Canada's Changing North 9780773571327

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CANADA’S: CHANGING NORTH

E D I T E D A N D W I T H A N I N T R O D U C T I O N BY W I L L I A M C. W O N D E R S

T h e Carle to n L ib ra ry N o . 55 M cC lella n d a n d S tew a rt L im ite d T o ro n to /M o n tre a l

© M c C lella n d a n d S tew a rt L im ite d , 1971 A LL RIG HTS R ESERV ED

T h e C anadian P ublishers M cC lelland a n d Stew art Lim ited 25 H ollin ger R o ad , T o r o n to 374

P rin te d and b o u n d in C a n a d a by T h e T . H . Best P rin ting C o m p a n y Lim ited

T he Carleton Library

A series o f C a n a d ia n rep rin ts an d new collections o f source m aterial relating to C a n a d a , issued u n d e r th e editorial supervision o f the Institute o f C an a d ia n Studies o f C arle to n U niversity, O ttaw a. D irecto r o f th e In stitu te P au lin e Jew ett G en era l E d ito r D av id M. L. F a r r E d ito ria l B oard B. C a r m a n B ickerton ( H is to r y ) Michael S. W h ittin gto n ( P o litica l S cien c e) T h o m a s K. R y m e s ( E c o n o m ic s) G o rd o n C. Merrill ( G e o g ra p h y ) B ru ce A. M c F a r la n e (S o c io lo g y ) D e r e k G . Sm ith ( A n th r o p o lo g y )

C ontents

Introduction I.

D EFIN IN G T H E NORTH

1. A C irc u m p o la r Index - L o u is E d m o n d H a m elin 2. T h e Arctic Basin an d the Arctic: Some Definitions - Jo hn E. Sater II.

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22

HISTORICA L P E R S P E C T IV E S

3. T h e Identification o f V in land - A la n C o o ke 4 . E arly G e o g rap h ical C on cepts o f the N o rth w est Passage - T h eo d o re E . L a yn g 5 . V o yag eurs’ H ig hw ay : T h e G e o g ra p h y and Logistics o f the C a n a d ia n F u r T r a d e E ric W . M orse 6. F u r T ra d in g Posts in the M ackenzie Region U p to 1850 - J o h n K . Stager 7. T h e S ponsors o f C a n a d ia n Arctic Exploration, P a rt IV - 1944 - 1859 : T h e F ran k lin Search and R a e ’s Surveys - J o h n E. C asw ell 8. A lbert P eter Low - F. J. A lc o c k 9. D iscovery o f T w o Islands in E astern F o x e Basin D iana M . R . R o w le y 10. Success o f the Plaisted Expedition 11. T h e N o r th in C a n a d ia n H isto ry - W . L . M o rto n III.

1

27 31

39 50

59 76 82 85

86

PHY SICAL N A T U R E

12. H o w the M acken zie R iver W as M a de: T ran slatio n of a Slavey Legend - J o h n Tetso 13. A rctic L a n d fo rm s - J. R o ss M a c k a y 14 . Fluvial Processes in the High A rctic F rank A . C ook 15. C lim ate an d Z onal Divisions o f the Boreal Forest F o rm a tio n in Eastern C a n a d a F. K e n n e th H are 16. O rgan ic T e rra in an d G e o m o rp h o lo g y N o rm a n IV. R a d fo rth 17. P e rm a fro s t M ap o f C a n a d a - R . J. E . B row n 18. W ind Chill in N o r th e r n C a n a d a M . K . T h o m a s a n d D . W . B o yd

89 91 94

103

120 128 136

19. T h e Ecology o f S now - W . O. P ru itt, Jr. 146 20. M igrating C a rib o u : B arren-ground H erds Face a Serious T h re a t to S u r v i v a l - / ! . W .F .B a n fie ld 156 IV.

N ATIVE P E O P L E S

2 1 . T h e F ra g m e n ts o f E sk im o Prehistory W illiam E . T a ylo r, Jr. 2 2 . C h an g in g P attern s o f Indian T r a p p in g in the C a n a d ia n Subarctic - Ja m e s W . V an S to n e 2 3 . C h an g in g Settlem ent P attern s A m o n g st the M acken zie E skim os o f the C an a d ia n N o rth W estern A rctic - M . R . H argrave V.

187

199 202 212 214 219 225 230

T R A N SP O R T A T IO N AND C O M M U N IC A T IO N S

31. T ra n s p o r ta tio n as a F a c to r in N o rth e r n D e v e lo p m e n t - J. R . K . M a in 3 2 . T ra n s p o r ta tio n an d the Settlem ent F ro n tie r W illia m C. W o n d ers 3 3 . C o m m u n ic a tio n s in th e N o r th - J. S. F ord V II.

170

EC O N O M IC RESOURCES

2 4 . A b o u t O u r U nto ld Resources W illiam M . G ilch rist 2 5 . T h e M o n tfe rr e M ining Region, L a b ra d o r- U n g a v a - G ra h a m H u m p h ry s 2 6 . O il’s L ast F ro n tier 2 7 . A rctic P etro leu m Potential - H . K . R oessingh 2 8 . T h e F o rests o f N o r th e r n C a n a d a R . T. Flanagan 2 9 . R ein d eer R eso urce in the M ack en zie D elta, 1968 - R . M . H ill 3 0 . R e m a rk s o n E skim o Sealing an d the H a r p Seal C o n tro v ersy - D . C. F o o te VI.

160

235 257 262

R EG IO N A L IS M AND N O R T H E R N S E T T L E M E N T S

3 4 . Essay in the Regionalization o f the C an a d ia n N o r th - L o u is -E d m o n d H a m e lin 3 5 . “ R egions” an d Identity in the N o r t h : S o m e N o tes - R . G . W illiam son 3 6 . Settlem ent T y pes and C o m m u n ity O rganization in N o r th e r n C a n a d a - J. F ried 3 7 . T h e N o r th e r n U r b a n Scene - G eo rg e Jacobsen

267 272 282 291

V III.

PROBLEM S OF TH E NORTH

38. Bewildered H u n te rs in the 20th C en tu ry A b e O k p ik 39. T h e P o lar C o n tin e n ta l Shelf Project E . F. R o o ts 40 . B oundary P ro blem s R elating to the Sovereignty o f the C an a d ia n A rctic - M a rg a ret W . M o rris 41. C a n a d a 's N o rth e r n Policy: Retrospect an d Prospect - D a v id J u d d 42. T h e Ecology of the N o rth : know ledge is the key to sane de velo pm en t - Ian M c T a g g a rt C ow an

297 302 310 338 35 I

M A P S (U nless otherwise indicated m a ps are rep rod uce d directly from the original articles) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5a . 5b . 6a. 6b.

7a . 7b . 8a. 8b.

9a . 9b. 10a . 10 b . I I. 12. 13. 14. 15 a . 15 b . 16.

T h e N o rd ic W orld 12 Som e Significant Boundaries 24 M ain W ate rw a y s o f the C a n a d ia n F u r T r a d e 42 M ack enzie Valley to 185 0 : F u r T ra d in g Posts 53 T h e L a b r a d o r Peninsula: Jo u rn ey s o f A. P. Low 78 D istribution o f P erm afrost a n d G ro u n d T e m p e r a tu re O bservation Sites in C a n a d a 129 T re e Lines o f Boreal Softwoods 104 P ro po sed Forest Regions 105 T h e r m a l Efficiency 113 M o isture Index 114 M e a n W in d Chill F a c to r, J a n u a r y 139 M ea n W in d Chill F a ctor, A pril 140 M ea n W ind Chill F a ctor, July 141 M ean W in d Chill F a c to r, O cto b e r 142 M ea n A n nu al N u m b e r o f D egree Days 143 M ean W in d Chill F a ctor, A nnu al 144 M ap o f the Region a ro un d Sn ow d rift, N W T 172 D istribution by Settlem ent o f the Mackenzie Eskim os 189 M ining Activity in the M o ntferre Region 205 T ra n sp o rta tio n Systems in N o r th e r n C a n a d a 242 N o rth e r n Regions o f C a n a d a 270 L ocations o f S e ttlem ents Cited (F ried ) 284 Canada 366-367

N o te o n the E d ito r

365

T h e C o n trib u to rs

362

Introduction

G e o g ra p h y has stam p ed a n o rth e rn im p rin t upo n C an ad a. T h o u g h the total a re a of its n o rth ern regions m a y be ra th e r less th an those o f the U.S.S.R., it still bulks larg er in its relative size w ithin the natural b o u n d aries than it does in the latter n ation. O v e r tw o-thirds o f C a n a d a m ay be regarded as n o rth ­ ern including a third w hich lies north o f tree-line. W ithin o u r A rctic A rchip elago som e islands a re larger th an several E u r o ­ p ean countries. Snow is as c o m m o n an elem ent o f o u r w inter land scap e as is its rarity in m an y o th e r nations o f the world. In the face o f these realities it is re m a rk a b le how limited a c c u rate know ledge m ost C a n a d ia n s have o f the N o rth . T h o u g h th ere was no pop ulation pressure fro m longer oc cupied so u th ­ ern regions pu shing m a n n o rth w ard s, as in S can din avia o r in Russia, E u ro p e a n explorers did pen etrate at least p art o f the N o r th relatively early and its fu r resources w ere tapp ed along with m o re so uthern p arts o f the co u n try . E xcept in so m e so uthern marginal sectors, how ever, the settler a n d the resource developer have not swept ov er the area. It is still essentially an “e m p t y ” co un try . F o r most C an a d ia n s it rem ains a rem ote area. T h e y know m o re abo ut th eir sou th ern neig hb ou rin g nation th an they do ab o u t the largest portion o f th eir own. T h e C a n a d ia n is n o t u n a w a re o f the N o rth . H e know s that it is there, at his b ack d o or, a n d that it stretches aw ay for th o u s a n d s o f miles. H e takes pride in the fact th a t he shares the distinction o f being a “ n o rth e rn e r” with citizens o f a relatively small g ro u p o f o th e r nations, but he is c o n ten t to look east, west, o r south ra th e r th an n orth. T h e N o r t h is for him an illdefined are a o f long severe w inters, d a rk , limitless forests or m o n o to n o u s tu n d ra , inhabited by a few In dians o r E skim os w h o m a k e their living from trap pin g. It is a ro m a n tic a re a but not particularly o n e in w hich he w ants to live. W ithin the past twenty-five years, how ever, such changes h av e oc curred in the N o r t h th a t vague generalities m u s t be discarded. W orld W a r T w o a n d the increased technical c a p a ­ bilities o f the a irc raft thrust C a n a d a into a new m ilitary and political role because o f its N o r t h and because o f its w orld g eog raph ic setting. T h e adv anta ges offered by no rth e rn C a n a ­ dian skies fo r great circle tracks, fo r both p eaceful and m ilitary

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CA N A D A ’S C H A N G I N G N O R T H

purposes, in a w orld o f s h r u n k e n distances are obvious. N o w th a t the era o f i c b m h as replaced th a t o f the a ircraft such distances are m easu red in m in u tes r a th e r th an in hours. Social chan ge, th o ug h lo n g e r delayed in the N o r t h th an elsewhere in C a n a d a , has been p articu larly m a r k e d in the years since W o rld W a r T w o . It brings with it n o t only ho pe fo r an im prov ed fu tu re f o r n o rth e rn residents, b u t also difficult and trou bled times in the transitional period. It also involves c o n ­ siderable cost financially w h ich m ust be b o rn e by the so uthern taxpayers now an d in the foreseeable future. E c o n o m ic ch ang e in the sam e time p eriod not on ly has c o n ­ tributed to social ch an g e b u t has cast the N o r t h in an entirely new role in recent years. Previously, its rem oteness h as isolated the a r e a from the rest o f the nation a n d the world. O nly the highest value resources co uld be exploited because o f high tran sp o rta tio n an d d ev e lo p m en t costs. T h u s furs, an d later preciou s minerals, have been the only n o rth e rn resources util­ ized, until recently. So great has been the g ro w th in d e m a n d fo r industrial resources, especially by the U n ited States in the p o stw a r years, th a t rem oteness is no lo n ger the dete rren t it once was. If size o f resources is sufficiently en cou rag in g, transp ortatio n m eans will be p rovided, particularly with the new technological im ­ p ro v e m e n ts w hich have been taking place. T h e vast new mineral d evelop m en ts h av e ch an g ed the N o r th an d are c hanging the N o rth . T h e y also not only are c hanging the national e con om ic stru c tu r e o f C a n a d a , b u t are tying the nation increasingly closely to foreign markets. W a te r an d fuels now a re facing c o m p a r a b le pressures fr o m external d em an d . M o re th a n an yth in g else in the recen t his tory o f C an ad a, th e discovery o f oil on the N o r t h Slope o f A laska an d the voyage o f the M a n h a tta n th ro u g h C a n a d ia n A rctic w ate rs has b ro u g h t th e C a n a d ia n N o r t h forcibly to the attention o f the so u th e rn citizen. C o m p la c e n c y a b o u t the rem ote, un chan ging C a n a d ia n N o r t h has been jo lted by the challenge o f the extent o f o u r political ow nership itself. L in ked with this has been a belated b u t increasing aw areness o f the sensitivity o f the n o rth e rn e n v iro n m en tal balance, p articu larly in th e A rctic. T h is b o o k is p resented w ith tw o aims. First, it m ust be clear to all that the C an a d ia n N o r t h will be playing a n increasingly im p o rta n t role in the life o f the nation. It is essential, th erefore, th a t m u c h m o re be k n o w n a b o u t the area. It is h o p ed th a t this book will assist in m aking ac c u ra te in fo rm a tio n m o re readily available. Second, the focus is u p o n the ch a n g in g n a tu re o f

IN TR O DU C TIO N

3

C a n a d a ’s N o r th - ch an ge in o u r u n d ers tan d in g o f the a re a an d its characteristics, c h a n g e in the conditions prevailing within the are a itself. W e have accepted c han ge as a feature o f life in o th e r p arts o f C a n a d a , and m ust ap preciate th a t the sam e holds true o f the N o r th as well. It is h o p e d th a t this book m a y help o the rs u n d e rs ta n d the C an a d ia n N o r th better, an d assist in directing that c h a n g e fo r the o p ti m u m benefit o f the N o r t h and of Canada. T h e r e is a large a m o u n t o f w ritten material dealing w ith the C a n a d ia n N o rth . M u c h o f it is o f a very specialized nature, how ever, while m u c h also is n o t p articularly inform ative an d in m a n y cases p erp e tu ates m isinform ation a b o u t the area. It was decided initially th a t the readings w ould be d ra w n o nly from jo u rn als ra th e r th an fr o m h a rd b a c k books. T h e only d e p a rtu re fro m this has been w h ere a n essential article in the overall “b a la n c e ” of the boo k was not otherwise available, o r w as overly long f o r inclusion. T h e book is in ten ded prim arily fo r stud ents an d the general reading public. A ccordingly, an a tte m p t h as been m a d e to steer a m iddle course in m a k in g the selections, betw een the narrow ly specialized articles o f the professional scholar and the ex trem ely generalized acco un ts o f the p o p u la r w riter. T h e diversity o f disciplines w ith an interest in the N o r th adds to the com plexity o f the problem . It m ay well be that the boo k seeks an im possible goal, b u t it is h o p ed th a t it will prove inte r­ esting as well as inform ative. T w o previous volum es in the C arle ton L ib ra ry series c o n ­ tain m u c h m aterial closely related, th o u g h m o r e specialized, an d shou ld also be consulted by those interested in the C a n a ­ d ian N o rth . W a r k e n t in ’s T h e W estern In te rio r o f C anada in­ cludes several accou n ts o f im p o rt a n t explo ratio n an d survey expeditions w hich co vered p a rts o f the N o r t h as well as the W estern Interior. V alen tine an d V allee’s E s k im o o f the C ana­ d ian A r c tic gives an excellent p icture o f this indigenous resident o f the N o rth . I t is im p o rta n t first o f all to define the N o rth , since few o th e r geo graph ic regions are subject to such widely differing in terpre tations. L o u is-E d m o n d H a m e lin has devised a new system f o r this p u rp o s e and applies it o n a circ u m p o la r scale, w hich provides a m o s t interesting basis o f c o m p a riso n betw een C a n a d a a n d o th e r n o rth ern nations. J o h n E. S ater sets o u t the fu n d a m e n ta l duality o f the N o r t h long recognized by g eogra­ p h e rs a n d o th e r scientists, with its division into A rctic an d S u b ­ arctic co m ponents.

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C A N A D A ’S C H A N G I N G N O R T H

T h e second c h a p te r a ttem p ts a survey o f som e o f the his­ torical perspectives o f the C a n a d ia n N o r th , beginning with the arrival of the first E uro pea ns. T h e N o rth w e st Passage has been a persistent th em e in the are a fr o m the earliest explorations d o w n to the present. M uch o f the early exploration o f the N o rth an d its first settlem ents w ere linked with the fu r trad e. T h o ug h m a n y played im p o rta n t roles in the N o r th , A lbert P eter Low was particularly no tew orthy . A s a late ex plo rer he pro vided us with accu ra te know ledge o f the vast L a b r a d o r are a an d laid th e base for the great post-w ar iron o re dev elo pm ents in it. H e also sym bolized the increasing official c o n ce rn w ith the A rctic in heading up the C a n a d ia n g o v e rn m e n t expedition of th e N e p tu n e in 1903. H o w great has been the technological ch a n g e fr o m the earliest d ays o f d a n gerou s exp loratio n is sug­ gested in the articles covering the post-w ar discovery o f o u r last A rctic islands by the r . c . a . f ., an d the a ttain m e n t o f the N o rth Pole by p ow er toboggan. Finally, W. L. M o r to n suggests that o u r n o rth e rn experience has given C a n a d a a distinctive identity in w hich we should take g re ater pride. It was considered a p p ro p r ia te to begin the c h a p te r on the physical n a tu r e o f the N o r t h with an In d ia n legend o f the origin o f the M ack enzie River, o u r g re at river o f the N o rth . In this we not only have a p o in t o f c o n tra st f o r o u r increasing scientific know ledge o f the N o rth , but, eq ually im p o rta n t, have a n indication o f the im agination and b e a u ty o f expression of o u r indigenous peoples w hich we sho uld not sub m erge in this technological age. T h e articles ou tline th e diversity o f landfo r m s in the Arctic an d h ow these m a y be shaped in w ays dif­ fe re n t from those op erating elsewhere, the very appreciable variety o f the n o rth ern forest in con tra st to the p o p u la r stereo­ type, and the m uskeg p h e n o m e n o n . P e rm a fro s t n ow is fairly widely k no w n as a term in C a n a d a yet twenty-five years ago it was alm ost u n h e a rd of an d the c ondition itself scarcely recog­ nized. W hile several clim atic ch aracteristics typify th e N o rth , w in d chill is p erh aps a particularly significant if unpleasant elem ent, since m a n y C a n a d ia n s have h ad person al experience o f it. O u r increasing know ledge o f the N o r th even extends to snow itself, but sim etim es it m a y be too late as m ay well be the case with the ca rib o u fo r instance. T h ro u g h careful scientific research we are constantly ex­ p a n din g o u r know ledge o f h ow m a n first c a m e into the N o rth . O u r indigenous peoples, bo th Indian a n d E skim o, a re finding themselves in a rapidly c han gin g N o r th , how ever, w h ich is

IN T R O DU C TIO N

5

ta kin g o n a very different n a tu re to that in w h ich the ir fo re­ fathers lived. T h e increasing attention being paid the N o r t h in the p ost­ w a r years is largely the result o f the u n p re ced en ted d e m a n d , still swelling, f o r raw m aterials elsewhere. C h a p te r five sug­ gests that the N o r th can provide such resources, th o ug h it cau tio ns th ey d o have limitations. T h e M o n tfe rre region of L a b r a d o r is show n just as the huge iron ore d ev elop m e nts were ab ou t to take place w hich had been experienced in the Schefferville area, and is typical o f o th e r massive mining projects in the N o rth . R egrettably, again we note that even w h en indi­ g eno us people seem to have established a viable econ om ic base in this new N o r th , th ey m ay be disastrously affected by the outside world. D ev elo pm e nt in C a n a d a 's N o r th as elsewhere, is dep en den t upo n im p ro v em e n t in tran sp o rta tio n and com m u n icatio n s, but n ow h ere else a re these as critical. T h e N o r t h brings unique prob lem s to these services as well. S o m e o f these co nsid era­ tions, their characteristics, im pro ve m e nts an d repercussions are set o u t in the next chapter. T h e sum total o f the foregoing ch aracteristics is reflected in the regional variations within the N o rth . M oreover, the N o r t h like the rest o f C a n a d a , is increasingly beco m ing an urban -c entred area. T h e fact that these centres are small by sou th ern s tan d ard s in no way reduces th eir im po rtan ce. In an a re a w h ere such structures are relatively yo uthful it offers o p ­ p ortun itie s fo r new a n d better concepts, but regrettably to date th ere is not too m u ch evidence o f these despite good in ten ­ tions. Finally, the boo k conclude s with a series o f articles pointing up som e o f the m a jo r p rob lem s co n fro n tin g the C an a d ia n N o rth today. T h e p ro b le m o f the place o f the indigenous people in the N o rth still rem ains despite vigorous go v ern m en t e d u c a ­ tional program s, etc., an d A b e O k pik poign antly conveys the sense o f bew ilderm en t o f m a n y o f them . T h e P o lar C on tinen tal S helf Project is the m ost impressive scientific p ro g ra m in the N o r th by the C an a d ia n go v ern m en t and reflects the increasing research interests in the area in the post-w ar years by both go v­ e rn m e n ts and institutions. M u c h still rem ain s to be d o n e in scientific enquiry. Internation al political pro blem s, considered by C an ad ian s to have been long since settled inso far as their N o r th is co n cerned , have arisen in co nn ectio n with resource de velo pm en t in the area. All this increasing focus on the N o rth

6

C A N A D A ’S C H A N G I N G N O R T H

is forcing the C a n a d ia n go v ern m en t to devote m o re attention to their policy on the area an d to lay d o w n firm guide-lines for the future. E ven so the N o r th will con tin u e to present chal­ lenges an d p rob lem s in the political sph ere to a degree u n ­ pre ced ented in the past. In a finite w orld the N o rth also presents challenges and p ro blem s to d e m o n s tra te th a t m a n is finally p rep ared to a ss u m e a b ro a d e r responsibility f o r the m a i n ­ ten anc e and im p ro v em en t o f his n atu ral en viro nm en t. I wish to acknow ledge the perm ission o f the original auth ors a n d publishers o f the jo u rn als and b oo ks fro m w hich these selections have been made. F o r eco n o m y 1 have om itte d most of the footnotes in the original texts except fo r exp lana tory notes and d irect q uotations. F o r the sam e reason original maps an d diag ram s have been redu ced to an absolute m in im u m . In this regard I a m particularly indebted to m y wife, Lillian, for h er professional c a rto g ra p h ic advice and skills, an d to the d ra ftsm en an d technicians o f the D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y , o f the University o f A lberta. Colleagues both w ithin an d o u t­ side the D e p a rtm e n t have provided valuable suggestions in­ cluding Professors C. S. B rant, D. A. Gill, W . A. Fuller, I. L. H e ad , R. W. L ongley, C. S. M a c K in n o n a n d G . D. Williams. In a few cases there have been changes (chiefly economic) since the original articles were w ritten but they have not reduced th eir im p ortanc e in the overall picture. V ery brief factual notes have been a p p e n d e d w here it w as felt absolutely necessary. It gives me pleasure also to acknow ledge the assistance of Mrs. B. H o rto n an d Mrs. E. C olyer, L ib rarian s o f the Boreal Institute, University o f A lbe rta, and o f a gran t from the U n i­ versity R esearch C o m m ittee, University o f A lb erta. G o rd o n Merrill o f C arle to n University has given m e contin u ing e n ­ c o u rag em en t, an d as G e o g ra p h y E d ito r o f the series has been helpful and u n d erstan din g even while obliging m e to reduce the n u m b e r o f readings originally pro po sed. Finally I wish to express my th a n k s to the m a n y no rth ern e rs w ho have assisted m e ov er the years and w ho invariably d em o n s trated that hos­ pitality and love o f their a re a traditional to the N o rth . W I L L I A M C. W O N D E R S

University o f A lb erta April, 1970.

I. D E F IN IN G T H E N O R T H

1 .

A Circumpolar Index* L ouis-Edm ond Hanielin s o u r c e

:

A n n ie s d e G eographic, 422, l x x v i i , Juillet-A out, 1968, pp. 414-430. R eprinted by perm ission o f the a u th o r an d publisher.

T h e pro blem o f establishing an d defining the o u te r b oundaries an d internal subdivisions o f an y very large region con tin ues to be extrem ely com plex, p erh ap s even insoluble. Indeed, no m a t te r w h at ty pe o f region we are co nce rne d with, w h eth er tem perate, m o u n ta in , o r desert, the available criteria an d exist­ ing b ou nd aries rarely provide satisfactory answ ers for fu rth e r research w orkers, even w h en th ey are o f the sam e discipline. T h is fact is all the m o re indicative o f the in herent difficulties in this subject, since very often the p a ra m e te r s in question are p urely physical. M o reo ver, w hen we con sider the f a r m ore subjective h u m a n criteria, o u r task is greatly com plicated, and an y reservations as to their real value are all the m ore justified. T h is d ilem m a no d o u b t acco unts for the relatively sm all n u m ­ b er o f w orks o f this nature. Such, how ever, is the aim o f this p ap er, tak ing as o u r e xam ple the cold cou ntries o f the no rth ern latitudes. 1. Term inology T h e geog rap hy o f cold cou ntries suffers fr o m m u ch confusion, especially regardin g the term s o f reference; these fall into four m a in groups, w hich have been decided o n by various writers. T h e w o rd “p o l a r ” ado pted by the Scott P o la r Institute o f C a m ­ bridge, the A m e ric a n G e o g rap h ic al Society, the F re n c h P o lar E xpeditions an d the D e u tsc h e n G esellschaft fu r Polarfor* T he a u th o r m ade full use o f com m ents fro m various people present at the reading o f this p ap er in 1964 in Liege an d Paris in Q uebec and V ancouver, and in 1967 in S tuttgart. In addition he would like to thank J. E. A rm strong an d M rs. H . R ichardson o f C am bridge, Jean G o ttm an n o f T he A rctic Institute o f N orth A m erica, A lan C ooke and Jacq u es R ousseau o f Q uebec for providing him w ith som e interesting observations. How ever, these people and institutions can in no way be held responsible fo r the ideas put forw ard in this text.

8

C A N A D A ’S C H A N G I N G N O R T H

schung, rem ains extrem ely im precise - som etim es being applied on ly to glaciated areas, som etim es to all the territory inside the A rc tic a n d A n ta rc tic circles, an d som etim es to all cold lands (p eo p le have sp ok en o f “p o la r soil” in m o u n ta in s no fa r th e r n o rth th a n th e 4 5 th p a rallel). C irc u m p o la r suggests, m ore th an any th ing else, a latitudinal position, as does peri-arctic. H o w ev er, po lar is the only o n e o f the f o u r term s discussed w hich can be applied to either hemisphere. Sim ilarly, the w o rd “A rc tic ” has a long and involved his­ tory. A t the beginning o f its scientific c a re e r only o n e factor, th e m e a n te m p e ra tu re o f the s u m m e r m o nth s, was necessary f o r the definition o f a given region. T h e A rc tic has been su b ­ divided in m a n y different w ays: “ In ner,” “O u te r ” (O . A. N o rd e n s k j o ld ), “L o w ,” “ M id dle ,” “ H ig h ” ( N . P o lu n i n ) . Be­ tw een the traditional Arctic and Subarctic, a “h em i-arctic” belt has been inserted (Jac q u es R o u sse a u ) . O th e r writers have defined a h y d ro g rap h ic subarctic (M . J. D u n b a r ) w hich does not necessarily coincide w ith the terrestrial subarctic. J. Bluthgen m ak es a distinction betw een a pa ra-arc tic subzone a n d a p ara-bo real sub zon e, including in this o ceanic and continental sub-divisions. In sh ort, the w ay in w hich the w ord arctic is used — som etim es in a n arro w sense (co rresp o n d in g m o r e or less to the t u n d r a ) , som etim es in a bro ad sense (ev en including an a r e a not otherwise defined as the S u b arctic) - rem ains very vague. O n the o th e r h and, in the so u th e rn hem isph ere a hydrograp h ic su b a n ta rc tic su rro u n d s a continental A ntarctic. “ B oreal” essentially expresses the opposite o f austral, w hen associated with hem ispheres, poles and au ro ras. T h u s, it would be “w ro n g to q ualify only the forests at the n o rth e rn limits of th e te m p era te zone as b o re a l” (J. R o u s s e a u ) ; in fact, all the oth ers in the sam e h em isphere would be equally entitled to this qualification. F u rth e r, boreal has acq u ired certain c o n n o ­ tations in co nn ection with b o tan y and m od erate, cold climates. H . Sjors subdivides it into three belts (m erid io n al, central and su b arctic ) a n d places it betw een the N e m o ra l (a tem pe rate re gio n) an d the Arctic. " B o re a n ” is derived fro m the n am e given to the inhabitants o f the area. T h u s in C a n a d a the E skim os would be “ h y p e rb o re a n s” (P. del P eru g is). In the boreal h em isph ere a fourth term , “ n o rth ,” co m petes m o r e an d m o re with the prec eding ones. Originally used to express an idea o f relative place ( f o r ex am p le the N o rth w e st fo u n d in E u ro p e as early as the eighteenth c e n tu r y ) , it now tends to m e a n a w hole region (th e w ord “O rie n t” evolved Ln a sim ilar fa s h io n ). In the literature o f exploration an d dis­

A C IR C U M P O L A R IN DE X

9

covery, the expression “F a r N o r t h ” o c c u rr e d frequently, not only in A m erica , b u t also in the U.S.S.R. (th e second exp edi­ tion to K a n c h a tk a in 1 7 3 3 ). It vaguely signified som ething f a r off - som eth in g vast, hostile, d ang ero us, u n k n o w n , alm ost u nim aginable. G ra d u a lly som e o f the mysteries o f the F a r N o r t h were replaced by m o r e objective data. A c c o rd in g to Elisee Reclus, the f a r n o rth ern territories o f C a n a d a a re m ad e u p o f the are a d rain ed to w ard s the A rctic O cean, clearly an u nsatisfacto ry a rg u m e n t in view o f the local drain age c o n d i­ tions. G ra d u a lly th e idea o f the N o r th as a regional entity b eca m e established and “N o r th l a n d s ” ap p e a re d as a title in 1954. Since the First W o rld W a r the te rm “N o r d e n ” has gen­ erally been tak en to m ean the w h ole a re a o f the F e n n o S candian islands an d peninsulas ( f r o m Iceland to F i n l a n d ) . T h e School o f A d v a n c e d P ractical Studies in Paris published a review on th e cold countries o f the boreal h em isp h ere entitled “ InterN o r d . ” O n the o th e r h an d , Stone used the te rm “N o r n a m ” to describe the w hole o f the A m e ric a n N o rth . In short, a nordic term inology h as b eco m e accepted fo r the different zones in the coun tries o f cold latitudes; fr o m south to n o rth : “ P r e - N o r t h ” or “ N e a r N o r t h ” ( “ P ro c h e - N o rd ” ); “ M i d - N o r th ” ( “ M oyenN o r d ” ) of J. W. W atso n ; “ M id d le N o r t h ” o f T h e Institute on C u r r e n t W o rld Affairs in N e w Y o rk ; “ H ig h N o r t h ” ( “G r a n d N o r d ” ) an d “N o r t h . ” T h e se divisions recall those used for m a n y years fo r A sia (M id d le East, F a r E a s t ) ; for the U n ited States ( M id d le W est, F a r W e s t ) ; an d fo r M o r o c c o (M idd le Atlas, U p p e r A tla s ) . T his practice o f differentiating betw een se p a ra te nordic zones is fou n d as m u ch in the U.S.S.R. as in A m e ric a (the w o rk o f S la v in ). A w hole n ew technical v o c a ­ b ulary is developing a ro u n d the w o rd “ n o r t h ” : first, th ere is the adjective “ n o rd ic” used in the sense o f circ u m p o la r (H a m e lin , 1 9 5 6 ), a n d n o t simply n o rth -E u ro p e a n as at the en d o f ' the n in ete enth cen tu ry ; later, we e n c o u n te r nordic criteria, nordic index, nordic values o r units, the “n ord icity ” o f a place, is onords (lines joining points o f the sa m e value, fo r exam ple, the isonord o f 5 00 u n its ), nordic gradient, nordic fron t, a m e a n a n n u a l n o rth , the nordic w orld (b o u n d e d in the South by the isonord 2 0 0 ) , an d nordists (in h ab itan ts o f the N orth ). 2. Single Criteria M o st writers w h o have considered the p ro b le m o f fixing b o u n d ­ aries for the cou ntries o f high latitudes have arrived at a single

10

C a n a d a ’s

c h a n g in g

north

criterion, b u t not always the sam e one. T h u s in C a n a d a , since jurisdiction is sh are d with the provinces, the federal g o v e rn ­ m e n t f o r most m a tters uses the 60 degree n o rth latitude as the so uthern limit to its n o rth ern activities. T h e U.S.S .R. uses the 6 2n d, while the “T r o m s o M u s e u m ” has established the so u th ­ ern limit of n o rth e rn N o rw a y at the 65 th parallel. In theory bio-climatic factors are prefe rab le by fa r to the m o re artificial elem ent o f latitude, and yet the ir use has not led to very satisfactory results. In co u n trie s w h ere the te m ­ p era tu res are ch ara cterized by large seasonal variations and great differences fro m y ea r to year, the m e a n an nu al te m p e r a ­ tu re has little value. In this w ay the July is otherm o r even those o f the three w a rm e s t m o n th s would deceive the observer. T h e wind-chill fa c to r (te m p e r a tu r e X wind velocity), like the negative therm al index (d a y degrees above 32 degrees Farenhe it) would only invoke o th e r extrem e con ditions: indeed, at the sam e latitude, the degree o f nordicity is far lower in s u m ­ m e r th a n in w inter. A n o th e r criterion often used, vegetation, also presents m ajo r d raw back s, for not only is it not applicable to m a rin e areas but it is descriptive o f conditions beyond the present and also tells us little ab o u t the severity o f the full w inter, o f the p e rm a fro s t (especially if the ceiling o f this is lo w ), the accessibility o f the region, the n u m b e r of inhabitants, o r the exploitation o f resources o th e r th an o f the vegetation. T h is stan d ard is th erefore m o re useful for bo tany th an for w orld geography. Still o th e r w riters have preferred to consider econom ic and h u m a n criteria in trying to delimit the N o rth . First, their use o f com m ercial agriculture (th e n o rth ern fringe o f which w ould co rresp o n d to the sou th ern limit o f the N o r t h ) is dis­ p utable, since the farthest limits o f cultivated land th ro ug ho ut the w orld d ep e n d on n u m e ro u s circum stanc es, som e o f which have no direct connection with latitude: ancient soils, agricul­ tural techniques, international m arkets, rate o f settlem ent and pop ulation increase. F u rth e rm o r e , in the n o rth ern countries agriculture is only o n e o f m a n y w ays o f p io neer life, including forestry, fishing, mining, h un ting an d even m ilitary an d scien­ tific operations. A m o n g the o th e r single criteria let us mention th e m ean s o f c o m m u n ic a tio n ; the d istribution (R . G a d j a ) , rate o f increase and ethnic characteristics o f the population; the influence o f the cities in the “base regions” - in C a n a d a , the mining an d finance cen tres o f M o n tre al, E d m o n to n , T o ­ ronto; and the adm inistratio n centres o f W inn ipeg an d O ttaw a. In the U.S.S.R., Slavin divided the N o r th according to the cost

A C IR C U M PO L A R INDEX

11

o f exploitation. K. H . Stone,, a fte r c onsidering the idea o f the degree o f habitability o f the “ N o r d e n ” countries, has just estab­ lished a “m easures o f isolation” fo r Alaska. In total, at least tw enty criteria have been used p rovision­ ally to delineate the cold regions o f the high latitudes. T h e result o f these ind ep en d e n t investigations has not provided world-wide frontiers fo r the N o rth , but instead as m a n y differ­ en t b o u n d aries as the re a re criteria. N evertheless, this brief a c co u n t will have served to both d em o n strate the absolute c o m ­ plexity o f the p ro blem an d to help single o u t the ele m ents w orth retaining in the c reatio n o f a m o re com p re hen sive index. 3 . A G lobal N ord ic Index J a cq u e s R o usseau h as established a “ latitudinal division of Q u e b e c -L a b ra d o r,” taking into a c co u n t various factors, both physical (b otan ical an d zoological region s), an d h u m a n (civili­ zation o f the n ativ es). W e intend to use this sam e a p p ro a c h o f c o m b in in g different factors, b u t fo r the w hole boreal h em is­ phere. In o rd e r to interp re t the n ordic situation in its entirety, we pro p o se to con sider a gro u p o f ten criteria w hich will attem pt to express the idea o f a total g eography. First there is an id en ­ tifiable variable - latitude; an d since o u r a im is to define the cold cou ntries o f high latitudes it is necesary to establish a sta n d a rd m i n im u m limit to the region: arbitrarily, we set this at the 4 5 th parallel. A m o n g the o th e r nine criteria, the n atu ral ele m ents clearly pred o m in a te, for exam p le, te m p e ra tu re ; but though the m ain characteristic o f the high latitudes (th e cold) is well represented, we are not dealing with a p urely climatic index. O n the o th e r h and, o u r calculations o f nordicity d o not in clude psychological conditions a s such, ow ing to the dif­ ficulties in m easu ring heroism, suffering - objective an d su b ­ jective - the taste for a d v en tu re o r for solitude. In spite o f this lim itation, the four h u m a n ele m ents provide a m ore com plete stru ctu ral p icture th an if it w ere fou nd ed solely o n the tu nd rataiga fringe, o n the line of con tinu ou s p e rm a fro s t, o r the July 5 0 ° F . isotherm ( 1 0 ° C . ) . In particular, the fact that we have in corpo rated an air transp ort criterion modifies the conditions o f w h at was once, at a certain stage o f technical developm ent, called the “ pole o f inaccessibility” (W . S te fa n sso n ). T h e po lar in dex ( o r simply, no rth ern, in the boreal h e m isp h ere ) is thus based on a b road geographic conception. Second, the index should be representative o f the situation

M

ap

1

A C IR C U M P O L A R INDEX

13

th ro u g h o u t the year. T h e re fo re , w ith reg a rd to the boreal h em isph ere we are no longer c o n c ern ed with a seasonal north. T h e fo r m e r suggestions o f a “s u m m e r N o r t h ” an d a “w in ter N o r t h ” are displaced by the new idea o f a m e a n an nu al N o rth . T h is co rrects the views som etim es held abo ut p a rtic u la r places, fo r ex am p le about the p o la r co nd itio ns in V erk h o y a n sk ; this station has been no ted fo r its low w in te r tem p era tures, w hereas its total nordicity is no higher th a n 631, a high b u t by n o m ean s extrem e figure. Besides this, the index enables us to define the nordicity o f m a rin e areas - previously an impossible task w ith the purely terrestrial criteria such as vegeta tion and p erm afro s t. In fact, eight o u t o f ten o f the factors p rop osed can be applied to ocean regions. T o be sure o f a fair c o m p a r iso n w ith the results of continental stations the values originally calculated out o f 800 are adjusted to a value o u t o f 1,000. U sing the index is very simple. Since each criterion r e p r e ­ sents a certain degree o f po lar conditions, by ad din g u p all the individual units we arrive at the total nordicity. F o r each cri­ terion there is a scale o f points fr o m zero to 100; for example, in the case o f floating ice, the p e rm a n e n t p a c k ice in the ce ntre o f th e A rctic O cean would eq u a l 100 v a p o (p o la r v alues). H e n c e in this calculation, w h ich is linear, the m a x im u m of 1,000 units should in theory be the Pole itself. T h e interm ediate levels have been established in o r d e r to reflect th e situation in the w h ole o f th e no rd ic world, an d to allow valid co m p ariso n s not only betw een places o f different latitude but also betw een places widely spaced longitudinally (f o r exam ple, central A lask a a n d n o rd ic O n ta r i o ) . T h u s it enables us to m a k e objective co m p ariso n s at an y p o in t in the A rc tic O cean, especially as we k n o w th e individual factors m a k in g u p the total for each locality: the nordicity o f N orilsk is equivalent to that o f C hurchill; N ovo sibirsk an d R eykjavik to th a t o f E d m o n to n . O n the o th e r h an d , the nordicity o f the R ussian islands o f F ra n z Jo s e f L a n d is scarcely higher th an that o f W in te r H a rb o u r, o f Melville Island (a C an a d ia n A rctic arch ip e la g o ). In this in tro du ctio n to the m etho do lo gy we do n o t intend to take an y fu rth e r the c o m p arativ e study o f the north o f different nations, th o ug h this is un dou bte dly an inter­ esting field. T h e quantification o f the N o r th not on ly serves to d e te r­ m ine the m a x im u m nordic hinterland , b u t is p erh a p s still m ore useful in identifying the degrees o f regional nordicity. First, the index enables us to dem o n strate the increase in nordic

14

C a n a d a ’s

c h a n g in g

north

ch aracteristics as we m ove aw ay from the “ base regions.” H o w ­ ever, this increase is by n o m eans u n ifo rm as the v ariation is n o t strictly latitudinal, but also climatic. T h e isolines are not alw ays the sam e distance apart. In C a n a d a the highest nordic grad ien t is in the N o rth - W e st - in the space of a few h u n d re d miles the forests o f the low er M ackenzie give way to p e r m a ­ n en t p o la r p ack ice. A lth o u g h not so m a rk e d , the nordicity o f N o rw a y also rapidly increases fro m the coastline to the m o u n ­ tains inland. T h is tra n sfo rm atio n in a s h o r t distance is even m o r e rapid in Sou thern G re e n la n d from the coastline to the ice ca p inland. Seen on a large scale, nordicity is very variable; thus local deviations o f as m u c h as 100 units (th e exact dif­ ference can even exceed 2 0 0 ) o c c u r frequently. T h e se spacial v ariations create certain enclaves outside the m ain zone, such as the south-w est Y u k o n , an ex trem ely m o u n ta in o u s area, w hich is situated h o w ever in a region o f only m o d e ra te n o rd ­ icity. A s a n exam ple o f a reverse an o m aly , A lert, ne ar the coast, has a less severe nordicity th an th a t o f the glaciated mass, Ellesmere, to its south. T h e se local variations d o not prevent us fro m ro ughly dividing the N o r th into regions. T h e main isoline p lateaux are fo un d a ro u n d 200 units (so uth o f the M id dle N o r t h ) , 50 0 (n o r th o f the M iddle N o r th and south o f the H igh N o r t h ) , and 8 00 (sou th o f the F a r N o r t h ) . T h ese zones are not divided by thin, straight lines but ra th e r by fringe a reas tens o f miles wide. G iv e n the choice o f criteria the total nordicity o f places and regions is modified by bioclim atic changes, technical dis­ coveries and the general state o f the c o u n tr y ’s developm ent. T h is mobility is reflected in the life o f each region. It is an indisputable fact that the exploitation o f iron ore in central Q u e b e c -L a b ra d o r has re d u ce d the nordicity o f this region, w hich was previously very isolated. Periodic calc ulations o f the indexes w ould enable us to follow this g eog rap hic dy nam ism , an evolution w hich does not ta k e in only the T a ig a - tu n d ra zone w ith its slow evolution.

TABLE

I

N o rd ic Index: criteria, classes, score. C R IT E R IA

I. L atitude

90 degrees 80 degrees 70 degrees 60 degrees 50 degrees 45 degrees

2. S u m m er heat

0 days above 42 40 days above 42 60 days above 42 80 days above 42 100 days above 42 120 days above 42 135 days above 42 m ore than 150 days above 42

3. A n n u al cold

SCO RE

CLA SSES

m ore th an 12,000 day-degrees 10,000 day-degrees 8,500 day-degrees 7,000 day-degrees 5,250 day-degrees 3,500 day-degrees 2,250 day-degrees less th an 1,000 day-degrees

100 77 55 33 11 0 C) C) C) C) C) C) C)

100 80 70 60 45 30 20

degrees F. (5.6 C )

0

degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees

F. F. F. F. F. F. F.

(5.6 (5.6 (5.6 (5.6 (5.6 (5.6 (5.6

C) C) C) C) C) C) C)

100 85 75 65 45 30 15

F. above 32 degrees F . (0 C )

0

F. F. F. F. F. F. F.

above above above above above above above

32 32 32 32 32 32 32

degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees

F. F. F. F. F. F. F.

(0 (0 (0 (0 (0 (0 (0

4. T ypes o f ice

4a. P erm afrost

P erm afro st, con tin u o u s and 1,500 ft. thick (457 m ) P erm afrost, d iscontinuous S em i-perm afrost, fo r 9 m onths S em i-perm afrost, fo r 4 m onths S em i-perm afrost, for less than one m onth

100 60 50 20 0

or 4b. F lo atin g ice

P erm an en t pack ice in the A rctic ocean Pack ice in the peri-A rctic (Baffin) Pack ice for 6 m onths Pack ice for 4 m onths Pack ice for less th an one m onth

100 90 40 20 0

or 4c. G laciers

Ice cap - 5,000 ft. thick ( 1,524 m ) an d m ore Ice sheet - about 1,000 ft. (304 m ) Neve C overing o f N eve fo r less than 11 m onths

100 60 20 0

CRITERIA

CLASSES

5. T otal precipitation

less th an 4 inches (100 m m ) 8 inches (200 m m ) 12 inches (300 m m ) 16 inches (400 m m ) m ore than 20 inches (500 m m )

SCORE

100 80 60 30 0

6. V egetation

Stony desert T h in tu n d ra T h ick , sh ru b tundra O pen forest (su b arctic, p ark lan d ) C ontin u o u s forest (coniferous)

100 80 60 40 0

7. Accessibility o th er th an by a ir (h e a v y tran sp o rt)

N o service Seasonal service: o n ce a year fo r 2 m onths for 6 m o nths,or 2 “ seasons" Service th ro u g h o u t the year: o n e form only m o re th an one form

100

8. A ir service

N earest airfield - approx. 1,000 miles (1,600 km ) N earest airfield - a pprox. 300 miles (480 km ) N earest airfield - approx. 30 miles (48 km ) R egular service, twice a m onth R egular service, tw ice a week M ore th an on e service a day

100 80 60 40 15 0

9. P opulation

None from 20 to 30 approx. 500 ap p ro x . 1,000 ap p ro x . 3,000 m ore th an 5,000

100 90 75 60 20 0

U ninhabited 0.01 persons p e r sq u a re m ile (0.004 per k m -) 1 person per square mile (0.4 per k m -) 2.5 persons per square mile (1 per k m -) 5 persons p e r square m ile (2 per km '-) 10 persons per square m ile (4 per km -)

100 90 70 50 25 0

N o p ro d u ctio n an d none foreseeable Prospecting, b ut n ot yet exploited G ath erin g , o r extractive industries o r crafts L arge ore deposits, en trep o t, o r term inus L arge “ secondary" industries Interregional centre fo r m ultiple services

100 80 50 30 15 0

9a. N u m b er o f in h ab itan ts in a settlem ent

or 9b. P opulation density o f the region (100,000 sq u are miles, o r 256,000 km -) 10. D egree of econom ic activity

80 60 40 20 0

T A B L E II

C a n ad ian exam ples o f local and regional nordicity, by the criteria o f CRITERIA

1. SETTLEMENTS

Shefferville (Q u eb ec) 21 37 42

L atitude S um m er heat A nnual cold Ice: Perm afrost F loating ice P recipitation V egetation Accessibility othe r th an by air A ir service P o p u latio n : N u m b er o f persons Regional density E conom ic A ctivity N o rdicity total

v a po

2. REGIONS

D aw son (Y u k o n )

Resolute (N .W . T e rri­ tories)

C entre o f H udson Bay

Interior of K eew atin

42 24 50

65 90 80

31 71 54

42 60 75

60 — 0 40

60

92

—

—

52 40

95 100

65 52 —

20 20

20 30

70 25

40 100

20 —

67 —

78 —

—

35

50

80

85

100

295

435

775

622*

812

75 —

90 80

100 100

90

* T h e original total o u t o f 800 has been adjusted to o u t o f 1000, fo r co m p ariso n with th e landbased stations.

T A B L E III

C o m p ariso n s o f no rd icity C R IT E R IA

by

the criteria o f

v a po

F A IR B A N K S

VERKHOYANSK

A LESUND

(A lask a)

( U .S .S .R .)

(Svalbard)

L atitude

42

44

75

Sum m er heat A nnual cold Ice P recipitation V egetation

10 65 50 65 15

62 100 90 90 40

70 85 90 60 80

Accessibility by lan d A ir service P opulation E conom ic activity

25 35 0 30

50 40 50 65

50 75 60 92

N ordicity total

337

631

737

4. N ordicity in the Boreal H em isphere C o n tin u in g o n fr o m the p rece d in g index, we n ow ha v e som e o th e r exam p les o f values tak en in different countries. T A B L E IV G lo b al values o f the A m e ric a n an d E u rasian N o rths, in CA NADA

Melville Isla nd (F r a n k lin ) ............................ ..865 A lert ( F r a n k lin ) ................................................ ..854 B arnes Ice C a p (Baffin) ................................. ..804 C a m b rid g e ( F r a n k lin ) ......................................690 C o ra l H a r b o u r (S o u t h a m p t o n ) .................. ..662 F ro b ish er (Baffin) ................................................609 A klav ik (M a c k e n z ie ) ...................................... ..511 P o v u n g n itu k (Q u e b e c ) ......................................502 C h im o (Q u e b e c ) ................................................ ..4 59 C hu rch ill ( M a n ito b a ) ...................................... ..45 0 C hurchill Falls (L a b r a d o r , 1927) ............. ..4 32 F o rt S m ith ( N o rth -W e s t T errito ries) ........ ..423 Y ellow knife (M a c k e n z ie ) ............................... 405 L o ng R ang e (N e w f o u n d la n d ) ....................... .350

vapo.

L a R o n g e (S a s k a tc h e w a n ) ............................ ..34 0 W h iteh o rse (Y u k o n ) ...................................... ..283 G a g n o n (Q u e b e c ) ................................................277 M o oso ne e (O n ta r io ) ...........................................270 N o rth - E a s t o f the G u l f o f St. L a w re n c e .... 238 G r a n d Prairie ( A lb e r ta ) ................................. ..211 C h ib o u g a m a u (Q u e b e c ) ................................. ..183 A LA SKA

B a rro w .................................................................... 799 A n c h o ra g e ............................................................. 20 4 GREENLAND

Ice C a p (o n the Arctic C ircle) ..................... ..830 Scoresby ............................................................... ..635 T h u le (b a s e ) ..........................................................603 U p e rn iv ik ...............................................................584 NORDEN

K irk enes ( N o r w a y ) ............................................ 278 L u lea (S w e d e n ) ................................................... 153 T r o m s o ( N o r w a y ) ........................................... 145 U .S.S.R .

F r a n z Jo s e f L a n d .............................................. W ra n g e l .................................................................. Vilyuiski ............................................................... Tiksi ......................................................................... C hu k o tsk iy M o u n tain s .................................... K h a ta n g a ............................................................... N izhniye K resty ................................................ D io m e d e Island ................................................... A n a d y r .................................................................. T u r a ....................................................................... N o rilsk .................................................................. Y a k u tsk .................................................................. V o rk u ta .................................................................. K h a n ty -M a n siy s k .............................................. K iren sk .................................................................. M a g a d a n ............................................................... M u r m a n s k .........;...........................................— U st’- K a m c h a tsk ................................................... A rk h a n g e ls k ........................................................ S iktyakh .................................................................. O k h a .......................................................................

875 800 766 653 650 634 605 599 579 539 473 392 365 361 343 340 247 238 231 213 209

20

C a n a d a ’s

c h a n g in g

north

By way o f c o m p a riso n there follows the nordicity in v a p o , or p o la r values, o f so m e settlem ents in the sou th ern zo n e of n ordic countries - the nordicity still being calculated w ith the sam e index (this zone in the south o f the N o r th serves as a sup p o rt to the d ev elop m e nt o f the po lar w orld an d we qualify it as a “base” reg io n ). In th e "base” regions o f the U .S .S .R . M oscow ................................................................. 48 Lenin grad ............................................................. 61 N ovosib irsk .......................................................... 125 In th e "base” regions o f Canada M o n tre a l ............................................................... E d m o n to n ............................................................. Sept lies .................................................................. W in nipeg ...............................................................

45 125 133 142

In th e N o rd e n countries, to th e so u th o f th e M id d le N o rth C o p e n h a g e n .......................................................... Stockholm ............................................................. T a m p e r e ( F i n la n d ) ........................................... N a rv ik ( N o r w a y ) .............................................. Reykjavik ( I c e la n d ) .........................................

29 56 67 112 127

T hese and m a n y o th e r values help us establish objective so u th ­ ern boundaries to the n o rth e rn regions. T h e only value-limit w o rth keeping is not the isonord zero v a p o , the farth est frontier, w hic h nordicly speaking is o f little significance, and in A m erica almost com pletely avoids C a n a d a ; but the isonord o f about 200 units which seems, in the present state o f develo pm ent, to provide an acceptable fr o n tie r for the nordic world. T his limit, w hich synthesizes th e region, N o rth , co rresp o n d s to th e so u th ­ e rn limit o f the Middle N o rth , an d is situated a little this side o f the fo r m e r sou th ern limit o f the Subarctic. T h e m ain nordic a re a s thus delineated a re the Arctic O cean , the Soviet N o r th and the C a n a d ia n N o rth . W ithin this a re a there are scarcely m ore than seven million inhabitants, o f w h o m alm ost h alf live in th e E u ro p e a n p a rt o f the R ussian N o rth . This statistic is well short o f the m an y millions living in th e Subarctic, a n u m b er w hic h seem ed excessive, considerin g th a t settlement is limited in cold countries. T h e regional nordicity which appears th e most difficult to d eterm in e is th e line o f transition from the N e a r N o r t h in the

A C IR C U M P O L A R INDEX

21

n o rth e rn fringe o f the base regions, im m ediately to the south o f the M iddle N o r th . T h e se m argin al areas are ch aracterized by a low level o f nordicity, such as in L ulea in Sweden (153 v a p o ) an d M urdochville in Q u eb ec ( 1 2 5 ) , a n d m a y be found equally well on the N o rw eg ian coast, in Baikal (U .S .S .R .) or in Abitibi ( C a n a d a ) . T h e section still least k now n to us is the n ordic Pacific (th e O k h o tsk Sea, the Kuril Islands, the Bering Sea an d the A leu tian Islan d s), a n d n othing could be less c e r­ tain th an the 168 v a p o o f Sovetskaya G a v a n in the n o rth of the Sea o f Ja pa n. T h e nordic index enables us to d eterm in e th a t the m ajo r part o f the A rctic O cean an d G re e n la n d are in the F a r N o rth , w h ereas ab ou t tw o-thirds o f A laska and the U.S.S.R., as well as alm ost the w h ole o f the nordic section o f S candinavia, are in the M iddle N o rth . Relatively speaking C a n a d a seem s to be at a disadvantage, possessing m o r e territory in the High N o rth an d the F a r N o r th p u t tog eth er th a n in the M iddle N o rth alone. G en era lly the score fo r the n ordic index can be seen as the inverse value o f the areas o f habitability.*

* T hese calculations have been m ade fo r th e boreal hem isphere only, but p ro viding we m ade som e m inor corrections, they could equally well be applied to the high A ustral latitudes. The “n o rd ic" vocab u lary w ould becom e a p o lar vocabulary: polar criterion, w orld, index, value, gradient, an d polar front; polaricity (th e eq uivalent o f boreal n o rd icity ); polarians fo r the inhabitants. In the o rd e r o f progressive polaricity, the term s designating the zonal regions would be p re p o la r, m esopolar, m eg ap o lar an d sup erp o lar.

2. The Arctic Basin and the Arctic: Some Definitions John E. Sater s o u r c e

:

Jo h n E. S ater, T h e A rc tic Basin (rev. ed., W ashington: A rctic In stitute o f N o rth A m erica, 1969), pp. 1-4. R eprinted by per­ m ission o f the au th o r and publisher.

C onsiderable m isun de rstan din g still exists a b o u t the portion o f the e arth that we call the Arctic. If som e of this m isu n d er­ standing stems fro m an imprecise terminology, the reason is th a t the w ell-known term s from the p a s t do not suffice to ex­ press the subtleties that are now k n ow n to c haracterize the region. C ertain term s that are co m m o n ly used are unh esitat­ ingly translated by m an y into a few, ra th e r limited - an d som e­ times w ro ng - ideas. A m o n g these term s n ow ren dered inexplicit by an increase in know ledge is the w o rd “a rctic” itself. W ithin a p a rtic u la r discipline, its use as an adjective allows the delineation o f a precise b o u n d a ry co ncernin g that subject, but to define it as a n ou n, o r as an adjective for m o re general application, by co n g lo m eratin g the various b oun da ries o f the m an y disciplines would only be an exercise in confusion. C o n ­ sequently the re a d e r o f these pages will find it m o r e m ean in g ­ ful if he views the term “ a rctic ” as a gro u p of co nce pts and attributes that is not yet closed to a m e n d m e n t - as a w o rd in the process o f being redefined, and certainly not as a territory with precise boundaries. W h e re v e r its bou nd aries, the Arctic is partly ob scured by its distance from us, but m o re by its inhospitable en v iro n m e n t th at has limited the n u m b ers o f those w ho could experience it. O nly w ithin the past few decades have th ere been concerted efforts to learn exactly the processes an d ele m ents th a t make the region w h at it is. T h ese efforts have h ad a dep th an d success n o t previously achieved p rim arily because m o d e rn technology an d geopolitical interests have offered a technical capacity and stim ulus that h ad been lacking before. As with m a n y o th e r a re a s o f inquiry, the A rctic is a subject in w hich the m o re that is learned, the m o re, it is realized, there

T H E A R C TIC BASIN AND T H E A R C T IC : S O M E D E F I N I T I O N S

23

is to learn. W h e n first en co u n te re d by W este rn m a n , a single sim ple term sufficed to describe it. T h e G re e k w o rd fo r b e a r a rk to s - w as an a m p le designation fo r the region in a period w h en m e n were conscious o f the constellations, and the G r e a t Bear, o r Big D ip p er, was a well-known sign in the n o rth e rn sky. T h e early visits w ere p ro b ab ly limited to d istant views of glaciers and snow -covered m o u n ta in s o r cautious probings of th e so u th e rn edges o f the ice-filled seas, but th e ir accom plish­ m e n t b ecam e p art o f o u r his tory a n d the m e m o ry rem ained . G ra d u a lly m ore people p e n e tra te d m ore deeply into the region, som e even settling there, but th eir con tac ts were still few and served to illum inate only small areas o r locales. T h e rise of a stro n o m y an d c a rto g ra p h y eventually led to the defining of a n A rctic C ircle: the line above w hich the sun w ould n o t rise o n the w in ter solstice no r set on the s u m m e r solstice. T h e definition is valid u n d e r m ost circum stances, a n d at the N o r th Pole the sun does not ap p e a r f o r nearly th ree m on ths at m i d ­ winter. H ow ever, because o f the m a n n e r in w h ich the atm o s­ p h e re refracts light, the sun m ay be seen even w hen it is slightly below the horizon, an d on so m e occasions, overcast excluded, will not be visible even when it is above the horizon. Usually three expressions are intertwined - arctic, polar, and high latitude. T h e y have c o m e to be used in terchangeably in con versatio ns ab o u t the n o rth e rn portion o f o u r globe, but alw ays with a lack o f precision. Literally, the A rctic is the area no rth o f 6 6 ° 3 0 ' N , b u t the ina pp ro pria ten ess o f the term s o f definition w eakens its utility. F u rth e rm o r e , the are a is not best k n o w n for the v ariation o f the h o u rs of daylight and darkness b u t for climatic con dition s th a t are little related to the precision o f an astro no m ic definition. “ P o la r” is less exact, t h e re fo re m ore m u table, but it m a y be related to m a n y locations. T h e g e o ­ g raphic, geom agnetic, dip, an d cold poles a n d the pole o f in­ accessibility are all facets of the n o rth po lar region but each has its co u n te rp a rt in the S o u th e rn H em is p h e re . “H ig h latitu de” is convenie nt, because o f its inexactness, but p resu m ab ly supple­ m en ts m iddle and low latitude while retaining th e inflexibility o f all m a th em atical divisions o f the e a r t h ’s surface. A ssum ing th a t it denotes the a re a n o rth ( o r s o u th ) o f 6 0 ° N ( o r S ) , it does n o t ad d o r in clude sufficient distinction to w a rra n t differenti­ ating it from arctic. All these expressions ap ply to the sam e a p p ro x im a te area a n d help to con vey m ean in g to an idea, but each is unsuited o r in a d e q u a te to serve as an all-inclusive definition, o r designation. . . . O c e a n o g ra p h e rs an d m a rin e biologists a re c on cern ed with

I

SOME SIG NIFICANT BOUNDARIES T h e N o r d e n s k jt f ld c l i m i l i c l in e in d e r i v e d f r o m t h e f o r m u l a W » 9 - 0 . I C . W is th e m e a n t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e w a r m e r m o n ih a n d C t h a t o f t h e c o ld e s t m o n th C O . N o r d e n s k j o l d 's d e f i n i t i o n p la c e s I h e c l i m a l i c b o u n d a r y c lo s e r l o t h e ( r e c l i n e in s o m e a r e a s t h a n w o u ld ih e d c f i n i l i o n o f som e o th e r a u th o ritie s .

A u ro ra l Z one ^ A A A A rt «

• • • •

T r e e lin e N o r d e n j k j o l d L in e L im i t o f A r c t i c W a te r*

•

•

•

•

•

M e a n m a x im u m e x t e n t o f S e a Ice C o n tin u o u s P e rm afro st

M ap 2

S o u n r: a /le r J. Sa ter

T H E A R C TIC BASIN AND T H E A R C T IC : S O M E D E F I N I T I O N S

25

the seas a n d the life therein, a n d their definition o f arctic is the refo re limited and applicable only to the seas. T h e y define arctic w a te r as havin g a te m p e ra tu re at o r n e a r 0 ° C an d a salinity o f a pp rox im a tely 30 ° / 00. T h e surfac e w a te r o f the Arctic O cean exhibits these characteristics as do portio ns of the ad jac en t seas. T h e se quantities m a y be established with ac cu racy an d their limits d raw n on a m a p . T h e A rctic Basin itself m a y be d ra w n o n a m ap , f o r it is a stru c tu ra l feature of the e a r t h ’s crust th a t is filled w ith a p o rtio n o f the w orld ocean. . . . O n the land, the o c c u rr e n c e o f p e rm a fro s t gives the geolo­ gists, a n d others, a significant an d definite m e a n s o f establishing an arctic limit. T his p h e n o m e n o n is characterized by th e p re s­ ence o f p erennially frozen g ro u n d a de cim e ter to a m eter o r so below the surface, w hich m ay exten d to d ep ths o f h u n d re d s of m eters. In m o re northerly locations, this p h e n o m e n o n occurs b eneath virtually all the land surface, while fa r th e r so uth it is interru p te d by area s o f un frozen grou nd until a so u th e rn limit is reach ed b eyo nd w hich it is n o t found. P e rm a fro s t is o f in ter­ est to botanists because the ro ots o f plants that grow in the g ro u n d above it c a n n o t p e n e tr a te into it, n o r ca n w ater. A s a result, the ro ot systems of plants a re restricted in size an d the g ro u n d m a y b ecom e very moist in s u m m e r. It is o f interest and co n cern to enginee rs because it h as tre m e n d o u s significance to a n yth in g c o nstructe d above o r in it. A s a result o f the b eh avio r o f the e a r t h ’s m agnetic field, the a u r o r a borealis is seen as a colorful an d u n iq u e a ttribu te o f the n o rth e rn regions. T h e field also creates p ro b lem s in the use of m a gne tic com passes in the region and m ay severely dis rupt radio co m m u n ica tio n s. Physicists th e re fo re m ay delineate an arctic region in w hich there are severe m agn etic disturbances, au ro ral displays, an d significant a n d prolo ng ed radio blackouts. T h e m ost useful definitions o f arctic, in term s o f their m ean in gfu ln ess to m an , are those based o n clim atic factors. T h e weakness o f these definitions is th eir n u m b e r and the fact th a t no o n e o f th e m has been accepted by all co n ce rn ed . T h e 5 0 ° F isotherm , the 4 3 ° isotherm , the m e a n w in ter te m p e ra tu re in relation to s u m m e r means, an d o th e r p a ra m e te rs have been suggested but not agreed to. F u rth e r, the c ondition m o st widely associate d with the te rm arctic - cold - is most applicable in term s o f its d ura tion ra th e r th an its intensity. T h u s while the A rctic is cold lo ng er th a n the low er-latitude regions, the areas o f e xtrem e cold in th e N o rth e r n H e m is p h e re are located in the Subarctic.

26

Ca n a d a ' s

c h a n g in g n o r t h

Treeline is prob ably the m ost useful definition o f arctic for it is related to the clim ate a n d adds a clear visual elem ent that all can see. As a result o f the climatic, an d soil, conditions there is a n o rth ern limit o f trees, an d treeless m o u n ta in s and tu n d ra are the lands that are usually th ought o f as “ the A rctic.” U n ­ fo rtu n ate ly th ere are disadvantages, too, in using treeline as the basis o f a definition. N o t only is it liable to change in time, but also it m ust be subdivided in a m a n n e r sim ilar to the o cea n o g ­ rap he r's high-, mean-, an d low-tidc lines. T h u s there is a n o rth ­ ern limit o f co ntinu ou s forest, a n o rth ern limit o f erect trees, an d a n o rth e rn limit o f species. A concept as co m plex an d ex trem e as the Arctic necessitates establishing a n o th e r region w herein the various circum stan ces are mitigated an d grade into those o f the te m p erate regions. T h u s has com e into use the te r m an d c on cept Subarctic: a vast forested a r e a o f climatic transition. But definitions require limits o r b ou nd arie s an d bo un daries sep arate those things that a re distinct. T h e profusion o f conditions that are n o t coincident w ith each o th e r but w hich have arctic aspects virtually precludes the m ean in g fu l defining o f an •'Arctic.” H ow ever, it is useful to list the factors that in su m m a k e the Arctic the distinct region th at it is, for it is these factors that give m ean in g to the concept an d the word. T h e A rctic: is located in the h ig h e r latitudes o f the N o r th e r n H e m i­ sphere; receives less solar radiation an d, hence, surface w arm ing because o f the oblique angle of incident solar radiation; is cold longer th an te m p e ra te regions; is distinguished by the ab sence o f trees; is charac terized by the o c c u rr e n c e o f p e rm a fro s t u n d e r its land surface; consists mainly o f an ice-covered ocean; experiences a wide rang e in the d u ra tio n o f daylight and darkness; receives n o m o re p recipitation th a n m ost deserts but has m a n y lakes an d rivers th a t m ay freeze solid; is very sparsely settled; lies at considerable distance from the cente rs o f popu latio n; lies betw een the m a jo r popu lation centers o f the p resent day; is not now o f e c o n o m ic im p ortanc e because its resources have only just bec o m e econom ically exploitable.

II

H IST O R IC A L PF.R SPEC T IV E S

3. The Identification of Vinland by A lan C oo ke s o u r c e

:

T h e Polar R ecord, Vol. X II, N o. 80, pp. 583-87. R eprinted by perm ission o f the au th o r an d publisher.

D u rin g the past two h u n d red years, few in form ed persons have d ou bted that abo ut . . 1000 the N o rse a ttem p ted to colonize a pa rt o f the N ew W orld that they called V inland. But the loca­ tion o f V inland an d the m eanin g o f the w ord itself have long been subjects o f dispute a m o n g scholars, an d the lack o f in­ con tro vertib le evidence of N o rse o c cu p a tio n has perm itted a proliferation o f hypotheses. A m o n g the earliest speculators in this m a t te r w ere T orfaiu s ( 1 7 0 5 ) a n d F o rste r ( 1 7 8 4 ) , but the initiation o f spirited co n tro v ersy m ay be credited to R afn ( 1 8 3 7 ) , w h o first forcibly d re w public a tten tion to the fact th a t it was the N o rse who, so m e five h u n d re d years before C olu m b us, discovered the N e w W orld. E x cavation has now revealed house sites in no rth ernm ost N e w fo u n d la n d that, to co m p eten t judges, a p p e a r neith er Indian no r E skim o, but typically N orse. T h is im m ensely satisfying dis­ covery is the achie vem en t o f the N o rw eg ian explorer, scholar, and writer, Helge Ingstad, and his archaeologist wife, A n n e Stine Ingstad. Ingstad began his search for V inland by a c arefu l stu dy o f the v o lu m in ou s literature. T h e evidence is derived chiefly fro m A dam o f Bremen, an ecclesiastical historian, who w rote ab o u t 1075; from Icelandic sagas w ritten d uring the thirteenth and fo urteenth centuries; fro m certain early maps, especially the late sixteenth c e n tu r y delineation o f the n o rth ern regions by Bishop S ig u rd u r S tefansson; an d fro m m o d e rn know ledge o f w e ath er an d ice conditions, ocea n currents, and the te chniques o f navigation o f a th o u sa n d years ago. T h e sagas that m en tio n V inland are n o t consistent in all details, but that is not surprising in acc ou nts w ritten tw o ce n ­ turies o r m o re a fter the event. T h e G rcenlendinga saga gives the fullest a c c o u n t o f the voyages to V in lan d w h ich began abo ut 986, when Bjarni Herjolfsson w as driven off course d u ring a a

d

28

C A N A D A ’S C H A N G I N G N O R T H

voyag e from Iceland to G re e n la n d an d c a m e in sight o f new land. A n acciden t pre ven ted E rik th e R ed, first colon izer of G re e n la n d , fr o m leading an expedition o f la n d -h u n g ry G r e e n ­ lan ders to explore the new land, an d the h o n o u r fell to E rik ’s son, L eif the L ucky. F ollowing B jarni’s c o urse in reverse, Leif sighted first a land o f flat stones, w hich he n a m e d H elluland; f u r th e r south, he fo u n d a w ell-tim bered coast, w hich he n am e d M ar k la n d ; an d to the south-east, he c a m e u p o n a pleasant co u n try , w h ere his expedition passed th e winter. T h is he n am e d V inland. T h e next s u m m e r, L eif re tu rn ed to G re e n la n d . A y e a r later, his b ro th e r T h o rv a ld led a second ex pedition to colonize V in ­ land. Using the houses built by L eif as base, he m a d e in the first s u m m e r a long e xp lo ratio n w estw ard; in th e second s u m m e r, he explored east and north, p ro b a b ly along the coast o f M a rk la n d . H e r e the N o rs e m e t natives fo r the first time, w h o m th ey called Skraslings, an d by a Skraeling arro w T h o rv a ld died. A f te r passing a second w in ter in V in land , his p a rt y retu rn ed , with their sad news, to G re e n la n d . A n o th e r o f Erik the R e d ’s sons, T horstein, set o u t to retrieve T h o r v a ld ’s body fr o m its M a r k la n d burial, b u t he was obliged to give up the plan a fte r a storm-tossed s u m m e r at sea, a n d he died the next w in ter in G re e n la n d . His widow, G u d rid , m arrie d T h o rfin n K arlsefni, w ho followed the course o f his w ife’s bro thers-in-law, tak ing w ith h im to V inland th re e ships, 160 m en, som e with fam ilies, an d livestock. But, a fte r fu rth e r ex plorations an d a battle w ith the S k ralin g s, they, too, withdrew. A son, S norri, w as b o rn to G u d r id in V inland, the first A m e ric a n o f E u r o p e a n p aren ts, so f a r as re co rd tells. L e if’s half-sister, F reydis, m a d e a n o th e r a tte m p t to settle V inland, b u t h e r venture en ded in civil discord a n d m u rd e r. T h e sagas do not dwell o n later voyages to V in la n d and M a r k la n d , p e rh a p s becau se th ey had be co m e c o m m o n p la c e and lacked the epic quality o f those m a d e by E rik ’s vigorous and b old children. In o th e r Icelandic records, there is m en tio n o f the d e p a rtu re o f a m issionary bishop to V inlan d in 1121 a n d of a w ood -g ath ering trip fr o m G re e n la n d to M a r k la n d in 1347. N icolo Z eno q uo tes a fish erm an’s story th a t seem s to sho w the presence of N o rs e m e n in V in la n d or M a r k la n d as late as 1354. But w h e re was V in lan d? T h e r e is goo d reason to suppose th a t H e llu la n d was som e p a r t o f p re s en t-d ay Baffin Island and that M a r k la n d was so m e p a r t o f the co ast o f L a b ra d o r, p erh a p s the h a nd som ely forested region o f L a k e Melville a n d H am ilto n Inlet. In gstad has ass u m ed th a t th e s a g a directions an d the descriptions o f time-distance relations m e a n w h at th ey say - an

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assum p tio n that few o f his predecessors in the V inlan d search ha v e cared to m a k e - an d tha t, th erefore, V inla nd m ust lie fairly far north in N e w fo u n d la n d ; w ithin tw o d ays of M a r k la n d an d a sh ort s u m m e r ’s sail fro m G re e n la n d . H e h as accepted, as a few recent sch olars have, the suggestion m a d e by the Swedish philologist S od erb u rg in 1888 that v in m a y be tak en to m ean pastu re, an d that V in land was re m a rk ab le in L eif’s eyes, not for its wines o r vines, as A d a m o f B rem en a n d the saga-writers after h im su pposed, b u t for its grazing potential. T his theory Ingstad has e labo rated in a massive study, L a n d e t u n d e r leidarstjernen (1959). In 1960, In gstad began a survey, by bo at an d airplane, of the coast from R h o d e Island n o rth to N ew fo u n d lan d . In n o rth ­ ern N ew fo u n d la n d , a resident o f L ’A n se-au x-M ea do w s gave him news o f nearby ruins, w hich, d uring the s u m m e r o f 1961, F r u Ingstad began to excavate. F r o m the beginning, their close res em b la n ce to N o rse rem ain s in G re e n la n d w as prom ising. T h e Ingstads co n tinu ed ex cavation d u rin g the s u m m e rs o f 1962, 1963, an d 1964, assisted by scientists from N o rw a y , Sweden, Iceland, C a n a d a , an d the U n ite d Stales. T h e ir lab ou rs revealed several house sites. O n e o f them m easures a b o u t 20 by 15 metres, an d is co m po sed o f a g reat hall a n d fo u r co nnecting room s. N e a r by, th ey found a sm ithy with a stone anvil and m a n y h u n d red pieces o f slag, bits o f iron an d bog iron; they found, also, a pit fo r the m a n u f a c tu r e o f c h a rco al and, in the neig hbo urho od , a rich deposit o f bog iron. T h e te chniques evidently used fo r m aking charcoal an d fo r hot-forging iron were u n k n o w n to p rim itiv e In dian s an d Eskim os, an d to postC o lu m b ian o ccu p an ts o f the region they w ould p ro b ab ly have been obsolete. A dozen C a r b o n - 14 dates from the site cluster aro u n d 1000. T h e first and, so far, the only recognizably N o rse artifact, a soapstone spindle w horl, was u n co vered just at the end o f the 1964 season. T h e scarcity o f N o rs e artifacts is dis­ appointing but not surprising, for m ost will h av e decayed long since in the wet and acid soil. O v er the diggings, the G o v e r n ­ m e n t o f N e w fo u n d la n d has erected shelters, an d it has d eclared th e site an historical m o n u m en t. It c a n n o t be asserted positively th a t L ’A n se-au x -M e ad o w s was the N e w W o rld h o m e o f Leif E rik son him self, b u t the geo grap hy o f the region so nearly m atches the saga descriptions o f V inland that identity seems very likely. H o w m u ch fa rth er south the V ikings sailed, or how far w estw ard into the co ntin ent they pen etrated c a n n o t yet be stated with an y confidence. T h e re is no reason to sup po se they did not explore far, both sou th and

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west, an d there is reason to h op e that the interest gen erated by the Ingstads’ discovery m a y lead to new revelations o f N o rse occ up atio n o f the N e w W orld. In the U nited States, heightened public interest in N orse know ledge o f the N ew W orld has led to the d eclaration o f Leif E rik son Day. In A ug ust 1964, C ongress passed a joint resolu­ tion (H .J. Res. 393, introd uced into the Senate by th en S e nator H u m p h r e y ) that au tho riz ed the P residen t to p ro claim the day each year on O cto b e r 9. It was th oug ht ap pro priate , in nam ing this c o m m e m o ra tiv e date, to accord L eif a three-day precedence o ver C o lu m b u s, whose dis covery of the N e w W o rld is cele brated on O cto b e r 12. T h e p o sth u m o u s publication o f V ilh ja lm u r Stefansson’s a u to b io g ra p h y (1 9 6 4 ) is a re m in d e r that the discovery o f the N e w W orld was com pleted by the N o rse race that, by following a w estw ard course from N o rw a y to Ireland, Iceland, G reen lan d, and V inlan d, h ad begun it. In 1915 a n d 1916, Stefansson, a C an a d ia n - b o rn Icelander, ad ded the last m a jo r land masses to the m a p o f the C an a d ia n A rctic A rchipelago. T h e kin ship­ conscious N o rs e m e n o f the eleventh cen tu ry w ould, no doubt, have ta ken satisfaction in the know ledge that Stefansson, in c o m m o n w ith m a n y o th e r Icelanders, could tr ace his family b ack th ro u g h the w on derfully com plete reco rd s o f Icelandic history to in clude S norri, the first son o f V inland.

4. Early Geographical Concepts of the Northwest Passage Theodore E. Layng s o u r c e

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N o rth , Vol. X III, No. 4 (July-A ug., 1966). R eprinted by p e r­ mission o f the au th o r and publisher.

T h e venerable A d a m o f Bremen in his great ecclesiastical his­ tory o f n o rth ern E urop e, w ritten ab o u t 1075, reco rd ed for the first time the existence o f Iceland, G re e n la n d , an d “ islands” bearing fa rth er aw ay in the sam e direction. H e was in fact giving to an uninterested E u ro p e the highlights o f the N orse odyssey to A m erica. D o not n u m b e r h im h ow ev er a m ongst the early p ro p o n e n ts o f a northwest passage. H e advises that beyond G re e n la n d “there the ocean, s h ro u d ed in mist, form s the b o u n d a ry .” T h e r e is a p ara do x here. T h e “islands” west o f G re e n la n d the H elluland , M a rk la n d , an d V inland o f the N o r s e m e n could scarcely be ou t-of-bounds. U n h a p p y A d am . He accepted in principle the disconcerting c o n ce p t o f a g lo b ular world, but his th ou gh ts still g ene rated w ithin that very practical im age that the m a p m a k e rs o f his day were w ont to p resen t. T h e awful ocean flowed all ro u n d , corsctting the tripartite w orld o f E urope, Asia and A frica, and it was scarcely within the schem e o f things to bulge the tight little c arto graph ical circle to a c c o m m o d a te lan d s not m entio ned in the Bible, and th erefo re beyond the decent regard o f m an. M eanw hile the S candinavians w ere ranging far an d w ide across the top o f the globe from the W h ite Sea to the C an a d ia n A rchipelago. A m on gst their kind it is certain that navigating to the west along a no rth erly A tlantic route was a freq uen t o c c u r­ rence. F o r the mediaeval sailor it w as surely a m o re reassuring thought to sail the top o f the w orld th an to risk sailing throu gh fiery equatorial regions to the bo ttom , w here G o d alone knew how a m a n could avoid orbitting into space. D u rin g the fo urteen th and fifteenth centuries the old N o rse route b ec am e less a n d less frequented. T h e S can dinav ian people seem to have lost th eir zest fo r the sea. Interest in m aintaining

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their m o n o p o ly o f the north w an ed in the face o f new c o m p e ti­ tion from H anseatic an d English traders. T h e r e is n o reason to believe h ow ever th a t know ledge o r indeed co m m u n ic a tio n with G re e n la n d ceased entirely. T h e fisherm en o f E n g lan d began to frequent Icelandic waters e arly in the fou rteen th cen tury, and it is easy to be persu aded th a t by accident o r design som e o f their nu m b ers w ould occasionally p u rs u e a course fa r th e r west. By the middle o f the fifteenth century, Po rtu gu ese caravels had begun to d o m in a te the A tlantic, and it is not im p ro b a b le that before the ye ar 1500 th ey ha d alread y been searching out “ islands” west o f G reen la nd . W h a te v e r the case, a n d for w ha teve r pu rp o se m en might search along old N o rse ro ute s a m on gst Arctic ice flows, these m atters were soon forgotten w h en news spre ad of the rich Spanish discoveries in so u th e rn climates. F ro m the C o lum bia n discovery in 1497 to the m a p m a k e rs ’ creatio n o f the Strait o f A n ia n (B eh rin g S trait) in 1566, the n orth w est passage, in reality totally unrealized, was to re m a in a figment capable of assum ing a multiplicity o f fo rm s. In fairness to sixteenth-century m a p m a k e rs it m u st be pointed o u t th a t ex pe rim en tatio n with the n o rth e rn term inu s o f the newly discovered c o n tin e n t w as only incidental to their larger task o f presenting a plausible geographical relation betw een A m e ric a and Asia. T h e co ncep t o f a no rth w e st passage w ould not really exercise geographers until a final c a rto g ra p h i­ cal divorce was obtained betw een A m eric a an d Asia. G e o g ra p h y begins w ith P to lem y o f course, an d he h ad long ago (A .D . 150) d ecreed that the k n o w n w orld betw een the C ana rie s and his farthest east should o ccu p y 180 degrees of longitude. A fte r the th irtee n th -cen tu ry travels o f M a r c o Polo the c a rto g rap h ers casually a dd ed a n o th e r 60 degrees o f m a in ­ land to P to lem y ’s farthest east an d placed Z ip a n g o (Japan) a n o th e r 30 degrees beyond. T h e total extent, east to west, o f the pre-C o lu m b ian w orld as sh ow n on the B ehaim globe o f 1492 was 270 degrees, leaving som e 9 0 degrees o f o cean to be tra ­ versed. N evertheless, as early as 1470 the c o ncep t o f sailing due west to gain the riches o f the east was a fully realized concept and awaited only the confirm ation o f C o lum bus. C olum bu s, before setting out, h ad assured him self that Ptolem y had over-calculated the length o f a terrestrial degree. H e believed that C a ttiga ra, placed on P to lem y ’s 180th meridian, was actually on the 2 2 5 th meridian. By his calculation Ja p a n lay ab ou t 45 degrees closer to E u ro p e th a n it w as placed on B ehaim ’s globe. C o lu m b u s th erefo re w as quite p re p a re d to

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believe that C u b a w as the m ain lan d o f Asia. M u ch fa r th e r n orth, Jo h n C ab ot had m ade a landfall on w h a t he believed was a g reat no rth easte rly projection o f Asia. A n d th ere was no m an cap able o f offering a so un d case against either. W h a t a q u a n d a ry for the m ap m a k e rs. T o believe eith er m an was to reject Ptolemy. It w as im possible to represen t the new discoveries as p a rt of Asia, m aintain P tolem y's value o f the degree, an d crow d ev ery ­ thing into a 360-degree E arth . T h e m a gnitud e o f the enigm a can be m o r e perfectly realized if we stop to co nsid er that m o d ern science allows ov er 200 degrees to place A m e ric a in correct relation to h er o ld e r neighbours. It is surely a first-hand intim a­ tion o f bewildered frustration to stud y the first m a p form s o f the N e w World. T h e first m aps o f C an a d ia n regions w ere particularly enig­ matical. H o w ev er m u c h th ey m a y have delighted scholars th ro u g h the last c e ntu ry , th ey w ere o f little use to co n te m p o ra ry g eographers. M ap s like the C o n ta rin i o f 1506 a n d the Ruysch o f 1508 m isrepresent C a n a d a as a n ortheaste rly projection o f Asia. In fact, th ere was so little available know ledge o f the actual n o rth e rn Asia that c a rto g ra p h e rs w ere quite capable o f eq u atin g G re e n la n d w ith the Siberian Peninsula. It is easy to u n d ers tan d w hy know ledge o f the n o rth lagged; still it is a curiou s fact that although all o th e r q u a rte rs o f the A tlantic region w ere m entio ned in the T rea ty o f T o rd esilla s, 1494, o r in the papal bulls leading to the treaty, no referen ce was m a d e to th e northw esterly quarter. O n e m ight expect the P ortu gu ese to have given birth to a reaso nab le c a rto gra ph ical p attern o f o u r n o rth ea st coast, but such w as not the case. F o r instance, the C an tin o m a p o f 1502 shows an indefinite n o rth-so uth coast, south-w est o f G reenland , straddling the Line o f D e m a rc a tio n , as if the m a p m a k e r was m o re co n c e rn e d with establishing dip lo m atic rights th an adding to the sum o f geographical knowledge. O f the east-west line of the L a C osa m ap (1500) and the O liveriana (1506) little can be said except that surely e n o ug h has been w ritten to p rove th a t it was in deed the m ost qu estion able line ever d ra w n on a plane surface. It w as M artin W aldseem uller, a G e r m a n geog rap h e r w o rk ­ ing in the town o f St. Die, w ho finally fo u nd a w ay o u t o f the cosm og rap hical impasse. A p p a re n tly he accepted A m erigo V esp ucci’s startling c o n c ep t th a t the new discoveries w e re in fa c t p arts o f a hithe rto u n k n o w n continent. O n his g reat m a p of 1507, the A m e ric a s a re show n fo r the first time as sep arate land masses. M o reov er, W a ldsee m ulle r very ingeniously contrived

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to introd uce the n ew c o n tine nt w ith ou t u n d uly offending a n y of the c u rr e n t schools o f th ou gh t. T h e old w orld from the C anaries to Z ip an g o w as represen ted w ithin 2 70 degrees o f longitude, the far east term in atin g o n th e right h a n d side o f his m a p in a m a n n e r pleasing to the loyal forces o f Ptolemy. In the 90 degrees re m a in in g to him on the left h a n d side o f the m a p , he drew , in elongated form , the new an d fo urth p a rt of the w orld w ith the east coast in the longitude ap p ro v ed by C olum bus. T h e latter an d his followers m ight take this to re p resen t the east coast o f A sia if th ey w ished, b u t w h a t m atter, the form o f the N e w W o rld , u p o n w h ich oth ers m u s t build, h a d been established. T h e n o rth e rn term inu s o f the new continent, how ever, is still a question m ark . A m e ri c a ends in a co nv entio nal and forsh ortene d n o rth-so uth line, bearing the stan d ard o f Spain, in f a r n o rth e rn latitudes. F a r o u t in m id-A tlantic lies an in deter­ m in ate mass o f land bearin g the P ortug uese flag. In his m a p p ro p er, W a ldsee m uller show s a strait sep a ra tin g n o rth and s o uth A m e ric a. In an inset he represents a c o n tin u in g co ast line. W a ldsee m uller w as indeed a m aster o f com prom ise. Some tho u san d copies o f his m a p w ere p rinted and its influence f o r the n ex t h alf ce n tu ry is clearly recognizable in the m a p p in g o f the new world. H e re w as the tru e genesis o f the c o n cep t o f a n orthw est passage. W ald seem uller had created an entirely h ypothetical Pacific O c e a n w hich no E u ro p e a n had yet realized let alone seen. A t the sam e time, he offered three possible th r o u g h -o c ean ro ute s to Asia. P erh a p s there was a co nv enie nt w ay th ro u g h the region of P a n a m a . If this w ere n o t so, o n e h ad o nly to seek the n o rth ern o r so u th e rn extrem ity o f the n ew c o n tin e n t an d set his course f o r Asia. T h e n , in 1513 B alboa stood “silent u p o n a pea k in D a r ie n ” an d, gazing to w ard s the sou th, beheld in w o n d e rm e n t the great Pacific a n d called it the S o uth Sea. C ortes an d others im m edi­ ately initiated explorations on bo th sides o f the C e n tral A m e ri­ ca n coast line, h oping to find the p lace w h e re the tw o oceans joined. It w as alm ost a d eca de before it w as clearly- d e m o n ­ strated that there w as no m e etin g o f the w aters an y w h ere within h u n d re d s o f leagues o f D arien. C o rtes suggested a search u p the n o rth east coast to w ards B acalaos (N e w fo u n d la n d ). N o one w a n te d to search along the w estern coast b eyond California. T o d o so w ould poin t th e m to the m o s t rem ote p o in t from E u r o p e o f the kn ow n inh abited w orld. It w as b ad enough search ing a m id st ice flows alon g the n o rth east coast, as the

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P o rtu gu ese, English and Bretons knew. A n d fo r w h a t w ere they searching? E ven W aldseem u ller had lost his convictions ab ou t the n ew continent. O n his m a p o f 1516, he designated C u b a as p a rt o f A sia w ith o u t even attem ptin g to sh ow a con ne ctio n betw een the new discoveries an d Asia. T h e r e are a few historians w h o w o u ld a ttrib u te to Sebastian C a b o t a re m a rk a b le know ledge at this p eriod o f the n ew co n ti­ n e n t an d a w ay to A sia th ro u g h the north. T h e y would ha v e him in 1507 o r 1508 dis covering H u d s o n ’s S trait an d divining a passage th ro ug h the A rc tic A rch ipela go . T his w as p re s u m a b ly the know ledge he held as bait to w heed le his w a y to fa m e in S panish h y d ro grap hic al circles. B ut in deed it is n o t easy to be p ersu ad ed that Sebastian w as ev er in C a n a d ia n waters, let alone to believe that he w as the first to d e m o n s tra te the existence o f the N o rth w e s t Passage. It w as J o h a n n Sch on er, a G e r m a n g e o g ra p h e r an d globe m ak er, w h o provided the c o sm o g rap h ers with a new inspiration. A lth o u g h he believed th a t n o rth o f the n ew discoveries som e p a rt o f C h in a w ould be fo u n d - p e rh ap s even the rich C a th a y he offered a m o re enticing passage by the south. On his 1515 globe he located a strait, c o n n ec tin g the A tla n tic an d Pacific O cean, w hich lay betw een A m e ri c a an d “Brasilie R egio.” Spain was persuaded. T h e Po rtu g u e se h a d successfully r o u n d e d A f ­ rica; n o w the S p anish w o u ld circu m n av ig ate A m erica. T h e M agellan expedition (1 5 19-1523) re m ain s one o f the g reatest episodes in the his tory o f discovery. It is th erefo re all the m o r e ironical that, in o pen ing a w ay to the Pacific by sailing a ro u n d C a p e H o rn , the expedition in d irec tly 'le d to c a rto g ra ­ p h ers sealing the w ay by the north. T h e story is o n e o f the most in trigu ing m oves in the g reat tran s-o ceanic gam ble w h ich in the early years o f the sixteenth ce n tu r y w as being played o u t be­ tw een the kings an d politicians o f Spain an d P ortugal. A fte r M a g e lla n ’s voyage it ap p ea red th a t bo th cou ntries had w o n their stake. T h e Po rtug uese, by sailing to the E ast a ro u n d A fric a , had tapp ed the riches o f A sia, a n d n ow the Spanish h ad re ach ed the sam e goal by sailing w estw ard a ro u n d the n ew continent. N o w the question arose - w here did the L ine o f D e m a rc a t io n divide Spanish a n d P ortug uese spheres in the Pacific? T h e P o rtu gu ese w ere a lread y striking o u t o n an easterly r o u t e to w ard s the M a la y P eninsula, a n d th e S p an iard s w ere desp era te to forestall them. A t the C ongress o f B ad joz in 1524, they claim ed th a t the L ine o f D e m a rc a tio n w o u ld pass th ro u g h the tip o f the M a la y P eninsula, thus leaving the M olu cas, the Philippines, th e eastern coast o f Asia, an d everyth ing east o f it

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to Spain. It w as r a t h e r a large claim, and the P ortug uese were hav ing none o f it. (By m o d e rn calculations the line ran 5 degrees e a st o f the M oluccas.) O bviously the Spanish case needed strengthening, and ap pa rently the survivors o f the Magellan expedition provided the rig ht answ ers at the right time. T he distance in longitude, they said, betw een the Strait o f Magellan and the Philippines was 106° 3 0 '. T h e L ad ro n es w ere 300 leagues farth er to the east, o r in o th e r w ords, they lay so m e­ w h ere betw een 2 2 0 ° and 2 2 5 ° longitude. T h is sort o f reporting, co u p le d with erro n e o u s info rm ation ab o u t the longitude o f the S p anish discoveries in the region of C entral A m erica, gave rise to som e new and b izarre m apping. Sch on er, for instance, had been in form ed th a t M exico City was located ab o u t 2 25 degrees east, that is to say, on a b o u t the sam e m eridian as the L adron es. His m ind was surely well exercised. O bviously the A sian coast w as m o re closely related to A m e ric a th an he had realized. T h e easiest w ay to straighten the m a tte r o u t w as to rejoin A m e ric a with Asia. Balboa's South Sea w as in effect a great bay. A n d m a n y o f the a rm c h a ir geog­ rap h e rs o f E u ro p e , including wise G io c o m m i G astaldi o f Italy., f o u n d S ch o n er’s solution acceptable. T h e r e w asn't m u ch in­ spiration left for seeking a n orthw e st passage. F ortu n a tely , the pace o f discovery a n d speculation was too rapid to allow geog raph y to freeze upon such a concept. A b o u t the time the M agellan expedition re tu rn ed to Spain, King F ran cis I o f F ra n c e decided it w as tim e for him to stake a claim in the N e w W orld. Like the early T u d o r s o f E ngland, he considered the T reaty o f Tordesillas, reserving this right to Spain an d P ortugal, a scrap o f paper. In 1524 he sent G iovanni d a V e rrazza no , a F lo re ntin e, to the co ast o f A m e ric a with the usual injunction to search f o r a passage to Asia. R an gin g the coast o f N o r th C aro lin a, V e rra z z a n o fo u nd an isthmus, “ a mile in w idth and 2 00 long,” w h ich has been identified with the great s a n d b a r ex tending from P am lico to A lb e rm a rle S ound. It m ay have been the p o o r visibility, o r it m a y have been his great longing to see the W estern Sea, but fro m his v antag e poin t V e rra z z a n o m isto ok the lagoon to the west for “the oriental sea . . . w h ich is the o n e w ith o u t d o u b t w hich goes ab o u t the extrem ity o f India, C h in a an d C a th a y .” In 1527 V esconte de Maiollo o f Italy p ro d u c e d a m a p obligingly giving p rom ine nce to V e rra z z a n o ’s Sea, sh ow ing the n arro w is thm us an d giving to C an a d ia n p arts the form o f a well-developed tu rn ip. M ore im p ortant, he extended the V e rra z z a n o Sea no rth w ard , po int­ ing the way to a th rou gh passage to the Atlantic. T h is was

G EO G R A P H IC A L C O N C E P T S O F T H E N O R T H W E S T PASSAGE

37

indeed a m ake-w eight against the parties o f un ion fo r A m erica an d Asia. Battista Agnese, a n o th e r p o p u la r Italian m a p m a k e r, to o k u p the vogue o f the V erra z z a n o Sea an d g rad ua lly a passage to the north o f the A m e ric a s began to gain ascendancy in carto g raph ical circles, exp erien cing in the process some re m a rk a b le gro w in g pains. O ne form in p a rtic u la r that it assum ed m u st en te r into all discussions regarding the genesis o f the n orthw est passage. It is that display on the G e m m a Frisius globe c. 1537. U n f o r ­ tunately, the on ly legible co py of it available is a sketch draw n a n d re prod uc ed by G a n o n g ' so m e years ago. T h e re is little d o u b t that the pro toty pe o f this globe was in existence before the V e rra z z a n o Seat ap p eared on maps, a n d regardless o f the validity o f its source, the con cept of the passage as is shown on the globe w as substituted by m ost m a p m a k e rs fo r the Verrazzan ian concept. It is in deed a tem p tatio n to po int to the globe as d em o n stratin g that the genesis o f the n orthw est p a s ­ sage w as fou nd ed upon an actual voyage p enetrating into the A rctic fro m east to west. W h o were the three bro thers afte r which the A rctic Strait is n a m e d ? T h e re were three b ro th ers in th e C ab o t family and three in the C orte-R ea l family. Is the “terra p e r b rita n n o s in v e n ta " lan d discovered by English or B retons? Is the strait a con fu sed expression fo r the Strait of Belle Isle? In any case m a p m a k e rs developed from the model a well-defined passage north o f the co ntinen t tren din g so uth ­ west into the Pacific. U n do ub ted ly, the D ieppe m a p s ,2 the M e rc a to r m a p of 1538, an d la ter Agnese- maps, all o f w h ich followed u p o n the G e m m a F risius pattern , did m uch to tu r n English thinking to w ard s the north. In 1548 G astaldi in troduced an ingenious co m b ina tion of S ch on er and V erraz zan ian m a pp ing . H e placed V e rra z z a n o ’s isthm us in a relatively high latitude, with the corresp on din g sea as the large in dentation directly north o f it. T ru e , he still m an aged to join A m e ric a with Asia, but in 1562 he becam e a rabid convert to sep aratio n and, in his p a m p h le t “L a universalle d escrittio n e d el M o n d o ," he expressly m entio ned the existence o f a Strait o f A n nian m o re o r less in the sam e loca­ tion as B ehring Strait. N o o n e h as yet offered a reasonable ex plana tion o f G astald i's m a s te r stroke, but even in retrospect 1 W. F. G an o n g , C rucial m aps in the early cartography and placenoinenclatnre o f C anada, U niversity o f T o ro n to Press, in co­ o p eratio n w ith the Royal Society o f C a n ad a, 3rd series. - D csliens 1541, D escelliers 1546, H arleian c. 1542.

38

C a n a d a ’s

c h a n g in g

north

it app ears to rival W ald see m u ller’s Pacific as the best educated guess o f the sixteenth century. P robably G astaldi p ro d u ced a m a p to a c c o m p a n y his p am p hle t, but if so it has not sur­ vived, and the earliest dated m a p to sho w the Strait o f A n ian is the Zalterii o f 1566. In 1570 O rtelius, the g reat D utch atlas m ak er, a d o p ted the G astaldi fo rm an d its place in c o n te m p o ra r y m ap p in g was assured. O ne small poin t - the Ortelius m a p s and m o s t o f the m aps o f the last q u a rte r o f the cen tu ry show a very welldefined indentation m ore o r less in the location o f H u dso n Bay. T his m a y a p p e a r a nice bit of sp eculatio n since H u dso n d id n't arrive on the scene until 1612. P e rh a p s it is only a reces­ sion to the north o f G astald i's V e rra z z a n o ’s Sea. It all c a m e ab ou t by the natural aversion carto g ra p h e rs have to blank spaces on their maps. But w hat perspicacity these sixteenth cen tu ry m a p m a k e rs show ed in their final selec­ tion o f a suitable form fo r the northwest passage. A n o th e r tw o centuries were to elapse before the gentlemen of the Royal N av y were able to add su bstance to the form.

5. Voyageurs’ Highway: The Geography and Logistics of the Canadian Fur Trade Eric W . Morse s o u r c e

:

C anadian G eographical Journal, L X II, no. 5 (M ay, 1961), pp. 148-158. T his is the first o f th ree articles dealing w ith the geography o f the fu r trad e routes which ap p eared in the C dn. G eog. Jnl. A fuller version by the a u th o r was published as F ur T rade Canoe R o u te s o f Canada / T h en and N o w , by the Q ueen’s P rin ter, O ttaw a, 1969. R eprinted by perm ission o f th e au th o r an d publisher.

T w o h u n d re d years ago, as to d ay, the ice b ro k e u p on the O ttaw a R iver aro u n d the first o f May. In the hey day o f the M o ntreal fu r trade, the half ce n tu r y fro m 1770 to 1820, the first o f M a y saw g reat activity at L achine, eight miles above Montreal. “ Brigades” o f big M ontreal canoes, o r “ca n o ts de m a i t r e each c ra f t p ad d le d by ten o r a dozen colourfully dressed voyageurs, an d c arryin g up to three tons o f cargo, were lo aded and began to m ove off for the “p a ys d ’en h a u t.” T h e y w ent straight west u p the O ttaw a R iver to M attaw a, w here the O tta w a ends its big sw ing dow n fro m the north. H e r e th ey h ead ed up the M a tta w a River, a n d padd led and portaged forty miles to its so urce in T ro u t L ake, at N o rth Bay. T h re e po rtag es o ver a rough divide led them into L a k e Nipissing, fro m w here it was easy going dow n the F re n c h River to G e o rg ian Bay. A fte r following the N o r th C h an n e l above M anitoulin Island, they portaged past Sault Ste. M arie and h e ad e d o u t a ro u n d the trea che rou s 4 50-m ile passage o f the N o r th Shore o f L ak e Superior. A b o u t the end o f Jun e, a fte r eight w eeks o f long days, g reat h a z a rd s a n d un rem ittin g toil, th ey fo u n d them selves at their objective, G r a n d Portage. T h is was the g reat central en tre p o t o f the C a n a d ia n fu r trade, situated o n a shallow bay o f L ake S u p erio r ten miles south o f the m o u th o f the Pigeon River, the present in ternational b o rder. ( G r a n d P ortag e was ab an d o n e d w hen the A m erica n s m a d e good th eir claim to the

40

C a n a d a ’s

c h a n g in g n o r t h

n ew b o u n d ary , an d from a b o u t 1803 its place w as tak en by F o r t W illiam.) G r a n d P o rtag e was the objective o f the big c a n o ts de m a itre from M o ntreal, an d a rendezvous. B ut it was n o t the en d o f the line. T h e o th e r e n d of the “V o y ag eu rs’ H ig h w a y ” was F o rt C h ip e w y a n o n L a k e A th abasca. T h e ice in th a t lati­ tu d e did not b reak up quite as soon as o n the O ttaw a. T h o u g h the big n o rth ern lakes often were still iced ov er in J u n e , the tu rb u len t A th a b asc a R iver usually b u rs t w inter’s bo nd s a rou nd M a y 15. F o rt C h ip e w y a n a b o u t then b e cam e a scene similar to L achine a fortnight earlier. A n d while the M ontreal canoes w ere paddling w estw ard, the A th ab asca Brigade was paddling eastw ard to meet the ca n o ts de m a itre at G r a n d Portage. T h e w aters west o f L a k e S up erio r on the w hole were sm aller, an d tw o continental divides h a d to be crossed. T h e cra f t used here was the N o r t h can o e - high-ended, h alf the capacity, and padd led by six o r eight men. O n the trip east they carried, not trad in g goods, but bales o f fur. U p the A th ab asca R iver th ey padd led fo r tw o h u n d re d miles, leaving it at F ort M c M u r r a y (W a te rw a y s ) to ascend the swift C learw ater. This strea m they left a fter eig hty miles, to cross the gruelling thirteen-mile M eth ye ( L a L oc he) Portage, w h ich brought th e m to the h ead w ate rs o f the C hurchill River. T h e Churchill was followed for so m e fo u r h u n d re d miles to a poin t north o f C u m b e rla n d H o u se w h e re Fro g P o rtag e led th em o ver the S turgeon-w eir River, w hich ( f o r its w icked ra p id s) the voya­ geurs called the Maligne. T h is c arried th e m dow n to the Sas­ k a tch e w an R iver, w hich th ey then followed to its m o u th in L a k e Winnipeg. M ost o f this jo u rn e y fro m F o rt C hip ew y an was d o w n ­ stre am . T h e r e followed the passage o f storm -tossed, shallow L a k e W innipeg, and th en the laborious ascent o f the W innipeg R iver and its trib u tary the R ainy along the border-lakes chain. T h is led them to the divide, an d o ver it to either G r a n d Po rtage o r F o r t h W illiam , the tw o routes sep aratin g at L ake L a Croix a little to the east o f R ainy Lake. A long th e w ay, the A th a b a sc a Brigade would som etim es be joined by o th e r less distant Brigades - those fr o m lie a la Crosse, C u m b e rla n d H o u se , o r Red River. Actually, because o f the greater distance, the A th a b a sc a Brigade usually got only as far as F o rt St. Pierre at the foot o f R ain y L ake, w h ere they w ere met by a special d eta c h m e n t fro m G r a n d P o rta g e in midJu ly an d were allowed to get aw ay o n their tw o -m o n th s’ ho m e jo u rn e y before the first o f A ugust. O therw ise, the re fo rw ard in g

G E O G R A P H Y A N D LO G IST IC S O F T H E CANADIAN F U R TR A D E

41

o f so m e o f the ir re tu rn ca rg o o f trad in g goods fro m F o r t C h ip ew y an to the outlying posts in the M ack en zie D istrict could n o t be a ccom plished before freeze-up. All this is o f necessity a sketch and a simplification, taking no a c co u n t o f the f u r tr a d e ’s vicissitudes an d the later m odifi­ cations o f the route. N o r does it a ttem p t to b ring in the avenue used b y C a n a d a ’s o th e r fu r-tra d in g enterprise, the H u d s o n ’s Bay C o m p a n y , w h ich will be fitted into the p ictu re later. S taked o u t here, how ever, is a w a te r route, C a n a d a ’s first an d m a in th r o u g h way, w hich h as p ro b ab ly d o n e m o re to shape C a n a d a ’s his tory an d d e v e lo p m en t th a n any o th e r o f its avenues o f c o m m u n icatio n . T h e co u reu rs de bois, the vo ya g eu rs and early explorers w h o first used this rou te are sym bols o f C a n ­ a d a ’s h eroic o r epic age; an d few nations have so colo urful a n d ro m a n tic a past. M a n y C a n a d ia n s seem to be aw a re o f the historical associations o f this hig hw ay, w itho ut realizing th a t the actua l r o u te still lies ha rd ly ch an g e d to d a y : the scenery, th e con dition s o f wind an d c u rr e n t, nearly all the actual p o r ­ tages h av e scarcely altered in the th ree c entu ries since th e first fur-seekers h eaded o u t fr o m Q u eb ec an d M o n tre a l f o r the p a y s d 'en haul. T h e physical geo g rap h y o f this w ate rw ay an d the logistics o f the fu r tr a d e a re as impressive as the saga itself. In an age before air travel, in a land devoid o f ro a d o r rail, on a ro ute beset w ith obstructions, dangers, an d difficulties, how did m en b u rd e n e d with h u n d re d s o f tons o f f u r a n d tr a d e goods su c­ ceed e a c h y ear p ractically in crossing a co n tin en t an d bac k again in the scant five m o n th s betw een b re a k - u p and freezeup? H o w did th ey get across lakes like W in n ip eg a n d Su p erio r in c ra f t o f birch rind ? H o w did they o v e rc o m e the R ocky M o u n ta in s? P ad d lin g an d po rtag in g often eighteen h o u rs a day, h o w w ere the h u m a n engines refuelled as they crossed a wilderness? M o st such q uestions ca n be studied m o r e co n ­ cretely by retracing the ro ute; it is a palatable pro po sition th a t som etim e s as m u c h his tory c a n be learned fro m a c a n o e as fr o m a his tory book. T his survey is designed to c ov er the w aterw ays o f th e f u r trade, the ov erco m in g o f na vigational obstacles, the logistics, a n d the influence o f the f u r trade o n C a n a d ia n developm ent. T h e W aterw ays o f the Fur Trade I t is a staggering statistic th a t h a lf of all the fresh w a te r in the w orld is to be fo u n d in C a n a d a . P u t in to o th e r words, there

M ap 3

G EO G R A PH Y A ND LO G ISTIC S O F T H E CANADIAN F U R TRA D E

43

are as m a n y miles o f inland w aterw a ys in C a n a d a as in all the o th e r nations o f the w orld co m bined. A n d , fo r a craft adap ted to the conditions, these w aterw ays are navigable. It is still pos­ sible to p u t a can o e into the w a te r in practically any C an a d ia n city, and paddle fro m the A tlantic to the Pacific, o r fro m the A rctic O cean to the G u l f o f Mexico. T h is is not. as in E u ro p e , the result o f m a n - m a d e canals, b u t o f a fantastic drainagep a ttern consisting o f three vast, shallow basins an d three great “ h u b s.” T h e w ater fro m three-q uarters o f continental C a n a d a d rains ofT th ro ug h three outlets: the G u l f o f St. L aw rence ( 1 0 p er c e n t ) , H u d s o n Strait (43 per c e n t) , and the m o u th of the M ack enzie (2 2 p e r c e n t ) . F urs were g ath ered , o f course, from the o th e r q u a r t e r o f the cou ntry , but the heavy tran s­ portation o f fu rs and goods o perated alm ost entirely within these three dra in ag e areas. W hile it is usual to speak o f d rainage basins, for this story it w ould be m ore a c c u rate to refer to these three areas as d ra in a g e saucers. T h is helps to underscore the low elevation o f the rims, in relation to the vast areas e ncom passed. Twelve h u n d re d miles fro m tid ew ater up the G r e a t Lakes to F o rt William is a rise o f just six h u n d re d feet. Between the drainag e areas, at no point is an in tercon necting p ortage m o re th an abo ut fifteen h u n d re d feet above sea level: and the sam e holds fo r the several co nnecting gatew ays to the Mississippi Basin. T h e com bin atio n o f these three facts o f C an a d ia n g eogra­ ph y explains m u c h regarding the f u r trad e routes. T h ree q u a rte rs o f C a n a d a east o f the R ockies presented no serious barrier to can o e travel. T h is in turn is recognizably related to the presence o f the w orn dow n P re c a m b ria n Shield, covering h a lf o f C a n a d a . T he Shield with its countless system s o f lakes an d rivers - quite ap art from its birch trees - is canoe co u n try . Actually, for a b o u t tw o th o u san d o f its total three th o usan d miles, the V o y ag eu rs’ H ig h w ay passed along, o r close to, the S hield’s so u th ern border. T h e O tta w a R iver west to R en frew , the north shores o f Lakes H u r o n an d Superior, the b o rd e r lakes includ ­ ing L ake o f the W o od s, the W in n ip eg R iv er and L ak e W in ­ nipeg - all eith er fo rm , o r closely flank, the S hield’s so u th ern rim. W est o f L ak e W innipeg the old can oe ro ute picks up the Shield o n ce m o re in A m isk L a k e or. the S turgeon-w eir River, a n d stays just inside the Shield alm ost as f a r as L ake lie a la C rosse in N o r th e r n Saskatchew an. T h e presence o f so m a n y . O F O R T R IV E R \

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D is trib u tio n o f p e rm a fro st a n d grou n d tem p e ra tu re o b s e rv a tio n s i t e s In C a n a d a

M ap 5 b

T h r o u g h o u t this period a n d at the p resent time, the P e rm a ­ frost Section, now k no w n as the N o r th e r n R esearch G ro u p , has carried o u t investigations in m a n y p a rts o f no rth ern C a n a d a , fr o m U n gav a an d Baffin Island in the east to the M ackenzie R iver an d Y u k o n T e rrito r y in th e west. K n ow le dge o f p e r m a ­ frost distribution in this vast region is a vital pre req uisite to successful construction. T h e D ivision is collecting in fo rm ation

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co ntinually by various m eans, including field m ap p in g surveys an d studying the technical literature. D istribution and Occurrence o f Perm afrost P e rm a fro s t is not confined to n o rth ern C a n a d a but underlies 20 p e r c e n t o f the w orld's land area, being w idespread in N o r th A m e ric a , E u ra sia an d A n tarctica. It is a highly im p o rta n t factor in the dev elo pm ent o f Siberia, a n d like C a n a d a , abo ut one-half o f the Soviet U nio n is u n d erlain by p e rm a fro s t. Indeed, these two n o rth e rn neighbours sh a re m o st of the p e rm a fro s t territory in the n o rth ern hem isphere. T h e p e rm a fro s t region is divided into tw o zones - c o n tin u ­ ous a n d d iscontinuous zone, the clim ate is so cold, w ith m ean a n n u a l air te m p e ra tu re s below abo ut 17° F . - c o m p a re d with 4 2 ° F. at O ttaw a - that p e rm a fro s t occurs ev eryw h ere beneath the g ro u n d surface. It varies in thickness fro m m o re th an one tho u san d feet in the n o rth e rn p a rt o f the zone to a b o u t two h u n d re d feet at the so u th e rn limit o f the zone. T h e surface layer o f gro u n d , term ed the “active lay er,” w hich freezes in w in ter and th a w s in s u m m e r generally varies in thickness from ab o u t 1 Vi to 3 feet. In the discontinuous zone, w hich is su barctic an d n o t so cold, a h ost o f terrain factors co n trib u te to th e existence o f areas a n d layers o f u n fro z en g ro u n d . Betw een the n o rth e rn limit of this zo n e an d the belt w here the m e a n a n n u a l air te m p eratu re is 2 5 ° F., p e rm a fro s t is w id espread and varies in thickness fr o m two h u n d re d feet to ab o u t fifty feet. S o uth w ard, p e r m a ­ fro st becom es p a tc h y an d is only a few feet o r even inches th ick at the so u th e rn limit o f its distribution w h ere the m ean a n n u a l air te m p e ra tu re is ab o u t 3 0 ° F . T h e dep th to the top su rfa c e o f the p erm a fro s t, te rm e d the “p e rm a fro s t table” is ex trem ely variable ranging fro m ab out tw o feet to m o r e th an ten feet. T h e active layer extends to the p e rm a fro s t table w here th e la tter lies w ithin abo ut five feet o f the g ro u n d surface. In areas w h e re the p e rm a fro s t is the p ro d u c t of past colder climates and lies at greater depth s, the z o n e o f a n n u a l freezing a n d thaw ing will usually n o t re ach it. In the m o u n ta in o u s regions o f C a n a d a , p e rm a fro s t occurs at high elevations far south o f the limit sh o w n o n the m ap . In n o rth e rn British C o lu m b ia it is estim ated th a t p e rm a fro s t may be e n c o u n te re d abo ve an altitude o f fo u r th o u sa n d feet. S o u th­ w ard , the low er limit o f p e rm a fro s t rises progressively to an

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estim ated elevation o f betw een six th o usan d an d seven tho u san d feet at the 49 th parallel. T h e distribution o f p e r m a f r o s t in the m o u n ta in s is fu r th e r co m plicated by the fact that it is m ore w id e sp read a n d th ick er on n o rth facing slopes, w h ich face aw ay fro m the sun. T e m p e r a tu re s in the p e rm a fro s t ran ge fr o m a low o f about 5 ° F. in the high A rctic to 2 3 ° F . at the b o u n d a ry sep aratin g th e co ntin uo us a n d d isc ontinuous zones. S o u th w a rd , the te m ­ p e ra tu re increases progressively to a few tenths o f a degree below 3 2 ° F. at the so u th e rn limit o f the p e rm a fro s t region. A b ro a d relationship exists betw een the air te m p e ra tu re and the te m p e ra tu re o f the p erm afro s t. O b servation s in m a n y parts o f C a n a d a indicate that the te m p e ra tu re o f the p e rm a fro s t is ro u g h ly 6° F. w a r m e r th an the m ean a n n u a l air te m p e ra tu re at a given location, m ainly because o f the w in ter snow cover. L o cal variations in climate a n d terrain cause variations but a value o f 6° F. can be used as an average figure. T h e re fo re , it is possible to predict roughly the te m p e ra tu re o f the p e rm a fro s t w h e re the m e a n a n n u a l air te m p e ra tu re is kno w n. T h e b ro a d p a ttern o f p e rm a fro s t distribution is d eterm ine d by climate, b u t local terrain conditions such as relief, vegeta­ tion, drainage, sno w cover, ty pe o f soil an d rock, an d geologi­ cal his tory a re responsible fo r the extent an d thickness of p e rm a fro s t, an d variations in thickness o f the active layer. R elief influences the a m o u n t o f heat fro m the sun reaching the g r o u n d surface. A n orth-facing slope receives less sun th an a south-facing slope, causing v ariations in p e rm a fro s t distribu ­ tion as in m o u n ta in o u s regions. V egetation, particularly the moss cover, so characteristic o f n o rth ern regions, shields the p e rm a fro s t fro m the thaw ing effects o f s u m m e r air te m p e ra ­ tures. T h e presence o f w a te r bodies an d p o o r drain age causes th aw in g o f the perm afro s t. H e a v y sn ow in the late fall and early w in ter inhibit w inter frost p en etra tio n b u t sno w on the g ro u n d late in the spring delays tha w ing o f the underlying g ro u n d . T h e ty pe o f soil a n d rock influences the active layer, causing it to be th ick er in gravel, sand an d rock th a n in silt a n d clay. D u rin g the Ice Age virtually all o f C a n a d a w as co v ­ ere d w ith glaciers, greatly affecting the past a n d p resent dis­ trib utio n o f p erm afrost. E ngineering A spects P e rm a fro s t is an im p o rtan t co nsideration in engineering w o rk in n o rth e rn C a n a d a . One feature o f perennially frozen g rou nd

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particularly significant in engineering co nstruction is ice, which o ccu rs frequently, b u t not always, in p e rm a fro s t as layers, c o a t­ ings aro u n d particles, an d large blocks o r wedges. A lth ou gh frozen soil p rovides a stron g a n d firm base fo r a building or oth e r structure, it m a y w hen thaw ed lose its strength to such a degree that it will not su p p o rt even light loads. C onsiderable settlement can o c c u r when the ice in the soil melts, usually resulting in serious d am a g e o r even c om p lete failure o f the stru cture. G r o u n d m o ve m e nts sufficient to cause d a m a g e to stru ctures can result also fro m frost heaving caused by winter ice build-up in the active layer. A n o th e r feature o f perm afro st is its sensitivity to heat fro m the sun o r a stru c tu re w hich will cause thaw ing an d loss o f stability. T h ird , it is im p erm e ab le to w a te r an d im ped es drainage. P r i o r to co nstru ction , site investigations m u st be carried out to gain a d e q u a te know ledge o f perm afrost con dition s for the design an d operation of engineering structures. A ir p h o to ­ graphs, to geth er w ith in fo rm atio n on local clim ate and terrain conditions, can provide m u ch useful info rm atio n for a prelim i­ na ry appraisal o f an area. N ex t, field studies are c o n d u cte d to d eterm in e the extent and n a tu r e o f p erm afro s t. V aria tion s in the d e p th o f th e perm a frost table an d th e thickness o f the p e rm a fro s t o v e r a potential site are dete rm in ed d u rin g this survey. T hese investigations are particularly im p o rta n t in the so u th ern fringe o f the p e rm a fro s t region w h e re frozen g ro un d oc cu rs in scattered islands a n d is n ea r thawing. Field studies must include a p r o g r a m m e for exam inin g and sam plin g su bsu rface m aterials at the site. T h is w o rk can be carried out by probing, h a n d augering, o r drilling m etho ds, or by the ex cavation o f test pits. D e te rm in atio n o f ice c o n te n t is particularly im p ortant. F o r exam ple, at A k lavik in the M ac­ kenzie D elta, the top ten feet o f perennially frozen silt were fo u n d to co ntain 60 p e r cent o f ice by volume. T h e serious engineering im plications are evident, for if this frozen soil th aw ed there w ould be a settlement o f six feet in the top ten feet o f the ground. G r o u n d te m p e ra tu re m eas u rem en ts are also an im p o rta n t p a rt o f these studies. T h is is particularly critical in the sou thern fringe area, w here the p e rm a fro s t te m p e ra tu re s are w ithin one degree o f 3 2 ° F. F u r t h e r n orth , the g ro u n d te m p e ra tu re s are several degrees low er a n d c onsequently several degrees of w a rm in g c a n be tolerated w ith ou t adversely affecting the strength o f the fo u n d a tio n soil.

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W h e n general site conditions have been evaluated, furthe r detailed investigations arc no rm ally required at the locations o f individual buildings o r structures. T h e results o f these will indicate the a p p ro a c h to be tak en in fo un da tion design an d the co nstru ction tech n iqu es to be used. T h e re are fo u r possibilities: disreg ard p erm afrost conditions, preserve frozen conditions for the life o f the stru ctu re, re m o v e frozen conditions o r material before co nstru ctio n, th aw frozen g ro u n d with the expectation o f subsequent g r o u n d settlem ent ta ken into accou nt by fo u n ­ dation design. P e rm a fro s t can be neglected w hen structu res are located o n sand s and gravels, o r b ed rock , co ntaining n o ice, and co n ­ ventional design an d co nstructio n are possible. In the co n ­ tin u o u s p e rm a fro s t zone, particularly w h ere fine-grained soils with high ice co nten t occu r, every effort m u st be m a d e to preserve the frozen condition. In the d iscontinuous zone, it m ay be co nvenient to rem o ve the frozen material by thaw ing o r excavation an d to replace it w ith w ell-drained m aterial not susceptible to frost action; sta n d a rd fo u nda tio n designs can th en be used. F o r som e stru c tu res, in e ithe r the co ntinu ou s o r discon tinu ou s zones, it m a y not be possible to p reven t th a w ­ ing o f the g ro u n d d u rin g the life o f the struc ture, an d settle­ m e n t m u s t th erefo re be antic ip ated and ta ken into acco un t in the design. P reservation o f the frozen condition can be accom plished by eith er ventilation o r insulation; the fo r m e r is c o m m o n ly used with h eated buildings. F o u n d a tio n s are well e m b e d d e d in the p erm afro st, a n d the stru c tu r e is raised above the g ro u n d su rfa c e to perm it circulation o f a ir b eneath to m inim ize o r prev en t heat flow to the frozen gro u n d . Pile fo un dation s p laced in steam ed o r drilled holes have p ro ve d well suited to this m eth o d , an d have been used extensively in n o rth e rn C a n a d a a n d elsewhere. W h e r e pile placing m a y be difficult, as in very sto ny soils, altern ative fo u n d a tio n designs m ay prove m o r e economical. Insulation to prev ent o r redu ce thaw ing o f the underlying frozen soil m a y be achieved by placing a gravel p ad o n the g r o u n d su rface w h ere the stru c tu re is to be erected. T his m eth o d is generally limited to small buildings that can tolerate so m e movem ent. F o r the con stru ction o f highways, railw ays, and airstrips w h e re the ventilation te chniques c a n n o t be applied, th e insula­ tion m eth od m ust be relied on to p reserve th e underlying

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pe rm afro s t. N o rm a lly , fill m ethods are used th ro u g h o u t, and disturb ance o f the surfac e cov er is kept to a m in im u m . Cuts th roug h hills are avoided w h ere possible. P ro p e r drainag e must be pro vid ed to prevent a ccum ula tion o f w ater, w hich would thaw the underlying p e rm a fro s t, and cause ice build-up, which ca n block a ro ad during the winter. E x cavation o f frozen g ro u n d can be difficult and costly because no rm al excavation tech niqu es are m u ch less effective in p erm afrost. F o r som e structures, however, it may nev erth e­ less p rove econ om ical to excavate the frozen soil, replacing it w ith coarse-grained m aterial, not susceptible to frost action, on w hich the fo un da tion can be built. Again, a d eq u a te drainage m ust be provided to take c a re o f seepage w ater. T h e p ro c u r e ­ m e n t o f large q uantities o f fill fo r ro ad o r airstrip construction p resen ts its o w n problem s; suitable sources m ust be located, cle ared o f vegetation, and allowed to th a w well in a d v an ce of con stru ction operations. P e rm a fro s t co m plicates the provision o f w ater an d sewer services. O nly limited y ea r-ro u n d sources o f w a te r are avail­ able because m a n y lakes a n d stream s freeze to the bottom d u rin g the w inter, an d w ater-bearin g layers are only oc c a ­ sionally en co u n te red in p e rm afrost. N o r m a l m etho ds o f sewage disposal into the g rou nd are generally prohibited because of the im perviousness o f the p erm afrost. D istribution systems arc generally located in insulated boxes (u tilid o rs ) on o r above the g ro u n d su rface because o f freezing o f pipes if they are pla ce d in the active layer o r in the p e rm a fro s t, o r problem s resulting from excessive thaw ing o f the frozen g ro u n d by the con ten ts of the pipes. T h e thaw ing effects on perm a fro st becom es particularly critical w hen d a m s and dykes are c o n struc te d on perennially frozen g ro u n d a n d large areas are covered by im po un ded water. T h e rate at w hich thaw ing will take place and the d ep th to w hich th aw will pen etrate b en eath the w a te r and the waterretaining structures, are o f p rim e im p o rta n c e in the design of the ir fo u nd atio ns. A cc o rd in g to circum stances, the underlying frozen g ro u n d can be ex cavated an d the stru cture p laced on b edro ck , the frozen condition can be retained by n atural or artificial refrigeration, o r the e m b a n k m e n t can be built up as settlement occurs w h en the p e rm a fro s t thaws. T h is brief review of the pro perties a n d beh avio ur o f p e r m a ­ frost indicates its great significance in the dev elopm ent o f n o rth ­ ern C a n a d a . N o t only do severe climatic conditions h a m p e r all

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co nstru ctio nal w ork, but en gin ee ring stru ctures m ay have to rest o n soil an d ro ck having properties quite different from those e n c o u n te re d elsewhere in the country. Investigations of th e distribution o f p e rm a fro s t in C a n a d a a n d its engineering p ropertie s are continuing. A revised edition o f the perm a frost m a p will be issued in a few years inco rp orating the results.

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18 Wind Chill in Northern Canada M . K . T hom as and D . W . Boyd s o u r c e

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The C anadian G eographer, V ol. X ( 1 9 5 7 ) , pp. by perm ission o f the a u th o r and publisher.

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R eprinted

M a n has talked ab o u t the w e a th e r since the beginning o f time. F re q u e n tly these discussions an d arg u m en ts have c on cern ed relative coldness, th a t is “w h e th e r last T u e s d a y ” o r, “that cold day last w inter,” w as cold er th a n this m orning. D u rin g these th o u s a n d s o f years, m a n has invented various m e tho ds o f p ro ­ tecting him self fro m the w e ath er. H e has learned to w e a r cloth­ ing, to find o r build him self a dwelling, a n d m ore recently, to heat his dwelling in cold w eather, to ventilate o r cool it in hot w eath er, and even to control the humidity. M a n has also devised m e th ods o f m eas u rin g the w eath er elements. O v e r th ree h u n d re d years ago he invented the th e r m o m e te r an d used it to m easu re the te m p e ra tu re o f the air. H e found that it gave h ig h e r readings in the sun th an in the shade. N o w he has discovered w hy the readings are different an d has learned to m easure solar radiation, a n d o th e r elem ents that affect his c o m fo rt, such as h um idity a n d w ind speed. H o w ­ ever, the a rg u m en ts still c o n tin u e : “ Is it c o ld e r in H alifax when the northwest wind pushes the te m p e ra tu re dow n to zero, o r in S askatoon on a calm , sun ny day with the te m p e ra tu re thirty below ?” It m ust be a d m itted th a t coldness, fo r most o f us, is not a simple m a tte r o f low tem p era tu re. C u rrie a ttem p ted to m e asu re this coldness by using the only available in strum ent w hich would give the correct an sw er: the h u m a n body. Only the h u m a n body can m easu re how cold the w e a th e r feels. T he stu d e n ts w ho helped P rofessor C u rrie at the U n iversity of S ask atc h e w an agreed quite well ab o u t how cold it was each w in ter m o rnin g on their w ay to lectures. T h e ir coldness sensa­ tions were plo tted on a d iag ram using te m p e ra tu re an d wind sp eed as coordinates, a n d isopleths o f sensation w ere draw n and labelled w ith such te rm s as cool, cold, an d bitterly cold.

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C u r r i e ’s d iagram shows h ow coldness d epen ds on wind speed, but it does not take into accoun t o th e r factors such as hu m id ity and solar radiation. T h e coldness o f the body also dep end s o n the a m o u n t of activity o f the perso n and the a m o u n t o f his clothing. T his m a y influence his estim ate o f the coldness o f the w eather. C u rrie kept these factors fairly constant by using only the repo rte d sensations o f stud ents w h o were w alking o r waiting f o r tra n sp o rtatio n an d w ho w ere similarly clothed. H o w eve r, the sensations o f a g ro u p o f stu d en ts at D alho usie University in N o v a Scotia w o u ld p ro b ab ly p ro d u c e a quite different d ia ­ g ra m d u e to differences in clothing habits an d to the w e a th e r th a t th ey are ac custom ed to. It is obviously necessary to have som e device w hich is m u ch sim p le r th an using students as an in stru m en t to m easu re cold­ ness. T h e rates o f loss o f heat fro m o th e r objects m ust be m e a s u re d and these rates a ssu m ed to indicate the rates o f loss o f h e a t from exposed flesh. T h is in turn will indicate w h e th e r clothing is requ ire d to keep a h u m a n being com fortable. T h e sam e thing could be expressed so m e w h a t differently. W h a t is req uired is a m e a s u re m e n t o r estim ate o f som e elusive characteristic o f the w ea th e r w hich is frequ ently re fe rre d to as “coldness” and w hich is k no w n to d ep en d on tem p e ratu re, w in d speed and o th e r w e a th e r elements. T h is coldness is p ro b ­ ably closely related to the rate o f loss o f h e a t from exposed flesh a n d is frequ ently assum ed to be p ro p o rtio n a l to the m e a s u re d rate o f cooling o f a suitable object. C ooling rates have been m e asured fo r m a n y objects, in clu d­ ing th e r m o m e te r bulbs o f various shapes and sizes, platinum wires, an d co p p e r cylinders an d spheres. F ro m these ex peri­ m en ts a n d also from theoretical con sid eration s it is fo u n d that the rate o f loss o f heat ( h ) , w h e th e r by radiation, convection or c on du ctio n, is very nearly p rop ortion al to the difference in te m p e ra tu re ( A t ) betw een the object an d the surroundings, h cc A t. T his assu m es that the su r rou nd ing s a re all n e a r air te m p e ra tu re and h ence does not ta k e a ccou nt o f solar radiation. T h e rate o f heat loss by convection d ep en d s on the wind speed ( v ) . With stream lin e flow it is a linear function o f the sq u a re roo t o f the w ind speed according to m o s t authorities, h cc V v-f-const. F o r turbu lent How, Reynolds in 1874 fo u n d the rate o f heat loss to be a linear function o f the wind speed, h cc v-j-const. T h e general form including both cases w ould be: h = A t ( A - ) B V v -f-C v ).

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By choosing a suitable value for the c o n stan t “A ” , this fo rm could include radiation a n d cond uctio n. T h e values o f the con stants “ A ” , “ B ” and “C ” differ c onsiderably in the form ulae prop osed by different investigators, an d q u o ted by C ou rt. This is to be e xpected because “h ” also d epen ds on certain pro perties o f the cooling body. S om e investigators have used pow ers o f “v” so m ew h ere betw een one h alf an d one. It is obvious th a t the different m ethods o f m e as u rin g the cooling pow er o f the air lead to quite different results a n d this increases the difficulty of selecting a suitable form ula. M u ch o f the w o rk on cooling po w e r has b een d on e at quite low wind speeds, an d m ost o f it at te m p e ra tu re s above freezing. Since the latter part o f this p ap er is co n c e rn e d w ith co nd itio ns in the A rctic, it seem s reasonable th a t we should use a fo r m u la w hich is based on observations ob tain ed at low te m p e ra tu re s a n d with m o d e r a te winds. Siple1 has had considerable experience in A n tarctica, where, d u rin g the w in ter o f 1941, he m e asu red the time req uired for the freezing o f 250 g ram s o f w ater in a plastic cylinder about 2 lA inches in dia m e ter an d 6 inches long, u n d e r a variety of conditions o f low tem pe ratu re. H e assum ed th a t the ra te of heat rem oval w as p ro p o rtio n al to the difference in te m p eratu re betw een the cy lind er and the air, and th a t the cy linder rem ained at the freezing point th ro u g h o u t the period o f freezing. T h e results were expressed in kilogram calories per squ are m etre p er h o ur, p er d egree C entigrade, and plo tted against w ind speed in m etres p er second. Siple d isregarded a few o f his exp erim en tal results for one reason or a n o th er, and on the basis o f the rem ain ing readings he co m p u te d the f o r m u la : h = A t (10.4 5 1 0 V v — v ) . C o u rt recalculated Siple’s f o r m u la using, in addition, the d a ta w hich Siple h ad rejected. T h is gave the fo rm u la : h = A t (9 .0-)-1 0.9 V v— v ) . T his latter form has been ad o p te d by the Q u a rte r m a s te r C o rp s o f the U n ited States A rm y an d has been used by Bristow in prep arin g wind chill m a ps o f the U nited States. Siple's original fo rm u la has been chosen fo r the present paper, and hence the maps are not strictly c o m p a ra b le to those published in the United States. T h e cooling times in his experi­ m en ts varied fro m less th an an h o u r to ab o u t tw enty -fo ur hours, a n d hence either hourly o r daily m ean values o f w in d speeds a n d te m p e ra tu re s should be used. If m e a n values o f w ind and i P. A. Siple, “ M easurem ents o f dry atm ospheric cooling in subfreezing tem p eratu res,” Proc. A m er. P hil. Soc., 89 (1 9 4 5 ), pp. 177-199.

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te m p e ra tu re fo r longer periods are used, the resulting wind chill will be considerably greater th a n the m e a n o f the individual wind chill values. T h e e rr o r will depen d largely on the v a ria ­ bility o f the wind speed, since the wind chill is not a linear fu nction of the speed. Siple him self, how ever, used m on thly m e a n values to c o m p u te wind chills. Since the erro r alw ays has the sam e sign, the values will at least be c o m p arab le, an d th a t is all that is needed. O n e must, o f course, be careful not to c o m ­ pare daily values with values c o m p u te d fro m m o n th ly means. H alifax with conditions such as m e n tio n e d above, a te m ­ pe ra tu re of 0 ° F . an d a wind o f 2 0 miles p er h o u r w ould give a wind chill of 1600 units. S aska too n at — 3 0 ° F . w ould need a 6 mile p er h o u r wind to give the sam e wind chill value. W ith a lighter w ind o r in the sun it would not be so cold.

M on th ly values o f the w in d chill factor have been obtained directly fro m m o n th ly m e a n values o f te m p e ra tu re an d wind speed. T h e length o f record varies from thirty years at a few M acken zie valley stations to five years at Alert on Ellesmere Island, the m ost northerly station in C an ad a. F u r t h e r so uth , in settled C a n a d a , th e d a ta arc based on the stan d a rd th irty-year period fro m 1921 to 1950. A vailable d a ta in dicate that the re is an are a in K eew atin District that is colder in m id-w inter than

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the A rctic coast to the north. It is in fact m o re th a n ten degrees co lder th an the coastal area n o rth o f A klavik. H ow e ver, lower m e a n te m p eratu res, m o r e th a n — 3 5 ° F . , are experienced at Isachsen and E u re k a in the n o rth e rn m o s t A rctic.

M e a n wind speed m aps a re not entirely satisfactory, since the im m ed iate location of a station is o f prim e im p ortance, and because periods o f calm d o m u c h to lower the m ean w ind speed. T h e d a ta used are based on irreg ula r periods end ing in 1954. T h e relatively high speeds o v e r H u d so n Bay and S trait are significant, an d co ntrast sharply with the relatively low speeds in the Y u k o n an d m id-continental areas as well as in the n o r t h ­ e rn m o s t A rctic. T h e core o f the high m e a n speed a r e a extends along the A rctic coast of the m ain lan d. R ecen t reports fro m new stations in this are a suggest th a t this co re m a y be even m ore p ro n o u n c e d th a n sh ow n here. Using these te m p e ra tu re an d wind data, m on thly values of the wind chill fa c to r were c o m p u te d for all A rc tic and sub-arctic w e a th e r repo rtin g stations. W hile the fa c to r w as the greatest in F e b r u a r y for several stations, 75 p er cent o f the stations showed the greatest m o n th ly value o f w ind chill in Ja nu ary. T h e J a n u a r y m a p ( M a p 8 A ) shows th a t the facto r exceeds 1900 K g - c a l./ s q . m . / h r . in m ost o f the D istrict o f Keewatin.

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B a k e r L ak e with 1980, an d Chesterfield w ith 1950 K g -ca l./ s q . m . / h r . have the distinction o f being the w orst meteorological stations in C a n a d a on the basis o f wind chill. Isachsen with 1840, an d M ou ld Bay, R esolute a n d C am b rid g e Bay w ith 1800 are alm ost as severe as are E nn adai L a k e with 1820, and C hurchill w ith 1740 despite th e ir m o re sou therly latitudes. It is interesting to note that som e p o p u lo u s so u th ern C a n a ­ dian cities d o have high wind chill values in Ja n u a ry . W innipeg with 1490 is h ig h er th an an y station in the relatively calm Y u k o n T errito ry , an d even M o n tre a l with 1220 is alm ost as cold as W h iteho rse, w ith 1250. A t T o ro n to in J a n u a r y the value is 1110, at H alifax 1000 an d V icto ria 8 20 K g - c a l./ s q .m ./ h r . M a p 8B illustrates the m ean wind chill fa c to r in the m i d ­ spring m o n th o f April. Because o f the seasonal te m p e ra tu re lag, th e w ind chill values are still high in A pril a n d the p a tte rn is sim ilar to that o f J a n u a ry . T h e “c o re ” o f the ex tre m e values has m o ved north to the islands, but April is still a w inter m o nth, m o re severe in this a re a than W in n ip eg in Jan ua ry .

D u rin g the m id -su m m er season, wind chill values in the far n o rth a re co m p a ra b le to J a n u a r y values at Victoria, British C o lum bia . In Ju ly ( M a p 9 A ) , the most severe a re a is along the n orthw est coast o f the A rctic islands w h e re Isachsen is 84 0 and

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M ould Bay 830 K g - c a l. / s q . m ./ h r . Values in excess o f 8 0 0 are also observed in the m o u th o f H u d s o n Strait at R esolution Island, w h ere the Ju ly m ean te m p e ra tu re is below 4 0 degrees. In com p arison , the value at T o r o n to in July is 330 K g-cal./ s q .m ./ h r . Since solar radiation is not tak e n into a ccount, this m a p applies only to conditions in the shade and its value is d oubtful. T h e O cto b e r m ean wind chill factor m a p is show n as M a p 9B. T his m a p has a p attern sim ilar to the J u ly m a p , although values in the n orthw est A rctic islands are equal to J a n u a r y values in so uth ern M anitoba.

M ap 9 b

It might be interesting to c o m p a r e these wind chill m aps with o th e r m easures o f coldness o r severity o f w inter conditions in N o r th e r n C a n a d a . M a p 10A illustrates the distribution in C a n a d a o f m e a n a n n u a l total d egree d ays below 6 5 ° F . T h ese d egree d ay values a re used in estim ating fuel c onsum ption. Since this m a p illustrates an a c cu m u la tio n o ver the season the increase from sou th to n o rth is quite m a r k e d a n d perh aps illustrates a m o re c o m m o n idea o f the difference betw een the A rctic an d the south. M a n y people are interested in ex trem es a n d often base their ideas o f coldness o n the lowest te m p e ra tu re ever rec ord ed in

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143

an y location. In C a n a d a the lowest te m p e ra tu re ever officially re p o rte d is — 8 1 ° F . at Snag in F e b ru a r y 1947. T e m p e r a tu re s co lder th a n — 7 0 ° F. have o c cu rred over m o st o f the Y u k o n but the re is no official record o f such low te m p e ra tu re s o c c u rrin g in the A rctic. In fact record low te m p e ra tu re s repo rte d from som e O n ta rio and Q u ebec stations a re lower th a n those at several A rctic stations. By c o m p ariso n T o r o n to has h ad a te m p e ra tu re as low as — 2 6 ° F . , an d O ttaw a — 3 8 ° F .

W ith these m a ps as b ack g ro u n d , M a p 10B shows the m ean an nual wind chill facto r f o r N o r th e r n C a n a d a . T his m a p was co nstru cte d by averaging the m o n th ly values at all stations and should be considered as a m ean o f the rates o f cooling. A lth o u g h th e windiness an d relative s u m m e r coolness o f H u d s o n B ay is evident, the far n o rth ern stations o f Isachsen, M ould Bay and Resolute have m o re severe co nd itio ns o v e r the year as a whole. In su m m ary , it m ight be as well to point o u t again th a t wind chill is a c o m p u te d index based only on air te m p e ra tu re and w ind speed. It is prob ably the best indication we have at present o f th a t w e a th e r characteristic w hich is refe rred to vaguely as “coldness.” It is the refo re at least a rou g h indication o f the cooling rate o f exposed flesh an d o f w h e th e r o r not clothing is necessary. Its usefulness at high te m p e ra tu re s is doubtful.

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M o n th ly values o f the w ind chill fa c to r are show n in T a b le 1 fo r a n u m b e r o f rep resentative stations. Chesterfield a n d B aker L a k e a re the tw o w e a th e r observing stations with the highest wind chill values in m id-w inter, followed closely by the Bay of W h ales a n d C a p e D enison, tw o o f the coldest stations in A n t ­ arctica. Resolute is typical o f several stations scattered ov er a large p a rt o f the A rctic. A lert, the m ost no rth erly station, is qu ite similar, at least in w inter, to W innipeg. Snag, the station w ith the record low te m p e ra tu re o f — 8 1 ° F . , is in the average w inter, very little cold er th an T o ro n to . C h urchill seem s to have been well chosen as the location o f m a n y field testing units for the effect o f w in te r w e a th e r on personnel an d eq uipm ent.

Finally, in an y study o f wind chill, attentio n m ust be draw n again to co nd itio ns d u rin g the most severe m o nth o f the year an d to the p arts o f the c o u n tr y w h ere these conditions are most m ark ed . Study o f the J a n u a r y m a p ( M ap 8 A ) focuses attention on the C hu rchill-Chesterfield-R esolute area. T h e re are, of course, differences betw een the wind chill fa c to r an d o th e r cold w e ath e r criteria. Y u k o n has the distinction o f reco rd ing lower te m p e ra tu re s th a n any o th e r a re a in C a n a d a , while the n o rth e rn ­ m ost islands re q u ire the m ost fuel fo r a seaso n’s heating. But the stron g winds o v e r the flat district o f K eewatin a n d the very

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145

low te m p e ra tu re s in the co ntin ental interior c o m b in e to m a k e it o n e o f the m ost bitterly cold a reas o n earth. TABLE 1

T o ro n to O nt.

Bay of W hales A n tarctica

Cape Denison A n tarctica

1585

1602

1980 1870 1660 1450 1080 840 640 650 890 1210 1520 1790

1324

1298

1347

W innipeg M an.

1950 1920 1720 1480 1160 860 670 730 910 1190 1520 1780

Jan. Feb. M ar. A pr. M ay Ju n e July Aug. Sept. O ct. Nov. Dec.

898

1181

A lert N .W .T.

713

R esolute N .W .T.

1131 1273 1550 1750 1814 1880 1864 1802 1800 1695 1426 1237

Baker Lake N .W .T.

1072 1335 1615 1722 1706 1660 1948 1907 1934 1670 1374 1078

Chesterfield N .W .T.

1110 1110 970 770 580 390 330 340 480 620 820 1030

C hurchill M an.

1800 1370 1130 1840 1490 1100 1700 1450 970 1480 1250 830 1170 1040 600 920 480 820 810 740 440 850 790 500 1060 1040 610 1360 1280 780 1520 1370 960 1650 1390 1060

1490 1740 1400 1720 1200 1530 860 1300 630 990 480 780 390 580 430 610 600 800 810 1040 1110 1400 1370 1680

M onth

A nnual

Snag Y.T.

M ean M onthly an d A nnual W ind C hill F acto rs fo r Selected S tations (in K g -c a l./m -/h r.)

1169

788

19. The Ecology of Snow W . O. Pruitt, Jr. so u rc e

:

C a n ad ian Society o f W ildlife and F ishery Biologists, Occasional Papers, N o . I , M . T. M yers ( e d .), (D ep t, o f Biology, U niv. of C algary, O ct. 1965), 1-8.

If snowflakes w ere rare objects, g eneration s o f g rad u ate students w ould doubtless have received degrees for research into the p ropertie s an d potential uses o f snow. As it is, so m e tens of billions o f these beautiful crystals o f frozen w a ter-v ap o u r pile up in each sq u a re m etre o f snow. T h e very a b u n d a n c e o f snow seem s to have suppressed alm o st all but the negative aspects of getting rid o f it as quickly as possible. In the literature o f the sciences that o u g h t to be m ost c o n c e rn e d the re is little to suggest th a t snow is a m a j o r ele m e n t in the e n v iro n m e n t o f life. In g reater o r lesser a m o u n ts, how ever, sno w covers m o re th a n half o f the land area o f the n o rth e rn h em isph ere at s om e tim e during the year. T aiga Snow A s a result o f ex perien ce w ith snow at varied places in the n o rth e rn p arts o f N o r th A m e ric a , I have c o m e to look o n the snow o f the s u b arctic taiga in interior A la sk a as “typical” snow. T h a t is, it is sn ow that is the least modified by ex ternal factors. T h e re , in the g reat to p o g rap h ic bowl n o rth o f the A laska R ange an d south o f the Brooks R ange, the snow arrives early in the fall an d rem ains until late spring. F o r a g oodly p a rt o f the w inter it is virtually unaffected by in com in g solar radiation, since this region is only tw o degrees sou th o f the A rctic Circle. T he p ecu lia r m eteorological conditions prevailing there cause a stand in g inversion to be c o m m o n , thus the sn ow is little affected by wind. T h e result is a snow c ov er th a t piles u p loose a n d fluffy, modified only by the heat an d m oisture w hich rise th r o u g h it fr o m the soil below. T h e th erm a l inversion is also responsible f o r a n o th e r p h e n o m e n o n w hich has ecological im p o rta n c e th e deep cold o f the calm , dense, a ir that a ccum ulates in the great, flat valleys o f the T a n a n a and Y u k o n Rivers, a n d is also

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responsible for the “ice-fog” that rises fro m an y source o f free moisture. T h e snow piles u p on th e tree b ran ch es a n d the surface is rough w ith crystals, lying just as th ey fell an d u n ­ distu rb ed by wind. T a ig a sn ow is the interface betw een the w arm , moist soil a n d the dry, very cold, subarctic air; it is in fact an eco ton e betw een drastically different env iro nm en ts. A lth o u g h the instru­ m en ts in a sta n d ard Stevenson Screen m a y m easure an air te m p e ra tu re of, say, — 4 0 ° o r — 5 0 ° F . , the a ir im m ediately above the sn ow m a y be as low as — 7 0 ° F . But once m easu red u n d e rn e a th the su rfa ce o f the snow, the te m p e ra tu re rises dram atically, until at the base o f a fully-developed taiga snow co v e r the te m p e ra tu re hovers not far below freezing an d with th e ad dition o f a m oss layer u n d e r the snow, the te m p e ra tu re m a y be only slightly below freezing. N o t on ly is the subnivean e n v iro n m e n t relatively w a rm an d moist, it is also m ark ed ly stable. T h e presence o f such a w a rm , moist and stable en viron m en t is o f ex trem e im p o rta n c e to small m a m m als, plants, an d inv er­ tebrates. It has been sh ow n by m a n y exp erim en ts th a t small m a m m a ls (m ice, voles an d shrew s) c a n n o t w ith stand the su pranivean e n v iro n m e n t o f the su b arctic winter. T h e y are physio­ logically incapable o f p ro d u c in g enough heat to offset the loss to the cold, dry air a n d their m ass-to-surface relationship does not allow them sufficient insulation. T h u s, if it w ere n o t fo r the sno w cover, large areas o f the n o rth e rn taiga w ould be lacking in small m am m als. T his w ould have far-reaching effects, since the small m a m m a ls are the m ain herb ivo rou s base o f the eco­ system, an d m a n y carnivorou s m a m m a ls an d birds de p e n d on th e m fo r food. N evertheless, because the thickness o f the snow cover fluctuates fro m y ear to year, there are yearly differences in the severity o f the bioclim ate in w hich the sm all m a m m a ls live, an d so there are yearly differences in the n u m b e rs o f small m am m als. T h e a u tu m n a l decline in air te m p e ra tu re is a fairly regular event, g o vern ed by the reg u lar decrease in in com ing solar energ y as the d ays shorten. T h e onset o f a snow co ver is m o re fo rtuitous, being g ov ern ed by the precise succession o f m e te o ro ­ logical events that bring the c orrect mass o f moist air into c o n ­ tact with cold air. T h u s, a sn o w c ov er m a y arrive quite e arly in O c to b e r o n e year, b u t m a y not arrive until late N o v e m b e r the next year. W h e n there are only a few c entim etres of snow on the forest floor in the subarctic taiga, one m a y see m a n y signs of small m a m m a l activity, but w h e n the sn o w c ov er reach es a

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thickness o f fifteen to tw enty centim etres, there is a dram atic decrease in activity on the su rface. Such a thickness o f snow is sufficient to insulate the soil against fluctuations in a ir te m p e ra ­ ture. W h e n this thickness arrives, I call it the h ie m a l thresh o ld , f o r it is the true beginning o f w in ter fo r th e small c rea tu res of the forest floor. N o t only is the snow c o v e r variable in time, b u t it also varies in space. A s the snow flakes fall, m a n y o f them a re c a u g h t on the needled b ran ch es of the c onifero us trees o f the taiga. T h u s th ere is a “sno w s h a d o w ” fo rm ed aro u n d the base o f each spruce tree. A s the w in ter progresses the sn ow sh a d o w con tinu es and increases in sharpness. T h e F o re s t E skim o o f the K o b u k Valley, in n o rth w es tern A laska, call these bo w l-shap ed depressions in the sn ow at the base o f trees q a m in iq . W e h av e seen h o w small m a m m a ls p ro s p e r w ith deep snow and decline in n u m b ers with little snow, so it is no surprise to learn th a t individual red-backed voles ( C le th rio n o m y s) avoid th e q a m a n iq and m o r e often fr eq u e n t the parts o f their h o m e ranges th a t have th ic k e r snow cover. T h e ir h o m e ranges h av e vacuoles, as it w ere, a n d these vacuole s a re the qam aniq. A thick pro tective b lank et o f snow is n o t w ithou t dangers, how ever. T h e relatively w a rm subnivean env iro n m e n t allows a certain a m o u n t o f bacterial action to continue, even in m id­ winter. T h is results in the p ro d u c tio n o f c arb o n dioxide u n d er the snow. If the snow co ver is thick en o u g h , a n d p articu larly if the re are dense, relatively im pervious layers w ithin it, the re may a c cu m u late in certain low spots e no ug h carb o n dioxide to be h a rm fu l to the small m am m als. T h e voles have developed a b ehav io ural ad apta tion to c o u n te ra c t this situation. T h e y co n ­ stru ct ventilator-shafts u p th ro u g h the sno w co ver to the surface. In regions o f especially th ick snow cover, the sm all m a m ­ mals are virtually im m u n e to pre datio n by carnivo rou s birds d u rin g the time w hen the sno w cov er is present. T h e only time th a t they are exposed to p red atio n is w h en th ey c o m e u p their ventilator-shafts to the u p p e r air. T h e distinguished Russian naturalist, A . N . F o rm o z o v , has show n th a t it is such activity o n the part o f the small m a m m a l s that allows certain species of small owls to ov erw inte r in parts o f th e E ura sian taiga. W itho ut voles cau gh t at their ventilator-shafts th ey w ould have insuffi­ cient food for survival in the region. T h e re a re tw o m ain classes o f m a m m a ls in the taiga - those that are large and live abo ve the snow cover, and those th a t are small and are forced to live ben eath the protecting blanket. T h e r e is o n e m a m m a l, the red squirrel, th a t lies just on the

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149

b ord erlin e betw een the tw o size-groups o f m am m als. R ed squirrels are active above the sn ow m ost o f the time, b u t w h en the a ir-te m p eratu re falls below — 2 5 ° F . o r — 3 0 ° F . , they vanish from the scene. T h is is a critical te m p e ra tu re for th em an d when it arrives th ey leave the su p ra n iv ea n en v iro n m en t o f the m oo se a n d the hare an d join the voles in th eir w a rm su bniv ean e nv iro nm ent. T h u s th ey have the best o f both worlds. T h e r e are three m ain ways in w hich m a m m a ls ad ap t to snow. O ne is by using the snow as a blanket to avoid th e deep cold. A second a d a p ta tio n is th a t o f the m oose - the possession o f long legs o r stilts; even this a d a p ta tio n is not perfect, since the sno w m a y so m etim es becom e too th ick fo r stilts. T h e places w here m oo se o v e rw in ter are also places w h e re the sn ow cover is thinnest. T h e third way o f ad ap tin g to snow is to float o ver it. T h e lynx an d th e snow shoe h are are the best exam p les o f this m e thod. A lynx ap pe ars to be a large anim al, b u t w hen skinned o u t it is seen to be not m u c h larger th a n a small dog. M o st o f the an im al is fluffy in sulating f u r an d the large sno w sho e feet. T h ese large feet enable it to float o n the surfac e o f the snow , even w h e n galloping. T h e snow sh oe h a re is the classic ex am p le o f a floater. In closely related species in Eurasia, L e p u s tim id u s and L e p u s europaeus, the snow shoe h are possesses m o r e bearing su rfa c e o n the hind feet, even though it is sm aller th a n its so u th e rn relative. H ow ever, som etim es even flotation fails. T h e sno w m ay be so light and fluffy th a t even the snow shoe-hares sink in to it. T h e n th ey ch ang e their b e h a v io u r and b ecom e “ trailers,” following each o th e r ’s trails. E ach time an anim al passes, the snow gets packed a little bit m ore. E ventually, a hard trail is fo rm e d along w hich the anim als can m ove freely. C a rib o u are anim als that a re closely associated w ith snow. In 1957-58 I studied their ecology for the C a n a d ia n W ildlife Service. T h a t w in ter we flew m an y h u n d re d s o f miles in light aircraft at low elevations, carefully plotting o n m a ps th e loca­ tions o f over-w intering caribou, an d also w h ere the anim als w ere n ot present. W e found th a t m ost o f the a re a h ad no caribo u. T h e n the re were areas o f light con centration s, within w hich w ere areas o f heavy concentrations. A t this time I set o u t a series o f sn ow stations. I m easu red the thickness, h ard ness and density o f each layer o f the snow, an d also the grain size and type, an d the te m p e ra tu re o f each layer. W h e n I plo tted the results on m a p s an d c o m p a r e d th e m to the distribution o f ca rib ou , I fo un d that the a reas with heavy carib o u c on cen tra tion had snow that was light, soft, an d thin. H a rd n ess ranged fro m 6.5 to 60 g m ./ s q .c m . fo r forest stations

15 0

C A N A D A 'S C H A N G I N G N O R T H

a n d 5 0 to 7 00 g m ./ s q .c m . for lake stations, w h ile d e n s ity varied f ro m 0.13 to 0 .2 0 f o r forest stations an d 0.13 to 0.32 fo r lake stations. T hick ness varied fr o m 19 to 59 cm . F o r the areas w ithou t ca rib ou , the snow could som etim es be soft, but it could also be very h ard , dense and thick. H a rd n e ss varied fr o m 35 to 7 ,0 0 0 g m ./ s q . c m . for forest stations, and fro m 150 to 9,000 g m ./ s q .c m . fo r lake stations, while density varied fr o m 0.16 to 0.92 f o r forest stations, a n d 0.17 to 0 .9 2 for lake stations. T h ick n ess varied fro m 19 to 82 cm . R e m em b erin g th a t the density o f freshw ater ice is 0.92, it is clear th a t the non-caribou a reas h ad ice layers in the sn ow cover, w hereas the carib ou areas did not. T h u s we see th a t carib o u have thresholds o f sensitivity to the hardness, thickness and density o f the snow cover. T h e threshold o f hardness sensitivity is a pp ro xim ately 50 g m ./ s q .c m . fo r forest snow, an d 5 00 g m ./s q .c m . for lake snow. T h e threshold o f sensitivity for density is ap prox im ately 0.19 or 0 .2 0 for forest snow, an d 0.25 o r 0.30 for lake snow. T h e th reshold o f sensi­ tivity fo r thickness is app ro x im ately 60 cm . W h en these thresh ­ olds are exceeded, the carib o u react by exhibiting a m igrato ry type o f appetitive b eh av io u r until they e n c o u n te r sno w o f lesser hardness, thickness o r density. L et us e xam in e som e o f the ecological aspects o f the snow w hich collects o n trees. In m y w o rk in the N o r th I have found th a t the “official” meteorological w o rds fo r snow a re woefully in a d eq u a te to describe its phases. C o nseq uen tly 1 have tu r n e d to the languages o f the native peoples o f the N o rth , the Eskim os an d the Indians, fo r w o rd s w hich represent those phases o f snow w hich are im p o rta n t to an im als a n d plants. O f all the native languages I have ex am ined , th a t of the K o b u k V alley Eskim o ( t h e “ F orest E sk im o ” ) o f n orthw e stern A lask a ap p e a rs richest in snow terms. T h e ir w o rd fo r the snow that collects on trees is qali, an d fo r the snow that collects on the g ro u n d is api. In the windless taiga o f central A laska, qali assum es great ecological im p ortance. It is o n e of the agents initiating forest succession. If sp ru ce d eparts from the vertical it is d o o m e d to breakage, so m ed ay, because it will a c cu m u late qali. W h e n a tree breaks, adjac e nt trees be co m e susceptible to ^ / //- b re a k a g e and th e “ glade” grow s until it is sufficiently large that w ind circula­ tion prevents massive ac cum ula tion o f qali. In the glade, the b ro k e n spruces die an d the rain o f de ad needles chokes out th e feather-m osses on the forest floor. T h u s seeds have a good site fo r germ ination. D ecid uou s trees in vade - alders, birches, aspens and willows. T h e se trees m a t u re an d die and, in their leaf

T H E ECOLOGY O F S N O W

15 1

litter, yo u n g spruce can germ inate. T h ey m a tu re an d the spruce forest is eventually restored at the site, to await fu r th e r qalibreakage. Q ali is also o f direct e con om ic im po rta nce to m a n ’s activi­ ties. P o w e r lines are frequ ently bro ken , either by qa li-b ro ken trees o r by a heavy a c cu m u latio n o f qali. N e a r F a irb an k s, the local R ural Electrification C o-op erative h as m e t the challenge by flying a helicopter along the most vulnerable lines. T h e rotor blast cleans the qali from the p ow e r lines. In su m m e r the taiga m ay be a mass o f gre ene ry - prim arily alders an d young birches. In w inter these trees an d sh ru bs are bent ov er by qali acc um ulation. T his is their way o f a da ptin g to the presence o f qali. T h e spruce stands straight an d tall and resists q a li; alders a n d birches a re lim ber a n d bend with the qali a n d reco v er in the spring. W h e n the trees are bent over by the qali, th eir ten der growing-tips are b ro ug ht w ithin range o f the sn ow shoe hares, w hich feed extensively o n them . T his is a very im p o rta n t source o f food for the hares. W h e n the trees are bent over, snow-caves fo rm u n d er them . In very cold w eather even the hares avoid the infinite heat-sink o f the night sky, by finding refuge in these caves. In the sp ring the alders an d birches spring b ack vertical again, with the h are -b ark ed twigs high in the air, an d at this time o f the year o n e m a y see m a n y signs o f the winter-feeding by hares. T h e relationship o f hares and shrub s is reciprocal: the plants furnish the h ares with food but the hares re tu rn the food to the soil by their faecal pellets, w hich ac­ c u m u la te in quantities aro u n d the shrubs utilized m ost heavily. In a w in ter w hen the sn ow c om es early and accum ulates gradually all w in ter long, the h ares are co nstan tly elevated on top o f the snow surfac e to reach fresh supplies o f food. But in a w inter w hen the sno w rem ains at a co nsta nt thickness, o r when it even settles a n d decreases in thickness, the hares are un able to re ach for fresh sources o f food hig her up and th ey tu r n to u n p ala tab le foods, such as spruce. S uch sn ow conditions m ay result in a decline in the ha re population by spring. In J a n u a r y , the birches shed their seeds on to the snow surfac e and m a n y resident birds, such as redpolls, utilize this food source. Eventually, how ever, a n o th e r snowfall covers this seed layer. Mice and shrews th en tunnel u p th ro ug h the snow an d m ine o u t the seed layer. Tundra Snow So fa r we have c o n cern e d ourselves with taiga snow. L et us now

15 2

C A N A D A 'S C H A N G I N G N O R T H

ex a m in e the ecology o f the h a rd , w in d-m o ved tu n d r a snow. T u n d r a snow is characte rized by this factor o f having been m o ve d by the wind. T h e r e are tw o phases, in the physical sense, to the snow in a n A rctic t u n d r a region. T h e snow c o v e r consists o f those p a r ­ ticles w hich are not picked u p by the w ind ( a p i) , an d o f hard, w in d-w o rk ed particles w hich have be co m e consolidated into a mass ( u p s ik ). A b o v e the snow cover, in the air, on the surface o f th e snow cover, an d so m etim es inco rp orating even the top layers o f the sno w cover itself, is an o th er phase. T his is the m o vin g sno w or siq u o q which, dep end ing o n the wind direction an d force, is eith er consolidated into a succession o f drift fo rm s, o r moves along and above the snow su rface. Because of variations in the fo rce o f the wind tr an spo rting them , a n d because in nivographic details, the particles com p risin g the siq u o q becom e stabilized for v arying periods o f time an d form drifts. T h e sequence o f drift types appears to be as follows: S no w particles are released fro m suspension in the air w h enev er the speed o f air m o v e m e n t is not sufficient to su p p o r t th em . T hu s, snow accu m u lates in m ic roto p ograp hic depressions, stream be ds and beh in d ob struction s (w hich m a y them selves be niv og rap hic d e tails ). L ater winds of g reater force o r different direction m a y sco u r these spots an d re-deposit the p articles elsewhere. O n a flat, relatively un ob stru cted surface m an y o f these particles adv ance in groups. A g ro u p assumes a characteristic a rro w h e a d shape with the poin t upw ind, a g rad ually sloping u pw in d face, and a lee slope w hich is a b ru p t and co ncav e laterally. A t the tan g o f the a rro w h e a d the thickness o f the drift is greatest. T hese drifts a re kn ow n po p u la rly as b a rk h a n s b u t m o re accurately, in E skim o, as k a lu to q a n iq (a b a rk h a n s is tech­ nically a sand drift o f this shape while ka lu to q a n iq refers to this precise snow drift ty p e ) . K a lu to q a n iq m igrate d o w n ­ wind as the particles are exposed o n the w in dw ard face, are m oved o ve r the surface o f the drift an d th en are tem p orarily im mobilized o n the steep lee slope. W h en ev er the wind slackens, the ka lu to q a n iq becom e consolidated th r o u g h the processes o f sublim ation a n d re-crystalization. L a te r w inds, if o f sufficient force, will ero de aw ay the ka lu to q a n iq , p rod ucing scu lp ture d form s w h ich hav e great be auty but w hich are exceedingly difficult to traverse. T h e sculpturings a re widely k no w n by the term s za stru g i (R u s ­

T H E ECOLOGY O F S N O W

15 3

sian ) o r sk a v le r ( N o r w e g ia n ) , but a re m o r e accurately k n o w n as ka io q la q ( E s k i m o ) . Z a stru q i o r sk a v le r re fe r to su rface sculpturings in general. K a io q la q refers to large, h a rd sculpturings while the w o rd tu m a rin y iq (E sk im o ) refers to small zastrugi o r “ripple m a rk s.” K a io q la q eventually m a y be erod ed aw ay completely an d the particles regrou ped do w nw in d again into k a lu to ­ qaniq. A late stage o f ka io q la q is the f o r m a tio n o f ov er­ h ang ing drifts o r m a p su k . T h e w in d w a rd po int o f a ridge of kaio q la q is e ro d ed faster at base level th an above it, thus fo rm in g the characteristic anvil tip w h ich points upw ind. T h u s this succession o f drift form s m a y be d ia g r a m m e d as follows: K A LU TO G A N IQ

API Valleys o f small stream s b eco m e com pletely filled with a th ick mass o f w ind-blown snow, and these drifts m a y not m elt until late in the following sum m er. Su ch d rifts are k n o w n by the R u ssian w ord za b o i an d m a y be o f con sider­ able ecological effect. T h e y re ta rd plan t grow th and, in those spots w here th ey d o not m elt until late in the su m m er, their presence m a y p rev en t ce rtain species from living. In e x tre m e cases th ey m a y p rev en t all plants from grow ing on the site w here th ey form . T h e se b are spots a re th en subject to intense cryopediological processes. In so m e spots on the t u n d r a w h ere sno w has com pletely filled a sm all stream valley, edd y c u rr e n ts m a y s c o u r o u t the snow an d p rod uc e a cavity that m a y assum e tre m e n d o u s size. T his is on e o f the “traffic h a z a rd s” o f tu n d r a travel. T h e se sco ured spots are kn ow n to the E sk im o as a n m a n a . Su ch sco u red spots can be seen even in the taiga when th ere is a light w ind.

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N ow , h ow do anim als react to the varied types o f tu n d ra sn ow ? Some anim als, such as the caribo u, react by moving. M ost caribou leave the t u n d r a d u rin g the snow season and m igrate to the taiga w h ere the snow is softer and less dense. S o m e caribo u rem a in on the tu n d r a and these g ro u p s m a y be fo u nd in eith er o f tw o situations: first, there m ay be caribou w here, because o f top og rap h y , even o n the op en tu n d r a there a re sp ots w here the snow is relatively soft; second, in those regions o f the tu n d r a w h ere the w inds are so strong that virtually all the snow is blown aw ay from the vegeta tion; these spots are kn ow n as g o o d caribo u h u n tin g grou nd s, for th ey regularly su p p o r t a pop ulatio n o f over-w intering anim als. O n the tu n d ra , som e resident birds, such as the p tarm igan , are able to find small pockets o f soft snow an d dive into them an d use them as a blanket for protection fr o m the cold winds. S om e m a m m a ls, such as the A rctic g ro u n d squirrel, w hich hibernate, choose their h ib ern atio n sites w here th ick zabois form . T h e r e they m a k e “ escape holes,” and the tunn el down th r o u g h the snow to the g ro u n d m ay be nearly tw enty feet long. T h e anim al thus spends the w in ter w h ere it is relatively w arm . T h e tu n d r a snow cover also protects sm all m am m als, such as voles an d lem m ings, from pred ation . T o sum up this discussion o f the ecology o f snow w e c a n do no better th a n to qu ote P ro fessor F o rm o z o v : Analysis o f the factors described leads to the conclusion that, in o rd e r to study the w in ter ecology of m a m m a ls and birds in regions with snow y w inters, zoologists a n d bio­ g eog raph ers m ust have available, w ith o u t fail, in ad dition to th e d a ta furnished by meteorological stations, n um ero u s specialized m e a s u re m e n ts an d descriptions o f the snow co ver an d its stru ctu re in various ha bitats an d en viron m en tal types. T h e stu dy o f sn ow co ver is necessarily c on du cte d sim ultaneously with system atic calculations o f distribution, n u m b ers an d ch aracteristics o f the vital activities o f anim als, since elucidation o f their varied reactions allows the possi­ bility o f judging the positive o r negative influence o f the snow c ov er o f a certain strength, an d stru ctu re o n the winter conditions o f existence o f the fauna. T h e stu dy o f the ecological role o f the sn ow co v e r and its stru ctu re requires long-term observ atio ns w hich will give the answ ers to a series o f qu estions th a t are im p o rta n t for protection o f v aluable anim als a n d ration al p lan nin g for their utilization, to w o rk out predictions o f the n u m b e r s of

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h a rm fu l rodents, predictions o f the pro bab ility o f da m ag e to w in te r crops, fruit trees a n d cultivated shelter belts, etc. T h e se observations are best c a rrie d o u t at specialized sta­ tions, w h ich con du ct, in addition, simple exp erim en ts on anim als, carried o u t in o pen p ens arran ged u n d e r the o pen sky.

20 . Migrating Caribou: Barren-ground herds face a serious threat to survival A . W . F . Banfield s o u r c e

:

N a tural H isto ry, Vol. LX X , N o. 5 (M ay , 1 9 6 1 ) , pp. R eprinted by perm ission o f the a u th o r and publisher.

5 7-62.

A relict species fro m the Ice Age is w aging w h at m ay be a losing battle fo r survival against the advance o f m o d ern civilization in the far north. T h a t species is the b a rre n -g ro u n d caribou ( R a n g ife r tarandus a rcticu s) o f n o rth e rn C a n a d a , closely re ­ lated to the rein d eer ( R a n g ife r ta ra n d u s) o f n o rth ern Europe. T h e first carib o u reached N o r th A m erica p e rh a p s 7 5 ,0 0 0 years ago, crossing a land bridge o v e r the Bering Strait th a t now separates A la sk a and Siberia. T h e y arrived so m e tim e before the last con tinen tal glacial adv ance - p erh a p s not very long before the first h u m a n followed the sam e route. T h e rein d eer was a characteristic m a m m a l o f the cooler phases o f the Pleistocene, associated with a tu n d r a an d taiga vegetation o n the edges o f adv an cin g o r receding glaciers. In a sim ilar way, the caribou a d a p te d to A rctic an d subarctic A m e ric a. H e re it served as the co rn ersto ne o f the co m paratively S to n e Age cultures o f tw o distinct nations - the E skim os and C hip ew y a n Indians. T h e latter g ro up w ere kn ow n as the caribou eate rs, a n d were alm ost totally d epe nd ent u p o n the anim als fo r such basic necessities as food, hide clothing, tool handles, sinews fo r sewing, an d oil for lamps. T h e E skim os w ere generally less d e p e n d en t u p o n the anim al, basing their eco n o m y m o re upon the m a r in e m a m m a ls - seals, w alrus, and lesser w hales - al­ th o ug h they tu rn ed to the carib o u f o r such im p o rta n t items as w in te r clothing. T h e N o r t h A m e ric a n E skim os an d In dians relied upon a primitive h un tin g culture. T h e y speared the migrating caribou herds from canoes and kayaks. T h e y c ap tu re d th e m at w ater crossings o r in p o u n d s m a d e o f sp ru ce tr ee fences ( o r colum ns o f stones on the t u n d r a ) . T h e y som etim es stalked with bow and

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a rro w , the h un ters o ften dsiguised in c aribou hides and antlers. Such m eth od s w ere prob ably not unlike those o f o u r Stone Age ancestors, an d cou ld still be observed in certain p arts o f n o rth e rn C a n a d a until ab ou t 1950. T h ese, then, w ere the sights that greeted the first E u ro p ean exp lorers to the no rth la n d : g reat herds o f carib o u ro am in g the A rctic tu n d r a in countless n um b e rs, c o m p a r a b le to the buffalo herds o f the prairies, followed by n om adic b an ds o f In dians and Eskim os. H ow ever, the advent o f E u ro p e a n s upset the centuriesold b alanc e betw een c aribou herds an d th eir h u m a n predators. T h e f u r trad e led to long w inter trips to trap the fur bea rers that had been ta ken only incidentally before. L a rg e r d o g te am s were needed, as were large caches o f caribou m e at to feed the tr a p ­ pers an d th eir dogs on the trail. W ith these c ha nge s w ere in tro ­ d uced the tools necessary to facilitate the killing o f carib o u - the w hite m a n ’s firearms. T h e rem o teness o f the carib ou 's range, to g e th er with the sparse an d primitive h u m a n p op ulatio n , hindered a really accu rate appraisal of the anim al popu latio n. E xaggerated estim ates ran as high as o n e h u n d re d million. T h e fam ed naturalist E rn est T h o m p s o n Seton estim ated the carib o u h erd at thirty million in 1907. A s late as 1938, the carib o u po p u la tio n was estim ated to be as high as million animals. W ith the increased p o stw a r te m p o o f d ev elopm ent in C a n ­ ad a's A rctic a n d subarctic regions, fears for the fate o f this im p o rta n t n atu ral resource were expressed. F e d e ral an d p ro ­ vincial authorities recognized the urgen t need fo r an intensive investigation an d u n d e rto o k a co-operative pre lim in ary survey in 1948 and 1949. Previous a ttem p ts at estim atin g the caribou pop ulation had been h an d ica p p ed because o f the slowness of the traditional n o rth ern tran sp o rta tio n m e th o d s o f dog team an d canoe. H ow ev er, pio neer aerial searches for lost bush pilots in the C a n a d ia n Arctic d uring 1937 and 1938 led to the devel­ o p m e n t o f the aerial carib o u su rv ey technique. D u rin g spring migration the herds travel in closely p ack ed colu m n s. T h e y tend to follow frozen lakes an d rivers. O n su n n y aftern oo ns they bed dow n o n the snow -covered lakes an d are easily ph oto g rap h ed an d co u n ted fro m the air. T h e prelim inary aerial survey in 1948 a n d 1949 indicated an estim ated p o p u latio n o f ab o u t 67 0 ,0 0 0 anim als betw een H u d ­ son Bay and the M ac k e n z ie River. T h e a n n u a l c rop o f calves w as estim ated as 145,000. T h e n u m b e r killed every y e a r by

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h un ters, based u p o n h un ting returns, was a b o u t 100,000. W o lf predatio n, diseases, accidents, an d severe w e a th e r caused losses th a t ap p ea red to exceed the a n n u a l increase an d to result in a declining pop ulation . M a n y o th e r factors - loss o f w in ter range fr o m forest fires, blizzards at calving time, crusted snow - were th o u g h t to cause ca ta strop hic losses at certain times an d places. A resurvey w as u n d e rta k e n d u rin g the w in ter o f 1955-56 w ith alarm ing results. O n the basis o f the sam e aerial survey technique, the pop ulatio n w as estim ated to have dw in dled to ab o u t 27 5,000 anim als. A lth o u g h som e d ro p in the pop ulation h ad been an ticipated, as a result o f th e pre lim in ary survey, the a c tu a l decline exceeded the expected by ab o u t 50 p e r cent. Steps w ere tak en in 1957 a n d 1958 to rectify the situation. T e a m s o f specialists fro m the F ederal D e p a rtm e n t o f N o rth e r n Affairs an d In d ian R esources, the F e d e ral In d ia n Affairs B ran ch, a n d the P rovincial G a m e B ranch es o f A lb erta, Sas­ ka tch e w an , an d M a n ito b a c o-o perated in an intensive investiga­ ti o n into the basic causes o f the carib o u decline. T h e prevailing needless h u n tin g waste o f carib o u by E skim os and In dian s was recognized, an d vigorous edu catio nal steps w ere tak en along so u n d c on servatio n lines by m e a n s o f c a rto o n e d pam ph lets, film strips, posters, an d courses in the schools. T h e h u n tin g laws w ere tightened, bag limits fo r natives a n d resident E u ro p e a n s w ere reduced, non-resident spo rt h unting w as elim inated, and cows and calves were p ro tec ted in spring. U ltim ately, district q u o tas m ay be set. A uxiliary food supplies o f w hale, w alrus, and bison m e a t w ere utilized to replace carib o u, a n d storage facili­ ties w ere established in so m e settlements. Finally, a vigorous wolf co n tro l p ro g r a m m e by paid g o v ern m e n t h u n ters w as u n d e rta k e n f o r the first time o ver a h ug e a re a of subarctic C a n a d a , resulting in a significant d ro p in the n u m b e r of wolves. D u rin g control op eratio ns o v e r a five-year period, a b o u t fo u r th o u s a n d wolves w ere tak en - abo ut h alf the esti­ m ated population. A lth o u g h all scientific rep orts have not yet ap p e a re d from th e m ost recent co-operative research project, it is k n o w n that significant a dvances h av e been m a d e in o u r know ledge o f the role o f snow in the c a rib o u ’s food h abits and the effect o f “wind chill” o n new b orns. In' addition, new in fo rm atio n on caribou m ig ration w as ob tain ed by biologists in light a irc ra ft “le a p ­ frogging” a fte r the m igra nts fro m the w in ter ran ge to the s u m m e r rang e eight h u n d re d miles away.

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Pressure has been taken off the ca rib o u in still a n o th e r w ay as n ew e co n o m ic possibilities have been o p en ed to the Eskim os. W o rk in mining an d m ilitary establishm ents, in social services, a n d in aerial tran sp o rtatio n has re d u ce d the need for carib o u as the m a in source o f sustenance. T h is chan ge c a m e at a fortuitous m o m e n t, f o r the d is a p p ea ran ce o f the herds resulted in starv a ­ tion in so m e very re m o te Eskim o cam ps in K eew atin District, a n d cau sed grave hard ship s o ve r a m u c h larg er area in n orthern C an ad a. T h e r e are som e w ho say th a t n o rth ern de velo pm en t has d o o m e d the caribou in any case, an d th a t we should not concern ourselves with its fate. But the stunted subarctic forests a n d tu n d r a pastures u n derlaid w ith p e rm a n e n t ice are of little use for m o d e r n forestry o r for ag riculture. T h e carib o u is the a n im al best a d ap te d by n a tu re to utilize these habitats. It is suitable for an extensive type o f he rd h u sb an d ry , and if properly m an ag e d could co n tin u e to p ro vid e b o u nty “on the h o o f ” to n o rth ern residents re m o te from supplies o f d om estic beef.

IV.

.

N ATIVE P E O P L E S

21

The Fragments of Eskimo Prehistory W illiam E . T aylor, Jr. so u r c e

:

T h e B eaver, O utfit 295 (Spring, 1965), pp. 4-17. T h e m aterial presen ted h ere fo rm s the first p a rt o f the longer original version. R ep rin ted by perm ission o f the au th o r and publisher.

A re a d e r o f A rctic history an d ethnology m ig ht co n clu d e that th e friendly A rctic was som etim es deadly. Y et, turn ing to arch aeolo gy , the re a d e r learns that m a n has survived in Arctic A m e ric a for som e five th o u s a n d years an d th a t the E sk im o ’s ancestors prevailed ov er a vast ex pan se fro m eastern m ost Siberia to the Strait o f Belle Isle and to D e n m a r k S trait betw een G re e n la n d an d Iceland. A lth o u g h m a n y pieces a re yet to be fo u n d for the com plex jig-saw puzzle o f E skim o prehistory, archaeologists ca n outline the general n a tu re o f the p icture by fitting in place its available fragm en ts. T his reveals the fifty centuries o f C an a d ia n E skim o prehistory readily dividing into fo u r m a j o r perio ds o r stages. F irst there was the P re-D o rset stage o f n o m ad ic h u n te r s who drifte d across the deglaciated C an a d ia n A rctic from Alaska. A rchaeologists, so m e w h a t given to polysyllabic locutions, refer to th e A lask an p a re n t o f C a n a d ia n P re -D o rse t as th e C ap e D en b ig h Flint C o m p lex o f the A rctic Small T o o l tradition. T h e D en b ig h Flint C o m p le x , best k n o w n fr o m the A lask an side o f Bering Strait an d fro m the B ro ok s rang e o f n o rth ern A laska, co nta ins a long list o f ch ip p ed c h e rt and obsidian tools, su c h as m icroblades, en d scrapers, side scrapers, knife blades, an d the m o st delicately fashioned inset side blades an d points f o r hafting in lances, spears, arrows, an d h a rp o o n heads. D enb igh C o m p le x sites also include a high pe rc e n ta g e o f burins, a distinctive an d specialized chipp ed stone tool used fo r slicing a n d p e rfo ratin g such h a rd m aterials as bone, carib o u antler, a nd w alrus ivory. T h e D en b ig h C o m p le x people were seasonal n om ad s, m a n y o f w h o m su m m e re d on the coast h u n tin g seal, prob ably w ith the aid o f boats; others lived in the interior where they stressed c aribou hun ting . V ario us kinds o f evidence, in­

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eluding ra d io c a rb o n dating, palaeoclim atology, and geology, suggest that the D enb igh C o m p le x o r so m e th in g very closely akin to it, existed in n o rth e rn a n d w estern A laska at a b o u t 3000 B.C., an d p rob ably it persisted there fro m ab o u t 350 0 B.C. to 2 5 0 0 B.C. A lth o u g h so m e D enb igh traits recall still earlier I n d ia n cultures f a r to the south in the interior o f N o r th A m e ric a , m a n y m o r e reflect a relationship, p erh aps old an d indirect, with recently discovered Palaeolithic an d Mesolithic cu ltures o f the F a r E ast an d with the early “ N e olith ic” o f Siberia. Because no h u m a n skeletons, an d o f course no traces of th e la n gu age o f the D e n b ig h h un ters, have been fou nd , one c a n n o t readily co n c lu d e that th ey were Eskim os. T h e y did, how ever, have an E sk im o w ay o f life, th a t is, a distinctive c u ltu re an d ec o n o m y adap ted to treeless co u n try , an d furth er, som e o f their objects persist in slightly altered form in m u ch later, clearly E sk im o , sites. A s J. L. G id ding s, the discov erer of D enb igh , recently w rote, “ Regardless o f h ow we designate the m , these D en b ig h people a p p e a r to be in a direct line of cultural con tin uity with E sk im os.” 1 Also, interesting studies in the relatively new an d exciting field o f lexico-statistical dating suggest the E sk im o a n d A le u tian languages m ay, as a unified language family, be at least five th ou sand years old. F a c e d with the m an y, som etim e s startling, dev elo pm ents in E sk im o arch aeology o ver the past ten years, arctic p rehistorians are som etim es struc k m u te by caution o r m a d e unintelligible to the re a d e r because o f c on fusio n an d indecision. N evertheless, it seem s likely that the earliest “p ro to -E sk im o ” o f no rth ern A m e ri c a derived their c u ltu re fro m Siberia and originally m ig ra ted from there. P e rh ap s the ancestors o f D enb igh p eop le d rifted eastw ard along the so u th e rn edge o f the fo r m e r Bering Straits land bridge fro m w h at is n ow the sou theastern co ast of Siberia. If th a t w ere the case, the c a m p s o f those w anderers, n ow o v e r eight tho u san d years old, are lo ng since subm erg ed u n d e r the cold w aters o f the Bering Sea. W h a te v e r the origin o f D en b ig h people, th ey a n d their de scendants w ere well e qu ipp ed to survive in the tu n d r a world. T h e success o f th e ir arctic a d a p ta tio n ap pea rs clearly in the archaeological record o f their m igrations, fo r the descendants, harvesting the g a m e on w hich their lives d ep en d e d , spread eastw ard across n o rth e rn A laska, the central C an a d ia n A rctic a n d th e eastern arctic islands to G re e n la n d . E v entu ally th ey re ac h e d at least as f a r as n o rth easte rn an d southw estern G re e n J "T h e A rcheology o f C ape D enbigh” by J. L. G iddings, Brown U niversity Press, P rovidence (1 9 6 4 ), p. 243.

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land, U n g a v a peninsu la in n o rth ern Q uebec, a n d dow n through the B arren L an d s and the west coast o f H u d s o n Bay to C hurchill, M an ito b a. C a rb o n 14 dating suggests th ey reached n o rth easte rn G re e n la n d by 2 0 0 0 B.C. In the C a n a d ia n Arctic, this eastern d ev elop m e nt fr o m the D enbigh threshold is called P re-D o rset cu lture an d it persisted ov er a large are a until about 800 B.C. In sou thw e stern G re e n la n d , D anish archaeologists have fo un d a late variant o f P re-D o rset, called S arqaq , which lasted there until abo ut 50 0 B.C. W h e n lu m pin g D en bigh , Pre-Dorset, -Sarqaq and a few o th e r regional variants all together, archaelogists call the lump the A rctic Small T o o l tradition for it is spread all across the tu n d r a top o f the continent, is ch aracterized th ro u g h o u t by very small, carefully an d delicately ch ip ped stone tools, and lasted p erhap s for three th o u s a n d years. W ith com fo rtin g c o n ­ sistency these sites p ro du ce the burins, m icroblades, scrapers, kn ife an d w ea po n points, an d side blades by w h ich the p re­ historian recognizes the tr adition. S om e o f the C a n a d ia n sites in clude the small su b re c ta n g u la r depression left by the sem i­ su b te rra n e a n w inter houses o f P re-D o rset people, o r the ring o f boulders th a t secured the bases of th eir skin tents in s u m m e r cam ps. O ccasionally ch arre d a n d split stone cobbles m a r k the old hea rth s w h ere they burnt greasy bones an d scrub vegeta­ tion. T h e n a tu re a n d the location o f Pre-D orset sites indicate th a t these p eop le lived in sm all, widely scattered, nom adic bands, m o vin g seasonally to exploit various ga m e resources. T h e y used toggling harp oo ns, spears, lances, an d the bow and arrow in h un tin g caribou an d seal. V ery likely fish a n d su m m e r birds a p p e a re d on their m en u a n d prob ably w ide-eyed children heard yarns o f e n co u n te rs with bears, wolves, m usk oxen and walrus. T h e second period in C a n a d ia n E skim o prehistory is that o f the D orset culture. It derives its n a m e fro m C ap e D orset o n Baffin Island fo r it was from the H u d s o n ’s Bay C o m p a n y p ost there that the first collection o f D orset period material w as sent to O ttaw a. Collected by Eskim os, it w as received some forty years ago by D ia m o n d Jenness in the N atio n a l M useum o f C a n a d a . A lth o u g h E sk im o archaeology h ad barely begun and , despite the fact that the collection was completely mixed up, Jenness, in a brilliant feat o f archaeological detective work, m an ag e d to isolate the diagnostic sp ecim en s an d to p rep are the original definition o f the cultu re (Jen ness 1 9 2 5 ). T h e a b u n d a n t w o rk o f the p ast forty years has confirm e d a n d amplified Je nn ess’ th en revo lu tion ary interpretation.

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Like m a n y oth ers so long silent, the D o rse t people h a d scant effect on the clattering, e m b a ttled course o f m a n ’s history. N evertheless th ey oc cupied a large p art o f th e e a rth ’s surfac e an d did so fo r an im pressive n u m b e r o f centuries. T h e D orset c u ltu re existed a pp rox im a tely fro m 800 B.C. to A .D . 1300 and spread fro m B ernard H a r b o u r an d Melville Island in the west to eastern G re e n la n d and the northwest p art o f N e w fo u n d la n d Island. In fact, the N e w fo u n d la n d sites are som e 2,400 miles a n d 2 ,3 00 miles respectively from those in no rth east G r e e n ­ land an d those at Bernard H a r b o u r in the C a n a d ia n W estern A rctic - ro ughly the sam e as the mileage from M o n tre a l to Los Angeles o r W inn ipeg to T eg ucig alp a in H o n d u ra s . W ith in the D o rse t area, sites seem most a b u n d a n t in the H u d s o n StraitF oxe Basin region. A lth o u g h D o rse t material occurs d o w n the east side o f H u d s o n Bay to the Belcher Islands, it has not been fo u n d o n the b a y ’s west coast; n o r does it seem to o c c u r in the B arren L an ds interior west o f the bay. So f a r the only inland find o f D orset sites have been at P ay n e L ak e n ear th e centre o f U ng ava peninsula. T h e origin o f D o rset c u ltu re has long been a question o f hot scholarly d eba te despite the cold silence o f the subject m atte r. Before the P re-D o rset period w as discovered scarcely a dozen years ago, som e archaeologists claim ed D o rset derived by m i­ g ratio n from A lask a while oth ers a rgued it was basically an Indian w ay o f life th a t was c arried fro m the G r e a t Lakes-St. L aw ren ce Valley area. A volley o f recent rep o rts o n very early D o rse t sites an d o n Pre-D o rset sites along w ith new results of ra d io -carb o n datin g has led to general ag re e m e n t th a t D o rset c u ltu re developed first within the C an a d ia n E astern A rctic from the P re-D orset culture, for m a n y cu ltu re traits are sh are d by the tw o, a n d o th e r D orset tool types are clearly evolved from P re -D o rs e t prototypes. F u r t h e r the P re-D orset an d D o rset peoples lived very sim ilar kinds o f lives with the sam e a d a p ta ­ tion, ec o n o m y an d settlem ent p atterns. N evertheless a few D orset traits, lacking P re -D o rs e t antecedents, m ay ha v e been acq u ired by cu ltural diffusion from the w estern sub-Arctic, an d fr o m early Indian gro u p s in so utheastern C a n a d a . T h e N atio n al M u s e u m o f C a n a d a ’s 1963 arctic field survey re-opens th e possibility that the c h an g e from P re -D o rs e t to D o rset involved the sp re ad o f so m e ideas e astw ard fro m A lask a because that survey ex tende d the k n o w n ra n g e o f D o rse t oc­ cu p a tio n s so m e 4 5 0 miles w estw ard to B ernard H a rb o u r, w here a ra th e r early D orset c u ltu re site was exam ined. L ike their predecessors, D orset people lived in small

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se aso nally-no m adic b an d s w ith little c a m p s o f skin tents in su m m e r, sheltering in w in ter in small clusters o f partly-underg ro u n d pit houses. S o m e o f these w inter houses seem to have h ad skin roofs. D o rset m a n m a y have used, indeed m ight have invented, the snow -house. T h e y h u n ted seal, beard ed seal, w al­ rus, and carib o u ; they fished extensively using stone traps and ba rb ed spears; sp ears w ere also used in bird-hunting. H eav y spears, lances, a n d toggling h a rp o o n s were used against the la rg e r anim als. Since there is very little evidence o f dom esticated dogs in this culture, Dorset people m ay have m an -h aule d their sm all ivory-shod sleds. A lth o u g h they seem to have h ad skin boats, nothing is k no w n precisely o f the boat type. T h e S ag a of Erik the Red m en tion s Sk raeling skin b oats o r canoes propelled by staves o r paddles. In the n o rth e rn part o f N e w fo u n d la n d island, w here the ob serv atio n w as likely m ad e, such might well be a reference to Dorset cu lture kayaks. N eed le cases and an a b u n d a n c e o f delicate bir d -bo ne needles suggest that Dorset people w ore tailored fur clothing. T h ey had, albeit a smaller model, that tradition al E skim o hallm ark , the blub ber-bu rn in g lam p, carv ed from soapstone, w hich pro vided heat for the dwelling, light, a m eans o f drying clothes, an d an an sw er to their h um b le c o ok ing needs. Im p lem en ts m a d e o f antler, ivory, bone, o r driftw o od were tip ped o r edged with chipp ed and som etim es polished stone blades o f chert, q u a rtz , o r quartzite. Such im p lem en ts generally reflect a P re-D o rset heritage, but an o th e r category, blades o f g ro u n d an d polished slate, seem to have no a d e q u a te P re-D orset precursors, an d thus m a y reflect A lask an influences, o r m a y have been learnt fro m Ind ians to th e sou th, som e o f w h o m used that technique. T h e m ost excitem ent in excav atin g a D orset site com es w h e n so m eon e u n earth s o n e o f the sm all delicate carvings in ivory, antler, o r bone, that ch aracterizes D orse t art. These ra r e pieces, shaped with c o n s u m m a te skill w ith stone tools, ra n g e from ab o u t fo u r inches to as little as three-eighths o f an inch, an d som etim es weigh only a sm all fraction o f an ounce. Such figurines, o ften precisely realistic, so m etim es o f sophisti­ cate d ab straction, usually depict anim als, birds, fish, hu m an s, o r mythical beasts. Som etim es a c om p lete specim en represents on ly a part, such as a w alru s head, a carib o u hoof, a h u m a n face o r a gull's head. A second categ ory o f art is o rn am en tatio n , co m m o n ly o f sho rt lines, confidently set o n various objects, o fte n as a skeletal m o tif on the figurines. T h e recent an d very distinctive art o f the A ngm agssalik E skim o o f the east coast o f G re e n la n d shows a n u m b e r o f traits

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sim ilar to those fo u nd on D o rset cultu re carvings a n d this leads to the speculation th a t A ngm agssalik art m a y have p erpetu ated som e D orset period a rt styles. If that were so one might w o n d e r w h e th e r o r not Angm agssalik cu lture was in som e p a rt derived fr o m D orset culture, w h eth er p erh aps it was a blend o f D orset an d la ter cultures. Until a few years ago n othing was k n o w n o f D orset p e o p le ’s burial practices o r skeletons. R ecently archaelogists have dis­ covered stone vault graves, stone-lined pit graves, an d small gravel m o u n d graves containing grave goods and red ochre. T h e skeletal rem ains have been very poorly preserved, but what little there is suggests that the D orset people were physically typical Eskim os. T h e m uch -d e b a ted w o rk o f linguistics leads m e to think that the D orset pop ulation sp o k e som e old variant o f the E skim o language. T h u s we m a y con clu d e fo r the D orset period that the general picture is o f E skim o c ulture, an d al­ though not all the usual E skim o traits are present, the picture does not fall from its frame. A ro u n d A .D . 9 0 0 D orset cu ltu re began to be cro w ded off the arctic stage as the third m a jo r period o f C a n a d ia n Eskim o prehisto ry pushed in from A laska. Betw een ab out 9 00 and 1300 a vast, thin drift o f po pu latio n spread o v e r arctic C a n a d a a n d coastal G re e n la n d alm ost com pletely bu ryin g the Dorset. A lth o u g h there is som e evidence o f c o n ta c t an d m u tua l influ­ ence betw een the old er D o rset and the e m igratin g A laskans, the overall view is o f nearly c om plete replacem ent. T h is third period, the T h u le culture, persisted until ab o u t A .D . 1750. T h u le evolved directly o u t o f Birnirk culture, o f the north A laskan coast and Birnirk, in tu rn , was a p ro du ct o f a long evolu tion ary trend o f E sk im o cu lture stages in the Bering Strait region. A lth ou gh som e p art o f th a t evo lu tion ary line­ age extends back to the old D enbigh Flint C o m p le x of 3000 B.C., diffusion from Siberia an d from no rthw estern N o r t h A m eric a along with local modifications and inventions m ust have played a significant p a rt in th a t still little-known progression. T h is seems the place to inject a necessary rebuttal to T ryggvi O le so n’s surprising recent revival an d extension of D u a so n 's odd ideas on E skim o p erhisto ry an d p rotoh istory in C a n a d a an d G re e n la n d . Oleson argued that the old D orset E sk im o and G re e n la n d ic N o rse gro up s blended, both racially a n d culturally, to p ro du ce the T h ule c u ltu re and its people, that su b seq uen t to this proposed origin T h u le c u ltu re and people spread th ro u g h o u t arctic C a n a d a a n d west into Alaska.

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T h a t speculative reco nstru ction em bodies so m an y e rro rs that a critic m ight d espa ir o f listing them in detail. P erh a p s it will suffice to say that there is no evidence o f a N o rse-D o rse t b le n d ­ ing such as Oleson requires, th a t th ere is no evidence th a t the C a n a d ia n T h u le c u ltu re peo ple were racially blended with C aucasoids, an d that there is no reason to believe th a t T h u le cu lture began earlier in G re e n la n d th an in A laska. T h e a rc h a e o ­ logical reco rd shows but very scant evidence o f N o rse-D o rse t c o ntact, let alone a cultural blending, th a t T h u le cultu re people w ere pu re E sk im o in racial type and th a t the earliest T hule sites o ccur in the west, not in G re e n la n d . T h e evidence to su p ­ po rt the O leson -D u ason views w ould o f necessity be a rc h a e o ­ logical and yet 1 a m sure no arctic archaeologist w ould su pport the ir speculations. C ertainly n on e has p resented an appraisal o f C a n a d ia n E sk im o prehistory co m p atible with that attem pted by Oleson. Beginning n o t la ter th an A .D . 900, T h u le m igrants g ra d u ­ ally w an dered eastw ard fro m no rth ern A lask a along the arctic coast and n o rth ea stw ard th ro u g h the high arctic islands r e a c h ­ ing n orthw est G re e n la n d p e rh ap s a b o u t A .D . 1100. Subse­ quently, in G re e n la n d T h u le peoples c a m e u n d e r the influence of an d into close co ntac t w ith the V iking settlers on that island’s southw est coast. As one T h u le wave w ashed on to the G r e e n ­ lan d shores, a n o th e r carried southeasterly crossing H u dso n S trait to flow south do w n the cast coast o f H u d so n Bay to the Belchers an d d o w n the L a b r a d o r coast to the Strait o f Belle Isle. A lth ou gh T h u le h un ters h arvested c a rib o u , seal, walrus, birds an d fish like the ir D orset predecessors, and had a basic­ ally sim ilar tu n d r a -a d a p te d way o f life, th ere w ere m arked significant differences betw een the tw o. T o begin, the T h u le h ad a m o re effective cultural a dap ta tio n to the A rctic: the re is only scan t evidence o f do m esticated dogs in D o rset cu lture but T h u le people h a d dogs, a valuable aid in h u nting and, harnessed for sled hauling, a m eans to increase the ran ge an d rate of travel; a second vital a dv anta ge fo r T h u le was its possession of the full range o f g ear f o r h un tin g the great baleen whales, a m a jo r food supply n o t available to the D o rset people. Indeed, w haling m o re th a n an yth in g else distinguishes T h ule culture from earlier an d later C a n a d ia n A rctic c u ltu re periods. T h e T h u le people were typical, in deed classic, E sk im o in their culture, their language, and th eir physical type. Skeletons from the several g rav e finds p lace them clearly in the distinc­ tive racial su b-gro up o f m o d e r n Eskim os. All Eskimologists ag re e th a t they spoke the E sk im o language. T h e ir w ay o f life

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is fully within the E skim o pattern . Parts o f tailored f u r clothing including the p a rk a an d skin boots, preserved in the p e r m a ­ nen tly frozen soil o f arctic sites, are quite like recent E skim o dress. T h e y used kayaks, um iaks, sleds an d sled dogs, whips, ha rp o o n s , spears, lances, fishing gear, a n d bows an d arro w s of typical E skim o type. T h e sam e m ay be said o f tools as o f w eapons. T h e w o m e n 's kit, needles, needle cases, the ulu, the soapstone lam ps an d pots, an d w ick trim m e rs that have been excav ated have close c o u n te r p a rts in re cent C an a d ia n E sk im o cu lture; an d so d o T h u le cu lture adzes, d r u m parts, snow knives, dippers, seal scratchers, snow goggles, sealing stools, snares, drying rack fragm ents, snow beaters, bow drill parts, an d sn ow probes. E ven the am ulets a n d the toys such as the a jaqaq ( a cup an d ball v ariation using pierced bone an d p i n ) , w o o d en dolls, mode! boats, w eapons, an d utensils ech o the c o m m o n a lty o f T h u le cu lture a n d recent C a n a d ia n E sk im o life as the latter was seen by the early E u ro p e a n explorers an d whalers. Indeed, the arro w that struck M artin F ro b ish er in the buttocks as he fled to the beach o f F ro b ish e r Bay was delivered f ro m a T h u le bow by a T h u le c u ltu re E skim o whose u n su s p ec t­ ing ancestors had c o m e all the way fro m A laska for the event. O n e m a y safely con clud e that racially an d culturally the m o d ­ e r n C a n a d ia n E sk im o descended from the old T h u le culture pop ulation . Its w in ter villages reflect the m o r e effective arctic a dap ta tio n o f T hu le culture as co m p a re d to Dorset. T h u le w in ter villages c o m m o n ly co ntain six to thirty ra th e r large solid houses m ade o f stone slabs a n d sods set o v e r a w hale-bone fra m e w o rk ; these have a cold-tra p e n tra n c e passage, raised flagstone sleeping platfo rm s, a flagged floor an d various little storage cubicles, food bins and pantries. U sually they are partly u nd erg ro u n d , o fte n set into a gently sloping gravel hillside facing the sea. D o rse t houses, o n the o th e r h an d , are usually less elaborate, sm aller, and in w in ter clusters o f only ab o u t three to fifteen in n u m b e r. Like the D o rset people, T h u le E skim os used skin tents in s u m m e r an d in w inter th ey built snow-houses, p erh aps only fo r te m p o ra r y camps. A s T h u le rep laced D o rse t o ver a vast are a, that re p la c e ­ m e n t m u s t h av e taken som e tim e an d un d o u b ted ly ideas were e x ch ang ed betw een the co n te n d in g cultures. E sk im o folk tales includ e n u m e r o u s ac cou n ts o f the T u n it o r old p eop le w ho were, in fact, the D o rset p o pu latio n. It seem s likely th a t T h u le peo ple learnt o f the snow -house from D o rset fo r it is n o t an A lask an trait. T h e sam e m ight apply to soapstone lam ps and

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pots for p rehistorians h av e n o t found these in Birnirk, the A laskan culture ancestral to T h u le . Also so m e T h u le types of h a rp o o n heads suggest the copying o f D orset h a rp o o n head styles. N o r w as the b orrow in g in one direction only fo r it seems th a t the latest stage o f D o rset house types in co rp orates the cold-trap e n tr a n c e passage copied from the new T h u le sub­ divisions. It m u st have been a valuable innovation since both T h u le and D o rse t people faced a w orsening p hase o f climate after A .D . 1100 in the eastern Arctic. C o m in g d o w n the west coast o f G re e n la n d , T h u le w a n d e r­ ers soon co n tac ted the V ikings w ho h ad begun settling in south-w est G re e n la n d a few score years before. T h e V ikings h ad considerable influence o n the T h u le E sk im o in G reen lan d an d, ov er the generations, m u c h con tac t w ith them . But there too, d e terioratin g clim ate (a n d a lack o f co n ce rn in E u ro p e ) squeezed the N o rse settlem ents o u t o f existence, so that in the fifteenth an d sixteenth centuries the dim inished r e m n a n t of N o rse G re e n la n d ic cu lture blended with its Viking-influenced E sk im o matrix. T h e fou rth and final stage in C a n a d ia n E sk im o archaeology is that o f the recent C entral E sk im o w hich can be d ated fro m the eighteenth cen tury. T h e recent people derive directly from the T h u le cu ltu re po p u latio n ; b u t there are differences an d they are largely a result o f a g rad u al collapse in, an d virtual en d to, the C a n a d ia n E sk im o h un tin g o f baleen w hales w hich had been a n eco no m ic m ainstay o f th e culture. W h e n w h ale-hunting declined, the large p e rm a n e n t villages o f s tu rd y w in ter houses w e re a b a n d o n e d , for a m o re n o m ad ic life was required now th a t the people becam e increasingly d e p e n d e n t on the m ore sc attered herds o f seal an d w alrus. T h u s there was a gradual shift to the sn ow -house o n the sea ice as the c u sto m a ry w in ter residence. F u rth e r, the “L ittle Ice A ge," a time o f harsher clim ate from 1650 to 1850, seem s to have forced a w ithdraw al o f population fro m the n o rth e rn m o s t C a n a d ia n islands - Elles­ m ere, Devon, Somerset, C ornw allis an d B athu rst - that the T h u le people h ad settled, east to G re e n la n d a n d south to the south coast o f V ictoria Island, Boothia Peninsula, and Baffin Island. T h a t “ Little Ice A g e ,” brin gin g m o re extensive ice cover an d sh o rter seasons o f o p e n w ater, m ay partly explain the decline in T h u le cu lture w haling. T h e w h ales’ s u m m e r range m igh t also have been sh r u n k by a decreasing dep th o f sea passages c aused by the con tin uin g post-glacial rise o f the land. T h ir d , the diligence o f E u ro p e a n w halers in n o rth e rn w aters m a y have red u ce d the supply o f whales available to T h u le

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h arp o o n e rs. In fact very little is kn ow n o f this transition except, o f course, the m a tte r o f w haling an d the very m in or changes in styles o f h a rp o o n heads and o th e r frag m en ts w hose study writes the prehistory just su m m a riz ed . T h e o th e r c h an g e from T h u le to recent C en tral E skim o c u ltu re rests in the in tro du ctio n o f E u ro p e a n goods an d ideas. T h a t p ackag e o f steel needles, so generously given, e xploded into trading stations, missions, g ov ernm ents, a D .E .W . line an d even sore-backed archaeologists w a nd erin g about in a vast past picking up pieces lost, left, and fo rg otten like the tribes that used them.

22. Changing Patterns of Indian Trapping in the Canadian Subarctic* Jam es VV. V anStone s o u r c e

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A rctic, V ol. X V I, N o. 3 (Sept., 1 9 6 3 ) , pp. by perm ission o f the a u th o r an d publisher.

15 9 -1 7 4 .

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T h e im p ortan ce o f tra pp ing to the In dians o f the C a n a d ia n A rc tic an d S ub arc tic is a m a t te r o f historical fact, an d the changes brought ab o u t in the traditional Indian w ay o f life by th e in tro du ctio n and de velo pm en t o f a trapp ing -tradin g ec o n ­ o m y have been well d o c u m e n te d for m a n y tribes th ro u g h o u t C a n a d a by historians a n d anthropologists. T h e a u t h o r ’s field w o rk at S n ow d rift a C hip ew y a n c o m m u n ity at the ea stern end o f G r e a t Slave L ak e in the N o rth w e st Territories, provided in fo rm atio n ab o u t recent acc ultu rativ e facto rs affecting the tr a p p in g p attern . T h e pu rpose o f this p a p e r is to show th a t these factors are not p eculiar to Snow drift alone, but are widespread an d a p p e a r to be altering the significance o f trap pin g in the p resen t-day ec o n o m y o f peoples th ro u g h o u t the eastern and western Subarctic.

I T h e c o m m u n ity o f Snow drift is located on the sou th eastern sho re o f G re a t Slave L ake in a region th a t is entirely w ithin the a re a o f P re c a m b ria n rocks. T h e eastern end of the lake has * T he field research o n w hich this p a p e r is based was supported by the N o rth ern C o -o rd in atio n an d R esearch C e n tre, C anada D ep artm en t o f N o rth e rn A ffairs an d N atio n al R esources during the sum m ers o f 1 9 6 0 an d 1 9 6 1 an d fo r 1 m onth in the w inter o f 1 9 6 1 . T h e a u th o r is grateful to M r. V ictor F . V alentine of the R esearch C en tre fo r his assistance an d encouragem ent. The m ap w as d raw n by Dr. E dw ard S. Rogers. T he a u th o r is also indebted to D rs. R ogers, F. W. V oget, R onald C ohen, and T . F. S. M cF eat, fo r m any helpful suggestions during p rep ara­ tion o f this paper.

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a n extrem ely intricate shoreline with large n u m b ers o f bays a n d in n u m erab le islands. T h e c o u n try a ro u n d the village is cha racteriz ed by wooded, rolling hills fro m five h u n d re d to o n e th ou sand feet a bo ve sea-level; m an y lakes o f various sizes dot the area; the vegeta tion a n d fa u n a are essentially subarctic in character. Snow d rift, w ith a population o f a pp ro xim ate ly one h u n d red a n d fifty persons in 1961, is a very recent village whose p h y si­ cal existence in its present fo rm goes ba ck no m o re th an ten years. H ow eve r, the are a has been a focal point fo r residents o f the s u r ro u n d in g region since 1925 w h e n the H u d s o n ’s Bay C o m p a n y established a post at the site o f the p resent c o m ­ m un ity. P rio r to th a t time the pop ulatio n at the eastern end o f G r e a t Slave L ake consisted o f an u n k n o w n n u m b e r of C h ip e w y a n families w ho h un ted , fished, a n d trap p ed t h r o u g h ­ o u t the a re a an d m o v ed ab o u t the c o u n try as single families o r gro up s o f families. M ost o f these families tra d e d at F ort Resolution, a long-established post on the so uth w estern shore o f the lake, and co nsidered that c o m m u n ity to be their trading centre. W h e n the Snow drift post w as established m an y o f these fam ilies, tog eth e r with som e w h o had tra d e d at posts to the south an d southwest on L ak e A th a b a sc a , shifted their cen tre o f activity to the new post. F acto rs responsible for the recent c o n c en tra tio n o f a p e rm a n e n t p o p u la tio n at Snow drift are not, how ever, specifically c o nn ecte d with the fu r trade. T h ey include ( 1 ) th e increase in g o v ern m e n t services th a t have redu ced reliance o n incom e derived from trapping, ( 2 ) the recent estab ­ lishm ent o f a federal school in the village, ( 3 ) im pro ve d h o u s­ ing, a n d ( 4 ) w ag e-em plovm ent. T h e yearly ro u n d o f subsistence activities at S now d rift in­ cludes fall fishing n ear the village, w inter a n d spring trapping, a certain a m o u n t o f h un tin g th ro u g h o u t the y e a r f o r m oose a n d ca rib ou , an d som e w a ge-e m ploy m en t d u rin g the s u m m e r. W in te r an d spring trap pin g keeps m en aw ay fr o m the village f o r varying periods o f time, usually not m o r e th a n tw o weeks a t a time, and the late s u m m e r an d early fall run o f carib o u usually takes m a n y families to the ex trem e no rth e aste rn end of the lake fo r a period o f ab ou t tw o weeks to o n e m o nth d urin g late A u g u st an d early Septem ber. O p po rtu nities for wagee m p lo y m e n t in the fo rm o f com m ercial fishing a n d tourist guiding are o f gro w in g im p o rtan ce , an d th ere is also a g ov ern ­ m e n t spo nso red roa d -w ay clearing pro ject th a t takes m an y y ou n g m en aw ay fr o m the village d uring J a n u a r y o r F eb ru ary . T ra p p in g begins officially o n the first o f N o v e m b e r w hen

M a p of th e r e g io n a r o u n d S n o w d rift. M a p 11

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th e season fo r m ost fur-bearing anim als opens. T h e a re a that h as been used by Snow drift trap p e rs is b o u n d e d on the north by W alm sley an d C linton-C olden lakes, on th e east by W hitefish L ake, on the south by the so uthern T altso n R iv er-N on ach o L a k e are a, an d on the west by the D o u b lin g -M e a n d e r Lake region (see M a p 1 I ) . T his is a large a re a but the m ajority of tr a p p e rs have not tra p p ed to the peripheries o f the region in re cent years. In 1961, fo r e xam p le, only one m a n tr a p p e d north o f N a r r o w L ak e in the D ou bling L a k e -M e a n d e r L a k e area a n d only occasionally d o trap p e rs extend the ir activities as far n o rth as C lin ton -C old en L ake o r as far east as Whitefish L ake. In fact, the n u m b e r o f tra p p ers w h o o p e ra te b e y on d the tree line is very small indeed. D u rin g the w in ter o f 1959-60, when fox prices were relatively high a n d the an im als few in the w o od ed cou ntry, on ly th re e m e n tra p p e d in the Barren G ro u n d s . Most men d o a large p a rt o f their tr ap p in g within a rad iu s o f from sixty-five to eig hty miles fr o m the village and the T a ltso n R iv er-N o n a ch o L a k e are a is the cen tre o f c o n ­ centration. T h e length o f tim e that the trapp ers stay aw ay from the village varies considerably. A very few m en go o u t in the late fall, re tu rn for C hristm as an d stay several weeks, th en go out again an d d o not retu rn until late in the spring. H ow ever, a m u ch larger n u m b e r re tu rn freq uen tly to tra de furs and obtain supplies. Most info rm an ts m ain tained th a t th ey seldom stayed o u t m o re th an tw o weeks be fo re returnin g to trade. T h u s a g reat deal o f tim e is spent in travelling to a n d from the trap lines. A m an seldom com es to the village w ithout staying at least a week. T ra p p e rs alw ays have to d o a ce rtain a m o u n t o f hunting because the supplies th ey take with th em from the village usually consist o f little m o re th a n staples, regardless o f the a m o u n t o f credit th ey have received fro m the H u d s o n ’s Bay C o m p a n y m an ag e r. T h e m ost im p o rta n t h u n tin g d u rin g the w in te r and spring is for caribou. Som e m en feel very strongly that their dogs should be fed on carib o u m ea t d u rin g the w inter, especially w hen th ey are being used o n the trap line; thus, there are trap p ers w ho will not set nets while th ey a re on the line, but will spend time hu ntin g instead o f trapping. W h e n they are unsuccessful, th ey m ust feed th eir dogs flour o r cereal fro m their o w n food supply an d th ere fore ru n o u t o f these staples rapidly and must retu rn to the village. It seems certain th a t fo r m an y trappers, looking for carib o u is the m ost im ­ p o rta n t thing they do on the tr a p line an d always tak es p r e ­

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ce den ce ov er trapping. S om e m en are even unwilling to leave the village if n o carib o u have been repo rte d in the are a where th ey trap. In this con nectio n, it is w o rth co m m e n tin g on a statem ent m a d e abo ut th irty years ago by a m a n a g e r o f the H u d s o n ’s Bay C o m p a n y store at Snowdrift. H e believed that the success of th e S no w drift In dians as tr ra p e rs w as directly related to the pre senc e o r ab sen ce o f carib o u in the trap pin g areas. A t the ti m e this sta tem en t was w ritten into the records, fu r prices, p articu larly for w hite fox, w ere very high, but unless c aribou w ere repo rte d in the Barren G ro u n d s , the In dian s w ould not go there to trap foxes. T h u s tr a p p in g seems, to som e extent, to have been incidental to h u nting even as late as 1925 o r 1930. T h e sam e is tru e to day ev en though carib o u m eat is no longer qu ite as essential a food item as it was thirty years ago. T h e existence o f clearly defined fam ily tra pp ing territories a m o n g the C h ip e w y a n h as been the subject o f som e dispute. At least o n e early o bserver believed th a t these territories did exist (Seton 1 92 0), while an o th e r has denied their existence (P e n a r d 1 9 2 9 ). It m u st be a d m itte d th a t the e vidence collected at S no w ­ drift does not su p p o rt the th e o ry o f fam ily trap pin g territories. M o st in f o rm a n ts stated that th ey had learned to trap in o n e of the areas tra p p e d by their fathers a n d afterw ard s often c o n ­ tin ued trap pin g in that area. H ow e ver, few trap p ers could be fo u n d w h o h a d tra p p e d m o r e th an live years in any single area. T w o o r three years w as the m o r e usual length o f time, d e p e n d ­ ing o n how successful the tr a p p in g w as in a p articu lar locality. Som e trap p ers had tra p p ed at one tim e o r a n o th e r th ro u g h o u t m o st o f the are a within a o ne-h u n d red -m ile radius fro m the village. D u rin g the w in ter o f 1961, o n e tr a p p e r relocated his tra p line in the m iddle o f th e season because he felt th a t the sn ow was too d ee p in the region w here he had originally set his traps. C onsistent op position to trap line registration o n the p a rt o f the villagers is a fu r th e r indication th a t th ey desire freed o m to d e te rm in e fo r them selves w here the trapp ing is best. T h e r e can be no d o u b t th a t th e total area trap p ed by S no w ­ d rift residents has been sh rin kin g steadily in recent years, p a r ­ ticularly since the Ind ian s b eg an to live p erm a n e n tly a ro un d the trad in g post. T h e factors prim a rily responsible f o r this situation have alread y been m e ntioned. H ow ever, it is w orth discussing th e m in m o re detail, particularly as th ey relate to the changing tr a p p in g pattern. T h e p a y m e n t o f family allowance on a m o n th ly basis p ro ­ vides an ad dition al fo rm o f incom e that c a n be ob tain ed at

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reg u lar intervals. T his has m ea n t that trappers, even w h en they n orm a lly trap w ithout their families, are reluctant to be aw ay f ro m the post w hen there is a c h e q u e to be cashed. O th e r go v­ e rn m e n t services such as rations a n d old age pensions h a v e a sim ilar effect an d the incom e from these sources red uc es the reliance on incom e derived fro m trapping. T h e recent estab lish m ent o f a federal school in the village m u s t be re garde d as a stabilizing featu re w hose effects will m ainly be felt in the future. H ow ever, even in the w in ter of 1961, w hen the school was on ly in its second yea r o f o p e r a ­ tion, m a n y families were beginning to realize an d accept the fact th a t their mobility during the trapp ing season w o u ld be redu ced . Several families w h o h ad previously spent m ost of the w in ter in the bush on th eir trap lines have been forced to ch ang e their pattern o f op eration . N o w only the heads o f these families go o u t o n the line an d the te nd ency is fo r th e m to re tu rn to the village at frequ en t intervals. It should be e m p h a ­ sized th a t it is the m ost vigorous, and th e re fo re usually the m ost successful, trap p ers w h o take their families with th e m on the tr a p line; it is the activities o f these m en, usually middleaged w ith large families, th a t have been m ost affected by the co nstru ctio n o f the school. Im prov ed housing should p ro b ab ly be considered as being closely associate d with pop ulation stability since the people a p p e a r to be interested in im p rov in g houses that th ey are going to live in all o r most o f the year. T h e C an a d ia n g o v e rn ­ m e n t has en co u rag e d this by instituting h o m e im p ro vem en t a n d h o m e building p rogram s. T h u s it is possible to note a g reate r c o n trast betw een the difficult, u n co m fo rta b le life on the trap line an d the com fo rta b le, gregarious life in the village. It is prob ably also safe to say that the discom forts o f a bush t r a p p e r ’s c a m p are m o re difficult to tolerate w hen the tra p p er is alone o r with a n o th e r m an ra th e r th a n with his family. It is little w onder, then, that the tr a p p e rs tend to becom e easily dis­ co ura ge d and desire to return frequently to the c o m f o rts o f their h o m e s in the village. W a g e -em p lo y m en t is, as yet, not o f m u ch im p o rta n c e to the people o f S now drift d u rin g the w inter months. H ow ever, in recent years the g o vern m en t has intro du ced a roadw ay-clearing p roject at the no rthw estern end o f G re a t Slave Lake. T h is project, which involves Indians fro m every c o m m u n ity in the G r e a t Slave L ak e area, takes m a n y men aw ay from Snow'drift d u rin g J a n u a r y o r F eb ru a ry . G o v e r n m e n t policies fo r the In dian s in the G r e a t Slave L ak e area in clud e developing an

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alternative m ean s o f livelihood to tr a p p in g an d the roadw ayclearing project is th o u g h t o f as a step in th a t direction. So far, the In d ians o f Snow drift h a v e only participated in the project a fte r C hristm as w h en the m ain tr ap p in g period has ended. T h u s its direct effect on tr a p p in g has not been great. A n in­ direct effect, however, m u st be tak en into consideration. D u r ­ ing D e c e m b e r 1961 the a u th o r noted that m a n y tra p p ers were not particularly w orried ab o u t their lack o f success and ad op ted a definitely desultory attitud e tow ard the w hole tr ap p in g p ro ­ cedure. T h e feeling was th a t since a com parativ ely large a m o u n t of m on ey was to be earn ed clearing ro adw ays in Ja n u a r y , it was not necessary to w'orry ab ou t the n u m b e r o f m in k o r m arten tra p p e d in N o v e m b e r an d D ec em b er. T h u s we m u st thin k of this go v ern m en t project, as well as o th e r s m o re extensive that a re likely to follow in the years to co m e, as being an o th er f a c to r that greatly influences the Snow drift trapping p attern . I f one is p r e p a r e d to say that the total area tr a p p e d by S no w drift m en is shrinking, th en it is equally certa in th a t the region a ro u n d the village is not being tra p p e d as efficiently or effectively as it might be. A t first glance there ap pe ars to be a con trad ictio n here. If the In dians no longer trap to the p eri­ pheries o f their areas because o f their desire to visit the village frequently, w hy is it that th ey d o not trap m o re intensively th an fo rm erly in the a r e a close to the village? T h e answ er to this is th a t th e factors that are responsible f o r the shrinking o f the total S n ow d rift tr a p p in g a r e a also o p e rate to reduce trap p ing effectiveness an d, in short, to red uce the n u m b e r o f h o u rs spent by the m en o n their trap lines. K eeping these factors in m ind, it is not difficult to u n d e r­ stand w hy tr a p p in g has bec o m e increasingly u n p o p u la r with the S no w drift Indians. N evertheless, o n e w ould suspect that enthusiasm fo r the activity might have rem ained relatively high if definite an d predictable benefits co ntinu ed to be derived from it. This, however, has not been so. N o t only is life on the tra p line very h ard an d carried o u t u n d e r ex tre m e climatic conditions, b u t the rew ards a re un predictable. It is this last po int that is o f p a rtic u la r im po rtan ce. A s H o n ig m a n n 1 has pointed o u t f o r the A ttaw ap is k at Crec, “ the enth usiasm w hich is a n im p o rta n t m o tivatin g factor in the Indian h u n te r and tr a p p e r is keenest when his efforts prom ise to bring h im not a i J. J. H onigm ann, “ F olkw ays in a m uskeg com m unity. A n a n ­ thropological rep o rt o n the A ttiw apiskat Indians,” (O ttaw a: D ept, o f N o rth . A ffairs a. N atl. Res., N C R C -62-1, 1962), pp. 89-90.

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few b u t m a n y anim als.” T h is is also tru e f o r the Ind ians of S n o w d rift an d this en th usiasm is also observable w h en the prices paid fo r furs are high. H o n ig m a n n fu rth e r p oin ts out th a t in som e societies relative scarcity o f resources m e a n s that peo ple will w o rk h a rd e r At A tta w ap iskat, an d also a t S n o w ­ drift, the reverse is true. It is the a u th o r ’s o pin ion th a t at S n o w ­ drift it is the ex tre m e fluctuation o f fu r prices as m u c h as an y ­ thing else that has h ad a d iscouraging effect u p o n the In d ian s’ interest in tr a p p in g as a m e a n s o f m ak in g a living. T h is fact, alo ng with oth ers previously m e ntio ne d, has simply m e a n t that th e m en , with few exceptions, a re spending less tim e o n their tr a p lines regardless o f how far these lines are from the village. D u rin g the m a in tr a p p in g period, w hich extends from ab o u t the first o f N o v e m b e r until C hristm as, m ost o f the village trap pers are on the ir lines for no longer th a n fo u r weeks. In recent years there has been only a m o d e r a te a m o u n t o f tr ap p in g a fte r C h rist­ mas. T h e value o f m ink an d m a rte n pelts d ro p s rapid ly after th e first o f the y ear an d on ly w hite-fox pelts con tin u e to be in p rim e condition. T h u s, largely because o f the unwillingness of m o st Sn ow d rift trap p e rs to go into the B arren G r o u n d s to tra p w hite foxes, there is relatively little tr a p p in g activity until m u s k ra t and b eav er trap pin g begins in the spring.

n T h e m aterial o n c o n te m p o ra r y tr ap p in g p resented in the p r e ­ cedin g pages leaves the distinct im pression th a t this activity is a c h an gin g aspect o f the In d ian eco n o m y an d that, particularly in recent years, this ch an ge h as been rapid, extensive, and influenced by factors that are characteristic o f In d ian a ccu l­ turation th ro u g h o u t m u ch o f C a n a d a , p articularly a m o n g su b ­ arctic peoples in the east a n d west. T h e re fo r e it seems probable th a t the changing p attern o f tr ap p in g at S n o w d rift ca n be du plicated in o th e r parts o f subarctic C a n a d a . W h e th e r an d to w h a t extent this actually is so will now be exam ined. A lth o u g h neglected for m a n y years by anthropologists, both th e eastern an d western Subarctic o f C a n a d a have recently received m o re attention, p articularly w ith regard to p roblem s o f social a n d cultu ral c hange. M u c h o f this w o rk is still u n ­ published, and , u nfo rtun ate ly , even the available repo rts do n o t deal with tr ap p in g in such a way as to m a k e th e m c o m ­ p a ra b le with the in fo rm a tio n collected at Snow drift. T h is is, o f course, n o t the fault o f the investigators b u t stems fr o m the

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p a rticu lar em ph asis o f th e various research designs. N e v e r ­ theless, e n o ug h in fo rm ation does exist so that so m e statem ents can be m a d e a b o u t similarities in tra pp in g patterns, particularly w ith regard to the pro b lem o f a re a utilization as it was d e ­ scribed fo r the Snow drift C hipew yan. T u r n in g first to o th e r studies in the w estern Subarctic, it is found that H elm , in describing trap pin g activities o f the people at “ L y nx P o int,” a Slave In d ian c o m m u n ity o n the Mackenzie R iver n ear F o rt S im pson, notes th a t the tim e spent on the tra p lines varies considerably. Most o f the m en hav e short lines and seldom spend m o re th an one o r tw o nights on the trail. T ho se w ith longer lines m a y set up tents and spe nd as m u c h as two weeks in the bush. O nly o n e old m an in the c o m m u n ity has a w in ter trapp in g c a m p in the bush and stays aw ay fro m the c o m ­ m u n ity as long as tw o m o nth s at a time. H elm m entions that in spite o f the definite econom ic advantages o f such an a rr a n g e ­ m ent, most “ L y nx P o in t” tr a p p e rs would p re fe r m o re frequent visits to the c o m m u n ity because th ey d o not like the social isolation o f trap p in g -c am p life. T h e y p re f e r the c o m f o rts of th eir o w n hom es w h ere ch ildren can be m o re easily tended, a n d they like to be n ear the store. A lth o u g h not specifically stated by H elm , o n e gets the definite im pression that there are as m a n y factors that d ra w the tra p p ers o f “ L ynx P o in t” closer to the c o m m u n ity as in Sn ow d rift, a n d th a t it is only the older trap p ers w ho th ink in term s o f long periods o f intensive tr a p ­ ping with infrequ ent visits to the post. A sim ilar situation can be said to exist a m o n g the D og rib In dian s o f L ac la M a rtre . H ere, a cco rding to H elm and Lurie, a tr a p line is set o nly an overn ig ht distance fro m the village, an d even an extend ed tra pp ing to u r u n d e rta k e n by several men tog eth er seldom lasts m o re th an tw o weeks. T h e au th o rs also m en tion that an im p ortan t fa c to r affecting the fu r trad e at Lac la M artre is the increasing access to o th e r sources o f incom e, “ both in term s o f pro viding less a rd u o u s inco m e activties and o f cu tting dow n on time-energy rem aining for trapping. In the eastern S ub arctic the p icture is so m ew h at less clear and is com p licated by the In d ia n s’ trapp ing in m a n y areas in g ov ernm ent a p p o rtio n ed a n d registered trapp ing territories. T h is m eans, f o r one thing, that a tr a p p e r m a y con stru ct a log cabin at a co nv en ie n t point on his tra p line and generally will not hesitate to im pro ve his line, both by using it b etter and by 2 J. H elm , “T h e Lynx Point people: th e dynam ics o f a n o rth ern A th ap ask an b a n d ,” (O ttaw a: N at. M us. C an., Bull. 176, 1961), p. 40.

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p rov idin g g re ater c o m fo rt. A Sn ow d rift tra p p e r, on the oth er h an d , seldom traps m o re th a n fo u r o r five years in the sa m e area an d fo r that reason hesitates to m a k e e la b o rate p re p a ra tio n s or im p ro v e m en ts o n an y one tra p line. T h u s th e tr a p p e r in the eastern S ubarctic, i l he is w o rk in g a registered trap line, p r e ­ sum ab ly finds th a t there is less c o n tra st betw een life in the bush a n d in the village, at least as fa r as physical c o m f o rt is c o n ­ cerned . H is cabin an d o th e r im p ro v e m en ts are also likely to co m m it him as far as intensity o f tr a p p in g an d time a w ay from th e village is co n cern e d . T h e re fo r e , he w o u ld be less likely to a b a n d o n all o r p a rt o f a line because o f d istance from the c o m ­ m u n ity o r fluctuations in f u r prices. T h u s the tr a p p e r in the eastern S ubarctic w o u ld seem to be less susceptible to so m e of th e influences th a t are affecting tra pp in g areas in p arts o f the west. A lth o u g h the situation ap pears, then, to be m o re com plex in the east th an in the west, it is nevertheless possible to isolate th e fac tors u n d e r discussion. A t N o rth w e s t R iv er in the M e l­ ville L a k e region o f L a b ra d o r, fo r exam ple, th ere w as during th e early 1950's a grow ing ten den c y fo r the M ontagn ais In dians to spend m o re time n e a r the trad in g post. M c G e e indicates that w ith g reate r d e p en d en ce on the H u d s o n ’s Bay C o m p a n y store, th e s u m m e r c a m p has increasingly becom e a base o f operations fr o m w hich the Ind ian s m o v e o u t an d to w h ich th ey retu rn frequently. W ives an d children are usually left at the cam p, w h ich discourage th e trap p ers from staying aw ay f o r long period s o f time. In em phasizing the im p o rta n c e o f pensions and relief p aym ents as pa rt o f the total p icture o f changing tr a p p in g pattern s in the Melville L ak e region, M c G e e fu r th e r points o u t th a t m o r e In d ian s n ow have a basis for credit at the H u d s o n 's Bay C o m p a n y store th a t is not co nn ected w ith the tr ad in g o f fur. It is possible f o r a family to subsist m o re o r less entirely o n relief allo tm ents a n d o th e r fo rm s o f u n e a rn e d in­ com e. “ Because o f the availability o f w elfare m oney, an d be­ cau se o f the resident m issionary with a c h u rc h and school, the n u m b e r o f individuals w ho d o not go to tr a p p in g g ro und s has g row n rapidly to en co m p a ss at least 25 p e r c e n t o f the ( N o r t h ­ west R iv er) b a n d .”3 It should be em phasized that those families living p erm a n e n tly in the village have given up tr a p p in g entirely an d are living o n welfare p a y m e n ts an d so m e w ag e-em p lo y­ m e n t d u rin g the su m m er. T ra p p in g areas close to the N o r t h ­ 3 J. T . M cG ee, “ C u ltural stability and change am ong the M onta­ gnais In d ian s o f the L ake M elville region o f L a b ra d o r,” (C ath o lic U niversity A m . A n th ro p . Ser. N o. 19, 1961), p. 57.

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c h a n g in g n o r t h

west River ha v e been taken ov er by w hites so that it is im ­ possible fo r an In d ia n to o p e ra te a tra p line from the village. Since these tre n d s described by M c G e e w ere a lread y well established at the tim e o f his field w o rk in 1951 and 1952, it is prob able that th ey have con tinu ed and be com e m ore significant d u rin g the past ten years. M o vin g west into n o rth e rn O n ta rio , we find that at A tta w a p is k a t m a n y inland trap p e rs leave the village shortly afte r the beginning o f the new y ear an d d o not re tu rn until Easter. H o w eve r, so m e re m a in in the c o m m u n ity until the end o f F e b ru ary . A large n u m b e r o f trap lines are located relatively close to the coast and the trap p ers w ho w o rk these lines leave th eir families in the village an d, c onsequently, retu rn frequently d u rin g the tr a p p in g season. M en w ho tra p b eav er on Akim iski Island also leave th e ir families at the post and m a k e a n u m b e r o f trips to the island by sled. T h e se m en rem ain aw ay fro m the village for ab o u t ten days at a tim e an d th en return, each visit to the post lasting ab ou t one week. T h u s o n e receives the dis­ tinct im pression o f dim inishing use o f trapp ing areas and the grad u al d ev elo p m en t o f a m o re sed en tary c o m m u n ity life. H o n ig m a n n ’s field w ork was d o ne in 1947 an d 1948, and it sh o uld be em p ha sized that a lthough trends that poin t to w ard c h an ges similar to those d o c u m e n te d for the west are ob serv ­ able, traditional trapp ing p a tte rn s were still o f considerable im p ortance. T h u s we learn that in the tw o seasons, 1944-45 and 1945-46, 43 p e r cent o f the listed A ttaw ap iskat tra p p ers o p e r­ ated within sixty miles o f the post an d th a t these m en e a rn e d 36 p er cent o f the tr ap p in g incom e for these years. O n the o ther h an d , 57 p e r cent o f the trap p e rs op erated at a distance greater th an sixty miles fro m the village and e a rn e d 64 p e r cent o f the incom e. It is obv iou s fro m these figures th a t g reater p r o p o r ­ tionate earnings are achie ved by those m en w h o travel farth er fro m the post into the area w'here fu r-bearing anim als are m ore plentiful. It is possible too, in the light o f previous statem ents, th a t these trap p e rs w ork h a r d e r because o f the g reate r potential re w a rd s aw aiting their efforts. At any rate, it will be seen that th ere were still m a n y factors that in 1948 en co u ra g e d A tta ­ w apisk at trapp ers to m aintain a trapp ing ro u tin e involving long absences from the c om m un ity . In describing field w o rk am o n g the n o rth ern O jibw a at P e k a n g e k u m in no rthw estern O n tario , D u n n in g has little de­ tailed info rm a tio n to offer con cerning cha ng es in tr ap p in g over time, but he d oes d o c u m e n t som e o f those factors o f econom ic

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18 1

and social chan ge that have been seen to influence trap pin g at Snow drift. T h u s we learn that g ov ern m e n t buildings, a school, a nu rsing station, an d houses have been co nstru cte d o n the reserve w ithin the past ten years. This, tog eth er with a steady increase in g o v e rn m e n t subsidy o f the ec o n o m y until it consti­ tu ted m o re th a n 41 p e r cent o f the total in com e in 1955, has resulted in a c h a n g e in the pattern o f residence in s u m m e r “ from d om estic units spread widely o v e r the tr ap p in g territories to a cluster o f population at each o f two centres.” 1 T h e a u th o r points o u t th a t this c on ce ntratio n o f pop u lation “co uld not have oc­ cu rred u n d e r the condition o f the traditional hunting an d tr a p ­ ping e c o n o m y ,” and we can assum e that such a fu n d am en tal dem o g rap h ic ch an g e h as h ad a definite effect on the p a tte rn of trap pin g, very likely in the direction that has been d o cu m e n ted here fo r o th e r com m unities. A t W inisk, less th a n tw o h u n d red miles n orthw est o f A tta ­ w apiskat on H u d so n Bay, L iebow and T r u d e a u say th a t the co nstruction o f a ra d a r base betw een 1955 and 1957 offered the C re e Ind ian s o f the a re a alternative ways of m akin g a living. P rio r to the co nstru ctio n o f the base each family gro u p would leave fo r its o w n trap line a re a in late S eptem ber, retu rn for a w eek at C h ris tm a s o r E aster o r b oth, to sell furs and obtain food supplies, and th e n go back to the trap line until late M a y or Jun e. T h u s there w ould be o nly a little m o re th a n tw o m on ths d u rin g the s u m m e r w hen all families w ere in the village. T h e au th o rs also say th a t som e families had only a few miles to travel to their trap lines a n d it seem s safe to assum e that they visited the post m o re frequently. With the co nstru ctio n o f the ra d a r base, the p atte rn outlined abo ve ch an g ed alm ost im m e d i­ ately to nearly com ple te depe nd enc e on w age la b o u r an d yearro u n d residence in w ha t b ecam e a c o m m u nity. It certainly w ould be difficult to find a m o r e d ra m atic e x a m ­ ple o f the pre ferenc e that sub arctic In dian s have fo r wage la b o u r ov er trap pin g as a m ea ns o f m akin g a living. T h e reasons fo r this preference, d o cu m en te d in som e detail for the W inisk C ree by L iebow an d T ru d e a u an d for the S no w drift C h ip ew y an by the present a u th o r, are o f no co ncern in this context. W h a t is o f p a rtic u la r interest is the g reat c han ge in trap pin g patterns, actually the alm ost total disa pp earan ce o f trapp ing , in response to the su dd en in tro du ction o f an alternative m eans o f m ak ing a * R. W. D unn in g , “ Som e im plications o f econom ic change in n o rth ern O jibw a social stru c tu re ,” Can. J. E con. Pol. Sci., 24, (1 9 5 8 ), p. 565.

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C a n a d a ’s

c h a n g in g

north

living. W h a t is seen here is the rap id culm ination o f a process th a t is going o n also in o th e r parts o f the eastern an d w estern Subarctic. In a p a p e r discussing c han gin g settlem ent patterns a m on g the C ree-O jibw a o f no rth e rn O n tario , R ogers gives the clearest statem en t o f the series o f trends that have a lre ad y been noted fo r Snow drift a n d o th e r areas. H e finds th a t there ha s been an increasing ten d e n c y fo r larg er groupings o f people to come tog eth er and rem ain m o re seden tary fo r a longer p eriod o f the ye ar th an form erly . T his ch ang e to larger settlements an d a m o r e sed entary existence can be mainly a ttributed to the impact o f E u ro -C a n a d ia n c u ltu re in m u ch the sam e w ay as can be d o c u m e n te d f o r o th e r p arts o f n o rth ern C a n a d a . W ith re g ard to trap pin g, R ogers d o cu m e n ts certain changes in the yearly cycle at R o u n d L ak e, O n tario , as follows: W ith the adv ent o f fall the m en m a k e ready for the com ing season o f trapping. W h e n the time arrives, p rim arily during O cto ber, nearly half the p o p u la tio n o f the village d eparts fo r their w in ter c am ps, located as a rule w ithin th e b o u n d a ­ ries o f th eir trap ping territories w h e re th ey will reside until just before C hristm as. D u rin g this period som e o f the men will occasionally return to the village to sell their furs and obtain m o re supplies. S o m e trap pers take their families with them , others leave th em in the village. T h o se m en who exploit the are a in the im m ed iate vicinity o f the settlement do not establish w inter c a m p s in the bush but ra th e r o perate directly fr o m their ho m es in the village.5 T h is pattern continues with the re tu rn o f those trappers, w ho have been in w in ter cam ps, to the village fo r C hristm as. A fter C hristm as, tr a p p in g is again resum ed but som e m e n do not re tu rn to their bush cam p s; ra th e r th ey “ b o rr o w ” a territory, or, m o r e likely, secure perm ission to tra p in a territory, n e a r the village. It appears, then, that at least h alf the R o u nd L a k e trap p ers tr a p n e a r the village. Som e have d on e so since the post w as first established, b u t fo r o the rs this form o f tra pp in g represents a bre a k with the old tradition o f w inter tr ap p in g cam ps. In his R o u n d L ake study, Rogers states that in spite o f the growing tendency fo r trap p e rs to exploit areas close to the village, there h as been no noticeable lowering of the yield p e r trap pe r. It is s E. S. R ogers, ‘‘C hanging residence pattern s am ong the C reeO jibw a o f n o rth ern O n tario ,” S outhw estern J. A n th ro p ., 19, (1 9 6 3 ), pp. 75-6.

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probable, however, th a t this will o c c u r in the future. W h a t R ogers does not state, and w h a t would be o f p artic ula r interest in this connection, is just h ow freq uen tly those trap p e rs w h o do stay in w in ter c a m p s before C h ris tm a s retu rn to the village to sell furs and ob tain supplies. A n o th e r po int o f interest w o uld be w h e th e r the n u m b e r o f tra p p ers w h o re tu rn to the w in ter cam p s after the holiday festivities is declining o r rem ainin g a p p ro x i­ m ately the sam e. O n e would suspect that the n u m b e r o f m en staying in the village after C h ristm as is growing. At the risk o f read in g m o r e into R ogers’ in fo rm atio n th a n it actually contains, it could be said that a m o n g the R o un d L ake O jibw a the trap ping p atte rn is u n dergoing changes sim ilar to those noted fo r S n ow d rift an d o th e r co m m u n ities in the eastern a n d w estern S ubarctic. N a m e ly , there is a g eneral decline in the efficiency with w hich the total available tr a p p in g a re a is used. Less time is being sp ent on the tr a p lines an d m o re eith er in the c o m m u n ity o r going to an d from the c o m m u n ity . T hese are g eneral statem en ts th a t seem to apply, to a g reater o r less degree, w h erever fur-bearing anim als are being trap p e d today in sub arctic C a n a d a . I t w ould, o f course, be naive a n d over simplistic to suggest th a t the factors responsible fo r this situation a re everyw here exactly the sam e o r a re taking place at the sam e rate. H ow e ve r, it is pro bab le that lack o f u n ifo rm d o cu m e n ta tio n o ver the en tire are a prevents, to som e extent, the easy recognition of those similarities and parallel dev elop m en ts that do exist. O n e fa c to r that com p licates this situation and ab o u t which little has been said here is time. Even such in fo rm a tio n as has been p re­ sented indicates that changes in tr a p p in g patterns have not ta k e n place at an equal rate. T h u s it is the opinion o f one experienced field w o rk er that in m an y areas, particularly in som e parts of the eastern S ubarctic, the Ind ian s tr a p m o r e today th a n they did a h u n d re d years ago. This m a y be tru e in th e west as well since the proliferation o f trading posts an d the availa­ bility o f c o n su m e r goods on a large scale, both o f w hich have en co u rag ed trap pin g, have o c cu rred d u ring the past thirty o r fo rty years. Similarly, a lthough it has been possible to m ak e g eneral statem ents ab o u t the decline in trapp ing effectiveness a n d land use, w hich app ly o v er the entire are a o f subarctic C a n a d a , it is u n d o u b te d ly true th a t statem ents o f this kind must be tem p e re d by the recognition th a t the c o n cen tratio n o f Indian p op ulatio ns in p e rm a n e n t co m m un ities h as so m etim es resulted in greater use o f the trap pin g a re a n ear the c o m m u n ity as the trap p e rs have increasingly w ith d raw n fro m the peripheries.

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c h a n g in g n o r t h

T h is is not tru e at S no w drift b u t it is at R o u n d L ake, an d there a re indications th a t it m ay also be true o f o th e r c o m m u n ities in the eastern Subarctic. All this ap pe ars to suggest th a t in spite o f conditions that are w o rk in g to the detrim ent o f con tin ued interest in trapping, there a re still a n u m b e r o f im po rtant factors that tend to insure th a t it will be a long tim e before this m e ans o f livelihood entirely disappears. U n d o u b te d ly the most im p ortan t o f these, at least in th e western S ubarctic, is that trapping rem ain s t!ie only source of in com e besides un certain wage-labour, relief, an d welfare. It is unlikely that very m an y Indian groups will desire, o r be perm itted, to live entirely o n u nea rne d incom e, and it has been only u n d e r unusual c ircum stances, such as at W inisk, that wagee m p lo y m e n t o p p ortu nities in an y part o f the Subarctic have existed in sufficient a b u n d a n c e and p e rm an en ce to enable the In d ian s to m a k e a co m p lete chan ge in their m ean s o f subsist­ ence. Even if jo b opp ortun ities were to increase considerably, it is by n o m e ans certain that trap pin g w ould rapidly disappear. T h e re exist, in m a n y areas, factors that en c o u ra g e a continued interest in trapping. In the east, the logging an d mining indus­ tries, as well as tourist guiding, have ten ded to keep the Indians in the bush an d helped to m ain tain their interest in an d close association w ith the en v iro n m e n t they k n o w thoroughly. C o m ­ mercial fishing a n d the gro w in g im p ortan ce o f tourist guiding has h ad, and is likely to c on tinu e to have, a similar effect in the west. It must also be re m em b e re d that trap pin g has been im ­ p ortant in th e eastern S ub arctic for m o r e th an three h u nd red years an d in the west fo r nearly as long. T im e is an im po rtan t facto r in consolidating ad ap tive form s o f c u ltu re and it required p erhap s a dozen o r m o re g enerations for patterns o f socializa­ tion, family holdings, and m arriage preferences based on tr a p ­ ping to be built up and stro ng ly consolidated in both the east an d the west. Indeed it is the strength o f these developed p a t­ terns that is likely to d eterm in e the reaction o f any one group o f In dians to the in trod uctio n o f the various factors mentioned above that have the potential to inhibit trapping. In this connection one point in p a rtic u la r m ust be exam ined; that is the presence o r absence a m o n g subarctic In dian s of n orm ative pressures to hun t and trap. A ltho ug h in fo rm atio n on this point is not as co m p lete as it might be, the a u th o r feels that this is not a significant fa c to r am o n g Indians in the w estern Subarctic. At Snow drift, for exam ple, the m en seem ed to take very little pride in their trap pin g skill, a n d the a u th o r never heard co m m e n ts ab ou t the pleasures o r c o m pe nsation s o f bush

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living. In the M a c k e n z i e - G r e a t Slave L ak e a re a the field w o rk er will h ear a g re at deal ab ou t h o w the Indian is m ost h a p p y and con tent w h en he is in the bush on his trap line, but these c o m ­ ments always seem to originate with local w hites and n ev er with Indians. At Snow drift all in fo rm an ts m aintain ed th a t they w ould give up tr a p p in g at on ce if an o p p o rtu n ity fo r steady w ag e-e m ploy m ent presented itself. It has been previously noted th at the ‘‘L yn x P o in t" trap pers prefer the co m fo rts a n d c o n ­ veniences o f the village to the social isolation o f the trap ping cam p. T h e extent to w hich this is also true in the east can only be surm ise d since, with one exception, the a u th o rs cited in this p a p e r have not discussed the matter. H owever, it seem s clear th a t the re were definitely m o re strongly developed n orm ative pressures to h un t and trap th an have been d o cu m e n ted for the west. F o r example, in speaking o f the m o re o r less p e rm a n e n t In d ian population living in the vicinity o f Seven Islands on the coast o f the St. L aw rence, S peck notes that for the p eriod o f his field w ork, betw een 1915 an d 1925, these people could claim no prestige th rough their close co ntac t with whites a n d assimilation o f white values. Both social an d financial prestige lay w ith the interior h un ters an d trappers. T h e coast people are spoken o f as being glad to give up their p re cariou s em p lo y m en t and restric­ tion o f freed om , should the o p p o rtu n ity arise, fo r “the ad v e n ­ ture a n d possible g reater profit o f fu rs o f the big w oods.” W ith reference to general aspects o f M o nta gn ais-N a skap i econom y, Lips m a kes a sim ilar statem ent. T h e N ask api have always been h u n ters an d trap p ers an d they wish always to rem ain so. M cG ee , w riting about the people in the N o rth w e st R iv er region o f L a b ra d o r is m ore explicit co ncern in g the c o m pe nsation o f bush living as opposed to the m o re c o m fo rta b le life in the village, an d his statem ents have ad ded significance because he is dealing with the m ore o r less c o n te m p o ra r y scene. First o f all, trapp ers are close to good caribou territory and are thus in a position to satisfy their need for meat. Secondly, old people w ho m ight have difficulty getting on alone at N o rth w e st R iver have rela­ tives w ho will keep th em supplied with m eat a n d firewood on the tr ap p in g g rounds; in o th e r words, it is not so easy to ignore old people in a trapp er's ca m p . Finally, an d p erh a p s most im p o rta n t o f all, in the bush, for young and old alike, th ere are no n o n-Ind ian sanctio ns on co n d u ct to w orry about. It c a n n o t be denied, th erefore, that factors exist th ro u g h o u t the Su barctic, alth o ug h p erh aps m ost no tably in the east, that w o rk to m aintain interest in an d dep en den ce o n trap pin g as a

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m eans o f livelihood. T h ese are essentially conservative factors and th ey arise from a ten d en c y to associate tra pp ing with the old In d ia n w ay o f life th a t is right a n d goo d an d as a reaction against the insecurities a n d uncertainties o f the newly dev elo p­ ing c o m m u n ity life and increased c o n ta c t w ith whites. It seems, nevertheless, to be true th a t in most if n o t all p arts o f the S u b ­ arctic, factors favo uring the persistence o f trapp ing as a m ajor e co n o m ic u n d ertak in g a re in rapid decline. T h a t is w hy the trend s an d c han ge s described in this p a p e r have, for th e most part, bec o m e significant within the p ast fifteen years, o r even m u c h m o re recently th an that. By way o f s u m m a ry a n d conclusion, then, it can be said that in m ost subarctic com m u nitie s there are, at the present time, factors op erative w hich tend to red uce the reliance on in c o m e derived from trap pin g. T h e se factors, w hich f o r the m ost p art involve additional sources o f inco m e, have also been effective in developing tendencies tow ard sed entary co m m u n ity life. T h e In dians are turn in g increasingly to w ard w age e m p lo y ­ m e n t an d dep end en ce o n various fo rm s o f g o v ern m en t assist­ ance as they a tt e m p t to achie ve a hig her stan d a rd o f living. It is n o t surprising, th erefore, that both In d ian s an d white adm in is­ tra to rs a re agre ed that on e o f the m ost im p o rta n t problem s facing the people o f subarctic co m m u nities to day is the need to achie ve financial stability and to be free fr o m the uncertainties that a re characteristic o f an eco n o m y based on trapping.

23 . Changing Settlement Patterns amongst the Mackenzie Eskimos of the Canadian North Western Arctic M . R . Hargrave so u r c e

:

T h e A lb erta n G eographer, N o. 2 (1965-66), pp. 25-30. R e­ p rin ted by perm ission o f the a u th o r an d publisher.

F ollow ing 1576, w hen M artin F ro b ish e r en co u n te red Eskim os on Baffin Island, inte rm itten t c o n ta c t was k ep t u p by explorers an d n ineteen th-cen tury A m e ric a n and Scottish w halers until the establishm en t o f H u d s o n ’s Bay C o m p a n y posts in the pres­ ent century. Y et Bisset’s sketch o f present co nd itio ns in the life o f the Melville Penin sula Eskim os, indicates that in spite o f the sup erim po sition o f trapp ing , the p roxim ity o f D E W L ine r a d a r stations, the introduction o f firearm s an d trad e goods; in spite o f schools, medical an d o th e r facilities the pattern o f life and settlem ent in the 1960s is not radically different to the tr a d i­ tional one. A relatively long navigation season and wide a p ­ p ro ac h e s to Baffin an d H u d so n Bays an d to F o x e Basin, and p ro xim ity to m ark e ts and h o m e ports perm itted m an y o f the w halers to com plete their h u n t and return to civilization in the sam e season. T h e p a ttern o f E skim o settlem ent was so sc at­ tered that w hat dep red atio n by undisciplined w haling crews did o c c u r had little effect on the popu latio n in general. T h e eastern a n d central Eskim os were also shielded from so uthern influences by a b ro ad buffer z o n e o f b a rr e n lands. A very different situation has prevailed in the C a n ad ia n W estern Arctic w h e re m o re recent and m o r e intensive contac t h as p rofo u n d ly influenced E skim o society. Different g eo g ra ­ phic conditions have con tribu ted to the destruction n o t only o f trad ition al society but also o f alm ost the entire original popu latio n. Firstly, the B eaufort Sea h ad large n u m b ers o f b ow h ead whales, but the configuration o f the “pen insu la” of A laska, to gether with the long distance fr o m m arkets and

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bases, m a d e it im perative that the co m m e rcia l w halers w inter in the Arctic. Secondly, a different settlem ent p a tt e r n obtained from that o f the eastern E skim os - the c on cen tratio n o f the M acken zie E skim os in large villages - facilitated cultural co n ­ tact an d en su red rap id transm ission th ro u g h the entire group. T h ird ly , the M acken zie R iver fostered the entry o f so uthern goods an d influences. Lastly, the proxim ity o f the tree-line and the presence o f a rich m u s k ra t resource in the w o od ed M a c ­ kenzie D e lta en co urag ed white settlem ent, a n d offered the E skim os an alternative ec o n o m y to that o f the coast. T h e nineteenth -cen tury explorers were generally u n an im ou s in th e ir a d m ira tion o f the M ackenzie E skim os as a ro b u s t and self-reliant gro up. L ieu te n a n t Pullen, R .N ., d u rin g his search fo r Sir Jo h n F ra n k lin in 1850, had this c o m m e n t to m a k e on the C a p e B athu rst villagers: I cannot o f m en, nay I have often to introd uc e

help saying here, that I n ev er saw a finer body w o m en too, th a n I fo u n d the natives here, and thought w h a t a glorious expedition it w ould be the blessed G ospel a m o n g th e m .1

In c on trast, th ou gh som e o f the sam e attributes no ted by the explorers are still discernible to d ay, serious social and econom ic p rob lem s are evident, and w h a t m ay be called a “m etis society” is developing. T h is p a p e r e n dea vo urs to sketch the traditional life and settlem ent p a tte rn s o f the M ack enzie E sk im o and c o n trast it w ith that o f today. In acco un tin g for changes w hich have taken place, the w riter p reten d s to no significant original research: ra th e r he aim s to point to the need for research w hich might shed light o n causes w hich have led to present distributions an d problem s. Traditional Settlem ent Patterns and E conom y F r o m the jo urnals and writings o f the explorers, especially of S ir J o h n F ra n k lin ( 1 8 2 6 ) , Sir Jo h n R ic h a rd s o n (1 8 2 6 and 1 8 4 8 ), and o f O blate F a th e r E. Petitot ( 1 8 6 5 ) , together with later info rm atio n gath ered by V ilh jalm u r Stefansson d u rin g his travels in the W este rn A rctic (1 9 0 6 - 1 8 ) , it is possible to recon ­ stru ct the p a tte rn o f traditional life before m o d ern influences dis turbed the equilibrium . 1 W. J. S. Pullen, “ Pullen in Search o f F ra n k lin ," B eaver, O utfit 278 (1 9 4 7 ), p. 25.

12

Distribution M ap

by Settleme nt of the Mackenzie

Eskim os.

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It is co m m o n ly thought that the E skim os o f A rctic C a n a d a w ere a no m ad ic people whose en v iro n m e n t com pelled th em to disperse in small groups. T h is was not so in the case o f the M acken zie Eskim os. F ra n k lin and R icha rdso n report meeting n u m e r o u s gro up s along the coast fro m H erschel Island to C ap e B athurst, but settlem ent ap p e a rs to have been co n c en tra ted at five locations: ( a ) K ittigazuit, at the m o u th o f the easterly ch ann el o f the M acken zie D elta; ( b ) A tkin son Point, alm ost seventy miles east o f the D elta; (c ) Baillie Island and a d jo in ­ ing C a p e B ath urst; ( d ) at three locations along the southerly coast o f H erschel Island; and (e ) at the m o u th o f the A nd erson R iv er (see M a p 12). Several su b-g ro up s o f the M ack enzie Eskim os h av e been recognized b u t old er natives refer to the w ho le g roup as the T a r iu m iu t (th e sea-d w elle rs ). R ich ardso n repo rts that in 1848 about tw o h u n d red kayaks propelled by generally y o u n g er m a tu re males (constituting p rob ably the “ ho m e-de fen se force” ) su r ro u n d e d his boats at Kittigazuit. F r a n k l in ’s and R ich ard so n 's jo u rn als in dicate that the av erage family consisted o f no m o re th a n fo u r o r five individuals; th erefo re if one able-bodied male from each family m et R ic hardso n it would a p p e a r that the po p u latio n o f Kitti­ gazuit w as betw een eight h u n d re d an d o n e th o usa nd indi­ viduals. T h e re were also villages at Shingle, K ay and King Points, and three villages on H erschel Island, all to the west o f the M ackenzie D elta. Stefansson estim ates the pop ulatio n o f A tkin son P oint and Baillie Island-C ape B ath urst at five h u n d re d each, and suggests a total pop ulatio n of fo u r th o u ­ sand. Petitot estim ates the total p oulation at tw o tho u san d w hich figure seem s to be m o r e in acco rd an ce with the journals o f F ran k lin an d R ichardson. T h e traditional e c o n o m y was largely based on the resources o f the sea. In the im m ediate area o f the D elta the sea is shallow, silty a n d only faintly brackish owing to the discharge o f the river. T h e sea off A tkinson Point, H ersch el Island and C ap e B ath u rs t is less influenced by riv er w ater, an d is d eeper and clearer. T h e large b ow h ead w hale and seal were h u n ted at the eastern and w estern extremities o f the region, w hich together with fish (whitefish, a n a d ro m o u s h e rrin g and arctic c h a r) ca u g h t with nets o f carib o u sinew, were the basis o f life. T h e m o re n u m e ro u s Kittigazuit people, and the w haling village of Shingle Point subsisted on fish (m a in ly whitefish a n d h erring ) and o n the sm aller white w hales (b elu g a) w h ich m igrate from th e west to en ter the shallow estuaries o f the lower D e lta in July and A ugust to bear th eir y o u ng in the w a r m e r Mackenzie

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waters. T h e A n d e rso n R iv er Eskim os p rim arily d e p e n d e d on a rich fishery resource, sealing ( m a n y large bearded seal, or “n g r u k ,” can be seen on the ice basking in the early s u m m e r sun n e a r the m o u th o f the r iv e r), and carib o u hunting. T he jo u rn als o f F ra n k lin and R ic hardso n m a k e alm ost daily re fe r­ en c e to carib o u along the coast, an d this w as an im p ortan t auxiliary resource, p articu larly f o r its value in furnishing clo thin g and sinew fo r sewing an d fish nets. O f lesser im ­ po rta n c e w ere wild-fowl, pta rm ig an a n d the collection of berries on the tu nd ra. T r a d e was carried on with the E skim os o f N o r t h A laska, exchanging furs f o r R u ssia n -m a d e knives, an d with the C o p p e r E skim os o f C o ro n a tio n G u l f b u t a pp ears to have term in a ted p rio r to 1850, p ro b ab ly due to the dev elop m e nt o f trad e with th e n eighbouring Indians. Petitot refers to the c o m m e n c e m e n t o f trade in 1849 with the H a r e In dians o f the F ort H o p e area, via the A n d erso n River, an d with the L o u c h e u x Ind ian s o f the F o r t M c P h e r s o n area, via the M ackenzie River. A t th a t time th e Ind ian s b eca m e the m id dlem en betw een the H u d s o n ’s Bay C o m p a n y post an d the coast-dwellers. In re tu rn fo r furs the In d ian s intro d u c ed firearm s, tobacco, beads, and basic h a r d ­ w are items such as files, m atch es, c ooking utensils, knives and traps. Y e t in spite o f the ru d im e n ta ry beginning o f trad e in furs the p a tte rn o f settlem ent and e c o n o m y rem ain ed basically u n ­ ch ang ed. T h e co ntinu ed d e p e n d e n c e on th e b ow h ead and beluga w hales necessitated c o m m u n ity coo p eratio n in large villages. Present Settlem ent Patterns and E conom y T h e “E sk im o Identification D isc List,” D istrict W -3 , 1963 ed ition,2 listing all E skim os to Ja n u a r y , 1963, e n u m e r a te d so m e 1,560 residents in the region. T h e com p osition o f the gro up , the settlem en t p a tte rn an d ec o n o m y w ere radically different, how ever, to those o f a h u n d red years ago. O f this n u m b e r som e fo u r h u n d re d 3 lived in T u k to y a k tuk, the term inu s o f the M ack enzie R iv er tran sp o rtatio n sys2 C om piled by the R.C .M . Police, the n o rth ern representatives of the R egistrar o f V ital Statistics, N orthw est T erritories. 3 A u th o rs' calculations arc estim ates. T h e figures for T uk to y ak tu k , Sachs H arb o u r and C a p e P a rry are accu rate. T he Eskim o p o p u latio n is m obile, an d sm all fluctuations are a constant feature.

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tcm, an d trans-sh ipm en t point for all w a te r freight for D istant E arly W a rn in g r a d a r stations an d settlements in the W estern an d C e n tral A rctic as far east as S p en ce Bay. A t Sachs H a rb o u r, B anks Island, the cen tre o f w hat is pro bab ly the A rc tic ’s richest w hite-fox tr a p p in g area, th ere lived eighty-five Eskim os. A sim ilar n u m b e r lived at C ap e P arry , in w h ich a re a n um ero u s carib o u are still h un ted , an d w h e re the rare m u sk-oxen seem to be regaining a foot-hold.4 F ifty lived at R ein d eer Station, the h e a d q u a rte rs o f the C a n a d ia n g o v e rn m en t rein deer herd. A b o u t forty were living at D E W Line stations w here the family heads were em ployed. T h e re m ain der, ab o u t one thousand, lived in the w o o d ed southerly h alf o f the M ackenzie D elta, m ainly within the settlem ents of A klavik (total population. Eskim o, Indian an d W hite, in 1965 estim ated at six to seven h u n d r e d ) , the fo r m e r regional “ capital” an d centre o f m u s k ­ ra t trap pin g, and Inuvik (tota l po p u la tio n estim ated at 2,200 to 2,300 in 1 9 6 5 ), the m o d ern c o m m u n ity co m p leted in I9 6 0 to serve as ad m in istrative centre for m a n y th o u s an d s of squ are miles o f the north-w estern M ackenzie District. Clairem o n t states th at, in 1961, 106 “b u s h ” E skim os lived in log cabin ca m ps close to Aklavik. A h un ting eco n o m y based o n caribou a n d seal, su p p le ­ m e n te d by white fox trapping, an d the sale o f a few polar bearskins, prevails at C ap e P arry . At Sachs H a r b o u r the e c o ­ n o m y is based alm ost wholly on the w hite fox, w hich is tr ap ped in large nu m bers by an elite g ro u p o f aggressive E skim o tr a p ­ pers. A t R ein d e er Station the p o p u la tio n is su p p o rted entirely by salaried rein d e er herders. W ag e-labo ur, divided a bo ut equally betw een p e rm a n e n t and casual, m a inta ins the E sk im o p o p u la ­ tion at Inuvik, an d is also the p re d o m in a n t source o f incom e at T u k to y a k t u k an d A klavik. In A klavik, o f tw enty-nine settle­ m e n t E skim os betw een the ages o f sixteen an d tw enty-nine only tw o ea rn e d o v e r $ 4 0 0 by tra pp in g in the 1960-61 season, and w h at in the early 1950s was referred to as the “million dollar business” (re fe rrin g to m u s k ra t trapp ing an d shooting which has fo r m a n y years accou nted for 95 p e r c e n t o f the wooded d elta’s fu r c a tc h ) was in 1961 referred to as “S i 0 0 ,0 0 0 acti­ vity.' Most o f the m ore th an fifty trap pers at T u k to y a k t u k set their traps alo ng the sea coast betw een A tk in s o n Point an d the o u te r edge o f the D elta islands, and even in the best years tr a p p in g incom e is inad eq ua te owing to the pro liferatio n of 4 In 1962 a C ap e P arry E skim o reported seeing fifty m usk-oxen in the M elville Hills, seventy miles southeast o f C ape Parry.

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short trapiines. W ith the availability o f so m e wage-labour, trapp ing as a w'ay o f life app ears to have been rejected not only by m a n y y ou ng er men but also by som e o f the old er Eskim os, especially in Inuvik, A klavik an d T u k to y a k tu k . T h e Delta and su rro u n d in g waters are rich in a n a d ro m o u s h erring and whitefish, an d th ro u g h o u t th ere is heavy d e p e n d ­ ence on subsistence fishing, not only for the table but also for the n u m e ro u s do g teams. T h e traditional oc cup atio n o f hunting the beluga (white w h ale ) is still carried on in July and early A u gu st at Shingle Point, K endall Island, and Whitefish Station by a few D elta Eskim os, an d fro m T u k to y a k tu k , but the h u n t is no longer a c o m m u n a l p ursu it b u t an individual chase by a few old and small schooners and river craft p u rch ased d u rin g the rich tr a p ­ ping years o f the 1920s, by small m o to r c ra f t and even o u t­ bo ard canoes. T h e beluga is trailed by following the slight swell it m akes in the shallow water, shot when it surfaces, and h a rp o o n e d before it sinks. O f the alm ost 1600 Eskim os in 1963 probably less th an 20 p er cent could be traced back to the original T a riu m iu t an d that only by virtue o f gen ero us infusions o f w hite and im m ig rant A lask an E skim o blood. W ith the dea th in 1964 of an old T u k to y a k t u k m an, w h o w as able to recall h unting with bow an d a rrow as a hoy on Herschel Island prior to the arrival o f the w hales in 1889, it is likely that no pu re-blood T a riu m iu t rem ains. T h e o th e r significant fact with regard to the present E skim o population is its alarm in g fecundity. C lairem o nt has noted that roughly 50 per cent o f the population o f A klavik w as u n d e r fifteen years of age in 1961, c o m p a re d to a c o r ­ responding figure for C a n a d a o f 34 p er cent. Fergu son reported 55.4 p er cent below the age o f fifteen in T u k to y a k t u k in 1957, an d in the sam e y ea r a natural increase rate o f 5.59 p er cent as co m p a re d with 2.02 p er cent for C a n a d a in 1955. T h e w riter calculated a natural increase o f a p prox im a tely 6 p e r cent in 1962. T ru ly the term "p o p ula tion explosion” is valid here! T he Changing Pattern o f Life A n u m b e r o f factors c a n be recognized as having affected or influenced the changes w hich have taken place since the trad i­ tional stage o f M ackenzie E sk im o life. Som e are obvious and im p o rta n t: others are ten uo us an d th e ir im p o rtan ce is less evident, o r not as yet m easured. C e rtainly th re e factors can be seen as crucial, an d chronologically it is possible to div ide the

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history o f ch ang e into th ree periods: the co m m e rcia l w haling period, 1889 to 1912; the tr a p p in g p erio d , 1912 to 1954; and the m o d ern p eriod , 1954 to the present. The C om m ercial W haling Period, 1889-1912 T h e N e w E n g la n d whalers, w ho had p enetrate d the Bering Sea by 1850, slowly increased the range o f th e ir op eratio n s until in 1889 seven steam w halers re ached H erschel Island. F ro m th a t y ea r to 1910 huge profits were m a d e fro m the harvesting o f baleen, used in the m a n u f a c tu r e o f ladies’ corsets an d horse whips. By 1912 substitutes an d the dev elo pm ent o f the a u to ­ mobile m a d e w haling in th e B eaufort Sea unprofitable. In 1894-95 fifteen w haling ships w intered at H erschel Island, Bodfish rep orts th a t as m a n y as six h u n d re d m e n wintered there som e seasons. Ships also w intered at Baillie Island and in so u th e rn F ra n k lin Bay. T h e contact w ith the w h alers was drastic in its effects. E sk im o s flocked to Herschel Island fro m the D elta and N u n a ta m iu t (lan d d w ellers), E sk im o c aribou h u n ters fro m interior A lask a im m igrated into C a n a d a to en ter the service o f the w h alers as professional h u nters. Bodfish indicates that during two winters, 1897-99, his ship, the B eluga, received 47 ,00 0 p o u n d s of venison, an d that d u rin g the w haling period th e p ro ­ fessional h u n te rs killed all the m usk-o xen “within an a re a of on e h u n d re d an d fifty miles.” 5 T h e m aterial cu lture o f the M acken zie E skim os was to all effects destroy ed: the w h ale boat replaced the k ayak an d u m ia k alm ost overnight. T h e bow head w hale resource was dec im ate d and the E skim os were de­ ba u c h e d , an d exposed to diseases to w hich they h ad no im­ m unity. “T h e r . c . m . p . census o f 1911 show ed on ly forty descendents o f the local people, a lthough there w ere also in the c ou ntry considerably ov er a h u n d re d im m igrants, and since this census o f two years ago six o f the forty have died and three have gone p erm a n e n tly insane.” 0 The Trapping Period, 1912 -1 9 5 4 T h e y e ar 1912 m ark e d the visit of the last w haling ship and the establishm ent o f the first H u d s o n ’s Bay C o m p a n y post s H. H . Bodfish, Chasing the Bowlieacl W hale (C am bridge, M ass.: H arvard U niversity Press, 1936), p. 186. 6 V. S tefansson, “T he D istribution o f H um an and A nim al Life in W estern A rctic A m erica,” G eogr. Journal, V ol. 41 (1 9 1 3 ), p. 453.

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close to the present site o f A klavik. T h e high prices for white fox d u rin g W o rld W a r I an d d u rin g the 1920s led to fierce co m p etition betw een free tra ders an d the H u d so n 's Bay C o m ­ pany, an d the W e stern A rctic proliferated w ith trading posts. T h e com petition was en c o u rag ed when E skim os p urcha sed sch oo ners and w haleboats fro m the proceeds o f their trapping an d were able to choose the best posts at w hich to buy o r sell. In 1924 the E sk im o fleet at A klavik totalled thirty-nine s c h o o n ­ ers, nineteen with auxiliary pow er, and tw enty-eight w h a le ­ boats. T hese were valued at $1 28,0 00 , a n d had been bought w ithin the previous five years. T h e price o f white fox skins soared up to as high as $7 0.0 0 in 1928, an d a good silver fox cou ld be ex changed fo r a w haleb oat. In the M a cke nzie D elta m u s k ra t prices rose from fifty cents in 1914 to an average o f $1.31 for the period 1921 to 1929. T h e price p lunged to thirtyo n e cen ts in the early depression years but by 1935 had risen again to $1.00. T h e expansion o f the f u r trad e after 1912 b ro u g h t about the dispersion o f the Eskim o pop ulatio n alon g the coast as far east as P earce Point, an d few settlem ents had m ore th an three o r fo u r families. T h e co m petition betw een the free trade rs and the H u d so n 's Bay C o m p a n y e nded with the p urch ase by the latter o f som e o f the free trad ers' posts an d by declining prices w hen o th e r traders, having reaped rich profits, left the country. H igh m u s k ra t prices in the D elta d u rin g the 1920s attracted new im m igrants fro m nearby A laska, a n d w hite trap pers from the south. T h e rising price in 1935, following the earlier d e ­ cline, bro ug ht a new w ave o f A laskan im m ig ration : reference to the W-3 E sk im o Identification Disc List indicates th a t no less th a n tw enty-nine present family heads born in A laska arriv ed in the D elta are a betw een 1935 an d 1946. T h e p o p u la ­ tion o f A klavik and im m ed iate area in 1931 w as 4 11, c o m ­ posed o f 180 Indians, 140 E skim os and 91 whites. By 1958 it had risen to 1500, com prising 384 whites, 24 2 In dians and 883 Eskimos. A fte r 1939, a n d the a b a n d o n m e n t o f the H u d s o n ’s Bay C o m p a n y posts at H erschel and Baillie Islands the small p opu lation s there m oved to T u k to y a k t u k w h ere a store and tran sp o rtatio n centre had been set up, a n d w h ere there existed limited o p p o rtu n ity for w age e m p lo y m e n t d u rin g the busy s u m m e r months. T w o small g ro u p s rem ain ed east of T u k to y a k ­ tu k at Stan ton , n ear the m o uth o f the A n d e rso n River, a n d at P au latu k , in D a rn le y Bay east o f C a p e P arry. T h e E skim o h ad lost his ind ep en den ce: the location o f tra d in g stores gov­

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ern ed his distribution. In the absence o f c o m m ercial posts the R o m a n C atholic missions at Pa ulatu k an d Stanton eng aged in trad in g until 1954 w hen th eir tw o functions w ere fo un d to be in com patible. T h e S tanton residents, discouraged by low fur prices, moved to T u k to y a k t u k while the H u d s o n ’s Bay C o m ­ pan y was prevailed upon to re-open a store at Lettie H a r b o u r to c a te r to the needs o f the C a p e P a rr y a re a Eskim os. T h e possi­ bilities of sales to D E W Line E skim o an d oth er employees to ­ geth er with the attractio ns o f casual e m p lo y m e n t resulted in the moving of the store to C a p e P a rr y in 1959, close to the large ra d a r station there. By 1954 the present settlem ent p attern had largely emerged. Only S achs H a r b o u r rem ain ed a viable trapp ing c om m un ity . T h e low prices f o r fur in the late 1940s an d 1950s were a c co m p an ied by h igher food an d e q u ip m e n t prices. T h e m u s k ­ ra t popu lation rem ained high, but a p a rt fro m cyclical fluc­ tuations in the n u m b ers o f white fox there ap pea rs to have been an actual do w n w a rd trend in the n u m b e rs o f these anim als along the m ain lan d coast. T h r e e reasons have been prop osed . Firstly, at the end o f the w haling period m an y whole carcasses were strew n along the storm beaches, and , the rate o f decay being very slow in the Arctic the carcasses w ere for m a n y years the source o f food for the foxes - and foxes for the trapp er. Secondly, the in trod uctio n o f white fox trapp ing in Banks Island in the late 1920s and the high catches which h av e prevailed th ere since m ay have red uced the n u m b e r of anim als crossing to the m ain lan d a fter a westerly migration th ro u g h the Arctic Islands. T hird ly , the r a d a r stations along the coast have been accused o f disturbing the ecology o f the white fox. It w ould a p p e a r th a t at least the first two reasons have so m e validity. The M odern Period, 1954 T ra p p in g continues to be an im p o rta n t fe atu re o f the E skim o ec o n o m y in A klavik an d T u k to y a k tu k , b u t for som e years wage e m p lo y m e n t h as surpassed trap pin g as th e m a jo r economic activity. T h e decline in tr a p p in g coincided with an intensifica­ tion o f the C o ld W a r betw een Russia an d the West, an aw a re ­ ness o f the need fo r hem isp h eric d efence against possible tra n s­ p o la r air attack, an d a natio n al aw areness o f the social and eco no m ic needs o f the in digenous people o f the N o rth . A surge o f eco no m ic activity started in 1955 w hen the construction p hase o f the D E W Line began, followed by the co nstruction

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o f g o v e rn m e n t health, edu catio na l, adm inistrative a n d oth er facilities th r o u g h o u t the N o rth . It w as decided that a m o d e r n to w n w as to be built in the D elta w h e n the site o f A klavik p ro ved subject to flooding a n d unsuitable f o r fu r th e r e x p a n ­ sion. T h e construction o f Inuvik in the late 1950s created m a n y casual and p e rm a n e n t jobs as did the co n stru ctio n an d m a n n in g o f the D E W L ine stations. T h e r e is evidence of a levelling off in co nstruction activity in the N o rth . In the M ack en zie D elta are a so m e E sk im o s are finding e m p lo y m e n t and developing new skills, b u t o p p o r ­ tunities are limited, and there is a high rate o f u n e m p lo y m e n t and u n d er-em p lo ym e nt. In the absence o f research info rm atio n o th e r m o re tenuous factors m a y be best treated by asking questions ra th e r th an by h a zard in g answers. W h a t h as been the influence o f the missions, medical facilities, schools, public assistance and oth er c o m m u n ity facilities on population m o v em en t and settlement pa ttern s? C a n the decline o f trap pin g be explained in purely eco no m ic term s o r are o th e r factors involved? C ertainly the stru ctu re an d functions of n o rth e rn settle­ m e n ts has chang ed radically d u rin g the last few years, an d new institutions - goo d in themselves - militate against traditional p ursuits and the dev elo pm ent o f a stable ec onom y. T h e p r o b ­ lem is recognized an d alternative pursuits have been fostered by the federal gov ern m en t. As long ago as 1935 reindeer h e r d ­ ing w as in iroduced to the M ack en zie D elta Eskim os, and since I9 6 0 there have been fishing a n d w haling projects, and small fu r-g arm e n t shop s (ea ch e m plo yin g ab o u t twelve E skim o w o m e n and m ak in g fur p a rk a s and sp o rtsw are ) have been set u p in A klavik an d T u k to y a k tu k . W ith the exception o f the latter, success h as been limited. W hile the long rang e aim is assim ilation there rem ain short term prob lem s referred to above w h ich are p e rh ap s equally im portant. C onclusion A s opp osed to th e C an a d ia n E astern A rctic, the influence of th e first sustained w hite con tac t was violent to the extent that it virtually destroyed a n u m e ro u s and self-reliant group. U n d e r the influence o f the so u th ern material cu lture and the vagaries o f the fur in d ustry - itself governed by c ha ng ing fashions and cyclical fluctuations o f fu r-b earing anim als - settlement p a t­ te rns in the W estern A rctic have “revolved” from the large trad itio nal villages based on c o m m u n a l h u n tin g of sea m a m ­

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mals, to dispersed an d mobile “cam p s,” an d b ack again to the p resen t n u cle a r settlements. T h e r e is, ho w ever, a basic differ­ ence. U n d e r the physical and social co nd itio ns prevailing, the traditional village was an econom ically viable unit, a n d with a n a p p are n tly low birth ra t e 7 th e E sk im o lived in h a rm o n y w ith his e n viron m en t. O n the o th e r h an d , the present large settlem ents are n o t econom ically viable. T h e rejection o f de­ p en d en ce o n the traditional diet, the factors w h ich militate ag ain st dispersion an d m o re th o ro u g h harvesting o f resources in a reas not p resently utilized, the restricted e m p lo y m e n t o p p o r ­ tunities, an d last b u t not least, the fecun dity o f the pop ulation , to gether com prise a serious p ro b lem .8 T h e c hanging p a tte rn s o f settlem ent an d the c o n co m itan t social a n d e c o n o m ic changes e ng end ered are n o t uniqu e to the M a ck e n z ie D elta. Sim ilar p a tte rn s have developed, are dev elo p­ ing, o r will develop elsewhere. T h e process is m erely m ore developed there th an in m o st o f A rctic C a n a d a (again, L a b r a ­ d o r m ust be expected). It w ould ap p e a r th en that the area is a n excellent research labo rato ry f o r th e social scientist - a lab o rato ry in w hich the anthropologist, sociologist an d the g e o g ra p h e r c a n p u rs u e n o t only ac ad em ic studies b u t also p ra g m a tic solutions. T o recon stru ct the initial, and re p o r t the presen t stage is n o t e nough; the process too is im po rtan t. T h e principle o f un ifo rm ita rian ism , th a t “the present is the key to the p ast,” has long been held in geology. Similarly in h u m a n ge ography, the past (th e d y n am ic p ast) c a n be the k ey to the presen t - and o f assistance in planning for the future.

7 O ld er in fo rm an ts w ere questioned closely w ith regard to the possibility o f high infant m ortality o r infanticide b ut no evidence w as ad d u ced fo r eith er as the governing factor, s In a n in tro d u c to ry p a ra g ra p h it w as suggested th a t the M a c­ kenzie R iver was a cu ltu ral co rrid o r. It was then a fa c to r in the break d o w n o f th e M ackenzie E skim o society. It m ay w ell be th at the M ackenzie system will change its role to th a t o f a high­ way o f progress. W h ether the m ovem ent will be south o r n o rth is as yet to o soon fo r conjecture.

V. E C O N O M IC RESOURCES

24. About our Untold Resources W illiam M . G ilchrist so u r c e

:

M . V an Steensel ( e d .), P eople o f ihe L ight and D ark (O ttaw a: C nd. D ep t, o f In d ian Affairs an d N o rth e rn D evelopm ent, T he Q ueen's P rin ter, 1966), pp. 34-37. R eprinted by perm ission of the a u th o r and publisher.

In 1896 gold was discovered on a trib u tary o f the K lon dik e River, an d a horde o f m en, an d a few w o m e n , h ead ed n o rth . M o st o f th em k new only three things ab o u t the K lo n d ik e th a t it was cold, that it was rem o te, and th a t gold nuggets could be picke d up fr o m the ground. T h ey were right on all counts, but by the time m ost o f them got to D aw so n, the placer g ro u n d ha d been staked by k now ledgeable sou rd o u g h s w ho h ad been in the c ou ntry before 1896. M o st o f the new com ers, city m en fro m the U nited States a n d C a n a d a , drifted b ack south. A few stayed on; so m e struck it rich, b u t th eir n u m b e r w as small. O thers stayed to w o rk for wages and these m e n saw the steady c h a n g e in the mining industry as the rich g r o u n d w as w orked out. A t first, a fo rtu n e in gold could be w ashed fro m th e gravel in a pan , but later, shafts h a d to be su n k to reach p ay dirt. G ra d u a lly , the mining op eration s b ecam e m ech anized , a n d large dredges, thaw ing plants, railways, aq ued ucts, dams, pipes and flumes were built to free the gold from the frozen g ro u n d . T h e dev elo pm ent o f the K lo n d ik e gold-fields illustrates, in m ic ro ­ cosm , th e dev elopm ent p atte rn o f all n o rth e rn m in ing : the “ru s h ” f o r a precious m ineral th a t co uld be easily mined, or the staking an d exploitation o f a rich localized deposit. T h e basic engineering principles involved in arctic mining d o n o t differ fro m those used in m o re te m p e ra te climates, but arctic co nd ition s have an im pact o n the app lication o f these principles. D istance, terrain an d climate im pose prob lem s th a t at first glance m ight a p p e a r impossible to solve, b u t w h ich fall a p a r t w hen the experience o f recent years a n d im pro vem ents in technology are applied. T h is does not m e a n th a t the solu­ tions are simple. Planning m ust be detailed a n d do ne carefully, well in advance. E q u ip m e n t sho uld be chosen only a fte r ex­ haustive study o f the conditions u n d e r w hich it will be used.

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C o n sid e r tran sp ortatio n, fo r in stance: a choice m ust be m ad e betw een w inter a n d su m m e r; an d the re is the qu estion of w h e th e r m aterials should be m oved in bu lk o r be packaged. All these questions in their tu r n m a k e th e plan ning o f the actual o peration m u c h m o re im p ortan t. T h e n the o p eratio n o f the mine has to co n ten d w ith the full, y ear-ro u n d cycle o f the arctic climate. Installations must be so designed th a t the wind-chill effect o f low te m p eratu re s along with high w inds does not interfere. M e n m ust be able to w o rk in co m f o rt in all conditions, in all seasons. T h e effect o f very cold air on the o peratio n o f co m pressors and internal c o m b ustion engines m ust be considered. T h e im pact o f p e r m a ­ frost o n the actual extraction m ust be allowed for. B ut co nd i­ tions are not all adverse; th ere are a n u m b e r o f characteristics w hich are a decided a d va nta ge in mineral d evelo pm ent, one of the m ost striking being the lack o f vegetation - th o ug h in so u th ­ e r n C a n a d a this tends to h a m p e r p rospecting an d geological m apping. In the short northern s u m m e r alm o st as m u ch can be accom plished as in the longer sou th ern sum m er. M ines can be successfully o perated even in the very high arctic, provided the m en u n d ertak in g the p roject are c o m ­ pletely fam iliar w ith the basic technology an d can accurately assess the effect o n the general an d local arctic co nditions. In sh ort, “know y o u r jo b .” A t present, th ere are individuals with arctic know ledge an d ex perience; fo rtunately, for the A rctic m ak es n o concession to the h u m a n being o r to so uthern civili­ zation. It does n o t afford a second ch ance. T h e w eak, the obstinate and the stupid are ruthlessly dealt with. B ut for those w ith the necessary determ ina tion , intelligence an d ability to use the experience o f others, the rew a rd s are great, both spiritually an d econom ically. C ertain ly the minerals are there. O ne o f the w orld 's largest deposits of iron ore is fou n d on the Sn ak e River in the n o rth ern Y u k o n . In n o rth e rn Baffin Island, at Inuktorfik, a m o u n ta in o f alm ost pu re iro n has been discovered. O v e r large parts o f the A rctic the glaciers have do ne an excellent jo b of stripping off the o v erb u rd en above the o re bodies. W ith m o d e rn e q u ip m e n t such as a irbo rn e m ag netom eters, the task o f locating an d delineating the n o rth ern ore bodies is m u c h simplified th e iron ore deposit at Inuktorfik was spotted from the air. But the C a n a d ia n N o r th is a vast cou ntry , the ore deposits are scattered and fa r from ports, and the clim ate is severe. T h e land itself sets the limits. W hile the chan ces o f com ing across a rich placer stream o r a fabu lou s o u tc ro p o f mineral wealth are still there, thus ad din g excitem ent to th e h u n t for n o rth ern

ABOUT OUR U NTOLD RESOURCES

20 1

mineral wealth, its fu tu re d e v e lo p m en t to d a y d ep end s on largescale capitalization. T h e Iron O re C o m p a n y o f C a n a d a ’s initial o p eratio n in the h e a rt o f L a b ra d o r- U n g a v a cost half a billion dollars; Internatio nal Nickel's T h o m p s o n o peration cost even m o re. T o go with this massive capital investm ent, n o rth e rn m in ing develop m en t, along w ith a high level o f science and technology, will also require the right sort o f lab o u r force. O the rw ise these investm ents will ju st not pay. T h e R ussians d eveloped their n o rth e rn m ineral deposits on a vast scale, c re at­ ing large cities like N o ril’sk, with 150,000 inhabitants. H ow ? All the evidence points to the use o f large n u m b ers o f slave labo urers in the past to build the smelters, drive the shafts, and brin g the mines into p rod uctio n. Because capital was short, th e y substituted b ru te force. C a n a d a d ep end s on a com bination o f h eavy capital investm ent an d ad v a n c ed technology. Slave labo ur, even if it w ere available, is u nec ono m ic al o ver the long run. T o d a y the R ussian s’ recruiting p ro g ra m lures skilled people no rth with a c o m b in atio n o f high wages, g ood conditions and o th e r lures. In o u r co un try the F ederal G o v e rn m e n t has built roads, im p ro ved airstrips, developed h a rb o u r s an d prov ided tax relief an d o th e r incentives fo r n o rth ern com pan ies, b u t the de velopm ent o f the mineral w ealth still d epend s on the mining m e n an d thus, o n e o f the m a jo r con cern s in no rth e rn mining m u s t always be th e well-being o f the individual w o rker. H e m u s t be well paid, well trained, given plenty o f responsibility a n d kept in efficient c o m fo rt, both on and off the job. W h ere in the past the pit fo r e m a n w as the m an with the loudest voice an d the biggest fist, the m en in charge o f to day 's mining o p e r ­ ations are skilled engineers an d technologists. A n y o th e r form o f la b o u r is ju st too expensive. But as o n e resource expert noted, “ Resources are not, th ey b eco m e ." Som e o f the K londike gold-seekers followed the M ack enzie Valley rou te to the Y u k o n . O n the ir way to w ards G re a t Slave L a k e th ey noted large ou tcro p s of silver-Iead-zinc. T h e y did n o t stop to stak e o r to mine, an d nearly three-qu arters o f a cen tu ry passed before the Pine P oint deposits finally c a m e into pro d u ctio n . A railw ay, a massive mining op eration , a p o w er plant, an d a to w n sprang up in a few years. F r o m the p ro s ­ pector's p an to the giant shovel is a long w ay in the his tory o f mining, b u t in C a n a d a ’s N o r th this d eve lo p m en t has been c o m ­ pressed into the life span of a m a n - a con crete exam ple o f w ha t can , will an d should be the fu tu re p a tte rn o f m in ing in the north.

25 . The Montferre Mining Region Labrador-Ungava* Graham Hum phrys so u r c e

:

T h e S co ttish G eographical M agazine, V ol. LXXV1, N o. 1 (A p ril, 1960), pp. 38-45. R ep rin ted by perm ission o f the author an d publisher.

T h e M o n tfe rr e region o f L a b ra d o r- U n g a v a covers som e two th o u s a n d squ are miles o f the so u th e rn end o f the L a b ra d o r T ro u g h , o v e rlap p in g the Q u e b e c -L a b ra d o r b o u n d a ry roughly tw o h u n d re d miles n o rth o f Sept lies. It is th erefore, only a rela­ tively small p a rt o f the interior o f this vast n orth-east peninsula o f N o r t h A m erica. Y et it is o f p a rticu la r interest to the geog ra­ p h e r, n o t on ly because p ro d u c tio n p lan s f o r the region anti­ c ip ate c ap tu re o f u p to 15 p e r c e n t o f th e N o r t h A m erican iro n -o re m ark e t, b u t because it exhibits fe atu res directly attri­ bu tab le to its re m o te lo cation beyond the limits o f con tino us settlement. R eserves o f o re are m e asured in th ou sand s o f mil­ lions o f tons, assuring the basis fo r a long mining life; since the d evelop m en ts are very recen t, how ever, an d p ro d u c tio n is not scheduled to begin until 1961, it provides a n o p p o rtu n ity of exam inin g the processes at w o rk in the d ev elo p m en t o f pioneer m in in g areas. T h e region, alth ou gh co nsidered re m o te today, was well k n o w n to the co u reu r de bois o f the seventeenth c entu ry , who, w o rk in g m ainly fr o m the tow n o f T a d o u ssa c at the m o u th of the Sagu enay , trav ersed the w hole o f the so u th e rn watershed, tra d in g a n d tr a p p in g fu rs. T h e first scientific re p o rt o n the local minerals was m a d e by the federal geologist A. P. Low, w h o c arried o u t a n u m b e r o f reco nn aissan ce surveys across * T h e w riter wishes to express his g ratitu d e an d indebtedness to to the follow ing fo r the co-operation an d assistance in provid­ ing help an d in fo rm ation: Dr. J. A . Retty, C onsulting G eologist, M ontreal. Officers o f the C an ad ian Javelin C om pany; Iron Ore C om pany o f C a n ad a L im ited; L ab ra d o r M ining a n d E xploration C om pany; N orm anville C om pany L im ited; W abush Iro n C om ­ pany; Q uebec G eological Survey, M ontreal.

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the peninsula in the 1890s. D u rin g the following forty years, several expeditions sent to rep o rt on L o w ’s findings discovered considerable deposits o f iron fo rm a tio n con tain ing 35 p e r cent iron, b u t the low g rad e o f the o re tog eth er w ith the rem ote location o f the area dismissed hopes o f developm ent. T h e m o d ern mining period really began in 1936, w h en the L a b r a d o r M ining an d E xp lo ra tio n C o m p a n y began pro specting on a tw en ty-tho usand squ are mile concession in the cen tre of the peninsula, g ran te d to th em by the N e w fo u n d la n d g ov ern ­ ment. T h e ir p ro p erty ex tended fro m the Q u ebec b o u n d a ry near K n o b L ake, as f a r south as the eastern end o f the M o n tfe rr e region n e a r W ab u sh Lake. T h e co m p a n y actually started o p e r ­ ations in the la tter area, but with the decision in 1945 to develop the high-grade iron o re n e a r K n o b L ake, the M o n tfe rr e region was on ce m o re neglected. Little m o re o f interest o c cu rre d until 1952 w h en m u ch o f the activity w hich has co ntin ue d th ro u g h to the present time began. Betw een 1936 an d 1952 changes significant for the M o n t­ ferre region had been taking place in the N o r th A m erican iro n-o re industry. T w o of these were, an d are, o f pa rtic ula r im po rtan ce, the im p ro ve m e nts in the technology o f beneficia­ tio n ,' an d the depletion o f the easily accessible, h igh-grade sources o f iron ore f o r the N o r th A m e ric a n steel industry. T h e y are indissolubly linked; with the decrease in high-grade ore reserves, vast su m s o f m o n e y have been spent on p erfe ct­ ing ch eap, efficient m ean s o f beneficiation. A s mining o f the G r e a t Lakes ore becam e m o re difficult it rose in price, closing th e g ap betw een the cost o f dee p open-cast, un processed ore an d shallow open-cast, bcneficiated ore. T o d a y the gap still exists, b u t it is m o re im p o rta n t f o r the com pan ies w ith ou t highg rad e reserves th an for others with them. T h e fo r m e r are the o nes seeking the easily m ined low-grade ores to fulfil their fu tu re needs. T h e im p ro v em en t o f the techn iq ues used to raise the g rade o f the o re is having repercussions h itherto u n c o n ­ sidered. T h e iron an d steel in d ustry is highly capitalized, n ee d ­ ing the highest efficiency o f o peration to put the investm ent to good use. W h en beneficiation is used, the m aterial that reaches the fu rn ac e is alread y a partially m a n u f a c tu r e d pro du ct, with very im p o rta n t ad van tag es o v e r natu ral ore. N o t o nly is the iron c o n ten t m u ch high er (generally 65 p er cent as oppo sed to 5 0 p er cent in N o r th A m e r i c a ) , but its constitution can be i Beneficiation is the upgrading o f ore by separating th e m ineralbearing m aterial from as m uch as possible o f the surrounding rock m ined with it, the latter generally term ed the gangue.

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kept within n arro w limits, and its physical stru c tu re is m ore suitable fo r fu rn a c e practice. W ith such a u n ifo rm high quality o f ra w material, sm elting c a n be m u c h m o re easily controlled, resulting in a su p erio r end -p ro d u ct. U np roc esse d iro n-form ation is h an d ica p p ed by its in ferior an d variable quality, and increasing costs w ith de e p e r mining. Inh eritin g all the a d v a n ­ tages o f m in ing te chn iqu e a n d benefiting fro m the lack o f p r e ­ vious exploitation, low-grade ores a re finding the cost o f p ro ­ cessing a decreasing h and ica p . T h is has been reflected by the increase in th e a m o u n t o f beneficiated material sh ip ped a n n u ­ ally fr o m the U n ited States mines, rising fr o m 23 p e r cent of the total in 1947 to ov er 4 0 p er cent o f the total in 1957. In the latter year, ju st u n d e r th ree tons o f raw m aterials w ere used in th e average U n ited States blast fu rn a ce for each ton o f iron p ro d u c e d , a low er p ro p o rtio n th an ev er before. T hese changes h a v e caused a re-assessment o f the value o f low -grade iron deposits, an d a resulting scram b le by the iron an d steel in du stry to secure a d e q u a te reserves in N o r th A m e ric a . T h e M o n tfe rre region is o n e o f the results o f this scramble. T h e iron fo rm atio n w h ich has attracted so m u c h attention to the region occurs as ban d s w ithin the underlying highly co nto rted a n d m e ta m o r p h o se d assem blage o f U p p e r P re c a m b ria n sediments. T h e iron ore, fo u nd w ithin the fo rm a tio n as sp ecu la r h a e m a tite with q u a rtz o r as a m agnetite-haem atite facies, contains an average o f 33 p er cent iron, an d is considered exploitable on ly w here large quantities are accessible to surface m in ing operations. Lying as it does alo ng the w atersh ed o f the U n g a v a Bay, St. L aw ren ce an d A tlantic drain ag e systems, the region has a highly varied relief averaging 2,500 feet abov e sea level. N e a r W a b u s h L ake, high rugged hills occur, g rad in g off w estw ard to a n uneven ro ck y p lateau n e a r M o u n t W right. E xtensive areas o f glacial drift are m a s k ed by m uskeg, while in the e x tre m e southw est deep dissection has resulted in a high relative relief o f u p to 1,500 feet. T h e crest o f the L a u re n tid e scarp lies im m ediately to the sou th at a height o f just o v e r 3,000 feet, a n d has been deeply dissected by the yo uthful stream s w hich cascade dow n glacially scou red valleys, so that the w hole zone betw een there a n d the G u l f o f St. L a w re n c e offers a m a j o r obstacle to the p e n e tr a ­ tion o f the interior. It is in this section th a t c o n stru c tio n of tran sp ortatio n facilities is m ost difficult an d expensive. P rio r to 1954 the o nly m eans o f reachin g th e region were by air fr o m Sept lies, o r by can o e up one o f the m an y rivers. T h e use o f planes, float-equipped in s u m m e r, ski-equipped in winter,

In n rp ro v in c ia l Boundary (approx.) Road E x is tin g Railw ays R a ilw a ys U n der C onstruction Proposed Railw ay la n d over 2,000 ft. /a b u s h L a i

Proposed Towns M in in a Claim s in Quebec

;;;

M a in Quebec C a rtier C la im s ^ Other Claims

Labrador .(.trnp.fWiU VVa bush Iron Co. la b r a d o r M in in g t txploration Co

autsfc M ount n Seed * i B a rb fl

Mine

Area . Powerhouse

M a n ieo ra g n n

M ining activ ity in th e M ontferre region.

M

ap

13

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is greatly facilitated by the m a n y lakes, b u t canoeing entails so m a n y long p ortages th a t it has been little used since 1933. T h e w hole region w as u n in h a b ite d b efo re mining began, being crossed only occasionally by the sem i-no m ad ic M o ntag nais In d ia n s on th e ir hu nting trips fro m the N o r th Shore. In 1954 the com p letio n o f the Q ueb ec N o r t h S hore an d L a b ra d o r R ail­ way, w h ich b o u n d s the region in the north-east, stim ulated activity aro u n d W ab u sh L ak e by pro viding c h e a p e r access. T h e distance involved, how ever, gave this ro ute little cost-advantage ov er air transport in the south-w estern pa rt o f the region. T h e present mining activity was initiated in 1952, tw o years be fo re the Q.N.S. an d L. R ailway was com pleted. In that year the Q uebec C artier C o m p a n y (a direct subsidiary o f the United States Steel C o rp o ra tio n ) staked claims on the Q u ebec side of the b o u n d a ry betw een and aro u n d M o u n t W rig h t and M o u n t R ee d ( M a p 13). S ub sequ ent geological surveys sho w ed the claim s to co ver deposits o f o ver 2,000 million tons o f ore averaging 32 p er ccnt iron, a n d in 1957 it was decided that the M o u n t Reed deposits w ould be b ro u g h t into p ro du ctio n. W o r k was begun im m ediately to survey the ro ute f o r a new 197-mile railw ay to the a re a fro m Shelter B ay on the St. L a w ­ rence, and in 1958 a roa d was co m p le ted fr o m S helter B ay to M o u n t R eed greatly facilitating the w ork. A t the p resent time a p e rm a n e n t town-site with a plan sim ilar to SchefTerville’s, is being built o n the shores o f L ac Barbel. T h e railw ay is u n d er co nstructio n, and a new d ock capable o f a c c o m m o d a tin g ships of u p to 100,000 tons will be cre ated at P ort C a rtie r near Shelter Bay. A p p ro x im a te ly tw o -h un dred million dollars will be invested in these facilities before mining can begin. T o re­ co ver this large su m within a reaso nab le period, fro m such a low-cost p ro d u c t as iron ore, o p eratio ns will necessarily be on a large scale. Initial p ro du ctio n starting in 1961 is set at eight million tons o f co nc entrate a year, derived fro m tw en ty million tons o f n atural ore. Beneficiation will entail cru shin g the ore to a consistency o f coarse sand a n d rem oving the gangue, which will be m ainly q ua rtz , by the H u m p h re y s spiral system based on the different specific gravity o f the iron-bearing material a n d the un w an ted rock. T h e resulting pro d u ct, co nta inin g roughly 65 p e r cent iron an d 4 p er c e n t w ater, will be tran sp o rted by rail to P o rt C artier, and from there by ship to the U n ited States and E u ro p e . R ecent surveys suggest that navigation out o f the G u lf o f St. L a w ren ce will be possible all the ye ar ro u n d , m akin g this the only m ajo r iron-ore region in N o r th A m erica shipping d u r­ ing th e w inter months.. P lan s f o r fu tu re d ev elop m e nt o f the

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Q u e b e c C a rtie r properties include the extension o f the railw ay n o rth to M o u n t W rig ht to exploit the n o rth e rn ores. T h e o th e r tw o m a jo r m in in g dev elo pm ents at p resent n e a r ­ ing the p rod uc tion stage are bo th on the L a b r a d o r side o f the b o u n d ary , betw een it an d the Q u eb ec N o rth Sh o re a n d L a b r a d o r Railway. T h e L a b r a d o r M ining a n d E xp lo ratio n C o m p a n y has rene w ed exp loration o f the south-w est p ortio n o f the original concession g ran te d to them by the N e w fo u n d la n d g ov ernm ent in 1938. T h e a r e a o f interest is b o u n d ed b y the provincial b o u n d a ry on the west, an d W a b u s h L a k e o n the east. By 1957 surveys h a d revealed local deposits o f ov er 1,000 million tons of o re g ra din g 35 p e r cent iron, an d in 1958 so m e o f the original staff fr o m Schefferville were m oved to the a re a to supervise the w ork . In 1959 the c o m p a n y , in co nju nctio n w ith the Iro n Ore C o m p a n y o f C a n a d a , will invest o v er on e million dollars in e x ploration, an d trailers will be used to provide be tter a c c o m ­ m o d a tio n fo r the senior staff. A lth o u g h no plans hav e been a n n o u n c e d , it is u n d e rsto o d that p ro d u c tio n will begin by 1962. Before this will be possible a rail link to c o n n ec t the area with the Q u eb ec N o r th S h ore a n d L a b r a d o r R ailway som e forty miles aw ay will have to be c o n stru c te d .* A g reem en ts have already been reached with the W a b u sh R ailway C o m p a n y fo r the use of th a t p a rt o f the rail line which it is b uilding to W ab u sh L a k e for the W a b u s h Iro n C o m p a n y , th u s saving the cost o f duplicating the line. P relim in ary estim ates fo r the w hole p ro ject call fo r the investm ent o f som e one-h un dred-an d-fifty million dollars to sta rt p rod uction at six million tons o f co n c e n tra te a year. T h e o r e will be ex po rte d th ro u g h the Iron O re C o m p a n y o f C a n a d a ’s existing p ort facilities at Sept lies. T h e th ird d eve lop m en t already well-advanced is th a t o f the W a b u sh Iron C o m p a n y , w hich holds leases o n the east side of W a b u sh L ake. W o r k began the re in 1952, an d in the following f o u r years eight million dollars w ere invested to outline reserves estim ated at o v e r 1,000 million tons of ore averaging 38 p er ce n t iron. T h e W ab u sh Iron C o m p a n y , ow ned jointly by Pickands M a t h e r an d C o m p a n y w ith U n ited States associates and the Steel C o m p a n y o f C a n a d a , leased the deposits in 1957. W o r k on the rail line to link th e are a by rail to the Q ueb ec N o r t h Shore an d L a b ra d o r R ailway in the east begu n earlier, w as continued, b eco m in g a joint u n d e rta k in g la ter w ith the particip ation o f the Iro n O re C o m p a n y o f C a n a d a , w h o will use th e line fo r the m o v e m e n t o f ore fro m its deposits fu rth e r west * [Rail link is now com pleted. - ed.]

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(see a b o v e ). Beneficiated ore will be m ov ed by rail to Sept lies, to be exported fro m there to m a rk ets in the U nited States and E uro pe . P ro d u ctio n is ex pected to start at eight million tons of con cen trate a y ear beginning in 1962. T w o o th e r m a jo r U nited States iron and steel c om p anies, the Jon es and L au gh lin Steel C o rp o ra tio n and the C leveland Cliffs Iro n C o m p a n y , have jointly financed a survey o f a lease n ear M o u n t W right, w h ere o ver 1,000 million tons o f ore capable of yielding 335 million tons o f co nc entrate have been discovered. N o p lan s for d eve lop m en t have yet been a n n ou nc ed. T h e W . S. M o o r e C o m p a n y , w hich h as also had experience in the U nited States iron trade, has optioned a lease covering small deposits of o re n e a r M o u n t W righ t. T h e r e is seasonal activity o n m ost of the o th e r claim s held in the Q ueb ec section o f the region, but it is th o u g h t th a t p rod uc tio n fr o m these will take place only after the m ajo r com pan ies begin exporting. M a n y of these claims seem to be held in the ho pe that the larger neighbours will b eco m e interested enough to develop them , with a resulting profit to the holders: they are in o th e r words, purely speculative. S o m e o f the claims, how ever, p ro b ab ly c ov er sufficient o re to justify exploitation, but only if the heavy capital costs o f long­ distance railw ay lines, and o th e r necessary facilities are borne by others. O nc e these are pro vided, the threshold for exploita­ tion in term s o f ore to n n a g e will n aturally be low ered quite considerably, since it will th en be possible to buy the services such as electricity, transpo rt, a n d beneficiation from others, w ith o u t the large initial investm ent. O n ce the region enters p ro d u c tio n th erefore, it is to be expected th a t the n u m b e r of o peratin g c o m p an ies will increase. T h e m a in p ro blem faced by all the com pan ies is th a t of transpo rt, the solution o f w hich will have considerable bearing o n the deve lop m en t o f the region as a whole. F o r initial exp lo ra­ tion work, air tran sp o rt p ro v ed adequate, and is still used by those co m p anies in the prospecting stage. F o r the three m ajor co m pan ies, how ever, o th e r m ean s a re needed to handle the in creased freight traffic. Q u eb ec C artier have already built a ro ad n orth from Shelter Bay to M ount Reed, to supply material to the railw ay d u rin g construction, and to the mine site before the latter is com pleted. T h e W ab u sh Iron C o m p a n y has also built a road fr o m the Q ueb ec N o r th S hore an d L a b ra d o r R ail­ w ay to W a b u sh L ake, b u t because o f the g reater distance in­ volved, L a b ra d o r M ining an d E xploration C o m p a n y , even in the spring o f 1959 were still c a rry in g m aterial fr o m the tr a c k to th eir base c a m p by air. In considering the ex po rt o f o re the

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prob lem is so m e w h a t different. T h e cost o f railway c onstruction across the north -so u th oriented an d dissected landscape o f the w estern p a rt o f the region, and the distance, prohibit the use of a feeder line o nto the Q u ebec N o r th Shore a n d L a b ra d o r R ail­ way. Instead the M o u n t R eed o re will be carried on an entirely new railroad being built north from Shelter Bay. As a private line there will be no obligation fo r it to c a rry o th e r c o m p a n ies’ m aterial, though it is an ticipated that agre em e nts to this end will later be d raw n up. T h e railw ay will, however, still have to cross the L a urentide scarp, an d the engineering costs fo r this section will take a large share o f the tw o-hundred-m illiondollar total expected outlay fo r the mining project. Eventually the line will be extended to tap the M ount W rig ht holdings of Q ueb ec C artier, pro viding o th e r c o m p an ies in that area with a stim ulus to develop, but also in troducing a te nd enc y to integrate th e m into a w estern sub-region. F o r the properties on the L a b ra d o r side o f the b o u n d a ry , the short distance o f forty miles an d the lesser relief m a k e the co nstru ctio n o f feeder lines to the Q ueb ec N o rth S hore an d L a b r a d o r Railway a m u ch m ore p ra c ­ ticable proposition. W o r k has a lready begu n on a line by the W ab ush Iron C o m p a n y , an d the Iro n O re C o m p a n y o f C a n a d a has negotiated an ag reem en t fo r an extension to its pro perty. T h e m a jo r d raw b ac k o f this feed er line is the capacity o f the existing line. T o allow passage o f the ex tra material further d ou ble-tra cking will be necessary, p articularly in the scarp sec­ tion to the south, precisely w here engineering problem s and co nstruction costs are greatest. Freight charges will presum ab ly have to be increased to meet them , but since the Q ueb ec N o r th S hore and L a b ra d o r R ailway is a wholly ow ned subsidiary of the Iro n O re C o m p a n y o f C a n a d a , such increases w ould p r o b ­ ably be felt m ost by the o th e r users o f the line. T h e total cost of the new railw ays into the region will he in the o rd er o f twoh u n d re d million d ollars: investm ents which in p art a c co u n t for the large scale o f the o perations. W h en the region eventually has several p rod u cers, there is little d o u b t th a t an integrated ro a d -n etw o rk will be constructe d, linking up the sub-regions to p rodu ce a m ore co h eren t whole th a n is at present observed. One fu r th e r aspect o f tran sp o rt is im p o rtan t. T h e beneficiated m a te ­ rial will probably co ntain u n d er 4 per cent water, allowing it to be tran sp o rted in w in te r w ithout freezing into a solid mass. With y ea r-rou nd navigation out o f the G u lf o f St. L awrence, there will be no seasonal shu t-do w n as at K n o b Lake, w here the 14 p e r cent w ater-co nten t o f the ore allows it to freeze in transit ot Sept lies, pro hibiting w inter haulage.

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c h a n g in g n o r t h

W ithin the M o n tfe rr e region at least three, an d pro bab ly five, n ew settlem ents are p lanned. A t L ac Barbel, Q u ebec C a r ­ tier have alread y begun building a to w n n am e d G a g n o n , the W a b u sh Iro n C o m p a n y have reserved part o f their p ro p e r ty as a town-site, an d the Iron O re C o m p a n y o f C a n a d a have several potential town-sites u n d er c o nsid eration ." T h e distance from M o u n t Reed to M o u n t W rig ht suggests th a t Q u ebec C a rtier will erect a subsidiary settlement to serve the latter area, a n d oth er co m panies will p ro bab ly house their o w n w o rk ers n e a r each mine. L a b o u r fo r the o pe ration s will be recruited by Q ueb ec C a rtie r in the M on tre al lowlands, a n d it is interesting to note th a t m arrie d m en with families o f at least tw o ch ild ren will be preferred . T h e c o m p a n y hopes in this w ay to ov erco m e the p ro b lem o f high la b ou r tu r n o v e r so often experienced in n o rth ­ ern mining towns. T h e re is little d o u b t th a t the in h abitan ts o f th e settlem ents in the region, as at SchefTerville, will be p r e ­ do m inan tly F re n c h speaking, fu rth e r ex pan din g the limits of F r e n c h C a n a d a into N o r th e r n Quebec. T h e actual m in ing landscapes will reflect to a certain extent the rem ote location and ty pe o f ore mined. T o repay the huge c apital investm ents within a reasonable period, operatio ns will have to be on a large scale; a fact fu rth e r accen tuated by the exploitation o f such a low-cost p ro d u c t as iron ore. T h e latter in particular, m ean s that o pen-cast mining, p referred anyw ay, will be absolutely essential. T h e beneficiation carried o u t at the m ines will result in large quantities o f waste material which, unless there is careful planning, could despoil quite large areas. C o n c e rn o ver this m atte r tends to be lessened by the do m in ation o f the d evelop m en ts by co m p anie s w ith long ex perien ce in iron m inin g in the U n ite d States. T h e ir presence can be explained by the high cost o f initiating exploitation, an d by the natu re o f the N o r th A m erican iron and steel industry. T o raise the large sums o f m on ey needed, investors have to be assured o f the success of the project, no rm ally achieved by the d raw ing u p o f long-term m a rk e tin g a greem ents f o r the ore. Since there is virtually no free m a rk e t fo r iron ore in N o r th A m e rica, the only w ay to get such agreem ents is by the participation o f m ajo r iron a n d steel com panies, as h as h a p p e n e d in the M o n tfe rr e region. Su ch in­ tegration is fairly c o m m o n in c o n te m p o ra r y mining develop­ ments, and all the successful mines in L a b ra d o r- U n g a v a are linked with U nited States industry in this way. * [New tow ns at W abush an d a t L a b ra d o r C ity are now well established, as well as at G agnon. - ed.]

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T h e M o n tfe rr e region seem s to be m ov ing th ro ug h the sec­ o nd phase o f pio n eerin g associate d with n o rth e rn mining ac­ tivity. T h e first p hase was the seasonal activity o f the true p ro specting-exploration, w hen the are a was inhabited only d u rin g the s u m m e r months. N o w there is y ear-rou nd o c c u p a ­ tion, th o ug h still in such a form th a t little evidence w ould rem ain if it su dd enly ceased. O nce the to w ns are established, however, the p io n ee r stage will be at an en d : facilities will be provided equal to o r su p e rio r to those fo u n d in settled areas f u rth e r south, an d it will becom e an outlier o f civilization with an u rb a n pop ulatio n in a n otherwise unin hab ited landscape. T h o u g h small the population will be m a k in g a m ajor c o n tr ib u ­ tion to the N o rth A m e ric a n e c o n o m y , c arving yet a n o th e r new region out o f the C an a d ia n N o rth .

26

.

Oil’s Last Frontier so u rc e

:

Im p eria l O il R eview , V ol. XL1X, N o. 5 (O ct. 1965), p. 13. R e­ p rin ted by perm ission o f the publisher.

M u c h o f the tim e, it’s frigid an d forbidding, with vistas be au ti­ ful to the eye an d chilling to the soul. B ut som ew he re u n d er those wan w in te r suns, those tree-stunted forests, those low hills a n d cloud-fuzzied m o u n tain s p uddled w ith m uskeg a n d icew a te r lakes, som ew h ere deep u n d e r the p e rm a fro s t th a t shrouds th e N o rth w e st T erritories, there m a y be oil: m o re th a n 13 bil­ lion barrels u n d e r the N o rth w e st T erritories m ainlan d, a c c o rd ­ ing to an estim ate p re p a re d by G . D av id Quirin a n d issued by the D e p a rtm e n t o f N o r th e r n Affairs a n d N atio n a l Resources w ith a n o th e r three billion in the Y u k o n an d 33 billion in the A rc tic Islands. It lies, supposedly, in a 500-m ile-wide extension o f sed im en ta ry r o c k stretching fro m the b o rd ers o f British C o lu m b ia a n d A lb e rta n o rth w a r d s th r o u g h the T errito ries and into som e o f the A rctic Islands. T h e N o rth w e s t T erritories is one o f the last untested p o te n ­ tial oil-bearing regions in C a n a d a . O n ly 237 wells have been drilled th ro ug h the chilly surface o f the m ain land (w ith an o th er th ree wells p u n c h e d th ro u g h the A rctic Is la n d s) . T h a t ’s abo u t o n e well for every 1,000 sq ua re miles o f th e m a in la n d ’s sedi­ m e n ta ry rock. By c o m p ariso n, A lb e rta ’s been pricked by m ore th a n 25 ,00 0 wells, ab ou t on e for every ten sq uare miles. Aside f r o m Im p eria l’s N o r m a n Wells oilfield, how ever, the re have be en only a few discoveries in the T erritories. B ut then, until the past few years n o one has ever m a d e a c o n cen trated effort. T h e r e ’s little p o in t leap-frogging across a w o rld o f few roads a n d alm ost no railroads w h en you can find oil m o re cheaply just off the highway and close to a pipeline. Y o u go no rth to get the j u m p o n the 5 0 0 to 700 o th e r c om p an ies seeking o u t prospective oilfields an d getting th em into p ro d u c tio n . A n d y ou go n o rth to build u p reserves f o r a time w hen it will be eco no m ic to p ro du ce n o rth e rn oil. In the past few years, m o re an d m o re oil explorers h av e been m oving into the Territories. Im perial h as cut itself a p a rt o f the action - a b o u t 14 million acres o f exploration p er­ m its aro u n d the m o uth an d along bo th sides o f the M ackenzie River, and ex ten din g along the coast o u t into the B eau fort Sea.

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Im p e ria l’s assault o n the T errito ries b egan in earn est in 1963. It co ntin ue d th ro u g h 1964 an d into this y ear w ith seismic exploration w o rk and drilling. T h is past s u m m e r Im peria l p ro s ­ pected the c o m p a n y 's holdings by gravitym eter. T h e gravitym e te r survey crew began in late M ay , w h en snows and overcast were still causing w hite-outs, a n d c ontinu ed till early S e p te m ­ ber, w hen days started getting c old er a n d shorter. In less th a n fo u r months, th ey helicop ter-hop ped aro u n d five million acres o f the c o m p a n y ’s territory, plo pp in g d o w n at p red eterm ined locations fo r in s tru m e n t readings to help d eterm ine the th ick ­ ness an d stru ctu re o f the underlying rocks. D ense rocks have stro n g er gravitational pull th an lighter rocks, an d will register h ig h e r readings on the g ravitym eter. Also, the m o re deeply buried the roc k structure, the low er the g ravitym eter reading. P lotting this in fo rm a tio n at one-m ile intervals helps assess oil prospects generally, and serves as a guide to w h a t areas could best be p rob ed in m o re detail by seismic crews scouring the co un try.

27. Arctic Petroleum Potential H . K . R oessingh so u rc e

:

C anadian P etroleum , V ol. IX, N o. 12 (D ecem ber, 1968), pp. 12-19. T he m aterial presented here form s p a rt o f a larg er origi­ nal “C a n ad a R eport.” R eprinted by perm ission o f the author and publisher.

A n o th e r aspect o f oil exploration has to be co nsid ered: where, on a w orldw ide basis, is the best place to lo ok for oil an d how m u c h can you expect to find? In an article w ritten in 1956, “T h e H a b itat o f Som e Oil,” G . M. Knebel, on e o f the w o rld ’s best-know n geologists, w o rk ed it all o u t statistically. O f course those statistics are n ow obsolete, but a su rv ey o f m a j o r dis­ coveries since that time has convinced me that the g eneral c o n ­ clusions m ad e twelve years ago a re still valid. K nebel classified the w o rld’s oilfields by size acco rd ing to u ltim ate reserves. E verything o ver 100 million barrels was a m ajor field, m ore th an 10 billion b arrels w as a giant. N o rth A m e ric a did not have an y giants at th a t time. It still do esn ’t - unless P ru d h o e Bay is one. T h e r e is one giant in V enezuela and half a dozen o r m ore in the M iddle East. C a n a d a has tw enty -fo ur m a jo r oil fields, two o f th em , P e m b in a and Swan Hills, in the m o re-th a n -o n e billion class. T h a t is a m od est score, especially if you consider that the low p rod uc tion p er well in P e m b in a does not m a k e the e c onom ics any better. K neb el also estim ated th a t 80 p e r cent o f the w o rld ’s oil reserves at that time were located in anticlines. T h a t figure m ay h av e been decreased a little since that time, but not by m o re th a n a b o u t 5 p e r cent. C a n a d a has o n e m a jor oilfield in an anticline: T u r n e r Valley. K nebel then classifies oilfields a c c o rd ­ ing to their position in the depositional basin, the structural basin, lithology, geological age, and a n u m b e r o f o th e r p a ra ­ m eters; but I think these just confirm the p o in t I have tried to m a k e : C a n a d a is not in the first rank as far as c urrently p ro d u c ­ ing areas are c o n cern ed. T h e sam e is true o f gasfields. H o lland has as m any reserves in one field, Slochteren, as all o f W estern C a n a d a 's fields together. K n e b e l’s statistics an d the location o f the one field in N o rth

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A m e ri c a that m ay develop into a giant point the sam e w ay: n o rth to the W estern C a n a d a sed im en tary basin and the A rctic se d im e n tary basin. Based on geological conditions such as th ick ­ ness o f sedim ents an d presence o f structu res, it has been forecast th a t ab ou t as m u ch oil will ultim ately be fo u n d in the W estern basin as in the Arctic basin including the A rctic Islands a n d the N o r th S lope-M ackenzie D elta area. In the light o f K n eb el’s statistics there seem s to be reason to rate the A rctic basin m uch higher, because th a t’s w here the big anticlines are found. In the b arren N o r th c o u n try th ey are easy to see, even for the laym an. T h e r e are vast areas o f exposed b ed ro ck in the islands, and for m a n y years it has been the classical area for photo-geology. T h e r e arc a large n u m b e r o f anticlines o f all sizes a n d shapes n ow kn ow n in the islands. It seem s unbelievable that not at least p art of those should co ntain large oil reserves, and those reserves might very well be in the giant class.1 A ctive exploration in the A rctic islands is only c o m p a r a ­ tively recent. N o t till 1959 were the first p erm its issued an d a fte r a first flurry o f activity, things slowed dow n ab o u t five years ago. until a n u m b e r o f circu m stances w orked tog eth er to s ta rt a big upsw ing this year. A n d it looks as if this time the b oo m in N o r th e r n exploration is here to stay. W h a t h ap pe ned is that, first o f all, the syndicate on w hich D r. J. C. Sproule, w ho has been sp earh ead in g Arctic ex p lo ra­ tion since it all started, had been w o rk in g f o r years, finally started o perating: an d P an A rctic was b o rn with the u n p re c e ­ d ented p articipation o f the federal go v ernm ent. A n indication o f how fast things are m oving now is that the p artn ers in the syndicate, including the g o vernm en t, so m e of w h o m had to be talked into joining, now have had m an y re­ quests to sell th eir interests. But no bo dy is selling. T h e P an A rctic p articip ants are ab ou t the happiest oil o perato rs an y ­ w here in W estern C a n a d a today; an d well they might be. A n o th e r thing that h ap pen ed was of c ourse the P ru d h o e Bay discovery and the resulting " P r u d h o e m a n ia .” T h o se w ho knew the N o r t h c o u n try and had confidence in its potential said: "I told yo u so!” , an d the land rush was on. A third thing that h a p p e n e d was that som e o f the difficult tran sp ortatio n p ro b ­ lem s, the main obstacle to earlier exploration in the fa r N o rth , w ere solved by the in trod uction o f new eq u ip m en t an d new techniques. i Potential co ntents o f A rctic S edim entary Basin, including A rctic Islands an d M ackenzie D elta: 1170 m illion cubic miles o f sedi­ m ents, 85 billion bbls. o f oil, 510 tcf. o f gas.

21 6

C A N A D A ’S C H A N G I N G N O R T H

Transportation It has always been recognized th a t tra n sp o rtatio n is the key to exp loratio n an d all o th e r oilfield o p era tion s in the fa r N o r th . In th e last few years solutions to the tra n sp o rtatio n p ro b lem have c o m e from three sides: the air route, the sea, a n d the h o vercraft, altho ug h the latter has yet to be classified. T h e b u shp lan e was the original w ork h o rse of the N o rth ; C a n a d a ’s ow n de H av illan d with its B eaver an d O tte r are still w o rld leaders in the field o f building s t o i . aircraft. B ut the helicopter, originally only a low-level vehicle fo r geologists and surveyors, is n o w beco m in g p ro m in e n t in o th e r fields too as th e m ach ines b eco m e m ore pow erful, can climb higher, carry h eavier loads, an d travel faster. It all started w hen Big Indian c a m e up with its Heli-Drill fo r seism ic shothole drilling. Asso­ ciated H elico pters an d Bullock H elicopters supplied the m a ­ chin es to c a rry the drill, the Bell 204B, an d it is now used extensively by P a n A rctic an d P e tr o p a r in the islands an d by m an y o th e r o p e ra to rs on the mainland. D rilling in the N o r th is taking a s p ectacu lar upsw ing and again tran sp o rtatio n is the key (a n d the big e x p e n se ). Rigs for the first three holes drilled in the islands w ere b rou gh t in by ship, b u t a irbo rne rigs, cith er on the H ercules o p e ra te d by Pacific W estern o r the Sikorsky S-64 expected soon in C a n a d a , are not fa r away. A d eve lop m en t that m a y have v ery f a r reach ing conse­ q ue nce s is the invention an d in tro d u ctio n o f the Alex-bow icebreaker. T h e design is C a n a d ia n an d the brainchild o f an ex-R.c.M .p. m an a n d N o rth e r n expert, A lex an der, w h o is n ow an em plo yee o f P a n A rctic. Last s u m m e r it was tested extensively an d the results were better th an h ad been expected. N o t so very long ago m a n y people w ere o f the opinion th a t a to m ic su b ­ m a rin e tank ers w ere the only w ay to ever get p ro d u c ed oil out o f th e A rctic, but since the dev elo pm e nt o f the A lex-bow , talk in this are a has faded. T h e experts expect now, th a t once a ch ann el has been established, there w o n ’t be an y p rob lem keep ing it op en by m oving an A lexbow tug th ro u g h once every tw o weeks o r so an d equ ipp in g the tan kers with the bow. T he g ov ern m en t has m a d e tw o identical tugs available to co n d u c t m o r e tests an d to c o m p a r e the A lex bo w with conventional icebreakers u n d e r identical conditions. H e r e again as in the case o f the bushplanes, a C an ad ian solution w as fo u n d for a C a n a d ia n problem . W h a t the fu tu re of

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the ho v e rcraft is in the N o r th is h a rd to say at this time. Som e tests w ere c o n d u cte d ; they w ere inconclusive, but ho v e rc ra ft are going into o p eration as ferries on o u r West coast soon, an d that sho uld provide an extra ch a n c e to see h ow th ey w o rk u n d er regu lar op era ting conditions. A n im p ortan t aspect o f tra n sp o rtatio n o f p etroleum p ro d u c ­ tion is the pipeline. It seem s that pipelines m a y give an im p o r­ tant push to w ard s the realization o f a goal th a t m an y oilmen have been pro m o tin g for years: a co ntinen tal oil policy. T h e P ru d h o e Bay discovery has precipitated the need fo r serious discussions a b o u t such a step. P ru d h o e cru d e m a y be tak en out by ta n k e r a ro u n d the W est, it m a y be piped across the B rooks R an ge to A nc ho rag e, o r it m a y be piped East to the m o uth of th e M ack enzie an d then up the M ackenzie an d th ro u g h the m uskeg are a o f the N o rth w est T errito ries and n o rth ern A lberta to E d m o n t o n , an d fro m there East and South to C hicag o o r W est an d South to the Puget S ou nd and beyond. It ap pe ars to be in the long ran ge interest o f both the United States and C a n a d a that the M acken zie pipeline be built. T h e presence of such a pipeline w ould be a tre m e n d o u s boost to exploration of th e are a it crosses; it w ould provide the security o f ov erla nd supplies desired by the U n ited States; an d it would provide flexibility needed to m eet not always predictable shifts in d em an d . H ow ever, a lot o f conditions will have to be met b efo re a con tinen tal oil policy can b eco m e a reality. T h e open d o o r of offshore oil in E a stern C a n a d a will have to be closed, the A m erican s will insist on that. So the negotiations, if an d w hen they get going, will bring the old M ontreal pipeline issue back into the limelight. But so m u ch has ch ang ed since that pipeline w as d eclared p r e m a tu r e th a t we will have to take an entirely fresh look at it. In this review o f C a n a d a 's position in the w orld oil picture we have not to u ch ed on o u r largest single oil reserve: the tarsands. T h e reserves o f the A thab asca tarsan d s alone are esti­ m ate d at 300 billion barrels, an d we have several o th e r ta rsand deposits in C a n a d a . D e v e lo p m e n t o f the ta rsan d s is a m a tte r o f technology, econom ics, pla n t investm ent a n d m arkets. F ro m o u r discussion o f the prospects there seem s to co m e the inevi­ table conclusion th a t the m ark e ts will be there. As a m a tte r of fact so m e experts in o u r in dustry estim ate that the en d o f p r o ­ ration ing in A lb e rta is in sight, possibly less th an ten years away. T h a t m eans that in not m o re th an ten years from now we

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will be selling all the oil we can p ro d u c e an d we will be looking f o r m ore. B ut the o p eratio n o f G re a t C a n a d ia n Oil Sands has d em o n s trated th a t it takes m a n y years to build a p lan t a n d th en iron o u t all the pro blem s - five years o r m o re. A n early start on th e second e xtractio n plant at A th a b a sc a w ould n o t seem to be p re m a tu re.

28.

The Forests of Northern Canada R . T. Flanagan s o u r c e

:

N o rth , V ol. X , N o. 5 (Sept.-O ct., 1 9 6 3 ) , pp. by perm ission o f the a u th o r and publisher.

2 8 -3 4 .

R eprinted

F e w people realize, unless th ey c o m p a r e the figures, th a t the N o rth w e st T errito ries plus the Y u k o n is h a lf the size o f the U n ite d States, ex cluding Alaska. In fact, the vast land n orth of the 60th parallel is really the “o th e r h a lf” o f C a n a d a , som ething th a t is being m o r e readily recognized as we b eco m e used to the n ew m a p projections o f C a n a d a , with the focus on the 60th r a t h e r th a n the 49th parallel. T h is large a r e a is th ou gh t by som e w h o have n o t had the o p p o rtu n ity to stud y th e N o r t h o r to travel in it, to be a land o f p e rp e tu a l ice and snow. T h is is fa r fr o m being true; an ex am ina tion o f a m a p o f n o rth ern C a n a d a will sho w th a t the n o rth ern limit o f tree g ro w th is ro u g h ly a diagonal, fr o m the m o u th o f th e M ack en zie R iver d o w n to C hu rch ill on H u d s o n ’s Bay. It m a y also surprise som e so u th e rn ­ ers to kn o w th a t sawmills o p era te alm ost on the treeline. It is also true, however, th a t m u ch no rth ern tim b er, particularly the stu nted spruce in the tu n d ra , has little o r no potential for utili­ za tio n as a forest product. O n the o th e r h an d , there a re trees grow ing in certain areas such as the rich soils o f the river valleys w hich arc excellent exam ples o f th eir species an d are used, as th ey w ould be in the south, fo r saw tim ber. Finally, we should k n o w th a t the forests o f the N o r t h are im p o rta n t and extensive en o u g h to w a rra n t tw o organizations f o r the ir ad m inistration a n d p ro tectio n : the M ack enzie an d the Y u k o n F o re s t Services. A lth o u g h they have only a h an d fu l o f m e n each, they c a rry out m o s t o f the fun ctio ns that the la rg e r forest services d o in the prov inces to the south. T h e n o rth e rn forests are relatively simple - m ainly w hite spruce, blac k spruce, jack pine, p oplars, birch an d willow. T h e o nly com m ercial species at p resent is w hite sp ru ce, but there are m a n y th o u s an d s o f acres o f p o p la r suitable f o r ply w ood peelerlogs a n d extensive stands o f jack-pine.

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T h e best stand s of tim b e r are to be fo u n d in the so uth ern p a rt o f both territories, as o n e would expect. It is n o t u n c o m ­ m o n to find w hite spruce o v e r tw en ty -fo u r inches in diam eter a n d one h u n d r e d feet tall along the low er Slave R iv e r in the M ac k e n z ie o r on the L ia rd R iver in bo th the Y u k o n an d M ac­ kenzie. In such stands, recovery by logging will often be ten th o u sa n d b o a rd -fe e t p er acre, a n d m a y go as high as thirty th ou sand . F o r any given area inside the treeline, the best spruce tim ber is to be fo u n d on the alluvial flats o f the rivers. H e re the growing con dition s are best, an d the re has been enough n atu ra l fire protection to allow the trees to reach m a tu rity at 150 to 250 years. Black sp ru ce is o f no c o m m ercial value. Associated w ith the sp ru ce is the balsam p op lar, which reach es thirty-six inches in d ia m e te r at its best. Studies have be en m a d e o f the p o p lar stand s in o n e area to find o u t how so u n d the w o o d is; the results indicate th a t it could be peeled f o r plyw ood, b u t so far it has not been econ om ic to do so. G enerally, b alsam p o p la r stands are restricted to the sou th ern h alf o f the Y u k o n an d the so u th ern third o f th e M ackenzie. Jack-pin e is the third m a jo r species. I f a co m ple te forest in ventory could be m ade, it m ight well sh ow that this species m a k e s up the largest volum e, a lthough individual trees reach on ly a d ia m e te r o f abo ut fourteen inches at best, an d on the average, m u c h less. But the re a re h u n d re d s o f squ are miles o f it. Jack-pin e m a y well o c c u r in sufficient v olu m e in som e areas to sustain a pulp mill, for exam ple, a ro u n d W a tso n L a k e in the Y u k o n . T h e re are also possibilities fo r te lep ho ne poles and railroad ties. T h e willows have little potential, except in a limited way for u nu su al furn itu re con stru ction , w here the “d ia m o n d ” variety is prevalent. T h e birch is in the sam e cate gory, b u t with so m ew h at few er limitations because it does grow to twelve inches in d ia m e te r in certa in areas, an d with careful drying o f the lu m b er m ight provide fu rn itu re stock for small local industries. It is interesting to note th a t the birch on the Peel R iver u p stre a m fr o m F o r t M a cP h erso n , b u t n orth o f the A rctic Circle, is suitable fo r this. T h e w o o d is there. It only awaits a d e m a n d f o r its use. Such d e m a n d c a n n o t necessarily be foreseen. Inventory and U tilization B ecause th e forests o f the N o r t h spread o v e r such a large area,

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they ha v e not yet, how ever, been com pletely assessed by field in v en to ry m eth o ds. W e are able to sam ple the larger and m o r e accessible stands, estim ate w h a t is in the rem ain d er, an d co m e u p with som e reasonable w o rk in g figures. F o r ex am p le, it is estim ated that the N o rth w e s t T e rrito rie s has 14,029,000,000 cu b ic feet o f m e rch an tab le tim ber. T h is figure does n o t m e a n to o m u c h by itself, but w h e n c o m p a r e d with the 10,324,000,000 cubic feet in M a n ito b a o r the 16,868,0 00 ,0 00 in N e w B run s­ wick, the relative potential im p o rtan ce o f the tim b er o f the N o rth w e s t T errito ries becom es m o r e obvious. T h e re is so m e ­ w h a t less tim b e r in the Y u k o n , ab o u t 9 ,1 5 6 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 cubic feet, b u t this is still quite a volum e fo r an are a w hich m a n y people still th ink o f as being b eyond the limit o f n o rm al forest grow th. D etailed forest in v en to ry w o r k has been carried o u t in certain areas w h ere the tim b er is being used because of its g ood qu ality an d accessibility to potential m arkets. E xcep t for som e jack-pine, w hich is being used as fuel-w ood, so fa r the m a rk e t has b een restricted to w hite sp ru ce fo r sawlog an d mine timber. C u r r e n t use docs not seem to be great w h en one ex am ines the figures, b u t actua lly it does go a long w ay to meet no rth e rn d em a n d s . In the Y u k o n , in 1961, o v e r fo u r million board feet of lu m b e r an d one and a h alf million linear feet o f m ine timbers w ere p ro d u c e d fo r local use. D u rin g the sam e period in the M ack enz ie, lu m b e r p ro d u c tio n was nearly o n e and a h alf mil­ lion b o a rd feet, a n d m in e tim b ers a m o u n te d to half a million linear feet. D u rin g the sam e p eriod ab o u t f o u r th o u sa n d cords o f fuel w ood w ere used in each territory. T his small b u t grow ing ind u stry n o t only provides building m aterials for the N o r t h but also em plo y m en t for the people w h o live there. In the past, w o o d was used p rim arily in m ining, in both the Y u k o n a n d the M ackenzie. A lth o u g h the mines are still big custom ers, there are oth er users o f grow ing im po rtan ce. D u rin g the last decade in p articular, the grow ing need an d d e m a n d for be tter educational, housing, a n d hospital facilities in the n o rth w as m et very quickly by public an d private m eans. D u rin g this co n stru ctio n period, there were som e interesting exam ples o f timber-use. T h e p rim e exam ple was at the new townsite o f Inuvik. In o rd er to su p p o rt h eated buildings on the p erm afro st, w ith o u t bre aking d o w n this frozen g ro u n d , the structures w ere built o n piling c u t along the lower M ack enzie River an d in the M acken zie D elta. E a c h o f the m a n y th o u san d s o f piles was place d in the g ro u n d by steam ing a hole an d driving the pile in w ith a mobile pile-driver, w h ere the pile soon froze in place. O n e will now find hotels, stores, hospitals, A dm inistratio n build­

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c h a n g in g n o r t h

ings an d even a 2 5 -roo m school in Inuvik, sitting on piling, and se pa rate d from the frozen g ro u n d by several feet o f open air. T h e sa m e m eth o d has been used to su p p o r t oil-drilling rigs in p e rm a fro s t areas. O n e also finds tim b e r in the most unlikely locations b e c o m ­ ing su dd enly valuable because it is near a mining developm ent. F o r exam ple, a fter the discovery o f p itchblende at P o rt R ad ium on G r e a t B ear L a k e in 1930, the dev elo p m ent o f the mine was d e p en d en t to a large extent on the availability o f a g ood supply o f m in e timbers. A lth o u g h the tim b er a ro u n d Port R ad ium was not large, it was physically and eco no m ically suitable, an d m any millions of linear feet were cut an d haule d from as fa r as forty miles aw ay and b rou g ht to the mine d u rin g the thirty y ears o f its op era ting life. Similarly, the gold mines at Y ellow knife have d e p e n d e d u p o n sm all local tim ber, as well as larger material fr o m the Slave River, for their u n d e rg r o u n d and above-ground needs. T h e C a n a d a T u n g ste n M ine in the u p p e r F la t River valley, high in the m o un tain s on the b o rd e r o f the M ack enzie D istrict and the Y u k o n T errito ry , was the scene recently o f a sawmilling o p eratio n run by the c o m p a n y . T h e m ine area was inaccessible except by a ircraft, and it was c h e a p e r to fly in a sm all sawmill, a n d log the sm all but good-quality local timber, th an to attem p t to fly lu m b er in. Visitors were treated to the site o f a small sawmill o pe ratin g in the n a rr o w valley between 10,000-foot peaks, just a few h u n d re d feet below treeline. T h e re is now a road into this site, so the sawmill no longer exists, but it provided initial con structio n material at a reasonable cost, facilitating the develo pm en t o f the mine. T hese are a few exam ples w here n o rth e rn tim b er has helped, an d m a y have even p erm itted, dev elo pm ent in the N o r th . T hey a re also exam p les o f w hat will be d o n e in the future. T h e industrial fu tu re o f the N o r th lies in the d evelo pm en t o f its variou s m ineral resources, including oil an d gas. T h e r e will be so m e m in o r agricultural developm ents, b u t n o thin g on a large scale, because the available arable land is limited, an d the frostfree season is so sh ort that not too m an y crops will m ature. H o m e s for n orthe rne rs, while not a m a jo r source o f w ood use, a re nevertheless im p o rtan t, particu larly for In dians and Eskim os, w hose needs are usually greater th a n those o f white peo ple w ho have houses provided by em ployers, or w ho are in a be tter financial position to p rovide the ir ow n. In o rd e r to help indigenous peoples to have better homes, the federal g ov ern­ m e n t has a n u m b e r o f plans fo r financial and m aterial assist­ ance. O n e m e th o d has been to m a k e sawmills available at

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strategic points th ro u g h o u t the N o r t h so that the people can p ro d u c e their o w n building m aterials. T h e re are sm all portable sawmills th ro u g h o u t the M a ck en zie an d at various places in the Y u k o n used by In dians to sq u a re logs. O n e might be surprised to see the E sk im o s at C o p p e rm in e, w h ere no trees grow , o p e r­ ating a sawmill. Som e years ago a N o r th e r n Service Officer stationed there thought that it would be possible to log the tim ber just inside the treeline abo ut forty miles up the C o p p e r ­ m in e River. H e and the E s k im o s'w e n t out an d cut logs, w hich th ey left on the frozen river; w hen b rea k -u p cam e, the logs w ere carried dow n to the settlement at the m o u th , w h ere a satisfac­ to ry recovery was m ade. T h e supply o f logs could th u s be arrang ed to ju stify a small mill. A n u m b e r o f n orth ern e rs still rely on wild anim als fo r food, an d o n their furs as a source o f incom e. T h e forests are a hom e fo r gam e, and, as such, are im p o rta n t ap art from their lum ber potential. N o r th e r n forests are also a significant attractio n for tourists. Adm inistration T h e forests o f the M ackenzie D istrict an d Y u k o n T e rrito r y are still a federal responsibility and are ad m in istered u n d er a federal act, the T erritorial L a n d s A c t, an d by the T erritorial T im b er R eg u la tio n s issued u n d er the a u th o rity o f the Act. F orest p ro ­ tection is ta ken care o f by each territory th ro u g h its own F orest P rotection O rdinance, form u lated and passed by the councils of the Y u k o n an d N o rth w est T erritories. A lth ou gh the forests are adm inistered federally, each territory has ta ken the responsi­ bility fo r pro viding the law to p ro tect the forests. T h is has historical precedents, because the first tw o o rdin an ces passed at the first meeting o f the first N o rth w e st T erritories C o un cil at Sw an River, M a n ito b a, in M a r c h 1877, w ere to provide f o r the protection o f buffalo, an d f o r the preven tion of prairie and forest fires. T raditio nally , the councils have always m ad e forest protection their own legislative responsibility. W e already k no w that there are tw o small forest services in the N o rth , the M ackenzie F orest Service an d the Y u k o n Forest Service. T h o se w h o are fam iliar with similar organizations in so u th e rn C a n a d a an d the U n ited States would find th a t the n o rth ern ones arc alm ost identical in stru ctu re and function to those in the so uth : the main difference is in the intensity o f their w o rk. Because the organizations are small and the m en w ide­ spread, each m e m b e r m u st c a rr y o u t a g reater n u m b e r of

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fu n ction s th an his c o u n te r p a rt in the sou th. T h e functions themselves m u s t be c arried o u t over large ran g e r districts, so th e intensity o f the w o rk is o f c ou rse c onsiderably less th an it is elsewhere. T h e forest-fire pro blem is no less a co n ce rn in the N o rth th a n it is elsewhere in C a n a d a o r the U n ited States. T h e fire season is so m ew h at s h o r te r th a n it would be to the south, o f course, but it is exceptionally hazardous. N o rm ally , o n e can co u n t o n a fire to cool and die d o w n during the night, b u t in the N o rth , w h ere the nig ht m a y be only o n e h o u r long, o r n o n ­ existent in so m e places beyond the A rctic circle, there is no respite. T h e sam e fire-fighting te chniques are em plo yed in the N o r th as elsewhere: fire to w ers a n d aircraft are used fo r d e te c­ tion, radios fo r c o m m u n ica tio n , specially train ed suppression crew s f o r initial action, trucks, boats an d a irc raft f o r tra n s­ p ortatio n, and fire p u m p s , hose, hand-tools an d, if necessary, bulldozers to fight the blaze. F o re s t p rotection in the F a r N o r t h is un usu al in th a t it includes protection fo r carib o u grazing ranges, large areas of re in d e e r m oss along the edge o f the treeline an d beyond. B ecause this moss takes decades to grow afte r it is b u rn ed , it m ust be given vigilant protection. U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e effects o f carelessness w ith fire in the early days in bo th territories are still evident. M in ers and pro spectors o f the past did not see h o w valuable the tim ber w ould be to their o w n interests, and , th ro u g h carelessness, but often deliberately, the co un try was allowed to b u rn off. S om e ­ times cam pfires w ould be left b u rning, an d h u n d re d s o f squ are miles o f tim b e r w o u ld be lost. A t o th e r times, the forest would be deliberately burned-off so th a t the underly ing ro ck-structure could be exam ined m o re easily. In the Y u k o n , w h e re m ost m in ing is now u n d e rg ro u n d , the rock stru ctu re is such th a t large quantities of m ine timbers are needed. T o d a y , m ine tim b ers are being hau led fr o m as fa r as o n e h u n d red miles aw ay to mines in th e K en o -M a y o area. In D a w so n City the scene o f the great gold rush o f 1898, the residents n ow find it m o re a n d m ore difficult to get ad eq u ate supplies o f suitable firewood. T h e F o re s t Service m u s t p ro te ct the new forests to ensure ad e q u a te supplies o f tim b er f o r the future.

29 . Reindeer Resource in the Mackenzie D elta-1968 R . M . H ill so u r c e

:

A p a p e r (m im eo ) presented at the N ineteenth A laska Science C o nference, W hitehorse, Y .T. (A ug. 26-30, 1868). A ppendix T ables have been deleted from the original version. R eprinted by perm ission o f the author.

T h e M ack enzie rein d eer o pe ration s h av e b een u n d e rw a y since 1935 when a herd of 2,370 rein d e er were d riven fro m A lask a to a R e in d ee r G ra z in g Reserve on the east side o f the M ack enzie R iver D elta. T h e o p eratio ns are a go v e rn m en t ven tu re initially conceived to su p p le m en t the wildlife resources o f the region and to im p ro v e the econ om ic conditions o f the native Eskim os. Six i n d e p e n d e n t herding units were set u p b etw een 1938 and 1954 w ith rein d ee r supplied fr o m the m ain go v ern m en t herd. By 1964 all o f the native herding units h ad failed due to m an y factors but prim a rily because there was too little cash generated f o r th e herd ers relative to o th e r activities in the region. T h e total h e rd re ach ed a p eak o f 9 ,3 74 in 1942. In 1960 th ere w as a ch an g e in rein d ee r policy fro m training an d stock supp ly to th a t o f a self su p p o rtin g c o m m erc ial operation. U n d e r this policy the M ack enz ie reindeer o pe rations w ere hand led u n d er c o n tr a c t m a n a g e m e n t up to 1968. T h e n , o n the basis th a t the rein d e er n u m b ers h ad d ro pp ed to 2,700, p re s u m a b ly from straying, the C a n a d ia n Wildlife Service too k ov er responsibility fo r the o peratio ns in April 1968. A press release from the D e p a rtm e n t o f In d ian Affairs an d N o r th e r n D ev elop m en t, d ated M a rc h 12, 1968, stated that the C a n a d ia n Wildlife Service “will m a k e scientific studies of the anim als an d their range to d eterm in e the level o f sustained yield w hich is technically possible. Allied studies will be aimed at developing m an a g e m e n t te chniques th a t will secure as high a yield as possible at reasonable cost. T h e eventual goal is private ow n ership p referab ly by E skim o s.” U n d e r the C a n a d ia n W ild ­ life Service the staff was redu ced from eight to f o u r h erd ers and th e h e a d q u a rte rs w as m oved fr o m R e in d e e r Station to Inuvik.

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It is expected th a t a biologist m an a g e r an d an assistant will be b ro u g h t in from the outside. Production Possibilities T h e reind eer thrive on the harsh A rctic landscape and provide quality m eat p ro du cts in an are a w here m u c h o f the food is im po rted . In the M acken zie D elta area, w h ich has a pop ulation o f six thou sand , there is a read y m a rk e t fo r at least 150,000 p o u n d s o f rein deer m eat each year. W ith the experience in C a n a d a since 1935 an d well-established reindeer industries in o th e r c ircu m p o la r countries, it app ears that the re are excellent p ro d u c tio n possibilities fo r the M acken zie rein deer operations. T h e M ackenzie R ein d eer G ra z in g Reserve m easures 150 miles f ro m east to west and 120 miles fro m no rth to south. This vast 18,000 squ are mile a re a is m ad e up o f the following: ( 1 ) A rctic t u n d r a in the N o r th w ith low relief and forage of sedges, herbacious plants, an d relatively lush grass along the A rc tic coast w hich provides good s u m m e r pa sture ; ( 2 ) upland t u n d r a offering spring and a u tu m n p a stu re on lichen covered hills that rise fro m two h u n d red feet in the east to five h un dred feet in the west with dense thickets o f alder a n d willow along sheltered creek beds; and ( 3 ) sparse taiga on the h igher land in th e so u th ern section pro vid in g a w inter p asture with a h eavy lichen carp et u n d e r well-spaced spruce trees averaging tw enty feet in height. In 1929 A. E. Porsild estim ated the grazing capacity o f the reserve at ab o u t 85,000 reindeer; in 1942 C. H . D . C larke estim ated the grazing capacity at 50,00 0 reindeer, and in 1964 S. B. Joh an sso n lowered the estim ate to 30 ,00 0 reindeer, a figure recently confirm ed by the C an a d ia n W ildlife Service range su rvey in 1966. A h e rd o f 3 0 ,0 0 0 rein d ee r on the reserve is capable o f p ro d u c in g , o n a sustained yield basis, o ver a million po u n d s o f rein d eer m eat each year. W ith the present greatly red u ced h erd a n d a modest dev elo pm ent p ro g ra m m e , the M ackenzie rein deer he rd could be built up to 10,000 anim als ov er the next ten years with m in im u m expense. A realistic m a n a g e m e n t sch em e has been d ra w n u p for the period from 1968 to 1978 on the a ss u m p ­ tion that there arc 2,500 rein d eer and th a t 60 p er c e n t o f these are fem ale as in the most recent ro un du p. A n “extensive” herding m etho d is proposed w h e re there will always be w ith the rein d e er a two m a n team w h o will guide a n d pro tect the reind eer b u t allow them to graze freely o ve r a

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large area. T h e herding tea m s w ould be su p p o rted by aircraft f o r reco nn aissance an d re g u la r changes every w eek o r ten days a n d w o uld be e q u ip p e d with radios and po w er toboggans. R e g u la r counts of the reind eer w o u ld be m a d e using corrals and air p h o to g ra p h y an d the individual rein deer w ould be m ark ed w ith e a r tags. S laughtering an d m ea t sales w ould be set u p separately from th e herding, and extra help w ou ld be hired for ro u n d u p s and w'ork in the abattoir. T h e reind eer p rod ucts w o u ld be han dled in a p p ro v ed facilities and full effort w ould be m a d e to w ards developing attractive p ackaging u n d e r sanitary conditions. F o r effective d evelop m en t with m i n im u m expense the m an ag e m en t a n d staff o f the M acken zie reind eer o peratio ns should be n o rth e rn residents. Special expertise o r technical assistance sho uld be provided to the project but should not su b ord in ate local involvem ent. Effective m a n a g e m e n t an d im proved p ro d u c ­ tivity c a n be achieved only if the activities are localized w here th e p ro b lem s are and w h ere rew ard s can be given fo r positive results. 1 9 6 8-1978 Herd O perations M odel T h e actual 1968-1978 h e rd o peratio ns model is based o n the realistic p a ram eters that 75 p e r cent o f the females will give birth to faw ns each spring, that there will be equal n u m b ers of m ale an d fem ale fawns, an d that 20 per c e n t o f the faw ns and 10 p e r cent o f the adults will be lost th ro u g h n atural causes. T h e herd reduction by slaug hter w as p ro g r a m m e d to build the herd up to 10,000 anim als as rapidly as possible while pro viding an o rde rly increase in m e at p ro du ctio n fo r m a rk e t developm ent. A lso the he rd stru c tu r e was p ro g r a m m e d to w ards having 90 p er cent females a n d 10 p e r cent males in the herd with the fem ale age not old er th an six years. M ale fawns not re qu ired fo r breed ing w ere p ro g r a m m e d fo r slau gh ter as the most effective m ean s o f m eat p roduction. W it h im p ro v em en ts in the h erd stru ctu re the a n n u a l in­ crease in herd size changes fro m 14 p er cent in 1968 to 17 per cent in 1978 a n d the percentage o f herd slaughtered increases fro m 10 per cent in 1968 to 20 p e r cent in 1978. O v er the teny e a r p eriod 9 ,90 0 anim als are p ro g ra m m e d fo r slaug hter to p ro d u c e 9 43 ,2 5 0 p o u n d s o f p ro d u c ts including a 10 p e r cent allowance for by-products. T h e a n n u a l incom e to the project is d e p e n d en t on the selling price for the reind eer products. R ecently the m eat has been sold

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fo r 4 0 cents p e r p o u n d f . o . b . the abattoir. A t this price the p roject annual incom e w o u ld not exceed an nu al expenses until th e eighth y ear o f the model. W ith a selling price o f 4 5 cents a p o u n d the a n n u a l incom e w ould com e close to expenses in the seventh y ear; selling 50 cents a p o un d the in com e w o uld exceed expenses in the seventh y ear; at 55 cents a po u n d it w ould co m e close to expenses in the sixth y ear; an d a t 60 cents a p o u n d the a n n u a l incom e w ould exceed expenses in the fifth year. A n y price increase will dep en d on having quality prod u cts read ily available. W ith p ro p erly h an d le d an d well-wrapped m e a t available th r o u g h o u t the year a selling price o f 50 cents p e r p o u n d should be realizable u n d e r pre sent m a rk etin g co nd i­ tions. W ith p ro d u c tio n selling at 50 cents a p o u n d the total ten -y ear p ro ject o perating expenses o f $ 4 5 0,6 75 w ould be co v e red by the te n-year project in com e o f $471,625. N o provision is m ade for capital expenses d uring the herd o pe ration s m o d el as only the op eratin g factors are considered. H o w ev er, the success o f the pro ject will d e p e n d on the c o n stru c­ tio n o f m o d e r n a b a tto ir a n d storage facilities w hich cou ld cost f r o m one h u n d re d th ou san d to tw o h u n d re d th o u sa n d dollars. P re s u m a b ly this expense could be covered u n d er a Territorial e co no m ic dev elo pm ent p r o g r a m m e with term s th a t w o u ld not eco no m ically disru pt the project. O v e r the last thirty years the M ackenzie rein deer operations h av e pro vid ed e m p lo y m e n t f o r aro u n d o n e h u n d re d local p e r­ sons. M an y o f these p eop le have benefited from this w o rk ex­ p erien ce an d a re n o w p ro d u c tiv e citizens in the D elta e conom y. A s the p roject involves w o rk in g on the land in a m a n n e r similar to living off the land, the o peration serves as a vehicle fo r the accu lturation o f the local people. F o r a h e rd o f 10,000 reindeer th e project w ou ld e m p lo y at least five persons full time and a r o u n d tw enty p ersons p a r t time. Also there w ould be consid­ erab le benefit f o r D elta ind u stry in local p urchases, freighting a n d a irc raft cha rte r. T he Future T h e rein d eer o p era tion s have a specific a dv an ta g e o v e r oth er projects w hich h av e been intro d u c ed into the C a n a d ia n N o rth ov er the p ast cen tury. R ein d e er h u sb a n d ry can be c a rried out on ly in the N o r th an d rein d eer pro d u cts are a n o rth ern specialty relative to o th e r renew able resource industries such as fishing a n d forestry w hich are m o r e eco no m ic in the South. F o r this re a s o n the M acken zie re in d e e r o p era tio ns have an excellent

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ch a n c c o f total success. T h e operatio ns are technically feasible as p ro v e n by the c o n tin u o u s p ro ductivity o f the M acken zie re in d e e r h erd ov er the last thirty years and the experience in o th e r rein deer p ro d u c in g countries. R ein d ee r h u sb a n d ry is a circ u m p o la r industry involving aro u n d th ree million anim als. T h e in d ustry is largest in the Soviet U n io n w ith 1V2 million reind eer and is m o st highly developed in N o r th e r n S candinavia. C o nsid erab le dev elop m ent w o rk a n d research has been c arried o u t in every reind eer c o u n try an d a b u n d a n t in fo rm a tio n is readily available th a t is applicable to the M ack enzie operations. T h e success o f the rein d ee r operatio ns in o th e r c o u n tries can be attained in C a n ­ ad a, w hich has large grazing areas c o m p a ra b le in size to those o f the Soviet U nion. Success for the M acken zie rein d eer o p e ra tio n s will be de­ p e n d e n t o n the involvement o f local residents, for w hich the p roject was set up, and increased p ro ductivity for each e m ­ ployee so that “g o o d ” wages can be paid. P resently the project a p p e a rs to be emphasizing p u re biological an d ecological re­ search w ithout the involvement o f local persons in m an ag e m en t. H op efu lly a gro u p o f local residents experienced in reind eer h u s b a n d r y and rein d eer m an ag e m en t, w h o propose to fo rm a c o m p a n y that could take o ver m a n a g e m e n t o f the reind eer operations, can be involved an d eventually ta k e o ver o w n er­ ship o f the reindeer. Provision can always be m a d e f o r any g ro u p to c a rry o u t scientific studies on the herd w itho ut in te r­ fering in the basic goal o f developing the M ack enzie rein deer op eration s into a viable northern in d ustry u n d e r private o w n e r­ ship. W ith the large grazing area available a n d th e absence of conflict with o th e r rein deer herds o r industry, the M a ck en zie rein d ee r o p eratio ns have the o p p o rtu n ity to pro ceed into a large-scale, efficient an d e con om ical business an d b eco m e a w o rld w ide model o f successful rein d eer h u sb an dry.

30 . Remarks on Eskimo Sealing and the Harp Seal Controversy D . C. F oote source:

A rctic, Vol. X X , N o. 4 (D ec., 1867), pp. 267-268. R eprinted by perm ission o f the a u th o r a n d publisher.

M o st in h abitan ts o f the N o r t h today are em p loy ed full time o r p a rt time in the harvesting o f biological resources. Until W o rld W a r II, earnings from the pro du ctio n o f renew able resources in nearly every m a j o r region o f the c ircu m p o lar N o r t h exceeded incomes fro m n o n renew ab le-reso urce based industries. In general, the m ost im p o rta n t pro du cers have been th e co m m ercial fisheries o f subarctic waters, followed by furs of wild an d do m esticated land m a m m als, again p red om in antly fro m Subarctic areas. Since the hey day o f E u ro p ean an d A m e r ­ ic a n n o rth ern h unting in the eighteenth a n d n in eteenth cen­ turies, how ever, the eco no m ic im p o rta n c e o f m arine m a m m a ls h as often been highly un derrate d. O n e reason th a t m arine m a m m a ls are usually relegated to a sec on dary e co n o m ic role is th a t m a n y species have been decim ated by decades o f overexploitation. T h e w alrus has been n ea rly exte rm in ated in the n o rth e aste rn A tlantic an d drastic­ ally red u ce d in n u m b ers in the no rthw estern A tlantic an d n o rth ­ ern Pacific. T h e G re e n la n d an d right whales, in both oceans, re ac h e d such low p op u latio n levels that in ternational p roh ib i­ tion o f hunting was instituted. Sim ilar international agreem ents also saved the sea otter an d n o rth e rn fur seal from extinction. Recently, co n cern f o r the steady decline o f G re e n la n d o r harp seals in the W h ite and Barents seas led the Soviet U nio n and N o rw a y to p roclaim a five-year closed season in these areas and restricted hu ntin g in Ja n M a y e n waters. In o rd e r to protect the breeding o f the h a rp seal p o p u latio n in the G u lf o f St. L a w ­ rence, C a n a d a has taken steps to stren gth en conservation p rac­ tices. Also at C a n a d a 's request, seals are now considered one o f the responsibilities o f the Intern ation al C om m ission for the N o rth w e st A tlantic Fisheries.

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In the tw entieth ce ntu ry , the two n o rth ern m a rin e m a m m a l species considered m ost im p o rtan t, in te rm s o f cash value, ha v e been the new b o rn harp seal, o r “w hitec oa t,” an d the n o rth e rn fur seal. But direct incom e to n o rth e rn native peoples fro m the harvest o f these anim als has been negligible. In the first case, h a rp seal pups are tak en alm ost exclusively by nonaboriginal h unters, an d in the second case, com p ara tive ly few native people receive wages fr o m the go vern m en t-co ntrolled fu r seal industry. T o the average E sk im o h u n te r o f A laska, C a n a d a , o r G re e n la n d , th erefo re, cash incom e fr o m the sale o f m a rin e m a m m a l pro d u cts has been m in im al an d usually m u c h less th a n th a t ea rne d from terrestrial anim als such as the fox, land otter, m u s k ra t, wolf, wolverine, o r p o la r bear. Beginning in a b o u t 1962, adv an ced te chniques in the p re­ paratio n of hair-seal pelts and the increased use o f sealskins in clothing, especially in E u ro p e , com b in ed to create a rapidly ex p a n d in g m a r k e t fo r skins from all seal species. F o r the first time, the ringed seal, o r jar, o f the F a r N o r t h re ac h e d market values w hich m a d e E sk im o seal h unting highly lucrative. F o r ex am ple, in eastern Baffin Island, young ringed seals sold fo r $ 4.0 0 p er skin in 1955, an d $1 7.50 in 1963. M a tu re ringed seals increased in value from $1.50 to $12.25 d u rin g the sam e period. Exceptionally good skins o ften sold for well o v e r $20.00 in A la sk a a n d C a n a d a during 1963 and 1964. A verage sealskin prices in G re e n la n d , carefully controlled by the gov ern m en t, rose fro m $2.80 in 1958 to $8.30 in 1965. R esponse to the im proved m a rk et f o r h air seals w as w id e­ spread th ro u g h o u t the N o rth . In the N o rth w e st Territories, the n u m b e r o f sealskins traded increased fr o m 10,470 valued at $ 48 ,689 in 1961-62, to 4 6 .9 6 2 skins w orth $ 6 91 ,7 07 in 196364. In Alaska, the n u m b e r o f pelts sold increased fr o m 15,000 in 1962 to 6 0,0 00 in 1965. A laskan hair-seal p ro d u c tio n in 1965 w as valued at $ 1,000,000. In G re e n la n d , the seal harvest increased from 52,763 in 1954 to over 7 6 ,0 0 0 in 1964. T h e av erage value o f skins p ro d u c ed in G re e n la n d in 1963 and 1964 was ab ou t $ 8 00 ,0 0 0 p er year. S tarting in 1964, individuals associated with the Society for the Prev ention o f C ruelty to A nim als, especially in N e w B run s­ w ick an d Q uebec, becam e increasingly c o n c ern ed with the m a n n e r in w h ich new bo rn h a rp seals w ere killed in the annual G u l f o f St. L aw ren c e and N e w fo u n d la n d hunt. T hese critics c o n ten d e d th a t seal pups w ere skinned alive. E vidence in the fo rm o f television films an d eyewitness accounts were widely

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dissem inated in m a n y o f w estern E u ro p e an d eastern N o r th A m e ric a. A book, T h e L ast S ea l P up, by P e te r L u st also focused attention o n the p u rp o rte d ly in h u m a n e killing o f whitecoats. Results o f th e c a m p a ig n to p rev en t cruelty in the harvest o f h a r p seal p u p s have ra n g ed fa r b eyond the killing g rou n ds o f eastern C an a d ia n waters. T h e highly c h arg e d em otional o v e r­ tones o f the issue a p p aren tly cau sed the average fem ale c o n ­ s u m e r to boycott all sealskin products. By the spring o f 1967, th e m a r k e t fo r sealskins in Sw itzerland had d ro p p ed to 5 per cent o f its fo r m e r level, sales in W est G e r m a n y were d o w n by 50 p e r cent an d o n e q u a rt e r o f the G re e n la n d ic skins placed on a u ctio n in April w ent unsold. A lth o u g h w orld sealskin prices ha v e d r o p p e d since 1965, th e m ost c ata strop hic decline has co m e , n o t in w hitecoa t an d fur-seal pelts, b u t in o th e r species, especially the ringed seal. D u rin g the s u m m e r o f 1967, most buyers in A laska refused to p u rch as e ringed-seal skins at any price; in C a n a d a , the H u d s o n ’s Bay C o m p a n y an n o u n c e d that it w o uld buy pelts at $2.50 ea c h in o rd e r to preven t total e c o ­ n o m ic collapse in m a n y n o rth e rn areas, a n d in G re e n la n d the Royal G re e n la n d T r a d e D e p a r tm e n t has had to review its price stru ctu re, w hich was originally set on 1965 m arke t values. It is ironic th a t the efforts to p rev en t in h u m a n e killing of n e w b o rn h a rp seals have h ad th eir g reatest im p a c t on seal h u n te r s w h o use the m ost h u m a n e killing m eth od s an d w ho seldom, if ever, e n c o u n te r a h a r p seal pup. T hese sealers are th e E skim os o f A laska, C a n a d a , and G re e n la n d . Because they h u n t w ith high-pow ered rifles the seal is usually killed in­ stantan eou sly w ith a head shot. Ecological conditions and m ig ra to ry h abits o f the h a r p a n d o th e r seal species cause the co m po sitio n o f the average E sk im o seal ta k e to be 90 p e r cent o r m o r e ringed seals. T h e irony of the situation is fu rth e r em p ha sized b y the fact th a t retail m a rk e t reaction has been strongest against skins w h ich the c o n su m e r c a n obviously id en ­ tify as seal. B oth the w h iteco a t a n d fur seal p rov id e high quality pelts th a t u n derg o specialized tan n in g an d d ying processes to p ro d u c e a finished p r o d u c t quite unlike the stereoty ped version o f a sealskin. T h e ap p e a ra n c e o f the ringed seal and o th e r ha ir seal species, how ever, rem ain s u n c h a n g e d as a result o f tanning. T h e se skins, th erefore, are easily rejected by perspective buyers influenced by an y stigm a su rro u n d in g sealskins in general. T o a g reat m a n y E skim os in the n o rth e rn W e stern h e m i­ sphere the d ro p in sealskin prices h as been a calamity. It has m e a n t destruction o f a viable in d ustry bad ly needed in an eco no m ically depressed region. In 1956, f o r exam ple, the E s­

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k im o po p u latio n o f C u m b e rla n d Sound e a rn e d a total of $1 4 ,5 2 6 fr o m furs an d w hite-w hale hu ntin g. T h is gave an av erag e p e r ho usehold in co m e o f $115. In 1964, the esti­ m a ted value o f the a r e a ’s fur take was $ 16 3,57 3, o r ab o u t $1 ,4 34 p er household. A t Clyde River, in no rth ern Baffin Island, the total value o f furs trad ed in 1957 was $ 3,678, or ab o u t $111 p e r household; in 1964 a total o f $2 8,0 0 0 w orth o f furs were sold, giving an average in com e o f a pp ro xim ately $60 9 p er household. T h e increased value o f furs in bo th areas can be attributed alm ost exclusively to hig her sealskin prices. A ltho ug h the final o u tco m e o f the depressed sealskin m arke t is difficult to forecast, there are indications o f its p ro bab le im p a c t o n m a n y E sk im o groups. In G re e n la n d , it has been estim ated that one q u a rt e r o f the po p u latio n stan ds to lose its livelihood, with no alternative in sight. T h is figure is prob ably m u c h high er in m ost parts o f arctic C a n a d a an d in coastal n o rth e rn Alaska. T o a n u m b e r o f E skim o h unters, the present situation is critical because they have alread y invested profits fr o m the seal h u n t in m o d e r n equ ipm ent. In eastern Baffin Island, fo r exam ple, most h u n te rs used th eir earnings o f the ea rly 1960s to pu rch ase low-calibre high-pow ered rifles with telescopic sights, o u tb o a r d m oto rs, cano es o r flatbottom boats, an d m oto rized snow m achines. T h e C u m b e rla n d Sound region in 1962 had on ly one native-ow ned sno w m achine. By 1964, th e n u m b e r ha d increased to seventeen an d 1966 the re were thirty-six m achines in use. D u rin g the s u m m e r o f 1953, the C lyd e R iver are a E skim os h ad only tw o small, u np ow ered w o od en boats an d one 18-foot canoe with an o u tb o a rd motor. In 1966, the sam e region w as serviced by twenty-five canoes, tw enty-seven o u tb o a r d m otors, and one large, p o w ered w h a le ­ boat. B roughton Island, in 1961, had tw o can oes an d three whaleboats, w hereas in 1966 the c o m m u n ity h ad nine canoes, tw elve row boats, and six w haleboats. M od ern ization o f the E sk im o seal-hunting in du stry has m e a n t an increase in o p era tin g costs. A s tu dy o f gasoline, m o to r oil, a n d a m m u n itio n ex pe nd itures for the p eriod A u g u st 1965 th ro u g h July 1966 for eastern Baffin Island show ed the cost per sealskin sold, fo r all species, w as $6.29 in C u m b e rla n d Sound, $5.45 at B roughton and Padlop ing Islands, a n d $4.46 at Clyde River. It is clear fro m these figures that the present value of sealskins in n o w ay covers basic op erating a n d depreciation costs. T h e con tro versy ov er killing m eth od s o f h a rp seal pups has p ro d u c e d consequences far b e y o nd those intended by the well-

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m eaning persons w h o first publicized the issue. But if ac c u sa ­ tions are true that television films were intentionally falsified in o rd e r to create public o utrage , th en the c a m p a ig n to prevent cruelty to anim als has been d o ub ly tragic. A t the m o m e n t, the individual w h o has suffered m ost is the isolated E skim o seal h u n te r o f the A rctic w h o can no lo n ger earn e n ou gh fr o m a basic w ay o f life to utilize his newly acq u ired e q u ip m e n t and su p p o rt his family.

VI. T R A N S P O R T A T IO N A N D C O M M U N I C A T I O N S

31. Transportation as a Factor in Northern Development* J. R . K . M ain sou rce:

B a ckg ro u n d Papers, R esources for T o m o rro w C onference, VI (O ttaw a: C nd. D ept, o f N o rth e rn Affairs an d N atu ral R esources, Q ueen’s P rin ter, 1961), pp. 579-96. Som e appendix tables have been deleted fro m the original version. R eprinted by perm ission o f the a u th o r an d publisher.

R esources and Transportation System T ra n s p o r ta tio n is only one o f m a n y cost factors enco u n te red in extracting raw material from the gro u n d , processing it and delivering the finished p ro d u c t to the m arket. In C a n a d a , it is frequen tly an im p o rta n t fa c to r a n d occasionally a decisive one; but all the o th e r ele m ents enterin g into the final cost, such as the availability o f suitable lab o u r an d processing facilities, the stability o f the m ark et, and the location o f resources in relation to tran sp ortatio n facilities, m ust be ta ken into a c c o u n t before a project is initiated. T h e re fo re , before becom ing involved in a detailed stu dy of the various form s o f tran sp ortatio n that m a y be used in the C a n a d ia n N o rth , it seem s desirable to develop som e general ideas as to w h at is to be tra n sp o rte d w here, w h e n an d in w h at volume. H e av y to n nag e m ov em ents in C a n a d a have been provided by agricultural products, w ood products, m a n u f a c tu r e d p ro d ­ ucts, coal, ferric products, p etro leu m p ro du cts, asbestos, p e tro ­ chem icals such as su lp hu r, an d base metals. Several areas in the M acken zie R iver basin have agricultural possibilities, but * W ithout th e kind assistance o f officials in the B oard o f T ran sp o rt C om m issioners, E conom ic Policy an d A ir Services B ranches of the D ep artm en t o f T ran sp o rt, the D om inion B ureau o f Statistics, the A ir T ran sp o rt B oard, N o rth ern A dm inistration B ranch, D ep artm en t o f N o rth ern Affairs an d N ational R esources, D ep artm en t o f M ines and T echnical Surveys, C a n ad air Lim ited, C o nsolidated M ining & S m elting C om pany L im ited, an d the W hite Pass and Y u kon C o rp o ratio n L im ited, the prep aratio n of this p ap er w ould n o t have been possible.

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beyond growing for local needs, there a re no g ro un ds fo r believ­ ing that these will be developed in this o r the next generation. T h e sam e applies to w ood p ro du cts, fo r the present, significant m an u fa c tu rin g also can be ignored. T h ese three, th erefore, can be elim inated from o u r list. C o al is available at m a n y points b u t sincc the m a rk e t is declining in the sou th , there is no reason fo r believing that d e m a n d in the n o rth is likely to be m o re th an local. Iron ore o f quite high g rade has been located in m any areas, the B elcher Islands in H u d so n Bay an d the n o rth e rn half o f L a b r a d o r to m entio n only two. E xp lo ratio n so fa r has dis­ closed the prese nce o f oil in com m erc ial quantities at N o r m a n Wells and the possibility o f a field at Old C row . T h e g eog rap hi­ cal stru ctu re is fav o u rab le to the p rod uc tion o f oil in the M a c ­ kenzie R iv er basin generally an d in w ide areas in Banks Island an d the Q ueen Elizabeth Islands. T h e bulk m o v e m e n t o f p e tro ­ leum , therefore, m a y well b ecom e a pro b le m before 1980. C ertain petrochem icals, such as su lp hu r, m a y well provide bulk to n n ag e as by-prod ucts o f the petro leu m industries. L arge deposits o f goo d quality asbestos are re p o rte d in vario us parts o f the A rctic. C o m m e rc ia l fishing has som e possibilities, as sh ow n by recent ex p erim e n ts with arctic c h a r. A n d the p o te n t­ ialities o f tourist traffic a re notew orthy. Finally, an d p erh ap s m o st im p o rta n t o f all, c o p p e r an d base metals, and precious metals, are kn ow n to be present in m an y areas, and the geog ra­ phical stru ctu re is such as to indicate the p robability o f m an y m o r e deposits being discovered th ro u g h o u t the P re c a m b ria n Shield an d the eastern Arctic generally. In w hat directions are these p ro d u cts likely to m ove? It seem s to be a safe assum ption that bu lk p ro d u cts such as iron o r e a n d petroch em icals north of, say, latitude 6 0 ° N ., will m o v e by w ater, i.e., there will be little incentive to m o v e them sou th by lan d tr ansport. T h is is particularly tru e fo r the Pacific co ast w h ere w a te r is open the y ear ro un d. Even if tr a n sp o rta ­ tion tariffs c o m p a ra b le to those prevailing in the sou th could be obtained, the distances are such as to militate against such a m ov em en t. It is true th a t costs in the o rd e r o f 0.8 cents a ton-mile are rep orted in the m o vem en t o f iron ore fr o m Schefferville to Seven Islands, a distance o f app ro x im a tely three h u n d re d miles. T his is a very low figure; b u t it still a m ou nts to ab o u t $2.50 a ton on a relatively low-price com m o dity , and in m u c h o f the area u n d er discussion the distances m a y well be tw o o r three times as great. T w o facts m ust n o t be ov er­ lo oked co ncernin g the L a b r a d o r situation: the to n n ag e is ex­

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trem ely high (1 2 million tons a y e a r ) , and this is o nly a feeder line delivering the o re to boat at Seven Islands. Base metal ores, in m a n y c ircum stances, c a n be c o n c en ­ trated. H yd roelectric pow er, o f w hich there are large potential supplies in L a b ra d o r an d o th e r places, m ight be called into use. P e tro leum o r n a tu ral gas an d coal m ight also provide fuel. C o n c e n tra te d ores o f high value a n d relatively low to nnag e present a prob lem entirely different fro m th a t created by the bu lk m o v e m e n t o f a high to nnag e pro d u ct. In som e cases it m a y be econom ically feasible to extend a rail line n o rth w ard for ab o u t tw o h u n d re d miles, as in the case o f the line fro m T h e Pas to L y nn L ake, o r a road de velo pm en t m ight be justi­ fied as in the case o f the K en o Hill M ine n ear M ay o in the Y u k o n . A ir freight m ight close a gap, as in the case o f the m o v e m e n t o f u ra n iu m co n cen trates from P o r t R ad ium to E d ­ m o nton . T o su m m arize: low value p ro d u c ts o f heavy to n n ag e in the F a r N o r t h will ha v e to be m ov ed by sea; o n the southern b o rd e r o f o u r area, new projects can be b ro u g h t into p ro d u c ­ tion by the extension o f rail o r highw ay systems n o rth w ard; hig h value, low to n n ag e p ro d u ce, including o re c on centrates an d possibly fish m a y be tra n sfe rred to o th e r systems, o r p er­ h a p s delivered to m a r k e t by a n y o n e o f the variou s form s o f air tran sp o rt. T h e tourist potential also is considerable. Sea Transport — 1959 T h e eastern A ctic sealift is h an d led directly by the C a n a d a D e p a rtm e n t o f T ra n sp o r t, using 17 d e p a rtm e n ta l icebreakers an d special A rctic supply vessels, 134 landing c ra f t o f assorted design and 26 com m ercial freighters and tank ers. In addition to the ship’s crews, fr o m 1,000 to 1,200 m e n are ta ken n orth by ship a n d airplanes each y ear to d o the stevedoring. T h e D e p a r tm e n t o f T ra n s p o r t responsibilities are: “co-ordination an d tra n sp o rtatio n o f c argo an d passengers as requested by o th e r g o v e rn m e n t agencies; servicing aid to navigation in H u d s o n Bay, H u d s o n S trait an d G o ose Bay; ren derin g ice­ b r e a k e r assistance w h erev er an d w h en ev er necessary; c o n d u c t­ ing aerial ice surveys as req uired to assist shipping.” One h u n d re d and ten th o u s a n d tons w e re delivered to sixty-six dif­ ferent points in 1959. This, it will be noted, is less th a n half o f th e to n n ag e m o ve d on the M acken zie (225 th o u s a n d ) d u rin g the sam e period. T h e five icebreakers, plus five special

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sup ply ships rein fo rced fo r icebreaking, carried eleven heli­ c o pte rs on their decks for ice reconnaissance an d ship-to-shore tr ansport. T h e task included re-supply to m id -C a n a d a stations on H u d s o n Bay, the joint C a n a d ia n - U n ite d States w ea th e r stations and D E W Line bases o n Baffin Island and F o x e Basin. F ro b ish er is the only h a r b o u r in the eastern A rctic with w harfing facilities, and ice floes are liable to block alm ost any point at an y time for days on end. T h e pro b lem o f delivering small a m o u n ts o f varied su p ­ plies to a m u ltitud e of dilferent agencies at a great n u m b e r of points p resents m an y difficulties, and the costs are high. T he state m e n t o f shipping costs at selected points, show n in A p ­ pen dix I, p a ra g r a p h ( i ) , gives a fair cross section. T hese figures include an average ch arge o f 10 p e r cent fo r p ackaging and a n o th e r 10 p er cent a dd ed to the to nn age for the sam e reason. W h ile the w rite r feels im pelled to place these figures on record, he also feels b o u n d to re m a rk th a t th ey are peculiar to th e p a rtic u la r task in h a n d an d o f quite limited value in relation to the general p ro ble m . W h e n c om m erc ial operations involving the m o v e m e n t o f large to n n ag e start in the Arctic, the shipping costs will be o f a vastly different order. D o c k s and m echa nical lo aders will be used, and the ships will m o v e direct fr o m the po int o f loading to the point o f delivery. F u r t h e r ­ m ore, with im p ro v e d aids to navigation, an increased fleet of icebreakers, m o r e com plete w e a th e r reports, and above all, up-to-the-m in ute reports o n ice m o vem en ts from aerial ice patrols, there w ould seem to be som e h op e for red u c ed m arine in surance. T h e above figures d o not in cludc in surance, but the ind ep en d e n t c om m ercial o p e ra to r must allow for it. H ow ever, these figures d o reflect the charges that anyo ne buying space o r ch arterin g a ship m ust face today. M a rin e shipping is p erh aps the only fo rm o f transpo rtatio n th a t does not p a y a severe penalty fo r seasonal use, because ships can an d d o move to o lh e r seas w hen the arcitc shipping season is over. But the o n e-w ay haul plagues us here as else­ w h ere in C an ad a. T h e re are five principal causes o f heavy costs: first, delays du e to the need for calling at m an y points, the lack o f u n lo ad ­ ing facilities at these points, sea ice and c onvoy systems neces­ sary to co m b a t it, an d the aids to navigation in m a n y o f these w aters; second, the need for providing an d m oving an im m ense fleet o f landing barges, trucks, etc., an d m e n to o p erate th em

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to unlo ad an d store the freight; third, special pack ag ing and spoilage; fo urth, the one-w ay hau l, a n d fifth, high insurance rates. C o rrection o f the various c o m p o n e n t items in the first fa c to r w ould seem to call for m o re an d better eq uip ped h arb o u rs and w ider coverage an d rapid transm ission o f w e ath er reports. Indeed, these steps a p p e a r to provide at least a partial solution to three o f the five factors above m entioned. P a c k a g ­ ing an d spoilage, an d one-w ay traffic, remain. H av ing said this, it m u st n ever be forgotten that here, as in the biological field, function m ust p recede structure. T h e need for a h a r b o u r at a pa rtic ular p oin t must be felt, o r at least a p p re h e n d e d , before that h a r b o u r can be built, an d so too with aids to navigation. In the m ea ntim e, the basic to pographical, hy dro g rap h ic and o cea no gra ph ic inform ation o n w hich these installations can be m a d e should be available for all to use. T h e need for an extensive aerial ice p atrol has long been felt an d is now being met. T h e provision o f w id er w eath er coverage involves bo th org anizatio n within the Meteorological B ranch and c o m m u n icatio n s generally in th e area. T h ese are being provided as the need becom es ap p a re n t in relation not only to m arin e needs, but to all form s o f transportation. Until the su b m a rin e freighte r becom es technically feasible a n d econom ically so un d, sealift in the A rctic will rem ain seasonal. It is tru e that a n u c le a r pow ered su b m a rin e has p ene tra ted the Arctic. H o w ev er, it m oved in the relatively u n ­ confined w aters o f the Arctic O c e a n o r, stating the m atter in a n o th e r way, it did not a tte m p t to traverse narrow , to rtu o u s and in adequa tely c h a rte d channels. M arin e architects are kn ow n to be doing research w o rk on the s u b m arin e freighte r for use u n d er the ice, an d he w ould be a bold m a n w ho w ould say th a t they will not co m e up with a satisfactory answ e r w ithin the lifetime o f m ost o f us. But the routes these ships will follow will to a large extent be dictated by the locations in w hich oil an d o th e r fo rm s o f w ealth are discovered in the A rctic, a n d this will alm ost certainly involve m ov em en t throu gh som e o f the n u m e ro u s channels th read ing the islands. T h is could not be c on tem p lated with o u r present d ay know ledge o f the subject. C oastal and h a rb o u r charts, for exam ple, co v e r only a few spots o n the n o rth ern coast an d the Q ueen Elizabeth Islands, an d th ere is virtually nothing o f this n atu re for the areas north of L an caster S ound.

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The M ackenzie R iver System ( See m a p 14) T h e p ro b lem o f supply by w a te r in the w estern A rctic is, for C a n a d a , a tw o-fold one; in terio r supply by river boat on the M ack enzie system w ith craft having a d ra ft o f not m o re th an tw o a n d o n e -h a lf feet; sea supp ly in the Arctic an d B eaufort Seas using ocean-going vessels o f no rm al draft. T h e M ack enzie R iv er tran sp o rta tio n system has, fo r the m o m e n t, triu m p h ed over the sea route fro m V a nco uv er, th rough the Bering Straits to the w estern A rctic O cean, as the p referred ch ann el fo r m oving supplies to the w estern A rctic. T h e U nited States authorities, n o t possessing the inland system, have used the sea route extensively, b u t fro m V a n c o u v e r to T u k to y a k tu k is a b o u t four th o usan d statu te miles, and the last half of the jo u r n e y is in o n e o f the w orst w e a th e r areas in the world. O cean -g oing vessels serving in the w estern A rctic must, of course, use the sea route in transit. Indeed, th e large D e p a rtm e n t o f T ra n s p o r t ic ebreaker, w h ich is em p loy ed on D E W L ine re­ supply, recently m a d e this trip. B ut it m ust not be fo rg otten that the sea rou te is m ore restricted seasonally th an the river route, w hich is op en f o r navigation long before ice has cleared in the A rc tic and B e a u fo rt Seas. T h e M ack enzie R iver system, c o m ­ prising som e 2,500 miles o f lake and river routes, is served by th re e carriers: N o r th e r n T ra n s p o r ta tio n C o m p a n y ; M a c ln n e s P ro d u c ts C o rp o ra t io n Ltd., an d Y ellow knife T ra n sp o rtatio n C o m p a n y Ltd.* T h e e q u ip m e n t o f N o r th e r n T ra n s p o r ta tio n C o m p a n y Ltd., by fa r the biggest carrier, com prises 21 vessels and 98 barges ra ng ing in gross tonnage, fo r the vessels fr o m 21 to 2 96 tons, a n d for the barges fr o m 64 to 41 9 tons. T h e 1960 sailing schedule, w hich is typical a n d w hich, inci­ dentally, gives a good description o f the system, is included since it shows the m o ve m e nts in the m ost concise f o r m : F o r t C h ip e w y a n - F o r t N .W .T .

F itzgerald,

A lta. - F o r t

Smith,

Leaves W ate rw ay s M a y 7, with w eekly service th ere ­ a fter th r o u g h o u t the season. - F in al trip leaves W a te r ­ ways S ep tem ber 26. * [The la tte r tw o carriers have ceased to op erate, w hile a new com pany, K ap s T ran sp o rt Ltd. began operations in 1969. (e d .)]

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F o r t Resolution, N .W .T . Leaves W a te rw ay s M a y 14, w ith additional service as traffic w arran ts. Final trip leaves W ate rw a ys S ep tem ­ be r 17. Yellow knife, N .W .T . Leaves W ate rw ay s M ay 28, with co n tin u o u s service thereafter. F inal trip leaves W ate rw ay s S ep tem b er 26. T u k to y a k tu k , Inuvik, A klavik, N .W .T . an d interm ediate points o n M ack en zie R iver no rth o f N o r m a n Wells. Leaves W ate rw a ys M a y 24, with additional services as traffic w a rran ts. Final trip leaves W a te rw a y s A u g u st 13. G r e a t B ear L a k e - P o r t R a d iu m , N .W .T . Leaves W ate rw ay s M a y 28, w ith co n tin u o u s service thereafter. Final trip leaves W a te rw ay s A u g u st 20. S tony R apids a n d F o n d -d u -L a c , Sask. Leaves W ate rw ay s J u n e 18 and S ep tem b er 3. F inal trip leaves W a te rw ay s S e p te m b e r 3 .t W ate rw a y s to T u k to y a k tu k , so m e 1,680 miles, is the longest segm ent. T his system is linked to the rail a n d road systems of the so uth by the railhead at W aterw ays, A lb erta , and by ro a d to th e highw ay c o n n e ctin g H a y R iver o n G r e a t Slave L a k e to G r im s h a w on the E d m o n t o n - P e a c e River rail line. It will be seen th a t n avigation o pen s at W a te rw ay s usually d uring the first w eek in M ay, an d the last b o a t leaves that point fo r T u k to y a k ­ tu k in the middle o f A ugust. F r o m the tr u n k system o f the A th ab asca, Slave an d M a c ­ kenzie Rivers a n d A th a b a sc a a n d G re a t Slave Lakes, b ran ch ro utes extend along L a k e A th a b a sc a to F on d-du -lac , fro m F o r t R e so lution eastw ard to F o rt Reliance and n o rth w a r d to Y e llow ­ k nife on G r e a t Slave Lake a n d eastw ard up the Bear R iver and acro ss G r e a t B ear L ake to P o r t R ad iu m . T h ese are alm ost entirely freight services. S h ip m en ts fo r points beyond the M acken zie delta are tran sferre d fro m river b o at to ocean-going vessels at T u k to y a k t u k h a rbo ur. f [This p a tte rn o f shipping has been radically changed w ith the extension o f the ro ad net to H ay River on G reat Slave L ake and beyond, eastw ard s to F o rt Sm ith and n o rth w ard to Yellow knife, an d by com pletion o f the G reat Slave Lake Railway to H ay River. W ater-b o rn e traffic n o rth b o u n d from w aterw ays is now m ainly restricted to the A thabasca R iver an d Lake areas. H ay R iver now acts as the term inus serving all o th er areas. T he fo rm er ship y ard a t Bell R ock, n ear F o rt Sm ith, has been closed dow n. ( e d .) ]

M ap 14

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In 1959, the system han d led 225 th o usan d tons of freight,* * 174 th ou san d tons o f w hich was han dled by N o r th e r n T r a n s ­ portation C o m p a n y , at an estim ated m ean cost o f 3.5 cents p er ton-mile. T h is c o m p a r e s fav ou rab ly with the cost o f delivering freight by sea from M ontreal to F ro b ish e r Bay (see A p p en d ix I, p a ra g ra p h i i ) . In a hearing before the Board o f T ra n s p o r t C om m ission ers in 1950, evidence w as subm itted which su pp orted the ra th e r obvious conclusion that the largest c arrie r could reduce tariffs ap preciably if it could be assured o f a substantial increase in a n n u a l load. In fact, as will be seen, 1959 was 9.4 p e r cent below the previous year, owing largely to a decline in m ilitary construction. T h is is an incredibly co m plicated system to operate. T he o pening o r closing dates o f the large com plex o f different w'ater segm ents m ay be plus o r m inu s a w eek at e ach en d of the season w hich, to the m ost no rth erly point, T u k to y a k tu k , is only about fou rtee n weeks at best. Shallow w a te r an d shifting sa ndb ars m a k e a nig htm are o f navigation during a d ry season. T h e r e is a long series o f rapids on the Slave River betw een Fitzgerald and F o r t Sm ith (B ellrock is the actual lower point of re-entry ) w hich m u st be portaged. T h e distance fr o m F itz ­ gerald to Bellrock is twenty-five miles. T h e po rtag ing is p e r ­ fo rm ed with heavy duty diesel tractors (tru c k s ) hauling dual axle trailers w hich can handle up to thirty tons. In addition, th ere is ad equ ate e q u ip m e n t to ha ndle all types o f cargo (w hich includes tan kers for bulk p etro leu m ) an d b arge trailers for m a rin e equipm ent.* T h e R ep ort o f the Board o f T ra n sp o rt C om m issioners, dated J a n u a r y 30, 1950, dealing with the p ro b lem o f river navigation, is w orth quoting: T o rtu o u s river channels, shifting shoals and bars, fast passages o r rock strew n shallow water, an d large bodies of deep w a te r have created serious p rob lem s in the design and m ain tenan ce o f vessels. D ry d o c k facilities are lacking, and th e necessity o f beaching e q u ip m e n t d uring w in te r m o nths co ntributes to high m a in te n a n ce costs. O nly 18 miles of m a rk e d ch ann el exist in the 1,681 miles betw een W ate rw ay s an d the m o u th o f the M ackenzie ** [In 1969 approxim ately 380,000 tons was handled, all but 30,000 tons by N .T .C . (e d .)] * [Since com pletion o f the G reat Slave L ake Railw ay freight for points n o rth o f F o rt Sm ith is routed via H ay River, (e d .)]

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River. T h e negligible a m o u n t o f aids to navigation renders the floating eq u ip m en t susceptible to m ore dam ag e than vessels o p era tin g in most o th e r areas. T h e po rtage at Fitz­ gerald—F o r t Sm ith is a m a jo r facto r in the o p eratin g costs o f the c o m p a n y (N o r t h e r n T r a n s p o r ta tio n ) d u e to local lab o u r being unavailable. C rew s o f stevedores m ust be m ain tained d uring navigation seasons, alth ou gh such crews c a n n o t be em ployed to m ax im u m efficiency du e to lack of consistent volum e in the traffic requiring to be m oved over th e portage. T h e necessity for tr ans-shipm ent at the portage adds a pp rox im a tely five days to the transit time between W a te rw ay s an d no rth ern points. Studies have been u nd ertak en to seek a m eth od o f lower cost h and lin g ov er the portage; while co nstru ctio n o f a canal, o r the installation o f a m a rin e railway w ould provide the m ost satisfactory solution, these projects w ould involve very large capital e xp end itu res and the am o rtization charges reflected in the cost p e r ton of freight would bring about higher rates than presently apply. H ere again, the sh ort o perating season and un ba lan c ed , almost o ne-w ay hauls, keep o perating costs high. A n d to these m ust be a d ded the p ortage between Fitzgerald and Smith, and the m any shallows an d shifting sand bars that cause delays an d m a k e navigation difficult. T h e system is evidently geared to carry m uch heavier loads th an it is now handling; and if h eav ier loads are fo rth com ing , it might be econom ically sound to dredg e some o f the channels a n d put in additional aids to navigation, all of w hich could c o m b in e to reduce costs. T h e d eve lo p m en t o f in­ dustries in the N o r th pro du cing s o u th b o u n d cargoes would also help. T h e re seem s to be little relief in sight from the limitations im posed by the sh ort season and the rapids so long as we are limited to su rface craft alone. But even here there is a glim m er o f hope on the horizon (see report on H o v e r c r a f t ) . R ailw ays T w o things can, I think, be said o f railw ays in the developm ent o f the C an a d ia n N o rth ; they have not fulfilled the rosy hopes o f their sponsors; despite this they have m o re th an justified them selves an d w ithout th em there would indeed have been no significant developm ent in the C an a d ia n N o rth . T h e oldest an d most c o u rag eo u s o f o u r railw ay projects was

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th e building o f the W h ite Pass a n d Y u k o n fr o m Sk ag w ay to W hiteh orse at the tu r n o f the c entu ry . It was, o f course, u n d e r ­ ta k e n u n d e r the stim u lus o f the frenzy a ro u s ed by the discovery o f gold in the Y u ko n: T h e e x trav ag an t hopes aro used by gold ha v e since faded, b u t the railw ay re m a in e d to m a k e eco no m ic d ev elo p m en t p o s­ sible o n a firm er basis. S o m e h o w th r o u g h the years it m anag ed to survive and in so d oing p ro vid ed assu rance th a t w hen n a tu ral resources w ere discovered a n d d eveloped to a certain point, the p ro d u c ts o f these resources cou ld be placed o n the w orld m ark e t. T h e railw ay fro m E d m o n to n to W ate rw ay s was fo r m an y years a co ntentio us subject. It no longer is, f o r here to o the not inconsiderable de velo pm en t that h as ta k e n p lace in th e M a c ­ kenzie R iver basin w ould not h av e been possible w ithou t it. But q uite a p a r t fro m this, the d evelo pm ents th a t ha v e tak en place in fa r m in g and fishing in the a re a th ro u g h w h ich it pen etrates w ould alone h av e justified the project. L oo kin g to the not-too-distant fu tu re, it does n o t ta k e m u ch im agination to forecast the d ev elop m e nt o f a ce ntre o f con sid ­ era ble size an d significance in the vicinity o f its n o rth e rn te r­ minus. T h e A lb erta ta r sands constitute the biggest reserves of fuel in the w orld. T h e are a is u n derlaid by a n im m ense deposit o f salt. H y dro elec tric p o ten tial is considerable and the a re a ha s a limitless supply o f goo d w ater, the lack o f w hich thre aten s to be a limiting fa c to r in the d ev elo p m e n t o f som e parts o f w estern C a n a d a . I t m ay well be that th e p ro m o te rs o f this m u c h criti­ cized project built even better th a n th ey knew. T h e H u d s o n Bay railroad too h as failed in som e degree to fulfil the hopes o f its sponsors; yet, to be m o r e precise, these hopes h av e been d eferred . It has certainly n o t h ad the im p act on the w h e a t in d ustry th a t the Prairie w h eat fa rm e rs expected: b u t if an y one tod ay suggested th a t the H u d s o n B ay railw ay should n o t have been built, he w ould be looked at w ith incredulity. H av in g a great inland sea w ith ou t access to its shores is u n ­ thin k ab le in the w orld o f today. B ut in fact this p ro je ct too has well justified itself. T h e vast develop m en ts at Flin F lo n , w hich in clude co p p er and zinc, gold a n d silver, w h ich are sh ip ped as co n c e n tra te s to F o r t S askatch ew an n e a r E d m o n t o n fo r process­ ing, a n d L y n n L a k e w hich in clude nickel, co p p er an d cobalt, w o u ld not have been possible w ith ou t it. A n d indeed, the re ­ sources, real an d potential, along m o s t o f its ro u te w ould so on er o r later have called f o r the d ev elo p m en t o f a railway. T h e O ntario N o rth l a n d R ailway run nin g fr o m C o c h ra n e to

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M o oso ne e penetrates an are a rich in tim be r resources an d needs no f u r th e r justification. H o w eve r, it too pro vides a link betw een eastern C a n a d a an d the inland sea we call H u d so n Bay, which Iogistically a p p e a rs inevitable even w itho ut the dev elopm ent of the tim b er resources. It is interesting to note that the rich iron deposits on the Belcher an d N a sta p o k e Islands are ab ou t four h u n d re d miles fro m M o osonee by water, an d th a t the S ault Ste. M a rie sm elters are just o v e r five h u n d red miles south o f that point by rail; also that the R an kin nic kel-copper deposits are now shipped to F o rt S ask atch ew an , A lberta, for processing.t T h e Q u ebec N o r th S h ore an d L a b ra d o r railway n eeds little c o m m en t. Its e co n o m ic justification was decided b efo re it was built. P ro b lem s n ow revolve aro u n d extension o f this railway, longitudinally an d laterally, to tap f u r th e r n atural resources in L a b rad o r. T h e recent decision to start location surveys for a railw ay to Pine Point o n the south shore o f G re a t Slave L ak e is o f general interest. T h e r e are tw o possible routes: from W aterw ays, N orthw est T erritories, to Pine Point; fro m G rim sh a w d o w n the H a y R iver to Pine Point.* T h e first is ab out fifty miles closer to E d m o n to n . T h e distance to Trail, w h ere the lead-zinc c o n cen ­ trates will be treated , is 1,350 o r 1,400 miles, approxim ately, acc ord in g to w h ich ro ute is used. G eological repo rts indicate an exposed ore body o f lead-zinc o f such size as to allow the p ro d u c tio n o f 2 1 5,0 0 0 tons a y ea r of o re c on centrates fo r at least twenty-five years. T h e rail tariff has n o t as yet been disclosed, but the briefs to the M a n n in g C o m ­ mission indicate th a t it will probab ly be in the vicinity o f one an d o ne -ha lf cents a ton-mile; that is the shipping costs to T rail will, in rou n d figures, prob ably be ab o u t $20 a ton. T h e rela­ tively low ann ual to nn age forecast for this railw ay line, i.e. 440 th ou san d tons on the W a te rw ay s extension and 360 th ousand tons on the G rim sh a w , give little hope o f m u c h im p ro v e m e n t in costs in the im m ed iate future. T h e estim ated costs o f co n stru c­ tion, incidentally, are betw een $ 60 million an d $65 million. Som e discussion has ta ken place on the feasibility o f tr u c k ­ ing this ore to G rim sh a w , a distance o f o v er fo u r h u n d re d miles. If the figures released fo r the h andling o f ores for K en o Hill are any guide, the cost would pro b ab ly be a b o u t six cents a ton-mile, o r $2 4 o r m ore, to get the o re to the railhead. This figure might t [This m ine is now closed. — (e d .)] * [The G reat Slave Lake Railway w as built via the H ay R iver route in 1965 (e d .)]

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be red uced by using very large, specially built trucks to ha nd le ' the load o f abo ut 4 ,2 0 0 tons a week, o r 6 0 0 tons a day, 3 6 5 days a year, but a figure below fo u r an d on e-h alf cents is h a rd to credit. In the m ean tim e , the large tru c k in tu r n raises the p r o b ­ lem o f building a highway, with bridges an d culverts, to carry su c h a vehicle. In any event, the p ro spect o f bringing the truck ing figure d o w n to one c o m p a r a b le with rail haul does not seem encouraging. T h e m ost interesting figure p ro d u c e d by the P in e P oin t d eve lop m en t is the estim ate o f $100 p er ton, as the value of the co ncentrates. T h is in general terms obviously precludes m o v e m e n t by eith er a ir o r truck, even in the m ost favo urable c ircum stances, excepting f o r sho rt distances. T h e K e n o Hill c o ncentrates, w hich contain a large percentag e of silver, are atypical. T h e cost in this case o f delivering the con centrates to T ra il, British C o lu m b ia, w h ere th ey are sm elted, is ab o u t $ 4 0 a ton. H ig hw ay s (See m a p 14) H ig h w a y systems have for som e time played, a n d will co ntinue to play, an im p o rta n t part in the de velo pm en t o f the Y u k o n and the T errito rie s west o f H u d so n Bay. T h e so-called A la sk a H ig h ­ w ay has been a large factor in p ro m o tin g ex plo ratio n f o r oil and gas and o th e r resources in the territory that it serves. T h e hig h­ w ay fro m W hiteho rse to M ay o, D aw son and T an ac ro ss , w ith a b ra n c h to K en o Hill, is p e rfo rm in g similar functions. T h e w o rk o f the British Y u k o n N av igation C o m p a n y in developing special con tain ers w hich c a rry food a n d o th e r supplies n orth by b o a t to S kagw ay, rail to W h iteh orse, highway to K en o, an d mineral co ncen trates in the reverse o rd e r, deserves special notice here. By c onstructing these to stan d ard size an d shape, the tran sfer from tru c k to rail to ship is m a d e quickly a n d cheaply. T h e G r i m s h a w - H a y River ro a d serves an are a with good agricultural potentialities o v e r m u ch o f its length and provides a n additional link w ith the M ack enzie R iver transp ortatio n system. Costs o f delivering supplies to the M ackenzie River system o ver this ro ute are adm itted ly high er th a n o ver the rail ro u te to W aterw ay s, b u t there are m an y occasions on w hich the additional costs are m o re th an c o m p en sated for by the saving in time w h ere the co m pletio n o f a project in one season is involved. T h e D e p a rtm e n t o f N o r th e r n Affairs a n d N a tio n al R e ­

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sources has show n m uch en terprise in developing highways. T he H a y R iver roa d has recently been ex ten de d fro m th a t po int to Y ellow knife; a g ood start has been m ade on the projected h igh ­ w ay fro m W a ts o n L ake to R oss R iver an d C a rm ac k s,* and a n o th e r new project runs fro m a point east o f D aw so n City to C h a p m a n on the Blackstone R iver and the junction o f th a t river w ith th e Peel. T h e r e is no d o u b t th a t these will be o f eno rm o u s va lu e in developing the m an y highly m ineralized areas that these will serve. F r o m such scant figures as are available it seem s th a t tonmile costs o n the A laska H ig h w ay vary fro m eight to twelve cents. Costs o n the W h iteh o rse -K en o ro ad for m ov ing supplies to a n d co ncen trates fro m the m ine a re repo rte d to be in the o rd e r o f six an d on e-h alf cents. T h e province o f British C o lu m b ia is repo rte d to be planning highw ay d ev elop m e nt th a t will con nect its no rth ern areas with the Y u k o n T errito r y and A laska, and the p rovince o f S ask a tch e­ w a n is p lanning a highw ay co nnecting the interior w ith the B eaverlodge area. H ow ev er, neither the timing o f th e c o n stru c ­ tion o f these projects n o r the precise locations are k n o w n to the w riter.

Oil Transportation Oil has been discovered at N o r m a n Wells, an d m o r e recently a well has been b ro u g h t in at Old C ro w w hich is a trading post on th e P o rc u p in e R iver in the no rthw est tip of the Y u k o n . G e o lo ­ gists seem convinced th a t m o r e m a y be fo u n d in the Q ueen Elizabeth Islands an d at several points on the rim o f F oxe Basin. T h is is o f interest to us here in two c on nection s: it poses the pro b lem o f tr a n sp o rtin g this oil to m a rk e t; an d it offers some h o p e o f reducing transp ortatio n costs directly by prod u cing c h e a p e r aviation fuel, and indirectly by reducing h eating cost? generally in the Arctic. A forecast was m ad e ab ou t a year ago that the visible su p ­ plies o f oil in the U nited States would be exh austed by about 1985 (th e Paley R e p o r t) . H o w eve r, the search for new fields goes on and no do ub t will p ro duc e som e f u r th e r supplies. N evertheless, it seems reasonable to suppose that interest in o th e r sources o f supply such as the C a n a d ia n Arctic m a y be­

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c o m e quite active w ithin the next tw o decades. M ea n tim e , the p ro b lem s to be solved in tran sp ortin g this oil at a cost that will give it a com petitive position in the w orld m a r k e t will prob ably take a de cad e o r tw o to w o rk out. A very rough figure giving c o m p a ra tiv e costs tr an sp o rting oil by rail, pipeline a n d ta n k e r gives ratios in the o rd er o f six, 2.5 an d one respectively. By no stretch o f the im agination can it be assum ed th a t it will be econom ical to m o v e this oil so u th ­ w a rd o verlan d by pipeline o r rail, excepting p e rh ap s in small quantities fo r local use. T h e p rob lem , th erefore, seem s to resolve itself into getting the oil to the coast, p re s u m a b ly by pipeline, an d m ov ing it to m a r k e t by sea. T h e long-distance transmission o f oil by pipeline along the ocean floor has been m en tio ned . T h is should not p erh ap s be ruled ou t, b u t be fo re it can be given serious consideration, m u c h m o re th o u g h t will have to be given to solving the p ro b lem o f avoiding o r o v er­ com ing ice scouring at the p o in t w here the pipeline enters the water. Also, m u ch m o re in fo rm a tio n m u st be m a d e available reg ardin g the n a tu re o f the oc ean beds, including the depth, stren gth an d te m p e ra tu re o f c urren ts, an d prospects o f having th e b eds scoured by icebergs, before any such projects can be seriously co n tem p lated. It seem s probable th a t som e m o v em en t across certain channels by pipeline will in an y event be neces­ sary because of the shortage o f satisfactory h arb o u rs, so that h y d ro g ra p h ic info rm atio n along the lines indicated seems a necessity. Some success has already been achie ved in keeping h a rb o u r s ice-free for long periods by a process o f aeration. Possibly this a n d o th e r m e tho ds will be fu rth e r developed for use in the arctic h a rb o u rs and channels - but this will call for a positive p ro g r a m m e o f action. If, as has been suggested, it is fo un d feasible to rem ov e this oil by su b m a rin e tan k er, it will p re sum ably be necessary first to discover and th en to develop a n u m b e r o f d eep-w ater h a rb o u rs in w hich such craft could operate. E xperience with the oil processing plant at N o r m a n Wells seem s to cast so m e d o u b t o n the feasibility o f processing and using petro leu m locally to m u c h advanta ge. T h e facts seem to be that, in processing this oil acc ord ing to presently accepted practices, the a m o u n t o f the h eavier fuel oil re qu ired to meet local needs would p ro d u c e a surplus o f the m o re volatile p ro du cts such as gasoline, benzine, a n d p ro p a n e , etc., w hich w ould have to be stored o r wasted. M u ch o f the fuel oil needed to serve this area, th erefore, is b rou gh t in fro m E d m o n to n , and

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the price differential in fa v o u r o f the local p ro d u c t is alm ost insignificantly sm a ll.’" T o the la y m a n there app ears to be som e merit in studying the feasibility o f developing a plant that could, in the interim, p ro d u c e fuel oil e con om ically fo r local needs an d limit the storage of surplus gasoline to quantities that could be e c o n o m i­ cally transpo rted d u rin g the o p e n -w a te r season. O n e conclusion loom s clearly th ro u g h the mist o f u n c e r­ tainty; the advisability o f startin g a p ro g r a m m e o f research and de velo pm ent at the earliest possible m o m en t.

T he Airplane in N orthern Transportation T h e role o f the airplan e in n o rth e rn tran sp o rtatio n is fo u r ­ fold, viz: ( i ) n o rm al transp orta tio n o f passengers, express and mail, eith er o n schedule o r by charter; (ii) exp loration including m a p p in g ( p h o t o g ra p h y ) and geophysical surveys; (iii) developing resources in the initial stages by locating sites fo r buildings, roads, p o w er lines, etc., a n d m ovin g in m e n a n d supplies to d o the w ork; (iv ) delivering the p ro d u c t to m arke t o r to so m e o ther system o f tr ansport. Quite a m a z in g progress has been m a d e with the first in recent years. T h e r e are daily schedules from E d m o n to n and V a n c o u v e r to W h ite h o rse and points beyond. Services varying fr o m one to three flights p e r w eek ru n fro m : E d m o n to n to Inuvik, E d m o n to n to Yellow knife, E d m o n to n to Beaverlodge, W in nip eg to C hurchill, W in n ip eg to W inisk,

M o ntreal to G r e a t W hale, and M o ntreal, F ro bish er, D yer, M o n c to n , G oose, C h im o , F ro b ish er

T h e foregoing are only the principal o nes and, in addition, reg u lar re-supply services are ru n by civilian c arriers from * T w o exam ples are given in A ppendix I, parag rap h (iii) of original p ap er: delivery to C am bridge Bay on the A rctic coast and to Y ellow knife, o n G reat Slave L ake, with prices o f diesel heating oil and AV gas 9 1 /9 8 ex N orm an W ells, N orthw est T errito ries, W aterw ays, A lb erta and H ay River, N orthw est T er­ ritories. —(ed .)

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E d m o n to n to western D E W L ine stations a n d fr o m M o n tre a l to those in the ea stern Arctic. U seful as these are, th ey leave e n o rm o u s areas u n cov ered betw een them . T h e cost o f pro vid in g a n e tw o rk o f routes across these vast areas w ould be prohibitive an d it is the refore g ener­ ally agreed th a t a system o f area coverage,* o f w hich th ere are several on the m arket, is indicated. T o su p p o rt these services, th ere are in the a re a u n d e r c o n ­ sideration so m e fifty land aird ro m e s an d sixty seaplane bases. T h irte en o f the land aird ro m e s are h ard -su rfac ed and fourteen have gravel runw ays. T w e n ty -tw o have lighting facilities plus navigational aids, som e o f them quite limited in scope. This figure includes a few o f the D E W Line sites, such as C am b rid g e Bay, w hich has been taken o v e r by the D e p a rtm e n t o f T r a n s ­ port, and D yer, w h ich is in c o m m o n use by civil op erators; also W inisk an d G r e a t W h a le on the M id -C an ad a Line. Otherw ise m ilita ry a ird ro m e s are excluded. S o m e unit toll charges, o n a ton-m ile basis, are given in A pp en d ix I, p a ra g ra p h ( i v ) , as being reasonably typical. As a basis o f c o m p a riso n there seem s to be g eneral a g reem en t that a unit toll ton-mile charge on the m ain east-west transcontinental system in C a n a d a w ould be a b o u t 26 cents. Exploration A s exploration penetrates n o rth w a rd , the urge to use seaplanes dim inishes, partly because lakes are generally less freq ue nt in the A rctic than th ey are in the so u th e rn p art o f the T erritories, an d partly because the o pen -w a ter period is very short. A lot of excellent ex plo ratio n w o rk has been d on e recently, using the ultra-light a ircra ft with outsize d o u g h n u t wheels. T h ese land a n d take off in quite short distances on w h at fo r o th e r aircraft w o u ld be considered rough gro u n d . T h e y have, how ever, a com p arativ ely short cruising rad iu s an d considerable planning m u st be done in the estab lishm en t o f fuel caches at freq uen t intervals, both fo r ferrying pu rpo ses a n d at the base of o peration s. T h e airp lane has played and is still playing a very im p o rta n t part in collecting basic geological and geophysical in fo rm a tio n on w h ich d ev elop m e nt can be based, both in the field o f m a p p in g and o f geophysical survey. * W here a position o r fix is established by the intersection o f two o r m ore w idely spaced signals anyw here in a n area as distinct fro m a beam o r b eacon th at gives position on a route.

25 2

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D evelopm ent T h e r e are n u m e r o u s exam p les in C a n a d a o f using the airplane o r the helico pter in the d eve lop m en t o f a resource, thereby avoiding the expense o f building a road. T h e co nstruction of the Q u e b e c N o r th S h o re R ailw ay has b eco m e alm ost a classic exam ple. In this case, the airplan e was used to m ove m en and supplies and establish c a m p s in o rd e r to perm it the railw ay to be built in segm ents w hich co uld be linked together, thereby greatly speeding the progress o f the w ork. At the sam e time the dev elop m ent o f the iron o re bodies was also proceeding apace. T h e helicopter has won an h o n o u rab le position in British C o ­ lu m b ia and elsewhere in building such things as p o w e r lines ov er m o u n tain ranges w h ere it was not feasible to build airports. T h e federal g o v ern m en t has recognized the im p ortanc e o f the place held by the airplane in developing n atural resources, and provision is m a d e f o r the D e p a rtm e n t o f T ra n s p o r t to grant assistance in airp o rt construction. D evelopm ent Airports - A ssistance by D .O .T . D ev elo p m e n t airports are those for w hich scheduled services are not necessarily foreseen, but the establishm ent o f which w ould co ntribu te greatly o r be essential to the exploitation of natural resources. If the project is considered o f national im p o r­ tance, the entire cost o f con struction m ay be b o rn e by the D e p a r tm e n t o f T ra n s p o r t altho ug h the local interests could have to provide the site o f the airp o rt an d be responsible fo r its o p eratio n o n completion. If the project is only o f limited and local benefit, the local interests, in addition to the above respo n­ sibilities, w ould have to u n d e rta k e the cost o f d ev elopm ent with 5 0 / 5 0 cost sharing assistance by the federal g o vern m en t with a federal co ntribution not to exceed $ 1 0 0 thousand. All buildings, utility services, access roads, etc., would be the sole responsi­ bility o f the m unicipality, the federal assistance being limited to the de velo pm ent o f the field itself. Turbo-prop Freighter A ircraft O f p a rticu lar interest at this time is the develop m en t of the tu rb o -p ro p freighter aircraft, o f w hich the C a n a d a ir C L -4 4 ib a good exam ple. A ircra ft o f this type, s u p p o rted by the latest d ev elop m ents in specially c on struc te d loading devices, and using the unit p ackag e w h ere rapid and efficient tran sfe r of

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cargoes is req uired, give a reasonable ho pe o f m oving c argo at so m e th in g less th an six cents a ton mile u n d e r the most fa v o u r­ able conditions; that is, unlim ited loads both ways, adeq uate airports, aids to navigation, w e a th e r repo rtin g facilities, etc. R oute cost d a ta w ork ed o u t by C a n a d a ir illustrates these possibilities as sho w n h ere u n d e r:

T ran sp o rtatio n C ost (S per T o n )

T ypical R oute an d C ost D ata

Selected Route

D is­ tance (St. M i.)

T rip T im e (H rs.)

Pay­ load (T o n s)

Full P ay­ load

M o n treal-F ro b ish er M ontreal-Schefferville SchefTerville-Frobisher M ontreal-C him o F ro b ish er-T h u le M o n tre a l-G re a t W hale T o ro n to -B a k e r Lake

1,305 881 625 911 948 762 1,621

3.68 2.50 1.80 2.60 2.70 2.18 4.60

31.5 31.5 31.5 31.5 31.5 31.5 31.5

71 49 35 50 52 42

88

O neW ay P ay­ load 138 89 67 98

101 82 172

T h e H elicopter W h ile adm ittin g th a t the h elico pter has a g reat value fo r r e c o n ­ naissance purposes, I am inclined to the view th a t it is wise to regard it as an aerial cra n e possessed o f a high degree of mobility. E ven so, it is pro ving o f considerable value in the fields both o f exploration an d d evelopm ent. Its cruising radius is sh ort an d gives rise to som e pro blem s in logistics w h en ferry ­ ing it to isolated points in the n o rth , w hich have few refuelling points en route. G round R esistance M achines - (The H overcraft) T his device is still in the e xp erim ental stages. Its inventors describe it as a vehicle using sliding friction instead o f wheels, w ith com pressed air as a lu bricant. Briefly, it glides on a cushion o f air provided by engines in its body. It is not anticipated that even the largest o f these will rise m o r e th a n tw o o r three feet off the gro u n d . It has som e of the limitations o f an air craft, being subject to wind effects, that is, it tends to crab into a stro ng side wind, an d will be retard ed by a head w ind o r helped by a tail

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wind. Because it can n ever get far off the g round, it can move only on a relatively sm oo th surface such as w a te r with waves of limited height, o r over level gro un d. N o r th e r n C a n a d a presents a few conditions u n d e r which these req u irem en ts can be m e t in a n atu ra l state. T h e land surfaces, though largely treeless, are generally extrem ely rough, an d a p ath o r right-of-w ay will have to be cleared o f all objects o v e r a few inches in height, an d all a b r u p t changes o f c o nto u r sm o o th ed to a slope o f not m o re than abo ut 15 p er c ent f o r cross c o u n try travel. L arge areas o f sea or lake covered w ith sm ooth ice m a y prevail fo r a few days in the au tu m n , b u t w ind an d c u rr e n ts usually m an ag e to pile the ice into form idable ridges an d b arriers before the w in ter season is m a n y weeks old. Lakes, too, occasionally freeze level b u t rarely stay that way. O n most o f them p ressu re ridges d u e to shifting cu rren ts usually a p p e a r by m idw inter. H o w e v e r there a re areas o f great level plains of clay an d m arl an d vast rolling hills of clay o r gravel, b oth on the m ain la n d an d in the Arctic A rchipelago, w-here the H o v e rc ra ft m ight o p erate w ithout m u ch artificial aid. G en erally speaking, it will be necessary to provide sm ooth an d well defined tracks, laterally level if possible, c om plete with bridges o ver small steepsided ravines for this device to slide over. F o r night an d all-w eather operations, it will need frequent a n d accu rate aids to navigation, both visual an d non-visual. H o w ev er, the bridges need only be o f light con struction a n d the p re p a r e d su rfa c e will need airtight ra th e r th an structurally stro n g qualities, since the H o v e rc ra ft will m ove ov er m ud, m usk eg (prov idin g it is s m o o th ) o r w ater as easily as ov er solid ground. O u r inland w aterw ays offer the m ost exciting prospect for using this device. O n the M ackenzie R iver system, fo r example, it seem s well w ithin the bou nd s o f possibility th a t a gro u nd resistance m a c h in e m a y be evolved th a t could op erate the year ro un d. O n e such device is projected having an all up weight of 55 tho u san d po u n d s (vehicle 15 th o usan d pounds, lo ad 40 th o u s a n d p o u n d s ) . Speeds are estim ated betw een thirty and o n e h u n d red knots. G iv en a payload o f 15 tons and a speed of sixty knots, such a device, w o rk in g f o u r th ou san d ho urs a year, co uld m o v e tw o an d o n e -h a lf million ton-miles a year. T o replace the ships, a m uch larger craft w ould seem to be neces­ sary, b u t designers are o f the opinion th a t a craft o f alm ost any size can be built. A craft o f a th o u sa n d to/is could carry half its weight as payload. O p eratin g costs are u nk n o w n , but indications a re th a t they will pro bab ly be com petitive with c u rr e n t w ater

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charges w hich, o n the M ackenzie, are estim ated at so m e th in g in th e o rd e r o f three an d on e-h alf cents a ton-mile. In the m e a n ­ time, there should be app reciable savings o n packaging, in ven ­ tory an d spoilage, all o f w hich e n g e n d e r heavy costs in m oving goods to the A rctic. It seem s possible, also, th a t specially designed m achines m ight well speed the delivery o f o re co ncentrates, fish, etc., or even bulk p ro d u c e, to the m ain M ack enzie system fr o m lateral points, now inaccessible. D iscussion T h e r e h as been m u ch spirited discussion in recent years on the relative merits o f ro ad versus rail tran spo rtatio n in ta pp in g the resources of the north. In the op inio n o f the w riter, th ere is little g ro u n d f o r con tro versy. T hese tw o systems serve quite different pu rp o s es and must be used to m eet different situations, a lthough o n e will usually c o m p le m e n t the other. F o r exam ple, the rail line fr o m Seven Islands to Schefferville does w h a t no road system could possibly do. N o d o u b t it will in time p ro m o te the d ev elo p m en t o f o th e r projects in the h interlan d it serves. A n d thereafter, if the to n nag e does not w a rra n t the co nstructio n o f a la teral rail line, roads will feed p ro d u c e into it. It m ust never be forgo tten th a t a roa d can be a ny thin g fr o m a w agon trail to a six-lane highway, an d in the fo r m e r case m a y have only limited use at certain times o f the year, w hereas there is a distinct limit to the m i n im u m a m o u n t o f effort th a t can be p u t into the co nstruction o f a railway if it is to function at all. T h e m in im u m organ ization necessary to o p erate a railway is very large. It m u s t p ro vide f o r com m u n icatio n s, traffic, o peratio ns and m ain ten an ce an d have a n adm inistrative h e a d ­ quarters. It h as its ow n b ran d o f rolling stock and n u m e ro u s facilities and e q u ip m e n t w hich c a n n o t be cut d o w n m u c h to m ee t seasonal dem an ds. W ith the exception o f first class h igh ­ ways, roads require the m i n im u m of org anization an d e q u ip ­ m ent, fo r the rolling stock (tru c k s a n d ca rs) is pro vided by n u m e r o u s private o perato rs, each being responsible for his own activities. Briefly, if the p rob lem is o n e o f m oving a high to n nag e o f a p re-d eterm in ed c h a ra c te r overland at the lowest possible cost, the railw ay holds an ad van ta ge o f ab ou t fo u r to one o ver the hig hw ay, since experience show s that rail costs in general in C a n a d a are so m eth in g in the o rd er o f o n e an d o ne -ha lf cents a ton-mile as against six cents a ton-mile by truck. If, o n the o ther

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h an d , the prim e pu rp o se is th e general d ev elo p m en t o f the area in w hich the system lies, th ere is an overw h elm ing a rg u m e n t in fa v o u r o f the ro ad , w hich can be gradually developed to meet ex p a n d in g needs an d w ithou t w hich the d evelo pm en t o f the a r e a co uld n o t in an y event ta k e place, even if a railw ay has been built. N o significant ex pan sio n o f tran sp o rtatio n can ta k e place until potentialities a re b ro u g h t to reality, o r until these bu dd ing projects are b ro u g h t into p rod uction . W h e n this occurs, it will involve the m o v e m e n t o f m u c h larger to nn ages th a n we have he reto fo re e n c o u n te re d an d this fact will o f itself ch ang e the tran sp o rta tio n cost structu re . F u r t h e r m o r e the m o v em en t of go od s will be fro m north to south a n d will tend to redu ce o r bala nc e the o n e-w ay h au lage w hich has so f a r been the b an e of econom ical transp ortation . E v en w ithin the existing tran sp o rta tio n stru c tu re there w ould a p p e a r to be ro om f o r vast im p rov em e nts. T w o p ro m is­ ing aspects are the co m b in ed use o f several systems, for e x a m ­ ple boat, rail a n d air, and alon g w ith this, th e use o f standardized co ntain ers to m inim ize tr a n sfe r costs. A s an illustration o f this, the m o v em en t o f supplies betw een M o n tre a l an d F ro b ish e r, by b o a t to Seven Islands, rail to Schefferville a n d air to F rob ishe r, h as been given so m e study, b u t a p p a re n tly w ith ou t devoting m u c h th o u g h t to the use o f stan dardiz ed containers, w h ich is proving so efficacious in the W h ite Pass an d Y u k o n complex. T h e exploration and d ev elop m en t fields have been e n o r­ m ously aided by the adv ent o f the S T O L (S h o r t distance T a k e Off and L a n d in g ) air craft, the h elicop ter an d the highly efficient tu rb o -p ro p fre ig h te r such as th e CL-44. L a rg e to n n ag e m ov em en ts, as in the past, will be m a d e by rail o r sea tran sp o rt, w ith th e possibility o f m ov ing high value freight fo r co nsiderab le distances either by tru c k as is being d o n e in the Y u k o n , or by tu rb o -p ro p freighter w h ich gives p rom ise o f being com petitive with the truck. T h e H o v e rc ra ft is an u n k n o w n quantity. T h e scale o f tran s­ p o rta tio n costs in an ascending o rd e r o f co st efficiency shows boat, pipeline, rail, truck, air, w ith a good w ide gap betw een each o f the first fo u r and ra th e r a n arro w o n e betw een the next tw o in certain circum stances. If the H o v e rc ra ft can find a place an y w h ere betw een the first f o u r it should hold an interesting future. If it c a n wedge betw een b o a t and rail, its fu tu re is assured. If it ap p e a rs betw een the tru ck an d the airplane, it is not likely to be o f m u ch interest in the de velo pm ent o f the C a n a d ia n N o rth .

32. Transportation and the Settlement Frontier in the Mackenzie Valley Area* W illiam C. W onders source: N o ii Ii , Vol. X III, N o. 1 (Jan.-F eb., 1966), pp. 34-38. R eprinted by perm ission of the au th o r an d publisher.

O n e o f the m ost significant characteristics o f the settlement fron tier is its limited tran spo rtation facilities. W e m ay debate the term inology a n d the precise delineation o f such areas, but their tran sp o rta tio n limitations are recognized by everyone. Stone stresses this factor, along with the p a tte rn of po pu latio n distribution, in his study “Swedish F ringes o f S ettle m e nt.” R ob ertso n stated “the m ost difficult and urgent pro blem to be faced in the e con om ic dev elo pm ent of the N o rth w est T erritories is tr a n s p o rta tio n ." 1 T h e M ack enzie Valley A re a (to g eth er with p arts o f the th re e provinces to the s o u t h ) , has this p ro b le m even th o u g h tran sp ortatio n facilities are be tter developed th an in som e o th e r p arts o f the C an a d ia n N o rth . It also has experienced and is co ntin uing to experience m a jo r changes in tra nspo rtation an d in general settlem ent con dition s in recent years. T h e M ack enzie Valley A re a is an im m en se region, some 1,700 miles o f w a te r sep arate its so uth ern an d n o rth ern te r­ minals, F o rt M c M u r r a y and Inuvik respectively. Significant b reak s o f alm ost u n p op ulate d territory sep arate it from "settled C a n a d a ” to the south. Its total po pu latio n is very s m a l l a p prox im ately 2 2 , 0 0 0 - a n d is characteristically agglom erated in small co m m u n itie s o f a few h u n d re d residents. Only five * T h e a u th o r acknow ledges research grants received from the Boreal Institute, U niversity o f A lberta, an d the N o rth ern C o ­ o rd in atio n an d R esearch C entre, D ep artm en t o f N o rth ern Affairs and N ational Resources, i R. G. R obertson, T he N orthw est Territories, Its E conom ic Prospects. (A B rief P resented to the Royal C om m ission on C a n ad a's E conom ic P ro sp ects), (O ttaw a: Q ueen's P rinter, 1955), p. 19.

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centres'- contain ov er 1,000 inhab itants, and the largest (Yellow­ knife an d U ra n iu m C ity) have app ro x im a tely 3,500 each.** In such a vast area, distance betw een com m u nitie s is m easured in h u n d re d s o f miles o f relatively u nin hab ited n atu re, furthe r aggravating the tran sp ortatio n problem. T h e overall p attern o f settlem ent in this area is the result of alm ost total d e p en d en ce upo n fu r and minerals as the basis for e c o n o m ic developm ent, an d on the system o f large rivers and lakes which p erm itte d the dev elo pm ent o f a w ater tr a n sp o rta ­ tion system. F r o m Fort M c M u r r a y in the sou th, an d up to the A rctic coast, the M a ck en zie River w a terw ay is spotted with small c o m m u n ities at a p prox im ately 150-mile ( 2 4 0 - K m .) in­ tervals. Established as fu r-tra d in g posts, and until recently serving the scattered native population as su ch,:: the location of som e o f these co m m u n itie s w as governed m ainly by a need to tap as large a sup ply o f furs as possible. A klavik, for example, was established in 1912, to d ra w upo n the rich muskratp ro du cin g delta o f the M ackenzie. In o th e r cases, choice of location m a y have been influenced by the o p p o rtu n ity to contact In dian s at points o f seasonal c o nce ntratio n such as fishing g ro u n d s (F o r t F ranklin. A rctic R ed R iv e r). In m an y cases, the choice o f site was quite casual, one place o ften being as good as an oth er, and “ posts" freq uen tly shifted location. T h e m ore p e rm a n e n t locations o f today's co m m un ities often reflect the advantages o f being situated near w a te r tra nspo rtation routes: at the m ajor po rtag e point o f the system - F o r t Sm ith: at the jun ctio n o f m a j o r river trib utaries - F o r t Sim pson an d Fort N o r m a n ; at the d o w n str e a m end of rapids o r fast w a t e r - F o r t Prov iden ce a n d F o rt G o o d Hope. T h e posts gra du ally ch an g ed into small settlements o f m ore varied nature, beginning m o re th an a h u n d red years ago with the arrival of the missions an d th eir schools and hospitals, and later, the r . c . m . p . , an d the rad io c o m m u n ic a tio n netw o rk , as R obinson has pointed out. In dians m a d e less an d less use o f the - U ran iu m C ity and Dist. (3 3 4 9 ), Y ellow knife (3 2 4 5 ), F t. Smith (1 6 8 1 ), May River (1 3 3 8 ), Inuvik (1248) - 1961 C a n ad a Census figures. (In 1966 the co m p arab le figures w ere 2147, 3741, 2120, 2002, an d 2040 respectively.) ** [At the tim e o f the 1966 C ensus the total population o f the M ackenzie D istrict o f the N .W .T . had increased to 18,685 from 14,895 in 1961, Y ellow knife had increased to 3,741 from 3,245, b u t U ran iu m C ity h ad declined to 2,147 from 3,349 in 1961 due to the slum p in u ran ium m arkets, (e d .)] ■'< T he prefix “ F o rt" to m any o f the nam es is an indication of th eir origin, though they w ere never involved in hostilities with the natives as in som e p a rts o f the A m erican W est.

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tenting areas adjac en t to the fu r-trad e posts an d built log cabins fo r lo ng er periods o f o c cu p an cy in the fringes o f the c o m ­ m u nity. In their internal stru ctu re, settlem ents characteristically displayed a linear arra n g e m e n t atop the 30-to-50-foot river b a n k an d paralleling it. Since tran sp o rtatio n was by river, this provided a ra n g e o f landing sites and a view on to the "m ain street" fo r the residents. T h e m inin g c o m m u n itie s w hich have developed in the area o ver the past thirty y ears w ere associated with the C an a d ia n Shield in the east, except for the N o r m a n Wells oil-field w hich has a characteristic riverside "r ib b o n " pattern. Access to the w a te r tran sp o rta tio n system again w as critically im p o rta n t (no t ignoring the m a jo r c o ntribu tio ns o f a ir c r a f t ) . Indeed, it was the tran sp o rtatio n needs o f the first o f these mining c o m m u n ity developm ents, on rem ote G re a t Bear Lake, th a t sp aw ned a new w a te r tran spo rtation c o m p a n y and accelerated im p ro ve m e nts in this service. T h e se c o m m u n ities h av e been notably m o re irregu­ lar in th eir pattern, reflecting in part the influence o f the ore bodies, and in part the m o re restrictive building surface o f the ice-scoured Shield. A lthou gh the pop ulation in the area still is small, there has been g re at relative increase recently and settlem ent conditions have ch ang ed very rapidly fro m those on w hich Griffith T a y lo r rep orted tw enty years ago. T hese changes are p artly the result o f fu rth e r utilization o f n atural resources (m a in ly m ineral, but also fish) w hich has enlarged pre-existing c o m m u n ities such as Y ellow knife an d H a y River. M ineral dev elopm ent also p ro d u ced a m a jo r new settlement cluster in U ra n iu m City an d is expected to have a similar result in the cu rr e n t activity at Pine Point, south o f G r e a t Slave Lake. T h e o th e r fa c to r in changing settlem ent conditions in the a re a has been the im m ense expansion o f g o v e rn m en t services. In p art, this reflects increased d e m a n d s to p ro m o te resource dev elo pm ent; in p art, a belated recognition o f g ov ernm ent responsibilities, especially in the field o f e du cation , for northern residents. C ritics charge this latter expansion is in excess of actual need. In any event, it c a n n o t be denied that m o st c o m ­ munities are now p rim arily “g o v ern m en t cen tres,” an d in som e cases, such as F o r t Sm ith and Inuvik, entirely so. N o t only has the function o f m ost c o m m u n ities changed, so too h as their a p p earance. G o n e is the casual quaintness of “ n o rth e rn arch ite ctu re .” C o m m e rc ia l and institutional buildings are often c o m p a ra b le w ith those outside. T h e C au caso id resi­ de n t d e m a n d s a stan d ard o f co m f o rt in his living conditions

260

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north

m atc h in g that o f settled C a n a d a , an d the em ployer, w h eth er m in e o r go vern m en t, seeks to m a k e this possible in o rd e r to hold personnel. W ith dw indling econ om ic return fro m trapp ing , the native peoples have been attracted to the co m m u nities as p e r ­ m a n e n t residents, thus fu rth e r em phasizing the agglom erated n atu re o f settlement. All o f this h as m ad e for greater transp ortatio n traffic th roug h the M ack en zie Valley A r e a . 1 W a te r tran sp o rtatio n has retain ed its pre-em inen ce in freight m ov em en t, both because of its n a tu ra l adv antages an d o f co nstan t im p ro ve m e nts in the service pro vided. In 1958, its peak year, o v e r 22 5 ,0 0 0 tons of w a ter-borne freight was handled, ten times the a m o u n t carried d u rin g the 1930s. At the sam e time, there has been constant d e m a n d for fu r th e r im p ro v e m e n t in tran spo rtatio n facilities. In the p o stw ar years, all passenger traffic until recently has been tran spo rted by air. It has been this tran sp o rta tio n dev elopm ent w hich p erh ap s first pointed up certain inadequacies o f the " in h erited ” p atte rn o f settlem ent based u pon f u r a n d w ater transportation. A classic illustration is F ort Sim pson, w h ich is located o n an island while the airp o rt had to be co nstru cte d on the m ain lan d. C o n ta c t betw een the tw o has been unreliable, particularly d u rin g b reak -u p an d freeze-up. T h e impossibility of co nstructing a p r o p e r all-year airport at A klavik was a m ajor fa c to r in the g o v e rn m e n t’s decision to develop a new townsite on the east side o f the M ack en zie delta at Inuvik. New' form s o f tra n sp o rtatio n have been intro du ced into the M ackenzie R iver A re a and are m ak ing far-reach ing changes in settlem ent conditions. T h e railw ay now u n d e r construction from G r im s h a w to H a y R iver an d Pine Point will co n tin u e this tr e n d . t O f the recent tran spo rtatio n changes, roads a n d w inter ro ad s have p rov ed m ost significant. T h e co m m ercial fishery on G r e a t Slave L ake w as m ad e possible only by co nstru ctio n o f the 380-m ile (6 0 0 k m .) all-w eather M acken zie H ig h w a y from the Peace R iver A re a to H ay River, the only natural h a rb o u r on the south shore o f the lake. T h e advanta ges o f road tr a n s p o rta ­ tion w ere soon evident. W in te r roads w ere pushed beyond H ay River an d large tractor-trailer trucks began taking considerable freight into such c o m m u n ities as F ort Smith, F o rt Providence, F o rt Sim pson, a n d Y ellowknife. In 1960, the all-w eather hig h­ w ay w as co m pleted to Yellowknife. W in te r roads now extend * Shipm ents in connection w ith D E W -L ine construction and m ain ­ ten an ce also have co ntributed significantly to post-w ar w ater tran sp o rtatio n figures). t [The railw ay h as now been com pleted. (ed .)J

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o u t fr o m th a t base pro vid ing reg u lar seasonal con tac t w ith isolated mines, even beyond the tree-line to th e northeast. T h e greatest ad van tag es o f the c o m in g o f th e ro ad s have been th e redu ced tran sp o rtatio n costs an d th e m a jo r red uction o f stores inventories w hich have to be k e p t o n h a n d in the area. F u r t h e r diversification o f e co n o m ic activity is evident in ro ad co nstru ctio n an d m a in te n a n c e an d in caterin g to highw ay traffic. It is h o p e d ro a d extensions will s p u r additional m in e d evelopm ent. T h e road provides the n o rth e rn resident w ith the o p p o r­ tu n ity to go “ou tsid e” w hen he w ants a n d at relatively low expense. T h is o p p o rtu n ity at the sam e tim e m ak es h im m o r e satisfied to re m a in a n o rth e rn resident, resulting in a m o re stable c o m m u n ity . It also m ak es it possible fo r the “ou ts id er” to visit the area; indeed, a tourist ind u stry is alread y being cul­ tivated. T h e road in tro d u ced n ew p ro blem s - long-range, e cono m ic a n d social. T ru c k freighting has significantly affected th e w a te r tran sp o rta tio n com panies. T h e first im p act o f the M ackenzie H ig h w a y w as m ask ed by conditions o f g eneral e c o n o m ic ex­ p ansion, particularly the d ev elo p m en t o f the L a k e A th a b a sc a u ra n iu m field. T h e depressed m a r k e t situation fo r this mineral in the 1960s, an d declining v o lu m e o f ship m e nts to D E W -L in e stations have red u ced w a te r traffic to ab o u t 135,000 tons.* T h e ro ad also m ak es it possible f o r the u n e m p lo y e d and the “d rifters” to m o v e into the are a. W h e n co m bin ed w ith a a native pop ulatio n c a u g h t in the co nfusing tr ansitional c u l­ tu ra l stage, it can p ro du ce an und esirable situation. R eferen ce alread y h as b e en m a d e to the m ark e d ly un suitable sites o f som e o f the present c o m m u n ities fo r m o d e r n settlem ent needs, yet p o stw ar capital investm ents an d in h ere n t resistance to ch ang e o ften clo ud this fact: the initial factors in de term inin g th e site a n d even the situation are no lo ng er applicable. T his was d ra m a tiz e d by the serious flooding, bo th in H a y R iv er an d in F o r t Sim pson in th e spring o f 1963. T h e possibility o f in clu d­ ing the n ew railw ay w ithin a larger plan w as pointed u p b y one o f the royal com m issio ners considering th e route, b u t his was a m in o rity re c o m m e n d a tio n . T h e need an d op p o rtu n ity for a n integrated, overall d eve lop m en t plan fo r th e entire M a c ­ kenzie V alley A r e a has been evident, b u t th e o pp o rtu n ity a lread y seems to have passed by. * [In the m ost recent years oil exploration in the N o rth again h as boosted shipm ents. In 1969 approxim ately 380,000 tons was m oved, (e d .)]

33 . Communications in the North J. S. Ford so u r c e

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P roceedings, T h ird N ational N o rth ern D evelopm ent C onference, Oct. 21, 22, 23, 1964 (E d m o n to n : E d m o n to n C ham ber o f M ines and R esources, and E d m o n to n C ham ber o f C om m erce, n .d .), pp. 116-18. R eprinted by perm ission o f the au th o r and publisher.

T ra n s p o r ta tio n an d c o m m u n ic atio n s are closely in ter-dep en d­ ent in their effects a n d both are decisive fac tors in the develo p­ m e n t o f the N o rth . T h e Y u k o n an d N o rth w e s t T errito ries now ha v e o r will soon have the sam e c o m m u n ic a tio n services as the rest o f the c o u n try with the exception o f n etw o rk tele­ vision. M o d ern te lep ho ne a n d message telegraph service, leased w'ire telegraph, telex, facsim ile an d radio p ro g r a m netw ork service are all available. T h e dev elo pm ent in these fields have been com p arativ ely recent an d fo r this reason a review o f som e o f the b ac k g ro u n d and the special pro blem s o f providing c o m ­ m un icatio ns in the N o r th m ay be o f interest. P rio r to the Second W o rld W a r c o m m u n ic a tio n s betw een points in the N o r t h were limited to those services provided by the D o m in io n G o v e r n m e n t T eleg rap h s an d the high frequency ra d io circuits o p e ra te d m ainly by the Royal C an a d ia n A rm y Signal C orps. In 1942 the A la sk a H ig h w ay was started as a m ilitary project an d as p a rt o f this project a wire line c o m ­ m un ication system was c on stru cte d parallel to the highw ay to p rov id e c o m m u n ic atio n s to A la sk a a n d to serve the c o n stru c ­ tion c a m p s an d settlements en route. A t the A lask a b o rd e r it linked up with the A lask a C o m m u n ic a tio n s System an d at its sou th ern en d, D aw son C reek, it c o nn ected to the existing c o m m ercial systems. Following the end o f the w ar the system was o perated by the D e p a rtm e n t o f T r a n s p o r t as a co m m ercial system until 1958 when it was ta ken o v e r by the C an a d ia n N atio n al w ho h a d been acting as the operating agent for the D e p a rtm e n t o f T ra n s p o r t since 1946. T h e system c ontinued to provide defence circuits to A laska a n d at the sam e time c o m ­ mercial c o m m u n ic a tio n facilities to the developing cen tres in N o r th e r n British C o lu m b ia a n d the Y u k o n .

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In 1959 w o rk was started on a high capacity m icrow ave system paralleling the wire line system an d linking w ith a sim ­ ilar system in A laska. T h e necessity for this e xp ansion was p rim arily because o f increased defence re q u irem en ts b u t p ro ­ vision w as m a d e at the time for c om m ercial facilities to p r o ­ vide fo r the indicated grow th in d e m a n d . T his pro ject was c o m ­ pleted in 1961 and d uring the past th re e years the cap acity of the system has been further expanded. D e v e lo p m e n t has not been confined to the highway. In 1957 a 90-mile wire line fro m W ats o n L a k e was co m pleted to C assiar. In 1962 a 465-m ile wire line w as com pleted from W h iteh o rse to M a y o and D aw son City re pla cing a single high freq uen cy radio ch ann el w ith m ulti-channel telephone, tele­ g ra p h an d rad io n etw ork service. T h is service was later ex­ tend ed to Elsa a n d K e n o Hill. In addition to the services fo r the Y u k o n com m u nitie s special co m m u n ic a tio n services have been provided to meet the d e m a n d s o f an area w h ich is largely d e p en d e n t u p o n high­ w ay and air tra n sp o rt an d the dev elop m e nt o f n atu ral resources. T h ese include air traffic co ntrol and w e a th e r m a p facsimile services for the D e p a rtm e n t o f T ra n s p o r t and public c o m ­ mercial highw ay mobile rad io service. Mines, co nstructio n ca m p s o r o th e r develop m en ts rem ote from the m ain tru n k ro utes and not otherwise served have access to the com m ercial facilities via high frequ ency radio term inals established at a n u m b e r o f telephone exchanges. A fu rth er exam ple o f a special service is the H aines Pipe Line mobile rad io system on the H a ines an d A laska H ighways. D ev elop m en t o f co m m u n icatio n facilities linking the c e n ­ tres o f the N o rth w e st T errito ries has followed a sim ilar course th o ug h these developm ents have been m o re recen t th an in the Y u k o n T erritories. In 1962 a m icrow ave system fr o m Peace River, A lb erta to H ay River, N o rth w e st Territories, was c o n ­ struc ted following the M ackenzie H ighw ay. T his was extended the sam e year by wire line systems to F o r t Pro vid ence and Yellow knife an d multi-channel radio extensions to Pine Point, F o r t Resolution an d F o r t Smith. E arly in 1964 a 55 0 mile T ro p o sp h e ric M ulti-C han nel Radio System betw een H a y River and L ady F ran k lin P oint was com pleted. T h is w as basically fo r defence pu rpo ses but com m erc ial te leph on e and telegraph facilities are now in service from L ady F ran k lin P o in t and R a d iu m to H a y River an d co nn ectin g points. It is expected by the end o f 1964 that service will be extende d to C a m brid ge

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Bay.* In 1962 w o rk was co m m e n c e d o n a 9 0 0 mile wire line c o m m u n ic a tio n system from H a y R iver to Inuvik an d serving the co m m un ities o f F o rt S im pson, Wrigley, F o r t N o rm a n , N o r m a n Wells, F o r t G o o d H ope, A rctic R ed River, F o r t M acP he rson and A klavik en route. Service is n ow p rov id ed to F o r t Sim pson while a p p ro x im ately 50 p er cent o f the line c o n ­ stru ctio n has been com p leted . It is expected th a t the entire pro ject will be com pleted by 1966.* Both in the Y u k o n an d N o rth w e st T erritories an extensive p ro g ra m o f prov idin g new telephone exchanges o r replacing o ld e r exchanges has been c a rried out. In the last ten years tw enty-nine such exchanges have been installed pro viding local and long distance telephone service to the n o rth ern c o m m u n i­ ties. Telex exchanges have been installed at W h iteh orse and H a y R iver an d in 1965 a new ex chan ge will be installed at W atson Lake.* T h e p rob lem w hich are p eculiar to the N o rth in the c o n ­ stru ctio n an d m ain te n a n c e o f c o m m u n ic a tio n plants inevitably lead to a b n o rm ally high costs w hich can on ly be m inim ized by careful attention to its design an d op eration . O p en wire lines even when located close to a highway, such as the A laska and M acken zie H ighw ays, can be difficult to m aintain u n d e r winter conditions. T h e use o f high tensile streng th wire using a steel core with c o p p er o r a lu m in u m c o n d u c to r provides plant which is rem ark ab ly free from in terru ption . W h ere access is difficult as on the line betw een H a y R iver a n d Inuvik. additional p ro ­ tection is provided by using wire with a polyethylene covering. N o r m a l pole line con stru ctio n is not possible with unstable soil conditions, such as m u ske g a n d p erm afro s t. It is necessary, therefore, u n d e r these circ um sta nce s to use tripods in place of poles. T his type o f con stru ctio n is extensively used on the Hay Riv er-Inuvik line. W h e re the n u m b e r o f c o m m u n ic a tio n circuits is limited, the pole line is very often the most e co n o m ic and practicable m eth o d to supply service. H ow ever, b eyond this stage m icro­ wave ra d io point-to-point an d tr opospheric scatter systems find application. T h e choice betw een these tw o systems is often d eterm ined by the accessibility o f the rad io sites. Since m ic ro ­ wave stations are located on an average o f twenty-five to thirty miles a p a rt an d are u n atten d e d it is necessary to maintain reaso nab le accessibility for m ainten an ce. W h e re this is not possible tro po sph eric radio s c a tter systems w ith the stations * [Service now in o p eration, (e d .)]

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spaced 150 to 2 00 miles a p a rt offer an alternative. T h e m ic ro ­ w ave system paralleling the A la sk a H ig h w ay a n d the tr o p o ­ spheric scatter system from H a y R iver to L ad y F ran k lin Point offer tw o ex am ples o f such application. In the first, basic accessibility is supplied by the A laska H ighw ay. In the second, the only access is by air o r, fo r severely restricted periods, by w a te r o r w in ter road. N o rth e r n con dition s m a k e is essential to lay h eav y stress on careful p lan nin g to m ake the best use o f the relatively short w o rk in g seasons. F o r exam ple, in the co nstru ctio n o f the pole line in the M ack enzie Valley to Inuvik the m ajo rity o f c o n ­ stru ction is carried o u t d u ring the w in ter w h e n the crew s can m ove easily ov er the frozen m uskeg. T h e sh ort s u m m e r season is used to tra nsp ort material an d supplies by the M ack en zie R iver and to con tin u e co nstructio n w h ere soil conditions p er­ mit. In the case o f m ic row ave systems, one o f the re q u ire ­ m en ts is th a t there shall be no o bstructio n to the ra d io beam betw een stations. T h e stations are th erefo re often lo cated som e distance from the highway, p articu larly in m o u n ta in o u s c o u n ­ try. C o nstruction o f access roads, tow ers an d buildings m ust be d o n e w hen conditions arc reaso nab ly favourable. T h is g e n ­ erally m e ans that the great p a rt o f o u td o o r con struction acti­ vities m ust be cro w d ed into the relatively short s u m m e r season. O n the m icro w av e system betw een G r a n d e Prairie, A lberta and the A laska b o rd e r eighty miles o f ro ad , m u ch o f w hich was in m o u n ta in o u s co u n try , had to be con stru cte d to provide access to the m ic row ave sites. T h e trop o sp h eric scatter system poses a n o th e r set o f problem s. H e re there are o nly a few sta­ tions as c o m p a re d to a m icro w av e system, b u t each station is m u c h larger th an a m icrow av e station. F o r the four stations o f the H a y R iv e r - L a d y F ra n k lin pro ject it was necessary to tra n sp o rt 1,200 tons o f material and e q u ip m e n t to each o f the interm ed iate re p e ater sites a n d 50 0 tons to each o f the terminals o r a total o f 3 ,40 0 tons. T h is re qu ired the use o f all fo rm s of tra n sp o rt on rail, highway, w ater, w inter trac tor, train an d air. Because o f the rough natu re o f the terrain at the interm ediate sites at S nare and R a d iu m 5 0 ,0 0 0 cubic y ard s o f ro ck had to be excavated. T h e H a y R iver te rm inal site is on p erm afro s t an d the building an d a n ten n a structu res are su pp orted on 70foot piles. In addition to highly reliable radio e q u ip m e n t bo th m ic ro ­ w ave and tro po sph eric scatter systems req u ire un in te rru p te d p o w e r supply an d buildings in w hich the te m p e ra tu re is m a i n ­ tained within limits. In the N o rth , it is freq u en tly necessary to

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g enerate the p o w e r fro m diesel engines at these stations and w h e re this is d o n e a d van ta g e is tak en o f th e waste h e a t to sup ply the h eatin g for the specially designed buildings. Even w ith the very low te m p e ra tu re s experienced, w ith this a rra n g e ­ m e n t heating in the w inter is n o t a pro b le m and actu a lly the g rea ter p ro b lem is disposing o f the same waste heat d u rin g the w a r m s u m m e r months. F o r the fu tu re , we can lo ok fo rw ard to a steady expansion in the services p ro v id e d in the Y u k o n an d N o rth w est T erritories. T h e isolation o f the N o r th has largely vanished an d with the c o m m u n ic a tio n services n ow available full ad van tage can be t a k e n o f the m ost m o d e r n m e tho ds to im p ro v e the econom y.

V II R E G IO N A L IS M AND N O R T H E R N S E T T L E M E N T S

34. An Attempt to Regionalize the Canadian North L ouis-Edm ond Ham elin s o u r c e

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N o rth , X I, N o. 4 (July-A ug., 1 9 6 4 ) , pp. perm ission o f the au th o r an d publisher.

16-1 9.

R eprinted by

T h e regionalization o f the C a n a d ia n N o r th is a question w h ich h as been ap p ro a c h e d before. T h e n ordic are a is as varied as te m p e ra te countries; therefo re boreal C a n a d a , o ccup yin g ha lf a continent, c a n n o t be considered as an ho m o g en eo u s region. T ypes o f R egionalization T h e p artitio n o f the N o r th c a n be envisaged fro m several different angles. F irstly it c a n be seen longitudinally ( t h a t is, vertically ), in this w ay recalling th a t the exploited N o r t h is m erely a c o ntinu atio n o f the south. F r o m west to east, these projections a re m a d e a ro u n d fu n d a m e n ta l axes: 1) the Pacific coast; 2) C en tral A lb e r t a - C o l u m b i a - Y u k o n - A l a s k a ; 3) A l b e r t a M acken zie b a sin -w e st A rctic; 4 ) W innipeg, M a n i to b a - H u d s o n Bay; 5 ) Saint L aw ren ce V a lle y - Q u e b e c p e nin sular L a b r a d o r east A rctic. O n the o th e r h a n d a detailed econ om ic study would specify that, north o f the very irregula r section linked by ro ad o r rail, there are h u n d re d s o f isolated ham lets fo rm in g as m a n y m inis­ cule, in de p e n d e n t regions w hich have n o c o m m u n ic a tio n , an d w hich are virtually uninhabited. In a c o u n try like C a n a d a - strongly chara cterized by its w ide seasonal te m p e ra tu re ran ge - a c om plete regionalization w ould necessitate distinguishing betw een a s u m m e r n orth an d a w inter north; in the cold season Schefferville has som e c h a ra c ­ teristics o f the F a r N o rth , w h ereas in Ju ly its clim ate is “te m ­ p erate .” In the w ho le boreal world, not only is the w in ter north very different fro m the s u m m e r north, b u t the latter varies far m o r e latitudinally th a n the form er. A fo u r th ty pe o f regionalization, the o n e we shall be co n ­ sidering here, w ould be co nc ern ed m ain ly with zones; t h a t is, it

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would aim to divide the N o r t h latitudinally. In this w ay a n e a r­ north w ould evidently be distinguished from a distant-north. In fact, the division o f the N o r t h into zones is not as simple as this m ight lead one to believe. Indices o f Latitudinal R egionalization T h is ty pe o f regionalization uses the average values o f the data fo r both the cold an d the hot season. F o r instance, the Schefferville region, with its very cold w inters a n d its merely cool s u m ­ mers, has som e pockets o f p erm afrost. T h e se patche s o f frozen soil, associated with b oth the snow a n d the vegetation, b ecom e o n e o f the characteristics o f the “ m ean ann ual N o r t h ” of Schefferville. O th er writers have dealt with the pro b lem o f latitudinal regionalization by a dopting on e specific criterion an d c o n sid er­ ing it to be representative o f the whole. K o p p e n used the 5 0 ° F . ( 1 0 ° C . ) isotherm for the hottest m o n th . N o rd en sk jo ld chose the 5 ° C . is otherm as the so u th e rn limit o f an “ In n e r A rc tic ” ( H a u t- A r c t iq u e ) . Still, fr o m the point o f view of tem p e ratu re, th e sub arctic zo n e is generally limited in the south by at least the 5 0 ° F . ( 1 0 ° C . ) isotherm for a period o f three o r four m on th s. O th e r w riters have based their n o rth ern limits on frontiers - principally o f vegeta tion; in these cases the tu n d ra defines the A rctic. R esearch w o rk ers em ph asizing h u m a n p h e­ n o m e n a take into con sideration the ty pe o f agriculture, the population distribution, and the m ean s o f tr ansport. E ven the telephone land-lines have been used to d eterm in e the southern fron tier o f the C a n a d ia n N o rth . In the U.S.S.R., the rate of increase in the cost o f exploitation as one m oved north served to delineate the regions o f Siberia. By using a single criterion, o r by emphasizing o n e principal criterion, these TifTerent writers are unable, at least in theory, to define the N o r th as perfectly as th ey would if they took into co nsideration several different elements. T o help us u n d ers tan d as well as possible the com plex notion o f the N o rth , we h ave w ork ed out a w ell-balanced global index.1 W e have retained ten sta n d a rd s: 1) latitude; 2) p erm afrost; 3 ) n u m b e r of d ays above 4 2 ° F . ( 5 ° 5 C . ) ; 4 ) negative therm al i T he idea occurred to us follow ing student sem inars on A rctic frontiers given by Pierre H oude in 1959, an d H ughes M orrisette in D ecem ber, 1960. W e m ade direct use o f the m anuscript o f our assistant, M iss C ynthia W ilson, ‘‘S outhern Lim its o f the C anadian N o rth ,” (1 962) 6 p., 28 c., bibl.

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index fro m 6 5 ° F . ( 1 8 ° 3 C . ) ; 5 ) length o f freeze up; 6 ) vegeta­ tion; 7 ) co m m u n icatio n s ; 8 ) po p u la tio n (nativ e an d w h ite ) ; 9 ) exploitation o f resources; 10) cost o f goods. T h e ten cate­ gories chosen a re in tend ed to represent bo th physical and h u m a n p h e n o m e n a ; how ever, w e have n o t included an y p sy c h o ­ logical elements. T h e h etero gen eou s n a tu r e o f these criteria m ea ns th a t the total score o f values is not d e p e n d e n t o n one single aspect, a n d we take into c onsideration d ura tio n , nature, freq u e n c y o r m e r e quantities. F o r each section we have allowed a m a x im u m value o f 100 an d a m in im u m o f zero; fo r instance, latitude scores 100 at the pole, a n d zero at the 47 th parallel. F o r Schefferville the values o f each criteria are respectively: 20, 50, 50, 60, 50, 40, 30, 60, 50, 30, w hich m akes a total o f 440. P lo tted on a m ap , these different n um ber-indices have en abled us to m a k e a quantitive differentiation o f the C an a d ia n N o rth . W e can see by how m u c h Ja m e s Bay is less no rd ic than th e gulf o f A m u n d se n ; sim ilar co m p a riso n s o f the east with th e west are equally possible ( f o r instance, Schefferville with E d m o n t o n ) . Finally, the distances betw een the “ isonordic lines” enables us to establish a g rad ien t f o r the N o rth . Latitudinal R egionalization in Canada C o m p reh en s iv e calculations o f the global index enable us to distinguish fo u r latitudinal n o rth s in C a n a d a . E a c h is situated b eyo nd a sou th ern base, w hich w e will con sider first. T h ese so uth ern nuclei in C a n a d a are related to the ex­ ploitation o f inexhaustible resources - especially non -m argin al agriculture - to a stable p o pu la tio n, a n d to a multiple c o m ­ m u n icatio n s n etw o rk th r o u g h o u t the year. T his sou th ern base extends over less th a n 10 p e r cent o f C a n a d a ,2 b u t takes in 91 p er cent o f the c o u n tr y ’s p o p u la tio n . T h e C a n a d ia n Shield, the C ordillera, and the A p p ala ch ian s partly a c c o u n t fo r the dis­ continuity and limited area o f these p atches o f settlement. Yet, this C a n a d a , reputedly tem p erate, is n o t com pletely free of no rd ic characteristics; indeed, w in te r c a n cause the annual nordic index to be as high as 100. A lo ng this sou th ern belt, th ere stretches fro m east to west a N e a r N o rth , ( o r L o w er N o r th , “ P se u d o ” N o r t h o r Little N o r t h ) . This stepping stone to the N o r t h has a n average index o f 250; it encom passes the m ajo rity o f N e w fo u n d la n d , passes 2

T hese an d th e su bsequent calculations w ere very kindly m ade by Benoit D um o n t, an agronom ist fo r th e provincial governm ent.

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th ro u g h Sept-Iles an d includes L a k e St. Jo h n , Abitibi, th e iron bridge no rth o f L ake Superior, the Peace River, an d it ends at K itim at. This N e a r N o r th - a land o f ra w m aterials, forestry a n d m ining (b u t with little ag ricu ltu re) - has a p e rm a n e n t pop ulation o f m o re th an a million. It is the econ om ic su b u r b of th e so u th e rn bases w ith w hich it ha s m an y c o m m u n icatio n s both from n o rth to south an d fro m east to west.

M a p 15 a

A b ov e this extends the largest n ordic zone in C a n a d a - the M idd le N o r t h (o r M id -N o rth , H e m i- N o r th o r p e ri-A rc tic ); this belt stretches from L a b ra d o r to the Y u k o n , taking in H u d s o n Bay. C limatically, it is m ainly a subarctic region. E c onom ically, it is the d o m a in o f the p ioneers’ “ incursions,” with no c o m m u n icatio n s latitudinally. T h e m e a n global index of this n orth varies betw een 4 0 0 an d 5 0 0 . T h e lines o f c o m m u n ic a ­ tions, a rran g ed vertically, a re w o rth y o f c o m m e n t: rail from

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Schefferville and C hurchill, ro a d from A laska, and the river ro ute o f the M ackenzie. T h is region, o f 100,000 inhabitants, m a r k s the end o f the co n tin u o u s extension n o rth w a rd s o f the so uth ern bases.3 T h e H igh N o r t h h as a m e a n global index o f 750. It is the beginning o f the tru e N o rth , an d differs m o re from the M iddle N o r t h th an the la tter from the N e a r N o rth . T h e H igh N o r th extends from the channels betw een the m ain lan d and the arctic islands; it includes both peninsulas ( U n g a v a an d K e e w a tin ), islands (Baffin, V icto ria ) a n d som e stretches o f w ater (H u d so n Strait, F oxe “ basin,” P a rr y S tr a its ). Including the Eskim os, on ly tw enty th o u sa n d people live in this fo urth section of C a n a d a ’s n o rth e rn territory. T h e w in ter-su m m er range is very wide. A desert with oases o f settlement, this c o u n try is e co n o m i­ cally very deficient. G o v e r n m e n t ex pen ditu re (defence, re­ search, ad m inistration, e q u ip m e n t) is far g reate r th an the a m o u n t o f private capital invested. T h e H igh N o rth seems like the “G o v e r n m e n t’s N o r th . ” Finally, the F a r N o rth , w ith a nordic index o f 900, is a c o u n tr y p erm a n e n tly frozen, both o n the sea (th e p ack ice in the C an a d ia n sector o f the A rctic O c e a n ) and on the land (glaciers, including E llesm ere). T h is e m p ty region nevertheless covers 10 per cent o f C a n a d a . T h ese fo u r nordic regions are divided by a transition zone, ra th e r th an by a single line, an d each includes som e extraneo us ele m ents ac cordin g to local changes in the altitude, the resources an d the people. T o g e th e r the fo u r belts m a k e up the C an a d ia n N o rth . If this global index were applied to o th e r co u ntries in the b oreal world, the m ajority o f G re e n la n d an d Spitzbergen w-ould belo ng to the F a r N o rth , w h ereas the p erip h ery o f G re e n la n d , as well as a section o f Iceland would be in th e H igh N o rth . T h e so u the rn tw o-thirds o f A la sk a w ould be in the Middle N o rth . T h is present index, the basis o f a latitudinal regionalization o f the C an a d ia n N o rth , is the o u tc o m e o f only one piece o f research; the a u th o r feels it w ould be necessary to “sophisticate” th e m ath em atica l side o f it. H o w e v e r im p erfect it m a y be, it d oes help us u n d e rs ta n d the differential nordic intensity of C a n a d a . O th e r indices, based on a different co m b ina tion of criteria are equally possible. 3 T hese bases plus th eir extensions into the N e a r N o rth and the M iddle N o rth m ake up the inhabited area o f C anada (useful C a n ad a to A. Siegfried; so u th ern C a n ad a to o th ers).

35 . “Regions” and Identity in the North: Some Notes R . G . W illiamson so u r c e

:

B. Y. C a rd ( e d .), “ Perspectives o n R egions and Regionalism ," Proceedings (E d m o n to n : W estern A ssociation of Sociology and A nthropology, U niversity o f A lberta P rinting Services, 1968), pp. 11-18. R eprinted by perm ission o f the a u th o r an d publisher.

M y first c o m m e n ts will be limited to a sim ple review o f the variou s dim ensions in w h ich som e regional perspectives have o c c u rre d in the A rctic a re a o f C a n a d a . T h is will be acco m p anied by a brief suggestion as to h ow these perspectives have been perceived fr o m the so u th e rn p o in t o f view, in c o m p a riso n with w h a t m a y be developing n o rth e rn attitudes. T h e re is a very m a jo r area o f ex am ina tion to be dealt with in existing know ledge o f the A th ap ask an -sp ea k in g ( o r D e n e ) M acken zie areas o f the bo real forest an d the Y u k o n p a rts o f th e north, b u t this is beyond the scope o f these pre sent notes. Suffice it to say th a t in speaking o f the A rctic, w ith the limitations o f the m o m en t, the co m m e n ts to follow will deal very generally with th a t p a rt of th e n o rth w h ich encom passes alm ost a third o f the land mass of C a n a d a , th o ug h with a pop ulation o f only thirteen tho usand Eskim o. C learly also, m y role here is to offer simple descriptive m a te ria l r a t h e r th a n a tte m p t an y substantial theoretical or analytical d ev elop m e nt in this p resent context. P re-historic D im en sio n Analytically, the A rctic regions o f N o r t h A m e ric a have been seen by pre-historia ns to be c ulturally relatively hom og en eou s fo r so m e five th o u san d years. T h e archaeological evidence is far fr o m com plete, such th a t new w o rk ov er the last decade has, f o r exam ple, pushed b a ck th e time estim ate o f E skim o-type o c cu p an cy by a b o u t a th o u s a n d years (t o ab o u t five th ou san d years before the p r e s e n t) . H o w eve r, we a re being presented with a p ictu re o f a succession o f cultures exhibiting increasingly

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“ E skim o-like” technologies - m a n y o f w hich spread across the con tinen tal A rctic o ver a re m a rk a b ly w ide area, so m e 3,400 miles in lateral distance, and alm ost 2,000 miles north-to-south. T h u s A rctic Small T o o l T ra d itio n people an d T h u le C ulture people hav e variously left evidence o f their d eveloping cultures fro m northw est A laska in som e cases, to eastern G re e n la n d , an d from Ellesmere Island in the high A rc tic to no rthern N e w fo u n d lan d . G eographically, it app ears that a significant delineation o f this cu lture area continentally has been the tree-line. PaleoSiberian analogies suggest so m e early A sian d ev elo p m en t in con tac t with w o od ed areas - b u t equally there is evidence of A rctic-ad apted cultures in north coastal Siberia - as far to w ard the E uro -A sian fron tier as the Y a m a l P eninsula, d u ring periods o f g reater antiquity th an those associated w ith the early N o rth A m e ric an migrations. T h e re are tw o obvious factors w h ich m a y be em phasized again here: ( a ) no te th a t in contrast to the p o p u la r sou th ern notion of the north as a cultural f r i n g e - t h e no rth is seen here as an area o f distinctive cu ltu ral d ev elop m e nt o f some depth in time and b rea d th o f distribution; ( b ) N o rth -w estern Alaska has been called “ the c ra d le ” of th e E skim o culture, but it should at the sam e time be m a d e clea r that no sense o f regional b o u n d a ry should be in ferred fro m the existence o f the Bering Straits. T h o u g h originally m ig ratio n m oved fro m Asia to N o rth A m erica, the re is every evidence o f som e cultural m o v em en t in later time back to Siberia and indeed back again into A laska, across a stretch o f sea w hich in E skim o term s might well, in a p p ro p ria te eras and seasons, have been regarded m o re as a highw ay th an a barrier. A lth o u g h sub-cultural differentiation w ithin the Arctic has given rise to the proliferation o f diagnostically identifiable ancient traditions such as Old Bering Sea, O kvik and Birnirk in the f a r west and S arqaq in G re e n la n d , the most notable featu re o f the o cc u p an ts o f this e n orm ou sly extended littoral is basic cultural similarity. Certainly, the pre-historia ns tell us, the m o d ern E sk im o population is cu lturally descended fro m T hule cu lture people, whose origins were in A laska but w ho flourished in m ost parts o f the A rctic, including G re e n la n d , H u d s o n ’s Bay, the L a b r a d o r an d the High Arctic.

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T h e E th n o g ra p h ic D im en sio n A t least from the time (1 9 2 1 - 2 4 ) w h e n K n u d Rasmussen travelled across the con tinen t from G re e n la n d to Point Barrow w ithou t e n c o u n te rin g any serious linguistic difficulties, using his m o t h e r dialect, it has been c o n te m p o ra r y e th n o g rap h ic c o m ­ m on place to accept the Arctic as one largely ho m og en eou s cultural area. It should be m a d e clear at this point how ever, th a t tra di­ tionally, from the indigenous point o f view, there w as no in­ ternal sense o f regional p a n-E sk im oism . Linguistically speaking, the Eskim o pop ulation m a y be divided betw een the Y upikspeaking peo p le to the so u th and west to N o rto n S ou nd in Alaska, and the Inupik-speaking people to the north and east of N o rto n S o un d as far as G re e n la n d . H ow ever, the people th e m ­ selves have fu nctio ned self-perceptually, geographically, eco­ nomically, an d socially w ithin the sub-cultural gro u p s best differentiated by dialect. T hu s, fo r ex am ple, the C en tral Arctic has been seen as the rang e o f the Pa dlirm iu t o f the south Keew'atin plain, the Q a irn irm iu t of the Chesterfield Inlet sea­ way, the Aivilim uit of the no rth w estern H u dso n's Bay mainland, the N atsilin g m iu t o f the C o m m itte e Bay, Pelly Bay a n d Boothia Peninsula area, an d the U qu siqsalingm iut o f the C h a n tr y I n le tlower Back's River area. W ithin these larger grou ps are a n u m b e r o f sm aller sub-groups, w ho have retained th eir own identity dialectally. O f course, there has usually been some sense o f affinity betw een co ntiguous groups, sufficient, for exam ple, to ju stify in a ra th e r limited way, that so m e w h at broad and simplistic generalization, nam ely the " C a rib o u E skim o ,” as used by R asm ussen and Birket-Smith, in describing pa rt o f the C entral Arctic. Right across the Arctic, indeed, one discerns sub-cultural inter-gro up affinities betw een most contiguous groups, in term s o f such factors as dialect, dress, exploitative technology, and types o f shelter, with widest differences usually ( b u t not alw ays) o ccurring, a m o ng st gro up s most w'idely se parated geographically. Local g ro up ethn oce ntricity occurs right across the A rctic, o f course, to the point w h e re m arria ge betw een m em b ers of self-identifiably variational g ro u p s is still relatively rare. In fact it is only d u rin g the last d ecad e o f increased incursions o f people from the south, th a t som e E skim o have been stim ulated by the state o f know ledge and attitu de o f m o st o f the w hites into reflecting u p o n themselves as m em b e rs of som e k ind o f cultural generalization.

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T h e H isto ric D im en sio n T he N orth as an A ccess-R oute In historic time, the A rctic, th o ug h originally seen in m e n ’s im aginations first simply as a possible ro u te from E u ro p e to the rich m ercantile opp ortun ities o f the F a r East, tended to fall into tw o m a jo r separate g eographic regions. T hese have been g ener­ ally k n o w n as the Eastern and the W estern A rctic - th ou gh for som e tim e those north central areas not pe netrate d by vessels enterin g either from the Pacific o r the A tlantic w ere a terra incognita. T ho se areas, until this c entu ry , saw relatively little inter-cultural contact, except w ith occasional British sailors who w ere really simply passing throu gh (o r trying t o ) , looking for navigational routes, for glory, o r for each o th e r .1 In the East, H u d so n 's Bay was pen etrated in official ex p e­ d itio n ary form at the beginning o f the seventeenth century, though there is som e suggestion that English fisherm en had v entu re d into the Bay in the late fifteen hu n d red s, not long after F ro b is h e r’s abortive an d ra th e r com ic-operatic involvement with S o uthern Baffin Island. A gain, H u d s o n ’s Bay served until recently prim arily as a route to the fur-bearing areas to the sou th and west o f its sou th ern shores. Five centuries before any o f the m o re w idely-touted ad ven tures o f the English an d the F ren ch , o f course, the N orse, w o rk in g fro m Iceland and G r e e n ­ land, h ad been in w h a t is now C a n a d ia n territory. K arlsfni is believed to have been the first N o rs e m a n to discover Baffin Island (H e llu la n d ) as early as a . d . 1004. It is interesting to sp eculate that these people, in c on trast to later arrivals, were as m u ch interested in the prospects o f settled exploitation o f the area, as in passage, o r transistory an d tem p erate-zone-based trade. C erta in ly m a n y centuries have passed, indeed until c o n te m ­ p o ra r y time, with very few people except the indigenous p o p u ­ lation perceiving the A rctic as an are a of p e rm a n e n t settlement, w'herein families would expect to live, bring forth new resident g enerations an d die in the country.

1 See the extensive literature o n the explorations o f Sir John F ran k lin , and m any parties w hich subsequently cam e into the N o rth search in g fo r his last expedition, 1845-48.

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N orthern R egions and the W halers A gain, access fr o m southern co m m ercial centres conditioned p o p u la r regional thinking abo ut the north d u rin g the era of w h aling activity in the last fifty years o f the nineteenth cen tury a n d ro ughly the first d ecad e o f this. T h us, the B eaufort Sea and no rth-coast A lask a area o f the w estern A rctic was th ou gh t of as on e exploitation region, by A m erican w halers; and Baffin Island, H u d so n 's Strait an d N o rth w est H u d s o n ’s Bay area c o n ­ sidered a resource region for vessels fro m Scotland an d again the A m e ric a n seabo ard . In both cases, the w halers w intered in the c o un try at bases like Herschel Island in the west, and Blacklead Island, M arble Island and P o n d 's Inlet in the east. T o som e extent, particularly as the desultory trading be­ tw een w halers and E skim o people established am ongst the latter new w ants and even needs, the o rien tatio ns o f the local p e o p l e - i n s o f a r as they e xten d e d beyond the sub-cultural dialect g ro u p - trended tow ard so m e accep tan ce o f relationship with their sou th ern sources o f supply, both w estern and eastern.

Orientational Truncation and the Fur Trade T h e w halers p re p a red the g ro u n d fo r the fu r trade, in the co n su m p tio n -w a n ts they eng end ered am ongst the Eskim o. Streng then ing the im pression o f the ea rly E u ro -N o rth -A m e ric a n thinking o f the north as purely an access route, let it be noted th a t though the m a jo r fu r trad in g interests had been regularly shipping into H u d so n 's Bay (principally at F o rt Prince o f Wales, n ow C h u rc h ill) , since 1668, an d do w n the M ack enzie River since the late seventeen hu nd reds, no y ea r-ro un d tr ad ing posts were established in the A rc tic beyond the tree-line until the first de cad e of this century. F o llow ing the establishm ent of fur-trading posts in the A rctic, with re g u la r ann u al visits o f supply vessels fro m the so uth , geographical orientations in term s o f north-south lines of c o n tr a c t were strengthened. A dditionally there was a tendency to w ard the circ u m sc rip ­ tion o f internal area o rien tatio n acco rd ing to reg u lar trading habit. T h e trad in g posts were established at accessible locations in close touch with dialectal sub-groups w h ere trap pin g pro s­ pects looked good. T h o u g h still no m ad ic w ithin their traditional range, the h un tin g families tended to rem ain in the area o f the tr ad in g post with w hich their on-going credit-debt relationship

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h ad been developed. T h u s the traditio n al dialectal g ro u p te n d ­ ency to w ard exclusiveness was to so m e extent reinforced. W idely notable has been the ten d en c y fo r settlem ents within n atu ral g eog rap hic regions in the north to relate econom ically directly with sou th ern suppliers an d c o n su m e rs - an d n o t with each other. It is o nly in very re cen t time that g o v e rn m e n t policy m ak ers have even begun consciously seeking w ays to seriously integrate geographically-related settlements in econ om ic terms.

T h e P olitical D im en sio n s a n d R e c e n t R e g io n a l C hange T h e c o n te m p o ra r y division o f the n o rth e rn m a p into the U .S.S.R., Alaska, the Y u k o n , an d the N .W .T . districts of M ackenzie, K eew atin an d F ra n k lin ; and U n g av a , L a b ra d o r and G re e n la n d does not, o f course, reflect an y g reat d eg ree of e th n o g rap h ic reality. W ith in C a n a d a ’s borders, the divisions do to a larg er extent represent the e arlie r needs o f adm inistrativ e convenience, based o n lines o f transportation. T h u s, until the A la sk a highway, the Y u k o n was encap sulated by its m o u n ta in s an d oriented tow a rd its Pacific-coast sup ply routes; a n d th e M ack en zie D istrict fo rm e d one n atural geographic area, d ra w n to g eth er by tran s­ p o rta tio n using the A th a b a sk a , Slave an d M a cke nzie River systems, with the w estern A rctic coast supplied by the w ay o f the M ack enzie River. T h e K eew atin D istrict has te n d e d to relate logistically p a rtly with M a n ito b a centres to the south, such as C hurchill and W innipeg, an d partly w ith M on tre al; and the F ran k lin District, U n g a v a an d L a b ra d o r have been linked m o st substantially to the large m etro po litan centres o f central eastern C an ad a. W ith the exception o f L a b r a d o r all o f the C a n a d ia n n o r t h ­ e rn areas w ere until the last d ecad e substantially governed from the federal capital. N o th in g o c cu rre d to c h a n g e the fragm ented n a tu re o f the total n o rth ern region. In deed it was not until 1953 th a t a federal d e p a rtm e n t w ith specific co n cern for th e north was set up, and because o f logistic reasons, the central g o v e rn ­ m e n t has never fo u n d any justification f o r d e p a rtu re fr o m the established regional pattern. H o w eve r, the ye ar 1955 m a r k s the beginning o f w h a t m ay well em e rg e as a m a j o r chan ge in both sou th ern a n d n o rth e rn perception s o f n o rth e rn regionality. T h e e stab lish m ent th a t year o f the D istant E a rly W arn in g L ine provided fo r the first time an internal link, well into the A rctic, w hich q uickly and regularly

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placed n o rth e rn people fro m all areas in to u c h w ith each other. E skim o em p lo y m e n t on the D E W Line w'as en co u rag ed by the G o v e rn m e n t. People fro m settlem ents far rem ov ed fro m the r a d a r sites as well as those w h o h a p p en ed to be living nearb y were d ra w n into a new w ay o f life, and acqu ired previously un dev elo pe d percep tio ns o f their ethnicity. E sk im o m en and th e ir families fr o m C o p p e rm in e fo u n d themselves o n Baffin Island, and E sk im o families fr o m S o u th a m p to n Island settled fo r periods o f one to fo u r years at sites in the w estern and C entral Arctic. E asterners en co u n te red and talked o f traditional times with A laskans, a n d H igh A rctic dwellers co m p ared back g ro u n d s w ith people reared n ear the tree-line. U nsch oo led m e n also began to differentiate culturally a m o n g white m en, betw een F r e n c h a n d English, G e r m a n and Po rtu guese, an d even betw een C an a d ia n an d A m erican . D espite these new perceptions, how ever, I noted d uring this era, by variou s social criteria and by explicit statem en ts, an increasing te n d en c y am ongst E sk im o to m inim ize the significance o f su b ­ gro u p differences, an d to take g rea ter interest in the factors of c o m m o n identity. Inter-grou p m arria g e has nevertheless so far rem ain e d fairly rare, an d the te n den cy for the D E W Line fam ilies to retu rn to their original settlements is widely notable. E x terio r o r w hite m en s attitudinal influences felt on the D E W L ine a c c o u n t p artly for the strength ening sense o f E sk im o identity an d its social results, as well as the u ltim ate m ove ba ck hom e. C oincidental in time w ith the his tory o f the D E W Line has been the rap id an d w idespread de velo pm en t of g ov ernm ent services in the north, including most significantly a n ed ucatio n system w hich h as been largely a simple tran splan tation of so u th e rn provincial u rb an middle-class curricula, curriculum m aterials and classroom m e tho ds and attitudes into the northern settlements. T h e r e has been massive recourse, m o reo ver, to exile hostel-school techniques, involving the absence o f children and adolescents fro m the h o m e f o r a m i n im u m o f ten m o nth s a year. T h re e m a jo r p ro g r a m m e s have been the hostel education o f children in the W estern A rctic from as fa r cast as Spence Bay. T h e se p ro g r a m m e s are carried out in the M acken zie D elta g o v ern m en t ce ntre o f Inuvik, in the g o v ern m e n t school in Y ellowknife, an d also in a hostel at the M a n ito b a seaport and fr o n tie r town o f Churchill to w hich y ou n g adolescents from all o v e r the E astern Arctic are tr an spo rted . W idesp read n ow are the a d u lt c om plaints resulting from the alienation o f the g e n e ra ­ tions, with som e leaders criticizing the a p p a re n t disrespect for

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the E sk im o c u ltu re felt to be implicit in the ed ucation m ethods usually employed. A m a jo r fa c to r in recent E sk im o his tory has been the ex­ trem ely w idespread occu rrenc e o f tuberculosis, w hich has in­ volved social c o n ta c t for protected periods in sanitoria betw een people from m a n y different A rctic areas. E v en so, still in regional terms, W este rn A rc tic people w ere sent m ainly to A lb erta, an d E astern A rctic people to san ito ria in Q uebec, O n ta rio and M anitoba. A lso significant has been the dev elop m e nt in the last decade o f tra n s-n o rth e rn short-w ave E sk im o language b roadcasting by the C B C N o r th e r n Service, and the dissem ination o f Eskim o lan guag e literature by the F e d e ral G o v e rn m e n t. A n o th e r meeting-facility fo r people o f varying E skim o b a ck g ro u n d s has been the m an y vocational training p ro g ram m e s in the south, to w hich y oung adults have been sent fro m all over the Arctic. D u rin g this last decade, the m o v e o f po pu latio n aw ay from seasonally-changing h un tin g c a m p s into the settlem ents has been alm o st com plete. Exercises in c o m m u n ity develo pm en t an d ad u lt e ducation, though often pa tc hy in quality an d success, have in varying degrees increased adult sophistication in m an y settlem ents in the h itherto u n k n o w n and u n n eed ed te chniques o f m acro-social o rganization. C o m m u n ities like F ro b ish e r Bay are now' exhibiting indices o f E sk im o internal organization, using acqu ired organizational techniques, to close ra n k s and provide an ethnically-identifiable base fro m w hich to deal with the whites. D u rin g 1963, the F ed eral G o v e r n m e n t attem p ted to enact legislation w hich w ould h av e divided the N .W .T . into two adm inistrative units. T h e m o re p opulous w estern unit w as to have m o ved m o r e rapidly to w ard provincial status, while the E astern p a rt w as to have rem ain ed u n d e r the m o re direct g ov ernan ce o f O ttaw a. T his m ove w'as opp osed by no rth e rn peo ple o f both p arts o f the A rctic, though at this stage the only really articulate E skim o opposition cam e fro m the people o f the C am b rid g e Bay area, who w ould have had k infolk separated jurisdictionally by the O tta w a move. H ow ever, a subsequent travelling C o m m issio n on the issue personally involved the people o f every N .W .T . settlement, and in the process extended consciousness o f c o m m o n identity in a political dim ension. Since 1962, w h e n the E astern A rctic was first enfranchised, there have been fo u r federal general elections a n d tw o general elections f o r the T errito rial Legislative C ouncil, d uring w hich

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the E skim o o f the N .W .T . have again been influenced to see themselves in the context o f political constituency. T h e w hole o f the N .W .T . is one con stitu ency in the federal context, an d in th e T erritorial setting, there are three constituencies w herein th e E sk im o people m ake up a nything fr o m 9 0 p e r cent to 95 p er cent o f the total population. T h ese are the E astern Arctic, C e n tra l A rctic an d W estern A rctic ridings, all o f w h ich are represented by m en whose basic qualification is fluency in the E skim o language. A ll o f these events an d trends are a p p a ren tly beginning to m ove n o rth e rn perception s o f n o rth e rn regionality aw a y from the fr a g m e n ta tio n o f the folk e ra and the Balkanization o f the federal adm inistrative era to w ard a pan-Eskim oistic, politically b ro ad type o f n o rth e rn regional identity. T h e w o rd “ap p a re n tly ” is advisedly used here, because I wish to end by suggesting that herein lies a com p lex and as yet insufficiently-docum ented and analyzed a re a o f enquiry. T h e question o f identity exercises all anthropologists involved in ac cu ltu ratio n studies, th oug h in this m a tte r in the C a n a d ia n A rctic the em phasis h as been quite validly o n traditionalistic identity loss. T h e r e m a y be some fu r th e r interest in attem p tin g to d o c u m e n t in a selection of settlements, an d am ongst pro perly identified age, sex, education, skill a n d contact-experience g roups a m o n g the E skim o, their presen t percep tion s o f ethnic identity, an d to see if, a n d in w hat way, an d to w h at degree these m ay be related to m o d e rn n o rth e rn m oves tow ard in ternally-generated T errito ry -w ide geo-political regionality. Less diffuse, p e rh a p s even m o re com p lex an d m o re highpressure w ork, w ould be involved in rese arch in su c h places as Sugluk, W a k e h a m Bay, P o v u n g n itu k , G r e a t W h ale River, and o th e r U n g a v a pen insu la settlements. T h e re , quite special dy­ nam ics are at play, w herein d eve lop m en t econom ics, missionary religion, Q u e b e c politics, federal go v e rn m en t A nglo-Saxon P ro te sta n t attitudes, E sk im o language an d F re n c h language edu catio n innovations, an d E sk im o suspicion o f all o f this, plus th eir new organizational sophistication an d som e recent out­ m ig ration across H u d so n 's Strait to the N .W .T ., are only some o f the factors affecting attitudes an d perceptio ns in the c o n ­ te m p o ran e o u s ly ov erlapp ing an d in teracting dim ensions of identity an d regionality.

“ r e g i o n s ” a n d i d e n t i t y in t h e n o r t h

2 8

1

S u m m a ry A gainst very limited descriptive b a ckg ro und o f the develop m en t o f regionalism in the A rctic, I have indicated a few m eans w hereby the E sk im o have in recent time begun to see them selves in ethnic g ro u p terms. 1 have said that the Arctic is a natural cultu re a re a inso far as it has been pre-historically and to the present the geographic range o f distinctively E sk im o cultures, from Siberia to Eastern G re e n la n d . 1 have indicated that in traditionalistic E sk im o terms, the Arctic has been seen mainly in term s o f the kn ow n range o f the distinctive dialectal sub­ groups. I have sh ow n how routes o f access fro m the south have predicated the historical regionalism o f the A rctic, an d m e n ­ tioned in passing the geo-political an d adm inistrative divisions which were established. I indicated that orientations beyond the su b-grou ps w ere tru nca ted by the supply relationship between the Eskim o an d the f u r trade, w ith a decrease in te nd enc y for relationship betw een the sub-groups. O f the factors w hich in m o re recent time tended to break do w n the frag m en ted and encapsulated perceptions, I referred to the influences o f the D istant E arly W a rn in g Line, treatm ent in so u th ern centres for very large n u m b ers o f sick Eskim o, particularly those with acute an d chronic respiratory diseases, large-hostel e du cation o f E sk im o children fro m widespread parts o f the north, vocational training p ro g r a m m e s for Eskim o in the south, trans-A rctic E sk im o language broadcasting and literature dispersal, the generalized on-surge of F ederal G o v ­ e rn m e n t activity in the north, the n o rth ern consultations o f the C o m m issio n o n G o v e rn m e n t in the N .W .T ., an d election political activity at the F ed eral an d T erritorial levels. I en d e d by suggesting that all o f these factors have beg u n to influence traditional E skim o percep tion s o f their o w n identity not only on the individual level but also in a pan-Eskimoistic fram ew o rk. A t the sam e time 1 indicated a few o f m an y r e ­ m ain ing areas o f e n qu iry in the a ccultu ratio n field in the Arctic, w hich have specific reference to the relationship betw een identity an d regionalism.

36 . Settlement Types and Community Organization in Northern Canada J. Fried s o u r c e

:

A rctic, Vol. X V I, N o. 2 (Ju n e, 1 9 6 3 ) , pp. perm ission o f the au th o r an d publisher.

9 3 -1 0 0 .

R eprin ted by

T h is p a p e r su m m a riz es som e results o f field w o rk u nd ertak en from Ju n e 1961 to J u n e 1962 to determ ine w h a t kinds o f settle­ m e n ts are em erg ing in the N o rth w e s t T errito ries since W o rld W a r II as a result o f the C a n a d ia n p ro g r a m m e o f no rth ern developm ent. T h e research w as c arried o u t as p a rt o f the p ro g r a m m e o f studies o f n o rth e rn co m m u nities o f the N o rth e r n C o -ordination an d R esearch C e n tre of the C a n a d a D e p a rtm e n t o f N o r th e r n Affairs and N atio n a l R esources. T h e w riter is deeply in deb ted to Mr. V. V alen tin e o f the C e n tre for his inv aluab le help. H ow ev er, the results an d views expressed are strictly those o f the w riter. All settlements m e ntio ned in the p a p e r were visited a n d all d a ta p resented w ere gathered during the field work. T h e research was designed not only to identify the variety o f types o f settlem ents fo un d in the A rctic an d Subarctic, but also to analyse the type o f social organization an d population th a t characterize e a c h kind o f settlement. Because the survey w as o f a b ro ad n atu re, it w as necessary to develop a classifica­ tion system. T h e m ain pa rt o f this p a p e r discusses the criteria used to develop the classification o f n o rth e rn settlem ents and gives the resulting seven types in an a n n otate d list. Som e o f the m o r e im p o rta n t findings ab o u t the social processes in n o rth ern settlem ents are reported in the concluding section. It is hoped that this b ro ad survey will serve as a startin g point for fu rth e r resea rch by placing in the h a n d s o f p rospective researchers a tool fo r choosing th e b est setting fo r the study of specific p ro b lem s o f c o m m u n ity organization, c u ltu re c on tac t, and a d a p ta tio n to the n o rth ern en viron m ent. T h r e e criteria have been used to classify these settlements:

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( 1 ) the degree o f p lanning going into c o m m u n ity organization, ( 2 ) the identification o f the task o r tasks th a t p ro vid e the g ro un ds for the existence o f the settlem ent, an d ( 3 ) the n a tu re o f the social o rganization.

(1) D egree o f planning in determ ining the nature and structure o f the com m unity N e w n o rth e rn settlements, m u c h m o re so th a n were the tr a d i­ tional fur-trading, mission, an d mining settlements, are to some extent planned, th ou g h they rang e from the fully plann ed te c h ­ nical an d m ilitary bases to th e spottily a n d p artly plann ed adm inistrative o u tp o s t settlem ents w here E sk im o com m unities are being fo rm e d. T his facto r o f pla nn ing is significant because it m e a n s that the basic decisions as to h ow m en are going to live in these no rth ern settlem ents a re m ad e by p lann ers in the so u th an d are not necessarily locally o r in dep end ently m a d e by those living in the settlem ent. T h e c u ltu re o f new n o rth e rn settlements th en is n o t necessarily locally derived by ex perience a n d does n o t reflect a historical process o f a d a p ta tio n by settlers. T h e large D E W Line te chnical station pro vides an exam ple o f p lan nin g in the nearly total sense. It contains a small isolated gro u p o f men whose only business it is to tend m achines. C a re fu lly designed, co m p a c t m ulti-p urp ose buildings house the m e n a n d th eir machines. W ith in the walls o f these austere functional stru ctures food, shelter, recreation, an d w o rk space are provided so that there is no need to d ra w on the outside physical e n v iro n m e n t for an y o f these necessities. T h e base is designed to be self-sufficient. T h e m en o c cu p y a very restricted living an d w o r k e n v iro n m en t, w h ich they m ust accept an d to w hich th ey m u s t ad a p t them selves becau se th ey c a n n o t change it: th ey are m ere employees and not tru e settlers. T h e y own n oth ing b u t their p ersonal effects. T h e ir to u r o f d uty is m easured in m on ths, not in years. T h is kind o f c o m m u n ity is an ex am p le o f the co m plex , specialized w o rk in g unit o f th a t variety that the next centuries will see developed f u r th e r in isolated regions and p erh a p s in o u te r space. M ost o th e r settlements, on the o th e r h an d , sh ow a fascinat­ ing m ix tu re o f p lanning and im pro visation. O bviously in m atters of supply, housing, clothing, a n d so fo rth, a certain a m o u n t of pla nn ing by “ex p e rts” based in the sou th h ad to be done. H o w ­ ever, unlike a technical station o r m ilitary base, the o rd in ary settlem en t ca n be influenced by a c cu m u latin g experience and

284

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has g rea ter possibilities for im pro visation. A s an exam ple can be tak en the ou tpo st settlements w h ere large bodies o f Eskim os have been d ra w n in to receive the benefits o f g o v e rn m en t help in ed ucatio n, h ealth, and welfare provided by local white specialists. A lth o u g h the goals o f health an d welfare are clear eno ug h, the m ean s o f carryin g out these tasks can no t be fully p lan n e d since local con dition s are so variable. F o r example, som e settlem ents are m ore physically isolated th an others, some natives are in a m o re ad v a n ced state of accu ltu ratio n th an others, even in the sam e settlem ent, a n d the talents, energies, an d te m p e ra m e n t o f individual white ad m inistrators, teachers, o r welfare officers vary considerably. Finally, the econom ic p rospects o f these settlem ents are at present uncertain. O n the o th e r h and there is the ap p a re n t o rd e r and sym m etry o f the carefully plan ned settlem ent, Inuvik. T his is located in the M ack enzie D elta and rises a bru ptly out o f a sw ath cut into the em p ty b ush lan d to assert a sharply defined insistence that a so u th ern sta n d a rd o f living is possible if the technology and w ealth necessary to build an d ru n it are available. In this early stage o f c o m m u n ity dev elop m ent there is a m a r k e d lack o f innovation because there has not been tim e to develop the slow an d intim ate ex chan ge betw een m a n an d his e n v iro n m e n t an d so create a local culture o r style.

Lo c a tio ns o f s e tt le m e n ts cited.

M a p 15 b

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(2) T he identification o f the task or tasks that are carried out in the settlem ent Since all settlements dealt with in this p a p e r have c o m e into being to satisfy so m e special need o r p u rp o s e o f so uth ern C a n a d ia n civilization, the identification o f the rang e o f special jobs to be p e rf o rm e d by each settlement is o f great significance. T h e settlem ents serve as bases fo r specialized personnel w ho c a rry out military, technical, c o m m u n icatio n , ad m inistration, an d cu lture co nta c t tasks that are m ean t to speed u p the devel­ o p m e n t o f the C a n a d ia n N o r th an d d ra w it into the eco no m ic a n d political orbit o f the nation. T h e re fo re , n o rth e rn settle­ m en ts in this phase have the look and feel o f specialized bases co m p o s e d o f “tas k fo rce” w hite personnel, ra th e r th a n o f a fr o n tie r town o f settlers m a d e up o f white e n tr e p re n e u rs and native peoples. T h e natives are being d ra w n into p e rm a n e n t residency in these settlem ents in search o f w age em p lo y m en t an d to receive the benefits o f the g o v ern m en t p ro g r a m m e s in ed ucatio n, health, an d welfare.

(3) T he nature o f the social organization in the settlem ents F o u r exam ples will be used to d e m o n s tra te the range o f c o m ­ plexity fr o m the simple stru c tu re o f the technical station to the m o re co m p licated o rd e r o f the m ulti-purpose settlement. ( a ) T h e technical sta tio n . T h e simplest social situation is that o f the isolated w e a th e r station o f the D e p a rtm e n t o f T ra n sp o r t. It is m a n n e d by a small w o rk in g force o f single male technicians w h o a re ro tated each year o r h alf year. F o o d , shelter, and recreation are prov ided by the station in a s tan d ard iz e d form. T h e r e is no necessity, an d certainly very restricted oppo rtu nity , fo r the m en to m a n ip u la te creatively the org anization o f the station. M ost o f th e m m a k e no attem pts to b eco m e acqu ain ted with the physical e nv iro nm ent, especially in winter. T h e social o rd e r is cha racteriz ed by in fo rm al relations and the in ter­ personal clim ate is balm y o r storm y d ep en d in g on personality factors. O nly the w o rk shift a n d duties are clearly specified and as long as these duties are c arried out, little o r n othing else is r e q u ired o f the men. ( b ) O u tp o st service settlem e n ts. T hese a re o f a m o r e c o m ­ plicated social structure. E x a m p les are S ugluk, D orset, and P o v u n g n itu k ( M a p 15B). In its research rep o rts the N o r th e r n C o -o rd ina tion C e n tre has published v aluable c o m m u n ity studies

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o f this kind o f settlem ent an d culture-contact situation. In these settlem ents live betw een tw o h u n d re d an d fo u r h u n d re d E s­ k im o s an d only fr o m ten to fifteen w hite professionals, a d ­ ministrators, tra d in g personnel, and missionaries. G o v e rn m e n t b ure aucracy , the Civil Service, pro vides the basis o f order, leadership, a n d responsibility for the white personnel. W h e rea s th e technical station contains o nly an aggregate o f single males, th e social e n v iro n m e n t of settlem ent o utposts is en rich ed by the presence o f som e n u clea r families in ad dition to single men an d w om en. N evertheless the social e n v iro n m e n t for w hites is severely limited as to kinship an d range o f persons w'ith w h o m to interact. T h e specialists, teachers, nurses, an d ad m in istrato rs derive their orientation and interest in life from their jobs. If th ey fail to attain o r m ain tain such interest th ey risk living for long periods as isolated as displaced persons in an alien and restrictive e n v iro n m en t. T h e individual personalities o f the white perso nn el d eterm in e the n a tu re o f the social life, its friendliness, cohesion, a n d intensity. M alad justed personalities can easily disru pt social relations. T h e Eskim os, on the o th e r h a n d , still m ain tain a rich social organization, based on kinship ties and local g ro up affiliations. E ach kinship g ro u p is m a d e u p o f a series of related families; each is functionally a u to n o m o u s from o th e r kinship clusters. T h e D e p a rtm e n t o f N o r th e r n Affairs and N a tio n al R esources th ro u g h its agents supplies the c o-ordination and leadership on th e c o m m u n ity level. (c ) T h e c o m p le x m u lti-p u rp o se se ttle m e n t. H e re two exam ples will be used: C hu rch ill and Inuvik. (i) C hurchill, a large centre in northern M a n ito b a ( M a p 15B ), is really a c o m p lex of com m un ities, the tw o m ain ones being F o r t C hu rch ill a n d C hurchill p ro p e r. F o r t C hurchill is a mili­ tary base, its social organization is form ally that o f any military establishm ent elsewhere in C a n a d a , but its specific functions are peculiarly exten ded to include scientific, air transp ortation , and c o m m u n ic a tio n activities. C h urch ill p r o p e r is a service and co m m ercial c o m m u n ity in som e ways like o th e r sm all towns th a t m u s h ro o m beside m ilitary bases, and in so m e w ays like a n o rth e rn frontier to w n. Its peculiarities arise out of its d e p e n d ­ ence o n the existence o f the m ilitary base on the one h an d , and an active grain sh ipp ing port o n the other. Both these activities c rea te large con ce n tratio n s o f transient males. T h e railway m a kes it possible f o r native a n d w hite “end-of-the-line" drifters to w a n d e r into C hurchill, con tribu tin g to the polyglot n a tu re of the pop ulatio n. Social organ ization in C hurchill p ro p e r is,

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naturally, quite am o rp h o u s. C o m m u n it y an d n eig h b o u rh o o d cohesion is poorly developed. T ra n sie n c y o f the popu lation is a basic disruptive factor. C h urch ill is still not a place that people feel to be their “p e rm a n e n t residence.” Finally, C hurchill has tw o attached n a tive en cla v es - A k u dlik, fo rm erly “C a m p 20,” fo r Eskim os, an d “ C a m p 10” for Chipew-yan In dians. T h e E sk im o s an d In dians are housed, serviced, an d cared for by the g o vernm en t. E a c h enclave is a small “ n eig h b o u r h o o d ” set off from the rest of C hurchill. A k u d lik is actually an e x p e rim e n t in adjusting natives to a wage earn in g ec onom y. In term s o f social o rganization, how ever, it is still d o m in a te d by kinship a n d fam ily ties an d identity stems fr o m place o f origin. T h e E skim os are a very mixed group b ro u g h t to C hurchill from places scattered all o ve r the A rctic. D irection and c o-ordination o f c o m m u n ity affairs at A ku dlik is supplied by officials o f the D e p a rtm e n t o f N o r th e r n Affairs and N ation al Resources. T hese tw o c a m p s rep resen t m iniatu re social w orlds o f natives, protected by go v e rn m en t officials an d, except fo r th e econom ic activities o f wage em plo ym ent, are only w eak ly related to the o th e r w hite social w orlds o f the town and the m ilitary base. (ii) Inuvik, in the M acken zie D elta, is an exam ple o f a large adm inistrative go v ern m en t ce n tre ( M a p 15B ). Its org a n iza­ tional co re is c o m p o s ed o f a w h ole series o f virtually a u to n o ­ m o u s w ork in g agencies, each ch arged with c arryin g o u t its highly specific tasks: the D e p a rtm e n t o f N o r th e r n Affairs and N a tio n a l Resources - ad m in istra tion and cultu re contact; the D e p a rtm e n t o f T ra n s p o r t - c o m m u n ic a tio n ; the N o rth e r n C a n a d a P o w e r C o m m issio n - utilities, light, an d pow'er; the D e p a rtm e n t o f N atio n al D efen ce - d efen ce role, etc. Such g o v e rn m e n t personnel are not so m u c h settlers as transient clusters o f job holders, each aligned to its own agency a n d each rep o rtin g to a different outside headq uarters. In ad dition there are the satellite com m u nities, one m a d e up o f w hite no rth e rn residents d ra w n into In u vik by jobs, or business op po rtun ities, and a n o th e r com p osed o f E skim os and In dian s w h o hav e recently given u p their h un tin g an d trapp ing e c o n o m y fo r w age earning. T h e social distance betw een these three types o f po pu latio n, civil servants, inde p e n d e n t whites, an d natives, is very great. T h e a u to n o m y o f the different go v­ e rn m e n t agencies seem s to create som e barriers for social c o n ­ tacts betw een m e m b e rs o f different agencies. T h e g ov ern m en t w hites a re se parated fr o m the n o n -go ve rn m en t ind epen de nt whites by w'ork organ ization an d the c o nce ntratio n o f g o vern­

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m e n t person nel in a special h ou sing area. All sections o f the white c o m m u n ity are sep ara ted socially fr o m natives by deeply felt cultural distinctions, even w h en the econ om ic cap acity of som e natives is not m ark e d ly inferior to th a t of som e whites. T h e gro u p in g o f the natives at the opp osite end o f the town fr o m th e g o v e rn m e n t h ousing zone h as fu rth e r red u ced the possibility o f social c ontacts. O n the native side cleavages ap pear betw een the o lde r ge neratio n o f fo r m e r h u n ters an d trap pers a n d the y o u n g er m en and w o m e n w ho are all looking f o r wage e m p lo y m e n t an d groping f o r a new style o f life. T h u s in this early p h ase o f Inuvik, physical tow n p lann in g ha s p ro d u c e d a novel design for n o rth e rn living, b u t the people m a k in g up the p o p u la tio n a re divided into three distinct social worlds. N o w th a t the criteria have been outlined a classification of these settlem ents can be suggested. It m u st be k ep t in mind that the larger settlem ents are in fact com posites o f m o re th a n one ty p e th o ug h the stru c tu re o f each is still sh arp ly defined. (1) Iso la ted tech n ica l sta tio n : w e a th e r stations and D E W Line stations. (2) M ilita ry base: (u sually fo un d in association w ith o ther c o m m u n ity fo r m s listed b e lo w ), e.g., C hurchill, F ro b ish er Bay. (3) O u tp o st service se ttle m e n t: c o m p o s ed o f a native c o m ­ m u n ity serviced by a sm all c o m p le m e n t o f g o vernm ent agents. It is the m o d e r n successor to the o lder mission and fu r-trad ing o utpost, e.g., Sugluk, D orset, an d P ov ungnituk. (4) S erviced n a tive enclave: small native groups, E sk im o or Indian, closely (sym biotically) atta che d to a larger, whited o m in a te d c o m m u n ity a n d still mainly d e p en d en t o n special g o v e rn m e n t agents w ho give supervision a n d assistance, e.g., A p ex Hill at F ro b ish e r Bay, A k u d lik at C hurchill. (5) R eg io n a l a d m in istra tive centre: a base o f op eratio n f o r a series o f g o v e rn m e n t agencies containing beside its core of civil servants, satellite c o m m u n ities o f in d e p e n d e n t whites an d natives. E xam p les are F o r t Smith and Inuvik. In a place like F ro b ish e r Bay, a sep ara te m ilitary base is joined to the regional adm inistrative cen tre an d its native enclave. (6) F ro n tier to w n : this ty p e h as n o t been covered in the discus­ sion above as it c a n n o t be fo u n d in its traditional “p u r e ” form . H e r e the te rm is used to signify a settlem ent th a t has grow n o u t o f the a m o r p h o u s a c cu m u latio n o f individual efforts ra th e r th a n th r o u g h the pla nn ing an d resources of

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som e large agency, such as the F ed e ra l G o v e rn m e n t o r a m ining c o m p a n y . C hurchill p ro p e r is a good representative o f this type o f o pe n-e nd ed, poorly organized, a m o r p h o u s settlement. Som e sections of H a y R iv er an d the old-town section o f Y ellow knife have frontier-tow n characteristics, even though in both o th e r parts o f the settlements are pro d u cts o f recent g o v e rn m e n t induced activity. (7) M in in g se ttlem en t: there are tw o types o f interest in the N o rth . T h e c o m p a n y mining cam p , an isolate o f w ork ing males located far o u t in the hinterland , a n d the m in ing town that develops w hen the m ineral p ro du ctio n is con stan t over a long period. T h e re is no exam ple in this survey o f a classic m a tu re c o m p a n y mining town. Y ellow knife is a unique hybrid o f a governm ental adm inistrative centre joined to a mining c om m u nity . Findings and suggestions fo r further research It is hop ed that this p a p e r has established a picture o f the variety o f co m m unities that are em ergin g in the C a n a d ia n N o rth . H o w these com m u nitie s function a n d the n a tu re o f the interpersonal re lations within an d betw een different gro u p s of w hite and native p op ulations can only be covered in a large co m prehensive report, w hich u nfo rtu n ate ly will requ ire considerable time to prepare. M ost o f the results o f the research have been in c o r­ po ra ted in a rep o rt subm itted to the D e p a rtm e n t o f N o rth e r n Affairs and N atio n al R esources, but this rep o rt is n o t yet in a form suitable for publication. All that can be do ne h ere is to indicate som e o f the m o re interesting findings. In the m ore com plex and dy nam ic new centres three general classes o f population can be distinguished, the g o v ern m e n t civil service, a very heterog eneo us pop ulatio n o f white transients an d settlers, an d a popu latio n o f Eskim os, Indians, an d Metis, w ho are rapidly b eco m ing b o u n d to life in settlements. T h e w hite settlers seem to be separable ac cordin g to three adaptive poses: (a) close social merging w ith the d o m in a n t civil service group; (b) m aintainin g separate old-tim er ingroups; and (c) m erging with the native and Metis social world. T h e natives, similarly, show a variety o f responses to life in settlements. T h e m o re conservative grou ps still m aintain m u c h o f their older kinship organization, language, and b eh av io u r p attern s, even though their e co n o m y is based o n w age la b o u r an d n o t on trapp ing . T h e y o u n g e r gro u p shows : special form

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o f marginal su bcu ltural a d a p ta tio n th a t is neither aboriginal native n o r w h ite in style. Because o f the great im p o rtan ce o f the g o v e rn m e n t sector in these settlem ents special atten tion w as given to its social organization. Since the new adm inistrative centres are d o m i­ na ted by specialized agencies, th eir social org anization is that of a n occu pation al c om m u nity . Position in the social h ierarch y of the settlem ent is basically d e te rm in e d by a p e rs o n ’s r a n k in a b u reau cratic organization. T h u s the w o rk w o rld an d the social w orld merge into each other. U n h a p p y family o r inter-family relations can sap m orale on the job, an d d is a p p o in tm e n t with, o r frustration in the jo b disturbs h o m e o r c o m m u n ity social life. T h e “j o b ” takes on special im p o rtan ce as the central focus of identity o f p erson s gath ered to g ether in new settlem ents w ho have n o o th e r ties o f family, kinship, o r locality. O ne h y p o th e ­ sis w o r th testing is that persons com ing fr o m ric h e r social en v iro n m e n ts in the south are m o re apt to feel severely isolated and find the inbred n ature o f small agency-centred society m ore distressing th an persons w h o c o m e fro m small prairie tow ns or the M aritim e Provinces. A s for the native populations, the E skim os an d the In dians are rapidly ente rin g a n interm ediate stage o f cu ltural transition. T h e y are, how ever, also rapid ly b eco m in g indistinguishable from the Metis pop ulatio n that has been fo rm ed in the past by co n ta c ts w ith the fur traders and miners, the earlier agents of c u ltu re contacts. T h e d an g e r is that this new group o f persons in transition will likewise not be absorbed into the social fabric o f w hite society an d yet be p ro f o u n d ly tied econom ically to the new settlements. A n u n h a p p y possibility exists th a t they will becom e stran ded as a marginal su bg ro up , th a t is, a g ro u p in a state o f arrested transition. T h e r e is evidence that n o rth ern white settlers tend to en te r the grow ing settlem ents an d rapidly fill the b etter jo b an d c o m m ercia l opp o rtun ities before the native p op u latio n have the c u ltu re co nta c t experience necessary fo r them to c o m p e te successfully for these positions. T h e D e p a r tm e n t o f N o r th e r n Affairs and N atio n a l R esources is aw are o f these problem s an d throu gh e d uca tion p ro g ra m m e s an d research is attem pting to c o u n te ra c t this trend. T h e field fo r research in c o m m u n ity dev elo pm ent an d cul­ ture ch ang e in the C an a d ia n N o r t h is b oth vast and im portant. T h e n u m b e r s o f w orkers d edica ted to social scientific research in the N o r th are few indeed, an d there is a great need to attract atten tio n to these rich opportunities. It is hoped that this p ap er will help to fill the need.

37. The Northern Urban Scene G eorge Jacobsen so u rc e

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Proceedings, 4 th N ational N o rth ern D evelopm ent C onference, N ov. 1, 2, 3, 1967 (E d m o n to n , A lberta: E dm onton C h a m b e r of M ines and R esources an d E dm onton C h a m b e r o f C om m erce, n .d .), pp. 103-106. R eprinted by perm ission o f the a u th o r and publisher.

In a lecture w h ich R alp h Erskine, a Swedish architect, gave to the In tern ation al Design C o n fe re n c e in M on treal, he questioned if the cities an d buildings o f the N o r th serve well the needs of the northerners. His answ er w as no. T o q u o te a few sentences fr o m his lecture show ing deep insight into the prob lem of n o rth e rn living “ M a n in his ingenuity h as invented m a n y ways o f protecting his p u n y body - o f m a in tain ing its surface within the n a r ­ ro w ran ge o f tem p eratu res and hu m idity w hich allows for survival. A s his inventiveness an d artistry increased he has m o reo v e r created conditions o f convenience, c o m f o rt and pleasure. T o this en d he has ro bb ed the hides an d ha ir off the bodies o f his fellow beasts and woven these into the exquisite brocades a n d frills o r the h o m e s p u n s and tweeds w ith w hich he d rap ed his body. T o this end he has tak en the trees o f the forest and the m u d and stones o f the plains an d hills, the fire o f the h earth a n d the coolness o f ru n n in g w a te r an d o f these built h im self cottage an d p alace, village an d city to house an d p ro tect him self and all his m an y activities. W h e re could this protection be o f g reater need th a n in the N o rth ? N e ith e r in C a n a d a , A lask a, S cand inav ia n o r Siberia did I find c o m m u n ities intelligently and inventively built to give pleasing a n d effective c o m f o rt and pro tectio n in the specific con dition s o f the N o r t h . ” T h is is u n fo rtu n a te ly true. In C a n a d a the to w ns o f the N o rth , an d I include here the towrns a n d settlem ents o f the im m ediate N o rth , the treed middle N o r th a n d the treeless A rctic, were either built fo r resource extraction, as ad m inistration an d tran sp o rtatio n centres o r in a very few cases for d efen ce h o u s ­

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ing. N o n e o f th em are very big, they are small tow ns w hich get sm aller the further north one goes. T h e ir size varies fro m about 2 0 ,0 0 0 to a few th o u sa n d inhabitants. In looks th ey are not m u c h different from small towns fu r th e r south except that there is a p re p o n d e r a n c e o f timber an d metal clad buildings as on e moves no rth w ard . W o o d and metal sidings are com p arativ ely light and lend themselves to easy p refab rication and quick erection even in inclement w eather. T hese tow ns m ight not have the tree-lined streets o f the south but one will find the sam e layout o f wide streets an d single houses with spaces betw een them , th ro u g h w h ich w ind and snow can blow freely and larger buildings w ith long un pro tected w alks from their outside p a rk in g place to their over-heated interiors. It can be rightfully argued that these con dition s also prevail in the small and g reat cities o f the C an a d ia n south. Steffanson, the last o f the great arctic explorers, on ce said that if y ou can live in W inn ipeg you can live a n y w h e re in the Arctic. In the co n tex t o f his speech he was referrin g to the tem p eratu res prevailing in W in nip eg d u rin g the w in ter but the fa c to r of d isco m fo rt is also just as g reat as in n o rth ern towns. F ro m this, o n e m ay rightfully assum e that a g reat m any buildings and w h ole sections o f o u r so u th ern towns are not p ro p erly plann ed fo r o u r climate. This is obviously the case. H o w ever this does not excuse the irrational p la nn ing of no rth e rn cities as these do not grow slowly, organically and am o rph ou sly , like so uthern cities and have not to co n ten d with well-m eaning but trad itio n-b ou nd an d unprofessional city councils and m an y vested interests. N o rth e r n towns are usually started from sc ratch , by a public o r private agency which com pletely con tro ls site selection, the to w n plan w ith all its services and facilities, the style and material o f the bu ild ­ ings, education, recreation, c o m m u n ic a tio n and tran spo rtatio n facilities. Into these n ew towns co m e people from the south, m o st of w h o m have n ever lived a n y w h e re else th a n in su burbs o f big cities an d bring with them all the attitudes a n d prob lem s of s u bu rb ia. In cases o f mining towns this is particularly a c c e n tu ­ ated because o ften a large n u m b e r o f families, strange to each other, arrive at the sam e time (for instance w h en a m in e starts op eration), and becom e instant no rth ern citizens in a pinpoint o f settlem ent with h u n d re d s o f miles o f bush aro u n d them. T ypical exam ples are such co m m un ities as the iron tow ns of

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W ab u sh , G a g n o n o r C aro l L a k e in Q u e b e c o r T h o m p s o n in M a n ito b a , etc. T h e r e is a n o th e r social fa c to r w hich is significant in n o r t h ­ e r n towns. D u r in g the last decades th ere w as a steady and swelling m o v e m e n t o f people fro m the su rro u n d in g fa r m lan ds into the tow ns a n d cities o f the south. Cities grew b y d e p o p u ­ lating the su rro u n d in g farm lands. P eople w h o move into to w ns from the s u r ro u n d in g farm lan d have a personal relationship with the c o u n tr y w h ich su r ro u n d s the cities, th ey feel th a t they are p a rt o f the w h ole region. T h is is n o t the case w ith the techn ician o r ad m in is tra to r o r la b o u r e r w h o is tran sp lan ted into a settlem ent in the N o rth la n d . H e can not ju m p into his c a r and drive o u t o f tow n to visit G r a n d f a t h e r o n the farm o r drive to the next tow n for sh op ping o r the movie. H e ha s to keep all his activities w ithin the town. T o him the s u r ro u n d in g cou ntryside is the wall w h ich contains him. T h e se people living in N o r th e r n C o m m u n ities tend to feel th a t they live o n the fringe, far fro m the so u th ern centres w here decisions are m ad e, fashions form ed a n d n ew custo m s and trend s initiated. T h e y cling as m u c h as possible to the im age o f the S o uth in dress and shelter, because this m a kes th e m feel closer to the m a in stream o f the country. N o b o d y will d eny th a t a miniskirt is an unsuitable g arm en t f o r the N o r t h o r th a t single dwellings w ith u np ro te cted outside stairs an d long feeder lines from utilidors are u n co m fo rta b le or un eco no m ica l yet both can be seen in o u r N o rth . A s I am su pp osed to describe the existing u rb an scene in the N o rth , the w o rd u rb a n is used h ere w ith som e latitude - p erm it m e to describe tw o typical com posite n o rth e rn tow ns w h ich will c o n tain the ch aracteristics o f m o st o f them . O n e will be a res o u rce extracting to w n, a c o m p a n y tow n based o n p a p e r m a n u f a c tu r e , m in in g o r h y d ro electric p o w e r in the M iddle N o r t h (the sub arctic) an d the o th e r will be a com posite adm inistrativ e (governm ent) to w n in the tru e Arctic. W e shall assum e that the reso urce ex tracting tow n w as built quite recently, d u rin g the last five to ten years. T h e tow n site will m o st likely have been selected by the o w n e r’s staff in collaboration w ith a n a rc h itect w ith little o r no N o r th e r n living o r town p la n n in g experience. This is n o t a dig against the arc hitectu ral pro fession b u t there are n o t m an y architects w ith this kind o f experience a ro u n d simply because it is on ly recen tly th a t architects have been asked to design buildings for c o m p a n y tow ns o f this kind. Previously this was

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the d o m a in o f the c o m p a n y d ra ftsm a n a n d the carpen ter forem an. T h e m ain criterion fo r site selection m ost likely w as n e a r ­ ness to plant, m ine o r p o w e r station an d if possible to an airfield. N o t m a n y town p la n n ers have been used to lay out to w ns on these sites. F u r t h e r m o r e in und ertak ing s o f this kind the speed o f c om p letion o f the p ro je ct is o f great econom ic im p o rta n c e and usually a very sh o rt time is available to m a k e a p r o p e r site survey. A fte r the site is chosen the architect prod uces plans for single houses fo r the highest m an age rial level, sem i­ d etached dwellings o r duplexes fo r the next level o f m a n a g e ­ m ent, th en ro w houses an d w alk up a p a r t m e n t houses (up to th re e storeys) fo r the lo w er fo rm s o f life in the co m p a n y h ierarch y. Staff q u arters a n d b u n k h o u ses a re prov id ed for the u n m a r rie d male and female la b o u r force. T h e c o m p a n y is well aw are that lab o u r tu rn o v er is costly and pro vid es well built and co m fo rta b le houses with all m o d e r n conveniences an d la boursaving devices. T h e houses loo k pretty. T h e y are p laced in a special living q u a rt e r area on straig ht o r curved streets w hich are p av ed an d have sidewalks. Som e houses have lawns and garages, oth ers have electric plugs for outside parking. T h e r e is also a sh opping centre with service stores, p ost office an d liquor store built o f glass an d c oncrete, all p ro b ab ly accessible b y an inside mall if built recently. Please note the similarity, an d well fou nd ed, w ith so u th e rn design trends. T h e r e is plenty o f open p a rk in g space not on ly aro u n d the sh op ping ce ntre b u t also aro u n d the re cre atio n centre, the school an d o n e hotel w hich caters to the variety o f visitors w h o c o m e to co m p a n y towns, fro m go v e rn m en t officials and tax collectors to salesmen and social scientists. T h e traffic p ictu re in this tow n is very m u c h as do w n south. F r o m 7 a.m . w h en the first shift starts, to 9 a.m. w hen th e white co llar w o rk ers start, the re is a g reat deal of traffic on the wide and , in the winter, well cleared streets, th en th ere is nothing until noon, a n d from tw o o ’clock to five o ’clock absolute quiet reigns, scarcely interru p ted by the o dd delivery tru c k a fte r work. All in all it is a very p leasan t looking town with co m fo rta b le houses an d very good recreation al and ed ucation al facilities o n the p rim a ry and sec on dary level. T h e only thing to be said against it is th a t ow ing to the s p read -o u t layout, an d the im itation o f a well-designed, o r at least conventionally-designed, so uth ern to w n, it does n o t take in to a c c o u n t the special n o rth e rn c on ditio n and it is costly to o perate, for w hich the c o n su m e r a n d the n ation al ec o n o m y pays in the end. Also, by being stereotype, no invention o r im ag ina­

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tion has been applied to m ak e use o f the exciting possibilities o f o u r m o d ern m aterials and technology, w h ich together with p ro p e r use o f the m icro clim ate w ould not only provide c o m ­ fortable survival but h arm o n io u s living tu ned to the geo graph y o f the surroundings. T h e com posite prototy pe p icture o f a true Arctic to w n is different. Firstly, it m ust be said that the tru e A rctic to w n in C a n a d a is a post-w ar p h en o m e n o n . It is a to w n w hich either started as a tr ad ing post o r as a d efen ce installation w ith an airstrip, o r it started by an A ct o f P arliam en t. Its buildings are p red o m in an tly fr a m e buildings with the rare exception o f som e large buildings w hich are re d u n d a n t d efence housing. A large percentag e o f the buildings are pre fa bricate d o f metal sheathed ply w ood panels an d a considerable degree o f sophistication has been applied in p refab rication m ethods. T h e r e are one, tw o and th ree b ed ro om b un g alo w ty pe houses for the ad m in istrators w hich c ate r to their so uthern b ack g ro u n d an d give ad eq u ate an d even c o m fo rta b le shelter at h igh cost. T h e re are special types o f m odels fo r the local popu latio n into w hich a con sid erab le a m o u n t o f design thinking has gone a n d w hich are all an initial solution for a section o f the p o p u la ­ tion in transition. T h e r e are excellent, large school buildings w ith all m o d ern facilities w hich just as in the South tend to be co m e larg er ow ing to centralization, w hich in the A rctic entails hostels fo r the students. T h e r e are so m e shopping facilities, m ostly restricted to the H u d so n 's Bay C o m p a n y , w hich are m in i-dep artm en t stores and s u perm arkets, all p urpose recreation halls in a variety of buildings, chu rch es and ad m inistration buildings. All these buildings provide shelter from the elem ents, b u t in design an d siting arc erected w itho ut regards to the climate, the m icro-c lim ate the long day and long night rh y th m o f N o r th e r n living an d above all w ithout a n y regards to co st of erection and o peration. This latter cost is really the cost w hich counts. In sm aller settlements, buildings are sited m o re often th an not by the building fo r e m a n o r w h o e v e r is a ro u n d , b u t even in the pla n n ed co m m un ities buildings are too fa r a p a rt an d badly sited fro m the c o m f o rt and eco no m ic p oin t o f view; and wind, snow a n d sand from the tu n d ra swirl m errily aro u n d the houses. O bviously it is necessary to com pletely re th in k the design and siting o f N o rth e r n towns and its c o m p o n e n t units with im a gin a­ tion an d intuition a n d p ro p e r regard fo r initial and o perating costs. C o nstruction o f the to w n as a w hole to red uce cost o f

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service installations and sh o rten ro a d a n d snow -clearing dis­ tances, a n d c o n c en tra tio n o f buildings into g ro up s w ith sheltered spaces, p artly covered w alk ways w h ich allow people to go into sheltered streets w h en the w eath er is good, garages w h ich are sheltered are only a few things w hich m ust be considered. T he m ain thing is n o t only to provide ad eq u ate shelter b u t a specific N o r th e r n e n v iro n m e n t w hich is rational, co m fo rta ble, and w h ic h people can identify as being their place w here th ey w an t to live. W ithin this fram ew o rk , a p a rtm e n t ty pe buildings o r in e x tre m e cases d o m e s for p a rt o f the s h o p p in g and recreational a reas m ig h t be indicated. T h e m ain thing is to ap ply the inven­ tive thinking to o u r N o r th e r n to w ns to w h ich o u r technology enables us, a n d w hich o u r N o r th e r n people and o u r national p o c k e tb o o k have a right to d em an d .

VIII

PR O B L EM S O F T H E NORTH

38. Bewildered Hunters in the 20th Century A be O kpik s o u r c e

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N o rth , Vol. X III, No. 4 (July-A ugust, 1 9 6 6 ) , pp. printed by perm ission o f the a u th o r an d publisher.

4 8 -5 0 .

R e­

T h is problem c a m e into being w ithin the last fifteen years, and still con tinu es to grow, and will be in existence fo r some time to co m e yet. T h e situation, as it existed in time past, w as based on the econ om ic resources o f the land, w hich furnished som e needs in m o st com m u nitie s th ro u g h o u t the north. T r a p p in g w as a big fa c to r because it provided incom e an d p o w er to buy eq u ip m en t s u c h as rifles, boots, o u tb o a r d motors, tents, toboggans, etc. H u n tin g com es into this categ ory as well, fo r if you had a good h u n tin g g ro un d you can p icture y ou rse lf getting m o re fur. F ishing was a n o th e r resource in large parts o f the n o rth and still is. E a c h individual with his family w'as the b re a d w-inner for his family a n d som etim es for o th e r u n fo r tu n a te ones. Sometim es tw o o r three o r m o re families agreed to stay together to hu nt an d trap in the sa m e area providing that the su rrou nd ing c o u n tr y was econom ically so und. T h e people did not dwell in the settlem ent simply because, in times past, the resources did not allow it. So, people in the north never lived all to g ether in o n e place at all times, because the situation did not allow it. T he location o f hom es w'as not a p ro blem , because it was the general tr end, an d accepted that the house they built w ould be no m ore th an a log house o r sod house. T o the east, a tent insulated with moss was used. Som etim es the house o r tent was no larg er th an eight by ten feet. S o m e coastal people w ho live mainly ne ar the sea use ice houses, o r ice fr a m e w'ith a tent inside: a m eth od fo u nd mostly in the central A rctic. Still, in a large p a rt o f the n orth, fo r g roups co m p rised o f m ov ers-from -place-to-place, an igloo is m ost used. All ov er the arctic, this ty pe o f ho using w as p retty well accepted for the p lace o f dwelling did n o t m a tte r too m u c h in

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space, stru cture, o r shape as long as it w as a place to keep the bod y an d soul w a rm and together. In the s u m m e r the families m ove d into a tent. T his ho using a m o n g the people did not ch a n g e until the last decade w hen the e m p lo y m e n t p ro g ra m m e s started developing in the north. T h e popu lation o f each c o m m u n ity c a m e into being from the su rro u n d in g areas, a n d the houses grew a ro u n d the settle­ m e n t w itho ut too m u ch ob se rv an ce by anyone. Instead o f being a p a rt an d distant neighbours, the people o f the a re a now found themselves cu d d led up in an d aro u n d the settlement. A n y type o f stru ctu re o r material w as accepted. A lth o u g h the intention was to stay only for a sho rt while, the people w ho fou n d jobs began to stay a ro u n d , bringing m o re an d m o re of their relatives an d people into the village. S o m e schools w ere set up in o r d e r to teach the children, thus bringing m o r e pop ulation into the co m m u n ity . A small settlem en t w hich o ften consisted o f a m issionary, a H u d s o n ’s Bay store, an r . c . m . p . building, an d a few houses fo un d itself d eveloped into a larg er c o m m u n ity w here a school, a hostel, o r n ursing station an d adm inistrators, p o w e r plants and w elfare housing, an d o th e r people entered into the picture. T h u s a settlem en t b ecam e a larger c om m un ity within the last few short years. I will try a n d outline the p rob lem s involved a m o n g the n o rth e rn com m un ities. M en tio ned earlier, the people co n g re­ gated a ro u n d the settlem ent in o rd e r to get jobs a n d an o p p o r ­ tun ity to w o rk for a sho rt while w ith ou t any real intentions of staying there. S om etim es a h u n te r b ecam e a c o m m u n ity garbage collector, an d som etim es a c a m p d ru dg e b e cam e a n assistant-tothe -ad m in istrator th ou gh o fte n he did n o t u n d e rs ta n d the cir­ cu m s ta n c e s involved w h e re a person h an gin g a ro u n d town could be a valuable helper to the ad m in istrato r, but in tim e the h u n te r som etim es gets the idea o f the reasons. T h e n the h u n ter a n d family w h o occasionally visited the settlem ent began to com e to the settlem ent m o r e frequently, so m etim es even fo r a sho rt time to w ork. T h e y w o u ld c a m p in the sam e place they no rm ally visited for the first few times, th en their visits becam e longer a n d the children starte d a ttend ing school p a rt time. E v entually the families m ove into the settlem ent w ith o u t being too conscious ab o u t w h at they were really m ovin g into. T he h u n te r cou ld n o longer take ex tended trips to m a k e a successful h u n t as he used to. T h e usual c am p in g visit to the settlem ent was n o w p e rm a ­ nent. T h e te n t he sets u p is re no vated into a te m p o ra r y house. T h e family is stuck in the settlem ent by this trend. T h e people

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w h o lived in the a re a are now living in settlem ent either to w ork o r ha v e th e ir children go to school. T h is accu m u latio n turned th e village into a larg er c o m m u n ity w ith ou t an y planning involved. T h e p la n n e r c a m e later, a n d this is w h e re co n cern fo r p overty started to be seen in the c om m u nity . T h e c o m m u n ity grew w ith ou t too m u ch pressure fr o m the authorities o r p la n n e r as to h ow the shacks o r houses should be kept, o r w h at type o f stru c tu re the h o m es should be. O nce an individual h u n te r w ho still th inks as a h u n te r is absorbed, even w ith ou t his aw areness o f it, he loses co n tro l o f his hunting e q u ip m e n t: his dogs, boats, canoes, traps w hich were at one time his vital possessions for living off the co un try. H e gives this a th o u g h t and soon the w hole thing flows over: “I ’ll be all right.” So th erefo re his beginnings are left in the mist, an d this new life starts eruption. A t first he is w ith ou t b ew ilderm en t but th en his first wages are earn e d , an d m o re and m o r e necessities are req uired in o r d e r to settle the mind. N ow , the ideal life is a m y stery to him. In his o w n o p inion the w ho le dream will be o ver w hen he gets o u t on the land again. T h e n the expectation o f this d re a m is n o t fulfilled; it materializes into the facts o f a n ew w ay o f life. This gives him no point o f re tu rn , and he loses all livelihood since his life possessions are now gone. A s time carries on, he is w atching for an op p o rtu n ity to go som ew here. But w here? H e finally decides to get w o rk elsewhere, w h e re v e r a jo b was f o u n d available. But this does not solve a ny thin g because w hen he leaves his family f o r an indefinite tim e he w orries about them . T his is w h ere his stability is really tested by those strange things th a t lead from o n e thing to another. T o keep the family tog eth e r he decides to leave his jo b and m a k e an a ttem p t to go b ack to the fam ily an d the old e nv iro nm ent. B ut this seldom brings an ythin g new. In fact, he n ow finds it h a r d e r to survive o n the land than he used to. T h e n he finds h im self m o r e o r less alone, c a u g h t in a situation betw een two g re at gaps. His m ind is bewildered an d confused. H e pictures the bo th sides. T h e o u t­ siders cam e here to give him an o p p o rtu n ity to ch ang e to a new a n d c o n fo rm e d way o f living. B ut he believes th a t he c a n n o t really chan ge his ways. His children are learn in g the o th e r side o f co n fo r m in g since they have been going to school. T h e h u n te r realizes th a t he is too old to take an y schooling. F o r the sake of his children he m u s t try to m ake som e ad ju stm e n t, b u t how? F ir s t he h ears th a t his cousin w as arrested for drin kin g in a public place and given a light sentence in jail. T h e n he h ears of a n o th e r cousin o r relative w ho was involved in stealing som e

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money. He th en gets a shock by hearing o f one o f his nieces w ho got p re g n a n t while going to school. P erh ap s by so m e on e in school o r som e w hite m a n w h o w o rk s w ith the people w h o are building the houses in to w n. H e then m a y h ear a r u m o u r th a t a cousin and his friend were arrested by the police for fighting an d resisting arrest, and were given a sentence by a local Justice o f the Peace. T his time each w as given th ree months. T o him this seem s od d - once the policem an w as a friend, b u t now w hat has he becom e to w ard s the people? D u rin g these incidents his m ind is restless. O nce o r twice he tries h ard to start again on the land, b u t his c hildren are not h ap p y o u t there. N o o n e in the family carcs to stay o u t any length o f time. So he goes b a c k to the c o m m u n ity to try a n d m ak e enough m on ey to start o ve r on the land. T his time when he goes back it seem s like all his relatives were really glad to see him . T h e y will c o m e an d eat with him bringing their share, just the w ay it used to be. Pretty soon the c o u n tr y food w h ich he b ro u g h t back to town with him is gone. He goes on the hu nt alone but he can not go fa r because the e q u ip m e n t an d dogs a re n o t as re a d y an d good. D isap ­ pointed, he goes back to town and goes o ver to see the tr a d e r he used to know to see if he c a n be given a g rub stak e to sta rt fo r a b etter trap line. But even the tra d e r has little to offer. H e is busy, selling to o th ers w ho have m o re m on ey to spend. H e could not con vince him to give him a grubstake. H e w o nd ers w h a t h a p ­ pen ed to the s to rek eep er w h o used to help him with a ny thin g he w a nted , especially nets, shells. But now the tra d e r does n o t even tr ust him. Still he thinks in his m ind that everything will turn ou t better. He goes and sees som e friends he know s w h o can p erh a p s help him. But th ey too have ch ang ed their attitude and it seem s to him th ey d o n 't care. H e m an ages to get a little m o ney here and there. Soon a n o th e r a ddition to the family arrives. His ho using c ondition is the sam e. He k now s this used to be okay in the bush and there is no th ing to be ash am ed o f as his was be tter th an others. H e has n o th in g to w o rry ab o u t although his h o m e is o f ta r paper, ca rd b o a rd an d a dou ble tent. H e has been w ork ing on part-tim e jobs o il an d on b u t he ca n n o t u n d ers tan d w h ere all his m o ney has been dis a p p e ar­ ing to. H e th en decides to have a drink w ith friends he kn ew to ease his mind an d talk with them ab o u t so m e things w hich have been bothering him. T his has no effect either. Finally, o n the last effort, he goes an d has a serious talk w ith the adm inistrator. But th e a d m in is trato r has very little time to spend w ith h im as

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he is also very busy. H e finally e n d s up talking to the W elfa re Officer. T h e officer is p re p a re d to listen so he tells h im all the things th a t h av e been bo th erin g h im an d why. H e tells him abo ut w h a t is h ap p en in g to his family. T h e closely-knit group o f relatives is falling apart, the ir w o rd s d o n o t have a m eaning a n ym ore. W ithin a few sho rt years these good people he used to know seem to have d eteriorated to a lowly think ing type o f people. T h e y d o not seem to care. S om eth in g else h as taken o v er their responsibility. H e does not th ink o f it as bad o r poor, he thinks o f it as a b rok en m ac h in e w h ich c a n n o t be rep aired becau se it is co m pletely useless o r helpless. E ven the M issionary w h o used to be helpful does n o t co m e a n d visit a n ym o re. It seem s m o r e and m o re teach ers and o ther people are arriving fro m outside an d they are all supposed to be helping the native. N o w th ey say his house is not good as it has no w ashin g facilities, no flush toilet. H e w onders, “w h a t d o they m e a n by that? W h a t do they w a n t me to d o a b o u t it. It used to be all right. A n y w a y , I am not going to do any thing a b o u t it until m ay b e w hen so m e on e else starts getting new houses.” T h is is the beginning o f p o ve rty - w h en a person is bew il­ d e re d a n d has no w ay to im p ro ve his ways in a com pletely new e nviro nm e nt. This exam ple in this w ritin g is w h a t has h a p p e n e d to the h u n te r w hen he is caug ht betw een tw o cultures: one he knows, an d o n e he guesses at. This is a beginning an d the en d o f an e ra w hich has con fused the once leader, h u nter, pro vider an d h o nest m an. H e is cau gh t betw een this new influence a n d the old w ay o f living. T his is w h a t is h a p p e n in g to m a n y people o f the n orth, especially the people w ho w ere b orn before 1945 a n d w h o are n o t going to change. T h is g ro u p is the c o re w h o refuses to change. W h a t is their future?

39 . The Polar Continental Shelf Project E. F . R oots so u r c e

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C a n ad a, D ep artm en t o f E nergy, M ines an d R esources; Polar C o n tin en tal Shelf P roject, "P .C .S .P . P aper N o. 133,” (u n p u b ­ lished typescript, 1967), 16 pp.

T h e P olar C o ntinen tal S helf P roject was authorized by the C an a d ia n g ov ernm en t, by C a b in et D irective, o n April 5, 1958. It was designed to co n d u ct general m ap pin g, oceanographic, hyd ro graph ic, geological, geophysical, geographical an d related studies, to be un d ertak en on the Arctic O cean C o ntinental Shelf, on the islands o f the A rchipelago, and in the channels. It w as to act as a logistic in strum ent fo r all divisions o f the D e p a rtm e n t o f Mines a n d T echnical Surveys (E nergy, Mines a n d Resources) in c o n d u c tin g research in the A rctic regions o f C an ad a. It was to supply logistic su p p o rt and facilities to o th e r agencies c o n d u c tin g research in the area. N o fixed date w as c o n tem p lated fo r the co m pletion o f the project. Y early financial e xp end itures have varied betw een $1,50 0,0 00 and $1,800,000. T h e initial h e a d q u a rte rs w as established in 1959, at Isachsen on E llef Ringnes Island. A t this location is m ain tain ed a U nited S ta te s -C a n a d ia n p e rm a n e n t w ea th e r station. T o pro vid e a m e a n s o f accu rately positioning the stations w here d a ta was collected, an d to allow the precise na vigation needed by a ir­ b orne and su rface tra n sp o rt engaged in the survey, experim ents w ere c arried o u t o n the elec tro-m agnetic p ro po gation c h a ra c ­ teristics o f the area, with a view to designing and installing an electronic survey an d positioning system to cover the m a jo r area o f investigation. T h e initial p ro g r a m m e was s u p p o rte d by o n e Beaver and one O tter ski-equipped aircraft. In the first year, these aircraft m a d e nearly five h u n d red landings on u n p re p a re d landing strips o n b oth land and ice. T h e first ye ar po inted up the problem s an d difficulties to be experienced in the Arctic an d led to refinem ents o f p ro cedu re s an d te chniques for the following years. In spite o f e n viro nm ental difficulties, the first y ear p ro d u ce d m u c h o f scientific interest.

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Scientists were flown to the A rc tic in early M arch , an d som e personnel rem ain ed for the entire sum m er. S o m e thirty scien­ tists and technicians were em p lo y ed o n the p ro ject the first year. T h e m ain ob ject o f the field w o rk in 1959 was to sup ply a surveyed base an d to test e q u ip m e n t an d m ethods. T h e full-scale rese arch an d survey p ro g r a m m e got u n d e r w ay in 1960. In the first year, w o rk was co n c e n tra te d o n the continental shelf to the n orthw est o f M eighen, Ellef Ringnes, and Borden Islands c o m prisin g a block som e 2 00 miles lon g and extending som e 2 50 miles to sea. A lo w -frequ ency D ecca hyperbolic position-fixing system w as erected, with the m aster station on Ellef R ingnes Island and the slave stations on M eighen Island a n d Borden Island respectively, to give im m e ­ diate d eterm in a tio n o f positions to an accura cy o f 200 yard s o r less w ithin an are a 20 0 by 3 00 miles. A base line w as r u n by m e ans o f a tellu ro m eter and theodolite across the Prince G u sta f A d o lf Sea fro m Isachsen to B orden Island and a n o th er line from Isachsen to M eighen Island by way o f A m u n d Ringnes Island an d the F a y Islands. A third line w as surveyed from Isachsen an d o u t o ver the Arctic O cea n . T h e se survey lines were required to determ ine the position o f the D e cca stations. A t intervals along the m ain base lines, h yd ro g ra p h ic so u n d ­ ings were made; regu lar o ce ano graph ic m easu rem en ts o f te m ­ peratu re an d salinity, a n d sam ples o f w ater w ere taken at all s ta n d ard depths, to g ether w ith b a th y th e rm o g ra p h casts and c u rr e n t m easurem ents. Tidal reco rd s w ere m a d e and a study m ad e o f c om plications in tro du ced by te m p e ra tu re , w ind, and possibly o th e r factors o n the tides in ice-covered waters. M o re th a n eighty gravity m eas u rem en ts w ere tak en o n land and sea ice, including a traverse across a typical gypsum piercem e n t dom e. A gravity and m agn etic traverse o f the M eighen ice c a p was m a d e to delineate the ro c k floor b en eath the ice. M agn etic surveys w ere m a d e on various p arts o f Ellef Ringnes an d M eighen Islan ds w hich have been useful in tracing geo­ logical co ntacts an d in terp retin g geological structures. G eological studies included the taking o f grab sam ples and cores from the floor o f Prince G u s ta f A d o lf Sea and fro m the A rctic O cean n e a r C a p e Isachsen, studies o f the stratigraph y of n o rth e rn E llef R ingnes Island, an investigation o f unusual igneous rock stru ctu res, and a re-exam ination o f the gypsum structures. O rie nte d ro ck specim ens w ere taken to study r e m ­ n a n t magnetism. T h e phy siog rap hic studies included a survey o f the land fo rm s o f the R ingnes Islands, a stu dy o f sed im e n t tra n sp o rt in

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seasonal arctic rivers, e x a m in atio n o f p atte rn ed g ro u n d , obser­ vations on the fo rm a tion a n d distribution o f g ro u n d ice, a n d the prep a ra tio n o f air ph oto in terp retation keys fo r selected areas. A glaciological p ro g r a m m e w as u n d e rta k e n on the M eighen Island ice cap, and a geological and b otanical reconnaissance was u n d e rta k e n a ro u n d the exposed m argin s o f the ice cap. T h e results o f the initial y e a r indicated that m o r e air sup­ p o rt and m o r e suitable g ro u n d e q u ip m e n t w as re q u ired to in­ crease efficiency o f data collecting. T his w as im proved in later y ears by the ad dition o f helicopters, b o th small an d large, additional ski-wheel O tte r a irc raft in place o f the Beaver, a tw in-engined B eech craft ae ro pla ne an d o th e r multi-engine spe­ cialized su rv ey air craft, a n d the acquisition o f m o r e suitable vehicles for travelling o ver snow , ice, and frozen gro un d. T h e first y e a r’s w o rk d em o n s trated that w ith a w ell-planned p r o ­ g r a m m e a n d p ro p e r e q u ip m e n t it w as feasible to cond u ct re s e a rc h u n d e r A rctic c o n ditio ns with a reason able a m o u n t of c o m f o rt and w ith considerable success. It should be observed th a t the C a n a d ia n D e p a rtm e n t of T r a n s p o r t op era tes several icebreakers in the A rc tic A r c h i­ pelago, to assist ships tak in g p a rt in the s u m m e r re-supply of villages and stations. T hese ships are m a d e available fo r o c e a n o ­ g rap h ic an d o th e r scientific observations on ce th e re-supply mission is co m pleted . T h e scientific an d technical perso nn el for this w o rk have been provided by the P o la r C on tine ntal Shelf P ro jec t an d o th e r units o f the D e p a rtm e n t. T h e icebreakers have b een used in this m a n n e r since the inception o f the Project. T h e basic pla n o f stu dy o f the P o lar C on tin ental Shelf P ro je ct has been m ain tain ed, a ltho ug h the scope o f investiga­ tions has e x p a n d e d year by y e a r since 1959. A t first, the P roject d epe nd ed on the Isachsen W e a th e r Station for acc o m m o d atio n and som e facilities. It soon becam e a p p a r e n t that self-sufficiency w a s re qu ired and p ortab le buildings were designed an d c o n ­ structed. T h e m ain h e a d q u a rte rs o f the Pro ject w as m ov ed in 1962, so uthw est to a n o th e r U n ited S ta t e s -C a n a d i a n Joint W e a th e r Station a t M ould Bay o n Prince Patrick Island. T he p resen t M ould Bay c a m p can a c c o m m o d a te eighty m en, an d is self-sufficient, w ith its o w n po w e r supply, radio station, and w orkshops. T e m p o r a r y c a m p s are established any w here in the A rctic A rch ipe lag o o r on the ocean, as required. It has been the pu rpose o f the p ro g r a m m e to investigate, as th o ro u g h ly as possible, the are a co vered by the D e cca L a m b d a electronic positioning e q u ip m e n t before m o vin g the D e cca

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tran sm itter stations to new positions. T h e plan was to leap-frog the stations progressively to the southwest. T his policy has been followed and at present, the m ost w esterly slave-station is locatcd on Banks Island. O n e o f the larger p ro g r a m m e s u nd ertak en was the b a th y ­ m etric m a p p in g o f the main chan nels betw een the islands. T o facilitate this w ork, w hich was often som e distance from the coastal D ecca system, po rtab le D ecca H i-F ix equ ipm en t, of s h o r te r range but g reater a c c u ra c y th an the " L a m b d a " eq u ip ­ m e n t used on the o cean , an d for the reco nn aissan ce surveys, was em ployed. T h is e q u ip m e n t could be tran sp orted to the transmission site by helicopter and could be readily positioned at a new location. T h e bathy m etric survey was carried o u t initially by using a wire line and by regular m a rin e echo so u n d ers m o u n te d on m o to r toboggans travelling o n the ice or carried in a irc raft and o p e ra te d th ro ug h holes drilled th rou gh the sea ice at landing places. Later, eq u ip m en t and te chniques w ere developed to obtain ech o sou nd ing s throu gh op en leads and c rack s fro m a helicopter w hich tows echo-so un ding eq uip m ent while in flight; o th e r e q u ip m e n t allows the w a te r depth to be m easured th ro ug h fifteen feet o r m o re o f un bro k e n sea ice. B athy m etric m ap p in g to a scale of 1:500,000, and reg u lar h y d ro g rap h ic surveys at scales of 1:100,000 a n d 1:50,000 are being u nd ertake n. T h e cost o f such surveys is now co m p a ra b le with that o f ship-borne surveys, on a sq uare mile basis. T h e seismic w o rk was exp and ed as the p ro g r a m m e c o n ­ tinued. T h e geological structu res lying beneath the su rface of the islands and u n d er the sea have been investigated by a scries o f reflection and refraction seismic traverses. In fo rm a tio n on the thickness o f the sed im en tary sequence o f the so-called “S v e rd ru p S edim entary Basin,” o f the underly ing granitic m aterial, a n d o f the dep th to the still de eper d en ser layer o f the " U p p e r M an tle" beneath the E arth 's crust has been obtained. Special te chniques o f seismic so un din g in ice-covered w aters a n d on p e rm a fro s t were developed. M o to r toboggans, tracked trucks, and helicopters were used for tran sp o rta tio n in these ex perim ents. T h e seismic studies are continuing. A n intensive gravity p r o g r a m m e is being carried out. T h e force o f gravity is being m e asured at twelve kilom eter intervals as p a rt of the regional C a n a d ia n G ra vity Survey. A n etw o rk of con tro l "base lo ops” was established th ro u g h o u t the area, and these h av e been linked with the absolute gravity stations at

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R esolute a n d M o u ld Bay. Special gravity studies have been u n d e rta k e n in the course o f glaciological investigations, o r over interesting anomalies. T h e glaciological studies have been co ntin ued on the M eighen ice cap. R ecords were m a d e o f a c c u m u latio n and ablation, mass wastage, ice m ov em en t, te m p e ra tu re s at depths, plasticity o f the ice at different depths, electrical resistivity in three directions, and o ther p a ram ete rs w hich serve to determ ine the response o f the glacier to climatic e n viron m en t, m ete o ro ­ logical an d m icro-m eteorological conditions. A bore-hole has been drilled com pletely th ro u g h the thickest part o f the ice­ cap, an d has been instrum ental to give a con tin uin g m ea su re­ m en t o f the physical natu re an d behav iou r o f the ice mass; the cores from the hole have been preserved and give a complete section, for labo rato ry study, o f this cold, “high -p olar” ice-cap th a t a p p aren tly is not a r e m n a n t from the Ice Age but which ap p e a rs to have grow n in co m p arativ e ly recent times. T h e r e ­ sults are being studied in relation to those o f the seismic, gravity, an d botanical researc h in the area to help give a pictu re o f the clim atic history. F a r t h e r to the south-west, in a still m o re arid pa rt o f the A rchipelago, fo u r thin, a p p are n tly nearly stagnant ice-caps have been surveyed fo r m ov em en t, a c cu m u la tio n and wastage each ye ar since 1963. It might be noted that con sider­ able glaciological research is being c o n d u cte d in C a n a d a , by universities and o th e r g ov ernm ental agencies. A co m prehensive p ro g r a m m e is in progress o n the Barnes ice cap on Baffin Island by the G eog rap hic al B ranch o f the D e p a rtm e n t o f Energy, M ines and R esources, an d o th e r studies are u n d e r way in west­ ern an d no rth w estern C a n a d a , the investigations o f the Polar C on tin ental Shelf Project are plann ed to co ntribu te to a co ntinent-w ide study. T h e p ro g r a m m e o f m ak in g o ce an o g rap h ic observations over the C ontinen tal Shelf was not pu rsued vigorously a fte r the first tw o years. A goo d reconnaissance p ictu re o f the previously u n k n o w n o cean o g ra p h ic ch aracteristics o f the w aters o f the o u te r Arctic A rch ip elago a n d over the co ntin ental shelf was o bta ine d as a result o f this w ork ; fu r th e r o ce an o g ra p h ic m a p ­ ping w as not w arran ted in view o f the pressing need to em ploy the c o u n tr y ’s limited oce ano gra ph ic research resources in o ther areas o f m ore urgent an d com plex prob lem s. Since 1963, the o ce an o g rap h ic w o rk of the P olar C o ntinental Shelf Project has been carried o u t as p art o f special studies o f sea ice, acoustics, biological productivity, sedim en tatio n , electronic o r sonic energy transmission, or g eo th erm a l h e a t flow.

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T h e studies in su b m a rin e geology have been co ntin ued . T h e p ro g r a m m e is designed to p rovide info rm atio n on the c h a ra c te r and stratigraph y o f the sedim ents on the floor o f the channels o f the A rctic A rchipelago an d o f the co ntinen tal shelf. This consisted o f a study o f the off-shore sedim ents by grab sam ples an d short cores, and a detailed stud y o f the sedim ents carried by the Arctic rivers, an d o f th eir distribution in the channels betw een the islands. T h ese investigations have required the taking o f h u nd red s o f sam ples w hich are later carefully studied fo r their mineralogical, geochem ical, o rg an ic an d fossil co n ­ tent. A study o f the geology o f the A rctic A rch ip elago h as been in progress f o r m a n y years. System atic geological m app ing started in 1949 an d has con tinu ed since. At present, the re c o n ­ naissance m a p p in g o f the a re a by the G eological Survey o f C a n a d a , is p ractically co m pleted . T h e P o lar C o ntinental Shelf Project has provided logistic su p p o rt a n d assistance w here needed and in som e cases carried o u t special geological assign­ ments. D etailed geological studies in areas o f special interest a re in progress. Since the S v erd ru p Basin is potentially an oilp ro d u c in g area, m u ch geological assessment o f the region is being u n d e rta k e n by industry u n d e r permit. Studies on the m agnetism o f the area have been co ntinued as p a rt o f the w o rk o f the Project. T e m p o r a r y m agnetic sta­ tions have been established at various points to su p p lem en t the p e rm a n e n t m agnetic observations at M ould Bay, Resolute, and A lert, to aid in determ in ing regional g eom ag ne tic gradients and to investigate areas o f special interest. M agnetic traverses have been run across selected geological features to increase k no w l­ edge o f certain geological stru ctu res o r form ations. A re as of non-isotropic m agnetic behav io ur, an d o f locally enh anced electro m ag netic conductivity, are receiving special study. Aerom ag netic surveys, m ap p in g the total m agnetic intensity o n a scale o f 1:250,000, have been un d e rta k e n systematically since 1961, an d to date have covered app rox im ately 145,000 square miles. Studies o f the flow o f g eo th erm al heat fro m the ocean floor have been m ade in various p a rts o f the co ntinen tal shelf area, both in places w h ere conditions are app are ntly “n o r m a l'’ and w here fro m g eom agn etic o r seismic o r o th e r evidence there is reason to suspect an an o m alo u s energy p a ttern in the E arth's crust. It is hoped that these studies will lead to a better u n d e r­ stan d in g o f w hat is proving to be a te c h n i c a ll y active p art o f the N o rth A m erica n continent.

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Botanical, entom ological, an d m a rin e biological studies h av e been c o n d u c te d on the P o la r C o n tin en tal Shelf P roject by scientists fr o m th e D e p a rtm e n t o f A g ricu lture, th e Fisheries R esearc h B oard, an d o th e r agencies, in various regions o f the A rc tic A rchipelago. T h e m aterial sec ured has a u g m e n te d the national collections in their fields. T h e m a p p in g o f the form atio n , n a tu re a n d m o v e m e n t o f sea ice o f the A rc tic O cean an d the w aters o f the A rchip ela go has b een an im p o rta n t p a rt o f the p ro g r a m m e o f the P ro je c t since 1960. Aerial surveys are s u p p lem en ted w ith g ro u n d ob serv a­ tions an d physical m e asurem en ts, an d related to meteorological an d o cea n o g ra p h ic conditions in an a tt e m p t to u n d e rs ta n d the be h a v io u r o f sea ice an d the causes o f its re m a rk a b le fluctua­ tion in c h a ra c te r a n d m o v e m e n t fr o m y e a r to year. T h e w ork is leading to better forecasts o f ice con dition s in the shipping ro utes o f S ub arctic C a n a d a . T h e m o v e m en t o f the large tab u lar icebergs, o r “ice islands,” w h ich b re a k off fro m the W a r d H u n t Ice S helf o n Ellesmere Island an d drift b oth to the east and w est a ro u n d and th ro u g h the A rchipelago, is reco rd ed; these bodies can be followed fro m y e a r to y e a r an d give a positive rec o rd o f the effects o f w in d an d oc ean current. T o p o g ra p h ic m ap p in g o f th e A rc tic A rchip elag o is now c o m p leted to a scale o f 1:2 50 ,00 0, a n d in areas o f special interest, to 1 :5 0 ,0 0 0 . T h e m a p p in g is based on vertical air p h o to g rap h s ta k e n at thirty tho u san d feet. G ro u n d con tro l was p ro v id ed by the A rm y S u rv ey E stab lish m en t o f the C an a d ia n A r m e d F o rc e s in th e W estern Islands, an d by the S urveys and M a p p in g B ran ch o f the D e p a rtm e n t o f Energy, M ines and R esources, in th e E astern Islands. Surveyors w o rk in g with the P o la r C o n tin en ta l Shelf P roject pro vid ed g ro u n d co n tro l on m a n y o f the N o r th e r n Islands. It can n o w be said th a t the m a p p in g is a d e q u a te , except w h e n special re q u irem en ts arise. T h e safety rec o rd o f the P roject h as b een good. O n e Otter a ircraft and one helicopter w ere lost w h e n landing o n ice floes. O ne tran sp o rt plane, co ntainin g a helicopter, was lost o n a trip from M on trea l to the A rctic Islands. T h e on ly p ersons killed on the P roject hav e been the pilot o f the helicopter an d the crew o f the tra n sp o rt plane. Since its inception, the P o lar C on tinen tal Shelf P ro ject has co ntrib u ted greatly to the scientific kno w led g e o f A rctic C a n ­ ada. In recent years, m o re th a n one h u n d re d p ersons o f various disciplines have, each year, tak en p a rt in the op eration . It can be said that the project has m e t the expectations an d hopes held fo r its progress. It has p ro ven definitely, th a t scientists and

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technicians can w o rk in the u n fa v o u ra b le clim ate with a m in i­ m u m o f discom fort an d danger. W ith the passage o f time, m o re a n d m o re o f the studies are being in tegrated into the no rm al p ro g r a m m e s o f the B ranches o f the D e p a rtm e n t o f Energy, M ines an d R esources. T h e great value o f the P ro je ct continues to be its logistic s u p p o r t and co-ord in ation o f pla nning and tra n sp o rt to the a d va nta ge o f all scientific gro ups w o rk in g in the area.

40 . Boundary Problems Relating to the Sovereignty of the Canadian Arctic M argaret W . Morris s o u r c e

:

T h e M u sk-O x, N o. 6 (1 9 6 9 ), pp. 32-58. R eprinted by perm ission o f the a u th o r an d publisher.

C oncepts o f Boundaries B oundaries have long been a favourite topic o f discussion for political g eographers. Lying, as they do, betw een n eighbouring states, they have frequently been a source o f friction and their presence h as often had p ro f o u n d effects o n the areas thro ug h w hich th ey lie. O n a m ap a b o u n d a ry ap pe ars as a thin line, but it is n o t a line; rather, it is a vertical pla n e th a t cuts th rou g h airspace, the soil an d subsoil. A b o u n d ary , acc ord in g to K ristof, how ever, is also m u ch m ore: It is created an d m ain tained by the will o f the central g ov ern m ent. It has n o life o f its ow n, not even a material existence. B o u n d a ry stones a re not the b o u n d a ry itself. T hey a re not coeval with it, only its visible symbols. . . . It is the m ediated will o f the people; abstracted and generalized in the national law, subjected to the tests o f international law, it is far rem o v ed from the changing desire and aspirations o f the in hab itants o f the bord erlan ds. . . . T h e b o u n d a r y is, in fact, the o u te r line o f e ffective control exercised by the central g o v e rn m e n t.1 T h e ideal sequence o f events in establishing a b o u n d a ry is as follows. First, the b o u n d a ry is defined and its limits described. D elim itation follows an d the b o u n d a ry is located, with the help o f detailed maps, as exactly as possible. T h e se tw o stages are J L. K. D. K ristof, “T h e N atu re o f F ro n tiers and B oundaries,” A n n a ls o f th e A m erican A ssociation o f G eographers (Septem ber, 1959), p. 272.

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extrem ely im po rta nt; the m o re precise and accurate the d escrip­ tion an d delimitation, the less likely is th ere to be subsequent friction betw een the adjoining states. A s Isaiah B ow m an once re m a rk e d , a b o u n d a ry line “ . . . has to be here, not h e re a b o u ts.” Finally, the b o u n d a ry is d em a rc a te d by poles, fences, frontier posts, etc. T h e process o f d e m arca tio n is costly an d often a m o u n ts to little m o re th an the erection o f a m in im u m o f signs as to ken recognition, unless friction already exists b etw een the neig hb ou rin g countries. T h e m aritim e b o u n d a ry is also an essential p a rt o f the territorial state system. E v ery coastal c o u n try requires it for cu sto m s, sanitation an d im m igratio n con tro l. This b ou nd ary , how ever, is different from the land b o u n d a ry in that it separates a state not only from its neig hb ou rin g c o u n tr y but fro m the w hole w orld c o m m u n ity o f states. T h e precise d e m a rc atio n of m aritim e bo un da ries is, therefore, ju st as im p o rta n t as that of la n d boundaries, even if it lies th ro u g h areas w hich are now eco no m ically u n im p o rtan t, f o r conditions m ay ch ang e su d ­ denly. H ow ever, the definition and d em a r c a tio n o f such b o u n d ­ aries is even m o re problem atic, since th ey cann ot easily be related to an yth in g static on the shoreline. Tides cause w ater lines to rise an d fall, erosion changes shorelines, and the great variety o f coastal configurations have resulted in attem pts at establishing satisfactory regulations since the M iddle Ages. O f the m an y con ferences held to discuss p rob lem s relating to the establishm ent o f m aritim e boundaries, two, in this c e n ­ tury hold special significance: T h e H ag u e Codification C o n ­ ference o f 1930 an d the U n ited N ations C o n fe re n c e on the L aw o f the Sea, held at G e n e v a in 1958. A ttem pts were m ade at both co nferen ces to bring ab o u t ag reem en t and clarification on m atters con ce rn in g sovereignty and rights with respect to the seas o f the world. M uch w as a ccom plished; however, some questions still rem ain unresolved. In this p ap e r, the m o re p er­ tinent o f these p rob lem s will be outlined a n d discussed in relation to the question of sovereignty in the C a n a d ia n Arctic.

T he Canadian A rctic R ecen t events in the C a n a d ia n A rctic h av e p ro m p te d con sider­ able c o n ce rn fro m som e q u arters regarding the extent o f C a n ­ a d a ’s claims to sovereignty o v e r this region. Such c o nce rne d discussion is not new. F o r alm ost a cen tu ry C a n a d a ’s A rctic sovereignty has, m a n y times, been the subject o f d eb ate in

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P arliam en t. O pin ion s expressed show ed considerable diversity an d no definite conclusions have yet been arrived at. As late as 1963, Prof. Ivan H ead, then a m e m b e r o f the E xternal Affairs D e p a rtm e n t, stated with regards to the inland archipelago an d its waters, It is highly unlikely that u n in te rru p te d surface passage from the L a b r a d o r Sea to eith er the A rctic O cean o r the B eaufort Sea, o r vice versa, will ever be a reality. F u tu re d e m a n d s fo r the right o f innocent passage th ro ug h the archipelago are speculative to a degree.L ate r this S pring the M a n h a tta n , a 143,000 ton oil ta n k e r now being built in the U nited States, will m a k e an exp erim ental voyage from the recently discovered oilfields o f P ru d h o e Bay o n th e north A lask an coast to E uro pe , via the N o rth w est Passage. It h as been estim ated that the tran sp ortatio n costs involved in shipping oil by huge ice-breaker ta nkers w ould be h alf that o f tr a n sp o rtin g the oil by pipelines to the same destination. C on se qu ently, if the M a n h a tta n p roject is success­ ful,* reg u lar use o f the N o rth w est Passage for carg o moving betw een the A tlantic and Pacific m ay very well be established. T o date, o th e r states have h ad little cause to be interested in the C a n a d ia n A rctic, but the alread y vast discoveries and an ticip ated exploitation o f p e tro le u m reserves within the Arctic has resulted in a considerable increase o f interest directed to w a rd s this region from the United States as well as from w ithin C a n a d a . N o do ubt this will force the G o v e r n m e n t to finally take a stand on the ex act delineation o f C a n a d a ’s A rctic boundaries. O th e r states, after all, can h ardly be ex­ pected to respect C a n a d a ’s b ou nd arie s if C an a d ia n authorities c a n n o t m ak e up th eir own m in d s as to how they th in k they shou ld be draw n. T h is region is a m o n g the last to be delimited a n d it will afford a classic e xam ple fo r the in ternational law tribunals w hose jurisdiction it is to ratify such bou nd aries, since the A rctic region possesses so m e un ique characteristics for w hich no legal preced ents have yet been established. T h e r e are fo u r areas o r problem s for discussion: the off­ sho re island g ro u p com p rising the archipelago; the w aters in 2 Ivan L. H ead, “ C an ad ian C laim s to T errito rial Sovereignty in the A rctic R egions," M c G ill L aw Journal, Vol. IX (1 9 6 3 ), p. 218. * [The M a n h a tta n , escorted by the C a n ad ian icebreaker S ir John A . M a cd o n a ld , successfully effected the N orthw est Passage in both directions in the late sum m er o f 1969. ( e d .) J

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betw een the islands; the con tin en tal shelf adjac en t to the archipelago; an d the w aters a n d ice su rro u n d in g the arch i­ pelago within the limits o f the d e m a r c a te d “sector.” E a c h of these will be discussed w ith reference to in ternational laws and traditions, an d related to C a n a d a ’s historical position. The Islands Inte rn atio nal law recognizes a n u m b e r o f basic m od es o f acq uiring territory. O p p e n h e im ’s classification, perhap s the best kn o w n , includes five: cession, occu patio n, accre­ tion, subjugation an d prescription. In addition the supple­ m en tary doctrines o f continuity, contiquity, the hinterland a n d the w a te rs h e d h av e som etim es been invoked in s u p ­ p o rt o f territorial claims, a n d u n d er certain circum stan ces m a y have w eight.3 P rio r to the fifteenth cen tu ry the feudal b a ro n s ac crued land o n th e tenet th a t “m ight w as rig h t.” If the claim was then recognized by the P o p e, the a u th o rity o f the w hole o f C h ris te n ­ d o m stood behind it. D u rin g the period o f e x p a n d e d m aritim e exp loration from the mid 1400s o n w a rd , new rules w ere elicited to fit each n ew occasion. A t first, discovery w ith the taking of possession by the sym bolic planting o f flags and the simple p ro c la m a tio n o f the claim was sufficient to acq uire the “terra n u llis." G ra d u a lly , as the age o f discovery m erged into the age o f colonization, discovery an d possession were no longer eno ug h, and the re q u ire m e n t o f o c cu p a tio n becam e m o r e im ­ portant. In the nineteen th cen tury, Russia justified its title to A laska by asserting th a t the re w ere . . th ree bases re qu ired by the general L aw o f N a tio n s and im m em orial usages a m o n g n ations: th a t is, u pon the title o f first discovery; u p o n the title o f first o ccu p atio n ; an d, in the last place, u p o n th a t w hich results fro m a peaceful an d u ncontested possession f o r m o re th an half a c e n tu r y .”4 In addition, ac cordin g to the G e n e ra l A ct o f the Berlin C o n fe re n c e o f 1884-5, it was necessary to notify the o th e r nations o f that claim, th a t is, as H e a d says, to m a k e “ an overt expression o f 'a n im u s p o ssid en d i' .” T h e Berlin C o n fe r­ ence w as also responsible for laying the fo un dation s f o r the 3 G o rd o n W. Sm ith, “ Sovereignty in the N o rth : T he C anadian A spect o f an In tern atio n al P roblem ” (1 9 6 3 ), T he A rctic F rontier (ed. R. St. J. M a c d o n a ld ), 1966, p. 195. * (1821-22) 9 British a n d F oreign S ta te P apers 483, it. 485.

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m o d e r n re q u irem en ts o f in tern ation al law, as later e xpressed in various in tern ation al tribu n als as . . exercise exclusive a u th o r ­ ity,” . . con tin ued display o f au th o rity ,” a n d . . o c cu p a tio n m u s t b e effective.” T h e subjective te rm “effective o c c u p a tio n ” has be en inter­ p re te d m an y times. H e a d claim s that the arb itral aw ard in the “C lip p erto n Is la n d ” case stated th a t the o ccu py ing state must ta k e steps to exercise exclusive a u th o rity an d that . . . that only takes place w h en the state establishes in the territo ry itself a n o rgan iz atio n cap able o f m ak in g its laws re sp e cted .5 V o n d er H e y d te considered effective oc cup atio n to m e an : . . . the g u a ra n te e o f a m i n im u m o f protection to o n e ’s subjects as well as to foreigners c o m in g to the region. Effectiveness th e n seem s to be best illustrated by the actual display o f sovereign rights, the m a in te n a n c e o f o rd e r, and protection. B ut as a m a t te r o f fact sovereign rights c a n be exercised on ly o ver h u m a n beings, in in h abited lands; a certain o r d e r ca n be m a in tain ed only a m on gst h u m a n beings, i.e. again in in hab ited countries; a n d protectio n too ca n be g ran ted only to h u m a n beings. . . . It w ould be a m iscon structio n o f the do ctrin e o f effectiveness to say that sovereignty o ver completely un inh abited lands presupposes in every case actual o c c u p a tio n .0 Priorier, in 1907, arg ued along sim ilar lines w hen he said, I n the case o f the A rc tic wastes a n d resources, w h a t is deem ed, in m y view, sufficient to establish possession and give g ood title, is o c c u p a n c y as m u c h as o c c u p an cy can ta k e place. . . . N o o n e expects F r a n c e to till the S ah ara desert in o r d e r to c o m e w ithin the definition o f w h a t is needed to p erfect o c c u p a n c y .7 T h e Russian L a k h tin e was o n e o f the few w h o argu ed against effective o c c u p a tio n on th e g ro un ds th a t it was an u n re a s o n ­ able obligation in th e A rctic. P ro f. H e a d p refers H y d e ’s o p in ­ ion: r•> “ ‘T he C lip p erto n Island A w ard,’ 28 Ja n . 1931,” 26 A m erican Jo urnal In ternational L aw 390 (1 9 3 2 ), p. 393-4. R equoted in H ead, ibid., p. 202. 0 V on d e r H ey d te, “ D iscovery, Sym bolic A nnexation an d V irtual Effectiveness in In tern atio n al L aw ,” 29 A m erican Journal In ter­ national L a w 448 (1 9 3 5 ), p. 463. t (1906-07) D ebates, S enate, C a n ad a, p. 273.

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If, on a c c o u n t o f the rig ou r o f the clim ate in th e p o la r regions, the m i n im u m re q u irem en ts o f the law o f nations f o r the acquisition o f a righ t to sovereignty o v e r the newly fo u n d lands are to dee m e d relaxed w h e n the are a c o n ­ c e rn e d is w ithin those regions, the scope a n d c h a ra c te r o f the relaxation need carefu l analysis and observation as practices are in course o f d e v e lo p m en t.8 C a n a d a h as m a n y claims to sovereignty over h e r A rctic Island s — discovery, ex ploration, cession o r acquisition by treaty , prescrip tio n o r effective occu p atio n , a n d contiguity. Jo h n s to n in his “C a n a d a ’s T itle to the A rc tic Islands” writes that “A careful ex am ination o f histories o f exploring exp edi­ tions to a n d a m o ng st A rctic Islands will clearly show th a t all ex cept A xel H eibe rg Island an d the R ingnes Islands . . . w ere discovered and n a m e d by British ex plo re rs.” C o m m e n c in g with F ro b ish e r in 1576, others such as D avis9 (1 5 8 5 - 7 ) , H u d s o n ( 1 6 1 0 ) , B utton (1 6 1 2 - 1 3 ) , Bylot an d Baffin (1 6 1 5 an d 1 6 1 6 ), F o x e an d Jam es ( 1 6 7 1 ) , followed. E a c h one too k fo rm a l p o s­ session o f the places w here he landed. L a te r the assault o n the N o rth w e s t Passages w as rene w ed by P a rr y (1 8 1 9 - 2 0 ) , Ross ( 1 8 3 1 ) , F ran k lin ( 1 8 4 5 ) , M ’C lin to ck an d M c L u re ( 1 8 5 8 ) . In 1670 Prince R u p e r t an d his associates ob tain ed fro m K in g C harles II a c h a rte r as the G o v e rn o r an d C o m p a n y o f A d v e n tu re r s o f E n g la n d tr ad in g into H u d s o n ’s Bay. It defined th e a re a o f “ R u p e r t’s L a n d ” w h ich is generally ta ken to include th e entire a re a d rain ing into H u d so n 's Bay. “ But the c h a r t e r w en t even b e yo nd ‘R u p e r t’s L a n d .’ W h e re th eir o w n g o v e rn ­ m e n t en d ed , the C o m p a n y w ere to have sole right o f trade in all the ‘havens, bays, creeks, rivers, lakes, an d seas’ into w hich th ey cou ld find passage fro m th eir ow n a re a .” 10 F r a n c e d ispu ted the H u d s o n ’s Bay C o m p a n y ’s claim fr o m the start, and it was not until a fte r the signing o f the T re a t y of P aris in 1763 th a t F ra n c e w ith d re w finally fro m the m ainlan d o f N o r t h A m e ric a a n d ceded all its land to Britain. In 1868, th e R u p e r t ’s L a n d A c t au tho rize d the acquisition by the G o v ­ e rn m e n t o f the U n ited K in g d o m o f “R u p e r t’s L a n d an d the N o rth w e ste rn T e rri to r y .” T itle to these territories w as th en tra n sfe rre d to C a n a d a in 1870, although the lands themselves 8 H yde, Intern a tio n a l L aw , Vol. 1 (2nd ed., 1945), p. 348 in H ead , op. cit., p. 214.

0 Jo h n sto n , “ C a n a d a ’s T itle to the A rctic Islands” 14 C anadian H istorical R eview , Vol. 24 (1 9 3 3 ), p. 25. N icholson, N o rm a n L., T h e B oundaries o f C anada, I ts Provinces a n d Territories, p. 11.

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w ere n o t tran sferred until 1871. In view o f A m e ric a n activity such as explorers an d w halers, in the A rctic, Britain was now anxious to han d over to C a n a d a all th e re m a inin g territories an d rights in this region to forestall any atte m p t by the United States to establish h erself there. A m e m o o f the C olonial Office o f that time reads: T h e object o f a n nex ing these u n ex plo red territories to C a n a d a is, I a p p re h e n d , to prev ent the U nited States from claim ing th em , a n d not fr o m the likelihood of their proving o f an y v alue to C a n a d a .11 In 1875 the G o v e rn m e n t o f the n ew D o m in io n passed an O rd erin-Council requesting the tra n sfer fro m the U n ited K ing do m o f all the lands to the n o rth o f the D o m in ion . T h e g ran tin g of the request w as not co m p leted until 1880 when it w as a n ­ n o u n c e d that: F r o m an d after Sept. I, 1880, all British T erritories and possessions in N o r th A m e ric a , not a lread y included within th e D o m in io n o f C a n a d a , an d all islands adjac ent to any o f such territories o r possessions, shall (with the exception o f the C olon y o f N e w fo u n d la n d an d its dep en den cies) be­ co m e and be annexed to an d form p a rt o f the said D o m in io n o f C a n a d a . 12 A lth o u g h this tra n sferred British rights to the A rctic Islands to C a n a d a , it did not definitely describe the territo ry a dd ed to C a n a d a . A n a ttem p t at delim itation followed in 1897, with the defining o f the F ran k lin D istrict, w hen a n O rder-in-C ouncil stated th a t F ran k lin shou ld com prise, as noted by King, . . . all those lands an d islands co m prised betw een the one h u n d red an d forty-first m eridian o f longitude west o f G r e e n ­ w ich o n the west and Davis strait, Baffin bay, Sm ith sound, K en n e d y c h an n e l an d Robeson ch ann el o n the east w hich are not included in any o th e r provisional district. N icholson states, T h u s it is fro m 1897, fro m the C a n a d ia n po int o f view at least, that the present land area definitely ex ten de d to the 11 C olonial O ffice Papers, Series N o. 42, vol. 759 (Ja n . 29, 1879), p. 19. 12 K ing, R ep o rt U pon th e Title o f C anada to the Islands N o rth o / the M a in la n d o f C anada; O ttaw a, D ep artm en t o f the Interior (1 9 0 5 ), p. 10.

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A rctic O cean, although at the time no specific m ention seem s to h av e been m a d e o f any claim to undiscovered islands, o r to a fo rm a l extension o f C a n a d a to the N o rth P o le.13 N o r ha d all the lands been secured for C a n a d a . In 1909 the A m e ric a n e xp lorer R obert Peary, after repeated attem pts to reach the N o rth Pole, finally succeeded in plan tin g the A m e ri­ c a n flag at o r n e ar the Pole an d claim ed “the entire region and a d ja c e n t” fo r the U nited States. A n o th e r explorer, Otto S verd ru p, discovered the Axel H eiberg an d R ingnes Islands betw een 1898 an d 1902 and claim ed them fo r N o rw a y . T he dispute w hich followed was not settled until 1930, w hen the N o rw eg ia n g o v e rn m e n t form ally recognized C an a d ia n sov­ ereignty over these S ve rdrup Islands. In retu rn, the C an a d ia n G o v e r n m e n t pa id S v e rd ru p the sum o f $6 7 ,0 0 0 f o r all his original maps, notes an d diaries relating to his expedition. A s a lread y stated, discovery and m ere possession w ere not considered sufficient. “T o receive international recognition pos­ session d e m a n d s the acceptance o f tw o responsibilities: co n ­ tinuing interest in the territory, and a co n cern f o r the welfare o f its in hab itan ts.” 14 Jenness adds, D o w n to the very end o f the n in eteenth century, however, C a n a d a com pletely neglected h er A rctic, and gave no th o u g h t at a n y time to the c on ditio n o f its E skim o in­ habitants. It is also do ub tful w he ther o r not the transfers fro m the British G o v e r n m e n t were accepted as binding by o th e r foreign c o u n ­ tries. S hocked into f u r th e r recognition o f its n o rth by S v e rd r u p ’s claims fo r N o rw a y , the D o m in io n G o v e rn m e n t in 1903 decided to send a cruiser to patrol the w aters o f H u d so n Bay an d the ad jac en t islands. M a jo r M oodie o f the N o rth w e ste rn M o u n ted Police was appointed acting C o m m iss io n e r o f the unorganized N o rth w est T erritories and was auth orized to establish p e r ­ m a n e n t stations fo r the collection o f custom s, the ad m in is tra ­ tion of justice and e n fo rcem e n t o f the law. E x p lo rato ry and scientific expeditions were also sanctioned by the C an a d ia n G o v e rn m e n t, such as those u n d e r C a p ta in B ernier in 1909 and Stefansson betw een 1913 an d 1918. is N icholson, op. cit., p. 38. 14 Jenness, D., “ E skim o A d m in istratio n : II C a n a d a ," A rctic In sti­ tu te o f N o rth A m erica 14 (1 9 6 4 ), p. 17.

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c h a n g in g

north

Otherw ise, the G o v e r n m e n t to ok no fu r th e r interest in her n o rth ern possessions until W o rld W a r I. Since that time, G o v ­ e rn m e n t interest an d activity in the N o r th has increased at an accelerating rate. In 1920, the C an a d ia n G o v e r n m e n t spent $ 4 ,0 0 0 in the A rctic; by 1924 it had risen to $3 00 ,00 0. In 1959, m ore th an $33 million dollars were spent by the G o v e r n ­ m ent. In 1931, G u s ta v Smedel said th a t “A good preceden t of h o w to take effective possession o f its po lar areas is C a n a d a ’s handling of the A rctic Islands lying north o f its coasts.” 13 Since that statem en t was m ade, C a n a d a 's legal position, w ith regard to effective occu patio n, has surely im p ro ved . C a n a d a 's claims to sovereignty o v e r her islands has not been challenged by a n o th e r state since 1930, and C a n a d a 's ow n p ro g r a m m e o f go v­ e rn m e n ta l a n d o th e r activity has steadily e xp and ed since the e n d o f W o rld W a r II. C a n a d a 's p resent position regarding h e r sovereignty over th e Arctic islands seem s s u m m e d up in the form o f an answ er to a question asked recently by Mr. Les Benjamin (R eginaL a k e C e n tre ) in the H o u se o f C o m m o n s, by P rim e M inister T r u d e a u : “ . . . o u r sovereignty o ver all the A rctic Islands is not challenged in an y way. I d o not th ink the question o f sover­ eignty has been d isp uted .” "''

T he W aters Between the Islands P rim e M inister T r u d e a u co ntinues, “ I said before that the ques­ tion o f status o f the seas was not established in a way which entailed the recognition o f the international c o m m u n ity .” All m aritim e boundaries are g eom etric lines, since all m ea s u rem e n ts m u st be ta ken fro m the shoreline. But shorelines are n eith er even n o r static. T id es a lter the position o f the sho re ­ line, a n d low- and h igh-w ater base-lines have been discussed at several international m aritim e conferences. In the 1958 G en ev a C o n v en tio n the “m e a n low w a te r ” w as ad o p te d as the base­ line for m e a s u re m e n t o f the territorial sea; this was a revision o f th e lo w er-w ater line previously established at the H ag u e C o nfe ren ce. T h is definition is vital since the base-line is really the key to all zon atio n o f w a te r and sea bed off the coast o f th e state. It fo rm s the in n e r limit o f th e territorial sea, and f ro m it is m e asured the o u te r limit. F e w coastlines, however, 15 G. Sm edel, A cq u isition o f Sovereignty O ver Polar A rea s (1 9 3 1 ), p. 35. 16 T apw e, A pril 7, 1969, p. 10.

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are straight. Bays, estuaries an d o th e r in dentations have also ke p t the treaty m ak ers busy. A t the 1930 H ag ue C o nference, a base-line w as cleaned as follows: A base-line draw n across the m o u th o f the bay. This is re ferred to as the line o f closure. T h e length o f this line sho uld not exceed tw e n ty -fo u r miles w hich is twice the m a x im u m claim to territorial w aters recognized u n d er inter­ national law. W h e n the m o u th o f the bay is m o re th an tw enty -fou r miles w ide its w aters c a n be claim ed only th rou gh the accepted m e tho ds o f territorial w aters delimi­ tation. If the m ou th o f the bay is less th an tw en ty -fou r miles in w idth a semi-circle is d raw n w ith the closure line as its d iam eter. If the bay has an a re a sm aller th an th a t of th e semi-circle based on its closure line it cann ot be cut off by such a line. If the w ater a re a o f the bay is larger th an that o f the semi-circle it is indeed p a rt o f the inland w aters o f the state in q u e stio n .17 T h e ruling applies to estuaries as well as bays. It is also possible to claim certain are as o f the sea such as bays, estuaries, w aters lying betw een the m ain lan d and the offshore islands, a n d w aters lying betw een islands o f the frag ­ m e n te d archipelago state as “H istorical w ate rs .” T h e G e n ev a C o n v e n tio n o f 1958 could not agree on the exact n a tu r e of these historic w aters and the question has yet to be settled legally. H ow eve r, a n u m b e r o f states have laid claim to bays on this basis, and precedents have been established u n d e r legal jurisdiction. Both N o rw a y a n d Iceland have claimed, in view o f the com plexity o f their coastlines, additional territorial w aters in this way, by draw in g base lines across fiords in excess of tw enty -fou r miles width. In donesia has also claim ed all the w aters sep aratin g its islands. Sim ilarly, C a n a d a has laid claim to all the w aters o f H u dso n Bay. In reply to an e nq uiry c o n ­ cernin g H u d so n Bay the U n d e r Secretary o f State for E xternal Affairs w rote on N o v e m b e r 19, 1965: Y o u also asked w here the divisional line betw een C a n a ­ dian and In tern ation al w aters in H u d s o n ’s Bay lies. I do n o t think it feasible to rep ro d u ce the relevant m a p c o ­ ord in ates w hich would relate to this are a for your in f o rm a ­ tion. H ow ever, the answ er is quite simple . . . the entire body o f w a te r generally kn ow n as H u d s o n ’s Bay is regarded by C a n a d a as p a rt o f its territorial w aters .18 H arm J. de Blij, S ystem atic Political G eography, pp. 300-2. is Canada Y ea rb o o k o f International L a w (1 9 6 6 ), p. 282.

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All w aters thus claim ed inside the base line are called Internal W ate rs. Sovereignty o ve r such w a te r is identical to the land a re a o f the coastal state along which th ey lie. T h e zone of w a te r off the coast o f the state is referred to as the T errito rial Sea. C om plete sovereignty is m ain tain ed o v e r the T erritorial Sea by the coastal state, with the exception o f the right of inn ocen t passage to ships o f o th e r states. At the sam e time, it was decided to a d d a third zone, a C on tigu ou s Zone, w ith a w idth o f no m o re th an twelve miles from the base-lines; th a t is, if th ree miles is c laim ed fo r the T errito rial w aters, the C o n ­ tiguous zone can only be an additional nine miles.10 In this zone, the state w ould have certain powers, including customs inspection, as well as controls pertaining to im m igra tion and sanitation. Legally, this zone excludes the granting o f fishing rights, how ever, m a n y countries, including C a n a d a , have ex­ ten ded their exclusive fishing rights to include the C on tigu ou s Z one. A ltho ug h all countries recognize the value o f establishing m a ritim e boundaries, no unilateral accepta nce o f a specific w idth o f the T errito ria l w aters has been d eterm ined . In the n in eteenth cen tury, the U n ited States an d Britain ad o p te d the three-m ile limit as their m aritim e b o u n d ary , an d it rapidly b ecam e the m ost c o m m o n claim in m a n y p a rts o f the world. D espite m any disputes and conflicts from time to time, in 1951 80 p e r cent o f the m erchan t-sh ip p in g to n n ag e o f the w orld was registered u n d e r a three-m ile limit; an o th e r 10 p er cent, under a four-mile limit. H ow ever, today, m o re an d m o re states are claiming twelve o r even m o re miles as T e rrito rial sea; bays are c u t off and disputes are growing. N o ag reem en t was reached in either the H ag u e o r G en ev a C o nv en tio n regardin g the w idth o f the T erritorial sea limit, o th e r than, as the In tern ation al Law C o m m ission stated, that “ . . . it considers th a t international law does not p erm it an extension o f territorial seas b eyond twelve miles.” H o w ev er, w ithin that distance there is no fixed limit. C on se q u e n tly som e cou ntries have set their w idth at twelve miles claiming it to be w ithin the limits o f the Internatio nal L aw C o m m issio n draft. O th e rs have set it at less, an d som e, fo r exam ple m a n y Latin A m e ric a n countries, have pushed their claims to g reat distances. G en erally , the older, m o re established m aritim e countries, u p ­ holding the c o n cep t of freedo m on the high seas, adopted n arro w w idths, w h ereas the younger, new ly independent, exi f All m easurem ents refer to nautical miles. O ne nautical mile is 1.151 statu te miles.

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p a n sio n a ry states, seem ed to fa v o u r w id er T e rrito rial Seas. Space, accordingly to Ratzel is the life-giving elem en t o f the state an d the fron tie rs o f to d a y are, certainly, the seas. It was n o t surprising, th erefore, th a t those w hich claim ed the wider sovereignty ov er the sea included the P eo p le’s R ep u b lic of C h in a, the U n ited A ra b R epublic, In d o n e s ia an d cou ntries of L atin A m erica. In 1950, fo rty states ha d c laim ed the three-m ile limit; by 1960, only tw enty-tw o still claim ed it. In ad dition to disagreem en ts co n c ern in g the w idth o f the T e rritorial Sea, co ntrov ersy reg ard ing the p ro ced u res and m e th o d s in d ete rm in in g the limits have also arisen. T h ree m e th o d s were discussed at the H a g u e C o n fere n c e. T h e Replica M e th o d , w h ereby a n e x act replica o f the sinuosities o f the coastline is delimited at a given distance fr o m the coast, was rejected as presen tin g u n su r m o u n ta b le problem s. In the Base­ line o r C o nv en tion al M eth o d , straight lines are d ra w n from po int to po int along the coast. T h ese baselines are confined to the closure o f bays an d estuaries, b u t ru n along the entire coast. T h e b o u n d a ry line is th e n m e a s u re d fr o m these baselines. “ Baselines shou ld n o t exceed tw e n ty -fo u r miles in length. T h e practice o f b o u n d in g an entire coastline w ith baselines is clearly in con trave ntio n o f th a t rule. B ut w h ere baselines a re legally justified they are e m p lo y ed .”20 T h e 1930 H a g u e C o n feren ce defined the E nv elope M e th o d as follows: “T h e s e aw a rd limit o f the territorial w aters is the envelope o f all arcs a n d circles d ra w n fro m all points o n th e coast . . . o r fr o m the seaw ard limit o f those interior (in te rn a l) w aters w h ich are contiguous w ith the territorial w aters.” 21 T h is m e th o d h as the adv antag e o f being very simple; for the cap ta in o f a ship at sea can de term in e exactly w h e th e r o r not he is w ithin the given T e r r i­ torial Sea w idth by m easuring his distance to an y p o in t o n the shore, an d calculatin g his position by using simple tria ng ula ­ tion methods. Islands, if lo cated within the T e rrito rial Sea, are included as p art o f the m ainlan d, ex tend in g the T e rrito ria l Sea a c c o rd ­ ingly. H o w e v e r, islands outside such a limit have their own T e rrito rial Sea. Sim ilarly, islands o f an a rchipelago h av e their ow n T erritorial seas w hich m ay o r m a y n o t overlap. W h a t is C a n a d a ’s pre se nt position regardin g h er T erritorial w aters? T h e following statem en t issued by the D e p a rtm e n t of E x tern a l Affairs on Jan. 21, 1965 sum s u p C a n a d a ’s p resen t position. 20 21

de Blij, o p . cit., p. 304. S. W h ittem o re Boggs, D elim itation o f th e Territorial Sea, p. 544.

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F ollowing the failure o f the 1958 a n d 1960 conference on the L aw o f the Sea to reach a g ree m en t on the bread th o f the T errito ria l Sea a n d fishing, C a n a d a decided to im ­ plem ent by unilateral action a nine-mile fishing zone adjac ent to its three-m ile territorial sea. F o r this purpose, the C a n a d ia n P arliam ent passed the “ T erritorial Sea and Fish ing Z on es A c t" w hich w as pro claim ed on July 23. 1964 an d w hich pro vides for the establishing o f an exclusive fisheries zone an d the straight baseline system f o r C an a d a . A t the present time, the C a n a d ia n au tho rities are c o n d u c t­ ing negotiations with certain cou ntries w hose fishing m a y be affected by the C a n a d ia n actio n.22 In April 1966 the U n d e r S ecretary o f State for E xternal Affairs stated w ith regard to T e rrito rial Sea an d Fishing Z o nes A ct of 1964 con cern ing the use o f geographical co-ordinates o f points w hich can be joined by straight baselines: “T o date, however, no co-ordinates o f points have in fact been issued." With regard to Baffin Island, he add ed that zones "will be calculated from the low -w ater m a r k until such tim e as straight base-lines m ay be established by the G o v ern o r-in -C o u n cil.”2'1 E ven allowing for the extension o f the three-m ile limit to in clude an ad dition al C on tig u o u s zone o f nine miles, all the w a ters o f the archipelago could not be included as T erritorial w aters. M an y o f the w ider cha nn els such as that o f Parry C h a n n e l, co m prisin g L an caster Sound. B arrow Strait, V iscou nt Melville Sound an d M cC lu re Strait a re m u ch w id er th an the six acknow ledged miles fo r T e rrito ria l seas, o r even the twentyf o u r miles for the C o n tig u o u s zone. Use o f the base-line system, d raw in g straight lines from headla nd to headland and m e a s u r­ ing the T erritorial an d fishing limits se aw ard from those lines w ould include most of the archipelago, but this has not yet been ratified by in ternational law. H e a d states h ow ev er that base­ lines su rro u n d in g the a rch ipelag o ". . . do not necessarily offend against the provisions o f the C o n ven tio n on the T e r r i­ torial Sea an d the C on tig u o u s Z o n e o r against the principles laid do w n by the Internatio nal C o u rt o f Justice in the 'N o r ­ wegian Fisheries’ case.” T h re e co nsideratio ns of relevance to a court, e n u m e ra te d in the Fisheries case, were as follows: T h a t “it is the land w hich confers upon the coastal State a right to the w aters olf its coasts;" T h a t it is “ . . . the m o re o r less close relationship existing betw een certain sea areas and 22 Canadian Y ea rb o o k o f International L aw (1966), p. 281. 23 C anadian Y ea rb o o k o f International Law ( 1967), p. 263.

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the land form ations which divide o r su rro u n d them. T h e real question raised in the choice o f base lines is in effect w h eth er certain sea areas lying within these lines are sufficiently close linked to the land d om ain to be subject to the regime o f inland w aters . . and that the c onsideration o f “certain econ om ic interests p eculiar to a region, the reality and im p ortan ce of w hich arc clearly evidenced by a long usage,” should not be o verlooked. H ead co nclu de s that: An application o f these three co nsideratio ns to the waters o f the Arctic arch ip elag o m a y well lead to a c o n ­ clusion in fa v o u r o f C a n a d ia n base lines circum sc ribing th e entire archipelago. N o eco no m ic tie in the form o f fish­ ing g rou nd s ties these w aters to the islands, but the channels do form the only sea routes throu gh the islands an d in that respect fo rm lines o f c o m m u n ic a tio n a m o n g them. As observed earlier, these c h an n els do not form p art of any sea routes followed by any m aritim e states, an d it is not likely that it ever will. T h e haz ard s o f navigation and the rem o teness o f the archipelago th ere fore a p p e a r to prevent a n y o th e r state from acq uiring any sort o f e c o ­ nom ic interest in these w a ters.-1 It is now obvious that conditions have ch ang ed in the Arctic waters, an d it is very likely that the N orthw est Passage, for exam ple, should in effect be regarded as a high-seas rou te be­ tw een the A tlantic an d Pacific O cean. A n u m b e r o f archipelago states such as the Philippines and Indonesia have d eclared that their w aters are territorial, but these decla ration s have been protested by m a n y co un tries including the U n ited States and Britain, w ho m ain tain that rules governing single islands should apply to the islands o f the archipelago. It is the A m e rican view­ point, acc ord in g to Boggs, that the only practicable w a y to elim in ate these pockets is to co n sid er the pockcts, ra th e r th an to co n sid er the islands as islands. Sim ilarly, the United States m a kes no claims for the various archipelagos off the coast of Alaska. T h e r e app ears to be no well-defined, consistent attitude in the past regarding the w a ters o f the C an a d ia n archipelago. T h e r e have been semi-official sta te m e nts to the effect that C a n ­ a d a regard s these w aters as territorial, for exam ple, Prim e M inister St. L a u ren t in the H o u s e of C o m m o n s in 1957 said, “O h, yes, the C a n a d ia n G o v e rn m e n t considers that these are H ead , op . d r ., pp. 219-220.

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C a n a d ia n territorial w aters.” B ut recently, P rim e M inister T r u d e a u , refe rrin g to th e A rc tic Islands, stated th a t “ th e q ues­ tion o f the status o f the seas w as not established in a w ay which entailed the recognition o f th e international c o m m u n ity . This m a t te r has still to be dealt w ith . . .”25 P ro fesso r D o n a t P h a r a n d o f the U niversity o f O ttaw a , an e x p e rt in this field, has recently d eclared in his article “I n n o ­ ce n t Passage in the A rctic ,” that closing off the N o rth w e st P assage w o u ld be c o n trary to international law. Professor Ja c que s-Iv an M o rin , o f the U n iversity o f M o n tre al, ha s also m a d e a detailed study o f the subject. H e says th a t C a n a d a p ro b a b ly could claim exclusive possession o f th e N o rth w est Passage, b u t sho uld be satisfied w ith th e trad itio nal T erritorial waters. T h is m a t te r poses m a n y questions. S h ou ld all the islands be considered as a single coastal archipelago, o r sh ou ld they be considered as outlying? I f C a n a d a did establish h e r righ t to th e a rchipelago w aters w o uld th eir status be as in tern a l w aters o r as a m arg in a l sea, th a t is b o th T erritorial an d Contiguous, o r even, so m e o f both? W o u ld the passages w ithin the islands be established w ith a right o f in n ocen t passage, o r w o uld they be reserved as international straits lying betw een tw o inter­ natio nal ocean s? M orin, referrin g to the last questio n “ . . . has expressed th e view th a t there should be the right o f in no cen t passage,” w h ich S m ith in terp rets to m e a n “th a t the N o rth w est Passage o r passages, at least, would n o t be classed as in ternal w a ters .”20 H e co nclud es th a t “ . . . it is a p p a re n t th a t a claim to territoriality o f the arch ip elago w a te rs m a y raise as m an y pro blem s as it solves.”

T he C ontinental Shelf P ro b le m s co ncern in g the T e rrito ria l o r m argin al zo n e have been discussed for centuries. A m o r e rec ent facto r co m p licat­ ing th e issue ha s been th a t o f th e C o n tin en tal Shelf. B oundaries a re usually co nsidered as being vertical planes intersecting land surfaces, the air space a bo ve an d th a t u n d e r­ g ro u n d . H o w e v e r, C o n tin en tal Shelf claim s have p ro d u c ed different b o u n d arie s - o n e vertical, cutting the T e rrito rial sea off from the high seas; o n e nearly horizontal lying o n to p of 25 T apw e, A pril 7 (1 9 6 9 ), p. 10. Sm ith, op. cit., p. 245.

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the C on tin ental Shelf; and a n o th e r alm ost vertical plane co n ­ tin uin g d o w n w a rd s from the seaw ard limit o f this shelf. Legal questions con cernin g the C o n tin en tal Shelf have only really em erged since the p ro cla m atio n issued in 1945 by Presi­ d en t T r u m a n , w hich claim ed for the U n ited States sovereignty o v e r the “seabed an d subsoil” o f the adjacent C o ntin ental Shelf, th ou gh not over the w aters lying above it. W ithin m o nth s sev­ eral o th e r states likewise claim ed their C o ntin en tal Shelves, and m a n y sought to include the w a ters above the sea, w hich th ey r e fe rred to as the “ep icontinental sea.” Chile, for exam ple, laid claim o ver tw o h u n d re d miles o f ad jac ent waters; this w as later red uced to thirty miles. Definition o f the C o ntin en tal Shelf and its limits b ecam e im perative. P earcy defines the C o ntinental S helf as . . . the zone o f relatively shallow w a te r a ro u n d an y c o n ­ tinent, extending from the low -w ater line to a d e p th at w hich the re is a m ark e d steepening o f the slope to greater d e p th .-7 T h e av erag e slope o f the shelf is extrem ely gentle, averaging less th an tw o-tenths o f o n e percent. . . . T h e s eaw ard m argin o f the C o ntin ental S helf is co m m o n ly cited to coincide w ith a dep th o f tw o h u n d re d meters although a criterion o f one h u n d re d fa tho m s (1 8 3 m e ters) is also co m m o n . T h e av erage w idth o f the C o ntin ental Shelf is thirty miles. H o w eve r, n eith er averages in d epth n o r w id th are very rele­ van t, since the rang e betw een the ex trem es o f w idth an d depth a re considerable. In view o f these differences, the G e n e v a C o n ­ ve n tio n decided to ad o p t the 1956 d ra ft o f the International L a w C o m m iss io n ’s Article, w hich stated: F o r th e pu rp o se o f these articles, the term “co n ti­ nental shelf” is used as referrin g ( a ) to the seabed an d su b ­ soil o f the su b m a rin e areas adjacent to the coast but o u t­ side th e are a o f the territorial sea, to a d e p th o f tw o h u n ­ dred m eters or, b eyond that limit, to w here the d epth of the su per-ja cen t w aters a d m it o f the exploitation o f the n atu ral resources o f the said area; ( b ) to the seabed an d subsoil of sim ilar su b m a rin e a reas adjac ent to the coasts o f islands.-8 27 G . Etzel Pearcy, G eographical A sp ects o j the L aw o f th e Sea, p. 11. 28 Ib id ., p. 14.

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A s P earcey c o m m e n te d , . . . this article has the a dv anta ge o f n o t in an y w ay h a m ­ pering a state’s ability to exploit resources off its o w n coast in deep and ev er d e e p e r w aters regardless of the distance fro m the coast. It is also w o rth y o f notice that the new article concedes to islands the sam e status as the m ainland w ith regard to the C o n tin en tal Shelf. . . . T h e en tire arch i­ pelago is thereby assured control o f resources in the waters s u r ro u n d in g even the m ost re m o te island. T h e C o ntinen tal Shelf o f the C a n a d ia n Arctic is o f considerable size. T h e above article asserting the sovereign right for ex p lo ra­ tion an d ex ploitation o f the n atu ral resources o f the coastal state ov er its C o n tin en tal Shelf is very significant for C an ad a. In o th e r words, it m eans th a t C a n a d a ’s right to jurisdiction over the resources o f the shelf adjac e nt to the A rctic archipelago is assured as long as C a n a d a retains h e r sovereignty o v e r the archipelago. Both airspace an d the w a te r above the shelf a re free from exclusive control o f the coastal state. Sim ilarly, o th e r states are free to lay su b m a rin e cables o r pipelines across the shelf w ithout interference from the coastal state. T h e coastal state, in carrying o u t its exploration an d exploitation, is perm itted to build instal­ lations fo r th a t purpo se; h ow ever, they m ust not in terfere with established shipping lanes: th ey d o not have the status o f islands w ith th eir o w n T erritorial seas. T h ese conditions, naturally, ap ply to C a n a d a ’s C o ntinental Shelf in the Arctic.

T he W aters and Ice Surrounding the A rchipelago In 1907, S ena tor Pascal Poirier, in a Senate speech, p u t forw ard the idea o f division in the A rctic O cean into Sectors, as a simple, logical and c onvenient m ean s o f ap po rtio ning the territory in th e P o lar regions. N e ith e r the idea o f claim ing sovereignty over a sector o f the earth 's surface as m ea sure d by m e rid ian s of longitude, n o r its ap plication to the A rctic regions was new. As early as 1494, Po pe A lex an d er V I, u n d e r the T re a t y o f T o rd e silias, se pa rated the colonial territorial claim s of P ortug al and Spain by lines ru n n in g fro m N o r th to South Poles. T h e RussianA m e ric a n T r e a t y o f 1867, w h ich b ro u g h t ab ou t the sale of A laska, stated that the dividing line betw een R ussian and A m e ric a n T errito rie s should proceed “ due north, w itho ut limi­ tation, into the sam e F ro zen O cea n .” In 1897, the D o m in io n

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O rder-in-C ouncil delim ited the F ran k lin District as all lands and islands betw een the 141st m eridian a n d Davis Strait. A D e p a rtm e n t o f Inte rior m a p o f 1904 show ed sector lines r u n ­ ning along the 141st and 60th m eridians to the N o r th Pole. Poirier him self stated that his ad vocation w as the result o f a discussion with C a p ta in B ernier at the N e w Y o rk Arctic Club the previous year. N evertheless, this was the first deliberate and fo rm al declaration o f the Sector Principle stated in P arliam ent as applied to C a n a d a . . . . we can establish a fourth grou nd for ow n ership o f all the lands an d islands that exte nd from the Arctic Circle up to the N orth Pole. Last year, 1 think it was, when o u r C a p ­ tain Bernier w as in N e w Y o rk , a guest o f the Arctic Club, the question being m o oted as to the ow n ership o f Arctic L ands, it was proposed an d agreed - and this is n o t a novel affair —that in future, partition of n o rth e rn lands, a c o un try w hose possession tod ay goes u p to the A rctic regions, will ha v e a right, o r should have a right, o r has the right to all lands that are to be fo u n d in the w ate rs betw een a line exte nd ing from its eastern extrem ity n o rth , and a n o th e r line exte nd ing from the w estern extrem ity north. All lands be­ tween the two lines up to the N o rth Pole should belong and d o belong to the c o u n try whose territory abuts up there. N o w if w e take o u r g e og rap hy , it is a sim ple m atter.-1' Poirier, it should be noted, referred to "lan d s and islands” ; how ever, oth ers have ex tende d this Sector Principle to include the w hole area confined w ithin the limits o f the sector. F o r ex am ple, Professor H y d e has stated that the sector theory “ . . . m ark s indifference as to the n atu re o f the surface o f the are a c o n c ern ed - w h e th e r it be land, o r ice, o r w aters.’"10 It is obvious from the g reat variety o f opinions expressed th a t just exactly w hat the Sector Principle does ap ply to is not at all clear. In view o f the foregoing re m a rk s regarding the archipelago, its w aters and the C o ntinen tal shelf, it w ould seem that the Sector Principle really has little relevancy o r application to these regions. It is felt th a t claims fo r their sovereignty arc based qu ite legitimately on the o th e r laws an d traditions already mentioned. F o r C a n a d a , therefore, the Sector Principle, today, only has possible relevancy in regards to the w aters an d ice within its bounds. (1906-07) D ebutes, S enate, C anada, p. 271. so H yde, h u e n u ttio n a l L aw , Vol. 1 (2nd ed., 1945), p. 349. 20

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H e a d has s u m m arized the S ector theory as follows: A n A rctic sector is deceptively simple, a n d is c o m ­ p o u n d ed o f only two ingredients: a base line o r arc described along the A rctic Circle th ro u g h te rritory u n ­ q uestionably w ithin the jurisdiction o f a te m p erate zone state, and sides defined by m e rid ian s o f longitude, e xtending from the N o rth Pole s o uth o f the most easterly an d westerly points on the A rctic C ircle pierced by the state. U n d e r the theory nations possessing territory exten ding into the Arctic regions have a rightful claim to all t e r r i t o r y - b e it land, w a te r o r i c e - l y i n g to their n o rth . T h is claim springs fro m the geographical relationship o f the claim an t state to the claim ed te rritory; the two areas m ust be con tiguous along the Arctic Circle.'11 M a n y cou ntries have laid claim to territo ry in the A n ta rc tic based o n this principle; however, the U nited States has consist­ ently refused to accept the S ector Principle eith er in the A n t ­ arctic o r Arctic. In the A rctic, o nly Russia, o th e r th an C a n a d a , has m a d e a sector claim. In a decree in 1926, Russia form ally claim ed “ . . . all lands and islands alread y discovered, as well as those w hich are to be discovered in the fu tu re . . .” betw een h e r coast and the N o r th Pole, fro m 3 2 ° 4 ' 3 5 " E to 1 6 8 ° 4 9 / 3 0 " W . L akhtine, w ho w as then, in 1930, a Se cretary M e m b e r o f the C o m m ittee o f D irection o f the Section o f A erial L aw o f the U n ion o f Societies, how ever, asserted th a t “ P o lar States acq uire sovereignty o v e r them (seas, floating ice, and p e rm a n e n t ice) w ithin the limits o f the sectors o f a ttra c tio n .”32 T h e Sector Principle has aro used mixed reactions a m o n g legal an d o th e r authorities, ranging fro m com plete en do rsem e n t by a few, to expressions o f co nsiderable do ubt by m any , while still o thers have firmly refused to concede that it has an y legal au thority. T h e variety o f views expressed a m o n g qualified authorities is reflected in the great variety of state doctrines and practices. H ead points out that “ . . . o pp on en ts o f the theory arg u ed pow erfully that national claims u n d e r the theory were in exact reverse o rd e r to the no rm al process o f acquisition. T h e sector theory places territory in the legal possession o f the state even before it was discovered. H ow , it w as argued, can a state claim sovereignty ov er areas ab o u t w hich it know s absolutely s i H ead , op. cit., p. 203. 32 L ak h tin e, “ R ights O ver the A rctic,” 24 A m erican Journal o / International L a w (1 9 3 0 ), p. 711.

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no thing ?”3'1 T h e N o rw eg ia n , Sm edel, claim ed that it gave an un fair a d van ta g e to those states b orde rin g the A rctic, noting that the parties on w h o m the greatest w ro ng w ould be inflicted by the sector principle w ould be the states th a t are not b ordered by the A rctic O cean. O thers, such as the Russian Lakhtine, sp o k e in fa v o u r o f the principle, arguing that sectors offered th e only “practic al” solution to the problem. Sim ilar divergent opinions have been expressed in C a n a d a since 1907. At first Poirier's prop osal was co nsid ered to be p re m a tu r e ; his m o tion was neith er secon ded n or put to a vote. In 1909, C ap tain B ernier “ . . . assembled aro u n d P a r r y ’s rock to witness the unveiling o f a tablet p laced on the roc k . . w hich read as follows: T h is m em orial is erected tod ay to c o m m e m o r a te the taking possession fo r the D o m in io n o f C a n a d a o f the whole A rctic A rch ipelago lying to the north o f A m e ric a fro m longitude 6 0 ° W to 141 ° W , up to latitude 9 0 ° N . 34 H ow ever, little fu rth e r en th u sia sm was displayed to w ards the S ecto r Principle until after W o rld W a r I, w hen there w as an increased interest in the N o rth . In 1925, M in ister o f In terior, Stew art, told the H o use o f C o m m o n s th a t C a n a d a claim ed the territory to the pole outlined betw een the degrees o f longitude 6 0 ° an d 141°. This claim could be considered official in every respect except th a t it had n o t been in co rp ora ted in a statute. In 1926 the A rctic Islands G a m e Preserve was created, following the sam e sector lines to the N o r th Pole. In 1922, P rim e M inister M ackenzie K ing told the H o use of C o m m o n s that the G o v e r n m e n t certainly m a in tain ed the posi­ tion th a t W ra ng el Island is p a rt o f the p ro p e rty o f this country. If C a n a d a was, at that time, ad hering to the Sector Principle, such a claim on land outside that sector certainly seem s surpris­ ing. In any event in 1924, M inister o f In terior, Stew art, refuted the claim saying that “ . . . as f a r as C a n a d a is c o n cern e d we do not intend to set up any claim to the islands.”3'1 H e a d adds that the Soviet auth orities disposed o f the p ro b le m by m ov ing in and forcibly evicting the residents o f the islands. By that tim e the original C an a d ia n o cc u p an ts h ad sold their interests to U n ited 33 H ead, op. cit., p. 205. 3 i J. E. B ernier, R eport o n the D om inion G overnm ent E xpedition to the A rctic Islands, etc. 1906-07; O ttaw a, K ing's P rin ter, 1910, pp. 192-5. 35 (1 9 2 4 ) D ebates, H ouse o f C om m ons, C a n ad a, vol. 2, p. 1110.

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States citizens, how ever, an d it b e cam e unnecessary fo r C a n a d a to take a n y official sta nd .36 P rim e M in ister St. L a u re n t, in 1953, rep eated the g ov ern­ m e n t ’s view th a t the C a n a d ia n b o u n d a ry term in a ted at the Pole w h e n he told the H o u se o f C o m m o n s , “W e m ust leave no do ubt a b o u t o u r active o cc u p a tio n an d exercise o u r sovereignty in these lands rig ht up to the po le.”37 If it was not clear w h e th e r sea an d ice was included in th a t definition, L ester B. Pearson, w h e n he was C a n a d ia n A m b a s s a d o r to the U n ited States in 1946, left no d o u b t in the m atter: A large p art o f the w o rld ’s total A rctic are a is C a nad ian . O n e should kn o w exactly w h a t this p a r t comprises. It in­ cludes not only C a n a d a ’s n o rth ern m a in la n d , but the islands a n d th e frozen sea n o rth o f the m ain lan d betw een the m eridians o f its east an d west boundaries, extended to the N o r t h P ole.38 C om p lic atin g the circum stances in the A rctic O cean is, of course, the presence o f vast quantities o f ice. T h e status o f this ice, resting u p o n the su rface o f the sea, is not easy to determ ine. T h e r e are no legal p reced ents established an d the characteristics o f the ice has resulted in co nsiderab le discussion reg ard ing its possible status. T h e sea ice in the Arctic is o f three principal types: fast, o r coastal, ice w h ich freezes along the co ast during the w in ter and m elts in the su m m e r; the A rctic P a c k ice, which is the mass o f older, m o re o r less p e rm a n e n t ice w hich occupies the ce ntral a n d largest pa rt o f the A rctic O c e an ; and the p ack or d rift ice w hich is less stable an d drifts betw een the o th e r two. It is the A rctic p ack an d the large ice islands w h ich have b ro ke n aw ay, w hich cause the m a jo r problem s. “ If th e N o r th P o la r Sea w ere o p e n there w ould be no question o f its being as free as any p a rt o f the b ro a d A tlantic an d Pacific O ceans. T h e N o r t h P o lar Sea, how ever, is covered with ice. Ice, un lik e the w ater o f the high seas, is a solid sub stanc e u p o n w h ich m a n k in d c a n build hab itation s an d live fo r indefinite periods o f tim e.”30 So far as the question o f sovereignty is co n c e rn e d then , the w hole m a tte r revolves at p resent aro u n d the question o f w h ethe r the sea ice in the p o la r regions is to be related to w a te r o r land. C h em ically , ice is the sam e as w ater; physically, d u e to its frozen 38 H ead , op. cit., p. 208. 37 (1953-54), D ebates, H ouse o f C om m ons, C anada, vol. 1, p. 700. 38 L. B. P earson, "C a n a d a L ooks D ow n N o rth ,” 24 Foreign A ffairs (1945-46), p. 638. 30 H ead, op. cit., p. 221.

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state, it is m o re c o m p a r a b le to land. O bviously, th erefore, ice, w hile being identical to neither, bears certain resem blances to both. S o m e stress the view that ice resembles land , w hich c a n to som e extent be o ccupied and controlled, a n d th e re fo re is suited to ow nership. T h e views o f the “ ice-is-land” school co uld be su m m e d up by the following re m a rk s o f th e R ussian Sigrist: W e refuse to a d m it any legal difference betw een frozen land an d im m ob ile ice; indeed, transp ortatio n is just as possible o ver such ice as it is o v e r land, w hich is frozen and cov ered with snow . If on the ice one m a y en c o u n te r o pen w ater, po lyn’ias, a n d o th e r obstacles, o n e m a y also e n c o u n ­ te r ditches, ravines and rivers o n land .40 In a sim ilar vein H y d e in 1945 said, It is n o t ap p a re n t w h y the c h a ra c te r o f the su bstance w hich constitutes the habitual su rface abo ve th a t level (i.e. of the sea) o r its lack o f p e rm a n e n t co nne ctio n with w h a t is im m ovable, should necessarily be decisive o f the suscepti­ bility to a claim o f sovereignty o f the a re a con cern ed. T his sho uld be obvious in situ ations w h ere the particu lar a re a is possessed o f a su rface sufficiently solid to enable m a n to pu rs u e his o cc up atio ns th e re o n and w hich also in c o n se­ q u en ce o f its solidity an d p e rm a n e n c e constitutes in itself a b a rr ie r to n avigation as it is no rm ally enjoyed in the open seas.41 T h e opposing “ice-is-water” school stress the chem ical p r o p e r ­ ties o f ice a n d m ain tain that like the h ig h er seas it is not subject to sovereignty. T h e y allow that ice m a y be occup ie d but co n ten d th a t such occu pa tion is te m p o ra ry , since large p ortio n s o f the ice pac k m a y b re a k off a n d d rift away. It can no lo n g er be disputed, how ever, th a t such “ice islands” c a n be occup ied on at least a q u a si-p erm an en t basis. In recent years scientific ex p lo r a ­ tion te am s have occupied the floating ice on a long-term basis. Since the establishm ent o f a base ca m p by the A m erican s on “F le t c h e r ’s Islan d ” in 1952, both the A m e ric a n s an d Russians h av e occupied several floating islands w ith o u t in te rru p tio n for several years. M o r e recently, s e m i-p e rm an en t a ir strips have been con struc te d an d with the m a r k e d increased activity in p etro leu m exploration at present, th e tre n d is to w ards increased o cc u p atio n o f these “islands.” •|0 T aracouzio, So viets in th e A rc tic (1 9 3 8 ), p. 349. •" H yde, op. cit., p. 348.

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T h e islands themselves va ry c onsiderably in size, so m e being as large as three h u n d re d sq u a re miles, g radu ally being reduced by f u r th e r b rea kin g off an d melting. T h e y drift a ro u n d the A rctic O cean, generally in a clock-wise direction, at the rate of ap pro x im ately o n e to tw o miles p er day. If the A rctic ice acqu ired territorial sovereignty, it is interesting to con tem p late upon the sovereignty o f these “ islands” as they drifte d aw ay from the “ state." W ould th ey then cease to have sovereign status even if still occupie d, as described above? W ou ld they m aintain th eir status while re m a in in g w ithin the limits o f the “sector”? In this rep o rt could a state claim ice-space instead o f ice, in m u ch the sam e w ay as it now claims air-space above its soil, th a t is, instead o f air? W h a t w ould be the position o f such ice islands if th ey d rifted into the territorial w aters o f an o th e r state? P reced ents f o r this m a y already h av e been established by parties of R ussians w ho in late 1950 ab a n d o n e d the ice as they ap p ro a c h e d the vicinity o f G re e n la n d , an d similarly, in the early 1960s, by an A m e ric a n p a rty w hich ab a n d o n e d th eir icefloat off the Siberian shore. Sm ith adds the following e x p lan a­ tion, . . that both A m e ric an s and R ussians a p p are n tly a b a n ­ d o n ed their bases because th ey were g ro u n d in g o r bre aking up; rep o rts nevertheless in dicate th a t the re was d o u b t as to the w isdom o f continu ing to o ccu p y them in w aters adjacent to foreign shores.”42 In terna tion al law has, as yet, had very little to say o n the question o f ice-sovereignty, an d has not resolved the question. T h e various claims o f the P o lar states regarding the Sector Principle with regard to ice an d w a te r have been generally vague a n d co ntradictory. In an sw er to a question p u t to h im in the H o u se o f C o m ­ m on s in 1958 regarding the w aters in the “so-called C an ad ian sector,” M inister o f N o r th e r n Affairs an d N a tu ra l Resources Alvin H am ilto n replied, M r. S peak er, the an sw er is that all the islands n o rth o f th e m ain lan d of C a n a d a w hich com prise the C an a d ia n A rctic A rch ip elago are o f course p art o f C a n a d a . N o r th of the limits o f the archipelago, how ever, the position is c o m ­ plicated by unusual physical features. T h e Arctic O cean is covered for the most part o f the year with p o la r p ack ice having an average thickness of a b o u t eight feet. Leads of w a te r d o o pen up as a result o f the p a c k ice being in co n ­ *2 Sm ith, op. cit., p. 250.

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tinuous m o tio n, but for pra ctica l purposes it might be said fo r the m ost p a rt to be a p erm a n e n tly frozen sea. It will be seen, then, th a t the Arctic oce an north o f the a rchipelago is not o pe n w ater n or has it the stable qualities o f land. C o n ­ sequ ently the ord in a ry rules o f in ternational law m ay or m ay not have application. Before m aking an y decision regarding the status w hich C a n a d a might wish to co n te n d fo r this area, the g ov ernm en t will co n sid er every aspect o f the question with due regard to the best interests o f C a n a d a an d to in ternational law.4:i T h is statem en t reveals a m uch less positive position th a n that ad o p te d by L. B. P earson twelve years earlier; however, it also reflects a greater aw areness o f C a n a d a ’s responsibilities tow ards in ternational law. C onsid eratio n o f “every a sp ect” has a p p aren tly continued. Certainly, C a n a d a ’s position w ith regard to the ice an d w aters question is just as undecided to d ay as it w as in 1958. In 1966, the Legal A dv isor o f the D e p a rtm e n t o f E xternal Affairs stated: T his D e p a rtm e n t w ould thus b eco m e involved in any dispute . . . o ve r the d eterm in ation o f the extent o f ou r territories an d internal w aters in the A rctic. T his pro blem is one w hich has not been raised internationally but w hich has been u n d e r study by the G o v e r n m e n t fo r m an y years as it w o u ld ap p e a r that in ternational law, as it now exists, is silent with respect to waters, w h ich are covered by ice all y e a r ro un d thus m ak ing the sea a sort o f extension o f the land .44 N o d o u b t this indecision has been partly d u e to the lack of urgency involving an y settlement. A rg u m e n ts in the past against c o nsidering the w ater-ice p o rtio n o f the “secto r” as equivalent to the high-seas, have been based m ainly on its non-navigability. In 1927, C lute stated that he fo u nd “ . . . it is surprising that it should have been so m u c h as suggested . . .” th a t the ice surface could be redu ced into possession, because the ice form s part of the navigable b ody o f w ater.4'1T o prove his point, C lute referred to the passage across the N o r th P o la r basin of the “F r a m ” by the N o rw e g ian e x p lo re r N ansen . H e ad , in 1963, ra th e r a bruptly dismissed this evidence with the statem en t that N an sen required ■13 (1957-58) D ebates, H ouse o f C om m ons, C a n ad a, vol. II, p. 1559. 4-1 Canada Y ea rb o o k o f International L aw , 1967, p. 255. •*5 C lute, “ T he O w nership o f th e N orth Pole,” 5 C anadian Bar R eview (1 9 2 2 ), p. 20.

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three years (1 8 93 to 1896) to ‘‘navigate” this distance. T oday, in view o f recent p o la r navigational activities and preparations, C lu te ’s viewpoint is m o re relevant. It becom es increasingly obviou s that the question o f Arctic sovereignty m ust soon be settled legally and precisely, if tensions betw een C a n a d a and o th e r countries, especially the United States, are to be avoided, in the n e ar future. O n e o th e r aspect w h ich m u s t be m entioned is that o f air­ space. T h e status o f airsp ace depends u p o n the status o f the region directly below, an d once the latter h as been established, the fo r m e r follows as a consequence. T h e one exception to this rule c on cerns the right o f in nocent passage for ships in the T erritorial w aters, which docs not ex ten d to the airspace above. O. J. Lissitzyn has s u m m arized the fu n d a m e n ta l principles as follows: 1. E ach state has sovereignty an d jurisdiction ov er the air space directly above its territory (including territorial w a te rs ). 2. Each state has co m p lete discretion as to the admission o r non-adm ission o f an y aircraft to the air space u n d e r its sovereignty. 3. A ir space o v e r the high seas, an d o v e r o th er parts o f the e a r t h ’s surfac e not subject to a n y state ’s jurisdiction, is free to the aircraft o f all states.4'1 S ecto r Principle a n d / o r masses o f floating ice, affect the juris­ diction o f the airspace above them . U n d e r the existing laws, should C a n a d a claim sovereignty o ve r the w aters a n d / o r ice within the " C a n a d ia n S ector," the airspace above w ould be auto m atically claimed. P rofessor J. C. C o o p e r has argued strongly against such a step: . . . w ithout question an a ttem p t by a single state in time of peace to seize any part o f the high seas o r the airspace above a n d to m a inta in exclusive control in such areas w ould be an act o f aggression against all o th e r states. N o m o re reason or excuse exists to admit th a t ice-covered seas and the airspace above th em m ay be seized by a single state and all o ther states thereby excluded, th an to adm it that the o p en seas and airspace ab ov e them m a y legally be similarly seized and held.47 46 O. J. Lissitzyn, In ternational A ir T ransport anti N ational Policy, p. 365. J. C. C o o p er, “ A irspace Rights O ver the A rctic,” 3 A ir Affairs (W ashington, 1950), p. 537.

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S im ilar arg u m en ts could be postulated for the w aters beneath the ice pack; th a t they should be kept free f o r possible su b ­ m a rin e traffic. T h e suggestion is m a d e that if sovereignty were claim ed fo r the solid ice, th en the rights o f in nocent passage co uld be e xtende d to include all the airspace above and the su b m a rin e space below, in m u ch the sa m e w ay as it relates to the C on tin enta l Shelf. T h e re is no evidence that w h e n the U nited States an d British su b m arin e s navigated un d e rn eath the A rctic p ack ice that a n y perm ission was sought, o r notice given o f their actions. D espite the increasing usage o f the Arctic airspace fo r co m m ercial routes, there has been no specific a tt e m p t to resolve these m atters, possibly because no friction has yet arisen. H ow e ver, w hen a stand is ta k e n b y C a n a d a reg ard in g the P o la r ice-water “sector,” sovereignty o f air space above will have to be settled. A s su m m e d up by H ead, “ M o d e rn scientific achievem ent c o m p o u n d s the difficulties facing those states w h o seek title to the P o lar p a c k .” *8

C onclusion T h e A rctic regions o f C a n a d a afford an excellent exam ple o f the p ro b lem s involved in establishing b ou nd arie s w hich satisfy the requ ire m en ts o f both the state in question an d the international laws established to protect the rights o f all states. States, in th e course o f history, fou nd ed their territorial claim s o n m an y an d various g rou nd s: discovery, possession and effective occupation. T h e b o u n d aries were delim inated ac c o rd ­ ing to the rules o f international law respecting territorial waters, co ntiguo us zones, bays, straits, islands, c on tine ntal shelves, su b m a rin e passages and airspace. T h e r e is little d o u b t th a t C a n a d a ’s legal rights to h er n o rth ­ ern territories, in p a rtic u la r the islands o f the archipelago, have been well established since at least the early 1930s. C a n a d ia n sovereignty ov er the islands o f th e Arctic A rchipelag o can n ow be said to be form ally established and unchallenged. T h e last time C a n a d a ’s claim to sovereignty has been called into question w as in 1930 ov er the Sverdrup Islands, an d the m a tte r was settled betw een C a n a d a and N o rw a y to the satisfaction o f both countries. O u r title to these islands is based p rim arily o n the effective o ccupation •>8 H ead, op . cit., p. 224.

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o f that territory by C a n a d a ov er an e xtende d period o f time. T h is was accom plished by various m e a n s w hich fo r m p art o f C a n a d ia n history.41’ B ut the po lar region, with its exceptional circu m stan ces involv­ ing floating ice, tem p orarily o r p e rm an en tly blo cked w ater passages, the complexities o f the land an d w ater o f the arc h i­ pelago, and the related airspace and su b m a rin e areas, suggests th a t such prob lem s will only be resolved by modifications o f the p resen t generalized laws. T h e Sector Principle, m en tion ed so o fte n in c onnection with C a n a d a ’s sovereignty, lacks in tern a ­ tional recognition an d acceptance. It is felt by m any authorities that if put to the in ternational tribunals th a t it w ould be judged invalid. As S m ith states, “ C a n a d a ’s case fo r the territoriality of sector waters, ice a n d airsp ace would d oubtless be very weak fro m the legal point o f view. O n the o th e r h a n d she pro bab ly w ould have a m u c h stro ng er a n d m ore reasonable case fo r the territoriality o f water, ice an d airspace w ithin archipelago limits.” ''" T h is w ould still leave the question o f w h e th e r o r not the N o rth w e st passages should rem ain international w aters, or sim ply attain the right o f in n o c en t passage; it also leaves u n ­ resolved questions pertaining to the ice-waters su rro u n d in g the archipelago. H a rts h o rn e stated in his essay, “ Political G e o g ra p h y ,” that political org anizatio n o f the w orld is constantly c han gin g both in c h a ra c te r an d extent, an d that one o f the m ajo r p roblem s involved with these changes w as that of m a p p in g the “political realities.” But is the delim itation o f the bo un daries all th a t is re q u ire d to assert o n e’s sovereignty? H a rts h o rn e ad d e d that, “T h e politically organized region is the p ro d u c t o f a definite plan, fo rm u late d an d p u t into effect with the conscious p urpose of creating an are a o f political h om ogeneity in an a re a otherwise h eterog ene ou s.”r'1 Such h om og eneity requires a degree o f political uniform ity, which . . implies that w ith respect to the o p eratio n o f all g o v e rn m e n t fu nction s all p arts o f the region are alike,” as well as political c o h e re n c e w hich “ . . . implies that the internal fu nction s o f go v ern m en t are carried o n successfully in all parts o f the region.” As H am ilto n expressed it even m o re succinctly, “T h is great •»» Canada Y ea rb o o k o f International L a w s (1 9 6 7 ), p. 255. so Sm ith, op. cit., p. 255. si R. H artsh o rn e, “ Political G eography,” A m erican G eography: In ven to ry a n d Prospect (ed . Jam es and J o n e s), p. 188.

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n o rth la n d o f o u rs is not ours because it is coloured re d o n a m ap. It will be ou rs by effective o c c u p a tio n .” 52 T h e m a r c h n o rth w a r d s has long since beg un an d few w ould d e n y the relative effectiveness o f C a n a d a ’s occ up atio n o f h e r no rthlan ds today. Political unity m a y well exist there, but there is still a long w ay to g o before political coherence, as defined by H a rts h o rn e , is truly established. A positive step to w ards acknow ledging the extent o f C a n a d a ’s p oten tial political “re ­ ality” w ould, indeed, be an u neq uiv oca ble delim itation o f her territorial b ou nd aries in the A rctic regions.

P o stscrip t (by th e E ditor) O n April 8, 1970 the G o v e r n m e n t o f C a n a d a intro d u c ed tw o historic bills in the H o u se o f C o m m o n s , O ttaw a. O n e replaced C a n a d a ’s prev iou s three-m ile territorial sea an d nine-mile ex­ clusive fishing zo n e with an o utright claim to a twelve-mile territorial sea. T h e o th e r bill, th e A rctic W a te rs Pollution P r e ­ ve ntion Bill, claim s jurisdiction o v e r all com m erc ial shipping th a t co m es close e n o ug h to the A rc tic A rc hip elag o to pose a p oten tial pollution problem , e xtending fr o m th e international b o u n d a ry with G re e n la n d to a line o n e h u n d re d nautical miles west o f the A rctic Islands, with heavy penalties f o r offenders. A t th e sam e tim e the P rim e M in ister notified th e U n ited N atio n s th a t C a n a d a n o lo ng er recognized the ju risdiction o f the In te r­ national C o u r t o f Justice o v e r pollution disputes off th e C a n a ­ dian coasts. T h is la tter action was tak en o n the g ro un ds th a t the in tern ation al law o f the sea is in a d e q u a te to deal w ith p otentially c a ta strop hic effects o f a pollution disaster in the Arctic. D espite official notes fr o m the U n ited States G o v e rn m e n t rejecting b o th claims, the C a n a d ia n H o u s e o f C o m m o n s a p ­ p ro v e d the bills by u n a n im o u s vote, the first such vote o n an i m p o rta n t issue since 1944.

S2 (1958) D ebates, H ouse o f C om m ons, C a n ad a, vol. II, p. 1969.

41 . Canada’s Northern Policy: Retrospect and Prospect D avid Judd so u r c e

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T h e Polar R eco rd , Vol. X IV , N o. 92 (M ay, 1969), pp. 593-602. R eprinted by perm ission o f the a u th o r an d publisher.

Sovereignty T h e object in an nexing these unexp lo red territories to C a n ­ a d a is. I a p p re h e n d , to preven t the U n ite d States from claim ing them , and not from the likelihood of their proving o f any value to C a n a d a . ( G r e a t Britain, Colonial Office, 1879) T h a t sentence referred, in fact, to the im pending tran sfe r of the Arctic islands to C a n a d a in 1879. but it could have applied, just as aptly, to the w hole o f n o rth e rn C a n a d a . T h e first part o f it w as largely correct; the second p a rt is still a m a tte r for conjecture, debate and experim ent. Most o f the C a n a d ia n G o v e rn m e n t's spo rad ic forays into the n o rth from 1880 o n w a rd s w e re m otivated by the reaction of politicians an d officials to aliens in the Arctic. T h e re was nothing else in the N o r th fo r a go v ern m en t to be co nc ern ed about. T he f u r trad e w as im p orta nt to the H u d so n 's Bay C o m p a n y , and it was to becom e im p ortan t to m a n y o f the Eskim os, but it had lost its pre-em inence in a nation w here trans-continental rail­ ways and millions o f im m igrants were the priorities o f the day. T h e great age o f Arctic exploration w as end ing : a N o rth w est Passage w as irrelevant in a w orld that was p lanning a P a n a m a C anal. T h e w halers too w ould d epart fro m no rth e rn waters, and the missionaries an d the H u d so n Bay factors w ould be left to themselves. T h e only e rup tion o f the north into so u th ern consciousness before the en d o f the cen tu ry was the K londike gold rush of 1897-98. O ttaw a w ent into the Y u k o n with the flag. T h e r e were international b ord e rs to be protected and the attraction of C ro w n rev enu e to be had from the gold. T h a t brief episode of

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C a n a d ia n no rth ern history was bizarre and specta cula r b u t it was soon over, an d a fter 1900 it a p p e a re d there w ould be little in the N o r th to distract D o m in io n G o v e rn m e n ts again. By 1900, C a n a d a had done virtually nothing to m ake use of, o r settle, th e northern 50 per c e n t o f h er country. T h e n , in 1903, she lost h er claim to the A laska “p a n h a n d le .” C an ad ian s h ad lived with the threat o f U nited States’ e xp ansion since 1776 an d had, by a n d large, been successful in d a m p in g dow n A m e ri­ can enthusiasm to o w n the rest o f N o rth A m e rica. C a n a d a may never hav e ta ken Seward, the A m erica n Secretary o f State, seriously w hen he said that " N a t u r e designs that this w hole con tin en t . . . shall be soo ne r o r later, w ithin the magic circle of th e A m erica n U n io n .” T his was only an A m erican d rea m . T he settlem ent o f the A laskan “ p a n h a n d le ” dispute, how ever, was harsh reality. C a n a d a learned tw o things. First, that she could not d ep en d on Britain to protect C a n a d ia n interests, an d second, th at legal arg u m en ts an d historic claim s to land were a poor substitute fo r rights established by effective occupation. F r o m 1900 to th e 1930s alm ost all C a n a d a ’s scanty n o rth ern policy was devoted to the task o f fending off claim s an d in cur­ sions from A m erican , D anish an d N o rw eg ia n explorers. In 1922 she even exerted h erself to take the offensive and tried to colonize O strov V ra n g ely a [W rangel Island] off the north shore o f the Soviet m ain lan d, but this e n ded in a fiasco an d the claims were later dro p p e d . O n ce m o re the phase o f active C a n a d ia n interest in the N o rth w aned. T h e th reat to sovereignty ap peared to have passed. A n inventory o f no rth e rn activity in C a n a d a in 1939 is surprisingly short. In the Y u k o n , the pop ulatio n h ad fallen from a high o f som e thirty th o usan d in 1900 to fo u r thousand. T h ey subsisted m ainly on the d w indling supply o f gold fro m the K londike Valley. In the N o rth w est Territories, with a p o p u la ­ tion in 1939 o f twelve th ou sand , th ere was a m odest oil field at N o r m a n Wells, half a dozen small gold mines aro u n d Y ellow ­ knife, and the new pitchblende m in e at P ort R a diu m o n G re a t Bear Lake. In n o rth e rn M a nito ba there was a railway to the little port o f C hurchill on H u d so n Bay. T h e D o m in io n G o v e r n ­ m e nt's m ain activities had been a series o f small m aritim e expeditions to the north, and the establishm ent o f a b o u t a score of police posts in the two T erritories an d Arctic Quebec. O ttaw a's legislative p ro g r a m m e for the n orth h a d been princi­ pally confined to an attem pt, th ro ugh the N o rth w est T erritories C ouncil, to protect the native fu r trapper. T h e Royal C a n a d ian C orp s o f Signals m a n n e d a c o m m u n ic a tio n s n etw o rk in the

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M acken zie V alley and in the Y u k o n . T h e r e were th re e g o ve rn ­ m e n t rad io direction finding stations in H u d s o n Bay fo r ships. T h e f u r tr a d e an d the mission posts m a d e u p the rest o f the no rth ern picture. It was a quiet p a rt o f the world. C h a n g e was com ing, how ev er. A fte r 1945 C a n a d a w en t n o rth again as an anxious la nd lord; nervous abo ut the b eh av io u r o f h e r n o rth ern w artim e tenants. T h e S econd W o rld W a r b ro u g h t the A rctic an d Subarctic regions o f C a n a d a an im p o rta n c e u n eq u alle d before o r since. T h e C a n a d ia n eastern A rctic, including N e w fo u n d la n d and L a b ra d o r, w as an integral p art o f th e Allies’ air staging routes to Britain an d the w a r in north-w est E u ro p e . Several m a n n e d airfields were built, and a n etw o rk o f Allied radio an d w e ath er posts established. In the west, the J a p a n e s e th r e a t after 1941 w ro u g h t im m en s e c han ge: the A la sk a H ig h w ay ; the C an o l pipe lines; a ro a d fro m the M acke nzie valley to the Y u k o n w a te r­ shed ; an oil refinery at W hiteh o rse ; a w in te r road system into the M a ck en zie Valley fro m A lb erta; th e N o rth w e s t Staging R o u te o f airfields; an d an A m e ric a n m ilitary population th r o u g h o u t n o rth e rn C a n a d a betw een 1941 an d 1946 which m u s t ha v e o u t- n u m b e re d C a n a d ia n residents by at least three to one. O n ce again C a n a d a ’s exclusive ow n ership o f its n o rth was o p e n to question an d, o n ce again, it w as this w hich m a d e the D o m in io n G o v e r n m e n t react. T h e his tory o f the early po st-w a r period o f n o rth e rn affairs in C a n a d a is n o t yet fully d ocu m en ted . T h e m o st helpful a c c o u n t has been w ritten by a C an a d ia n civil servant w h o was privy to m a n y o f the events w hich to o k place in senior official circles an d in the C a b in e t betw een th e crucial years 1945 to 1953.1 It is clea r th a t O tta w a was c o n ce rn ed ab o u t th e casual U n ited States attitude, p articu larly o f the a rm e d services, to­ w ard s C a n a d ia n ow n ersh ip o f the A rctic m ain lan d a n d islands. T h e r e was never a n y official a tte m p t by the A m e ric an s to claim p a rts o f the n o rth but, as o n e p ro m in e n t C a n a d ia n said in his diary in 1943: [T he A m erica n s] have a p p are n tly w alk ed in an d ta ken possession in m a n y cases as if [northern] C a n a d a were unclaim ed territory inh abited by a docile race o f aborigines.2 1 R . A . J. Phillips, C anada’s N o rth (T o ro n to : M acm illan of C a n ad a, 1967). 2 V. M assey, W h a t's Past Is P rologue (L o n d o n : M acm illan, 1963), p. 371.

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It was this uneasiness in O tta w a w hich p ro m p te d the design o f a new policy fo r C a n a d a ’s north. In 1946, the R oyal C a n a d ia n A ir F o rc e was given the assignm ent o f p h o to g rap h in g and m ak in g an a ir reconnaissance o f the C an a d ia n Arctic m a in lan d an d islands in o rd e r to e sta b ­ lish a w ide-ranging, C an a d ia n presence in the region. A t the sam e time, the Royal C an a d ia n M o u n te d Police were instructed to re-open the posts w hich had been closed due to lack o f m a n p o w e r d uring the w ar, and to plan fo r the ex pan sio n o f their n o rth e rn Division. T h e sam e year, the C a n a d ia n A r m y to o k o v e r the o peratio n o f the A laska H ig h w ay in C a n a d a and the r . c . a . f . assum ed responsibility for the airfields o f the N o rth w e st Staging R oute. T h e a rm e d forces also began the first o f several large-scale m an oeu vres in the Arctic. In 1947, the D o m in io n G o v e rn m e n t decided to build and com m ission its first supply vessel fo r the eastern A rctic instead of, as in the past, being d e p e n d en t on c h a rte re d vessels; there would n ow be an official C a n a d ia n ship in the C a n a d ia n Arctic. In O ttaw a itself the first significant step w as the a p p o in t­ m ent, in 1946, o f a sen io r C a n a d ia n civil servant, experienced in d ip lo m acy and international relations, to the dual p ost of D ep u ty M inister o f Mines an d Resources a n d o f C o m m issio n er o f the N o rth w est Territories. T h e selection o f a d ip lo m a t was p ro b ab ly due to the prevailing op inio ns ab o u t the N o r th in the M inistry o f E x ternal Affairs in O ttaw a. V in c en t M assey’s diary for M ay 17, 1943, has this no tation: I w as interested to see how alive [E xternal Affairs] ha d be com e to the d a n g e r o f A m erican high pressure m ethods in C a n a d a . . . . W e have far too long been too sup ine vis a vis W ashing to n and the only th re at to o u r in dep end en ce co m es fro m th a t q u a rte r.3 Massey a t th a t time was C a n a d ia n H igh C o m m iss io n e r in L o n d o n , an d thus in daily co nta c t with the sen ior m em b ers of the g ov ern m en t and officials in Ottaw a. In 1947, an A dvisory C o m m itte e o n N o r th e r n D ev elop m ent w as established in O tta w a to be a clearing house for all o f the new, and renew ed, D o m in io n G o v e r n m e n t projects in no rthern C an a d a . By 1950, the old D e p a rtm e n t o f M ines and R esources h ad becom e to o unw ieldy for efficiency a n d was split up. A new 3 Ibid., p. 372.

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M inistry in w hich special attention could be given to n o rth e rn a d m inistratio n and E sk im o affairs was p lanned. In 1951, O t­ ta w a u n d e rto o k to reorganize the g o v ern m en t of the N o rth w est T errito ries by prov idin g fo r the election o f th re e m em b e rs to the previously all-nom inated T e rrito rial C ouncil. By 1952 it had b een fu rth e r decided to create a M inistry w hich would, in part, be ar the title o f “N o r th e r n Affairs.” In 1953 the C an a d ia n P arliam en t a p p ro v e d the e stab lish m ent o f the D e p a rtm e n t of N o r th e r n Affairs an d N atio n a l R esources, now the D e p a rtm e n t o f Indian Affairs and N o r th e r n D ev elop m en t. It is p e rh ap s generally, and naturally, assum ed th a t C a n ­ a d a ’s n o rth e rn in volvem ent a fte r 1945 was her response to the th re at o f intercontinental air attack. T h is assum ption presents not only an in com plete p ic tu re o f C an a d ia n motives, b u t a dis­ to rted one as well. C a n a d a herself co uld have d on e next to n oth ing to d efend the A m e ric a n continent. In 1946 h er total po pu lation was still only a b o u t 12 million. It was the U nited States w hich initiated schem es for d efen ce in the north an d for several years C an ad ian s seem to have reacted u n fav o u ra b ly or unenthusiastically to such proposals w he n, an d if, they were consulted. In 1946, for instance, the A m e ric a n s had m a d e plans to establish several p e rm a n e n t w eath er stations in no rth e rn C a n a d a . Ju st as their ships w ere ab ou t to sail for the N o r t h on this mission, the C an a d ia n G o v e rn m e n t fo u nd out ab ou t the project th ro ug h a n ew sp ape r advertise m ent. T h e A m e ric an ships did not sail, negotiations in O ttaw a were begun, an d when the w e a th e r stations w ere established a year later th ey were u n d e r joint C a n a d ia n - U n i te d States control. R. J. S u th erlan d , for several years an outstan din g C an a d ia n expert on d efen ce policies an d strategy, has w ritten the history o f C an a d ia n - A m e ric a n m ilitary negotiations d u rin g this period. H e implies that the C a n a d ia n G o v e rn m e n t was generally either slower to recognize the potential threat o f intercontinental a ttack over the N o r th Pole o r th a t they p re f e rre d to do nothing to attract foreign m ilitary interest: It was recognized that m ajo r installations in the C an a d ia n N o r t h . . . m ight give rise to a need fo r local defence. T he simplest solution to this p ro b lem was not to build the in­ stallations in the first place . . . T h is general con cept was d escribed expressively by M r. P earso n [in 1953] as th a t of “scorched ice.”4 •* R. J. S u th erlan d , “T h e Strategic Significance o f the C anadian A rctic,” T h e A rctic F rontier, R. St. J. M acdonald ed. (T o ro n to , U. o f T. Press, 1966), p. 264.

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D u rin g these p ost-w ar years, a n d certainly u p to 1953, the m a jo r preoc cup atio n o f the C a n a d ia n G o v e r n m e n t in the N o rth seem s to have been . . . C an a d ia n aversion to the presence o f A m e ric a n forces in C a n a d a an d ex tre m e sensitivity to the potential d e ro g a ­ tion o f C a n a d ia n sovereignty.5 T h e re is no place within the scope of this arcticle to debate w h e th e r this, “C a n a d ia n aversion,” was justified o r w h e th e r it was m ere panic o r chau vin ism . W h a t is suggested is that, be­ tween 1945 and 1953, C a n a d a 's n o rth e rn plans were m a d e in th e na m e o f sovereignty ra th e r th an in the interests of strategy. O tta w a ’s new policies for the N o rth , a n d the adm inistrative m a c h in e ry for those policies, w ere conceived and designed before n . a . t .o was created, before the first Russian atom ic test, before the great p ost-w ar strategic thrust into high latitudes began, and before technology had carried the front lines o f the “Cold W a r " into the Arctic. It was not until 1954 that definite arran g em e n ts were m a d e for the D E W Line, and not until 1955 th a t the first im pact o f that epic co nstru ctio n was felt in the N o rth . Public Health If there was any new dim ension in C a n a d a ’s n o rth ern activities im m ediately afte r the Second W o rld W a r it was in the realm of public health. Since the 1880s, th ere had been a .s m a ll vocal g ro u p o f critics w ho had sp ok en up on b ehalf o f the In dians and E skim o, the few w ho described the generally w retched living conditions, the disease and epidemics, and the high m ortality rate a m o n g C a n a d a 's native peoples. T h ese voices were disregarded. C a n a d a in the south had its o w n pro blem s after the co nfederatio n o f 1867. T h e r e w as new territory in the west to be won an d held, and the im m ense task u nd ertak en of building railways th ro ug h five th o u sa n d kilom eters o f u n in ­ habited wilderness. Periodical e c o n o m ic slumps, dro ug hts, the First W o rld W a r and th en the disaster o f the depression in the 1930s m e a n t a nation p reo ccup ied with, and in, the south. In 1900, C a n a d a ’s popu lation was five million an d by 193 I, after a period o f heavy im m ig ratio n, it was only ten million. T h e se people could hardly have been expected, in the second largest an d one o f the Ibid., p. 261.

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youngest cou ntries in the w orld, to h av e gen erated the resources an d m o ney to co p e with, o r even learn about, o n e o f the rem otest regions o f the globe. T h e only h a rd political reason f o r looking n orth h ad been the sovereignty question, an d that was not e n ou gh to evoke m u ch co ncern a b o u t the living c o n d i­ tions o f the E skim o. D u rin g this time, h ow ever, a n d particularly d u rin g the 1920s and 1930s, C a n a d a was learning how to control and eradicate the diseases of settlem ent a n d congestion. T h e public learned th a t it did not have to live w ith sm allpox, typ ho id fever, d iph th eria and scarlet fever, an d above all, that the great scourge o f tuberculosis could be w iped o ut. It had become virtually a con ditio ned reflex at all levels o f g o v e rn m e n t in C a n a d a to spend m o n e y on public health an d to legislate for control o f infectious diseases. It was a responsibility no politi­ cian could afford to shirk, an d it was a b u rd en w hich the tax­ p a y e r w ould unco m plainin gly shoulder. It was with this experience, and with this knowledge, that C a n a d a looked north again afte r 1945. T h e r e had been ru m o u rs a n d repo rts o f epidem ics an d high m ortality rates a m o n g the E skim o for years. T h e o ccu p atio n o f the A rctic by the Allied A r m e d Forces a fter 1941 helped to reinforce with first-hand opinion these spo rad ic reports. In 1945, the medical secretary o f the C a n a d ia n T u bercu lo sis Association visited the settle­ ments dow n the M acken zie River. H e re tu rn e d with a depress­ ing picture. “ It is high time (h e said) th a t the D e p a rtm e n t fo rm ulated a health policy fo u nd ed o n the needs o f the p eo ­ ple.”''’ O ttaw a reacted to this report. Disease in the N o rth becam e a kind o f national obscenity, not only a threat which might c o n ta m in a te the so uth , but an insult as well. It cou ld also have becom e an international e m b a rra ss m e n t to a co un try w hich was giving vigorous su p p o rt to the U n ited N atio n s and to the new c on cept of foreign aid. T h e N o r t h was a skeleton in C a n a d a 's closet. M oreover, the post-w ar period began with a series o f dis­ asters w hich acc en tu ated the need for a hu ge increase in m edi­ cal and social aid for the N o rth . Between 1946 an d 1950 there w ere epidem ics o f polio, typhoid an d dip htheria a m o n g the E skim o population. At the sam e time, the fur trade, w hich had been the ch ief sup po rt, particularly o f the E skim o in the west­ ern Arctic regions o f C a n a d a , w ent to pieces. T h e m a rk et value o f the W hite F o x fell from $ 26 .0 0 a pelt (th e av erage price 15 O. Jenness, ‘‘E skim o A dm inistration: 2. C a n a d a ,” A rc tic In sti­ tu te o f N o rth A m erica Tech. Paper N o . 14 (1 9 6 4 ), p. 84.

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betw een 1940 an d 1944) to $8.88 in 1948 an d by 1949 to $3.50. T h e inland E skim o in the K eewatin D istrict experienced even g rea ter calam ity fo r the ir m ainstay, the caribou, dwindled to ab o u t one-fifth o f their fo r m e r num bers. It w as into the midst o f these epidem ics an d n a tu ra l dis­ asters, a n d into the eco no m ic v a c u u m left by the a b ru p t de­ p a rtu re o f the Allied A rm e d F orces, th a t the d octo rs thrust themselves. In 1946, O ttaw a organized the first y ear o f its m ed ical p ro g r a m m e for the w h ole C an a d ia n A rctic and , from th a t y ear on, the s u m m e r survey o f E sk im o health, the annual tuberculosis X-rays, and the Bacillus C alm ette -G u erin vaccina­ tion team s b ecam e a pa rt o f the no rth ern scene. T h e intensity an d the im p ac t o f this new public health p ro g r a m m e can be m e a s u re d fro m tw o statistics. By 1956 alm ost one-sixth of C a n a d a ’s E skim os were u n d e r tr eatm e n t f o r tuberculosis. T h e p e r capita exp e n d itu re by the D o m in io n G o v e rn m e n t for E s­ k im o health rose fro m som e $4.00 in 1939 to som ething like $4 0 0 .0 0 by 1961. But there was m o r e to public health in the N o r th th a n hos­ pitals a n d travelling medical teams. A gain fr o m their o w n ex­ perience in the south, C a n a d ia n adm inistrato rs knew that literacy, fo rm al edu cation , vocational training, em p loy m en t, housing, rehabilitation, disability p ro g r a m m e s an d the whole ran ge o f developing welfare services were a n integral an d neces­ sary p a rt o f im p rov in g E skim o a n d no rth ern health. T h a t sam e rep o rt o f 1945 w h ich called on the D o m in io n G o v e rn m e n t to re spond to the medical “ needs o f the pe op le” o f the N o rth , also correctly p redicted the variety o f g o v e rn m e n t p ro g ram m e s w hich w ould have to follow: . . . health c a n n o t be divorced from socio-econom ic co nd i­ tions, and a health p ro g ra m will fail if, at the sam e time, efforts are not m a d e to im p ro v e the ec o n o m ic status o f these p eo p le .7 It w as m edicine w hich show ed the w ay in the N o r t h a fte r 1945. H y gien e an d sanitation too k charge. If babies were dying, p o o r h ousing was to blame. If nutrition was inad equ a te, th en it stem m e d e ithe r fro m u n e m p lo y m e n t, lack o f resources, ig n o r­ ance, o r all three. If patients were cu red o f tuberculosis, there was little virtue in retu rn in g th em to the sam e conditions which bred the disease. If d octo rs saved lives they also en su red the survival o f m a n y m e n and w o m en w ho were no longer fit for the aboriginal life o f the N orth . 7 Idem.

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A n d w h a t w ould be the po int in raising a new, health y g en ­ e ra tio n edu cated into the w ays o f the w hite m an if th a t white society could not, o r w ould not, m a k e available in the N o r t h its o w n e co n o m ic a n d social o p po rtu n ities to replace the trad i­ tional ones it was destroying? T h e r e were re a d y answ ers to this question. O n c e c o m m itte d to take an interest in the N o rth , C a n a d ia n s and C an a d ia n g o v ern m en ts decided th a t th e r e was no choice but to c han ge the style o f E sk im o an d In d ia n life an d replace, alm ost entirely, the native cultures with white m a n ’s ed uca tion , technology an d social org anizatio n. T h ere w as de b a te and disag reem en t, but usually o ver questions of degree and tem p o ra th e r th an fu n d a m e n ta l goals. T h e r e was dism ay; there was regret. T h e r e was the o p inion o f the majority th a t C a n a d a was d oing the right thing f o r h er no rth ern people. T h e r e was also the solid co nviction o f so m e th a t C an ad ian s w ere doing the N o r t h a favour. A b ove all, how ever, the re was a sense o f inevitability. Logic an d good intentions prevailed. T h e issue o f sovereignty faded. It b ecam e less an d less a fillip to n o rth e rn developm ent. It was replaced by a lively social conscience.

N ew Social P olicies T h e extent an d cost o f the new social policies w h ich followed fo r the N o rth can be seen fr o m a few rep resen tativ e categories: In 1947 the first D o m in io n G o v e rn m e n t school w as fou nd ed in the N o rth . By 1965 th ere w e re fifty-one such schools e m p lo y ­ ing 3 26 teach ers in the N o rth w e s t T errito ries; this figure does n o t include the D o m in io n G o v e rn m e n t schools in no rth ern Q uebec, n or does it take in to acco un t the considerable subsidy fr o m O tta w a to the T erritorial schools in the Y u k o n . In the Y u k o n in 1965, 3,178 stu d en ts were enrolled in twenty-tw o schools w ith a full-tim e staff o f 149 teachers. M o st o f these schools w ere eith er new fou n d a tio n s o r w ere new buildings replacing schools w hich d ated from the “ G o ld R u s h ” ; before 1947 th e n u m b e r o f em ployees w orking in the N o r t h in the M inistry directly responsible fo r the N o r t h w as ab o u t two h u n d re d ; by 1964 it was ov er tw o tho usan d. Between 1954 an d 1966 D o m in io n G o v e r n m e n t ex p e n d i­ tures f o r the N o r t h increased f o u r times. Since 1959, thirty-five C o-operatives have be en in c o rp o ­ rated a n d su p p o r te d by g o v e rn m e n t action in the N o rth w est T errito ries a n d n o rth ern Q uebec. O ne in five E sk im o families

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now has som e con ne ctio n w ith a C o-operative; in 1965 the D e p a rtm e n t o f N o r th e r n Affairs a n n o u n c e d a n ew p ro g r a m m e to co n stru c t 1,600 new houses across the N o r t h to be ren ted on a subsidized basis to Eskimos. P e rh a p s a few less obvious figures an d statem ents d e m o n ­ strate m o st vividly h o w m u ch the tex ture o f life in the C a n a ­ dian N o r th has ch ang ed since the Second W o rld W a r. In 1967, fo r instance, the R oyal C a n a d ia n M o u n ted Police patrolled by do g team a total o f 28 ,00 0 k m ; b u t by a ircraft an d vehicle over 3.5 million km . N o r th o f the sixtieth parallel there are now m o re th a n 12,000 telephones fo r a p op u la tio n o f 4 1 ,000. R ad io broad casting has been a featu re o f n o rth ern life for decades, but in 1967 the first g o v ern m en t-sp on so re d n o rth e rn television service w as started in Y ellowknife. W h ite h o rse h as h ad its priv ate T V station fo r five years. In 1957 th e P o st Office re p o rted the cost o f its n o rth e rn operatio ns at $ 5 76 ,5 4 6; in 1967 it was $2 ,200,000. In the Y u k o n the new library hand led 5 ,00 0 books in 1962, and 4 3 ,0 0 0 in 1967. W ith all o f this g o v e rn m e n t acitvity in the N o r t h since 1945 the possibility o f any legal claim against C a n a d ia n A rctic sovereignty is now rem ote. T h e principal issue o f 1879 an d of 1945 will no longer sp u r O tta w a to n o rth e rn action; the social prob lem s will n ow be the ch ief im pulse. C a n a d a c a n n o t afford n o rth e rn squ alo r again. D o m in io n G o v e rn m e n ts will be sensi­ tive to criticism ab o u t the w elfare a n d living con dition s o f the E sk im o an d Indians, and m o d e rn c o m m u n ic a tio n s will m ean a steady an d easy flow o f info rm a tio n o u t o f the N o rth . N o r t h ­ e r n social p ro b lem s will no lo n ger be o u t o f sight and o u t o f m ind. T h e y m u st be faced an d solved and this task will, in the m ain, fall on O ttaw a.

T h e N orth as a Canadian Liability D o m in io n G o v e rn m e n t in C a n a d a exists, in part, to c a rry out som e kind o f balan c in g fu nction a m o n g the vario us regional eco no m ies o f the co un try . A g o v e rn m e n t in O tta w a h as to try to sp rea d national wealth nationally, an d to a ttem p t to en su re th a t all C a n a d ia n s have m o re o r less the sam e sta n d a rd o f liv­ ing. In the past, C an a d ia n efforts to sh a re national prosperity a n d ease regional p overty have been alm o st exclusively in the south. N ow , the N o r t h will have to becom e an integral p a rt o f the C an a d ia n e co n o m ic co m m u n ity . It will join as an u n d e r ­ privileged m e m b e r for, despite changes and progress, the social

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pro b lem s o f the N o r th are still acute an d the cost o f resolving them will be great. F o r exam ple, In d ian an d E sk im o in fan t m ortality in the N o r th is fo u r times the C a n a d ia n average and , a m o n g the E skim o, the d eath rate o f ch ildren up to the age o f fo u r is thirteen times the national average. Even in 1964 the average age at d eath a m o n g the E sk im o was 32.2 years. In the e d uca tion o f the young there has been real advance, but a m o n g the o lder g eneration illiteracy is c o m m o n . In the Y u k o n , 5.2 p e r cent o f the pop ulatio n ov er fifteen y ears o f age have not been to school; this is fo u r times the national average. In the N o rth w e st T errito ries 34 p er cent o f the adults have had n o fo rm al ed uca tion . If n oth ing else, these figures dem on strate a con tin u in g em p lo y m en t pro blem in the N o rth fo r at least a n o th e r generation. In 1965 a b o u t 25 p e r cent o f Eskim o ch ildren were w ith ­ out school service and , while that p ercentage can be expected to dim inish steadily, it will be som e time before schooling is available fo r everyone. A m o n g those w ho d o go to school, there are m a n y dro po uts. Fifty p e r cent o f In d ia n students in C a n a d a do not go beyond the first six years o f schooling and this figure m a y be high er for the N orth . In d ian an d E sk im o earn in g pow er is still small. T h e per cap ita incom e f o r the Ind ian s o f the N o r th is one-sixth o f the nation al av erage an d 28 p e r cent o f that Indian incom e is fro m go v ern m en t w elfare schem es. In dians an d Eskim os to geth er c o m p rise three-fifths o f the potential lab o u r force o f the N o rth , b u t in fact form less th an o n e -q u a r te r o f those actually e m ­ ployed. N ativ e housing th ro u g h o u t the N o rth is still generally poor. A survey in 1964 o f som e 8 17 o n e-roo m houses in the Arctic sh ow ed that the m ajority o f these co ntain ed fr o m five to eight people. T h e se social statistics do not tell the w hole story o f the costs o f the north to C a n a d a . A ny kind o f en terp rise in the N o rth is expensive, a n d g ov ernm ent is no exception. T h e local g ov ern­ m en t o f the N o rth w e st T errito ries is u nd erw ritte n by Ottaw a. S om e 80 p er cent o f its capital ex pen ditu res an d 70 p e r cent of its op era ting revenue, originate in one form o r an o th e r from th e D o m inion G o v e rn m e n t. T h e situation in the Y u k o n now is on ly slightly m o r e viable. B ehind these tw o local T erritorial g o vernm ents stands O ttaw a. D o m in io n G o v e r n m e n t ministries and agencies in 1966-67 spent som e $ 90 million in the C an a d ia n N o rth . T h e

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total revenue a ccruing to the D o m in io n G o v e r n m e n t from the N o r th in that sam e fiscal year was ab ou t S I 2 million. It is u n ­ likely th a t these revenues will rise m ark ed ly in the n e a r future. G o v e rn m e n t, fo r example, is still the m ain stay o f the northern la b o u r m arket. T h e total experienced lab o u r force in the two T errito rie s in 1967 was a p p ro x im a te ly 14,200. O u t o f this total, som e 6 ,00 0 men and w o m en had full-tim e jobs w ith either the D o m in ion o r T erritorial G o v e rn m e n ts in the N o r th , and a n o th e r 3,000 w e re em ploy ed by those g ov ernm en ts on a parttime o r seasonal basis. T h e m in in g in d ustry is the b ac kb on e of the ec o n o m y o f both Territories. In 1967 the value o f all minerals p ro d u ce d in th e N o rth w est T errito ries an d the Y u k o n was $125 million. T h is is a small re tu rn from 4 0 per cent o f C a n a d a ’s land mass w hen the o th e r 60 p er cent p ro d u c ed $ 4 ,4 0 0 million. In o th e r words, the N o r th is now p ro d u c in g only ab o u t 2.8 p e r cent of C a n a d a ’s mineral wealth. F u r trapp ing is still an im p o rta n t sou rce o f incom e in the N o rth , particularly for the In dians and Eskim os. It accounts, how ever, fo r only abo ut one-tenth o f the value o f wild fu r tra p p ed th ro u g h o u t C a n a d a a n d pro vides a total revenu e of only $25 per capita in the tw o T erritories. It is a w ay o f life, therefo re, that implies only subsistence for m a n y tra p p ers and, for most, it c a n n o t be the only source o f incom e. C onclusion This accou nt o f eco no m ic an d social problem s is not m ean t to d enig rate C a n a d a ’s e n d e a v o u r in the N o rth since 1945, n o r is it intended to d ra w attention aw ay fro m the considerable invest­ m en t o f time, m on ey, lab o u r and im agination w hich has gone into the a tte m p t to solve n o rth e rn p ro blem s in the last two decades. It is m ean t however, to em ph asize at least tw o facts: ( a ) C a n a d a is now c o m m itted to a continuing, active and expensive n o rth ern p ro g ra m m e . T h e pressing issue of sovereignty, excepting, perhaps, fu tu re definitions of territorial waters, has passed a n d has been replaced in C a n a d a by a m oral an d political co n ce rn fo r the w el­ fare o f her n orthern people. T h e se social problem s will keep successive D o m in io n G o v e rn m e n ts active in the N o r th fo r decades m ore; and ( b ) there is as yet n o final rejoinder to the co ntention of 1879 that the N o r th is unlikely to p ro v e “o f any value to C a n a d a .’’ T h e N o rth today, m ean s subsidy.

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T h e high costs o f social p ro g ra m s fo r the N o r th have done aw ay w ith the old er "do n o th in g " ec onom ics w hich c h a r a c t e r ­ ized m u ch o f O ttaw a's no rth ern policies ov er the last sixty years. T he N o rth has now bec om e expensive an d the C an a d ia n G o v e r n m e n t w ould like to see the region p ay m ore o f its own way. It is prob able, therefo re, that, in the future, the econom ic motive will b eco m e m o re im p o rta n t and that in governm ent policy the d eve lo p m en t o f n o rth ern resources will be given a high priority.

42. The Ecology of the North: Knowledge is the Key to Sane Development Ian M cTaggart Cowan s o u r c e

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S cience F o ru m , N o. 7 (F eb ., 1 9 6 9 ) , pp. m ission o f the a u th o r an d publisher.

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T h e C a n a d ia n N o rth , an are a o f 1.5 million square miles, in­ cludes 4 0 per cent o f all C a n a d a . It is a loosely defined region extending from the A laskan b o u n d a ry in the far west to^the co ast o f L a b ra d o r in the east. It reaches its n o rth ern limits at C a p e H ecla, Ellesmere Island an d, for the purposes o f this essay, its so uth ern b o u n d a ry can be considered as close to the 60 th parallel. A b o u t a third lies on the A rctic islands, the r e ­ m a in d e r o n the continental m ain land. It is a land o f unbelievable contrasts. T h e majestic St. Elias ra n g e o f the western Y u k o n cradles the largest icefield o f N o rth A m e ric a , and m o un tains rise again to d o m in a te the eastern fringe o f the A rctic islands an d the coast o f L a b ra d o r. Between lie millions o f acres so flat that land and w a te r merge im ­ perceptibly. A n air view leaves the im pression that h alf o f A rctic C a n a d a is water, an d indeed J. P. Kelsall has given 36 p e r cent as the overall percentage. E ven here the architectu re o f ice is clearly visible in n u m e r o u s lesser features such as eskers and d ru m lin s - dry an d elevated sites for the de nning o f tu n d r a wolves an d the nests o f h ord es o f A rctic birds. A nd though w a te r is everyw here, the central Arctic is climatically arid, with total snow fall generally below tw enty inches an d a n n u a l p r e ­ cipitation below fifteen inches. Parts o f Y u k o n and L a b ra d o r h av e g reate r precipitation, reaching 70 to 9 0 inches o f sn o w ­ fall d u ring the w in ter m on th s an d s u m m e r rain o f eight to ten inches. T h e re are few, if any, m o re arid lands in N o r th A m e r ­ ica th a n the frigid deserts o f Ellesmere w h ere total an nu al precipitation fro m all sources has averaged 1.5 inches an d the b are brow n soil su p p o r ts a scan t dusting o f d w arfe d sedges and the twisted creep ing stems o f A rctic willows.

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T h e s u m m e r grow ing season, defined as days with an av e r­ age te m p e ra tu re exceeding 4 2 ° F . , is less th a n forty days in the high A rctic an d less th an nin ety days at the edge o f ti m b e r in th e central b a rr e n lands. A bsolute w in te r m in im u m te m p e ra ­ tu res are betw een — 65° an d — 8 0 °F .; s u m m e r m ax im a in the west m ay exceed 80 degrees. T h e M ack enzie River with its g re at h e a d w a te r lakes d o m i­ nates the west. Along it clim atic con dition s are less extrem e; the re are large areas o f heavy forest, agriculture is practicable o n a limited scale, and the d elta m arshlan ds are rich habitat for m u skrat. T h e tru e n o rth lan d s lie b eyond the edge o f con tin uo us forest, w here the co m b in ed assault o f p e rm a fro s t an d climate lead to the straggling o p e n stands o f stun ted trees that c h a r­ acterize the taiga. N o r t h o f the tree line the wind sweeps u no b stru cted across the frozen w aterw ays, p ac k in g the sno w into long drifts fre ­ qu en tly so h ard th a t th ey take no fo otprints. T his is the land o f the E skim o, a m a ritim e people, w h o travel in w in te r by sled w itho ut need o f snowshoes, living originally in snow houses, c o ok ing and heating with an im al oil. So u th o f the tree line the snow lies soft and deep; even scattered trees b re a k the w ind. T h is is In d ia n co un try , where w o o d provides material fo r cabins, w a rm th a n d cooking, where w in te r travel requires snow shoes an d the toboggan replaces the sled.

Early M an in the N orth T h e capacity o f this vast area to support m a n is very low; it is do ub tfu l th a t the indigenous population at any time in the last 1,500 years exceeded 2 0 ,0 0 0 people. T h r o u g h this period most o f the area o f the A rctic islands was totally unin hab ited and the capacity o f the area that was in h abited was ab o u t 500 sq u a re miles per person. So fa r as can now be told th ere were a p prox im ately equal n u m b ers o f E skim os an d Indians. S tarva­ tion w as the limiting force. T h e r e is evidence o f m u c h wider distribution o f the E skim os n o rth w a rd th ro u g h the islands be­ fore the first c entu ry , b u t ecological c h ang es - a n d possible h u m a n overkill o f the m u sk ox - led to their disappearance. All but a few E skim os lived at strategic points along the coast w here special circu m stan ces provided the greatest pos­ sible op p o rtu n ity f o r food. T h e y fav ou red sites close to the m ou th s o f rivers, w here the a n a d ro m o u s fish con gregated to

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pass u p river. T h e river ice b ro k e u p early, attractin g geese and ducks. Such places also fa v o u red seals. C a rib o u could be avail­ able w h en migration b ro u g h t th e m w ithin reach; beaver d a m m e d the quiet reach es a n d m u s k ra ts flourished in the m arsh es. Villages could be established elsewhere, as well, if the c o m m u n ity was w ithin relatively sh ort travel d istance of the varied food sources. In general, how ev er, it was th e rich resources o f the sea that sup po rted the E sk im o : seals, w alrus, w hite whale, bowhe ad w hale, n arw hal, p o la r b e a r and fish. C a rib o u and m u s k o x provided m eat, clothing and su c h m aterials as antlers a n d h o rn w hich were p u t to a m ultitud e o f special uses. Edible leaves, roots an d berries w ere used as o p p o rtu n ity offered. F u r anim als provided skins fo r d ecoration , variety a n d incidental use. T h e E sk im o s a re k n o w n to have h a d o n e o f the m o s t elab o ra te and specific vocabularies o f n a tu ral his tory an d a n a to m y o f all peoples o f their “age,” revealing the intim acy o f their contac t with the e n v ir o n m e n t and the th o ro u g h n ess with w h ich they used it. T h e Indians, on the o th e r h an d , lived in a very different e n v ir o n m e n t in w hich the m ig rato ry caribou was o f m a jo r im ­ p o rta n c e d uring the winter, alon g with a sm aller b u t resident stock o f m oose the y ear round. T h e entry o f E u ro p e a n m a n in to the C a n a d ia n N o r t h m a d e d r a m a tic changes in the e n v iro n m e n t w hich h ad im p act o n the native inhabitants. T h e new search f o r f u r to exch ang e fo r the varied e q u ip m e n t o f the invaders led to a g reat increase in the n u m b e r o f sled dogs, needed to c a rry the tr a p p e r along his lengthy circuits. T h e se dogs used m u c h the sam e food as m an , a n d th ere fore increased the d e m a n d u p o n food resources. T h e in tru d e rs also w ere living off the land in an area th a t was alread y fully occupied. T h e increased d e m a n d fo r m e a t o f all sorts w as m et by substituting the rifle f o r the h a rp o o n a n d arrow . T h e discovery o f tech niqu es f o r killing the great whales o f the A rctic seas led to so efficient an a ttack by w h alers fro m n o rth e rn E u ro p e th a t w ithin two centuries this source o f food in the A rctic ecosystem was virtually ex term inated . O verkill o f caribo u, m usk ox and w alrus b e cam e the o r d e r o f the day, an d stocks o f all declined sharply. T h e m u s k o x was d ow n to scattered small g ro u p s by 1912 an d no lo n ger was im p o rta n t to the survival o f A rctic m an . W e have n o w ay o f estim ating the n u m b e r o f c aribou taken ann u ally d u rin g the p erio d o f m a x im u m herd size, but estim ates by Banfield in 1948 indicate th a t it was m o r e th an

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100,000 anim als, yielding ab o u t nine million pou nd s o f m eat o r abo ut six po u n d s o f m e a t p er squ are mile o f inhabited area. A s the carib o u pop ulatio n declined from its primitive 2.4 million, its m o ve m e nts b e cam e less predictable and areas might not see the herds fo r years at a time. T h e result w as local starvation w hich reach ed a d ra m a tic crisis when the caribo u stock collapsed betw een 1945 a n d 1955. Less th an 200,000 a n im als rem ained from the hordes th a t on ce swept across the b arre n s on m igrations as d ra m a tic as those o f the z e b ra and wildebeest o f East Africa. By that time the pop ulatio n o f the N o rth la n d had reached a b o u t 45 ,000, less th an h a lf o f them indigenous. Most o f the native people were largely d e p en d en t on im ported food. T he collapse o f the n atural food resources could have been even m o re rapid had it not been f o r the introduction o f E u ro pea n diseases w hich p ro ve d devastatin g to E skim o and In d ia n alike.

Fur T h e great incentive behind the exploration o f no rth ern C a n a d a w as the search for fur. F ro m the establishm ent o f the first H u d s o n ’s Bay C o m p a n y posts o n H u dson an d Ja m e s Bays in 1670, f u r ex plo rers m oved across the N o rth following the great rivers. T ra d in g posts were established the length o f the M ac­ kenzie River betw een 1789 an d 1805. T h u s it was the forest furs th a t first a ttracte d the traders, and the Indians w h o m ad e first co ntac t with E uro pe ans. N o t until the early 1900s were tra d in g posts established along the Arctic co ast to tap the p ri­ m a r y fur species o f the t u n d r a - the w hite fox. In the ten y ears 1933-43. the fur harvest o f the N orthw est T e rrito rie s increased from 200 .0 00 to 50 0 ,0 0 0 pelts. M ore th an h a lf w ere m usk rat, o f w hich 75 p e r cent cam e from the great delta o f the M ackenzie River system. T h e five years 1938-43 indicate the relative roles of the ecological regions of the A rctic in the fur resource. D u rin g this period the tu n d ra a r e a p ro d u c e d an average an nu al catch o f ab ou t 4 8 ,0 0 0 white fox a n d perhap s 10,000 or so o f a c o m b in atio n of o th e r species; the rich river deltas averag ed 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 m u skrat annually, taken p re d o m in an tly fro m the taiga region. A t the sam e tim e the taiga and adjac en t forests o f N o rth w est T erritories p ro du ced som e 35,000 pelts p e r year. A lm ost half w ere beaver, the rest c o lo u re d fox ( 1 0 ,0 0 0 ) , m artin ( 3 , 0 0 0 ) , lynx ( 2 ,0 0 0 ) and m ink (1 , 5 0 0 ) . R ed uced to an areal yield, this am o u n ts to the

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very low figure o f a b o u t one pelt per three sq ua re miles. This figure is, however, badly distorted by the m u s k ra t catc h which was ne a re r 4 0 per cent sq uare mile on the 10,000 sq uare miles from w hich it w as d raw n . W ith this area rem oved, the tu n d ra region yielded one pelt per 13 squ are miles, and the taiga and boreal forest one p er 20 sq u a re miles. In eco no m ic terms, 4 0 p er ccnt o f the area o f C a n a d a was p ro du cin g one-tenth o f the dollar yield o f C an a d ia n fur. T his serves to re-em phasize that the N o r th with its rela­ tively m eagre bu dget o f solar en erg y is a land o f low biological productivity.

Fish and Marine A nim als Fish have been used extensively to su p p o r t m a n in the Arctic. T h e g reater part o f the catch was ta ken d u rin g fish “ ru n s ” in the period o f o pen water. U n der-ice fishing was seldom p ra c ­ tised. T h e re are no useful d a ta on the fish c ro p ta ken by E s­ kimo, Indian o r early w hite inhabitants o f the N o rth . N eith er is there any indication o f overuse. R ecent studies o f A rctic lakes suggest an a n n u a l input o f abo ut o n e p o un d o f fish per ac re per year, with som e lakes yielding up to three times this. T h e r e is no evidence o f m ark ed differences in fresh w a te r p ro ­ ductivity in the different ecological regions. A lth ou gh the w alrus suffered an early decline becau se of killing by E u ro p e a n s for c om m ercial p rod ucts, the seals were too dispersed for effective e con om ic exploitation. T h e y p e r­ sisted as a mainstay o f the m e at supply for coastal c o m m u n i­ ties. I have no yield figures. C h an g in g m a r k e ts later increased d e m a n d for the pelts o f Arctic seals. T h e belu ga has been taken w h erev er it o c c u rred and has recently been subjected to a small com m erc ial kill in the vicinity o f C hurchill.

M an and the A rctic Ecosystem Primitive m an occup ie d Arctic an d Subarctic C a n a d a success­ fully fo r several tho usand years before the invasion from E uro pe . D u rin g this time he used the food resources to the best o f his ability. His actions m ay so m etim es have resulted in overkill, as with the muskox on the Arctic islands. H ow ever, such action pro bab ly led to im m ediate redress in reduction of the n u m b e rs o f people. T h eirs was a survival ecology, w ith the

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use o f food d e p e n d e n t u p o n th e size o f p o p u la tio n an d their c o m p e ten ce as h u n ters an d food gatherers. Because o f m a n ’s greatly diversified survival needs, and the ecological constraints u p o n his access to the m a m m a ls, birds an d fishes u p o n w hich h e lived, it is p ro b ab le th a t the size o f th e stocks o f food o rg anism s available had only limited relationship to the crops taken. T h e r e is no evidence th a t early m a n in the C a n a d ia n N o r th w as th e limiting fa c to r in the eq u a tio n o f n u m b e r s o f anim als he used. F ollow ing the adv ent o f the E u ro p e a n s a n d their e c o n o m y , the m usko x, caribo u, w alrus, b o w h ea d w h ale and b e a v e r declined greatly in n u m b e r s as a co nsequ ence o f killing b e y on d re p la c e m e n t rate. H a d the tra d in g posts an d g o v e rn ­ m e n t agencies n o t been o n h a n d to assist E sk im o an d Indian c o m m u n ities b ereft o f their sources o f foo d , starvatio n deaths w ould have been f a r m o r e prevalent. G o v e rn m e n t agencies have devoted m u c h skill, c o u ra g e and resou rcefu lness ov er the last tw enty years to reverse so m e of the consequencies o f o u r earlier misuse o f the larger anim als. B u t o u r tw entieth ce n tu ry society has d e g ra d e d the n o rth ern ecosystems in m a n y o th e r ways. F ir e has c ertainly been an ecological force in the N o r th since the beginning o f time, b u t destruction o f th e taiga by fire h as increased greatly in rec ent years. G . W . Scotter, referring in 1961 to n o rth e rn Sa sk atc h e w an south o f the are a covered h ere, rep orted th a t acreage b u rn e d p er yea r h a d increased 1.5 times in the prev iou s fo u rte en years c o m p a r e d to the previous 60, an d 3.5 tim es c o m p a r e d to the period 1840-4. T w e nty -n ine p e r cent o f the a r e a betw een G r e a t B ear L a k e a n d th e N o r th A r m o f G re a t Slave L ake has b ee n b u rn e d in re cen t years. N e a r c e rta in settlem ents the p erio d o f m o s t destructive fires has coin cided w ith the times a n d areas o f m o s t active m ineral prospecting. B u rn e d a reas will frequently regenerate, b u t re ­ g ro w th is very slow u n d e r A rc tic conditions - u p to 120 years in lichen forests. In the m e a n tim e forage p ro d u c tio n is well below th a t o f the m a tu re taiga. P ro b a b ly th e m o s t potentially destructive im p a c t u p o n the n o rth e rn e n v ir o n m e n t to day results fr o m m ineral p rospecting a n d mining d ev elop m en t. M in ing is the m a j o r econ om ic activity in th e N o r th an d is likely to re m a in so. I t is the m ost pro ba ble base f o r o u r c o n tin u in g use o f th e N o r t h f o r the benefit o f o ur society, an d its d e v e lo p m en t will certainly be enco uraged . But the d am ag e to w hich I re fe r is n o t an essential fe a tu re o f the discovery and d ev elo p m en t o f m ineral deposits. It is th e co n ­

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seq uen ce o f ignorance an d lack o f a p p ro p r ia te policy regula­ tions. T h e sites o f h u n d re d s o f pro specting c a m p s are m arked by tons o f virtually indestructible litter defiling even the m ost re m o te areas o f the N o rth . O verlan d vehicles m ove across the fragile tu n d r a w ith ou t restriction an d w ith ou t con cern for the de struction th ey do. T h e heavy vehicles c a n crush the fragile vegeta tion an d the thin organic horizon o v er the pe rm afro st an d initiate a cycle o f melting o f great d a m a g e to the e n v iro n ­ m ent. Y e t this is not necessary. It requires o nly recognition of the ecological an d aesthetic p rob lem , and resolve to devise rules o f b e h a v io u r that will p erm it the ex traction o f mineral resources w itho ut d estruction o f o th e r values. A n exam ple of the kind o f a rra n g e m e n ts that perm it such effective an d c o m ­ patible d ev elop m e nt is to be seen in the G eophysical O peration P ro ced u res n ow in force fo r the K enai N atio n al M o ose Range o f W estern Alaska. D r. J. S. T e n e r o f the C an a d ia n Wildlife Service, reporting u p o n his ex am in atio n of this area, states: O n e o f the things that im pressed m e m ost ab o u t the Kenai o peratio n w as the cleanliness o f the industrial sites, i.e., oil wells, storage sheds an d drilling rigs. I was able to exam ine a n u m b e r o f them an d there was n o t a single piece of p ap er, tin can, c a rd b o a r d o r o th e r garb ag e a n y w h e re in sight. E a c h site w as unobtrusive as was possible to make it an d by th a t I m ean a v ery m i n im u m a m o u n t o f dis­ tu rb a n c e o f the su rro u n d in g terrain w as a p p aren t. Equally im pressive w as the fact th a t in spite o f the oil wells, the strea m s flowing im m ediately adjac ent to th em and the sur­ ro un d in g lakes were free o f pollution. T h e w a te r was clean a n d co ntain ed the usual biota. Seismic lines cut throu gh the tim b e r sto pp ed ab o u t one h u n d red y ard s from m anageable strea m s an d lakes so that a canoeist travelling th ro u g h has no evidence o f u n d u e geophysical activity. Sensitive an d e c o n o m ic a rran g e m en ts for exploitation o f n o rth ­ ern resources c a n be m ade. Surely we can profit by the experi­ ence o f others. T h e d ischarge o f ro ck flour into no rth e rn rivers need not alw ays be destructive, since m an y a lready carry such heavy loads o f silt that it is difficult to im agine significant im pact from the additional am o u n t. H ow ev er, silt released into otherwise clear waters, o r effluent con tain ing toxic chemicals, can be d am aging. M a n y if n o t m ost o f o u r A rctic co m m un ities use local rivers as sewers. In m an y cases this m ay be o f little direct

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biological con seq uen ce, but we d o not know . N o r th e r n c o n d i­ tions certainly result in rates o f biological deg rad atio n o f such m aterials far below those o f so u th ern latitudes. T h e re is also m o re serious possibility o f the in tro du ctio n o f h u m a n path og ens into the w ater systems. Discoveries o f a different sort point to the widespread c o n ­ sequences o f airb orn e fallout. “T h e present levels o f strontium 9 0 in c aribou b on e ( a b o u t 100 to 2 0 0 stro ntium u nits) are p ro b a b ly the highest fo u n d in an y k no w n fo o d anim al, and are . . . well o v e r suggested limits fo r h u m a n s ,” B arry C o m ­ m o n e r repo rted in 1961. E sk im o s using caribo u as a staple diet have fo u r times the Sr.-90 con tent o f the average fo r north te m p e ra te zone peoples. M o r e recently the C an a d ia n Wildlife Service has e n c o u n t­ ered substantial am o u n ts o f d d t an d its p ro du cts in a large sam p le o f ca rib o u from A rctic areas. T h e con seq u ence to the caribou is u nk n o w n . T h e m a in im po rta nce is the revelation th a t not even the m ost rem ote areas are n ow im m u n e fr o m the influence o f o u r distribution o f chemical biocides. T h e im­ m ed iate c onsequences are m ost serious fo r flesh-eating cre a ­ tures, especially flesh-eating birds, m a n y o f w hich are b e c o m ­ ing extrem ely scarce as a c o nseq ue nce o f d d t poisoning. W h a t o f the fu tu re d ev elo p m en t of this vast, fascinating, inhospitable an d relatively fragile sector o f C a n a d a ? It is im ­ possible to envision large c o m m u n ities based u pon co n v e n ­ tional food p roduction. L im ited local agriculture h as been practised for m a n y years, particularly the gro w in g of vegetables, an d this could be ex ten ded to several tho u san d acres along the M acken zie Valley at least. But food p rod uc tion adeq uate fo r even local needs is unforeseeable. N evertheless, as the w orld becom es progressively s h o rter o f food one can foresee stron g constraints against raising m eat anim als on fo d der and feed grains grow n w here h u m a n food could have been p r o ­ du ced. T h e 90 p e r cent loss o f e nergy resulting from feeding h u m a n plant food to anim als destined to en rich o u r diet will be intolerable. T his will place great em ph asis on a search to find m eans o f p ro d u c in g anim al protein u p o n lands otherwise not c o n trib u tin g to the food resource. T h e N o r th th en holds trem en do us potential. I can see research into ways o f converting no rth ern vegeta­ tion into feed for livestock. T his m ay be by new m ean s of harvesting an d treating, o r by developing im p ro ved strains of a n im als such as reindeer, m usk ox an d yak that are already A rctic ad apted . R eind eer ra n ch in g in A laska points to the

TH E ECOLOGY O F T H E N O RT H

359

feasibility o f such a project. At its peak in 1929-30 the A laskan herds o f 64 0 .0 0 0 d eer were p ro du cin g 2Vz million p o u n d s of m eat p er year. Estim ates o f y ear-ro u n d c a rry in g capa city sug­ gest 160 acres p e r anim al p e r year. N o a tte m p t has been m ade to assess how m u ch o f Arctic C a n a d a w ould be suitable for rein deer culture, but if it is as m u c h as an eighth o f the area, a million and a q u a rt e r deer co uld be carried with an estim ated yield ol close to 28 .00 0 tons o f m eat p er year. T h e n too we have d on e no w ork at all on the im pro ve m en t a n d culture o f the moose an d muskox. Both a re am ena ble to dom estication, both do well on Arctic vegetation an d should be considered seriously as potential meat anim als. W e can neglect to r the im m ed iate fu tu re the possibility o f new genetic capabilities p erm itting us to construct from available genetic m aterials a com p letely novel c rea tu re "ta ilo r-m a d e " to o u r n o rth ern rangelands. T h e use o f dispersed an im als living wild fo r the organized p ro d u c tio n o f m ea t f o r ex po rt presents difficult prob lem s in harvesting, handling an d tran sp o rt at o u r present level of co m p eten ce an d with existing e c o n o m ic c ircum stances. T he ba rren g ro u n d caribo u, however, with a p p ro p r ia te co n serv a­ tion. could p ro d u c e p erh ap s 20 .0 00 tons o f m ea t a y e ar under circum stances w h ere harvest lo r h u m a n use w ould be p r a c ­ ticable. T h e harvest o f fish as a local food and as a specialty export h as considerable potential as o u r transport efficiency im proves a n d changes develop in o u r p riority d e m a n d for anim al protein. O th e r food anim als also ofi'er potential. Both m u skrat and beaver respond dram atica lly to sim ple m an ag e m en t, are n u triti­ ous an d highly palatable if pro perly treated, and can be thought ol as elem ents in Arctic lood c ulture. T h e eco no m ic s o f harvest and meat h andling rem ain the most fo rm id ab le constraints. I do not foresee the taiga p rod uc ing m e rch an tab le tim b er crops, even for pulping use, in com p etitio n with the tr em end ou s sources m u c h closer to areas o f d e m an d . T o u ris m , how ever, has real potential, especially in select a reas such as the T h e lo n an d Back Rivers in the central barrens, H azen L ak e on Ellesmere Island, o r o th e r p a rts o f the high A rctic that en joy favourable s u m m e r climates an d freed o m from biting Hies. I am confident also that there is unexploited potential for w in ter tourism that would attract m an y o f the city-bound w ho with increasing leisure will increasingly seek novel experiences. Such ventures will req uire capital an d im a g ­ ination but the clientele could be found for successful dev elo p ­

360

Ca n a d a 's

c h a n g in g

north

m ent, p e rh a p s in association with rearin g areas fo r Arctic animals. C o nserv ation in the A rctic has im p o rta n t goals. It is there th a t the e ntire surviving po pu lations o f the w h o op ing crane an d E sk im o curlew are m ak in g their last stand. T h e relatively small and extrem ely local p o pulations o f R oss and T u le geese a re vulnerable to e n v iro n m en ta l abuse, as also is the greater sn ow goose. H e re the gyr, greatest o f all the falcons, faces obliteration th ro u g h d d t fallout. T h e P eary C a rib o u , barren g ro u n d grizzly a n d t u n d r a w olf are all un ique an d relatively scarce creatu res for w hich we hold trusteeship. C onservation also is needed fo r effective m a n a g e m e n t o f fu r an d game an im als for con tin uin g h u m a n use. So far h u m a n activity in the N o r th has had little influence on the host o f m igra tory birds th a t sw a rm into its vast reaches each spring to m a k e use o f the su m m e rtim e en erg y surpluses. C ountless millions o f birds an nually raise their y ou n g on the teem ing insects an d the a b u n d a n t b u t e p h em e ral vegetation, seeds and fruits th a t ch aracterize Arctic sum m er. T h e majority o f these species will rem ain relatively im m u n e to m in o r h u m a n alteration o f the e n viron m en t. H o w ev er, the Arctic occupies a un iq u e position with respect to m a n y species o f wildlife and the ecological circum stanc es o f their m a in te n a n c e should be high in o u r c onsideration as we p urposely o r in advertently alter the region by o u r activities. O ne o f the m o st significant dev elo pm ents o f the last forty years has been the rapid gro w th in the n u m b e r o f people who look to the n atural e n v iro n m e n t fo r recreation an d enjoym ent. T h e A rctic loom s increasingly v aluable in this context. This seg m en t o f o u r popu latio n is not gen erally antagonistic to eco no m ic d evelo pm ent. T h e y are fully aw a re that to a large ex ten t the ad van tag es we enjoy stem fro m the ingenuity we bring to reso urce use. T h e y do, how ever, d e m a n d th a t we develop pa ttern s o f use consistent with the m ain ten an ce o f n atu ral ecological conditions w h erev er possible. T h e y also seek total proscription in som e areas o f un ique quality o r biological im po rtan ce. A reas such as the T h elo n reserve m ust be kept for non-destructive use. T h e re is urg ent need for o ther ecologically oriented reserves. T o qu ote p a r t o f R e c o m m e n d a tio n 7 fro m the Biosphere C o n fere n c e o f 1968 ( U n e s c o ) , “Special efforts m u st be taken urgently to p reserve the rich genetic resources that have evolved ov er millions o f years an d a re now being irretrievably lost as a result o f h u m a n actions." T h e re are few areas o f the world

T H E ECOLOGY O F T H E N O RT H

361

w h e re the genetic ele m ents are m o re fragile o r m o re potentially valuable in the long ru n th an the C a n a d ia n N o rth . In n o rth ern lands, know ledge o f the a p p ro p ria te ecological facts is indispensable if we a rc to recognize qu ickly the a lter­ native o p po rtu nities fo r reso urce de velo pm en t and the c o n ­ straints within w hich we m ust act. H ere, even m o re th an f u r th e r south, we will c o ntin ue to live in closcst co ntac t with th e n atural e nv iron m ent. O u r success will depen d as m uch u pon the sophistication o f o u r ecological know ledge as u pon o u r technological co m p eten ce. M uch m o re th a n h ereto fo re m u s t those responsible fo r the adm inistratio n and dev elo p ­ m e n t o f o u r n o rth la n d s m a s te r the intricacies o f the concepts involved and learn to d ra w on expert ecological know ledge if they are to discharge their responsibilities in this g reat and u n iq u e are a o f C an ad a.

TH E

C O N T R IB U T O R S

L O U IS-E D M O N D H A M E L IN

P ro fesso r o f G e o g ra p h y an d D irector, C e n tre d ’fitudes N o rd iq u es , U niversite Laval, Quebec. J O H N E. SATER

R esearch C o -o rd in a to r, T h e A m e ric a, W a shington.

A rctic Institute o f N o r th

ALLAN COOKE

C e n tre d ’E tud es N o rd iq u e s , Q uebec, a n d Scott P o lar R e­ search Institute, C am b rid ge. TH EO D O R E E . LAYNG

H e a d , N atio n a l M a p C ollection, P ublic A rchives o f C a n a d a , O ttaw a. ERIC W . M O R SE

N a tio n a l D irecto r, T h e A ssociation o f C a n a d ia n Clubs, O ttaw a. J O H N K. STAGER

A ssociate P ro fesso r o f G e o g ra p h y , U niversity o f British C o lum bia, V a nco uv er. JO H N E. CASW ELL

P rofessor o f H istory, Stanislaus State College, T u rlo c k . F . J . ALCOCK

(r e tir e d ) fo r m e r C h ief C u ra to r , N a tio n a l M u s eu m o f C a n ­ ad a, Ottaw a. DIANA M . R . R O W L E Y

U n til rece n tly E dito r, T h e A rc tic C ircular, O ttaw a, w . L. M ORTON

V a n ie r P ro fesso r o f H istory, T re n t U niversity, P e te r b o r­ ough. J O H N TETSO

(d ec eased ) form erly a Slavey Indian trap pe r, w h o lived an d w o rk ed n ear F ort Sim pson. J . ROSS M ACKAY

P ro fesso r o f G e o g ra p h y , University o f British C olum bia, V an co uv er. F R A N K A. C O O K E

(d e cease d ) fo rm erly with G e o g rap h ic al B ranch, C a n a d a D ept, o f E nergy, Mines a n d R esources, O ttaw a. F. K E N N E T H HARE

P rofesso r o f G e o g ra p h y , U n iversity o f T o ro n to , T o ro n to . N O R M A N W . RADFORTH

P ro fesso r o f B otany, U n iversity o f N e w B runsw ick, F r e d ­ ericton.

T H E CO NTRIBUTORS

363

R. J . E . B R O W N

D ivision o f Building R esearch, N atio n a l R esearch C ouncil, O ttaw a. M . K. THOMAS

M eteo ro lo gical B ranch, C a n a d a D ept, o f T ra n s p o r t, T o ­ ronto. d . w . B O YD

M eteorological B ra nch , C a n a d a D ept, o f T ra n s p o r t, T o ­ ronto, w . o . PR U IT T , J R .

Associate P ro fe sso r o f Z oology, U niversity o f M anitob a, W in nipeg. A. W . F . B A N F I E L D

D irecto r, O ttaw a .

N a tio n a l

M useum

of

the

N a tu r a l

Sciences,

W IL L IA M E. TAYLOR, J R .

D ire c to r o f A rch aeo lo g y , N a tio n a l M u s e u m o f C a n a d a , O ttaw a. J A M E S W . VAN S T O N E

C u ra to r , D ep t, o f A n th ro p o lo g y , Field M u s e u m o f N a tu ra l H isto ry, C hicago. M . R. H AR G R A VE , A .R.D.A.

C a n a d a D e p t, o f Regional E c o n o m ic E x pansion, O ttaw a. W IL L IA M M . G ILC H R IST

P resident, E ld o ra d o N u c le a r Lim ited, O tttaw a. G R A H A M H U M I ’H R Y S

L e c tu r e r in G e o g ra p h y , U niversity C ollege o f Swansea, Swansea. H . K. ROESSINGH

E ditor, C anadian P etro leu m , Calgary. R . T . FLA NA G AN

A ssistant R egional D irector, C en tral R egion, N atio n a l and H isto ric P a rk s Branch. R. M . H IL L

d.

M a n a g e r , In uv ik R esearch L ab o rato ry , C a n a d a D ept, o f In d ia n Affairs a n d N o r th e r n D eve lop m e nt, Inuvik. c. F O O T E (d ec eased ) fo r m e r A ssociate P ro fe sso r o f G eo g ra p h y , M cG ill U niversity, M on treal.

J . R. K . M A IN

(r e tir e d ) fo r m e r Senior C a n a d ia n R epresentative, I n t e r­ natio nal Civil A viation O rg anizatio n, M ontreal. W I L L I A M C. W O N D E R S

P ro fessor o f G e o g ra p h y , University o f A lberta, E d m o n to n .

36 4

C A N A D A 'S C H A N G I N G N O R T H

J . S. F O R D

C h ie f Engineer, C a n a d ia n N ation al T eleco m m u nication s, T o ro n to . R . G. W I L L I A M S O N

A ssociate P rofessor o f A n th ro po lo gy , University o f Sas­ k atch ew an, Sask ato on , a n d H ead, A rctic R esearch and T ra in in g C e n tre ( I .N .S . ) , R a n k in Inlet. J . FRIED

P rofesso r o f A n throp olo gy , P o rtland State College, P o r t­ land. GEORGE JACO BSEN

President, T h e T o w e r C o m p a n y ( 1 9 6 1 ) Ltd., M ontreal. ABE O KPIK

Office o f the S ecretary, G o v e rn m e n t o f the N o rth w est T erritories, Yellow knife, N .W .T . E. F . ROOTS

C o -o rdinato r, P o la r C o n tin en tal Shelf Project, C a n a d a D ept, o f Energy, Mines an d Resources, Ottaw a. M ARGARET W . M ORRIS

G r a d u a te S tud ent in G e o g ra p h y , U niversity o f S askatch e­ w an, Saskatoon. DAV ID J U D D

Visiting S cholar, Scott P o lar R esearch Institute, C am b rid ge, an d form erly A d m in istra to r o f the Y u k o n T erritory. IAN M C T A G G A R T C O W A N

Professor o f Zoology, U n iversity o f British C olum bia, Vancouver.

NOTE

ON

THE

EDITOR

w il l ia m c. w o n d e r s is P ro fesso r o f G e o g ­ raphy at the U niversity o f A lberta, E d m o n to n . He received a b . a . (H o n s .) and p h . d . in G e o g ­ raphy at the University o f T o ro n to , an d an m . a . in G e o g ra p h y at S yracuse U niversity. H e taught at the University o f T o r o n to until 1953, w hen he received the first a p p o in tm e n t in G e o g ra p h y at T h e University o f A lberta. On establishm ent of a se p a ra te D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g ra p h y , he served as D e p a rtm e n t H e a d fr o m 1957 to 1967. D r. W o n d e rs was C h a ir m a n o f the organizing c o m ­ mittee for the establishm ent of a n o rth e rn r e ­ search institute at the University o f Alberta, and was also the first C h a ir m a n o f the D irectorate o f the resultant Boreal Institute. He was G u est Professor at U p psala University in Sweden in 1962-63. H is research interests and publications have focused on settlement g e o graph y in the C an a d ia n N orth w est, A lberta an d Scandinavia.

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THE

1.

lord

CARLETON

D u r h a m ’s

report,

LIBRARY

edited and with an Introduction by

Gerald M. Craig 2. THE CONFEDERATION DEBATES IN THE PROVINCE OF CANADA, 1865,

edited and with an Introduction by P. B. Waite 3.

la u r ier : a stu dy in

Canadian

po l itic s

by J. W. Dafoe, with an Introduction by Murray S. Donnelly 4. CHAMPLAIN: THE LIFE OF FORTITUDE

by Morris Bishop, with a new Introduction by the author 5. THE ROWELL/SIROIS REPORT, Book I,

6.

edited and with an Introduction by Donald V. Smiley t h e u n r e f o r m e d s e n a t e o f C a n a d a by Robert A. MacKay revised and with an Introduction by the author

7. THE JESUIT RELATIONS AND ALLIED DOCUMENTS: A SELECTION,

edited and with an Introduction by S. R. Mealing D u r h a m ’s m i s s i o n t o C a n a d a by Chester New, edited and with an Introduction by H. W. McCready 9. T H E r e c i p r o c i t y t r e a t y o f 1854 by Donald C. Masters, with a new Introduction by the author

8.

lord

10. POLITICAL UNREST IN UPPER CANADA, 1815-1836

by Aileen Dunham, with an Introduction by A. L. Burt 11. A HISTORY OF TRANSPORTATION IN CANADA, Volum e 1,

by G. P. deT. Glazebrook, with a new Introduction by the author 12. A HISTORY OF TRANSPORTATION IN CANADA, Volum e II,

by G. P. deT. Glazebrook 13. THE ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF DOMINION-PROVINCIAL RELATIONS 14.

by W. A. Mackintosh, with an Introduction by J. H. Dales by Mason Wade, with a new Introduction by the author

t h e f r e n c h -canadian o u tlo ok

15. THE WESTERN INTERIOR OF CANADA: A RECORD OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY, 1612-1917,

compiled and with an Introduction by John Warkentin 16. THE COURTS AND THE CANADIAN CONSTITUTION,

compiled and with an Introduction by W. R. Lederman 17. MONEY AND BANKING IN CANADA,

compiled and with an Introduction by E. P. Neufeld 18. FRENCH-CANADIAN SOCIETY, Volum e I,

compiled and with an Introduction by Marcel Rioux and Yves Martin 19. THE CANADIAN COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION, 1845-1851

by Gilbert N. Tucker, edited and with an Introduction by Hugh G. J. Aitken 20. JOSEPH

h o w e : voice o f nova

SCOTIA,

compiled and with an Introduction by J. Murray Beck 21. LIFE AND LETTERS OF SIR WILFRID LAURIER, Volume I, by O. D. Skelton, edited and with an Introduction by David M .L . Farr

22.

L IF E AND LE TTE R S O F SIR W IL F R ID LA U RIER,

23.

LEADING C O N STIT U T IO N A L D ECISION S,

24. 25.

F R O N T E N A C : T H E C O U RTIER GOVERNOR

26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35.

V olum e II, by O. D. Skelton, edited by David M .L . Farr

compiled and with an Introduction by Peter H. Russell by W. J. Eccles

IN DIA N S O F T H E N O RTH PA C IF IC COAST,

compiled and with an Introduction by T om McFeat by O . D. Skelton, edited and with an Introduction by G uy MacLean A HISTORY O F CANADIAN EX TERN A L R EL A T IO N S, V olum e /, by G. P. deT. Glazebrook, revised by the author A HISTORY O F CANADIAN EX TE R N A L R EL A T IO N S, Volum e II, by G. P. deT. Glazebrook, revised and with a Bibliographical Essay by the author T H E RACE Q U E ST IO N i n C a n a d a by Andre Siegfried, edited and with an Introduction by F. H. Underhill N O R T H A TLANTIC t r i a n g l e by J. B. Brebner, with an Introduction by D. G. Creighton a p p r o a c h e s t o C a n a d i a n e c o n o m i c h i s t o r y , compiled and with an Introduction by W. T. Easterbrook and M. H. Watkins CANADIAN SOCIAL S T R U C T U R E : A STATISTICAL P R O F IL E , Compiled and with an Introduction and Commentary by John Porter C H U R CH AND STA TE IN CANADA, 1627-1867: BASIC D O CU M EN TS, compiled and with an Introduction by John S. Moir w e s t e r n o n t a r i o a n d t h e a m e r i c a n f r o n t i e r by Fred Landon, with a new Introduction by the author L IF E AND T IM E S O F SIR ALEXANDER TIL L O C H GALT

H ISTORICAL ESSAYS O N T H E A TLA N TIC PRO V IN C ES,

compiled and with an Introduction by G. A. Rawlyk i n C a n a d a (an original publication) by W. H. Kesterton, with an Introduction by Wilfrid Eggleston 37. T H E OLD p r o v i n c e o f Q u e b e c , Volum e I, by A. L. Burt, with an Introduction by Hilda Neatby 38. T H E OLD p r o v i n c e o f Q u e b e c , V olum e II, by A. L. Burt 39. GRO W TH AND T H E CANADIAN E C O N O M Y , edited and with an Introduction by T. N. Brewis 36.

a h is t o r y o f jo u r n a l is m

40. DOCUMENTS ON THE CONFEDERATION OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA,

edited and with an Introduction by G. P. Browne E s k i m o o f t h e C a n a d i a n a r c t i c , edited and with an Introduction by Victor F. Valentine and F rank G. Vallee 42. t h e c o l o n i a l r e f o r m e r s a n d CANADA, 1830-1849, edited and with an Introduction by Peter Burroughs. 43. A n a r r a t i v e , by Sir Francis Bond Head edited and with an Introduction by S. F. Wise 41.

44.

jo h n

s t r a c h a n : d o c u m e n ts a n d o p in io n s ,

edited and with an Introduction by J. L. H. Henderson 45.

T H E N EU TRA L YANKEES O F NOVA SCOTIA

by J. B. Brebner, with an Introduction by W. S. MacNutt R O B ER T LAIRD b o r d e n : h i s m e m o i r s , Volum e I, edited and with an Introduction by Heath Macquarrie 47. r o b e r t l a i r d b o r d e n : h i s m e m o i r s , Volum e II, edited by Heath Macquarrie 46.

48.

T H E CANADIAN M U N IC IP A L S Y S T E M : ESSAYS ON TH E IM P R O V E M E N T O F LOCAL G O V ER N M EN T by D. C. Rowat

49.

T H E BET TER PA RT O F VALOU R: ESSAYS O N CANADIAN D IPLOM ACY

50.

L A M E N T FO R A N A T IO N : T H E D EFEA T O F CANADIAN N A TIO N A LISM ,

by John W. Holmes

51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56.

by George Grant, with a new Introduction by the author f o r e i g n p o l i c y , 1945-1954, edited and with an Intro­ duction by R. A. MacKay. m o n c k : l e t t e r s a n d j o u r n a l s , edited and with an Introduc­ tion by W. L. Morton. h i s t o r i c a l e s s a y s o n t h e p r a i r i e p r o v i n c e s , edited and with an Introduction by Donald Swainson. T H E CANADIAN E C O N O M Y IN T H E GREAT D EPRESSIO N by A. E. Safarian. C a n a d a ’s c h a n g i n g n o r t h , edited and with an Introduction by William C. Wonders. T H E D E V E L O P M E N T o f C a n a d a ’s s t a p l e s , 1867-1939, edited and with an Introduction by Kevin H. Burley. Ca n a d ia n