w o r k s t h r o u g h a process o f d i s m e m b e r m e n t a n d frag­ m e n t a t i o n i n w h i c h objects stand f o r images t h a t stand f o r a c u l t u r e or a sensibility as a w h o l e . E x o t i c i s m is synecdochal, a n d fragments o f c u l t u r e w o r k t o e x e m p l i f y a n d evoke a larger w h o l e . C u l t u r a l a n d aesthetic frag­ ments refer t o a n d express tropes, a n d i n this respect e x o t i c i s m can be t h o u g h t o f as a system o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f fragments t h a t symbolize, or substitute, a given c u l t u r a l t o t a l i t y . I n his excellent article " T h e M u s e u m ' s Furnace," Eugenio D o n a t o quotes a r e m a r k by Gustave Flaubert t h a t ex-

The Luxurious Ambivalence of Exoticism 43 emplifies h o w f r a g m e n t a t i o n w o r k s : "Is n o t all of China contained i n a Chinese w o m a n ' s slipper decorated w i t h damask roses a n d h a v i n g e m b r o i ­ dered cats o n its v a m p ? " We can question Flaubert's fascination w i t h sex­ u a l l y charged, exotic images, apparent i n his w r i t i n g s a b o u t Egypt a n d i n the n o v e l Salammbo, b u t at some level the images he uses are extremely evocative precisely because they are fragmentary a n d concerned w i t h elicit­ i n g an e m o t i o n a l response f r o m the reader. T h i s process o f f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f culture is apparent i n other venues as w e l l , for instance, i n discourses that make claims t o t r u t h a n d t o scientific objectivity. E t h n o l o g y fixes o n certain cultures a n d o n certain c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s w i t h i n a larger w h o l e (such as the k u l a r i n g o f the T r o b r i a n d Islanders) because these m i n u t i a e are believed t o exemplify c u l t u r a l wholes a n d t o elucidate scientific p r o b ­ lems. 1 1

C o n n o i s s e u r s of A m b i v a l e n c e As the m i l l e n n i u m approaches, a n d as the v i c t o r y o f the N e w W o r l d O r d e r becomes increasingly apparent, m a n y l i v i n g at the heart o f Western culture continue t o fix o n c u l t u r a l difference as a source o f pleasure, excitement, a n d authenticity. T h e c o l o n i a l relationship between the West a n d the rest o f the w o r l d has merely changed its shape, b u t w h a t people i n the West some­ times forget is t h a t the m u l t i n a t i o n a l s are n o w i n charge. These c o r p o r a ­ tions f o l l o w the m o n e y a n d have no p a r t i c u l a r l o y a l t y t o past structures o f a u t h o r i t y . A t the same t i m e , the pleasure i n difference is n o t quite as easy t o come by for the Western subject as i t was one h u n d r e d years ago a n d i n ­ deed has become the source o f a certain anxiety. I n M . Butterfly things do n o t w o r k o u t as G a l l i m a r d expects; indeed, they break d o w n entirely for h i m i n the end. B u t c o l o n i a l misperceptions do n o t usually end quite so disastrously for most Westerners i n their sojourns i n f o r m e r colonies because their c o n t i n u e d relative w e a l t h a n d a u t h o r i t y co­ c o o n t h e m f r o m unpleasantness a n d ensure that those w i t h w h o m they have contact w i l l behave as i f they k n o w their place, at least for the t i m e being. C e r t a i n l y many, m a n y Westerners have n o t abandoned the n o t i o n t h a t experiencing a colonial-style adventure provides a p a r t i c u l a r k i n d o f pleasure, one dependent o n the aggrandizement o f c u l t u r a l difference t h r o u g h a structure i n w h i c h the w o u l d - b e colonizer continues t o articulate c u l t u r a l a n d racial a u t h o r i t y . T h e expensively p r o d u c e d musical Miss Saigon can be t h o u g h t o f as a rear-guard a c t i o n t o enforce closure o n the is­ sues o f race, identity, a n d i m p e r i a l i s m that H w a n g called i n t o q u e s t i o n . The story line says i t a l l : After the A m e r i c a n m a n fulfills his dream o f an erotic adventure i n the e x c i t i n g w a r - t o r n soon-to-be-former colony, the A s i a n w o m a n sacrifices herself so the w h i t e lovers can be together. She 12

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makes sure t o give her c h i l d t o the Americans t o raise because a "better l i f e " is possible i n the U n i t e d States. As i n the opera Madame Butterfly, the story ends disastrously, b u t n o t , w e note, for the A m e r i c a n . I n other venues, for instance, the films The Sheltering Sky (1990) a n d A Winter's Tan ( 1 9 8 8 ) , interest seems t o be shifting t o the Western female's quest for i n ­ tense erotic experiences i n c o l o n i a l contexts, m a i n t a i n i n g the n o t i o n o f ex­ otic adventure w i t h i n a r h e t o r i c o f women's l i b e r a t i o n . These stories, h o w ­ ever, never end w e l l . We are c o n f r o n t e d w i t h w h a t at first glance seems a p a r a d o x . O n the one h a n d , the c o l o n i a l narrative decrees t h a t the Western m a n subdue c o l o n i z e d w o m e n , sometimes t o the p o i n t o f aestheticizing a n d d e r i v i n g pleasure f r o m their deaths. O n the other h a n d , these stories often call for the d e g r a d a t i o n a n d death o f the Western male himself, seemingly as a consequence o f hav­ i n g experienced sexual desire i n a c o l o n i a l s i t u a t i o n . W h y do so m a n y o f these stories insist t h a t someone m u s t suffer a tragic fate? T h e story o f the Westerner c o n f r o n t i n g a false image o f the other, a n d be­ i n g seduced by this construct i n such a w a y t h a t leads t o his (and, m o r e re­ cently, her) m e n t a l o r physical d i s s o l u t i o n , is an o l d , o l d c o l o n i a l tale. Europeans visit the c o l o n y a n d p r o m p t l y die, go crazy, go native, d r o w n i n a l c o h o l o r sex—the list goes o n . Potential disaster has always been a sub­ t e x t o f c o l o n i a l tales, a n d these often operate as c a u t i o n a r y tales for Europeans, w h o have t o negotiate their p o s i t i o n w i t h respect t o the u b i q u i ­ tously treacherous a n d unreadable natives they are supposed t o have under c o n t r o l . I t seems t h a t Westerners are safe o n l y i f they strictly m a i n t a i n their p o s i t i o n o f c o l o n i a l or racial a u t h o r i t y , a p o s i t i o n t h a t is i n some instances fictive. I t is because the story is a n object lesson t h a t i t so often has a b a d ending for the Westerner, despite a l l the Butterflies a n d M i s s Saigons. W e can t h i n k o f example after example o f movies a n d novels w h e r e s o m e t h i n g unpleasant happens t o the w h i t e person after she or he actually comes t o love someone f r o m a different b a c k g r o u n d or culture (something unpleas­ ant tends t o happen t o the person o f c o l o r as w e l l , b u t this is rarely the f o ­ cus o f the n a r r a t i v e ) . T h i s can be seen m o s t e m p h a t i c a l l y i n the "miscegena­ t i o n m e l o d r a m a " films o f the 1930s, 1940s, a n d 1950s t h a t played w i t h i n t e r r a c i a l fascination before q u i c k l y rendering i t tragic, as i n The Chinese Bungalow (filmed three times, i n 1 9 2 6 , 1 9 3 1 , a n d 1940) a n d The Rains Came (1940).™ T h e f o r m e r c o l o n y continues t o be presented as a place o f d i s o r i e n t a t i o n a n d danger, w h e r e n o t h i n g is as i t seems. Rene G a l l i m a r d desires a w o m a n w h o turns o u t t o be a m a n , a n d the t r u t h o f G a l l i m a r d ' s desire—to live o u t an O r i e n t a l i s t fantasy o f p o w e r — l i e s precisely i n the falsity o f his percep­ t i o n , his i n a b i l i t y t o read the s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h he finds himself. A g a i n , the F r e n c h m a n is undone, n o t (as i d e o l o g y w o u l d have i t ) by the treacherous A s i a n , b u t by his o w n expectations. T h e n o t i o n o f authentic desire a n d

The Luxurious Ambivalence of Exoticism 45 t r u t h raises a n u m b e r o f issues because increasingly t r u t h comes t o be l o ­ cated i n falsity or, m o r e precisely, i n false desire, p a r t i c u l a r l y as i t pertains t o the intersection o f sexuality a n d c u l t u r a l difference. A t the m o m e n t there seems t o be a great deal o f interest i n h o w sexual ambivalence intersects w i t h c u l t u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n p o p u l a r culture; i f recent movies are any i n d i ­ c a t i o n , cross-dressing is n o longer presented as merely t i t i l l a t i n g or transgressive b u t as r e v e l a t i o n o f t r u t h s otherwise concealed (as, for instance, i n the 1993 film The Crying Game). C e r t a i n t r u t h s are exposed t h r o u g h the p l a y o f shifting, a m b i v a l e n t images, b u t at the cost o f evacuating questions o f p o w e r a n d politics f r o m the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f desire. The c o m p l e x issue o f sexual ambivalence can d r a w a t t e n t i o n t o the w a y appearance is able t o generate its o w n t r u t h , w h i c h i n t u r n has its o w n i n t e r n a l logic. T h i s inter­ est i n appearance is n o t always able i n itself t o call i n t o question the larger p o l i t i c a l issues, however. Sexual ambivalence continues t o be presented as something transgressive a n d dangerous, b u t m a n y representations o f these issues u l t i m a t e l y reinforce the status q u o . A l t h o u g h e x o t i c i s m claims t o be a b o u t difference, i t ends u p being a l ­ mos t w h o l l y self-referential, w h i c h is w h y i n M. Butterfly G a l l i m a r d exists i n a perpetual state o f a n t i c i p a t i o n , unable t o see past his o w n fantasy o f C h i n a or his puffed-up image o f himself. W e are r e m i n d e d o f Franz Fanon's r e m a r k t h a t the colonist is a n e x h i b i t i o n i s t , w h i c h suggests t h a t because the colonist is so preoccupied w i t h his o r her p o s i t i o n a n d a u t h o r i t y , s/he remains b l i n d t o the people a r o u n d . W h e n desire is constructed w i t h i n a self-referential f r a m e w o r k , i t is n o t really concerned w i t h its object o f inter­ est, a n d therefore the imbalance i n the p o w e r r e l a t i o n between the observer a n d the observed is easily o v e r l o o k e d or i g n o r e d . T h e object is n o t sup­ posed t o t a l k back a n d shatter the i l l u s i o n . C e r t a i n l y the object is n o t sup­ posed t o m a k e any claims or interventions a b o u t the representations being constructed. T h i s is one o f the m a i n reasons t h a t e x o t i c i s m tends t o occur w i t h i n c o l o n i a l relationships, w h e t h e r the c o l o n i a l i s m o f the nineteenth century or the c o n t e m p o r a r y variety. T h e self-referentiality o f e x o t i c i s m is also apparent i n the w a y i t , again, depends o n a E u r o p e a n aristocratic ethos. T h e rare a n d exquisite exotic o b ­ ject refers n o t o n l y t o the society t h a t p r o d u c e d i t b u t also t o the aristo­ cratic collector a n d traveler o f means, whose taste for the unusual produces a p r o p e r l y sophisticated palate. T h e exotic is, after a l l , n o t t o everyone's taste. T h u s , the consumer o f fragmentary, equivocal images o f difference is ennobled i n advance. T h e a b i l i t y t o sample a variety o f experiences a n d c u l t u r a l phenomena o n the basis o f a rarefied, d i l e t t a n t i s h sensibility has historically been possible o n l y for the elite, p a r t i c u l a r l y the aristocracy, w h i c h was n o t constrained by bourgeois n o t i o n s o f w o r k a n d duty. T h e figure o f the aristocrat is itself ambivalent, e v o k i n g b o t h decadent desires (like the v a m p i r e counts) a n d 14

15

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the a b i l i t y t o live o u t a d r e a m o f pure desire, as is i n d i c a t e d by the c o n t i n u ­ i n g interest i n Sade a n d Gilles de Rais. T h e increasingly extreme images o f difference t h a t have begun t o appear i n advertisements—for instance, i n Benetton a d s — d r a w u p o n a fascination w i t h aestheticized squalor. These also allude t o sophisticated, aristocratic taste, as d i d the images o f gilded p o v e r t y p o p u l a r i n some streams o f French O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g i n the nine­ teenth century. The aristocrat is supposed t o be able t o observe o r experi­ ence the m o st dangerous or a g o n i z i n g s i t u a t i o n w h i l e manifesting ab­ solutely n o affect, a s k i l l typified by the legendary stiff upper l i p t h a t w e see again a n d again i n o l d movies a b o u t the B r i t i s h E m p i r e (and m o c k e d i n m o r e recent films such as the a p p a l l i n g l y c o m i c Carry On Up the Khyber [ 1 9 7 1 ] ) . E x o t i c i s m , then, i n its aristocratic m o d e is concerned n o t o n l y w i t h beauty a n d sexuality b u t also w i t h spectacle a n d the excitement generated as m u c h by the spectacle o f abjection as t h a t o f l u x u r y . T h e spectator is, o f course, another m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the unitary, Cartesian subject, w h o exists outside a n d often above the a c t i o n , c o o l l y observing the s u r r o u n d i n g chaos. A s o m e w h a t different version o f this aristocratic ethos is apparent i n V i e t n a m W a r movies, w i t h stories o f A m e r i c a n m e n g o i n g o f f t o a strange, exotic l a n d t o learn w h a t they are made o f — t h a t is, t o address questions o f courage a n d c o w a r d i c e i n between sessions o f aestheticized violence a n d exotic sex. I t is precisely the possibility o f violent death—their o w n or someone else's, A m e r i c a n o r Vietnamese—that heightens the experience for t h e m . H o w m u c h spectacle can they take before cracking? Does the m o v i e ­ like effect o f w a r o n acid m a k e i t m o r e or less bearable? T h u s , e x o t i c i s m does n o t w o r k solely by referring t o the people w h o are being exoticized b u t also by referring back t o a n d l i n k i n g u p w i t h exotic, g l a m o r i z e d (and, I t h i n k w e w o u l d have t o say, wetiko) elements i n Western history. Western culture continues t o manifest a great deal o f ambivalence a b o u t c u l t u r a l a n d sexual difference, as i n d i c a t e d by the w a y these tropes can be differentially v a l o r i z e d . We see h o w q u i c k l y they can m o v e a n d exchange elements: For instance, Western representations o f C h i n a r a p i d l y shifted f r o m a focus o n l u x u r y a n d i m p e r i a l decadence t o images o f violence a n d barbarity, m o st recently c o n n o t e d by M a o Zedong's cadres d u r i n g the C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n . A g a i n , the t u r n often seems t o be a f u n c t i o n o f a n t i imperialist activities o n the p a r t o f the people being exoticized, a n d c o n t i n ­ u i n g t o use C h i n a as a n example, w e can see this i n the w a y the so-called Boxer R e b e l l i o n o f 1 9 0 0 was represented i n the West b o t h at the t i m e a n d subsequently as a w a ve o f pure, faceless violence. Even those elements t h a t at first glance appear positive, such as gentleness o r sublimity, are p a r t o f a system o f representation t h a t objectifies difference as a w a y t o justify racial a n d c u l t u r a l supremacy. I n c o l o n i a l systems the apparently positive j u d g ­ ments are always u n d e r l a i n by an ambivalence t h a t can u l t i m a t e l y have p o ­ l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s as h a r m f u l as those i m p l i e d by w h o l l y negative charac­ terizations.

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T h i s ambivalence seems t o be a f u n c t i o n , i n p a r t , o f the self-referentiality of exotic i m a g e s — w h i c h is t o say, they speak t o E u r o p e a n concerns a n d o b ­ sessions—but the p o t e n t i a l f o r tropes t o be a m b i v a l e n t l y v a l o r i z e d also en­ sures t h a t a l l v o l i t i o n comes f r o m the Westerner's desire. T h e p o w e r t o rep­ resent is arranged so t h a t i t always appears t o r e m a i n i n the hands o f the European, w h o at least i n t h e o r y permits n o b a c k t a l k or r e c i p r o c i t y o n the p a r t o f the people being exoticized. T h e result o f any dialogue is decided i n advance. T h e a m b i v a l e n t reaction the Westerner often feels w h e n encoun­ tering exotic images is usually experienced as a k i n d o f pleasurable unease, w h i c h has m o r e t o do w i t h his or her relationship t o p o w e r a n d difference t h a n w i t h his or her relationship t o the people being exoticized. Some ambivalence is n o r m a l a n d inevitable w h e n w e encounter n e w ex­ periences, people, or places. T h e f a m i l i a r implies a certain ease a n d c o m ­ f o r t , whereas difference necessitates a conceptual adjustment, a constant u n d e c i d a b i l i t y w i t h respect t o the phenomena perceived. T h i s is n o t pecu­ liar t o Europeans a n d N o r t h Americans b u t seems t o be a w a y o f m e n t a l l y c o p i n g w i t h unusual or d i s o r i e n t i n g situations. To a certain extent a m b i v a ­ lence seems t o f u n c t i o n as a m e n t a l escape route o f the " I hate t h e m , so I just m i g h t go h o m e " variety m a n y people seem t o experience f r o m t i m e t o t i m e w h i l e t r a v e l i n g . A n d , o f course, always k n o w i n g w h a t t o expect is bor­ ing a n d can reinforce a sense o f the pointlessness o f life. M a r y s e H o l d e r , the b u l i m i c antiheroine o f A Winter's Tan, says, " I f o n l y w i n n i n g w e r e n ' t so b o r i n g a n d being b o r e d so t e r r i f y i n g , " a w a y o f t h i n k i n g t h a t leads her t o increasingly extreme situations i n her search for sexual adventure i n M e x i c o . Yet p a r t o f the pleasure i n travel occurs w h e n the strangeness breaks d o w n i n s m a l l , unexpected ways. After a certain p o i n t i t is very dif­ ficult to sustain the level o f objectification necessary for the e x o t i f i c a t i o n o f foreign places a n d people. T h i s is w h a t M a r g u e r i t e D u r a s recognizes i n so m u c h o f her w o r k . T h e eccentricities o f the foreign i n e v i t a b l y fracture a n d reconstitute themselves i n t o something familiar, unless a person deliberately maintains the experience o f strangeness a n d affirms this as an end i n itself. A t the same t i m e , strangeness can appear i n m u n d a n e , unexpected locales. I f a place can be read o n l y as exotic, this d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f m e a n i n g w i l l never happen. A g a i n , the p r o b l e m occurs w h e n i t is decided i n advance w h a t is g o i n g t o happen a n d w h a t the experience o f difference w i l l be like. 1 6

Colonial Desires Eugene Delacroix's Femmes d'alger (1832) was, because o f the exotic sub­ ject matter a n d s h i m m e r i n g colors o f the r o o m a n d c l o t h i n g o f the w o m e n , seen as the beginning o f a n e w aesthetic sensibility i n French p a i n t i n g , b u t one obvious question is, H o w d i d a French painter g a i n admittance t o the women's quarters o f an A l g e r i a n house i n order t o locate a n d reproduce his

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image o f A l g e r i a n w o m e n ? France h a d m i l i t a r i l y conquered Algiers o n l y t w o years before the celebrated h a r e m scene was p a i n t e d , an event rarely discussed i n any detail i n commentaries o n D e l a c r o i x ' s w o r k . I n the case o f this p a r t i c u l a r p a i n t i n g , the n e w c o l o n i a l rulers o f Algiers e m p l o y e d a cer­ t a i n a m o u n t o f c o e r c i o n t o arrange f o r these w o m e n t o sit f o r D e l a c r o i x . To pay a t t e n t i o n t o the c o n t e x t i n w h i c h the w o r k was created is n o t t o negate the aesthetic interest or value o f the p a i n t i n g b u t rather t o o p e n u p the terms o f the discussion. By l i n k i n g the development o f a n aesthetic o f e x o t i c i s m i n the West t o c o l o n i a l power, I a m n o t suggesting t h a t cultures or aesthetic f o r m s exist i n i s o l a t i o n , u n t o u c h e d by contact f r o m the outside. Cultures are never p u r e , a n d there have always been contact a n d exchange o f ideas between peoples. N o t i o n s o f c u l t u r a l p u r i t y can, as w i t h ethnic a n d gender identities, i m p l y f i x i t y a n d suggest t h a t w e a l l are supposed t o r e m a i n w h o l l y w i t h i n an ab­ s t r a c t i o n i m a g i n e d as o u r o w n c u l t u r e . N o t i o n s o f e x o t i c i s m relate t o the c o l o n i a l process i n one extremely o b v i ­ ous w a y : T h e aesthetic codes o f f o r m e r colonies t e n d t o be a p p r o p r i a t e d a n d rendered exotic i n the West, as w e saw i n the T h e o p h i l e Gautier q u o t a ­ t i o n i n the last chapter. A central p r e t e x t f o r the interest i n c o l o n i z e d soci­ eties is t h a t these cultures—and their aesthetic forms—are s o m e h o w less c o n t a m i n a t e d by m o d e r n i t y t h a n Western c u l t u r e , a l t h o u g h w h a t this m i g h t mean w i t h respect t o questions o f m o d e r n i t y a n d o f c u l t u r e is never fully explained. ( A t the same t i m e , o f course, c o l o n i z e d people c o n t i n u e t o be presented i n a range o f Western media as i n h e r e n t l y t r i c k i e r a n d m o r e treacherous.) I n a certain sense I t h i n k i t is true t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l , land-based societies have f o u n d ways t o solve some o f the p r o b l e m s t h a t plague Westerners, p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h respect t o o r g a n i z i n g a u t h o r i t y . I t also seems true t h a t the interest i n these societies reflects w h a t is p r o b a b l y an understandable desire o n the p a r t o f Westerners t o escape the m o d e r n i s t h o r r o r show, especially i f the events o f the t w e n t i e t h century are borne i n m i n d (it also reflects a nostalgia f o r the g o o d o l d days o f i m p e r i a l i s m ) . B u t the desire t o escape w i l l i n e v i t a b l y fail because the w a y exotic images are made available t o the Western spectator-subject means t h a t the c u l t u r e or p a r t o f i t being exoticized is already inserted i n t o a c o m m o d i f l e d , c o l o n i a l system. W e — a n d here I m e a n Westernized, u r b a n , p r o b a b l y w h i t e people— are thus unable t o learn a n y t h i n g f r o m other societies because, l i k e G a l l i m a r d , w e believe w e already k n o w . A g a i n , at some level the images have n o t h i n g t o do w i t h the people being exoticized. T h e constantly reiterated image o f the A s i a n w o m a n w h o sacri­ fices herself f o r a w h i t e m a n because he n o longer desires her is an ex­ tremely d i s t u r b i n g m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f this self-referentiality. T h e Butterfly fantasy l i n k s u p , b u t i n a n intensified way, t o the general p r o b l e m o f h o w w o m e n t e n d t o be represented. T h i s explains the tone o f outrage a n d a n x i 17

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ety i n stories a b o u t exotic d r a g o n ladies a n d other evil a n d u n r u l y w o m e n w h o refuse t o c o n f o r m t o this sacrificial m o d e l a n d i n articles i n the Western press a b o u t supposedly treacherous w o m e n , such as the reports a b o u t Sandinista N o r a A s t o r g a , w h o u t i l i z e d her sexual charms t o entice a N i c a r a g u a n Somozista t o his death d u r i n g the r e v o l u t i o n . A gender reversal is apparent i n m o r e recent films a n d literature i n w h i c h Western w o m e n are encouraged t o have colonial-style erotic adventures, w i t h the u n d e r l y i n g message being "Better late t h a n never. G i r l s , y o u , t o o , can objectify peo­ p l e ! " T h i s message, o f course, seems s o m e w h a t c o n t r a d i c t o r y w h e n w e bear i n m i n d a l l the advertising directed t o w a r d w h i t e w o m e n i n w h i c h w e are encouraged t o be, or rather t o construct ourselves as, a l l u r i n g , exotic objects t h r o u g h the purchase o f certain c o m m o d i t i e s . A r e w h i t e w o m e n t o act as insensitive w h i t e m e n or as the attractive, dangerous, yet frequently suicidal w o m a n o f c o l o r o f c o l o n i a l i s t fantasy?

Exotic Sites: Blood and Flowers M e x i c o occupies a peculiar place i n the i m a g i n a r y p a n t h e o n o f exotic sites. Consider the bizarre e q u i v o c a l i t y o f M e x i c a n e x o t i c i s m a n d the h i g h level o f ambivalence apparent i n so m u c h Western w r i t i n g o n this p a r t o f the w o r l d , w h i c h often seems t o become a n end i n itself. E x t r e m e ambivalence has been t y p i c a l o f the E u r o p e a n response t o M e x i c o since the t i m e o f the Spanish i n v a s i o n , w h e n the conquistadors entered T e n o c h t i t l a n a n d en­ countered the thousands o f carved rattlesnakes t h a t decorated p u b l i c b u i l d ­ ings, the Aztec n a t i o n a l e m b l e m t h a t just happened t o be the Christians' n i g h t m a r i s h s y m b o l o f satanic evil. T h e Spaniards were simultaneously o v e r w h e l m e d by the w e a l t h a n d l u x u r y o f T e n o c h t i t l a n - M e x i c o a n d re­ pelled by the b l o o d sacrifices. E a r l y accounts o f M e x i c a n arts focused o n the alien peculiarities o f the images as m u c h as o n the skills o f the artisans. The a b i l i t y o f the seemingly strange a n d exotic elements o f Aztec society t o fascinate Europeans appears e a r l y — f o r instance, i n Voltaire's w r i t i n g s he emphasizes the supposedly bizarre j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f b l o o d a n d w e a l t h a n d utilizes the M e x i c a n " p a r a d o x " as a w a y o f e x e m p l i f y i n g E u r o p e a n ques­ tions o f p o w e r a n d despotism. T h e c o n c e p t i o n o f M e x i c o as a p a r a d o x i c a l , p r o f o u n d l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y site where beauty a n d b r u t a l i t y exist side by side is apparent i n E u r o p e a n w r i t e r s a n d artists between the t w o w o r l d w a r s , w h e n the elements o f M e x i c a n culture considered m o s t negative i n the West—violence, sacrifice, d r e a m l i k e states o f m i n d — c a m e t o be v a l o r i z e d as qualities Westerners h a d lost, w i t h u n f o r t u n a t e effects. For m a n y intellectuals w h o embraced w h a t can be loosely described as a surrealist aesthetic, M e x i c o c o n t i n u e d t o be i m a g i n e d as a fantastic, v i o l e n t enigma, w h i c h was precisely its appeal. T h i s

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n e w w a y o f l o o k i n g at M e x i c o never seemed intended t o question the char­ acterizations t h a t h a d always structured E u r o p e a n conceptions o f the c o u n ­ t r y because the sensation o f ambivalence generated by the apparently c o n ­ flicting elements was considered p a r t o f w h a t made M e x i c o interesting. T h e o l d tropes persisted b u t were s i m p l y v a l o r i z e d differently. M e x i c o is physically a n d c u l t u r a l l y different f r o m N o r t h A m e r i c a or Europe, a n d t o the outsider i t is a visually c o m p e l l i n g a n d intense place, filled w i t h w h a t appears as d i s t u r b i n g images. Here w h a t is concealed i n Europe is b r o u g h t o u t i n t o the open, perhaps most n o t a b l y death i n the i m ­ ages o f skeletons a n d D a y o f the D e a d ceremonies. C e r t a i n l y one reason M e x i c o is able t o fascinate Europeans a n d N o r t h Americans is because Western, corporate, a n d consumerist ideologies have n o t quite, or at least n o t yet, w o n the culture w a r s i n this p a r t o f the w o r l d . T h e surrealists were n o t completely w r o n g t o notice w h a t t o Western eyes appear as c o n t r a d i c t o r y images, a l t h o u g h similar j u x t a p o s i t i o n s can be seen i n , say, P a r i s — o n l y w i t h different content, this t i m e perhaps the c l o c h a r d next t o the i m p e r i a l m o n u m e n t a n d so f o r t h . The question t h a t never seems t o get asked is w h e t h e r M e x i c o is s o m e h o w i n h e r e n t l y m o r e bizarre a n d d i s t u r b i n g t h a n other places o r i f i t has been rendered exotic t h r o u g h a process o f aestheticization t h a t w o u l d n o t be possible i n a m o r e f a m i l i a r e n v i r o n m e n t . C e r t a i n l y preexisting tropes operate as a k i n d o f c o n ­ ceptual s h o r t h a n d ; for instance, i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the paperback edi­ t i o n o f M a l c o l m L o w r y ' s Under the Volcano, the essayist speaks several times a b o u t M e x i c o ' s "tragic f a t a l i s m " a n d "tragic despair" w i t h o u t ever e x p l a i n i n g w h a t he means by these terms either c u l t u r a l l y or h i s t o r i c a l l y . I f w e assume i n advance t h a t a place is g o i n g t o manifest existential tragedy, t h e n any signs o f j o y or pleasure w e encounter w i l l seem very c u r i ­ ous. C u l t u r a l differences can be aestheticized a n d artificially exaggerated t o p r o v o k e a n d p r o l o n g a sensation o f unease a n d ambivalence. T h e other can be made t o t i t i l l a t e . I t e n d t o t h i n k t h a t the o n l y t i m e anyone really affirms extreme a n x i e t y is w h e n they imagine t h a t they are u l t i m a t e l y i n c o n t r o l o f the process, so the r e c o g n i t i o n o f difference becomes a n aestheticized game i n w h i c h the experience o f d i s c o m f o r t becomes interesting i n its o w n r i g h t . I t is this o p e r a t i o n o f aestheticization a n d m a k i n g strange, a n d the w a y i t functions w i t h i n a structure o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n , t h a t is at issue here. T h e de­ liberate focus o n the alien a n d bizarre as a w a y o f generating affect enables w r i t e r s a n d artists t o produce a n d m a k e use o f exoticized, fragmentary i m ­ ages o f M e x i c o (or any other place) as a w a y o f m a i n t a i n i n g a u t h o r i t y over w h a t has been deemed the e x o t i c — i n other w o r d s , t o stay i n c o n t r o l o f the o p e r a t i o n . T h i s ensures the failure o f any a t t e m p t t o m o v e b e y o n d or o u t ­ side o f the certainties o f r a t i o n a l i s t Western t h o u g h t , w h i c h i n some cases is the ostensible p o i n t o f the exercise. I a m n o t suggesting t h a t the tendency t o 1 8

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r o m a n t i c i z e difference is always a n d by d e f i n i t i o n c o r r u p t a n d t o be avoided, o n l y t h a t the process has some very definite dangers f o r a l l c o n ­ cerned. T h e experience o f visual a n d physical d i s l o c a t i o n is n o t peculiar t o M e x i c o , as anyone w h o has traveled k n o w s ; indeed, this is one o f the rea­ sons people t r a v e l . So i n this sense o f a f f i r m i n g d i s l o c a t i o n there is very l i t t l e difference between the evil Westerner w h o exoticizes difference a n d thus re­ produces a c o l o n i a l i s t d y n a m i c a n d the v i s i t o r w h o finds the experience o f d i s l o c a t i o n interesting a n d s t i m u l a t i n g . Sometimes ambivalence is n o m o r e t h a n another name for e x h a u s t i o n a n d language difficulties. B u t w h e n dislo­ c a t i o n , d i s o r i e n t a t i o n , a n d d e l i r i u m become the r a i s o n d'etre for v i s i t i n g an­ other c u l t u r e , a n d w h e n everything a n d everyone a person encounters are r u n t h r o u g h a conceptual machine i n w h i c h a l l experience is coded as bizarre a n d incomprehensible, a great deal o f objectification is t a k i n g place.

Exotic Imaginaries The M e x i c o o f the Western i m a g i n a t i o n tends t o come i n three basic v a r i ­ eties, a l l o f w h i c h share certain repetitive a n d stereotypical characteristics. I t is w o r t h p a y i n g a t t e n t i o n t o h o w these have been constructed because o f the a b i l i t y o f such projections t o disguise the very tropes o n w h i c h they are dependent. The first i m a g i n a r y is Aztec M e x i c o , since the first days o f the Spanish i n v a s i o n forever depicted as a place o f sacrificial b l o o d a n d the i m ­ mense quantities o f g o l d t h a t were o f such interest t o the conquistadors. For those w h o find the Aztecs a b i t t o o v i v i d , there are alternatives. A quite different p r o j e c t i o n concerns M a y a n M e x i c o a n d C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . M e x i c o is a huge c o u n t r y , a n d the M a y a n Y u c a t a n a n d Chiapas regions evoke a n entirely different sensibility f r o m Aztec central M e x i c o : T h e Y u c a t a n has elicited a p a r t i c u l a r e x o t i c i s m o f dense j u n g l e , mystery, a n d lost cities. T h e apparent c o n t r a d i c t i o n lies between the l u x u r i a n t , yet u n ­ r u l y vegetation a n d the extremely refined c o u r t culture o f the classic M a y a n s — i n other w o r d s , the h o a r y culture-nature d i c h o t o m y so beloved i n Western t h o u g h t . We are supposed t o imagine g o l d , emeralds, a n d jade; a fantastical congregation o f p y r a m i d s emerging f r o m the mists; a n d , o f course, extremely large a n d unpredictable snakes. T h e Y u c a t a n a n d G u a t e m a l a n Peten r e g i o n i m m e d i a t e l y brings t o m i n d the heroic archaeolo­ gist, a n d i t is here t h a t the archaeologist appears most as an adventurer, the t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y c o n q u i s t a d o r bearing the flag o f science. (Stories c i r c u ­ late i n archaeology departments a b o u t graduate students, a r m e d o n l y w i t h machetes, being a b a n d o n e d i n the snake-infested Y u c a t a n jungle by hateful, l a u g h i n g professors. Such stories always seem t o be related i n a n a p p r o v i n g tone a n d f u n c t i o n as a professional rite o f passage i n themselves.)

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Exoticism's self-referential structure plays o u t i n this evocation o f the machete-wielding explorer, i n w h i c h M a y a n temples a n d people appear as a b a c k d r o p t o the Western adventure story. Gringos i n the Y u c a t a n hope t o experience the real explorer adventures, w h i c h s o m e h o w refer t o other, ear­ lier " e x p l o r e r s " w h o also h a d the w h e r e w i t h a l t o hack t h r o u g h the jungle, that is, the Spanish conquistadors. I n this w a y the w o r d explorer (or mili­ tary adviser) becomes an a l i b i f o r conquistador, w i t h this affinity concealed by the adventure story. T h e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y fortune hunter, a r m c h a i r or otherwise, is thus able t o identify w i t h a n d rehabilitate the Spaniards, sometimes w i t h n o m o r e effort t h a n reading the archaeology articles i n National Geographic. T h e Western agenda i n this p a r t o f the w o r l d still seems t o revolve a r o u n d g o l d , w h i c h this t i m e a r o u n d is headed for na­ t i o n a l museums instead o f r o y a l treasuries; i n a certain sense the " g o l d " o f beautiful, exotic images ends up g o i n g back t o Europe even i f the actual ar­ tifacts r e m a i n i n M e x i c o or Guatemala. I n d i a n a Jones always retrieves the treasure. Even t h o u g h the M a y a n s o f the present are rarely a c k n o w l e d g e d by Western aesthetes, the M a y a n s o f the past are p r o m o t e d as mysterious aristocrats w h o were g o o d at mathematics, a n d the European collector o f M a y a n artifacts is believed t o have unusually refined tastes. I n this w a y aristocracy becomes contagious. Despite the o n g o i n g fascination w i t h the p r e - C o l u m b i a n past, Aztec or M a y a n culture per se does n o t figure i n the r o m a n t i c i z e d images o f M e x i c o i n the p o p u l a r culture o f Europe a n d A n g l o A m e r i c a . Aztec M e x i c o fasci­ nates b u t is n o t easily rendered sentimental. Rather, the e x p l i c i t l y r o m a n t i ­ cized images are almost always postconquest a n d i n v o l v e E u r o p e a n a n d N o r t h A m e r i c a n w h i t e people i n the starring roles, usually as various k i n d s o f adventurers w h o must c o n f r o n t the unpredictable a n d dangerous w o r l d south o f the border. There are few, i f any, r o m a n t i c stories o f life under the Aztecs i n Western narratives, p a r t i c u l a r l y those i n w h i c h actual Aztec peo­ ple are the subject o f the n a r r a t i v e . W e have yet t o see, i n N o r t h A m e r i c a at least, h i s t o r i c a l romance novels w i t h an attractive, a m o r o u s p r o t a g o n i s t g o i n g o f f t o fight the opaque a n d cruel Spaniards or being unavailable t o a lover because he has t o sacrifice a prisoner o f w a r or be sacrificed himself t o a deity. Aztec culture is just a b i t t o o strong for most Westerners' tastes, p a r t i c u l a r l y as exemplified by the exotic romance genres, w h i c h tend t o a v o i d excessive unpleasantness (strangely, there does seem t o be a subgroup o f r o m a n t i c story i n w h i c h the hero dies h o r r i b l y i n the R o m a n arena—but the violence o f the arena is f a m i l i a r t e r r i t o r y ) . T h e M e x i c o o f recent h i s t o r y is a different story. U n l i k e the Aztec empire, m o d e r n M e x i c o definitely manages t o be r o m a n t i c , b u t i t is the r o m a n t i c i z a t i o n o f failure. T h e failure is the Westerner's, b u t one that is m i r r o r e d by the M e x i c a n b a c k d r o p . M e x i c o is the place the Westerner goes t o fall apart, escape f r o m the law, or come t o terms w i t h his or her o w n degrada­ t i o n . T h i s idea o f degradation revolves a r o u n d the question o f h o w m u c h 20

The Luxurious Ambivalence of Exoticism 53 farther a person can actually sink t h a n he o r she ever i m a g i n e d ; the true message is t h a t M e x i c o is i d e n t i c a l w i t h the degeneracy a n d d i s s o l u t i o n o f the N o r t h A m e r i c a n or European. T h e M e x i c o t h a t appears i n N o r t h A m e r i c a n p o p u l a r culture has t o do w i t h lawlessness a n d a l c o h o l . Embedded i n the consciousness o f a genera­ t i o n is J i m i H e n d r i x ' s version o f " H e y Joe," i n w h i c h he replies, " M e x i c o " w h e n asked where he is g o i n g t o r u n t o . T h e l m a a n d Louise were heading for M e x i c o . I n The Night of the Iguana (1964) a n d similar films M e x i c o is where the b r o k e n people end u p . B o t h the film a n d t e x t o f M a l c o l m L o w r y ' s Under the Volcano frame the hero's alcoholic d i s s o l u t i o n t h r o u g h the D a y o f the D e a d a n d the violence o f the cantinas. W i t h i n this i m a g i ­ nary, M e x i c o becomes the site o f escape f r o m o r absence o f law, the place w a y d o w n s o u t h where order breaks d o w n . T h i s suggests t h a t w i t h o u t the l a w t o keep people i n line, the characters' i d e n t i t y as N o r t e a m e r i c a n o s w i l l collapse, a n d they w i l l become no better t h a n M e x i c a n s , a state o f affairs t h a t seems t o generate considerable anxiety. M e x i c o , t h e n , is the place where a person journeys t o go t o seed; t o reach the end o f the line a n d dis­ cover t h a t none o f the n o r t h e r n melodramas really matter after a l l . There is a subtext t o this a n x i e t y t h a t seems t o i n v o l v e the extent t o w h i c h the U n i t e d States has been unable t o c o n t r o l the lands a n d peoples s o u t h o f the border, despite its various attempts a n d oft-stated t r u m p e t i n g o f its c u l t u r a l superiority. M a n y do seem t o remember the A l a m o . M u c h i n the same w a y t h a t M e x i c o is t h o u g h t t o engulf the visitor, the c o u n t r y exceeds N o r t h A m e r i c a n attempts t o master the s o u t h a n d b r i n g i t under U.S. p u r v i e w . T h e constant p o s i t i o n i n g o f M e x i c o as a dangerous, lawless l a n d seems to refer conceptually t o the Aztec past t h r o u g h the focus o n violence a n d disorder. A g a i n , this c o n s t r u c t i o n can be v a l o r i z e d i n a range o f w a y s , a l l o f w h i c h are predictable: M e x i c a n - A m e r i c a n w r i t e r R i c h a r d Rodriguez speaks o f being approached by an undergraduate i n C a l i f o r n i a w h o i n f o r m e d h i m t h a t " i t must be c o o l t o be related t o A z t e c s . " I n a c o m p l e x w a y this has something t o do w i t h the recent interest i n F r i d a Kahlo's w o r k , p a r t i c u l a r l y the w a y this interest has been fueled by M a d o n n a ' s p r o m o t i o n o f the M e x i c a n painter. Is i t possible t o separate the appeal o f Kahlo's images t o a n e w generation o f N o r t h Americans f r o m M a d o n n a ' s a c c u m u l a t i o n o f as m a n y o f these paintings as she can b u y (and can w e separate this accumula­ t i o n f r o m the p o p star's interest i n packaged versions o f transgression) ? 21

Surrealist D r e a m s I f w e t h i n k o f surrealism as an o p p o s i t i o n a l aesthetic t h a t focused o n or p r o d u c e d unexpected j u x t a p o s i t i o n s o f aesthetic a n d c u l t u r a l phenomena, w e can see h o w M e x i c o came t o be framed i n terms o f r a d i c a l difference a n d d i s t u r b i n g affinities. Surrealist thinkers were c o n t i n u i n g t o imagine

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M e x i c o as i t h a d always been i m a g i n e d i n the West, b u t they n o w invested the supposed strangeness o f the c o u n t r y w i t h a redemptive f u n c t i o n . M a n y p o s t w a r Western intellectuals were anxious t o locate the origins o f culture a n d society, w h i c h they t h o u g h t they c o u l d find outside o f E u r o p e . M e x i c o came t o be t h o u g h t o f as a n outside t h a t held o u t the promise o f es­ cape f r o m the disaster o f Western culture a n d the l i m i t s o f Western c o n ­ sciousness. M e x i c o attracted the a t t e n t i o n o f p o s t - W o r l d W a r I Europeans because o f its p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r y as m u c h as its different c u l t u r a l a n d aes­ thetic t r a d i t i o n s , a n d because o f the w a y this h i s t o r i c a l specificity c o u l d dis­ close possibilities t h a t h a d been excluded i n Europe. T h i s a t t e n t i o n h a d m o r e t o do w i t h the different v a l u a t i o n o f the traits t h o u g h t t o be associated w i t h M e x i c o t h a n w i t h a r a d i c a l l y n e w interpreta­ t i o n o f the culture or w i t h the b i n a r y conceptions o f c u l t u r a l difference t h a t c o n t i n u e d t o influence surrealist t h i n k i n g . There were still o n l y Greeks a n d barbaroi, Christians a n d infidels. T h e interest i n M e x i c o was a result o f the influence o f " p r i m i t i v i s m " o n French art a n d letters o f the p e r i o d , w h i c h derived f r o m a fascination w i t h unconscious experience. T h i s meant t h a t intellectuals t u r n e d n o t o n l y t o exotic cultures such as those o f A f r i c a a n d M e x i c o b u t also t o categories o f people i n Europe w h o seemed t o e x h i b i t this psychic innocence a n d general lack o f H e g e l i a n self-consciousness. For instance, the art a n d utterances o f the insane a n d o f c h i l d r e n w o u l d evoke a response i n m a n y French intellectuals similar t o t h a t o f Aztec or A f r i c a n art, a n d a l t h o u g h a l l these were o f interest because they were believed t o be free f r o m the b u r d e n o f consciousness, this freedom always seemed coex­ tensive w i t h being under some k i n d o f a u t h o r i t y , w h e t h e r c o l o n i a l , state, i n ­ s t i t u t i o n a l , or parental. Because Aztecs, c h i l d r e n , Africans, a n d m a d people manifested a p a r t i a l r e l a t i o n t o (European) a u t h o r i t y , they c o u l d exist i n a state o f f u l l presence a n d heterogeneity. As w e have seen t i m e a n d t i m e again, a p p r e c i a t i o n o f another c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n can still be framed w i t h i n a hierarchical system o f c u l t u r a l value a n d indeed one t h a t made conquest possible (and t h i n k a b l e ) i n the first place. I f r a t i o n a l i t y is believed t o be the Western disease, t h e n any outside t o E u r o p e a n culture w o u l d have t o be framed as p r o f o u n d l y i r r a t i o n a l . This was decided i n advance o f any actual encounter w i t h different people, m u c h like the C h r i s t i a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f other religious t r a d i t i o n s was de­ cided i n advance. I have said t h a t e x o t i c i s m involves the exaggeration or p r o d u c t i o n o f c u l t u r a l differences, the appearance o f w h i c h come t o be charged i n certain ways. The surrealist interest i n M e x i c o d i d n o t call e x o t i ­ cism i n t o question, n o r d i d i t p a r t i c u l a r l y w a n t t o do so; indeed, i n some re­ spects the surrealist project was precisely a b o u t intensifying a n d aestheticizi n g difference rather t h a n a b o u t challenging Western conceptions o f c u l t u r a l superiority. Surrealist, cubist, or academic painter—none o f these really sought t o l o o k outside o f Western c u l t u r e , despite their claims, be22

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The Luxurious Ambivalence of Exoticism 55 cause they still needed an other t o generate affect a n d excitement. T h i s p r o b l e m o f the aestheticization o f r a d i c a l d u a l i s m has n o t been solved, a n d this p r o d u c t i o n o f difference continues t o recur i n a n d i n f o r m Western c u l ­ ture a n d aesthetics. Sergei Eisenstein, Georges Bataille, a n d A n t o n i n A r t a u d were a l l very dif­ ferent t h i n k e r s , b u t they shared an uneasy fascination w i t h the bizarre i n their attempts t o come t o terms w i t h M e x i c o i n their w o r k . French w r i t e r a n d p h i l o s o p h e r Bataille w r o t e o n the art o f Aztec M e x i c o a n d the econom­ ics o f h u m a n sacrifice b u t never managed t o visit the country. Russian film­ m a k e r Eisenstein traveled t o M e x i c o i n late 1 9 3 0 t o m a k e the film ;Que Viva Mexico! w i t h the i n i t i a l financial s u p p o r t o f A m e r i c a n w r i t e r U p t o n Sinclair. The film was never c o m p l e t e d for a range o f financial a n d p o l i t i c a l reasons, b u t a version continues t o be screened i n art house cinemas f r o m t i m e t o t i m e . H e remained i n the c o u n t r y for a little over a year before be­ i n g recalled t o M o s c o w by Joseph Stalin. Poet a n d actor A r t a u d w e n t t o M e x i c o i n 1 9 3 6 , w h e n he was f o r t y years o l d , a n d gave lectures o n art a n d r e v o l u t i o n i n M e x i c o C i t y before attending a peyote ceremony i n Sierra Tarahumara i n northern Mexico.

Bataille The past can be exoticized as m u c h as a c o n t e m p o r a r y society or event can. Dissident surrealist Georges Bataille offers an extreme version o f Aztec M e x i c o a n d the Spanish i n v a s i o n i n w h i c h these are almost completely aes­ theticized a n d t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a bizarre a n d enigmatic object lesson for Europeans. Bataille's w o r k shows some o f the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a p p r o a c h i n g a culture such as M e x i c o as a conceptual schema, an aestheticized series o f a l l u r i n g , yet a m b i v a l e n t fragments, for the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c o l o n i a l his­ t o r y : E x o t i c i s m places culture outside history. A l t h o u g h he b r o k e w i t h A n d r e Breton's circle i n 1 9 2 6 , he c o n t i n u e d t o be influenced by surrealist aesthetics. Bataille's interest i n Aztec a n d other " a r c h a i c " societies because o f their a b i l i t y t o elucidate universal needs a n d fantasies was i n m a n y respects t y p i ­ cal o f his generation. I n the Parisian m i l i e u o f the 1920s a n d 1930s i n w h i c h Bataille w o r k e d , t w o b r o a d intellectual o r theoretical streams were apparent. T h e first was sociological a n d i n general derived b o t h f r o m M a r x i s t w r i t i n g s (such as A l e x a n d r e Kojeve's reading o f Georg Hegel's p h i ­ losophy) a n d f r o m e t h n o l o g i c a l theory, such as the w o r k o f M a r c e l M a u s s . The second was an ecstatic p r i m i t i v i s m most strongly evident i n the arts; here a certain p r i m i t i v e energy was c u l t i v a t e d , as is apparent i n the i n f l u ­ ence o f art negre o n French aesthetics (for instance, the w e l l - k n o w n effect o f A f r i c a n art o n such artists as Pablo Picasso a n d Georges Braque). The

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sociological a n d aesthetic currents were l i n k e d theoretically as w e l l as so­ cially. For instance, b o t h surrealists a n d ethnographers were influenced by the w o r k o f Emile D u r k h e i m . Bataille's strong c o n n e c t i o n t o ethnographic circles are w e l l k n o w n : H e was a n enthusiastic reader o f M a u s s , a close friend o f ethnographer A l f r e d M e t r a u x , a n d a f o u n d i n g member o f the College o f Sociology ( 1 9 3 7 - 1 9 3 9 ) . H e also helped f o u n d the j o u r n a l Documents ( 1 9 2 9 - 1 9 3 0 ) , w h i c h b r o u g h t together the w o r k o f ethnogra­ phers a n d artists. Bataille first a r t i c u l a t e d a fascination for p r e - C o l u m b i a n , p a r t i c u l a r l y Aztec, culture i n his brief art review, VAmerique disparue ( 1 9 2 9 ) . PreC o l u m b i a n art has tended t o appeal t o equivocal, rather decadent tastes precisely because o f the k i n d s o f images manifested i n this t r a d i t i o n , a n d i t is n o t surprising t h a t this art caught the eye o f Bataille, w h o w r o t e o n slaughterhouses, the d i r t y drawers i n Salvador Dali's Lugubrious Game, a n d Sade's w r i t i n g s . VAmerique disparue was w r i t t e n for the first m a j o r ex­ h i b i t i o n o f p r e - C o l u m b i a n M e x i c a n art a n d artifacts i n Paris, "Les A r t s anciens de l ' A m e r i q u e " at the L o u v r e . French w r i t e r s a n d critics such as G u i l l a u m e A p o l l i n a i r e h a d been interested i n M e x i c a n art since before W o r l d W a r I , b u t a m a j o r s h o w c o u l d n o t be m o u n t e d u n t i l the late 1920s. T w e n t y years later Bataille developed the themes expressed i n his earlier piece o n M e x i c o i n La part maudite ( 1 9 4 9 ) . Bataille is fascinated by the Aztecs because they appear t o h i m as a n enigma, civilized, yet engaging i n mass h u m a n sacrifice, offering " a i r a n d violence . . . p o e t r y a n d h u m o u r . " H e is certainly r i g h t i n describing Aztec art i n these terms, b u t he gets car­ ried a w a y by his ideas o f r a d i c a l difference a n d the specificity o f violence. For Bataille, the intensity o f the M e x i c a n "sacrificial madness" renders this society m o r e seductive t h a n any other a b o r i g i n a l culture i n the Americas, b u t also m o r e capable o f p r o v o k i n g dread a n d terror. T h u s , the stage is set for extreme levels o f ambivalence. T h e strength o f M e x i c a n art attracted surrealists a n d other jaded Parisians. P r e - C o l u m b i a n M e x i c a n art occupied a s o m e w h a t u n i q u e posi­ t i o n i n the European-based aesthetic t a x o n o m i c system i n t h a t i t was n o t quite classified as p r i m i t i v e , b u t tended instead t o be placed i n the category o f archaic art, a l o n g w i t h K h m e r sculpture. T h i s category stressed l u x u r y a n d a refined c o u r t culture a n d c o u l d thus d r a w o n certain elements o f nineteenth-century r o m a n t i c i s m , such as a n interest i n decadent empires. I t also suggested a m o r i b u n d q u a l i t y t o the w o r k . A t the same t i m e , Aztec art c o u l d be subsumed under the category o f negre, a l o n g w i t h m o d e r n jazz a n d Oceanic art, a l l o f w h i c h were believed t o be sources o f p r i m i t i v e , u n ­ conscious, or d r e a m l i k e experience. T h e 1928 e x h i b i t i o n was a huge suc­ cess a n d p r o v o k e d an interest i n M e x i c a n e t h n o g r a p h y a m o n g French artists a n d w r i t e r s . For instance, A n t o n i n A r t a u d visited the e x h i b i t i o n a n d , as m i g h t be expected given his obsessions, became fascinated by the (to 2 4

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Parisian eyes) bizarre images o f death a n d violence o f Aztec art, a fascina­ t i o n that ultimately impelled h i m to travel to M e x i c o i n 1936. T h e title o f Bataille's r e v i e w o f this e x h i b i t i o n , rendered i n a n English t r a n s l a t i o n as " E x t i n c t A m e r i c a , " sets the tone o f the article: Aztec A m e r i c a has vanished f r o m the face o f the earth; i t has disappeared. Indeed, i n the first p a r a g r a p h Bataille speaks o f the "instantaneous disappearance" o f Aztec society, a statement t h a t w e (and Bataille) k n o w t o be h i s t o r i c a l l y i n ­ accurate, b u t one t h a t underlines the apparent i n c o m p r e h e n s i b i l i t y o f M e x i c o . T h i s elision o f h i s t o r i c a l fact is s y m p t o m a t i c : For Bataille as for so m a n y other Europeans, the Aztecs' " b l o o d y eccentricity" (as he calls i t ) does n o t b r i n g t o m i n d h i s t o r y i n the sense o f the development o f i n s t i t u ­ tions over t i m e a n d a n intelligible progression o f cause a n d effect. Rather, M e x i c a n culture exists as a n i g h t m a r e , a n insane society t h a t haunts the E u r o p e a n d r e a m o f the w e l l - o r d e r e d p o l i s . M e x i c o is forever outside his­ tory. Bataille describes Aztec culture: " C o n t i n u o u s crime c o m m i t t e d i n b r o a d d a y l i g h t for the mere satisfaction o f deified nightmares, t e r r i f y i n g phantasms, priests' cannibalistic meals, ceremonial corpses, a n d streams o f b l o o d evoke n o t so m u c h the h i s t o r i c a l adventure, b u t rather the b l i n d i n g debauches described by the i l l u s t r i o u s M a r q u i s de S a d e . " Bataille seems t o be suggesting t h a t the Aztecs are comprehensible t h r o u g h Sade. For Bataille, the sacrifices o f the Aztecs resemble Sade's b l o o d y orgies, a n d the Aztecs b o t h evoke a n d exemplify the Sadean l i b i d i n a l investment i n w h a t Bataille believes t o be excluded by m o d e r n society: b l o o d , corpses, c a n n i b a l i s m , a n d other heterogeneous, apparently transgressive f o r c e s . I n this w a y the nature o f t r a d i t i o n a l M e x i c a n society is rendered visible t h r o u g h a structure o f resemblance a n d analogy: The Aztecs are l i k e certain passages i n a Western l i t e r a r y text; their heterogene­ i t y is s i m i l a r t o the heterogeneity o f Sade. Bataille refuses t o engage Aztec culture o n its o w n terms, so w h a t i n i t i a l l y appears as s i m i l i t u d e becomes re­ inforcement o f the r a d i c a l difference o f Aztec society. Bataille insists u p o n the " a m a z i n g l y j o y o u s character o f these h o r r o r s " : T e n o c h t i t l a n was a " h u m a n slaughterhouse," yet b e a u t i f u l , wealthy, a city o f flowers as m u c h as o f f l i e s . T h e flowers p r o v i d e a c o u n t e r p o i n t t o the sacrificial h o r r o r ; T e n o c h t i t l a n was above a l l filled w i t h gardens, a n d f l o w ­ ers were everywhere, even a n d especially i n the sacrificial temples. A g a i n , w e see the j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f apparently bizarrely c o n t r a d i c t o r y elements. T h i s association o f flowers a n d death is n o t accidental. For Bataille, the beauty o f flowers a n d the love they represent are always attended by a cer­ t a i n perversity; the ideal beauty o f a flower's petals is " s p o i l e d " by the "sor­ d i d , " "satanic" stamens, the " f i l t h o f its o r g a n s . " H e is saying t h a t the loftiest h u m a n ideals—love, beauty, a r t — c o n t a i n perverse a n d squalid ele­ ments, just as the perversity o f h u m a n sacrifice is s u r r o u n d e d by the beauty o f flowers. Bataille's a p o c r y p h a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f Sade t h r o w i n g rose petals 2 5

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i n t o m a n u r e recalls his evocation o f Sade's orgies a n d the Aztecs' religious sensibility: By h a v i n g flowers at their sacrificial ceremonies, the Aztecs, like Sade, seem t o have recognized a n d affirmed the w a y i n w h i c h the sublime a n d the noble are r o o t e d i n f i l t h . B u t this description w o r k s o n l y i f the Aztecs are read t h r o u g h Sade. Bataille's j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f b l o o d a n d w e a l t h , flowers a n d flies, seems at first glance t o d i s r u p t t r a d i t i o n a l categories o f c i v i l i z a t i o n a n d b a r b a r i s m by c o m b i n i n g the apparently antagonistic elements o f a n elaborated, u r b a n c i v i l i z a t i o n a n d a b lo o d y, barbaric r i t u a l . I t is disingenuous, t o say the least, t o suggest t h a t sacrificial violence is s o m e h o w peculiar t o Aztec M e x i c o or t o evince surprise t h a t h i g h culture can exist side by side w i t h extreme v i o ­ lence. The l i n k between c i v i l i z a t i o n a n d b a r b a r i s m ( i n Bataille's sense o f b l o o d y spectacle) seems evident, as does the fact t h a t these t w o have always gone h a n d i n h a n d . B l o o d a n d w e a l t h are n o p a r a d o x at a l l , w h e t h e r i n Aztec M e x i c o or at h o m e i n Europe. As I n o t e d , the j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f bizarre, c o n t r a d i c t o r y elements was a feature o f surrealist practice b u t h a d been present m u c h earlier i n E u r o p e a n w r i t i n g s o n Aztec society, i n w h i c h M e x i c o appears as a k i n d o f collage, b o t h v i o l e n t a n d l u x u r i o u s , barbaric a n d refined. T h i s aestheticized c o n ­ struct evokes a delightful ambivalence a n d provides lessons t o a E u r o p e a n audience w i t h o u t , however, calling i n t o question the hierarchical r e l a t i o n ­ ship between E u r o p e a n a n d M e x i c a n societies o r the n o t i o n t h a t cultures m a y be d i v i d e d i n t o c o n t r a d i c t o r y elements t h a t exist i n o p p o s i t i o n . A c c o r d i n g l y , a t r o p e o f the Aztec " p a r a d o x " was available t o be t a k e n u p by w r i t e r s such as Bataille. M e x i c o was able t o f u n c t i o n as a locale o f au­ thentic, intense experience precisely because i t appeared as a p a r a d o x : o n the one h a n d , an i n v e r s i o n o f C h r i s t i a n values a n d o n the other, a n exem­ p l i f i c a t i o n o f i n t e r n a l disorder a n d violence. T h r o u g h the device o f j u x t a p o ­ s i t i o n the strangeness a n d poetic d e l i r i u m used t o characterize Aztec society are u n d e r l i n e d or, better, constructed. H u m a n sacrifice becomes a poetic ex­ perience, a n d the apparent heterogeneity a n d difference o f Aztec society are intensified a n d rendered m o r e Sadean. T h e flowers seem t o make the sacri­ fices b o t h less a n d m o r e horrific; s o m e h o w a society described w h o l l y i n terms o f b r u t a l i t y or o f s u b l i m i t y w o u l d be less aberrant a n d d i s t u r b i n g t o Bataille's m o d e r n reader. T h e failure o f this k i n d o f a p p r o a c h t o Aztec sacrifice has t o d o w i t h a b l i n d spot a b o u t Western culture: W h e n Bataille associates violence a n d w e a l t h i n his description o f M e x i c a n society, he does n o t seem t o be m a k i n g a p o i n t a b o u t the violence a n d madness t h a t accompany p r o d u c t i o n i n all i m p e r i a l societies, i n c l u d i n g those o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Europe, or a b o u t the extent t o w h i c h c a p i t a l i s m shares wetiko principles w i t h other, m o r e ex­ p l i c i t l y sacrificial economies.

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Bataille retreats t o E u r o p e a n r a t i o n a l i t y after exhausting the Aztec metaphor, b u t he first produces a n d t h e n drains the society o f images t o i l ­ lustrate a tableau o f excess a n d death. For Bataille, the Aztecs were savages because they w e n t t o o far, c a r r y i n g the sovereign a f f i r m a t i o n o f death t o u n i m a g i n a b l e extremes, w o r s h i p p i n g gods he describes as h a v i n g been "the bloodiest ever t o people the clouds o f o u r e a r t h . " A n d this is where w e a p p r o a c h the end o f the line, the u l t i m a t e p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n o f e x o t i c i s m a n d the w a y i t is used t o generate an aestheticized ambivalence: Bataille's insistence o n the extreme nature o f Aztec sover­ eignty leads h i m t o i n f o r m us t h a t "death, for the Aztecs, was n o t h i n g , " as i f the sacrificial ceremonies presuppose an u n m e d i a t e d w i l l t o death i n every sphere o f Aztec life. For so m a n y Europeans, the i n s t i t u t i o n o f h u m a n sacrifice connotes a l i t e r a l a f f i r m a t i o n o f death, w h i c h becomes a w i l l t o suicide a n d disappearance. Bataille is less astonished by the Aztecs' pre­ sumed disregard for death t h a n by the fact that, despite this, these "savage w a r r i o r s " seemed t o enjoy life a n d everyday activities such as v i s i t i n g w i t h friends. H i s astonishment t h a t Aztecs were m o r e or less like a n y b o d y else leads h i m f r o m asserting t h a t "death ... was n o t h i n g " t o c l a i m i n g t h a t the Aztecs h a d " a n excessive taste for d e a t h , " w h i c h led directly t o their c o n ­ quest a n d disappearance: " T h e y surrendered t o the Spaniards i n a sort o f m a d h y p n o t i c state. ... As i f this people h a d vaguely u n d e r s t o o d t h a t once they h a d reached this degree o f joyous violence, the o n l y w a y o u t ... was a sudden a n d t e r r i f y i n g d e a t h . " Even i f w e leave aside the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f the w o r d s vaguely understood, i n reading the E u r o p e a n conquest o f M e x i c o t h r o u g h a n o t i o n o f an "ex­ cessive taste for death," Bataille suggests t h a t the Aztecs were i n some p r o ­ f o u n d w a y responsible for the Spanish i n v a s i o n because their sacrificial v i o ­ lence demanded t h a t they sacrifice themselves t o their o w n sovereignty, their o w n w i l l t o death. I n this sense their defeat was the inevitable result o f Aztec conventions o f religious representation a n d the i n s t i t u t i o n o f h u m a n sacrifice. I t seems t h a t the Spaniards o n l y o b l i g e d the Aztecs' desire t o af­ firm death, a n d t o this extent the conquest was inconsequential, i f indeed "death was n o t h i n g . " Bataille closes VAmerique disparue w i t h this requiem: " T h e y died suddenly, like crushed insects." I t h i n k again o f the w a y he evokes the sacrificial altars, s w a r m i n g w i t h flies and b l o o d ; the violence repeats itself i n conquest, w i t h death and flies n o w affirmed by a different hand. For the Aztecs, an excessive taste for death c o u l d lead o n l y t o conquest and massacre a n d crushing defeat by a superior m i l i t a r y force. Bataille does n o t seem p a r t i c u l a r l y t r o u b l e d by the conquest o f M e x i c o ; the crushing o f such insects is o f no real importance. Bataille is by no means a s t u p i d m a n , w h i c h is w h a t is so f r u s t r a t i n g a b o u t his w o r k o n M e x i c o . H e is generally quite careful i n his analyses o f 30

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E u r o p e a n culture, w h i c h , a l t h o u g h i d i o s y n c r a t i c , are usually p h i l o s o p h i ­ cally r i g o r o u s . H o w e v e r , w h e n i t comes t o M e x i c o , o r indeed any other dif­ ferent c u l t u r e , Bataille never lets social o r h i s t o r i c a l facts get i n the w a y o f a g o o d idea. H e is certainly aware o f M e x i c a n resistance t o the Spanish i n ­ vaders, f r o m the street fighting i n T e n o c h t i t l a n t o the uprisings i n the provinces. H e has read, at the very least, W i l l i a m Prescott a n d B e r n a r d i n o de Sahagun by 1 9 2 9 , a n d a l t h o u g h these are i n m a n y respects p r o b l e m a t i c sources, they nevertheless describe i n detail the m o n t h s o f bitter resistance t o E u r o p e a n encroachment a n d conquest. B u t Bataille is n o t a t y p i c a l , a n d his error is t o be so enamored o f the exoticized n o t i o n o f sacrificial sover­ eignty t h a t he must "disappear" the Aztecs t o s u p p o r t an argument, a dis­ cursive conquest t h a t operates as a r e p e t i t i o n o f physical conquest. W h a t seems a deliberate oversight remains difficult t o understand, given Bataille's general insights a b o u t violence a n d p o w e r i n society. I t is here t h a t w e see the l i n k between a certain objectification o f societies such as Aztec M e x i c o i n E u r o p e a n w r i t i n g a n d the systems o f c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t y t h a t make these w r i t i n g s possible. T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f images o f r a d i c a l difference is based o n a selective use o f m y t h o l o g i c a l a n d aesthetic fragments, itself the result o f an a b r i d g m e n t or p r u n i n g w h e r e b y elements t h a t are n o t useful t o the story are excised a n d made t o disappear. A p a r t i c u l a r version o f difference is p r o d u c e d so t h a t i t can be used t o s u p p o r t the argument Bataille is m a k i n g , an argument t h a t continues t o manifest a b l i n d spot a b o u t the extent t o w h i c h Western culture is itself based o n violence a n d mass d e a t h . Several readers o f Bataille have assured me t h a t he k n o w s t h a t E u r o p e a n empires are as per­ meated w i t h v i o l e n t i n s t i t u t i o n s as the Aztec state, b u t I a m n o t convinced. Bataille takes entirely t o o m u c h pleasure i n his c o n s t r u c t i o n o f Aztec v i o ­ lence as completely b e y o n d a n y t h i n g seen before or since, a n d his tendency t o aestheticize M e x i c a n sacrifice means t h a t w e can o n l y w o n d e r at its i n ­ c o m p r e h e n s i b i l i t y rather t h a n see h o w i t puts the certainties o f the Western polis i n t o question. 35

Eisenstein: Mexico as R e d e m p t i o n Eisenstein spent over a year i n M e x i c o f i l m i n g ;Que Viva Mexico! a n d cir­ culated w i t h people such as D i e g o Rivera ( w h o m he h a d met i n M o s c o w ) a n d F r i d a K a h l o i n the leftist intellectual m i l i e u o f M e x i c o City. T h e Russian f i l m m a k e r s u p p o r t e d the a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s t agenda o f m a n y M e x i c a n artists a n d attempted, t o a greater extent t h a n many, t o come t o terms w i t h the foreignness a n d c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f the c o u n t r y a n d t o do so i n a w a y t h a t left some r o o m for a M e x i c a n aesthetic t o emerge. Yet even Eisenstein c o u l d go o n l y so far, a n d a l t h o u g h he sought t o create a socially engaged

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art, he shared w i t h the Parisian aesthetes a tendency t o focus o n — o r t o produce—the fascinating oppositions a n d excesses as a w a y o f c o n s t r u c t i n g an intense, aestheticized M e x i c o . T h i s happened despite a p o l i t i c a l a n d i n ­ tellectual agenda t h a t was very different f r o m t h a t o f people like Bataille a n d A r t a u d a n d despite spending a fair b i t o f t i m e i n the country. Eisenstein manifested the peculiar Western b l i n d spot a b o u t c u l t u r a l difference, one t h a t crosses ideologies a n d is apparent i n so m a n y otherwise unrelated Western characterizations o f different cultures a n d t r a d i t i o n s . L i k e the French surrealists a n d m a n y others before t h e m , Eisenstein c o n ­ strues M e x i c o i n terms o f the j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f apparently c o n t r a d i c t o r y , p a r a d o x i c a l elements. H e visualizes a constant clash o f opposites a n d is f o n d o f comments like " M e x i c o — l y r i c a l a n d tender, b u t also b r u t a l , " a sweeping characterization t h a t at first glance seems evocative o f a p a r t i c u ­ lar place b u t t h a t c o u l d actually describe a n y w h e r e . A l t h o u g h this de­ scribing o f M e x i c o i n terms o f v i v i d oppositions is t y p i c a l o f Western i n t e l ­ lectuals o f whatever p o l i t i c a l persuasion, i n Eisenstein's case this interest i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n m a y be intensified by his c o m m i t m e n t t o dialectical m a t e r i a l ­ ism, w h i c h , as Hegel w o u l d have i t , views c o n t r a d i c t i o n as i n h e r e n t l y cre­ ative. Eisenstein c o n t i n u a l l y frames M e x i c o as a series o f c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . For instance, i n his m e m o i r s he describes M e x i c o as a contrast between " m o n u m e n t a l s i m p l i c i t y a n d unrestrained Baroque ( i n each o f its aspects, Spanish a n d A z t e c ) " a n d insists t h a t the o p p o s i t i o n between the p l a i n w h i t e c l o t h i n g o f the farmer a n d the w i l d l y e m b r o i d e r e d coat o f the m a t a d o r ex­ emplifies the ethos o f a n a t i o n . One o f the f o u r sections o f jQue Viva Mexico! is set i n Tehuantepec i n southern M e x i c o , a n d Eisenstein's attempts t o describe this area fall i n t o a t i m e - w o r n c o n v e n t i o n o f c o l o n i a l i s t w r i t i n g . T h i s is n o t the same as saying Eisenstein is a c o l o n i a l i s t , b u t rather t h a t certain Western l i t e r a r y p r o t o c o l s have become so naturalized as t o be almost invisible. For instance, i n at­ t e m p t i n g t o render the feeling o f the scene, Eisenstein first compares the Tehuantepec marketplace t o I n d i a , t h e n t o Baghdad, a n d finally t o the S o u t h Seas. I n this w a y he collapses several exemplary sites i n the Western i m a g i n a r y i n t o one exotic locale. Difference circulates a n d refers t o other differences rather t h a n t o the West, w h i c h is assumed t o be universal a n d transparent. D e s c r i b i n g M e x i c o i n terms o f other exotic places becomes a w a y t o enforce a n o t i o n o f this country's r a d i c a l difference. T h e gaps i n Eisenstein's t h i n k i n g are most o b v i o u s i n his w r i t i n g s o n Tehuantepec, w h e n he is far f r o m the intellectual climate o f M e x i c o C i t y a n d the Western certainties he brings w i t h h i m no longer quite w o r k . Some o f the failure o f his a t t e m p t t o come t o terms w i t h M e x i c o has t o do w i t h the intellectual climate o f the t i m e a n d the confidence o f the Left. T h i s c o n ­ fidence t h a t the socialist p r o j e c t w o u l d u l t i m a t e l y succeed, especially w h e n c o m b i n e d w i t h cliches o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y t h i n k i n g , at times meant t h a t 36

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intellectuals were i l l - p r e p a r e d for reality a n d unable t o see the extent t o w h i c h aspects o f the r e v o l u t i o n a r y project were based o n the p r i v i l e g i n g o f Western n o t i o n s o f progress a n d i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n . For M e x i c a n intellec­ tuals the interest i n indigenous cultures t h a t emerged after the 1 9 1 0 - 1 9 2 0 r e v o l u t i o n was l i n k e d t o concrete practices a n d a specific p o l i t i c a l agenda (at least i n t h e o r y ) , b u t for foreigners such as Eisenstein this interest c o u l d easily fall i n t o r o m a n t i c i z e d , U t o p i a n abstractions. I n his m e m o i r s Eisenstein recalls Tehuantepec: 39

The tropics responded to dreamy sensuality. The intertwining bronze bodies seemed to incarnate the latent rovings of sensuality, here in the over-saturated, overgrown grasping of the lianas, male and female bodies wreathed and inter­ twined like lianas; they looked in the mirror and saw how the girls of Tehuantepec looked at themselves w i t h black, almond-shaped eyes in the sur­ face of dreamy tropical creeks, and admired their flowered arrays, reflecting on the golden surface of their bodies. 40

The tropics again become a site o f pure sensuality, perhaps a b i t t o o l u s h a n d o v e r b l o w n , b u t one i n w h i c h the i n h a b i t a n t s are identified w i t h the n a t u r a l w o r l d o f l u x u r i a n t g r o w t h a n d fecundity. Some o f Eisenstein's l a n ­ guage seems rather breathless today. For instance, he w r i t e s o f the " m a r v e l ­ lously feminine d a r k - c o l o u r e d g i r l s " o f Tehuantepec a n d speaks o f t h e m as i f they exist suspended i n a v o l u p t u o u s d r e a m w o r l d . I n this sense Eisenstein recalls Paul Gauguin's fantasies o f U t o p i a n innocence i n the Pacific, i n w h i c h the demands o f c o l o n i a l reality are n o t p e r m i t t e d t o interfere w i t h pleasure. T h e i m a g i n a r y p r i m i t i v e a l l o w s unfettered sensuality, w i t h o u t g u i l t or the constraints o f c u l t u r e , because i t exists outside o f h i s t o r i c a l t i m e a n d space. Western r a t i o n a l i t y nevertheless intrudes i n this d r e a m i n Eisenstein's tendency t o describe the s o u t h i n terms o f e x t r e m i t y : T h e terms over-saturated a n d overgrown i m p l y a standard o f measurement i n w h i c h Europe is the n o r m . T h e absence o f t e m p o r a l i t y has always been a charac­ teristic o f the t r o p e o f p r i m i t i v i s m , a n d Eisenstein, t o o , is quite clear o n this p o i n t , b o l d l y asserting, " T i m e is u n k n o w n i n Tehuantepec" ( w h i c h assumes w e a l l m e a n the same t h i n g by t i m e ) . Tehuantepec is u n d o u b t e d l y differ­ ent f r o m M o s c o w or N e w Y o r k , b u t i t is a mistake t o imagine this differ­ ence as s o m e t h i n g t h a t can be calculated i n advance or indeed as s o m e t h i n g t h a t is i n any w a y definitive. I t is a l l t o o easy t o imagine t h a t the other ex­ ists outside o f the everyday demands a n d conflicts t h a t exist i n any society. Tehuantepec is beautiful, b u t t o insist o n a U t o p i a n n a t u r a l w o r l d is yet another w a y t o enforce a n o t i o n o f r a d i c a l difference. T h i s can obscure the extent t o w h i c h a l l people m u s t construct their social a n d c u l t u r a l w o r l d s , i n M e x i c o as i n M o s c o w . N o culture exists i n a state o f nature, a l t h o u g h some m a y pay m o r e a t t e n t i o n t o the earth t h a n others. There m i g h t be an­ other reason for Eisenstein's interest i n t r o p i c a l sensuality: H e h a d been 41

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w o r k i n g i n the p u r i t a n i c a l p o s t r e v o l u t i o n a r y Soviet U n i o n , a n d the Isthmus o f Tehuantepec m u s t have seemed appealing w h e n he c o n t e m p l a t e d r e t u r n ­ ing t o M o s c o w i n February, especially the Stalinist M o s c o w o f the 1930s. I f M e x i c o is seen i n terms o f absolute difference, i t w i l l always be i n c o m m e n ­ surable w i t h Western experience, a n d i t w i l l n o t be necessary t o call the c u l ­ t u r a l or p o l i t i c a l o r t h o d o x i e s o f the West i n t o question, w h i c h m i g h t be a relief t o some. Eisenstein is n o t alone i n i m a g i n i n g the a b o r i g i n a l M e x i c o o f the s o u t h as a place free f r o m politics o r conflict, an a t t i t u d e t h a t continues t o be t y p i c a l o f m a n y Westerners. T h e idea t h a t certain cultures exist as gardens o f i n n o ­ cence is e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y persistent, as are the n o t i o n s o f w h a t this innocence m i g h t mean. T h i s is, I t h i n k , one reason f o r the success o f the N e w Age ap­ p r o p r i a t i o n s o f N a t i v e s p i r i t u a l i t y ; the N e w Age sees these cultures as i n ­ herently timeless a n d a p o l i t i c a l . A fascination w i t h N a t i v e s p i r i t u a l a c t i v i ­ ties can become a w a y f o r n o n - N a t i v e s t o elide the p r o f o u n d l y p o l i t i c a l issues o f l a n d rights a n d c u l t u r a l s u r v i v a l . T r a d i t i o n a l , land-based societies m a y appear as a place o f escape t h a t remains free o f the demands o f Western p o l i t i c s , b u t w h e n w e consider t h a t the s u r v i v a l o f t r a d i t i o n a l ways is itself a p r o f o u n d l y p o l i t i c a l act, Eisenstein's sensibility takes o n a differ­ ent i m p l i c a t i o n . These societies have been under immense pressure, f r o m a l l p o i n t s o n the p o l i t i c a l spectrum, t o assimilate, Christianize, industrialize, become civilized, r e l i n q u i s h their l a n d . As I w r i t e these lines, a b o r i g i n a l people i n the Chiapas r e g i o n o f southern M e x i c o are d y i n g i n the struggle to m a i n t a i n their t r a d i t i o n a l ways i n the face o f a M e x i c a n g o v e r n m e n t c o m m i t t e d t o free trade w i t h the n o r t h . For w h o m are the tropics a dream?

A r t a u d : Redemptive Madness A r t a u d presents us w i t h a different k i n d o f e x t r e m i t y . For h i m , M e x i c o is not the site o f benign sensuality b u t "the l a n d o f speaking b l o o d . " A r t a u d visited the c o u n t r y because he sought a certain intensity o f experience t h a t he was unable t o locate i n Europe. A r t a u d believed t h a t the m o d e r n soci­ eties o f the West were deadened t o the t r u t h t h a t comes i n visions a n d dreams. A l t h o u g h he was p r o b a b l y r i g h t a b o u t o r t h o d o x forms o f Western t h o u g h t , his expectations o f M e x i c o made i t impossible f o r h i m t o f i n d the k i n d o f difference he was l o o k i n g for. M e x i c o existed as a fantasy f o r A r t a u d l o n g before he disembarked i n Veracruz, a n d he seemed t o expect a constant stream o f e x t r a o r d i n a r y , v i s i o n a r y revelations t o accompany h i m o n his travels i n the c o u n t r y . A r t a u d h o p e d t o achieve the h a l l u c i n a t o r y state o f m i n d accessible t h r o u g h magic m u s h r o o m s a n d peyote, states t h a t u l t i m a t e l y w o u l d redeem h i m f r o m his a l i e n a t i o n a n d s h o w h i m the w a y out o f the impasses o f m o d e r n i s m . (This project is i n keeping w i t h the t r a 4 3

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d i t i o n o f a l l the Westerners w h o have gone t o M e x i c o t o get high.) A n i n ­ terest i n unconscious, fantastic experience was i n the air i n the Paris o f the day, b u t whereas Bataille w a n t e d t o p l a y w i t h difference a n d ambivalence i n his w r i t i n g s a n d i n the contained atmosphere o f the Trocadero m u s e u m , A r t a u d w a n t e d t o experience these states o f m i n d as intensely as possible. W i t h these k i n d s o f aspirations, i t was predictable t h a t he w o u l d be ex­ tremely l i k e l y t o crash a n d b u r n . A r t a u d h a d h i g h hopes for M e x i c o , as the t r i p constituted something o f an escape f r o m a bleak s i t u a t i o n i n Paris. H e was u n w e l l w h e n he set o u t f r o m Europe a n d left a s t r i n g o f failures b e h i n d h i m . H i s association w i t h surrealist o r t h o d o x y h a d ended b a d l y after he was p u r g e d f r o m the m o v e ­ m e n t by A n d r e B r e t o n i n 1 9 2 6 . A r t a u d ' s letters f r o m M e x i c o suggest t h a t he b e l i e v e d — o r at least h o p e d — t h a t the M e x i c a n government w o u l d be t r u l y r e v o l u t i o n a r y , w h i c h i n his terms meant r e v o l u t i o n a r y enough t o accept his message t h a t hope for the future lay i n indigenous cultures a n d their relationship t o the l a n d . I t can be difficult t o d a y t o grasp the extent t o w h i c h M e x i c o , whose r e v o l u ­ t i o n was still recent, appeared t o m a n y E u r o p e a n intellectuals i n the 1930s as a site o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y p o t e n t i a l . D u r i n g his stay i n M e x i c o C i t y A r t a u d lectured a n d w r o t e impassioned newspaper articles a b o u t the necessity for c o n t e m p o r a r y M e x i c a n s t o retrieve the s p i r i t u a l v i s i o n o f the indigenous past o f the p r e - C o l u m b i a n era. H e e x p l i c i t l y sought t o convince people t h a t the revival o f a b o r i g i n a l religious experience was the o n l y w a y t o renew r e v o l u t i o n a r y M e x i c a n society. H e was n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y successful a n d was surprised at the resistance o f u r b a n intellectuals t o his message (their indif­ ference n o d o u b t s t e m m i n g f r o m several sources, an o b v i o u s one being t h a t A r t a u d was a foreigner t e l l i n g M e x i c a n s w h a t they were d o i n g w r o n g , w h i c h must have i r r i t a t e d some people). M e x i c o C i t y was n o t w h a t he h a d hoped o r expected; i n some ways i t was like any other b i g city, w h i c h is t o say, n o t quite alien enough or far a w a y enough f r o m the p r o b l e m s he h a d left b e h i n d i n Paris. T h e n came the experience A r t a u d was w a i t i n g for: H e visited the T a r a h u m a r a n a t i o n for peyote ceremonies (a visit t h a t m a y have inspired K e n Russell's treatment o f the peyote ceremony i n Altered States [ 1 9 8 0 ] ) . French novelist J . M . G . Le Clezio raises the question o f w h e t h e r A r t a u d ac­ t u a l l y traveled t o T a r a h u m a r a Sierra a n d p a r t i c i p a t e d i n peyote ceremonies as there is very little evidence o f his presence t h e r e . T h i s question makes a certain a m o u n t o f sense. There is a tone t o A r t a u d ' s descriptions o f T a r a h u m a r a t h a t sounds strangely like something o u t o f the Apocalypse o f Saint J o h n . Some o f his descriptions are extremely u n l i k e l y — f o r instance, the Tarahumaras w h o supposedly t h r e w d i r t clods w h i l e simultaneously l y ­ i n g d o w n , m a s t u r b a t i n g , a n d staring fixedly at h i m . ( A r t a u d was w i t h d r a w 44

The Luxurious Ambivalence of Exoticism 65 i n g f r o m h e r o i n at the t i m e . ) G i v e n t h a t A r t a u d spoke neither Spanish n o r the T a r a h u m a r a language, w e m a y w o n d e r h o w m u c h he c o u l d have under­ stood i f he indeed was there. Bearing a l l this i n m i n d , w e can see t h a t A r t a u d ' s travels are o f a poetic nature a n d existed i n the r e a l m o f the i m a g ­ i n a t i o n rather t h a n i n a p a r t i c u l a r site or c u l t u r e . As p a r t o f his general p r o ­ ject A r t a u d tends n o t t o distinguish between reality a n d fantasy, w h i c h is n o t a p r o b l e m i n itself. T h e p r o b l e m is t h a t he t h i n k s he has t o defend his poetic practices by associating t h e m w i t h the p r o p e r names Mexico and Tarahumara, w h i c h refer t o real people a n d societies. These i n t u r n have p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l relationships w i t h the West that, like i t or n o t , A r t a u d manifests i n b o t h his presence a n d his aestheticized treatment o f M e x i c o . I n 1 9 4 7 A r t a u d w r o t e a p o e m entitled " I n d i a n C u l t u r e . " H e w r o t e this very near the end o f his life, a n d its feeling is very different f r o m the o p t i ­ m i s m (however misguided) o f the w o r k he p r o d u c e d d u r i n g a n d just after his r e t u r n f r o m M e x i c o . A n excerpt reads: 4 5

I came to Mexico to make contact with the Red Earth and it stinks the same way as it is fragrant; it smells good the same way as it stank. Caffre of urine from the slope of a hard vagina, which resists when one takes it. 46

There is something extremely t w i s t e d a b o u t this p o e m , a bitterness a n d anger t h a t go b e y o n d the o b v i o u s rape metaphor. A r t a u d feminizes the M e x i c a n landscape so t h a t he m a y rape i t , b u t m o r e insidiously, he deliber­ ately produces a n d t h e n collapses the t i m e - w o r n o p p o s i t i o n between sub­ l i m i t y a n d foulness. T h e p r e d i c t a b i l i t y o f this j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f opposites u n ­ dermines any n e w understanding: M e x i c o remains a p a r a d o x , no m o r e , no less, incomprehensible t o the end. A n d perhaps t h a t is w h a t A r t a u d is t r y ­ i n g t o say, assuming w e can get past the p r i v i l e g i n g o f rape: M e x i c o is w h a t i t is, a n d a l l the p r o j e c t i o n i n the w o r l d cannot change that. C o n t e m p l a t i n g a w o r k such as " I n d i a n C u l t u r e , " I have t o ask w h a t Europeans such as A r t a u d w a n t e d f r o m M e x i c o . T h e p o e m seems permeated w i t h resentment t h a t M e x i c o d i d n o t freely give h i m w h a t he t h o u g h t he needed, t h a t the other d i d n o t i n fact exist t o heal the Frenchman. There was no escape, af­ ter a l l . A r t a u d believed t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l peoples—particularly the " i n t e r e s t i n g " ones, such as shamanistic cultures—manifested a higher t r u t h t h a n Western r a t i o n a l i t y a n d science. H e was another w h o c o u l d w e l l see the failures o f o r t h o d o x Western c u l t u r e , a n d for h i m the consequences o f this under-

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standing were t o be madness a n d incarceration. I t is difficult t o say pre­ cisely w h a t caused A r t a u d t o slip i n t o a k i n d o f insanity (or t o a l l o w the au­ thorities t o define h i m as such), as the vision-as-madness story has been so consistently r o m a n t i c i z e d a n d collapsed i n t o his interest i n drugs a n d shamanism. I feel a certain impatience w i t h A r t a u d . H e clearly u n d e r s t o o d t h a t the real l i m i t o f the r a t i o n a l i s t Western m e n t a l i t y is its tendency t o negate things t h a t cannot be measured. Yes, m a n y other realities exist, a n d t o repudiate these is t o lose deeper ways o f understanding the w o r l d . B u t A r t a u d seemed unable t o break past his expectations o f w h a t these differ­ ent realities w o u l d l o o k like. Part o f the p r o b l e m is i m a g i n i n g t w o binary, exclusive categories, one called " r a t i o n a l t h o u g h t " a n d the other " m a g i c a l t h o u g h t , " w i t h the latter constantly a n d conspicuously e x h i b i t i n g exalted levels o f hocus-pocus. Shamanistic approaches t o reality seem t o me t o be essentially based o n c o m m o n sense, achieved by n o t i c i n g nuances o f cause a n d effect a n d connections t h a t a faster, cruder eye w o u l d miss. I t takes a great deal o f patience a n d discipline t o hear w h a t the spirit w o r l d has t o say. Even h a l l u c i n a t o r y states o f m i n d are concerned w i t h p a y i n g a t t e n t i o n t o things t h a t are present a l l the t i m e , even i n the banal, everyday w o r l d . To expect something t o o strangely magical f r o m ceremonies such as those o f T a r a h u m a r a is t o miss the p o i n t . A r t a u d was, I t h i n k , reasonably sincere i n t r y i n g t o come t o terms w i t h a r e l a t i o n t o the l a n d a n d spirits t h a t is extremely difficult t o locate i n m o d ­ ernist Western c u l t u r e . R o n a l d H a y m a n remarks o n the lack o f a p a t r o n i z ­ i n g manner i n A r t a u d ' s a p p r o a c h t o M e x i c o a n d t o M e x i c a n s , i n c l u d i n g i n ­ digenous people, w h i c h was unusual i n Europeans o f the t i m e ( a l t h o u g h breathless enthusiasm can certainly be p a t r o n i z i n g i n its o w n r i g h t ) . B u t , like Bataille, A r t a u d ' s mistake was i n expecting M e x i c o , t r a d i t i o n a l people, or h a l l u c i n a t i o n s t o be w e i r d e r or o n l y really t r u s t i n g the message w h e n the w o r l d was grotesque enough t o generate the affect t h a t h a d become the sign o f shattering Western r a t i o n a l i t y . M e x i c o d i d n o t save A r t a u d , b u t i t was his o w n fault. H i s love o f the grotesque, as m u c h as his ambivalence a b o u t the country, t u r n e d o n h i m i n the end. For so m a n y Europeans, M e x i c o can be no m o r e t h a n a tease, p r o m i s i n g delight a n d r e d e m p t i o n b u t unable t o deliver o n the p r o m i s e , or worse, offering a k i n d o f m o r a l a n d s p i r i t u a l degradation t o the Westerner f o o l i s h enough t o believe i n the p o s s i b i l i t y o f rescue f r o m the Western n i g h t m a r e . T h e p r o b l e m lies i n expecting r e d e m p t i o n a n d i n expecting an­ other culture t o be m o r e different t h a n i t is or t o be different i n ways t h a t have been decided i n advance. T h u s , there can be no m o v e m e n t , no w a y o u t o f the b o x i n w h i c h the Westerner has placed h i m - or herself. A g a i n , I t h i n k o f the sad people i n Under the Volcano a n d Night of the Iguana. 4 7

3 Conquest, Appropriation, and Cultural Difference I t is a r a i n y day i n V i c t o r i a , B . C . , as I w a l k the t o u r i s t strip. N e x t t o the authentic English w o o l e n shops a n d the stores selling genuine Scottish tar­ tans, I encounter shop after shop o f " a u t h e n t i c I n d i a n " arts a n d crafts. K i l l e r w h a l e p r i n t s , silver jewelry, T s o n o k w a masks, C o w i c h a n sweaters, large carvings o f grizzly bears, a l l are available t o the v i s i t o r w i t h the r i g h t credit balance. As I w a n d e r a r o u n d i n the drizzle, I notice one artist—a p r i n t m a k e r — t r u d g i n g f r o m shop t o shop w i t h his p o r t f o l i o i n an effort t o sell his w o r k . H e is being refused every t i m e . T h e designs l o o k p r e t t y g o o d , clan emblems i n a very t r a d i t i o n a l N o r t h w e s t Coast style, I observe, l o o k ­ i n g over his shoulder as he shows his p r i n t s t o an u n s m i l i n g w h i t e shop­ keeper. N o w artists everywhere have their p r o b l e m s , a n d tensions between dealers a n d artists are n o t h i n g new, b u t the w a y this incident cuts so clearly a l o n g c u l t u r a l a n d racial lines is d i s t u r b i n g . T h e p r i n t m a k e r is N a t i v e ; a l l the shops selling N a t i v e art are w h i t e o w n e d . W h a t is n o w called B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a is the t r a d i t i o n a l h o m e o f the N u u ' c h a h ' n u l t h , H a i d a , a n d K w a g i u t l nations, a m o n g m a n y others. These nations have always l i v e d o n this l a n d a n d have created distinctive aesthetic a n d theatrical t r a d i t i o n s . T h e p r o v i n c i a l government, l i k e the rest o f Canada, has an abysmal r e c o r d o f settling N a t i v e l a n d rights disputes, a n d there is an unsavory h i s t o r y o f racism i n the p r o v i n c e t h a t has yet t o be ad­ dressed by the government i n any credible way. Despite the antagonisms between the government a n d the N a t i v e c o m m u n i t i e s , the p r o v i n c i a l t o u r i s t i n d u s t r y e x p l i c i t l y markets N a t i v e cultures as one o f the p r i n c i p a l reasons t o visit the p r o v i n c e . V i c t o r i a is a b i t less self-conscious t h a n Santa Fe, b u t as a t o u r i s t spot i t is the same general idea o f a fascinating, yet safely c o l o ­ nized N a t i v e culture, this t i m e w i t h a B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l overlay. T h e m i x is p a r t o f the c h a r m : After g a w k i n g at the e n o r m o u s c o l l e c t i o n o f nineteenthcentury N a t i v e carved poles at the R o y a l B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a M u s e u m , the visitor can attend h i g h tea at the Empress H o t e l . Americans love i t . T h e 1

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B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a t o u r i s t office recognizes t h a t N a t i v e arts a n d cultures are one o f the province's p r i m e selling p o i n t s , after the scenery, o f course, a n d i t comes as n o surprise t h a t i n t o u r i s t advertisements N a t i v e cultures appear as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f the n a t u r a l beauty o f the landscape. 2

T h e N a t i v e c u l t u r e m a r k e t e d t o tourists almost always appears i n its past or a p o l i t i c a l incarnations a n d spotlights t r a d i t i o n a l arts a n d crafts. W e have yet t o see t o u r i s t brochures e x h o r t i n g visitors t o come t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a a n d meet G i t k s a n l a n d rights activists. W i t h the bizarre telescopy peculiar t o t o u r i s t b o a r d advertising copy, N a t i v e c u l t u r e is presented as s o m e t h i n g t h a t continues t o live, yet is nonetheless anchored f i r m l y i n the past. M a n y m u n i c i p a l i t i e s i n the p r o v i n c e display t o t e m poles (more p r o p e r l y , f a m i l y or c l a n crest poles) i n l o c a l p a r k s , a n d t r a d i t i o n a l - s t y l e ravens a n d t h u n d e r b i r d s a b o u n d o n souvenir objects such as mugs a n d tea t o w e l s . C o m p l e x p o l i t i c a l a n d s p i r i t u a l questions circulate a r o u n d the b u y i n g a n d selling o f these images, a n d indeed one issue is w h e t h e r outsiders s h o u l d have any access at a l l t o t r a d i t i o n a l images a n d symbols, completely apart f r o m w h e t h e r n o n - N a t i v e i n d i v i d u a l s or i n s t i t u t i o n s s h o u l d possess actual ceremonial objects. A l t h o u g h i t seems o b v i o u s t h a t ceremonial items s h o u l d belong t o the people w h o use t h e m (or w h o w o u l d like t o ) , the m a ­ j o r i t y o f museums a n d p r i v a t e collectors continues t o resist this idea. For the m o m e n t I w a n t t o focus o n the larger c o n t e x t i n w h i c h such i m ­ ages are b o u g h t a n d sold, specifically the w a y N a t i v e art enters the n a t i o n a l or i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t t h r o u g h the m e d i a t i o n o f the t o u r i s t industry. T h e w h i t e - o w n e d shops i n V i c t o r i a a n d Vancouver m a k e a great deal o f m o n e y selling w o r k s o f art by N a t i v e artists, m a n y o f w h i c h are executed i n the m o s t t r a d i t i o n a l styles, as is the w o r k o f the u n l u c k y p r i n t m a k e r . A l t h o u g h the c o n t e m p o r a r y N a t i v e carver o f a c o m m i s s i o n e d crest pole is usually p a i d reasonably w e l l f o r the w o r k , as are the artists creating u p m a r k e t sculpture a n d jewelry, N a t i v e people are n o t as a rule consulted o r c o m p e n ­ sated w h e n c l a n designs are used o n t o u r i s t or other objects. T h e t r a d i t i o n a l design forms are considered by m a n y n o n - N a t i v e s t o be p a r t o f the broader, universal, b u t u l t i m a t e l y w h i t e heritage o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a a n d so available f o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n . These designs appear a l l over p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s i n Vancouver a n d V i c t o r i a (and i n Seattle, P o r t l a n d , a n d Anchorage) as a w a y o f s y m b o l i z i n g the r e g i o n a l character o f the area. Sometimes, as i n the A l a s k a A i r l i n e s t a i l d e c o r a t i o n (see Figure 3.1), i t is the N a t i v e b o d y itself t h a t is a p p r o p r i a t e d a n d used t o evoke r e g i o n a l identity. A p p r o p r i a t i o n occurs because c u l t u r a l difference can be b o u g h t a n d sold i n the marketplace. O n e h u n d r e d years ago people i n the c o l o n i z i n g nations were t a u g h t t o fear difference because o f the p o t e n t i a l l y c o n t a m i n a t i n g qualities o f other ways o f life. A l t h o u g h m a n y Europeans f o u n d other c u l ­ tures interesting a n d m i n e d these f o r objects a n d images considered t o be o f aesthetic value, this was strictly a m i n o r i t y taste, as m o s t Westerners v i e w e d

Conquest, Appropriation, and Cultural Difference

FIGURE

3.1

Alaska Airlines promotional

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the w o r l d as a source o f r a w materials a n d l a b o r rather t h a n o f ideas. T h e B r i t i s h officer w h o w e n t native was the object o f p i t y a n d r i d i c u l e , w h i c h m a y have been a w a y o f d r a w i n g a t t e n t i o n a w a y f r o m the reasons for this p h e n o m e n o n . I n t e r n a t i o n a l systems o f exchange have subsequently b r o k e n d o w n some (but certainly n o t all) o f the anxiety a r o u n d difference i n the West, a n d the conceits o f European h i g h culture are n o t necessarily the most useful means for m a i n t a i n i n g economic a n d p o l i t i c a l dominance a n d justifying capitalist c o n s u m p t i o n . I t is n o w possible t o find at the very heart o f the empire (for instance, at Bloomingdale's department store) a w i d e range o f c o m m o d i t i e s t h a t sell the l o o k o f different cultures. T h i s n e w ap­ p r e c i a t i o n o f c u l t u r a l difference is a l l done w i t h m i r r o r s , however, and, as i n the past, w h a t is usually available are the m o r p h o l o g i c a l forms t h a t con­ note difference, w h i c h is t o say, a l l u r i n g commodities—difference i n effigy, as i t were. N o t i o n s o f Western c u l t u r a l s u p e r i o r i t y continue t o o b t a i n b u t are n o w articulated i n a m o r e insidious manner, for instance, i n h o w questions o f aesthetic value are organized a r o u n d c o n s u m p t i o n . To consume the c o m ­ modities t h a t have come t o stand for other cultures is t o neutralize the a m ­ bivalence c u l t u r a l difference is able t o generate a n d t o extract excitement precisely f r o m this ambivalence. N o t a l o t has changed since the nineteenth century after a l l . I n order t o w o r k , the objects, events, a n d experiences t h a t are c o m m o d i f i e d a n d m a r k e t e d as c u l t u r a l difference are dependent o n con­ cepts o f c u l t u r a l a n d aesthetic authenticity. I n other w o r d s , difference has

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t o be seen as real. N a t i v e designs manifest a n d refer t o w h a t m a n y n o n Natives see as the inherent c u l t u r a l a u t h e n t i c i t y possessed by N a t i v e peo­ ple, w h i c h is one o f the m a i n reasons N a t i v e cultures have been c o m m o d i fied. N o n - N a t i v e s w a n t t o consume this a u t h e n t i c i t y a n d are w i l l i n g t o pay for the privilege. T h i s desire takes m a n y f o r m s . A n ad for the p r o v i n c e o f Saskatchewan (see Figure 3.2) seduces the t o u r i s t w i t h a promise o f ancient I n d i a n ways, such as t h a t evoked by the m a n a n d the teepee i n the p h o t o ­ g r a p h . Some entrepreneurs ( b o t h N a t i v e a n d n o n - N a t i v e ) go even further t h a n the souvenir vendors a n d offer N a t i v e s p i r i t u a l experiences t o n o n Natives for large sums o f money. I n this w a y the spirits a n d their cere­ monies are m a r k e t e d along w i t h images. As w i t h e x o t i c i s m , the cultures f r o m w h i c h aesthetic or ceremonial forms are o b t a i n e d are usually deemed m o r e interesting, weaker, or m o r i b u n d , m o r e authentic or exotic by those w h o are d o i n g the t a k i n g , usually the p o l i t i c a l l y or economically d o m i n a n t societies. T h a t the p r o v i n c i a l t o u r i s t i n d u s t r y appropriates N a t i v e imagery a n d tra­ ditions t o encourage visitors t o the p r o v i n c e seems evident. B u t s i m p l y i d e n t i f y i n g the process t h a t occurs i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a a n d elsewhere is i n ­ sufficient because the t e r m appropriation encompasses so m a n y different is­ sues a n d questions. W h a t is c u l t u r a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n ? For one t h i n g , the t e r m signifies n o t o n l y the t a k i n g up o f something a n d m a k i n g i t one's o w n b u t also the a b i l i t y t o do so. People have always shared ideas a n d b o r r o w e d f r o m one another, b u t a p p r o p r i a t i o n is entirely different f r o m b o r r o w i n g or sharing because i t involves the t a k i n g up a n d c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n o f aesthetic, c u l t u r a l , and, m o r e recently, s p i r i t u a l forms o f a society. C u l t u r e is neatly packaged for the consumer's convenience. Because o f the p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a ­ tions o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n a n d the w a y such concepts l i n k up t o i n s t i t u t i o n s such as museums, art galleries, a n d universities, the t e r m has recently been appearing i n discussions o f the politics o f voice a n d i n the field o f c u l t u r a l studies. I n some instances a p p r o p r i a t i o n has been the subject o f bitter de­ bate. I n Canada m a n y First N a t i o n s w r i t e r s are l o o k i n g at questions o f c u l ­ t u r a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n a n d a r g u i n g t h a t the theft o f c u l t u r a l forms is coexten­ sive w i t h l a n d theft a n d the confiscation o f ceremonial objects a n d h u m a n remains by museums a n d university a n t h r o p o l o g y departments. For i n ­ stance, critics such as M a r c i a Crosby are suggesting t h a t difference, espe­ cially that represented by N a t i v e cultures, has itself become a salable c o m ­ m o d i t y . A r t i s t Joane Cardinal-Shubert writes succinctly, " M o n e y , that is w h a t a p p r o p r i a t i n g is about. W h e t h e r the issue is l a n d or art or iconogra­ p h y or ceremonial reliquiae, the focus o f the d e p r i v a t i o n is money. Something t o be gained by i m i t a t i o n , c o p y i n g , stealing. W h e r e do ethics en­ ter this issue, where does the l a w intervene?" 3

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FIGURE

3.2

Saskatchewan tourism

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Conquest, Appropriation, and Cultural Difference

Is a p p r o p r i a t i o n s i m p l y another w o r d for theft, as some suggest? A t base, a p p r o p r i a t i o n seems t o i n v o l v e a p r o f o u n d sense o f entitlement o n the p a r t o f the person o r i n s t i t u t i o n d o i n g the a p p r o p r i a t i n g , w h i c h behaves as i f the desired objects or images already belong t o i t . T h i s attitude parallels the i m a g i n a r y relationship a person tends t o have w i t h any object o f desire, b u t here the d y n a m i c is extended t o images a n d sensibilities t h a t are p a r t of, a n d already belong t o , l i v i n g c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s . A p p r o p r i a t i o n reduces the l i v i n g people a n d culture t o the status o f objects. I f the person w h o is ap­ p r o p r i a t i n g imagines t h a t he o r she already possesses whatever happens t o catch the eye, t h e n the source o f a l l the fascination can have no say i n the terms o f the exchange. I f w e t h i n k w e already o w n something, w h y w o u l d w e ask anybody's permission t o take it? M o r e o v e r , i n places such as B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a these l i v i n g cultures continue t o be repressed by the same d o m i ­ n a n t elements t h a t oversee a n d p r o f i t f r o m the process o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n . T h e p r o v i n c i a l government never seems t o p u t the same a m o u n t o f effort i n t o , say, s u p p o r t i n g the s u r v i v a l o f N a t i v e languages t h a t i t does i n t o p r o ­ m o t i n g N a t i v e arts t o tourists; rather, the government's a p p r o a c h is just a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f the c o l o n i a l attitude i n w h i c h a r t w o r k s are coveted a n d praised at the expense o f the people w h o make t h e m . T h e argument t h a t a p p r o p r i a t i o n is theft focuses o n t w o p o i n t s : one, t h a t the people f r o m w h o m the m a t e r i a l is t a k e n are n o t consulted a b o u t the ap­ p r o p r i a t i o n s (or t h a t these consultations take place i n a dishonest m a n n e r ) ; a n d t w o , t h a t the p r i m a r y m o t i v a t i o n for a p p r o p r i a t i o n is financial, w i t h few, i f any benefits accruing t o the creators o f the m a t e r i a l . T h e c o m p a n y m a n u f a c t u r i n g the t h u n d e r b i r d key r i n g neglects t o ask permission f r o m the N a t i v e c o m m u n i t y i n question; this tends t o be equally true o f the w h i t e craftsperson m a k i n g " a u t h e n t i c " medicine wheels or beaded earrings. (The latter seems p a r t i c u l a r l y apt t o cry reverse racism w h e n the issue is raised.) W i t h i n m a n y N a t i v e societies a variety o f s y m b o l i c a n d aesthetic forms are subject t o i n t e r n a l systems o f c o p y r i g h t ; for instance, i n m a n y cases o n l y certain members o f a clan have the r i g h t t o use a design a n d t h e n o n l y at p a r t i c u l a r times. I n these c o m m u n i t i e s , as i n any society, the w e a r i n g o f s y m b o l i c regalia communicates very precise social i n f o r m a t i o n t o other members o f the society, a n d there are consequences t o d i s r u p t i n g the sys­ t e m . Such i n t e r n a l conventions o f use a n d c o p y r i g h t are generally i g n o r e d by the larger marketplace. Because the people f r o m w h o m the m a t e r i a l is t a k e n are n o t c o m p e n ­ sated, they by definition are treated as objectified, passive sources o f inspi­ r a t i o n rather t h a n participants i n an exchange o f ideas. T h i s practice has several unpleasant i m p l i c a t i o n s . For instance, a w h i t e t o w n c o u n c i l w o m a n w h o selects a H a i d a design for a m u n i c i p a l seal is at some level t r e a t i n g N a t i v e cultures as i f they were dead because i f she i m a g i n e d a l i v i n g people, she w o u l d consult t h e m a n d respect i n t e r n a l conventions o f o w n e r s h i p a n d

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c o p y r i g h t . Despite the c o u n c i l w o m a n ' s presumed a d m i r a t i o n f o r the de­ sign, her willingness t o v i e w i t as available t o be used at w i l l is another m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the c o l o n i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , w h i c h a l l the art a p p r e c i a t i o n i n the w o r l d c a n n o t shift by itself. Is the i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f a H a i d a design i n t o a m u n i c i p a l seal really a w a y o f d e m o n s t r a t i n g B r i t i s h settlers' c o l o n i a l d o m i n a t i o n o f the H a i d a nation? W h e t h e r i n t e n d e d or n o t , this is h o w such images f u n c t i o n ; they b o t h reflect a n d p r o d u c e c o l o n i a l space.

Salvaging C u l t u r e W i t h i n a capitalist e c o n o m y c u l t u r e — b y w h i c h I m e a n songs, stories, i m ­ ages, emblems, ceremonies, techniques—has been inserted i n t o a system o f exchange i n w h i c h any element can be abstracted f r o m its social a n d cere­ m o n i a l c o n t e x t a n d assigned a m o n e t a r y value. Because c u l t u r a l m a t e r i a l sells, m o r e a n d m o r e cultures a n d components o f cultures enter the m a r k e t ­ place as c o m m o d i t i e s . Indeed, c u l t u r e itself has become a c o m m o d i t y , p r o ­ v i d e d i t can be m a r k e t e d as authentic a n d hence interesting (and i t can sell even w h e n i t is i n a u t h e n t i c ) . U n t i l f a i r l y recently racist fantasies o f c u l t u r a l s u p e r i o r i t y k e p t A f r i c a n or N a t i v e c u l t u r a l a n d aesthetic f o r m s f r o m h a v i n g a mass audience i n the West, especially a m o n g those w h o i m a g i n e d E u r o p e a n h i g h c u l t u r e t o be m o r e sophisticated or interesting t h a n the arts o f other peoples. ( A q u i c k glance at the c u r r i c u l a o f m o s t art h i s t o r y de­ partments, at least i n Canada, makes i t a b u n d a n t l y clear t h a t this h i s t o r i c a l prejudice has yet t o be l a i d t o rest.) T h e non-Western art t h a t d i d get t a k e n u p tended t o be f r a m e d w i t h i n a n e x p l i c i t c o l o n i a l n a r r a t i v e . For instance, classical M a y a n sculpture was carefully situated w i t h i n a r h e t o r i c o f discov­ ery i n w h i c h the archaeologist figured as the heroic explorer, i f n o t a new, i m p r o v e d conquistador. B u t t o d a y as m a n y i n the d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e are i n ­ creasingly uneasy a b o u t the emptiness a n d c o m m o d i f l c a t i o n o f m a i n s t r e a m , " w h i t e - b r e a d " c u l t u r e , there are attempts t o l o o k elsewhere f o r m e a n i n g a n d c u l t u r a l a n d aesthetic integrity—hence the interest i n other c u l t u r a l , aesthetic, a n d s p i r i t u a l t r a d i t i o n s . T h i s interest has t w o m a i n p r o b l e m s . A r t a p p r e c i a t i o n does n o t take place i n a p u r e l y aesthetic, a p o l i t i c a l space, regardless o f w h a t w e have been t a u g h t , a n d the process o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n tends t o displace the l o c a l so­ cial, ceremonial, a n d p o l i t i c a l contexts o f the c u l t u r a l forms being a p p r o ­ p r i a t e d . T h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f the arts o f another c u l t u r e i n the West means t h a t somebody—entrepreneur, collector, academic specialist—has decided t h a t these f o r m s s h o u l d be available t o Western consumers. I n this sense the aesthetic f o r m s have been c a p t u r e d by the m a r k e t i n advance o f their avail­ a b i l i t y t o a mass audience, w h i c h means t h a t p o t e n t i a l consumers w i l l t e n d to see the c o m m o d i f l e d versions o f the c u l t u r e first (this tends t o be true o f

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m o st n e w aesthetic fashions as w e l l ) . Consumers m a y imagine t h a t the rep­ resentation they encounter is a l l there is t o the c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n i n question a n d reject other versions as i n a u t h e n t i c . Because value has been determined i n advance, c u l t u r a l phenomena enter the m a r k e t i n a preassigned manner, a n d the presence o f non-Western aesthetic f o r m s i n the larger marketplace rarely calls the premises o f the Western m a r k e t economy i n t o question. (This occurs despite the a b i l i t y o f some c u l t u r a l paraphernalia t o stand for alternative values. Even g o o d p o l i t i c a l intentions do n o t necessarily pre­ clude a p p r o p r i a t i o n . L o n d o n - b a s e d Survival I n t e r n a t i o n a l markets b o t h a t r a d i t i o n a l design a n d the p r o p e r name Yanomami o n the T-shirts w o r n by t w o w h i t e models [see Figure 3.3].) W e a l t h y collectors o f so-called t r i b a l art m a y decide t o a p p r o p r i a t e a p a r t i c u l a r t r a d i t i o n a n d insert i t i n t o a system o f capitalist exchange, b u t this practice can itself c o n t i n u e t o reinforce the hegemony o f Western art a n d the idea t h a t art objects are dead c o m m o d i ­ ties. For instance, n o n - N a t i v e collectors can be interested i n N o r t h w e s t Coast art (or the arts o f other N a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s ) , b u t this interest can be u n d e r l a i n by the insidious salvage p a r a d i g m , w h i c h assumes t h a t N a t i v e cultures are being o v e r w h e l m e d by Western c u l t u r e . I n other w o r d s , the societies i n w h i c h N o r t h w e s t Coast art is p r o d u c e d are again treated as i f they were dead. M a r c i a Crosby w r i t e s , "Predicated o n the concept o f a dead o r d y i n g people whose culture needs t o be 'saved,' those d o i n g the saving choose

Conquest, Appropriation, and Cultural Difference 75 w h a t fragments o f a culture they w i l l salvage. H a v i n g done this, they be­ come b o t h the owners a n d interpreters o f the artifacts o r goods t h a t have survived f r o m t h a t d y i n g c u l t u r e , artifacts t h a t become rare a n d therefore valuable." T h i s n o t i o n o f the supposedly inevitable disappearance o f N a t i v e soci­ eties can affect n o t o n l y h o w N a t i v e arts are t a k e n up a n d interpreted b u t also h o w stylistic, s y m b o l i c , or c o s m o l o g i c a l elements f r o m indigenous so­ cieties enter Western art. T h e attitude seems t o be, i f they are already dead, it does n o t matter w h a t w e do; i f they are d y i n g o u t , t h e n w e are d o i n g t h e m a favor. The salvage p a r a d i g m is extremely pervasive a n d apparently able t o over determine h i s t o r i c a l a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y realities. For instance, i n a c r i t i c a l article o n c o n t e m p o r a r y G e r m a n artist L o t h a r Baumgarten's use o f the p r o p e r names o f N a t i v e nations i n his w o r k Feather People (The Americas) ( 1 9 6 8 ) , M a r i e - A n g e Brayer w r i t e s t h a t the "language a n d c u l ­ tures o f these peoples o n l y n o w survives i n their names o n o u r maps— names w h i c h are falsified o n t h e m . " Even i f w e leave aside the w a y terms such as our a n d their f u n c t i o n t o universalize one version o f Western c u l ­ ture, Brayer seems t o be i n f o r m i n g the i n t e r n a t i o n a l art w o r l d t h a t N a t i v e cultures are dead, t h a t they " o n l y s u r v i v e " i n Western texts such as maps. The names o f the supposedly dead cultures t h a t appear i n Feather People include Cheyenne, H o p i , N a v a h o , O m a h a , nations t h a t are very m u c h alive. There is no excuse for n o t k n o w i n g this, regardless o f w h e t h e r one is w h i t e o r N a t i v e , N o r t h A m e r i c a n or European. Brayer's secondary question of w h e t h e r these p r o p e r names are i n fact c o l o n i a l designations (for i n ­ stance, Sioux as opposed t o L a k o t a ) gets lost i n the a s s u m p t i o n o f the dis­ appearance o f these nations. T h e second p r o b l e m w i t h the fascination w i t h other cultures concerns the refusal o f m a n y o f the most cherished i n s t i t u t i o n s o f Western culture t o come t o terms w i t h the c o n t i n u i n g consequences o f c o l o n i a l histories, here w i t h respect t o the w a y they privilege a n d universalize p a r t i c u l a r ap­ proaches t o reality. O n t o l o g i c a l assumptions affect n o t o n l y h o w other t r a ­ ditions are interpreted b u t also h o w questions o f culture a n d n a t i o n a l iden­ t i t y are approached i n the society whose t r a d i t i o n s are being a p p r o p r i a t e d . This is an extremely c o m p l i c a t e d a n d nuanced subject, b u t an i m m e d i a t e example o f this p r o b l e m m i g h t be the i m p o s i t i o n o f a linear n o t i o n o f t i m e o n a story or p o e m t h a t was conceived o f as existing w i t h i n a cyclical sys­ tem. M a n y i n the West assume t h a t the linear a p p r o a c h is real (or i n any case m o r e real t h a n the other) a n d hence real for everybody everywhere, but there are other approaches t o the p a r a d o x o f t e m p o r a l i t y . Indeed, there is a faint m e m o r y o f cyclic t i m e i n the d i s o r i e n t i n g q u a l i t y o f Christmas carols heard at other times o f year. T h e u n i v e r s a l i z a t i o n o f Western o n t o l o g i c a l n o t i o n s can mean t h a t the c o m m o d i f i e d version o f the story w i l l also be universalized a n d t h r o u g h 4

5

6

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m a r k e t i n g become m o r e w i d e l y available t h a n the version used i n cere­ m o n y . I n other w o r d s , the story is abstracted f r o m the cyclical system o f m e a n i n g (so someone can cash i n , let us n o t forget). T h i s w i d e r a v a i l a b i l i t y o f recorded versions means t h a t the story or p o e m w i l l be heard differently. Part o f the p r o b l e m o f the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n i n t o c o m m o d i t y is the general p r o b l e m o f mechanical r e p r o d u c t i o n t h a t so concerned W a l t e r Benjamin i n the 1930s. T h e recorded, c o m m o d i f i e d p o e m or song can be played at any t i m e , again a n d again i f the listener wishes, whereas the o r i g ­ i n a l was tied t o a sacred cycle t h a t h a d l i t t l e t o do w i t h i n d i v i d u a l i z e d de­ sire. T h e recorded version can eventually usurp the l o c a l version o f the song or p o e m n o t o n l y a m o n g outsiders b u t also w i t h i n the c u l t u r e itself. Every m a l l has a music store. I n other w o r d s , i n this example the u n i v e r s a l i z a t i o n o f a Western v i e w o f t i m e parallels the u n i v e r s a l i z a t i o n o f a m a r k e t econ­ o m y i n w h i c h e v e r y t h i n g is f o r sale. A d v e r t i s i n g presents the w o r l d as a vast warehouse a n d seduces us w i t h an abundance o f choices. T h e m y t h o f the free m a r k e t produces a fictional equivalence between a p l e t h o r a o f cultures a n d c u l t u r a l phenomena, an equivalence based o n a n o t i o n o f culture i n w h i c h fragmentary elements float t h r o u g h t i m e a n d space, available t o a l l equally (at least i n t h e o r y ) . A n y t h i n g m a y p o t e n t i a l l y be c o m m o d i f i e d , b u t the extent t o w h i c h the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f the p r o d u c t is dependent o n m o n e y is absent f r o m this dis­ course o f i n d i v i d u a l a n d i n d i v i d u a l i z e d freedom. H e r e is a squash blossom design f r o m the Southwest, there is a N o r t h w e s t Coast t h u n d e r b i r d , a n d there is a n A n i s h n a w b e p e t r o g l y p h i m ­ age; any w o u l d l o o k g o o d o n a C D cover, t o attract the eye a n d let the buyer k n o w t h a t there is s o m e t h i n g a b i t different inside (even i f this differ­ ence has n o t h i n g t o do w i t h N a t i v e people per se). T h e free m a r k e t tells us t h a t a l l w e have t o d o is choose. B u t there is an asymmetric p o w e r r e l a t i o n ­ ship between a system t h a t has b i l l i o n s o f dollars b e h i n d i t a n d one t h a t does n o t a n d is being squeezed o u t b o t h e c o n o m i c a l l y a n d c u l t u r a l l y . I t is n o t a question o f give-and-take between equal partners b u t rather o f the w a y m o n e y is able t o p r o m o t e a n d m a k e available t o consumers c o m m o d i ­ fied versions o f c u l t u r a l phenomena. A p p r o p r i a t i o n — w h i c h is t o say, cornm o d i f i c a t i o n a n d use t h a t o v e r l o o k b o t h the c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t a n d the de­ sires o f the people o f t h a t culture—is generally possible o n l y i n a n economic system t h a t is m o r e p o w e r f u l t h a n the one subject t o a p p r o p r i a ­ t i o n . T h i s economic p o w e r does n o t exist i n a n abstract universe b u t rather is based o n guns, armies, a n d dead bodies. R o m e a p p r o p r i a t e d the aesthetic codes a n d objects o f Greece o n l y after i t h a d established m i l i t a r y a n d eco­ n o m i c hegemony i n the area. French artists t o o k u p O r i e n t a l i s t themes en masse o n l y after A l g e r i a h a d been subdued, a n d N a t i v e people began t o be r o m a n t i c i z e d by w h i t e A m e r i c a n s after the f o r m e r h a d ceased t o be v i e w e d as a m i l i t a r y threat.

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T h e relative difference i n economic p o w e r between the people whose c u l ­ ture is a p p r o p r i a t e d a n d the people d o i n g the a p p r o p r i a t i n g determines n o t o n l y w h a t is available i n the marketplace b u t also h o w i t is available. Southwestern style is extremely fashionable at the m o m e n t , a n d even i n n o r t h e r n cities l i k e T o r o n t o this tendency is a l l t o o apparent i n f o o d , i n the i n s i p i d pastels p r o m o t e d by i n t e r i o r designers, a n d i n the O l d W e s t - t y p e c l o t h i n g available i n every department store. Some o f the appeal o f this style f o r those l i v i n g i n cities has t o do w i t h the w a y i t references N a t i v e cultures a n d aesthetic conventions a n d suggests t h a t authentic N a t i v e w i s ­ d o m — w h i c h is p a r t o f the a t t r a c t i o n o f this aesthetic f o r w h i t e people—is s i m p l y a m a t t e r o f selecting the r i g h t accessories. O b v i o u s l y the c o m m o d i f l c a t i o n o f Southwestern N a t i v e cultures involves v a r y i n g degrees o f a p p r o ­ p r i a t i o n , a n d because the vogue f o r this style is c u r r e n t l y so widespread, these a p p r o p r i a t i o n s are able t o evacuate questions o f power. T h i s is appar­ ent i n arguments t h a t suggest t h a t w e take things f r o m their c u l t u r e a n d they take things f r o m ours, w i t h the we-they couplet always presented as perfectly exchangeable a n d based p u r e l y o n personal choice, s o m e t h i n g t h a t conceals b o t h economic inequalities a n d the persistence o f the salvage p a r a d i g m . B u t the f i c t i o n a l equivalence between cultures t h a t has been cre­ ated by the m a r k e t a n d p r o m u l g a t e d i n advertising begins t o break d o w n w h e n w e consider i t closely. There is a difference between a m a r k e t i n g executive i n N e w Y o r k , Los Angeles, or T o r o n t o deciding t o use a N a v a j o design as a theme f o r a restaurant c h a i n a n d a N a v a j o m a n i n A r i z o n a deciding t o buy, say, a n e w chair or a landscape p a i n t i n g f o r the l i v i n g r o o m . A t some level o f pure ab­ s t r a c t i o n each is t a k i n g u p s o m e t h i n g f r o m the other c u l t u r e a n d using i t i n " d e c o r " (if, indeed, the objects o f Western consumer c u l t u r e can be t h o u g h t o f as c u l t u r e at a l l , even as w h i t e c u l t u r e ) . B u t these decisions a n d p u r ­ chases occur w i t h i n a nonabstract system o f capitalist exchange i n w h i c h aesthetic forms can be reduced t o money. There is a n o b v i o u s difference be­ t w e e n c o n t e m p o r a r y consumer c u l t u r e a n d t r a d i t i o n a l N a t i v e cultures i n terms o f w h i c h is m o s t l i k e l y t o decide the terms o f the exchange, a n d nei­ ther the N a v a j o t r a d i t i o n a l aesthetic n o r the A m e r i c a n consumerist aes­ thetic is a p u r e category t h a t exists i n i s o l a t i o n f r o m each other. B u t the ex­ ecutive is getting his ideas a b o u t t r a d i t i o n a l N a v a j o design f o r m s f r o m somewhere, p r o b a b l y a design m a n u a l issued by a large, n o n - N a t i v e - c o n t r o l l e d p u b l i s h i n g house. T h e N a v a j o householder is m a k i n g his decisions a b o u t w h a t t o b u y based o n the choices available t o m o s t N o r t h A m e r i c a n s , N a t i v e a n d n o n - N a t i v e alike. H i s choices m a y derive f r o m m i x e d sources, however: neighbors, catalogs, l o c a l stores. T h e p o i n t is t h a t the version o f N a v a j o c u l t u r e available t o the m a r k e t i n g executive is h i g h l y mediated by w h a t is available i n the larger, capitalist m a r k e t , w h i c h is t o say, determined by outsiders w i t h l i t t l e or n o c u l t u r a l investment i n the

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N a v a j o c o m m u n i t y . The version o f w h i t e , m a i n s t r e a m culture available t o the N a v a j o m a n is also adjudicated by the m a r k e t , a l t h o u g h his r e l a t i o n t o c o m m o d i t y culture is mediated n o t o n l y by the m a r k e t b u t also by his everyday experiences i n the c o m m u n i t y i n w h i c h he lives. As w i t h e x o t i c i s m , a p p r o p r i a t i o n has t o do w i t h w h o decides w h a t is i n ­ teresting enough t o commandeer a n d reproduce, usually someone f r o m the m o r e p o w e r f u l g r o u p w h o is i n a p o s i t i o n t o select a n d use whatever hap­ pens t o catch her eye. W h e n an outsider decides w h i c h aspects o f a c u l t u r a l and aesthetic t r a d i t i o n t o take up a n d emphasize a n d w h i c h t o ignore, these decisions m a y have n o t h i n g t o do w i t h the i n t e r n a l meanings o f the dances, art f o r m s , a n d ceremonies w i t h i n the culture i n w h i c h they were created. As w i t h e x o t i c i s m , fragments are t a k e n up a n d m a n i p u l a t e d , a l t h o u g h there are some differences between a p p r o p r i a t i o n a n d e x o t i c i s m . E x o t i c i s m evokes a sensibility a n d uses objects t o construct a conceptual line o f escape out o f Western culture i n t o a t i t i l l a t i n g , yet manageable other. A p p r o ­ p r i a t i o n incorporates the objects a n d sensibilities i n t o the d o m i n a n t , Western-based culture, sometimes by domesticating a n d sometimes by eras­ i n g the origins o f these objects. A l t h o u g h e x o t i c i s m does the same a n d t o some extent e x o t i c i s m a n d a p p r o p r i a t i o n are o v e r l a p p i n g concepts, w i t h a p p r o p r i a t i o n i t is the t a k i n g up that is i m p o r t a n t .

Authenticity and C u l t u r a l Integrity A u t h e n t i c i t y is a t r i c k y concept because o f the w a y the t e r m can be m a n i p ­ ulated a n d used t o convince people they are getting something p r o f o u n d and substantial w h e n they are just getting merchandise. A m a r k e t i n g expert has decided i n advance w h i c h v a r i a n t o f difference w i l l sell best a n d has at­ t e m p t e d t o p r o m o t e this version as the most real a n d desirable. F r o m the spectator o f the m u s e u m display believing t h a t she is g a i n i n g an under­ standing o f the real I n d i a n , t o the u r b a n restaurant-goer i n T o r o n t o w h o seeks real N e w M e x i c a n dishes, t o the t o u r i s t w h o longs t o see the real Egypt ( p r o p e r l y sanitized, o f course), a u t h e n t i c i t y is the currency at p l a y i n the marketplace o f c u l t u r a l difference. A u t h e n t i c i t y functions as an ideal, b o t h for the people t r y i n g t o sell cornm o d i f i e d versions o f culture a n d for m a n y o f those w h o have t a k e n o n the project o f c r i t i c i z i n g consumer culture. B u t a u t h e n t i c i t y does n o t exist i n any absolute, pure f o r m outside the endless debates o f academics. N o c u l ­ t u r a l practice is or ever has been t o t a l l y authentic, fully a n d seamlessly i n ­ serted i n t o a social c o n t e x t i n such a w a y t h a t permits the experience o f perfect presence. B u t the fact t h a t things can be made t o l o o k this w a y is n o t w i t h o u t interest. T h i s appearance o f seamlessness itself has a pacifying

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effect a n d w i t h a conceptual t r o m p e l ' o e i l effect can decoy a t t e n t i o n a w a y f r o m the margins t h a t do exist, something t h a t L o u i s Althusser recognizes so w e l l i n his w o r k o n ideology. A cynical a p p r o a c h t o culture insists o n the collapse o f any p o s s i b i l i t y o f c u l t u r a l or social integrity, w h i c h is t o say, o f c u l t u r a l practices h a v i n g m e a n i n g i n their o r i g i n a l contexts, i n a l i v i n g so­ cial m a t r i x connected t o the people a r o u n d , rather t h a n the m a r k e t e d ver­ sions experienced by the t o u r i s t o r consumer. I n a cynical w o r l d there is o n l y the m a l l . But this c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n o f a u t h e n t i c i t y raises another p r o b l e m . A n y n o t i o n o f c u l t u r a l a u t h e n t i c i t y carries w i t h i t a n o t i o n o f inauthenticity, against w h i c h the f o r m e r is evaluated. T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n seems s o m e w h a t ar­ tificial, a n d i t is neither possible n o r p a r t i c u l a r l y desirable t o d r a w a clear line between the real a n d the counterfeit i n order t o decide w h i c h aspect o f culture is authentic a n d w h i c h is n o t . A n y clear d e m a r c a t i o n between the t w o categories t h a t is decided i n advance w o u l d have t o be based o n a u n i ­ versalized—which i n this day a n d age means m a r k e t - d r i v e n — n o t i o n o f w h a t t r a d i t i o n a l l o o k s l i k e . I t w o u l d also presuppose the existence o f some­ one d o i n g the deciding, w h o presumably is able t o stand above the a c t i o n a n d choose the g o o d , someone w h o is l i k e l y t o be o u r o l d friend, the Western subject. 7

A n abstract n o t i o n o f a u t h e n t i c i t y can be used as a p o l i t i c a l t o o l t o le­ g i t i m i z e o r delegitimize a c t u a l people a n d c o m m u n i t i e s . T h i s is especially o b v i o u s w h e n the t e r m is d e p l o y e d against people w h o are seen as a source o f e x o t i c , a u t h e n t i c , a n d h i g h l y m a r k e t a b l e images, yet w h o also o c c u p y resource-rich l a n d coveted b y g o v e r n m e n t s a n d resource c o m p a ­ nies. I n a recent l a n d r i g h t s t r i a l i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a the q u e s t i o n o f c u l ­ t u r a l a u t h e n t i c i t y revealed the extent t o w h i c h the discussion takes place w i t h i n a colonial context, w i t h colonial-style authorities continuing to reserve the r i g h t t o designate a people as a u t h e n t i c o r n o t . M a r c i a Crosby writes: In 1989, government lawyers, in disputing Gitksan-Wet'suwet'en land claims, attempted to establish that Indians who eat pizza, drive cars and watch televi­ sion—that is, who no longer live as "traditional" Indians residing in some timeless place—did not meet Eurocentrically established criteria for authentic­ ity under which, the courts assert, Indian "rights" were established. 8

T h e t e r m authenticity, then, becomes a d e f i n i t i o n i m p o s e d f r o m the o u t ­ side o n a l i v i n g culture so t h a t the c o m m u n i t y w i l l never be able t o live up t o the w a y i t has been defined. D e p l o y i n g a n o t i o n o f a u t h e n t i c i t y gives a t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y colonist an appearance o f l i b e r a l i t y t h a t overt self-inter­ est cannot. T h e colonist says sadly, "Gee, w e really would s u p p o r t y o u r c l a i m i f o n l y y o u were authentic, b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y . . . " T h e motives for

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this d e p l o y m e n t are clear w h e n w e bear i n m i n d the agenda o f those evok­ i n g a u t h e n t i c i t y i n this p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t . C o l o n i a l w a r s are always p r o p a ­ ganda w a r s . The p r o v i n c i a l government's logic seems t o be t h a t i f a p a r t i c u ­ lar c o m m u n i t y is deemed i n a u t h e n t i c , i t can t h e n be stripped o f treaty privileges a n d treated like everyone else, w h i c h is t o say, as i f i t has n o r i g h t t o exist o n its o w n terms. I n the marketplace authenticity is no m o r e t h a n a merchandising device. I prefer t o use the m o r e flexible idea o f c u l t u r a l integrity t o refer t o autochtho­ nous c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s and t o the possibility o f aesthetic, social, a n d cere­ m o n i a l meanings able t o exist outside o f the system o f capitalist exchange, at least for the most part. Integrity retains an idea o f c u l t u r a l wholeness a n d o f a relatively u n b r o k e n connection between the image or object a n d the culture i n w h i c h i t is made a n d used. A visitor t o V i c t o r i a m i g h t purchase a K w a g i u t l b u t t o n blanket a n d hang i t o n the w a l l . The same blanket c o u l d also be draped a r o u n d a dancer d u r i n g a p o t l a t c h . Whereas authenticity is depen­ dent o n the external f o r m o f the object, integrity takes i n t o account h o w and where the object is used. I n other w o r d s , I a m using the w o r d integrity t o sug­ gest connection t o a social a n d ceremonial m a t r i x . Certain objects are m o r e connected t o their c u l t u r a l source t h a n others, precisely because o f h o w they are used a n d the contexts i n w h i c h they occur. But herein lies a p a r a d o x be­ cause the a p p r o p r i a t e d forms o f culture tend t o be marketed as authentic, w h i c h can cause confusion even i n the minds o f the well-intended. Questions o f c u l t u r a l a u t h e n t i c i t y a n d i n t e g r i t y can become very c o m p l i ­ cated because any c u l t u r a l object or practice can still manifest i n t e g r i t y a m o n g the people w h o respect a n d treat i t as such, even i f aspects o f the f o r m or practice have been a p p r o p r i a t e d a n d inserted i n t o a m a r k e t econ­ omy. Someone b e l o n g i n g t o the k i l l e r w h a l e clan m i g h t purchase a $ 2 , mass p r o d u c e d key c h a i n w i t h a k i l l e r w h a l e e m b l e m o n i t a n d carry i t precisely because i t is t r a d i t i o n a l , w h i c h i n this c o n t e x t is t o say t h a t the design is ex­ ecuted i n a t r a d i t i o n a l style t h a t refers t o a t r a d i t i o n a l clan structure. T h e clan member has a personal c o n n e c t i o n t o the object. Correct ideas do come f r o m practice, as someone once n o t e d , a n d there is never a nice sharp line between u n e q u i v o c a l l y authentic culture a n d m a r k e t - d r i v e n , c o m m e r ­ cialized c u l t u r e . P o w w o w s , w h i c h can be quite c u l t u r a l l y m i x e d a n d even p l a y w i t h n o t i o n s o f authenticity, are another case i n p o i n t because at some p r o f o u n d level c u l t u r e — w h e t h e r t r a d i t i o n a l , c o n t e m p o r a r y , or m i x e d — o f ­ ten has very little t o do w i t h the m a r k e t , despite the hopes a n d dreams o f eager M B A s . A p p r o p r i a t i o n , like e x o t i c i s m , is dependent o n a r h e t o r i c o f origins. T h i s can generate a n x i e t y o n the p a r t o f the consumer a b o u t w h e t h e r an object or event is authentic, a n d this a n x i e t y is especially c o m m o n a m o n g collec­ tors o f ceremonial items. For instance, I recall visiting a collector o f A f r i c a n art w h o made a p o i n t o f a n n o u n c i n g p r o u d l y t h a t his masks " h a d been

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danced." For this collector, the a u t h e n t i c i t y a n d value o f the object were precisely dependent o n its h a v i n g been r e m o v e d f r o m its f o r m e r l y meaning­ f u l social c o n t e x t . T h e o b v i o u s question was, " I f people were using the mask, w h y do you have i t ? " B u t this was already framed as irrelevant a n d , perhaps worse, i m p o l i t e , w h i c h means t h a t there was n o preexisting place i n the discourse o f art a p p r e c i a t i o n for such questions t o be raised. C h r i s t o p h e r Steiner makes the p o i n t t h a t w o r r i e s a b o u t ceremonial authen­ t i c i t y o n the p a r t o f collectors o f West A f r i c a n art have led t o elaborate def­ i n i t i o n s a n d subdefinitions o f a u t h e n t i c i t y t h a t circulate i n this m a r k e t a n d are s k i l l f u l l y m a n i p u l a t e d by A f r i c a n art producers a n d m e r c h a n t s . 9

T h e p o i n t o f o w n i n g a ceremonial object seems t o be t o display o w n e r ­ ship or, m o r e precisely, t o display the a b i l i t y t o possess s o m e t h i n g o f value t o someone else. I t is as i f the collector imagines himself t o have usurped the mask's c u l t u r a l integrity, w h i c h was f o r m e r l y dependent o n the c o m m u ­ n i t y i n w h i c h i t was danced. T h a t the object is valuable t o someone else is precisely w h a t makes i t valuable t o the collector, w h o has at some level vanquished the previous owners t h r o u g h the possession a n d display o f the object or, rather, the display o f power. Collectors are m u c h like the tourists w h o w a n t t o experience an authentic ceremony a n d feel cheated by a noticeably inauthentic event or performance. Consumers w a n t their purchases t o be authentic, and tourists w a n t their ex­ periences t o be real, even t h o u g h at some level i t must be clear t o a l l con­ cerned that this is n o t the case, that a genuine, pristine, authentic t r a d i t i o n is an impossible dream i n a m a r k e t d r i v e n by capital (if indeed authenticity was ever possible i n any society). A t some level they must k n o w that precisely be­ cause they are i n a p o s i t i o n t o witness the event or purchase the object, i t has lost some o f its s p i r i t u a l efficacy. Because o f this subterranean comprehension o f w h a t a p p r o p r i a t i o n involves, such consumers find the explicit r e c o g n i t i o n o f b o t h the i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f authenticity a n d the unequal p o w e r r e l a t i o n i n ­ herent i n the exchange t o o unpleasant a n d go t o a great deal o f t r o u b l e t o en­ sure that the question never comes u p . A bargain is struck; a pact o f silence is enforced. The organizers o f t o u r i s t events, m u c h as the carvers o f masks for the t o u r i s t m a r k e t , take pains t o assure their customers that they w i l l achieve a glimpse, an almost-memory, o f t r a d i t i o n a l , n o n - m a r k e t - d r i v e n culture. This is w h y the marketed version o f culture explicitly refers t o the u n c o m m o d i f i e d version t h r o u g h a rhetoric o f authenticity. There remains another question: W h a t are the effects o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n i n the Western culture o f the m a i n s t r e a m , w h i c h is t o say, o n the people w h o h a u n t the s h o p p i n g malls a n d t o u r i s t agencies a n d l o n g for sanitized b u t be­ lievable authenticity? A definitive, p r o g r a m m a t i c answer m a y be impossi­ ble, b u t i t is i m p o r t a n t t o pay a t t e n t i o n t o the oddities t h a t lie beneath dif­ ferent k i n d s o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n a n d t o w h a t these say a b o u t the culture i n w h i c h a p p r o p r i a t i o n occurs.

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Deterritorialization and Recoding: National Agendas One o f the most i m m e d i a t e l y o b v i o u s forms o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n occurs w i t h i n the t o u r i s t industry, a n d for this reason t o u r i s m can clarify some o f the processes i n v o l v e d i n the t a k i n g u p a n d c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n o f another c u l ­ ture. As i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , the t o u r i s t i n d u s t r y sells images o f the past a n d images o f difference b u t manipulates these t o m a k e c u l t u r a l difference seem b o t h n o n t h r e a t e n i n g a n d available for c o n s u m p t i o n by w h o m e v e r finds i t interesting. I n d o i n g so, the i n d u s t r y creates a space w h e n the t o u r i s t is able a n d encouraged t o suspend j u d g m e n t a b o u t w h a t he o r she is seeing. For example, a n ad for N e w M e x i c o (see Figure 3.4) evokes c u l t u r a l difference b u t i m m e d i a t e l y renders i t b e n i g n — w h a t is m o r e felicitous t h a n a r a i n b o w ? T h e ad certainly does n o t t a l k a b o u t pueblos being closed t o outsiders because o f mobs o f p h o t o - h a p p y tourists d i s r u p t i n g ceremonial dances. T h e t o u r i s t i n d u s t r y n o t o n l y attempts t o p r o m o t e an u n l i k e l y equiva­ lence between the past a n d the present b u t also engineers p a r t i c u l a r k i n d s o f f o l k l o r i c experiences as a w a y o f d r a w i n g t o u r i s t dollars. These often seem t o take the f o r m o f dance, p r o b a b l y because such extravaganzas focus o n the e x o t i c a l l y costumed, d i f f e r e n t - l o o k i n g bodies t h a t have always been o f interest t o colonists. Tourists often c l a i m t h a t f o l k l o r i c dance evenings are the h i g h p o i n t o f the t r i p , b u t I have never really u n d e r s t o o d the l a n ­ guage o f dance. Classical dance f o r m s leave me c o l d , a n d f o l k dancing has always seemed t o me a pointless a n d exhausting activity. Whenever I a m t r a v e l i n g i n a f o r e i g n c o u n t r y a n d s t u p i d l y get r o p e d i n t o some t o u r i s t event i n w h i c h " f o l k " dancers appear, I experience p r o f o u n d dismay. I t is n o t a question o f actually d i s l i k i n g the dancers b u t o f suspending disbelief l o n g enough t o imagine I a m at a village w e d d i n g or other event. I t h i n k one rea­ son c u l t u r a l events such as n a t i o n a l dance are sometimes unable t o w o r k is because o f the w a y they have been t a k e n u p a n d used t o serve a greater, na­ t i o n a l interest such as t o u r i s m . H e r e is a n example o f the w a y the t o u r i s t experience collapses questions o f v e r i s i m i l i t u d e . A t A s w a n i n southern Egypt, actually N u b i a , the air is perfect a n d crisp, the N i l e glitters i n the sun, hotels c r o w d the shores. There are islands i n the river across f r o m the m a i n p a r t o f t o w n , a n d o n one a l u x ­ u r y h o t e l shares space w i t h a N u b i a n village. Between the t w o sites there are a w a l l a n d a r o u n d - t h e - c l o c k g u a r d w i t h a machine g u n . T h i s sight was a b i t u n n e r v i n g because i n the early 1980s w h e n I visited A s w a n , tourists were n o t at r i s k f r o m the legendary g u n - t o t i n g M u s l i m s o f Western n i g h t ­ mares. U n l i k e m a n y other t o u r i s t destinations, E g y p t has never been a par­ t i c u l a r l y c r i m e - r i d d e n o r dangerous place. T h e g u a r d existed p r i m a r i l y as a spectacle for the w e a l t h y tourists, his presence n o m o r e t h a n a display o f

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FIGURE 3.4 advertisement

New Mexico

tourism

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the idea o f security a n d o f the p u t a t i v e value o f the f o r e i g n t o u r i s t . U n d i g n i f i e d a n d the source o f i l l - w i l l i n the local c o m m u n i t y , yes, b u t the E g y p t i a n government w a n t e d the h a r d currency b r o u g h t i n by tourists. There were m a n y alternatives t o the c o l o n i a l e x h i b i t i o n at the H o t e l O b e r o i , w h i c h means t h a t those w h o stayed there d i d so because they l i k e d the atmosphere o f the place. As a resort t o w n A s w a n sought t o entertain tourists by m o u n t i n g f o l k ­ l o r i c events such as N u b i a n dance. Assured by a l l t h a t this was an event n o t t o be missed, I attended. T h e circle dances a n d songs f l o w together at this distance, b u t one scene has remained w i t h me: the i d e n t i c a l l y costumed dancers p r e t e n d i n g t o be d r a w i n g w a t e r f r o m a village w e l l . T h e y teasingly splashed each other, intended ( I suppose) t o a d d c h a r m t o the scene as a w a y o f l e n d i n g veracity t o the display o f village life. I t was a l l very i r r i t a t ­ i n g . N o b o d y i n real life wears i d e n t i c a l costumes, so w h y were they p a r t o f the dance? M o r e i m p o r t a n t , however, the dancers were g o i n g b e y o n d f o l k dance i n order t o construct a s i m u l a c r u m o f village life, complete w i t h nonexistent w a t e r f r o m a nonexistent w e l l , a village life t h a t was under pressure f r o m b o t h the t o u r i s t presence a n d f o r e i g n a g r i c u l t u r a l concerns. M y m i n d kept d r i f t i n g back t o the other display t h a t h a d been m o u n t e d for the tourists—the g u a r d a n d his g u n — a n d t o the extent t o w h i c h t h a t e x h i ­ b i t i o n was connected t o the smiling dancers. Certainly b o t h produced a fiction o f c o n t e m p o r a r y life, one a fictional danger, the other a fictional present i n w h i c h t r a d i t i o n a l ways o f life were able t o continue. H o w m a n y spectators even noticed t h a t o n Elephantine Island the residents were kept at bay w i t h M - 1 6 s a n d were consequently angry a n d hostile t o tourists? T h e N u b i a n dance evening n o t o n l y entertained at least some tourists w i t h its v i s i o n o f h a p p y villagers, b u t i t also exemplified the displacement o f these same villagers, a s i t u a t i o n n o t entirely separate f r o m the presence o f the tourists at the dance event. T h e t o u r i s t evening b o t h occluded a n d bore witness t o the massive shifts i n the t r a d i t i o n a l relationship between city a n d countryside, the shifts i n p o p u l a t i o n i n w h i c h economics forced villagers t o m o v e t o C a i r o slums, a n d the changes i n the meanings assigned t o the t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r a l a n d aesthetic forms o f these villagers. I n the first v o l u m e o f Anti-Oedipus Gilles Deleuze a n d Felix G u a t t a r i identify a process w h e r e b y a p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r a l practice can be detached f r o m its o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t a n d subsequently assigned a n e w m e a n i n g . T a k i n g an i m a g i n a r y f o l k dance as an example, w e can see t h a t the external f o r m o f the dance can r e m a i n the same, b u t the reasons for p e r f o r m i n g i t have changed. To deterritorialize a t r a d i t i o n a l dance is t o remove i t f r o m its so­ cial a n d ceremonial m a t r i x , w h i c h i n i t i a l l y can liberate the practice because i t is n o longer subject t o a system o f religious or social a u t h o r i t y . People can dance whenever they w a n t . Recoding occurs w h e n a n e w system o f mean­ i n g is attached t o the n e w l y free c u l t u r a l f o r m or practice a n d i t becomes

Conquest, Appropriation, and Cultural Difference 85 subject t o t h a t system o f m e a n i n g . T o d a y the m a i n systems o f m e a n i n g i n culture t e n d t o be organized a r o u n d money, so w e can say t h a t the dance has been recoded by c a p i t a l . For instance, the f o l k dance can be t a k e n o u t o f a c o m m u n i t y — w h i c h is t o say, detached f r o m its local social a n d reli­ gious c o n t e x t — a n d p e r f o r m e d i n a capital city for tourists. Festival clothes become costumes ( w h i c h are usually standardized, as was the case i n A s w a n ) , a l i v i n g c u l t u r a l practice is subsumed under an abstract n o t i o n o f f o l k l o r e , a n d the performance o f the dance is inserted i n t o a n e w system o f exchange dependent o n cash p a y m e n t . The o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g is decoded or deterritorialized (we can imagine the sense i n w h i c h this means " r e m o v e d f r o m its t e r r i t o r y " ) a n d q u i c k l y recoded as something else, according t o a n e w system o f m e a n i n g determined by outsiders w i t h different values a n d agendas. So whereas the local m e a n i n g o f a dance m i g h t have t o do w i t h , say, the harvest, w h i c h means t h a t the activity is coded t h r o u g h the seasonal cycle, the t o u r i s t m e a n i n g has t o do w i t h the exchange o f money. H e r e the activity is coded t h r o u g h the m a r k e t e c o n o m y a n d a concept o f n a t i o n a l identity, as defined by the n a t i o n a l t o u r i s t office. As such, the activity becomes some­ t h i n g m o r i b u n d : I t cannot change. Deleuze a n d Guattari's f o r m u l a t i o n o f d e t e r r i t o r i a l i z a t i o n a n d r e c o d i n g makes i t possible t o focus o n the affinities between the t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m o f the f o l k dance ( t r a d i t i o n a l i n the sense t h a t the dance is p e r f o r m e d p r i m a r ­ i l y for reasons i n t e r n a l t o the c o m m u n i t y ) a n d the capitalist f o r m organized i n the cities. W h a t this focus reveals is the w a y financial considerations are able t o l i n k development a n d aesthetics. T h e c o n n e c t i o n between capital a n d t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e , a n d between the t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m a n d the c o m m o d ­ ified f o r m o f c u l t u r e , is extremely i m p o r t a n t t o the p r o b l e m o f a p p r o p r i a ­ t i o n because the explicit referencing o f a t r a d i t i o n a l system o f m e a n i n g is the reason c u l t u r a l difference sells. T h e o r i g i n a l , c u l t u r a l l y situated form o f the c o m m o d i t y is retained, at least enough so t h a t the consumer is able t o recognize i t as being, i n some respects at least, t r a d i t i o n a l , yet these forms are assigned a n e w m e a n i n g by the larger m a r k e t , a process t h a t itself elides the specific social a n d h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h a l l this b u y i n g a n d selling are t a k i n g place. T h e N u b i a n dance I witnessed i n a t o u r i s t setting bears some r e l a t i o n t o the dance p e r f o r m e d i n N u b i a n c o m m u n i t i e s , for a n d by the people concerned, w i t h i n a l o c a l context. Yet the l i n k s between the local cultures a n d the q u i c k l y recognized, c o m ­ m o d i f i e d signs o f those cultures become increasingly tenuous as difference is m a r k e t e d i n m o r e a n d m o r e venues. W h a t r e l a t i o n do the vaguely A f r i c a n bed l i n e n designs I see at the department store have t o the speci­ ficity o f the societies i n w h i c h the designs originated? A n d h o w m a n y steps d i d the design go t h r o u g h before i t appeared o n sheets the N o r t h A m e r i c a n consumer c o u l d recognize as exotic?

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Interestingly, because the recoded, c o m m o d i f i e d version o f t r a d i t i o n a l arts retains the external l o o k o f the o r i g i n a l , a n d i n fact e x p l i c i t l y refers t o ways o f life presented as existing outside o f the m a r k e t , the i l l u s i o n o f seamlessness sometimes breaks d o w n , a n d tourists occasionally do get a glimpse o f something real. Consumers are able m o m e n t a r i l y t o imagine t h a t the w o r l d is n o t u n i f o r m a n d m a r k e t d r i v e n . C u l t u r e turns o u t n o t t o be completely dead after a l l , w h i c h rather p a r a d o x i c a l l y means t h a t tourists t h i n k they do n o t have t o t h i n k a b o u t , say, I n t e r n a t i o n a l M o n e t a r y F u n d policies i n the countries they are v i s i t i n g o r their o w n pointless j o b back home (some o b v i o u s l y do t h i n k a b o u t such things a n d occasionally even t r a n s f o r m their lives a c c o r d i n g l y ) . Yet i t is this p o s s i b i l i t y o f e x t e r i o r i t y t h a t keeps tourists c o m i n g back, t h r o u g h a l l the c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n o f culture inherent i n the t o u r i s t industry, because vacations are one c o n t e x t i n w h i c h c u l t u r a l margins are apparent t o people w h o m i g h t never notice t h a t they also exist at h o m e . So this same desire for an outside is also w h a t keeps tourists inserted i n a c o m m o d i f i e d relationship w i t h the cultures they visit, a relationship i n w h i c h m e a n i n g tends t o occur p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h a p p r o p r i ­ a t i o n . H a p p y tourists l a u g h i n g l y a t t e m p t t o dance the h u l a i n H a w a i i ; they c o u l d p e r f o r m this dance at h o m e b u t are m u c h less l i k e l y t o do so because i t is difference t h a t frees t h e m f r o m o r d i n a r y constraints. A l l this is aside f r o m w h a t indigenous H a w a i i a n s m i g h t t h i n k o f the m a t t e r . T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f foods, dances, c l o t h i n g , art styles, a n d ceremonies i n t o easily assimilated c o m m o d i t i e s whose p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n is t o be c o n ­ sumed by Westerners (or other urbanized people) is o n l y one consequence o f the d e t e r r i t o r i a l i z a t i o n a n d recoding o f c u l t u r e . Perhaps even m o r e i m ­ p o r t a n t is the w a y the process o f d e t e r r i t o r i a l i z a t i o n a n d recoding makes the m a r k e t i n g o f culture seem perfectly n a t u r a l , p a r t o f an absolutely seam­ less o p e r a t i o n t h a t recognizes n o disruptions. I f n o t h i n g exists outside o f the m a r k e t , t h e n c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y can come d o w n o n l y t o a choice between p r o d u c t s , a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n between people o f different cultures can come d o w n o n l y t o a relationship o f b u y i n g a n d selling. I f everything is a c o m m o d i t y , i f a l l aspects o f culture can be exchanged for m o n e y or for an­ other aspect o f c u l t u r e , t h e n culture loses its m e a n i n g . The end result o f this k i n d o f t h i n k i n g is t h a t culture can no longer be i m a g i n e d as something t h a t c o u l d exist outside o f the marketplace. The o n l y choice—and the o n l y w a y t o survive i n such a system—is t o a d o p t the c y n i c i s m o f the m a r k e t i n g executive. As the N e w W o r l d O r d e r makes i t increasingly difficult for l a n d based cultures t o t h r i v e outside o f the m a r k e t , m a n y recognize, sometimes almost unconsciously, t h a t w e have a l l lost something. T h e apparent seamlessness between culture a n d the marketplace means t h a t a n y t h i n g can come under the p u r v i e w o f c a p i t a l . A b a n k i n Tucson at­ tracts t o u r i s t business by offering customers free p r i n t s o f certain k a c h i n a spirits. T h e kachinas p e r i o d i c a l l y visit this w o r l d t o instruct the people o f 10

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the pueblos. W h a t are kachinas t o w h i t e people? D o w e really w a n t t o be inserted i n t o a c o m m o d i f i e d r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h another people's spirits? A r e w e so certain t h a t these matters are w i t h o u t s p i r i t u a l consequences t o b o t h the people o f the pueblos a n d the outsiders d o i n g the a p p r o p r i a t i n g ? T h e b a n k seems t o be associating itself w i t h difference a n d d r a w i n g o n the au­ t h e n t i c i t y associated w i t h N a t i v e cultures by m a n y n o n - N a t i v e s ; perhaps i t is also a t t e m p t i n g t o suggest t h a t this b a n k is p r o t e c t e d by the spirits, t h a t i t is s o m e h o w c a r r y i n g o n the many-thousand-year-old t r a d i t i o n o f t h a t l a n d . W i t h the equivalence between the spirits a n d the financial i n s t i t u t i o n s , w e see the perfect marriage o f c a p i t a l a n d c o m m o d i f i e d t r a d i t i o n , here i n the f o r m o f the n o t o r i o u s l y c o r r u p t A r i z o n a b a n k i n g system. A r i z o n a also p r o ­ motes c o w b o y s as p a r t o f its r e g i o n a l character, a n d everywhere i n this state c o w b o y i m p e d i m e n t a , images o f broncos, a n d the l i k e are f o r sale. W i t h this sort o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n there is a further equivalence p r o d u c e d , this t i m e between c o w b o y s a n d I n d i a n s , w i t h the latter set i n a c o l o r f u l , ahistorical, a n d a p o l i t i c a l past, one i n w h i c h w h i t e settlers a n d N a t i v e people are strangely separate f r o m each other. For the t o u r i s t i n A r i z o n a , the t w o never met a n d never f o u g h t f o r t e r r i t o r y o n the l a n d c u r r e n t l y occupied by Americans. Just because c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n o f culture occurs, and just because the banks m a r k e t k a c h i n a spirits, does n o t mean t h a t the spirits are n o t real.

T h e N e w A g e : Appropriating t h e Spirit W h a t precisely is the N e w Age? T h e t e r m seems t o have m a n y meanings a n d is able t o encompass a vast s m o r g a s b o r d o f interests, f r o m crystal power, t o the channeling o f ancient extraterrestrials, t o a r e v i v a l i n goddess w o r s h i p . T h e version o f the N e w Age i n w h i c h I a m interested here explic­ i t l y takes u p the trappings o f N a t i v e s p i r i t u a l philosophies a n d the cere­ monies a n d regalia t h a t go a l o n g w i t h these, b u t the different variants o f the m o v e m e n t t e n d t o share certain characteristics. T h e N e w Age generally involves a rejection o f middle-class C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d m a i n s t r e a m , m i d d l e class c u l t u r e b u t i n m a n y respects tends t o be a middle-class p h e n o m e n o n . Indeed, the N e w Age genealogically f o l l o w s the line f r o m the 1960s a n d 1970s a n d the interest i n Eastern r e l i g i o n a n d suppressed Western t r a d i ­ tions such as T a r o t cards a n d astrology. A l t h o u g h m u c h o f the N e w Age m o v e m e n t seems almost deliberately t o leave itself open t o r i d i c u l e , i t is n o t necessarily a l l b a d a n d is i n some ways preferable t o the harshly scientistic r a t i o n a l i t y i t seeks t o challenge. I t is t o o easy t o m a k e f u n o f the wide-eyed g u l l i b i l i t y o f a n x i o u s suburbanites as a w a y o f a v o i d i n g p a y i n g a t t e n t i o n t o w h a t they are so a n x i o u s a b o u t . T h a t said, the N e w Age qua social m o v e m e n t does have some serious p r o b l e m s , w h i c h I suspect w i l l u l t i m a t e l y b r i n g i t d o w n a n d send i t the w a y o f a l l the

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maharishis o f the 1960s. Generally speaking, the N e w Age m o v e m e n t has a b l i n d spot a b o u t money, a n d people i n v o l v e d i n these practices t e n d t o see no p r o b l e m w i t h b u y i n g a n d selling spirituality. T h i s m a y m a k e life easier for the w o u l d - b e shaman, b u t n o t everyone can a f f o r d $ 3 3 5 for a K i l a u t d r u m f r o m M a r y l a n d , advertised as the " o n l y source" for such an i t e m (see Figure 3.5). L a d y Poverty has been abandoned at last by the mystics o f the West, a n d i n the N e w Age w e are c o n t i n u a l l y reassured t h a t w e can be b o t h r i c h a n d v i r t u o u s , despite m u r m u r i n g s a b o u t the need t o " s i m p l i f y " o u r lives. The w o r l d o f the N e w Age is generally p r e t t y fancy, w h i c h seems t o be a relief t o m a n y o f its adherents. (This t r e n d , t o o , f o l l o w s a direct line f r o m such 1970s gurus as B a g h w a n Rajneesh, whose Pacific N o r t h w e s t r a n c h boasted a designer c l o t h i n g boutique.) Part o f the emphasis o n m o n e y has t o do w i t h the venality o f N e w Age entrepreneurs, p a r t w i t h the need for people engaged i n s p i r i t u a l practices t o find alternative ways t o m a k e a l i v i n g , a n d p a r t w i t h the p e r m e a t i o n o f people's consciousness by m a i n s t r e a m n o t i o n s o f p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y a n d value t o such an extent t h a t they can scarcely conceive o f another w a y o f d o i n g things. H o w far does this c o m m e r c i a l i s m go? I t seems like almost a n y t h i n g can be made attractive t o p o t e n t i a l consumers a n d m a r k e t e d , par­ t i c u l a r l y i f given a s p i r i t u a l t w i s t . A few years ago I saw a s h o w o n H o m e B o x Office w h e n I was f l i p p i n g t h r o u g h channels at a U.S. m o t e l . T h e p r o g r a m concerned the "personal g r o w t h " i n d u s t r y a n d a p p r o v i n g l y depicted the antics o f a so-called Cherokee sex w o r k s h o p . I n the b i t I saw several w h i t e couples were i n ­ structed t o lie d o w n o n the g r o u n d , bounce up a n d d o w n , a n d m o a n r h y t h ­ mically. Sex w i t h m o t h e r earth, I q u i c k l y ascertained. The w o r k s h o p was led by an extremely confident, beaded, a n d befeathered w h i t e m a n a n d as­ sisted by his silent w i f e , w h o m i g h t have been N a t i v e a n d , t o m y eye at least, l o o k e d rather embarrassed by the w h o l e e x h i b i t i o n . T h e couples a l l seemed t o be i n their m i d t h i r t i e s or so a n d t o be m o r e o r less prosperous m i d d l e class, w i t h an aura o f the m o r e intellectual professions c l i n g i n g t o t h e m . T h e y h a d a l l p a i d g o o d m o n e y t o locate something they felt was w a n t i n g i n their lives; or rather, they were w i l l i n g t o pay t o have their (pre­ sumably lackluster) sexuality officially renamed " C h e r o k e e . " T h e y believed this w o u l d liberate t h e m . But w h a t precisely made the experience Cherokee, or, t o p u t the matter m o r e accurately, w h a t made i t possible for the p r o p e r name Cherokee t o be attached t o these activities o r indeed t o sex? For one t h i n g , the a p p e l l a t i o n derived solely f r o m the a u t h o r i t y o f the w o r k s h o p leader. T h e leader i n ­ f o r m e d the participants t h a t his p a r t i c u l a r a p p r o a c h t o sexual l i b e r a t i o n was i n fact Cherokee a n d , i n a surprisingly o r t h o d o x pedagogical tech­ nique, used a b l a c k b o a r d t o d r a w diagrams t h a t p u r p o r t e d t o explicate the N a t i v e attitude t o w a r d sexuality. N o t unexpectedly, the participants were

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3.5

Thunder heart drums advertisement

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i n f o r m e d t h a t f o r N a t i v e people ( w h o seemed t o be i m a g i n e d as a single, ahistorical e n t i t y ) , sex is considered n a t u r a l . T h i s was w h a t they came t o the w o r k s h o p t o hear. T h e n the organizer used objects associated w i t h N a t i v e cultures, specifically smudge sticks a n d d r u m s , t o get the p a r t i c i ­ pants i n the m o o d (not an easy task, I w o u l d t h i n k , w i t h cameras r o l l i n g a n d several other couples m a k i n g the same noises. I imagine i n t e r n a l dia­ logue: " D o m y noises s o u n d authentic and/or enthusiastic enough?"). A smudge stick is a b u n d l e o f sacred medicine plants t h a t is b u r n e d at certain times t o release the p u r i f y i n g , cleansing, or p r o t e c t i n g smoke c o n t a i n e d i n the plants. People smudge o r w a s h w i t h the smoke before they go i n t o cere­ m o n y , a n d sacred objects are usually smudged before they are used. I have never actually heard o f people s m u d g i n g t o have sex, a l t h o u g h I suppose there are situations i n w h i c h this m i g h t be possible. S w i t c h i n g o f f the television left me w i t h a m u l t i t u d e o f questions. W h a t was g o i n g o n here? W h y w o u l d middle-class w h i t e people w a n t or need s o m e t h i n g t o be called N a t i v e f o r t h e m t o experience e m o t i o n a l o r sexual feeling? W h y d i d sex have t o be coded as s p i r i t u a l t o legitimate desire? H o w c o u l d d r u m s a n d a r o m a t i c smoke heighten erotic experience a n d the p e r c e p t i o n t h a t this experience was i n fact authentic, b o t h authentic i n re­ g a r d t o the Cherokee a n d authentic w i t h respect t o personal life? W h a t d i d p a r t i c i p a n t s imagine they were receiving f o r their $ 3 0 0 w o r k s h o p fee? T h e logic was c i r c u l a r as w e l l as being filtered t h r o u g h several h u n d r e d years o f colonialist p r o p a g a n d a : N a t i v e people are s o m e h o w associated w i t h b o t h the wilderness a n d w i s d o m ; hence they are n a t u r a l . Presumably N a t i v e peo­ ple have sex; consequently " N a t i v e " sex m u s t be n a t u r a l (and, the p a r t i c i ­ pants h o p e d , w i l d ) as w e l l . Because n a t u r a l here meant w i t h o u t social or fa­ m i l i a l restraints, the w o r k s h o p p a r t i c i p a n t s i m a g i n e d t h a t they c o u l d n o w release a l l their sexual anxieties a n d d o whatever they w a n t e d : T h e i r desire was legitimized by n a m i n g i t N a t i v e , hence n a t u r a l a n d i n some p r o f o u n d w a y authentic as w e l l . T h e n o t i o n t h a t n a t u r a l s o m e h o w i m p l i e d a n i n d i ­ v i d u a l i z e d freedom d e v o i d o f c o m m u n i t y demands was elided b y the c i r c u ­ l a r i t y o f the logic. T h e N e w Age was c o m m o d i f i e d almost before i t was b o r n , as the true lesson o f the 1960s demonstrated t h a t alternative lifestyles c o u l d be m a r ­ keted a n d m a k e resourceful people a l o t o f money. I t t o o k C l a i r o l a w h i l e t o catch o n t o the p o t e n t i a l e m b o d i e d i n H e r b a l Essence s h a m p o o , b u t t o ­ day the m a r k e t i n g o f the n a t u r a l a n d authentic is t a k e n f o r granted. I t is perhaps t o o easy t o imagine t h a t the N e w Age was dreamed u p b y m a r k e t ­ i n g executives w h o were determined n o t t o be left i n the dust this t i m e a r o u n d . B u t n o w i t goes b e y o n d mere c o m m o d i t i e s , a n d the e m p o r i u m s o f the N e w Age sell n o t o n l y objects such as d r u m s a n d feathers b u t also en­ tire experiences such as sweat lodge ceremonies. A n ad f o r p o r t a b l e sweat lodges (complete w i t h 800 n u m b e r ; see Figure 3.6) emphasizes convenience 11

91

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a n d includes a free h a n d b o o k — t h i s is n o t just a tent b u t a ceremony, one t h a t consumers can undertake " a n y w h e r e . " Because at some level the N e w Age exists precisely t o be c o m m o d i f i e d , s p i r i t u a l i t y appears first a n d most intensely i n places where elaborate c o n s u m p t i o n machines are already firmly entrenched. A p p a l a c h i a m i g h t have the snake-handling H o l y Ghost people, the M i d w e s t m i g h t have various m y s t i c a l A n a b a p t i s t c o m m u n i t i e s , b u t the N e w Age p r o p e r never comes o u t o f places like these because they are n o t beautiful or sublime enough or beautiful i n ways t h a t can be q u i c k l y recognized by people l i v i n g i n cities. N e w Age people always seem t o be glossy a n d expensively dressed i n s o o t h i n g pastels, a n d s o m e h o w West V i r g i n i a cannot be t h o u g h t o f as glossy. I always imagine N e w Age people t o be C a l i f o r n i a n , or at least o c c u p y i n g a C a l i f o r n i a o f the m i n d , w h i c h q u i c k l y becomes a n i g h t m a r i s h v i s i o n o f w e a l t h y s u b u r b a n shamans p e r f o r m i n g ceremonies i n the nude, o r worse. T h i s , i n m y stereotypical fantasy, means t h a t the vast m a j o r i t y o f N e w Age people have been so b r a i n w a s h e d by a constant barrage o f television a n d giant s h o p p i n g malls t h a t they do n o t believe something is w o r t h pay­ i n g a t t e n t i o n t o unless i t is t a r t e d up t o l o o k like the television version. T h e y expect medicine w o m e n t o l o o k like the medicine w o m e n they g r e w up seeing o n their screen; hence i n the advertisements i n expensively p r o ­ duced N e w Age magazines such as Shamans Drum the w h i t e w o m e n w h o c l a i m t o be medicine w o m e n are a l l d o l l e d up like slightly garish nine­ teenth-century Indians ( t h i n k o f the costumes i n the film A Man Called Horse [ 1 9 7 0 ] ) . T h e healer-for-hire O h Shinnah l o o k s very, very wise i n her braids a n d feathers, w i t h a suitably grave, yet compassionate l o o k o n her face captured nicely by the camera. I assume t h a t the consumers o f the spir­ i t u a l service i n d u s t r y take their activities seriously (or at least seriously enough t o pay m o n e y for their experiences), b u t do they really imagine t h a t c o m m u n i t y - b a s e d medicine people w o u l d have any interest i n advertising? D o they imagine t h a t the spirits prefer glossy n a t i o n a l magazines? There seems t o be no end t o the effects o f television a n d the movies. T h e p r o b l e m , o f course, is t h a t w h e n N e w Age f o l l o w e r s do happen t o r u n across the real t h i n g , they reject i t because i t is n o t always as i m m e d i a t e l y authentic l o o k ­ i n g as the s i m u l a c r u m i n w h i c h they have placed a l l their expectations ( I suspect this was p a r t o f A r t a u d ' s p r o b l e m ) . Perhaps this is the idea, after all: Real s p i r i t u a l people are delegitimized (to some, at least) by the H o l l y w o o d versions created by the demands o f c a p i t a l . Part o f the reason N e w Age f o l l o w e r s have t u r n e d t o N a t i v e beliefs is the w a y N a t i v e people have come t o stand for an abstract, stereotypical q u a l i t y called spirituality, i n w h i c h consumers imagine t h a t they can k n o w i n ad­ vance w h a t this s p i r i t u a l i t y w o u l d l o o k l i k e . T h i s is the same process t h a t has w o r k e d so w e l l i n the m a r k e t i n g o f N a t i v e arts a n d crafts. T h i s abstrac­ t i o n o f s p i r i t u a l i t y makes i t possible t o treat s p i r i t u a l i t y as a c o m m o d i t y ,

Conquest, Appropriation, and Cultural Difference 93 a n d a prerequisite t o b u y i n g a n d selling ceremonies is t o name a s p i r i t u a l t r a d i t i o n as such, abstract i t f r o m its social c o n t e x t , a n d conceptually situ­ ate i t i n the past. Aside f r o m any o f the i n t e r n a l m e a n i n g o f beliefs a n d cer­ emonies, the inserting o f s p i r i t u a l practices i n t o a capitalist m a r k e t econ­ o m y is p r o f o u n d l y alien t o the w a y N a t i v e s p i r i t u a l i t y is t r a d i t i o n a l l y practiced, a n d N a t i v e elders across nations are explicit o n this p o i n t : T h e spirits a n d their ceremonies m u st n o t be b o u g h t a n d sold. A recipient o f s p i r i t u a l a i d can give s o m e t h i n g t o a healer (or indeed t o anyone w h o p r o ­ vides help), b u t the medicine person does n o t generally ask for p a y m e n t . I f the practices are o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n a c o m m u n i t y i n w h i c h these conventions are u n d e r s t o o d , everyone i n v o l v e d k n o w s w h a t is expected, a n d the healer is p r o p e r l y t a k e n care of. As w i t h the t o u r i s t i n d u s t r y i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , the existence o f a n a p r i o r i category o f authentic N a t i v e s p i r i t u a l i t y attracts n o n - N a t i v e s a n d leads t h e m t o expect pearls o f w i s d o m t o d r o p f r o m the m o u t h s o f each a n d every N a t i v e person they meet. For the w h i t e person, p r o b l e m s o f j u d g m e n t w i l l definitely ensue i f she o r he assumes t h a t every N a t i v e person is wise a n d everything he or she says is true. These levels o f a n t i c i p a t i o n also ma k e i t possible for n o n - N a t i v e N e w Age followers t o take u p a disarticu­ lated, fragmentary version o f N a t i v e r e l i g i o n o r c u l t u r e , w h i c h is t o say, an image t h a t never engages w i t h the actual people o r c o m m u n i t i e s a n d indeed has n o real interest i n d o i n g so. I n m o st cases the question never even comes u p . W h e n this unwillingness t o deal w i t h real people goes h a n d i n h a n d w i t h a n o t i o n o f c u l t u r a l a u t h e n t i c i t y based o n nineteenth-century sartorial a n d discursive styles, w e begin t o see the reasons for the success o f the befeathered bogus shamans advertising i n magazines. A u t h e n t i c i t y is not necessarily where people expect t o find i t a n d certainly does n o t always l o o k as pure as they expect. E x p l o i t a t i o n o f the public's fascination w i t h s p i r i t u a l matters can go t o extreme lengths. I n twists o f bizarrely unpleasant reasoning K e n Carey, the w h i t e a u t h o r o f the N e w Age best-seller The Return of the Bird Tribes, sug­ gests i n a n i n t e r v i e w t h a t computer-literate w h i t e people are the most ap­ p r o p r i a t e heirs t o N a t i v e s p i r i t u a l t r a d i t i o n s because the p o v e r t y o f the reservations has "debased" the culture a n d made i t u n w o r t h y o f the spiri­ t u a l t r a d i t i o n s t h a t have always been p a r t o f N a t i v e c o m m u n i t y life. H e also insists t h a t this Native-style s p i r i t u a l enlightenment w i l l take place i n a technological Utopia i n w h i c h everyone w i l l be extremely w e l l educated a n d able t o speak t o each other v i a c o m p u t e r (assuming anyone w o u l d w a n t t o do so). I do n o t k n o w w h y I s h o u l d be surprised at b o t h the effrontery a n d absolute s t u p i d i t y o f such n o t i o n s , as this is n o t the first t i m e people i n the N e w Age m o v e m e n t have expressed distinctly c o l o n i a l i s t sentiments. T h e idea t h a t s p i r i t u a l k n o w l e d g e n o w belongs t o any n o n - N a t i v e w h o happens to desire i t is the n e w version o f M a n i f e s t Destiny, w i t h the belief t h a t w h i t e

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people are e n t i t l e d t o possess t e r r i t o r y n o w replaced by a belief t h a t w h i t e people are e n t i t l e d t o possess any s p i r i t u a l practice t h a t happens t o catch their fancy. I f people assume t h a t s p i r i t u a l i t y is another c o m m o d i t y , i t is also easy f o r t h e m t o imagine t h a t they have the r i g h t t o take whatever they please, t h a t everything is s o m e h o w by d e f i n i t i o n available t o t h e m . I f l o c a l people seek t o p u t any l i m i t s o n outsiders' p a r t i c i p a t i o n as a w a y o f p r o t e c t i n g the cere­ monies, m a n y become b i t t e r l y angry a n d confused. T h i s anger can live very close t o the surface, t o be called u p a n d deployed w h e n w o u l d - b e c o n ­ sumers feel threatened. A w h i t e m a n f r o m M a n h a t t a n i n f o r m s me i n skewed a n d angry logic t h a t N a t i v e people m u s t be t a u g h t a b o u t s p i r i t u a l i t y by the w h i t e s w h o j o i n their ceremonies; the L a k o t a people w h o w i l l n o t a l l o w h i m t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n a Sun Dance ceremony are w r o n g , he says, because he k n o w s m o r e t h a n they d o . H o w can he be so sure? W e l l , he has read some b o o k s o n N a t i v e r e l i g i o n , a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t f r o m his p o i n t o f view, he really w a n t s his ver­ sion o f a n o n - N a t i v e role i n ceremony t o be true so t h a t he can attend the Sun Dance. H e also believes he has m o r e k n o w l e d g e t h a n the elders because his is the universalized k n o w l e d g e o f m a i n s t r e a m c u l t u r e ; he views the l o c a l specificity o f the ceremonies as a p a r o c h i a l l i m i t a t i o n o n his desire t o par­ ticipate. A g a i n , personal freedom is held u p as the greatest v i r t u e , regard­ less o f h o w i t is conceived i n other t r a d i t i o n s a n d regardless o f the conse­ quences. A g a i n , l o c a l is t a k e n t o m e a n n a r r o w or worse, a n d , as C h r i s t i a n i t y w o u l d have i t , a r e l i g i o n has l e g i t i m a c y o n l y i f i t can be univer­ salized a n d o p e n t o a l l . I f the frustrated Sun Dancer is any i n d i c a t i o n , i t seems t h a t m a n y N e w Agers are prepared t o go o n l y so far i n questioning the assumptions o f their c u l t u r e . Aside f r o m the question o f this N e w Yorker's c u l t u r a l or ethnic i d e n t i t y as a w h i t e m a n , he seems u n a w a r e t h a t p a r t o f the reason he has been b a r r e d f r o m the ceremony m a y be t h a t he is n o t ready t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n such events, t h a t his willingness t o shoot his m o u t h o f f a n g r i l y m a y have s o m e t h i n g t o do w i t h spirituality. W o r k s h o p s t h a t a p p r o p r i a t e a n d m a r k e t versions o f w h a t they call N a t i v e s p i r i t u a l i t y have been o f increasing concern i n the N a t i v e c o m m u ­ nity. T h e Cherokee sex w o r k s h o p seems especially bizarre because o f the t w i s t i t puts o n sexuality, b u t others offer t o locate a person's p o w e r a n i m a l or t r a n s f o r m h i m or her i n t o a shaman. A t a meeting held i n M o n t a n a i n 1 9 8 0 the T r a d i t i o n a l Elders' Circle passed a r e s o l u t i o n t h a t addressed the p r o b l e m o f s p i r i t u a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n a n d o f w h a t W e n d y Rose calls " w h i t e s h a m a n i s m " a n d W a r d C h u r c h i l l a n d others call "plastic medicine m e n . " T h e t e x t o f this r e s o l u t i o n , a n d o f s i m i l a r declarations, has been c i r c u l a t i n g i n N a t i v e p u b l i c a t i o n s over the last several years a n d has also been p u b ­ lished i n magazines w i t h a largely n o n - N a t i v e readership. T h e Elder's Circle directed the r e s o l u t i o n t o w a r d those presumably i g n o r a n t n o n - N a t i v e s w h o

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imagine t h a t they have every r i g h t t o take p a r t i n a generalized N a t i v e spir­ ituality, b u t the r e s o l u t i o n focused o n the people w h o m a k e this possible by selling s p i r i t u a l i t y t o the desperate a n d alienated: These individuals are gathering non-Indian people as followers who believe they are receiving instructions of the original people. We, the Elders and our representatives sitting in Council, give warning to these non-Indian followers that it is our understanding this is not a proper process, that the authority to carry these sacred objects [pipes, medicine plants, and other objects] is given by the people, and the purpose and procedure is specific to time and the needs of the people. The medicine people are chosen by the medicine and long in­ struction and discipline is necessary before ceremonies and healing can be done. These procedures are always in the Native tongue; there are no excep­ tions and profit is not the motivation. . . . We concern ourselves only w i t h those people who use spiritual ceremonies w i t h non-Indian people for profit. 12

T h e elders are, I t h i n k , r e m i n d i n g b o t h N a t i v e a n d n o n - N a t i v e readers t h a t spirituality, a n d the p a r t i c u l a r ceremonial practices t h a t go a l o n g w i t h i t , is embedded i n the c o m m u n i t i e s i n w h i c h i t occurs a n d indeed helps sus­ t a i n the c o m m u n i t y as such. C e r e m o n y has t o be p a r t o f people's everyday lives a n d s h o u l d be approached w i t h respect at a l l times. S p i r i t u a l practices have real effects o n the health o f b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s a n d carry responsibilities t h a t can be onerous at times. T h e t e x t o f the resolu­ t i o n repeats w h a t the people w h o have p a i d a t t e n t i o n t o these matters have always said: W h e n a p p r o a c h i n g the spirit w o r l d , w e c a n n o t be t o o q u i c k or t o o eager. W e s h o u l d always be extremely careful o f h o w w e speak o f spiri­ t u a l matters. T h e bridge between the everyday w o r l d a n d the spirit w o r l d is fragile. To t r y c o n s t r u c t i n g a f r a u d u l e n t version o f this bridge for personal g a i n is n o t o n l y h i g h l y disrespectful t o the c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n i n w h i c h the spirits exist b u t can also have grave consequences for a l l concerned. I f cere­ monies are real e n o u g h t o p l a y w i t h , t h e n they are real e n o u g h t o treat w i t h respect. As w i t h a p p r o p r i a t i o n i n the arts, respect for the p r o p e r w a y o f a t t e n d i n g t o such matters continues t o be a p r o b l e m w h e n s p i r i t u a l i t y enters the m a r ­ ketplace a n d w h e n n o n - N a t i v e s decide t o take u p c o m m o d i f i e d f o r m s o f N a t i v e r e l i g i o n w i t h o u t recognizing the responsibilities i n v o l v e d . T h i s lack o f respect goes back, i n p a r t , t o the question o f universalized ontologies t h a t I raised p r e v i o u s l y : A l l the m a i n s t r e a m i n s t i t u t i o n s o f Western c u l ­ ture—schools, churches, m e d i c a l a n d scientific c o m m u n i t i e s — i n s i s t t h a t spirits do n o t really exist, t h a t the effects o f spirit activities are n o t real, w h i c h suggests they have n o effects i n the w o r l d . Others k n o w differently. I f w e assume something is false, t h e n there is n o p o i n t i n a l l o w i n g i t t o af­ fect o u r plans, hence the p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f plastic medicine people. A n d a l ­ t h o u g h there is a difference between the entrepreneur w h o makes m o n e y

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Are you ready to develop your powers of mind and body? Do you want to learn shamanic skills jot healing? Is your heart open to the magic and mystery of Suture? F o r a free catalog a n d schedule of trainings, call o r w r i t e ; ALOHA INTERNATIONA I. P.O. Box 599, Kapaa, Kauai, Hawaii 9674ft tei/fax (808) 822-9272

o f f these t r a d i t i o n s a n d the confused b u t basically w e l l - i n t e n t i o n e d i n d i v i d ­ ual w h o attempts t o p u t m e a n i n g i n t o his or her life by any means neces­ sary, b o t h have done damage t o the i n t e g r i t y o f s p i r i t u a l beliefs. A n ad for Serge King's H a w a i i a n Shaman T r a i n i n g (see Figure 3 . 7 ) bears witness t o this damage by presenting s p i r i t u a l i t y as a question o f i n d i v i d u a l i z e d desire a n d by r e d u c i n g a c o m p l e x c o s m o l o g i c a l system t o a series o f t r a i n i n g sem­ inars. Some people believe t h a t the greatest threat facing N a t i v e s u r v i v a l t o ­ day is the s p i r i t u a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f the N e w Age m o v e m e n t because i t saps a n d distorts the strength o f the culture under siege. N e w Age a p p r o p r i a t i o n does seem t o i n v o l v e a k i n d o f n e c r o p h i l i a . L i k e the manufacturer o f souvenirs w h o s u m m a r i l y utilizes N a t i v e designs, the person w h o attempts t o a p p r o p r i a t e s p i r i t u a l i t y imagines N a t i v e cultures as something dead a n d gone. I n this w a y the desire t o a p p r o p r i a t e a n d t o usurp m e a n i n g f r o m another c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n is n o t just a r o m a n t i c i z e d nostalgia for supposedly dead cultures b u t can also be a w a y o f m a r k i n g death a n d conquest a n d d o i n g so o n the bodies a n d c o m m u n i t i e s o f l i v i n g people. Even i f N e w Agers w a n t e d t o d o so, they w o u l d p r o b a b l y n o t have the same confidence t o a p p r o p r i a t e conventions f r o m , say, the C a t h o l i c

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C h u r c h because i t is alive a n d w e l l o r at least alive enough t o make its o u t ­ rage felt. People apparently do desecrate the Mass f r o m t i m e t o t i m e , a n d this tends t o be discussed hysterically o n television t a l k shows as a resur­ gence o f satanism a n d accompanied by elaborate discourses i n w h i c h t h o u ­ sands o f dead bodies are believed t o be h i d d e n , the so-called r i t u a l abuse p r o b l e m . W h e n artist Andres Serrano suspends a crucifix i n urine a n d calls i t Piss Christ, a scandal ensues a n d the N a t i o n a l E n d o w m e n t f o r the A r t s becomes i n v o l v e d . A t least people t h i n k the issue is i m p o r t a n t enough t o ar­ gue over, even i f most o f the discussion is uninterestingly p o l a r i z e d between C h r i s t i a n fundamentalists a n d N e w Y o r k artists. W h e n n o n - N a t i v e artists use images f r o m N a t i v e s p i r i t u a l i t y i n their w o r k , there either tends t o be p r o f o u n d silence i n the art w o r l d or fancy abstract t a l k a b o u t freedom o f the i m a g i n a t i o n .

D e s p e r a t e People: Honky S h a m a n s and W a n n a b e Indians Some N a t i v e elders have explained t h a t s p i r i t u a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n is a func­ t i o n o f the c u l t u r a l a n d s p i r i t u a l d i s l o c a t i o n experienced by so m a n y n o n Natives a n d indeed by anyone w h o has been raised exclusively w i t h i n c o n ­ t e m p o r a r y society. There do seem t o be a l o t o f tense, u n h a p p y people i n N o r t h A m e r i c a today. People no longer k n o w w h o they are i n the sense o f being able t o imagine a c o n n e c t i o n t o a h i s t o r i c a l , c u l t u r a l , a n d ceremonial past f r o m w h i c h they can derive strength a n d m e a n i n g . Because i n d i v i d u a l ­ ized conceptions o f the self suggest t h a t this c o n n e c t i o n is l i m i t i n g a n d oppressive, people become confused a n d can imagine o n l y greater i n d i v i d ­ ualism as the s o l u t i o n . W h a t Deleuze a n d G u a t t a r i describe as d e t e r r i t o r i a l ­ i z a t i o n has left people vulnerable t o r e c o d i n g by c a p i t a l , w h i c h rushes i n q u i c k l y t o fill the v o i d . T r a d i t i o n a l s p i r i t u a l people have described those l i k e l y t o t u r n t o the N e w Age as lost people w h o float t h r o u g h the c u l t u r a l m a t r i x w i t h o u t feeling like they belong t o i t a n d w h o moreover are used t o being able t o b u y a n y t h i n g they w a n t or need. A consequence is t h a t such people find i t difficult t o imagine a w o r l d t h a t does n o t w o r k like this, i n w h i c h culture or ceremony is n o t subject t o exchange value. Because so m a n y people have been t a u g h t t h a t the w o r l d is a giant warehouse i n w h i c h everything is o r o u g h t t o be available, they t o o easily believe they can achieve enlightenment by p a y i n g money. A n y t h i n g can be b o u g h t a n d sold. W h e n this proves n o t t o be the case, as i t i n e v i t a b l y does, people become even m o r e hopeless a n d c y n i c a l . A l t h o u g h p r o f i t seems t o be the p r i m a r y m o t i v e o f the leaders o f bogus s p i r i t u a l organizations, the motives o f the participants are a b i t different.

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The desperation o f n o n - N a t i v e s for something they imagine w i l l reconnect t h e m t o a system o f m e a n i n g has been recognized by m a n y N a t i v e people. I n The Almanac of the Dead Leslie M a r m o n Silko describes a N e w Age healing conference i n Tucson, A r i z o n a : Lecha watched for awhile; she had watched the hands. The hands had gripped the cash feverishly as they waited for their turn; old Yoeme used to brag that she could make white people believe in anything and do anything she told them because they were so desperate. Money was changing hands rapidly; fifties and hundreds seemed to drop effortlessly from the white hands into the brown and black hands. 13

Silko is focusing o n the desperation o f the conference-goers, w h i c h has reached a n e w t h r e s h o l d as the e n v i r o n m e n t continues t o break d o w n a n d people find i t increasingly difficult t o envisage a future. M a n y n o n - N a t i v e people do l o n g for an alternative t o the overdetermined, artificial w o r l d o f the m a l l b u t cannot seem t o imagine t h a t exchange c o u l d take place outside of the c o n s u m p t i o n o f c o m m o d i t i e s i n a system regulated by capitalist ex­ change. M a n y N a t i v e people, p a r t i c u l a r l y those w h o live close t o the l a n d , do pay m o r e a t t e n t i o n t o s p i r i t u a l matters t h a n s u b u r b a n w h i t e people, b u t t h a t is n o t really the p o i n t . T h e issue here is the w a y the fears a n d desires o f the f o l l o w e r s o f the N e w Age overdetermine a l l other considerations a n d incite t h e m t o m o v e so fast t h a t they w i l l never find w h a t they are l o o k i n g for. T h e feelings o f dread a n d a l i e n a t i o n t h a t p r o v o k e the willingness o f N e w Agers t o take o n a n d make their o w n the trappings o f another culture are not altogether u n f a m i l i a r t e r r i t o r y i f w e t h i n k back twenty-five years or so. The general c u l t u r a l climate has shifted considerably since those days (the dread has, i f a n y t h i n g , increased), b u t p a y i n g some a t t e n t i o n t o h o w N a t i v e culture f u n c t i o n e d as a s y m b o l o f a u t h e n t i c i t y i n the 1960s can perhaps t h r o w l i g h t o n similar functions i n the m o r e capitalistic w o r l d o f the N e w Age. I t h i n k most people w h o actually remember the infamous 1960s also re­ member w h e n a fantasy o f N a t i v e people f u n c t i o n e d for m a n y y o u n g w h i t e people as a m e t a p h o r for the rejection o f m a i n s t r e a m , bourgeois w h i t e soci­ ety. N a t i v e culture or, m o r e properly, the bogus version o f N a t i v e culture t h a t existed i n the w h i t e i m a g i n a t i o n came t o stand for this resistance. M a n y o f us (and I have t o include m y adolescent self) a p p r o p r i a t e d the most superficial a n d hackneyed m a r k s o f this romance—beads, feathers, fringe—as a means o f d i s p l a y i n g o u r o p p o s i t i o n t o o u r o w n c u l t u r a l back­ g r o u n d a n d the flatness a n d airless neighborhoods o f suburbia. It is almost impossible t o l o o k back n o w a n d imagine w h a t w e supposed N a t i v e culture t o be o r indeed i f w e i m a g i n e d a n y t h i n g b e y o n d the beads

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a n d feathers. O u r concerns at the t i m e for the m o st p a r t h a d t o do w i t h p o ­ l i t i c a l a n d social tensions w i t h i n w h i t e society rather t h a n w i t h N a t i v e peo­ ple. I t seems o b v i o u s n o w t h a t the images o f N a t i v e people w e m i n e d for o u r c o u n t e r c u l t u r a l costumes came directly f r o m television a n d the movies, h a r d l y sources outside the m a i n s t r e a m bourgeois culture w e set ourselves against. A n d despite the f l u r r y o f shows i n the early 1970s t h a t seemed at first glance t o represent N a t i v e people i n a " p o s i t i v e " l i g h t (Little Big Man [ 1 9 7 0 ] , Soldier Blue [ 1 9 7 0 ] , the Star Trek episode where C a p t a i n K i r k m a r ­ ries a n " a l i e n " N a t i v e w o m a n ) , the c o m m o d i f i e d images w e sought t o af­ firm d r e w o n a n d remained i n the same n a r r o w range as those i n t r a d i t i o n a l Westerns, albeit differently v a l o r i z e d . H o w was o u r (ostensible) rejection o f the straight w o r l d m i r r o r e d i n these m o v i e images o f Indians? I n w h i t e films a n d literature N a t i v e people usually appear as those w h o are by d e f i n i t i o n victims o f a n inevitable his­ t o r i c a l fate, executed a n d enforced by the U.S. government, the army, a n d the swarms o f settlers. I t was the movies' racist s u b t e x t — t h a t N a t i v e peo­ ple are destined t o vanish i n the face o f progress—that made N a t i v e people seem heroic t o us a n d made us w a n t t o affirm headbands a n d fringe as a w a y o f m a r k i n g o u r dislike o f o u r parents' c o m m o d i t y culture. A g a i n , the salvage p a r a d i g m enabled us t o insist t h a t everything h a d already been de­ cided, t h a t the issues o f l a n d a n d conquest remained i n the past (despite the example o f V i e t n a m ) . There is very little a t t e n t i o n p a i d i n these narratives t o resistance or the real issues t h a t came u p d u r i n g the c o l o n i a l invasions o f N a t i v e territories. O f course, this oversight is n o t accidental. W e were ex­ posed t o c o l o n i a l tales t h a t reinforced the n o t i o n o f N a t i v e people as heroic victims or, perhaps m o r e accurately, as people w h o are heroic precisely be­ cause they have been v i c t i m i z e d . A t the same t i m e , w e were presented w i t h the o l d stereotypes o f cruelty, savagery, a n d , m o r e equivocally, closeness t o nature, w h i c h i n t r a d i t i o n a l C h r i s t i a n t h i n k i n g is always an a m b i v a l e n t quality. I t is n o accident t h a t the w o r d savage means " o f the forest," t h a t wilderness where the devil l u r k s . I n westerns a n d similar narratives t h a t c l a i m t o describe encounters be­ t w e e n Natives a n d n o n - N a t i v e s , w h i t e people t e n d t o have l i m i t e d roles. There is n o real d e v i a t i o n f r o m the p a r t y line. W i t h a very few exceptions, I have rarely seen w h i t e people challenging M a n i f e s t Destiny; rather, they are made t o e m b o d y this doctrine even i n movies t h a t s h o w w h i t e Americans being defeated (as i n J o h n Wayne's The Alamo [ I 9 6 0 ] ) . Such losses appear as n o m o r e t h a n t e m p o r a r y setbacks t o the final, inevitable v i c t o r y a n d i n ­ deed m ak e t h a t v i c t o r y even sweeter. The soldiers a n d c o w b o y s a n d , t o a lesser extent, the dance h a l l girls a l l have a n agenda o f n a t i o n b u i l d i n g a n d a c q u i s i t i o n o f w e a l t h , w h i c h is the reason for a l l the o u t l a w activities i n the western narrative. The c o w b o y loner appears f r o m t i m e t o t i m e , enigmatic a n d often cruel, b u t always l o o k i n g o u t for himself, a state o f m i n d t h a t

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h a r d l y calls A m e r i c a n values i n t o question. T h e movies assume t h a t w h i t e people are the ones w h o are g o i n g t o w i n , despite i n t e r n a l squabbles over fencing the range, r o b b i n g a b a n k , or whatever. There are n o real v i c t i m roles f o r w h i t e people i n these narratives, except i n the m o s t i n d i v i d u a l i z e d w a y ( w h i c h is also n o accident). I n this w a y w h i t e histories are also e m p t i e d o f m e a n i n g , a n d a n alternative t o the colonizer role becomes almost i m p o s ­ sible t o i m a g i n e , w h i c h seems t o be p a r t o f the p r o b l e m w i t h the w a y w h i t e kids t o o k u p fragmented, Native-style identities i n the 1960s. W h y w o u l d relatively privileged w h i t e people, b o t h i n the c o u n t e r c u l t u r a l d e l i r i u m o f the 1960s and i n the m o r e corporate m i l i e u o f today's N e w Age, identify w i t h people w h o are presented as victims t i m e a n d t i m e again? D e b o r a h D o x t a t o r makes the p o i n t that i t is precisely the image o f Indians as d o o m e d victims that some w h i t e people identify w i t h ; she calls this the " I ' m a v i c t i m t o o " c o m p l e x . Indeed, Nietzsche conceives something like this c o m ­ plex as the very core o f C h r i s t i a n culture, u n d e r l i n i n g the l i n k between p i t y and contempt. T h i n k i n g o f someone else as a v i c t i m is a w a y o f displacing one's o w n p a i n ; i n reactive C h r i s t i a n t h i n k i n g , the i n d i v i d u a l imagines h i m ­ self as less o f a v i c t i m t h a n someone else because the latter is m o r e o f a v i c t i m t h a n he is. W h i t e hippies do tend t o recognize some o f the oppressive aspects o f i n d u s t r i a l , consumerist society b u t express this understanding by focusing o n a n d identifying w i t h people w h o seem t o be even m o r e oppressed, thus re­ p r o d u c i n g the 1970s m o v i e version o f Natives as defeated victims. Western c u l t u r e is permeated w i t h the d u p l i c i t o u s , C h r i s t i a n n o t i o n o f v i c t i m i z a t i o n , w h i c h , o n the one h a n d , implies a m o r a l o r s p i r i t u a l superi­ o r i t y a n d , o n the other, a weakness t h a t m u s t be overcome t h r o u g h various k i n d s o f s p i r i t u a l struggle. M a r t y r e d saints are represented as suffering physical t o r m e n t w i t h a heroic steadfastness o f f a i t h . Yet the body, w h e t h e r sinful or suffering, is t h o u g h t t o be i n h e r e n t l y abject. T h u s , t o be a v i c t i m is t o be b o t h heroic a n d abject. W h i t e representations ( b o t h sympathetic a n d e x p l i c i t l y racist) o f c o l o n i a l w a r s t e n d t o m a i n t a i n this d e f i n i t i o n a n d u n ­ derline the v i e w t h a t N a t i v e h e r o i s m derives f r o m a n d is the consequence o f defeat. T h e w h i t e fascination w i t h the r o m a n t i c , abstract h e r o i s m o f N a t i v e people is thus able t o f u n c t i o n as another means o f c o l o n i a l pacifica­ t i o n because i t presupposes the inevitable defeat a n d disappearance o f the nations. C o l o n i a l i s m adds a n e w t w i s t t o the C h r i s t i a n v i e w t h a t people are v i c t i m s by their very nature or essence, a n d here the r e l a t i o n between ag­ gressor a n d v i c t i m becomes w h o l l y static a n d c a n n o t shift. T h u s , apprecia­ t i o n qua a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f the arts a n d ceremonies o f N a t i v e societies never quite calls i n t o question the reasons f o r this constant r e i t e r a t i o n o f N a t i v e defeat. A n d , o f course, conceiving o f an enemy n a t i o n as heroic also makes the o p ­ pressors l o o k g o o d because they have defeated a t r u l y w o r t h y and valiant en­ emy. T h i s , t o o , is n o t h i n g n e w i n Western culture. We recall the famous R o m a n sculpture o f the d y i n g G a u l , an image o f a heroic, yet defeated enemy. 14

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H e r e w e a p p r o a c h w h a t everyone f o r g o t i n their eagerness t o embrace the representation o f Indians as heroic victims: I f N a t i v e nations are p o r t r a y e d as i n h e r e n t l y abject a n d d o o m e d t o defeat, the w h i t e viewer w i l l n o t feel any c o n n e c t i o n t o c o l o n i a l i s m , either i n the past or i n the present. T h i s is w h y the p h o n y N a t i v e culture o f movies, E d w a r d C u r t i s p h o t o g r a p h s , a n d televi­ sion is so appealing t o w h i t e people: I f , as H o l l y w o o d a n d c a p i t a l i s m w o u l d have i t , the nations are f o r e o r d a i n e d t o assimilate a n d vanish, t h e n the w h i t e viewer need n o t question racism or face the d i s c o m f o r t o f i n t e r r o g a t i n g o u r c o n t i n u i n g p o s i t i o n as members o f a c o l o n i z i n g n a t i o n . A n y sense o f c o n ­ nection t o events o c c u r r i n g o n the g r o u n d t o d a y is lost, a n d N a t i v e becomes another e m p t y category t h a t can be m i n e d for its trappings a n d images. A n d the " l o v e " o f Indians professed by counterculture o l d a n d n e w continues t o have n o t h i n g t o do w i t h N a t i v e people a n d certainly n o t h i n g t o do w i t h sup­ p o r t i n g such c o n t e m p o r a r y N a t i v e struggles as l a n d a n d treaty rights. Westerns a n d other c o l o n i a l narratives are i n the business o f p r o d u c i n g binarisms, w h i c h have affected a l l o f us. Those o f us w h o are w h i t e (or w h o come o u t o f m a i n s t r e a m , consumer society, w h i c h can m e a n almost any­ one) need t o r e t h i n k a n d recover the histories erased by p o p u l a r c u l t u r e a n d school t e x t b o o k s . There were always alternatives t o J o h n W a y n e . W e also need t o t h i n k t h r o u g h the nature o f p o w e r a n d its r e l a t i o n t o c u l t u r e . N a t i v e activist a n d poet J o h n T r u d e l l says t h a t there is a difference between being oppressed a n d being powerless: N a t i v e people m a y be oppressed, b u t the t r a d i t i o n s have p o w e r ; w h i t e people m a y be i n charge, b u t Western c u l ­ ture has lost its heart, soul, a n d life—its p o w e r . I t is u p t o us t o l o o k i n t o h o w o u r t r a d i t i o n s were t a k e n over a n d d i s t o r t e d by a destructive, soulless ethos a n d t o find ways t o heal these diseases o f c u l t u r e (and t o figure o u t h o w t o d o so w i t h o u t t u r n i n g i n t o fascists or nationalists). T h i s is w h e r e b o t h the c o u n t e r c u l t u r a l a n d N e w Age approaches break d o w n : Some n o n Natives t h i n k they have t o t u r n themselves i n t o some version o f N a t i v e people because they c a n n o t find a w a y t o t r a n s f o r m a n d c o m p r e h e n d their o w n t r a d i t i o n . Because o f elided histories, they are unable t o identify w i t h w h i t e people w h o have resisted various k i n d s o f oppression over the cen­ turies. A n d because so m a n y imagine t h a t Western c u l t u r e is one t h i n g — t h e dead, s h o p p i n g - m a l l c u l t u r e o f o u r t i m e — a p p r o p r i a t i o n becomes the o n l y escape, a n d w i t h this i t becomes impossible t o imagine standing side by side w i t h N a t i v e people as equals. Part o f the p r o b l e m lies i n h o w the desire t o display a f f i l i a t i o n enables w h i t e people t o insist o n being the center o f a t t e n t i o n . P r o c l a i m i n g alliance w i t h First N a t i o n s people i n a visible, emphatic manner has a p e r f o r m a t i v e q u a l i t y t h a t demands instant r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a p p r o v a l o f the w h i t e person. I t manifests a certain impatience; rather t h a n d e m o n s t r a t i n g a f f i l i a t i o n over t i m e w i t h actions, m a n y people w a n t i m m e d i a t e r e c o g n i t i o n o f their g o o d i n t e n t i o n s (this insistence o n r e c o g n i t i o n is, I t h i n k , one reason for the anger t h a t emerges w h e n some are asked t o leave ceremonies). D i s p l a y i n g 16

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the fringe a n d j e w e l r y can become a w a y o f a t t e m p t i n g t o seize discursive space f r o m N a t i v e people, a n d t o the extent t h a t i t functions as a demand, such display constitutes an endeavor t o extend a n d underline the a u t h o r i t y o f the w h i t e person. We are r e m i n d e d here o f Franz Fanon's observation t h a t the colonist is an e x h i b i t i o n i s t w h o seeks constantly t o " r e m i n d the N a t i v e o u t l o u d t h a t he [or she] alone is m a s t e r . " T h i s issue can cut very close, especially o n those days w h e n everything seems charged w i t h p o l i t i c a l significance. Whenever I go t o p o w w o w s or N a t i v e s o l i d a r i t y functions, I see w h i t e people dressed i n fringed jackets, beaded a n d turquoise jewelry, sometimes feathers. T h i s can produce twinges o f embarrassment i n other w h i t e people as w e l l as a p a r t i c u l a r f o r m o f s h o p p i n g anxiety, w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y has t o do w i t h a certain selfconsciousness as a w h i t e w o m a n t h a t can come i n t o p l a y at such events. The j e w e l r y a n d c l o t h i n g are b o t h beautiful a n d available because people set up booths at these events t o sell their o w n w o r k a n d the w o r k o f other N a t i v e artists. T h e y o b v i o u s l y w a n t t o sell their art w o r k a n d m a k e some money. B u t w h a t a b o u t the p r o b l e m o f consumption? T h e y are selling, a n d sometimes w e buy, b u t is this really a g o o d idea? W h a t a b o u t the a p p r o p r i ­ a t i o n factor? People have given me gifts o f t r a d i t i o n a l beaded j e w e l r y even t h o u g h I a m n o t N a t i v e . B u t w h e n s h o u l d I wear it? There is a very fine line between a p p r e c i a t i o n a n d a p p r o p r i a t i o n , respect a n d self-aggrandizement, a line t h a t is always shifting a n d impossible t o decide i n a d v a n c e . A p p r o p r i a t i o n goes h a n d i n h a n d w i t h c o l o n i a l i s m a n d the display o f au­ t h o r i t y . I n the N e w Age the o l d c o l o n i a l " W e w a n t i t , so w e ' l l take i t " m e n ­ t a l i t y has been rendered a b i t m o r e c o m p l e x i n t h a t a p p r o p r i a t i o n can func­ t i o n as an ostensible m a r k o f sensitivity t o another c u l t u r e . W h a t has caused this turn? O r is i t a t u r n at a l l or s i m p l y a r e i t e r a t i o n o f the c o l o n i a l m o m e n t , n o w u t i l i z i n g a different g r a m m a r ? M a n y n o n - N a t i v e people seem genuinely sensitive t o N a t i v e issues ( w h i c h I guess is a start), b u t they m a y be u n w i l l i n g t o take their sensitivity further, t o r e l i n q u i s h a u t h o r i t y , w h i c h begins by questioning everything, i n c l u d i n g their r i g h t t o do a n d de­ m a n d as they please. 17

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G r e y O w l and the P r o b l e m of Identity W e n d y Rose suggests t h a t the p r o b l e m o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n can be t h o u g h t t h r o u g h as one o f i n t e g r i t y a n d i n t e n t , o f presentation o f self a n d project. T h u s , the question becomes one o f w h a t k i n d s o f claims are being made, w h i c h moves i t a w a y f r o m n o t i o n s o f c u l t u r a l p u r i t y a n d bloodlines a n d back t o practice. Rose w r i t e s : As an Indian person who was deeply impressed w i t h the oral literature of the Catholic Church during my childhood, I might compose verse based on

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this poetic form. I might go on to publish the poems. I might also perform them, w i t h proper intonation, as i n Mass. A l l of this is appropriate and per­ missible. But I w o u l d not and could not claim to be a priest. I could not tell the audience that they were actually experiencing the transmutation that oc­ curs during Mass. A t the point I did endeavour to do such things, a discernable line of integrity—both personal and artistic—would have been crossed. 19

There seems t o be a c o n t i n u u m t h a t contains t a k i n g u p an art style a n d t a k i n g u p a ceremony, b u t an entirely n e w t h r e s h o l d is crossed w h e n a n o n N a t i v e declares t h a t he or she is i n fact a n I n d i a n . I t happens m o r e often t h a n w e m i g h t t h i n k , i n different versions t h a t range f r o m the so-called I n d i a n g r a n d m a s y n d r o m e , i n w h i c h people identify themselves w i t h refer­ ence t o a p r o b a b l y fictional, u n n a m e d N a t i v e ancestor, t o case after case o f o u t r i g h t f r a u d . Identities are housed i n the same conceptual warehouse as other objects a n d images. I d e n t i t y can be a mask, a n d this p a r t i c u l a r mask has t r u l y been danced before; hence its value increases. The p o i n t is n o t t h a t someone decides t o shift o r upgrade her or his i d e n t i t y i n t o a new, i m ­ p r o v e d f o r m ; t o some extent w e a l l d o this at different p o i n t s i n o u r lives. Rather, w h a t is i m p o r t a n t is the w a y t h a t " I n d i a n " has been one i d e n t i t y at p l a y i n the marketplace o f c u l t u r a l difference, a n d for a certain type o f n o n N a t i v e i t becomes the i d e n t i t y o f choice. A r c h i e Belaney, a n English w r i t e r a n d lecturer w h o m a r k e t e d himself as " G r e y O w l " i n the 1920s a n d 1930s remade himself i n t o precisely w h a t w h i t e people expected t o encounter i n a n I n d i a n m a n , w h i c h came d o w n t o fringed b u c k s k i n , a feel for nature a n d w i l d animals, a n d enough o f t h a t w h i f f o f u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y a n d anger t o m a k e people t h i n k they were getting the real t h i n g (see Figure 3.8). (This still w o r k s . A t a p o w w o w i n O t t a w a the master o f ceremonies p e r i o d i c a l l y jokes, " S o o n we're gonna scalp a l l the w h i t e people—just k i d d i n g , f o l k s , " w h i c h is precisely w h a t the tourists w a n t t o hear, o f course, another fabled danger like the one at the fancy h o ­ tel i n A s w a n . ) Belaney lived t o o soon t o offer sweat lodge ceremonies for $ 2 9 9 , b u t he d i d present himself as a n example o f the authentic N a t i v e m i n d a n d o f the n a t u r a l , t r a d i t i o n a l w a y o f life o f the n o r t h e r n w o o d s . A g a i n w e see the salvage p a r a d i g m at w o r k , again w i t h the w h i t e person acting as c u l t u r a l translator a n d m e d i u m . I t seems t h a t Belaney h a d always been obsessed w i t h the C a n a d i a n n o r t h a n d emigrated f r o m E n g l a n d as soon as he possibly c o u l d . H e headed straight for the O n t a r i o bush a n d d i d actually manage t o live o u t his ado­ lescent daydreams o f the great n o r t h e r n w o o d s . A t the same t i m e , however, he made a p o i n t o f p u b l i s h i n g articles a b o u t Canada i n L o n d o n ' s Country Life, i n some respects a rather o d d choice for a m a n o f the wilderness. B u t he was extremely successful because city people i n B r i t a i n a n d N o r t h A m e r i c a responded t o his stories a n d were able t o imagine a w o r l d where

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life was simple a n d very beautiful. A t a certain p o i n t he seems t o have de­ cided t h a t he c o u l d speak w i t h m o r e a u t h o r i t y i f he d i d so as a N a t i v e m a n , a l t h o u g h this was a f a i r l y c o m p l e x decision given the lengths t o w h i c h he carried his n e w identity. H i s publisher suggests t h a t he t o o k o n a M e t i s per­ sona t o convey a message a b o u t the necessity t o preserve the n a t u r a l w o r l d ; also, he says, Belaney was d r a w n i n t o the deception by the expectations o f his p u b l i c . B u t Belaney d i d seek i n a f a i r l y calculated m a n n e r t o present his

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w r i t i n g a n d his d r a m a t i c a l l y stoic stage personality as an example o f the authentic N a t i v e voice. T h e p o p u l a r i t y o f Grey O w l was enormous a n d is a g o o d example o f h o w actual cultures a n d c o m m u n i t i e s o f people can be o v e r d e t e r m i n e d by preconceived expectations o f w h a t a N a t i v e person o u g h t t o s o u n d l i k e . The p o i n t o f this discussion has little t o do w i t h Belaney himself o r w i t h his relations w i t h N a t i v e c o m m u n i t i e s (no d o u b t people i n these c o m m u n i t i e s d r e w their o w n conclusions a b o u t his b a c k g r o u n d ) , b u t rather concerns the enthusiasm o f his audiences, w h i c h i n c l u d e d the k i n g o f E n g l a n d , a l o n g w i t h c r o w d s o f o r d i n a r y people. Grey O w l ' s c l a i m t o a u t h e n t i c i t y still w o r k e d years after he h a d died. I h a d his stories read t o me by a t h i r d grade teacher i n O r e g o n , i n w h i c h w e city kids were solemnly offered the true i n ­ side story o f w h a t i t was l i k e t o be N a t i v e , as presented by a n authentic C a n a d i a n I n d i a n . T h e story i n v o l v e d baby beavers a n d a N a t i v e b r o t h e r a n d sister ( I t h i n k ) , a n d I can vaguely remember a canoe t r i p t h r o u g h the city o f O t t a w a , w h i c h seemed rather exotic t o us. I do n o t remember any residential schools. People were w i l l i n g t o believe Belaney's Grey O w l persona a n d w h a t he h a d t o say a b o u t the n a t u r a l w o r l d i n p a r t because his message was n o n threatening: Let us live i n peace; let us be k i n d t o animals, he t o l d t h e m . B u t there was a rather unpleasant p o l i t i c a l b a c k g r o u n d t o his performances: I n the years Belaney was f i l l i n g lecture halls, i t was illegal for N a t i v e people i n Canada t o w o r k for l a n d rights. T h i s means t h a t a person c o u l d go t o j a i l for even t a l k i n g a b o u t treaty o b l i g a t i o n s . O n the prairies a N a t i v e person c o u l d n o t leave the reserve w i t h o u t a pass. I t was illegal i n Canada for N a t i v e people t o dance, a n d i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a i n the 1920s people w e n t t o j a i l for dancing (others were forced t o t u r n over their ceremonial regalia t o the police). T h e C a n a d i a n g o v e r n m e n t m a i n t a i n e d a strict a s s i m i l a t i o n p o l i c y a n d i n 1 9 2 4 dissolved the t r a d i t i o n a l I r o q u o i s system o f g o v e r n m e n t by force a n d confiscated the w a m p u m belts t h a t recorded I r o q u o i s history. A l l this happened w h i l e Grey O w l was t a l k i n g a b o u t beavers. A n d h o w m a n y people h a d heard o f Deskaheh, the great Cayuga speaker w h o i n the 1920s argued for I r o q u o i s sovereignty at the League o f N a t i o n s ? Deskaheh spoke eloquently o f l a n d a n d justice a n d sought s u p p o r t f r o m n o n - N a t i v e s for treaty rights. W h i t e people u n d o u b t e d l y preferred t o listen t o Grey O w l . Grey O w l ' s p o p u l a r i t y w i t h the w h i t e p u b l i c begins t o appear i n a differ­ ent l i g h t . A g a i n , i n d i v i d u a l acts o f c u l t u r a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n do n o t float i n space b u t are u n d e r l a i n by very precise systems o f a u t h o r i t y . I n a society where l a n d theft is l e g i t i m a t e d by law, a n d where c o m m u n i t i e s a n d i n d i v i d ­ uals are repressed t o facilitate the c o l o n i z a t i o n o f t e r r i t o r y , the t a k i n g u p a n d p o p u l a r i z i n g o f the c u l t u r e under seige are n o t n e u t r a l acts. I n effect, Belaney t o l d n o n - N a t i v e s w h a t they w a n t e d t o hear, w h i c h was t h a t N a t i v e 20

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people d i d n o t actually concern themselves w i t h politics a n d indeed were quite content w i t h the c o l o n i a l status q u o . There m a y or m a y n o t have been a n y t h i n g w r o n g w i t h the Grey O w l stories themselves; the p o i n t is t h a t Belaney felt i t necessary t o lie t o achieve a certain c r e d i b i l i t y a n d t o feel bet­ ter i n his s k i n ( w h i c h , incidentally, he dyed). Was i t so impossible i n the d o m i n a n t society o f the t i m e f o r a w h i t e m a n t o w r i t e perceptively a n d p o w e r f u l l y a b o u t the n a t u r a l w o r l d ? O r was Belaney's a p p r o p r i a t i o n a b o u t m o n e y after all? Belaney's publisher w r i t e s o f the d i s a p p o i n t m e n t Grey O w l ' s readers ex­ perienced w h e n his true i d e n t i t y was revealed o n the eve o f W o r l d W a r I I : "Suddenly e v e r y t h i n g t h a t h a d been b u i l t up—the hope, the m o r a l c o m ­ p u n c t i o n t h a t people h a d felt f o r the first time—seemed e m p t y a n d f o o l i s h . We h a d been d u p e d . There was n o A r c a d i a . T h e machines were o u r mas­ ters, a n d w e h a d been d e l u d i n g ourselves i n t o t h i n k i n g w e c o u l d defy t h e m . " T h i s q u o t a t i o n illustrates one o f the unhappiest consequences o f p i n n i n g hopes a n d dreams o n people l i k e Belaney a n d o n the plastic m e d i ­ cine m e n o f the N e w Age. W h e n faced w i t h the inescapable fact t h a t the " w i s e " guides are charlatans, people q u i c k l y become disoriented a n d lose their sense t h a t other possibilities can c o n t i n u e t o o b t a i n despite the exis­ tence o f quacks. T h e y forget t h a t they set themselves u p t o be d u p e d by i m a g i n i n g t h a t they k n e w i n advance w h a t they w o u l d hear. T h e y w a n t e d t o be i n charge. A n o t h e r consequence o f such a p p r o p r i a t i o n s is t h a t b o t h Grey O w l a n d the c o n t e m p o r a r y fake shamans conceal the realities o f N a t i v e s u r v i v a l a n d c o n t i n u e t o tell n o n - N a t i v e s w h a t they w a n t t o hear. T h i s can o v e r w h e l m the c o n t e m p o r a r y Deskahehs, w h o have rather differ­ ent stories t o tell. 2 1

As an I n d i a n m a n Grey O w l c o u l d keep the machines at bay, b u t as a w h i t e m a n A r c h i e Belaney c o u l d n o t , even t h o u g h he spoke the same w o r d s a n d lived the same life i n the n a t u r a l w o r l d o f the w o o d s . A n d this is the p a r a d o x o f the Grey O w l p h e n o m e n o n : N a t i v e people c a r r y a certain m o r a l w e i g h t a m o n g n o n - N a t i v e s despite a n d because o f history, oppres­ sion, a n d c o n t i n u i n g racism, yet n o n - N a t i v e s are h u n g r y f o r t h a t glimpse o f a different system o f m o r a l i t y , i f n o t f o r the h i s t o r y t h a t goes w i t h i t . Part o f this hunger involves a desire t o c o n t a i n the questions raised by land-based m o r a l a n d religious systems—to domesticate these questions a n d place t h e m a m o n g those other people, the Indians. B u t p a r t o f this hunger is a r e c o g n i t i o n o f s o m e t h i n g real, m u c h as the t o u r i s t dances can give visitors a m o m e n t o f s o m e t h i n g real, s o m e t h i n g t h a t is l a c k i n g i n their lives. T h e p r o b l e m arises w h e n people t h i n k they can decide i n advance t h a t t r u t h w i l l l o o k a certain way, t h a t they can acquire the k n o w l e d g e they so b a d l y need by b u y i n g i t .

4 Art and Taxidermy: The Warehouse of Treasures ^The first time i t t r u l y struck me that there is a stream o f Western culture that seeks t o consume people's spirits was several years ago w h e n , o n a tourist m u ­ seum visit i n R o m e , I saw a L a k o t a ghost shirt o n display at the M u s e o Preistorico ed Etnografico. The museum was, somehow unsurprisingly, built as part o f a Fascist architectural project d u r i n g the 1930s and had encased the shirt i n a Plexiglas cube and p i n n e d i t d o w n w i t h intense beams o f light. This treatment reflects a t r e n d i n museum techniques o f display: The " a r t i f a c t " is decontextualized and treated as pure f o r m or aesthetic object, w h i c h is t o say, as a European art piece. The shirt was o l d , and I c o u l d see sweat stains. I t was so obviously somebody's shirt rather t h a n an exquisite objet d'art created for anonymous spectators. I t h i n k i t was the shirt's status as an everyday object that made v i e w i n g i t so disturbing; suddenly i t seemed unbearably cruel that this b u i l d i n g i n Italy should have captured and displayed as a t r o p h y an article o f someone's clothing. T h a t this particular shirt was one used i n ceremony, and moreover a ceremony that was b l o o d i l y suppressed (something else n o t talked about at the museum), made the entire process worse, legitimating and mystifying the seizure o f the L a k o t a shirt i n the name o f science. As w e near the m i l l e n n i u m , i t has become increasingly clear, even t o some o f us at the heart o f Western c u l t u r e , t h a t there is s o m e t h i n g n o t quite r i g h t a b o u t the idea o f large b u i l d i n g s stuffed w i t h the b o o t y o f f o r m e r l y conquered people. T h i s was always o b v i o u s t o the people whose culture was being carted o f f t o Europe, N e w Y o r k , or T o r o n t o , b u t o n l y recently have m a n y i n the West challenged the a b i l i t y o f Western experts t o repre­ sent the rest o f the w o r l d o r the desirability o f their d o i n g so. M u s e u m s ex­ ist t o display b o o t y a n d p o w e r a n d i n this sense constitute w h a t L o u i s Althusser calls i d e o l o g i c a l state apparatuses. I say this, n o t t o disparage the endeavors o f each a n d every person i n v o l v e d w i t h such i n s t i t u t i o n s , b u t t o d r a w a t t e n t i o n t o another w a y wetiko psychosis is manifested i n a m a i n ­ stream, c o m m o d i f i e d c u l t u r e . C o l o n i a l i s m has always i n v o l v e d the transfer 107

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o f objects as m u c h as the c o n t r o l o f h u m a n beings a n d t e r r i t o r y . People subject t o c a n n i b a l economies were t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o units o f labor, a n d their bodies were m o v e d a r o u n d a n d set t o tasks n o t o f their o w n choosing. People died for n o g o o d reason. T h e i r possessions—some o f w h i c h be­ longed t o i n d i v i d u a l s , others t o associations a n d c o m m u n i t i e s — b e g a n t o m o v e t o w a r d the E u r o p e a n centers o f power. T h e colonizers decided for reasons o f their o w n w h i c h objects w o u l d be m o v e d : Some were t a k e n be­ cause the objects were w o r t h m o n e y t o the colonizers, some because they were considered grotesque, a n d some because they were classified as "beau­ t i f u l . " M a n y o f these objects f o u n d their w a y i n t o museums, t o be classified a n d defined a c c o r d i n g t o current scientific o r t h o d o x i e s a n d t o be e x a m i n e d by the p u b l i c at large. M u s e u m s are f o u n d e d o n several extremely eccentric a n d questionable assumptions a b o u t life a n d death a n d a b o u t the r e l a t i o n o f these t o repre­ sentation. I f w e t h i n k the matter t h r o u g h carefully, the concept o f muse­ u m s — p a r t i c u l a r l y ethnographic museums a n d museums o f " n a t u r a l his­ t o r y " — q u i c k l y dissolves i n t o strangeness a n d n e c r o p h i l i a . M u s e u m s can t r u l y be t h o u g h t o f as c a n n i b a l i n s t i t u t i o n s : large edifices c o n t a i n i n g stuffed animals a n d the p a r a p h e r n a l i a o f cultures believed t o be dead or d y i n g , a l l organized a c c o r d i n g t o the c u r r e n t scientific theory. H e r e the process a n d display o f c o n s u m p t i o n are p l a y e d o u t i n one o f their purest f o r m s , the c o n ­ s u m p t i o n o f c u l t u r e supposedly t a k i n g place for l o f t y motives rather t h a n for the m a r k e t , at least a c c o r d i n g t o the m y t h s o f science. I n a very em­ p h a t i c sense the m u s e u m is the i n s t i t u t i o n w h e r e the c o l o n i z i n g nations seek t o display their p o w e r over life a n d death, over the past a n d over a l l f o r m e r empires, a n d over those they have conquered. I t is one o f the m o s t i m p o r t a n t sites w h e r e the archons o f Western c u l t u r e seek t o concretely demonstrate the v a l i d i t y o f their claims t o c u l t u r a l a n d m o r a l s u p e r i o r i t y over the rest o f the w o r l d . Life a n d death: D e a t h is displayed as life or, rather, is t r a n s m u t e d i n t o life by the objects t h a t v i v i f y the people a n d animals they display a n d i m p e r ­ sonate. T h e n o w - e x t i n c t quagga exists o n l y i n the m u s e u m , b u t t h r o u g h c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f its a n a t o m i c a l f o r m the spectator perceives the l i v i n g a n i ­ m a l or, m o r e precisely, some version o f the l i v i n g a n i m a l . Possession o f the stuffed a n i m a l suggests t h a t thanks t o science a n d m o d e r n techniques o f representation, the l i v i n g a n i m a l is n o t " l o s t . " Essence is collapsed i n t o m o r p h o l o g y , a n d a lifelike appearance draws a t t e n t i o n a w a y f r o m the fact t h a t these animals are n o t real (hence the c o m m o n r e a c t i o n o f s m a l l c h i l ­ dren, w h i c h wavers between delight a n d the tearful question " W h y d i d they have t o k i l l t h e m ? " ) . By m a k i n g dead things l o o k alive, t a x i d e r m y n o t o n l y strives for a n d normalizes the g o d l i k e p o w e r s o f the expert b u t also dis­ places life t h r o u g h a n a b i l i t y t o represent the l i v i n g . L i k e the z o o l o g i c a l gar­ den, w h i c h offers a representation o f animals t h a t live, yet whose c a p t i v i t y

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permits o n l y a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f their existence, t a x i d e r m y substitutes ap­ pearance for the real, f o r w h a t exists i n the w o r l d o n its o w n terms. Tax­ idermy forces the animals t o speak, b u t i t is o n l y v e n t r i l o q u i s m . A t a x i d e r m a l aesthetic suffuses the m u s e u m . Because the m u s e u m is able t o m a n i p u l a t e life a n d death, ways o f life believed t o be dead or d y i n g are resuscitated i n ethnographic e x h i b i t i o n s . T h e n o t i o n s t h a t other cultures exist as objects o f study, t h a t the m u s e u m has a responsibility t o salvage as­ pects o f cultures under pressure f r o m c o l o n i a l i s m , t h a t the spectator's pe­ rusal o f this display o f culture constitutes some f o r m o f understanding, a n d indeed t h a t understanding m u st be mediated by experts enforce the separa­ t i o n between t h e m a n d us. T h i s separation makes i t extremely difficult t o a p p r o a c h other cultures respectfully or indeed even t o imagine d o i n g so, w h i c h at times seems t o be at least p a r t o f the i n t e n t i o n . M o s t e x h i b i t i o n s o f so-called ethnographic cultures elide c o l o n i a l i s m altogether, p r e f e r r i n g an idealized space u n t o u c h e d by c a p i t a l a n d b a d taste. I n some instances p h o t o g r a p h s are used t o verify t h a t some bodies are still alive a n d t h a t t r a ­ d i t i o n a l arts a n d technologies, like the people themselves, are n o t facing pressure f r o m m u l t i n a t i o n a l interests. A g a i n , m o r p h o l o g i c a l accuracy func­ tions as a n a l i b i . T h e remnants o f t r a d i t i o n a l , land-based societies are usurped a n d treated as l i v i n g fossils a n d , like the quagga, assumed t o live i f possessed by the m u s e u m . Land-based societies continue t o exist as a metaphor, a n d the techniques o f representation used t o make these societies accessible t o the Western viewer become another w a y t o subdue a n d sup­ p l a n t t h e m . T h e question o f h o w a l l this has come t o be is obscured. I n the last few years there has been a f l u r r y o f critiques o f museums. Books w i t h titles such as Exhibiting Cultures, Sally Price's Primitive Art in Civilized Places, a n d a p l e t h o r a o f c r i t i c a l articles call i n t o question some o f the assumptions o n w h i c h museums a n d related i n s t i t u t i o n s are based. M a n y o f those w h o w r i t e these w o r k s are i n the business. For example, M i c h a e l Ames, director o f the M u s e u m o f A n t h r o p o l o g y at the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , has w r i t t e n a b o o k a b o u t p r o b l e m s o f representation a n d c u l t u r a l difference i n c o n t e m p o r a r y a n t h r o p o l o g y museums. T h e at­ tempts by m a n y o f these w r i t e r s t o rehabilitate the m u s e u m a n d render i t p o s t c o l o n i a l are often the result o f a genuine unease w i t h the c o l o n i a l his­ t o r y o f ethnographic museums, b u t few suggest a wholesale d i s m a n t l i n g o f museums a n d a r e t u r n o f ceremonial a n d other objects back t o the people w h o made a n d used t h e m a n d w h o need t h e m t o survive spiritually. Few still are even prepared t o let this come u p as a question, w h i c h reveals the l i m i t s o f g o o d i n t e n t i o n s . M o s t m u s e u m people, n o matter h o w c r i t i c a l o f the c o l o n i a l h i s t o r y o f the m u s e u m , continue t o subscribe t o n o t i o n s o f sci­ ence a n d o f expertise, w h i c h c o n t i n u e t o m a i n t a i n t h a t objects are best o f f i n places where they can be seen by w h i t e people, even i f certain objects were n o t intended t o be displayed. M o s t c o n t e n d t h a t the m u s e u m is the 1

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site where these objects can be p r o p e r l y l o o k e d after. A n d most continue t o m a i n t a i n a n o t i o n o f the authentic object, w h i c h precludes i n advance the s u b s t i t u t i o n o f reproductions i n m u s e u m displays a n d the p o s s i b i l i t y o f re­ t u r n o f ceremonial objects t o the people t o w h o m they belong.

Resacralization of the A u t h e n t i c O b j e c t N o matter h o w elaborate the e x h i b i t i o n , i n the final analysis museums dis­ p l a y objects. M u s e u m s presuppose a p a r t i c u l a r a p p r o a c h t o the p r o b l e m o f the object i n itself a n d m a i n t a i n a set o f assumptions a b o u t the r e l a t i o n o f objects t o culture. N o t i o n s o f o r i g i n a l i t y a n d authenticity, a n d o f the rela­ t i o n o f detailed i n f o r m a t i o n t o " t r u t h , " underlie museums' presentations o f the objects they administer. One o f the most cherished convictions o f h i g h culture concerns the p r i m a c y o f the authentic object, w h i c h is believed t o p r o v i d e an experience that a r e p r o d u c t i o n cannot. I n medieval churches a n d early m u s e u m collections the language o f o b ­ jects was p a r t o f a religious discourse. Isolated objects were displayed t o signify socio-religious abstractions a n d , like the t o t a l environments o f c o n ­ t e m p o r a r y museums, t o represent the real, here by their a b i l i t y t o c o n ­ cretize classes o f concepts. T h e object was i n t r i n s i c a l l y p a r t o f a sacred or­ der o f m e a n i n g , regardless o f w h e t h e r this meaning was apparent t o h u m a n beings. For example, the o s t r i c h eggs displayed i n medieval churches d r e w people t o the b u i l d i n g a n d referred t o the Christian's r e l a t i o n t o G o d : Again some say that the ostrich, as being a forgetful bird, leaveth her eggs in the dust (Job xxxix:14), and at length when she beholdeth a certain star returneth unto them, and cheereth then by her presence. Therefore the eggs of os­ triches are hung in churches to signify that man, being left by God on account of his sins, if at length he be illuminated by Divine Light, remembereth his faults and returneth to H i m , who by looking at him His mercy cherisheth him. 2

The rather c o n v o l u t e d logic o f this passage nevertheless firmly a n d explic­ i t l y ties the object—the egg—to a sacred order a n d an entire c o m p l e x o f ideas. O s t r i c h eggs, a l o n g w i t h the stone tools, kayaks, a n d other objects e x h i b i t e d i n E u r o p e a n churches, e m b o d i e d entire canons o f f a i t h a n d , like the relics o f saints displayed w i t h t h e m , possessed i n their substance spiri­ t u a l a n d m e d i c i n a l qualities. Similarly, the unicorn's h o r n f o u n d i n every n o t e w o r t h y m u s e u m o f the sixteenth a n d seventeenth centuries testified t o the existence o f the a n i m a l a n d i l l u s t r a t e d the p o w e r o f G o d t o p e r f o r m miracles t h r o u g h the healing p o w e r o f the h o r n itself. Today there seem t o be t w o approaches t o the display o f objects i n muse­ ums. Unless an object f r o m another culture is e x p l i c i t l y identified as art, i t

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tends t o be presented i n such a w a y t h a t i t serves a didactic f u n c t i o n similar t o the animals i n n a t u r a l h i s t o r y d i o r a m a s . T h e object is i m p o r t a n t insofar as i t is p a r t o f a larger w h o l e . Once a n object is n a m e d as art either by the relevant specialists o r b y the m a r k e t , i t tends t o be e x h i b i t e d alone, dis­ played as a n aesthetic f o r m rather t h a n a source o f c u l t u r a l i n f o r m a t i o n (as has o c c u r r e d w i t h N a t i v e A m e r i c a n items, hence the b o u t i q u e l i k e display o f the L a k o t a shirt i n R o m e ) . A r t universalizes the object a n d places i t b e y o n d culture. A n o t h e r d i s t i n c t i o n occurs a m o n g the types o f societies being dis­ played: Whereas ethnographic museums t e n d t o assimilate the object i n t o an e d u c a t i o n a l w h o l e , u t i l i z i n g mannequins a n d reconstructed villages, dis­ plays r e f e r r i n g t o i m p e r i a l societies almost always treat the object i n a m a n ­ ner analogous t o the presentation o f E u r o p e a n art pieces. T h e artifact o f ancient E g y p t , Greece, o r R o m e enjoys a p a r t i c u l a r p r o m i n e n c e a n d is ex­ alted b o t h as fine art a n d as a n expression o f i m p e r i a l power. A l t h o u g h these objects m a y be f r a m e d by elaborate e x h i b i t i o n s t h a t offer c u l t u r a l i n ­ f o r m a t i o n , as f o r the T u t a n k h a m e n grave goods i n the 1970s, i t is the o b ­ jects themselves t h a t are celebrated, a n d the display serves p r i m a r i l y as b a c k d r o p . A u t h e n t i c i t y is c o n t a i n e d i n the object itself rather t h a n being signified by didactic displays. A n c i e n t a n d m o d e r n empires come together t h r o u g h a m a n i p u l a t i o n o f a universalized n o t i o n o f aesthetic value, because i m p e r i a l art is i n t e r p r e t e d a c c o r d i n g t o ideas c o n c e r n i n g the nature o f the "masterpiece" a p p l i e d t o Western art. C o n t e m p l a t i o n o f the o r i g i n a l masterpiece is believed t o p r o ­ vide an e m o t i o n a l , quasi-religious experience. For example, f o r many, m a n y people the genuine M o n a Lisa o r Venus de M i l o p r o v o k e s sentiments t h a t a r e p r o d u c t i o n does n o t (others, expecting transcendence, experience d i s a p p o i n t m e n t at the sight o f a n o f t - r e p r o d u c e d o r i g i n a l art object). Similarly, the P a r t h e n o n M a r b l e s o r the bust o f N e f e r t i t i is e x h i b i t e d t o en­ hance its status as a u n i q u e masterpiece o f the E u r o p e a n c u l t u r a l heritage (the a b s o r p t i o n o f E g y p t i n t o the Western t r a d i t i o n is one reason this c o u n ­ t r y has h a b i t u a l l y been treated by the latter as i f separate f r o m A f r i c a p r o p e r ) . T h e sensation derived f r o m contact w i t h a famous ancient object is revealingly described by museologists: " L o o k i n g at the o r i g i n a l [Rosetta Stone], the least i n f o r m e d v i s i t o r comes t o feel t h a t his personal experience has been extended t o i n c l u d e this famous piece, a n d he thereby begins t o sense t h a t the i n t e l l e c t u a l t r i u m p h o f C h a m p o l l i o n . . . i n first deciphering the mysterious, ancient E g y p t i a n language has become a p a r t o f his per­ sonal b a c k g r o u n d o f awareness." 3

W h a t is seen as irrelevant, o f course, is t h a t C h a m p o i l l o n ' s " i n t e l l e c t u a l t r i u m p h " (itself an o d d t u r n o f phrase) was made possible by N a p o l e o n ' s i n v a s i o n o f E g y p t , d u r i n g w h i c h huge a m o u n t s o f m a t e r i a l were carted back t o Europe a n d housed i n state i n s t i t u t i o n s such as museums a n d i n

I 12 Art and Taxidermy various other p u b l i c sites. E d w a r d Said has made the p o i n t i n his seminal w o r k Orientalism t h a t N a p o l e o n ' s e x p e d i t i o n was " i n m a n y ways the very m o d e l o f a t r u l y scientific a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f one culture by a n o t h e r , " w h i c h places the self-congratulatory remarks o f the m u s e u m d o c u m e n t i n a rather different l i g h t . H e r e , as w i t h ethnology, scientific objectivity seems t o m e a n t h a t the focus o n the object o f study interdicts any discussion o f power. (The B r i t i s h M u s e u m ' s presentation o f the Rosetta Stone is i n fact a m a r ­ k e t i n g t r i u m p h . A l t h o u g h very few people can actually read any o f the three languages inscribed o n the stone, representations o f this object consis­ tently outsell any other souvenir o f this m u s e u m . ) 4

5

Temporality and W r i t i n g W h e n e t h n o l o g y c o n s t i t u t e d itself as a science i n the nineteenth century, i t a p p r o p r i a t e d as its object o f study t r a d i t i o n a l , generally land-based people l i v i n g outside o f E u r o p e a n a n d N o r t h A m e r i c a n cities—in other w o r d s , people classified as n o n w h i t e , defined as u n - o r semicivilized, a n d i nci den­ tally subject t o E u r o p e a n c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t y (to a s o m e w h a t lesser extent, people speaking m i n o r i t y languages i n Europe p r o p e r were also considered a p p r o p r i a t e subjects for a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l study). Because supposedly scien­ tific n o t i o n s o f c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n meant t h a t m a n y Europeans t o o k their r i g h t t o rule the rest o f the w o r l d for granted, questions o f c o l o n i a l i s m were excluded f r o m the ethnographic discourse. " L i t e r a c y " was the t e r m used t o d e l i m i t e t h n o l o g y f r o m other scientific fields. People w h o preferred t o m a i n t a i n a n o r a l culture were considered t o be p r o f o u n d l y different f r o m people l i v i n g i n a w r i t t e n culture (by w h i c h I m e a n w r i t i n g i n the n a r r o w sense, as w e have learned t o say since Jacques D e r r i d a ) . T h e differences t h a t do exist between the o r a l a n d w r i t t e n a p p r o a c h t o k n o w l e d g e were n o t necessarily the ones t h a t ethnographers decided were i m p o r t a n t a n d hence stressed. O r a l i t y was v i e w e d as a lack o f w r i t i n g rather t h a n as a system o f t r a n s m i t t i n g k n o w l e d g e t h a t has certain advantages a n d strengths i n itself. There are some very g o o d reasons for refusing literacy t h a t have t o do w i t h conceptual agility a n d flexibility o f k n o w l e d g e t r a n s m i s s i o n . T h e arts o f o r a l people fell under the p u r v i e w o f e t h n o l o g y a n d were seen less as aesthetic objects t h a n as objects o f scientific i n q u i r y . T h u s , the Gilgamesh sculptures are elevated t o fine art a n d displayed i n the L o u v r e because they were made by specialist artisans w h o lived i n an i m p e r i a l soci­ ety t h a t used w r i t i n g . D y a k bis-poles are e x h i b i t e d i n the Musee de l ' H o m m e w i t h w o o d e n mallets used t o prepare f o o d . T h e R o y a l B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a M u s e u m speaks o f N a t i v e h i s t o r y p r i o r t o w h i t e contact as a " 1 2 , 0 0 0 year gap—a reference t o the gap i n o u r k n o w l e d g e t h a t occurred 6

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between the end o f the last ice age a n d the a r r i v a l o f the w h i t e m a n , " w h i c h n o t o n l y suggests t h a t k n o w l e d g e is n o t k n o w l e d g e unless w h i t e peo­ ple possess i t b u t also negates the value o f songs, stories, a n d other indige­ nous ways o f r e c o u n t i n g histories. T h e p r i v i l e g i n g o f w r i t i n g disarticulates i n d i v i d u a l societies as w e l l ; aristocratic arts such as H i n d u temple sculp­ tures are i n c l u d e d w i t h the h i g h aesthetic t r a d i t i o n s o f the West i n the B r i t i s h M u s e u m , whereas village I n d i a is classified as a n ethnographic c u l ­ ture a n d e x h i b i t e d i n the M u s e u m o f M a n . T h e Western t r a d i t i o n is thus able t o absorb the social a n d religious aristocracies o f other ages a n d pose itself as i n h e r i t o r , b u t the t r a d i t i o n displays objects i n such a w a y as t o c o n ­ stitute a subtext o f class: I m p e r i a l art imposes a n d evokes h u m i l i t y f r o m the spectator, whereas village societies are t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o playpens t h r o u g h the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f m o d e l huts t h a t the spectator m a y enter t o inspect the arts a n d utensils o f these cultures. " A f t e r a l l , " whispers the c o l o n i a l official t o the spectator, "they are l i k e c h i l d r e n . " There is one rather strange a n o m a l y i n the i n s t i t u t i o n a l d i s t i n c t i o n be­ t w e e n h i g h a n d l o w cultures. T h e arts o f i m p e r i a l M e x i c o are generally housed i n ethnographic museums rather t h a n w i t h the other empires i n the n a t i o n a l museums. Assyria a n d C h i n a go w i t h Greece, R o m e , a n d me­ dieval Europe; M e x i c o goes w i t h Polynesia i n a b u i l d i n g t h a t is usually w a y across t o w n , at least i n L o n d o n a n d Paris. T h i s is n o t t h a t s u r p r i s i n g given the frankness o f Aztec i m p e r i a l representation a n d the extent t o w h i c h the state is e x p l i c i t l y l i n k e d t o violence a n d the p r o d u c t i o n o f mass death; the l o f t y idealism o f the state-polis so cherished i n Western h i g h c u l ­ ture is difficult t o sustain. T h e w i c k e d Aztecs w e n t entirely t o o far a n d so m u s t be expelled f r o m the i m p e r i a l c l u b , b u t this e x p u l s i o n m u s t be j u s t i ­ fied. Consequently, great pains are t a k e n t o i n f o r m spectators t h a t the Aztecs lacked true w r i t i n g , even t h o u g h they used a c o m p l e x w r i t i n g sys­ t e m t h a t i n c l u d e d i m p e r i a l histories, religious a n d calendrical texts, ge­ nealogies, economic records, almanacs, a n d b o o k s o n m e d i c i n e . T h i s s o m e w h a t c o n v o l u t e d excuse f o r the e x c l u s i o n o f M e x i c o f r o m the cate­ g o r y o f w o r l d c i v i l i z a t i o n seems t o derive f r o m the l o n g - s t a n d i n g fear a n d h o r r o r t h a t this society has been able t o p r o v o k e i n the West, p a r t i c u l a r l y the subterranean dread t h a t the Aztecs m i g h t be able t o tell us t o o m u c h a b o u t ourselves. T h e p r i v i l e g i n g o f w r i t i n g as the central c r i t e r i o n f o r classifying societies i n the m u s e u m deserves a closer l o o k because o f w h a t i t can do t o t e m p o ­ rality. M u s e u m s c o n t a i n objects f r o m cultures w i d e l y separated i n t i m e a n d space, yet t i m e is m a n i p u l a t e d i n a peculiar telescopy w h e r e b y the past is made t o converge w i t h the present, w h i c h i n t u r n b o t h assimilates a n d dis­ articulates the past at v a r y i n g rates. T h i s relativizes b o t h t i m e a n d space, i n effect o b l i t e r a t i n g b o t h , b u t the m u s e u m conceals this absence by references 8

9

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t o concrete h i s t o r i c a l instances. Retrospection becomes a w a y o f decoding a n d n a t u r a l i z i n g the present, a n d the present becomes the lens t h r o u g h w h i c h the past is constructed. M i l l e n n i a collapse as ancient empires seem t o advance i n t i m e a n d coa­ lesce w i t h the present. T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f c o n t i n u a draws the past closer as correspondences a n d a series o f p r i m a l events are "discovered." Each t i m e classical Athens is declared t o be the "first d e m o c r a c y " or I n k h a t e n the "first m o n o t h e i s t , " the fifth century B . C . or even the second m i l l e n n i u m B . C . E . is t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o f a m i l i a r t e r r a i n as these societies are made t o m i r ­ r o r c o n t e m p o r a r y , Western preoccupations. T h i s can be done because an­ cient empires recorded their histories a n d museums can therefore name a n d date specific events, w a r s , r o y a l smitings, a n d so f o r t h . A g a i n , the use o f w r i t i n g qua detail is v a l o r i z e d a n d comes t o stand for a k i n d o f a u t h e n t i c i t y i n itself. T h e presence o f dates ratifies these societies' possession o f t i m e , w h i c h i n t u r n validates their presence i n " h i s t o r y " a n d their i n s e r t i o n i n t o the classificatory construct designated as " c i v i l i z a t i o n . " I t is this i n c l u s i o n i n t o the t i m e - h i s t o r y - c i v i l i z a t i o n c o m p l e x t h a t permits the r i g h t sort o f an­ cient empires t o signify c o n t e m p o r a r y empires a n d t h a t dissolves the t i m e separating their societies f r o m the p r e s e n t . 10

E t h n o g r a p h i c a n d n a t u r a l h i s t o r y displays are less l i k e l y t o focus o n the i n d i v i d u a l object t h a n art museums are. T h e role o f the ethnographic m u ­ seum is t o m a k e these objects speak t o the spectator by p l a c i n g t h e m w i t h i n t o t a l environments a n d complete systems o f representation i n w h i c h the o b ­ jects are a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h one another t o reproduce a visibly complete w o r l d . T h e o r i g i n a l object is still the basis o f the museum's a b i l i t y t o create evocative displays a n d o f the display itself, b u t the object's p r i m a c y is cam­ ouflaged by the increasing s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f techniques o f representation a n d the emphasis o n t o t a l displays. C o n t e m p o r a r y museology w a r n s against d i s p l a y i n g depersonalized o b ­ jects, so mannequins are constructed t o breathe life i n t o s u r r o u n d i n g o b ­ jects. A l t h o u g h the detail o f the displays can be impressive, the m i n d still eventually turns t o z o m b i e movies. Dressed i n c l o t h i n g once w o r n by l i v i n g bodies, these synthetic bodies authenticate the object by p e r f o r m i n g the frozen behavior o f the people t o w h o m the things once belonged a n d by representing l i v i n g humans. T h e m a n n e q u i n always defers t o a n d is over­ shadowed by the object, w h i c h i n t u r n is a n i m a t e d by the presence o f an er­ satz, lifeless b o d y i n the display. Some mannequins achieve a n a t o m i c a l per­ fection t h r o u g h h a v i n g been cast f r o m l i v i n g h u m a n "specimens"; t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o objects by museological techniques, real people n o w live o n l y as plaster o f paris, offering a n i l l u s i o n o f themselves a n d o f the l i v i n g . B u t w h a t is being displayed is the a b i l i t y t o construct the real. A g a i n , m o r ­ p h o l o g y rules a n d a u t h e n t i c i t y becomes a question o f technique.

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T h e spectator enters a coastal r a i n forest i n the R o y a l B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a M u s e u m a n d confronts a reality created by techniques o f display: Trees, a r u n n i n g stream, a n d live crustaceans are j u x t a p o s e d against stuffed animals a n d recorded birdcalls. Fascinating, b u t do n o t the trees a n d shoreline i m i ­ tated i n d o o r s exist just outside the w a l l s o f the m u s e u m ( i f the forest has n o t been clear-cut)? W h a t precisely is being l e g i t i m i z e d by the museum? I n the R i j k s m u s e u m v o o r V o l k e n k u n d e i n L e i d e n a n o r t h A f g h a n m a r k e t t o w n is recreated i n fastidious detail, w i t h streets a n d teahouses peopled by life-sized m a n n e q u i n s a n d m a r k e t sounds p i p e d i n t o reinforce authenticity. Films a n d slides r u n c o n t i n u o u s l y t o reveal a d d i t i o n a l data n o t furnished by the m o d e l . I n these t o t a l displays w h a t is represented is n o t the m a r k e t t o w n o r the r a i n forest b u t the art o f display itself, revealed t h r o u g h a t a x i ­ d e r m y t h a t has as its object the social b o d y or the b o d y o f the earth. E t h n o g r a p h i c e x h i b i t i o n s construct a past t h a t is b o t h t e m p o r a l a n d spa­ t i a l ; t r a d i t i o n a l societies are displayed i n something called the "ethno­ graphic present," a t e r m referring t o an i m a g i n a r y t i m e p r i o r t o c o l o n i a l contact as reconstructed a p o s t e r i o r i by ethnologists. T h e ethnographic pres­ ent is based o n n o t i o n s o f c u l t u r a l a u t h e n t i c i t y a n d p u r i t y , a n d w h e n c o m ­ bined w i t h an exclusion o f l o c a l histories, this concept suggests t h a t o r a l so­ cieties exist o n l y i n stasis a n d are moreover i m p r i s o n e d i n the past. C u l t u r a l a u t h e n t i c i t y becomes something t h a t is determined by experts b u t t h a t can exist o n l y as a chimera a n d as a w a y o f silencing c o n t e m p o r a r y issues faced by t r a d i t i o n a l peoples, w h o can never l o o k as authentic as the m a n n e q u i n s o f the ethnographic present. T h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a past a u t h e n t i c i t y has ef­ fects: So m a n y y o u n g (and n o t so y o u n g ) w h i t e kids seem t o expect the c o n ­ t e m p o r a r y First N a t i o n s people they meet t o wear w a r bonnets a n d live i n teepees, w h i c h can delegitimize the experiences o f actual N a t i v e people. A n d , o f course, these w h i t e kids can always b u y the i m p e d i m e n t a o f the ex­ otic culture o f choice a n d create their o w n displays o f difference a n d au­ thenticity. To recognize t h a t o r a l societies exist i n t i m e a n d have their o w n histories is t o begin collapsing the u l t i m a t e l y e m p t y a n d uninteresting d i s t i n c t i o n be­ t w e e n societies classified as p r i m i t i v e a n d those deemed civilized. Specific h i s t o r i c a l instances, such as m i g r a t i o n s , federations, o r acts o f resistance against c o l o n i a l i s m , are displaced, a n d t r a d i t i o n a l societies seem t o vanish once they enter Western history. T h e R o y a l B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a M u s e u m ' s l i n ­ ear progression o f p r o v i n c i a l h i s t o r y begins w i t h a m a m m o t h a n d ends w i t h m o d e r n cities: N o r t h w e s t Coast N a t i v e societies, defined here p r i m a r ­ i l y by t r a d i t i o n a l arts a n d architecture, seem a b r u p t l y t o disappear a r o u n d 1 8 8 0 , a l t h o u g h a s m a l l corner mentions s m a l l p o x , l a n d claims, a n d the b a n n i n g o f the p o t l a t c h . T h e m u s e u m draws a veil over h o w i t acquired the objects o n display, a l i b i i n g this question by focusing o n h o w i t n o w c o n ­ sults N a t i v e people a b o u t such displays. T h i s elision o f b o t h the h i s t o r i c a l 11

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a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y effects o f c o l o n i a l i s m , o f course, also has t o do w i t h the larger issue o f t o u r i s m a n d the w a y places such as B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a m a r k e t sanitized versions o f N a t i v e histories a n d cultures t o d r a w t o u r i s t dollars t o the area. E t h n o l o g i c a l displays present the " r e a l " N a t i v e as u n c o n t a m i n a t e d by contact w i t h m o d e r n society. T h e e x h i b i t i o n s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y " T h i r d W o r l d " p r o b l e m s t h a t have become p o p u l a r i n H o l l a n d a n d G e r m a n y (for instance, the T r o p e n M u s e u m i n A m s t e r d a m , f o r m e r l y the Ost M u s e u m o f the D u t c h c o l o n i a l empire o f the East Indies, n o w a p p a r e n t l y rehabilitated) also suggest a n o t i o n o f c u l t u r a l stasis a n d a v i e w o f t i m e i n w h i c h a neverquite-defined change is assumed t o have w r e n c h e d the supposedly passive N a t i v e o u t o f a p r i m e v a l state. Present-day e x p l o i t a t i o n is construed by a l ­ l u s i o n t o a happier past, a n d the future is presented as a n o m i n o u s question m a r k , again referring t o a w a y o f l i f e — a n ethnographic present, this t i m e i m p l i c i t — t h a t n o longer exists as w e l l as t o a n u n d e r l y i n g c o n v i c t i o n t h a t these t r a d i t i o n a l ways o f life w i l l i n e v i t a b l y disappear against the jugger­ naut o f Western c u l t u r e . T h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t n o n u r b a n , land-based cultures are by d e f i n i t i o n m o r i b u n d can operate as another means o f n e o c o l o n i a l p a c i f i c a t i o n be­ cause i t makes Western c u l t u r e appear absolutely seamless, i n effect erasing margins, resistances, a n d p o i n t s o f s u r v i v a l ( b o t h i n the West a n d else­ w h e r e , as i t happens). By presenting c u l t u r a l a u t h e n t i c i t y as s o m e t h i n g t h a t o n l y o c c u r r e d p r i o r t o c o l o n i a l i s m , such displays a l l o w the spectator t o dis­ miss c o n t e m p o r a r y struggles a n d syncretic elements o f t r a d i t i o n a l cultures as i n a u t h e n t i c .

Necrophilia One o f the most monstrous aspects o f museum collections, and one that ren­ ders most explicit its cannibal nature, are the drawers full o f skulls and bones of dead colonized people. Cannibals consume h u m a n bodies. T h a t this is done i n the name o f science and i n w h a t p u r p o r t s t o be a spirit o f objective i n q u i r y does n o t change the fact that w h a t the museum contains are dead bodies. Despite the fine t a l k a b o u t science a n d c o n t r i b u t i o n t o h u m a n k n o w l ­ edge, the m u s e u m m a i n t a i n s its collections o f h u m a n skulls a n d skeletal re­ mains t o demonstrate science's mastery over life a n d death, m u c h like the t a x i d e r m y a n d n a t u r a l h i s t o r y dioramas i n m a n y museums. Possession o f h u m a n remains signifies the conquest o f the dead t h r o u g h the a b i l i t y t o i n ­ terpret a n d recreate life i n the showcase. As w i t h religious relics, the dead are used t o naturalize the discourse o f the l i v i n g . T h e r e p a t r i a t i o n o f bones to N a t i v e c o m m u n i t i e s continues t o be the subject o f debate i n archaeolog­ ical a n d m u s e u m circles, despite the c o n t i n u a l attempts by N a t i v e people t o

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e x p l a i n t o these "experts" w h y there are p r o b l e m s , b o t h p o l i t i c a l a n d spiri­ t u a l , w i t h m a i n t a i n i n g collections o f skeletal m a t e r i a l a n d grave goods. There is nevertheless a fair b i t o f resistance a m o n g w h i t e academics t o the idea o f N a t i v e c o m m u n i t i e s h a v i n g a say i n w h a t happens t o the bones o f their ancestors. T h e requirements o f scientific i n q u i r y continue t o be i n ­ v o k e d as an a l i b i for grave r o b b i n g despite the m a n y accounts o f suppos­ edly scientific desecrations, some o f w h i c h have been documented i n s t o m ­ a c h - t u r n i n g d e t a i l . Even t h o u g h some N a t i v e A m e r i c a n skeletal m a t e r i a l is n o w being r e t u r n e d t o the c o m m u n i t i e s f r o m w h i c h i t was r e m o v e d , there are vast numbers o f bones a n d skulls t h a t were " c o l l e c t e d " so hap­ hazardly t h a t museums have no idea where they came f r o m . T h e use o f skulls a n d bones t o demonstrate physical a n d c u l t u r a l s u p e r i o r i t y also oc­ curs at an interspecies level, w i t h the crania i n " E a r l y M a n " e x h i b i t i o n s p r o v i d i n g a t e x t o f e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y w r i t t e n by physical anthropologists that, as has been p o i n t e d o u t by many, places us at the so-called t o p o f the e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a i n o f being. There are signs o f a n e w unease o n the p a r t o f w h i t e liberals w i t h the c o l ­ lection a n d display o f physical a n t h r o p o l o g y "specimens." The PBS docudrama Ishi: The Last of His Tribe (1992) is s y m p t o m a t i c o f this unease. Ishi (title role played by G r a h a m Greene) tells the story o f the relationship between the famous a n t h r o p o l o g i s t A l f r e d Kroeber a n d Ishi, the so-called last w i l d I n d i a n o f C a l i f o r n i a , w h o lived i n the a n t h r o p o l o g y m u s e u m at the university f r o m his capture i n 1 9 1 1 u n t i l his death i n 1 9 1 6 . Kroeber is presented as a refined m a n (something like the viewers o f PBS) w h o k n o w s better t h a n the average w h i t e person the value o f the N a t i v e cultures t h a t are supposedly being lost, yet he is unable t o act or act effectively. I n the story he acts t o o s l o w l y t o keep his promise t h a t Ishi w o u l d n o t be a u t o p sied after his death. T h e viewer o f Ishi is treated t o lengthy scenes o f the w h i t e man's h o r r o r at w h a t he has done as Kroeber contemplates the r o w s a n d r o w s o f N a t i v e skeletons i n his m u s e u m . T h i s film really is u n r e m i t ­ t i n g l y bleak; everybody is r i g i d l y t r a p p e d i n their roles, w i t h n o r o o m t o even question their p o s i t i o n , m u c h less m o v e . Kroeber's rather condescend­ i n g r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t Ishi is i n fact a h u m a n being is visually contrasted w i t h the skulls a n d bones t h a t are p a r t o f the anthropologist's career, b u t K r o e b e r never feels quite g u i l t y enough t o question his o w n p o s i t i o n or aca­ demic discipline. I n fact, the question never even comes u p , w h i c h is pre­ sumably o f some c o m f o r t t o the viewers o f the m o v i e . T h e wetiko fascination w i t h b o d y parts has always u n d e r l a i n certain k i n d s o f m u s e u m displays as w e l l as certain streams i n physical a n t h r o p o l ­ ogy. Techniques o f i n q u i r y p e r t a i n i n g t o the b o d y have a l l o w e d i n t i m a t e i n ­ spection a n d appraisal, a n d the stereotype o f the nineteenth-century an­ t h r o p o l o g i s t w i t h calipers for measuring N a t i v e skulls a n d a suitcase f u l l o f glass eyeballs for c o m p a r i n g eye c o l o r is n o t entirely w i t h o u t relevance t o 12

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day. The p a r t i c u l a r a n d persistent interest i n steatopygia a n d related p h y s i ­ cal phenomena i n Western medical a n d e t h n o l o g i c a l sciences seems t o be a f u n c t i o n o f nineteenth-century beliefs a b o u t sexuality a n d o f the displace­ m e n t o f the categories o f female desire a n d sexuality o n t o Africans a n d E u r o p e a n p r o s t i t u t e s . The genitalia o f Say die B a a r t m a n , the so-called H o t t e n t o t Venus, are o n permanent display at the Musee de l ' H o m m e i n Paris. T h e interest i n b o d y parts has influenced conventions o f m u s e u m dis­ play, w i t h a u t h e n t i c i t y f u n c t i o n i n g as the pretext for the casting o f h u m a n bodies a n d placement o f these i n t o w h a t m a y best be t e r m e d human habitat groups. Sometimes museums have c o l l u d e d w i t h the police, as i n South A f r i c a , where taxidermists have made casts o f people i n detention. T h e f o l ­ l o w i n g anecdote ( w h i c h , astonishingly, seems t o be intended by the a u t h o r t o be amusing) f r o m the 1920s is extreme b u t exemplifies the usually c o n ­ cealed, i m p l i c i t i n s t i t u t i o n a l l i n k s i n an e x p l i c i t l y c o l o n i a l s i t u a t i o n such as South A f r i c a : 14

A Bush-Hottentot woman had been taken in charge for soliciting and as she was extremely steatopygeous the police telephoned the museum to enquire whether a cast was required, so Drury [the taxidermist] and the Director went down to Calendon Square. ... They offered her a fee of ten shillings, the usual payment in country districts. W i t h every appearance of injured pride she pointed out that she could get t w o pounds any night in Buitenkant Street. So the Museum had to pay an enhanced fee! 15

A l t h o u g h the m u s e u m was, i n a rather neat t u r n a b o u t , forced t o " r e n t " the b o d y o f the p r o s t i t u t e , the m u s e u m functionaries never actually w a n t e d the w o m a n ' s b o d y as a l i v i n g b o d y ; rather, they w a n t e d an i m p r i n t o f this body, something t h a t was by definition dead l o n g before the w o m a n herself died.

A u t h e n t i c Details M u s e u m s invent a version o f reality by suggesting t h a t a u t h e n t i c i t y is de­ pendent o n systematized, realistic detail, something t h a t is true i n other m i ­ lieus as w e l l . T h e identification o f a u t h e n t i c i t y a n d t r u t h w i t h detail n o t o n l y occurs i n the c o n t e x t o f museological t h i n k i n g a n d i n m u s e u m dis­ plays b u t also seems t o structure Western attempts t o account for c u l t u r a l differences a n d analyses o f c o l o n i a l h i s t o r y i n general. A version o f reality is constructed t h r o u g h the r e p e t i t i o n o f facts, names, a n d dates, a practice w e see i n m u s e u m displays o f i m p e r i a l histories, where the presence o f spe­ cific dates renders tangible a n d inserts i n t o h i s t o r y the society i n question. The use o f detail as a device t o connote h i s t o r i c a l accuracy a n d a u t h e n t i c i t y can d r a w a t t e n t i o n a w a y f r o m questions o f representation a n d p o w e r : T h e spectator or reader is so o v e r w h e l m e d by factual m i n u t i a e t h a t s/he believes t h a t the story must be true.

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A brief example o f h o w a version o f t r u t h can be constructed t h r o u g h de­ t a i l can clarify this process, and I have selected one that loops back t o a ques­ t i o n I briefly raised at the beginning o f this text concerning Aztec culture and the extent t o w h i c h i t is possible for us t o k n o w i t i n any meaningful way. M y example is t e x t u a l rather t h a n visual but also utilizes the minutiae o f c u l t u r a l difference t o d r a w the reader i n t o believing that s/he is apprehending another culture. M o s t European writers dealing w i t h the Spanish conquest o f Aztec M e x i c o rely o n Bernal D i a z del Castillo's The Conquest of New Spain for de­ scriptions o f the Spanish invasion as w e l l as the city o f Tenochtitlan p r i o r t o its destruction. The account contains lengthy descriptions o f w h a t used t o be called manners and customs o f the Aztecs and o f material culture. As such, this text is considered t o be one o f the most i m p o r t a n t sources o f historical and ethnographic i n f o r m a t i o n . I t is a fascinating narrative, b u t is i t true? The Conquest of New Spain maintains its a u t h o r i t y as an "objective" chronicle because D i a z was an eyewitness t o the events being described and p r o v i d e d detailed descriptions o f w h a t he saw. H e named names, recalled dates, gave list after list o f objects along w i t h their value i n Spanish currency, and so f o r t h . A l t h o u g h w r i t t e n more t h a n fifty years after the conquest, the text i n ­ cludes v e r b a t i m speeches and conversations (including one p u r p o r t i n g t o be between M e x i c a n s i n the N a h u a t l language). D i a z was a S p a n i a r d — w h i c h is t o say, o n the w i n n i n g side o f the battle for T e n o c h t i t l a n / M e x i c o C i t y — a n d moreover w r o t e The Conquest of New Spain as an attempt t o extract a pen­ sion f r o m the Spanish c r o w n . Mesoamerican scholar D a v i d Carrasco's call for a t e x t u a l "hermeneutics o f suspicion" here t o w a r d the t r u t h o f the de­ scriptions and story narrated by D i a z seems t o be i n order. 16

Despite the circumstances under w h i c h the t e x t was p r o d u c e d , Diaz's ac­ c o u n t has for the most p a r t been accepted as accurately a n d t r u t h f u l l y rep­ resenting the facts o f the conquest. D i a z has become the m a i n source for the m a j o r i t y o f t e x t b o o k accounts o f the Spanish conquest o f M e x i c o . C e r t a i n l y D i a z uses a descriptive language later a p p r o p r i a t e d by ethnology, w h i c h has bolstered his c l a i m t o t r u t h for c o n t e m p o r a r y readers. B u t The Conquest of New Spain has consistently enjoyed the confidence o f its read­ ers. A c c o r d i n g t o W i l l i a m Prescott, the i n f l u e n t i a l nineteenth-century histo­ r i a n o f M e x i c o a n d Peru, D i a z "transfers the scenes o f real life by a sort o f daguerreotype process." F u r t h e r m o r e , the a u t h e n t i c i t y o f the narrative is affirmed by its apparent innocence: T h e narrative has a " n a t u r a l , u n p o l ­ ished style" a n d was w r i t t e n i n vernacular C a s t i l i a n . B u t a l l this praise draws a t t e n t i o n a w a y f r o m the p r o b l e m o f the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t r u t h . T h e text's status as authentic chronicle or real life is suspect n o t o n l y because D i a z w r o t e i t years after the events for personal a n d financial reasons b u t also because i t is a t e x t o f conquest w r i t t e n by the v i c t o r a n d is structured according t o certain l i t e r a r y conventions. The Conquest of New Spain es­ tablishes its a u t h o r i t y t h r o u g h a p a r t i c u l a r r h e t o r i c a l style that refers t o 17

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FIGURE

4.1

"'David's'

Nose" British Museum

reproduction

Castilian epic poems a n d romances, i n c l u d i n g the conquest epic Foema de Mio Cid. We can see again h o w detail is u t i l i z e d t o construct a version o f authentic­ ity, thereby collapsing understanding i n t o m o r p h o l o g i c a l accuracy. T h e is­ sues o f representation a n d c o l o n i a l i s m raised by c o l o n i a l texts such as The Conquest of New Spain a n d by certain k i n d s o f m u s e u m displays, a n d the specific elements t h a t go i n t o p r o d u c i n g such versions o f reality, occur i n a range o f different contexts a n d t e n d t o share key characteristics. I t h i n k w e m a y be m o s t suspicious w h e n c u l t u r a l a n d h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l is arranged i n t o t a x o n o m i e s t h a t are n o t themselves called i n t o question, w i t h these or­ ganizational schema ratified by detailed i n f o r m a t i o n , such as names a n d dates. Similarly, w h e n a n object displayed i n a m u s e u m comes t o stand for a vast range o f social a n d c u l t u r a l phenomena, w e can i n q u i r e whose versions o f t r u t h are contained w i t h i n a n d attested t o by the facticity o f the object.

C o m m o d i t y Fetishism For £ 2 0 i t is possible t o purchase f r o m the B r i t i s h M u s e u m a plaster cast o f the nose o f Michelangelo's David sculpture (see Figure 4 . 1 ) ; $ 1 5 0 buys a velour " I n c a n " bathrobe f r o m the S m i t h s o n i a n I n s t i t u t i o n . W h y d o people

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b u y such things, a n d h o w is the y e a r n i n g for a p a r t i c u l a r object o r type o f object produced? T o w h a t extent are rather prosaic items such as bathrobes ennobled by their association w i t h the museums t h a t m a r k e t t h e m t o the public? A l t h o u g h people do have t o be educated t o a certain taste—in the case o f h i g h c u l t u r e , the w o r d is cultivated, like a flowerbed—this suggests a leisurely process w h e r e b y a consumer is carefully t a u g h t h o w t o recognize the so-called finer things. T o d a y the process seems m u c h m o r e frenetic t h a n i t used t o : C o m m o d i t i e s s w i r l a r o u n d a n d a r o u n d , a l l a n n o u n c i n g their de­ sirability a n d value t h r o u g h sophisticated techniques o f advertising, a l l o p ­ erating as the means t h r o u g h w h i c h a p a r t i c u l a r m o d e o f desire is c o n ­ structed, a l l dissolving a n d r e c o m b i n i n g t i m e - h o n o r e d social a n d aesthetic codes a n d systems o f value. E u r o p e a n fine art has always been subject t o c o m m o d i f l c a t i o n , b o t h i n products such as calendars a n d art books a n d , m o r e recently, i n the b l o c k ­ buster shows t h a t have become t y p i c a l o f the w a y E u r o p e a n masterpieces are made available t o the p u b l i c — t h e Picasso a n d Matisse shows are exam­ ples o f s k i l l f u l l y m a r k e t e d , hugely p o p u l a r e x h i b i t i o n s , a n d i n T o r o n t o the advance ads for the heavily p r o m o t e d Barnes e x h i b i t focused o n the fact t h a t the s h o w h a d sold o u t elsewhere. A r t a p p r e c i a t i o n a n d connoisseurship have entered the m a i n s t r e a m t h r o u g h the m a r k e t i n g o f fine art's status as c u l t u r a l currency, w h i c h elevates everything i t touches. T h u s , w h a t was once the exclusive p r o v i n c e o f elite culture is t a k e n up w i t h i n p o p u l a r cul­ ture i n a w a y f a m i l i a r t o most N o r t h A m e r i c a n s , w h i c h is t o say, as a p r o d ­ uct. T h e objects t h a t refer t o the aesthetic o f Western h i g h culture can be mar­ keted like any other p r o d u c t , b u t the process is a b i t different f r o m the mar­ k e t i n g o f beer o r cars. T h e c o m m o d i f l c a t i o n o f elite culture is dependent o n a m a n i p u l a t i o n o f some o f the most cherished ideals o f Western c u l t u r e . These include n o t i o n s o f racial a n d c u l t u r a l superiority, the belief t h a t v a r i ­ ous k i n d s o f aristocrats are the true guardians o f the E u r o p e a n artistic her­ itage, a n d the a m b i v a l e n t p o s i t i o n o f w h i t e w o m e n as consumers o f images o f difference. The task for people t r y i n g t o sell products is h o w t o make a particular ob­ ject shine brighter t h a n a l l the other objects c o m p e t i n g for the a t t e n t i o n o f the consumer. The particular luster associated w i t h art museums can be transferred t o particular objects a n d mediated t h r o u g h a fascination w i t h no­ tables or t h r o u g h c o l o n i a l fantasies. The c o m m o d i t y becomes attractive t o the consumer precisely because i t stands for different assemblages o f ideas. For instance, i t never fails t o surprise me h o w things c o n t i n u e t o be mar­ keted t h r o u g h a nostalgia for the o l d days o f c o l o n i a l adventure, w h e n Westerners ostensibly d i d precisely as they pleased. T h e pleasures o f the c o l o n y are an extremely persistent m y t h a n d for the w h i t e consumer b r i n g t o m i n d attentive servants a n d l a n g u i d , sentimental encounters o n veran18

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FIGURE

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4.2

Louis Vuitton luggage advertisement

das. I n ways t h a t m i g h t (or m i g h t n o t ) be challenged i f they appeared i n m a i n s t r e a m narratives such as television or film, the c o l o n i a l romance is m a r k e t e d i n ads for R a l p h Lauren's Safari perfume, V u i t t o n luggage (see Figure 4 . 2 ) , a n d other l u x u r y goods. I n one sense this l i n k between l u x u r y a n d c o l o n y is o b v i o u s : T h e V u i t t o n ad blends aristocratic exclusiveness w i t h c o l o n i a l adventure by j u x t a p o s i n g its p r o d u c t against the artifacts o f A m a z o n i a n travel, a destination clearly n o t t o everyone's taste b u t one o f the few places where the t o u r i s t can observe actual befeathered "natives" as their great-grandparents presumably d i d i n the o l d c o l o n i a l d a y s . The V u i t t o n ad copy refers t o " c i t y lights a n d A m a z o n b l o o m s " a n d "the magic o f great j o u r n e y s , " e v o k i n g the w e a l t h y sophisticate w h o is at ease any­ where i n the w o r l d . I suggested p r e v i o u s l y t h a t e x o t i c i s m w o r k s t h r o u g h a process o f frag­ m e n t a t i o n . The c o m m o d i f l c a t i o n o f c u l t u r a l difference is also dependent o n a fragmented presentation o f c u l t u r e , b u t here this w o r k s by p r o d u c i n g equivalences between objects (luggage) a n d experience (a t r i p t o A m a z o ­ nia), w h i c h is t o say, the experiences the objects are designed t o evoke. Things a n d "lifestyles" a n d the past a n d the present are collapsed together i n t o a n appealing package, w h i c h can be purchased by the consumer w o r l d l y enough t o recognize w h a t the object's codes refer t o . I n this i d e n t i 19

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fication o f l u x u r y object a n d exotic experience, a p a r t i c u l a r r e l a t i o n be­ t w e e n parts a n d w h o l e is created: E x o t i c a n d n o n e x o t i c , h i g h art a n d p o p u ­ lar art, a n d art a n d experience a l l become stylish accessories. A l t h o u g h w i t h i n advertising everything has been decided i n advance, the i l l u s i o n o f difference remains a n d is indeed the means t h r o u g h w h i c h the consumer is seduced. M u s e u m s a n d art galleries have t r a d i t i o n a l l y been the p r o v i n c e o f the u p ­ per classes, b u t given the economics o f the day, they have h a d t o enter a broader marketplace t o survive. The larger museums have been able t o do so by s k i l l f u l l y d r a w i n g o n their association w i t h scholarship a n d expertise as w e l l as w i t h precious objects. T h e l o f t y ideals associated w i t h scholar­ ship have veiled the extent t o w h i c h capitalist economics has t u r n e d these ideals i n t o c o m m o d i t i e s as w e l l . To be considered viable, these i n s t i t u t i o n s must pay their o w n w a y (as the saying goes) and generate w e a l t h . K n o w l ­ edge for its o w n sake is n o longer enough. T h e p h e n o m e n o n o f m u s e u m shops a n d m a i l order catalogs indicates h o w the trappings o f elite culture are m a r k e t e d a n d made available t o the broader p u b l i c . T h e m u s e u m shop p h e n o m e n o n involves the r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d sale o f objects, b u t because the m u s e u m contains i m p o r t a n t art trea­ sures, the r e p r o d u c t i o n s b o r r o w cachet f r o m the o r i g i n a l objects a n d f r o m the expertise e m b o d i e d i n the i n s t i t u t i o n o f the m u s e u m . T h e o r i g i n a l o b ­ ject is one o f a k i n d , a n d the m u s e u m is the site where i t t r a d i t i o n a l l y has been housed; therefore, i f the m u s e u m m a g n a n i m o u s l y offers a c o p y t o the p u b l i c , the c o m m e r c i a l process appears less mercenary t h a n i f an o r d i n a r y c o m p a n y reproduced the object. W h e n museums decided t o p r o m o t e their collections t h r o u g h catalogs a n d r e p r o d u c t i o n boutiques, the edifying func­ t i o n o f the m u s e u m merged w i t h the c o m m e r c i a l activity o f s h o p p i n g . I n re­ cent years this m e r g i n g has become even m o r e convenient for the consumer, first w i t h catalogs a n d t h e n w i t h so-called satellite stores i n nearby shop­ p i n g malls, such as the R o y a l O n t a r i o M u s e u m store i n T o r o n t o ' s E a t o n Centre. W h e n the c o l o n i a l romance merges w i t h archaeological adventure fantasies a n d m u s e u m s h o p p i n g , the m a r k e t i n g process becomes a b i t t r i c k ­ ier because o f the w a y scholarship can be v a l o r i z e d a n d identified w i t h a disinterested, objective t r u t h . M u s e u m catalogs a n d advertisements for archaeologically related p r o d ­ ucts e m p l o y a r h e t o r i c o f discovery t h a t links back t o the nineteenthcentury explorer a n d , before that, t o the conquistador. T h i s device is ex­ tremely pervasive. T h e s u b s c r i p t i o n ads for Archaeology magazine e x h o r t the p o t e n t i a l reader t o " m a k e a s t a r t l i n g discovery," e x p l a i n i n g t h a t the magazine is " r e q u i r e d e q u i p m e n t for a r m c h a i r explorers." O t h e r ads i n the magazine utilize similar language. For instance, Far H o r i z o n s archaeologi­ cal tours entices w i t h " E x p l o r e A n c i e n t R u i n s ! " ; a T u r k i s h t o u r i s m ad says,

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"Discover the undiscovered E u r o p e " ; Thames a n d H u d s o n flogs p o p u l a r archaeology books by e v o k i n g adventure i n the fabulous cities o f the Aztecs, M a y a n s , a n d Incas, e x h o r t i n g the reader t o "Rediscover A n c i e n t A m e r i c a A g a i n a n d A g a i n " (see Figure 4 . 3 ) ; a n d the A r c h a e o l o g i c a l Institute o f America's ad solicits memberships w i t h N o w that you have EXPLORED Archaeology Magazine Begin a new adventure— DISCOVER an AIA Membership w h i c h uses c a p i t a l letters a n d boldface type just t o m a k e sure the reader gets the p o i n t . T h e c o n t e m p o r a r y reader is encouraged t o consume b o t h the past a n d the experience o f the archaeologist-explorer-conquistador a n d t o do so as a nineteenth-century gentleman-scholar. For instance, a p r i v a t e c o m p a n y called Indigenous A r t Inc. offers l i m i t e d e d i t i o n r e p r o d u c t i o n s o f p r e - C o l u m b i a n a n d other art objects. M a n y o f these items do stand o n their o w n as aesthetic objects, b u t the ad c o p y bor­ r o w s the prestige associated w i t h archaeology a n d w i t h m u s e u m collec­ tions. T h e catalog explains the company's role i n the preservation o f a w o r l d archaeological a n d aesthetic heritage: " T h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y w i d e ­ spread l o o t i n g a n d desecration o f sacred sites has eradicated v i t a l i n f o r m a ­ t i o n concerning the t r u t h a b o u t o u r ancestors a n d the purpose o f the art they created. T h e d e m a n d for this art has been the direct cause o f the l o o t ­ ing p r o b l e m . W e i n t e n d t o offset this p r o b l e m by m a k i n g these re-creations available t o everyone." Indigenous A r t sells a Toltec c o l u m n l a m p for $ 1 4 5 , w h i c h w i l l appeal t o a certain k i n d o f consumer because i t evokes b o t h the capital cities where famous museums are located a n d the p r i v a t e collections of w e a l t h y collectors. As a p r e - C o l u m b i a n - s t y l e object the l a m p also refers to the r o b u s t activities o f the adventurer a n d the t o u r i s t w h o visits interest­ ing locales such as Tula. T h e professional cachet o f the archaeologist also increases the desirability o f the l a m p . T h e codes used t o m a r k e t c o m m o d i ­ ties such as the Toltec l a m p are often m i x e d , a n d the ascribed value o f a p a r t i c u l a r object can be based o n a n association w i t h E u r o p e a n h i g h art t h r o u g h reference t o c o l o n i a l past a n d c o l o n i a l lifestyle, a n d the aristocratic collector or connoisseur. As w i t h V u i t t o n ads, the i d e a l i z a t i o n o f c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t y seems a p a r t i c u l a r l y effective m a r k e t i n g t o o l , b u t here i t is pack­ aged i n the guise o f the aristocratic collector. Because this process takes place o n a large scale, i t is really a b o u t the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a p o t e n t i a l l y enormous m a r k e t t h r o u g h the m a n i p u l a t i o n — or, m o r e p r o p e r l y , the c o n s t r u c t i o n — o f m a i n s t r e a m taste. T h i s is n o t t o say t h a t everyone w i l l i m m e d i a t e l y r u s h o u t a n d purchase Toltec lamps b u t t h a t b o t h the aesthetic codes o f p r e - C o l u m b i a n art a n d the significance a n d c o n ­ n o t a t i o n o f this art w i t h i n Western culture w i l l be u n d e r s t o o d m o r e w i d e l y

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FIGURE

43

Rediscover America, book

advertisement

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t h a n before. T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a mass m a r k e t t h a t draws o n the ideals e m b o d i e d by the m u s e u m u l t i m a t e l y means the consumer is presumed t o be m o r e or less w h i t e , m o r e or less m i d d l e class, a n d often b u t n o t always fe­ male (the a s s u m p t i o n being t h a t w o m e n t e n d t o spend m o r e t i m e l o o k i n g at catalogs a n d b u y i n g things t h a n m e n ). A n d despite the claims t h a t elite c u l ­ ture is m o r e accessible t h a n ever before, the v a l o r i z a t i o n o f the c o l o n i a l era ends u p universalizing d o m i n a n t Western values rather t h a n enabling the consumer t o r e t h i n k questions o f culture a n d aesthetic value. T h e fascination w i t h archaeology a n d its association w i t h c o l o n i a l ad­ ventures can be seen i n a range o f venues a n d l o n g predates the I n d i a n a Jones movies. T h e desire f o r precious antiquities starts y o u n g a n d is i d e n t i ­ fied w i t h boisterous exploits n o t n o r m a l l y associated w i t h academic p u r ­ suits: There is a children's game s h o w c u r r e n t l y being broadcast o n the N i c k e l o d e o n channel called Legends of the Hidden Temple i n w h i c h c o n ­ testants get t o live o u t the adventure o f t o m b r o b b i n g , here tactfully called " r e t r i e v i n g the treasure." H e r e the persistent appeal o f the treasure h u n t is e x p l i c i t l y l i n k e d t o the activities o f the heroic adventurer-archaeologist. A deep-voiced stone i d o l n a m e d " O l m e c " recites the story o f the p a r t i c u l a r treasure t h a t is the t o p i c o f each episode, after w h i c h the c h i l d r e n race t h r o u g h a p r e - C o l u m b i a n - t y p e temple c o m p l e x , fighting o f f guards dressed i n A z t e c - M a y a n pastiche, w i t h black p a i n t e d faces o b v i o u s l y meant t o be frightening. I a m n o t m a k i n g this u p . Legends of the Hidden Temple also reinforces another i m p o r t a n t p o i n t : There is always an object t h a t explains a n d justifies the adventure. T h i s be­ comes clear w h e n w e l o o k at m u s e u m shops a n d see w h a t gets reproduced a n d t u r n e d i n t o salable c o m m o d i t i e s a n d w h a t does n o t . Because o f the c o n t i n u i n g obsession w i t h g o l d a n d treasure, j e w e l r y has been one o f the m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d p o p u l a r categories for r e p r o d u c t i o n , b o t h i n m u s e u m shops a n d i n the m a i l order catalogs o f companies t h a t reproduce ancient j e w e l r y a n d ornaments depicted i n E u r o p e a n o i l paintings, such as San Francisco's Jewelry M u s e u m . T h e 1993 catalog o f the M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m o f A r t is a treasure t r o v e o f g o l d j e w e l r y i n a range o f styles t h a t spans vast chasms o f t i m e a n d space: Greece a n d R o m e , ancient Egypt, the aristocratic jewels o f baroque Europe a n d czarist Russia, the m u s e u m makes a l l available t o the consumer. M u s e u m r e p r o d u c t i o n s o f ancient j e w ­ elry exemplify the c o m p l e x a n d p a r a d o x i c a l nature o f m a r k e t i n g codes be­ cause m a n y o f the items are extremely i n v i t i n g aesthetically as a result o f a n d i n spite o f their other associations. A l t h o u g h this j e w e l r y is i n t r i n s i c a l l y attractive, i t also appeals t o the consumer because i t refers t o the g o l d o f the conquistadors a n d fantasies o f empire a n d at the same t i m e embodies the fascination w i t h archaeology a n d the " d i s c o v e r y " o f ancient mysteries: T h e latter sanitizes the former. The buyer brings h o m e the treasure, rather

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like H e i n r i c h Schliemann, w h o retrieved the g o l d o f T r o y i n the nineteenth century.

T h e C o m m o d i f i c a t i o n of the P r o p e r N a m e The m a r k e t a b i l i t y o f a museum r e p r o d u c t i o n piece has t o do w i t h an ex­ changeability o f value, w h i c h is coded t h r o u g h the proper name o f the artist or the culture that created the aesthetic style. (This is very similar t o the w a y cosmetics a n d other l u x u r y commodities have t r a d i t i o n a l l y been sold.) Classical Greece, Renaissance Italy, a n d Tang dynasty C h i n a are names i m ­ bued w i t h elegance a n d beauty; similarly, names such as Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Edgar Degas exceed the i d e n t i t y o f the artists t o w h i c h they refer. There is also a l i n k between appropriations o f exotic or historical styles i n the decorative arts a n d the aesthetic appropriations that occur i n h i g h art. For example, designers o f household objects such as dinner plates a n d bedsheets make use o f African-style designs, as d i d the European artists w h o i n c o r p o ­ rated A f r i c a n aesthetics i n t o their w o r k . B o t h designers and artists code (or p a r t i a l l y code) their w o r k t h r o u g h the proper name Africa or, m o r e precisely, the image o f Africa available i n the West. H o w do m a r k e t i n g strategies for each set o f commodities interact and r u n these t h r o u g h a recognizable name? T h e p r o p e r name i n question can be t h a t o f a famous artist, c u l t u r e , or place t h a t evokes certain sensibilities. T h e B r i t i s h M u s e u m ' s advertisement for David's nose e x p l i c i t l y refers n o t o n l y t o M i c h e l a n g e l o b u t also t o the collector f r o m w h o m the object was acquired a n d t o the " f a m e " t h a t sur­ rounds the sculpture. T h e S m i t h s o n i a n I n c a n robe names the culture t h a t " i n s p i r e d " the design a n d the geographical site associated w i t h this culture: Cuzco, Peru (and t o make sure everyone understands the images o n the robe, the ad speaks o f " e x o t i c a n i m a l s " ) . T h e design for a p i c t u r e frame is t a k e n f r o m a Beardsley d r a w i n g ; the frame becomes the " A u b r e y Beardsley F r a m e . " The m o r e exalted the artist is, the m o r e h y p e r b o l i c the ad copy is. M i c h e l a n g e l o is clearly v a l o r i z e d above a l l others a n d treated i n ad copy as the greatest artist o f a l l t i m e . The M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m offers a "cast m a r b l e " plaque m o l d e d f r o m the artist's Pieta sculpture for $ 1 6 5 (see Figure 4 . 4 ) , a n d the catalog ad is a cacophony o f capitalized names, a l l o f w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e t o the allure o f the object a n d t o its p u t a t i v e g o o d taste: the V i r g i n , M i c h e l a n g e l o , The M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m o f A r t (not " T h e M e t , " as elsewhere), T h e D e p a r t m e n t o f Scientific Research at the V a t i c a n M u s e u m , Saint Peter's Basilica, R o m e , C a r r a r a (the source o f the m a r b l e dust, w h i c h is m i x e d w i t h resin a n d fashioned i n t o the plaque a n d h a p p i l y described as the very source o f the m a r b l e used by M i c h e l a n g e l o for the o r i g i n a l sculpture).

128

FIG URE 4.4 "Head of the virgin," Museum of Art reproduction

Metropolitan

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T h e fashion industry's c o m m o d i f l c a t i o n o f the designer's name is ex­ tremely similar t o w h a t occurs i n the m a r k e t i n g o f m u s e u m r e p r o d u c t i o n s ; techniques o f m a r k e t i n g are m o r e o b v i o u s i n the f o r m e r because fashion falls somewhere between art a n d commerce. The a b i l i t y t o purchase a b o t ­ tle o f Chanel perfume for $ 4 0 is m e a n t t o refer t o the $ 3 , 0 0 0 suit t h a t very few are able t o a f f o r d . Chanel e x p l i c i t l y markets accessories this w a y be­ cause these cheaper, m o r e accessible p r o d u c t s constitute the b u l k o f its business. W h a t is i m p o r t a n t are the l i n k between the t w o classes o f p r o d ­ ucts a n d the w a y the name is enough t o sell an idea o f French l u x u r y a n d sophistication. T h u s , a tube o f l i p s t i c k o r a bottle o f perfume plays w i t h n o ­ tions o f the timelessness o f true style, o f v a l o r i z e d locales such as Paris, a n d o f class a n d the attendant qualities o f g l a m o r a n d elegance. M u s e u m catalogs closely resemble fashion magazines i n the w a y they construct chains o f references. A 1 9 9 1 M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m catalog of­ fered D i e g o Rivera plates, a 1993 catalog sold a Rivera-based scarf (see Figure 4 . 5 ) , b u t b o t h refer t o m u r a l w o r k s a n d the recent interest i n 20

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M e x i c a n p a i n t i n g i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . As w i t h perfume, a consumer's a b i l i t y t o purchase a dinner plate based o n the famous artist's design supposedly indicates "taste" because i t refers t o the far m o r e expensive easel w o r k . Rivera's w o r k also appears exotic t o some, b u t this e x o t i c i s m is mediated t h r o u g h the E u r o p e a n h i g h art t r a d i t i o n t h a t has legitimized R i v e r a a n d t h r o u g h the now-recognizable name o f the artist. T h e types o f objects being r e p r o d u c e d a n d ennobled w i t h the artist's name seem increasingly t o i n ­ volve articles o f c l o t h i n g a n d h o u s e h o l d goods rather t h a n p r i n t s o r other s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d r e p r o d u c t i o n s o f artists w o r k . ( I rarely see p r i n t s a n y m o r e except i n students' apartments.) T h e shift t o m o r e u t i l i t a r i a n objects is n o accident; i t indicates the extent t o w h i c h aesthetic value has become ex­ changeable i n the marketplace. T h i s shift helps break d o w n the (false) dis­ t i n c t i o n between h i g h a n d l o w c u l t u r e , b u t at the same t i m e i t transforms anything and everything into a potential commodity.

Class and G e n d e r Anxieties I n N o r t h A m e r i c a the narratives o f mass c u l t u r e constantly assure citizens t h a t they can change their class, p r o v i d e d they manage t o m o v e u p . A large p o r t i o n o f the retail e c o n o m y is dependent o n the f i c t i o n t h a t class p o s i t i o n is f l u i d a n d indeed u p t o the consumer. A t the same t i m e , class continues t o be a t o u c h y issue as systemic inequalities become m o r e entrenched. After l i v i n g i n Western Europe f o r a couple o f years, I began t o realize t h a t i n those older a n d s o m e w h a t m o r e cohesive societies, even i f people seek t o accumulate money, there is less desire t o t r a n s f o r m class a n d even less o f a belief that a person can successfully do so t h a n i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . ( A l ­ t h o u g h , h a v i n g said t h a t , I s h o u l d p o i n t o u t t h a t e x p l i c i t l y class-based codes o f taste a n d d e p o r t m e n t are u t i l i z e d i n advertising i n B r i t a i n t o an even greater extent t h a n i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . ) I n N o r t h A m e r i c a the f i c t i o n persists t h a t (despite a l l evidence t o the c o n t r a r y ) class does n o t really exist except as a k i n d o f personal choice, a n d i f i t does by some chance persist i n certain contexts, questions o f class are reducible t o taste a n d money. A g a i n , the story insists t h a t , m u c h l i k e poverty, a person's class is u p t o her or h i m . O b v i o u s l y class a n d taste are closely l i n k e d , as Pierre B o u r d i e u has s h o w n i n some detail i n the French c o n t e x t , b u t just because someone suddenly prefers a certain style o f h o m e decorating does n o t m e a n t h a t she just as suddenly occupies a different class o r is recognized as d o i n g so by others. B u t advertisers w a n t the consumer t o t h i n k t h a t class is reducible t o choice, a n d they construct a m a r k e t i n w h i c h class markers are exchange­ able as c o m m o d i t i e s . Everyone k n o w s t h a t p u t t i n g someone i n evening dress next t o a p r o d u c t is a w a y o f t r y i n g t o convince people t h a t the p r o d ­ uct is associated w i t h the r i c h , w i t h l u x u r y , leisure, g o o d taste, a n d sex. 21

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B o u r d i e u suggests t h a t taste is the result o f education i n certain sets o f codes t h a t fall a l o n g class lines. For instance, people f r o m the upper class like the w o r k o f Wassily K a n d i n s k y , a n d working-class people prefer senti­ m e n t a l paintings o f animals. A g a i n , this is true t o some extent, b u t the very obviousness o f such preferences q u i c k l y becomes uninteresting. The codes o f class a n d taste are m u c h m o r e fragmented i n c o n t e m p o r a r y N o r t h A m e r i c a t h a n i n France because they f u n c t i o n as c o m m o d i t i e s a n d because a mass m a r k e t i n w h a t used t o be upper-class codes has been constructed. The signs o f g o o d taste are n o t completely exchangeable across any or a l l class lines, b u t a middle-class person can upgrade his o r her status (or i m a g ­ ine i t is possible t o do so) t h r o u g h the purchase o f certain c o m m o d i t i e s t h a t refer t o the o l d - s c h o o l art collector a n d t o the elite sensibilities t h a t i n ­ f o r m e d the collector. A t the same t i m e , the display o f the object refers t o the newer, N o r t h A m e r i c a n i d e o l o g y o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y a n d the personal taste o f the consumer. M u s e u m catalogs w o r k so w e l l because they evoke upper-class aesthetic codes, w h i c h attract the interest o f the consumer, i n p a r t , because i n N o r t h A m e r i c a the m a i n s t r e a m has been constructed as upper m i d d l e class. People do w o r r y a b o u t the q u a l i t y o f their taste. L o o k at h o w the characters w i t h w h o m viewers are supposed t o identify are presented i n the movies a n d o n television, a n d closely examine the k i n d o f clothes they wear. W i t h the ex­ c e p t i o n o f shows like Roseanne t h a t e x p l i c i t l y c l a i m t o construct a w o r k ­ ing-class m i l i e u , upper-middle-class taste has been recoded as b o t h o r d i n a r y a n d accessible a n d n o r m a l i z e d t o the extent t h a t i t is often invisible, as i n the Cosby show. I n films such as Moonstruck the story begins w i t h the characters engaged i n n o n g l a m o r o u s o c c u p a t i o n s — p l u m b i n g , b o o k k e e p ­ i n g , b a k i n g — b u t at a certain p o i n t everyone suddenly becomes extremely g l a m o r o u s , w i t h b i g houses, fancy restaurants, a n d operatic elegance. For me, this n o r m a l i z a t i o n o f upper-middle-class taste is p a r t i c u l a r l y apparent i n the recent flurry o f movies set i n Seattle, where I g r e w u p . Everyone seems t o live i n elegant, a r c h i t e c t u r a l l y designed m o d e r n houses w i t h sweeping views o f Puget Sound. Everyone dresses stylishly a n d sports flat­ tering haircuts. T h i s smartness is n o t treated as s o m e t h i n g r e m a r k a b l e , b u t i t is certainly n o t the Seattle m o st people experience. T h e m o v e m e n t o f taste occurs v i a objects b u t is reinforced by the narra­ tives s u r r o u n d i n g these objects, such as the Pieta plaque's desirability being dependent o n the v a l o r i z a t i o n o f M i c h e l a n g e l o . Class anxieties can be dis­ charged a n d occluded by the purchase o f such objects, the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f w h i c h democratizes taste a n d underlines the buyer's affiliation w i t h the elite culture o f fine art. T h e older discourse s u r r o u n d i n g these objects concerned the p o p u l a r i z a t i o n o f p a t r i c i a n , upper-class taste a n d the m o v e m e n t o f class signifiers t o the m i d d l e class a n d hence was a discourse o f accessibility. A n associated idea was the supposed d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f upper-class codes. T h i s

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n o t i o n o f debased taste remains true ties such as couture c l o t h i n g , despite h o w c o n t e m p o r a r y couture designers d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f standards is often the

o f certain k i n d s o f l u x u r y c o m m o d i ­ the t a l k i n fashion magazines a b o u t pirate their ideas f r o m the street (the subtext here as w e l l ) .

A l t h o u g h elite taste, a n d its a c c o m p a n y i n g c o l o n i a l sensibility, is evoked i n m u s e u m catalogs, class remains a n a m b i g u o u s category. A l t h o u g h m u ­ seum r e p r o d u c t i o n s seem m o r e e x p l i c i t l y tasteful t h a n , say, the items of­ fered i n F r a n k l i n M i n t ads, m u s e u m shops nevertheless m a r k e t k i t s c h . T h e kitschlike qualities o f the p r o d u c t m u s t be concealed a n d g l a m o r i z e d so as t o n o t lose the reproduction's association w i t h h i g h c u l t u r e . T h e line be­ t w e e n w h a t does a n d does n o t constitute k i t s c h is very t h i n . Is a silk scarf based o n a famous p a i n t i n g an example o f b a d taste? Is a key chain? A n y m u s e u m r e p r o d u c t i o n c o u l d p o t e n t i a l l y sink i n t o the o b v i o u s b a d taste o f the items m a r k e t e d by the F r a n k l i n M i n t , a n d indeed m a n y items f o u n d i n the S m i t h s o n i a n catalog really do cross over. (Bad taste seems t o be present w h e n a n object is used as another object, w i t h lamps being especially sus­ pect; for instance, the M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m sells a B u d d h a head m o u n t e d o n a stand, whereas a s i m i l a r head f o r m s a l a m p base i n the S m i t h s o n i a n catalog. A n d there is always the Inca bathrobe.) T h e B r i t i s h M u s e u m oper­ ates o n a slightly different s y m b o l i c economy, a n d the items offered i n its catalog are n o t quite as i m m e d i a t e l y appealing as aesthetic objects as the M e t ' s because they t e n d t o be less u p m a r k e t a n d hence fall i n t o the category o f souvenirs. These objects m a k e n o claims t o taste a n d h i g h c u l t u r e , a n d the buyer can cheerfully purchase Rosetta Stone tea towels a n d m u s e u m coasters. (But then, w h y n o t purchase tea towels decorated w i t h the Rosetta Stone a n d contemplate the achievements o f the ancient w o r l d w h i l e d r y i n g the dishes? C e r t a i n l y the question o f g o o d a n d b a d taste collapses w i t h tea towels.) O n e o f the m o s t persistent venues f o r c o l o n i a l i s t imagery are advertise­ ments for c l o t h i n g a n d perfume. W o m e n are special targets o f a p a r t i c u l a r version o f aestheticized e x o t i c i s m t h a t can easily slip i n t o a n e x p l i c i t l y c o l o ­ n i a l aesthetic. C o m m o d i f i e d f o r m s o f c u l t u r a l a n d ethnic difference appear o n the bodies o f w o m e n — g e n e r a l l y b u t n o t exclusively w h i t e w o m e n — a n d o n the objects w o m e n are assumed t o buy, for instance, sheets a n d other household items. A great deal o f t h o u g h t has gone i n t o the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the images used t o advertise these p r o d u c t s ; the cosmetic a n d perfume i n ­ dustry takes i n b i l l i o n s o f dollars every year a n d spends vast sums o n adver­ tising. W h i t e w o m e n occupy a p a r t i c u l a r l y a m b i v a l e n t role i n the c o m m o d i f l c a ­ t i o n o f c u l t u r a l difference because so m u c h o f the advertising seems t o be directed at t h e m (or t o p u t the matter slightly differently, i n m a i n s t r e a m media the w o m e n t o w h o m the c o l o n i a l images are directed are assumed t o be w h i t e ) . W h i t e w o m e n have a double r e l a t i o n t o the c o n s u m p t i o n o f i m -

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ages o f difference, o n the one h a n d , o c c u p y i n g the role o f object o f desire m u c h like the people a n d objects being exoticized a n d o n the other, becom­ i n g the consumer-colonizer w h o objectifies others a n d commandeers w h a t ­ ever happens t o please her eye. T r a i n i n g for this double role begins at a tender age. I remember reading magazines as a y o u n g adolescent i n w h i c h w e were encouraged t o wear ex­ otic clothes or cosmetics, w i t h e x o t i c i s m being presented as something t h a t made us m o r e interesting a n d attractive (at the t i m e t o m e n a n d boys. N o w the entire process has far m o r e t o do w i t h e x t r a c t i n g m o n e y f r o m teenage girls). E x o t i c style also appeared as an assemblage o f fragmented, disparate c o m m o d i t i e s a n d a c c o r d i n g l y s o m e t h i n g w e c o u l d take o n a n d o f f at w i l l . For y o u n g girls, difference was a role w e c o u l d slip o n w h e n w e i m a g i n e d t h a t o u r o r d i n a r y selves h a d become b o r i n g (something n o t available t o those girls read by w h i t e people as different a n d n o t necessarily able t o take the exotic gloss o f f w h e n i t became i n c o n v e n i e n t ) . T h e m a i n p o i n t o f the magazine articles was i n s t r u c t i o n i n the arts o f c o n s u m p t i o n , a n d these oversaw o u r a b i l i t y t o acquire the skills t o master the c o m p l e x visual codes o f g i r l i s h respectability b u t were spiced w i t h the rather less respectable fris­ son o f difference. T h i s a f f i r m a t i o n o f something supposedly d a r i n g became a m o m e n t o f l i b e r a t i o n f o r us, b u t one t h a t c o u l d occur o n l y v i a the a p p r o ­ p r i a t i o n o f images o f w o m e n o f color, m o s t o f w h i c h h a d extremely unsa­ v o r y subtexts. As w e layered o n the black eyeliner, w h y d i d i t n o t occur t o us t o pay a t t e n t i o n t o w h a t happened again a n d again t o Butterfly? T h e c o l o n i a l adventure—and the w h i t e privilege o n w h i c h this adventure depends—is e x p l i c i t l y m a r k e t e d i n advertisements for p r o d u c t s such as R a l p h Lauren's Safari perfume (see Figure 4 . 6 ) . H e r e a c o l o n i a l version o f women's l i b e r a t i o n is evoked by the images i n the ad, w h i c h refer t o such independent, w e a l t h y w h i t e w o m e n o f c o l o n i a l East A f r i c a as Isak Dinesen a n d Beryl M a r k h a m . W e see a melange o f r o m a n t i c i z e d images designed t o appeal: the airplane, the l u x u r y h o t e l , the b l o n d w o m a n dressed i n a slip a n d r i d i n g a horse, a n d the p r o d u c t — p e r f u m e i n a n old-fashioned b o t t l e . The images are visually fragmented b u t a d d u p t o a recognizable w h o l e , b r i n g i n g t o m i n d a l u x u r i o u s bygone past (suitably sanitized o f c o l o n i a l o p ­ pression) a n d m a k i n g this seem appealing. Benetton's ad for T r i b u perfume (see Figure 4.7) also utilizes fragmented images o f e x o t i c i s m b u t appeals t o a younger a n d less exclusively w h i t e audience by c o n s t r u c t i n g an equiva­ lence between the E u r o p e a n h i g h c u l t u r e o f classical ballet a n d t r a d i t i o n a l l y dressed people o f color. I n the Safari ad the c o l o n i a l past is evoked a n d r o ­ m a n t i c i z e d , a n d i n the T r i b u ad n e o c o l o n i a l i s m is erased, w i t h the c o n t e m ­ p o r a r y activities of, say, c o t t o n m u l t i n a t i o n a l s concealed by Benetton's sup­ posed celebration o f difference. A f r i c a continues t o f u n c t i o n as a b a c k d r o p t o Western concerns b u t does so here t h r o u g h a r h e t o r i c o f i n c l u s i o n . M u l t i c u l t u r a l advertisements for perfume a n d c o t t o n c l o t h i n g d r a w atten-

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FIGURE

4.6

Ralph Lauren Safari perfume

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FIGURE

4.7

Benetton Tribu perfume

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t i o n a w a y f r o m the extent t o w h i c h fragmented images o f difference c o n ­ tinue t o f u n c t i o n as a c o m m o d i t y i n the West. A d v e r t i s i n g seems infinitely able t o recode a n d neutralize l o n g - s t a n d i n g tropes w h i l e simultaneously i n ­ tensifying t h e m .

Dead A r t I n the V a t i c a n M u s e u m tourists s t u m p t h r o u g h gallery after gallery, u p stairs, d o w n c o r r i d o r s , u n t i l suddenly a hushed, i n s i n u a t i n g voice an­ nounces, " Y o u are a b o u t t o enter the Sistine C h a p e l " a n d asks t h e m t o be quiet. E v e r y b o d y obeys, perhaps fearing the voice o f G o d . T h e soft female voice prepares a n d regulates the visitor's experience o f Michelangelo's ceil­ i n g , m a r k i n g i t as a m o m e n t o u s event m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n the Raphaels or Berninis located elsewhere i n the m u s e u m . T h e voice reminds tourists t o pay a t t e n t i o n a n d advises t h a t their experience o f the chapel w i l l be b o t h m o v i n g and sublime, unless they happen t o be ignorant philistines. Re­ member, this is a l l t a k i n g place at the V a t i c a n , a n d the people w h o a d m i n i s ­ ter the m u s e u m are R o m a n C a t h o l i c . W h a t , t h e n , precisely is being m a r k e d by d e p l o y i n g the hushed tone f o r an assemblage o f p a i n t i n g s , a n d w h a t m i g h t this have t o do w i t h the religious subject matter o f the w o r k ? Is i t de­ signed t o c o m m e m o r a t e the presence o f the artistic masterpiece? I n other w o r d s , has the encounter w i t h the h i g h art o f Western c u l t u r e itself become a religious experience ( w i t h the s t u b b o r n atheist replaced by the s t u p i d philistine)? O r does i t constitute a faint trace o f a n archaic, sacred system o f m e a n i n g because the Sistine Chapel is (or was), after a l l , a chapel, a place for w o r s h i p ? T h e disembodied voice lets spectators m a k e u p their o w n m i n d a b o u t w h e t h e r the essential event concerns G o d o r M i c h e l a n g e l o b u t also lets t h e m k n o w t h a t s o m e t h i n g extremely significant is supposed t o happen as they contemplate these p a i n t i n g s . B u t the o d o r o f sanctity a r o u n d these paintings can, f o r some spectators, be o f f - p u t t i n g . T h e helpful p r e p a r a t i o n for the sublime art experience can u l t i m a t e l y have a deadening effect o n vis­ itors because i t leaves little r o o m f o r m i s c a l c u l a t i o n , f o r unexpected re­ sponses, or even f o r indifference t o the ceiling. Large Western art galleries such as the V a t i c a n M u s e u m share m a n y key characteristics w i t h ethnographic museums. T h e y have s i m i l a r agendas: One instructs the viewer a b o u t c u l t u r e by d i s p l a y i n g w h a t is presumed t o lie outside the West; the other guides the spectator t o p a r a l l e l conclusions by e x h i b i t i n g the greatness t h a t supposedly resides at the heart o f Western culture. A l t h o u g h the discourse o f c u l t u r a l s u p e r i o r i t y is m u c h m o r e subli­ m a t e d i n e x h i b i t i o n s o f Western p a i n t i n g t h a n i n displays o f f o r m e r l y c o l o ­ nized people a n d ancient empires, i t can be seen i n the w a y the c a n o n o f

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great Western art b o t h constructs a n d is dependent o n a n o t i o n o f an aes­ thetic heritage, w h i c h is t o say, a single stream o f great art leading u p t o the present day. L i k e the displays i n the o l d ethnographic museums, the art his­ t o r y c a n o n is e v o l u t i o n i s t . Some w o r k gets i n , other w o r k does n o t , some art is considered influential o n later artists, a n d other art is presented as l i t ­ tle m o r e t h a n examples o f a n aesthetic dead end. I n the art m u s e u m the spectator is presumed i n some p r o f o u n d w a y t o exist w i t h i n this Western c u l t u r a l heritage, w i t h access t o the i n t e r n a l codes o f this heritage, so t h a t she m a y experience a personal c o n n e c t i o n t o the w o r k . T h e story o f art is t o l d so t h a t influences considered foreign t o the E u r o p e a n aesthetic t r a d i ­ t i o n are kept t o a m i n i m u m , unless they occur i n a p r o p e r l y c o l o n i z e d c o n ­ text, such as the influence o f Islamic design o n H e n r i Matisse or r e c l i n i n g M e s o a m e r i c a n chacmool figures o n H e n r y M o o r e . W i t h the help o f the ex­ perts w h o decide w h a t w i l l a n d w i l l n o t be seen, the spectator learns h o w t o recognize w o r k t h a t deviates f r o m the c a n o n . T h e o d o r A d o r n o w r i t e s i n " V a l e r y Proust M u s e u m " : 22

The German word, "museal" ["museumlike"], has unpleasant overtones. It describes objects to which the observer no longer has a vital relationship and which are in the process of dying. ... Museum and mausoleum are connected by more than phonetic association. Museums are like family sepulchres of works of art. ... A r t treasures are hoarded in them, and their market value leaves no room for the pleasure of looking at them. 23

The characterization o f museal as a q u a l i t y t h a t describes objects i n the process o f d y i n g suggests t h a t the deadening o f the art object as an event is always happening a n d is m o r e l i k e l y t o happen i n the t r o p h y l i k e c o n t e x t o f art m u s e u m displays. T h e lifelessness o f m u s e u m art derives f r o m the rela­ t i o n between objects a n d the people w h o come t o l o o k at t h e m : A r t objects, by their presence i n a m u s e u m , are unable t o engage the viewer i n any dy­ n a m i c way. M u s e u m s by their very nature have this effect because they are designed t o demonstrate systems o f genealogy a n d lineage rather t h a n i n d i ­ v i d u a l pieces. I n other w o r d s , they are concerned w i t h the dead a n d h o w they connect t o us. ( " A n d t h e n Cezanne begat Picasso," b u t the corpses are e x h i b i t e d for a l l t o see i n the gallery.) There is a peculiar q u a l i t y a b o u t the m u s e u m b u i l d i n g t h a t blunts its contents, a n airlessness a n d silence t h a t hover just above the images o n d i s p l a y . T h e museum's a b i l i t y t o deaden its contents is o b v i o u s w h e n the m u s e u m contains stuffed animals o r the ar­ tifacts o f e x t i n c t societies, b u t w h e n i t contains the h i g h art o f Western c u l ­ ture, a slightly different process is at w o r k . T h e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f life a n d death is as apparent i n a n art m u s e u m as i n a n a t u r a l h i s t o r y e x h i b i t i o n . 24

W h a t interests me is h o w Western art is presented t o a m a i n s t r e a m a u d i ­ ence, t o people w h o g r e w u p m o r e or less as I d i d , w a t c h i n g the occasional art p r o g r a m o n p u b l i c television a n d reading a b o u t N e w Y o r k artists i n

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magazines. ( I n p r o v i n c i a l Seattle there were a few o f us w h o i m a g i n e d t h a t our lives w o u l d be considerably m o r e fascinating a n d complete i f o n l y w e c o u l d contemplate o r i g i n a l masterpieces i n the capitals o f Europe.) I m e a n an audience w i t h a superficial e d u c a t i o n i n Western art c o m b i n e d w i t h a belief t h a t i t is i m p o r t a n t . H i g h art is subject t o m a n y expectations, none o f w h i c h concerns death a n d anaesthetization; indeed, rather t h a n deadening the viewer, art is supposed t o have the opposite effect because ( i n t h e o r y at least) i t can p r o v i d e a transcendental experience a n d evoke a range o f l o f t y sentiments. T h e nature o f these sentiments has shifted since the nineteenth century, as have the aesthetic tools used t o elicit noble t h o u g h t s , b u t the idea t h a t art can lead t o religious, p a t r i o t i c , c r i t i c a l , o r p o l i t i c a l awareness continues t o o b t a i n . H i g h art i n its m a i n s t r e a m i n c a r n a t i o n is generally be­ lieved t o manifest a special visual language t h a t w i l l p e r m i t the suitable viewer t o uncover t r u t h s a b o u t the w o r l d t h a t are otherwise h i d d e n . ( A l t h o u g h this language m a y be i m a g i n e d as universal, i t always seems t o be a dialect o f Greek.) T h i s is certainly one e x p l a n a t i o n f o r the h i g h prices these w o r k s c o m m a n d a n d the w a y they have been c u l t u r a l l y reified. T h e a b i l i t y o f h i g h art t o raise the spectator's consciousness is a noble ideal, a n d sometimes i t actually happens. B u t m o r e often the experience o f the m u ­ seum-goer is rather different: A m o n g people w h o enjoy art (but are n o t spe­ cialists), a n d w h o m a k e a p o i n t o f v i s i t i n g museums as p a r t o f c u l t u r a l h o l ­ idays, the exalted response is actually a rarity. T h e transcendental experience usually does n o t take place f o r reasons o f e x h a u s t i o n , w h i c h has to do w i t h h o w a n d where great art is housed. A t the N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y i n L o n d o n , a huge edifice f u l l o f centuries o f paintings, i t is very easy t o come a w a y w i t h a b l i n d i n g headache. There is s i m p l y t o o m u c h t o absorb: Image after image collapses t i m e a n d space; i t becomes impossible t o l o o k at any image w i t h o u t being affected by every­ t h i n g else. A r t appears as a vast aggregate rather t h a n as m a n y discrete i m ­ ages or sets o f images tied t o p a r t i c u l a r contexts, a n d i t is the aggregate t h a t o v e r w h e l m s the spectator. T h i s has t o do i n p a r t w i t h the concept o f a na­ t i o n a l c o l l e c t i o n , w h i c h m u s t be large a n d comprehensive enough t o i m ­ press the rubes w i t h its status as state i n s t i t u t i o n . I remember m o v i n g as b r i s k l y as I possibly c o u l d t h r o u g h the N a t i o n a l Gallery, deliberately a v e r t i n g m y eyes f r o m the D u t c h landscapes so I w o u l d have s o m e t h i n g left f o r French r o m a n t i c i s m . I t is n o t t h a t D u t c h landscape p a i n t i n g is unsatisfactory i n itself or even uninteresting t o me personally; i t was just t h a t I felt b o m b a r d e d by pictures a n d i m a g i n e d t h a t any superfluous image w o u l d b u r n a hole t h r o u g h m y eyes a n d m a k e i t i m ­ possible f o r me t o see a n y t h i n g else. I u n d e r s t o o d clearly t h a t m u s e u m c o l ­ lections o f art sap energy, t h a t they can i n fact have a deadening effect o n the spectator, one t h a t is often c o m b i n e d w i t h s o m e t h i n g m o r e m a l i g n .

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A d o r n o is r i g h t again. Sometimes this effect can be quite f r i g h t f u l : O n the same art h o l i d a y I passed o u t i n Saint Peter's Basilica f r o m a l l the b a d taste, all the Berninis, the weirdness o f the images, like the skeletal a r m reaching o u t w i t h an hourglass as a m e m e n t o m o r i t o a l l passersby. I s w o o n e d under Saint Theresa, a n d a w o m a n f r o m C a l i f o r n i a w h o m I h a d never seen before h a d t o revive me w i t h grapes. Was this transcendence or fear? Was I dead? To describe the effect o f art o n the spectator is still n o t t o answer the question o f w h y is i t a l l t o o m u c h . Is i t because o f the idea o f a c o l l e c t i o n , especially a n a t i o n a l collection? Is the viewer constantly o v e r w h e l m e d by the m o n e t a r y value o f the w o r k s or indeed by the concept o f pricelessness? O r are so m a n y l i t t l e transcendent experiences o c c u r r i n g t h a t the b r a i n has n o choice b u t t o explode? T h e failure o f the m u s e u m art piece each a n d every t i m e t o p r o p e r l y awe the viewer is n o t a question o f the r a r i t y or sub­ l i m i t y o f the images because, i f t r u t h be t o l d , a l o t o f the w o r k is b o r i n g or b a d , even i f i t has been accepted i n t o the c a n o n o f Great Western A r t . There are s i m p l y t o o m a n y images a l l i n the same place, a n d the effect be­ comes a version o f the n i g h t m a r e s h o p p i n g e x h a u s t i o n a shopper experi­ ences after closely e x a m i n i n g t o o m a n y s i m i l a r jackets: T h e art objects seem t o have been t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o c o m m o d i t i e s . I do n o t w a n t t o suggest that i t is possible—or even desirable—to imagine a pure art object somehow free o f the w e i g h t o f the canon, the m a r k e t , the deal­ ers and critics, and a l l the conferences and university courses. Despite a l l the fine t a l k about superior values, an elaborate art industry mediates the w a y the spectator comes i n t o contact w i t h art i n the West. There is no p o i n t i n pre­ tending that art is untouched by these constraints. A r t is subject t o m a r k e t forces like any other p r o d u c t , w h i c h is n o t t o argue that i t is merely a c o m ­ m o d i t y , sadly a n d irrevocably tainted by filthy lucre. Rather t h a n seeking the airless space o f hushed tones and predetermined greatness, w e must recognize that a certain energy returns t o the art object w h e n i t is seen as p a r t o f the so­ ciety i n w h i c h i t exists, w h i c h includes the noise and vigor o f the marketplace. A certain luster surrounds the art object and those w h o create, m a r k e t , and collect h i g h art, and this luster draws a t t e n t i o n away f r o m the extent t o w h i c h art must c o n f o r m t o m a r k e t forces. Similarly, the ethical luster o f h i g h art de­ pends o n a h i g h level o f dissimulation w i t h respect t o h o w art is produced and h o w i t links up t o and alibis other, often disagreeable aspects o f the social or­ der. The questions then arise, W h a t makes one w o r k valorized and a d m i t t e d i n t o the canon and another rejected? To w h a t extent have politics and criticali t y become aesthetic commodities that can be exchanged i n the art market? T h e art m a r k e t w o r k s a c c o r d i n g t o a d o u b l e process: W h e n nineteenthcentury academic art began t o c o m m a n d higher prices i n the m a r k e t several years ago (because these w o r k s were i n the price range o f w o u l d - b e collec­ tors w h o c o u l d n o t a f f o r d m o r e fashionable w o r k ) , critics began t o reassess

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this w o r k , w h i c h meant m o r e interest i n i t a n d even higher prices, w h i c h meant m o r e c r i t i c a l articles. T h e m u s e u m is the end result o f this process: W o r k t h a t has been determined by the i n d u s t r y t o be g o o d is acquired a n d displayed by the m u s e u m . I t is a fact t h a t a w o r k ' s m a r k e t value structures h o w i t is seen. T h e I t a l i a n Renaissance a n d French impressionism have p r o b a b l y been the m o s t successfully p r o m o t e d periods o f Western art, a n d hence the m o s t v a l ­ orized, as becomes i m m e d i a t e l y clear after a cursory glance at the art shows o n PBS, c u r r i c u l a i n art colleges, a n d the h i g h end o f the art section at bookstores. A great deal o f this art is aesthetically interesting, b u t this changes n o t h i n g a b o u t the w a y i t has been p o s i t i o n e d a n d reified w i t h i n the a r t industry. T h e m o r e esoteric tastes are also subject t o c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n , a n d the shifts i n the status o f p a r t i c u l a r genres are apparent i n the t u r f bat­ tles i n art h i s t o r y departments over w h a t s h o u l d be considered art a n d hence a p p r o p r i a t e objects o f study (for instance, is e m b r o i d e r y a n d other crafts t r a d i t i o n a l l y done by w o m e n art? W h a t a b o u t objects made f o r the tourist trade?). Occasionally a m o m e n t o f tension emerges between a w o r k ' s m a r k e t value a n d its c u l t u r a l value: I recall the flurry o f excitement w h e n Japanese investors started b u y i n g impressionist paintings d u r i n g the 1980s, n o t the least o f w h i c h was the feeling a m o n g m a n y i n the Western art scene t h a t s o m e t h i n g was n o t quite r i g h t w h e n Asians " t o o k " the w o r k o f the E u r o p e a n masters t o a c o u n t r y considered t o be non-Western (al­ t h o u g h the dealers h a n d l i n g the sales p r o b a b l y h a d n o p r o b l e m w i t h this). I n a short piece t i t l e d "Price a n d M e a n i n g , " M e x i c a n essayist O c t a v i o Paz w r o t e i n 1 9 6 3 : 25

It is no longer necessary for artists to die: they are embalmed while they are still alive. This danger goes by the name of success. The w o r k must be "novel" and "rebellious." It is a matter of novelty that is mass-produced and of a rebel­ lion that doesn't scare anyone. Artists have become sideshow monsters, scare­ crows. A n d the works: plastic monsters neatly cut out, packaged, labelled, and provided w i t h all sorts of stamped documents to get them through moral and aesthetic customs. Harmless monsters. 26

L i k e any other c o m m o d i t y , art is subject t o the e c o n o m y o f the m a r k e t ­ place, a n d artists have t o take the m a r k e t i n t o account i f they w i s h t o sur­ vive as artists. N e a r l y a n y t h i n g can operate as currency i n the system o f ex­ change: N a t i o n a l i s m , ugliness, a n d , as Paz p o i n t s o u t , c r i t i c a l i t y a n d r e b e l l i o n can increase a w o r k ' s m a r k e t value a n d prestige. Paz m a y have h a d his o w n agenda w i t h respect t o his assessment o f p o l i t i c a l art, b u t his remarks are t o the p o i n t . A r t i s t s are expected t o p l a y a certain role i n the social order a n d their art t o have a certain rebellious f u n c t i o n , w h i c h makes g r a n d claims b u t is often unable t o f o l l o w t h r o u g h . Paz is suggesting t h a t art w o r k is deadened w h e n i t is inserted i n t o a system o f exchange t h a t de-

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termines value a c c o r d i n g t o price a n d a p r e d e t e r m i n e d c r i t e r i o n o f c r i t i c a l ­ l y . T h e d e m a n d t h a t w o r k express a socially o r p o l i t i c a l l y c r i t i c a l sensibil­ i t y becomes a w a y o f c i r c u m s c r i b i n g this c r i t i c a l i t y a n d o f a n t i c i p a t i n g i n advance w h a t i t w o u l d l o o k l i k e . T h i s d e m a n d further circumscribes the sensibilities o f the creator o f the w o r k , w h o is p e r m i t t e d t o p l a y the game o f epater les bourgeois b u t n o t m u c h else. Despite the fact that fine art is subject t o m a r k e t forces, i t continues t o h o l d the h i g h m o r a l g r o u n d a n d t o be t a l k e d about i n quasi-religious terms. H o w d i d a l l the expectations o f w h a t art is able t o do get attached t o it? T h e ex­ pectations o f the t w e n t i e t h century are familiar: A r t is supposed t o p r o m o t e some p o l i t i c a l agenda, t o be critical or rebellious, t o expose the hypocrisies o f the social order, w i t h artists f u n c t i o n i n g as Paz's "harmless monsters." Part o f the p r o b l e m involves confusion about w h a t art is expected t o achieve, b u t i n general i t is expected t o do quite a l o t . Some people say i t reflects the reali­ ties o f the w o r l d — i n other w o r d s , politics; some say i t is able t o transcend the social a n d p o l i t i c a l context i n w h i c h i t is made; a n d some say i t is sup­ posed t o save people by p r o v i d i n g t h e m w i t h the experience o f beauty or n e w insights i n t o reality. M a n y people subscribe t o one (if n o t all) o f these views. I n the past the association o f art w i t h r e l i g i o n gave i t a certain luster. T h i s luster shone n o t o n l y o n paintings t h a t expressed e x p l i c i t l y C h r i s t i a n subject matter b u t also o n those t h a t made use o f classical a n d pagan allegorical themes, w h i c h were also supposed t o u p l i f t the m o r a l s o f the viewer a n d ag­ grandize the p o w e r structure o f the d a y .

27

(Artists slyly played w i t h this ex­

p e c t a t i o n o f piety, o f course.) T o d a y i t seems t h a t this a n t i c i p a t i o n o f an aes­ thetic m o r a l g r o u n d continues t o f u n c t i o n b u t n o w derives f r o m the artist's p u t a t i v e role as social critic. ( C o n t e m p o r a r y artist Jeff Koons's a p p r o p r i a ­ t i o n o f " b a d taste" a n d kitschy images o f sex w i t h his w i f e have been read as critical o f m o r a l a n d aesthetic pretensions, a n d there were certainly factions t h a t u n d e r s t o o d A n d y W a r h o l ' s repetitive images o f mass culture this way.) Despite the realities o f the m a r k e t a n d the questions o f c o m m o d i f l c a t i o n , Western art seems w e l l able t o m a i n t a i n the noble agendas o f the past. H i g h art has h i s t o r i c a l l y been believed t o express elevated ideals, a n d at least since the nineteenth century these ideals have n o t been concerned w i t h r e l i ­ gious experience o r allegorical lessons b u t w i t h the vacancy a n d c o r r u p t i o n o f the bourgeois, everyday w o r l d . A r t has criticized mass society, c o n s u m p ­ t i o n , b a d taste, various k i n d s o f oppression ( a l t h o u g h rarely the o b v i o u s k i n d s ) . Sometimes this c r i t i q u e actually w o r k s , a n d certain art pieces suc­ ceed i n b r i n g i n g c o n t r a d i c t i o n s a n d hypocrisies t o the viewer's a t t e n t i o n or i n s h o w i n g these i n a n unexpected a n d interesting way. H o w e v e r , c r i t i c a l i t y can be l i t t l e m o r e t h a n snobbery or snobbery m a r k i n g itself as n o n s n o b bery. I f a c o n t e m p o r a r y artist paints a p i c t u r e o f Elvis Presley o n velvet a n d

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exhibits i t i n a fashionable N e w Y o r k gallery, is i t still a m a r k o f b a d , w h i c h is t o say, w o r k i n g - c l a s s , taste? A t times the d i s d a i n f o r mass c u l t u r e seems t o s p r i n g f r o m a n aristocratic nostalgia f o r the ancien regime ( w h e n the peasants k n e w their place) rather t h a n f r o m a c r i t i q u e o f entrenched sys­ tems o f power.

Critical Styles and D e a t h So m u c h o f the art o f the last fifty years or so has made claims t o criticality, w h i c h i n p a r t is the legacy o f the Parisian ideas o f b o h e m i a n i s m t h a t have i n f o r m e d the art w o r l d since the nineteenth century. A g a i n , critic T h e o p h i l e Gautier exemplified a n e w a t t i t u d e , w h i c h is still w i t h us: Gautier's boh e m i a n style gave h i m the air o f someone w h o was able t o see t h r o u g h the conventions o f society, b u t at the same t i m e these stylistic idiosyncrasies masked a n d excused his l i n k s t o the French state a n d the extent t o w h i c h he s u p p o r t e d the status q u o . T o d a y i t is t a k e n f o r granted t h a t i f artists w i s h t o be considered serious, they m u s t find ways t o express their distaste o f c o n ­ t e m p o r a r y c u l t u r e (even i f i t is by engaging w i t h the icons o f mass culture) a n d o f the existential issues o f the day. M i n i m a l l y , they o u g h t t o appear t o do so. T h e d r i l l is f a m i l i a r : Bourgeois c u l t u r e is b o r i n g a n d s t u l t i f y i n g , w e are a l l ordered a b o u t by machines, a n d the death i n s t i n c t has been the orga­ n i z i n g p r i n c i p l e o f society since A u s c h w i t z a n d H i r o s h i m a . T h i s is a l l very true, b u t the issue here is the w a y artists have been t a l k e d a b o u t as i f they have a special grasp o f the g r a v i t y o f these p r o b l e m s v i a the u p l i f t i n g luster bestowed by h i g h c u l t u r e . C r i t i q u e s o f the status q u o t e n d t o be p a r t i a l a n d easy t o forget because the m y t h o f the rebellious artist has been so effective. I t is also easy t o forget t h a t because m o s t c o n t e m p o r a r y art makes claims t o criticality, i t has become the c o m m o d i t y o f choice f o r m a n y collectors. I of­ ten (to m y c o n t i n u i n g embarrassment) experience a m o m e n t o f surprise w h e n I learn t h a t a n artist whose w o r k I find interesting is p o l i t i c a l l y c o n ­ servative or worse. Surely i f she dislikes the bourgeoisie's hideous, b o r i n g style, she w i l l also dislike its p o l i t i c s , b u t a p p a r e n t l y n o t . These are i m a g ­ ined as separate issues. Outsiders have always h a d their roles t o p l a y i n the social order, even i f the outside ends u p as a fictional space or is far less transgressive t h a n everyone claims. T h e artist has been designated as the outsider i n Western culture, a n d here I a m t h i n k i n g o f Joseph Beuys a n d the a n i m a l he c l a i m e d was a coyote a n d his strange, constructed h i s t o r y — t h e artist becomes a p r o p h e t - s h a m a n , a n d the w o r k is given a t r a n s f o r m a t i v e f u n c t i o n . Even those w i t h o n l y a vague grasp o f the c o n t e m p o r a r y art scene k n o w enough t o expect u n h a p p y artist-geniuses t o disparage mainstream-style c o m m o d -

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i t y c u l t u r e a n d t o live i n a m a r g i n a l , yet interesting way. Cherokee artist J i m m i e D u r h a m p o i n t s o u t t h a t the n o t i o n o f the artist as outsider abstracts artists f r o m the g r o u n d o n w h i c h they w o r k a n d artificially separates aes­ thetics, p o l i t i c s , a n d spirituality. C o n t r a s t i n g a N a t i v e a p p r o a c h t o aesthet­ ics w i t h t h a t usually t a k e n for granted i n the West, D u r h a m w r i t e s , " W e d o n o t feel t h a t artists are the exclusive keepers o f conscience for society: t h a t is a responsibility shared by a l l members o f society. The idea o f artistasconscience seems r o m a n t i c a l l y , a n d falsely, s h a m a n i s t i c . " Is the artist supposed t o criticize society so t h a t the rest o f us do n o t have to? T h e n o t i o n t h a t the artist is by d e f i n i t i o n a c u l t u r a l critic overcodes other ways t h a t the artist's p o s i t i o n i n b o t h the art m a r k e t a n d the larger society c o u l d be read. Vast a m o u n t s o f m o n e y f l o w t h r o u g h the art industry, w i t h some o f this m o n e y being siphoned o f f by artists s h r e w d e n o u g h t o grasp artistic trends a n d skilled e n o u g h t o p u t this k n o w l e d g e t o w o r k . T h e ques­ t i o n o f a n artist's success can be t r i c k y , a n d w e are wise n o t t o decide t o o m u c h i n advance a b o u t w h a t success o r failure m i g h t m e a n i n terms o f the q u a l i t y o f the w o r k . C e r t a i n l y success i n the art w o r l d is n o t read i n quite the same w a y as, say, success i n l a w or real estate b u t instead can appear as something t h a t n a t u r a l l y accrues t o an artist w h o is g o o d , w i t h a veil d r a w n over the question o f m a r k e t forces. O f course, very few artists are actually m a r k e d as good—hence the c u t t h r o a t social relations a n d strictly enforced p e c k i n g orders i n the c o n t e m p o r a r y art w o r l d . I f the w a y successful artists get w r i t t e n u p i n b o t h art a n d m a i n s t r e a m j o u r n a l s is any i n d i c a t i o n , suc­ cess a n d a c c u m u l a t i o n o f w e a l t h are n a t u r a l i z e d a n d n o t presented as par­ t i c u l a r l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o the artist's f u n c t i o n as critic. C r i t i c a l i t y has come t o be very n a r r o w l y defined, at least i n p a r t because o f its status as a cur­ rency t h a t can be exchanged for success i n the marketplace. A c r i t i q u e o f mass p r o d u c t i o n does n o t necessarily constitute a c r i t i q u e o f c a p i t a l i s m i n general b u t can refer t o a n aristocratic disdain for the o r d i n a r y , s o m e t h i n g like A n d y W a r h o l a n d his soup cans. Yes, w e k n o w mass p r o d u c t i o n is u g l y a n d oppressive, b u t i t is certainly possible t o recognize this a n d still m a i n ­ t a i n reactionary ideas, w h i c h can be concealed by the ambivalence o f the message. 28

Expectations o f criticality influence h o w an artist's success is read. T h a t a very few artists have become r i c h does n o t necessarily mean that they have re­ nounced their critical f u n c t i o n because i n the art w o r l d selling o u t tends t o be viewed more as a question o f taste and sensibility t h a n o f accumulation o f money and power. Part o f this p r o b l e m w i t h assessing an artist's success has t o do w i t h the difficult concept o f selling out, a vague, yet insulting t e r m that can be h u r l e d at anyone for nearly any reason, b u t p a r t o f i t concerns the dissem­ bling o f the artist's relation t o the m a r k e t i n w h i c h she shows and sells w o r k . A n artist can w o r k h a r d t o amass w e a l t h and praise f r o m the p o w e r f u l and

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still be seen as critical o f the system that makes this possible, as l o n g as she does n o t begin t o l o o k or act like the bourgeois-style r i c h i n any obvious way. M a n y people seem t o c l i n g t o a mystified u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f artistic genius a n d t o the idea t h a t talent wells u p u n b i d d e n i n artists, w r i t e r s , a n d m u s i ­ cians, h o r r i b l e a n d p a i n f u l a n d P y t h i a - l i k e (an artist's years o f t r a i n i n g are elided by this n o t i o n ) . T h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g goes a l o n g w i t h the p r o f o u n d l y e v o l u t i o n i s t n o t i o n t h a t certain geniuses are so far ahead o f their t i m e t h a t they can be appreciated o n l y after their death: discovered, as i t were, by a m o r e advanced sensibility. There is s o m e t h i n g mysterious a b o u t creativity, b u t this does n o t necessarily have a n y t h i n g t o do w i t h an artist's success or failure. A n oeuvre's reception is another issue entirely b u t tends t o be treated as i f i t were coextensive w i t h i n t r i n s i c m e r i t . T h e artist is one o f the few t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y figures f o r w h o m talent is seen as a guarantee o f suc­ cess because this " g i f t " w i l l be able t o transcend a l l other considerations, i n c l u d i n g dealers, indifferent critics, p h i l i s t i n e collectors, a n d m o r e . T h u s , the a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f aesthetic m e r i t by the marketplace becomes i d e n t i ­ cal t o t h a t m e r i t itself, a n d being m a r k e d as g o o d by the art system is gener­ ally t a k e n t o m e a n t h a t a n artist is i n fact g o o d , t h a t her message is strong, t h a t she is i n some p r o f o u n d w a y c r i t i c a l a n d p r o v o k i n g . I a m n o t c o n v i n c e d t h a t , as Pierre B o u r d i e u suggests, the artists or w r i t e r loses s y m b o l i c a u t h o r i t y or c u l t u r a l c a p i t a l w i t h economic success. T h i s m a y have been true at one t i m e , b u t the cachet o f the i m p o v e r i s h e d artist is n o longer quite c o n v i n c i n g , a n d t o d a y the successful artist's c u l t u r a l c a p i t a l s i m p l y migrates t o style. Because r i c h artists prefer t o live i n expen­ sive, yet c o o l lofts i n M a n h a t t a n rather t h a n i n b i g , ugly, tasteless houses i n N e w Jersey, a n d t o wear C o m m e des Garcons rather t h a n V a l e n t i n o , their personal taste becomes a m a r k o f their c r i t i c a l stance. (This is a version o f a n o l d , o l d story: As the Greeks keep t e l l i n g us, beauty equals the good.) Taste acts as a visual substitute f o r a m o r e substantially p o l i t i c a l c r i t i q u e o f c u l t u r e . N o t a l l t h a t m u c h has changed since the days o f T h e o p h i l e Gautier. B u t the intellectual a n d artistic avant-gardes have always h a d a tendency t o refer t o matters o f style rather t h a n t o theories o f alienated l a b o r a n d c o m ­ m o d i t y fetishism. T h i s emphasis o n style seems very cynical, given the t r a n s f o r m a t i v e claims o f m u c h o f this w o r k . B u t perhaps the level o f c y n i ­ cism is the inevitable result, n o t o f the failure o f art t o live u p t o r i g o r o u s (and h y p o c r i t i c a l ) expectations o f criticality, b u t o f these expectations be­ c o m i n g so entrenched. T h e artist is expected by the p u b l i c t o m a i n t a i n a b o h e m i a n m o d e o f life despite her successes, w h i c h becomes a m a r k o f a u t h e n t i c i t y t h a t suppos­ edly goes b e y o n d personal taste. A collector is usually far less a n x i o u s a b o u t his or her class p o s i t i o n t h a n a n artist or critic, a n d by p u r c h a s i n g c r i t i c a l art, the collector inherits the m a n a o f the sharp-eyed c u l t u r a l critic. L i k e anyone else, w e a l t h y collectors w a n t t o imagine t h a t they are smart 29

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a n d w a r y (and indeed some are), a n d they w a n t t o i n f o r m people that, a l ­ t h o u g h they m a y be bourgeois, they are n o t really bourgeois because they k n o w enough t o b u y interesting, antiestablishment paintings. T h e status o f the w o r k o f art as a c o m m o d i t y means t h a t i t functions accordingly i n the m a r k e t , b u t this issue is m o r e c o m p l e x w h e n the content o f the w o r k se­ verely challenges the p o s i t i o n o f those w h o treat i t as such. For instance, L e o n Golub's images o f mercenaries a n d p o l i t i c a l executions are very creepy a n d strong, a n d his w o r k is purchased by c o r p o r a t i o n s . G i v e n the content o f his w o r k , this seems a p a r a d o x : A l t h o u g h the w o r k is g o o d a n d addresses difficult issues, given the unsavory p o l i t i c a l activities o f m a n y multinationals, w h y w o u l d a corporation want to o w n a Golub, a w o r k t h a t c o u l d r e m i n d people o f the h u m a n cost o f p o l i t i c a l intervention? As an investment? T h e w o r k is t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a pure c o m m o d i t y by the art m a r k e t , a n d consequently the actual image is u n i m p o r t a n t , a m o v e t h a t is b r e a t h t a k i n g i n its c y n i c i s m b u t p r o b a b l y an accurate description o f the w a y things actually w o r k . Nevertheless, those w h o recall w h a t happened t o Salvador A l l e n d e m i g h t ask i f any G o l u b images o f p o l i t i c a l t o r t u r e are by chance i n the art c o l l e c t i o n o f the c o r p o r a t i o n t h a t o w n s A n a c o n d a Copper.

T h e Marketing of Marginality The m a r k e t i n g o f 1980s N e w Y o r k artist J e a n - M i c h e l Basquiat is exem­ p l a r y o f h o w false demands a n d expectations can t u r n a b o d y o f art w o r k a n d the artist himself i n t o something dead, i n t o c o m m o d i t i e s . I n this case the artist actually died, a fact q u i c k l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the m y t h being flogged i n the marketplace. I t does n o t really matter i f this p a r t i c u l a r artist was c o m p l i c i t i n the w a y he was being sold ( w h e n he was alive) because the terms h a d been set up l o n g before he came o n the scene. Basquiat's w o r k can be disingenuous, a n d his r e l a t i o n t o the art w o r l d was somewhat a m ­ bivalent, b u t his paintings are a b o u t something i n the w o r l d (a q u a l i t y t h a t becomes apparent w h e n Basquiat's w o r k is c o m p a r e d t o t h a t o f some o f the other names o f the 1980s, for instance, J u l i a n Schnabel). Basquiat was m a r k e t e d as a c h i l d o f the ghetto, as a " n a t u r a l " artist, as a drug-obsessed i d i o t savant w h o was unable t o handle success (unlike pre­ sumably m o r e knowledgeable w h i t e people, w e n t the silent subtext). H e came f r o m middle-class B r o o k l y n a n d h a d an accountant father, a fact a b i t difficult t o r o m a n t i c i z e a n d equally difficult t o sell, especially i n the case o f a y o u n g A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n artist. Basquiat was constructed (and c o n ­ structed himself) as a c o m m o d i f i e d entity a n d inserted i n t o a narrative t h a t links up t o other, m o r e e x p l i c i t l y racist narratives. I recall people i n the m i d - 1 9 8 0 s t a l k i n g a b o u t Basquiat's w o r k as i f he were the true voice o f ur-

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ban a u t h e n t i c i t y a n d as i f his w o r k were a w a y for w h i t e spectators t o ac­ cess a c u l t u r a l t r u t h usually denied t h e m . (This w h i f f o f c u l t u r a l v o y e u r i s m is also apparent i n the w a y some w h i t e people t a l k a b o u t rap music, w h i c h also becomes a w a y o f aggrandizing their c l a i m t o hipness.) Such character­ izations are always ambivalent: S h o u l d the artist affirm or reject narratives o f a u t h e n t i c i t y a n d genius or even pay a t t e n t i o n t o the rather p r o b l e m a t i c subtexts o f these? Does t h i n k i n g a b o u t questions o f genius at a l l induce paralysis i n the artist? Basquiat's supposed a u t h e n t i c i t y was rarely t a l k e d a b o u t (at least i n w h i t e circles) as a p a r t i c u l a r l y A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n issue, ex­ cept t h a t his blackness made this a u t h e n t i c i t y appear p a r t i c u l a r l y g r i t t y a n d genuine, t o some at least. Race became something for sale, a p h e n o m e n o n t h a t certainly d i d n o t begin w i t h Basquiat. H i s w o r k was rarely addressed as something t h a t m i g h t derive f r o m a p a r t i c u l a r experience or c o m m u n i t y , a n d the extent t o w h i c h his w o r k addressed issues o f racism was generally elided. Rather, the Basquiat persona t h a t circulated i n the art w o r l d referred t o the o l d story t h a t insists t h a t people designated as outsiders have m o r e i m ­ mediate access t o pure, unconscious experience, w h i c h means t h a t their w o r k is seen as less intellectually based t h a n t h a t o f artists designated as i n ­ siders. Basquiat was, after a l l , a graffiti artist a n d exuded the aura o f the street rather t h a n the art college (certainly the extent o f his t r a i n i n g was passed over i n the m y t h o l o g i z i n g ) . H i s p u b l i c image manifested m u l t i p l e identities: p a r t b o h e m i a n , p a r t A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n , p a r t h e r o i n addict, a l l o f w h i c h were read as outsider by m o n e y e d average art collectors a n d as r o ­ m a n t i c by others. Basquiat w a l k e d a p a r t i c u l a r edge a n d t o o k risks t h a t others c o u l d or w o u l d n o t , w h i c h seemed t o delight the people w h o sur­ r o u n d e d h i m a n d sought t o make m o n e y o f f his w o r k . H i s stance enabled t h e m t o imagine they were calling their o w n existence a n d certainties i n t o question w i t h o u t actually h a v i n g t o do so. T h e artist does shock the b o u r ­ geoisie, b u t the bourgeoisie loves i t a n d is prepared t o pay g o o d m o n e y for the experience. There is still something o f a mystery i n the art w o r l d ' s reception o f Basquiat (and one t h a t u l t i m a t e l y reinforces the belief i n the t r i u m p h o f ge­ nius): There is no question t h a t m u c h o f his w o r k is very g o o d a n d very c r i t i c a l o f some o f the most cherished n o t i o n s o f Western c u l t u r e . I t h i n k bell hooks is r i g h t w h e n she says t h a t Basquiat called the E u r o p e a n aes­ thetic t r a d i t i o n i n t o question a n d "takes the Eurocentric v a l u a t i o n o f the great a n d beautiful a n d demands t h a t w e acknowledge the b r u t a l reality i t m a s k s . " See, for instance, Native Carrying Some Guns, Bibles, Amorites on Safari ( 1 9 8 2 ) , w h i c h depicts a very shocked b u t h u m a n - l o o k i n g black m a n standing next t o a c a r t o o n l i k e , empty-eyed w h i t e m a n w e a r i n g a p i t h helmet. T h i s w o r k undoes the racial a n d h i s t o r i c a l certainties presumably 30

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m a i n t a i n e d by m a n y patrons o f the arts, a n d I expect t h a t such images w o u l d m a k e r i c h w h i t e collectors a little uneasy. A t the same t i m e , Basquiat d i d w o r k w i t h i n the Western h i g h art t r a d i t i o n , b u t this does n o t fully ex­ p l a i n w h y he was t a k e n u p by such collectors. G i v e n the nature o f his w o r k , h o w do w e account for his success? C o u l d i t be t h a t collecting p o l i t i c a l a r t — b y museums o r p r i v a t e collec­ tors—is a w a y o f discharging the message o f the w o r k , i n other w o r d s , o f t r a n s f o r m i n g the c r i t i c a l p o t e n t i a l o f such w o r k i n t o s o m e t h i n g dead a n d decided a n d i m b u i n g i t w i t h the museal q u a l i t y described by A d o r n o ? Because p o l i t i c a l space is subject t o c o m m o d i f l c a t i o n , a certain type o f ex­ h i b i t i o n can o n l y reiterate this c o m m o d i f l c a t i o n a n d thus constitute a dis­ p l a y o f the dead. C o l l e c t i n g art such as Basquiat's m a y become a w a y for the bourgeoisie t o discharge any residual g u i l t ( i f i t feels a n y — a n u n l i k e l y story, I a m t o l d ) , b u t also, a n d m o r e accurately, t o discharge a n x i e t y a b o u t lack o f taste a n d the n o t i o n t h a t m o n e y means n o taste. (This i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m a y be entirely t o o c o m p l i c a t e d : A r t i s t friends assure me t h a t most collec­ tors lack the apparatus t o see the c r i t i c a l subtext o f the w o r k , a l t h o u g h i n Basquiat's case i t is h a r d t o see h o w they c o u l d have a v o i d e d i t . ) A g a i n , the u n d e r l y i n g machine refers t o a n aristocratic ideal i n w h i c h c r i t i c a l i t y is coded as a n aristocratic prerogative rather t h a n s o m e t h i n g t h a t m i g h t actu­ ally call the social a n d p o l i t i c a l order i n t o question. B u t n o , the elegant wetiko aesthete prefers t o stand above the fray surveying the w o r l d below. C o n d e m n a t i o n o f m a i n s t r e a m c u l t u r e , i n c l u d i n g racism, can derive f r o m an aristocratic disdain o f the masses.

A r t and C o m m e r c e Despite the exalted ideals o f h i g h culture a n d the claims o f aesthetic p u r i t y , p u b l i c p r o d u c t i o n s o f h i g h culture events are s u p p o r t e d by corporate money. Advertisements for the ballet, PBS presentations o f English novels, a n d i m p o r t a n t art e x h i b i t i o n s a l l t e n d t o be accompanied by the n o w u b i q u i t o u s corporate l o g o . T h e usual a r g u m e n t is that, despite the unsa­ v o r y motives o f business, at least the w o r k gets m o u n t e d , the actors get jobs, the artists get s h o w n , a n d so o n . T h i s is true, a n d i n any case there re­ ally is n o pure space o f h i g h art ( i f indeed there ever was). After a l l , c o r p o ­ rate advertising supports p r i m e - t i m e cop shows as w e l l , so w h y n o t take the m o n e y for something t h a t m i g h t p r o v e m o r e interesting? B u t w e need t o pay a t t e n t i o n t o h o w corporate values have allied w i t h a n d u l t i m a t e l y usurped the l o f t y pretensions o f h i g h c u l t u r e . I n the i n t r o d u c t i o n t o Museums and the Shaping of Knowledge Eilean H o o p e r - G r e e n h i l l describes a fairly t y p i c a l advertisement for an e x h i b i t i o n o n Claude M o n e t t h a t ap­ peared i n the L o n d o n Independent i n 1990:

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Discover how one man's vision can change the way you look at the world. In every series, no two pictures are exactly alike. A single theme. The same object. But enveloped in varying light, changing seasons and atmosphere. This is Monet in the '90s. Digital Equipment Corporation and its employees are proud to sponsor the exhibition that brings together, for the first time, the series paintings of Claude Monet. 31

T h i s advertisement has several curious features. T h e first w o r d , discover, links the reader t o a g r a n d t r a d i t i o n o f Western e x p l o r a t i o n , w h i c h res­ onates most e m p h a t i c a l l y w i t h the c o l o n i a l project. T h i s r e m i n d e r t h a t the s h o w concerns the h i g h aesthetic t r a d i t i o n is reiterated by the c l a i m t h a t c o n t e m p l a t i n g this w o r k w i l l p r o v i d e the viewer w i t h a t r a n s f o r m a t i v e ex­ perience. Conquest a n d transcendence are a l l i n the first sentence. T h e sec­ o n d section plays w i t h t e m p o r a l i t y : T h e 1890s o f M o n e t a n d the 1990s o f the e x h i b i t i o n are collapsed i n a deliberately ambiguous way. T h i s t e m p o r a l collapse is l i n k e d t o the idea o f change a n d the w a y these paintings are si­ m u l t a n e o u s l y the same a n d different, possibly like the nineteenth a n d the t w e n t i e t h centuries ( w h i c h are t u r n i n g o u t t o be a l o t m o r e alike t h a n I w o u l d have predicted i f the D i c k e n s i a n c o n d i t i o n s i n the cities are any i n d i ­ cation). T h e final section o f the ad stresses the proactive role o f the c o r p o ­ r a t i o n , w h i c h has b r o u g h t these w o r k s together for the first t i m e i n one h u n d r e d years. T h u s , the c o r p o r a t i o n n o t o n l y makes a n e w v i s i o n possible but also understands the need t o change a n d stay the same. T h e message is designed t o be very reassuring indeed. T h e reader o f this advertisement is supposed t o feel indebted t o c o r p o ­ rate largesse for the o p p o r t u n i t y t o experience the magic m o m e n t o f t r a n ­ scendence t h a t M o n e t ' s w o r k w i l l generate. F o r m e r l y those o f us w h o bene­ fited f r o m p h i l a n t h r o p i c gestures were supposed t o t h a n k the lords a n d l o r d l i k e i n d i v i d u a l s w h o made such events a n d venues possible, b r i n g i n g art a n d libraries t o the people. Today noblesse oblige is m u c h m o r e i n s i d i ­ ous: T h e ( m y t h i c a l ) average spectator is supposed t o identify w i t h the cor­ porate agenda, or, rather, the c o r p o r a t i o n ' s agenda has become identified w i t h everyone else's. T h i s is i n m a n y respects the p o i n t o f the e x h i b i t i o n . I t is the advertisement's evocation o f corporate " p r i d e " a n d the i n c l u s i o n o f the reference t o its "employees" t h a t are the key t o the spectator's experi­ ence o f M o n e t ' s w o r k . T h e advertisement presents the c o r p o r a t i o n as a large f a m i l y t h a t the viewer can be p a r t o f by attending the M o n e t show. I n the past most people p r o b a b l y d i d n o t imagine a personal c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the p h i l a n t h r o p i c gesture o r Peggy Guggenheim's w o r l d , a n d indeed the cir­ c u l a t i o n o f the p h i l a n t h r o p i c p r o p e r name r a n o n a different e c o n o m y t h a n corporate sponsorship. T h e o l d w a y u l t i m a t e l y referred t o feudalism; the n e w w a y insists t h a t everyone is equal (as l o n g as w e ignore a l l the nasty u n d e r l y i n g p o w e r issues).

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A t this stage o f the N e w W o r l d O r d e r I can scarcely imagine a n alterna­ tive t o the marketplace o f images a n d ideas o r a n answer t o the o l d ques­ t i o n " W h a t is a r t ? " I feel rather sad as I reread W a l t e r Benjamin's h i g h hopes f o r a p o l i t i c a l l y engaged art i n " T h e W o r k o f A r t i n the Age o f M e c h a n i c a l R e p r o d u c t i o n , " hopes t h a t t u r n o u t t o have been o v e r l y o p t i ­ mistic. C a p i t a l moves very, very q u i c k l y a n d seems able t o t r a n s f o r m any­ t h i n g i n t o a c o m m o d i t y . B e n j a m i n t h o u g h t t h a t art c o u l d be liberated f r o m its dependence o n r i t u a l , b u t perhaps r i t u a l is n o t such a b a d idea after a l l o r is n o t s o m e t h i n g t h a t needs t o be i m a g i n e d as separate f r o m aesthetics. O n e possible w a y t o c i r c u m v e n t the p r o b l e m o f the marketplace ( i f artists w a n t t o d o so) m i g h t be t o t h i n k o f art as a ceremony because ceremony grounds art t o society differently t h a n c o m m o d i f l c a t i o n does—value runs t h r o u g h l a n d rather t h a n money. T h i s is n o t a n easy task: A n a M e n d i e t a a n d other performance artists i n the 1960s a n d 1970s sought t o tie the w o r k t o a n event rather t h a n a p r o d u c t t h a t c o u l d be b o u g h t a n d sold, a n d i t t u r n e d o u t t h a t art was unable t o c o n t i n u e w i t h o u t the m a r k e t (but artists i n those days d i d seem t o have m o r e f u n , w h i c h is s o m e t h i n g at least). C e r e m o n y seems t o w o r k o n l y i f i t is based o n c o m m o n sense a n d is u n d e r s t o o d as p a r t o f a larger system o f m e a n i n g , one t h a t helps people see the p o i n t o f this system a n d h o w i t is connected t o the things they d o (this is w h y the ceremony needs t o be real rather t h a n another c o m m o d i t y , as so often happens i n the N e w A g e ) . W i t h o u t ceremony, e v e r y t h i n g floats t h r o u g h t i m e a n d space; i n the end there are o n l y c o r p o r a t i o n s . T h i s is n o t h o w things were supposed t o t u r n o u t . 3 2

5 Dreams and Landscapes: The Delineation of Wild Spaces A heaven with gold-paved streets lived inside the minds of [fifteenth century] Europeans, and a far God who didn't live on land but in a distant place with mansions, gold, and winged people, those who had lived well enough to escape the earth. The dominant belief system looked away from land. ... It did not value the plants or animals that fed the people. The living world was not a sa­ cred, alive thing. ... From a contemporary perspective these men's ignorance about the world was a not-knowing that had devastating consequences for peo­ ple and for the land, as much as it had in their own land, with their own people. 1

T h e d o m i n a n t E u r o p e a n m e n t a l i t y o f the fifteenth a n d sixteenth cen­ turies described by C h i c k a s a w w r i t e r L i n d a H o g a n w o u l d have p r o f o u n d effects o n h o w l a n d was represented i n the West, as w e l l as o n the represen­ t a t i o n o f people w h o sought t o i n h a b i t the l a n d i n a n ancient way. Once h u m a n beings began t o imagine t h a t they c o u l d usurp the g o d l i k e f u n c t i o n o f the earth t o give a n d w i t h h o l d life, the sacred c o n t r a c t between the h u ­ m a n a n d n o n h u m a n w o r l d s was b r o k e n , a n d there was n o longer any effec­ tive mechanism t h a t c o u l d check the emergence o f wetiko sickness a n d c o m m o d i t y fetishism. I n a n earlier chapter I raised the question o f w h a t people i n Western culture seem so desperate a b o u t , desperate t o the p o i n t t h a t they m u s t cannibalize cultures deemed m o r e interesting or authentic i n order t o locate m e a n in g. H e r e I a t t e m p t t o m a p o u t the source o f this a n x i ­ ety, w h i c h I believe is a l i e n a t i o n f r o m l a n d . T h i s is n o t a n e w p r o b l e m . T h e s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f the earth t o a h i e r a r c h i ­ cal system t h a t considered l a n d i n h e r e n t l y i n need o f discipline (by those humans deemed best t o judge, w h o were rarely farmers) was carried o u t i n policies a n d decisions designed t o b r i n g l a n d under h u m a n p u r v i e w . These h a d p r o f o u n d effects o n h o w h u m a n activities were conceived a n d regu­ lated i n the everyday w o r l d b o t h i n Europe a n d i n the c o l o n i a l societies o f the Americas. For hundreds o f years p r i o r t o the invasions o f N o r t h a n d S o u t h A m e r i c a , C h r i s t i a n l a w concerned itself w i t h a d j u d i c a t i n g l a n d use, 151

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m a k i n g rulings a b o u t j u r i s d i c t i o n over l a n d , the rights o f non-Christians t o property, a n d the legal c o n d i t i o n s c o n s t i t u t i n g just w a r over t e r r i t o r y . C h r i s t i a n doctrine asserted ( a l t h o u g h p u t i n different terms t o d a y ) t h a t Christians h a d a d u t y t o m a ke the l a n d p r o d u c t i v e ; w h a t constituted p r o ­ d u c t i v i t y was carefully l a i d o u t by the lawyers o f the c h u r c h . C a n o n l a w de­ veloped the legal category o f terra nullius, o r " e m p t y l a n d , " w h i c h i n the c o l o n i a l p e r i o d was first used t o justify Portuguese incursions i n t o West A f r i c a i n the fifteenth century (this category o r i g i n a t e d m u c h earlier d u r i n g the C h r i s t i a n i z a t i o n o f Eastern Europe). T h e French utilized the concept o f terra nullius i n w h a t is n o w Canada w h e n Jacques Cartier c l a i m e d rights o f discovery for the French c r o w n o n the lands over w h i c h he traveled. N e i t h e r West A f r i c a n o r Canada was u n i n h a b i t e d , b u t the people w h o lived i n these territories were n o t considered i n h a b i t a n t s a c c o r d i n g t o E u r o p e a n law. T h i s idea derived f r o m n o t i o n s o f p r o p e r use o f l a n d a n d the universal­ i z a t i o n o f Greek a n d R o m a n concepts o f l a n d use. A l l people, C h r i s t i a n or n o t , were considered subject t o n a t u r a l law, w h i c h was t h o u g h t t o be based o n the faculty o f h u m a n reason. L i v i n g a c c o r d i n g t o reason meant l i v i n g i n fixed settlements w i t h an established p o l i t i c a l h i e r a r c h y — i n other w o r d s , i n some version o f the Greek polis. E g a l i t a r i a n systems o f l a n d use were seen as i n h e r e n t l y n o n p r o d u c t i v e , static, incapable o f assimilating n o t i o n s o f progress, p o l i t i c a l freedom, a n d , i n some instances, free trade (for instance, the fur trade i n N o r t h A m e r i c a ) . T h u s , at the m o s t basic level o f s u r v i v a l — h o w people p r o d u c e d the f o o d t h a t kept t h e m alive—Europeans were confident t h a t they k n e w best a n d were prepared t o universalize a n d impose their o w n system o n others. A c c o r d i n g t o terra nullius, n o m a d i c a n d m i g r a t o r y peoples d i d n o t demonstrate reason i n their w a y o f life a n d were therefore n o t considered t o t r u l y occupy or i n h a b i t the l a n d . T h e fear o f unsettled people runs deep i n E u r o p e a n t h i n k i n g a n d has p e r i o d i c a l l y flared u p i n c o n t i n u i n g attempts t o exterminate Gypsies. T h i s fear is also apparent i n a l l the w a n d e r i n g Jew stories o f the nineteenth century. T h e reasons someone m i g h t have t o m o v e across l a n d — f o r instance, trade or a n i m a l h u s b a n d r y — w e r e n o t quite g o o d enough, a n d such people tended t o be objects o f suspicion. Because indige­ nous people i n nearly every p a r t o f the w o r l d supposedly misused the l a n d ( w h i c h happened t o lie i n territories coveted by the E u r o p e a n p o w e r s ) , they were n o t considered w o r t h y o f the territories i n w h i c h they lived. T h i s legal p r i n c i p l e led t o the bizarre conceits o f the c i v i l i z i n g mi s s i on, i n w h i c h colonists c l a i m e d t h a t they were d o i n g indigenous people a favor by per­ m i t t i n g t h e m t o observe w h a t p r o d u c t i v e use o f l a n d was a l l a b o u t ( o n ex­ p r o p r i a t e d l a n d , o f course). Terra nullius is n o t s i m p l y a n idea i n dusty l a w b o o k s o f the distant past. Just one h u n d r e d years ago i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a B r i t i s h colonists argued

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t h a t N a t i v e fishing a n d h u n t i n g d i d n o t constitute p r o p e r l a n d use because these activities were, a c c o r d i n g t o a universalized B r i t i s h d e f i n i t i o n , sports. A n d very recently some o f the t a l k f r o m H y d r o Quebec spokespeople a b o u t the James Bay I I hydroelectric project has suggested t h a t because Cree peo­ ple are hunters, they do n o t m a k e adequate, p r o d u c t i v e use o f the l a n d the p r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n m e n t wishes t o flood. A n d the terra nullius argument used i n the l a w courts t o e x p r o p r i a t e a b o r i g i n a l l a n d was n o t o v e r t u r n e d by the A u s t r a l i a n Supreme C o u r t u n t i l 1 9 9 1 . D u r i n g the 1 9 9 0 standoff between the M o h a w k n a t i o n a n d the governments o f Quebec a n d Canada, the m a y o r o f the t o w n o f O k a asserted t h a t the lands under dispute—a M o h a w k b u r i a l g r o u n d b o r d e r i n g the t o w n — w o u l d be p u t t o p r o p e r l y p r o d u c t i v e use as a g o l f course. T h e c u r r e n t conflict between indigenous people a n d the M e x i c a n g o v e r n m e n t turns o n questions o f l a n d use a n d free trade, w i t h the authorities subscribing t o the n o t i o n t h a t l a n d is really p r o d u c t i v e o n l y i f i t is subject t o h i g h - y i e l d agribusiness techniques. We can see t h a t t o a rather s t u n n i n g extent questions o f l a n d a n d o f p r o p e r l a n d use c o n t i n u e t o rely o n n o t i o n s o f n a t u r a l l a w u l t i m a t e l y derived f r o m Christian doctrine. I f Western concepts o f p r o d u c t i v e l a n d use are based o n reason, t h e n ra­ t i o n a l i t y has p r o v e d t o be a false friend where the earth is concerned (as i t has i n so m a n y other areas). T h e p r o f o u n d a l i e n a t i o n o f h u m a n beings f r o m w h a t sustains life has h a d severe effects, some o f w h i c h are o n l y be­ g i n n i n g t o bear their disagreeable f r u i t . I f l a n d is the basis o f life, t h e n pay­ i n g a t t e n t i o n t o h o w i t has been conceived i n the West, a n d h o w i t is as­ sumed t o be subject t o a p u r e l y p r a g m a t i c system o f c a l c u l a t i o n , can start t o answer the question o f w h a t precisely has been the great flaw o f Western culture a n d o f the Western project i n general.

W e s t e r n C u l t u r e and H o w It G o t T h a t W a y I have been t a l k i n g a b o u t Western culture i n a w a y t h a t assumes the reader k n o w s w h a t I m e a n by this a p p e l l a t i o n . I n one sense any concept o f a sin­ gle, unified Western culture is a c o n s t r u c t i o n based o n a m u l t i t u d e o f transc u l t u r a l a n d transhistorical fictions t h a t do n o t h o l d u p under close inspec­ t i o n — t o o m a n y margins, t o o m a n y subcultures. Nevertheless, w h e n the t e r m comes u p i n conversation, i t rarely has t o be defined, even t h o u g h i t refers t o a n extremely c o m p l e x cluster o f ideas a n d events t h a t have shifted e n o r m o u s l y i n the past t w o m i l l e n n i a . Especially i f the discussion is r u n n i n g at a f a i r l y general level, the idea o f Western culture tends t o be casually t h r o w n a b o u t as a k i n d o f conceptual s h o r t h a n d . People recognize the exis­ tence o f a constantly fluctuating, yet strangely cohesive e n t i t y n a m e d

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Western culture a n d t e n d t o have no p r o b l e m describing w h a t this phrase means, b o t h i n terms o f e x e m p l a r y texts (many people's m i n d s i m m e d i a t e l y t u r n t o A r i s t o t l e a n d Hegel) a n d , for the less confident, exemplary attitudes a b o u t hierarchy a n d power. W h e n I asked university students i n an upper-levels seminar t o define Western culture, this n o t - s o - r a n d o m sample came up w i t h c a p i t a l i s m , Christianity, a u t o m o b i l e s , television, a n d the a t o m b o m b . T h i s list is really r e m a r k a b l y comprehensive insofar as i t encompasses a system o f exchange, the sacred a n d technological orders, the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f space a n d repre­ sentation, a n d technologies o f destruction. O t h e r definitions focused o n pa­ t r i a r c h y or e n v i r o n m e n t a l degradation, b u t everyone seemed t o agree t h a t hierarchical beliefs have permeated the h o a r y (and frightful) t r i u m v i r a t e o f c h u r c h , state, a n d family. For these students, t h e n , the t e r m Western culture u l t i m a t e l y has t o do w i t h n o t i o n s o f c u l t u r a l s u p e r i o r i t y a n d science, o f h i g h culture a n d c o n s u m p t i o n , a n d o f a flattening a n d dismissal o f other c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s . A l t h o u g h such descriptions refer t o a n d a t t e m p t t o ac­ c o u n t for real p h e n o m e n a — a n d t o t h a t extent are true—they do t e n d t o de­ scribe some o f the effects, rather t h a n the causes, t h a t the c o m p l e x o f prac­ tices called Western culture has h a d i n the w o r l d . These descriptions also focus o n m o r e recent manifestations o f the Western project, such as the movements o f c o l o n i a l i s m a n d n e o c o l o n i a l i s m i n the past five h u n d r e d years. T h e f u n d a m e n t a l causes o f w h a t I a m loosely i d e n t i f y i n g as Western c u l ­ ture are sometimes m o r e difficult t o calculate. L i k e any c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n , Western culture comprises layers o f older a n d related cultures, i n c l u d i n g R o m a n , o l d E u r o p e a n , C h r i s t i a n , a n d pagan ( b o t h classical a n d other) ele­ ments, as w e l l as the s o m e w h a t less p r o x i m a t e b u t i m p o r t a n t influences o f A f r i c a a n d Asia a n d , m o r e recently, the Americas. C o m m u n i t i e s designated as s u b c u l t u r a l have h a d effects, a l t h o u g h these t e n d t o be v i g o r o u s l y denied by those w h o consider themselves guardians o f the m a i n s t r e a m . T h e p l a y between d o m i n a n t a n d subordinate cultures a n d subcultures is c o m p l e x , b u t the r e l a t i o n between the t w o does n o t easily shift. Despite the instabil­ i t y o f the border separating m a i n l i n e E u r o p e a n cultures f r o m those desig­ nated as other, b o t h i n t e r n a l a n d external, a d o m i n a n t ethos has h a d the upper h a n d i n the West since, say, the t w e l f t h century. T h i s stream c o n t i n ­ ues t o be d o m i n a n t i n a range o f economic, p o l i t i c a l , a n d c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u ­ tions ( w h a t L o u i s Althusser w o u l d call i d e o l o g i c a l state apparatuses), a l ­ t h o u g h i t is increasingly subject t o challenge. The negative effects o f the Western project, such as those identified by m y students, have been the re­ sult o f certain traits t h a t are a n d have for some t i m e been d o m i n a n t i n the assortment o f related cultures w e recognize as Western. A t base, these traits organize people's relations t o p o w e r a n d t o l a n d a n d were imposed o n

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E u r o p e a n people over several centuries before being e x p o r t e d t o the colonies. H i e r a r c h i c a l social a n d p o l i t i c a l systems have consistently been v a l o r i z e d i n the most o r t h o d o x forms o f Western t h i n k i n g , a l t h o u g h they do appear i n other parts o f the w o r l d . (Jack Forbes w r i t e s : " I t is very sad, b u t the 'he­ roes' o f E u r o p e a n h i s t o r i o g r a p h y , the heroes o f the h i s t o r y t e x t b o o k s , are usually imperialists, butchers, founders o f a u t h o r i t a r i a n regimes, exploiters o f the poor, liars, cheats, a n d t o r t u r e r s . " ) A l t h o u g h hierarchy is a c r i t i c a l factor, the Western disease is n o t solely one o f power, violence, or i m p e r i a l aspirations. C e r t a i n l y m a n y other societies have established repressive regimes i n w h i c h violence is directed t o w a r d people l i v i n g w i t h i n t h e m a n d those identified as enemies, b u t these regimes have m a i n t a i n e d ceremonial apparatuses i n w h i c h a sacred v i e w o f the earth is central. T h e existence o f earth-based belief systems d i d n o t prevent either hierarchical social orders or e n v i r o n m e n t a l problems—Sumer, one o f the earliest city-states, h a d a p r o b l e m w i t h the s a l i n a t i o n o f f a r m l a n d as a result o f i m m o d e r a t e i r r i g a ­ t i o n practices—but these beliefs d i d help prevent a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f a sys­ t e m i n w h i c h some humans d o m i n a t e other humans i n t o one i n w h i c h h u ­ mans d o m i n a t e nature a n d life itself. Pharaoh was a megalomaniac, b u t he m a i n t a i n e d a healthy respect for the earth. 2

I n the C h r i s t i a n West the hierarchical social order has been o n t o l o g i z e d a n d has become a lens t h r o u g h w h i c h the entire w o r l d m a y be e x a m i n e d , r a n k e d , a n d assigned a p o s i t i o n w i t h i n a preexisting scale o f values. The person d o i n g the assessing i n effect takes o n a g o d l i k e f u n c t i o n , w h i c h as­ sumes t h a t he (or very rarely, she) is made i n the image o f G o d . T h e great c h a i n o f being further l i n k s u p t o scientistic ideologies a n d t o b o t h the older J u d e o - C h r i s t i a n n o t i o n s o f the role o f h u m a n beings o n the earth a n d H e l l e n i c - R o m a n ideas o f a u t h o r i t y , o n w h i c h m a n y c o n t e m p o r a r y scientific preoccupations are secretly based. Western culture separates itself f r o m a l l others by its peculiar attitudes t o w a r d the r e l a t i o n between h u m a n beings a n d l a n d i n terms o f the nature o f l a n d (i.e., w h a t the l a n d i n h e r e n t l y is) a n d the uses t o w h i c h l a n d o u g h t t o be p u t (i.e., w h a t l a n d is g o o d f o r ) . People i n most parts o f the w o r l d ex­ perience l a n d as something alive t h a t gives o f itself t o sustain o u r lives. T h i s is w h a t people mean by the t e r m mother earth, the giver o f life. T h e n o t i o n t h a t the w o r l d is a dead a n d m a c h i n e l i k e place best under­ stood by mathematics Ph.D.s has eclipsed the older sacred systems i n w h i c h the p a r a m o u n t concern o f society was m a i n t a i n i n g the careful balance be­ t w e e n h u m a n beings a n d plants, animals, rocks, a n d rivers. Such systems o b t a i n e d i n Europe before the c h u r c h i m p o s e d its version o f the sacred or­ der a n d i n i t i a t e d projects t o standardize doctrine a n d belief. T h e declara­ t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n i t y as the state r e l i g i o n o f R o m e was f o l l o w e d very q u i c k l y

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by the demise o f the o l d pagan order (or at least those aspects o f the o l d re­ l i g i o n visible t o authorities); seasonal ceremonies were banned a n d temple treasuries emptied. (This r a p i d o v e r t u r n i n g o f ancient m e a n i n g structures was rather like w h a t happened i n M e x i c o after the a r r i v a l o f the Spaniards a n d m u s t have been nearly as painful.) T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d the o l d R o m a n bureaucracies was a perfect recipe for a repressive sys­ t e m , a n d as this n e w system expanded across the b a r b a r i a n universe, hier­ archy increasingly came t o be privileged over balance i n terms o f the church's i n t e r n a l structure a n d the faithful's relationship t o the outside w o r l d a n d t o the earth. T h o u shalt have d o m i n i o n over the earth, people were t o l d , b u t at the same t i m e they were conceived ( i n a rather o d d m e t a p h o r i c t u r n ) as a n i g n o r a n t , bleating flock o f sheep subject t o the au­ t h o r i t y o f the priests. T h e C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h remains a p a r a d o x , or w h a t w o u l d be a p a r a d o x i n a n earth-based c o s m o l o g i c a l order: O n the one h a n d , the c h u r c h does m a i n t a i n a sacred w o r l d v i e w a n d casts a suspicious eye o n some h i g h technology; o n the other, i t identifies u n t a m e d l a n d (and people) w i t h the devil. But deep i n the heart o f Western culture m a n y c o m m u n i t i e s o f people w h o actually lived o n the l a n d rejected the idea t h a t the earth was a dead t h i n g . B o t h pagans (the w o r d pagan is derived f r o m the L a t i n for "peasant" or " c o u n t r y person") a n d later certain k i n d s o f Christians, such as A n ­ abaptists a n d others designated as heretics, opposed the n e w order. For cen­ turies various m i l l e n n i a l movements seeking some version o f social equality p e r i o d i c a l l y surfaced i n different parts o f Europe, a p h e n o m e n o n t h a t re­ flected a p r o f o u n d unhappiness w i t h the w a y the sacred order was being or­ ganized by the religious bureaucracies. Some o f these heretical groups sought t o r e t u r n t o a v i e w o f l a n d i n w h i c h h u m a n dominance was n o t the end a n d c o m b i n e d this w i t h e x p l i c i t l y n o n h i e r a r c h i c a l social agendas, sometimes using distinctly r e v o l u t i o n a r y language. B u t the r i g i d h i e r a r c h i ­ cal structure i m p o s e d o n the n a t u r a l w o r l d also affected h o w people were conceived by the authorities: A n y o n e w h o p u t the existing social apparatus i n t o question h a d t o go. Because m a n y o f the ideas p r o m u l g a t e d by the sup­ posed heretics openly called for a r e t u r n t o a belief system t o w h i c h m a n y subscribed i n secret, their ideas d i d actually threaten this apparatus. T h e c h u r c h a n d m o st secular governments o f the t i m e sought t o repress deviant social movements by any means necessary, a n d the h i s t o r y o f Europe is p u n c t u a t e d w i t h m u l t i t u d i n o u s instances o f the b l o o d y spectacle o f heretic after heretic being p u t t o death. (As i n T e n o c h t i t l a n , h u m a n sacrifice en­ sured the c o n t i n u a t i o n o f the sacred a n d social orders.) I n a s o m e w h a t less spectacular rejection o f hierarchical t h i n k i n g , farmers l i v i n g close t o the l a n d tended t o recognize t h a t dominance o f the earth was an impossible f i c t i o n a n d t h a t a collective a p p r o a c h t o f a r m i n g w o r k e d

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best. T h e o l d ways never entirely disappeared, a n d traces can be seen n o t o n l y i n f a r m i n g practices b u t also i n aesthetic representations o f the w o r l d . A n older v i e w o f l a n d m a y have even crept i n t o h i g h c u l t u r e i n allegorical paintings a n d literature t h a t u t i l i z e d classical narratives as their subject, i n w h i c h pagan figures f o r m e d the cast o f characters. Western culture as a unified, i m p e r i a l force d i d n o t spring fully armed i n t o the w o r l d ; rather, small-scale societies w a r r i n g a n d t r a d i n g i n the place called Europe h a d t o learn h o w t o act like an empire. These societies transformed themselves i n t o expansionist regimes—or, f r o m a slightly different perspec­ tive, they became cannibalized—over centuries o f i n t e r n a l a n d external con­ flict. I n one sense, i t is n o t unreasonable t o suggest t h a t Europe constructed i t ­ self as an i m p e r i a l system t h r o u g h its conflicts w i t h A r a b y . But i m p e r i a l systems are as concerned w i t h the r e g u l a t i o n o f i n t e r n a l peoples as w i t h con­ quered peoples, so becoming an empire means establishing an i m p e r i a l rela­ tionship w i t h the former. T h e Crusades sought t o free Palestine f r o m the infi­ del b u t were also coextensive w i t h the suppression o f C h r i s t i a n heterodoxy a n d the persecution o f Jews i n Europe. The wars against A r a b y were closely l i n k e d t o the i n v e n t i o n o f the H o l y I n q u i s i t i o n a n d t o w h a t Pierre Clastres calls the first instance o f ethnocide i n European history: the Albigensian c r u ­ sade against the Cathar heresy i n the eleventh century. Suppression o f het­ e r o d o x y was the pretext, b u t this crusade was undertaken t o acquire t e r r i t o r y a n d t o obliterate the culture o f southern France, w h i c h i n c l u d e d the d o c t r i n a l specificity o f C a t h a r i s m a n d the music a n d poetry o f the t r o u b a d o u r s . T h e ideas o f o r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n i t y merged w i t h a scientistic discourse af­ ter the eighteenth century, a n d the d i v i s i o n o f l a n d i n t o p r o d u c t i v e a n d n o n p r o d u c t i v e usages was augmented by a mechanistic v i e w o f nature. U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r those o f us w h o w o r r y a b o u t the r e l a t i o n between envi­ r o n m e n t a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n a n d r i s i n g cancer rates, neither C h r i s t i a n i t y n o r the n e w sciences seemed p a r t i c u l a r l y interested i n q u e s t i o n i n g the idea t h a t the l a n d was s o m e h o w separate f r o m the h u m a n endeavors t h a t o c c u r r e d o n i t . T h i s v i e w has very recently begun t o shift, b u t i t m a y very w e l l be t o o late. T h e machine is fixed p r e t t y f i r m l y i n place. W h e n attitudes began t o change i n the eighteenth century a n d focus o n new, secular systems o f k n o w l e d g e , o r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n i t y was unable t o fight against the n e w s y m b o l i c order ( a l t h o u g h i t certainly a t t e m p t e d t o do so). There are m a n y reasons f o r this failure, b u t m o s t p r o b a b l y the concep­ t u a l r i g i d i t y o f the established churches u l t i m a t e l y b r o u g h t the o l d system d o w n . For a very l o n g t i m e o r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n i t y h a d been based o n a h i ­ erarchical c h a i n o f being t h a t v i e w e d any deviance f r o m the p a r t y line w i t h suspicion, a n d the burnings o f supposedly h e t e r o d o x deviant witches were w e l l w i t h i n m e m o r y . A t first scientific t h o u g h t a n d r a t i o n a l i t y m u s t have seemed t o offer the p o t e n t i a l f o r e m a n c i p a t i o n f r o m the constraints o f the 3

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c h u r c h a n d the divine r i g h t o f kings, b u t scientism was t o go h a n d i n h a n d w i t h increasing c o n t r o l a n d r e g u l a t i o n o f l a n d , E u r o p e a n w o m e n , a n d the everyday lives o f c o l o n i z e d people. A g a i n , Deleuze a n d Guattari's idea o f a process o f d e t e r r i t o r i a l i z a t i o n a n d recoding helps e x p l a i n w h a t happened t o (and w h a t w e n t w r o n g w i t h ) a p o t e n t i a l l y l i b e r a t i n g discourse. We can imagine h o w science a n d i n d i v i d ­ ualism were able t o seduce w i t h promises o f free a n d open i n q u i r y . T h e as­ sumptions t h a t drove the scientific endeavor were naturalized a n d , like l i n ­ ear t i m e , made t o seem real o r at least the o n l y relevant w a y o f l o o k i n g at the w o r l d . A l t h o u g h over the centuries m a n y Europeans have been uneasy w i t h the destructive p o t e n t i a l o f science a n d its technological applications (an unease apparent i n phenomena as diverse as the L u d d i t e m o v e m e n t o f the early nineteenth century a n d the c o n t i n u i n g fascination w i t h M a r y Shelley's Frankenstein), t o d a y the d o m i n a n t discourse tells us again a n d again t h a t because l a n d is dead, its value can be calculated i n dollars a n d cents. We are usually also i n f o r m e d i n the same breath t h a t everything is just fine. A t the b o t t o m o f this insistence t h a t l a n d is a c o m m o d i t y like any other is, I t h i n k , a real fear o f the earth, p a r t i c u l a r l y o f the extent t o w h i c h i t ex­ ists outside o f a n d b e y o n d the d o m i n i o n o f humans. T h i s fear, o f course, re­ verses the idea t h a t i t is so-called p r i m i t i v e people w h o fear n a t u r a l phe­ nomena a n d reveals this idea as a p r o j e c t i o n o f the a n x i e t y caused by a l i e n a t i o n f r o m the earth. T h e source o f the fear seems simple: W h a t i f the earth refuses t o be dominated? Freedom f r o m c h u r c h l y repression was interpreted by those seeking t o fill the new, secular p o w e r v a c u u m as a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o b r i n g a b o u t m o r e effi­ cient c o n t r o l o f b o t h l a n d a n d people. U l t i m a t e l y the hierarchies o f the c h u r c h d i d n o t dissolve b u t were merely renamed, r e f o r m u l a t e d , a n d i n m a n y respects rendered even m o r e stable a n d intense; the C h r i s t i a n idea t h a t l a n d i n a w i l d state by definition requires d o m i n a t i o n a n d discipline m u t a t e d i n t o the scientific d r e a m o f t o t a l c o n t r o l o f n a t u r e . Because o f claims o f pure, objective neutrality, the h y p e r r a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h concealed its affiliation w i t h entrenched systems o f power, w h i c h made i t m o r e diffi­ cult t o criticize. Science has a tendency t o present itself as s o m e h o w above h u m a n endeavors a n d claims. T h e fetishization o f r a t i o n a l i t y is apparent even i n approaches t h a t were c r i t i c a l i n other ways. I f w e t h i n k o f the or­ t h o d o x Left as the official o p p o s i t i o n w i t h i n Western c u l t u r e , w e see a c o n ­ spiracy o f silence a r o u n d questions o f l a n d i n the latter's p r o p e n s i t y t o em­ brace i n d u s t r i a l progress (and, i n some instances, its a f f i r m a t i o n o f the E u r o p e a n c o l o n i a l i s t agenda). Those w h o refused t o accept r a t i o n a l i t y a n d progress as a universal m o d e l w e n t f r o m being called infidels t o being c o n ­ sidered just p l a i n s t u p i d . Expertise c o u l d be acquired by anyone—or at least t h a t was h o w the story w e n t — a n d for t h a t reason appeared l i b e r a t i n g 5

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a n d able t o transcend class a n d the o l d feudal system. Cause a n d effect were defined m u c h m o r e n a r r o w l y , a n d the refusal t o recognize certain ef­ fects o f the scientific enterprise was presented as a b r e a k i n g free f r o m su­ perstitions. T h e result was a system o f c a l c u l a t i o n i n w h i c h c y n i c i s m r u l e d . There are still m a n y people w h o t h i n k t h a t science w i l l save us because they believe t h a t science is actually true. B u t this belief assumes t h a t the a l i e n a t i o n f r o m l a n d o n w h i c h m u c h ( a l t h o u g h t o be e x c r u c i a t i n g l y fair, n o t quite all) Western science is based is irrelevant t o its practice a n d therefore t h a t the effects o f this a l i e n a t i o n o n h o w people organize a n d represent themselves are negligible. B u t C h r i s t i a n a n d scientistic claims t o t r u t h do affect h o w people i n this society live a n d h o w other cultures are repre­ sented.

H o w Ideas A b o u t L a n d S t r u c t u r e Ideas A b o u t People T h e Western, C h r i s t i a n v i e w o f l a n d a n d o f the earth, a l t h o u g h central t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the nature o f E u r o p e a n c o l o n i a l expansion a n d by ex­ tension, the nature o f E u r o p e a n racism, has n o t always received as m u c h a t t e n t i o n i n c u r r e n t critiques o f c o l o n i a l i s m as have religious or c u l t u r a l matters. T h e c o l o n i a l project clearly d r e w o n a n d manifested the concep­ t i o n o f l a n d d o m i n a n t w i t h i n E u r o p e . I n general, people l i v i n g outside o f Europe were identified w i t h the l a n d they occupied, i m a g i n e d as being p a r t o f the n a t u r a l w o r l d a n d as existing i n some p r o f o u n d w a y w i t h o u t c u l t u r e , p u r e l y at the subsistence level. T h e n o t i o n t h a t l a n d exists t o be e x p l o i t e d lies just b e l o w the surface o f c o l o n i a l representation. C e r t a i n l y the c o l o n i a l enterprise b o t h expressed a n d p r o d u c e d complexes o f ideas a b o u t c o l o ­ nized people t h a t were used t o e x p l a i n a n d justify E u r o p e a n d o m i n a t i o n . B u t a c o l o n i a l m e n t a l i t y is i n one sense less a question o f negative stereo­ types a b o u t people t h a n o f h o w l a n d is conceived a n d treated b o t h i n dis­ course a n d i n the w o r l d . Critiques o f c o l o n i a l ideologies have tended t o f o ­ cus o n people, a n d the i n a t t e n t i o n t o questions o f l a n d is itself s y m p t o m a t i c o f a n a t u r a l i z a t i o n o f the d o m i n a n t Western v i e w a n d o f the extent t o w h i c h a d i s t o r t i n g lens continues t o deflect a t t e n t i o n a w a y f r o m o u r i n ­ creasing distance f r o m the earth. O r t h o d o x Western views o f l a n d a n d c u l t u r e c o n t i n u e t o be universal­ ized, sometimes i n bizarre ways. For instance, w h y has landscape p a i n t i n g become a sign o f debased ( i n o t h e r w o r d s , w o r k i n g - c l a s s ) taste? N a t u ­ ralistic images o f the n a t u r a l w o r l d are mass p r o d u c e d a n d sold at discount warehouse stores a n d i n the p a r k i n g l o t art shows so derided by the guardians o f h i g h c u l t u r e . There are exceptions—impressionist w o r k a n d some O l d Masters come t o m i n d — b u t i n general representations o f nature

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are coded o n the great scale o f aesthetic value as veering dangerously close to the hackneyed a n d sentimental. H o w d o ideas a b o u t l a n d use p l a y o u t i n c o l o n i a l n o t i o n s o f c u l t u r a l su­ p e r i o r i t y a n d i n their aesthetic representation? O b v i o u s l y , the fear, l o a t h i n g , a n d desire t h a t underlie Western conceptions o f l a n d m o v e t h r o u g h a range of venues: art h i g h a n d l o w , literature, politics. T h e perilous j ungl e , the en­ chanted forest, the mysterious ocean—dread a n d l o n g i n g go h a n d i n h a n d . The bottomless fear o f w i l d l a n d a n d unsettled people t h a t comes f r o m Judeo-Greek-Christian t r a d i t i o n is o n l y p a r t o f the story. T h e w i l l t o d o m i ­ nate the earth is also based o n p l a i n o l d self-interest: T h e colonist w a n t s the g o l d a n d the f a r m l a n d ; the N a z i w a n t s those o i l paintings h a n g i n g i n Jewish houses. Racism depends o n b o t h fear a n d greed, a n d as w i t h the u n ­ ease t h a t underlies the d r e a m o f d o m i n a t i o n o f the earth, racism is based o n the possibility t h a t the other w i l l resist. A t t e m p t s t o c o n t a i n this ambivalence between desire a n d fear are appar­ ent i n aesthetic w o r k s a n d t e n d t o operate i n at least t w o w a y s . First, the w i l d l a n d or foreign people can be represented i n such a w a y t h a t they p r o ­ vide a significant lesson t o the viewer; this is the didactic s o l u t i o n . People f r o m other cultures are made t o appear v i o l e n t a n d dangerous, a n d the nar­ rative assures the Westerner t h a t i f she ventures outside o f the conceptual certainties o f the West, she is l i k e l y t o die or go crazy o r b o t h . Similarly, i f the u r b a n w h i t e person undertakes t o visit the wilderness, she is certainly very l i k e l y t o starve or be eaten by m a r a u d i n g grizzly bears. M a n y movies use this type o f didactic i n s t r u c t i o n as their p r i m a r y storyline ( t h i n k o f Deliverance [1972]). Second, difference is domesticated a n d thereby made manageable. T h i s is the p r i m a r y o p e r a t i o n o f the process o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n , w h i c h seeks t o ab­ sorb difference a n d m a ke i t p a r t o f the so-called larger c u l t u r e . Difference is t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o s o m e t h i n g t h a t is n o longer a l l t h a t different a n d hence ceases t o be dangerous. There is n o real c o n t r a d i c t i o n between the t w o ap­ proaches, as they are really t w o sides o f the same c o i n , like the v i r g i n w h o r e d i c h o t o m y . (Everyone k n o w s the evil d r a g o n l a d y witches are m o r e interesting t h a n the nice girls, b u t they c o u l d n o t exist w i t h o u t the latter as a c o u n t e r p o i n t a n d vice versa.) T h e image o f a fearsome undressed angry person o f c o l o r d o i n g something v i o l e n t fascinated the colonist, b u t this c o n s t r u c t i o n was dependent o n the converse fiction o f the meek a n d c o m ­ placent servant w h o enjoyed being t a u g h t the virtues o f civilized existence. O n e o f the paradoxes o f difference is the w a y attempts t o represent the so-called other so often ends u p as little m o r e t h a n another d e p i c t i o n o f the self. T h e m i r r o r m e t a p h o r continues t o be useful as a w a y o f u n d e r l i n i n g the shifting, fragmentary character o f images o f c u l t u r a l a n d other differ­ ences a n d the ways these reflect the preoccupations o f those creating the images. These fragments m o v e a r o u n d i n b o t h space a n d t i m e a n d c o n t i n u -

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ally recombine i n n e w patterns, w h i c h is one reason t h a t images o f differ­ ence can be so a m b i g u o u s . T h i s is especially t r u e i f the m i r r o r can be i m a g i n e d as a c o m b i n a t i o n o f Tezcatlipoca's s m o k i n g m i r r o r and Louis Althusser's m i r r o r o f ideology, w h i c h r e f o r m u l a t e d the baby m i r r o r o f Jacques Lacan. T h e smoke parts f r o m t i m e t o t i m e t o a l l o w little m o r e t h a n m o m e n t a r y glimpses, a n d attempts t o definitively characterize the other are b o u n d t o dissolve i n the mist. There is no wholeness, n o presence, a n d there never can be. T h i s is the lesson. For instance, the A r a b w o r l d is an o l d , o l d adversary o f C h r i s t i a n Europe, a n d the r e l i g i o n a n d culture o f this adversary were repeatedly de­ scribed (usually negatively) by artists a n d w r i t e r s i n C h r i s t i a n countries over the centuries. I t can be said t h a t i n such descriptions Europeans sought t o represent the other. B u t these representations h a d very little t o do w i t h Islam or w i t h M u s l i m people, b o t h because o f errors o f fact ( w h i c h were sometimes deliberate) a n d because the agenda w i t h i n w h i c h the representa­ tions occurred h a d been decided i n advance. I s l a m was the enemy a n d t h a t was that, even i f this enemy t u r n e d o u t t o be a source o f erotic o r aesthetic interest for some. T h e antagonistic scenario d i d n o t shift even after the O t t o m a n T u r k s ceased t o compete w i t h the E u r o p e a n countries for t e r r i ­ t o r y i n the early eighteenth century. A n y n e w i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t this p a r t o f the w o r l d was arranged w i t h i n a preexisting conceptual f r a m e w o r k i n w h i c h everyone t o o k her o r his assigned place a n d played assigned roles i n the great Cristiano y Moro spectacle. As a result, E u r o p e a n representations o f I s l a m were really a b o u t the inevitable t r i u m p h o f C h r i s t i a n i t y or, i n later years, the t r i u m p h o f Western science, economics, or politics. This is apparent i n the w a y such e x p l i c i t l y c o l o n i a l i s t w o r k as French O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g a n d l i t e r a t u r e was able t o generate a m b i v a l e n c e . Fear a n d desire, fasci­ n a t i o n a n d r e v u l s i o n are simultaneously evoked i n so m a n y nineteenthcentury O r i e n t a l i s t w o r k s as a w a y o f raising these sensations a n d t h e n q u i c k l y discharging or t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e m i n t o something n o n t h r e a t e n i n g . C o n t e m p o r a r y representations o f A r a b y d r a w o n a l o n g t r a d i t i o n o f a n t i Islamic feeling i n the West a n d utilize extremely archaic a n d persistent i m ­ agery (such as Crusader tropes). Islamic people continue t o be character­ ized as v i o l e n t , fanatical, a n d anarchic a n d s o m e h o w i n h e r e n t l y i n need o f Western discipline a n d d o m i n a t i o n . T h i s story is far f r o m over, as w e saw m o s t recently i n G u l f W a r r h e t o r i c .

Orientalist D r e a m s The discursive techniques t h a t characterize O r i e n t a l i s m are w e l l k n o w n as a result o f the w o r k o f E d w a r d Said a n d o t h e r s . E u r o p e a n powers de­ p l o y e d a c o m b i n a t i o n o f m i l i t a r y , p o l i t i c a l , a n d scholarly practices t o cir7

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cumscribe a n d d o m i n a t e the p a r t o f the w o r l d they called the O r i e n t . T h e practices t h a t explained c u l t u r a l difference simultaneously constructed E u r o p e a n identity, as Europeans a n d M u s l i m s were always conceived i n re­ l a t i o n t o each other, generally i n antagonistic r e l a t i o n . T h i s r e l a t i o n a l i t y is equally true o f similar practices b r o u g h t t o bear o n other parts o f the w o r l d . W h a t this means is t h a t ideologies o f difference, as w e l l as narratives t h a t p u r p o r t t o be a b o u t different cultures (such as Madame Butterfly or Hiawatha), end u p being a b o u t Western self-identity. T h e story remains a Western story; the Westerner is always i n the frame, regardless o f w h e t h e r w e can see h i m i n the p i c t u r e . I first raised the bizarre levels o f ambivalence apparent i n the E u r o p e a n c o n c e p t i o n o f A r a b y w i t h Gautier's effusive a n d i r o n i c remarks o n the O r i e n t a l i z i n g o f Paris after the conquest o f A l g e r i a i n 1 8 3 0 - 1 8 4 5 . A r a b y is the oldest enemy o f the West a n d one o f the first areas where Western artists a n d w r i t e r s sought t o represent c u l t u r a l difference as such a n d t o de­ rive excitement f r o m i t . Napoleon's E g y p t i a n c a m p a i g n h a d ushered i n a n e w interest i n this p a r t o f the w o r l d o n the p a r t o f European, p a r t i c u l a r l y French, artists a n d set the stage for the extremely aestheticized treatment o f later c o l o n i a l adventures i n A r a b y . B u t aestheticized a n d h i g h l y charged forms o f ambivalence really t o o k o n a life o f their o w n after A l g e r i a be­ came a French colony. France i n v a d e d A l g e r i a i n 1 8 3 0 . T h e i m m e d i a t e p r e t e x t for the i n v a s i o n was a d i p l o m a t i c incident i n w h i c h the enraged O t t o m a n D e y o f Algiers struck the French consul i n the face w i t h a flyswatter. T h e French A r m y oc­ cupied the city o f Algiers fairly q u i c k l y b u t spent fifteen years a t t e m p t i n g t o conquer the h i n t e r l a n d before finally s u b d u i n g the resistance led by A b d a l Qadr. T h e w a r for A l g e r i a was one o f the bloodiest c o l o n i a l w a r s o f a l l t i m e because o f the scorched-earth tactics o f the French a n d their use o f starva­ t i o n a n d massacre as a means o f m i l i t a r y p a c i f i c a t i o n . (Such tactics were o f considerable interest t o other c o l o n i a l p o w e r s . For instance, the U.S. A r m y used similar techniques d u r i n g the Plains I n d i a n w a r s o f the 1870s a n d 1880s.) T h e i n v a s i o n was accompanied by a great deal o f p r o p a g a n d a i n France: W o u l d - b e soldiers a n d their families were assured t h a t they w o u l d be hailed as liberators i n Algiers, p a r t i c u l a r l y by M u s l i m w o m e n (the c u r i ­ ous fiction t h a t M u s l i m w o m e n are w a i t i n g t o be freed by Westerners f r o m oppression is n o t h i n g n e w ) , a n d Saint L o u i s , the crusader k i n g w h o died at­ t e m p t i n g t o conquer Tunis i n 1 2 7 0 , was evoked as a w o r t h y predecessor. A p a m p h l e t d i s t r i b u t e d by the French M i n i s t r y o f W a r exemplified the hyper­ bolic language o f c o l o n i a l w a r : " F o r a l o n g t i m e p h i l o s o p h y , h u m a n i t y , a n d r e l i g i o n have been d e m a n d i n g the a n n i h i l a t i o n o f a p o w e r whose every m a x i m is a constant i n s u l t t o a l l m o r a l i t y , a l l c i v i l i z a t i o n . There can never have been a v a l i d excuse for t o l e r a t i n g A l g i e r s . " 8

T h e e v o c a t i o n o f the Crusades (and o f civilization) was n o t merely a de­ vice t o fan a n t i - M u s l i m feeling. I t also reinforced rulings i n C h r i s t i a n c a n o n

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l a w a b o u t l a n d use a n d j u r i s d i c t i o n . M a n y o f the legal principles utilized d u r i n g the c o l o n i a l p e r i o d derived f r o m judgments made d u r i n g the Crusades a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y referred t o the question o f w h e t h e r infidels h a d a r i g h t t o their l a n d , o r dominium over t e r r i t o r y . T h e p r o b l e m o f just w a r was a subject o f some debate i n c h u r c h circles, as they w a n t e d t o conquer people b u t at the same t i m e feel g o o d a b o u t i t . By 1 8 3 0 the language was less e x p l i c i t l y religious, b u t the o l d arguments were repeated: T h e Algerians d i d n o t p r o p e r l y use the l a n d , their p o l i t i c a l system was anarchic a n d hence unable t o p r o m o t e a society i n w h i c h its members c o u l d live according t o reason, a n d there were t o o m a n y nomads w a n d e r i n g t h r o u g h o u t the country. I n short, the French k n e w best h o w t o r u n the place. M o r e o v e r , a n d also according t o c a n o n law, the French ar­ gued t h a t they h a d a legitimate c l a i m t o the c o u n t r y because A l g e r i a h a d once been R o m a n a n d C h r i s t i a n a n d indeed the h o m e o f Saint A u g u s t i n e . T h e agenda o f the French c o l o n i a l government was absolutely clear, as were the agendas o f other E u r o p e a n powers i n their colonies. T h e f o l l o w ­ i n g w o r d s o f the C o m m i s s i o n d ' A g r i q u e i n 1833 are n o t a t y p i c a l a n d s h o w h o w medieval n o t i o n s o f Western c u l t u r a l superiority, w h i c h were based o n p a r t i c u l a r forms o f social order, l a n d use, a n d w o r k , c o n t i n u e d t o o b t a i n i n the c o l o n i a l p e r i o d : " T o b r i n g [the A l g e r i a n ] . . . peoples under the subjec­ t i o n o f o u r social order, t o force t h e m t o l a b o u r the soil, t o make o f t h e m i n d u s t r i a l machines, a n d at last taxable, w o u l d be a very fine t h i n g . " These notions o f l a n d a n d society structured the images o f harems, bat­ tles, r e l i g i o n , a n d desert landscapes t h a t were conventionalized i n French Orientalist p a i n t i n g . A t the same t i m e , c o l o n i a l identities were constructed t h r o u g h representations o f colonized people a n d representations o f the l a n d , w h i c h occurred even w h e n Europeans were technically absent f r o m the i m ­ age or narrative. Islamic violence a n d disorder; a m a l i g n , abused landscape; a n d exotic objects o f lust h a d as their antithesis E u r o p e a n order a n d democ­ racy, organized f a r m i n g techniques, a n d pious, industrious people. O r i e n t a l i s t themes enjoyed considerable official favor i n French p a i n t i n g t h r o u g h o u t the nineteenth century a n d were actively p r o m o t e d w i t h i n the government-sponsored Salon system, t h r o u g h w h i c h painters e x h i b i t e d a n d sold their w o r k . M o s t O r i e n t a l i s t images aggrandized the French project i n A l g e r i a presumably because, t h e n as n o w , painters k n e w w h o p a i d the bills, despite a l l the fine t a l k a b o u t aesthetic independence. A r t i s t s c o u l d do very w e l l f r o m lucrative government commissions, a n d official battle painters accompanied the French A r m y i n its pacification o f A l g e r i a . O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g was e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y p o p u l a r a n d became so fashionable after 1 8 3 0 t h a t i t often m e r i t e d a special section i n Salon catalogs. T h e genre became a favorite o f the b u y i n g bourgeoisie, a n d various French governments, enthu­ siastic a b o u t O r i e n t a l i s m , commissioned a n d purchased numerous p a i n t ­ ings o f this type t o be e x h i b i t e d i n museums, palaces, a n d p u b l i c i n s t i t u ­ tions. 9

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O r i e n t a l i s t themes captured the a t t e n t i o n o f artists w o r k i n g i n the entire range o f stylistic approaches, f r o m neoclassicism t o impressionism. T h e subject matter o f these w o r k s ranged f r o m battle pieces, nudes, landscapes, a n d p o r t r a i t u r e t o scenes d r a w n f r o m fantasy, a n d i n general the images i n French O r i e n t a l i s m emphasized violence, sexuality, a n d r e l i g i o n , a l t h o u g h to a lesser extent i d y l l i c or pastoral scenes were c o m m o n . A fascination w i t h M u s l i m violence a n d sexuality repeated the preoccupations o f me­ dieval polemicists, a n d a f i x a t i o n o n harems a n d barbaric e x e c u t i o n still seems t o be w i t h us. L i n d a N o c h l i n has w r i t t e n o f the bizarre a n d c o m p l e x psychosexual preoccupations o f painters such as Eugene D e l a c r o i x , whose Death of Sardanapalus (1828) depicted a n indifferent O r i e n t a l potentate h a v i n g his w o m e n a n d horses p u t t o d e a t h . Grotesque displays o f power, especially over w o m e n , were a constant t o p i c . Inventive tortures b o t h t i t i l ­ lated Salon audiences a n d fanned p a t r i o t i c sentiments, a n d meticulous, de­ scriptive detail reinforced the veracity o f these images. N e w techniques a l ­ l o w e d these images t o be mass p r o d u c e d a n d circulated t h r o u g h o u t the country. T h e r e i t e r a t i o n o f these themes i n h i g h art accentuated the status of the c o l o n y as a bizarre spectacle existing t o delight or h o r r i f y the E u r o p e a n viewer. T h e q u a l i t y o f timelessness a n d the presentation o f A r a b y as a static, decadent e n t i t y w e l l past its p r i m e helped create a n i m a g i n a r y O r i e n t undifferentiated by place, t i m e , a n d n a t i o n a l o r c u l t u r a l specificity. 10

It can be rather difficult at this distance t o account f o r the p o p u l a r i t y o f this genre, w h i c h i n effect reflected the s o m e w h a t mysterious desire o f the French t o see h i g h l y aestheticized images o f A r a b s , i n c l u d i n g those recently subjugated by the French A r m y . T h e closest p a r a l l e l i n N o r t h A m e r i c a is the images o f N a t i v e people f o u n d i n some p o p u l a r art, b u t a Active t e m p o ­ ral distance is enforced i n these w o r k s a n d indeed is p a r t o f the reason for the a t t r a c t i o n : T h e buyer can imagine a pristine, yet distant past u n t o u c h e d by unpleasant conflicts over t e r r i t o r y . A similar process is apparent i n some streams o f O r i e n t a l i s t w o r k . O r i e n t a l i s m was most p o p u l a r i n France dur­ ing a n d i m m e d i a t e l y after the fifteen-year c o l o n i a l w a r i n A l g e r i a , w h i c h i n effect becomes s o m e t h i n g l i k e , say, large numbers o f Americans f l o c k i n g t o buy idealized a n d arousing pictures o f Iraqis d u r i n g the G u l f War, a quite u n i m a g i n a b l e p h e n o m e n o n . T o m y eye, m o st o f the images i n O r i e n t a l i s t w o r k s are intensely hackneyed a n d sentimental, a n d their attempts t o t i t i l ­ late translate as clumsy a n d inane, like so m u c h academic art o f the nine­ teenth century. B u t the aesthetic conventions i n such w o r k s reflected the taste o f the times; these were the k i n d s o f images people expected t o en­ counter. There are other reasons for the p o p u l a r i t y o f O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g . Interest i n such w o r k was a version o f the desire t o display trophies o f war, here n a r r a t i v i z e d images rather t h a n enemy rifles, b o d y parts, o r actual a r t i ­ facts. J o h n Berger makes this p o i n t a b o u t v o y e u r i s m a n d possession i n his

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reading o f Jean Ingres's h a r e m scene La Grande Odalisque ( 1 8 1 4 ) , w h i c h predated the i n v a s i o n o f A l g e r i a a n d w h i c h helped p r o v o k e a n interest i n A r a b y by feeding scopophilic fantasies. A n e w t h r e s h o l d was crossed i n the w a y c o l o n i a l possession o f t e r r i t o r y a n d o f the image o f this t e r r i t o r y was collapsed together i n O r i e n t a l i s t art: Whereas d y i n g Gauls a n d other defeated enemies h a d always been p a r t o f the repertoire o f images available t o Western artists, n o w a wholesale ex­ p l o s i o n o f images o f the enemy occurred a n d t o o k o n a life o f its o w n , w i t h the system o f representation itself being the p o i n t o f the endeavor. T h e w o r k referred t o abstract n o t i o n s such as p a t r i o t i s m o r c i v i l i z a t i o n rather t h a n t o the things being p o r t r a y e d , a n d a l t h o u g h allegorical w o r k s have a l ­ ways referred t o abstract ideas, here the paintings ostensibly referred t o ac­ t u a l people subjugated by the French i n a n actual place. Whereas the d y i n g G a u l was a n aestheticized, heroicized version o f something t h a t p u r p o r t e d t o be real, w i t h O r i e n t a l i s m artists a n d consumers o f art d i d n o t seem t o care w h e t h e r the image h a d a n y t h i n g t o d o w i t h the reality (again, this is like m u c h c o n t e m p o r a r y representation o f N a t i v e people). I t is a question, n o t o f expecting artists t o p a i n t as i f they were d o c u m e n t a r y journalists, b u t o f seeing h o w A l g e r i a a n d other parts o f A r a b y f u n c t i o n e d as a p r e t e x t for some extremely unpleasant concerns, w h i c h were themselves the r a i s o n d'etre o f the endeavor. 11

T h e spectator c o n t e m p l a t e d Paul-Leon Bouchard's Les Muets de Serail ( 1 8 8 2 ) , where A f r i c a n m e n are a b o u t t o garrote exquisitely terrified b l o n d h a r e m beauties; Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant's The Sharif's Justice ( 1 8 8 4 ) , where dead naked w o m e n ( w i t h erect nipples) lie a m i d o v e r t u r n e d f u r n i t u r e i n a n a f t e r m a t h o f v i o l e n c e ; A l e x a n d r e Decamps's The Pun­ ishment of the Hooks ( 1 8 3 7 ) , where b o u n d prisoners are i m p a l e d o n hideous h o o k s for unspecified crimes, m a k i n g possible a h o r r i f y i n g festival o f death. T h e p o i n t o f these w o r k s was t o evoke a n d discharge certain a m ­ bivalent a n d u n c o m f o r t a b l e sensations a n d t o m a k e the viewer experience delight a n d h o r r o r at the same t i m e , a l l the w h i l e feeling superior. T h e p o i n t was t o generate ambivalence a n d t h e n neutralize i t . Because o f this a b i l i t y t o do so, A r a b y was c o n t i n u a l l y m i n e d for images t h a t c o u l d assuage Western anxieties a b o u t the c u l t u r a l s u p e r i o r i t y o n w h i c h the West c o n ­ stantly insisted.

Colonial Representation and Landscape There are m a n y different ways t o objectify A r a b y . Landscape paintings o f the A l g e r i a n c o l o n y tended n o t t o depict French colonials as p a r t o f the scene, a n d indeed m a n y O r i e n t a l i s t w o r k s d i d n o t s h o w people o c c u p y i n g the l a n d at a l l . People were s h o w n l i v i n g i n houses i n paintings o f cities

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such as Algiers or Constantine, b u t i n scenes o f the countryside the c o n ­ s t r u c t i o n o f the images i l l u s t r a t e d the a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f terra nullius t o c o l o ­ n i a l A l g e r i a . People m o v e d t h r o u g h the l a n d , b u t there was no evidence o f its being p u t t o the p r o d u c t i v e use demanded by the legal code. G i v e n a l l the p r o p a g a n d a a b o u t h o w the French w o u l d make the desert b l o o m (and for this reason deserved t o possess a n d administer the c o l o n y ) , these w o r k s were evidently n o t p a i n t e d i n a p o l i t i c a l v a c u u m . Battle paintings, i n c o n ­ trast, n a r r a t i v i z e d the c o l o n i a l project a n d accordingly constructed the E u r o p e a n a n d A r a b characters i n terms o f extreme difference. T h e a c t i o n o f the battle became a w a y o f i l l u s t r a t i n g these differences, even i n w o r k s exe­ cuted p r i o r t o the conquest o f A l g e r i a , such as Antoine-Jean Gros's Battle of Aboukir ( 1 8 0 6 ) , w h i c h heroicized the French general M u r a t d u r i n g N a p o l e o n Bonaparte's E g y p t i a n e x p e d i t i o n . B o t h battle paintings a n d less e x p l i c i t l y p a t r i o t i c w o r k s offered i m p o r ­ t a n t lessons t o the E u r o p e a n viewer. One concerned the possible effects o f the alien landscape o n the colonist: T h e l a n d itself c o u l d be deadly, a n d A l g e r i a elicited a l l the fear a n d ambivalence a b o u t the w i l d earth's p o t e n t i a l t o h a r m the E u r o p e a n C h r i s t i a n . Charles Baudelaire w r o t e i n 1 8 5 1 o f French landscape painter Eugene F r o m e n t i n , w h o was a w a r d e d the L e g i o n d ' H o n n e u r for his images o f A l g e r i a : "There are travellers w i t h neither p o ­ etry n o r soul, a n d his soul is one o f the rarest a n d most poetic t h a t I k n o w . B u t l i g h t a n d heat, w h i c h cast a k i n d o f t r o p i c a l madness i n t o certain brains, shaking t h e m w i t h an unappeasable frenzy a n d d r i v i n g t h e m t o u n ­ k n o w n dances, o n l y p o u r the sweetness a n d repose o f c o n t e m p l a t i o n i n t o his soul. I t is ecstasy rather t h a n f a n a t i c i s m . " Baudelaire exemplified the v i e w t h a t any encounter w i t h difference c o u l d go either way. A c o n f r o n t a t i o n between the artist qua colonialist a n d for­ eign lands a n d people c o u l d cure the diseases o f Western c u l t u r e , yet i t c o u l d k i l l or m a i m those w h o were unprepared, or perhaps t o o w e a k , t o do battle w i t h the landscape a n d survive. Sometimes difference c o u l d do b o t h , w h i c h was one reason i t p r o v o k e d ambivalence, a sensation t h a t remained pleasurable as l o n g as the colonist was i n c o n t r o l . Baudelaire's remarks o n fanaticism a n d frenzy seem t o reflect the fear o f g o i n g native t h a t w e see i n so m u c h c o l o n i a l literature. Baudelaire suggests t h a t the desert l i g h t itself affects E u r o p e a n perceptions, h a v i n g the p o t e n t i a l t o render the traveler insane a n d t o t r a n s f o r m the E u r o p e a n i n t o the (pre­ sumably M u s l i m ) " f a n a t i c . " H e further implies t h a t i t is possible t o a t t a i n mystical, contemplative ecstasy i n the desert landscape w i t h o u t losing c o l o ­ n i a l i d e n t i t y a n d s l i p p i n g i n t o the fanaticism o f the native. Here Baudelaire is u n d e r l i n i n g the equivalence between I s l a m a n d madness f o u n d i n so m u c h Western w r i t i n g i n the past eight h u n d r e d years, f r o m Crusader p o l e m i c t o poetic O r i e n t a l i s m t o t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y p o l i t i c a l analyses. E v e r y t h i n g has already been decided, a n d no m o v e m e n t is possible: I f the desert produces M u s l i m fanaticism, a n d the A r a b s have succumbed t o this 12

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insanity, t h e n Europeans w i l l be unable t o c o m p r e h e n d a n d respect either the landscape or the different r e l a t i o n A r a b s m i g h t have t o the l a n d o n w h i c h they live. T h a t A r a b people survive a n d even go a b o u t their everyday business o n l a n d supposed t o drive people insane makes no difference t o the colonists' c o n c e p t i o n o f this l a n d , a n d A r a b activities become n o m o r e t h a n an opaque spectacle for the colonist. Rather, the E u r o p e a n i n the desert m a y o n l y g u a r d against g o i n g native, as F r o m e n t i n was able t o do i n his repetitive, benign scenes o f f a l c o n r y a n d idealized landscapes. I f differ­ ence can be domesticated, i t w i l l n o longer be a dangerous source o f m a d ­ ness. Baudelaire's praise o f Fromentin's picturesque art is somewhat surpris­ ing, given some o f the poet's other preoccupations. F r o m e n t i n first w e n t t o p a i n t A l g e r i a i n 1 8 4 6 , very soon after A b d al-Qadr's resistance m o v e m e n t h a d been suppressed. Paintings t h a t p o r t r a y e d the c o l o n y as a k i n d o f l i v i n g Bible, existing i n pristine innocence a n d picturesque c h a r m , are t y p i c a l o f his w o r k . B o t h the w a r a n d the c o l o n i a l presence i n general are absent or occluded. Fromentin's scenes idealize the landscape, w h i c h i n his w o r k is n o t quite the Sahara Desert proper; rather, he depicts the area closer t o the coast t h a t was e x p r o p r i a t e d a n d t u r n e d i n t o f a r m l a n d for French settlers. A t the t i m e F r o m e n t i n was p a i n t i n g , there was a great deal o f devastation of the landscape, w h i c h was still recovering f r o m the French techniques o f t o t a l war. A r a b farmers were being t h r o w n o f f their l a n d , a n d i t was being t u r n e d over t o Europeans. W h y , then, d i d F r o m e n t i n p a i n t sweetly q u a i n t scenes f r o m w h i c h Europeans are completely absent? T h e t o t a l elision o f p o l i t i c a l a n d economic reality i n these w o r k s seems t o deliberately conceal the effects o f the c o l o n i a l presence (obviously, this appealed t o Parisian buyers). Fromentin's landscapes also p o i n t t o the f u n c t i o n o f images o f p r i m i t i v e innocence i n c o l o n i a l countries: Europeans were able t o envisage a place, w h i c h f o r t u n a t e l y they already owned, t o escape t o w h e n the i n ­ d u s t r i a l w o r l d got t o be t o o m u c h . H i s t o r y painters generally are n o t very subtle, a n d i t is w o r t h p a y i n g at­ t e n t i o n t o these w o r k s for precisely this reason. T h e propagandistic agendas of such epic paintings are completely i n the open a n d continue t o o b t a i n t o ­ day, a l t h o u g h n o w their mechanisms are at least p a r t l y concealed by m o r e sophisticated n a r r a t i v i z i n g techniques. H i s t o r y p a i n t i n g , w h i c h includes pa­ t r i o t i c battle pieces as w e l l as idealized, didactic scenes f r o m h i s t o r y (such as David's i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f i m p o r t a n t m o m e n t s i n the R o m a n r e p u b l i c ) , was designed t o p r o v i d e lessons a b o u t p r o p e r behavior a n d sacrifice t o the state. Antoine-Jean Gros was commissioned by N a p o l e o n t o p a i n t scenes illus­ t r a t i n g the E g y p t i a n c a m p a i g n , a n d Gros's m o s t famous w o r k , Bonaparte Visits the Pesthouse at Jaffa ( 1 8 0 4 ) , can almost be described as a religious p a i n t i n g i n its C h r i s t l i k e g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f the French general. The f u n c t i o n o f such w o r k is o b v i o u s l y t o aggrandize the N a p o l e o n i c project b u t also t o create an image o f a unified French n a t i o n . To this end these paintings were

168

FIGURE

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5.1

Battle at Aboukir (Murat defeating the Turkish Army at

Aboukir),

coextensive w i t h the s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n o f language a n d the educational sys­ t e m u n d e r t a k e n i n the early nineteenth century. Gros's Battle at Aboukir (see Figure 5.1) is a g o o d example o f h o w h i s t o r y p a i n t i n g constructed a p a t r i o t i c narrative t h r o u g h the d e p i c t i o n o f the E g y p t i a n enemy. I n this w o r k the French were everything the Egyptians were n o t ; the reverse was equally true. Battle at Aboukir illustrates General M u r a t ' s v i c t o r y over M u s t a p h a Pasha d u r i n g Napoleon's E g y p t i a n c a m p a i g n . T h e u n i f o r m e d M u r a t rides a w h i t e horse a n d wears a composed expression. To his r i g h t , the pasha's son offers a scimitar t o the French general w i t h one h a n d a n d grasps his father's a r m w i t h the other t o keep the latter f r o m falling o f f his horse. T h e pasha a n d his son are l i g h t - s k i n n e d a n d r i c h l y dressed, i n contrast t o mos t other E g y p t i a n fighters, w h o are d a r k - s k i n n e d a n d naked. T h e E g y p t i a n rulers were T u r k i s h , a n d the p a i n t i n g can also be seen as a p o l e m i c against O t t o m a n rule i n general ( w h i c h at t h a t t i m e encompassed mos t o f A r a b y — i n other w o r d s , those territories o n w h i c h the E u r o p e a n p o w e r s h a d cast a covetous eye). A c c o r d i n g t o a n 1 8 0 6 Salon catalog, the basket w o r n a r o u n d the neck o f the fallen E g y p t i a n i n the left f o r e g r o u n d contains the severed head o f a French g e n e r a l . (Severed heads appear i n similar w o r k s ; for instance, i n Girodet's Revolt in Cairo [ 1 8 1 0 ] an enraged A r a b i n the f o r e g r o u n d clutches the b l o n d , t y p i c a l l y C h r i s t l i k e head o f a F r e n c h m a n i n one h a n d a n d a giant knife i n the other.) T h e b a c k g r o u n d depicts a f o r t 13

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w i t h a m i n a r e t , a n d dead bodies are s t r e w n a b o u t the f o r e g r o u n d . T h e f o ­ cus o f the scene is the heroic M u r a t , w h o (along w i t h his horse) is the most clearly delineated figure i n the w o r k . H e is c a l m i n victory, for the offering o f the scimitar suggests t h a t he has w o n the battle despite the c o n t i n u a t i o n o f the a c t i o n . M u r a t ' s composure acts as a r e t r o j e c t i o n o f the course o f events: T h e French v i c t o r y against the disordered Egyptians is a n d always was i n ­ evitable, the general k n o w s i t , w e k n o w i t , a n d the Egyptians a n d other supposedly lesser races k n o w i t as w e l l . T h e French appear absolutely cer­ t a i n o f their destiny: T h e order a n d r a t i o n a l i t y o f the E n l i g h t e n m e n t w i l l necessarily p r e v a i l against O r i e n t a l anarchy a n d decadence. After a l l , N a p o l e o n was so sure o f his universal purpose t h a t he c o u l d n o t help an­ n o u n c i n g t o the (presumably bemused) Egyptians: "Nous sommes les vrais musulmans." M u r a t is p o s i t i o n e d higher t h a n M u s t a p h a Pasha a n d his son, w i t h his horse also placed above the falling m o u n t o f the pasha. T h e latter's facial expression is desperate as he v a i n l y reaches t o a v o i d falling; clearly i f he cannot stay o n his horse, he certainly cannot rule a n a t i o n a n d must give w a y t o the m o r e efficient French conquerors. T h e son wears a p l e a d i n g ex­ pression, a n d his w h i t e s k i n a n d p i n k c l o t h i n g m a k e h i m appear softened by a life o f l u x u r y . T h e f e m i n i z a t i o n o f the son also refers t o the sexual decadence t h o u g h t t o characterize M u s l i m s (by w h i c h Europeans meant b o t h h o m o s e x u a l i t y a n d sexual excess) a n d t o the idea t h a t M u s l i m rulers were w e a k a n d hence like w o m e n . T h e catalog's emphasis o n the barely vis­ ible head i n the basket attests t o the barbarous practices supposedly dear t o A r a b s a n d is designed t o p a t r i o t i c a l l y arouse a n d terrify the French viewer. T h e naked Africans are intended t o evoke the tropes o f b o t h savagery a n d hierarchical O t t o m a n society, b u t i n this scene b o t h are easily c o w e d by French m i l i t a r y superiority, w h i c h presumably derives strength f r o m the re­ p u b l i c a n virtues o f the French R e v o l u t i o n (something Bonaparte w o u l d soon remedy). The lack o f affect o n the p a r t o f the French soldiers p o i n t s t o E u r o p e a n r a t i o n a l i t y . T h i s c o n v e n t i o n goes back t o the earlier h i s t o r y paintings o f D a v i d i n w h i c h the o n l y people expressing any e m o t i o n are the w o m e n at the edge o f the a c t i o n . E m o t i o n is clearly n o t r a t i o n a l , n o r s h o u l d i t have a n y t h i n g t o do w i t h government. A steady line o f French sol­ diers appears t o the left, a n d the tangle o f Egyptians a t t e m p t i n g t o flee i n w h a t is meant t o l o o k like c o w a r d l y anarchy, depicted at the r i g h t , adds t o the contrast between the t w o groups. The French line seems t o stretch o n endlessly. Forty-five years later T h e o d o r e Chasseriau p a i n t e d Arab Horsemen Taking Away Their Dead After Battle (1850) (see Figure 5.2). T h i s p a i n t i n g also depicts an A r a b defeat, b u t there are n o French soldiers i n this p a i n t ­ i n g , even t h o u g h i t p o r t r a y s a scene f r o m the A l g e r i a n war. H e r e the story is

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FIGURE 5.2 Arab Horsemen Carrying Away Their Dead, Theodore Chasseriau, 1850 (courtesy of the Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University Art Museums, be-

t o l d w i t h m o r e subtlety, a l t h o u g h its propagandistic f u n c t i o n is similar t o that o f Aboukir. T h i s scene illustrates the aftermath o f a battle between A l g e r i a n tribesmen a n d French soldiers, a l t h o u g h elements i n the presenta­ t i o n m a y have been influenced by V i c t o r H u g o ' s La bataille perdu f r o m Les orientales ( H u g o , like Gautier, considerably influenced h o w O r i e n t a l i s t themes were treated aesthetically). Weapons a n d dead Arabs s p r a w l i n the f o r e g r o u n d , a n d t o the left other dead bodies are being loaded o n t o horses. A t the center o f the p a i n t i n g a m o u n t e d , r o b e d m a n surveys the scene, a n d i n the distance figures p e r f o r m actions similar t o those t a k i n g place i n the f o r e g r o u n d . T h e a c t i o n t h a t results f r o m defeat goes o n a n d o n , like the endless a n d w h o l l y inevitable French v i c t o r y i m p l i e d by the defeat o f the A r a b soldiers. The landscape is desolate, w h i c h becomes a w a y o f referring t o the w a r a n d , m o r e likely, t o the supposedly c h r o n i c mismanagement o f the c o l o n y o n the p a r t o f the Algerians. C e r t a i n l y the landscape is n o t occu­ pied i n any p e r m a n e n t way. T h e m e l a n c h o l y o f defeat is the p r i m a r y theme o f this p a i n t i n g : T h e Algerians have lost the battle, and the French r e m a i n an unseen presence i n this scene. T h e A r a b defeat is idealized by the presentation o f the dead, p a r t i c u l a r l y the seminude corpse displayed i n the f o r e g r o u n d , w h i c h is beautifully delin14

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eated a n d rather noble i n its pose. A g a i n , w e can see vaguely C h r i s t l i k e ref­ erences i n this image, here A l g e r i a n rather t h a n French. W h y is the dead en­ emy heroicized i n this way? T h e F r e n c h - A r a b reversal is key: T h e q u a l i t y o f n o b i l i t y a t t r i b u t e d t o the enemy is a w a y o f a f f i r m i n g s i m i l a r qualities i n the victors. I n this respect the m o d e o f death is absolutely c r i t i c a l . T h e u n ­ k n o w n French soldier k i l l e d the central figure w i t h a clean t h r u s t i n t o the chest, w i t h o u t the necessity o f messy severed b o d y parts, almost, i t seems, w i t h o u t violence. T h e reference t o French h o n o r a n d h e r o i s m i n w a r f a r e is i m p l i c i t , a n d certainly the viewer sees n o scorched earth o r massacred v i l ­ lagers. T h e m o u n t e d m a n w a t c h i n g the scene is the leader o f the Algerians, a n d his presentation expresses a certain h e r o i s m as w e l l , as i f he is a t r u l y noble enemy w h o has been h o n o r a b l y defeated i n a fair fight between equals. A g a i n , the i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f the o u t c o m e is the p o i n t o f the story, here w i t h respect t o future battles, w h i c h have also been decided i n advance. T h e dead A r a b s s t r e w n across the canvases o f these a n d other paintings have a distinct purpose. N a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y is constructed t h r o u g h the c o n ­ s u m p t i o n a n d display o f dead bodies, a n d , as always, the dead bodies o f choice are those designated as foreign a n d subordinate. These w o r k s exem­ p l i f y the sacrificial m o m e n t t h a t so fascinated Bataille, where the other is sacrificed t o b i n d the c o m m u n i t y as one, i n this instance the one being the c o l o n i a l n a t i o n , w h i c h itself m u s t be constructed as such. T h e landscape be­ comes the space w h e r e the great game can be p l a y e d o u t a n d w h e r e heroic adventures can be u n d e r t a k e n . B u t ambivalences a b o u t difference a n d a b o u t w i l d landscapes c o n t i n u e t o underlie representations o f Western h e r o i s m a n d superiority. T h e aesthetic conventions apparent i n nineteenth-century French p a i n t ­ ings c o n t i n u e t o resonate i n m u c h c o n t e m p o r a r y Western w o r k t h a t has A r a b y as its subject o r its b a c k d r o p . C o n t e m p o r a r y m a t e r i a l tends t o focus o n Western ambivalences a b o u t c o l o n i a l roles t o a greater extent t h a n the less self-reflective w o r k s o f earlier periods, a n d a certain self-referentiality a b o u t issues o f difference a n d the role Western c u l t u r e has assigned t o itself is m o r e a p a r t o f the w o r k itself. U n c o m p l i c a t e d n o t i o n s o f c u l t u r a l superi­ o r i t y d o n o t quite w a s h after the i n s a n i t y o f W o r l d Wars I a n d I I . Westerners k n e w s o m e t h i n g h a d gone w r o n g b u t were n o t always sure pre­ cisely w h a t t h a t was.

Colonial Nightmares "The people of each country get more like the people of every other country. They have no character, no beauty, no ideals, no culture—nothing, nothing." Her husband reached over and patted her hand. "You're right. You're right," he said smiling. "Everything's getting gray, and i t ' l l be grayer. But some

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places'll withstand the malady longer than you think. You'll see, in the Sahara here. . . . " 15

Several times they came upon groups of dark men mounted on mehara. These held the reins proudly, their kohl-farded eyes were fierce above the draped in­ digo veils that hid their faces. For the first time she felt a faint thrill of excitement. " I t is rather wonder­ ful," she thought, "to be riding past such people in the Atomic A g e . " 16

I n Paul Bowles's 1 9 4 9 c o l o n i a l tale The Sheltering Sky the O r i e n t a l i s t topos is reflgured t h r o u g h the landscape o f the Sahara Desert a n d t h r o u g h the experience o f the p o s t w a r Western intellectual w h o seeks t o escape Western culture yet is unable t o survive the encounter w i t h the alien l a n d ­ scape. T h e Sahara Desert has l o n g existed as a place o f f o r g e t t i n g i n O r i e n t a l i s t art a n d literature. T h e vastness o f the landscape has exercised a p u l l o n the sick at heart, a n d i t appears as a site where n o questions are asked, where t i m e is i n suspension, where i t is possible t o j o i n the French Foreign L e g i o n " t o f o r g e t . " (The o b v i o u s question arises, W h a t is the Westerner seeking t o forget?) H e r e the c o l o n i a l adventure itself becomes the cure for heartbreak a n d loss a n d the alien landscape the p o t e n t i a l , yet hazardous source o f t h a t cure. I n a p r o f o u n d w a y the desert exists at the l i m i t o f possibilities o f the encounter between people a n d landscape. For Baudelaire, the A l g e r i a n Sahara affects painter a n d t o u r i s t alike, b o t h o f w h o m m u s t navigate the line he has d r a w n between frenzy a n d c o n t e m p l a ­ t i o n , ecstasy a n d fanaticism. For Bowles, the A l g e r i a n desert is indifferent, dangerous, a site o f death a n d madness, yet a source o f ambivalence a n d desire. B u t w h a t precisely is the r e l a t i o n between the desire t o experience difference a n d the possibilities for f o r g e t t i n g t h a t can occur i n the Sahara Desert o f French c o l o n i a l A l g e r i a , i n Bowles's 1 9 4 9 as m u c h as Baudelaire's 1851? I n The Sheltering Sky the c o l o n i a l violence turns i n w a r d , a n d Port a n d K i t M o r e s b y , the A m e r i c a n protagonists o f Bowles's story, perish as a result o f their c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h the Saharan landscape. T h e story articulates the f a m i l i a r theme o f p o s t - W o r l d W a r I I a l i e n a t i o n . K i t a n d Port, a p a i r o f w e a l t h y aesthetes f r o m N e w Y o r k , w i t h their friend Tunner decide t o visit the Sahara Desert, setting o u t f r o m O r a n o n the A l g e r i a n coast. The Sheltering Sky is a c o m p l e x a n d i n m a n y ways quite c o m p e l l i n g n o v e l , a n d there are several approaches t h a t c o u l d be t a k e n t o this t e x t . I t is the overall structure o f the story t h a t interests me here a n d the w a y the narrative is so e m p h a t i c a l l y constructed a r o u n d disaster. The trajectory o f events is w h o l l y u n i d i r e c t i o n a l : As the characters m o v e south, the s i t u a t i o n becomes increasingly grave, a n d there is a certain i n e v i t a b i l i t y t o the u n h a p p y c h a i n o f events. B u t the catastrophe t h a t K i t a n d Port's t r i p becomes also occurs i n a specific place—the Sahara Desert—and I ask t o w h a t extent the disastrous o u t c o m e is a c o n d i t i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r r e l a t i o n the characters have t o this place, this landscape. 17

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As the characters venture s o u t h i n t o the desert, several things happen: K i t sleeps w i t h Tunner, a n d , sensing this, Port decides t h a t he a n d K i t must a b a n d o n their friend a n d set o u t alone. T h i s proves t o be a b a d move: Port q u i c k l y falls i l l a n d dies, a n d Tunner's a r r i v a l o n the scene provokes K i t t o r u n a w a y a n d j o i n a camel caravan t r a v e l i n g further s o u t h . K i t becomes the lover o f the handsome Taureg Belqassim, w h o disguises her as a Taureg b o y a n d takes her h o m e t o live i n a r o o m o n his r o o f . Belqassim's wives react antagonistically t o their discovery o f Kit's gender ( a l t h o u g h the audience for Bernardo Bertolucci's film version never k n o w s f o r sure, as A r a b i c speech is n o t translated), so K i t runs away, eventually t o be b r o u g h t back by c o l o n i a l functionaries t o O r a n , where Tunner awaits. After these experi­ ences K i t is quite m a d a n d silent. For K i t a n d Port, the f o r g e t t i n g they seek is o f W o r l d W a r I I a n d the en­ c r o a c h i n g sameness a n d m o n o t o n y o f Western c u l t u r e , w h i c h they envisage as a sickness. T h e y also hope t o forget their a l i e n a t i o n f r o m each other. B u t they are the ones w h o become i l l , a n d their a i l m e n t appears t o be caused by the d i s j u n c t i o n between the w a y they imagine their adventure a n d the real­ i t y o f the external w o r l d , w h i c h has ideas o f its o w n . I n Bowles's story everything goes bad. K i t is l i t e r a l l y struck d u m b by her experience. The ap­ parent wildness a n d indifference o f the desert u l t i m a t e l y silence the European. I n the film version o f the story, as Port collapses w i t h fever, he deliriously says, " I ' v e b i t m y tongue. I've always w o n d e r e d w h a t i t w o u l d be like t o bite m y t o n g u e . " T h e silence o f the visitors reflects the silence o f the Saharan landscape, w h i c h evokes a p r o f o u n d t e r r o r : Because K i t a n d Port are unable t o hear, the l a n d refuses t o speak t o t h e m . A closer reading o f the story, however, suggests t h a t the disaster o f their j o u r n e y is less a question o f the w a y reality imposes itself o n the characters' i m a g i n a r y ad­ venture t h a n o f the extent t o w h i c h their i m a g i n a r y is itself structured w i t h i n a c o l o n i a l exemplar. K i t a n d Port dream o f being free o f c u l t u r e , floating signifiers i n charge o f their experience i n the desert; this is where their desire locates itself. B u t this desire is impossible t o realize because their detachment f r o m their social a n d c u l t u r a l m a t r i x o n l y reinforces the alienated, Cartesian subjectivity t h a t is at the r o o t o f their malaise.

Travel and Delirium Bowles clearly m a i n t a i n s a l i n k between travel a n d madness, as (at some level) have other Western novelists w h o w r i t e o f the u n f o r t u n a t e experi­ ences Europeans encounter i n n o n - E u r o p e a n countries. Indeed, this has be­ come a trope o f Western literature a n d film: W h i t e people always seem t o be d y i n g undignified deaths or g o i n g crazy i n h o t countries. I n a similar vein, for the w h i t e protagonists o f The Sheltering Sky, the farther i n t o the desert they go, the worse things become for t h e m (this s i t u a t i o n o f course,

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is reminiscent o f Heart of Darkness—Apocalypse Now (1979): A w a y f r o m the t o w n , f r o m c i v i l i z a t i o n , a l l order drops away, a n d there are death, v i o ­ lence, a n d madness). Port is k i l l e d by an " a l i e n " disease ( t y p h o i d , a disease associated w i t h c o n t a m i n a t i o n ) , a n d Kit's madness is closely l i n k e d t o her sexual encounters w i t h native males; as Kit's personality unravels, her lovers become increasingly darker-skinned a n d , hence for Bowles, b o t h m o r e alien a n d m o r e indicative o f her d i s i n t e g r a t i o n . A l t h o u g h the charac­ ters are seeking t o flee Western c u l t u r e , i n the narrative a l l difference be­ comes threatening a n d d i s t u r b i n g : the desert wilderness, the A r a b dances, the o b l i g a t o r y sexual encounters. I n the f i l m this threat is u n d e r l i n e d by the use o f Arabic-style music at o m i n o u s p o i n t s i n the narrative. T h i s theme needs closer e x a m i n a t i o n : W h y does life so often t u r n o u t b a d l y for such people i n novels a n d films? I n The Sheltering Sky this u n r a v ­ eling seems t o derive f r o m the characters' desire t o seek a m o v e m e n t across colonized space w h e r e b y they are able t o operate as free, sovereign subjects a n d t o achieve a certain experience. T h e n o t i o n t h a t i t is possible t o achieve a p a r t i c u l a r type o f authentic, intense experience f r o m contact w i t h differ­ ent, colonized people assumes a r a d i c a l difference between the colonizers a n d the people they encounter, a n d i t is precisely this presumed difference t h a t provides the interest a n d s t i m u l a t i o n for the characters. H e r e I w a n t t o distinguish between the v i e w t h a t c u l t u r a l a n d linguistic differences exist a n d m a y be recognized a n d respected as such a n d the c o l o n i a l n o t i o n o f the absolute i n c o m m e n s u r a b i l i t y o f the c o l o n i z e d o r O r ­ ientalized other a n d the European. T h e intensity o f experience sought by K i t a n d Port b o t h assumes a n d is p r o d u c e d by this n o t i o n o f r a d i c a l differ­ ence, w h i c h itself must be p r o d u c e d a n d m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h a range o f colonialist c o n s t r u c t s . As the characters seek t o escape the grayness a n d a l i e n a t i o n o f Western c u l t u r e , they a t t e m p t t o m a i n t a i n the interest p r o ­ duced by the appearance o f difference, o f exotic peoples a n d landscapes. I n Fanon's discussion o f the c o l o n y as a M a n i c h e a n w o r l d , the colonist m a i n ­ tains a n o t i o n o f absolute difference w i t h respect t o the indigenous people. I n the c o l o n y p r o p e r the native is often despised a n d seen as a u n i t o f l a b o r or as an inconvenience, b u t i n The Sheltering Sky this M a n i c h e a n i s m is m a i n t a i n e d b u t differentially v a l o r i z e d . T h e characters w a n t t o r e t a i n their a u t h o r i t y w i t h respect t o the Algerians, a n d at the same t i m e the appear­ ance o f difference excites t h e m a n d reminds t h e m t h a t they are the masters. Rather t h a n a t t e m p t i n g t o render difference safe a n d comprehensible, the Western intellectual i n this instance affirms the ambivalence o f c u l t u r a l dis­ l o c a t i o n a n d the belief t h a t difference constitutes a dangerous edge t o be successfully negotiated. I n the beginning o f the story Port w a l k s the streets o f O r a n a n d t h i n k s , " H o w friendly are they? T h e i r faces are masks. T h e y a l l l o o k a t h o u s a n d years o l d . W h a t little energy they have is o n l y the b l i n d , mass desire t o live, since no one o f t h e m eats enough t o give h i m his o w n personal force. ... 18

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T h e y have no r e l i g i o n left. A r e they M o s l e m s o r Christians? T h e y d o n ' t k n o w . " T h e apparent o p a c i t y o f the A l g e r i a n is something t h a t Port ex­ pects t o encounter a n d indeed affirms; he has decided i n advance t h a t at some level the people a n d cultures he encounters w i l l be incomprehensible, a n d indeed this is p a r t o f the experience he is l o o k i n g for. T h i s i n c o m p r e ­ hensibility b o t h substitutes for a n d m a r k s his escape f r o m the gray same­ ness o f Western c u l t u r e . For Port, the people o f O r a n are barely a n i m a l , n o t even conscious o f their o w n religious beliefs, a n d he is there, able t o w a l k a m o n g t h e m a n d consume the spectacle o f difference a n d the apparent rep­ e t i t i o n o f the alien face. A t this p o i n t i n the story Port believes he can c o n ­ t r o l the experience p r o v o k e d by his inspection o f the A r a b s o f O r a n , as he feels himself t o be standing above an undifferentiated mass t h a t exists t o stimulate his interest. For m o d e r n i s t w r i t e r s such as Bowles, the p r o b l e m o f t r u t h has l o n g been called i n t o question a n d has m i g r a t e d t o experience, t h a t is, t o the t r u t h created o u t o f personal experience a n d t o the extent t o w h i c h this experi­ ence can be designated as authentic. T h i s issue is n o t h i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y n e w but has become m o r e urgent i n the t w e n t i e t h century as o l d certainties fall by the wayside. I t is t h r o u g h the question o f authentic experience t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r r e l a t i o n t o the exotic is a r t i c u l a t e d , i n w h i c h a u t h e n t i c i t y is avail­ able o n l y outside o f Western, bourgeois society. D u r i n g the c o l o n i a l p e r i o d m a n y Westerners believed t h a t intense, authentic experience h a d become impossible i n E u r o p e a n culture a n d so t u r n e d t o the exotic t o find libera­ t i o n f r o m bourgeois constraints. W i t h i n this n o t i o n , the c o m p l e x o f traits a n d attributes called "Sahara" is able t o f u n c t i o n as a source o f this dis­ t u r b i n g , yet intense experience, a n d its a b i l i t y t o produce energy a n d excite­ m e n t is possible precisely because o f the apparent strangeness o f the l a n d ­ scape a n d the dangers o f t r a v e l i n g t h r o u g h i t . T h e n o t i o n t h a t c u l t u r a l difference provides authentic experience means t h a t different people a n d places w i l l f u n c t i o n again a n d again as a k i n d o f pharmakon for the Western colonialist subject. Experience is presented as something t h a t can (appear to) cure the Western disease o f a l i e n a t i o n a n d ennui b u t can also k i l l a n d render insane. T h i s was the message o f the m o r e violent end o f O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g , o f the m o r e t h r i l l i n g opera stories, a n d of the miscegenation m e l o d r a m a films o f the 1940s a n d 1950s. We recall here the double f u n c t i o n o f the pharmakon, the a m b i v a l e n t nature o f the medicine t h a t cures a n d kills a n d carries the disease outside the gates o f the city. For the colonist, the ambivalence seems t o i n v o l v e the w a y encounters w i t h different people o r places generate extreme a n x i e t y a b o u t a u t h o r i t y , t h a t is, a b o u t her a b i l i t y t o r e m a i n i n c o n t r o l o f the experience a n d her p o ­ s i t i o n relative t o the various things she encounters. T h e n o t i o n o f g i v i n g up a u t h o r i t y v o l u n t a r i l y is b o t h elided a n d rendered intolerable t o the Western subject, a n d i n c o l o n i a l tales such as The Sheltering Sky, w h e n the structure o f c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t y t h a t sustains the characters is seriously shaken o r dis1 9

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appears, they become disoriented a n d i l l . I believe this is the source o f the equivalence between g o i n g native a n d madness; i n such stories the en­ counter w i t h difference produces a k i n d o f p o i s o n , a n d i n this sense w e can say t h a t K i t a n d P o r t suffer f r o m difference p o i s o n i n g . For Bowles, any crossing o f boundaries ( c u l t u r a l , class, gender, geo­ graphic) necessarily results i n disaster, n o t because o f the w a y questions o f p o w e r a n d a u t h o r i t y overdetermine the nature o f the encounters, b u t be­ cause he m a i n t a i n s a n o t i o n o f r a d i c a l difference a n d this difference itself is dangerous. T h e reasons f o r this danger are never addressed e x p l i c i t l y i n the story b u t seem t o entail the w a y difference calls the (colonialist) identities o f the characters i n t o question a n d further m a r k s their p r o f o u n d a l i e n a t i o n f r o m each other a n d f r o m c u l t u r e a n d l a n d . T h i s a l i e n a t i o n is n o t situa­ t i o n a l f o r Bowles; i t is an o n t o l o g i c a l state f r o m w h i c h there is n o escape. A l t h o u g h K i t a n d P o r t pursue a n d affirm difference as the a n t i d o t e t o the gray wasteland o f p o s t w a r Europe, i n the story any outside t o Western c u l ­ ture becomes even m o r e threatening a n d degraded.

Aristocratic Dreams W h y do Europeans so often a f f i r m the n o t i o n o f g o i n g t o the desert (or an­ other exotic locale) f o r an authentic experience? Part o f the a t t r a c t i o n lies i n the w a y experience itself is c o m m o d i f i e d a n d made t o seem available t o the colonist. W i t h i n this construct, the n o t i o n o f experience itself appears as a n a p r i o r i category or, perhaps m o r e accurately, as a template w i t h i n w h i c h various experiences w i l l be made t o adapt a n d assimilate. T h e expe­ riences sought by m a n y h o p i n g t o escape Western c u l t u r e are neatly w r a p p e d u p a n d presented as items t o be consumed by p r o p e r l y sophisti­ cated palates; the desire f o r the exotic remains superficial a n d d i l e t t a n t i s h , w i t h e v e r y t h i n g spelled o u t i n advance a n d n o r o o m f o r nuances or, rather, a w i l l f u l blindness t o nuances. A g a i n , this desire t o consume c u l t u r e refers t o an aristocratic m o m e n t , w h e r e experience is s o m e t h i n g t o be sampled like fine w i n e . T h e characters articulate the d r e a m o f a u t h e n t i c i t y t h r o u g h the experi­ ence o f difference, w h i c h becomes pure experience a n d pure spectacle. K i t a n d Port, as do m a n y i n such stories, also seek t o exceed the l i m i t s o f b o u r ­ geois c u l t u r e . I n the earliest p a r t o f b o t h the b o o k a n d film, P o r t carefully distinguishes between themselves a n d the bourgeois t o u r i s t : They had crossed the Atlantic for the first time since 1939, w i t h a great deal of luggage and the intention of keeping as far as possible from the places which had been touched by the war. For, as he claimed, another important difference between tourist and traveller is that the former accepts his own civilization without question; not so the traveller, who compares it w i t h the others, and re­ jects those elements he finds not to his l i k i n g . 21

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Desire, t h e n , is structured i n the t e x t as the a b i l i t y t o stand above culture a n d freely choose a m o n g "elements" ( i n c l u d i n g W o r l d W a r I I ) , a l l o f w h i c h appear available t o K i t a n d Port. I i m m e d i a t e l y begin t o w o n d e r w h i c h ele­ ments o f Western culture the characters are able or l i k e l y t o reject a n d w h i c h they w i l l continue t o a f f i r m . K i t a n d Port certainly do n o t reject their money, luggage, privilege, a n d a u t h o r i t y . Rather, they a t t e m p t t o a t t a i n the experience they seek by e x h i b i t i n g m o r e privilege a n d a u t h o r i t y — t h a t is, by d o i n g their best t o live o u t their desires i n an aristocratic manner. Playing games f r o m the ancien regime is one w a y o f a v o i d i n g bourgeois conventions a n d has consistently appealed t o a certain stream o f intellectual b o h e m i a . T h e r e l a t i o n o f e x o t i c i s m t o c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t y is intricate a n d m u l t i l a y ered, a l t h o u g h i t tends t o rest o n m o r p h o l o g i c a l signs; for instance, i n the case o f A r a b y , o n jewelry, tattoos, weapons, a n d animals such as the d r o m ­ edary o r gazelle. T h e colonist's r e l a t i o n t o e x o t i c i s m also refers t o a E u r o p e a n aristocratic ethos insofar as the bourgeois subject seems able t o conceive o f her o w n difference o n l y as t h a t w h i c h is n o t bourgeois, w h i c h means t h a t any outside t o Western culture tends t o be t h o u g h t o f t h r o u g h , a n d l i m i t e d by, a E u r o p e a n aristocratic exemplar. T h e desire for escape f r o m the constraints o n personal freedom imposed by Western bourgeois culture is so frequently construed t h r o u g h a p a r t i c u l a r l y c o l o n i a l frame­ w o r k because different peoples a n d landscapes are able t o f u n c t i o n as a b a c k d r o p t o a Western, aristocratic adventure story (and hence the gesture o f escape remains t o t a l l y inside Western c u l t u r e , a v a r i a t i o n o r r e p e t i t i o n o f a Western m o d e l ) . C e r t a i n l y p a r t o f b e c o m i n g c o s m o p o l i t a n for an A m e r i c a n such as Bowles o r the characters i n the n o v e l is l e a r n i n g t o take o n E u r o p e a n so­ phistications a n d a p p r o p r i a t e E u r o p e a n fantasies a n d obsessions. The desert n o m a d is an e n d u r i n g feature o f the Western c a n o n o f exotica, a n d a great deal o f E u r o p e a n literature exists o n the romance o f the camel n o m a d (most n o t a b l y T. E. Lawrence's Seven Pillars of Wisdom, w h i c h articulates the t r o p e o f the c o r r u p t i o n o f t o w n versus the p u r i t y a n d n o b i l i t y o f the desert). T h e French presence i n A l g e r i a gave rise a n d referred t o a l o n g ­ standing O r i e n t a l i s t literature, w h i c h further refers t o the aristocratic Crusader t r a d i t i o n o f the chansons de geste a n d various other heroic tales o f k n i g h t s g o i n g o f f t o fight the infidel.

Sexual A m b i v a l e n c e s The exotic is often m a r k e d t h r o u g h sexuality or, rather, is made t o repre­ sent a certain k i n d o f sexual encounter t o the extent t h a t stories o f Europeans g o i n g t o f o r e i g n countries a n d h a v i n g sex w i t h attractive natives have become a constant a n d persistent cliche o f film a n d l i t e r a t u r e . Difference is i m m e d i a t e l y made t o collapse i n t o sexuality b u t t o exceed i t as 22

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w e l l insofar as such encounters become a convenient signpost t h a t the E u r o p e a n has indeed experienced difference (and lived t o tell the tale). C o l o n i a l stories generally trace the (supposed) a b i l i t y o f the colonized w o m a n t o p r o v i d e a p r o p e r l y exotic experience for the E u r o p e a n m a n , yet become s o m e w h a t m o r e a m b i v a l e n t a n d c o m p l i c a t e d w h e n i t is a w h i t e w o m a n w h o experiences sexual adventure i n the colony. Whereas the na­ tive w o m a n tends t o be presented as unthreatening ( a l t h o u g h treacherous), the native m a n is characterized as extremely dangerous t o w h i t e w o m e n . I n The Sheltering Sky Kit's sexual encounters are e x p l i c i t l y l i n k e d t o rape, death, a n d madness. Port's encounter w i t h a Saharan w o m a n , M a r h n i a , i n the early p a r t o f the story q u i c k l y reproduces the figure o f the O u l e d N a i l dancer-prostitute i n French literature a n d p o r n o g r a p h y , the M o o r i s h w o m a n unveiled a n d available t o the colonist i n Algerie Francaise. T h i s first engagement w i t h a Saharan n o m a d is sexual, made available t o Port t h r o u g h a relatively u n ­ c o m p l i c a t e d cash transaction. Betrayal is nevertheless b u i l t i n t o the en­ counter. W i t h M a r h n i a , he pays, she submits, b u t i n this apparent submission l u r k s d i s s i m u l a t i o n : She attempts t o steal his w a l l e t . Port's ambivalence a b o u t M a r h n i a surfaces i n his suspicion a n d his desire, a n d the question o f trust is raised d u r i n g an i n t i m a t e m o m e n t o f the encounter: " T h e y lay o n the c o u c h together. She was very beautiful, very docile, very understanding, a n d still he d i d n o t trust h e r . " M a r h n i a ' s "treachery" is ineffectual, a n d Port remains i n c o n t r o l o f the s i t u a t i o n , easily f o i l i n g her a t t e m p t t o steal his w a l l e t a n d leaving the scene o f the encounter unscathed. T h e l i a i s o n between K i t a n d Belqassim is m u c h m o r e v i o l e n t a n d a m b i v a l e n t , a n d K i t loses a l l c o n t r o l over the events t a k ­ i n g place, literally held d o w n by Belqassim. H e r e is her experience o f their first sexual contact: "There was an a n i m a l - l i k e q u a l i t y i n the firmness w i t h w h i c h he held her, affectionate, sensual, w h o l l y i r r a t i o n a l — g e n t l e b u t o f a d e t e r m i n a t i o n t h a t o n l y death c o u l d g a i n s a y . " Describing colonized people as animals w h o lack the a b i l i t y t o reason is a long-standing t r a d i t i o n i n c o l o n i a l texts, b u t the ambivalence o f this char­ acterization is evoked i n the preceding passage: K i t i m m e d i a t e l y falls i n love w i t h Belqassim. T h e association between sex w i t h Belqassim a n d death comes u p again after he has t a k e n her t o his house i n the Sahara a n d c o n ­ fined her, first o n the r o o f , t h e n i n his b e d r o o m : 23

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N o w that he owned her completely, there was a new savageness, a kind of an­ gry abandon in his manner. The bed was a w i l d sea, she lay at the mercy of its violence and chaos as the heavy waves toppled upon her from above. Why, at the height of the storm, did two drowning hands press themselves tighter and tighter about her throat? Tighter, until even the huge grey music of the sea was covered by a greater, darker noise—the roar of nothingness the spirit hears as it approaches the abyss and leans over. 26

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I r r a t i o n a l i t y , savagery, violence, chaos, a n d death—the native m a n brings these t o the w h i t e w o m a n , yet Kit's sexuality is her enemy as w e l l , some­ t h i n g equally alien a n d destructive, t h a t enables her t o seek o b l i v i o n i n deathlike experiences w i t h deadly, alien m e n . T h e colonized male, then, is presented as d o u b l y treacherous: H e demands submission f r o m the w h i t e w o m a n a n d at the same t i m e calls f o r t h the madness a n d savagery w i t h i n her. Bertolucci's film differs f r o m the b o o k precisely a r o u n d the issue o f sex­ ual contact between colonists a n d natives, a n d this shift is s y m p t o m a t i c o f a certain ambivalence a n d unease w i t h such encounters i n c o l o n i a l tales. I n the b o o k M a r h n i a ' s passivity w i t h respect t o Port is emphasized; after the w a l l e t incident, he shoves her, a n d she cries o u t , alerting the m e n i n nearby tents. I n Bertolucci's film M a r h n i a ' s gesture is deliberate, a n d she f o l l o w s Port t o the d o o r o f the tent a n d ululates l o u d l y t o call the m e n t o assist her (Bertolucci o b v i o u s l y finds the A r a b u l u l a t i o n threatening, as he uses this w o m a n ' s cry t h r o u g h o u t the film t o m a r k m o m e n t s o f danger for the p r o ­ tagonists). 27

I n Bowles's version o f the story he focuses o n , a n d reiterates, the ex­ tremely equivocal nature o f the contact between the w h i t e w o m a n a n d the m a n o f c o l o r i n c o l o n i a l situations. Belqassim a n d his friend i n effect rape K i t soon after she joins the caravan; despite the violence o f the encounter, Belqassim is tender a n d a m o r o u s b u t always dangerous. B e r t o l u c c i empha­ sizes the affectionate, seductive qualities o f Belqassim, a n d i t is n o t clear i f he a n d K i t have sex d u r i n g the j o u r n e y i n the desert. Bertolucci's c h a r m i n g Belqassim treats K i t as a lady, o r d e r i n g a p a l a n q u i n t o be constructed t o protect her w h i t e s k i n f r o m the sun. T h u s , i n Bertolucci's film the native w o m a n becomes m o r e dangerous a n d threatening a n d the native m a n less so, m o r e an object o f pleasure for the female colonist. A m b i v a l e n c e a b o u t such encounters i n c o l o n i a l texts remains f o r t y years after the novel was w r i t t e n , b u t the anxiety seems t o have shifted t o the w o m a n o f c o l o r (here w e recall films such as Full Metal Jacket [ 1 9 8 7 ] , where i t is the Vietnamese w o m a n w h o is the enemy).

L a n d and Madness Bowles spoke o f The Sheltering Sky i n a recent i n t e r v i e w : " T h e b o o k is a b o u t the desert, n o t a b o u t people. T h e desert does a w a y w i t h people. I t swats t h e m like w e swat flies. It's h a r d t o get t h r o u g h the desert a n d come o u t o n the other side a l i v e . " (See Figure 5.3.) T h i s r e m a r k is somewhat disingenuous, given t h a t people have been l i v i n g i n the desert for a l o n g t i m e a n d have been able t o coexist w i t h the t e r r a i n . Clearly for Bowles, " p e o p l e " here mean Europeans. T h e story traces the personal disintegra2 8

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FIGURE

5.3

Kit Morseby (Debta Winger) in The Sheltering Sky. (Copyright ©

t i o n o f P o r t a n d K i t a n d the disastrous consequences o f their encounters w i t h N o r t h A f r i c a n peoples. A l t h o u g h the vastness a n d (presumed) indif­ ference o f the Sahara Desert come u p again a n d again i n the t e x t , indige­ nous desert peoples are made t o represent o r collapse i n t o the desert l a n d ­ scape a n d t o stand f o r an indifferent a n d treacherous n a t u r a l w o r l d . Bowles's v i e w o f the Sahara landscape as hostile a n d destructive t o h u m a n life seems indicative o f the peculiarly Western n o t i o n o f l a n d a n d space as abstract, yet dangerous categories. Bowles suggests t h a t the l a n d is harsh a n d indifferent a n d t h a t the char­ acters, especially K i t , are u n p r e p a r e d t o encounter this emptiness. Baude­ laire suggests t h a t the Sahara itself is able t o p r o d u c e certain effects, i n c l u d ­ i n g madness, i n the visitor. B u t perhaps i t is the very n o t i o n t h a t the l a n d is hostile t h a t precludes visitors h a v i n g a sense o f place i n the desert, existing w i t h i t a n d n o t resisting i t as a n enemy. T h e European's unease w i t h w i l d , u n c u l t i v a t e d landscape has a history, a n d there is a sense o f i n e v i t a b i l i t y t o this unease, w h i c h serves t o underline the separation f r o m the l a n d at the heart o f K i t a n d Port's disaster. People live o n this supposedly u n i n h a b i t a b l e desert l a n d , b u t their pres­ ence tends t o be occluded i n the c o l o n i a l t e x t . I n a peculiar double m o v e the i n h a b i t a n t s are b o t h abstracted f r o m the l a n d a n d w h o l l y identified w i t h i t . Bowles produces a n equivalence between the harsh, indifferent landscape a n d the A r a b , the c o l o n i z e d native. I n a key scene i n the novel P o r t a n d K i t ,

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staying i n a t o w n o n the border o f the Sahara, bicycle i n t o the desert at sun­ set. T o t h e m , the landscape appears t o go o n a n d o n , b r o k e n by jagged o u t ­ crops o f r o c k . Port speaks o f the sky t h a t shelters a n d protects t h e m f r o m darkness, the v o i d , a n d his w o r d s f u n c t i o n as a p r e m o n i t i o n t h a t something is very w r o n g . T h e y encounter t w o A r a b s , one p r a y i n g a n d t o t a l l y o b l i v i ­ ous t o their presence a n d the other, w h o l o o k s at t h e m indifferently, shav­ i n g his p u b i c hair w i t h a knife. T h e A r a b s are silent a n d disclose n o t h i n g t o the visitors a n d hence f u n c t i o n as a spectacle for K i t a n d Port t h a t is at once i m p u r e a n d q u o t i d i a n . T h e i r activities—prayer (Baudelaire's fanaticism) a n d a p a r t i c u l a r k i n d o f b o d i l y hygiene—have for the E u r o p e a n a degraded q u a l i t y a n d consequently occur i n d o o r s a n d i n p r i v a t e . Here they occur o u t d o o r s a n d o n the l a n d . These everyday activities take place i n counter­ p o i n t t o K i t a n d Port's p r o f o u n d t a l k o f i n f i n i t y a n d a l i e n a t i o n , a n d i n the narrative the A r a b s seem t o merely subsist o n the l a n d , unable t o appreciate its intensities. A n o t h e r d i s j u n c t i o n is p r o d u c e d , here between the sublime a n d the everyday, w h i c h elides the w a y t h a t the banal, everyday activities o f the t w o A r a b s suggest a different, perhaps less alienated r e l a t i o n t o the l a n d t h a n t h a t m a i n t a i n e d by the visitors. A n d w e recall here t h a t i t is Port, w h o assures himself t h a t he is stronger t h a n the l a n d , w h o does n o t survive. The Sheltering Sky has a didactic f u n c t i o n , regardless o f w h e t h e r Bowles intends i t . C e r t a i n l y the story presents the v i e w t h a t the l a n d is s o m e h o w alienated f r o m the people w h o live o n i t . Because the relations o f the p r o ­ tagonists w i t h Algerians are structured a r o u n d incidents o f betrayal a n d suspicion, the story suggests t h a t i t is impossible a n d indeed undesirable t o r e l i n q u i s h c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t y a n d , f u r t h e r m o r e , t h a t i t is impossible for the Westerner t o respect or c o m p r e h e n d c u l t u r a l differences. Indeed, Bowles links contact w i t h A f r i c a n people t o insanity; o f course K i t is g o i n g t o go crazy, the result o f an alien landscape, masquerading as a boy, a n d sleeping w i t h d a r k - s k i n n e d m e n , o r perhaps i t was her madness t h a t i m p e l l e d her t o do these things i n the first place. I n c o l o n i a l tales such as The Sheltering Sky the authors seem t o recognize at some level t h a t p o w e r makes people w e a k a n d s t u p i d . T h e colonist is s t u p i d precisely because he or she has learned t o rely o n the external struc­ tures o f c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t y a n d o n the benefits the c o l o n i a l system provides t o the c o l o n i z e r s . T h e colonist has l i m i t e d experience i n dealing w i t h dif­ ference a n d ambivalence i n a w a y t h a t challenges her privilege a n d hence finds i t extremely difficult t o survive w i t h o u t the c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t y t h a t de­ fines a n d orders her relations w i t h colonized peoples. T h e colonist becomes severely disoriented w i t h o u t t h a t structure (unless she is able t o recognize her o w n r e l a t i o n t o c o l o n i a l i s m a n d can begin t o r e l i n q u i s h her a u t h o r i t y a n d privilege) because she is taught t o t h i n k t h a t i f she gives u p a u t h o r i t y , she w i l l a n d must be subject t o someone else's power. T h i s is, as w e k n o w , a central feature o f Western, hierarchical culture: We learn t h a t somebody 29

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has t o be i n charge w h i l e at the same t i m e learning t o elide the ways i n w h i c h actual p o l i t i c a l p o w e r (such as c o l o n i a l i s m ) structures relations a m o n g people. I t is a u t h o r i t y or rather the a t t e m p t t o hang o n t o i t t h a t makes the colonist sick, b u t i n books such as The Sheltering Sky any at­ t e m p t t o c o n f r o n t or r e l i n q u i s h this a u t h o r i t y either never comes u p , is d o o m e d , or results i n disaster. N e a r the end o f the story, after K i t runs a w a y f r o m Belqassim, she meets A m a r , a black m a n w h o attempts t o help her w h e n she is c o n f r o n t e d by an angry c r o w d . A t this stage o f the adventure the r e p e t i t i o n o f the alien face produces o n l y exhaustion. As they w a l k t h r o u g h the streets o f the A f r i c a n t o w n , "outside the sun seemed m o r e dazzling t h a n before. T h e m u d w a l l s a n d the shining black faces w e n t past. There was no end t o the w o r l d ' s i n ­ tense m o n o t o n y . " T h i s exhaustion indicates a shift i n Kit's experience o f difference: She is n o longer standing above the people she encounters a n d enjoying the spectacle o f difference, as Port sought t o do w h e n he w a l k e d the streets o f O r a n . Yet K i t is still alienated f r o m the people she w a l k s a m o n g , a n d difference still remains a r e p e t i t i o n , m a r k e d t h r o u g h the m o r ­ p h o l o g i c a l q u a l i t y o f s k i n color. Difference has become a k i n d o f sameness a k i n t o the gray m o n o t o n y o f Western culture that i n i t i a l l y p r o v o k e d her visit t o the A l g e r i a n desert. K i t remains a colonist, b u t one w h o t h r o u g h her actions has lost status. The narrative reveals an i m p o r t a n t p o i n t here: T h e colonist must affirm a n d m a i n t a i n her p o s i t i o n a n d privilege or lose status and be subject t o c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t y as a native or, worse, a traitor. Because K i t is dressed as an A r a b w o m a n , she is i n i t i a l l y treated as such a n d barred f r o m entering a cafe that does n o t a l l o w native w o m e n inside; she is called "saloperie" (filth). W h e n the cafe o w n e r discovers she is European, confu­ sion ensues for a m o m e n t , b u t K i t is q u i c k l y referred t o as a "sale putain" ( d i r t y w h o r e ) a n d a "creature." A n d , o f course, despite Kit's a m b i v a l e n t p o ­ s i t i o n , the native remains treacherous i n the story: After m a k i n g love t o her and p r o m i s i n g t o "save" her, A m a r steals her m o n e y and t r a v e l i n g case. 3 0

Bowles is r i g h t i n u n d e r l i n i n g the risks o f sexual t o u r i s m i n the c o l o n y b u t for the w r o n g reasons. I f the quest for difference as articulated by K i t and Port necessarily results i n betrayal, i t is n o t because this is the nature o f indigenous people or o f the landscape: Betrayal is b u i l t i n t o the quest itself and is i n fact an autobetrayal t h a t has t o do w i t h the w a y desire is dreamed by the colonialist subject. T h i s is w h a t creates the catastrophes i n the desert. We c o u l d say t h a t K i t gave u p a u t h o r i t y (or i t was t a k e n f r o m her by circumstances), i n a m a n n e r o f speaking, b u t i n a w a y t h a t is identical t o madness. Is this the o n l y w a y r e l i n q u i s h i n g c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t y can be t h o u g h t o f i n a c o l o n i a l tale? A l l w e (and the w e constructed by the t e x t is Western a n d p r o b a b l y w h i t e ) learn f r o m the story is t h a t w o m e n o f c o l o r are treacherous b u t u l t i m a t e l y harmless, whereas m e n o f c o l o r are ex­ tremely destructive a n d t o be avoided.

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Escape and A u t h o r i t y "Europe has destroyed the whole w o r l d , " said Port. "Should I be thankful to it and sorry for it? I hope the whole place gets wiped off the map." 31

The desire t o escape the repressiveness a n d negative intensity o f Western culture is n o t , i f I a m t o be honest, a w h o l l y unreasonable or unattractive idea. B u t this desire for escape so often is consistent w i t h a c o l o n i a l i s t ethos a n d consequently so often returns as a r e i t e r a t i o n o f Western a u t h o r i t y . T h e p r o b l e m lies i n h o w lines o f escape, or a n o t i o n o f an outside, come t o be constructed as c o n v e n t i o n a l l y as they are, a n d w h y the sense o f a n outside to Western culture is so often a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h i n a n aristocratic, c o l o n i a l i s t ethos ( w h i c h i n this instance means t r a v e l at w i l l w i t h m a n y changes o f c l o t h i n g , w h i c h implies money, leisure, a n d porters). I n one sense the char­ acters i n The Sheltering Sky are successful i n their quest for n o m a d i c adven­ ture i n t h a t they d o manage t o t r a v e l great distances a n d , i n Kit's case, m i ­ grate across the Sahara w i t h n o m a d i c people. B u t the real question becomes, W h e r e w i l l resistance t o the effects o f Western culture occur, a n d h o w is a c o l o n i z e d outside constructed as the place where a person m a y find difference a n d intense experience? As m u c h as the A l g e r i a n Sahara exists as a site o f desire, i t does n o t float i n space a n d t i m e . W h e n b o t h Baudelaire a n d Bowles were w r i t i n g , the Sahara was c o l o n i z e d l a n d . Because the desert was c o l o n i z e d t e r r i t o r y , Europeans c o u l d live o u t fantasies n o t possible at h o m e a n d subscribe t o a peculiar n o t i o n o f r e b a r b a r i z a t i o n i n w h i c h the colonists w o u l d become m o r e enracinated i n the desert landscape, a n d m o r e native, t h a n the A l g e r i a n s . T h e A l g e r i a n desert was available t o the colonist, w h e t h e r French or A m e r i c a n , a n d the experience t h a t this landscape was able t o p r o v i d e existed as a c o m m o d i t y i n the c o l o n i z e d m a r k e t . Is a f o r g e t t i n g o f such h i s t o r i c a l events as c o l o n i a l w a r s possible i n a m a r k e t economy where l a n d a n d people are subject t o exchange as commodities? Is this a t t e m p t t o forget or t o escape Western culture the source o f the sickness t o w h i c h Port a n d K i t succumb i n the desert? I t seems clear t h a t whatever drove t h e m o u t o f the West, g o i n g elsewhere as a colonist w i l l o n l y mak e matters worse. 32

I n c o l o n i a l tales such as The Sheltering Sky the characters seem t o (or a l ­ ways/already) t h i n k o f escape or a n outside i n the mos t l i t e r a l way, w h i c h means t h a t their escape or sense o f w h a t i t c o u l d m e a n w i l l always r e m a i n w i t h i n a gesture o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n ; they locate their o w n difference or re­ fusal o f bourgeois culture i n b o t h the ancien regime a n d the p u t a t i v e ab­ solute difference o f A r a b a n d Tuareg people. T h e c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y o f the gesture means t h a t the colonist w i l l escape by physically g o i n g outside o f E u r o p e a n or U.S. cities a n d by u t i l i z i n g the trappings o f difference as an i n ­ t r i g u i n g b a c k d r o p t o the adventure. T h e a b i l i t y t o experience different cus­ t o m s (and especially different bodies) means t h a t the colonist is able t o se-

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lect the traits o f difference t h a t interest her, decide w h a t difference is, a n d capture a n d accumulate some o f t h a t difference as a w a y o f b r e a k i n g t h r o u g h the a l i e n a t i o n she feels i n Paris o r N e w Y o r k . T h e colonist remains in control. There need be no actual engagement w i t h difference or w i t h different people save i n their capacity as servants, prostitutes, or opaque backdrops t o this experience. I n The Sheltering Sky difference a n d a u t h e n t i c i t y are represented by N o r t h A f r i c a n A r a b s a n d Saharan n o m a d i c peoples b u t c o u l d just as easily be represented by something else given t h a t the story does n o t engage w i t h A r a b a n d Saharan people. For Western aesthetes such as the characters i n the story, a l l c u l t u r a l difference is the same a n d p r o ­ vides the same order o f experience: There are Western subjects, a n d there are a l l those others w h o p r o v i d e c o l o r a n d intensity for the amusement o f the f o r m e r (we note that, by the end o f the story, K i t discovers t h a t a l l m e n are able t o please her). Because n o m a d i c peoples occupy a p a r t i c u l a r place i n Western c o l o n i a l fantasies o f e x o t i c i s m a n d c u l t u r a l difference, the n o m a d functions as a m e t a p h o r for r a d i c a l e x t e r i o r i t y , for the p o s s i b i l i t y o f pure flows o f move­ m e n t a n d escape. I n a certain type o f c o l o n i a l literature this m e t a p h o r is l i n k e d t o the Westerner's desire t o become a n o m a d , t o w a n d e r across the desert a n d s o m e h o w locate authentic experience i n precisely t h a t move­ m e n t a n d i n the encounter w i t h different peoples a n d cultures. B u t i f Deleuze a n d G u a t t a r i are r i g h t i n suggesting t h a t nomads i n h a b i t space rather t h a n m o v e t h r o u g h i t , t h e n the c o l o n i a l i s t d r e a m o f escaping Western culture t h r o u g h n o m a d i c wanderings a n d incursions i n t o n o m a d i c t e r r i t o r y raises questions a b o u t the r e l a t i o n a m o n g m o v e m e n t , a p p r o p r i a ­ tion, and colonial authority. Bowles's desert adventure is constructed t h r o u g h an allegory o f loss, w h i c h b o t h draws o n a n d affirms a t r a d i t i o n o f E u r o p e a n w r i t i n g a n d , by i m p l i c a t i o n , the structures o f c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t y o n w h i c h these w r i t i n g s were a n d continue t o be based. For Bowles, the r e d e m p t i o n o f the Western project is n o longer possible, b u t the w a y i n w h i c h he (rightly) rejects this project renders resistance a n d healing impossible as w e l l . There is no w a y o u t , o n l y disastrous attempts at escape. I t is perhaps surprising, given the recent p o p u l a r i t y o f his w o r k , h o w very Western Bowles's n o t i o n o f l a n d is. The landscape is at once inert a n d malevolent, m u c h as the colonized peo­ ple are opaque a n d dangerous. Bowles maintains a series o f b i n a r y cate­ gories, w h i c h u n d e r p i n K i t a n d Port's experience o f the desert ( w i l d / t a m e , dangerous/safe, N a t i v e / E u r o p e a n ) , similar t o the equally dualistic disjunc­ tions a r t i c u l a t e d by Baudelaire a n d Bataille. A n y p o s s i b i l i t y o f u n d e r m i n i n g these categories is rendered hopeless i n The Sheltering Sky, a n d the precise nature o f the r e l a t i o n between people a n d l a n d , colonizer a n d c o l o n i z e d is n o t called i n t o question. 3 3

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Part o f the p r o b l e m lies i n t h i n k i n g o f o u r c u l t u r e a n d their c u l t u r e a n d i m a g i n i n g each as cohesive, discrete entities. To t h i n k o f ourselves as escap­ ing or rejecting Western c u l t u r e is at some level t o a f f i r m o u r culture's v i e w o f itself as m o n o l i t h i c a n d universal a n d t o risk r e p r o d u c i n g the r h e t o r i c o f mastery t h a t characterizes c o l o n i a l discourse. There are m a n y margins a n d roads inside, margins at the heart o f this c u l t u r e , i n c a p i t a l cities a n d i n the w i l d places, m a n y ways o f escaping the culture's p u r v i e w w i t h o u t s l i p p i n g i n t o w h a t w e l i k e t o t h i n k o f as absolute difference. A n d t o escape f r o m the inside can be m u c h m o r e subversive t h a n r i d i n g a camel across the desert. A t the basis o f the impasse is the n o t i o n o f r a d i c a l difference—a c o l o n i a l n o t i o n t h a t remains pervasive—and a n alienated r e l a t i o n t o the l a n d . I question the extent t o w h i c h abstract difference exists at a l l , as opposed t o the m a n y l o c a l differences o f c u l t u r e , t e r r i t o r y , a n d t r a d i t i o n .

6 The Smoking Mirror I began Cannibal Culture w i t h the story o f the t w o Aztec god-brothers, Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl, as a w a y o f exemplifying a p r o b l e m o f repre­ sentation and power. The Aztecs recognized that vision is l i n k e d to an i m p e r i a l m o m e n t and that the act o f gazing i n t o a m i r r o r lies at the r o o t o f the t r i u m p h o f h u m a n sacrifice and m i l i t a r i s m . I t is perhaps not surprising that the Aztec stories are enlivened by m a n y instances o f conflict and warfare. A certain t r u t h can be located i n discord. One o f the most notable accounts also involves strife between t w o siblings, this time H u i t z i l o p o c h t l i , or H u m m i n g b i r d o n the Left, and his sister C o y o l x a u h q u i , or Copper Bells o n H e r Cheeks. H u i t z i l o p o c h t l i was the tutelar g o d o f the Aztec n a t i o n (and incidentally was also the blue Tezcatlipoca o f the south) w h o guided the m i g r a t i n g Aztecs t o w a r d their des­ tiny f r o m inside a bundle carried by the procession o f wayfarers. The M e x i c a sought advice f r o m the spirit contained i n this bundle, consulting i t as they made their w a y to the swamp that w o u l d become i m p e r i a l Tenochtitlan. I n the story o f H u i t z i l o p o c h t l i ' s b i r t h C o y o l x a u h q u i leads an a r m y against her mother Coatlicue, w h o has incurred dishonor by miraculously becoming preg­ nant w i t h H u i t z i l o p o c h t l i . The texts describe C o y o l x a u h q u i and her a r m y preparing for war, carefully dressing and fastening regalia o n t o their bodies before C o y o l x a u h q u i leads t h e m t o w a r d her mother. They come o n , relent­ lessly, t o w a r d Serpent M o u n t a i n , where Coatlicue waits apprehensively. But at the m o m e n t the a r m y arrives o n Serpent M o u n t a i n , H u i t z i l o p o c h t l i springs fully armed f r o m his mother's w o m b , strikes C o y o l x a u h q u i w i t h a serpentshaped stick, and instantly decapitates her. As the headless C o y o l x a u h q u i rolls d o w n Serpent M o u n t a i n , her body falls i n t o pieces. H u i t z i l o p o c h t l i then pur­ sues her a r m y w i t h o u t pity. The text says: And when Huitzilopochtli had killed them, when he had expressed his anger, he took from them their finery, their adornments, their destiny, put them on, appropriated them, incorporated them into his destiny, made of them his own insignia.

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O n the w a y t o empire the M e x i c a learned t h a t a p p r o p r i a t i o n was a n i n ­ strument o f conquest, a w a y o f subsuming subject peoples i n t o an Aztec f u ­ ture a n d t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e m i n t o a chapter i n a n Aztec story. C a p t u r i n g re­ g a l i a — a n d d i s p l a y i n g this t e s t i m o n y o f v i c t o r y for a l l t o see—has always been p a r t o f conquest a n d its a f t e r m a t h , w h i c h is w h e n the real process o f conquest takes place as the i n i t i a l v i c t o r y repeats itself again a n d again. T h e confiscation o f another people's c u l t u r a l artifacts is a w a y o f m a r k i n g a n d r e m a r k i n g the defeat o f the enemy a n d is always closely l i n k e d t o the repe­ t i t i o n o f the m o m e n t o f conquest, a r e p e t i t i o n t h a t can occur i n h o w the w o r l d comes t o be represented aesthetically. H u i t z i l o p o c h t l i ' s v i c t o r y over the a r m y o f his sister was reenacted repeat­ edly o n t o p o f the sacrificial p y r a m i d , w i t h the m o m e n t at w h i c h he struck the m o r t a l b l o w echoed again a n d again o n the bodies o f the prisoners o f war, bodies t h a t c o n t i n u a l l y r o l l e d d o w n the steps o f the p y r a m i d before being dismembered a n d d i s t r i b u t e d t o the priests. C o y o l x a u h q u i is incapac­ itated, and her anger against her mother is rendered impotent. H u i t z i l o ­ p o c h t l i demonstrates t h a t i t is the b r o t h e r w h o w i l l decide the g o o d a n d t h a t his v i c t o r y over his sister a n d her allies mus t be absolute. T h u s , the for­ m a t i o n o f the Aztec state—as represented by H u i t z i l o p o c h t l i ' s t r i u m p h at Serpent M o u n t a i n — i s reiterated again a n d again i n the sacrifices. W h a t do the Aztec stories have t o do w i t h c o n t e m p o r a r y p r o b l e m s o f representation a n d the arts, e x o t i c i s m , a p p r o p r i a t i o n , a n d other issues o f c u l t u r a l difference? These tales o f discord reveal the l i n k between v i s i o n a n d empire a n d teach us t h a t the vast range o f aesthetic practices under­ t a k e n a n d v a l o r i z e d i n a conquest culture are able simultaneously t o i n f o r m a n d veil other, m o r e e x p l i c i t l y v i o l e n t practices. C e r t a i n l y the extent t o w h i c h violence is a central o r g a n i z i n g p r i n c i p l e o f o u r o w n society has been concealed i n p a r t by the w a y aesthetics are able t o f u n c t i o n as an a l i b i . We o u g h t n o t forget t h a t the Aztec priests m a i n t a i n e d a special temple i n T e n o c h t i t l a n t h a t c o n t a i n e d representations o f a l l the gods o f subject peo­ ple, something like a n ethnographic m u s e u m . Part o f the aestheticization o f conquest involves the w a y h i s t o r y itself is u n d e r s t o o d a n d aestheticized: L i k e a l l i m p e r i a l peoples, the Aztecs r e w r o t e the h i s t o r y books o f the peo­ ple they conquered as a w a y o f m a n i p u l a t i n g the past a n d the pasts o f their subjects. W h a t is i l l u m i n a t i n g is the w a y the M e x i c a e x p l i c i t l y tied acts o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n a n d o v e r c o d i n g t o an i m p e r i a l m o m e n t . I m p e r i a l victories d o exact a price f r o m the conquerors. I n the 1 9 9 1 film Retorno a Aztldn M e x i c a n director Juan M o r a Catlett suggests t h a t i t was the M e x i c a ' s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a n i m p e r i a l society ( w i t h priests, hierar­ chies, w r i t i n g systems, a n d other paraphernalia hauled a l o n g i n the w a k e o f the state machine) t h a t made i t impossible for t h e m t o find their w a y back t o the place they came f r o m . W h e n the Aztecs became a n expansionistic state, they f o r g o t their o r i g i n s ; they f o r g o t Coatlicue, w h o was also their

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m o t h e r the earth (strangely, this earth deity is the same Coatlicue defended by H u i t z i l o p o c h t l i ) . H u i t z i l o p o c h t l i p r o m i s e d his people, " T h e f o u r corners o f the w o r l d shall ye conquer, w i n , a n d subject t o yourselves. . . . I t shall cause y o u sweat, w o r k a n d pure b l o o d . " B u t he lied or, rather, neglected t o tell the w h o l e story. H u i t z i l o p o c h t l i p r o m i s e d v i c t o r y i n battle a n d the c o n ­ quest o f vast a m o u n t s o f t e r r i t o r y , b u t (as always) this p r o m i s e was really a b o u t the seduction o f being i n charge, o f deciding the g o o d . T h e Aztecs— by w h i c h I m e a n the people o f the c o u r t a n d the city w h o l i v e d o f f the fruits o f the empire—learned the t r u t h b e h i n d the lie w h e n the story t u r n e d a n d the Spaniards a r r i v e d w i t h their o w n certainties a n d pitilessness. 2

3

W h a t is the price o f empire? W e can t r y t o answer this question i n a r o u n d a b o u t w a y by l o o k i n g at other motives t h a t c o m p l i c a t e the p r o b l e m o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n . C a p t u r i n g c u l t u r e , w h i c h i n effect means u s u r p i n g a c u l ­ t u r a l t r a d i t i o n n o t one's o w n , can also reflect an a t t e m p t t o fill the v o i d cre­ ated w h e n a society f o l l o w s the p a t h o f empire a n d c a n n i b a l i s m . To e m b a r k o n a project o f conquest, a society needs t o organize itself t o carry o u t this project. T h i s means n o deviance f r o m the constant p r e p a r a t i o n f o r w a r a n d n o questioning o f the agenda o f conquest a n d c u l t u r a l superiority. I t is n o accident t h a t the w a r s against witches a n d heretics o c c u r r e d d u r i n g the early c o l o n i a l p e r i o d , w h e n Europe was t r a n s f o r m i n g i n t o a conquest c u l ­ ture. I t is also n o accident t h a t the m o r e recent i m p e r i a l societies have been characterized by r i g i d hierarchical distinctions between categories o f peo­ ple. M i l i t a r i s m requires a h a r d heart, a n d i f people have n o t t r a n s f o r m e d themselves i n t o machines, they do t e n d t o recognize t h a t s o m e t h i n g is w r o n g w i t h the society i n w h i c h they live. Seizing the sacred objects o f c o n ­ quered people can become a w a y o f feeding the endless emptiness a n d hunger p r o d u c e d w i t h i n conquest cultures. A l t h o u g h a p p r o p r i a t i o n does n o t w o r k , i t does constitute a n a t t e m p t t o escape f r o m the b o x i n w h i c h v i c t o r y has placed the conquerors. Power does c o r r u p t , a n d i t has b a d ef­ fects o n everyone. T h e w e t h a t is constructed w i t h i n a n d t h r o u g h Western c u l t u r e is a n i m ­ p e r i a l people. Those o f us w h o live i n N o r t h A m e r i c a n a n d E u r o p e a n cities are t a u g h t t h a t w e alone k n o w the g o o d , an e d u c a t i o n t h a t has n o t h i n g t o do w i t h a n y t h i n g w e m i g h t t h i n k a b o u t the m a t t e r (this can be true even i f w e are disenfranchised w i t h i n this empire because everyone is subject t o the same images, s o m e t h i n g t h a t can create a l l k i n d s o f difficulties w i t h inter­ nalized racism). Because the West has behaved as an empire f o r so l o n g , those o f us w h o live under its p u r v i e w are p r o f o u n d l y alienated f r o m w h a t w e used t o call the n a t u r a l w o r l d ( I realize t h a t the n o t i o n o f the n a t u r a l is a c o n s t r u c t i o n as w e l l , b u t I a m using i t t o refer t o s o m e t h i n g actually i n the w o r l d — i n other w o r d s , the l a n d t h a t sustains life a n d w i t h o u t w h i c h every­ one dies). T h i s a l i e n a t i o n means t h a t w e are n o longer able t o c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h the spirit w o r l d — w h i c h is t o say, w e are alienated f r o m a ceremonial

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system a n d practice t h a t p r o v i d e m e a n i n g t o existence, t h a t begin t o u n t a n ­ gle the d i l e m m a o f t e m p o r a l i t y , a n d t h a t can help prevent the p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f c a n n i b a l disease. ( C h r i s t i a n i t y has p r o v i d e d sustenance t o m a n y b u t can­ n o t really be called an earth r e l i g i o n , as o r t h o d o x practice has always feared the spirit w o r l d . ) T h i s a l i e n a t i o n has occurred i n the name o f science a n d r a t i o n a l i t y , b u t a p a r a d o x remains: M a n y people i n the West still need the o a k groves a n d spirits k i l l e d o f f by science a n d o r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n i t y , w h i c h means they t u r n t o other t r a d i t i o n s , sometimes t o confiscate their paraphernalia o f the sacred i n the hope o f f i n d i n g sustenance. A g a i n , a l ­ t h o u g h this desire for m e a n i n g is n o t a b a d t h i n g , i t has been t w i s t e d t o ­ gether w i t h p o w e r relations o f the m o s t unsavory k i n d . N e w Z e a l a n d M a o r i director B a r r y Barclay's film Te Rua (1991) gives m o r e d e p t h t o the configurations o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n a n d c o l o n i a l i s m by p o i n t i n g t o some o f the effects o f c o l o n i a l i s m o n the people d o i n g the ap­ p r o p r i a t i n g . T h e film tells the story o f a M a o r i c o m m u n i t y ' s attempts t o re­ trieve three sacred carvings f r o m a n ethnographic m u s e u m i n B e r l i n . The c o m m u n i t y needs the carvings t o heal itself a n d live as a people again. C e r t a i n spirits i n h a b i t the carvings, a n d the carvings e m b o d y these spirits. A l t h o u g h the carvings are beautiful a n d possess a n aesthetic sensibility, they are n o t precisely art ( i n the sense o f being created t o l o o k at); rather, they are aesthetics a n d s p i r i t u a l i t y b r o u g h t together w i t h i n a specific c o m ­ m u n i t y for specific s p i r i t u a l reasons. T h e film is clear i n its association o f objects a n d power, here s p i r i t u a l power, a n d a l t h o u g h the narrative is n o t p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h the s p i r i t u a l i m p o v e r i s h m e n t o f Western c u l t u r e , i t is able t o offer insights a b o u t the motives o f collectors t h a t are germane t o this issue. T h e E u r o p e a n m u s e u m director w h o finally comes t o s u p p o r t the r e t u r n o f the carvings i n i t i a l l y appears as a desiccated c a n n i b a l - m a n w h o can survive o n l y by feeding o n the presence o f s p i r i t u a l objects i n the m u s e u m he administrates, objects he imagines he i n some w a y o w n s . ( I have t r i e d t o s h o w h o w the m u s e u m is a special h o m e o f the wetiko.) The spirits t h a t live i n the objects seem t o sustain h i m , b u t they are spirits he has stolen, a n d at some level he recognizes this theft. T h i s m u s e u m director is o n l y one i n d i v i d u a l , b u t i t is possible t o c l a i m t h a t precisely the same desire for o w n e r s h i p o f the spirits occurs o n a larger scale w h e n s p i r i t u a l objects are collected a n d displayed i n n a t i o n a l museums or i n the l i v i n g r o o m s o f i n d i v i d u a l s w h o can a f f o r d t h e m . M o s t museums a n d galleries understand ceremonial objects i n terms o f their aesthetic or scientific value, w h i c h is t o say, a c c o r d i n g t o a c o n t e m p o ­ r a r y Western belief system. B u t Te Rua suggests t h a t the s p i r i t u a l a n d cere­ m o n i a l qualities o f these objects are at some level recognized a n d under­ s t o o d w i t h i n Western culture a n d t h a t this desire for p r o x i m i t y t o the spirit w o r l d secretly animates the project t o acquire a n d display the objects i n the first place. The collector o f r e p r o d u c t i o n Ghost Dance paraphernalia (see Figure 6.1) feeds o f f the m y s t i c a l beliefs o f the Ghost Dancers as m u c h as

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6.1 Ghost Dance collection from Prairie Edge arts and crafts gallery

off the beauty o f the objects—and b o t h attributes c o n t i n u e t o be confused w i t h the pleasures o f o w n e r s h i p . C o n q u e r i n g a people means u s u r p i n g their power, as H u i t z i l o p o c h t l i seized the finery a n d destiny o f his enemies. Keeping i n m i n d this s p i r i t u a l d i m e n s i o n o f c o l o n i a l i s m , w e can begin t o understand w h y the C a n a d i a n government banned the p o t l a t c h for so m a n y years a n d confiscated the dance regalia o f the w i n t e r ceremonies: These measures were designed t o break "the s p i r i t " o f the people a n d t o ac­ quire their power, t h a t w h i c h made t h e m strong i n the face o f c o l o n i a l en-

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croachment. (The w h i t e g o v e r n m e n t u n d e r s t o o d things far t o o literally, however. G i v e n the choice between g o i n g t o j a i l a n d surrendering dance masks, m o s t people gave u p the masks. As the grandson o f someone charged w i t h p o t l a t c h i n g i n the 1920s explained t o me, the matter was quite simple: T h e c o m m u n i t y c o u l d always m a k e m o r e masks, b u t i t c o u l d n o t m a k e m o r e elders.) A p p r o p r i a t i o n becomes a question o f the c o l o n i a l powers a c q u i r i n g s p i r i t u a l objects such as masks a n d r e n a m i n g t h e m art i n an a t t e m p t b o t h t o legitimize their capture a n d display a n d t o i n c o r p o r a t e t h e m i n t o a Western narrative. People i n c o l o n i z i n g nations c o u l d s i m u l t a ­ neously derive strength f r o m this alien sacred a n d render i t harmless. ( I n a rather different sense t h a n art collectors a n d ethnographers, C h r i s t i a n mis­ sionaries also sought t o capture a n alien sacred as a w a y o f eradicating i t a n d replacing i t w i t h their o w n version o f the spirit w o r l d . ) I n the early c o l o n i a l p e r i o d n o t i o n s o f C h r i s t i a n religious o r t h o d o x y sought t o silence the spirits, w i t h this task later delegated t o science. I t is n o t s i m p l y a question o f science n o w c o m m a n d e e r i n g the f u n c t i o n o f the sacred i n Western culture b u t o f the extent t o w h i c h scientific discourses have made i t possible t o elide the absence o f a sacred, ceremonial arena i n Western culture (a lack t h a t m a n y people nevertheless t r y t o fill u p w i t h television preachers a n d o d d cults). M i c h e l de Certeau p o i n t s o u t t h a t as the locus o f beliefs shifted f r o m paganism t o C h r i s t i a n i t y t o the m o d e r n na­ tion-state, there were a progressive d e v a l u a t i o n a n d e x h a u s t i o n o f these be­ liefs. H e w r i t e s , " W h a t was n o t transportable, or n o t yet t r a n s p o r t e d , i n t o the n e w areas o f progress appeared as ' s u p e r s t i t i o n , ' w h a t c o u l d be used by the r e i g n i n g order was accorded the status o f a c o n v i c t i o n . " So often t a l k a b o u t the sacred o r spirit w o r l d embarrasses Western intellectuals; i n the name o f various k i n d s o f progress the spirits are made t o stand for r o m a n ­ t i c i s m a n d reaction. I n the d o m i n a n t streams o f Western t h o u g h t smart a l ­ ways equals r a t i o n a l . Even at the heart o f Western culture there have always been some signs o f unease w i t h the i m p e r i a l capture o f the spirit w o r l d , even i f this disquiet has been construed ambivalently. Legends o f hideous curses have f o l l o w e d the r e m o v a l o f sacred objects f r o m t o m b s a n d temples t o museums i n the West, for instance, as i n W i l k i e Collins's nineteenth-century n o v e l The Moonstone a n d i n the r u m o r s o f madness a n d possession t h a t filtered back t o Europe f r o m the colonies. Perhaps the m o s t famous example is the curse o f the t o m b o f K i n g T u t a n k h a m e n t h a t f o l l o w e d the o p e n i n g o f the E g y p t i a n t o m b i n 1 9 2 6 a n d t h a t gained credence after people i n v o l v e d i n the o p e n i n g o f the t o m b began t o meet w i t h bizarre fates. We can see the r u m o r s o f the cursed t o m b as a n i m p l i c i t r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t science's a r r o ­ gance h a d l i m i t s a n d t h a t the w a r n i n g s carved i n t o the tomb's entrance d i d , i n fact, express another reality. B u t this r e c o g n i t i o n was, n o t surprisingly, subject t o r a p i d c o m m o d i f l c a t i o n , a n d i t helped sell a fascination w i t h T u t 4

The Smoking Mirror 193 inspired fashion i n the 1920s a n d later i n the 1970s w h e n the grave goods w e n t o n t o u r i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . T h e tendency t o p l a y w i t h the idea o f a deadly curse against w h i c h m o d e r n science is powerless is a w a y o f dis­ charging the a n x i e t y generated by the confiscation o f sacred objects. Te Rua makes the p o i n t t h a t i f w e ( M a o r i , Pakeha, German) are t o u n d o the social a n d p o l i t i c a l apparatuses t h a t enabled sacred objects t o be ab­ stracted f r o m their ceremonial settings, s i m p l y a n n o u n c i n g o u r identities or p r o d u c i n g increasingly r i g i d b i n a r y categories o f us a n d t h e m w i l l n o t be enough. Such categories t e n d t o reproduce the simplistic views o f the c o l o ­ n i a l era, a n d i d e n t i t y p o l i t i c s is especially l i m i t e d w h e n i t designates b l o o d ­ line as the p r i m a r y c r i t e r i o n o f i n c l u s i o n o r classifies huge groups o f people as c o r r u p t o r w i c k e d . People occupy vastly different positions w i t h i n sys­ tems o f a u t h o r i t y , b u t everyone experiences p o i n t s o f c o m p l i c i t y a n d c o m ­ promise w i t h these systems. There is no absolutely pure space, b u t there are c o m m u n i t i e s w i t h shared histories, a n d everyone is better o f f w h e n people treat each other w i t h respect. A t the end o f Te Rua one o f the elders recites the genealogies t o s h o w t h a t everyone i n the c o m m u n i t y is related to the M a o r i m a n w h o o r i g i n a l l y helped the G e r m a n collector seize the carvings. W h e n i t comes t o the a c q u i s i t i o n o f ceremonial art as a type o f s p i r i t u a l misuse, c o u l d feeding o f f the p o w e r o f other cultures be dangerous t o the people or society t h a t does so? C o l o n i a l victories last o n l y so l o n g , a n d cap­ i t a l f o l l o w s the money, h a v i n g no l o y a l t y t o a p a r t i c u l a r place or people. T h e West increasingly seems t o have h a d its t i m e , as is apparent f r o m recent examples r a n g i n g f r o m balance-of-payment difficulties, t o i n f a n t m o r t a l i t y rates i n the U n i t e d States, t o the c o n d i t i o n o f once-imperial B r i t a i n , whose government n o w i m p o r t s the t o x i c waste o f other countries t o generate rev­ enue. I n t e r n a l violence continues v i r t u a l l y unchecked, neofascist organiza­ tions are o n the rise, a n d Western governments are unable t o prevent their activities (even i f these governments w a n t t o do so). T h e c o l o n i a l ideal o f E u r o p e a n s u p e r i o r i t y remains just under the surface o f Western c u l t u r e , i n ­ f o r m i n g so m u c h h i g h a n d l o w aesthetic endeavors, b u t the ideal is little m o r e t h a n nostalgia. T h e b a d effects o f i m p e r i a l t h i n k i n g o n the colonizers were occasionally recognized i n the c o l o n i a l p e r i o d i n a w a y t h a t can continue t o p r o v i d e lessons. T h e p r o j e c t i o n o f an idealized Western universal k n o w l e d g e can fall back a n d recoil o n t o the w e l l - m e a n i n g i n d i v i d u a l : People i n the c o l o n i z ­ ing countries m a y have an i m a g i n a r y r e l a t i o n t o the real, b u t the real has an unsettling tendency t o speak back. T h i s is very apparent i n the c o l o n i a l w o r l d o f E. M . Forster's A Passage to India, where the y o u n g English­ woman's expectations o f w h a t w i l l happen t o her i f she is alone w i t h an I n d i a n m a n structures her perceptions o f w h a t actually does happen. A d e l a is n o t a bad person, b u t her understanding o f events has, i n a l l the ways

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t h a t matter, been decided i n advance a n d has n o t h i n g t o do w i t h a n y t h i n g A z i z does o r does n o t d o . Rather, A d e l a drives herself m a d , a n d e v e r y t h i n g takes place inside her o w n head. H e r p r o f o u n d self-absorption, w h i c h she is able t o take f o r granted because o f her p o s i t i o n as an E n g l i s h w o m a n t r a v e l i n g t h r o u g h the B r i t i s h r a j , means t h a t she is unable t o conceive o f any agency o n Aziz's p a r t . To say this is n o t t o c l a i m t h a t this process is simple, a n d Forster was w e l l a t t u n e d t o the complexities o f e t h n i c i t y a n d gender i n a c o l o n i a l setting. B u t at base i t is B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l i s m i n I n d i a t h a t makes the E n g l i s h w o m a n sick a n d t h a t causes the effects o f her sickness t o r i p p l e o u t w a r d across the B r i t i s h a n d I n d i a n c o m m u n i t i e s . Adela's fate is an example o f a u t o c o n s u m p t i o n , o f the w a y c u l t u r a l canni­ balism directed o u t w a r d — h e r assumption that she k n o w s , that she is i n charge by v i r t u e o f her identity as an E n g l i s h w o m a n , that I n d i a is an experi­ ence t o be consumed—turns o n itself because i t cannot survive an encounter w i t h real people, places, or events. T h i s cannibalism is based o n a set o f as­ sumptions that conceals the true nature o f the British project i n I n d i a , w h i c h is t o consume bodies a n d images as m u c h as w e a l t h , always leaving the Westerner h u n g r y for m o r e . T h e colonist can never uncover the heart o f the colonized, the h o l y grail o f the t r u t h o f difference, that m o m e n t w h e n the colonist can be absolutely certain that s/he is i n charge. I t h i n k Forster is telling us that Westerners have t w o choices: Either r e l i n q u i s h preconceived ideas a b o u t difference (along w i t h a u t h o r i t y ) , or go crazy. I have spoken o f the universalization o f Western values and o n t o l o g i c a l systems a n d w i s h t o stress again that i t can occur o n l y i f people believe they k n o w everything about whatever they are m a k i n g judgments about. T h e m y t h o f universal knowledge tells t h e m that w h e n they see something, they possess a template that w i l l e x p l a i n w h a t i t a l l means. A n d this is h o w a u t h o r i t y manifests itself. Westerners whose great exotic adventures go sour can a n d w i l l blame the Vietnamese, the A r a b s , o r even the landscape f o r the p r o b l e m s they en­ counter, b u t i t is their expectations t h a t do t h e m i n . T h e p r o b l e m is, again, deciding i n advance w h a t things w i l l be l i k e , i m p o s i n g an i m p e r i a l opera­ t i o n o n the w o r l d . T h i s is w h a t brings disaster d o w n o n people like K i t a n d Port, A d e l a , Rene G a l l i m a r d , a n d indeed anyone w h o t h i n k s he under­ stands the other a n d runs smack u p against the substantive r e a l i t y o f actual people a n d places, usually w i t h devastating results f o r everybody. T h e i r conceit tells t h e m t h a t they are i n charge, b u t the r e a l i t y they m u s t face is always shifting: Sometimes difference is so m u c h m o r e different t h a n they c o u l d ever i m a g i n e , a n d other times i t is n o t t h a t different at a l l . B u t a n t i c i ­ p a t i o n always constructs a b l i n d spot, even i n those w h o consider t h e m ­ selves especially k n o w l e d g e a b l e . I t is perhaps u n s u r p r i s i n g t h a t N o r t h A m e r i c a n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s w o r k i n g i n Peru were unable t o p r e d i c t the rise o f the Sendero L u m i n o s o m o v e m e n t because they assumed t h a t the indige­ nous people o f the Andes were concerned w i t h the past rather t h a n w i t h the

The Smoking Mirror 195 future or w i t h the injustices t h a t w h i t e people w o r r i e d a b o u t (the A n d e a n people were, after a l l , I n d i a n s ) . T h e models o f culture t h a t these specialists h a d studied i n graduate school h a d assured t h e m o f these facts, a n d they were predisposed t o believe i n these models because they t h o u g h t they were i n a p o s i t i o n t o k n o w the real: T h e y i m a g i n e d t h a t their t r a i n i n g gave t h e m access t o universal k n o w l e d g e . I n a similar vein, even the w e l l - f u n d e d C I A was unable t o gauge the extent o f anti-Shah sentiment i n I r a n just before the r e v o l u t i o n . Power does m a k e us s t u p i d , o r as Nietzsche said i n Twilight of the Idols, m a c h t t r u l y v e r d u m p t s . 5

6

T h e S t a t e , Again A m I falling i n t o i m p e r i a l t h i n k i n g by a p p r o p r i a t i n g the Aztec empire as an analogy for the most violent and rapacious qualities o f Western culture? I t h i n k the answer t o this question p a r t i a l l y depends o n the use t o w h i c h exam­ ples f r o m another culture are p u t . I also t h i n k empires are fair game, regard­ less o f w h e n a n d where they occur. The Aztec state can i l l u m i n a t e the nature of p o w e r by p r o v o k i n g a m o m e n t o f shock i n Westerners ( " O h n o , w e can't possibly be like that!" has been the cry ever since Cortes saw his first sacrifi­ cial p y r a m i d ) a n d by v i v i d l y demonstrating w h a t an empire actually does, de­ spite a l l the g i l d i n g o f fine art, culture, fancy t a l k , and d i p l o m a t i c maneuvers. There is another reason t o a p p r o a c h the p r o b l e m o f i m p e r i a l representa­ t i o n t h r o u g h the analogy o f Aztec society. After a l l is said a n d done, I ac­ cept a materialist analysis o f c u l t u r e . To suggest t h a t certain aesthetic f o r m s are m o r e l i k e l y t o be t a k e n u p a n d v a l o r i z e d i n certain societies is n o t t o m a i n t a i n a r i g i d d e t e r m i n i s m b u t rather grounds a n d permits a r e c o g n i t i o n of c u l t u r a l topographies a n d o f the tendency o f traits t o cluster i n patterns. I m p e r i a l cultures share certain basic characteristics, regardless o f w h e t h e r the society is located i n R o m e , C h i n a , or Great B r i t a i n a n d aside f r o m q u i b ­ bles over differences (such as the Asiatic m o d e o f p r o d u c t i o n a n d other the­ oretical esoterica). I n the first v o l u m e o f Anti-Oedipus Deleuze a n d G u a t t a r i e x p l a i n h o w despotic representation w o r k s by c o d i n g c u l t u r a l matter t h r o u g h the b o d y o f the despot, w h o can be Pharaoh, Jehovah, or any figure t h a t functions as the sole quasi cause; the "fictitious voice f r o m o n h i g h " gives the orders a n d obliterates other ways o f d o i n g t h i n g s . I t is not s i m p l y t h a t the p o r t r a i t w i l l always be o f Caesar b u t t h a t a l l other p o r ­ traits w i l l be i m a g i n e d t o exist i n reference t o Caesar. U n f o r t u n a t e l y i t is not always easy t o tell w h i c h characteristics w i l l be significant t o the p r o b ­ lem o f a n i m p e r i a l aesthetic, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n regard t o the c o m p l e x a n d m a n ­ i f o l d issues o f representation. I t is a fact t h a t i m p e r i a l societies create m o n ­ u m e n t a l architecture, b u t the nuances o f opera plots or c l o t h i n g styles are m o r e difficult t o interpret a n d l i n k t o a system o f i m p e r i a l representation. 7

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W h e n w e are able t o l o o k at o u r o w n society as a cluster o f traits like any other, w e can begin t o u n d o the transparency a n d the n a t u r a l i z a t i o n o f the c a n n i b a l regimes. The d o m i n a n t stream o f Western culture is i m p e r i a l a n d has been for some t i m e , b u t t o d a y the i m p e r i a l m o d e has shifted a n d crossed a n entirely n e w t h r e s h o l d . The effects o f this shift are as frightening as they are unpredictable. Violence is b o t h nearer a n d m o r e distant t h a n i n any previous empire, nearer because w e see b o t h fictional a n d real acts o f violence every day o n endless television p r o g r a m s a n d farther a w a y because the people m a k i n g decisions t h a t cause mass death a n d upheaval are b u ­ reaucrats rather t h a n sacrificial priests. T h e r e l a t i o n between cause a n d ef­ fect is attenuated, a n d H a n n a h Arendt's " b a n a l i t y o f e v i l " is apparent i n the bureaucratic fondness f o r euphemisms t h a t obscure the nature o f the activities they describe: There is something m o n s t r o u s a b o u t the terms friendly fire a n d collateral damage, as there is i n the m o r e insidious devel­ opment. Violence is s u b l i m a t e d , a n d other voices are rendered i n a u d i b l e . T h e elders r e m i n d us t h a t every t i m e w e flick o n a s w i t c h , s o m e t h i n g dies, b u t this is a message m a n y people seem unable t o hear. T h e o b v i o u s p r o b l e m w i t h c u l t u r a l generalizations a n d analogies is t h a t these can end u p o b s c u r i n g the specificity o f b o t h c u l t u r a l a n d aesthetic f o r m s . For instance, the Aztec elites m a i n t a i n e d a sacrificial system for rea­ sons t h a t h a d t o do w i t h the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l a n d economic a u t h o r ­ i t y i n the valley o f M e x i c o a n d w i t h r e g i o n a l h i s t o r i c a l events, such as the great famine o f 1 4 5 0 - 1 4 5 4 , w h i c h led t o a sharp increase i n sacrifices. Sacrificial violence has a h i s t o r y a n d involves a precise empire b u i l d i n g t h a t occurs slowly, step by step, w i t h each decision i m p l y i n g similar decisions i n the future. T h e l i g h t n i n g - s w i f t appearance o f the state t h a t Nietzsche speaks o f is o n l y p a r t o f the story. ( A g a i n , people do n o t start o u t r i p p i n g other people's hearts out.) Similarly, rather t h a n i d e n t i f y i n g monocaus al reasons for social a n d c u l t u r a l phenomena, w e are wiser t o m a p o u t the m u l t i p l e configurations o f aesthetics a n d p o w e r t h a t mak e these goings-on possible. I believe t h a t i t is possible t o generalize a b o u t culture w i t h o u t falling i n t o the t r a p o f deciding i n advance w h a t c u l t u r a l phenomena m e a n — w h i c h is t o say, I t h i n k there are certain trajectories o f cause a n d effect t h a t account for the c u l t u r a l d i s p o s i t i o n o f c o n t e m p o r a r y society. I t s h o u l d be clear by n o w t h a t m y agenda involves b r i n g i n g the Aztecs i n t o the genealogy o f em­ pire so t h a t w h e n w e t r y t o grasp the nature o f p o w e r w e t h i n k o f T e n o c h t i t l a n as m u c h as i m p e r i a l R o m e or W a s h i n g t o n . T h e exclusion o f M e x i c o has made i t difficult t o l o o k at w h a t c i v i l i z a t i o n t r u l y involves, w h a t p o w e r actually l o o k s l i k e , a n d w h a t w e are u p against i n any project t o shift the status q u o . T h e M e x i c a can be a m i r r o r i n w h i c h the face o f power, o u r o w n as m u c h as theirs, begins t o emerge f r o m the mist. T h e y m o v e d q u i c k l y a n d were b r o u g h t d o w n equally q u i c k l y : by themselves, n o t by Cortes, b u t by the tens o f thousands o f subject peoples w h o saw the

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chance t o finally o v e r t h r o w their masters. T h e face i n the m i r r o r can come as n o real surprise: T h e West still longs t o be i m p e r i a l , a desire manifested i n its t h i n k i n g , i f n o t i n overt p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l over t e r r i t o r y . (We a l l k n o w a b o u t covert means t o establish a n d m a i n t a i n p o w e r a n d a b o u t p r o x y w a r s : T h e lesson o f V i e t n a m is t h a t i t is cheaper t o let others do the actual fighting unless there are clear p r o p a g a n d a advantages, as was true f o r the F a l k l a n d s / M a l v i n a s War, the G u l f War, a n d the invasions o f Grenada a n d Panama.) Ideas t h a t c o n t i n u e t o circulate i n the constructions o f c u l t u r e a n d his­ t o r y are repeated o n television a n d i n m a i n s t r e a m cinema a n d confuse o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the c u l t u r e i n w h i c h w e live. People c o n t i n u e t o assert t h a t A d o l f H i t l e r was a m a d m a n , as i f t h a t explains a n y t h i n g ; they say t h a t all the v i o l e n t events i n the w o r l d t o d a y are either t o t a l l y incomprehensible or have s o m e t h i n g t o do w i t h h u m a n nature. After a certain p o i n t i t be­ comes very difficult t o locate the m o m e n t w h e n events c o u l d have t u r n e d out differently (the f o r m e r Yugoslavia comes t o m i n d ) , b u t this does n o t mean t h a t extreme events are impenetrable. I reject the idea t h a t violence, w h e t h e r i n d i v i d u a l or societal, is r a n d o m a n d i n e x p l i c a b l e , a fiction t h a t seems dependent o n the v i e w t h a t Western c u l t u r e possesses greater virtues a n d values t h a n other societies a n d is n o t a n i m p e r i a l society i n w h i c h v i o ­ lence is i m m a n e n t a n d v a l o r i z e d f o r its o w n sake. Nietzsche explains i n some detail h o w p o w e r stupefies a n d u l t i m a t e l y renders those w h o t h i n k they are i n charge b o t h s t u p i d a n d melancholy. Power is self-referential, as F a n o n p o i n t s o u t , a n d is f u n d a m e n t a l l y a sys­ tem o f display i n w h i c h the colonizer does n o t have t o take i n t o account the concerns o f the people being sacrificed a n d displayed. So m u c h o f the sup­ posed interest i n difference ends u p being self-referential—it is so b o r i n g , this us us us, even w h e n i t is r u n t h r o u g h c u l t u r a l difference—but this selfreferentiality is i m p o r t a n t t o keep i n m i n d w h e n w e t h i n k t h r o u g h p r o b ­ lems o f c o l o n i a l i s t representation. Remember Quetzalcoatl's t e r r o r w h e n he e x a m i n e d his face i n the m i r r o r t h a t his evil b r o t h e r spitefully offered t o h i m . T h i s story tells us t h a t there is s o m e t h i n g a b o u t v i s i o n , a b o u t the rep­ resentation o f the self t o the self, t h a t can m a k e us sick (contra the c o n ­ s t r u c t i o n o f the self as a transparent, universal entity) a n d t h a t w e t r y t o es­ cape by representing the other. W e can never quite see ourselves except by accident. W e c a n n o t see the other, w e c a n n o t see the self, the image i n the m i r r o r is constantly shifting, b u t i t continues t o m a k e us nervous.

Signs and O m e n s M o t e c u z o m a a n d the people o f T e n o c h t i t l a n were given omens t h a t w a r n e d t h e m o f the d e s t r u c t i o n o f their w o r l d . There are signs i n the air t o d a y t h a t the w o r l d m a n y i n the West have t a k e n f o r granted is also b r e a k i n g d o w n .

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G r a d u a l b r e a k d o w n a n d r a p i d collapse are t w o different things: I certainly do n o t t h i n k t h a t the edifice o f Western c a p i t a l i s m is g o i n g t o collapse i n the i m m e d i a t e future (capitalism has p r o v e d infinitely adaptable, i t seems), b u t the o l d configurations o f p o w e r at the very heart o f the empire are shift­ i n g i n the N e w W o r l d Order. The o l d empire was a regime o f intense and manifest cruelty. The Car­ ibbean sugar plantations a n d the slums i n L o n d o n a n d Manchester needed a n d fed o f f each other, a n d b o t h affected the course o f the wars against i n ­ digenous people i n the Americas. T h e n for a t i m e , perhaps after W o r l d W a r I or even m o r e briefly after W o r l d W a r I I , i t seemed t h a t the w o r l d m i g h t get better, t h a t people m i g h t come t o their senses, that the shackles o f the past m i g h t indeed be t h r o w n off, i f o n l y people w o u l d clap their hands a n d say, " I believe." T h e violence a n d carnage o f the t w o w o r l d wars d i d n o t i n fact end u p shocking people a n d their governments o u t o f their romance w i t h power. Even w h e n "the people" saw that n e w versions o f fascism were alive a n d w e l l , they decided n o t t o rise up after a l l ( m u c h t o the surprise o f m a n y o n the Left, w h o believed t h a t t o demonstrate the existence o f evil w o u l d be enough). U n f o r t u n a t e l y things have become p r o f o u n d l y worse, especially as the l a n d has increasingly a n d possibly i r r e v o c a b l y become damaged. W h e n the frogs recently stopped singing i n m a n y parts o f the w o r l d , some o f the o l d people i n N a t i v e c o m m u n i t i e s matter-of-factly inter­ preted this as a sign t h a t the earth can no longer cleanse itself. We a p p r o a c h a t i m e o f great change. Life is b e c o m i n g harder i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , the o l d g o l d e n m o u n t a i n , the l a n d o f p l e n t y o f o u r dreams. T h i s , t o o , is o c c u r r i n g at the level o f basic sustenance o f life. T h e a l i e n a t i o n a n d c o m m o d i f l c a t i o n o f culture have af­ fected h o w people experience their lives, a n d c o n d i t i o n s o f extreme stress w i l l certainly n o t i m p r o v e matters, despite a l l the fine t a l k a b o u t people p u l l i n g together i n h a r d times. Wetiko psychosis flourishes i n a climate o f i s o l a t i o n , w h e n people are unable or u n w i l l i n g t o help one another, w h e n they cannot imagine a n y t h i n g outside o f the b o x i n w h i c h they find t h e m ­ selves a l l alone. This means that deep i n the heart o f Western culture there are strange a n d unpredictable consequences o f the ideologies o f i n d i v i d u a l ­ i s m . O r t o p u t the matter slightly differently, c o l o n i a l i s m has made Western culture sick a n d has duplicated a l l the violence a n d desperation a n d t u r n e d t h e m i n w a r d (as i t has always done). T h i s has happened despite the at­ tempts t o feed o f f difference, despite the search for excitement i n exotic l o ­ cales, a n d despite a l l the lovely c o m m o d i t i e s . These are n o t enough t o fill the hole. I t seems increasingly difficult t o survive b o t h economically a n d psychi­ cally w i t h the m i n i m u m wage service jobs that seem the fate o f so many, b u t people seem unable t o imagine m u t u a l a i d as a w a y o u t o f their desper­ a t i o n . T h e y have become even m o r e i n d i v i d u a l i z e d t h a n I ever t h o u g h t pos-

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sible, even i n m y most cynical a n d pessimistic m o m e n t s . O n a recent visit t o the U n i t e d States nearly everyone I spoke t o said they w o u l d be able t o manage i n the N e w W o r l d O r d e r o n l y i f they were completely independent, never forced t o rely o n others. T h i s , they t h i n k , w i l l keep t h e m safe f r o m paranoia, anger, a n d confusion. Television has definitely done its j o b , a n d people are m u c h m o r e apt t o say t h a t everyone s h o u l d take care o f t h e m ­ selves a n d q u i t their w h i n i n g a n d expectations rather t h a n suggest t h a t peo­ ple s h o u l d find ways t o help one another. People w h o lived t h r o u g h the Great Depression say t h a t the level o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m is w h y things are worse n o w . So m a n y people i n N o r t h A m e r i c a n cities l o o k p i n c h e d a n d i l l a n d seem extremely disoriented by the situations i n w h i c h they find themselves. T h e y are puzzled because life d i d n o t t u r n o u t as they were led t o expect. Poor c h i l d r e n are shot i n N e w Orleans. W h i t e , middle-class teenagers sit b l a n k l y o n the sidewalk i n V i c t o r i a , B . C . , b l i n k i n g up at passersby i n the w a t e r y sunlight as i f they have just survived a disaster, w h i c h i n a sense they have. Tension is i n the air o n the streets o f A m e r i c a n cities. A n y t h i n g can hap­ pen, w h i c h does n o t mean t h a t violence is actually as r a n d o m as people imagine. T h e t e r m random violence occludes the extent t o w h i c h such phe­ n o m e n a are a n a t u r a l consequence o f the w a y society has been arranged. People are t r a i n e d t o be aggressive, b u t often this t r a i n i n g backfires, a n d the violence spins o u t further a n d further u n t i l someone opens fire i n a m a l l for apparently no reason. B u t these events are n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y mysterious or unpredictable. T h i n k o f the w a y marines were t r a i n e d i n Stanley K u b r i c k ' s film Full Metal Jacket (bear i n m i n d the one w h o w e n t crazy). (Canada is just a few years b e h i n d i n the violence department, so Canadians o u g h t n o t imagine themselves t o o superior t o Americans.) T h i s propensity t o feed o f f a n d aestheticize violence travels a n d intensifies everywhere a n d makes any­ t h i n g else seem impossible. I n Tristes Tropiques a pessimistic Claude L e v i Strauss w r o t e i n 1 9 5 5 , " T h e atmosphere thickens, e v e r y w h e r e . " 8

There are (moneyed) N o r t h Americans w h o seem quite h a p p y t o con­ tinue d e l u d i n g themselves t h a t everything is just fine or that the s i t u a t i o n o n the street is manageable, at least i n terms o f the p o t e n t i a l effects o n t h e m . Increasingly people w h o can a f f o r d t o are choosing t o live b e h i n d w a l l s : W h a t w o r k s i n Bogota can also w o r k i n the gated communities o f Cali­ fornia, a state o f affairs that reveals the fear b e h i n d the confident w o r d s . M o s t people are n o t evil; they just w a n t t o pass their t i m e as h a p p i l y as possible, w i t h a certain a m o u n t o f space i n w h i c h they can live their lives. Very few people start o u t w a n t i n g t o u n l o a d an M - 1 6 i n t o a c r o w d e d store, b u t financial pressure, lack o f choices, i n d i v i d u a l i s m , a n d aestheticized v i o ­ lence make an extremely dangerous c o c k t a i l . There are n o t a l o t o f choices: Y o u can t r a n s f o r m yourself i n t o a h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e , h i g h l y c o m p e t i t i v e

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professional, i f y o u can get a j o b a n d do n o t go crazy f r o m o v e r w o r k i n the process (Vogue magazine i n f o r m s us t h a t successful w o m e n average a b o u t five hours o f sleep a n i g h t , a t r u l y depressing t h o u g h t . ) O r y o u can end u p i n a l o w - p a y i n g service i n d u s t r y j o b , i f y o u can survive o n the wages, also w i t h n o t i m e t o t h i n k or t o imagine a w a y t o mak e a n alternative possible. O r y o u can b a i l o u t , as m a n y y o u n g people seem t o be d o i n g , a n d create another version o f self-sufficiency o n the l a n d . B u t space is a l u x u r y , a n d b a i l i n g o u t has its consequences. 9

I n these times w e m u st ask w h a t f u n c t i o n violence serves i n c o n t e m p o ­ r a r y culture because i t w o u l d p r o b a b l y n o t exist w i t h o u t a g o o d reason. A n d m a k i n g television producers a n d advertisers m o n e y does n o t really ex­ p l a i n a n y t h i n g . R i c h a r d T o w n s e n d w r i t e s t h a t M e x i c a h u m a n sacrifice was "greatly emphasized as a general p o l i c y a i m e d at i n u r i n g the p o p u l a t i o n t o violence a n d bloodshed as a w a y o f l i f e . " I f people become used t o v i o ­ lence as a w a y o f life, they w i l l accept a l l k i n d s o f cruelty, a n d they w i l l ac­ cept a g o v e r n m e n t t h a t solves p r o b l e m s by force rather t h a n n e g o t i a t i o n . To constantly k i c k ass, a n d t o w a n t t o d o so, w i l l seem n o r m a l . I t is curious t h a t the incessant representation o f rage a n d t e r r o r is accompanied by ther­ apeutic discourses t h a t seek t o i n d i v i d u a l i z e the p r o b l e m a n d cure the ef­ fects o n the i n d i v i d u a l or the nuclear family. O n e debate concerns w h e t h e r there is indeed increasing violence i n families, w i t h some c l a i m i n g t h a t i t is just being t a l k e d a b o u t m o r e . I suspect t h a t w i t h the fetishization o f v i o ­ lence i n culture m o r e a n d m o r e people w i l l act this violence o u t a n d w i l l do so i n the m o st convenient setting, w h i c h is t o say, i n their o w n homes. 1 0

It is also curious t h a t people p e r i o d i c a l l y appear o n television t o deplore the rising tide o f violence i n society. B u t i t is unusual t o hear people t a l k a b o u t h o w violence is p r o d u c e d a n d r e w a r d e d i n o u r c u l t u r e , w h i c h is true b o t h i n real life a n d o n television. Violence has become n o r m a l i z e d , w h i c h bears o n the necessity for people t o e x h i b i t " a t t i t u d e " (another t e r m for ag­ gression) a n d the t r u l y unpleasant spectacle o f George Bush t e l l i n g people to read his lips a la D i r t y H a r r y . I a m very uneasy a b o u t the w a y the current romance w i t h violence l i n k s u p t o people's i n a b i l i t y t o locate a center t o the culture i n w h i c h they live. By center I do n o t m e a n a fixed conceptual template t h a t insists o n i m p o s ­ ing order o n unstable c u l t u r a l , aesthetic, or ceremonial m a t e r i a l ; n o r d o I mean a cabal o f h i g h art experts w h o deem themselves best qualified t o judge w h a t the culture actually is ( i n other w o r d s , w h o succeeds a n d w h o fails). I a m n o t using the t e r m center as an a l i b i for a scale o f values t h a t dictates a n d oppresses because everything is decided f r o m above. I a m t h i n k i n g o f h o w m a n y earth-based societies m a i n t a i n a n idea o f the c u l t u r a l center as the heart o f the social body, a heart t h a t everyone can recognize a n d t o w h i c h people feel connected. T h i s existence o f a shared, m u t u a l l y u n d e r s t o o d center m i g h t i r r i t a t e f r o m t i m e t o t i m e , b u t i t remains a source

The Smoking Mirror 201 f r o m w h i c h people can d r a w strength a n d experience belonging a n d re­ sponsibility for one another. W h a t has made this idea o f a c u l t u r a l heart seem a n i m p o s s i b l e — a n d i n m a n y respects unappealing—fantasy i n the West? Since the earliest days o f E u r o p e a n c o l o n i a l expansion, there has been a constant effort t o construct c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y t h r o u g h reference t o those other, supposedly inferior cultures over w h i c h the West has t r i ­ u m p h e d . A t the same t i m e , there has been a tendency t o locate a u t h e n t i c i t y a n d m e a n i n g outside the West i n the c o m m o d i f i e d a n d easily digested ver­ sions o f difference t h a t have so fascinated colonists o l d a n d new. There is far m o r e interest i n the other t h a n i n h o w d o m i n a n t Western values have systematically sought t o destroy margins a n d alternatives i n the West a n d have a t t e m p t e d t o subdue everyone else. T h i s w i l l t o cannibalize difference ends u p revealing m o r e a b o u t the West t h a n i t does a b o u t the cultures t h a t have been subject t o a p p r o p r i a t i o n . Just past the bluster, everywhere w e l o o k there are emptiness, elision, b l i n d spots, a n d , finally, weakness. I f the effort t o t r a n s f o r m difference i n t o deadened a n d deadening c o m ­ modities ( w h i c h can be offered u p for c o n s u m p t i o n t o a m a r k e t w e l l pre­ pared i n advance) is an i n d i c a t i o n o f the West's weakness, h o w do w e ac­ c o u n t f o r the equally constant t r u m p e t i n g o f Western superiority? H o w do we account for the elision o f the fascination w i t h violence a n d hierarchy t h a t is the true source o f this weakness a n d for the damage this does t o peo­ ple inside a n d outside o f d o m i n a n t society a n d t o the earth itself? T h e process o f c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n feeds back a n d f o r t h ; the economic system is arranged t o keep people c o n s u m i n g , so n e w aesthetic a n d c u l t u r a l t e r r i t o r y mus t c o n t i n u a l l y be "discovered" a n d colonized. T h e fruits o f these c o n ­ quests m u st be displayed i n a w a y t h a t is attractive t o buyers. A t the same t i m e , precisely because n o c u l t u r a l heart exists i n the most d o m i n a n t stream of Western society, people c o n t i n u e t o cannibalize other cultures a n d fic­ t i o n a l i z e d versions o f their o w n past i n order t o survive. I n this w a y a p p r o ­ p r i a t i o n serves b o t h economic a n d s p i r i t u a l needs, the latter o f w h i c h are occluded a n d denied. But there seems t o be a p a r a d o x w i t h this f o r m u l a t i o n : O n the one h a n d , the West appears as a h u n g r y predator; o n the other, i t appears as some­ t h i n g h o r r i b l y confused a n d i l l . T h e t w o actually do go h a n d i n h a n d . T h e wetiko is one w a y t o describe this c o n j u n c t i o n . I also imagine c o n t e m p o ­ r a r y culture as a large, dangerous, w i l d animal—say, a n i n e - f o o t - t a l l silvertip grizzly bear—that has been confined t o a cage. T h i s a n i m a l has been w o u n d e d b u t n o t yet m o r t a l l y . Bears can be dangerous at the best o f times (not because they are evil, I hasten t o a d d , b u t because i t is their w a y ) , a n d everybody k n o w s t h a t w i l d animals are at their m ost dangerous w h e n they have been h u r t . Western culture m a y be b r e a k i n g d o w n , b u t i t is still capa­ ble o f i n f l i c t i n g a great deal o f damage o n the w o r l d . T h e c r i t i c a l mass o f histories, languages, a n d aesthetic a n d intellectual t r a d i t i o n s t h a t make u p

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Western c u l t u r e is sick and predatory, a n d the safest t h i n g t o do is t o leave i t alone. D o n o t a t t e m p t t o engage the beast; go find s o m e t h i n g else t o d o . To paraphrase the o f t - q u o t e d w o r d s o f Deleuze, the o n l y sensible course o f a c t i o n is t o r u n away, b u t w h i l e r u n n i n g m a k e sure t o p i c k u p a stick.

Refusing t h e Cannibal C a n w e t u r n a w a y f r o m the c a n n i b a l path? H a v e things gone t o o far t o do so? Before I can answer these questions, others need t o be addressed. W h a t is at stake i n c l i n g i n g so persistently t o the v i e w t h a t the E u r o p e a n conquest o f the w o r l d was a nearly effortless endeavor, one t h a t q u i c k l y a n d p e r m a ­ nently succeeded i n a n n i h i l a t i n g N a t i v e cultures, w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f those t h a t c o u l d be commodified? T h i s fiction continues t o close o f f possi­ bilities i n the present. Part o f the p r o b l e m has t o do w i t h h o w h i s t o r y is i m a g i n e d . W e read statements o f this sort again a n d again: " I n this u n e q u a l struggle Spain t r i u m p h e d r a p i d l y over the indigenous peoples. T h e Aztec a n d Inca empires succumbed i n h o l y t e r r o r before the p o w e r o f Spanish harquebuses, cannons, horses, b l o o d t h i r s t y dogs, a n d weapons o f i r o n a n d i n v i n c i b l e armor. A mere h a n d f u l o f m e n conquered a c o n t i n e n t w i t h m i l ­ lions o f i n h a b i t a n t s . . . . T h i s entire indigenous c i v i l i z a t i o n was defeated by the S p a n i s h . " I n this extremely p e r e m p t o r y account o f the E u r o p e a n invasions, every­ t h i n g seems t o have already been decided. Interestingly, the a u t h o r o f this q u o t a t i o n , E n r i q u e Dussel, has been i n v o l v e d f o r m a n y years i n the struggle against oppression i n L a t i n A m e r i c a . To question this passage is n o t t o d o u b t the sincerity o f the author's i n t e n t i o n s i n this regard, a l t h o u g h sincer­ i t y clearly has its o w n b l i n d spots. Yet there is s o m e t h i n g a b o u t the tone o f the passage t h a t makes me extremely uneasy, a sense o f i n e v i t a b i l i t y t h a t appears as a f o r m o f p a c i f i c a t i o n i n itself. T h i s k i n d o f h i s t o r y induces paralysis a n d makes another version o f the story seem impossible. Dussel deplores the violence i n v o l v e d i n the process o f c o l o n i z a t i o n , yet at the same t i m e insists t h a t there was i n fact a r a p i d a n d absolute indigenous de­ feat. Is this n o t another f o r m o f conquest, one t h a t makes his ethical stance o n c o l o n i a l violence seem s o m e w h a t equivocal? ( H i s tone reminds me o f the sixteenth-century friars w h o believed the conquest t o have been neces­ sary b u t c o n d e m n e d the violence o f the conquistadors.) C e r t a i n l y the fall o f T e n o c h t i t l a n (to name o n l y one example) seems t o p r o v o k e i n m a n y w r i t e r s a desire t o articulate E u r o p e a n strength a n d effi­ ciency again a n d again a n d t o characterize the Aztecs i n terms o f weakness a n d e x h a u s t i o n (for C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r s such as Dussel, this can also refer t o a certain i d e a l i z a t i o n o f the oppressed a n d w e a k i n C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y ) . T h e Aztecs lost the w a r against the Spaniards i n 1 5 2 1 , w h i c h led t o a transfer11

The Smoking Mirror 203 m a t i o n o f m a n y features o f the o l d pre-European M e x i c a n society. B u t m a n y peoples have been conquered, w i t h v a r y i n g degrees o f b r u t a l i t y ; the same tone o f finality a n d t e r m i n a t i o n does n o t appear i n discussions of, f o r instance, the relatively r a p i d a n d efficient G e r m a n invasions o f the L o w Countries a n d n o r t h e r n France i n the t w e n t i e t h century. Passages like Dussel's reinforce the belief t h a t Europeans alone are the agents o f history, w h i c h denies any possibility o f agency t o those w h o refuse t o assimilate i n t o d o m i n a n t Western c u l t u r e or w h o prefer a m o r e distanced r e l a t i o n t o the centers o f power. Certeau articulates s o m e t h i n g t h a t anyone close t o c o n t e m p o r a r y indigenous struggles w i l l i m m e d i a t e l y recognize as true: Conquest is never absolute, a n d the " w e a k " have m a n y ways t o t r i c k the " s t r o n g . " N o t h i n g is ever decided once a n d f o r a l l . W h a t is at stake i n the o c c l u s i o n o f indigenous resistance a n d the s u r v i v a l o f p r e c o l o n i a l c u l t u r a l a n d linguistic t r a d i t i o n s ? Perhaps i n Dussel's t e x t w e can discern a reason f o r this elision o f indigenous a c t i o n a n d resistance. I n his d e s c r i p t i o n o f the Aztec a n d Inca empires, Dussel w r i t e s , " T h e i r p a n ­ theons h a d n o t as yet been codified n o r adequately organized, their theogonies a n d beliefs were still heterogeneous, a n d their p h i l o s o p h i c a l reflection had hardly begun." 1 2

13

14

T h e use o f " y ? " " ••• adequately," " s t i l l , " a n d " h a r d l y b e g u n " rein­ forces a l o n g - s t a n d i n g a n d persistent conceptual hierarchy i n w h i c h n o n Western societies are made t o express the failures a n d omissions t h a t Western c u l t u r e has been able t o overcome. T h i s k i n d o f t h i n k i n g runs deep, a n d i t is here t h a t w e can see w h y Aztecs, N a t i v e people, A s i a n w o m e n , a n d so m a n y others h a d t o disappear f r o m the story or, rather, be made t o disappear f r o m any role b u t a passive one, the role o f supposedly i n f e r i o r b u t possibly interesting object o f c o n s u m p t i o n . T h e assertion t h a t the w o r l d , because o f its supposedly b a c k w a r d nature a n d general u n r u l i ness, deserved t o be conquered is n o longer a r t i c u l a t e d e x p l i c i t l y b u t re­ mains disguised i n c o n t e m p o r a r y w r i t i n g s . A n d this a p p r o a c h t o the w o r l d continues t o be affirmed, a l t h o u g h n o w f o r reasons t h a t have m o r e t o do w i t h the u n i v e r s a l i z a t i o n o f n o t i o n s o f science a n d h i s t o r y rather t h a n w i t h theology. E v o l u t i o n i s t n o t i o n s o f h i s t o r y a n d c u l t u r e are extremely persis­ tent; even w e l l - m e a n i n g people such as Dussel a n d w h i t e environmentalists believe t h a t they k n o w w h a t is g o o d f o r the l a n d a n d hence refuse t o trust the indigenous people w h o have l i v e d o n this l a n d f o r m i l l e n n i a . T h e dif­ ference expressed b y other cultures m u s t be presented as b o t h absolute a n d obsolete, a n d the r e i t e r a t i o n o f this difference becomes a w a y t o a f f i r m the Western d r e a m o f g l o b a l history, w h i c h can be made t o appear seamless, a u t h o r i t a t i v e , a n d capable o f subsuming a l l other histories. W h a t is at stake i n c l i n g i n g t o the n o t i o n t h a t e v e r y t h i n g has been de­ cided, t h a t the earth is, i n fact, a dead thing? Such ideas are d e b i l i t a t i n g , w h i c h perhaps is the p o i n t , a n d p r o d u c e n o t h i n g b u t stasis a n d despair. e t

n

o

t

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(Remember M o t e c u z o m a ' s experience o f p r o f o u n d dread a n d paralysis w h e n he observed the Spaniards i n his m i r r o r . ) I f the possibilities f o r change are n o t a l l over, i f a few t r i c k s still r e m a i n u p the sleeves o f those w h o have n o w i s h t o be masters, a n d i f c u l t u r e is m o r e resilient a n d layered t h a n ad­ vertisers w o u l d have us believe, t h e n where t o n o w ? H o w d o w e locate margins r i g h t here n o w ? H o w d o w e tame the c a n n i b a l monster? I n Chapter 1 I a p p r o v i n g l y q u o t e d Leslie M a r m o n Silko o n the m o m e n t o f r e c o g n i t i o n between the Spaniards a n d Aztecs a n d h o w the b l o o d w o r ­ shippers o f M e x i c o called their equivalents f r o m across the ocean. I n Chapter 2 I criticized Georges Bataille f o r suggesting t h a t at some level the Aztecs l o n g e d f o r a n d affirmed the Spanish conquest a n d t h a t i t was a n i n ­ tensification o f their o w n sacrificial m o m e n t . M y a p p r o a c h t o these w r i t e r s is n o t as c o n t r a d i c t o r y as i t m i g h t seem at first glance. W h a t Silko a n d Bataille are saying is i n some respects n o t a l l t h a t different, b u t there are very different i m p l i c a t i o n s i n the w a y each w r i t e r has f o r m u l a t e d the p r o b ­ lems o f conquest, defeat, a n d s u r v i v a l . Bataille sees the Aztecs as w h o l l y different f r o m Europeans a n d indeed as an opposite t h a t is " m o r a l l y at o u r a n t i p o d e . " Bataille m a i n t a i n s the Aztecs as a n object t o delight a n d h o r ­ rify, whereas Silko is interested i n the lessons they c o n t i n u e t o offer a b o u t the ruses o f power. Bataille has his o w n theoretical agendas a n d accord­ i n g l y reads Aztec society as completely concerned w i t h the sovereign expen­ diture o f b l o o d . Silko refuses t o mystify either the Aztecs or the Spaniards a n d sees the Aztecs as a society like any other, a l t h o u g h one t h a t f o l l o w e d a p a r t i c u l a r p a t h i n w h i c h energy was derived f r o m the violence the state p r o ­ duced a n d aestheticized. T h e i m p e r i a l exemplar is available t o a l l peoples t o choose or reject a n d was t a k e n u p i n E u r o p e , eventually d o m i n a t i n g Western t h i n k i n g . T h e difference between B a t a i l l e a n d S i l k o suggests a n o t h e r w a y t o l o o k at the p r o b l e m o f c u l t u r e a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . R a t h e r t h a n o b j e c t i f y i n g difference a n d t u r n i n g i t i n t o s o m e t h i n g t o e n t e r t a i n , w e can see differ­ ence as a m i r r o r t h a t a l l o w s us t o recognize the extent t o w h i c h the soci­ ety w e live i n has come t o feed o f f violence a n d a l i e n a t i o n f r o m the l a n d . W e can choose—and r e j e c t — c e r t a i n paths. Those o f us w h o come f r o m the i m p e r i a l , W e s t e r n t r a d i t i o n need t o decolonize o u r eye a n d c a r e f u l l y e x a m i n e the c u l t u r a l a n d aesthetic p h e n o m e n a w e have been t a u g h t t o f i n d i n t e r e s t i n g . W e m i g h t t h e n cease i m a g i n i n g e m p i r e as f a s c i n a t i n g a n d as s o m e h o w higher o n the great c h a i n o f b e i n g t h a n earth-based societies. I f there is such a t h i n g as a c a n n i b a l p a t h , t h e n surely i t is possible t o w a l k away. C a n n i b a l stories are a w a y o f seeing the i m p e r i a l exemplar f o r w h a t i t is. T h e beautiful dead A s i a n w o m e n , the N a t i v e c l a n key chains, the vast n u m ­ bers o f museums a n d galleries stuffed w i t h booty, are a l l f o o d f o r the m o n 16

The Smoking Mirror 205 ster, w h i c h continues t o g r o w a n d g r o w a n d becomes h u n g r i e r w i t h each meal. Because the c a n n i b a l flourishes i n a climate o f frozen i s o l a t i o n , c o n ­ f r o n t i n g the monster i n ourselves a n d i n o u r c u l t u r e begins t o break d o w n the experience o f separation; w e can belong t o the w o r l d again. T h e heart o f ice softens, a n d i m a g i n i n g other people a n d cultures as deadened objects becomes less appealing, i f w e can bear t o l o o k i n the m i r r o r . Perhaps the c a n n i b a l monster w i l l c o n t i n u e t o bite f r o m t i m e t o t i m e , b u t this is better t h a n its c o n s u m i n g e v e r y t h i n g i n sight. W e w i l l never entirely get r i d o f i t .

Notes

Chapter I 1. According to current terminology, the name Mexica is considered more correct than Aztec, which properly refers to the three cities making up the Triple Alliance confederacy. 2. See, for instance, Pierre Clastres, Society Against the State (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1977); and Pierre Clastres, The Archaeology of Violence (New York: Semiotext[e], 1994). 3. Annals of Cuahtitlan, quoted in Laurette Sejourne, Burning Water (London: Thames and Hudson, 1978), p. 57. 4. Florentine Codex, Rhetoric, and Moral Philosophy, vol. 4 (Santa Fe: School of American Research Monograph, 1969), p. 4 1 . 5. Claude Levi-Strauss, Tristes Tropiques, trans. John Russell (New York: Atheneum, 1967), p. 388. For a discussion of Aztec sacrifice, see Inga Clendinnen, The Aztecs (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). The point is that human sacrifice is so often framed as an enigma. That said, there are careful studies of the institution, such as Christian Duverger, La fleur letale: Economie du sacrifice azteque (Paris: Seuil, 1979); and Elizabeth H . Boone, ed., Ritual Human Sacrifice in Mesoamerica (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 1984). 6. Leslie M a r m o n Silko, Almanac of the Dead (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991) , p. 570. 7. See Francois Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotus: The Representation of the Other in the Writing of History (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988). 8. Paul Chaat Smith, "Home of the Brave," C Magazine 42 (Summer 1994): 30-42. 9. Bruce Johansen, and Robert Maestas, Wasichu: The Continuing Indian Wars (New York: M o n t h l y Review Press, 1979). John Redhouse explains in the introduc­ tion, "The Lakota used a metaphor to describe the [European] newcomers. It was Wasichu, which means takes the fat, or greedy person. Within the modern Indian movement, Wasichu has come to mean those corporations and individuals, w i t h their governmental accomplices, which continue to covet Indian lives, land, and re­ sources for private profit. Wasichu does not describe a race; it describes a state of m i n d " (p. 11). 10. See Miguel Leon-Portilla, The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico (Boston: Beacon Press, 1962). 11. Jack Forbes, Columbus and Other Cannibals (New York: Autonomedia, 1992) . Forbes explains, "Wetiko is a Cree term (windigo in Ojibway, wintiko in Powhatan) which refers to a cannibal or, more specifically, to an evil person or spirit 207

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who terrorizes other creatures by means of terrible evil acts, including cannibalism. Wetikowatisewin, an abstract noun, refers to 'diabolical wickedness or cannibal­ ism'" (p. 33). 12. Friedrich Nietzsche, Thus Spoke Zarathustra, trans. R. J. Hollingdale (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1969), p. 75. 13. Michael Taussig, The Nervous System (New York: Routledge, 1992), p. 27. 14. See Dean MacCannell, Empty Meeting Grounds: The Tourist Papers (Lon­ don: Routledge, 1992), pp. 17-73. 15. I wish to thank Wedlidi Speck for helping me out w i t h this concept. 16. Forbes, Columbus and Other Cannibals, p. 46. 17. Theophile Gautier, quoted in Joanna Richardson, Theophile Gautier: His Life and Times (New York: Coward and McCann, 1959), p. 76. 18. See Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, trans. Robert Hurley, M a r k Seem, and Helen R. Lane (New York: Viking Press, 1977), esp. ch. 3, on the function of the despot in representation. 19. Susan Sontag, "Introduction," in Antonin Artaud: Selected Writings (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988), p. x l . 20. John Lloyd Stephens, Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1841), vol. 1, p. 115, quoted in Curtis M . Hindslay, " I n Search of the New World Classical," in Collecting the PreColumbian Past, ed. Elizabeth H i l l Boone (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 1993), pp. 105-122, 111. 2 1 . Stephen E. Weil, Rethinking the Museum (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990). This essay, "Who Owns the Nataraja?", was also pub­ lished in ARTnews 88(5) (May 1989):188. 22. For an excellent critique of the (disingenuous) notion of postcolonialism, see Anne McClintock, "The Angel of Progress: Pitfalls of the Term 'Post-Colonialism,'" Social Text 31-32 (1992):84-98. 23. Iain Chambers, Migrancy, Culture, Identity (London: Routledge, 1994), p. 76. Chapter 2 1. David Henry Hwang, M . Butterfly (New York: Plume, 1988), p. 17. 2. See Doreen K. Kondo, " M . Butterfly: Orientalism, Gender, and a Critique of Essentialist Identity," Cultural Critique 16 (Fall 1990):5-30. 3. See Lucy Lippard, Mixed Blessings: New Art in a Multicultural America (New York: Pantheon Books, 1990), for a discussion of how contemporary artists have approached questions of syncretism and power. 4. Many PBS shows have taken this tack. For instance, the Tribal Eye series of the 1970s sought to address non-Western aesthetics, but some episodes reinforced Western prejudices about the inherent violence or sublimity of traditional peoples. W i t h educational programs the Western viewer can still find foreign cultures titillat­ ing and exotic, but s/he gets to feel good about it, even edified, as the images appear in the name of science. National Geographic magazine is another example of how educational material can fail to come to terms w i t h problems of colonialist repre­ sentation and, indeed, in some instances affirm it.

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5. For a discussion of this concept, see Sally Price, Primitive Art in Civilized Places (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), pp. 37-55. 6. See Dean MacCannell, Empty Meeting Grounds: the Tourist Papers (London: Routledge, 1992), pp. 17-73. 7. The standoff took place during the summer and autumn of 1990 and involved a M o h a w k community near Montreal setting up a blockade to prevent the expan­ sion of a municipal golf course onto sacred land. The conflict escalated after provin­ cial police stormed the barricade, leaving an officer dead, and ultimately involved the Canadian Army. To date, the land rights issue that was the source of the stand­ off has not been resolved. "Change" appeared in titles and in the body of articles in the Canadian weekly Macleans as an agent in its own right: in "Creating a New Way of Life: Changes Threaten Cree Traditions" and "Northern Agony: Change Leaves Canada's Arctic Grappling w i t h an Alarming Array of Tragic Social Ills," the titles orient the reader toward a specific set of conclusions. This trope was also ar­ ticulated by Supreme Court Justice of British Columbia Allan McEachern's decision to reject Gitksan-Wet'suwet'en land claims, in which he remarked, "The difficulties in adapting to changing circumstances, not limited land use, is the principal cause of Indian misfortune" (Financial Post, March 14, 1992, p. 1). Thus, when the media began to report on the Oka standoff, the M o h a w k community was already framed as a community existing in an unhealthy or feeble state, unable to adapt to in­ evitable change (here symbolized by a golf course). 8. See Malek Alloula, The Colonial Harem, trans. M y r n a Godzich and Wlad Godzich (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986). 9. See Hwang, M . Butterfly, p. 45. 10. Libretto, Madama Butterfly (New York: London Records, 1974), p. 12. See Catherine Clement, Opera, or the Undoing of Woman, trans. Betsy Wing (Min­ neapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988). 11. Eugenio Donato, "The Museum's Furnace: Notes Toward a Contextual Reading of Bouvard and Pecuchet," in Textual Strategies, ed. Josue V. Harari (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979), p. 225. 12. This function seems even clearer when the cost of the opening night party is considered: $750,000 in what must have been an orgy of self-congratulation in re­ cession-hit and increasingly multicultural Toronto. We can also ask how Miss Saigon fits into the revisionist right-wing histories of the Vietnam War, in which the only consideration is whether "we" lacked the w i l l to w i n . 13. See Jeffrey Richards, Visions of Yesterday (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973), esp. ch. 12. 14. See Marjorie Garber, Vested Interests: Cross-Dressing and Cultural Anxiety (New York: Harper, 1992). 15. Franz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1963), p. 53. 16. Quoted in Shonagh Adelman, "Maryse Holder Liked to Fuck," Fuse Maga­ zine (September 1988):36. 17. See Gawitrha', Dwanoha: One Earth, One Mind, One Path (Brantford, Ont.: Pine Tree, 1992), for a view of the failure of Western political systems from the per­ spective of Iroquois Great Law of Peace.

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18. M y grasp of this issue has benefited from discussions w i t h Dot Tuer, who has noted the extent to which Latin America continues to be a site of contestation for Western capital. She locates an example of this in the failure of Western architec­ tural styles of the 1950s and 1960s in Latin America. 19. See Stephen Spender, "Introduction," in Malcolm Lowry, Under the Volcano (New York: Plume, 1971), pp. x i - x x x . 20. A n exception is the novel Aztec, which seemed to be around for a while and is now available in a Spanish-language version in nearly every bookstore in Mexico City. 21. Richard Rodriguez, An Argument with My Mexican Father (New York: Penguin, 1992), p. 2. 22. For an excellent discussion of surrealism and cultural difference, see Peter Woolen, Raiding the Icebox: Reflections on Twentieth-Century Culture (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993), ch. 3; and James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988), pp. 117-151. 23. Here we can see how the codes of exoticism are able to migrate across time and space. 24. Georges Bataille, "Extinct America," October 36 (Spring 1986):4. 25. More recently Cambodia/Kampuchea has filled this function. 26. Bataille, "Extinct America," p. 3. 27. See Georges Bataille, Visions of Excess, trans. Alan Stoekl (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985), pp. 116-129. 28. Bataille, "Extinct America," p. 7. 29. Bataille, Visions of Excess, p. 10. 30. Bataille, "Extinct America," p. 7. 31. Ibid., p. 9. 32. Ibid. 33. According to one reading of the Spanish invasion of Tenochtitlan, this inter­ pretation might even be true: If the Aztecs had not been so willing to conquer and oppress their neighbors, these tens of thousands of Mexicans from surrounding na­ tions might not have been so willing to ally themselves w i t h Cortes in his war to bring down the Aztec empire. But I do not think this is what Bataille means. 34. Bataille, "Extinct America," p. 9. 35. This use of a constructed version of difference to illuminate Western concerns is certainly not uncommon. In a similar vein Sally Price notes the "implicit asymme­ try" in the appropriation of primitive art by Europeans in that "their" art w i l l be used to illuminate "our" concerns. See Sally Price, Frimitive Art in Civilized Places (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), p. 34. 36. Sergei M . Eisenstein, Immoral Memories, trans. H . Marshall (Boston: Hough­ ton Mifflin, 1983), p. 182. 37. Ibid., p. 181. 38. Inga Karetnokova, Mexico According to Eisenstein (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1991), p. 55. 39. See, for instance, Ward Churchill, ed. Marxism and Native Americans (Boston: South End Press, 1982). Of course, what is and is not possible for intellec­ tuals have changed since the 1930s: A n urban intellectual such as Frida Kahlo could

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wear the indigenous dress of Tehuana women as a way of marking her political and aesthetic sensibility. This would be unthinkable today, in N o r t h America at least, and it scarcely bears imagining what the response would be to a mostly white woman in Toronto wearing traditional porcupine quill regalia and a deerskin dress as a way of marking her identification w i t h First Nations people in Canada. 40. Eisenstein, Immoral Memories, pp. 181-182. 4 1 . Karetnokova, Mexico According to Eisenstein, p. 69. 42. Ibid., p. 53. 43. Antonin Artaud, Selected Writings, ed. Susan Sontag (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1976), p. 353. 44. J.M.G. Le Clezio, The Mexican Dream: Or, the Interrupted Thought of Amerindian Civilizations, trans. Teresa Lavender Fagan (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), pp. 161-172. 45. See Ronald Hayman, Artaud and After (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), p. 108. 46. Artaud, Selected Writings, p. 537. 47. Hayman, Artaud and After, p. 106.

Chapter 3 1. W i t h respect to terminology, some people object to the term Native Canadians because they are not actually Canadian in the sense of being a member of the Canadian nation, as opposed to, for instance, the M o h a w k nation. The term First Nations can be a bit unwieldy in everyday usage, so I generally use the more com­ mon description Native (not Indian for the obvious reason that India is located on another continent). Also, there seems to be some confusion on the part of some non-Natives over the term traditional, which, as it has been explained to me, is a relatively fluid concept. Some people can consider themselves traditional and live in the city; others would find that impossible. Traditional usually refers to a system of values that stresses doing things in a good way and recognizes many of the negative effects of contemporary, Western-based society. Traditional can also refer to matters of style, including aesthetic, decorative, and discursive. 2. The issue of tourism can become quite complex. Some communities in British Columbia, such as Torino near Clayoquot Sound, promote tourism as an alternative to slash-and-burn resource extraction, specifically clear-cutting. Some Native com­ munities in British Columbia have developed heritage centers to draw tourist dol­ lars and at the same time educate visitors, such as the new heritage complex in the Cowichan nation on Vancouver Island. I think the question of how exploitative the tourist industry is really depends on who is organizing the tourism and for whose benefit tourism is being promoted. 3. Marcia Crosby, "Construction of the Imaginary Indian," in Vancouver Anthology: The Institutional Politics of Art, ed. Stan Douglas (Vancouver: Talonbooks, 1991), pp. 267-294; Joane Cardinal-Shubert, " I n the Red," Fuse Magazine (Fall 1989):20. See also Rosemary Coombe, "The Properties of Culture and the Politics of Possessing Identity: Native Claims in the Cultural Appropriation Controversy," Canadian Journal of Law and Jurisprudence 6 (1993):249-285. 4. Crosby, "Construction of the Imaginary Indian," p. 274.

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5. Marie-Ange Brayer, "Lothar Baumgarten," Forum International 19 (OctoberNovember 1993):105.1 am indebted to Christine Davis for drawing my attention to this article. 6. The Western notion of time was a site of contestation even in the West, w i t h Gnostic and Stoic conceptions of temporality challenging the Greek and Christian views. See Giorgio Agamben, Infancy and History: Essays on the Destruction of Experience, trans. Liz Heron (London: Verso, 1993), pp. 100-101. 7. For a discussion of this point, see Paul Chaat Smith, "Home of the Brave," C Magazine 42 (Summer 1994):30-42. 8. Crosby, "Construction of the Imaginary Indian," p. 279. This is not an iso­ lated incident; recall James Clifford's report of the Mashpee trial in Massachusetts in which similar concepts were deployed. Like the Gitksan-Wet'suwet'en, the Mashpee nation lost in the white courtroom. See James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988), 277-348. 9. See Christopher B. Steiner, African Art in Transit (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), esp. ch. 5. 10. For a discussion of some of the issues surrounding tourism, see Haunani-Kay Trask, "Lovely Hula Lands: Corporate Tourism and the Prostitution of Hawaiian Culture," Border/Lines 23 (Winter 1991-1992):22-34. 11. In the thousands of medicine shields and pipes that appear on the New Age market, and in all the images of eagles, we never actually see genuine eagle feathers for sale because their sale is prohibited by the U.S. and Canadian governments. N o t surprisingly, of course, the manufacturers of these items are prepared to obey fed­ eral law—which is to say, white law—at the same time they are prepared to willfully break traditional, customary Native laws that concern similar issues. The refusal to respect Native conventions occurs in the name of being able to do what they want— in other words, in the name of personal freedom—although it really does seem to come down to a question of power and the potential consequences of ignoring law. 12. "Resolution of the 5th Annual Meeting of the Traditional Elder's Circle," quoted in Ward Churchill, Fantasies of the Master Race (Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 1992), p. 223-224. For a discussion of appropriation in the men's movement, see Ward Churchill, Indians Are Us? (Toronto: Between the Lines, 1994), pp. 207-272. 13. Leslie M a r m o n Silko, Almanac of the Dead (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991), p. 719. 14. See Deborah Doxtator, Fluffs and Feathers: An Exhibit on the Symbols of Indianness (Brantford, Ont.: Woodland Cultural Centre, 1992), p. 34. 15. Think of the continuing popularity of the Curtis photographs of Chief Joseph and other defeated Native leaders. For discussions of images of Native people in photographs, see Lucy Lippard, ed., Partial Recall (New York: New Press, 1992). 16. Trudell has made this important point in the public talks he occasionally gives. These ideas are also expressed in his poetry and music. See the recording Tribal Voice (produced and released by John Trudell, 1979), in which he reads his poetry accompanied by traditional Native music. 17. Franz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1963), p. 53. 18. Sometimes appropriation can come down to something very simple, like eco­ nomics. I recall an older Native friend telling me that it sometimes hurts Native peo-

Notes

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pie to see wealthy white people wearing the beautiful Native jewelry they cannot af­ ford. 19. Wendy Rose, "The Great Pretenders: Further Thoughts on Whiteshamanism," in The State of Native America, ed. M . Annette Jaimes (Boston: South End Press, 1992), p. 416. 20. See Akwesasne Notes, Basic Call to Consciousness (Summertown, Tenn.: Book Publishing, 1978). 2 1 . Lovat Dickson, Wilderness Man: The Strange Story of Grey Owl (Toronto: Macmillan, 1973), p. 255. Chapter 4 1. Sally Price, Primitive Art in Civilized Places (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989); Ivan Karp and Steven D . Lavine, ed., Exhibiting Cultures: The Poetics and Politics of Museum Display (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991); Peter Vergo, ed., The New Museology (London: Reaktion Books, 1989); Michael Ames, Cannibal Tours and Glass Boxes: The Anthropology of Museums (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1992). 2. Durandus (no date), quoted in David Murray, Museums: Their History and Their Uses, vol. 1 (Glasgow: Maclehose Press, 1904), p. 8 n. 3. Sidney Galler, John Oliver, Harriet Roberts, Herbert Friedmann, and David Squires, "Museums Today," Science 161 (1968):550. 4. Edward Said, Orientalism (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978), p. 42. 5. See M a r y Beard, "Souvenirs of Culture: Deciphering (in) the Museum," Art History 15(4) (December 1992):505-532. 6. I use the w o r d preferred deliberately because I think writing is a choice, some­ thing I address in greater detail in Chapter 5. 7. See Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizo­ phrenia (New York: Viking Press, 1977), ch. 3, for a discussion of the despotic func­ tion of writing. 8. Peter Corley-Smith, The Ring of Time: The Story of the British Columbia Provincial Museum (Victoria: British Columbia Provincial Museum, 1985), p. 27. 9. For a contemporary example of this refusal to recognize Aztec writing as writ­ ing, see Tzetvan Todorov, The Conquest of America (New York: Harper and Row, 1985). For a critique of Todorov's formulation of symbolic competence, see Deborah Root, "The Imperial Signifier: Todorov and the Conquest of Mexico," Cultural Critique 9 (Spring 1988):197-219. 10. See, for instance, Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983). 11. See, for instance, Ray A. Young Bear, "Journal of a Mesquakie Poet," in Without Discovery, ed. Ray Gonzalez (Seattle: Broken M o o n Press, 1992), pp. 145-152. See also Deborah Doxtator, Fluffs and Feathers (Brantford, Ont.: Woodland Cultural Centre, 1992). 12. See Robert E. Bieder, "The Collecting of Bones for Anthropological Narratives," American Indian Culture and Research Journal 16(2) (1992):21-35; Larry J. Zimmerman, "Archaeology, Reburial, and the Tactics of a Discipline's SelfDelusion," American Indian Culture and Research Journal 16(2) (1992):37-56;

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and Douglas Cole, Captured Heritage: The Scramble for Northwest Coast Artifacts (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1985). 13. For a discussion of the Ishi phenomenon, see Gerald Vizenor, "Ishi Bares His Chest: Tribal Simulations and Survivance," in Partial Recall, ed. Lucy Lippard (New York: New Press, 1992), pp. 6 4 - 7 1 . 14. See Sander Gilman, "Black Bodies, White Bodies: Toward an Iconography of Female Sexuality in Late-Nineteenth-Century A r t , Medicine, and Literature," Critical Inquiry 12(1) (Autumn 1985):204-242. 15. Roger F.H. Summers, The History of the South African Museum (Capetown: Balkema Books, 1975), pp. 104-105. 16. David Carrasco, Quetzalcodtl and the Irony of Empire (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982). 17. Quoted in J. M . Cohen, "Introduction," in The Conquest of New Spain, by Bernal Diaz del Castillo (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963), p. 9. See also Benjamin Keen, The Aztec Image in Western Thought (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1971), p. 60. 18. A r t also enters popular culture in somewhat less dignified forms. Think of how an entire generation was introduced to high culture—opera, especially Richard Wagner—by Bugs Bunny cartoons. 19. For an extremely astute description of Amazonian tourism, see Pierre Clastres, The Archaeology of Violence (New York: Semiotext[e], 1994). 20. John Berger's remarks on the link between oil painting and fashion adver­ tisements are truer than we think. See John Berger, Ways of Seeing (Harmonds­ worth: Penguin, 1972). The relation among high art, cultural appropriation, and fashion has a history. For instance, in the 1960s Courreges manufactured dresses based on the paintings of Piet Mondrian. Over the years haute couture styles have meandered through culture after culture, some very explicitly. For instance, Isaac Mizrahi's showed what he called totem pole dresses (based on Northwest Coast de­ signs, but here in sequins) in 1991, and Norma Kamali produced beaded vests the same season, both of which claimed to celebrate and affirm the Native cultures that were the sources of the designs. Again, what is appropriated are stylistic fragments that have come to stand for the culture as a whole. Thus, this type of appropriation works as the taking up of partial aesthetic codes and recoding these through the nonexotic, much as we see w i t h European high art. But the same problem remains as for exoticism in general: H o w is it decided which fragments are exotic or attrac­ tive? 2 1 . Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste, trans. Richard Nice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984). For a comprehensive discussion of sociological theories of art, see Vera Zolberg, Constructing a Sociology of the Arts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). 22. See Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus, trans. Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987), p. 178, for a discus­ sion of exclusion as a process of marking deviations. 23. Theodor W. Adorno, Prisms (Cambridge, Mass.: M I T Press, 1981), p. 173. 24. Museum cities, such as Florence, also have a moribund quality: They know they are beautiful, and certainly they aggrandize their beauty, but this beauty can-

Notes 215 not move. It certainly is their fortune. (Rome is more interesting than Florence pre­ cisely because it is messy.) 25. A t the art college where I currently teach, an institution reputed to be pro­ gressive, there is only one course that explicitly addresses non-Western art (itself an odd concept, as it suggests the lumping together of an entire world). Along w i t h world aesthetics, this course is also supposed to cover the canon of Western art, all in thirteen weeks. The students clamor for more noncanonical material, but in these days of cutbacks many of the faculty are resistant to new approaches. 26. Octavio Paz, Essays on Mexican Art (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1993), p. 292. M y discussion of the commodiflcation of criticality has benefited from discus­ sion w i t h contemporary artist Christine Davis. 27. Note John Berger's discussion of Hans Holbein the Younger's The Ambas­ sadors (1533) and his work on display in Ways of Seeing (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972). A great deal of credit is due to Berger's seminal work, which demonstrated that a political analysis of the art object involves more than the social background or intention of the artist. Rather, political analysis can show what the painting actually does to construct meaning and underline relations of power. Many of the meanings are unpleasant and subvert the ideal of the nobility of high art, but paintings picture—and conceal—reality in a range of ways. 28. Jimmie Durham, A Certain Lack of Coherence: Writings on Art and Cultural Politics (London: Kala Press, 1993), p. 111. 29. See Bourdieu, Distinction; and Pierre Bourdieu, In Other Words: Essays Towards a Reflexive Sociology, trans. Matthew Adamson (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990). 30. bell hooks, "Altars of Sacrifice: Re-membering Basquiat," Art in America (June 1993): 71. 31. Cited in Eilean Hooper-Greenhill, Museums and the Shaping of Knowledge (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 2. 32. Walter Benjamin, Illuminations (New York: Schocken Books, 1969), pp. 217-252. See also Susan Buck-Morss, "Aesthetics and Anaesthetics: Walter Benjamin's A r t w o r k Essay Reconsidered," October 62 (Fall 1992):3-42.

Chapter 5 1. Linda Hogan, "Journeys and Other Stories," in Without Discovery, ed. Ray Gonzalez (Seattle: Broken M o o n Press, 1992), p. 224. 2. Jack Forbes, Columbus and Other Cannibals (New York: Autonomedia, 1992), p. 46. 3. M y use of the term Araby is an attempt to circumvent the problem of expres­ sions such as Middle East, Near East, or Orient, all of which are relational to Europe. One drawback to Araby is that it technically excludes Turks and Persians, who are not Arab, but I think the word's archaic quality reminds us of the historical status of this part of the world as an adversary and the extent to which Crusader polemics continue to obtain. 4. Pierre Clastres, " O n Ethnocide," Art and Text 28 (March-May 1988):50-58. 5. This naturalization is nothing new if we think about how the classical Greek slave system has been naturalized to the extent that in the vast majority of under-

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graduate history textbooks, it is not seen as particularly relevant to discussions of the Greeks' artistic or philosophical tradition. 6. This dream has become increasingly questionable, even in popular culture. The science fiction movies of the 1950s and 1960s have given way to extraordinarily popular book/film combinations such as Jurassic Park (1993), which explicitly questions the conceits of science. A mathematician, however, is the character who best understands why science cannot live up to its own claims. Thus, in Jurassic Park techne is redeemed, along w i t h the Anglo-Saxon family. 7. See Edward Said, Orientalism (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1978); Norman Daniel, Europe, Islam, and Empire (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1964); Annelies Moors and Steven Wachlin, "Postcards of Palestine," Critique of Anthropology 7(2) (Autumn 1987):61-77; Meyda Yegenoglu, "Veiled Fantasies: Cultural and Sexual Difference in the Discourse of Orientalism," Cultural Studies (forthcoming 1995); and Mahmut M u t m a n , "Pictures from Afar: Shooting the Middle East," Inscriptions 6 (1992):l-44. 8. Quoted in Dorothea M . Gallup, The French Image of Algeria: Its Origin, Its Place in Colonial Ideology, Its Effect on Algerian Acculturation (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms, 1973), p. 186. 9. Quoted in Mohammed Bennoune, "The Origin of the Algerian Proletariat," Dialectical Anthropology 1(3) (1976):221. 10. Linda Nochlin, The Politics of Vision: Essays on Nineteenth-Century Art and Culture (New York: Harper and Row, 1989). 11. See John Berger, Ways of Seeing (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972), ch. 3. 12. Charles Baudelaire, Art in Paris, 1845-1862: Salons and Other Exhibitions (London: Phaidon, 1970), p. 184. 13. Brown University, All the Banners Wave: Art and War in the Romantic Era 1792-1851 (Providence, R.I.: Department of A r t , Brown University, 1982), p. 80. 14. See Michel Sandoz, Theodore Chasseriau, 1819-1856 (Paris: A r t et Metiers Graphiques, 1974), p. 317. 15. Paul Bowles, The Sheltering Sky (New York: Vintage International 1990), p. 8. 16. Ibid., p. 191. 17. Bernardo Bertolucci's film version of the story reflects a revival of interest in Bowles's work. The film was not a commercial success. It was miscast, and I quickly tired of John Malkovich's studied ennui and Debra Winger's vapidity; the characters appeared merely petulant rather than riddled w i t h Western angst (although perhaps the two come to the same thing in the end). Also, at some level we cannot help but read this film through Lawrence of Arabia (1962) and similar movies, so that for all its ponderousness Bertolucci's version seems almost a parody of the desert adven­ ture story. 18. For a historical discussion of this issue, see Norman Daniel, Islam, Europe, and Empire (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1966). Daniel comments on the European view of the Orient in the colonial period, "This imperial attitude meant thinking of a people as different and inferior: agreeable or disagreeable, but always different" (p. 154). 19. Bowles, The Sheltering Sky, p. 14. See also Yegenoglu, "Veiled Fantasies," which addresses the representation of the veiled face in Western writing.

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20. For a discussion of the notion of the pbarmakon, see Jacques Derrida, "Plato's Pharmacy," pp. 61-172. Desseminations, trans. Barbara Johnson (Chi­ cago: University of Chicago Press, 1981). 2 1 . Bowles, The Sheltering Sky, p. 6. 22. We can see how this type of exoticism continues to function in capitalism, for instance, in airline and other tourist advertisements. 23. We note that for the film version of the story Bertolucci selected an actress w i t h enormous breasts to play Marhnia. We are reminded of Malek Alloula's analy­ sis of the European's obsession w i t h the "Moorish bosom" in French colonial post­ cards from Algeria. See Malek Alloula, The Colonial Harem, trans. M y r n a Godzich and Wlad Godzich (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986). 24. Bowles, The Sheltering Sky, p. 33. 25. Ibid., p. 285. 26. Ibid., p. 304. 27. This use of ululation may be a filmmaker's quotation of Women of Algiers. 28. Bryan Appleyard, "Desert Song: Sand and Some Really Major Stars," Mirabella (October 1989), pp. 71-77. 29. We are reminded here of bell hooks's discussion of marginality and resistance and her observation that in white supremist societies black people must compre­ hend both the margin and center, whereas whites often comprehend only the center. See bell hooks, "Choosing the M a r g i n , " Yearning: Race, Gender, and Cultural Politics (Toronto: Between the Lines Press, 1990). 30. Bowles, The Sheltering Sky, p. 318. 31. Ibid., p 93. 32. For a discussion of the notion of colonial rebarbarization, see Dorothea M . Gallup, The French Image of Algeria. 33. Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus, trans. Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987), pp. 318-382.

Chapter 6 1. Eduardo Matos Moctezuma, "The Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan: History and Interpretation," in The Great Temple of Tenochtitlan: Center and Periphery in the Aztec World, ed. Johanna Broda, David Carrasco, and Eduardo Matos Moctezuma (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987), p. 54. 2. Quoted in Laurette Sejourne, Burning Water (London: Thames and Hudson, 1957), p. 20. 3.1 am certainly not suggesting that earth-based, egalitarian societies had an eas­ ier time during the European invasions. I am trying to suggest that imperial peoples are unable to imagine the turn, the lament of defeat, because their distance from the earth blinds them. 4. Michel de Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life, trans. Steve Rendall (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984), pp. 178-179. 5. See Orin Starn, "Missing the Revolution: Anthropologists and the War in Peru," in Rereading Cultural Anthropology, ed. George Marcus (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1992), pp. 152-180.

218

Notes

6. Friedrich Nietzsche, Twilight of the Idols, and The Anti-Christ, trans. R. J. Hollingdale (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968), p. 60. 7. Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizo­ phrenia (New York: Viking Press, 1977), p. 209. 8. Claude Levi-Strauss, Tristes Tropiques, trans. John Russell (New York: Atheneum, 1976), p. 37. 9. Governments such as Great Britain's seem to find dropout culture highly threatening if the new laws designed to restrict the movements of the youths known as travelers are any indication. 10. Richard Townsend, State and Cosmos in the Art of Tenochtitldn (Wash­ ington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 1979), p. 3 1 . 11. Enrique Dussel, History and Theology of Liberation (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1976), p. 126. 12. Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life. In one impressive sentence he writes, "The spectacular victory of Spanish colonization over the indigenous Indian cul­ tures was diverted from its intended aims by the use made of it: even when they were subjected, even when they accepted their subjection, the Indians often used the laws, practices and representations that were imposed on them by force or by fasci­ nation to ends other than those of their conquerors; they made something else out of them; they subverted them from within—not by rejecting them or transforming them (though that occurred as well), but by many different ways of using them in the service of rules, customs or convictions foreign to the colonization which they could not escape" (pp. 31-32). 13. In this vein I question why, for so many European writers on the invasion of Mexico, the tens of thousands of Tlaxcalan and Cempoalan soldiers who fought alongside Cortes against the Aztecs are absent or elided in their texts, as are the months of street fighting in Tenochtitlan, the rebellions, the lies to the authorities, and the secret resistance to Spanish rule. 14. Dussel, History and Theology of Liberation, p. 127. 15. This has been an issue in Canada, where environmental groups have a ten­ dency to support the creation of national parks rather than Native land rights on those same lands. 16. Georges Bataille, La part maudite (Paris: Editions de M i n u i t , 1967), p. 84.

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About the Book and Author

In Arizona, a white family buys a Navajo-style blanket to be used on the guest­ room bed. Across the country in New York, opera patrons weep to the death scene of Madame Butterfly. These seemingly unrelated events intertwine in Cannibal Culture as Deborah Root examines the ways Western art and Western commerce co-opt, pigeonhole, and commodify so-called "native experiences." From nine­ teenth-century paintings of Arab marauders to our current fascination w i t h New Age shamanism, Root explores and explodes the consumption of the Other as a source of violence, passion, and spirituality. Through advertising images and books and films like The Sheltering Sky, Cannibal Culture deconstructs our passion for tourism and the concept of "going native," while providing a withering indictment of a culture in which every cultural artifact and ideology is up for grabs—a cannibal culture. This fascinating book raises important and uncomfortable questions about how we travel, what we buy, and how we determine cultural merit. Travel—be it to another country, to a mu­ seum, or to a supermarket—will never be the same again. Deborah Root teaches art history at the Ontario College of A r t and postcolonial theory in the Faculty of Architecture and Landscape Architecture at the University of Toronto.

225

Index Adorno, Theodor, 137 Advertisements and class markers, 130 in constructing desire, 121, 122, 122(fig.), 123-124, 125(fig.), 127-130 and corporate sponsorship of art, 147-148 and cultural appropriation, 69(fig.), 74, 74(fig.), 89(fig.), 90-92, 91(fig.),96, 96(fig.) exoticism in, 38, 39(fig.), 40, 46, 133-136, 134(fig.), 135(fig.), 217(n22) tourism, 68, 70, 71 (fig.), 82, 83(fig.) and women, 132, 133-136 Aestheticization and appropriation of art, 18-25 and commodification/consumption of art, 17-18, 121, 124-126 in concealing violence, 188 of cultural difference, 3 0 - 3 1 , 33, 50, 162, 163-171. See also Exoticism museums and, 111-114 of violence, 13-15 See also A r t Aesthetic taste and the aristocrat, 46 and criticality, 144 and landscapes, 159-160 link w i t h class, 130-132 Africa, 36, 8 1 , 133 AIDS, 36 Alaska Airlines, 68, 69(Rg.) Algeria French colonization/invasion of, 19-20,47-48, 162-163

French representation of, 40, 163-171 Alienation authentic experience in curing, 175, 176, 182 and contemporary Western culture, 15-16, 189-190, 198-199 post-World War I I , 172, 173 and Western attitude toward land, 151, 153, 158, 159 Alloula, Malek, 38-40 Almanac of the Dead, The (Silko), 8, 98 al-Qadr, Abd, 162 Altered States (Russell), 64 Althusser, Louis, 3, 79, 107, 154, 161 Ambivalence and commodification of difference, 69 and exoticism, 4 4 - 5 1 and experiencing difference, 175, 178-179 in representations of Mexico, 56, 57-58 toward otherness and nature, 160-161, 162, 165, 166-167, 171 Ames, Michael, 109 Anabaptists, 156 Anti-Oedipus (Deleuze and Guattari), 84-85, 195 Apollinaire, Guillaume, 56 Appropriation aesthetic, 1 9 - 2 1 , 33-34, 127, 212-213(nl8) and authenticity, 80-82, 103-106 of exoticized fragments, 42-43, 214(n20) in lessening danger of otherness, 160 227

228

Index

New Age movement and spiritual, 87-98, 101, 106 politics of, 210-211(n39) recoding/deterritorializing meaning through, 82-87 and resistance in 1960s, 98-101 role in conquest cultures of, 188, 189-193 and Western cannibalism, x i - x i i , 201 and Western power/entitlement, 68-73, 76-78, 101-102, 2 1 2 ( n l l ) See also Commodiflcation; Museums Arab Horsemen Taking Away Their Dead After Battle (Chasseriau), 169-171, 170(fig.) Araby definition, 215(n3) Western representation of, 157, 161, 162-172 Western tropes of, 36, 37, 38, 40 Archaeology, 51-52 romance and, 123-127 Archaeology (magazine), 123, 124 Aristocrats and experiencing difference, 177 Mayans as, 52 as romanticized collector, 45-46, 121, 124, 147 and vampirism, 13 Arizona, 86-87 Art as alibi for appropriation, 18-25 as ceremony, 149 commodiflcation of, 67-68, 73, 121, 124-126, 139-142 corporate financing of, 147-148 and criticality, 142-145, 215(n27) landscape painting, 159-160, 165-167 and museums, 111-114, 136-139 Orientalist painting, 163-165 paganism in, 157 pre-Columbian Mexican, 52, 56-57 surrealist, 55-56 Artaud, Antonin, 55, 56-57, 63-66 Asia, 37, 38, 40 Assimilation policy, 33

Astorga, Nora, 49 Aswan, Egypt, 82-84 Australia, 153 Authenticity and appropriation of identity, 103, 105 and art, 144-145, 146 in commodiflcation, 69-70, 7 8 - 8 1 , 90, 92, 93 exoticism in locating, 3 1 , 34 and experiencing difference, 175, 176 as located in otherness, 201 as located in the past, 115-116 and museum objects, 110, 111, 114, 118-120 Authority, 175-176, 177, 181-182. See also Power Aztec, 210(n20) Aztecs, 207(nl) museums and, 113 representations of violence and power, xiv, 1-3, 4-8, 16, 187-189, 202-203, 204 Spanish conquest of, 119-120, 210(n33),218(nl3) use as analogy, 195, 196-197 Western representations of, 36, 49, 5 1 , 52, 53, 56 Baartman, Saydie, 118 Barclay, Barry, 190 Basquiat, Jean-Michel, 145-147 Bataille, Georges, 55-60, 204 Battle of Aboukir (Gros), 166, 168-169, 168(fig.) Baudelaire, Charles, 166-167, 172, 180 Baumgarten, Lothar, 75 Beauty, 3, 17, 57-58. See also Aestheticization Belaney, Archie (Grey Owl), 103-106, 104(fig.) Benjamin, Walter, 76, 149 Benjamin-Constant, Jean-Joseph, 165 Berger, John, 164-165, 215(n27) Beuys, Joseph, 142 Black Robe (film), 36

Index 229 Blue Lagoon (film), 40 Bohemianism, 142 Bonaparte Visits the Pesthouse at Jaffa (Gros), 167 Bouchard, Paul-Leon, 165 Bourdieu, Pierre, 130, 131, 144 Bowles, Paul, 171-184 Br am Stoker's Dracula (film), 13, 14 (fig.) Braque, Georges, 55 Brayer, Marie-Ange, 75 Breton, Andre, 64 British Columbia commodiflcation of Native culture, 67-68 land disputes in, 79, 152-153 museum of, 112-113, 115-116 tourism in, 211(n2) British Museum, 111-112, 113, 120, 127, 132 Caligula (PBS), 41 Canada colonization of, 152 land/treaty disputes in, 105, 152-153, 218(nl5) and Native ceremonies, 191-192 See also British Columbia Cannibalism/cannibalization of cultural difference, x i i i - x i v effect of cultural, 194 and exotification, 30 as a mirror, 204-205 and museum display of human remains, 117 in representations of indigenous people, 36, 37 and Western alienation, 198, 201 and Western consumption psychosis, 9-18 Cardinal-Shubert, Joane, 70 Carey, Ken, 93 Carrasco, David, 119 Carry On Up the Khyber (film), 46 Cartier, Jacques, 152 Casmir perfume, 38, 39(fig.) Catharism, 157 Catlett, Juan M o r a , 188

Celebrities, 17-18 Ceremonial items, 191 (fig.) appropriation and ownership of, 22-24, 68, 107, 190-193 and authenticity issues, 80-81 Ceremony appropriation of, 95 art as, 149 in controlling evil, 16 power inherent in, 191-192 Certeau, Michel de, 192, 203, 218(nl2) Chambers, Iain, 25 Champoillon, 111-112 Chanel perfume, 129 Change, inevitability of, 38, 209(n7) Chasseriau, Theodore, 169-171, 170(fig.) Cherokee sex workshop, 88-90, 94 Chiapas, 63 China, tropes of, 37, 46 Chinese Bungalow, The (film), 44 Christianity attitude toward land, 151-153, 155-158, 162-163 on excessive consumption, 12 legitimacy in, 94 object display and, 110 savagery and nature in, 99 suppression of spirits by, 192 victimization in, 100 and Western alienation, 190 Churchill, Ward, 94 CIA, 195 Class aesthetic taste and fluidity of, 130-132 and exoticism, 35-36 Clastres, Pierre, 157 Coatlicue, 187, 188-189 Collins, Wilkie, 192 Colonialism and aesthetic appropriation/ entitlement, 19-25, 72-73, 102, 107-108. See also Appropriation art/literature in representations of difference, 163-185 in contemporary society, x - x i

230

Index

effect on conquerors, 193-195 in ethnographic discourse, 112 and exotification, 30, 32-34, 4 0 - 4 1 , 47-49. See also Exoticism museum treatment of, 109, 115-116 in New Age movement, 93-94 object commodification and romance of, 121-127, 132-136. See also Commodification and victimization, 100 and Western attitudes toward land, 152-153, 157, 159, 160-163 See also Western culture Columbus and Other Cannibals (Forbes), 10-11 Commodification of aesthetic forms, 24-25, 139-141 of authenticity, 78-81 and constructing desire, 121-130, 132-136 of criticality, 143-149 of cultural difference, i x , x - x i i , 33, 201 entitlement/power in, 72-74, 76-78 of experience, 176, 183 of land, 158 and recoding/deterritorializing meaning, 75-76, 82-87 and sacred objects, 8 0 - 8 1 , 192-193 salvage paradigm i n , 74-75 of spirituality, 88-97, 106 and tourist industry, 67-70 See also Consumption Conquest as absolute, 202-203, 218(nl2) of Aztecs, 119-120, 210(n33), 218(nl3) and corporate values, 148 descriptions of, 119-120 and display of human remains, 116 French invasion of Algeria, 19-20, 162-163 Orientalist painting and display of, 164-165 role of appropriation i n , 188-189, 191-192 spiritual appropriation and, 96-97

See also Colonialism; Power Conquest of New Spain, The (Diaz del Castillo), 119-120 Consumption and authenticity, 69-70 and ceremonial items, 8 0 - 8 1 , 192-193 and class markers, 130-132 constructing desire for, 120-127 and exotification, 30, 33. See also Exoticism link w i t h violence and power, xii-xiv, 58 museums and, 108 role of alienation in, 15-16 and vampire stories, 12-15 Western display of, 16-18 in Western value system, 9 - 1 1 , 12 and women, 132-133 See also Commodification Contradictions, 57-58, 6 1 , 65. See also Ambivalence Control, 5 0 - 5 1 , 53. See also Authority; Power Corporations. See Multinationals Cosby (television), 131 Counterculture, 98-101 Country Life, 103 Coyolxauhqui (Copper Bells on Her Cheeks), 187, 188 Cree, 153, 2 0 7 - 2 0 8 ( n l l ) Criticality, commodification of, 140-145, 146-147 Cronenberg, David, 27 Crosby, Marcia, 70, 74-75, 79 Crusades, 157, 162-163 Crying Game, The (film), 45 Cultural difference, x and aesthetic appropriation/ entitlement, 19-25, 33, 68-70. See also Appropriation cannibalization of, xiii-xiv, 2 0 1 . See also Cannibalism/cannibalization colonial expectations of, 194-195 commodification of, ix, x - x i i , 33, 121-127. See also Commodification

Index and exoticism, 3 0 - 3 1 , 41-66. See also Exoticism experiencing radical, 174-185 as a mirror, 204-205, 210(n35) and representations of otherness, 160-161, 162, 163-171 tropes of, 3 4 - 4 1 Cultural exchange, 77-78 Cultural integrity, versus authenticity, 80 Cultural superiority in contemporary society, 69, 171, 193, 203 and display of art, 73, 108, 136-137 as integral to conquest culture, 163, 165, 189 as Western characteristic, 154 Dance, 82, 84-85 David (Michelangelo), 120, 120(fig.), 127 Death Aztecs and, 50, 59 and commodification of criticality, 147 juxtaposition w i t h beauty, 57-58 and museum high art, 137-139 museums and displaying, 108-109, 116-118 of the other in self-identity, 170-171 See also Violence Death of Sardanapalus (Delacroix), 164 Decamps, Alexandre, 165 Dee, John, 6 Degas, Edgar, 127 Delacroix, Eugene, 47-48, 164 Deleuze, Gilles, x i i , 84-85, 97, 158, 184, 195 Deliverance (film), 160 Deskaheh, 105 Deterritorialization, of meaning and appropriation/commodification, 84-87, 97 and introduction of science, 158 Dialectical materialism, 61 Diaz del Castillo, Bernal, 119-120 Dinesen, Isak, 133

231

Displacement of cannibalism, 15, 16 recoding of meaning and population, 84 sexual, 118 and tropes of difference, 41 Display of consumption, 16-18 and exoticism, 46 and museums, 107-120 role in conquest, 101-102, 164-165, 188,197 of sacrifice, 29 Documents (journal), 56 Donato, Eugenio, 42-43 Doxtator, Deborah, 100 Duras, Marguerite, 47 Durham, Jimmie, 143 Durkheim, Emile, 56 Dussel, Enrique, 202, 203 Dyak bis-poles, 112 Egypt, 82-84 Eisenstein, Sergei, 55, 60-63 Engels, Friedrich, 33 Entitlement, 21-25, 72-73, 93-94. See also Appropriation Environmental problems, 155, 198 Eroticism and celebrities, 17 and vampirism, 13 as Western trope, 3 8 - 4 1 , 44-46, 62 See also Sexuality Escape, 183-185 "Essai sur le don" (Mauss), 34 Ethnographic museums, 108, 109, 111, 114-116, 136 Ethnology, 43, 55-56, 119 orality and, 112-113 Evil, 16 Exhibiting Cultures, 109 Exoticism ambivalence and self-referentiality of, 45-49 versus appropriation, 78 cultural fragmentation i n , 41-43, 214(n20)

232

Index

high art and legitimacy of, 130 history of, 32-34 and representations of Mexico, 49-66 and tropes of difference, 3 4 - 4 1 Western fascination w i t h , 2 7 - 3 1 , 210(n23) women as consumer targets for, 132-136 Experience authentic, 175, 176, 183-185 unconscious, 54, 63-65, 66, 146 "Extinct America" (Bataille), 57 Fanaticism, 36, 40 Fanon, Franz, 45, 102, 197 Fantasies exoticism and power, 32, 4 0 - 4 1 Mexico and unconscious experience, 63-64, 66 Fashion industry, 129 Fear/terror and alienation from land, 158, 160 and contemporary society, 199 state use of, 12 Feather People (The Americas) (Baumgarten), 75 Femmes d'alger (Delacroix), 47-48 Film cultural appropriation through, 92, 99-100, 101 on effects of appropriation, 190, 193 exoticism in, 33, 44, 45, 46, 47 and fear of nature, 160 and imperial states, 188 Mexican representations i n , 53, 55, 60,61 representations of Western tropes i n , 36,37,40 science and, 216(n6) social class and aesthetic taste i n , 131 vampire, 13, 14(fig.) violence i n , 199 women i n , 49, 179 Flaubert, Gustave, 42-43 Forbes, Jack, x i i , 1 0 - 1 1 , 155

Forster, E. M . , 193-194 Foucault, Michel, x i i Fragmentation commodification and cultural, 76, 78, 93, 122-123 and exotification, 3 1 , 42-43, 60 France colonization of Canada, 152 intellectuals/artists on cultural difference, 55-60, 63-66 invasion of Algeria, 162-163 Orientalism and Algerian colonization, 19-20, 47-48, 163-171 Freedom, personal, 90, 94 French impressionism, 140 Fromentin, Eugene, 166, 167 Full Metal Jacket (film), 179, 199 Fusco, Coco, ix Gauguin, Paul, 62 Gautier, Theophile, 19-20, 22, 24, 142 Gender, 35-36. See also Women Germany, 116 Ghost Dance, 190-191, 191 (fig.) Gilgamesh sculptures, 112 Girodet, 168 Golub, Leon, 145 Gomez-Pena, Guillermo, i x , x i Great Britain, 218 (n9) Greeks, 215-216(n5) Gros, Antoine-Jean, 166, 167-169, 168(fig.) Guatemalan Peten region, 51 Guattari, Felix, x i i , 84-85, 97, 158, 184,195 Haida, 67 Hawaiian Shaman Training, 96, 96(fig.) Hayman, Ronald, 66 Heart of Darkness—Apocalypse Now, 174 Hegel, Georg, 55 Hendrix, Jimi, 53 Hierarchy and Aztecs, 5, 7

Index 233 in Christianity, 157 as integral to conquest culture, 189 as Western organizing principle, 154, 155, 156 as Western trope of Araby, 169 H i n d u temple sculptures, 113 History aestheticization of, 188 conquest as absolute in representing, 202-203 details in constructing, 118-120 exoticism and interpreting, 55, 59-60 paintings, 167-171 of Vietnam War, 209(nl2) Hogan, Linda, 151 Holland, 116 Holy Inquisition, 157 hooks, bell, 146,217(n29) Hooper-Greenhill, Eilean, 147-148 Hugo, Victor, 170 Huitzilopochtli (Hummingbird on the Left), 5 - 6 , 1 8 7 , 1 8 9 Human nature, 36 Human remains, 116-118 Human sacrifice, 207(n5) Aztecs and, xiv, 2-3, 58, 188, 196 links w i t h consumption, 9 and repression in Christianity, 156 Hwang, David Henry, 27-29, 41-42, 43 Hydro Quebec, 153

Independent (London newspaper), 147-148 India, 2 3 , 3 7 , 1 1 3 , 1 9 3 - 1 9 4 "Indian Culture" (Artaud), 65 Indigenous A r t Inc., 124 Individualism in contemporary society, 198-199 and object display, 131 as Western value, 97, 99, 158 Ingres, Jean, 165 Insanity in representations of difference, 166-167 and spiritual curses, 192-193 through experiencing difference, 173-176, 181 Intellectuals and appropriating cultural difference, 210-211(n39) and representations of Mexico, 53-66 Iran, 195 Iroquois, 36, 105 Irrationality, 169, 178-179. See also Fanaticism Ishi: The Last of His Tribe (PBS), 117 Islam European representation of, 157, 161, 162-172 Western tropes of, 36, 37, 38, 40 Isolation. See Alienation Italian Renaissance, 140

Identity and appropriation, 102-106 commodiflcation and cultural, 86 fixed ethnic and gender, 29, 31 politics of otherness, 193 rediscovering cultural, 200-201 representations of difference in self-, 162, 163, 171, 176 Imaginaries exotic, 51-53. See also Exoticism of Mexican difference, 53-66 Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan (Stephens), 22

Japan, 37 Java Head (film), 37 Jewelry, 126 Jews, 157 Jurassic Park (film), 216(n6) Kachinas, 86-87 Kahlo, Frida, 53, 60 Kahnawake, x Kamali, Norma, 214(n20) Kandinsky, Wassily, 131 King, Serge, 96, 96(fig.) Knowledge commodiflcation of, 123-124

234

Index

universal, 194-195 Kojeve, Alexandre, 55 Koons, Jeff, 141 Kroeber, Alfred, 117 Kubrick, Stanley, 199 Kwagiutl, 67 La bataille perdu (Hugo), 170 Lacan, Jacques, 161 La Grande Odalisque (Ingres), 165 Lakota, 10, 207(n9) VAmerique disparue (Bataille), 56 Land and Orientalist painting, 165-171 Western attitude toward, 151-153, 154-160, 163, 180-181, 184-185 Land/treaty disputes, 209(n7) appropriation and salvage paradigm in, 105 authenticity issues i n , 79, 212(n8) racism i n , 67 and Western views on land, 152-153, 218(nl5) La part maudite (Bataille), 56 Las Casas, Bartolome de, 37 Last of the Mohicans (film), 36 Lawlessness, 52-53 Lawrence, T. E., 177 League of Nations, 105 Le Clezio, J.M.G., 64 Left (political), 61-62, 158, 198 Legends of the Hidden Temple, 126 Legitimacy and high art, 130 universalizing and issues of, 94 See also Authenticity "Les Arts anciens de l'Amerique" (art exhibit), 56-57 Les Muets de Serail (Bouchard), 165 Lettres persanes (Montesquieu), 32 Levi-Strauss, Claude, 8, 199 Literacy, 112, 113, 114, 213(n6) Literature romantic, 52 The Sheltering Sky (Bowles), 171-184 Western women in, 49

Little Big Man (film), 99 Louis, Saint, 162 Lowry, Malcolm, 50, 53, 66 Luddite movement, 158 M. Butterfly (Hwang), 27-29, 3 1 , 41-42, 43, 45 MacCannell, Dean, 37 Maclean, 209(n7) Madame Butterfly (Puccini), 27, 28(Fig. 2.1), 3 1 , 4 2 Madonna, 53 Magical thought. See Fantasies M a o r i , 190 Marginality, 217(n29) Markham, Beryl, 133 M a r x , Karl, 33 Mashpee nation, 212(n8) Matisse, Henri, 137 Mauss, Marcel, 32, 34, 55, 56 Mayans, 51-52, 73 McEachern, Allan, 209(n7) McLaren, Malcolm, 27 Meaning, deterritorializing/recoding, 84-87 Melanesia, 36, 37 Mendieta, Ana, 149 Metraux, Alfred, 56 Metropolitan Museum of A r t , 126, ^ 127,128(fig.), 129, 129(fig.), 132 Mexica, 2 0 7 ( n l ) . See also Aztecs Mexico exoticism and representation of, 49-66 land disputes i n , 153 museums and art of, 113 Western tropes of, 36 See also Aztecs Mexico City, i x - x , 64 Michelangelo, 120, 120(fig.), 127, 128(fig.), 136 Midnight Express (film), 36 Mission, The (film), 37 Miss Saigon, 27, 28(Fig. 2.2), 4 3 - 4 4 , 209(nl2) Mizrahi, Isaac, 214(n20) Mohawks, x, 38, 153, 209(n7)

Index 235 Montesquieu, 32 Moonstone, The (Collins), 192 Moonstruck (film), 131 Moore, Henry, 137 Motecuzoma, 1, 6, 197, 204 Multinationals, 43, 145 Musee de l'Homme (Paris), 112, 118 Museo Preistorico ed Etnografico, 107 Museum cities, 214-215(n24) Museums display and, 107-120, 190 and entitlement, 23-24 marketing by, 123-127, 129-130, 131, 132 and Western high art, 136-139 Museums and the Shaping of Knowledge (Hooper-Greenhill), 147-148 "Museum's Furnace, The" (Donato), 42-43 Napoleon, 111-112, 167, 169 National Gallery (London), 138 National Geographic, 4 1 , 208(n4) Native Carrying Some Guns, Bibles, Amorites on Safari (Basquiat), 146 Natives authenticity and marketing items of, 79, 80 commodifying culture of, 67-68, 70-78, 82, 86-87 commodifying spirituality of, 88-97, 101 counterculture appropriation of, 98-101 definition of, 211(nl) Western tropes of, 36, 37, 38 Navajos, 77-78 New Age movement, 63, 87-98, 101, 106 New Guinea, 37 New Mexico, 82, 83(fig.) New Necklace, The (Paxton), 35-36, 35(fig.) New World Order, 198 Nietzsche, Friedrich, x i i , 1 1 , 100, 195, 197

Night of the Iguana, The (film), 53, 66 Nochlin, Linda, 164 Nomadism, 184 Nostradamus, 6 Nuu'chah'nulth, 67 Objectification. See Commodification Oka standoff, x, 38, 153, 209(n7) Ontology, Western, 154-161 appropriation and effect on, 75-76 and spiritual appropriation, 95 universalization of, 194 See also Western culture Orality, 112. See also Literacy Orientalism, 161-165, 216(nl8) in literature, 171-173 Orientalism (Said), 33, 112 Otherness and displacement of cannibalism, 15, 16 in exoticization, 54-55 and identity politics, 193 locating authenticity i n , 201 and museum displays, 109 representation of, x i , 160-161 See also Cultural difference Ottoman Turks, 168 Paganism, 156-157 Painting exoticism i n , 35-36, 47-48 history, 167-171 landscape, 159-160, 165-167 Orientalist, 161, 163-165 Paradox. See Contradictions Pasha, Mustapha, 168 Passage to India, A (Forster), 193-194 Passivity trope, 37-38 Paxton, William McGregor, 35-36, 35(fig.) Paz, Octavio, 140-141 PBS. See Public Broadcasting Service Performance art, i x , 149 Physical anthropology, 117-118 Picasso, Pablo, 55 Pieta (Michelangelo), 127, 128(fig.) Poema de Mio Cid, 120

236

Index

Politics appropriation and, 105-106 authenticity issues i n , 79-80 and criticality in art, 140-145, 215(n27) identity, 193 Polynesia, 38, 40 Popular culture appropriation through, 99-101 and commodiflcation of fine art, 121, 214(nl8) and Mexican exoticism, 53 representations i n , 197 social class and aesthetic taste i n , 131 See also Film; Literature Portuguese, 152 Power and aesthetic appropriation/ entitlement, 18-19, 21-25, 68-73, 76-78, 191-192 and authority in the colonial system, 154-155, 181-182 colonialism and fantasies of, 32, 40-41 and consumption as a value, 9, 13-15, 17-18 and contemporary society, x-xiv, 198 cultural representations of, x-xiv, 1-6 effect on conquest culture of, 189, 194-195, 196-197 and exotification of cultural fragments, 31 and scientism, 158 of tradition, 101 violence implicit in, 6-8 See also Colonialism; Control Prescott, William, 60, 119 Price, Sally, 36, 109, 210(n35) "Price and Meaning" (Paz), 140-141 Primitive Art in Civilized Places (Price), 109 Primitivism ambivalence i n , 36-37, 41 and innocence, 167 intellectuals/artists and, 54, 55-56, 62-63 and nostalgia, 32, 33-34

Proper names, commodiflcation of, 127-130 Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), 4 1 , 117, 208(n4) Puccini, Giacomo, 27, 42 Punishment of the Hooks, The (Decamps), 165 Quetzalcoatl-Topilzin, 1-2, 4-5, 6, 197 iQue Viva Mexico! (film), 55, 60, 61 Racism and artistic criticality, 145-146, 147 in British Columbia, 67 fear and greed i n , 160 fixed identities and, 29, 31 objectifying difference to justify, 46 Rains Came, The (film), 44 Rajneesh, Baghwan, 88 Ralph Lauren's Safari perfume, 133, 134(fig.) Rationality versus Arab irrationality, 169 and Christianity, 157-159 and denying the sacred, 192 role in Western alienation, 190 and Western worldview, 152 See also Science Recoding, of meaning and appropriation/commodification, 84-87, 97, 214(n20) and introduction of science, 158 Redemption, 54, 66 Religion and art, 136, 138, 141, 148 and Western tropes of difference, 37 See also Ceremony; Spirituality Renoir, Pierre-Auguste, 127 Repression, Christianity and, 156, 157. See also Colonialism Retorno a Aztldn (film), 188 Return of the Bird Tribes, The (Carey), 93 Revolt in Cairo (Girodet), 168 Revolution, 64 Rijksmuseum voor Volkendunde, 115 Rivera, Diego, 60, 129-130, 129(fig.)

Index 237 Rodriguez, Richard, 53 Romanticism of colonialism and object commodification, 121-127 and Mexican exoticism, 51-53 See also Exoticism Rose, Wendy, 94, 102-103 Roseanne (television), 131 Rosetta Stone, 111-112 Royal British Columbia Museum, 112-113, 115-116 Royal Ontario Museum, 123 Russell, Ken, 64 Sacrifice, 29. See also Human sacrifice Sade, Marquis de, 57-58 Sahagun, Bernardino de, 60 Sahara Desert, 171-173, 179-180, 183 Said, Edward, 33, 112, 161 Salammbo (Flaubert), 43 Salvage paradigm, 74-75, 9 9 - 1 0 1 , 103 and museums, 109 Saskatchewan, 70, 71 (fig.) Savagery in Christianity, 99 gentle primitive versus violent, 36-37, 41 in Western representations of Araby, 169 Schliemann, Heinrich, 127 Schnabel, Julian, 145 Science and Christianity, 157-159 in denying the sacred, 192-193 exoticism and archaeology, 51 and museums, 116-118 role in Western alienation, 190 and Western cultural superiority, 22, 34, 208(n4) in Western ontology, 154, 155, 216(n6) Sendero Luminoso movement, 194-195 Sepulveda, Juan Gines de, 37 Serrano, Andres, 97 Seven Pillars of Wisdom (Lawrence), 177

Sexuality ambivalence toward exotic, 177-179 Cherokee sex workshop, 88-90, 94 displacement of, 118 in Western representations of Araby, 164, 169, 217(n23) See also Eroticism Shamanism, 66, 94-96, 96(fig.) Shaman's Drum (magazine), 92 Sharif's justice, The (BenjaminConstant), 165 Sheltering Sky, The (Bowles), 171-184 Sheltering Sky, The (film), 44, 173, 174, 176, 179, 180(fig.),216(nl7), 217(n23) Silko, Leslie M a r m o n , x i i , 8, 98, 204 Sistine Chapel, 136 Smith, Paul Chaat, 9 Smithsonian Institution, 120, 132 Soldier Blue (film), 99 Sontag, Susan, 21 South Africa, 118 Spanish, 8-9 Spirituality appropriation of, 63, 190-193 commodification of, 70, 86-97, 106 and representations of Mexico, 64 and Western dislocation/alienation, 97-101 Star Trek (television), 99 State, the imperial as cannibal, 2-3, 4 characteristics of, 5, 6-8, 195-197, 217(n3) use of violence and fear/terror, 11-12 Steiner, Christopher, 81 Stephens, John Lloyd, 22 Sublimity trope, 37, 41 Sufism, 37 Sumer, 155 Surrealism, 49-50, 53-57, 58 Survival International, 74, 74(fig.) Tarahumara, 64-65 Taussig, Michael, 11-12 Taxidermy, 108-109, 114-115 Tehuantepec, 6 1 , 62

238

Index

Television cultural appropriation through, 92, 99, 101 and isolation in contemporary society, 199 PBS, 4 1 , 117, 208(n4) social class and aesthetic taste i n , 131 Temporality appropriation and approaches to, 75-76 and corporate messages, 148 museums and effect on, 113-114, 115-116 timelessness as Western trope, 37-38, 62, 164 Western contestations over, 212(n6) Tenochtitlan, 1, 2, 4, 5, 49, 57, 197 Terra nullius, 152 Te Rua (film), 190, 193 Tezcatlipoca (Smoking M i r r o r ) , 1-3, 2(fig.),4-7, 9 , 1 8 7 Theater, 27-29, 3 1 , 4 3 - 4 4 Tbelma and Louise (film), 53 Timelessness trope, 37-38, 62, 164. See also Temporality Toltecs, 1-2, 4 Toronto, Canada, i x , x i i Tourism and commodiflcation of Native cultures, 67-70, 71(fig.), 8 1 , 82-84, 83(fig.), 85, 86 exploitative nature of, 211(n2) and museums, 116 and romance of discovery, 123-124 Townsend, Richard, 200 Traditional, definition of, 211(nl) Traditional Elders' Circle, 94-95 Tribal Eye (PBS), 208(n4) Tribu perfume, 133, 135(fig.) Tristes Tropiques (Levi-Strauss), 199 Tropen Museum, 116 Tropes ambivalence about, 4 6 - 4 7 of difference, 3 4 - 4 1 , 42, 62 madness and exoticism, 173 Mexican contradictions, 58, 61

Trudell, John, 101, 212(nl6) Tuer, Dot, 210(nl8) Tula, 4-5, 102 Tutankhamen, King, 192-193 Unconscious experience and art, 146 and Mexican exoticism, 54, 63-65, 66 Under the Volcano (Lowry), 50, 53, 66 United States, 33, 162 University of British Columbia, Museum of Anthropology, 109 "Valery Proust Museum" (Adorno), 137 Valuation aesthetic, 2 1 , 120-130, 139-142. See also Commodiflcation of hierarchical systems, 155 Value(s) and commodiflcation of art, 121, 126 consumption as Western, 9 - 1 1 , 17-18 corporate, 147-148 individualism as Western, 97, 99 universalization of Western, 94, 194 See also Ontology, Western Vampires, 12-15 Vatican Museum, 136 Victimization, 99-101 Violence aestheticization of, 188 and Aztec representation of power, 2-3, 4-6 and contemporary society, 196, 197, 199,200 as implicit in power, 6-7, 155 and Western consumption, 8-16, 58 Western denial of, x i i , 7-8 in Western representations of difference, 36, 38, 164, 169, 178-179 See also Power

Index Voltaire, Frangois, 49 Warhol, Andy, 141 Wasichu, 10, 207(n9) Weil, Stephen, 23 West Africa, 152 Western culture appropriation and commodification in, x i - x i i , 18-25, 67-87, 95. See also Appropriation; Commodification attitude toward land, 151-153 breakdown of, 196, 198-202 consumption as a value i n , 9-18 definition and ideologies of, 153-161 exoticism in, 27-55 power and authority i n , 181-182. See also Power

239

spiritual dislocation in, 95, 97-101 view of violence/power, xii-xiv, 3, 7-9 See also Art; Colonialism Wetiko, 1 0 - 1 1 , 12-13, 15, 17, 198, 207-208(nll) Winters Tan, A (film), 44, 47 Women colonial representation of, 48-49 as consumers, 126, 132-136 "Work of A r t in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, The" (Benjamin), 149 Xipe Totec, 6 Yucatan, 51