Campus Wars: The Peace Movement At American State Universities in the Vietnam Era 9780814744802

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C A M P U S WAR

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KENNETHJ . H E I N E M A N C

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T h e Peac e M o v e m e n t a t A m e r i c a n Stat Universities i n th e V i e t n a m E r

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n N E W Y O R N e w Y o r

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NEW YORK UNIVERSITY PRESS New York and London First published i n paperback in 1994. Copyright © 1993 by New York University All rights reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Heineman, Kenneth J., 1962Campus wars : the peace movement at American state universities in the Vietnam era / Kenneth J. Heineman. p. cm . Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8147-3490-1 ISB N 0-8147-3512-6 pbk 1. Vietnames e Conflict, 1961-1975—Protest movements—United States. 2 . Peac e movements—United States—History—20th century. I. Title . DS559.62.U6H45 199 3 959.704'3373—dc20 92-2704 4 CIP New York University Press books are printed on acid-free paper, and their binding materials are chosen for strength and durability. Manufactured i n the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 Book design by Ken Venezio

Let th e wor d g o fort h fro m thi s tim e an d place , t o frien d an d fo e alike, tha t th e torc h ha s bee n passe d t o a new generatio n o f Ameri cans, bor n i n thi s century , tempere d b y war , discipline d b y a har d and bitte r peace , prou d o f ou r ancien t heritage , an d unwillin g t o witness o r permit th e slo w undoin g o f thos e huma n right s t o whic h this natio n ha s alway s bee n committed , an d t o whic h w e ar e com mitted toda y a t home an d aroun d th e world . —JOHN F . KENNED Y

Contents

List of Table s i x Acknowledgments x i List o f Abbreviation s x v Introduction 1 Part On e "A Ne w Generatio n o f American s . . ." 1 1 1 "Bastion s o f Ou r Defense" : Col d Wa r Universit y Administrators 1 3 2 "Thos e Peopl e Woul d D o th e Damndes t Things" : Faculty Peac e Activist s 4 2 3 "Th e Geniu s o f a Nation": Studen t Dissenter s 7 6 Part Tw o "Tempered b y Wa r . . . " 12 7 4 "Le t U s Try t o Succee d wit h Reason" : 1965-196 7 12 9 5 "Yo u Don' t Nee d a Weatherman": 1968-196 9 18 2 Part T h r e e "Disciplined b y a Hard an d Bitte r Peace " 23 5 6 "Ti n Soldier s an d Nixon' s Coming" : 197 0 23 7 vii

viii Content

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Epilogue: "W e Stand agains t Fear, Hate, Systems , and Structure s No t i n the Servic e o f Man": Legacie s of Protest 25 7 Notes 27 5 Bibliography 31 5 Index 32 7

List o f T a b l e s

Table 1.1 Defense-Relate d Grant s a s a Proportio n o f Overal l Federa l Obligations t o th e Larges t Privat e an d Publi c Universit y Military Contractors , 196 6 1 5 1.2 Comparativ e Profil e o f Privat e an d Publi c Universit y Presidents, 193 3 1 6 1.3 Compariso n o f Publi c Universit y Presidents , 1933 , 1950, 197 0 1 6 1.4 Member s o f th e ID A Universit y Consortiu m 1 7 1.5 Projec t Themis , 196 7 1 8 1.6 Stat e Appropriation s fo r Constructio n i n Institution s o f Higher Education , 1963-196 4 2 6 2.1 Comparativ e Profil e o f Cor e Antiwa r Facult y a t KSU , MSU, PSU , an d SUNY-Buffalo , 1965-197 2 7 4 3.1 MS U Antiwa r Studen t Activists , 1965-197 2 9 1 3.2 MS U SDS , 1965-197 0 9 3 3.3 MS U Prowa r Studen t Activists , 1965-197 2 9 4 3.4 PS U SENSE-Student s fo r Peace , 196 5 10 0 3.5 PS U YAF , 1965-196 9 10 2 3.6 PS U Prowa r Studen t Activists , 1965-197 2 10 3 3.7 PS U Antiwa r Studen t Activists , 1965-197 2 10 5 3.8 PS U SDS , 1965-197 2 10 6 3.9 SUNY-Buffal o Antiwa r Studen t Activists , 1965-197 2 11 3 3.10 SUNY-Buffal o Prowa r Studen t Activists , 1965-197 2 11 4

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3.11 SUNY-Buffal o SDS , YAWF , an d BDRU , 1965-197 0 11 5 3.12 KS U Antiwa r Studen t Activists , 1965-197 2 12 0 3.13 KCEWV , 1964-196 7 12 1 3.14 KS U SDS , 1968-196 9 12 2 3.15 KS U Prowa r Studen t Activists , 1964-197 0 12 3

Acknowledgments

I though t tha t thi s wor k shoul d begi n b y providin g th e reade r wit h some autobiographica l informatio n whic h migh t explai n i n par t why I cam e t o hav e a n interes t i n thi s topic . T o begi n with , I wa s born i n 1962 , to o youn g t o participat e i n th e protes t movement s o f the Col d War-Vietna m Wa r era . M y brother , however , wa s a colleg e student antiwa r protesto r a s wel l a s a Vietnam Wa r comba t infantr y veteran. I n spite o f the medi a an d academi c stereotyp e o f blue-colla r Americans a s hawkis h morons , m y ow n working-class , Worl d Wa r II vetera n fathe r wa s oppose d t o th e Vietna m Wa r an d wante d m y brother t o g o to Canad a i n orde r t o evad e th e draft . M y parent s wer e somewhat unconventional . Ever y tim e Presiden t Richar d Nixo n ap peared o n television , m y fathe r woul d rebu t hi m poin t b y point , convincing m e tha t "Trick y Dickie " wa s evi l personified . Les t w e sound to o liberal , m y antiwa r parent s condemne d th e hippie s an d potheads wh o disrupte d th e 196 8 Democrati c Nationa l Conventio n in Chicag o an d vote d fo r Georg e Wallac e i n th e 197 2 Michiga n Democratic primary . Ou r famil y hate d Nixon , th e Vietna m War , an d the peac e movement . My favorit e memor y o f th e perio d involve s ou r hippi e neighbor s who constructe d a snow-sculpture d peac e sig n whic h the y spray painted red , white , an d blue . Th e othe r neighbors , wh o wer e Nixo n supporters, reporte d the m t o th e loca l police . Apprise d b y th e sher iff tha t complaint s ha d bee n mad e regardin g thei r atheisti c Commu nist display , th e hippies cheerfull y remove d half o f the two-fingere d peace sculpture . I als o fondl y recal l Eart h Da y 197 0 whe n m y ele mentary schoo l require d th e students— a numbe r o f who m wor e "Woodsy Owl " decal s an d wer e cla d i n grann y dresses—t o for m xi

xii Acknowledgment

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a circle , clas p hands , an d sing , "I' d Like t o Teach th e Worl d t o Sin g in Perfec t Harmony. " Tw o year s later , al l bu t si x o f thes e junio r countercultural enthusiast s vote d fo r Nixo n i n a schoo l moc k elec tion. In 1969, 1 made a personal contributio n t o the Movement. Havin g been allowe d t o watc h fa r to o muc h television , especiall y th e CB S Evening New s report s o n th e tria l o f th e Chicag o Seven , I absorbe d a grea t dea l o f incompletel y understoo d information . Thu s i t wa s perhaps no t too surprisin g when I told m y secon d grad e teacher that I would establis h a schoo l SD S chapte r unles s sh e stoppe d yellin g at m e fo r bein g inattentive . ( I a m mildl y dyslexic ; sh e interprete d my inabilit y t o complete assignment s withou t repeate d ora l instruc tion as signs o f laziness , disobedience , an d stupidity. ) So muc h fo r autobiography ; an d no w o n t o mor e importan t con cerns. I have encountere d man y peopl e i n th e cours e o f researchin g and writin g thi s wor k wh o wer e o f grea t assistance . I n particular , I must commen d th e numerou s individual s wh o consente d t o b e interviewed an d provide d m e wit h copie s o f thei r persona l papers . A fe w peopl e mus t b e single d ou t fo r thei r kindness : E d Powel l a t SUNY-Buffalo fo r providin g m e wit h a plac e t o sta y whil e I undertook archiva l researc h a t th e universit y an d enablin g m e t o mee t a variety o f trul y uniqu e character s wh o happene d by ; And y Pyl e fo r letting m e slee p i n hi s hom e an d fo r introducin g m e t o man y Ken t State activists ; Mi m Jackso n fo r sharin g wit h m e he r experience s a t Kent State , directin g m e t o her late father's papers , an d allowin g m e to make he r little bo y a bona fide chocaholic ; Mar y Vincent who , o n the basi s o f a research inquir y lette r which I had writte n t o the New York Revie w of Books, invite d me , sigh t unseen , int o he r hom e i n Kent t o por e throug h he r extensiv e papers ; an d Stev e Badric h an d George Fis h who , throug h numerou s letter s an d telephon e conver sations, gav e m e a detaile d accoun t o f th e Michiga n Stat e Student s for a Democratic Society . A fe w word s mus t als o b e sai d abou t th e enormousl y helpfu l archivists wh o enhance d th e researc h bas e o f thi s study . Shonni e Finnegan an d Chri s Densmor e a t SUNY-Buffal o guide d m e throug h some fifty boxe s o f material s an d wer e quit e patien t wit h m e a s I requested eve r mor e arcan e documents . A t Pen n State , Pete r Gott lieb an d Leo n Stou t du g throug h thei r collection s t o find ever y relevant piec e o f information . Also , th e staff s o f th e Michiga n Stat e University Specia l Collection s an d Archive s deserv e recognitio n fo r their enthusias m a s wel l a s fo r thei r foresigh t i n collectin g variou s

Acknowledgments xii

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1960s er a antiwar leaflets a s soon a s they were posted . Ms . Finnega n at SUNY-Buffal o undertoo k a simila r cours e o f action , bravin g tea r gas and studen t mob s i n the 1960 s i n order to gather documentatio n of thos e intens e years . Wh o woul d hav e though t tha t th e archiva l profession coul d b e s o excitin g an d dangerous ? Many scholar s hav e rea d som e o r al l o f thi s manuscript , greatl y improving m y analysi s an d writing : Rober t Doherty , Davi d Farber , Todd Gitlin , Va n Bec k Hall , Samue l Hays , Willia m Hixson , Irwi n Marcus, Curti s Miner , Rober t Newman, Rober t Norman, Loui s Rose , Ellen Schrecker , Me l Small , Rober t F . Smith , Geral d Thompson , Barbara Tischler , Kennet h Waltzer , Wilso n Warren , an d Lawrenc e Wittner. Thei r encouragement an d consideratio n hav e mean t a great deal t o me . Nik o Pfun d o f Ne w Yor k Universit y Pres s als o deserve s great credi t fo r makin g thi s boo k possibl e an d Davi d Baile y merit s my thank s fo r plantin g th e ide a fo r thi s kin d o f comparativ e stud y on me severa l year s ago . Finally, I must sincerel y than k m y forme r student s a t the Univer sity o f Pittsburgh , th e Universit y o f Toledo , an d Iow a Stat e Univer sity, a s wel l a s Juan Lopez, Gerr y Pierson, an d John Zimmerman fo r their editoria l an d computin g assistance . I also exten d m y warmes t regards t o Ohi o University-Lancaste r whic h provide d m e wit h financial suppor t to complete thi s work . Excerpts fro m " 'Look Ou t Kid , You'r e Gonn a Ge t Hit' : Ken t Stat e and the Anti-Vietnam Wa r Movement" by Kenneth Heineman , fro m Give Peace a Chance, edite d b y Me l Smal l an d Willia m D . Hoover , are used b y permission o f Syracus e Universit y Press . Excerpts fro m 'Th e Silen t Majorit y Speaks : Antiwa r Protes t an d Backlash i n th e 1960s " b y Kennet h Heineman , fro m Peac e an d Change, ar e used b y permission o f Sag e Publications . Excerpts fro m " 'A Tim e o f Wa r an d a Tim e o f Peace' : Th e Anti Vietnam Wa r Movement a t Michiga n Stat e University , 1965-1970 " by Kenneth Heineman , fro m Peace and Change, ar e used b y permis sion o f Sag e Publications .

List o f A b b r e v i a t i o n

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AEC Atomi c Energ y Commissio n AFSC America n Friend s Servic e Committe e (Quakers ) AID Agenc y fo r Internationa l Developmen t ARPA Advance d Researc h Project s Agenc y (DoD ) BDRU Buffal o Draf t Resistanc e Unio n BUS Blac k Unite d Student s (Ken t Stat e University ) CIA Centra l Intelligenc e Agenc y CNP Citizen s fo r a New Politic s CORE Congres s o f Racia l Equalit y CSR Committe e fo r Studen t Right s (Michiga n Stat e Univer sity) DoD Departmen t o f Defens e FBI Federa l Burea u o f Investigatio n GLCO Greate r Lansin g Communit y Organizatio n HOPS Homophile s o f Pen n Stat e HUAC (popula r acronym) , Hous e Committe e o n Un-America n Activities IDA Institut e fo r Defens e Analysi s KCEWV Ken t Committe e t o End th e Wa r i n Vietna m KLF Ken t Liberatio n Fron t LCI Liqui d Crystal s Institut e (Ken t Stat e University ) MSUAG Michiga n Stat e Universit y Advisor y Grou p (ak a MS U Vietnam Project ) NASA Nationa l Aeronautic s an d Spac e Administratio n NUC Ne w Universit y Conferenc e ORL Ordnanc e Researc h Laborator y (Pennsylvani a Stat e Uni versity) xv

xvi Lis t of Abbreviation s PFP Peac e an d Freedo m Part y (Blac k Panthers ) PL Progressiv e Labo r SANE Committe e fo r a SANE Nuclear Polic y SCLC Souther n Christia n Leadershi p Conferenc e SDS Student s fo r a Democratic Societ y SENSE Pen n Stat e Student s fo r Peac e SIL Student s fo r Individual Libert y (Pennsylvani a Stat e Uni versity) SMC Studen t Mobilizatio n Committe e SURE Studen t Unio n fo r Racia l Equalit y (Pennsylvani a Stat e University) SWP Socialis t Workers ' Part y SPU Studen t Peac e Unio n UCM Universit y Christia n Movemen t US Unite d Student s (Michiga n Stat e University ) VVAW Vietna m Veteran s Agains t th e War WLF Women' s Liberatio n Fron t (Pennsylvani a Stat e Univer sity) YAF Youn g Americans fo r Freedo m YAWF Yout h Against Wa r and Fascis m YSA Youn g Socialis t Allianc e

C A M P U S WAR

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Introduction

In th e turbulen t decad e o f th e 1960s , s o scholars , politica l activist s of th e era , an d contemporar y journalist s hav e written , a n affluent , socially consciou s generatio n o f student s floode d int o th e universi ties. This generatio n becam e inspire d b y the black civi l right s move ment, repulse d b y th e Vietna m War , an d angere d b y universit y administrators wh o denie d student s th e righ t t o champio n politica l causes an d spea k freel y o n campus . I n th e nam e o f i n loco parentis , university administrator s als o monitore d sexua l relation s betwee n male an d femal e students , regardles s o f whethe r the y reside d i n dormitories o r off-campu s apartments . Desirin g t o chang e th e cul ture an d politic s o f th e natio n an d th e university , th e 1960 s colle giate generatio n ros e u p t o challeng e U.S . Col d Wa r foreig n polic y and racism , an d t o abolis h i n Joc o parentis. 1 To som e forme r 1960 s activist s lik e Davi d Horowit z an d Pete r Collier, thi s generatio n wa s a destructiv e on e whic h intimidate d faculty an d administrator s wh o di d no t embrac e it s leftis t politica l agenda. Additionally , throug h violen t protes t an d subversiv e pro paganda, studen t an d facult y militant s undermine d America' s mili tary effor t i n Indochina , sentencin g million s o f Asian s t o deat h o r enslavement i n Communis t concentratio n camps . I n star k contras t to Horowit z an d Collier , To m Ha y den, a founde r o f th e 1960 s Ne w Left organization , th e Student s fo r a Democrati c Societ y (SDS) , ar gued tha t hi s wa s a redemptive , no t destructive , forc e i n America n society. Studen t activist s politicall y empowere d blacks , brough t peac e to Indochina , an d exorcise d malevolen t Col d Wa r spirit s fro m th e soul o f th e Democrati c party. 2 Regardless o f th e curren t politica l sympathie s o f Hayden , Horo 1

2 Introductio

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witz, an d Collier , activist s fro m th e 1960 s hav e exaggerate d thei r own historica l importance , creatin g i n th e proces s numerou s myth s concerning th e cause s wit h whic h the y identified . On e myth , pro moted b y activist s an d libera l scholars , i s tha t antiwa r protest , it s base o n th e nation' s campuses , compelle d U.S . foreig n polic y mak ers t o en d ou r militar y participatio n i n th e Vietna m conflict . I n reality, eve n thoug h antiwa r protes t turne d th e universitie s int o ideological, an d ofte n actual , battlefields , th e U.S . withdre w fro m Indochina becaus e th e war could no t be won militarily. 3 Another myt h i s tha t campu s activis m faile d t o brin g abou t an y lasting socia l changes . Student , faculty , an d campus-base d clerg y protestors successfull y limite d th e intellectua l an d politica l author ity o f universit y administrators . Activist s reforme d th e curriculu m by addin g course s o n peace , blac k an d women' s studies , remove d nearly ever y restrictio n o n studen t datin g and participatio n i n polit ical organizations , create d preferentia l treatmen t policie s fo r minor ity students , an d secure d academi c freedo m an d th e righ t o f unfet tered speec h o n th e campus . Universit y demonstrators , b y thei r example, als o change d man y Americans ' attitude s toward s drugs , sex, an d marriage . Th e mountin g numbe r o f divorces , teenag e preg nancies, abortions , narcotic s addicts , an d case s an d varietie s o f so cial disease s recorde d sinc e th e 1960 s underscor e th e broad cultura l impact rebelliou s youth s ha d o n society. 4 Youthful activist s b y 197 2 als o capture d contro l o f th e majorit y Democratic party , drivin g ou t it s blue-colla r an d ethni c Catholi c supporters. I n th e process , liberal-dovis h an d radica l socia l reform ers transforme d th e Democrati c part y int o a politicall y diminishe d organization which largel y represented black s and college-educated , upper-middle-class secularize d Jew s an d Whit e Anglo-Saxo n Prot estants (WASPS) . B y claimin g th e Democrati c part y a s thei r own , affluent liberal s provoke d a political backlas h amon g working-clas s whites whic h mad e th e presidencie s o f conservativ e Republican s Richard Nixo n an d Ronald Reaga n possible. 5 There are myths beyond the glory-claiming o r blame-placing one s mentioned abov e whic h clai m th e attentio n o f thi s work . Almos t every stud y o f campus-base d anti-Vietna m Wa r protest i n th e 1960 s and earl y 1970 s ha s argue d tha t studen t disaffectio n blossome d a t elite stat e an d privat e universitie s suc h a s Berkeley , Chicago , Co lumbia, Harvard , Michigan , an d Wisconsin . Th e propositio n i s in accurate. Studen t an d facult y rebellio n germinate d throughou t

Introduction 3 America's les s prestigiou s stat e universities . Contrar y t o scholarl y and popula r belief , event s a t Berkeley an d Columbi a d o not provid e the paradig m fo r understandin g th e campus-base d antiwa r move ment whic h developed , w e ar e t o believe , belatedl y a t les s presti gious, culturall y isolate d stat e schools . Th e antiwa r movemen t wa s not a belate d developmen t a t th e les s well-regarde d stat e universi ties, althoug h ther e wer e gradation s i n th e intensit y an d scop e o f activism. On e cannot simpl y superimpos e th e Berkeley o r Columbia model o n othe r universities , thereb y ignorin g th e differin g cultura l and historica l contex t o f eac h campu s communit y an d th e way s i n which thos e difference s affecte d antiwa r protest. 6 The factor s whic h hav e le d t o th e universa l fixation o n protes t a t elite universitie s ar e twofold. First , contemporar y journalists , activ ists turne d memoi r writers, an d present-da y scholar s wer e generall y trained a t prestigiou s institution s o f highe r education . Suc h writer s and elite-universit y educate d activist s share d schoo l tie s an d hig h social-class origin s whic h hav e colore d their perception o f event s i n the 1960s . Consequently , reporter s an d academic s regarde d the pro test o f th e affluen t childre n o f th e Establishmen t a s far more impor tant tha n th e antiwa r activitie s o f working - an d lower-middle-clas s students wh o overwhelmingl y attende d stat e universities . Second , there wer e som e visuall y stunnin g protest s a t the elit e school s which , due t o th e effort s o f th e new s media , hav e becom e ou r dominan t cultural image s o f the 1960s. 7 These strikin g image s com e readil y t o mind: Berkeley activist s i n 1964 standin g o n to p o f a polic e ca r a s the y demonstrate d fo r fre e speech o n the campus ; Harvard SDSer s in 196 6 waylaying Secretar y of Defens e Rober t McNamara ; Columbi a studen t radical s seizin g campus building s i n 1968 ; an d blac k studen t militant s a t Cornell i n 1969 brandishin g rifles . Ye t there i s on e even t whic h doe s no t see m to belon g i n suc h refine d compan y bu t becam e nonetheles s th e symbol o f antiwa r protest : the 197 0 pictur e o f a teenage gir l crouch ing nex t t o th e dea d bod y o f a Ken t Stat e Universit y studen t wh o had bee n sho t b y th e Ohi o Nationa l Guar d a s i t disperse d a peac e demonstration. Th e event s a t Ken t Stat e di d no t fit th e Berkeley Columbia paradigm ; indeed , i t wa s a n academicall y averag e stat e university fa r fro m where , scholar s an d journalist s hav e reported , the real campus action o f the 1960 s and early 1970 s was to be found . Since Ken t Stat e doe s no t belon g schematicall y i n th e sam e com pany wit h Berkeley , th e shooting s mus t hav e bee n a n aberration . I f

4 Introductio

n

so, the n n o furthe r stud y beyon d th e actua l event s o f Ma y 4 , 1970 , is required . National opinio n molder s an d guardian s o f th e publi c record , whether journalis t o r academic , perceiv e th e Unite d State s a s a cultural entit y define d b y th e Wes t Coas t an d th e Northeaster n sea ports, with point s i n between consistin g o f Ann Arbor, Chicago, an d Madison. Ther e was i n the 1960s , a s now, littl e interes t i n explorin g the res t o f th e country , le t alon e i n examinin g les s prestigiou s uni versities an d thei r communities . Rather , w e hav e com e t o believ e that stat e universit y antiwa r activist s too k thei r lea d fro m elite educated protestors . Consequently , w e ignor e protes t i n th e com munities o f Kent , Ohio ; Buffalo , Ne w York ; Stat e College , Pennsyl vania; an d Eas t Lansing , Michigan—th e respectiv e home s o f Ken t State Universit y (KSU) , th e Stat e Universit y o f Ne w Yor k at Buffal o (SUNY-Buffalo), Pennsylvani a Stat e Universit y (PSU) , an d Michi gan Stat e Universit y (MSU) . Suc h Norther n stat e school s ar e th e focus o f thi s book . The grea t increas e i n th e numbe r o f colleg e student s an d facult y which occurre d afte r Worl d Wa r I I took plac e there , rathe r tha n a t more elit e locales . Columbi a an d Michiga n coul d no t compar e i n physical siz e an d studen t an d facult y populatio n t o MS U an d Ohi o State University . Othe r important , ofte n overlooked , development s in th e post-Worl d Wa r I I histor y o f stat e universitie s wer e thei r transformation fro m agricultura l an d teacher s college s int o academ ically comprehensiv e institutions . S o transformed, thei r administra tors an d facultie s ha d aspiration s t o compete academicall y wit h th e elite schools . Additionally , man y commentator s hav e faile d t o not e the evolutio n o f th e stat e universitie s int o instrument s o f America n Cold Wa r foreig n policy . Althoug h federa l grant s fro m Col d Wa r governmental agencie s flowe d int o man y school s b y th e 1960s , th e state universitie s becam e particularl y dependen t upon , an d cultur ally define d by , suc h funding . The origin s o f th e 1960 s campus-base d peac e movemen t ar e par tially roote d i n th e universities ' tie s t o th e Defens e Department . I n the contex t o f th e escalatin g Vietna m War , university-militar y re search project s becam e compellin g symbol s o f complicit y wit h th e so-called war-machin e an d importan t rallyin g point s fo r peac e ac tivists. Examinatio n o f several stat e schools illustrate s the Cold Warinspired chang e i n educationa l missio n an d reveal s th e natur e o f campus-based anti-Vietna m Wa r protest . Th e ambition s o f thes e

Introduction 5 institutions involve d bot h th e searc h fo r funds , leadin g the m t o undertake militar y researc h an d i n tur n makin g the m vulnerabl e t o campus clergy , faculty , an d studen t criticism , an d th e searc h fo r better student s (ofte n libera l art s major s i n orde r t o increas e thei r academic prestige) , bringin g t o th e campu s youth s sensitiv e t o th e issues o f peac e an d socia l justice . Thu s wer e th e seed s o f protes t planted i n fertile ground . In contras t t o Harvar d an d Wisconsin , th e school s studie d her e did no t hav e a national reputation , the n o r now, a s activis t univer sities. T o understan d bette r th e dynamic s o f campus-base d antiwa r protest, i t i s vita l t o stud y institution s wher e th e majorit y o f stu dents an d facult y wer e eithe r prowa r o r apathetic— a mor e perfec t mirror of America n societ y i n th e 1960s . Historian s an d th e genera l public see m to forget that the majority o f citizens supporte d the U.S . military effor t i n Vietna m righ t u p t o Marc h 196 8 whe n Presiden t Lyndon Johnso n announce d tha t h e woul d negotiat e a n en d t o th e war. Moreover , academic s an d th e new s medi a o f th e er a invariabl y conveyed th e erroneou s imag e tha t ther e wa s a generatio n ga p i n which youth s overwhelmingl y oppose d th e wa r while thei r parent s embraced it . A s fa r a s th e generatio n ga p i s concerned , Georg e Wallace, th e hawkish , anti-civi l right s thir d part y candidat e fo r president i n 1968 , score d bes t amon g voter s unde r 3 0 year s o f age . Further, on e i n eleve n universit y student s from working- an d lower middle-class Democrati c household s i n 196 8 vote d fo r Richar d Nixon. 8 Given th e hawkis h sentiment s o f th e majorit y o f America n citi zens, includin g youths , i t woul d see m advisabl e t o focu s o n con servative campu s communities . Suc h universitie s als o claime d a much greate r proportio n o f working - an d lower-middle-clas s an d Catholic student s tha n wa s th e cas e a t Berkeley , Columbia , an d Wisconsin. I n consequence , th e forme r wer e fa r more culturally , a s well a s ideologically , representativ e o f th e natio n than the latter . A t the sam e time , ther e wa s a significan t leve l o f antiwa r protes t t o make ou r focu s school s mor e interestin g place s t o stud y tha n i s th e case with relatively inactiv e Souther n universities . Paradoxically, eve n though the campuse s examine d her e claime d an administration, faculty , an d studen t body whic h wa s eithe r mor e hawkish o r mor e apatheti c tha n thei r counterpart s a t th e elit e uni versities, i t i s als o tru e tha t antiwa r protestor s fro m thes e les s pres tigious institution s exercise d considerabl e influenc e i n th e nationa l

6 Introductio

n

peace movement . Pen n Stat e contribute d tw o student s t o th e na tional leadershi p o f th e antiwa r movement : Car l Davidson , vic e president o f SD S i n 1966 , an d And y Stapp , presiden t o f th e Ameri can Serviceman' s Unio n i n 1967 . Strugglin g t o defin e th e politica l direction o f SDS , Davidso n unsuccessfull y fough t radica l student s from the elit e universitie s wh o rejecte d hi s populis t goa l o f buildin g an ideologicall y inclusive , nonviolen t peac e movemen t whic h woul d join working-class youth s an d whit e ethnics. 9 Michigan Stat e SDSers in 196 6 established th e first campus-base d underground newspape r i n America n history , Th e Paper. It s reporters—Steve Badrich , Michae l Kindman , an d Donald Mader—move d on t o hel p found , respectively , th e Liberatio n New s Service , th e Underground Pres s Syndicate , an d th e Kudzu . Th e latte r wa s th e first countercultura l newspape r publishe d i n th e 1960 s South . Meanwhile, MS U claime d severa l facult y o f distinction . Politica l scientist Wesle y Fishe l ha d i n th e 1950s , a s a n allege d Centra l Intelligence Agenc y (CIA ) operative, mad e Ngo Dinh Diem presiden t of Sout h Vietna m an d i n th e 1960 s receive d cover t financial ai d from Lyndo n Johnso n t o shor e u p academi c suppor t fo r the war . A t the sam e time , Bertra m Garskoff , a psychologist, attempte d t o buil d in 196 7 a nationa l radica l thir d part y movement , th e Citizen s fo r a New Politic s (CNP) . I n 1968 , Garskof f an d hi s friend s a t MS U an d Michigan—Bill Ayers , Lind a Evans , an d Dian a Oughton—orga nized a SD S factio n whic h evolve d int o a studen t terroris t group , the Weathermen. 10 At SUNY-Buffal o i n 1967 , studen t governmen t presiden t Clinto n Deveaux worke d wit h Sa m Brow n an d dovis h nationa l Democrati c party activis t Allar d Lowenstei n t o den y renominatio n t o Johnson . More significan t i n term s o f nationa l politica l developments , forty five facult y member s i n 197 0 wer e arreste d a s the y occupie d th e university president' s offic e i n protes t o f th e cit y polic e occupatio n of tjiei r campus—th e larges t numbe r o f academi c demonstrator s ever arreste d a t on e tim e i n th e U.S . Tw o year s later , a grou p o f Catholic colleg e an d SUNY-Buffal o students , wer e charge d wit h stealing ove r 30,00 0 Selectiv e Servic e files. A s a result o f th e trial i n Buffalo, th e federa l judg e establishe d a nationa l lega l precedent ; committing feloniou s act s agains t th e stat e coul d b e sanctione d o n moral grounds . Mor e tha n a decad e later , Abbi e Hoffma n an d Am y Carter, th e daughte r o f forme r Presiden t Jimm y Carter , woul d cit e

Introduction 7 such preceden t whe n standin g tria l fo r harassin g CI A recruiter s a t Brown University. 11 Kent Stat e activist s meri t attentio n beyon d th e event s o f Ma y 1970. I n 1963 , KS U activist s le d b y Ton y Wals h stage d protest s which resulte d i n th e universit y administratio n grantin g student s the righ t t o for m politica l organization s an d t o spea k freel y o n th e campus. Thos e demonstration s occurre d a full yea r before th e cele brated Berkeley Free Speech Movement which journalists and scholar s assert marke d th e birt h o f whit e universit y studen t activism . Agai n in 1964 , Ken t Stat e activist s bea t Berkele y activist s t o th e punch , establishing a n antiwa r grou p an d stagin g peac e protest s month s before th e Wes t Coas t radical s founde d th e famou s Vietna m Da y Committee. B y 1968 , Ken t Stat e claime d on e o f th e large r SD S chapters i n th e natio n an d activist s suc h a s Howi e Emmer , Ric k Erickson, an d Mar k Lend i n 196 9 forme d th e leadershi p cor e o f th e Weathermen. Th e latte r development becam e los t in the gunfire an d political recrimination s o f 1970. 12 This wor k wil l examin e severa l themes . I inten d t o explor e th e growing involvemen t o f th e stat e universitie s afte r Worl d Wa r II i n the executio n o f America n Col d Wa r foreig n policy . Thi s wil l in volve layin g ou t th e stat e universities ' increase d relianc e upo n fed eral defense-relate d fundin g an d th e impact s o f tha t fundin g upo n the schools ' educationa l missio n an d politica l orientation . Th e cul tural an d politica l value s o f th e stat e universit y administrator s als o require grea t attention . Thei r attitude s toward s university-militar y research, studen t protest , an d institution-buildin g helpe d t o se t th e stage fo r th e campus-base d antiwa r movemen t an d subsequentl y shaped it s ideological evolution . Further , I will discus s th e relation ship o f loca l contextua l factor s t o campus-base d antiwa r protest . Towards tha t end , I a m studyin g a rang e o f communities : a small , conservative colleg e tow n (Ken t State) ; a geographicall y isolate d university whic h dwarfe d th e tow n i n whic h i t i s locate d (Pen n State); a university locate d nea r a major urban-industrial cente r an d state capita l (Michiga n State) ; an d a universit y situate d i n a n eco nomically decayin g cit y wit h a larg e anti-Communis t whit e ethni c community (SUNY-Buffalo) . Beyond th e topic s liste d above , I wil l revie w th e influenc e o f clergy, faculty , an d studen t activists ' religious , cultural , class , an d

8 Introduction political background s i n shapin g thei r response s t o university-mili tary researc h an d th e Vietna m War . B y th e sam e token , i t i s neces sary t o loo k a t th e profile s o f hawkis h student s an d facult y and , whenever possible , focu s o n severa l importan t conservativ e aca demic an d campu s leaders . Additionally , I will analyz e th e interac tion o f religiousl y motivate d an d Marxist-oriente d antiwa r campu s organizations an d th e limit s o f cooperatio n impose d b y ideologica l and philosophica l differences . I n th e cours e o f tha t discussion , w e will se e ho w th e influenc e o f clas s an d culture le d som e individual s to embrace violent , rathe r than nonviolent , form s o f antiwa r protest . Finally, th e proces s b y whic h th e campus-base d peac e movemen t became involve d i n communit y organizin g wil l b e explained . I will also analyz e wh y i n man y case s relation s betwee n th e communit y and th e campu s becam e s o hostil e tha t the peac e movemen t accom plished littl e o r nothing beyon d th e university's grounds . This work i s divided int o three parts, the first primarily analytica l and th e othe r two narrativ e an d chronological . I n Part I, three chap ters explor e th e mentalit y o f universit y administrators , faculty , an d students. Chapte r 1 examines th e origin s o f militar y researc h a t th e state universitie s an d th e attitude s o f administrator s toward s suc h research an d campu s protest . Th e cultura l contex t o f eac h campu s and a brie f overvie w o f loca l an d stat e politic s a s regard s highe r education, anti-Communism , politica l surveillance , an d socia l pro test i s included . Chapte r 2 provide s a n ideologica l characterizatio n of anti - an d prowa r faculty . Chapte r 3 deal s wit h studen t anti - an d prowar partisans , discussin g thei r ethnic , cultural , religious , an d political background s an d employin g som e quantitativ e analysis . The relationshi p betwee n antiwa r campus-base d clerg y an d stu dents i s als o detailed . Part II of thi s work , comprise d o f tw o chapters , render s a chrono logical an d event-oriente d discussio n o f th e developmen t an d evo lution, i n a comparative context , o f the campus-based antiwa r move ment. Chapte r 4, coverin g th e perio d 1965-1967 , addresse s th e initia l attempts t o buil d a n antiwa r movemen t i n a n ofte n unsupportiv e and frequentl y hostil e environment . Despit e grea t difficultie s i n or ganizing a peac e movement , b y 196 7 eac h campu s ha d becom e politically engaged , a t varying levels , an d face d wit h emergin g ten sions between th e supporters o f violent an d nonviolent protest . Thi s transformation wa s represente d o n th e nationa l leve l b y th e star k differences betwee n th e nonviolen t antiwa r marc h o n Washington ,

Introduction 9 D.C., in April 196 5 an d the assault o n the Pentagon i n October 1967 . Chapter 5 , encompassin g th e chaoti c perio d 1968-1969 , examine s the triumph s an d failure s o f wha t ha d becom e a mas s movemen t against the Vietnam War. This was a period whe n th e campus-base d antiwar movemen t expande d enormously , bu t als o becam e increas ingly divide d an d enamore d o f violence . I t wa s als o a tim e o f na tional agon y an d ideologica l an d cultura l polarization , beginnin g with th e Te t Offensive , throug h th e assassination s o f Marti n Luthe r King, Jr. , an d Rober t Kennedy , t o th e Chicag o Democrati c Nationa l Convention, Richar d Nixon' s election , an d th e foundin g o f th e Weathermen Underground . The final sectio n o f th e boo k i s differen t i n presentation . Chapte r 6 focuse s o n th e divisiv e yea r o f 1970 , th e escalatin g leve l o f politi cal violence, an d the impact o f th e Kent State shootings o n the othe r campuses. Th e epilogue , discussin g th e year s 1971-1972 , describe s the final day s o f th e antiwa r movemen t an d it s differin g impact s o n each campus .

O N E

"Bastions o f Ou r Defense" : Col d W a University Administrator

r

s

Military-sponsored universit y researc h i n th e Unite d State s dramat ically increase d durin g Worl d Wa r I I a s th e federa l governmen t attempted t o achiev e technologica l superiorit y ove r th e Axi s Pow ers. Th e adven t an d intensificatio n o f th e Col d War , an d th e Unite d States' commitmen t t o contai n Communism , especiall y i n th e Thir d World, firmly joine d togethe r th e universit y an d th e military . B y th e mid-1950s th e Pentago n supplie d $30 0 millio n annuall y fo r univer sity defens e researc h an d th e Massachusett s Institut e o f Technolog y (MIT) an d John s Hopkin s wer e place d o n th e lis t o f th e nation' s to p one hundre d militar y contractors . Thirty-tw o percen t an d 1 1 per cent o f federa l researc h fund s t o universitie s i n 196 1 came , respec tively, from th e Department o f Defense (DoD ) and th e Atomic Energ y Commission (AEC) . Th e leadin g universit y militar y contractor s i n 1969 wer e MIT , th e Universit y o f Californi a system , Illinois , an d Michigan, eac h receiving , respectively , $9 7 million , $1 5 million , $11.6 million , an d $11. 4 millio n i n defens e grants . Th e Pentago n underwrote 8 0 percen t o f MIT' s budge t i n 196 9 whil e Michiga n i n 1967 held 6 4 separate contract s wit h th e Do D totaling $11. 8 million . Michigan i n th e 1960 s als o ha d mor e Nationa l Aeronautic s an d Space Administratio n (NASA ) contract s tha n an y othe r universit y in America. 1 Universities i n 196 8 spen t $ 3 billio n annuall y fo r researc h an d development. Sevent y percen t o f thi s mone y cam e fro m th e federa l government, o f whic h ove r hal f originate d fro m defense-relate d agencies. On e o f ever y thre e dollar s spen t o n universit y researc h 13

14 "Bastions

of Ou r Defense "

and developmen t ha d eithe r a military origi n o r purpose. Th e AEC , DoD, an d NASA , respectively , i n 196 8 gav e universities $110,200,000 , $243,100,000 an d $129,500,00 0 fo r military-relate d research . Ove r 30 percen t o f al l academi c researc h fund s i n th e physica l science s in 197 1 cam e fro m th e Do D whil e th e Do D an d NAS A provide d 6 5 percent o f al l researc h suppor t i n academi c engineerin g i n the earl y 1960s. 2 The significanc e o f militar y contractin g t o the universitie s ca n b e shown by calculating defense-relate d grant s from the AEC, DoD, an d NASA a s a proportio n o f overal l federa l governmen t obligation s t o institutions o f highe r education . (Se e Table 1.1. ) In 1966, 4 3 percen t and 3 5 percen t o f th e federa l grant s give n t o Michiga n an d Illinois , respectively, wer e fro m defense-relate d agencies . Conversely , 2 5 percent an d 2 1 percen t o f th e federa l grant s give n t o th e Universit y of Pennsylvani a an d Yale , respectively , wer e fro m defense-relate d agencies. I n terms of defense-relate d fund s a s a proportion o f overal l federal financial obligation s t o highe r education , th e mos t promi nent publi c universities , b y the 1960s , ofte n relied just as heavily o n such grant s a s the privat e universities . Th e publi c universitie s wer e sometimes mor e dependen t o n defens e contract s tha n th e privat e schools. 3 Private institution s o f highe r education , a s oppose d t o th e stat e universities, ha d bee n involve d i n promotin g nationa l securit y lon g before th e adven t o f th e Col d War . On e wa y t o illustrat e thi s i s t o undertake a comparativ e stud y o f thirtee n president s o f privat e ed ucational institution s an d twenty-five randoml y selected publi c uni versity president s i n 1933 . (Se e Tabl e 1.2. ) Ninety-tw o percen t o f elite universit y president s ha d tie s t o th e federa l governmen t an d claimed membershi p o n the boards of director s of influential foreig n policy-oriented foundation s o r larg e corporations , man y o f whic h had substantia l federa l defens e contracts . Mor e important , 6 9 per cent ha d rendere d servic e t o the federa l governmen t i n th e War and State Departments o r in som e agenc y concerne d wit h nationa l secu rity. Th e entranc e o f th e Unite d State s int o Worl d Wa r I an d th e nation's subsequen t emergenc e a s a worl d powe r ha d draw n aca demics fro m the elit e privat e universities int o governmental service . After Worl d Wa r I , suc h institution s an d academics , notabl y MIT' s Vannevar Bush , remaine d involve d i n promoting nationa l security. 4 In contras t t o th e president s o f elit e privat e schools , onl y 2 0 percent o f stat e universit y president s i n 193 3 claime d federa l gov -

"Bastions of Ou r Defense" 1

5

Table 1.1 Defense-Related Grants a s a Proportion o f Overal l Federa l Obligations t o th e Larges t Privat e an d Publi c Universit y Militar y Contractors, 1966 * Total Federal Obligatio n De/ense-Related Grants Proportion Private Universities 74% $46,754,000 $63,232,000 MIT 48% $29,417,000 $60,621,000 Stanford 43% $15,051,000 $35,324,000 Cornell 35% $20,877,000 $60,041,000 Columbia 32% $7,647,000 $23,597,000 Rochester 27% $12,313,000 $45,286,000 Chicago 25% $9,808,000 $38,908,000 Penn 21% $6,340,000 $29,830,000 Yale 21% $7,995,000 $37,688,000 NYU 20% $4,728,000 $23,693,000 Duke Public Universities 43% $28,700,000 $66,265,000 Michigan 38% $19,722,000 $51,298,000 UCLA 35% $20,718,000 $58,491,000 Illinois 32% $7,525,000 $23,425,000 Maryland 25% $6,461,000 $26,157,000 Purdue 24% $9,281,000 $38,208,000 Texas 23% $11,830,000 $50,315,000 Berkeley 18% $6,585,000 $35,208,000 Minnesota 15% $3,755,000 $25,202,000 Florida 15% $5,278,000 $35,575,000 Washington School

* Calculations based on data provided by James Ridgeway, The Closed Corporation: American Universities in Crisis (New York: Random House, 1968), 223-35. ernment service , primaril y i n agencie s concerne d wit h agricultur e or education. Non e ha d bee n involve d i n th e promotio n o f nationa l security durin g o r afte r Worl d Wa r I . An d n o publi c universit y president wa s a member o f the board of director s of a major corpora tion performin g defens e wor k o r o f a foreig n policy-oriente d foun dation. 5 This situatio n change d decisivel y durin g an d immediatel y afte r the Secon d Worl d War . Sixty-eigh t percen t o f stat e universit y presi dents b y 195 0 ha d serve d th e federa l governmen t i n som e capacity . (See Tabl e 1.3. ) Fort y percen t ha d bee n employe d i n th e Defens e o r

16 "Bastions

of Ou r Defense"

Table 1. 2 Comparative Profil e o f Private * an d Publi c University* * Presidents, 193 3 Employed b y the federal governmen t at one time; member of a board of directors of a corporation performin g de fense work ; on the board of a prestigious foreign policy oriented foundation . 92 Formerly employed i n a federal governmen t agenc y engaged in the promotion o f nationa l security, e.g., War or State Department. 69

Private State

% 20

%

%0

%

* Private (N =13): California Institute of Technology; Chicago; Columbia; Dartmouth; Harvard; Johns Hopkins; MIT; Northwestern; Pennsylvania; Princeton; Stanford; and Yale. ** Public Universities (N =25): Arkansas; Berkeley; Colorado; Colorado State; Connecticut; Delaware; Hawaii; Idaho; Illinois; Indiana; Iowa State; Kansas State; Kentucky; Massachusetts; Michigan; Minnesota; Missouri; Nebraska; North Carolina; Ohio State; Purdue; Rutgers; Texas; Washington; and Wisconsin. Source: Biographical information derived from appropriate reference volumes on American educators in the 1930s. See Chapter 1, note 4. Table 1. 3 Comparison o f Publi c Universit y Presidents, * 1933 , 1950 , 197 0 Employed by the federal governmen t at one time; member of a board of directors of a corporation performing defens e work ; on the board of a prestigious foreign policy-oriente d founda tion. 20 Once employed i n a federal governmen t agenc y engaged i n the promotion o f national security , e.g., Defense (formerl y War ) or State Department. 0

1933 195

0 197

0

% 68

% 72

%

% 40

% 36

%

*Same public universities as in Table 1.2. Source: Biographical information derived from apropriate reference volumes on American educators since the 1930s. See Chapter 1, notes 4, 5, 6.

"Bastions of Ou r De/ense" 1

7

Table 1.4 Members o f th e ID A Universit y Consortiu m Private Universities Publi California Institute of Technology Th Case Institute of Technology Michiga Chicago Illinoi Columbia Pen MIT Princeton Stanford Tulane

c Universities e University of California system n s n State

Source: Ridgeway, The Closed Corporation, 146. State Department s durin g Worl d Wa r II . Rober t Sprou l o f Berkele y and Frederic k Hovd e o f Purdu e ha d worke d unde r Vanneva r Bus h in the Offic e o f Scientifi c Researc h and Development (OSRD ) durin g World Wa r II . Hovd e brough t forme r OSR D scientists , a s wel l a s defense contracts , t o Purdue upo n becomin g presiden t i n 1946 . Th e president o f Iow a State , Charle s Frieley , acquire d a piec e o f th e Manhattan Projec t i n 194 2 fo r hi s schoo l and , i n 1947 , a n AE C research facility. 6 Administrators an d faculty , wit h technica l expertis e i n weapon s development an d foreig n polic y experienc e obtaine d i n Worl d Wa r II, an d wit h Iv y Leagu e pedigrees , flowe d int o th e expandin g stat e universities: Berkeley , Michigan , Michiga n State , an d Penn State , t o name a few . B y th e en d o f th e 1950s , th e large r stat e universitie s had secured th e requisite scientifi c personne l t o be able to cooperat e with elit e privat e school s i n defens e research . Thi s cooperatio n wa s formalized i n 195 9 b y Jame s Killian , Jr. , chairma n o f th e boar d o f MIT, wh o pu t togethe r th e Institut e fo r Defens e Analysi s (IDA) , a private an d stat e universit y consortiu m originall y designe d t o eval uate weapon s system s fo r th e federa l government . (Se e Tabl e 1.4. ) Smaller, les s prestigiou s stat e universities , fo r instance , th e Univer sity o f Delawar e an d th e Universit y o f Hawaii , di d no t amas s th e necessary scientifi c personne l an d acquir e significan t defens e con tracts unti l th e lat e 1960 s whe n Defens e Secretar y McNamar a an nounced th e creatio n o f Projec t Themis . Accordin g t o th e Do D i n 1967, Themi s wa s aime d a t providin g federa l grant s fo r militar y

18 "Bastions

of Ou r Defense"

Table 1.5 Project Themis , 196 7 Project Themi s grant s i n 196 7 wer e awarde d fo r researc h in : detection , surveillance, navigatio n an d control ; energ y an d power ; informatio n sci ences; militar y vehicl e technology ; materia l sciences ; environmenta l sci ences; medical sciences; and social and behavioral sciences. The DoD funding agencies involved were: the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), the air force, the army and the navy. Schools Receiving Themis Grants in 1967* Alaska Hawai i Missour i Souther n Methodist Arizona State Indian a Ne w Mexico Steven s Institute Auburn Iow a State Ne w Mexico SUNY-Alban y Case Institute of Technology Joh n Carroll Institut eM&T Dartmouth Kansa s Nort h Carolina State SUNY-Buffal o Delaware Kansa s State Ohi o Tennesse e Florida Louisian a State Oklahom a State Texa sA&M Florida State Massachusett s Orego n State Texa s Christian Georgetown Minnesot a Rutger s UC-Sa n Diego Georgia Tech Mississipp i Stat e Sout h Dakota Universit y of School of Mines Housto n Utah Virginia *Kent State was awarded a Themis grant in 1968. It is evident from this list that, in spite of the DoD's intentions, a number of established and important university-military research contractors, notably the Case Institute of Technology, a member of the IDA, received Themis grants. Source: Steve Halliwell (Columbia SDS), "Project Themis: DoD Award s Contracts," New Left Notes, 2 5 September 1967. Halliwell compiled this list from official DoD publications, among other sources. This list is accurate even if Halliwell is biased. research t o th e "have-no t schools. " (Se e Tabl e 1.5. ) Bot h Ken t Stat e and SUNY-Buffal o receive d Themi s grants. 7 Elite an d stat e universities differe d no t onl y i n the timing o f thei r penetration b y th e defens e establishment , bu t als o i n th e role s the y played i n promotin g nationa l security . Harvar d an d Yal e i n th e twentieth centur y hav e generall y serve d a s nationa l securit y mana gerial trainin g an d recruitmen t centers . Applie d weapon s researc h and technica l assistanc e field operation s i n th e Thir d Worl d hav e not bee n th e fort e o f elit e universities . Sinc e th e adven t o f th e Col d War, i t ha s bee n th e stat e universitie s whic h hav e receive d enor -

'Bastions of Ou r Defense" 1

9

mous federa l grant s fo r weapon s researc h an d developmen t an d have provide d specialize d personne l t o staf f technica l assistanc e field operation s aroun d th e world . Harvar d an d Yal e graduate s for mulate nationa l policy ; Michiga n Stat e an d Pen n Stat e graduate s execute nationa l policy . Institutions o f highe r educatio n receive d federa l grant s no t onl y for suppor t o f defense-relate d research , bu t als o t o facilitat e th e universities' physica l plan t expansio n an d t o provid e financial ai d to students . Ther e wer e a t leas t thre e majo r motivatin g factor s be hind th e federa l government' s heightene d commitmen t t o highe r education afte r Worl d Wa r II: first, the nuclea r arm s rac e an d Com munist revolution s i n th e Thir d Worl d require d highl y educate d engineers an d foreign-are a specialist s t o develo p ne w weapon s sys tems an d counterinsurgenc y scenario s t o advance nationa l security ; second, th e nation' s rapi d economi c expansio n an d th e desir e fo r sustained prosperit y mean t tha t industr y neede d more , an d bette r trained, technicians ; an d third , th e postwa r bab y boo m create d a n enlarged poo l o f potentia l colleg e students . Middle-clas s parent s viewed highe r educatio n a s a means t o upwar d socia l mobilit y an d expected th e federal governmen t t o ensure that their children woul d be able to go to college. Fo r these reasons , the university facult y an d student populatio n advance d a t a phenomena l rate . Betwee n 194 8 and 195 7 th e numbe r o f facult y increase d fro m 196,00 0 t o 250,000 . By 1968 , ther e wer e hal f a millio n universit y facult y i n th e Unite d States. I n 1955 , 2,418,00 0 an d 242,00 0 student s wer e enrolled , re spectively, i n undergraduat e an d graduate programs . Th e number of students mor e tha n double d te n year s late r an d nearl y triple d b y 1970 wit h 6,481,00 0 undergraduat e an d 816,00 0 graduat e student s enrolled i n institution s o f highe r education . Publi c four-yea r insti tutions claime d 1,072,98 0 student s i n 196 0 an d 2,914,00 0 i n 1965 , or 59 percent o f al l colleg e students. 8 Political conservatis m characterize d th e administratio n o f Amer ican universitie s i n th e year s followin g Worl d Wa r II . I n 1958 , 10 2 of 16 5 college s an d universitie s surveye d reporte d politica l firings of activis t faculty . Th e driv e to disciplin e activis t faculty , a s well a s students, i n par t emanate d fro m th e universities ' board s o f trustees . In general, universit y trustees occupie d executiv e position s i n majo r corporations—companies whic h frequently performe d defense-re lated contracting—an d hel d conventionalis t politica l beliefs . Twent y

20 "Bastions

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percent o f al l America n universit y trustee s i n 196 8 wer e o n th e boards o f director s o f leadin g corporation s an d 8 0 percen t favore d the expulsio n o r suspensio n o f studen t activists. 9 Clark Kerr , presiden t o f th e Universit y o f Californi a system , con tended i n 196 3 tha t institution s o f highe r educatio n ha d becom e "multiversities," th e foca l point s o f "knowledg e production, " pro moting technologica l developmen t i n th e privat e an d publi c sectors : The production , distribution , an d consumptio n o f "knowledge " i n al l it s forms i s said to account fo r 2 9 percent of GNP . .. an d "knowledg e produc tion" i s growing at abou t twice the rate o f the rest o f the economy. Knowl edge ha s certainl y neve r i n histor y bee n s o centra l t o th e conduc t o f a n entire society. What the railroads did fo r the second hal f o f the last centur y and th e automobil e fo r th e first hal f o f thi s centur y ma y b e don e fo r th e second hal f o f thi s centur y b y th e knowledg e industry : tha t is , to serv e a s the focal poin t for national growth. And the university is at the centre of the knowledge process. 10 Beyond it s vita l functio n a s a produce r o f knowledge , th e univer sity wa s also , Michiga n presiden t Harla n Hatche r observe d i n 1959 , a ke y elemen t i n performin g th e researc h necessar y t o ensur e Amer ica's economi c an d militar y superiorit y ove r th e Sovie t Union . N o university presiden t i n th e 1950 s an d 1960 s woul d hav e publicl y disagreed wit h Kerr' s and Hatcher' s conception s o f the role of highe r education i n America n society . A few , suc h a s Marti n Meyerso n o f SUNY-Buffalo, ha d privat e reservations , a t leas t regardin g th e rol e of th e universit y i n defens e research . An d some , lik e Joh n Hanna h of Michiga n State , embrace d th e ide a o f th e universit y a s "knowl edge factory " an d anti-Communis t bulwar k wit h unshakabl e fer vor. 11 Michigan Stat e Universit y Born i n 190 2 o f conservativ e parents , pillar s o f th e Gran d Rapids , Michigan, farmin g community , Joh n Hanna h dedicate d hi s lif e t o public service . Hanna h cam e t o th e Michiga n Agricultura l Colleg e (later rename d Michiga n Stat e University ) i n 192 2 t o stud y poultr y science. Fo r th e nex t ninetee n years , Hanna h worke d a s a n agricul tural cooperativ e extensio n agen t fo r th e colleg e unti l succeedin g his father-in-la w a s president— a positio n h e hel d fro m 194 1 t o 1969. Hanna h becam e secretar y t o th e Michiga n Boar d o f Agricul -

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1

ture i n 1940 . Sinc e Michiga n wa s a ke y cente r o f agricultura l pro duction, an d food woul d b e vital t o the coming American war effort , Hannah attracte d th e attentio n o f Eleano r Roosevelt . Soon , othe r prominent nationa l politica l figures, includin g Nelso n Rockefelle r and Senato r Harr y Truman, hear d abou t th e dedicate d an d efficien t agricultural exper t an d colleg e presiden t fro m Michigan . I n 1950 , President Truma n selecte d Hanna h t o b e a membe r o f th e Interna tional Developmen t Advisor y Boar d whic h formulate d policie s fo r the Point Four program of American diplomatic , economic , military , and technica l assistanc e t o th e Thir d World . Presiden t Dwigh t Ei senhower i n 195 3 chos e Hanna h t o serv e a s assistan t secretar y o f Defense fo r Manpowe r an d Personne l an d i n 195 7 mad e hi m chai r of th e newly create d Civil Right s Commission. Hanna h remained o n the commissio n durin g th e administration s o f President s Joh n Ken nedy an d Lyndo n Johnson . Upo n hi s retiremen t a s MS U presiden t in 1969 , Hanna h joine d th e Nixo n Administration , becomin g direc tor of the Agency fo r International Developmen t (AID). 12 As a liberal Republica n educator , Hanna h viewe d mass , afforda ble, federall y subsidize d highe r educatio n a s th e bes t wa y t o de velop huma n potentia l an d improv e th e qualit y o f lif e fo r al l hard working citizens, regardles s of race or creed. After leaving the Nixo n Administration Hanna h reaffirmed hi s convictio n tha t governments exis t t o provid e th e service s an d opportunitie s tha t mak e i t possible for the largest number of people to develop the potential that God gave them so that they may make the maximum useful contributio n to the society o f whic h the y ar e a part. Thi s i s th e thinkin g tha t justified publi c education in the first place, that created public primary schools, secondar y schools, college s an d universities . Political , socia l an d economi c system s change, but the basic role of education does not. 13 To ensur e tha t al l peopl e coul d atten d college , Michiga n State , unlike Michigan , maintaine d a virtuall y ope n admission s polic y and endeavore d t o kee p in-stat e studen t tuitio n a t reasonabl e rate s in orde r t o attrac t lower-middle - an d working-clas s youths . Envi sioning a studen t populatio n o f 100,00 0 b y 1970 , Hanna h under took, i n th e earl y 1960s , th e constructio n o f th e world' s larges t on campus residentia l housin g complex . I n the year s spannin g 195 0 t o 1965, th e undergraduat e populatio n ros e from 15,00 0 t o 38,00 0 an d the proportio n o f libera l art s and socia l scienc e major s grew from 2 0 percent o f th e studen t bod y i n 196 0 t o 5 4 percen t i n 1970 . Finally ,

22 "Bastions

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the numbe r o f facult y increase d fro m 90 0 t o 1,90 0 betwee n 195 0 and 1965 . B y 1964 , MS U commande d th e eleventh-larges t full-tim e student enrollmen t i n th e Unite d States . A t th e sam e time , federa l government suppor t o f MS U expande d s o tha t by 196 6 i t accounte d for 6 9 percen t o f th e university' s overal l appropriations . O f th e $22,369,000 i n federa l grant s give n t o MS U i n 1966 , 1 8 percen t came fro m AI D to suppor t th e university' s oversea s technica l assis tance program s whil e th e AEC , DoD , an d NAS A accounte d fo r 1 1 percent. 14 In additio n t o providin g th e masse s wit h affordabl e highe r edu cation, th e university , accordin g t o Hannah , als o serve d a s par t o f democracy's arsena l poise d agains t th e "menacin g clou d o f Com munism," whic h threatene d "th e value s an d virtue s s o preciou s t o free people. " I n a n addres s t o educator s an d militar y personne l i n May 1955 , Hanna h proclaimed : Our college s an d universitie s mus t b e regarde d a s bastion s o f ou r de fense, a s essential t o the perservation of our country and our way of life as supersonic bombers , nuclea r powere d submarines , an d intercontinenta l ballistic missiles. 15 Given Hannah' s tie s t o th e militar y establishment , couple d wit h the fac t tha t MS U wa s on e o f th e origina l universitie s involve d i n Truman's Poin t Fou r program , i t wa s logica l tha t Vic e Presiden t Richard Nixo n requeste d th e universit y i n th e sprin g o f 195 5 t o undertake a mammot h technica l assistanc e progra m i n Sout h Viet nam. Fro m Ma y 195 5 t o Jun e 1962 , th e MS U Advisor y Grou p (MSUAG) employe d ove r 1,00 0 peopl e an d receive d $2 5 millio n from the the Foreign Operations Administration (late r renamed AID) in a n effor t t o trai n Vietnames e administrator s an d securit y person nel, thu s filling th e vacuu m a t the top bureaucratic level s create d b y the departin g Frenc h colonia l officials . Specialist s fro m th e MS U School o f Polic e Administratio n quickl y revampe d th e ol d Siirete , the French-inspire d Vietnames e Specia l Police , an d i n it s stea d created th e Hooveresqu e Vietnames e Burea u o f Investigation. Wish ing t o upgrad e th e civi l police' s abilit y t o quas h riot s an d protec t South Vietnames e presiden t Ng o Din h Die m fro m hi s legio n o f enemies, MSUA G i n 195 5 requeste d th e universit y t o send : five hundred 60m m mortars ; 32,00 0 grenad e launchers ; 200,00 0 round s of rio t gu n ammo ; 2,678,00 0 .3 8 calibe r bullets ; an d 8,00 0 tea r ga s

"Bastions of Our Defense" 2

3

canisters. Th e MSUA G also , fro m 195 5 t o 1959 , provide d cove r fo r CIA operations i n Indochina. 16 The university' s relativ e succes s i n Sout h Vietna m le d Washing ton t o entrus t MS U wit h mor e AI D projects . MS U contribute d 1 0 percent o f th e tota l numbe r o f America n facult y technician s abroa d by 1962 , an d th e Polic e Schoo l ha d traine d securit y force s i n Col ombia, th e Philippines, Sout h Korea, and Taiwan. I n 1965, AID gave MSU $1,236,35 7 t o establis h an d staf f researc h center s i n Africa , Asia, an d Lati n Americ a an d $643,00 0 fo r agricultura l educatio n programs i n Argentin a an d Nigeria . I n addition , th e Departmen t o f the Arm y i n 196 4 furnishe d MS U wit h $239,16 2 t o suppor t th e university's securit y advisor y projec t in Okinawa. 17 MSU's Vietna m Project , an d othe r technica l assistanc e program s in predominantl y rightis t countries , represente d onl y on e aspec t o f Hannah's conceptio n o f highe r educatio n a s a n anti-Communis t weapon. I n Eas t Lansing , Hanna h supporte d compulsor y Reserv e Officers' Trainin g Corp s (ROTC ) fo r al l mal e students , eve n whil e other school s mad e tha t progra m optional . A t a faculty senat e meet ing in 196 1 a motion to make ROTC optional passe d by a vote of 35 0 to 150 , i n spit e o f Vietna m Projec t vetera n an d Polic e Schoo l in structor Arthu r Brandstatter' s crie s tha t "th e Moscow-Pekin g Axis " was plottin g ROTC' s demis e i n orde r t o stri p th e Wes t o f it s de fenses. Hanna h ros e an d observe d tha t "sinc e 1,40 0 facult y mem bers, undoubtedl y i n favo r o f compulsor y ROTC , ar e no t here , thi s vote canno t possibl y b e valid. Therefore , I' m going to ignore it." 18 Hannah's summar y dismissa l o f tha t resolutio n wa s completel y in character , fo r h e woul d no t tolerat e bein g tol d wha t t o d o b y people h e considered inferiors : faculty an d especially students . Dur ing th e 1964-196 5 academi c year , Hanna h wa s face d wit h request s by th e Committe e fo r Studen t Right s (CSR ) tha t mal e student s n o longer b e require d t o wea r tie s i n th e dormitor y cafeteria s an d tha t female student s no t be required t o make their constant whereabout s known t o th e dor m housemothers . Tire d o f wha t h e considere d th e CSR's presumptuous suggestions , Hanna h suspended it s leader, his tory graduat e studen t Pau l Schiff , an d ordere d th e schoo l newspa per, the State News, no t to print a word abou t CSR or Schiff. 19 This inciden t wa s no t th e first tim e Hanna h ha d sough t retribu tion against a politically troublesom e studen t and censored th e cam pus newspaper . I n Decembe r 1948 , Hanna h expelle d Ji m Zarichny ,

24 "Bastions

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leader o f th e leftis t America n Yout h fo r Democracy (AYD) , for invit ing th e chairma n o f th e Michiga n Communis t part y t o spea k a t a n off-campus AY D meeting. Hanna h had refused t o recognize the cam pus AY D chapte r i n 194 7 an d vowe d t o expel l an y studen t wh o sought t o promot e th e organizatio n o n o r of f th e campms . I n 1950 , Hannah suspende d publicatio n o f th e Stat e News afte r a reporte r wrote a n articl e critica l o f th e America n Legio n fo r it s belie f tha t Communists di d no t have th e constitutiona l righ t to free speech. 20 Another example , i n th e sprin g o f 1965 , i s illustrativ e o f Han nah's hostil e attitud e toward s studen t activism . Thoug h chai r of th e Civil Right s Commissio n an d a supporter o f racia l integration , Han nah wa s als o a firm believe r i n la w an d order ; accordingly , h e condemned th e Studen t Non-Violen t Coordinatin g Committee' s (SNCC) Freedo m Ride s i n th e Sout h a s wel l a s civi l right s demon strations i n Eas t Lansing . Whe n Rober t Green , educatio n instructo r and adviso r t o th e Souther n Christia n Leadershi p Conferenc e (SCLC) , led a n ope n housin g marc h o n Eas t Lansin g Cit y Hall , resultin g i n the arres t o f fifty-nine MS U students , Hanna h dispatche d thre e uni versity buse s t o transpor t th e erran t youth s t o th e count y jail . On e result o f thi s inciden t wa s tha t Eas t Lansin g polic e chie f Charle s Pegg, i n cooperatio n wit h th e MS U Departmen t o f Publi c Safet y (DPS), establishe d a political surveillanc e uni t which compile d files on hundred s o f facult y an d studen t activists . Thes e files, mad e possible i n par t b y infiltratin g variou s activis t groups , wer e share d with th e Michigan stat e polic e Re d Squa d an d th e FBI. 21 Throughout th e 1950 s an d 1960 s th e MS U administratio n closel y monitored th e politica l activitie s an d beliefs o f faculty an d students . When Duan e Chapma n o f th e Youn g Socialis t Clu b applie d fo r a position i n 196 1 wit h th e Mutua l Servic e Insuranc e Companie s o f St. Paul , Minnesota , th e directo r o f Men' s Studen t Affairs , Joh n Truitt, wrot e t o th e compan y apprisin g i t o f th e MS U student' s radicalism. I n 1954 , Hanna h ha d threatene d t o fire any MS U facult y member wh o pleade d th e Fift h Amendmen t befor e th e Hous e Un American Activitie s Committe e (HUAC) . Hi s concer n wit h weedin g out subversiv e facult y extende d t o personall y blockin g th e promo tion o f America n folklor e instructo r Gen e Blueston e i n th e earl y 1960s, convince d tha t th e professo r wa s a Communist . Th e MS U president ha d cam e t o thi s conclusio n base d upo n informatio n h e had requeste d fro m th e Minnesot a stat e polic e Re d Squa d an d afte r conservative MS U student s complaine d abou t Bluestone' s teaching .

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Hannah's obsessio n wit h Communis t subversio n a t MS U wa s all consuming. A t a speec h dedicatin g th e erectio n o f a ne w campu s building i n Apri l 1965 , Hanna h use d thi s occasio n t o war n tha t "Peking-brand ideologists " ha d selecte d MS U student s a s "choic e targets for exploitation." 22 Hannah's oppositio n t o studen t an d facult y activis m resulte d from mor e tha n a simpl e resentmen t a t havin g hi s authorit y chal lenged, hi s judgmen t questioned , an d hi s anti-Communis t ideolog y threatened. Th e presiden t o f MS U ha d man y hurdle s t o surmoun t and man y peopl e t o pacif y i n th e struggl e t o buil d a n institutio n respected fo r bot h researc h an d teachin g Universit y truste e an d millionaire benefacto r Fores t Akers , vic e presiden t o f th e Chrysle r Corporation an d forme r sale s directo r o f th e R.E . Oldsmobil e plan t in Lansing , whic h manufacture d truck s fo r th e Sout h Vietnames e Army, di d no t approv e o f campu s protest . Hanna h als o ha d t o fac e down oppositio n fro m conservativ e facult y wh o feare d chang e an d loss o f statu s withi n th e universit y community . Ironically , th e am bitious academic s Hanna h recruite d i n th e perio d 195 3 t o 196 4 t o assume contro l ove r MSU' s department s an d college s becam e in creasingly critica l o f the universit y president . B y the mid-1960s thi s group o f academi c superstar s harbore d a number of grievances agains t Hannah. The y resente d Hannah' s insistenc e o n th e centralizatio n o f power whic h mean t tha t th e MS U bureaucrac y cam e t o a standstil l during hi s frequen t absence s i n Washingto n o r abroad ; an d hi s authorization o f autonomou s residentia l college s fo r humanitie s (Justin Morrill , 1965 ) an d socia l scienc e (Jame s Madison , 1967 ) which siphone d facult y an d mone y fro m th e establishe d college s and becam e center s o f studen t an d facult y activism . Th e deans , supported b y stat e legislator s critica l o f campu s antiwa r protest , le d a revolt i n 196 9 t o limit th e powe r o f Hannah's successor. 23 During Hannah's las t five year s as president, letter s and telegram s from alumni, Do w Chemical executives , an d American Legionnaire s swamped hi s desk . Hanna h calml y assure d ever y critical correspon dent tha t MS U wa s no t a seethin g cauldro n o f revolution , bu t h e worried privatel y abou t a backlas h costin g MS U neede d busines s and governmen t grants . H e als o ha d t o appeas e a Michigan legisla ture stil l dominate d b y reactionar y rura l interest s i n orde r t o main tain th e university' s stat e appropriations . Thi s wa s a stat e legisla ture, simila r t o man y i n th e Midwest , whic h i n 195 0 had : banne d subversives an d th e Communis t party; establishe d a Re d Squa d i n

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Table 1. 6 State Appropriation s fo r Constructio n i n Institution s o f Highe r Education, 1963-196 4 Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

State California New York Illinois Pennsylvania Indiana Michigan Texas Massachusetts Louisiana Wisconsin

Appropriation Amount of State Apprc $131,000,000 $131,000,000 $66,000,000 $60,000,000 $58,000,000 $47,000,000 $41,000,000 $39,000,000 $34,000,000 $34,000,000

Source: Seymour E. Harris, A Statistical Portrait of Higher Education (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1972), 728. the stat e police ; barre d radica l organization s fro m th e ballot ; an d required publi c employee s t o testif y befor e legislativ e investigatin g committees. O n th e othe r hand , thi s conservativ e legislatur e i n th e 1950s an d 1960 s consistentl y appropriate d mor e mone y t o institu tions o f highe r educatio n tha n wa s th e cas e i n man y neighborin g states. I n 1963 , Michiga n ranke d sixt h i n th e natio n i n stat e expen ditures fo r constructio n i n institution s o f highe r education . (Se e Table 1.6. ) An d Michigan , du e chiefl y t o generou s state-sponsore d student financial ai d packages , claimed , i n th e fal l o f 1967 , a large r public universit y enrollmen t (187,565 ) than i n the comparably afflu ent an d populou s Midwes t o r mid-Atlanti c regio n state s o f Ohi o (145,294), Ne w Yor k (104,268) , an d Pennsylvani a (126,829). 24 Pennsylvania Stat e Universit y Penn State , lik e Michiga n State , harbore d a n academi c inferiorit y complex; th e forme r wit h th e Universit y o f Pennsylvani a an d th e latter wit h th e Universit y o f Michigan . Bu t unlik e Michiga n Stat e University, Pen n Stat e neve r devote d th e financial an d intellectua l resources necessar y t o overcom e th e inadequacie s o f it s undergrad uate an d graduat e libera l art s an d socia l scienc e programs . Through out th e 1950 s an d 1960s , Pen n Stat e remaine d primaril y a n engi neering an d agricultura l schoo l aroun d whic h jury-rigge d libera l

"Bastions of Our Defense" 2

7

arts an d socia l scienc e department s wer e constructed . Tw o excep tions wer e th e English an d philosoph y department s whic h obtaine d some measur e o f nationa l recognitio n an d became a locus o f facult y and student antiwa r dissent. 25 Located i n th e geographica l cente r o f Pennsylvania , Pen n Stat e was, i n th e word s o f it s eight h president , Edwi n Sparks , "equall y inaccessible fro m all parts of the state." The university's administra tion wa s equall y inaccessibl e and , resemblin g man y stat e universi ties i n th e 1950s , place d a premiu m upo n politica l conformity . During th e 1950-195 1 academi c year , PS U discharge d th e mathe matician Lee Lorch for subletting hi s Stuyvesan t Tow n apartmen t i n New Yor k City to a black family. Julia n Blau, a mathematics instruc tor wh o criticize d Lorch' s firing, wa s unceremoniousl y dismissed . The Associatio n o f America n Universit y Professor s (AAUP ) PS U representative, th e German-bor n historia n Franci s Tschan , decline d to interven e o n Bla u an d Lorch' s behalf , feelin g tha t Jew s di d no t belong o n th e universit y faculty . A shor t whil e later , Wendall Scot t MacRae, wh o worke d i n the PSU Department o f Publi c Information , was fired fo r refusing t o sign the state' s loyalty oat h which ha d bee n enacted i n 195 1 a t th e insistenc e o f stat e senato r an d America n Legion representative , Alber t Pechan . Universit y presiden t Milto n Eisenhower, convince d tha t MacRa e wa s no t a Communist , re quested hi s reinstatement. 26 Milton Eisenhower , brothe r o f Presiden t Eisenhowe r an d forme r director of the War Relocation Authority i n 1942 , became universit y president i n 1950 . H e lef t PS U i n 195 6 t o becom e th e presiden t o f Johns Hopkins. Eisenhowe r adde d much-neede d prestig e to the uni versity whic h quickl y translate d int o facult y status-consciousness . Vance Packard , a sociologis t an d PS U alumnus , i n 195 9 recalle d this anecdote : Some tim e ago , whil e visitin g Pen n Stat e University , I foun d mysel f being escorted to a party by a dean. I mentioned t o him, good-humoredly , that a t Michiga n dean s wer e expecte d t o arriv e las t an d leav e first. H e laughed, and said they didn't believe in that sort of fancy protocol at Penn State. H e wen t o n t o say , however , tha t a t som e college s wher e h e ha d served the y ha d simpl y frightfu l rule s o f etiquett e regulatin g socia l inter mingling. Whe n we arrive d at the party , I noted that the part y was in ful l progress. I noted, further, that no guest arrived after we did. We had been at the party for what seemed a short time when the dean came up to me and said he was ready to leave an y time I was. Ther e were abou t sixty peopl e there. We were the first to leave. 27

28 "Bastions

of Our Defense "

Contrary to outward appearances , Milto n Eisenhower was no t th e dominant politica l figure a t Penn State . That distinction belonge d t o Eric Walke r o f th e Colleg e o f Engineering . Walker , wh o ha d bee n associate directo r o f the Harvard Universit y Underwate r Soun d Lab oratory, accepte d i n 194 5 th e positio n o f hea d o f the PS U Colleg e o f Engineering. Whe n Harvard' s contrac t wit h th e Departmen t o f th e Navy ende d i n 1945 , th e British-born , middle-clas s Tor y convince d the federa l governmen t t o establis h th e Ordnanc e Researc h Labora tory (ORL ) a t Pen n State , on e o f five Nav y Departmen t universit y weapons developmen t centers . Penn State erected the Garfield Thoma s Water Tunne l i n 1949 , th e world' s larges t wate r tunne l designe d t o test torpedoe s an d th e nois e leve l o f submarin e propellers . Fro m 1945 t o 1965 , th e nav y gav e th e OR L $62 millio n i n grants , under writing researc h whic h resulte d i n th e developmen t o f th e Polari s nuclear-tipped missil e an d a variety o f torpedo prototypes . B y 1961 , the nav y underwrot e 7 6 percen t o f th e researc h budge t o f th e engi neering college . I n 1968 , th e Do D awarde d $10,500,00 0 i n contract s to PSU , representin g 2 8 percen t o f th e tota l federa l obligatio n t o th e university. 28 Walker's relationshi p wit h th e militar y establishmen t enable d PSU i n 195 5 t o become th e first American universit y wit h a nuclear reactor capabl e o f criticality . Receivin g generou s suppor t fro m th e AEC, th e Pen n Stat e nuclea r reacto r had , b y 1965 , traine d 17 5 sci entists an d engineer s fro m thirty-nin e nations . Selecte d t o serv e a s chair o f th e Commissio n o n Underse a Warfar e i n 1955 , Walke r became PS U presiden t i n 1956 , a position h e hel d unti l 197 0 whe n he joined ALCO A o f Pittsburgh . Whil e universit y president , Walke r was electe d chai r of th e National Scienc e Board , the governing bod y of th e Nationa l Scienc e Foundatio n (NSF) , serve d a s chai r o f th e Naval Researc h Advisor y Commissio n an d mad e PS U par t o f th e IDA university consortium. 29 As student an d faculty oppositio n t o the ORL and the university' s affiliation wit h th e IDA mounted i n the late 1960s , Walker reminde d his critic s tha t university-militar y researc h ha d contribute d t o America's victor y i n Worl d Wa r II . However , Walker' s candi d dis cussion o f way s t o asses s th e economi c valu e o f weapon s research , delivered t o militar y an d scientifi c personne l of f campu s i n 1969 , only serve d t o sicken antiwa r activists : Suppose tha t a cosmic ra y capable o f destroyin g all lif e withi n a radius of 100 miles woul d b e developed. Ho w would yo u measure the value of thi s in dollars and cents? Could you sa y that the research on it could be worth

"Bastions of Our Defense" 2

9

100 million dollars—o r on e million? So you see that first of all we need a set of measurements for determining the value of projects. In industry on e can approach the probable return by estimating the net profits whic h migh t be expecte d t o accrue from a product unde r develop ment. In war, however, success is not measured by so simple a yardstick. It is measured, rather , by numbers of enem y dea d or incapacitated, b y numbers o f ou r peopl e no t dea d o r injured , o r b y territoria l gains , an d ou r weapons ar e develope d i n accordanc e wit h wha t w e thin k thos e woul d be.30 In th e first te n year s o f Walker' s presidency , studen t enrollmen t increased fro m 13,00 0 t o 30,000 . Pen n Stat e i n 196 5 ha d eightee n branch campuse s claimin g 7,00 0 students , whil e th e mai n campu s in Stat e College enrolle d 23,00 0 students . Althoug h presiden t o f th e fourteenth-largest universit y i n the country, Walker , unlike Hannah , opposed educatin g th e masses . Walke r posite d i n 197 1 tha t th e country di d no t "nee d th e lan d gran t college s t o di g down , find talent an d educat e i t . . . w e hav e du g dow n an d educate d al l o f th e talent ther e i s an d eve n i f th e worl d di d nee d a lo t more , i t woul d not b e availabl e anyway . On e stil l canno t mak e a silk purs e ou t o f a sow's ear." 31 If Walke r expresse d contemp t fo r lan d gran t colleg e students , h e particularly loathe d activists . T o th e PS U presiden t suc h student s were "arrogant, " "naive" anarchists "eage r to destroy what has bee n built u p ove r the years " in the nam e o f "socia l justice. " In a December 196 4 addres s t o PS U Philadelphi a Alumni , Walke r postulate d that th e Berkele y Fre e Speec h Movemen t (FSM ) wa s par t o f "a n organized attemp t b y foreig n mone y t o disrup t th e universitie s o f America." Communis t agents , posin g a s student s an d faculty , h e contended, sough t t o destro y America n highe r educatio n b y usin g the false slogan s o f academi c freedo m an d racial equality. 32 Political conservatis m an d insularit y permeate d al l level s o f th e PSU administration. Th e fact that 2 1 percen t o f Pen n State' s admin istrators ha d receive d thei r doctorate s fro m th e university helpe d t o foster a n academicall y isolate d an d parochia l mindset . O f th e nine teen chie f administrator s an d dean s i n 1970 , 4 7 percen t ha d com e to th e universit y i n th e perio d 1937-1947 , prio r t o Pen n State' s spectacular growth . Man y longe d fo r a retur n t o th e bucoli c pre World Wa r II era whe n ther e wer e fewe r students , faculty , automo biles, an d building s clutterin g th e landscape . Obversely , 5 5 percen t of Michiga n State' s eightee n dean s an d chie f administrator s i n 197 0 had com e t o th e universit y betwee n th e year s 1953-1964 , durin g

30 "Bastions

of Our Defense"

the school' s rapi d expansion . Thes e Iv y League-traine d cosmopoli tans embrace d chang e an d growth. 33 Ernest Pollard , th e chai r o f th e biophysic s department , exempli fied th e attitud e o f Pen n Stat e administrator s toward s campu s activ ists. I n 1968 , Pollar d urge d th e expulsio n o f al l studen t demonstra tors an d recommende d i n 196 7 tha t "somethin g violent " be don e t o the campu s pape r antiwa r editor , an d nationa l SD S member , Bil l Lee. Pollar d wa s hea d o f MIT' s radiatio n laborator y durin g Worl d War I I and , afte r th e war , ha d receive d a numbe r o f Do D researc h grants.34 Given Pen n State' s extensiv e an d profitabl e tie s t o th e DoD , i t i s not surprising that the administration denounced , an d coverty spie d upon, campu s activist s oppose d t o university-militar y researc h an d the Vietna m War . Th e universit y routinel y poste d letter s t o th e parents o f studen t activists , warnin g the m tha t thei r childre n wer e involved wit h th e subversiv e SDS . PS U promptl y honore d FB I re quests fo r informatio n o n students . I n 1968 , PS U maintaine d a n informant networ k o f tw o hundre d studen t operatives—th e larges t in th e nation—wh o cooperate d wit h th e fourtee n FB I agent s as signed t o monito r politica l activis m a t the university. Ironically , th e presence o f s o man y FB I agent s an d studen t informer s a t PS U an gered th e Centr e Count y Polic e Department . Jealou s o f hi s jurisdic tion, th e count y polic e chie f i n 197 0 summone d tw o activist s t o hi s office. H e informe d the m tha t th e universit y ha d place d wir e tap s on thei r phone s an d tha t th e FB I wa s responsibl e fo r ransackin g their apartments. 35 The Pen n Stat e boar d o f trustee s enthusiasticall y endorse d th e administration's politica l surveillanc e activities . Thi s i s under standable sinc e Willar d F . Rockwel l o f th e Nort h America n Rock well Company , a s wel l a s th e director s o f othe r majo r defens e con tractors, sa t o n th e PS U boar d o f trustees . Fe w universit y trustee s were a s outspoke n an d publicit y consciou s a s thos e servin g Pen n State. I n a n Octobe r 196 9 speec h t o th e Bellfonte , Pennsylvania , Kiwanis Club , PS U truste e an d stat e Secretar y o f Mines , H . Beeche r Charmbury, mad e thi s sensationa l announcement : The Communist party is carrying out a very clever well-laid plan for the youth o f America . They infiltrated ou r schools, ou r churches and now our entertainment field. Our young people [are ] susceptible and sympathetic to the radical causes and the destructive, disruptiv e forces of the Students for a Democrati c Societ y an d thi s organizatio n i s . . . bot h stimulate d an d financed b y Communism. 36

"Bastions of Ou r Defense" 3

1

No Michiga n Stat e trustee , no t eve n th e deepl y anti-Communis t Akers, woul d hav e gon e o n recor d wit h suc h a n inflammator y state ment. Thi s i s largel y attributabl e t o th e fac t tha t publi c universit y trustees i n Michiga n ar e electe d i n state-wid e contest s an d thu s speak ou t a s littl e a s possibl e o n controversia l issues . I n Pennsylva nia, publi c universit y trustee s ar e eithe r appointe d b y th e governo r or invite d t o becom e a boar d membe r b y othe r trustees . Becaus e they ar e unaccountabl e t o th e electorate , stat e universit y trustee s i n Pennsylvania fee l littl e compulsio n t o remai n silen t an d avoi d ap pearing foolish . Warre n Bennis , SUNY-Buffal o executiv e vic e presi dent, discovere d thi s i n 197 0 whil e interviewin g fo r th e positio n o f PSU president . A t hi s interview , a PS U truste e suspiciousl y aske d Bennis i f h e ha d a "Hebre w strain " i n hi s blood. 37 The Stat e Universit y o f Ne w Yor k a t Buffal o Warren Benni s i n 197 0 wa s desperatel y seekin g t o escap e fro m SUNY-Buffalo. Sinc e arrivin g i n Buffal o i n 1967 , Benni s ha d fough t losing politica l battle s wit h conservativ e faculty , administrators , and cit y counci l members . Bennis * uncomfortabl e intervie w wit h the Pen n Stat e boar d o f trustee s wa s jus t on e mor e distastefu l inci dent i n hi s persona l journe y towar d complet e disillusionment . Th e MIT psychologis t ha d bee n lure d t o Buffal o b y presiden t Marti n Meyerson's visio n o f makin g SUNY-Buffal o "th e Berkele y o f th e East.'' Skeptic s wit h a sens e o f humo r depicte d Meyerso n an d Ben nis a s academe' s "Batma n an d Robin, " seekin g t o d o goo d i n a sincere, camp y sor t of way. Less friendly critic s dismisse d Meyerso n as "tha t Je w from Berkeley." 3 8 Confronted wit h a limite d budget , an d yearnin g t o transfor m th e private Universit y o f Buffal o (UB ) fro m a regiona l engineerin g an d medical schoo l t o a nationally prominent , academicall y comprehen sive institution , Presiden t Cliffor d Furna s (1954-1966 ) brough t hi s university int o th e SUN Y syste m i n 1962 . Althoug h a forme r direc tor o f th e Cornel l Aeronautica l Laborator y i n Buffal o (1946-1954) , a major defens e researc h center , an d assistan t secretar y o f Defens e fo r Research an d Developmen t (1955-1957) , Furna s di d no t us e hi s connections t o th e defens e establishmen t t o brin g enormou s mili tary researc h contract s t o hi s university . T o hav e don e so , Furna s believed, woul d hav e constitute d a seriou s conflic t o f interes t an d made th e universit y overl y dependen t upo n th e federa l government . Hannah an d Walke r differe d wit h Furna s o n thi s point. 3 9

32 "Bastions

of Our Defense"

Joining th e financially munificen t SUN Y syste m permitte d Fur nas to , "correc t th e [Universit y o f Buffalo's ] imbalanc e betwee n 'practical* an d 'liberal * programs. " Accordin g t o thi s nativ e Midwesterner an d engineer , " a universit y educatio n shoul d em brace somethin g mor e tha n jus t practica l training. " T o achiev e tha t goal, Furna s allotte d mor e fund s t o th e Englis h an d psycholog y departments, authorize d th e establishmen t o f a politica l scienc e department an d lure d t o the universit y suc h notable s a s the literar y critic Lesli e Fiedler . Th e universit y offere d mor e financial ai d t o needy student s s o tha t "ever y perso n who ha s the requisite intellec tual abilit y an d i s willin g t o mak e th e effor t shoul d hav e th e oppor tunity t o go to college." Between 196 2 an d 196 6 the university hire d an additiona l 39 9 full-tim e facult y ( a 4 2 percen t increase ) whil e full-time studen t enrollmen t ros e from 7,35 0 t o 20,000. 40 If membershi p i n th e SUN Y syste m provide d Furna s wit h th e funds necessar y t o improve hi s university, i t also interfered wit h th e school's interna l operation s an d infringe d upo n academi c freedom . As a state-supporte d institution , SUNY-Buffal o wa s subjec t t o th e 1949 Feinber g Law . Thi s legislatio n require d publi c employee s t o sign a loyalty oat h and compelle d employer s t o investigat e the m fo r past o r present membershi p i n un-American groups . Durin g Furnas* negotiations wit h th e Stat e Boar d o f Regent s t o bring the Universit y of Buffal o int o th e SUN Y system , h e ha d bee n promise d tha t th e Feinberg La w woul d no t b e enforce d a t Buffalo . However , SUN Y chancellor Samue l Goul d disregarde d thi s agreement an d i n Decem ber 196 4 dismisse d SUNY-Buffal o Englis h instructo r Pau l Spor n fo r hiding pas t radical activitie s fro m the state. 41 To Furnas , Gould' s interventio n wa s galling . A t th e heigh t o f th e McCarthy Era , the privat e Universit y o f Buffal o ha d resisted govern ment pressur e t o fire philosophy professo r Willia m Parr y for plead ing the Fifth Amendmen t i n May 195 3 before HUAC in Washington . The universit y ha d conducted it s own investigatio n an d determine d that Parry, past Communist part y membership notwithstanding , wa s not indoctrinatin g hi s students . Now , a s a state school , severa l fac ulty, i n additio n t o Sporn , wer e bein g discharge d an d variou s indi viduals ha d take n i t upo n themselve s t o cleans e th e universit y o f Communists. Furna s foun d himsel f i n 196 3 defendin g th e contin ued employmen t o f Parr y and i n 196 4 afffirmin g th e righ t o f facult y and student s t o picke t HUAC' s Buffal o hearings . Goul d le t i t b e known tha t Furnas would b e retiring in the near future. 4:!

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3

The SUN Y Boar d o f Regent s i n 196 6 chos e Marti n Meyerso n t o succeed Furna s as president. Meyerso n was a n atypical stat e univer sity president . T o begi n wit h h e wa s young , 4 4 year s ol d i n 1966 , Jewish, an d a Grea t Societ y libera l wh o tolerated , an d a t time s seemed t o encourage , nonviolen t campu s protest . Meyerso n als o possessed impressiv e academi c credentials : ful l professo r a t th e University o f Pennsylvani a a t the ag e o f 3 0 (1952-1956) ; an d actin g chancellor o f Berkele y (1965-1966) . A s Berkele y chancellor , Mey erson uphel d th e students ' righ t t o engag e i n act s o f civi l disobedi ence a s lon g a s th e right s o f other s wer e respected . Sinc e Meyerso n considered th e Berkele y "Filth y Speec h Movement, " th e question able successo r t o th e 196 4 Fre e Speec h Movement , t o b e offensiv e to th e academi c community , h e ha d suspende d thre e studen t activ ists fo r carryin g placard s whic h read , "Fuck! " Wear y o f crossin g swords wit h a n increasingl y reactionar y Universit y o f Californi a Board o f Regents , Meyerso n resigne d an d heade d t o SUNY-Buffalo , a schoo l whic h h e fel t ha d th e potentia l t o be a catalyst fo r regiona l economic developmen t an d urba n renewal. 43 Immediately upo n hi s installation , Meyerso n confronte d intens e opposition fro m reactionar y facult y an d administrators , notabl y i n engineering an d medicine. Thes e conservatives ha d opposed joinin g the SUN Y syste m i n 196 2 an d resente d th e university' s increase d emphasis o n libera l art s programs . However , the y ha d mute d thei r dissent becaus e o f Furnas * popularit y i n th e Buffal o community . Since Meyerso n wa s a n outsider , wit h n o politica l clou t i n Buffal o and Alban y or , fo r tha t matter , Washington , engineerin g an d medi cal faculty fel t free to criticize openl y the new regime and contribut e to it s demise . Th e politica l weaknes s o f th e Meyerso n regim e wa s underscored whe n a numbe r o f facult y i n biophysics , engineering , and medicine , desirin g t o enhanc e thei r academi c prestig e i n th e scientific community , threatene d t o resign unless the y were allowe d to wor k o n Pentago n projects . Personall y oppose d t o university military research , bu t no t wishin g t o b e hel d accountabl e fo r th e decimation o f th e Medica l School , th e oldes t an d mos t prestigiou s school a t th e university , Meyerso n agree d t o accep t i n 196 7 a $1. 2 million Themi s grant . Thi s grant , fro m th e Departmen t o f th e Navy , was t o suppor t researc h o n th e physiologica l possibilitie s o f build ing submarin e servicin g center s o n th e ocea n floor . Academi c poli tics als o require d Meyerso n t o defen d Projec t Themi s an d criticiz e campus activist s oppose d t o university-military research. 44

34 "Bastion

s of Ou r Defense"

Student an d faculty protes t against Themis, an d efforts t o preven t CIA, Dow Chemical , an d military personne l fro m recruiting on cam pus i n 1967 , place d Meyerso n i n a n uncomfortabl e position . Al though oppose d t o th e Vietna m War , Meyerso n wishe d t o maintai n an academi c environmen t whic h allowe d al l interest s t o b e repre sented, includin g th e DoD : If we bar some recruiters, shall we bar not all? And if we impose such a bar . .. ma y it not be extended in the name of conscience to many academic activities as well? I do no t thin k tha t anyon e . . . i s unawar e tha t o n campuse s toda y th e torment to individual consciences , th e ethical dilemmas , and the impulses to passion are linked to the war in Vietnam. But, if , i n th e nam e o f tha t torment , w e tarnis h th e heritag e o f ou r universities—a heritag e committed amon g other things to peaceful dissen t respectful o f the rights of others—we will have damaged those institution s most vulnerable to attack and which are our greatest hope for the future. 45 Meyerson's plea s fo r moderatio n carrie d littl e weigh t wit h anti war student s an d faculty , particularl y sinc e havin g accepte d th e Themis grant , h e inadvertantl y ease d th e wa y fo r furthe r militar y penetration o f SUNY-Buffalo . Th e DoD' s shar e o f sponsore d re search a t th e universit y advance d fro m $309,61 2 i n 196 5 t o $649,90 7 in 1969 , ( a 4 8 percen t increase) . Fund s fo r sponsore d researc h i n 1969 fro m suc h Col d War agencies a s the AEC, AID, and NASA ros e 71 percen t ove r thei r 196 5 share . B y 1969 , defense-relate d agencie s accounted fo r 1 1 percen t o f al l federall y sponsore d researc h a t th e university, an d SUNY-Buffalo , i n additio n t o Themi s research , wa s undertaking chemica l an d biologica l warfar e studie s fo r the DoD. 46 One o f Meyerson' s first decision s a s SUNY-Buffal o presiden t wa s to rais e admission s standard s s o tha t the y wer e o n a pa r wit h th e Ivy League. Thi s shattere d alumn i an d communit y suppor t fo r Mey erson. A . P . Aversano , vic e presiden t o f th e Foster-Milbur n com pany o f Buffalo , resigne d i n 196 8 a s presiden t o f th e Genera l Alumn i Board becaus e th e ne w admission s standard s discriminate d agains t less well-educate d loca l youths . Th e influ x o f Jewish student s fro m New Yor k City , som e o f who m wer e "re d diape r babies/ ' th e off spring o f Ol d Lef t activists , furthe r alienate d th e Buffal o commu nity. Lower-middle-clas s an d blue-colla r Pole s an d Italians , th e city' s political powe r base , seein g thei r children denie d admittanc e t o th e university, bega n t o cal l SUNY-Buffal o "Tel-Avi v Tech " an d "Je w B," a play upon its former, popula r name, UB . Common Councilma n

"Bastions of Our Defense" 3

5

Gus Franczy k i n Apri l 196 6 denounce d campu s antiwa r activist s a s "subversives," whil e stat e senat e majorit y leade r Ear l Brydges , R Wilson, investigate d SUNY-Buffal o fo r providin g universit y facili ties t o SDS . B y 1968-1969 , conservative s i n th e facult y an d admin istration, allie d wit h resentfu l alumn i an d communit y leaders , at tempted t o imped e man y o f Meyerson' s academi c reforms , on e o f which wa s th e storefron t colleges . Th e storefron t colleges , modele d after Michiga n State' s residentia l colleges , ha d becom e center s o f student an d faculty activism. 47 Riotous confrontation s betwee n th e Buffal o Polic e Departmen t and student s an d facult y i n th e 1960 s an d earl y 1970 s wer e s o common tha t th e studen t governmen t i n 197 0 bega n distributin g bail fun d servic e informatio n cards . Th e Buffal o Polic e Departmen t photographed campu s antiwa r protestor s an d then , wit h clubs , mo torcycles, an d tea r gas , brok e u p peacefu l demonstrations . I n 1968 , the Buffal o polic e commissioner , Fran k Felicetta , informe d HUA C that th e SUNY-Buffal o Yout h Agains t Wa r an d Fascis m (YAWF) , a Maoist studen t group , ha d fomente d th e 196 7 rac e riot . Campu s security officer s an d the anti-Meyerson faction i n the administratio n cooperated wit h th e Buffal o Polic e Departmen t i n wir e tappin g ac tivists' telephones, photographin g peac e demonstrations , an d tailin g prominent facult y antiwa r leaders. 48 The SUNY-Buffal o activis t student an d faculty relationshi p t o the FBI was n o les s stormy . Fro m 196 5 t o 1973 , th e Buffal o offic e o f th e FBI compile d 17,00 0 page s o f files o n jus t th e SD S an d th e Buffal o Draft Resistanc e Unio n (BDRU) , an d place d a n agen t i n th e forme r group's leadership . Thi s agen t successfull y advocate d violen t con frontations wit h la w enforcemen t officer s an d noncooperatio n wit h "bourgeois liberals. " A FB I investigation o f a conscientious objecto r applicant an d forme r antiwa r studen t activis t prompte d hi s dismis sal a s a Buffal o schoo l teacher . Whil e questionin g schoo l distric t officials, FB I agent s implie d tha t th e activis t wa s a sexua l devian t and a drug abuser. I n field report s FBI agents describe d on e membe r of th e SUNY-Buffal o YAW F a s " a strang e individua l an d possibl y a homosexual, " a s wel l a s "somewha t mentall y unstable. " Wit h unintended iron y th e FB I conclude d tha t thi s perso n wa s a "para noid havin g delusion s o f persecution. " Th e FB I also reporte d tha t a female membe r o f th e BDR U an d YAW F wa s " a Negr o lover, " fo r "she alway s smile s ver y openl y wheneve r a blac k ma n passe s b y her." 49

36 "Bastions

of Ou r Defense"

Kent Stat e Universit y Political surveillanc e wa s prevalen t a t nearl y ever y America n uni versity i n th e 1960s . Undercove r polic e an d FB I agents wer e discov ered o r acknowledge d i n 196 9 o n a t leas t sixtee n campuses , includ ing Berkeley , Harvard , Minnesota , Ohi o State , an d Ken t State . A t Kent State , Maggi e Murva y exploite d he r positio n a s a campus radi o reporter t o collec t informatio n fo r th e polic e o n antiwa r activists . Kent polic e chie f Ro y Thompson , wh o employe d Murva y an d othe r conservative studen t informers , reiterate d t o loca l civi c group s tha t "they go t a lo t o f thes e peopl e ove r o n tha t campu s [Ken t State ] wh o I don' t suppos e ar e plai n Communists , bu t a n awfu l lo t o f the m ar e pinkos." On e o f Thompson' s chie f allies , studen t governmen t presi dent Fran k Frisina , i n 196 9 distribute d anti-SD S circular s o n cam pus warnin g o f "outsid e agitators, " an d pledge d t o eradicat e drug s (and pot-smokin g antiwa r activists ) fro m th e university. 50 Anti-Communism an d a n unwillingnes s t o inves t i n publi c highe r education wer e th e hallmark s o f Ohio' s politica l establishmen t i n the decade s afte r Worl d Wa r II . Michigan , Ne w York , an d Pennsyl vania i n 1963-196 4 ranke d amon g th e to p te n state s i n appropria tions fo r constructio n i n institution s o f highe r education . Ohi o di d not. On e reaso n fo r thi s disparit y i s tha t th e Ohi o legislatur e viewe d universities a s potentia l breedin g ground s fo r politica l subversion . After Ohi o Stat e Universit y physicis t Byro n Darlin g invoke d th e Fifth Amendmen t befor e HUA C i n 1953 , th e legislatur e overwhelm ingly passe d a bil l t o dismis s an y publi c employe e affiliate d wit h subversive organizations . Stat e audito r Jame s Rhode s i n 195 3 prom ised t o withhol d appropriation s fro m Ohi o Stat e unles s Byro n Dar ling wa s immediatel y fired. Ohi o Stat e promptl y dismisse d Darling , as well a s othe r faculty , expelle d radica l students , an d banne d Com munist speaker s fro m th e campus . An d th e Ohi o Un-America n Ac tivities Committee , establishe d i n 1951 , hel d hearing s acros s th e state i n th e 1950 s investigatin g Communis m a t th e universities . Kent Stat e avoide d Rhodes ' an d th e Ohi o Un-America n Activitie s Committee's wrat h i n th e 1950 s by no t knowingl y hirin g potentiall y troublesome faculty. 51 Kent State , unlik e MSU , PSU , an d SUNY-Buffalo , remaine d a small teaching , rathe r tha n research , oriente d institutio n durin g th e 1940s an d 1950s . Thi s change d i n 195 9 whe n KS U bega n t o offe r doctoral degrees , providin g research-oriente d facult y wit h a poo l o f

"Bastions of Our Defense" 3

7

inexpensive graduat e studen t labo r an d attractin g scientifi c talent . Kent Stat e i n 196 5 establishe d th e Liqui d Crystal s Institut e (LCI ) with suppor t fro m th e ai r force an d arm y an d th e DoD' s Advance d Research Project s Agency . Th e LCI , a cente r fo r physica l scienc e research, receive d a n $800,00 0 Themi s gran t i n 196 8 t o develo p liquid crysta l detector s fo r th e army . Thes e crystals , place d alon g the H o Ch i Min h Trai l b y Nav y Seals , wer e designe d t o detec t th e presence, speed , an d directio n o f North Vietnamese Arm y tanks an d trucks. Whe n a vehicl e passe d a liqui d crysta l detector , a beaco n would b e relaye d t o a n orbitin g satellit e an d the n flashed t o a n aircraft carrie r which the n launche d it s strik e force . Prio r to Projec t Themis, th e Department o f Health, Education, an d Welfare ha d bee n the university' s chie f sourc e o f federa l funding . Afte r 1968 , th e Do D became KSU' s majo r federa l benefactor . Th e university' s eagernes s to obtai n defense-relate d grant s stemme d fro m it s difficultie s i n extracting funds fro m a fiscally conservativ e stat e legislature. 52 As Ken t State' s studen t populatio n ros e fro m 5,00 0 i n 195 4 t o 21,308 b y 1966 , becomin g th e twenty-sevent h larges t universit y i n the Unite d States , universit y presiden t Rober t Whit e (1963-1971 ) confronted increase d campu s restlessness . I n Ma y 1969 , Whit e as serted tha t ther e wer e tw o dangerou s group s wh o threatene d th e universities: First, ther e ar e th e SD S an d it s type . Wit h a n acknowledge d avowa l o f destruction fo r destruction' s sake ; wit h a n acknowledge d philosophica l rejection of the First Amendment, wit h a disregard for the rights of others , with a program of revolution solely for revolution's sake and without future objectives we can and must set them aside... . Secondly, ther e ar e those who m I choose t o call th e "bleedin g hearts,' ' the ones who while they are no destroyers themselves are always instantl y and automatically sympatheti c t o such culprit s an d strive to find justification for them.53 A hig h schoo l teache r an d principa l b y training, Whit e cherishe d order an d viewe d libera l an d radica l student s a s juvenil e delin quents. Conservativ e student s wh o physicall y assaulte d antiwa r ac tivists wer e onl y guilt y o f youthful exuberance . Thi s attitud e wa s i n evidence a t an April 196 9 KSU SDS anti-Themis an d antiracist rally . Seven hundre d conservativ e students , a fe w o f the m arme d wit h motorcycle chain s an d basebal l bats , attacke d tw o hundre d SD S members an d antiwa r faculty . Whit e suspende d SDS' s charte r an d declined t o tak e disciplinar y actio n agains t th e prowa r studen t as -

38 "Bastions

of Ou r De/ense "

sailants. Afte r th e Nationa l Guar d slaying s i n Ma y 1970 , Whit e blamed antiwa r student s fo r precipitating the confrontation, charac terizing the m a s "huma n debris " wh o di d no t belon g a t the univer sity. 54 Like White, Ken t State' s academically undistinguishe d dean s an d administrators chos e t o ignor e students ' physica l assault s o n anti war activists, fosterin g a climate conducive t o the escalation of rightwing violenc e o n campus . Durin g a spring 196 8 antiwa r rally spon sored b y th e Ken t Committe e t o En d th e Wa r in Vietna m (KCEWV) , several student s fire d pelle t gun s fro m a friend' s dormitor y room , wounding tw o dovis h clergymen . Administrator s responsibl e fo r student affair s decline d t o prosecut e th e culprits . Th e universit y did, however , file charge s agains t KCEW V leade r Rut h Gibso n fo r chalking a notice o f th e rall y o n th e library . Ken t Stat e ha d prohib ited the KCEW V from publicizin g th e rally o n the campus. 55 The politica l environmen t of f th e campu s wa s n o les s hostil e t o KSU activists . Ken t wa s a small, conservativ e town , politicall y an d economically dominate d b y Rober t C . Dix , publishe r o f th e loca l Republican newspaper , th e Record-Courier , an d presiden t o f th e KSU boar d o f trustees . Communit y resident s heape d verba l an d physical abus e upo n activis t student s whil e th e Portag e Count y grand jur y launche d annua l investigation s o f dru g abuse a t the uni versity. Invariably , thos e student s investigated , an d subsequentl y arrested, fo r dru g possessio n wer e well-know n antiwa r leaders . I n 1966, th e Ohi o Burea u o f Crimina l Investigatio n (BCI) , wit h facili ties provide d b y KSU , opene d a special laboratory . Staffe d b y grad uates o f th e MS U Polic e School , th e BC I cooperate d wit h th e FB I and the Ken t Police Departmen t i n monitoring KS U activism. 56 Ohio differe d significantl y fro m Michigan , Ne w York , an d Penn sylvania i n tha t i t neve r claime d a n endurin g progressiv e politica l tradition. Th e state' s Republica n an d industria l leader s ha d vigor ously resiste d th e Ne w Dea l an d eve n afte r Worl d Wa r I I di d no t reconcile themselve s t o th e predominan t libera l sentimen t i n bot h major nationa l parties . Conservativ e stat e politician s i n th e 1960s , as i n th e 1930s , wer e willin g t o emplo y th e Nationa l Guar d t o maintain orde r an d scor e a fe w politica l point s wit h voters . Thi s was apparen t i n December 196 9 whe n Governo r James Rhodes, wh o had entere d th e Republica n primar y rac e fo r th e U.S . Senate , mobi lized seve n hundre d Nationa l Guardsme n t o occup y th e Universit y of Akro n followin g a Blac k Powe r demonstratio n b y three blac k

"Bastions of Ou r Defense" 3

9

students. Whe n campu s protes t explode d i n earl y Ma y 1970 , afte r President Nixo n ordere d th e invasio n o f Cambodia , Rhode s antici pated tha t a toug h stan d agains t unpopula r radica l student s woul d seal hi s primar y victory . Th e governor , an d Ken t mayo r LeRo y Sa trom, di d no t eve n bothe r t o consul t wit h Presiden t Whit e prio r t o the Ohi o National Guar d occupation o f Kent State. 57 Exercising n o politica l influenc e of f th e campus , an d failin g t o ad minister disciplin e i n an even-handed manne r on the campus , Pres ident Whit e wa s eas y pre y fo r critic s o n th e lef t an d th e right . H e resented studen t activist s challengin g hi s authority , a s di d mos t university presidents , wit h th e possibl e exceptio n o f Meyerson . Bu t White acte d mor e decisivel y i n 1968-196 9 t o crus h dissen t tha n Walker an d Hanna h di d a t thei r respectiv e schools . Thi s ma y b e because White felt greate r local an d stat e pressure t o do so than wa s the cas e i n Pennsylvani a an d Michigan . Lackin g politica l power , White ha d n o choic e bu t to comply wit h demand s fo r law an d orde r on th e campus . Whit e ma y hav e als o fel t som e satisfactio n i n bein g able t o exercis e contro l ove r his students , th e on e grou p whic h ha d even les s politica l powe r than the Kent Stat e president . It woul d hav e bee n inconceivabl e tha t a n obscur e mayo r an d a contentious governo r coul d hav e successfull y ridde n roughsho d ove r John Hannah . Whe n a ma n i s o n a first nam e basi s wit h Richar d Nixon and Nelson Rockefeller, h e does not tolerate interference wit h his perogative s o f power . Consequently , la w enforcemen t agencie s had to request permission fro m Hannah before bein g allowed o n th e campus. And , thoug h a committe d opponen t o f th e anti-Vietna m War movement , wh o becam e particularl y enrage d wit h MS U SDS , Hannah trie d t o avoi d summonin g loca l an d stat e polic e officer s t o campus t o squash antiwa r protest—quite unlik e Whit e an d Walker . Certainly, Hanna h wa s a n administrato r obssesse d wit h interna tional an d domesti c Communis t subversion , willin g t o ti e hi s uni versity t o th e defens e establishment . Yet , h e als o supporte d mas s education an d strove to insure that all Americans, regardles s of race, religion, o r clas s origins , woul d b e abl e t o obtai n a colleg e educa tion. Althoug h Meyerso n ma y hav e been les s authoritaria n an d con cerned with leftist politica l dissen t than Hannah, he was much mor e of a n elitist . Goo d intention s notwithstanding , Meyerson' s decisio n to rais e admission s standards , an d desir e t o emulat e th e academi c pretensions o f th e Iv y League, meant tha t the SUNY-Buffal o studen t

40 "Bastions

of Ou r Defense"

body woul d b e solidl y middle - t o upper-middle-class , white , Prot estant, an d Jewish . Fo r a Grea t Societ y libera l wh o believe d i n equality o f opportunity , an d loathe d racia l an d religiou s discrimi nation, Meyerso n became the most discriminator y presiden t i n SUNY Buffalo's history . Whil e i t is regrettable that Buffalo resident s lashe d out agains t Meyerso n an d use d anti-Semiti c epitaphs , i t i s under standable. I n hi s ow n subtl e way , Meyerso n wa s sayin g tha t th e children o f Buffalo working-clas s ethni c Italian and Polish Catholic s had n o plac e i n th e universit y an d woul d hav e t o b e conten t wit h working i n the steel mill s or , more likely , remainin g trapped i n low paying, unskilled , service-secto r jobs . Meyerson contende d tha t th e universit y coul d no t succum b t o engaging i n politic s b y taking stands agains t the Vietnam War, curb ing fre e speec h b y bannin g Dow , CIA , an d militar y recruiters , o r undermining intellectua l inquir y by preventin g facult y fro m accept ing Pentagon research contracts. T o the activist students an d faculty , Meyerson's principle d defens e o f a democratic syste m whic h wage d war i n Indochin a an d brough t militar y researc h project s suc h a s Themis t o a universit y dedicate d t o instillin g human e values , ap peared hypocritical . Further , ever y actio n th e universit y took , th e activists argued , whethe r t o permi t militar y researc h o r Dow o r CIA recruiters o n th e campus , wa s inherentl y politica l an d implicate d the academ y i n supportin g th e war . The university , o f course , a s Hannah frequentl y stated , wa s by it s very natur e a n instrumen t o f nationa l policy , whethe r tha t entaile d providing mas s educatio n t o th e citizenr y o r acceptin g defense related contracts . Walke r rejected th e former function an d embrace d the latter . He would no t inves t i n libera l art s programs o r in improv ing th e qualit y o f undergraduat e educatio n a t Pen n State . I n man y ways, PS U existe d primaril y t o perfor m defens e wor k an d t o trai n skilled engineer s wh o would , i n the best of al l possibl e worlds , the n go on to work for military contractors . Elitis m and anti-Communis m combined t o shap e Walker' s attitude s toward s activis t student s an d faculty. Indeed , th e PSU presiden t wa s no t above denouncin g mem bers of the campus chapte r of the conservative Youn g Americans fo r Freedom (YAF) , wh o advocate d studen t rights , a s dangerou s radi cals. Walke r woul d no t stan d fo r intellectuall y mediocr e lan d gran t college students , eve n conservative , anti-Communis t students , pre suming t o tell hi m ho w t o run the university . It would b e difficult t o find four more dissimilar personalities an d

"Bastions of Our Defense" 41 educational philosophies . Th e communitie s i n whic h thes e cam puses wer e locate d als o coul d no t b e mor e dissimilar . I n spit e o f profound philosophica l differences , Hannah , Meyerson , Walker , an d White, eithe r by desig n o r succumbing t o the pressure s o f academi c politics, acquire d militar y contract s an d tie d th e fortune s o f thei r universities t o a defens e establishmen t committe d t o containin g Communism i n Indochina . Th e publi c institution s o f highe r educa tion gre w a t a phenomenal rat e in th e 1960s , makin g administrativ e control a n ofte n illusor y goal . A s th e Vietna m Wa r escalated , an d campus protes t mounted , America n societ y polarized . B y 1969 1970, politica l confrontatio n an d reactio n becam e th e dominan t features o f thi s polarize d society . Politica l polarizatio n wa s no t ne w to the American historica l experience . But , for the first time, univer sity presidents wer e unable to escape it s effects. Hanna h and Walke r would retire , sickene d o f th e academy , whil e Whit e an d Meyerso n would b e driven from their institutions amids t bitter recriminations .

T W O

' T h o s e Peopl e W o u l d D o th e Damndes Things": Facult y Peac e Activist

t

s

Faculty politica l activis m di d no t becom e widesprea d unti l th e 1930 s when man y academic s drifte d i n an d ou t o f th e Communis t part y and it s Popula r Fron t organizations . Bu t i t wa s a rare professo r wh o publicly identifie d himsel f a s a Communist . Radica l facult y activ ism i n th e 1930 s consiste d largel y o f semisecre t educationa l forums . Fearful o f losin g thei r job s i n th e mids t o f th e Grea t Depression , Communist facult y generall y shunne d publicit y and , i f compelle d to characteriz e thei r ideologica l leanings , declare d themselve s t o b e progressive Ne w Dealers . Socialis t an d religious-pacifis t facult y wer e more forthrigh t i n spellin g ou t thei r ideolog y t o student s an d th e general public . The y als o considere d thei r Communis t colleagues * penchant fo r secrec y t o b e anathem a t o th e university' s missio n o f promoting ope n intellectua l discourse. 1 Stalin's Non-Aggressio n Pac t wit h Hitle r i n 193 9 le d libera l an d socialist facult y t o distanc e themselve s fro m Communis t academics . Religious-pacifist facult y repudiate d th e Communis t teacher s i n 194 1 after th e organizatio n abandone d it s antiwa r stanc e an d calle d fo r American militar y interventio n agains t th e Axi s Powers . Disillu sionment i n th e 1939-194 1 perio d provide d man y facult y wit h th e ethical an d ideologica l justificatio n fo r Col d War-er a politica l repression o f Communists . Literar y critic s Lesli e Fiedle r an d Lione l Trilling, amon g others , advocate d th e dismissa l o f Communis t fac ulty. Wit h s o many prominen t academic s pronouncin g Communis m to b e a grea t threa t t o democracy , universit y administrator s fel t fre e to fire nonconformists. 2 42

"Those People Woul d Do the Damndest Things" 4

3

While man y o f th e facult y victim s o f McCarthyis m wer e Commu nists, a numbe r wer e Quaker s o r committe d civi l libertarian s op posed to governmental loyalt y oaths and political investigatin g com mittees. Paradoxically , Communis t facult y ofte n onl y had to concea l their activitie s an d remai n silen t i n orde r to escap e politica l repres sion. Thei r embittere d colleague s woul d no t d o thi s an d therefor e suffered. Th e slightl y olde r antiwa r facult y activist s i n th e 1960 s refused t o forgive th e Communists fo r defending Stalinis m an d com placently lookin g o n a s civi l libertarian , socialist , an d religious pacifist facult y wer e fired. Younge r activis t facult y wh o embrace d the Ne w Lef t coul d no t understan d academe' s ideologica l battle s i n the 1950 s and , further , di d no t appreciat e Communis t duplicity . Mistakenly, the y trie d t o reaso n tha t th e Pekin g o r Hano i regime s were differen t from , o r superior to, the Moscow dictatorship. 3 Contrasting politica l perception s betwee n th e younge r an d olde r generation o f facult y fe d int o thei r professiona l rivalrie s an d resent ments. Th e youthfu l professor s wh o flooded int o th e expandin g state universities i n th e 1960 s wer e generall y product s o f elit e grad uate school s and , a s SUNY-Buffal o activis t an d historia n Michae l Frisch observed, wer e expecte d t o become intellectua l force s withi n their disciplines . Senio r faculty , o n th e othe r hand , Frisc h argued , "were fro m a sleepie r era " an d product s o f "provincia l schools, " with "littl e o r no scholarl y presenc e a t all, an d sometime s no t eve n much graduat e training. " No t surprisingly , th e facult y elder s be came embittere d a s th e Youn g Turk s shunte d the m aside . Tha t th e Young Turk s di d no t shar e thei r Col d Wa r conception o f America n society an d foreign polic y adde d insul t to injury. 4 Also important to understanding increase d political tensions amon g faculty i n th e Col d War-Vietna m Wa r er a i s th e changin g rol e aca demics played i n American society. Th e image of the absent-minde d professor locke d awa y i n a n Ivor y Towe r ha d alread y los t it s sub stance b y th e earl y twentiet h century . Presiden t Woodro w Wilso n issued th e call for academics t o enlist in the war effort. Man y profes sors responded . Fiftee n year s late r Presiden t Frankli n Roosevel t summoned Iv y Leagu e academic s t o Washingto n t o formulat e an d supervise Ne w Deal , an d later , wa r mobilization, policie s an d agen cies. Onc e U.S . an d Sovie t relations deteriorate d afte r World War II, academics, eithe r ou t o f a sens e o f patriotism , o r becaus e the y be came dependen t upo n federa l researc h grants , vigorousl y defende d American foreig n policy . Frequently , th e socia l scientist s rewrot e

44 'Thos

e Peopl e Woul d Do the Damndest Things "

history i n orde r t o diminis h th e centralit y o f class , racial , an d reli gious conflic t i n America . Th e academ y ha d becom e politicized , and politicize d a t that , o n th e sid e o f th e statu s quo . Younger , les s sanguine facult y perceive d th e intellectua l corruptio n o f the univer sity i n th e 1960 s an d thre w dow n th e gauntle t a t thei r colleagues ' feet. A 1969-197 0 Carnegi e Commissio n surve y o f 60,02 8 facult y a t 303 junio r college s an d privat e an d stat e college s an d universitie s provides a useful socia l an d political profil e of American academics . Protestants comprise d 67. 6 percen t o f faculty , whil e 1 3 percen t an d 10.1 percent , respectively , wer e Catholi c an d Jewish . Nearl y 3 0 percent claime d a father wh o ha d a college education . Thi s statisti c indicates th e privilege d background s o f man y faculty , a s fewer tha n 17 percen t o f American s i n 192 0 finished hig h school . I n 1969 , 49. 7 percent o f facult y wer e 4 0 year s ol d o r younger , wit h 14. 6 percen t under 3 0 year s o f age—to o youn g t o remembe r th e Grea t Depres sion, Worl d Wa r II , an d Stalinis t terrorism . Ove r 5 5 percen t o f faculty ha d received thei r doctorate s afte r 195 9 an d 50. 3 percen t di d not have tenure. 5 Only 5. 1 percen t o f facult y surveye d i n 1969-197 0 describe d themselves a s radical , compare d t o 41. 5 percen t an d 27. 7 percen t who claime d t o be , respectively , libera l an d conservative . A major ity, 57. 3 percent , disapprove d o f studen t activis m an d 8 3 percen t considered radica l youth s t o b e a threat t o academi c freedom . Mor e than 7 9 percen t approve d th e expulsio n o f activis t student s an d 26.2 percen t argue d tha t campus-base d politica l demonstration s wer e inappropriate pursuit s i n a n academic setting . A s far as the Vietna m War wa s concerned , 18. 3 percen t advocate d a n immediat e with drawal an d 42. 3 percen t hoped for a reduced America n commitmen t and a coalition Sout h Vietnamese governmen t whic h woul d includ e Communists. A n additiona l 3 2 percen t wante d th e Unite d State s t o de-escalate th e wa r an d defea t th e Communists . Jus t a minority, 7. 4 percent, favore d escalatin g th e war. 6 While facult y wer e nearl y unanimou s i n thei r disconten t wit h American polic y i n Vietnam , ther e wa s i n 196 9 a clear polarizatio n on th e issu e o f university-militar y research . Thirty-si x percen t fel t that defens e an d corporatio n grant s morall y compromise d universi ties an d faculty . Obversely , 45. 2 percen t viewe d classifie d weapon s research a s a "legitimat e activit y o f th e university. " I n spit e o f thi s division, a majority o f faculty , 57. 2 percent , candidl y admitte d tha t

"Those Peopl e Would D o the Damndest Things " 4

5

university-military researc h wa s no t undertake n t o advanc e knowl edge, but rather to enhance particula r academics' prestige. 7 Faculty supportin g libera l politician s an d civi l libertie s i n th e 1950s, an d sympatheti c t o the antiwar movement i n the 1960s , wer e concentrated i n libera l art s and socia l scienc e departments . Accord ing to various sociologica l studies , onl y 1 2 percen t o f socia l scienc e faculty i n 195 9 an d 196 4 describe d themselve s a s conservatives , compared t o 4 1 percen t o f engineerin g facult y an d 5 0 percen t o f agricultural faculty . I n a Seymou r Lipse t an d Everet t Lad d analysi s of th e 1969-197 0 Carnegi e Commission' s repor t o n faculty , 49. 2 percent o f th e 24,03 1 socia l science , humanities , la w school , fine arts, an d educatio n facult y surveye d wer e supportiv e o f studen t activism. Conversely , 7 2 percen t o f th e 21,97 8 science , engineering , and agricultur e facult y examine d oppose d studen t activism . Sociol ogists, socia l workers , political scientists , psychologists , an d anthro pologists, i n descendin g order , wer e mos t pronounce d i n thei r lib eralism and support of campu s activism . Economics an d humanitie s instructors wer e les s libera l an d approvin g o f campu s protest . La w school facult y wer e nearl y evenl y divide d betwee n liberal s an d conservatives, wherea s educatio n faculty were overwhelmingly con servative an d oppose d t o student activism. 8 There wa s a clea r divisio n withi n an d betwee n academi c disci plines o n th e Vietna m War . Thirty-thre e percen t o f sociologist s fa vored a n immediat e withdrawa l fro m Vietnam an d a n additional 5 0 percent advocate d de-escalatio n an d th e formatio n o f a coalitio n South Vietnames e government . Seventy-thre e percen t o f Englis h faculty supporte d a n immediat e withdrawa l o r de-escalatio n an d subsequent formatio n o f a coalitio n government . I n contrast , 5 6 percent an d 6 4 percent , respectively , o f busines s an d engineerin g faculty calle d fo r a militar y escalatio n o f th e war . Lipse t an d Lad d concluded tha t ther e wa s a n extremel y stron g "progressio n t o th e right b y th e applie d fields wit h a clos e connectio n t o economi c enterprises—business administration , engineerin g and agriculture. " They migh t hav e adde d tha t facult y i n th e biologica l an d physica l sciences an d engineerin g ar e mor e likel y t o receiv e defense-relate d grants tha n sociologists , socia l workers , an d anthropologists . Con sequently, the y woul d b e les s likel y t o criticiz e a n anti-Communis t foreign polic y whic h advance d thei r careers. 9 The ideologica l spectru m o f facult y antiwa r activist s range d fro m liberal dove s an d religious pacifist s t o radical pacifist s an d New Lef t

46 "Thos

e Peopl e Woul d Do th e Damndes t Things "

partisans. Libera l dove s an d religious-pacifist s pushe d fo r a negoti ated settlemen t o f th e Vietna m Wa r an d sough t t o wor k withi n th e electoral syste m t o accomplis h thei r ends . Radica l pacifist s an d adherents o f th e Ne w Lef t critiqu e o f America n foreig n polic y de manded a n immediat e militar y withdrawa l fro m Indochin a an d re jected workin g withi n th e electora l system . Instead , the y endea vored throug h communit y outreac h t o transform publi c consciousness , aiming a t a metamorphosi s o f societa l attitude s toward s militaris m and racism . T o furthe r thi s goal , Richar d Flacks , Jess e Lemisch , Staughton Lynd , an d 35 0 radica l academic s fro m eighty-fiv e cam puses gathere d i n Chicag o i n Marc h 196 8 t o foun d th e Ne w Univer sity Conferenc e (NUC) . B y th e fal l o f 196 8 ther e wer e twent y func tioning campu s NU C chapters an d seve n hundre d members , localize d in th e Midwes t an d mid-Atlanti c states . Facult y establishe d NU C chapters a t Ken t State , Michiga n State , an d Pen n State . A t thes e schools, an d others , NU C leader s wer e ofte n fired fo r thei r antiwa r activism. 10 Antiwar facult y adopte d a variet y o f tactic s t o mobiliz e publi c opinion agains t th e Vietna m conflict , includin g petition s addresse d to politica l leaders , educationa l forums , on - an d off-campu s dem onstrations, an d electora l activities . Thei r abilit y t o rall y campu s and communit y frequentl y depende d upo n th e intensit y o f opposi tion radiatin g fro m pr o war facult y an d students , universit y admin istrators, an d loca l an d stat e politicians . Th e relativ e strengt h o r weakness o f th e hawkis h oppositio n als o influence d th e siz e o f th e faculty antiwa r movement , a s wel l a s th e scop e o f it s activities . Depending upo n th e loca l politica l context , off-campu s peac e wor k was jus t a s extensiv e a s on-campu s organizing . Wher e th e surround ing communit y prove d t o b e unreceptiv e t o th e antiwa r message , faculty devote d thei r energie s t o campu s mobilization . Michigan Stat e Universit y Between classe s Wesle y Fishe l haunte d th e politica l scienc e facult y lounge, confidin g t o colleague s tha t hi s Vietnames e friend , Ng o Diem, a MS U graduat e researc h assistant , woul d someda y b e pre mier o f Vietnam . Ofte n a s not , Fishe l receive d incredulou s stares , for fe w MS U facult y i n 195 1 too k thi s bras h assistan t professo r o f political scienc e seriously . Bu t the y ha d t o admir e th e surenes s o f his convictio n an d wonde r ho w h e ha d arrange d fo r Die m t o mee t

'Those Peopl e Woul d D o the Damndest Things " 4

7

with Franci s Cardina l Spellma n an d Senato r Mik e Mansfield . Afte r Diem becam e premie r i n 195 4 an d appointe d Fishe l a s hi s persona l advisor, MS U politica l scientist s realize d the y wer e i n th e presenc e of a kingmaker . Les s impressionabl e faculty , suc h a s humanitie s professor Thomas Greer , scrutinized Fishe l an d chorused derisively : CIA.11 As th e first hea d o f th e MS U Vietna m Project , Fishe l coordinate d in 195 5 wha t wa s the n th e larges t Thir d Worl d technica l assistanc e undertaking i n America n history . Th e MS U politica l scientis t wa s tireless i n hi s effort s t o promot e a positive imag e o f Sout h Vietna m and Diem . H e approve d th e publicatio n i n 195 8 o f a n attractiv e MSU Vietna m Projec t briefin g bookle t featurin g photograph s o f al luring, air-conditione d Saigo n villa s fo r facult y advisors , an d offer ing thi s usefu l information : "I t i s possibl e t o tak e trip s throughou t the countrysid e o n weekends o r holidays an d find a host o f interest ing things t o photograph." 12 In a 195 9 article , entitled , wit h unintende d Orwellia n overtones , "Vietnam's Democrati c One-Ma n Rule, " Fishe l praise d Diem' s lov e for democracy : Is Ngo Din h Die m a "dictator" o r a "democrat"? A s on e examine s th e structure of the Republic of Vietnam and the behavior of President Ngo, he learns that (a ) Ngo Dinh Diem ha s al l the authority an d all th e powe r on e needs t o operat e a dictatorship , bu t (b ) h e isn' t operatin g one ! Her e i s a leader who speak s the languag e o f democracy , wh o hold s th e powers o f a dictator, an d wh o govern s a Republi c i n accordanc e wit h th e term s o f a Constitution. Th e Constitutio n wa s writte n a t hi s reques t b y a Nationa l Assembly which he has caused to be elected by the people of the Republic. Of course , MS U politica l scientist s wrot e th e Sout h Vietnames e Constitution t o whic h Fishe l referre d an d whos e guarantee s o f reli gious toleratio n an d fai r wage s Die m abrogated . Bu t t o Fishel , thi s was quibbling . Diem , h e assure d a group o f stat e legislator s i n Lan sing i n 1961 , wa s " a combinatio n o f Georg e Washingto n an d Abra ham Lincoln." 13 Diem terminate d th e MS U technica l assistanc e projec t i n 196 2 despite FisheP s determine d publi c relation s efforts . Th e Sout h Viet namese leade r took this cours e o f actio n because o f friction betwee n his corrup t relative s i n th e bureaucrac y an d critica l facult y i n th e advisory group . Tw o suc h professors , economis t Milto n Taylo r an d English instructo r Adrian Jaffe, wrot e a n article i n 196 1 disparagin g

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of Diem' s dictatorshi p an d contributin g t o the MS U Advisor y Group' s expulsion. Shortl y afte r th e project' s termination , Taylor , Diem' s former fiscal advisor , bluntl y observed , "Wha t Vietna m need s righ t now i s an efficient dictato r instea d o f a stupid one." 14 Taylor criticize d Diem' s inefficiency , but , lik e man y economists , political scientists , an d Polic e Schoo l advisors , di d no t question th e Cold Wa r rationale behin d technica l assistanc e t o th e Thir d World . In contrast , MS U anthropologist s i n th e advisor y group , wh o ha d spent considerabl e tim e i n th e countrysid e undertakin g cultura l research, increasingl y cam e to the conclusion tha t Communism woul d better serv e th e peasantr y tha n a n American-supported regime . Par t of th e explanatio n fo r thi s perceptua l disparit y lie s i n th e fac t tha t the economist s an d politica l scientist s spen t thei r tou r o f dut y re moved fro m th e peasan t majority , dealin g solel y wit h elit e English and French-speakin g Catholi c Vietnames e bureaucrats . A t th e en d of th e workda y facult y advisor s dine d i n Saigon' s fashionabl e cafe s and then retire d to their villas, passin g the evenings i n the compan y of fello w Americans . Polic e Schoo l Administratio n professo r Ralp h Turner, wh o traine d Diem' s bodyguards , coul d onl y expres s bewil derment after his student s assassinate d th e South Vietnamese leade r in 1963 . 'Thos e people, " Turne r late r sai d i n wonderment , "woul d do the damndes t things." 15 MSU anthropologis t Joh n Donoghue graduall y evolve d int o a pronounced criti c o f America n foreig n polic y i n Indochina . Fro m 196 0 to 196 2 Donoghu e live d i n a Sout h Vietnames e villag e unde r Vie t Cong control . Appalle d a t the bruta l existenc e o f th e peasantry , an d disgusted wit h Diem's extortionat e ta x collectors, th e anthropologis t wrote scathin g scholarl y account s o f hi s experiences . I n 196 2 h e also sough t t o reach a broader public throug h the Washington Post: There ar e village s i n th e sout h no w flying Communis t flags which ar e administered b y the Viet Cong. But that is no reason to knock out a whole village, retaliatin g fo r terro r wit h terror . Ultimately , we'v e go t t o ge t th e peasants o n ou r side , an d tha t i s no t th e wa y t o d o it . Bu t th e Kenned y Administration ha s gone along with this gadgetry and military build-up as the way the problem should be solved. By Marc h 1965 , wit h th e escalatio n o f America n militar y involve ment i n Vietnam , Donoghu e ha d becom e sharpl y critica l o f Ameri ca's Vietna m policy . H e accuse d Johnso n o f deliberatel y distortin g the trut h an d rejecte d th e Administration' s contentio n tha t a Mos -

"Those Peopl e Woul d D o the Damndest Things " 4

9

cow-Hanoi Axi s inspire d th e Vie t Con g rebellion i n Sout h Vietnam . 'The peopl e o f th e South, " h e argued , "hav e joine d i n a wa r o f national liberatio n from the central governmen t i n Saigon." 16 President Johnson' s decisio n t o sen d th e marine s t o DaNan g o n March 8 , 1965 , galvanize d Donoghu e an d othe r MSU faculty . Dono ghue, an d th e note d MS U psychologis t Milto n Rokeach , helpe d t o organize th e nation' s first Vietna m teach-i n a t th e Universit y o f Michigan o n Marc h 24 , 1965 , an d founde d th e MS U Facult y Com mittee fo r Peac e i n Vietnam . A t MSU , th e Facult y Committe e fo r Peace sponsored , o n Apri l 11 , 1965 , th e nation' s secon d Vietna m teach-in. Thoma s Greer , humanitie s departmen t chair , an d Law rence Battistini , socia l scienc e professo r and , lik e Greer , a Worl d War II veteran, participate d i n th e teach-i n becaus e o f thei r convic tion tha t the y ''woul d no t b e lik e th e silen t professor s i n Naz i Germany wh o di d no t criticiz e Hitler' s aggressiv e foreig n policy. " The MSU Faculty Committee fo r Peace decline d t o invite Fishe l an d other anti-Communis t veteran s o f th e Vietna m Projec t t o spea k a t the teach-in, regardin g them a s Johnson's representatives. 17 Fishel, chai r o f th e MS U America n Friend s o f Vietna m and , i n his ow n mind , th e foremos t Southeas t Asia n exper t a t th e univer sity, castigate d th e doves . Joine d b y othe r MS U Vietna m Projec t veterans, includin g Turne r an d Taylor , Fishe l accuse d th e teach-i n organizers o f aidin g Communist aggressor s i n Indochina. I f the Unite d States were t o withdraw fro m Vietnam , the y contended , Sout h Viet nam, soo n followe d b y Thailand, India , an d Japan, would fal l t o th e Communists. 18 For th e nex t yea r a n acrimoniou s debat e rage d betwee n anti Communist MS U Vietnam Project veterans and the Faculty Commit tee fo r Peace. Gree r and Fishe l square d of f i n publi c appearance s a s well a s i n th e column s o f th e Stat e News. Unfortunatel y fo r Fishel , the expos e o f th e MS U Vietna m Projec t i n April 196 6 b y the radica l California-based magazin e Ramparts damage d his reputation i n East Lansing. Afte r April 1966 , there would b e no organized prowar MS U faculty group . Indeed , a number o f prowa r facult y leader s defecte d to th e peac e movement . Economis t Chitr a Smith , a n erstwhil e CI A analyst and faculty adviso r to the MSU People t o People Associatio n which, i n cooperatio n wit h th e ai r force, sponsore d studen t trip s t o South Vietnam, signe d a n antiwar petition i n February 1967. 19 Fishel an d Greer' s struggl e fo r th e heart s an d mind s o f th e cam pus ensue d agains t th e backdro p o f a long-standing contes t o f will s

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pitting Hannah against, to him, two particularly exasperatin g facult y members: economis t Charle s Larrow e an d labo r relations instructo r Bob Repas . Fro m th e lat e 1950 s t o Hannah' s retiremen t i n 1969 , Larrowe an d Repa s challenge d th e presiden t o n th e issue s o f com pulsory ROTC , academi c freedom , studen t rights , politica l surveil lance, an d university-militar y research . Thei r persistence , an d th e critical new s medi a publicit y the y generated , prompte d Hanna h i n 1965 t o summon Larrow e and Repas to his office. Gesterin g to a map of Michiga n mounte d o n th e wal l an d covere d wit h re d pins , Han nah informe d the m tha t each pi n represente d a place fro m which h e received hostil e letter s a s a resul t o f thei r activism . The n Hannah , his voic e rising , said , " I kno w ther e ar e a t leas t thre e Communis t agents o n this campus. " Repas, never one to pass up the opportunit y to nettle authority figures, puckishl y replied that there were far more than thre e Communist s a t th e las t part y meetin g h e an d Larrow e had attended. 20 Prior t o America' s entranc e int o th e Secon d Worl d War , Repas ' high school clas s had gone on a field tri p to heckle Norma n Thomas . After listenin g t o th e socialist-pacifis t minister , Repa s committe d himself t o Thomas ' cause . H e late r manage d Norma n Thomas ' var ious presidentia l campaign s i n Michiga n and , fro m 195 0 t o 1955 , served a s directo r o f th e America n Friend s Servic e Committee' s (Quaker) Labor-Internationa l Affair s Program . Althoug h devoutl y anti-Communist, Repa s raile d agains t governmen t infringement s upo n civil liberties , a stanc e whic h le d hi m t o b e dismisse d i n 195 3 a s a Philadelphia publi c schoo l teache r fo r refusin g t o sig n th e Pecha n Loyalty Oath . Whe n th e MS U Youn g Socialis t Clu b i n 196 2 invite d a Communis t part y representative , Rober t Thompson , t o lectur e a t the university , Hanna h barre d hi m fro m th e campus . Repa s an d Larrowe assiste d th e Socialis t Clu b i n locatin g a n off-campu s sit e for Thompson's appearance . Hannah' s admonitio n tha t faculty shoul d not b e involve d i n leftis t studen t activitie s ha d n o effec t o n Repas ' subsequent behavior . I n 196 9 Repa s helpe d t o organiz e th e MS U NUC chapter. 21 After MS U expelle d Pau l Schiff , graduat e studen t leade r o f th e Committee fo r Studen t Rights , i n the sprin g o f 1965 , Repas , a s chai r of th e loca l branc h o f th e America n Civi l Libertie s Unio n (ACLU) , contacted Larrowe . Base d o n hi s investigation , Larrow e cam e t o th e conclusion tha t Hanna h wa s personall y behin d Schiff' s expulsio n

"Those Peopl e Woul d D o the Damndest Things " 5 1 and ha d ordere d th e alteratio n o f hi s transcript , eliminatin g hi s eligibility fo r readmittanc e t o th e university . Larrowe , Repas , an d the ACL U too k th e universit y t o cour t an d obtaine d Schiff' s read mission. A s on e resul t o f th e Schif f case , Larrow e an d Repa s com pelled Hanna h t o creat e a standin g administration-facult y commit tee on student academic affairs . Thi s was an important victory since , in th e cours e o f thei r investigation , Larrow e an d Repa s discovere d that th e administration-facult y committe e whic h recommende d Schiff's expulsio n existe d onl y o n paper. 22 A World War II Silver Star recipient, Larrow e had left the militar y with a disdain fo r arbitrary authority an d a heightened appreciatio n for politica l toleranc e an d diversity . Consequently , h e ha d n o diffi culty reconcilin g suppor t fo r Ne w Lef t an d libera l politica l organi zations. Larrow e serve d a s MSU SD S facult y adviso r an d founde d a campus NU C chapte r whil e h e campaigne d fo r Senato r Eugen e McCarthy i n th e 196 8 Michiga n Democrati c presidentia l primar y and worke d wit h th e liberal , clergy-dominated , Greate r Lansin g Community Organizatio n (GLCO) , counselin g MS U student s o n th e draft. H e wa s on e o f th e fe w somewha t olde r facult y activist s wh o reached ou t t o Ne w Lef t student s an d younger , radica l academics . Most older, libera l antiwa r faculty pu t some distanc e betwee n them selves an d SD S an d it s academi c supporters . Unlik e man y o f hi s colleagues, Larrow e wa s willin g t o overloo k Ne w Lef t facult y an d students* ideological an d personalit y quirks. 23 Antiwar MS U facult y foun d commo n groun d i n thei r oppositio n to American foreign policy i n Indochina but sharply differed i n their analyses o f th e cause s o f th e Vietna m Wa r an d appropriat e tactic s for halting the conflict. Althoug h responsibl e fo r helping to organiz e a Vietna m teach-i n extremel y critica l o f th e Johnso n Administra tion, Gree r clun g t o th e hop e tha t th e governmen t woul d se e th e error o f it s ways . Afte r Vic e Presiden t Huber t Humphre y spok e a t the MS U Auditoriu m i n Jun e 1965 , defendin g Johnson' s Vietna m policy, Gree r hande d hi m a peac e petitio n signe d b y tw o hundre d faculty members . H e then spok e warmly to Humphrey, assurin g hi m that antiwar activist s di d no t blame th e vice presiden t fo r Johnson' s wrong-headed Vietna m policy . Humphre y crushe d th e petitio n be tween hi s tremblin g hand s an d sputtere d tha t h e ha d bee n a foe o f Communist conspirator s lon g before Johnson had become president . Taken aback , th e disillusione d dov e walke d wa y fro m Humphrey .

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Greer continued , however , t o believ e tha t Americ a wa s a peace loving society , i n spit e o f it s government , an d campaigne d i n 196 8 for McCarthy. 24 James Anderson , humanitie s instructo r and , i n 1968 , facult y ad visor t o th e MS U Resistance , a grou p o f radical-pacifis t students , rejected th e notio n tha t Americ a sough t t o promot e peac e an d de mocracy aroun d th e world . A membe r o f th e MS U NUC , thi s youn g Quaker propounde d a radica l critiqu e o f America n foreig n polic y and institution s o f highe r education : The Cold War began as a determined effort by the United States to dictate the term s o f self-determinatio n t o th e colonia l nation s a s the y revolte d against their weakened European rulers, as well as to "roll back" or contain a Communist challeng e whic h fo r politica l reason s wa s interprete d t o the American people as a monolithic tide of absolute evil... . The Unite d State s turne d th e Col d Wa r int o a hol y crusad e fo r th e purpose of rationalizing, and so far as possible, concealing its own unabated appetite for empire. American universities , largel y b y thei r ow n choice , committe d thei r intellectual resources to the preservation and extension of American power and domination overseas , an d in doing so made themselves an arm of U.S. military and diplomatic policy, as that policy was conceived and elaborated by a small elite of industrial, military, and financial interests. Despite Anderson' s rejectio n o f Col d War liberalism an d acceptanc e of radical-pacifis t civi l disobedienc e strategies , h e enjoye d th e re spect an d friendshi p o f hi s libera l antiwa r colleagues . Thi s wa s no t true i n th e cas e o f Ber t Garskoff , MS U psychologis t an d a nationa l NUC founder. 25 The spiritua l leade r o f Michiga n State' s Ne w Lef t facult y an d students, Garskof f cam e t o th e universit y i n 1966 . A membe r o f th e University o f Michiga n SDS , Garskof f advise d th e MS U SD S an d i n 1968 ra n fo r Congres s fro m An n Arbo r a s th e Peac e an d Freedo m party (Black Panthers) candidate . Th e assistant professo r o f psychol ogy i n 196 6 denounce d pr o war MS U student s a s hypocrite s fo r no t dropping ou t an d volunteerin g fo r comba t i n Sout h Vietna m an d i n 1968 attende d universit y ROT C course s i n orde r t o demonstrat e that: The ROTC program manipulates the university with its system of grades and course credit to recruit and train future officers. To accomplish its goals ROTC uses classroom s wit h their aura of intellectual authorit y to indoctrinate its cadets. 26

"Those Peopl e Woul d D o the Damndest Things " 5

3

Garskoff alienate d man y fello w Jewis h antiwa r activist s when , a t the 196 7 Chicag o conventio n o f th e Citizen s fo r a Ne w Politic s (CNP), h e endorse d th e Blac k Panthers ' anti-Zionis t resolutio n an d stated tha t white radical s wer e "jus t a little tail o n th e en d o f a very powerful blac k panther. " I n th e fal l o f 1968 , hi s friendshi p wit h Diana Oughton an d Bil l Ayer s le d hi m to ally with the University o f Michigan Weatherme n factio n an d attemp t t o propagat e Thir d Worl d Communism an d Blac k Powe r a t MSU. Afte r Hanna h fired Garskof f in th e winte r o f 1969 , Repa s examine d th e dismissa l o n behal f o f the local ACLU branch. The ACLU was unable to determine whethe r Garskoff ha d bee n ouste d fo r politica l reason s o r becaus e h e an noyed hi s colleague s b y callin g the m "bourgeoi s assholes." 27 Antiwar facult y a t MSU wer e concentrate d i n th e socia l science s and th e libera l arts . O f th e 44 0 facult y signin g a Februar y 196 7 antiwar petition , 6 3 percen t taugh t i n libera l art s and socia l scienc e departments. (One-fourt h o f MSU' s teachin g an d researc h facult y endorsed thi s petition, a higher proportion than was typical a t many private and elite, no t to mention, stat e universities.) Tenure d facult y were jus t a s likel y t o sig n th e petitio n a s untenure d faculty . Focus ing o n th e fifty-five cor e MS U antiwa r academics , severa l salien t features emerge . Ove r 8 5 percen t o f activist s wer e libera l art s an d social scienc e instructor s an d 9 3 percen t wer e Protestan t and , les s frequently, Catholic . Seve n percen t o f th e cor e antiwa r faculty , and 8 percen t o f th e 196 7 petitio n signers , wer e Jewish . Nearl y hal f of th e cor e antiwa r facult y di d no t hav e tenur e an d potentiall y risked thei r continue d employment . Finally , 7 8 percen t ma y b e described a s libera l doves , compare d t o 2 2 percen t wh o identifie d with th e Ne w Left . Nearl y 6 3 percen t o f dove s ha d tenure , a s op posed t o 4 2 percen t o f radicals , indicatin g th e greate r youthful ness o f th e latte r group . Th e prominenc e o f Ne w Lef t facult y i n the antiwa r movemen t i s underscore d b y th e fac t tha t merel y 2 percent o f al l MS U facult y i n 197 0 considere d themselve s t o b e radical. 28 Although Hanna h monitored th e activities o f antiwar faculty, an d occasionally dismisse d thos e who m h e considere d t o b e th e mos t objectionable, h e avoide d dramati c politica l confrontation s wit h hi s thorny academics . H e ma y hav e wishe d fo r Larrow e an d Repa s t o disappear fro m th e fac e o f th e earth , bu t dare d no t fire the former , a World Wa r I I hero, an d th e latter , a man wit h influentia l friend s i n the Unite d Automobil e Worker s (UAW ) union . Publi c opinio n an d

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organized labor , whic h i n Michiga n i s th e cornerston e o f th e Demo cratic party , woul d no t stan d fo r thei r removal . Th e Hungarian Jewish crimina l justic e professo r an d antiwa r stalwart , Zolto n Fer ency, wh o wa s chai r o f th e Michiga n Democrati c party , greatl y enhanced th e abilit y o f facult y dove s t o engag e i n peac e organizin g on an d of f th e campus . Sinc e Ferenc y wa s a Democratic part y leade r and 196 6 gubernatoria l candidate , Hanna h an d hawkis h Democrati c state politician s woul d not , a t leas t openly , cros s sword s wit h him . Faculty dove s als o ha d a s a n all y MS U truste e an d labo r lawye r Do n Stevens. 29 Local clergy , wh o wer e deepl y involve d wit h facult y i n electora l peace campaign s an d educationa l forums—notabl y Lyn n Jondahl o f the Eas t Lansin g Christia n Fait h an d Highe r Educatio n Institute , Keith Poh l o f th e Wesle y Foundation , Warre n Da y o f th e Universit y Methodist Church , an d Truma n Morrisso n o f th e Edgewoo d Unite d Church—gave adde d credibilit y to , an d publi c respec t for , th e MS U antiwar movement . Facult y activist s wer e als o blesse d wit h a vigor ous loca l ACL U branch whic h champione d academi c freedom , chal lenged Hannah' s power , an d worke d t o abolis h ROTC . Further , antiwar facult y foun d a n unexpecte d frien d i n th e libera l Republi can governo r o f Michigan , Georg e Romney . A clos e associat e o f Hannah, Romne y wa s critica l o f th e wa r and , i n 1967 , o n th e verg e of declarin g himsel f a presidential peac e candidate. 30 This nearl y uniqu e combinatio n o f loca l an d stat e politica l fac tors, couple d wit h th e absenc e o f a n organize d pr o war academi c opposition afte r th e 196 6 Rampart s expose , mean t tha t MS U facult y doves ha d significan t community , campus , an d state-wid e suppor t and confronte d relativel y littl e politica l resistance . I t wa s no t ofte n that facult y peac e activist s hel d suc h a stron g positio n o n an d of f the campus .

Pennsylvania Stat e Universit y Fearing th e probabl e demis e o f th e Labou r government , London' s workers i n 192 3 parade d throug h th e cit y t o demonstrat e thei r sup port fo r socialism . Joh n Withall , th e 9-year-ol d so n o f a gas-work s laborer, defiantl y marche d wit h famil y an d neighbors , singin g th e battlecry o f George Lansbury , " a revere d an d devote d spokesma n fo r England's workers" :

'Those Peopl e Woul d D o the Damndest Things" 5

5

Vote, vote, vote for Mr. Lansbury, Punch old Blairy in the eye, If it wasn't for the law, We would break his bleeding jaw, So we won't vote for Blairy anymore! The Labou r part y los t th e genera l electio n t o th e Torie s i n a cam paign famou s fo r it s viciou s Tor y red-baiting . Withall' s famil y im migrated t o Canada. 31 The Ne w World , lackin g Grea t Britain' s rigi d clas s barrier s t o higher education , wa s kin d t o Withall , eve n i f th e Grea t Depressio n of th e 1930 s mean t th e dol e t o hi s family . Securin g a scholarship t o Bishop's University , Withal l receive d a bachelor' s degre e i n 193 5 and becam e a teacher . A socialist-pacifis t conscientiou s objecto r during Worl d Wa r II , h e volunteere d t o serv e a s a firefighte r i n England thoug h h e wa s no t sen t overseas . Afte r th e war , Withal l obtained a doctorate i n education from the University o f Chicago. I n 1964 h e becam e th e hea d o f PSU' s secondar y educatio n depart ment. 32 As a socialist-pacifist, Withal l wa s "utterl y oppose d t o al l wars " and wa s intentl y involve d i n organizin g Pen n State' s Apri l 196 5 Vietnam teach-in . Afterwards , th e administratio n urge d severa l o f the younge r antiwa r academic s "t o behav e mor e respectfull y an d patriotically" i n th e futur e o r els e b e dismissed . Th e majorit y o f WithalPs colleague s i n th e Colleg e o f Educatio n supporte d th e wa r and told hi m tha t his action s wer e disloyal . Politica l scienc e facult y particularly raise d hi s "ir e b y parrottin g th e patrioti c lin e tha t th e government an d the pres s churne d out , despit e thei r alleged knowl edge an d scholarship. " Undeterre d b y facult y sniping , Withal l i n 1966 serve d a s chai r o f th e A d ho c Committe e fo r a Vote fo r Peace , supporting th e unsuccessful congressiona l campaig n o f PSU Wesle y Foundation director , Rev . Alan Cleeton. 33 In respons e t o prowa r facult y charge s o f disloyalty , Withal l de fined i n Octobe r 196 8 hi s conceptio n o f patriotis m an d visio n o f America: At the las t football game , when th e flag was being raised an d the nationa l anthem was being played and sung, I deliberately tried to envision the fine things that the flag and the anthem represent.... I recalled the humanitarianism of Eleanor Roosevelt... an d the world-benefitting effort s o f a Nobel Laureate such as Martin Luther King. I felt proud. However, I sometimes remembe r th e shamefu l thing s thi s countr y an d

56 "Those

People Would Do the Damndest Things "

members of thi s nation have committed. . . . When these loo m large in my mind . .. an d they frequently do these days . .. I feel sorrow and shame. . . . I consistently balk at and refuse to mouth the phrase in the pledge of allegiance "wit h libert y an d justic e fo r all. " I f tha t i s a clai m tha t thi s country doe s presentl y affor d libert y and justice to everyone i n it I cannot accept the claim. If , however, tha t phrase is saying that this nation aspires to afford "liberty and justice" to all I can more readily verbalize it. Given th e educatio n professor' s backgroun d an d outspokenness , i t is not surprising that he disliked, an d frequently clashe d with, Walker , "a small-minded, ,, "arrogant, " an d "immovable " administrator . Throughout th e 1960s , i n th e unlikel y local e o f rura l Pennsylvania , the Englis h socialis t an d hi s Tor y opponen t conteste d th e issue s o f the Vietnam War and university-military research. 34 Warren Smit h an d Marvi n Rozen , professor s o f theatr e art s an d economics, respectively , playe d ke y role s i n organizin g th e 196 5 Vietnam teach-i n and , alon g wit h Withall , le d th e libera l dovis h faculty. A reveren t Quaker , Smit h ha d bee n promotin g peac e issue s at Pen n State , wit h littl e success , sinc e th e lat e 1950s . Uncomfort able wit h Kennedy' s handlin g o f th e Cuban missile crisi s i n Octobe r 1962, bu t hesitan t t o rus h t o judgmen t a s th e Sovie t Unio n ha d precipitated th e confrontation , Smit h an d th e Stat e Colleg e Friend s meeting wer e unabl e t o reac h a consensus o n a n appropriat e publi c stance. Pen n State' s Quaker faculty, th e chief antiwa r activists i n the late 1950 s an d earl y 1960s , ha d n o suc h difficult y i n denouncin g Johnson's Vietna m polic y i n 1965 . Th e Unite d States , the y believe d in thi s instance , wa s clearl y wron g i n bombing a largely defenseles s people wh o wer e unlikel y t o attac k Americ a i n th e nea r o r distan t future.35 An indefatigable proponen t o f peace , civi l rights , and free speech , Rozen serve d a s moderato r o f th e Apri l 196 5 teach-i n an d founde d the diminutiv e faculty-studen t A d ho c Committe e o n Vietnam . Al though a liberal dove , th e economis t advise d th e PSU Socialis t Clu b in 196 5 an d rallie d facult y i n 196 9 t o the defens e o f th e SD S under ground campu s newspaper , th e Wate r Tunnel , whos e editor s ha d been arreste d fo r publishin g pornography . Durin g th e Octobe r 15 , 1969, Vietna m Wa r Moratorium , Roze n convince d ove r on e hundre d faculty t o cance l thei r classe s an d i n th e column s o f th e campu s newspaper, th e Daily Collegian, challenge d th e Nixo n Administra tion's contentio n tha t a n America n militar y withdrawa l fro m Sout h Vietnam woul d undermin e th e Unite d States ' security :

"Those Peopl e Woul d D o the Damndest Things " 5

7

it i s asserte d tha t i f w e d o no t remai n steadfas t i n Vietnam , ou r nationa l security would be endangered because this will embolde n forces hostile to us t o greate r an d mor e seriou s encroachment s o n ou r vital interests . Ou r credibility wil l b e severel y compromised . Th e clickin g fal l o f dominoes , elsewhere a s wel l a s i n Southeas t Asia , i s viewe d a s inescapabl e back ground music . I f th e surviva l o f myt h i s criteri a fo r truth , thi s argumen t must take some sor t of prize . Nothing , however , coul d be further from the actual truth . Fo r on e thing , th e res t o f th e worl d ha s correctl y rea d th e message o f ou r failur e t o accomplis h ou r wil l i n Vietnam , an d th e deat h throes o f ou r polic y only prolong s th e agony . Wha t countr y i n th e worl d now think s tha t th e Unite d State s woul d consciousl y agai n involv e itsel f in large-scal e civi l war s fa r fro m it s shores ? Wh o no w i s no t awar e tha t such conflict s ca n hardl y b e depicte d a s globa l an d monolithi c conspir acies o f internationa l subversio n bu t rather largely reflect loca l condition s and th e exten t t o whic h a n effectiv e an d responsiv e governmen t i s i n power? Who seriously believes that whatever will now happen in Vietnam must lea d b y itself , quickl y an d inevitably , t o grav e setback s elsewhere ? Does anyon e stil l plac e credenc e i n th e argumen t tha t w e figh t i n Saigo n to avoid the necessity o f fighting i n Seattle, in DaNang rather than Denver? For another thing, ou r obsession wit h Vietna m ha s alread y cos t u s dearl y both by straining traditional alliances and diverting our attention and energies fro m othe r part s o f th e worl d whic h ar e o f muc h greate r strategi c significance an d by causing us to neglect serious internal divisions at home. To admi t ou r failur e ca n only tel l th e worl d wha t i t alread y knows ; t o attempt t o sustai n th e illusio n o f accomplishmen t ca n only d o furthe r damage.36 The facult y doves , whil e a n annoyanc e t o Walker , coul d no t b e fired wholesal e sinc e nearl y hal f ha d tenure . Radica l facult y activ ists, o n th e othe r hand , generall y di d no t hav e tenur e and , conse quently, wer e fai r game . O f th e thirt y PS U facult y NU C members i n 1969, al l bu t one , th e sociologis t Davi d Westby , ha d eithe r bee n fired o r ha d fle d t o a mor e politicall y hospitabl e environmen t b y 1973. Th e universit y administratio n single d ou t labo r relation s in structor Well s Keddi e fo r retribution , denyin g hi m salar y raise s o n two occasion s an d i n 197 0 vetoin g hi s bid fo r tenure. 37 Keddie ha d com e t o the universit y i n 196 5 t o teach i n the Depart ment o f Labo r Studies . A nationa l SD S member , th e economis t assisted i n organizin g th e Apri l 196 5 teach-i n a s well a s the A d ho c Committee o n Vietnam . H e als o helpe d t o foun d th e campu s NU C chapter i n 1969 . I n Novembe r 196 5 Keddi e propounde d th e Ne w Left critique o f U.S . foreig n relations :

58 "Those

People Would Do the Damndest Things "

It is possibl e t o regret the loss o f American live s i n any war; when Americans die in support of a dubious regime unrepresentative of either Vietnamese o r American ideals , on e mus t object strongly. Bu t when American s of good conscience not only die, but kill defenseless non-combatants and then, in terms reminiscent of hunters' campfire talk, claim to have bagged instead a quota of Viet Cong, the immorality of our position is a flaming shame. .. . Thos e wh o comfortably—an d safely—urg e th e escalatio n o f th e horrors i n Vietna m an d wh o s o indignantl y accus e thei r opponent s o f cowardice an d treaso n see m t o hav e bu t on e answe r . . . "W e mus t sto p Communist aggression." But jus t ho w i s aggressio n defined ? . .. Ar e peasan t rebellion s . .. "aggression?" B y no w w e ca n find evidenc e o f militar y suppor t flowing southward t o the Viet Cong. But could we in 1955 ? Or even in 1963, when our military experts so confidently predicte d a military solution to the Viet Cong rebellion ? I f not , wha t aggressiv e act s ar e bein g charged , an d b y whom? It is inescapabl e tha t for some i n Americ a "aggression " i s synonymou s with "w e migh t lose. " Time an d agai n i n ou r recent histor y thos e wh o s o define aggressio n hav e ha d thei r way i n the world an d with ou r nation. It would appea r tha t thei r successe s i n th e worl d ar e now numbered . Shal l they have their way with us once more, to our national disgrac e and disaster?38 In various universit y forum s i n 1969 , Keddi e vainl y attempte d t o bring togethe r radica l student s an d member s o f th e Unite d Steel workers o f America . H e informe d th e stee l workers tha t the y wer e wrong "t o like best those student s wh o ar e clean cut and respectful " because suc h youth s hate d th e workin g clas s an d sough t t o kee p them "i n their place." Invariably, th e steelworker s rejecte d Keddie' s call fo r a student-worke r alliance , due , i n n o smal l part , t o SDS' s antagonistic tactic s an d suppor t fo r the Viet Cong. Similarly , dovis h faculty, a s wel l a s a fe w radica l academics , ha d littl e us e fo r SDS . Assistant professo r o f politica l scienc e an d PS U NU C membe r Ji m Petras, who ha d been involved wit h the Berkeley Free Speech Move ment, dismisse d th e campu s SD S chapte r a s "abominabl e an d irrel evant/ ' Petras * criticism s o f SD S i n 196 9 elicite d accusation s o f being a fo e o f th e studen t revolution , an d prompte d a deat h threa t from a PSU Weatherman. 39 Despite contrastin g attitude s amon g th e radica l facult y toward s the campu s Ne w Left , a s wel l a s dovis h facult y distast e fo r SDS , ideological an d tactica l disagreement s withi n th e PS U facult y anti war movement wer e kep t t o a minimum. Confronte d wit h a n antag -

"Those Peopl e Woul d D o the Damndest Things " 5

9

onistic universit y administratio n an d extensiv e politica l surveil lance b y stat e an d nationa l la w enforcemen t agencies , an d claimin g few number s unti l 1969 , antiwa r facult y justifiabl y fel t unde r seige . Even afte r 1969 , whe n mor e facult y cam e ou t publicl y agains t th e Vietnam War , thei r rank s remaine d thin . Th e university' s decisio n to den y tenur e t o Keddi e i n 197 0 di d shoc k 15 9 facult y member s into protestin g thi s politicall y motivate d action . Bu t a breakdown o f these facult y b y departmenta l affiliatio n an d academi c ran k under lined th e limite d basi s o f thi s revolt . On e hundre d an d thirty-seve n of Keddie' s 15 9 facult y supporters , 8 6 percent , taugh t i n libera l art s or social scienc e departments . Fifty-si x percen t di d no t hav e tenure , thus thei r influenc e wit h th e administratio n wa s limited . Further , they wer e subjec t t o dismissa l i f the y insiste d o n continuin g thei r protest.40 An analysi s o f th e forty Pen n Stat e cor e facult y antiwa r activist s underscores th e preponderanc e o f young , untenure d libera l art s and social scienc e instructors . Eighty-fiv e percen t o f th e university' s faculty peac e organizer s taugh t i n libera l art s an d socia l scienc e departments. A littl e mor e tha n 5 7 percen t di d no t hav e tenur e an d 82 percen t wer e Protestan t or , infrequently , Catholic . Althoug h Pen n State's administration frequentl y exhibite d anti-Semiti c attitude s (a s Blau, Lorch , an d Benni s discovered) , seve n o f th e forty cor e activ ists, 1 7 percent , wer e Jewish . Bu t onl y on e th e th e seve n Jewis h faculty activist s ma y b e describe d a s Ne w Left . (Th e university' s peculiar histor y dictate d caution. ) Sevent y percen t o f th e facult y antiwar partisan s wer e libera l doves , wit h nearl y hal f no t havin g tenure. Te n o f th e twelv e cor e radica l faculty , 8 3 percent , als o di d not hav e tenure . Forty-fiv e percen t o f th e antiwa r faculty worke d i n the department s o f mathematics , English , politica l science , an d phi losophy. 41 The majorit y o f Pen n State' s facult y i n the 1960 s an d earl y 1970 s was either politically neutral or prowar. Indeed, a number of faculty , particularly politica l scientists , secretl y recruite d student s int o th e CIA a t leas t a s earl y a s 1955 . A s a nava l weapon s researc h an d development center , an d a member of the IDA, Penn Stat e had a few hundred facult y directl y dependen t upo n th e Col d Wa r arm s rac e and the Vietnam War for career advancement. I n addition, a number of PS U facult y i n engineering , management , an d socia l scienc e sup plemented thei r salarie s b y workin g fo r variou s university-militar y spin-off companie s i n the State College area. HRB Singer, Inc., founde d

60 'Thos

e Peopl e Woul d D o the Damndest Things "

in 194 6 b y thre e PS U staf f member s an d purchase d b y Singe r i n 1958, employe d facult y consultant s i n analyzin g weapon s system s and developin g wa r scenarios. Wit h 80 percen t o f al l research fund s to th e Engineerin g Colleg e comin g fro m th e Do D i n th e 1960s , i t i s understandable tha t engineer s woul d b e particularl y hostil e t o anti war academics , students , an d campu s clergy' s effort s t o seve r Pen n State's tie s t o th e defens e establishment . Sometime s thi s hostilit y found peculia r expression . Durin g th e Ma y 197 0 antiwa r strike , Nunzio Palladino , a nuclear enginee r an d develope r o f th e Nautilu s Submarine reacto r series, traded blows wit h an antiwar student wh o had entere d hi s classroo m t o distribut e leaflets . A conservative , Palladino late r became chai r o f th e Nuclea r Regulator y Commissio n in the administration o f President Ronal d Reagan. 42 Dean o f th e Colleg e o f Engineerin g i n 1969 , Palladin o elicite d th e support o f th e PS U Youn g American s fo r Freedom i n criticizin g th e peace movement . Anticipatin g th e Novembe r 15,196 9 Mobilizatio n march o n Washington , h e vigorousl y defende d U.S . militar y inter vention i n Vietnam : We wen t int o Vietna m t o hel p a people defen d themselve s followin g th e massacre o f hundred s o f thousand s o f Sout h Vietnames e afte r th e with drawal o f th e French . Thoug h w e ma y questio n th e wisdom o f gettin g involved an d the effectiveness o f our methods, w e took the actio n in good faith. Our withdrawal no w without a peace settlement would se t the stage for North Vietnam to overrun South Vietnam and could lead to another horrendous bloodletting. It would also encourage other aggressive nations to overpower their weaker neighbors. 43 Prowar engineerin g facult y receive d th e unanimou s suppor t o f colleagues i n th e department s o r colleges o f agriculture , biophysics , business, an d forestry . Whil e a vocal group , the y wer e no t note d fo r the subtlet y an d sophisticatio n o f thei r arguments . Consequently , the anti-Communis t facult y force s benefite d greatl y fro m th e effort s of eloquent , hawkis h libera l art s and socia l scienc e instructors . Th e political scientist s Henr y Albinsk i an d Verno n Aspaturian , an d th e rhetorician Rober t Oliver , delivere d ove r th e campu s radi o i n No vember 196 5 a seemingly convincin g defens e o f America' s Vietna m policy. Notin g tha t a n America n militar y withdrawa l fro m Vietna m would lea d t o a Communis t takeove r "an d incit e Re d Chin a t o a great powe r drive, " Olive r argue d fo r a n escalatio n o f th e war . Increased militar y pressur e o n th e Vie t Cong , h e assure d th e cam -

"Those People Woul d Do the Damndest Things " 6 1 pus, woul d resul t i n a n America n victor y withi n a year . Albinsk i also supporte d escalatin g th e wa r i n orde r t o contai n Communis t Chinese expansion . Mor e cautious , Aspaturia n advocate d a negoti ated settlement , rathe r than escalation, bu t recognized tha t the latte r option migh t b e necessary t o preven t Chines e dominatio n o f South east Asia . Olive r an d Albinsk i ha d clos e tie s t o th e defens e estab lishment. Th e former serve d for eighteen years as a personal adviso r to the right-win g Sout h Korea n dictato r Syngma n Rhee, an d i n 196 9 the latter worked a s an IDA consultant. 44 Anti-Communist ideolog y an d a veste d interes t i n university military research projects ensure d tha t the great proportion o f PSU' s faculty supporte d th e Vietna m War . I n spit e o f this , facult y an d student oppositio n t o th e Vietna m conflic t an d militar y research , while initiall y smal l an d ineffective , mounte d ove r the cours e o f th e 1960s and exerted enormou s mora l pressure o n anti-Communist an d defense research-oriente d faculty . B y 1969 , agricultura l an d engi neering facult y increasingl y cam e t o defen d university-militar y re search project s i n term s o f thei r applicabilit y t o th e civilia n sector . Hence Rober t Shipman , associat e professo r o f fores t ecology , em phasized t o the campu s i n October 196 9 that his herbicide research , underwritten b y th e Arm y Biologica l Cente r a t Ft . Dietrich , Mary land, coul d b e use d t o ai d America n agricultur e an d no t jus t t o defoliate Vietnam' s jungles . Thi s represente d a n importan t chang e in th e teno r o f academi c rationalization s o n behal f o f university military research . Fo r example , i n Ma y 1966 , Willia m Gotolski , a civil engineer , announce d t o th e campu s tha t hi s researc h o n high way stabilizatio n enable d th e militar y t o develo p Ca m Ran h Ba y a s a principa l suppl y depo t i n Sout h Vietnam . Afte r 1966 , fe w facult y publicly proclaime d tha t thei r researc h wa s helpin g t o wi n th e war. 45 The larg e prowa r facult y constituency , universit y politica l sur veillance an d repression , an d th e conservative , rura l environmen t which envelope d th e university , mean t tha t th e academi c peac e movement woul d remai n small . Unabl e t o find man y faculty , com munity resident , an d legislativ e allies , antiwa r academics inevitabl y turned t o thei r students . Pen n Stat e facult y activist s wh o trans gressed agains t th e administratio n b y identifyin g to o completel y with studen t antiwa r group s usuall y los t thei r jobs . An d th e Stat e College branch of the ACLU and the PSU AAUP, both of which wer e supposed t o protec t academi c freedom , faile d miserabl y i n th e fac e

62 "Those

People Woul d Do the Damndest Things "

of administratio n hostility . Thus , th e facult y antiwa r movemen t a t PSU wa s entirel y campus-base d an d isolated . The Stat e Universit y o f Ne w Yor k a t Buffal o In Septembe r 1948 , Newto n Garver , a Quake r philosoph y student , sent a lette r t o Presiden t Truma n informin g hi m that , a s a "carefull y considered an d consciou s ac t o f civi l disobedience, " h e ha d faile d to registe r fo r th e draf t a s require d b y th e 194 8 Selectiv e Servic e Act. Tw o month s later , a federa l judg e sentence d th e Quake r t o a year i n th e Danbury , Connecticut , Federa l Correctiona l Institute . Having serve d a jail sentenc e fo r hi s religiou s principles , Garve r wa s not abou t t o compromis e himsel f morall y i n 196 4 b y signin g th e Feinberg Loyalt y Oath . Threatene d wit h dismissa l fro m SUNY-Buf falo, h e informe d hi s superior s tha t I consider . . . th e Feinber g Law, and othe r simila r law s to be both blasphe mous and inimical to free society. They attempt to define or limit what sorts of action s o r position s ca n b e take n a s a matte r o f loyalty , integrit y an d conscience. Loyalty, integrity and conscience have to do with the quality of a man' s heart , an d fo r the m a ma n i s answerabl e t o Go d alone : i n th e metaphor o f Mark , coi n an d currenc y ar e Caesar's , bu t integrit y an d con science ar e God's. In attempting t o define i n politica l term s something tha t is essentially divine , these laws attempt t o usurp what is God's in the name of Caesar , whic h i s blasphemy . Furthermore , ma n must , a s Willia m Pen n said, consen t t o be ruled b y God o r he wil l soon find himsel f governe d b y tyranny. Step s whic h propos e t o circumscribe conscience , a s d o these loy alty laws , woul d se t bound s upo n th e rul e o f God , whic h i s throug h th e Inner Ligh t o f conscience ; an d henc e the y ar e als o a first-step towar d tyr anny.46 A libera l dov e an d supporte r o f McCarth y i n 1968 , Garve r op posed on-campu s recruitin g b y th e CI A an d Dow . However , h e fel t repulsed b y SDS' s increasingl y violen t confrontation s wit h th e ad ministration an d act s o f vandalis m directe d agains t th e campu s Themis constructio n site . Disguste d wit h th e Ne w Left , Garve r move d to th e right . Th e politica l excesse s o f th e Ne w Lef t convince d th e philosophy professor , a s wel l a s othe r libera l faculty , o f th e exis tence o f left-win g McCarthyism . Garve r an d hi s dovis h colleague s did no t realiz e tha t a SD S leade r wh o urge d violen t confrontation s with th e administratio n an d ridicule d dovis h facult y wa s a n under cover FB I agent . Thus , th e federa l governmen t manipulate d Garver ,

'Those Peopl e Woul d Do th e Damndest Things " 6

3

who ha d devote d hi s lif e t o opposin g wha t h e perceive d t o b e sacreligious stat e infringement s upo n civi l liberties , int o supportin g political repression. 47 While facult y suc h a s Garve r drifte d t o th e righ t i n respons e t o New Lef t studen t violence , othe r academics , notabl y Lesli e Fiedler , moved t o th e left . A membe r o f th e Trotskyis t Youn g People' s So cialist League in the 1930s , Fiedler served in World War II as a naval intelligence officer . Perceivin g Stalinis m a s a n evi l nearl y a s men acing a s Hitlerism , th e literar y criti c supporte d th e supressio n o f Communism a t hom e an d abroad . I n spit e o f hi s vehemen t anti Communism, Fiedle r harbore d a traditiona l Jewis h "outsider " re sentment toward s affluen t WASP s wh o lacke d a sens e o f socia l responsibility. Hire d t o teac h i n th e SUNY-Buffal o Englis h depart ment i n 1964 , Fiedle r describe d th e city a s a disaster area without havin g had a disaster.... No t war or fire, plague or earthquake has afflicted it , only history: the history of a WASP ruling class that abdicated control, no longer willing to pay the price of proximity to the mills tha t produce d it s wealt h an d th e syste m o f court s an d cop s tha t protected it. Retired to the suburbs and beyond . . . maintaining that happy combination of anti-Semitism and anglophilia which indicates the lifestyl e it despises and the one to which it aspires .. , 48 Fiedler began to chafe agains t Col d Wa r political conformit y afte r four Englis h instructor s wer e fired i n 196 4 fo r refusin g t o sig n th e Feinberg Loyalt y Oath . H e als o questione d whethe r th e mandator y Independence Da y partie s fo r junio r faculty , give n b y "som e ex treme patrio t departmen t chairs, " instille d a health y lov e an d re spect fo r democracy . Increasingl y enamore d o f th e counterculture , the English professo r i n 196 7 becam e th e faculty adviso r to Legaliz e Marijuana (LEMAR) . Gradually, Fiedle r realized tha t his associatio n with LEMA R had mad e hi m a subject o f polic e surveillance : What i s remarkabl e i s t o liv e unde r "surveillance, " a situation i n whic h privacy cease s t o exis t an d an y respec t fo r th e perso n an d hi s privilege s yields t o a desire t o "ge t rid of" someone wit h dangerou s ideas . Slowly , I became awar e o f th e fact tha t my phone kep t fading i n and out because i t was probably being tapped; that those cars turning around in nearby driveways o r parke d strategicall y s o tha t thei r occupant s coul d pee r i n m y windows, thoug h unmarked , belonge d t o the police ; that th e "brea d van" haunting ou r neighborhood containe d cops ; and that at least on e "friend " of my children was a spy.

64 "Those

People Would Do the Damndest Things "

The spy , a young femal e dru g addict who m th e famil y ha d take n i n out o f kindness , plante d drug s i n th e professor' s hom e durin g th e Passover seder . A t he r signal , polic e officer s raide d th e hous e an d arrested Fiedler . Afte r a lengthy lega l battle , i n th e cours e o f whic h he los t hi s credi t ratin g an d th e suppor t o f man y fair-weathe r friends , with th e significan t exceptio n o f Presiden t Meyerson , th e Englis h professor becam e a n arden t supporte r i n 1969-197 0 o f Ne w Lef t faculty activism . H e als o emerge d a s a n outspoke n criti c o f govern ment attack s o n civi l liberties. 49 It shoul d b e emphasize d tha t Fiedle r an d Garve r were no t ke y antiwar facult y a t SUNY-Buffalo . The y ar e importan t becaus e thei r disparate attitude s toward s Ne w Lef t studen t an d facult y activist s mirrored thos e o f man y confuse d liberal-dovis h academics . Op posed t o the war, but respectful o f the concept o f academic objectiv ity an d neutrality , an d uneas y wit h Ne w Lef t ideology , som e o f SUNY-Buffalo's libera l facult y dove s experience d a paralysis o f wil l which prevente d the m fro m becomin g to o politicall y active . Othe r doves, confrontin g communit y hostilit y an d escalatin g polic e vio lence, wer e radicalized . Consequently , amon g th e forty-eigh t cor e SUNY-Buffalo antiwa r faculty , liberal s comprise d a minority , 2 5 percent, a s oppose d t o th e 7 5 percen t wh o mad e commo n caus e with th e Ne w Left . Radica l facult y wer e younge r tha n thei r dovis h counterparts give n tha t 7 5 percen t o f th e former di d no t hav e tenur e compared t o the 8 3 percen t o f the latter who hel d th e academic ran k of associat e o r ful l professor . Th e yout h o f th e radica l antiwa r fac ulty i s underscore d b y th e fac t tha t fourteen , 3 9 percent , wer e doc toral candidate s wit h th e ran k o f instructo r o r assistan t professor . Overall, 9 0 percen t taugh t i n libera l art s an d socia l scienc e depart ments, wit h English , philosophy , an d sociolog y instructor s predom inating. Nearl y 2 1 percen t wer e Jewish. Th e high proportio n o f Jew s is no t surprisin g sinc e ther e wer e simpl y a larg e numbe r o f Jewis h faculty a t SUNY-Buffalo . I n th e 1950 s an d earl y 1960s , Jewis h aca demics obtaine d employmen t mor e readil y a t Buffal o tha n at , fo r example, Purdu e an d Pen n State , whic h discourage d th e hirin g o f Jews. 50 The elde r statesma n o f th e radica l facult y wa s th e well-know n biophysicist Fre d Snell . Bor n i n Chin a o f medica l missionar y par ents, Snel l graduate d fro m th e Harvar d Medica l Schoo l and , fro m 1946 t o 1948 , serve d i n th e navy . Statione d i n Japan , h e wa s as signed t o th e Atomi c Bom b Casualt y Commission , researchin g an d

'Those Peopl e Woul d Do the Damndest Things'' 6

5

treating survivor s o f Hiroshim a an d Nagasaki . Imbue d wit h th e evangelical Protestantis m o f hi s parents , an d sickene d b y hi s gri m work i n Japan , Snel l wa s uncomfortabl e wit h America' s confronta tional Col d Wa r foreign policy . I n 195 9 Furna s recruited Snel l fro m Harvard, offerin g hi m th e opportunit y t o establis h a ne w Depart ment o f Biophysics. 51 Taken wit h th e brillian t an d personabl e biophysicist , Meyerso n convinced Snel l t o becom e Graduat e Schoo l dea n i n 1967 , a posi tion fro m whic h h e resigne d a year later , frustrate d wit h conserva tive Medica l Schoo l facult y wh o oppose d academi c reform . H e re mained a s maste r o f Colleg e A , a storefron t colleg e i n whic h man y SDSers wer e enrolled . Hi s relationshi p wit h Medica l Schoo l col leagues rapidl y deteriorate d a s h e allie d wit h SD S agains t Themis . Almost al l o f SnelF s fello w biophysicist s afte r 196 7 refuse d t o tal k to him , o r eve n recogniz e hi s presence . Man y facult y als o wrot e critical letter s t o administrator s complainin g abou t Snell' s activ ism. 52 Despite SnelP s associatio n wit h Ne w Lef t student s an d faculty , by 196 8 h e ha d no t abandone d fait h i n electora l politics , servin g a s chair of the Democratic (McCarthy ) Coalition for Western New York . He quickl y becam e disguste d wit h th e politica l syste m followin g McCarthy's rou t an d th e bulle t h e receive d i n th e mai l fro m th e Buffalo Polic e Departmen t wit h a note attache d "indicatin g tha t th e next on e woul d com e fro m th e barre l o f a pistol.' ' Snel l helpe d t o found th e Radica l Facult y Caucu s i n 196 9 whic h endorse d th e U.S . military withdrawa l fro m Sout h Vietnam , th e abolitio n o f ROTC , and th e terminatio n o f al l university-militar y researc h projects . Whe n acting presiden t Rega n summone d th e Buffal o polic e t o occup y th e campus i n Marc h 1970 , Snel l an d forty-fou r facult y occupie d th e university president' s offic e an d were arrested. 53 The divisio n withi n the SUNY-Buffal o academi c communit y ove r Themis i n 1967-197 0 canno t b e differentiate d fro m facult y protes t against th e Vietna m Wa r and conservativ e oppositio n t o th e Meyer son regime . I n 1967 , philosoph y professo r an d Democrati c haw k Marvin Zimmerma n accuse d Meyerso n o f succumbin g to o readil y to leftist studen t an d facult y demands . I n March 1969 , facult y i n th e schools o r departments o f dentistry , pathology , an d pharmacy unan imously passed , pro-Themi s an d anti-studen t protes t resolutions . These faculty , joine d b y th e grea t majorit y o f engineering , medical , physiology an d politica l scienc e instructors , a s wel l a s b y a fe w

66 "Those

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philosophy teachers , als o endorse d America n militar y polic y i n Indochina an d resisted Meyerson' s academi c reforms . Rober t Mates , chair of the Department o f Mechanical Engineering , wh o ha d argue d in 196 4 tha t subversiv e professor s a t the universit y shoul d b e fired, informed Meyerso n i n 196 9 tha t Do D researc h suppor t wa s vita l t o his departmen t an d demande d th e suppressio n o f anti-Themi s pro test. 54 Not unexpectedly , facult y wh o supporte d th e Vietna m Wa r an d university-military researc h tende d t o hav e bee n th e recipient s o f grants from federal Col d War agencies. Projec t Themis directo r Leo n Fahri stoutl y defende d university-militar y researc h whil e denounc ing Communis t conspirator s a t home an d abroad . Saxo n Graha m o f the sociolog y departmen t worke d i n 197 1 o n a n AI D projec t i n Afghanistan unde r allege d CI A auspice s an d vigorousl y defende d ROTC an d characterize d th e storefron t college s a s hotbed s o f Com munism. 55 The politica l polarizatio n o f th e faculty , an d th e subsequen t alienation o f th e Buffal o community , bega n i n 196 4 a s SUN Y chan cellor Samue l Goul d fired academic s wh o refuse d t o sig n th e Fein berg Loyalt y Oat h an d HUA C opene d it s investigatio n o f Commu nism i n Western Ne w York . Johnson's orde r to bomb North Vietna m in Februar y 196 5 formalize d th e spli t betwee n anti-Communis t an d left-liberal faculty . Sociolog y professor s E d Powel l an d Si d Wil lhelm, an d sociolog y graduat e studen t Ric k Salter , seein g a n adver tisement i n th e Natio n concernin g a n antiwa r demonstratio n planne d for Apri l i n Washington , bega n organizin g a campu s peac e move ment. Sinc e th e Washingto n marc h wa s bein g sponsore d b y SDS , a group the n unknow n t o th e sociologists , i n Februar y Powell , Will helm, an d Salte r decide d t o cal l thei r campu s grou p SUNY-Buffal o SDS. 56 A nativ e Texan , Willhel m ha d imbibe d hi s region' s histori c pop ulism an d suspicio n o f centralize d authority . Hi s populisti c anti authoritarian view s wer e reinforce d b y hi s readin g o f C . Wrigh t Mills' critiqu e o f powe r elites . Afte r teachin g a t San Francisc o Stat e College (University) , wher e h e becam e involve d o n a limite d basi s with a grou p o f pacifists , Willhel m arrive d i n Buffal o i n 1962 . E d Powell, lik e Willhel m a Texas populis t an d discipl e o f Mills , cam e to the Universit y o f Buffal o i n 195 8 followin g a year of postdoctora l work a t the Londo n Schoo l o f Economics . Whil e i n London , Powel l was attracte d t o th e anarchist-pacifist s i n th e Campaig n fo r Nuclea r

"Those People Woul d Do the Damndes t Things " 6

7

Disarmament (CND) . I n 1960 , Powel l an d twent y othe r facult y an d community resident s hel d a SAN E (Committe e fo r a SAN E Nuclea r Policy) peac e marc h i n Buffalo . A yea r later Powell becam e chai r of the universit y SAN E chapte r an d attempted , unsuccessfully , t o ge t older sociolog y colleague s involve d i n peac e issues . Althoug h b y 1966 committe d t o th e Ne w Left , Powel l an d Willhel m respecte d and sympathize d wit h Meyerson , a n attitude no t share d b y younge r radical facult y wh o viewe d hi m a s an opportunistic liberal. 57 In Apri l 1965 , Powel l an d Willhel m criticize d th e wa r o n mora l and patriotic grounds : The resort to violence i s no t a show o f strengt h but a demonstration of weakness. The effort to impose our will on Vietnam by force is a confession of the failure of our foreign policy and an indictment of the amoral cynicism of the American government. Every day the war continues the stature of the United States diminishes. Therefore, in the name of reason, conscience and patriotism we must demand an immediate end to the war in Vietnam. Over th e nex t fou r years , a s th e wa r escalated , an d blood y confron tations betwee n studen t peac e activist s an d th e polic e intensified , both sociologist s becam e les s assure d tha t Americ a wa s a moral , democratic, an d jus t nation . The y di d not , however , forsak e thei r belief tha t reason , an d no t violence , coul d brin g abou t a t leas t indi vidual, i f not societal, reformation. 58 Younger radica l faculty , whos e participatio n i n th e civi l right s movement ha d convince d the m o f th e merit s o f confrontationa l tactics, wer e take n wit h th e concep t o f morall y jus t violence . I n their minds, committin g a n unlawful, violen t ac t in orde r to create a lawful, nonviolen t societ y mad e perfec t sense . Charli e Haynie , co founder o f a storefront college , an d forme r civi l right s worker in th e South, expresse d th e mora l imperativ e t o commi t violence . Defend ing student s wh o sacke d th e campu s ROT C offices i n Octobe r 1969 , Haynie emphasize d th e historica l mora l forc e behin d righteou s vio lence: From th e Buffal o Evenin g News, Thursday , Octobe r 16 : "Th e raider s smashed th e window s an d brok e door s t o ente r th e ROT C offices. The y ransacked th e offices , brok e a trophy displa y case , smeare d re d pain t o n desks an d overturne d furnitur e an d duplicatin g machines... . File s wer e carried outside, stacked together and burned…. " I quote from Matthew, 21:12:"And Jesus entered the temple of God and drove ou t al l wh o sol d an d bough t i n th e temple , an d h e overturne d th e

68 ' T h o s

e Peopl e Woul d Do the Damndest Things "

tables o f th e moneychanger s an d th e seat s o f thos e wh o sol d pigeons . H e said t o them, 'I t is written, M y house shal l be called a house o f prayer ; but you make it a den of robbers.' " Right on, Jesus! 59 Evangelical Protestan t fervor , mixe d wit h th e Judai c traditio n o f sustained resistanc e t o oppression , mad e fo r a n energeti c an d pas sionate radica l facult y movemen t a t SUNY-Buffalo . I t wa s a move ment whos e ideolog y wa s mor e humanisti c tha n Marxist . Bu t t o th e police, th e Commo n Council , communit y residents , an d th e Eri e County gran d jury , whic h launche d a n investigatio n i n 197 0 int o the storefron t college s an d thei r faculty , thes e radical s wer e Com munist subversives. 60 The reason s behin d communit y hostilit y toward s radica l facult y are no t difficul t t o fathom . Buffal o wa s largel y populate d b y blue collar Souther n an d Eas t Europea n Catholic s wh o ha d relative s trapped behin d th e Iro n Curtai n an d childre n servin g i n Vietnam . To them , th e middle-clas s Protestan t an d Jewis h radica l facult y were unpatrioti c outsider s an d embodied , Michae l Frisc h re counted, " a betraya l o f th e community' s sens e o f wha t a 'professor * should be. " Academics , Buffalo' s resident s believed , shoul d b e lik e former presiden t Furnas , a scholar-athlet e wh o delivere d pleasan t homilies o n democrac y a t civi c functions. A universit y teache r shoul d not b e a shaggy nonconformis t intellectua l wh o consume s drug s an d mans th e barricades. 61 Contrasting religiou s an d ethnocultura l value s an d clas s origin s combined t o creat e a n enormous , unbridgeabl e socia l gul f betwee n the cit y an d th e university . Thi s gul f widene d throughou t th e 1960 s in par t becaus e radica l facult y activist s increasingl y explore d var ious way s o f definin g thei r life-style s whic h wer e unconventiona l by communit y standards . Thi s encompasse d communa l living , grou p sex, LS D experimentations , an d advocac y o f blac k an d ga y power . Mutual hostilit y an d conflictin g value s betwee n th e universit y an d community mean t tha t th e radical , a s well a s liberal-dovish , antiwa r faculty ultimatel y exercise d negligibl e influenc e of f th e campus. 6 2 Kent Stat e Universit y Economic upheaval , menacin g Germa n fascism , an d th e promis e o f paradise o n earth , courtes y o f Stali n an d Roosevelt , energize d Ne w York City' s Left . Communis m wa s Americanism , proclaime d Popu -

"Those Peopl e Woul d D o the Damndest Things " 6

9

lar Front supporters, a s Washington an d Lincoln joined th e Marxist Leninist pantheon . Concerne d wit h advancin g th e caus e o f socia l justice, an d reactin g t o anti-Semitis m a t hom e an d abroad , larg e numbers o f Jew s joine d th e Communis t part y i n th e 1930s . On e Jewish Columbia Universit y student , Sidne y Jackson, found hi s home , his wife , an d hi s friends , Herber t Aptheke r an d Phi l Foner , amon g others, i n th e Communis t party . Afte r th e Japanes e attac k o n Pear l Harbor, Jackso n enliste d i n th e arme d forces . Unfortunatel y fo r th e historian, wit h th e onse t o f th e Col d Wa r hi s militar y servic e mat tered littl e sinc e th e federa l governmen t considere d hi s politica l loyalties t o b e suspect . FB I harassmen t an d th e academi c blacklis t meant tha t h e coul d no t obtai n a hig h schoo l o r colleg e teachin g position. 63 Jackson remaine d largel y politicall y inactiv e i n th e 1940 s an d 1950s s o tha t th e FB I had graduall y los t interes t i n him . Whe n Ken t State decide d t o expan d it s librar y scienc e progra m i n 1959 , an d desperately neede d qualifie d faculty , i t offere d Jackso n a positio n with th e university . Apparently , th e Ken t Stat e administratio n wa s not awar e o f hi s pas t radicalism . Jackso n remaine d a dedicated , relatively apolitica l academi c unti l h e receive d tenur e i n 1964 . Th e mild-mannered radica l professo r did , however , kee p u p a one-side d correspondence wit h Presiden t Kennedy : I learn from the press that American military personnel are now serving in combat-support capacitie s i n Sout h Vietnam and may even be involve d in some operations further north. According to the press they are authorized to fire if fired upon. I assume tha t i f foreig n national s appeare d i n th e Unite d State s som e Americans, recognizin g militar y accoutrements , migh t fire o n them , an d they migh t fire back . I se e n o reaso n no t t o expec t th e sam e thin g i n Southeast Asia or anywhere else. If th e America n publi c ha s ha d a chanc e t o discus s an d vot e o n thi s matter I have not heard about it. Please d o no t imagin e tha t anothe r evasio n o f plai n realities , lik e Tru man's "polic e action " an d by-passin g o f congressiona l voting , wil l b e ac ceptable. Your action s threate n m y lif e an d m y family . I reflect o n Henr y Davi d Thoreau and the Massachusetts poll tax. I shall act similarly if pushed to it by your present policies. I reject the idea that a holocaust is worth risking, in the name of "saving" Vietnam; the Vietnamese hav e a right to organize their life a s they please ; just as we do. 64

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e Peopl e Woul d Do the Damndest Things "

After he received tenure , Jackson organized boycotts o f segregate d swimming pool s i n Kent, coordinated civi l right s protests, an d worke d closely with the Kent Committee to End the War in Vietnam (KCEWV). His tw o children , wh o attende d Ken t Stat e i n th e 1960s , receive d a great dea l o f abus e fro m conservativ e faculty , wit h on e histor y pro fessor takin g pain s t o infor m hi s clas s tha t ther e wer e "Stalinist s i n our midst/' A s a Marxist an d a Jew, the librar y professor cooperate d with Kent' s othe r outsiders—blacks , Catholics , an d Quakers—wh o did no t fit th e town' s Protestan t Republica n mold . Hi s fait h i n th e democratic electora l proces s earne d hi m th e scor n o f th e KS U SD S in 196 9 whic h considere d hi s politic s an d religiou s fait h t o b e counterrevolutionary. Ken t Stat e SDSer s wer e als o annoye d wit h Jackson fo r acceptin g th e Liqui d Crystal s Institut e director' s wor d that ther e wa s n o militar y researc h bein g performe d a t th e univer sity. Jackson' s belie f tha t on e academi c woul d no t li e t o anothe r academic seeme d incredibl y naiv e t o the studen t radicals. 65 Jackson wa s almos t alon e a t Ken t Stat e i n th e earl y 1960 s i n laboring fo r peac e an d civi l rights . Nearl y al l o f Ken t State' s facult y in th e 1960 s foreswor e thei r role a s mediators betwee n student s an d the administration , an d viewe d campu s protes t an d th e Vietna m War a s unwelcom e disruption s o f thei r routines . Th e university' s professoriat regarde d wit h indifferenc e th e twenty-thre e activis t cor e faculty wh o defende d academi c freedo m an d oppose d th e Vietna m War. Thi s bega n t o chang e b y 196 7 a s th e socia l scienc e an d libera l arts department s expande d an d hire d more , an d better-qualified , faculty. An d th e Ohi o Nationa l Guar d slaying s i n Ma y 197 0 jolte d the academi c communit y ou t o f it s lethargy . Muc h o f thi s new found activism , however , wa s no t concerned wit h American foreig n policy i n Indochina . Rather, i t centere d aroun d savin g Presiden t White's professiona l reputatio n an d emphasizin g t o th e large r pub lic tha t Ken t Stat e wa s no t a n activist universit y an d tha t the shoot ings wer e a tragic aberratio n o n a campus whic h respecte d peacefu l dissent. Th e facult y als o vainl y trie d t o preven t th e slaying s fro m becoming politicized. 66 On the whole, Ken t State faculty wer e simpl y no t concerned wit h the issue s o f th e Vietna m Wa r an d socia l justice . Th e escalatio n o f the war in March 1965 initiall y excite d littl e interest among academ ics. Tw o year s passe d befor e a handfu l o f politica l scienc e an d English instructor s bega n t o wor k closel y wit h th e studen t peac e group, th e KCEWV , whic h ha d bee n i n existenc e sinc e Novembe r

"Those People Would Do the Damndest Things'' 7

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1964. I n Marc h 1967 , Bo b Ehrlich , a n Englis h instructo r a s wel l a s KCEWV member , convince d twenty-si x o f hi s colleagues , a larg e number o f the m graduat e students , t o sig n a n antiwa r petition . Th e English instructor , wit h th e assistanc e o f Englis h professo r Willia m Hildebrand, als o collecte d thirty-fiv e facult y signature s i n Apri l 196 7 for a n antiwa r Ope n Lette r to President Johnso n whic h appeare d i n the Clevelan d Plai n Dealer . Academic s endorsin g th e Ope n Lette r were, with two exceptions , libera l art s and socia l scienc e instructor s and represented 4 percent o f the university's faculty . Late r that year, eleven political scienc e faculty, largel y graduate students, addresse d a separate antiwa r letter to Johnson. 67 In October 1967 , twelv e KS U professors, an d two clerg y affiliate d with th e university' s religiou s counselor' s office , establishe d th e Faculty A d ho c Committe e fo r De-escalatio n o f th e Wa r in Vietna m and participate d i n th e KCEWV' s Novembe r teach-in . Th e A d ho c Committee's positio n o n th e wa r represente d th e liberal-dovis h poin t of view . Pete r Crossland , politica l scientis t an d Facult y A d ho c Committee co-chair , expresse d th e group' s concern s wit h a n admo nition that the Vietnam Wa r demanded heightene d protes t because : 1) ther e i s a grav e ris k o f a "world " war ; 2 ) th e strain s o f th e presen t situation against detente and world peace are considerable; 3) U.S. involvement in Vietnam is increasingly damagin g our relations with allies as well as Communist and neutralist countries; 4) efforts toward solution of domestic problems have been put aside or greatly curtailed; 5) the present military effort involve s grea t cost for which no return is forseeable; 6 ) U.S. militar y operations violate U.S. moral and political standards of democracy and selfdetermination; 7 ) this situation is extraordinary because all, not just one or two of the items listed 1 through 6, characterize the present situation. 68 By Apri l 1968 , th e smal l radica l factio n withi n th e Facult y A d hoc Committe e ha d move d fro m plea s fo r de-escalatio n t o call s fo r nonviolent resistance . Ke n Calkins , historia n an d co-chai r o f th e Faculty A d ho c Committee , urge d th e campu s t o suppor t th e draf t resistance movemen t an d warned o f the dangers of a passive society : Why didn't the Germans resist the terrors of Nazism more effectively? There is no simple answer. But certainly one of the most fundamental reason s for the success of Nazism in Germany or totalitarianism anywhere is the widespread reluctance of well-meaning peopl e to . .. "stan d up and be counted

. . ."

Now w e ar e . . . calle d upo n . . . t o declar e ou r solidarity with thos e of

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our colleagues an d friends wh o have been placed i n jeopardy by an unjust war. Central t o Calkins ' appea l fo r resistanc e wa s a deep commitmen t t o pacifism, a philosoph y whos e effectivenes s th e mor e radica l mem bers of the KCEWV questioned. Althoug h facult y adviso r to the Lake Forest Colleg e SD S i n 1966 , Calkin s fel t "increasingl y alienate d b y the bombasti c an d naiv e rhetori c o f th e SD S a s wel l a s b y som e o f the organization' s tactics. " Whe n SD S supersede d th e KCEW V i n 1968, h e sa w himsel f a s incapable o f influencin g th e radical studen t movement. 69 A fe w facult y sough t t o wor k wit h th e KS U SD S i n th e fal l o f 1968 an d i n 196 9 founde d a NUC chapte r whic h the y hope d woul d facilitate radica l academic an d studen t cooperation. I n October 196 8 campus NU C organize r To m Lough , a sociolog y professo r an d for mer employe e o f th e Arm s Contro l an d Disarmamen t Agency , lam basted YA F leade r an d Dail y Ken t State r reporte r Steve n Shotsber ger's coverage o f th e SDS' s Fre e University : Shotsberger sees , an d th e Kent Stater headlined , "ulterio r motives " behind th e Free University an d its course offerings. Actuall y the motives are quite obviou s t o anyon e wh o prefer s directnes s t o conspiracy : SD S members decided it would be good to have a Free University at Kent, decided on a set of 13 topics, and did the work to get it going. Judging from the turnout and the liveliness o f the discussions th e choices o f topics were good ones. And from all appearances it is a success. Shotsberger seem s disturbe d tha t "poverty , th e war , studen t an d civi l rights . . . ar e prim e element s i n SDS' s openin g gambit s t o gai n wide r support . . . " Thi s is also true of the major political partie s in this country. Does he see something wrong with this? Lough's involvemen t wit h SD S an d th e NU C brough t hi m t o th e attention o f th e Ken t Polic e Department . Afte r th e Ma y 197 0 shoot ings, th e Portag e Count y gran d jur y indicte d hi m fo r conspirac y t o commit riot . Radica l intellectua l dissen t wa s no t t o b e tolerate d a t the university. 70 Of th e twenty-thre e cor e Ken t Stat e facult y antiwa r activists , a little mor e tha n 9 1 percen t wer e i n libera l art s an d socia l scienc e departments, an d largel y concentrate d i n English , history , politica l science, an d sociology . Nearl y one-thir d wer e Englis h instructors . The Ken t Stat e facult y peac e movemen t wa s als o quit e young , a s indicated b y th e fac t tha t 7 0 percen t di d no t hav e tenure . Libera l

'Those Peopl e Would Do the Damndest Things " 7

3

doves comprise d 8 7 percen t o f th e facult y antiwa r movement . Jus t three professors coul d b e considered Ne w o r radical Left . As a numericall y smal l grou p whic h generall y lacke d tenure , Kent State' s faculty peac e activist s exerte d negligibl e influenc e wit h White a s wel l a s wit h th e studen t antiwa r movement . The y ha d absolutely n o powe r i n th e conservativ e communit y o f Ken t and , concerned fo r thei r persona l safety , wer e carefu l no t t o attrac t to o much attentio n t o themselves . Sinc e administratio n officials , cam pus securit y officers , an d th e Ken t Police Departmen t photographe d antiwar demonstrator s an d attended peac e organizin g meetings , fac ulty activist s coul d onl y fee l insecur e abou t thei r job s an d privacy . Further, antiwa r facult y ha d t o liv e wit h a n academi c communit y which wa s largel y indifferen t o r prowar . Th e attac k whic h Harve y Saalberg, a journalism professo r an d refuge e fro m Germany , launche d against Kent State faculty an d student antiwar activists i n Novembe r 1969 typifie d th e academi c positio n o n the peac e movement : Unwittingly mos t Moratoriu m marcher s ar e strengthenin g th e han d o f those wishin g t o weake n ou r government. The y ar e doing s o b y engagin g in activitie s fo r whic h the y woul d b e sho t i n an y hard-cor e Communis t country. Demonstrating against the war in Vietnam is not demonstrating for peace. It is demonstratin g fo r a weaker Unite d State s an d a stronger Communis t enemy i n Re d China , Albania , Cuba , Russia , Poland , Eas t Germany , Ro mania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, North Korea and North Vietnam. Do you really want to strengthen the governments of these countries? Do you want to increase the number of these countries? Then demonstrate. 71 Faced wit h red-baiting , concerne d wit h politica l surveillance , fearful o f communit y an d universit y retribution , an d powerles s t o direct student s awa y fro m confrontationa l tactics , afte r 196 8 Ken t State facult y peac e activist s anxiousl y awaite d th e spar k whic h would blo w u p th e campus . Tha t explosio n woul d roc k America' s entire syste m o f higher education . A compariso n o f cor e antiwa r facult y activist s fro m 196 5 t o 197 2 demonstrates that , as was true on the national level , academi c peac e organizers wer e overwhelmingl y libera l art s an d socia l scienc e in structors. (Se e Tabl e 2.1. ) A large r percentag e o f MS U cor e antiwa r faculty ha d tenur e compare d t o thei r KSU , PSU , an d SUNY-Buffal o counterparts. Thi s indicate s tha t th e MS U facult y peac e activist s were somewha t olde r an d ha d mor e jo b securit y tha n thei r antiwa r

74 "Those

People Woul d Do the Damndest Things "

Table 2.1 Comparative Profil e o f Cor e Antiwa r Facult y a t KSU , MSU , PSU , and SUNY-Buffalo—1965-197 2

Liberal Arts/Social Science Instructors Tenured, e.g., Academic Rank of Associate or Full Professor Liberal Doves Radicals Liberal Doves with Tenure Radicals with Tenure

KSU (N = 23j

MSU (N = 55)

PSU (N =40J

SUNY-Buffalo (N = 48)

91%

85%

85%

90%

30% 87% 13%

53% 78% 22%

42% 70% 30%

42% 25% 75%

30% 33%

63% 42%

54% 17%

83% 25%

colleagues a t the other three universities. Th e contrast between Ken t State and MS U faculty antiwa r activist s i s particularly striking , wit h just 3 0 percen t o f th e former , compare d t o 5 3 percen t o f th e latter , having tenure . The proportio n o f liberal-dovis h facult y a t Ken t State , Michiga n State and Penn Stat e falls a t or above 7 0 percent, wit h radical facult y accounting fo r 1 3 percent , 2 2 percent , an d 3 0 percen t o f cor e anti war academic s a t each , respectively . Thes e proportion s ar e nearl y reversed a t SUNY-Buffalo , wit h onl y a minorit y o f cor e antiwa r faculty, 2 5 percent , wh o ca n b e describe d a s libera l doves . Th e battles between th e Buffal o Polic e Departmen t an d antiwa r student s led man y facult y t o mov e t o th e left . Ther e wa s n o suc h impetu s a t PSU an d MS U t o radicaliz e th e antiwa r facult y t o suc h a grea t extent. Significantly , th e Ohi o Nationa l Guar d slaying s di d no t radi calize th e liberal-dovis h facult y an d th e majorit y endeavore d t o prevent furthe r mas s studen t protest . I t is als o wort h notin g tha t 4 2 percent o f cor e radica l antiwa r facult y a t MS U ha d tenure . Thi s meant that MSU radical facult y wer e somewha t older , perhap s mor e intellectually an d emotionall y mature , an d als o ha d a higher degre e of jo b securit y tha n wa s th e norm . Sinc e 8 3 percen t o f PSU' s cor e radical facult y di d no t hav e tenure , i t i s no t surprisin g tha t so man y of thes e vulnerabl e academic s wer e fired fo r thei r activism . Pen n

"Those People Woul d Do the Damndest Things " 7

5

State's liberal-dovis h facult y wer e no t i n a muc h stronge r positio n than their radical allies , a s 46 percen t als o di d no t have tenure . In term s o f number s an d scop e o f activism , MS U an d SUNY Buffalo facult y wer e key participants i n the peace movement a t their campuses. PS U ha d fewe r an d les s activ e facult y tha n MS U an d SUNY-Buffalo, whil e Ken t Stat e antiwa r facult y playe d a small an d subordinate rol e i n wha t wa s ther e primaril y a studen t movement . Antiwar MS U facult y wer e als o heavil y involve d i n communit y organizing. I n contrast , SUNY-Buffal o facult y activist s tende d t o shun off-campu s organizin g an d immerse d themselve s i n th e coun terculture. PS U activist s concentrate d o n campu s organizin g a s Stat e College wa s distan t fro m eve n medium-size d urba n center s and , i n any event , largel y populate d b y students. Becaus e s o man y o f PSU' s faculty wer e hawk s dependen t upo n militar y researc h contracts , activists concentrate d o n organizin g thei r students , rathe r tha n fel low academics . An d th e handful o f Ken t State antiwar teachers kep t a lo w profil e of f th e campus , bein g a s ineffectiv e i n conservativ e Kent a s the y wer e o n th e campu s i n influencin g th e studen t move ment.

T H R E E " T h e G e n i u s o fa Student Dissenter

Nation"

:

s

As lat e a s 1940 , jus t 1 6 percen t o f America n college-age d yout h could affor d t o atten d a n institutio n o f highe r educatio n an d presti gious privat e an d publi c universitie s restricte d th e admissio n o f Catholics an d Jews . Liberals , fro m Frankli n Roosevel t t o Congress man Lyndo n Johnson , believe d tha t highe r education , i f mad e financially accessibl e an d les s culturall y exclusive , woul d enabl e les s privileged citizens , particularl y th e Ne w Deal' s cor e constituenc y o f industrial worker s an d ethni c Catholic s an d Jews , t o achiev e up ward socia l mobility . Therefore , th e federa l governmen t bega n i n the 1930 s t o provid e student s wit h educatio n grant s an d exerte d some moral , an d late r legal , pressur e o n universitie s t o abolis h religious quotas. 1 Once th e Unite d State s foun d itsel f engage d i n th e Col d War , liberals cam e u p wit h additiona l reason s t o educat e large r number s of youth . A s Clar k Ker r an d Harla n Hatche r argue d i n th e 1950 s an d early 1960s , th e demand s place d upo n th e natio n b y th e emergin g American-centered globa l economy , a s wel l a s b y a n escalatin g nu clear arm s race , require d th e creatio n o f a technologically proficient , college-educated, society . Additionally , Col d Wa r libera l intellec tuals suc h a s Arthu r Schlesinger , Jr. , an d Danie l Bel l cam e t o vie w higher educatio n a s a mean s t o creat e a politicall y centrist , classles s society. Ideally , educate d citizen s woul d ceas e t o identif y them selves b y thei r clas s an d cultura l backgrounds . Thi s los s o f identit y was necessar y for , t o a natio n locke d i n struggl e wit h internationa l Communism, clas s an d cultura l consciousnes s serve d onl y t o pro 76

"The Genius of a Nation" 77 mote disunit y an d la y bar e America' s histori c class , ethnic , reli gious, an d racia l diviseness . I n an y event , Col d Wa r liberal s rea soned, th e en d o f ethnic , religious , an d racia l discriminatio n i n higher education, an d the fact that more youths coul d obtai n govern ment educatio n aid , signale d tha t clas s an d cultura l distinction s among Americans wer e disappearing. 2 Guided b y a Cold Wa r liberal visio n o f th e worl d i n whic h divi sive clas s an d cultura l consciousness , an d radica l lef t an d righ t political doctrine s wer e ideologicall y repugnant , th e federal govern ment successfull y promote d mas s education . Universit y enrollmen t expanded dramatically : fro m tw o millio n i n 195 0 t o nearl y fou r million i n 196 0 an d furthe r t o seve n millio n i n 1968 . B y 1970 , 5 0 percent o f al l college-age d youth s attende d a n institutio n o f highe r education. Wit h greate r numbers o f youth s enterin g th e universitie s in th e 1960s , th e titl e "student " began to take o n th e connotatio n o f an occupation , albei t a temporar y one . Intellectual s rangin g fro m psychologist Kennet h Kenisto n t o Michiga n studen t activis t To m Hayden, ironicall y mirrorin g their Cold War counterparts, describe d students a s part of a new socia l class , a class which wa s neithe r blu e nor whit e colla r an d whic h stoo d apar t fro m th e large r society . Moreover, thi s new clas s ha d personal an d politica l concern s whic h were quit e differen t fro m those o f workers an d professionals. 3 In many regards, student s by the 1960 s di d represent a new socia l group. Escap e fro m parenta l supervision , th e mountin g popularit y among yout h o f vaguel y anti-authoritaria n roc k 'n ' rol l music , an d the increase d prevalenc e o n th e campu s o f marijuan a an d psyche delics, combine d t o defin e a studen t life-styl e whic h wa s distinc t from mainstrea m society . Bu t despit e thos e developments , i t woul d be misleadin g t o categoriz e student s onl y b y thei r life-style . Eve n though Col d Wa r libera l intellectual s proclaime d th e en d o f clas s and cultura l difference s i n America , suc h distinction s ha d no t dis appeared. I n th e 1960s , students ' clas s an d cultura l background s helped t o determin e whic h idea s the y studie d an d adopte d an d which typ e o f life-style the y embraced. 4 Ironically, student s wh o becam e involve d i n peac e protes t an d the New Lef t i n the 1960 s wer e th e beneficiaries o f th e expansio n o f higher educatio n afte r Worl d Wa r II , a n expansio n ideologicall y justified i n par t b y th e intensifyin g Col d War . Wit h th e militar y escalation o f th e Vietna m War , man y son s an d daughter s o f blue collar worker s an d ethni c Catholic s an d Jew s revolte d agains t th e

78 "Th

e Genius of a Nation "

political syste m whic h ha d mad e possibl e thei r entranc e int o th e universities. Antiwa r studen t activists , particularl y those from middle and upper-middle-clas s secularize d Protestan t backgrounds , cham pioned th e notio n o f studen t power . Suc h activist s considere d American yout h t o represen t a new communit y whic h had , a s Col d War liberal s predicted , becom e declassed . O n the othe r hand , ther e were a numbe r o f antiwa r students , generall y working - an d lower middle-class an d ofte n Catholic , who , whil e acceptin g i n par t th e idea o f student s a s a new , declasse d socia l group , acknowledge d that their class an d cultura l heritage s informe d thei r politics . White studen t activis m o f th e 1960 s owe d muc h t o th e crusadin g reformist spiri t o f th e Ne w Frontie r an d th e civi l right s movement . Activism receive d furthe r stimulu s wit h th e militar y escalatio n o f the Vietna m Wa r and th e subsequen t los s o f th e universities ' schol arly neutralit y a s i t becam e increasingl y apparen t t o student s tha t American institution s o f highe r education , throug h militar y re search projects , wer e tie d t o th e defens e establishment . Alienatio n from th e impersona l ''multiversity, " whic h stresse d administrativ e form ove r intellectua l content , an d rejectio n o f intrusiv e i n loco parentis, als o contribute d t o th e politica l mobilizatio n o f students . Additionally, th e federa l government' s conflictin g educationa l poli cies, boun d u p wit h th e draf t an d th e war , promote d studen t rebel lion. Citin g a desperat e shortag e o f primar y an d secondar y schoo l teachers an d citizen s schoole d i n th e humanities , th e federa l gov ernment exhorte d student s t o go into the fields o f educatio n an d th e arts. At the same time, the federal governmen t awarde d studen t draf t deferments base d upo n a syste m whic h ranke d educatio n an d hu manities major s a s least essentia l t o national securit y and , therefore , least worth y o f militar y servic e exemptions. 5 University administrator s unwittingl y se t th e stag e fo r studen t disaffection b y placin g a n increase d emphasi s upo n libera l art s an d social scienc e programs . Large r number s o f colleg e student s i n th e 1960s pursue d studie s i n the humanities an d social sciences . Signif icantly, libera l art s an d socia l scienc e major s predominate d i n th e ranks o f protestors . Thi s ma y b e explaine d b y th e natur e o f th e social science s an d th e humanities , whic h encourag e critica l ap proaches towar d analyzin g authorit y (an d attrac t critica l students) , offer n o specifi c avenue s t o jobs , an d requir e sensitivit y to , an d reflection on , socia l problems . Scienc e an d busines s major s primar ily dea l wit h specifi c problem s tha t hav e absolut e answer s an d ar e

"The Genius of a Nation" 7

9

not accustomed t o dealin g with socia l problem s whos e solution s ar e debatable. I n addition, suc h major s ofte n hav e specifi c job s ope n t o them and , sinc e they typically wor k for corporations benefiting fro m defense contracts , ar e not incline d t o be critical o f the government. 6 Contrary t o contemporar y stereotypes , student s wh o becam e in volved i n anti-Vietna m Wa r protes t wer e no t al l middl e clas s an d privileged. Indeed , studen t peac e activist s cam e fro m a variet y o f class an d cultura l backgrounds . On e reaso n tha t th e stereotyp e o f the affluen t studen t antiwa r activist s aros e wa s becaus e o f th e grea t news medi a attentio n whic h privileged , secularize d Protestan t an d Jewish, radica l youth s received . Suc h activist s di d exis t i n numbe r at elite school s an d wer e considere d newsworth y becaus e the y rep resented, figuratively an d literally , th e childre n o f th e Establish ment. Culturall y secure , an d th e product s o f elit e universit y educa tions, thes e activist s operate d comfortabl y fro m a position o f privileg e and, sinc e economi c factor s di d no t constric t thei r horizons , thei r idealism an d expectation s wer e accordingl y great . The y di d no t have to work while i n college i n order to pay for tuition and, further , could affor d th e luxur y o f no t bein g career-oriented ; thei r parent s could suppor t the m indefinitely . Thi s privilege d cultura l an d clas s background le d som e upper-middle-clas s Jewis h an d Protestan t ac tivists t o believ e tha t al l white s wer e similarl y advantage d an d al l blacks conversel y disadvantaged . Convince d tha t the y constitute d the mos t intellectuall y an d morall y advance d segmen t o f society , well-to-do studen t activist s suc h a s Bil l Ayers , Dian a Oughton , an d Terry Robbin s issue d secularize d jeremiad s agains t "America n im perialism" whic h exploite d thei r black , brown , an d yello w com rades a t hom e an d abroad . Thi s wa s th e clas s an d cultura l milie u which produce d th e mos t violence-pron e factio n o f th e 1960 s Ne w Left: the Weathermen. 7 The 1960 s academi c an d activis t meltin g po t als o include d cul turally insecur e an d les s privilege d groups , particularl y working and lower-middle-class Jew s and Catholics. Jewish student activists , regardless o f thei r degre e o f secularizatio n an d assimilation , ab sorbed from their backgrounds a propensity towards politica l aware ness an d liberalism. Onc e uprooted fro m Eastern Europe in the earl y twentieth century , Jewis h immigrant s confronte d a culturall y am biguous environmen t i n America . Unlik e othe r cultural group s which , upon gainin g upwar d socia l mobility , increasingl y adopte d mor e conservative politics , Jews did not tend to forsake thei r commitmen t

80 'Th

e Geniu s of a Nation "

to civi l rights , civi l liberties , an d trad e unionism . Accordin g t o a 1970 Loui s Harri s survey , 2 3 percen t o f Jewis h student s terme d themselves leftist , compare d t o 4 percent o f Protestant students. 8 One possibl e explanatio n fo r Jewish politica l exceptionalis m lie s in par t in their persisten t cultura l anxiet y expresse d b y the imag e o f the outside r wh o canno t accep t tha t h e ha s bee n accepted . Ther e was som e substanc e t o Jewis h cultura l anxiety , give n th e fac t tha t their economi c succes s ha d bee n achieve d largel y i n th e indepen dent profession s o f law , medicine , an d teaching . U p t o th e 1970s , Protestant corporat e Americ a close d it s door s to Jews and Catholics . It also mus t no t b e forgotte n tha t for 1960 s re d diape r babies, 1950 s McCarthyism underscore d perception s o f vulnerabilit y a s wel l a s injustice. Re d diape r babies grew up with FBI harassment, economi c hardship i f thei r parent s wer e blacklisted , an d live d i n fea r tha t their parent s woul d b e arreste d an d execute d lik e Juliu s an d Ethe l Rosenberg. Fo r thes e reasons , Jewis h youth s ofte n onl y interacte d with on e anothe r unti l enterin g college . Richar d Flack s an d Stev e Max, bot h re d diape r babies an d founder s o f SDS , wer e surprise d t o discover th e existenc e o f Midwester n Christia n radical s a t the 196 2 Port Huro n SD S convention . Indeed , Ma x di d no t mee t hi s first Catholic unti l th e Port Huron convention. 9 Catholic studen t activist s wer e a t onc e simila r to , an d greatl y different from , Jewish studen t activists . Ideologically , Catholic s tende d to absor b fro m thei r churc h a reflexiv e distrus t o f Communism . However, th e Catholi c churc h als o taugh t it s follower s th e nee d fo r community, mutua l assistance , an d socia l justice . Culturally , th e parents o f Catholi c activist s ha d experience d discriminatio n simila r to that which ha d confronte d th e parent s o f Jewish student activists . Catholic studen t activist s wer e als o jus t a s culturall y insecur e an d insular a s their Jewish counterparts . Mar y Verala, a Hispanic Catho lic studen t activist , expresse d wondermen t a t th e 196 2 Por t Huro n convention upo n meetin g "m y first Communist , Stev e Ma x . .." I n part this wa s becaus e thei r upward mobilit y wa s largely , lik e tha t of Jews, th e produc t o f th e Ne w Deal . I n addition , i t i s importan t t o keep i n min d tha t i t wa s no t unti l 196 0 tha t eve n a Harvard-edu cated and wealthy Catholic coul d ge t elected presiden t o f the Unite d States. 10 A final grou p of studen t activist s ma y be broadly characterize d a s working an d lowe r middl e class , frequentl y Catholi c o r brought u p in wha t Vanc e Packar d calle d "low-status " Protestan t denomina -

"The Genius of a Nation" 8

1

tions, Methodist , Baptist , an d Lutheran . Scholar s o f th e 1960s , a s well a s journalist s a t th e time , hav e give n shor t shrif t t o thi s grou p since they overwhelmingly attende d state , rather than private, schools . For example , i n 1967 , 3 4 percen t o f enterin g Pen n Stat e student s identified thei r parent s a s unskille d o r skille d laborers . Nationally , just 1 7 percen t o f colleg e student s i n 196 6 cam e fro m working - an d lower-middle-class families. 11 According t o Richar d Sennet t an d Jonatha n Cobb , working - an d lower-middle-class student s who m the y studie d i n th e 1960 $ fre quently develope d feeling s o f cultura l an d intellectua l inferiorit y vis a vis mor e economicall y privilege d an d culturall y secur e under graduates. I n Ne w Lef t circles , thes e activist s ofte n foun d them selves condescende d t o an d ridicule d becaus e the y wer e unfamilia r with th e jargo n employed , an d authoritie s cited , b y middle - an d upper-middle-class students . Raise d i n a cultural milie u whic h place d a premium upo n clea r an d direc t discourse , les s privilege d activist s became frustrate d wit h th e upper-middle-clas s students ' opaqu e language. 12 Working- an d lower-middle-clas s studen t activist s experience d enormous psychi c tensions . No t infrequently , thes e activists ' par ents di d no t suppor t thei r decisio n t o go to college, considerin g i t to be a wasteful endeavo r an d a n indicatio n tha t the y wer e to o laz y t o work. I f supportive , working - an d lower-middle-clas s parent s wante d their childre n t o concentrat e o n studying , no t protesting , whic h would alienat e futur e employer s an d ge t the m i n troubl e wit h th e government. Les s privileged studen t activists , i n contrast to middle and upper-middle-clas s radicals , als o ha d t o concer n themselve s with payin g fo r thei r education s sinc e thei r parent s ha d littl e dis posable incom e an d ofte n oppose d thei r enrollmen t i n th e univer sity i n th e first place . Thi s impose d limit s o n thei r degre e o f activ ism, givin g ris e t o feeling s tha t the y wer e no t doin g enoug h t o sto p the war. 13 Finally, les s privilege d studen t activists , whos e parent s wer e fre quently anti-Communis t Ne w Dea l Democrats , foun d themselve s choosing betwee n thei r ne w politica l orientatio n an d thei r upbring ing. Jewish studen t activists , a t least, ha d generall y libera l t o left-of center parent s wh o supporte d thei r children' s activism . Thi s wa s not th e cas e fo r working - an d lower-middle-clas s activist s who , a s Texas SD S organize r Jef f Sher o bitterl y noted , ofte n ha d t o brea k with thei r past :

82 "Th

e Geniu s of a Nation"

If you wer e a New Yor k studen t an d becam e a member o f SDS , i t wa s essentially joinin g a politica l organization , whic h wa s a common experi ence. In Texas to join SDS meant breaking with your family, i t meant being cut off—it wa s like i n early Rome joining a Christian sect—an d th e break was so much more total, getting involved with something like SDS you had to be much more highly committed, an d you were in a sense freed, 'caus e you'd ge t writte n off . I f yo u wer e fro m Texas , i n SDS , yo u wer e a bad motherfucker, you couldn't go home for Christmas. Your mother didn't say, "Oh, isn't that nice, you'r e involved . W e supported th e republicans i n the Spanish Civi l War , an d no w you'r e i n SD S an d I' m gla d t o se e you'r e socially concerned. " I n mos t o f thos e place s i t meant , "Yo u Goddamn Communist." In Shero' s terminology , "Ne w Yor k student " i s t o b e understoo d a s Jewish, whil e a "Texa s student " i s a stand-i n fo r working - an d lower-middle-class Catholic , Baptist , o r Methodist . Thi s quot e en compasses fa r more cultura l tension s tha n just those represente d b y regional differences. 14 Student activists , thei r politica l value s shape d b y thei r varie d class an d cultura l backgrounds , als o dwelle d i n separat e realities ; there reall y neve r wa s on e antiwa r movement , o r on e Ne w Left . Instead, ther e wer e i n th e 1960 s man y movement s an d an y numbe r of Ne w Lefts , linke d b y thei r oppositio n t o th e Vietna m Wa r o r b y their affiliatio n wit h SDS , a nationa l organizatio n onl y i n name . After To m Hayden , joine d b y Michiga n an d Oberli n Colleg e stu dents, ha d complete d th e 196 2 Por t Huro n Statement , SDS' s mani festo, th e privilege d activist s wer e abl e t o ge t a n audienc e wit h th e historian an d Kenned y Administratio n advisor , Arthu r Schlesinger , Jr. At thi s meetin g the y proclaime d th e birt h o f a new socia l refor m movement. Similarly , Tod d Gitlin , a n earl y SD S president , an d th e Harvard peac e grou p TOCSI N ha d a bac k channe l int o th e Whit e House a t th e beginnin g o f th e 1960s . Suc h acces s wa s no t extende d to mos t universit y activists . Indeed , stat e universit y studen t activ ists neve r dreame d tha t suc h acces s wa s possible . Moreover , suc h student radicals ha d their energies consumed a t their own campuse s in simpl y tryin g t o gai n th e righ t t o b e politicall y active . Securin g this basi c right , on e whic h stat e universit y administrator s di d no t consider t o b e a righ t a t all , involve d a grea t dea l o f effort . Th e possibility o f meetin g wit h a White Hous e representative , then , wa s so remot e a s t o b e ludicrous ; the y ofte n coul d no t eve n ge t a n appointment wit h th e dea n o f studen t affairs . Further , th e ideologi -

"The Geniu s of a Nation" 8

3

cal struggles withi n th e SD S National Offic e i n Chicag o wer e o f littl e concern t o th e rank-and-fil e activists ; thei r attention s wer e focuse d on th e loca l struggl e fo r peac e an d socia l justice. 15 Michigan Stat e Universit y Born i n th e Bron x t o working-clas s German-Polis h Jewis h parents , Edward Gewirt s (late r anglicize d t o Garrett ) entere d Michiga n Stat e College i n 1937 . Wit h a n uncl e servin g a s a n officia l i n th e the n militant America n Federatio n o f Labor , Gewirt s gravitate d toward s campus leftis t groups . Althoug h a n associat e o f severa l Eas t Lansin g radicals, Gewirt s neve r joine d th e Communis t part y an d brok e of f all relation s wit h Moscow-oriente d campu s organization s afte r th e 1939 Stalin-Hitle r Pact— a decisio n h e mentione d t o a dea n wh o noted hi s brea k an d whic h subsequentl y save d hi m fro m "th e wors e ravages o f th e McCarthyit e inquisitio n o f th e earl y Fifties. " Eventu ally, Gewirt s marrie d a Methodis t schoo l teache r wh o supporte d Henry Wallace' s 194 8 presidentia l candidac y an d settle d i n Kala mazoo, Michigan . Th e Garrett s becam e activ e i n loca l Democrati c party politic s an d wer e frightene d b y th e televise d Army-McCarth y hearings. 16 The Garretts * liberalis m an d tie s t o Michiga n Stat e influence d their son' s politic s an d le d hi m t o Eas t Lansin g i n 1961 . Excite d b y the Cuba n revolutio n an d expose d t o th e Col d Wa r dissen t o f suc h liberal magazine s a s th e Nation an d th e New Republic , Ja n Garrett , a scholarshi p student , joine d th e university' s mode l Unite d Nation s (UN) whic h attracte d th e mos t sociall y awar e student s o n campus . Garrett subsequentl y refuse d t o participat e i n compulsor y ROTC , involved himsel f wit h fre e speec h issue s o n th e campus , an d helpe d to revive th e Youn g Socialis t Clu b (YSC). 17 At leas t a s earl y a s 1961 , Hanna h ha d authorize d th e university' s Department o f Public Safet y (DPS ) to spy upo n an d infiltrat e activis t campus organizations , sendin g name s an d photograph s o f studen t protestors t o th e Michiga n Re d Squad . On e studen t informan t infil trated th e YS C an d incorrectl y identifie d A l Meyers , a politica l science professo r an d anti-Communis t socia l democrat , a s its facult y sponsor. Th e universit y als o employe d a s informant s State News* reporters wh o provide d photograph s an d phon e tip s whic h enable d the DP S t o collec t severa l file drawer s o f dat a o n studen t group s b y the earl y 1960s . Garrett' s effort s t o reviv e th e YSC , an d invit e a

84 'Th

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Communist, Rober t Thompson , t o spea k a t MS U i n 1962-1963 , elicited over t university hostility. 18 The Stat e News dramaticall y headline d th e YSC' s invitation , "Young Socialist s Sponso r Red. " Livid , Hanna h denie d universit y facilities t o Thompson , exerte d pressur e o n th e studen t governmen t president t o revok e th e YSC' s charter , an d me t with , an d chastised , two YS C members . A t tha t meeting , th e MS U presiden t rea d t o th e students excerpt s fro m HUAC' s "10 0 Thing s t o Kno w abou t Com munism." Th e MS U boar d o f trustees , belatedl y informe d b y Han nah tha t h e ha d banne d Thompso n fro m th e campus , divided , wit h a larg e minorit y affirmin g th e righ t o f a Communist t o spea k a t th e university. Truste e Do n Stevens , notin g tha t hi s anti-Communis t credentials date d fro m th e 1930 s a s a n activis t i n th e Congres s o f Industrial Organization s (CIO) , supporte d th e YS C invitation . Th e Lansing ACL U an d facult y activist s Larrow e an d Repa s joine d th e fight t o uphol d fre e speech , a s di d MS U Humanis t Societ y leade r Peter Werbe, wh o late r became a n editor of the Detroit-based under ground newspaper , Fift h Estate. Ultimately , th e Delt a Sigm a Ph i fraternity offere d it s backyard t o Thompson an d a thousand curiou s people gathere d there , a considerable numbe r comin g t o heckl e hi s speech. 19 While th e YSC-Hanna h confrontatio n radicalize d fe w students , i t did serv e t o underscor e MSU' s changin g politica l environment . Larr y Lack, a Goldwater supporte r wh o gre w u p i n a working-class Balti more, Maryland , neighborhood , cam e t o MS U i n 196 1 an d partici pated i n th e university' s mode l UN . Partl y a s a result o f associatin g in th e mode l U N wit h "th e son s an d daughter s o f Africa n revolu tionaries" wh o ha d bee n recruite d t o th e universit y b y th e school' s aggressive internationa l affair s programs , Lac k became intereste d i n American rac e relation s an d informall y affiliate d wit h th e MS U Friends o f th e Studen t Non-Violen t Coordinatin g Committe e (SNCC) . After listenin g t o Ivanho e Donaldso n spea k a t MSU , Lac k wen t South wit h th e civi l right s activis t t o delive r textbook s t o a blac k college. Whil e drivin g through Georgia, they were arreste d and Don aldson severel y beaten . Appalled , Lac k move d t o th e lef t an d afte r graduating fro m MS U i n 196 3 becam e a reporte r fo r th e under ground newspaper , th e Lo s Angeles Fre e Press. 20 Lack's radicalization wa s th e produc t o f a n increasingly assertiv e civil right s movement, an d part of a national a s well a s local proces s which swep t u p large r an d large r number s o f students . I n Eas t

"The Genius of a Nation" 8

5

Lansing, th e MS U Friend s o f SNC C initiate d th e picketin g o f loca l businesses whic h discriminate d agains t th e university' s burgeonin g African, Asian , an d Lati n America n studen t population . Picketin g gave wa y t o marche s o n behal f o f ope n housin g i n th e city , culmi nating i n th e larges t mas s arres t i n Eas t Lansing' s histor y i n 1965 . Fifty-nine student s marche d o n cit y hal l an d woun d u p i n th e county prison . Agains t thi s backdro p o f escalate d protest , dozen s o f student volunteer s too k par t in the Studen t Tutoria l Educatio n Proj ect (STEP ) and spent their summers teaching economically deprive d blacks a t Rus t Colleg e i n Holl y Springs , Mississippi . I n tha t in tensely hostil e an d racis t environment , MS U student s learne d ho w to for m suppor t network s an d t o sustai n commitment . Whe n suc h students returne d t o Eas t Lansing , thei r experience s ha d prepare d them t o challeng e th e universit y administratio n an d th e Vietna m War.21 Immediately afte r th e marc h o n cit y hall , th e Stat e News pub lished th e name s o f th e student s wh o ha d bee n arreste d an d "tar nished" the image of the university. Althoug h not noted by the Stat e News, a t least eigh t o f th e student s wer e member s o f th e the n strait laced campu s SD S chapter . Establishe d i n 196 3 b y a handfu l o f discontented history , politica l science , an d sociolog y graduat e stu dents, SD S sharply criticized America n Cold War foreign polic y an d a variety of university rules and regulations. Unlik e it s sister chapte r in An n Arbor , MS U SD S claime d a goo d shar e o f working - an d lower-middle-class students . Jac k Sattel , a MS U SD S leader , cam e from a working-class , Germa n immigran t family . I n hig h school , Sattel "ha d som e sens e o f being an outsider . . . sinc e th e majority of my friend s wer e solidl y middl e clas s an d college-bound. " Upo n graduation from hig h school , Satte l enliste d i n the air force. Traine d in electronic s an d th e operatio n o f nuclea r weapon s whic h "scare d the hel l ou t of " him, h e bega n "t o read seriousl y abou t politic s an d history" an d develope d a ne w vie w o f th e nation' s foreig n policy . His politica l consciousnes s wa s heightene d a s a result o f witnessin g Japanese studen t peac e demonstration s an d developin g friendship s with blac k soldier s wh o wer e excite d b y th e Freedo m Rides . B y th e time Satte l lef t th e ai r forc e i n 196 1 t o g o t o MSU , h e considere d himself a radical. 22 Noticing the existence o f the Young Socialis t Club in the fall 196 1 MSU catalogue , Satte l indicate d hi s interes t i n th e grou p o n hi s application to the university, a fact subsequently note d i n his Michi -

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gan Re d Squa d file. 'Th e siz e an d anonymit y o f MSU, " Satte l re called, di d no t distur b hi m "afte r fou r year s i n th e Ai r Forc e . . . although i t clearl y seeme d t o bewilde r a lo t o f th e undergraduate s and seeme d t o ange r them. " H e reserve d hi s ange r "fo r thing s out side th e university : nuclea r war ; racial injustice ; poverty." 23 In 1962-1963 , Satte l starte d t o atten d YS C meeting s whic h h e came t o view as : arcane an d frustrating—argument s abou t sectaria n left-politica l issue s .. . however , th e grou p di d som e suppor t wor k fo r th e Souther n studen t movement, brough t i n som e trade-unionists , bega n demonstratin g agains t racial discriminatio n i n off-campu s housing , etc . I t serve d a s a wa y o f connecting peopl e an d issues—i t gav e m e a sens e o f purpose/directio n while als o pursuing my degree. At the same time, I always had one or two friends who were not political... with whom it was more fun to go out and raise hell . . . . Mos t of this group was too serious to have much fun with. I saw politic s a s a way t o transform society i n mor e open , satisfyin g ways ; they tended to see politics as an end to itself. It wa s th e seriou s politico s o f th e YSC , E d an d Sher i Lessin , Pau l Schiff, Bria n Keleher , Harve y Goldman— a 15-year-ol d scholarshi p student—and St u an d Jane t (Goldwasser ) Dowty—frequen t travel ers t o An n Arbo r an d friend s o f A l Haber—wh o founde d MS U SDS. 24 In it s earl y days , MS U SD S wa s ver y muc h a famil y affair , wit h members frequentl y enterin g int o relationship s whic h culminate d in marriage . Su e Va n Eyck , whos e lower-middle-clas s parent s live d in Roya l Oak , Michigan, cam e fro m a conservative Republica n back ground, offse t somewha t b y th e influenc e o f he r neighbor an d rebel lious schoolmate , To m Hayden . Th e prohibitiv e cost s o f attendin g Michigan, an d realizatio n tha t sh e woul d no t fit in sociall y wit h th e more affluen t student s a t Ann Arbor , le d he r to MSU i n 1961 . A t th e university, sh e wa s expose d t o activis t gues t speaker s an d me t an d married Jac k Sattel . Bot h becam e heavil y involve d i n th e antiwa r movement: Jac k a s presiden t o f MS U SD S an d Su e a s presiden t o f the Eas t Lansin g chapte r o f th e Women' s Internationa l Leagu e fo r Peace an d Freedom. 25 The Sattel s deepl y believe d i n nonviolen t protes t an d identifie d with communit y an d labo r unio n organizing . Su e ha d n o patienc e for thos e i n th e MS U an d th e nationa l SD S wh o advocate d "roc k throwing," describin g suc h activist s a s th e "son s an d daughter s o f the rulin g class " wh o "wante d 't o wi n this * and t o wi n (brin g revo -

"The Geniu s of a Nation" 8

7

lution) soo n . . . du e t o their being use d t o getting wha t the y wante d if the y wante d i t ba d enough/ ' Jac k also di d no t car e fo r th e upper middle-class Columbi a an d Michiga n SDSer s wh o cam e t o Eas t Lansing i n th e lat e 1960 s t o so w discor d withi n MS U SD S an d urg e violent confrontations wit h the university administration . Similarly , MSU SD S membe r Georg e Fish , a scholarship studen t fro m a n Indi anapolis, Indiana , lower-middle-clas s Germa n Catholi c family , raile d against th e elitis t Michiga n an d Nationa l Offic e (Chicago ) SD S trav elers. Fis h viewe d the m a s "patronizin g colonizers " bringin g ligh t to economicall y an d intellectuall y inferio r MS U SDSers . Clas s an tagonisms betwee n th e MS U an d Michiga n SDS , an d amon g MS U SDSers, mounte d throughou t th e 1960 s an d contribute d t o th e fac tionalism o f th e Eas t Lansin g chapte r afte r upper-middle-clas s Co lumbia an d Michiga n SDSer s seize d contro l o f th e Nationa l Offic e in 1969. 26 While clas s conflic t divide d MS U SDS , th e Eas t Lansin g chapte r was largel y spare d th e discor d resultin g fro m over t mal e chauvin ism. A t th e outset , femal e MS U SDSer s suc h a s Su e Sattel , Sher i Lessin, Denis e Ryan , Kay e Bradle y (wh o becam e a regional travele r in th e South) , an d Carli e Tanne r (late r a National Offic e organizer) , played ke y role s i n formulatin g chapte r policie s an d tactics . Ini tially, thes e women , heir s t o a traditio n o f femal e subordination , had t o forc e themselve s "t o spea k u p a t meetings" an d t o "b e take n seriously an d no t jus t ge t th e coffee. " Thei r effort s t o influenc e th e direction o f th e chapte r succeede d an d the y receive d th e suppor t o f "enlightened" mal e SDSer s wh o wer e no t threatene d b y femal e assertiveness. Th e MS U SDS' s relativel y egalitaria n relationshi p be tween th e sexe s wa s exceptional . I n general , sexis m pervade d th e New Left. 27 An importan t religious-lef t alternativ e t o the secular-lef t SDS , th e University Christia n Movemen t (UCM ) emerge d i n Eas t Lansin g i n the mid-1960s. Th e UCM, founded i n Septembe r 1966 , evolve d fro m the religious , apolitica l Nationa l Studen t Christia n Federation . UCM' s founders proclaime d tha t Go d acte d o n eart h onl y throug h politica l modes; fundamenta l socia l chang e coul d b e realize d b y activis t humans workin g towar d "communit y dialogue , diversity , freedom , and th e abolitio n o f bourgeoi s complacenc y throug h radica l educa tion." MS U UC M members , thirt y i n numbe r b y th e fal l o f 1966 , came fro m rural , moderate-to-conservative , white , evangelica l Prot estant families . Seemingly , thei r backgrounds preclude d radica l po -

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litical activism , bu t thei r roote d home-grow n religiou s convictions , most o f al l thei r belie f tha t al l huma n lif e wa s sacred , le d the m t o disavow th e war . Further , the y argue d tha t i f Christia n American s truly believed i n Go d and democracy , the y coul d no t figh t o n behal f of a n undemocratic, immora l Sout h Vietnamese government. 28 The UCM' s emphasi s upo n socia l issues , an d it s evangelica l zea l for convertin g student s t o th e caus e o f peace , serve d t o brin g to gether Catholics , Jews , Methodists , an d Quakers , surmountin g theo logical differences . Thi s united religious front, however, ha d a price. UCM advisor s Lyn n Jondah l an d Keit h Poh l becam e th e subject s o f intense polic e surveillanc e an d Michiga n Re d Squa d agent s brok e into the Universit y Methodis t Churc h to copy document s pertainin g to loca l clergy-facult y draf t counselin g efforts. Moreover , olde r hawkish facult y an d resident s a t th e Universit y Methodis t Churc h resented th e younger Methodists* unpatriotic , morall y self-righteou s opposition t o th e war . Methodis t UC M activist s foun d th e genera tion gap too great to bridge an d proceede d t o drop out of the church . In Octobe r 1966 , th e Universit y Methodis t Churc h hel d thre e ser vices ever y Sunda y fo r eigh t hundre d students . B y 1968 , onl y fifty students showe d u p fo r the on e remainin g service. 29 MSU UC M organize d student s o n thre e levels . A t th e first level , students forme d suppor t network s an d discusse d thei r problem s i n adjusting t o th e impersona l multiversity . Student s i n th e first leve l who becam e intereste d i n civi l right s an d peac e issue s graduate d t o the secon d leve l an d joine d Dept h Educatio n Group s (DEGs) . Thos e students i n th e DEG s wh o ha d studie d a particular socia l issu e an d had becom e convince d tha t politica l actio n wa s require d flowe d into th e thir d level , wher e activis t cadre s wer e spawned . Thes e cadres organize d teach-ins , rallies , an d formulate d strategie s wit h SDS. I t wa s throug h thi s intense , politicizin g indoctrinatio n i n so cial interactio n that a once conservativ e religio n major from wester n Michigan, Dav e Stockma n (later Presiden t Reagan' s directo r o f th e Office o f Managemen t an d Budget) , became a MSU antiwa r leader. 30 Given Stockman' s subsequent , controversia l politica l career , i t i s necessary t o poin t ou t tha t h e i n n o wa y late r se t asid e hi s commit ment t o socia l reform . Th e brigh t an d energeti c chil d o f solid , con servative farmers , whethe r a s antiwa r organize r o r as Reagan' s bud get director, possesse d a n ingrained distrus t of the federal government , particularly o f th e DoD . H e als o consistentl y champione d th e caus e of civi l right s an d riske d hi s congressiona l sea t i n th e 1970 s b y

"The Genius of a Nation" 8

9

denouncing racist s i n hi s district . Su e Sattel , wh o worke d wit h Stockman o n th e 196 7 Vietna m Summe r program , praise d hi m a s a committed an d enthusiasti c peac e worker , a s di d Jondahl an d Pohl . When a hawkish studen t i n April 196 7 denounce d MS U SD S a s un American, Stockma n defende d th e radical s wh o ha d pledge d t o resist the draf t a s America's tru e patriots : A nation is not defined b y the particular policy, of a particular administration, in power at a particular point in time. Rather, the genius of a nation is expresse d i n those loft y ideal s an d broad spiritua l current s whic h hav e threaded thei r wa y throug h th e fabri c o f it s history . I n ou r countr y thes e ideals ar e embodied i n concept s like : distributiv e justice , limite d govern ment; individual freedo m o f speech, assembl y an d worship; and the rights to life , libert y an d th e pursui t o f happines s . . . . Man y o f u s fee l tha t American intervention in Vietnam runs contrary to the spirit of this historical tradition. Therefore, ou r commitment to the real core values and ideals that have made this nation great, demands that we oppose the war. There have been many expressions of this opposition. One of them being the SD S anti-draf t unio n . . . . I think th e actio n o f man y o f thos e . . . i s motivated b y a broade r courag e tha n simple , blin d obedience , an d b y a sense o f responsibilit y t o value s highe r tha n th e shallo w rhetori c o f th e present administration. Stockman neve r repudiate d th e sentiment s h e expresse d o n behal f of SDS ; th e Methodis t populis t did , however , com e t o loath e th e organization afte r i t became committe d t o violence i n 1969. 31 A disproportionat e numbe r o f student s i n th e MS U SDS , th e UCM, an d th e campu s antiwa r movemen t i n genera l wer e Nationa l Merit Scholarshi p recipients . I n 1963 , i n orde r t o enhanc e th e uni versity's nationa l prominence , MS U bega n a campaig n t o recrui t greater numbers o f scholarship student s an d to create specia l honor s programs with clos e student-facult y interaction . Hundred s o f highl y motivated, sensitive , intelligen t Meri t Scholar s flocked t o Eas t Lan sing. Her e the y wer e soo n disenchante d wit h th e large , impersonal , bureaucratic natur e o f th e universit y an d wit h Hannah' s insistenc e upon i n Joco parentis , whic h cas t a shado w acros s ever y aspec t o f their social lives . Thes e alienate d scholars , soure d by an administra tion promisin g mor e tha n i t coul d deliver , forme d mutua l suppor t groups, develope d clos e relationships , an d becam e reform-minde d activists. I n 1965 , whe n MSU' s enrollmen t o f Meri t Scholar s sur passed th e numbe r attendin g Harvard , Look magazin e profile d th e university's academi c superstars . Withi n a year , MSU' s academi c

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superstars ha d acquire d a ne w collectiv e label : "Joh n Hannah' s Worst Nightmares." 32 Hannah's nightmare s filled th e rank s o f th e Committe e fo r Stu dent Right s an d SD S an d founded , i n 1965 , th e first campus-base d underground newspape r i n th e nation , Th e Paper . Meri t Scholar SDS reporter s fo r The Paper honore d Hanna h wit h a comi c strip , "Land Gran t Man. " Inspire d b y "Batman, " scholarshi p studen t Stev e Badrich, th e produc t o f a working-class , Yugoslavia n immigran t family, conceive d th e ide a o f th e comi c strip . Wit h dialogu e b y Jane Munn, th e scrapp y daughte r o f legendar y MS U footbal l coac h an d athletic directo r Clarenc e "Biggie " Munn , Presiden t "Palindrome " (Hannah), onc e h e thumpe d a ho e o n th e floo r an d shoute d th e magic wor d "Poultry! " becam e th e inep t cape d crusader , "Lan d Grant Man. " Gleefully , th e comi c stri p writer s subjecte d Hannah' s alter eg o t o aci d trips , gan g rap e b y sexuall y represse d coeds , an d assault b y hi s wif e wh o di d no t recogniz e hi m i n th e "Lan d Gran t Man" costume. 33 The les e majest y explici t i n "Lan d Gran t Man " reflecte d th e im pact o f events , chiefl y th e escalatio n o f th e Vietna m War , o n activ ists' attitude s toward s authority . I t also signale d a transforming cul tural-political styl e o n th e left . Activis t student s wh o entere d th e university i n 196 5 wer e prepare d t o ac t upo n th e philosoph y Jac k Sattel ha d embrace d i n 1962—th e belie f tha t humo r an d fu n wer e integral to , and not mutually exclusiv e of , politics . On e MSU SDSer , acting upo n thi s idea , acquire d legendar y statu s followin g hi s sum mons t o repor t fo r inductio n int o th e military . Durin g hi s physica l examination, th e medica l docto r ordere d th e SDSe r t o dro p hi s pants an d t o ben d over . Th e docto r notice d somethin g protrudin g from th e student' s anu s and , shocked , aske d "wha t th e hell " it was . Nonchalantly, th e SDSe r replied , "Oh , that' s m y pe t rat. " H e wa s not drafted. Humo r and politic s wer e also deployed agains t the loca l news media . A grou p o f MS U SDSers , livin g off-campu s i n th e facetiously dubbe d "Leni n House," learned that a news reporter wa s coming ove r t o investigat e rumor s tha t SD S wa s recruitin g volun teers t o fight i n th e Nort h Vietnames e Army . Th e gullibl e reporte r subsequently witnesse d student s performin g militar y drills. 34 MSU studen t antiwa r activist s wer e overwhelmingl y o f Norther n and Western European (7 2 percent) , o r Jewish (1 9 percent), stock , a s well a s mal e (7 5 percent) . (Se e Tabl e 3.1. ) The y largel y majore d i n the libera l art s and th e socia l science s (7 6 percent ) an d wer e under -

' T h e Geniu s of a Nation" 9

1

Table 3. 1 MSU Antiwa r Studen t Activists , 1965-197 2 ( N = 263* )

Ethnicity

NorthernWestern European 72%

SouthernEastern European 9%

Gender

Female 25%

Male 75% Business/ Science

Major

Liberal Arts/ Social Science 76%

Residence I

Metropolitan Area 43%

Large City 5%

Residence II

In-state 54%

Out-of-state 46%

Status

Undergraduate Graduate 87% 13%

Specific Academic Characteristics

Jewish 19%

24%

National Merit Scholar/ Honors College

Humanities and Social Science Residential College

12%

9%

Medium Small Small City City Town 14% 30% 9%

*Of 349 names collected, I identified 263 (75%) as to majors, residence, and status. The figures reported for ethnicity and gender are derived from the entire data base.

92 'Th

e Geniu s of a Nation"

graduates (8 7 percent) . A significan t minorit y cam e fro m metropoli tan areas (4 3 percent), an d (4 6 percent) were not Michigan residents . Further, a disproportionat e numbe r wer e Nationa l Meri t Scholar ship-Honors Colleg e student s (1 2 percent) , an d enrolle d i n th e hu manities an d socia l scienc e residentia l college s ( 9 percent). 35 The significan t characteristic s o f th e MS U studen t antiwa r move ment becom e eviden t whe n the y ar e compare d t o those o f th e over all studen t body . I n 1969 , 1 7 percen t o f MS U student s wer e fro m out-of-state, whil e 4 6 percen t o f antiwa r activists were no t Michiga n residents; Jew s wer e 1 0 percen t o f th e studen t bod y bu t 1 9 percen t of activists; National Meri t Scholarship-Honors Colleg e an d residen tial colleg e student s constituted , respectively , 2 and 3 percent o f th e student body , compare d t o 1 2 an d 9 percen t o f antiwa r activists . Finally, busines s an d scienc e major s wer e underrepresente d i n th e antiwar movement ; 4 6 percen t o f th e studen t body , an d jus t 2 4 percent o f peac e activists. 36 Contrasts between th e overal l studen t body an d members o f MS U SDS ar e particularl y striking . (Se e Tabl e 3.2. ) Compare d t o th e stu dent bod y a t larg e an d non-SD S antiwa r students , MiS U SD S ha d fewer Souther n an d Easter n Europea n Catholics , disproportionatel y more Jew s (2 4 percent) , an d somewha t greate r number s o f females , although the y wer e underrepresente d give n thei r campu s total . B y contrasting just liberal-dovis h antiwa r student s t o radicals, w e lear n that fewer SDSer s (1 6 percent) majore d i n business an d scienc e tha n non-SDS antiwa r student s (2 9 percent) , whil e a majorit y o f th e former (5 3 percent ) cam e fro m metropolita n area s a s oppose d t o a minority o f th e latte r (3 5 percent) . Mor e SDSer s claime d out-of-stat e residences (5 2 percent ) tha n non-SD S activist s (4 2 percent) , an d were disproportionatel y Nationa l Meri t Scholarship-Honor s Colleg e (16 percent) , an d residentia l colleg e (1 0 percent) , students . MS U SD S attracted t o it s rank s peopl e wh o considere d themselve s culturall y disfranchised fro m American societ y an d the university: Jews, intel lectuals, women , an d urbanite s transplante d int o a n alie n environ ment whic h cause d the m t o suffer cultur e shock . To a n extent , certai n socia l characteristic s o f studen t antiwa r activists an d SDSer s differe d onl y slightl y fro m thos e o f prowa r students. (Se e Tabl e 3.3. ) A cavea t i s i n order . B y takin g a publi c stand i n favor of military interventio n i n Indochina, prowa r activist s set themselve s apar t from th e apatheti c o r anti-Communist majorit y on campus . I f w e accep t th e fac t tha t libera l art s an d socia l scienc e

' T h e Geniu s of a Nation" 9

3

Table 3. 2 MSU SDS , 1965-197 0 (N= 109* )

Ethnicity

NorthernWestern European 71%

SouthernEastern European 5%

Gender

Female 29%

Male 71%

Major

Liberal Arts/ Business / Social Science Scienc e 84% 16%

Residence I

Metropolitan Area 53%

Large City 4%

Residence II

In-state 48%

Out-of-state 52%

Status

Undergraduate Graduate 89% 11%

Specific Academic Characteristics

Jewish 24%

Medium Smal l Smal l City Cit y Tow n 6% 12 % 25 %

Humanities National Merit an d Scholar/ Socia l Scienc e Honors Residentia l College Colleg e 16%

10% *Of 145 names collected, I identified 10 9 (75%) as to majors, residence, and status. Figures reported for ethnicity and gender are derived from the entire data base.

94 "Th

e Geniu s of a Nation "

Table 3. 3 MSU Prowa r Studen t Activists , 1965-197 2 ( N = 112* )

Ethnicity

NorthernWestern European 82%

SouthernEastern European 9%

Gender

Female 15%

Male 85%

Major

Liberal Arts/ Business/ Social Scienc e Science 57% 43%

Residence I

Metropolitan Area 35%

Large City 6%

Residence II

In-state 67%

Out-of-state 33%

Status

Undergraduate Graduate 87% 13%

Specific Academic Characteristics

Jewish 9%

Medium Small Smal l City Tow n City 12% 36 % 11%

National Meri t Scholar/ Honors Residential College College 2%

2%

*Of 148 names collected, I identified 11 2 (76%) as to majors, residence, and status. The figures reported for ethnicity and gender are derived from the entire data base.

majors ar e mor e pron e t o spea k ou t an d b e engage d i n th e politica l process tha n thei r career-oriente d busines s an d scienc e counter parts, the n i t shoul d b e n o surpris e tha t the y compris e th e majorit y of prowar , a s wel l a s antiwar , activists . Nonetheless , busines s an d science major s hav e a greate r propensit y t o mak e a prowar , rathe r than antiwar , stand .

' T h e Geniu s of a Nation" 9

5

Prowar activist s differe d slightl y fro m th e overal l MS U studen t body, a t leas t i n term s o f major s an d representatio n i n th e honor s and residentia l colleges . O n th e othe r hand , a thir d o f MS U pro war studen t activist s cam e fro m out-of-state , nearl y twic e th e norm, althoug h 9 percen t wer e Jews , nearl y thei r proportiona l rep resentation o n campus . I t i s whe n prowa r student s ar e compare d to non-SD S antiwa r student s an d SDSers , i n term s o f gender , resi dential status , an d enrollmen t i n th e honor s an d residentia l col leges, tha t contrast s becom e striking . Femal e students , i f incline d to becom e activists , gravitate d mor e frequentl y t o th e lef t tha n t o the anti-Communis t cente r o r right . Further , antiwa r students , SDS an d non-SD S alike , wer e mor e ofte n fro m out-of-stat e tha n prowar students . Althoug h ther e i s n o differenc e betwee n non-SD S antiwar student s an d prowa r student s a s fa r a s metropolita n resi dence i s concerned , ther e i s a shar p divergenc e betwee n MS U SDSer s and prowa r student s wh o cam e fro m suc h locales : 5 3 percen t a s opposed t o 3 5 percent . Finally , honor s colleg e an d residentia l college student s wer e disproportionatel y antiwar , rathe r tha n pro war. 3 7 While th e locu s o f studen t antiwa r protes t an d organizatio n wa s largely confine d t o th e "Ol d Campus, " wher e th e libera l art s an d social scienc e department s wer e situated , gainin g fe w busines s an d science major s o n th e "Ne w Campus " acros s th e Re d Ceda r River , prowar student s afte r 196 6 exercise d littl e negativ e influenc e i n shaping antiwa r protest . MS U studen t peac e activist s ha d momen tum an d wen t o n th e offensiv e i n 1966 , reasonabl y assure d tha t prowar studen t resistanc e woul d b e sporadi c an d o f littl e politica l consequence. Antiwa r activist s wer e als o aided , ironically , b y th e outspokenness o f anti-Communis t Vietna m Projec t veteran s an d President Hanna h who , inadvertently , demonstrate d th e univer sity's considerabl e rol e i n creatin g th e Indochines e conflict . Also , Hannah's zealou s anti-Communism , a s wel l a s hi s stron g tie s t o the defens e establishment , mad e hi m a perfec t foi l fo r SDSers . H e was thei r bes t recruiter . Consequently , antiwa r activist s foun d tha t the MS U studen t bod y wa s relativel y eas y t o mobiliz e an d radi calize. Pennsylvania Stat e Universit y In th e mids t o f th e Grea t Depression , th e wind s o f chang e bega n t o blow acros s th e natio n an d eve n Wester n Pennsylvania' s culturall y

96 "Th

e Genius of a Nation"

and physicall y isolate d "Hunkies " and Celtic Appalachians fel t tha t breeze o f liberation . Th e wind s ble w fro m Washingto n an d Pitts burgh. Roosevel t promise d a New Dea l fo r "one-thir d o f a nation ill housed, ill-clad , ill-nourished " and , wit h sectio n 7(a ) o f th e Na tional Recover y Act , guarantee d workers ' righ t t o join labo r unions . From Pittsburgh, i n the shadow o f the U.S. Stee l Corporation, Fathe r Charles Owe n Ric e an d Phili p Murra y exhorte d industria l worker s to organize . Murra y backe d u p hi s word s wit h action , dispatchin g Steel Worke r Organizin g Committe e representative s t o th e region' s river mil l towns . The y organize d relentlessl y an d b y Worl d Wa r II had secure d a better life fo r the Mon Valley's residents. 38 The histor y o f th e Mo n Valle y i n th e 1930s , a history o f struggl e and triumph , exerte d enormou s influenc e o n on e Aliquippa , Penn sylvania, working-clas s bo y wh o acquire d nationa l statur e i n th e 1960s antiwa r movement : Car l Davidson . Bor n i n 1943 , Davidson , the so n o f a mechanic, foun d hi s hometow n i n the 1950 s t o be fairl y prosperous bu t culturall y limited . Whil e hi s neighbor s listene d t o country an d wester n music , Davidson , seekin g relie f fro m Aliquip pa's drabness , tune d int o Pittsburg h roc k 'n ' roll radi o station s an d saw "Rebe l Withou t a Cause " eleve n times . Afte r graduatin g fro m high schoo l i n 1961 , "Aliquippa' s Jame s Dean " receive d a scholar ship t o atten d Pen n State , becomin g th e first membe r o f hi s famil y to g o t o college . Pen n Stat e wa s particularl y attractiv e t o hi m sinc e the the n privat e Universit y o f Pittsburg h wa s ver y expensiv e an d offered n o financial assistance. 39 At Pen n State , Davidson' s intellectua l potentia l wa s realized , nurtured b y nationall y respecte d philosoph y professor s suc h a s Joseph Fla y an d Alphons o Lingis . H e als o becam e politicall y con scious a s a result o f extende d conversation s wit h hi s Quake r room mate wh o gav e hi m literatur e o n conscientiou s objectio n an d non violent civi l disobedience . Soon , Davidso n followe d hi s frien d int o the campu s antiwa r group , SENSE-Student s fo r Peace , a collectio n of "Ol d Lef t red diape r babies, Quaker s and cultura l rebels. " Withi n a year, th e so n o f blue-collar, anti-Communist , Ne w Dea l Democrat s had refuse d t o participat e i n th e university' s compulsor y ROT C program. H e als o spen t a grea t dea l o f tim e "hangin g ou t wit h th e cultural rebels " i n th e Hetze l Unio n Buildin g (HUB) , listenin g t o Beat poetr y recitation s an d leftis t fol k music . Self-consciou s abou t their non-conformis t politica l an d cultura l styles , Davidson' s friend s invented a ne w nam e fo r th e HUB : "th e Hom e fo r Unlove d Beat niks." 40

"The Genius of a Nation" 9

7

Although Davidso n style d himsel f t o b e a n outcas t fro m society , and gre w a droopin g "Panch o Villa " mustach e t o establis h hi s cul tural revolutionar y lineage , hi s hear t alway s remaine d i n conven tional, working-clas s Aliquippa . Whe n h e proteste d agains t th e es calating Vietna m War , hi s thought s wer e filled wit h th e memorie s of drafte d friend s an d relative s wh o ha d die d i n Indochina . A s h e argued agains t movemen t violenc e i n th e lat e 1960s , h e viewe d hi s "upper-middle-class" opponent s a s "elitists " an d "fanatics " wit h a profound "contemp t fo r ordinar y people. " Unlik e th e movement' s privileged activists , Davidso n respecte d Aliquippa' s Depression-er a labor organizers an d heede d thei r most basic tenet: in union there i s strength an d i n strengt h ther e i s power . I f ordinar y peopl e i n th e 1930s coul d forg e a n instrumen t o f socia l chang e b y unitin g dispa rate an d bickerin g groups , then , h e reasoned , student s i n th e 1960 s could d o likewise . An d h e advocate d suc h unit y a t th e 196 6 Na tional SD S Convention i n Clear Lake, Iowa, a locus o f 1930 s farmer labor radicalism . I t wa s time , Davidso n argued , t o buil d a studen t syndicalist movement, a movement patterne d after the pre-Cold War industrial unio n movement . Studen t syndicalism , Davidso n be lieved, coul d lea d t o th e buildin g o f a coalitio n o f ordinar y peopl e who woul d chang e th e world . Hi s visio n fired th e imagination s o f the conventio n delegate s wh o swep t th e elite , university-educate d "Old Guard " out o f th e SD S Nationa l Office . Davidso n becam e vic e president o f SD S an d working-clas s Iow a Stat e activis t Gre g Calvert was electe d president. 41 A yea r before th e Clear Lake SDS convention, Davidso n helpe d t o found th e Pen n Stat e A d ho c Committe e fo r Studen t Freedom , whic h represented nascen t studen t syndicalis m directe d agains t th e uni versity's rigi d polic y o f i n Joc o parentis. Wishin g t o build a popula r coalition movemen t whic h woul d spa n the ideological spectrum , h e enlisted th e suppor t o f th e PS U YAF , appealin g t o conservativ e students' libertaria n sensibilities . Whil e mos t o f th e graduat e stu dent members o f th e A d ho c Committe e fo r Studen t Freedom , man y of who m wer e involve d i n SENSE , supporte d Davidson' s overture s to YAF , on e dogmati c Englis h graduat e student , Nei l Buckley , dis sented sharply : . . . th e mor e I think abou t you r suggestio n fo r a coalition betwee n th e New Lef t an d th e libertaria n righ t I get cramp s i n m y brai n . . . simpl y allowing th e concep t o f civi l libertie s a s define d b y th e Constitution — which w e se e fo r wha t i t is—t o b e perpetuate d withi n ou r movemen t i s detrimental, both because i t allows peopl e to take out frustrations throug h

98 "Th

e Genius of a Nation "

a syste m whic h i n n o wa y change s th e basi c tenet s o f capitalis m an d because it is internally inconsisten t to base any of our analysis on the civil libertarian analysi s whic h i s severa l centurie s ou t o f date... . Hones t t o Christ, Carl, sometimes I can't figure out your politics. Buckley's criticis m o f Davidson' s politica l strategie s woul d b e echoe d throughout th e 1960 s b y numerou s middle-clas s Marxist s wh o coul d not relat e t o home-grown , blue-colla r populism . No r di d privilege d activists appreciat e Davidson' s notion s i n 196 5 tha t "ou r ide a o f freedom i s no t apar t fro m th e responsibilit y o f law " an d tha t arbi trary, unresponsiv e authority , reduce d "th e proces s o f law-makin g . . . t o mockery. " A law-and-orde r radica l wa s a n unsettlin g phe nomenon t o the movement' s revolutionaries. 42 Davidson's fello w Pen n Stat e activists were , by Stat e College and , for tha t matter , nationa l Ne w Lef t standards , a curious collectio n o f radicals. Leveret t Millen , a graduat e psycholog y studen t fro m Brookline, Massachusetts , wa s a membe r o f SENSE , a civi l right s worker i n Sout h Carolina , an d a founde r o f th e PS U SD S chapter . He wa s unusua l i n tha t fe w religiousl y observan t Orthodo x Jew s could b e foun d i n th e rank s o f th e Ne w Left . T o Millen , deepl y rooted religious convictio n represented th e means by which to achiev e universal mora l salvation . Thi s belie f ha d bee n influence d b y th e example o f PSU's civil right s and peac e activist clergy, i n particular , Baptist ministe r Rober t Boyer an d Wesle y Foundatio n directo r Ala n Cleeton. Admirin g th e activis t Catholic s i n th e campu s Newma n Club, Mille n sough t t o mobiliz e th e university' s growin g Jewis h student population as well a s to fuse Judaism and radicalism. Toward s those ends , h e founde d th e SDS-affiliate , th e Hille l Liberatio n Fron t (HLF) i n 1966 , an d identifie d th e organizatio n wit h th e Ol d Testa ment prophet s an d othe r isolated revolutionaries : The HL F doe s no t inten d t o b e representativ e o f th e Jewis h student s a t Hillel. Like the prophet Jeremiah, we say, "I am in derision daily; everyone mocketh m e daily.* ' For the prophet s wh o spok e th e words: "see k justice , undo oppression; defend the fatherless, plea d for the widow," were, unfortunately, not representative of the Jewish people of their time. And the few Germans like the sainted Bonhoeffer , wh o spok e out against the horrors of Auschwitz were, unfortunately, no t representative of the German people. In our unrepresentativeness, then, we claim good company... . . . . many of the more "representative" students have suggested to us that taking part in the stree t protests and denouncing th e atrocities inflicte d b y Americans on innocent Vietnamese is not good public relations, and that as

"The Geniu s of a Nation" 9

9

Jews w e canno t becom e involve d i n thi s matter . W e sa y t o thes e mor e "representative" students that you have an intimate moral kinship with the millions i n Naz i German y whos e only mora l guid e wa s "Don' t ge t in volved!"43 While Millen' s rhetori c tende d t o b e strident , h e wa s immensel y amiable an d ful l o f th e spiri t o f reconciliation , a s wer e nearl y al l o f PSU's radical s befor e th e escalatio n o f th e Vietna m War . Jim Grant , a graduat e chemistr y studen t fro m Suffield , Connecticut , wa s a rare black peac e activis t wh o identifie d wit h th e Ol d Lef t an d develope d friendships wit h severa l YA F members . Bil l Lee , a friend o f David son, gav e YAF sympathetic new s coverag e i n 196 7 whe n h e becam e the edito r o f th e Daily Collegian. And y Stapp , a former presiden t o f SENSE (an d late r a founde r o f th e antiwa r America n Serviceman' s Union), debate d congeniall y wit h YAFer s i n th e HU B and , t o dem onstrate gentl y America n society' s disturbin g deferenc e t o th e mili tary, onc e directe d traffi c i n Stat e Colleg e fo r severa l hour s dresse d in a ROTC cade t uniform . Pa m Farley , a n Englis h graduat e studen t and produc t o f a middle-class Bosto n family , ha d worke d wit h Pau l Potter whil e attendin g Oberli n an d taugh t poo r whit e childre n fo r several year s in Zanesville, Ohio . Her turn towards radical feminis m came about after 196 5 becaus e a number of male PSU SDSer s denie d women leadershi p roles. 44 Antiwar activist s a t Penn Stat e gravitate d toward s SENSE , whic h had bee n founde d i n 196 1 an d thereafte r stage d hunge r strike s an d campus demonstration s agains t America n foreig n policy . I t wa s a small group , n o mor e tha n fort y member s b y th e winte r o f 1965 . B y 1965 th e organizatio n disproportionatel y attracte d Jews , graduat e students, libera l art s an d socia l scienc e majors , an d resident s o f Philadelphia an d it s suburbs . (Se e Tabl e 3.4. ) Accordin g t o a 196 5 study b y PS U sociologis t an d peac e activis t Davi d Westby , an d hi s graduate studen t Richar d Braungart , 6 8 percen t o f SENS E member s were fro m middle - an d upper-middle-clas s backgrounds . Th e soci ologists conclude d tha t SENS E wa s predominatel y a n organizatio n of the "full y 'arrived ' stratum, upper-middle-clas s individuals " wh o "can affor d th e luxur y o f 'deviance ' fro m straight-lin e conformis t politics, especiall y i f thei r positio n i s relativel y well-established , and th e mobilit y no t to o recent. " Bu t anothe r analysi s o f SENS E membership ca n b e advance d usin g Westb y an d Braungart' s data . The fac t tha t 3 2 percen t o f SENS E member s cam e fro m working and lower-middle-clas s familie s i s significant , fo r tha t figure i s pro -

100 "Th

e Geniu s of a Nation"

Table 3. 4 PSU SENSE-Student s fo r Peace , 196 5 ( N = 29*)

Ethnicity

NorthernWestern European 59%

Southern-Eastern Jewish European 13% 28%

Gender

Female 24%

Male 76%

Major

Liberal Arts/ Social Scienc e 79%

Business/ Science 21%

Residence I

Metropolitan Area 55%

Large City 7%

Residence II

In-state 83%

Out-of-state 17%

Philadelphia

Philadelphia and it s suburbs 38%

Residence III

21%

Status

Undergraduate Graduate 21% 79%

Medium Small Small City City Town 0% 3% 35%

*In 1965, there were approximately 40 members of PSU-SENSE; I identified 29 (72%). The figures reported above are based upon the 29. portionate t o thei r representatio n o n campus . Thi s mean s tha t les s privileged students , fa r fro m representing , i n th e sociologists ' words , a "status-threatene d group " whic h move d toward s th e righ t i n reac tion t o socia l protes t an d th e upwar d mobilit y o f blacks , wer e jus t as likel y a s well-of f student s t o becom e peac e activists . Conse quently, Car l Davidso n wa s no t a n aberration ; working-clas s studen t activists wer e actin g ou t thei r parents ' dream s an d expressin g thei r parents' grievance s agains t society. 45 Penn State' s radical s wer e culturall y isolate d fro m th e majorit y o f undergraduates wh o foun d drunke n fraternit y partie s an d footbal l games t o b e fa r mor e appealin g tha n discussin g foreig n polic y is -

"The Geniu s of a Nation" 10

1

sues. Ji m Andrews , a Quake r graduat e student , recalle d hi s effort s in 196 1 t o interes t undergraduate s i n America n involvemen t i n Vietnam: The war in Vietnam, i n the very early Sixties, jus t didn't see m to be an issue tha t fired the imaginatio n o r energies o f man y peopl e a t Penn State . As a graduate studen t I was teachin g a n undergraduat e cours e i n publi c speaking.... I remember vividl y talkin g wit h som e student s wh o wante d to giv e speeche s o n th e situatio n i n Vietnam... . I was constantl y urgin g students t o tr y t o answe r th e questio n tha t w e agree d woul d b e foremos t in th e mind s o f thei r audiences : "Wha t d o event s i n Vietna m hav e t o d o with me?" The irony of that question became painfully apparent a few years later . . . 4 6 After th e Vietna m Wa r becam e mor e relevan t t o student s i n th e spring o f 1965 , hostilit y replace d indifference . Jame s Creegan , a member o f th e Pen n Stat e Socialis t Clu b i n 196 5 an d a founde r o f the campus SD S chapter in 1966 , experience d "cultur e shock' * upo n leaving Philadelphi a fo r Stat e College . Th e so n o f a n Iris h Catholi c labor an d Communis t part y organize r i n Grea t Britain , wh o late r immigrated t o America , Creega n wa s frequentl y assaulte d o n th e campus an d i n hi s dormitor y b y athletes . Similarly , Farle y com plained tha t hawkish student s an d communit y resident s wer e send ing signed deat h threats to herself a s well a s to her parents. Sh e als o had t o conten d wit h th e hawkis h student s wh o congregate d i n th e English departmen t t o liste n t o graduat e studen t Davi d Morrell' s pro war compositions, som e o f which becam e the basis for his novel , First Blood. Th e creato r of "Rambo " never volunteered t o waiv e hi s Canadian citizenshi p i n orde r to fight in Vietnam. However , thi s di d not dete r him fro m denouncin g peac e activist s a s cowards. 47 The menta l an d physica l abus e whic h peac e activist s endure d in Stat e Colleg e disturbe d PS U YA F member s who , befor e 1968 , supported governmen t program s fo r disadvantage d minoritie s an d defended individuals ' righ t t o protes t agains t th e Vietna m War . Established i n 1961 , YAF' s spiritua l leade r wa s Car l Thormeyer , a lower-middle-class Germa n Catholi c studen t wh o ha d bee n radical ized b y th e bruta l Sovie t suppressio n o f th e 195 6 Hungaria n upris ing. A s member s o f a group whic h wa s jus t a s culturall y isolate d a s SENSE, YAF' s founder s establishe d a rappor t wit h th e radicals . I n the earl y 1960s , Thormeye r mad e friend s wit h SENS E leader s Ji m Grant and Barr y Clemson an d th e two organization s graciousl y hec kled eac h other . Whe n Davidso n approache d Thormeye r abou t join ing the A d ho c Committe e fo r Studen t Freedom , h e enthusiasticall y

102 ' T h

e Geniu s of a Nation"

Table 3. 5 PSU YAF , 1965-196 9 ( N = 53* )

Ethnicity

NorthernWestern European 61%

Southern-Eastern European Jewish 15% 24%

Gender

Female 18%

Male 82%

Major 57

Liberal Arts/ Business / Social Science Scienc e % 43 %

Metropolitan Area Larg Residence I 58 % 6 In-state Residence II 89 %

%

e City

Out-of-state 11%

Philadelphia Philadelphi suburbs Residence III 23 % 55 % Status

Medium Smal l Smal l City Cit y Tow n 4% 4 % 28 %

a an d it s

Undergraduate Graduat e 92% 8 %

*Of 55 YAF members noted, I identified 53 (96%). The figuresreported above are based upon the 53. enlisted i n th e movemen t an d wa s soo n criticizin g th e universit y administration fo r red-baitin g th e committee. 48 In 1965 , accordin g t o Westb y an d Braungart , PS U YA F wa s over whelmingly a n organizatio n o f small-tow n WASP s an d Germa n Catholics. Afte r 1965 , th e conservativ e grou p attracte d mor e urba n and suburba n resident s an d Jews . (Se e Tabl e 3.5. ) Nearl y a quarte r of PSU YAFer s i n th e perio d 1965-196 9 wer e Jewish an d 5 5 percen t came fro m Philadelphi a an d it s suburbs . Tens e rac e relation s i n lat e 1960s Philadelphia , a s wel l a s a n ethni c counte r mobilizatio n le d by Polic e Commissione r Fran k Rizzo , resulte d i n greate r number s o f

'The Geniu s of a Nation" 10

3

Table 3.6 PSU Prowa r Studen t Activists , 1965-197 2 ( N = 193* )

Ethnicity

NorthernWestern European 71%

SouthernEastern European 15%

Gender

Female 13%

Male 87%

Major

Liberal Arts/ Social Scienc e 57%

Business/ Science 43%

Residence I

Metropolitan Area 39%

Large City 7%

Residence II

In-state 83%

Out-of-state 17%

Residence III

Philadelphia 12%

Philadelphia and its suburbs 29%

Status

Undergraduate 87%

Graduate 13%

Jewish 14%

Medium City 6%

Small City 5%

Small Town 42%

*Of 244 names collected, I identified 193 (79%) as to majors, residence, and status. The figures reported for ethnicity and gender are derived from the entire data base. Jews movin g t o th e right . Thi s ethni c backlas h als o caugh t u p nu merous Souther n an d Easter n Europea n Catholi c ethnic s an d i t i s not surprisin g tha t they represente d 1 5 percen t o f PS U YAF' s mem bership i n thes e years . Jewis h student s wer e als o draw n t o YA F because o f Ne w Lef t anti-Zionis t sentimen t an d th e campu s Blac k Power movement' s charg e tha t Jews, al l o f who m wer e exploitativ e slumlord oppressor s o f blacks , wer e member s o f th e "Koshe r Kon sciousness Klub—KKK." 49 Penn Stat e prowa r students , includin g YA F members , claime d largely Norther n an d Wester n Europea n ancestr y an d ove r a thir d came fro m metropolita n areas . (Se e Tabl e 3.6. ) Suc h student s wer e mostly mal e undergraduate s (8 7 percent ) an d Pennsylvani a resi -

104 "Th

e Genius of a Nation "

dents (8 3 percent) . Ove r half majore d i n th e libera l art s an d socia l sciences an d 2 9 percen t live d i n Philadelphia an d it s suburbs. Com pared t o th e overal l PS U studen t body , prowa r student s claime d proportionately fewe r female s an d disproportionatel y mor e Phila delphia residents . Whe n YA F member s ar e segregate d fro m prowa r students i n general , a fe w importan t distinction s ma y b e mad e be tween th e har d righ t an d th e moderat e supporter s o f th e Vietna m War. Nearl y 5 9 percen t o f YA F member s reside d i n metropolita n areas a s oppose d t o 3 2 percen t o f politicall y unaffiliate d prowa r students. Further , 5 5 percen t o f YAF' s membership cam e from Phil adelphia an d it s suburbs, wit h 2 3 percent fro m Philadelphia proper . In contrast , 1 9 percen t o f non-YA F prowa r student s live d i n Phila delphia an d it s suburb s an d jus t 8 percen t live d i n Pennsylvania' s largest city . Jewis h students , i f the y supporte d th e war , dispropor tionately affiliate d wit h YAF; 24 percent of PSU YAFers were Jewish while 1 0 percen t o f non-YA F prowa r student s cam e fro m Jewis h backgrounds. Ther e i s als o a differenc e betwee n th e tw o group s i n terms o f gender . A somewha t greate r proportio n o f female s (1 8 per cent) ma y b e foun d i n non-YA F rank s tha n i n th e rank s o f th e har d right (1 0 percent) . Ther e i s littl e differenc e i n th e proportio n o f liberal art s and socia l scienc e major s i n both groups . The studen t antiwa r movemen t a t Pen n Stat e attracte d a heavil y metropolitan populatio n (5 0 percent), wit h a good shar e from Phila delphia an d it s suburb s (3 0 percent) . (Se e Tabl e 3.7. ) Nearl y a third of antiwa r student s wer e no t Pennsylvania resident s an d 3 4 percen t were pursuin g graduat e degrees . I t was a movement disproportion ately compose d o f libera l art s and socia l scienc e major s (8 3 percent ) and had a large Jewish representation (3 2 percent). Contraste d to th e overall studen t body , th e antiwa r studen t movemen t wa s unrepre sentative o f th e campus . Ther e wer e negligibl e number s o f busines s and scienc e major s (1 7 percent ) an d scarcel y an y female s (1 9 per cent). Non-Pennsylvani a resident s an d graduat e student s wer e overrepresented i n the peac e movement . Philadelphi a resident s an d Jews wer e als o disproportionatel y represente d i n antiwa r studen t ranks. A compariso n o f PS U anti - an d prowa r student s indicate s tha t there wer e significan t difference s betwee n th e tw o group s i n term s of academi c status , ethnicity , majors , an d residence . Th e contrast s become strikin g whe n YA F an d SD S member s ar e exclude d fro m our tabulations . Non-SD S antiwa r student s embrace d nearl y thre e

"The Genius of a Nation" 10

5

Table 3.7 PSU Antiwa r Studen t Activists , 1965-197 2 ( N = 423*)

Ethnicity

NorthernWestern European 60%

SouthernEastern European 8%

Gender

Female 19%

Male 81%

Major

Liberal Arts/ Social Scienc e 83%

Business/ Science 17%

Residence I

Metropolitan Area 50%

Large City 8%

Residence II

In-state 68%

Out-of-state 32%

Residence III

Philadelphia 17%

Philadelphia and its suburbs 30%

Status

Undergraduate 66%

Graduate 34%

Jewish 32%

Medium Smal l City Cit y 5% 4 %

Small Town 32%

*Of 564 names collected, I identified 423 (75%) as to majors, residence, and status. The figures reported for ethnicity and gender are derived from the entire data base. times th e proportio n o f Jews and the share of graduate students , an d 13 percen t an d 1 7 percent , respectively , mor e metropolita n an d non-Pennsylvania residents . Further , non-SDS antiwa r students ha d twice th e proportion o f females tha n could be found i n the non-YA F prowar student ranks . Focusing o n th e PSU studen t left , w e fin d tha t SDS wa s a heavil y Jewish (4 2 percent ) an d undergraduat e (8 7 percent ) organizatio n whose member s largel y cam e fro m metropolita n area s (6 2 percent) , notably Philadelphi a an d it s suburb s (4 5 percent) . (Se e Tabl e 3.8. ) Thirty-five percen t o f Jewis h SDSer s haile d fro m Philadelphi a an d its suburbs . I f antiwa r student s wer e unrepresentativ e o f th e cam pus, the n SDSer s wer e mor e so . Merel y 7 percen t o f th e overal l student bod y cam e fro m Philadelphia , whil e 3 1 percen t o f SDSer s

106 "The

Genius of a Nation"

Table 3.8 PSU SDS , 1965-197 2 ( N = 110* )

Ethnicity

NorthernWestern European 50%

SouthernEastern European 8%

Gender

Female 15%

Male 85%

Major

Liberal Arts/ Social Scienc e 79%

Business/ Science 21%

Residence I

Metropolitan Area 62%

Large City 5%

Residence II

In-state 79%

Out-of-state 21%

Residence III

Philadelphia 31%

Philadelphia and its suburbs 45%

Status

Undergraduate 87%

Graduate 13%

Jewish 42%

Medium City 7%

Small City 4%

Small Town 21%

*Of 130 SDS members noted, I identified 11 0 (85%) as to majors, residence, and status. Th e figures reporte d for ethnicity and gender are derived from the entire data base. were resident s o f tha t cosmopolita n city . I n addition , 2 1 percen t o f SDSers ha d out-of-stat e residences , compare d t o 1 2 percen t o f th e student body . Jewis h student s an d libera l art s an d socia l scienc e majors wer e als o disproportionatel y represente d i n th e PS U Ne w Left. Finally , th e preponderanc e o f undergraduate s an d metropoli tan Philadelphia an d non-Pennsylvania resident s i n SD S was signif icantly greate r tha n i n th e non-SD S antiwa r studen t category . Thi s generally hold s tru e when SDSer s are compared t o non-YAF prowa r students. 50 Interestingly, ther e are more similarities tha n differences betwee n the extrem e campu s Lef t an d Right . Bot h PS U SD S an d YA F dre w in nearly identical proportion s o f males, metropolita n residents, an d

"The Geniu s of a Nation" 10

7

undergraduates. Slightl y mor e SDSer s wer e resident s o f Philadel phia an d it s suburbs , Jewish , an d fro m out-of-stat e tha n PS U YA F partisans. A tellin g distinctio n betwee n SD S an d YA F ma y b e mad e in tha t 2 2 percen t mor e SDSer s wer e libera l art s an d socia l scienc e majors. 51 As th e Vietna m Wa r escalate d militaril y i n 1965 , th e culturall y isolated an d numericall y wea k studen t Lef t an d Righ t endeavore d to mobiliz e a n apatheti c campus . Bot h extreme s o f th e politica l spectrum gre w a s th e campu s polarize d ove r th e issu e o f th e Indo chinese conflict . Ultimately , SD S and YA F splintered, bu t no t befor e alienating nearl y everyon e o n campus . Politicall y moderat e peac e groups di d emerge , bu t th e universit y administratio n an d residents , resentful o f th e influ x o f Philadelphia-base d activists , mad e n o dis tinction betwee n radical s an d moderates . An y studen t activel y op posed t o th e Vietna m Wa r coul d expec t t o b e spie d upo n b y admin istrators an d zealous , hawkis h students . I t require d a grea t dea l o f stamina t o be a n antiwa r activis t a t PSU , for cultura l an d geographi cal isolation , couple d wit h oppositio n fro m th e universit y adminis tration, too k a n enormou s emotiona l toll . The Stat e Universit y o f Ne w Yor k a t Buffal o In Apri l 1964 , HUA C cam e t o Buffal o t o investigat e Communis t subversion. Th e las t tim e th e committe e ha d bee n i n Buffalo , i n 1957, Joyc e Wike , a n instructo r a t UB , an d Arthu r Bolton , a socia l worker a t the Buffal o Jewis h Center , wer e identifie d a s Communists . David Kochery , U B la w professor , serve d a s lega l counse l t o Bolto n and hi s wife . A t th e 195 7 hearings , th e committe e ha d bee n largel y concerned wit h th e existenc e o f Communis t studen t group s a t UB . But HUA C als o devote d considerabl e attentio n t o Ed Wolkenstein , a Buffalo Communis t part y leade r wh o ha d obtaine d a jo b a t Bethle hem Stee l i n orde r t o organiz e th e wor k forc e i n preparatio n fo r a Marxist revolution . Wolkenstei n pleade d th e Fift h Amendmen t an d the hearing s proceede d withou t incident. 5 2 HUAC's 196 4 Buffal o hearing s wer e no t s o tranquil . Republica n congressman Joh n R . Pillio n o f Buffalo , concerne d tha t hi s party' s wildly unpopula r presidentia l candidate , Barr y Goldwater , woul d also dra g hi m dow n t o defeat , hope d t o exploi t fear s o f domesti c Communist subversion , a trie d an d tru e vote-gettin g tactic . Henc e HUAC cam e t o Buffal o an d th e Congressma n sen t numerou s ticket s

108 "The

Genius of a Nation"

to th e hearing s fo r th e loca l Unite d Anti-Communis t Actio n Com mittee, a n organizatio n mad e u p o f Hungarians , Poles , Lithuanians , and Ukrainians . Thes e ethnic s wer e traditiona l Ne w Dea l Demo crats, bu t Pillio n believe d tha t th e specte r o f Communis m woul d swing th e city' s dominan t Polis h votin g blo c behin d th e Republi cans. I t was also helpful tha t nearly all of the individuals summone d before th e committe e wer e Jews , a cultura l grou p whic h ha d neve r been beloved b y Poles. 53 The hearing s commence d o n a straine d not e whe n a SUNY-Buf falo instructo r insiste d o n checkin g th e witnes s tabl e fo r wiretap s prior t o testifying . Tensio n mounte d afte r a Buffal o Communis t party member revealed tha t he had been a FBI informant sinc e 1942 . And the n Wolkenstein , onc e agai n appearin g befor e th e committee , insisted tha t h e b e allowe d t o make som e prefator y remarks . Denie d this opportunity , hi s upse t wif e wa s dragge d fro m th e hearing s swinging a t th e federa l marshals . Meanwhil e i n th e streets , tw o hundred SUNY-Buffal o students , amon g them Wolkenstein's daugh ter, Rachel, chante d denunciation s o f the committee. 54 Organized b y th e SUNY-Buffal o studen t government , th e anti HUAC protes t prove d enormousl y successful , i f onl y because , fo r the first tim e i n th e university' s history , a large numbe r o f student s had bee n mobilize d aroun d a politica l issue . Thi s demonstratio n also signale d th e birt h o f a ne w campu s spirit . SUNY-Buffalo' s student governmen t expande d th e scop e o f it s politica l activities , establishing a Civi l Right s Committe e i n Octobe r 196 4 t o registe r blacks t o vote . Ove r 15 0 student s wer e involve d i n canvassin g Buf falo's ghetto . Followin g th e presidentia l election , thes e student s began t o investigate , an d picke t against , racia l discriminatio n i n th e city. Further , th e studen t governmen t i n th e winte r o f 196 5 vigor ously proteste d th e firing o f severa l universit y instructor s fo r refus ing to sign the Feinberg Loyalty Oath. 55 The newbor n activis t spiri t o n campu s i n 1963-196 4 inspire d two student s wh o woul d subsequentl y becom e leader s o f th e earl y SUNY-Buffalo anti-Vietna m Wa r movement : Clinto n Deveau x an d Jerry Taylor. Deveaux , on e o f th e fe w blac k stat e universit y studen t government president s i n th e nation , tirelessl y defende d campu s activists. I n April 1965 , h e orchestrate d a student governmen t reso lution chastisin g th e Buffal o Courier-Expres s fo r arguing tha t perhaps we have many young people invading institutions o f higher learning wh o hav e no busines s bein g there . I t coul d b e tha t throug h close r scrutiny an d weedin g ou t o f som e o f th e allege d student s roo m coul d b e

"The Genius of a Nation" 10

9

found for those whose main purpose is to get an education and not to picket the White House, get carried to a paddy wagon, or disdain soap, combs and personal grooming. After graduating from the university, Deveaux , alon g with Sam Brown , founded i n 196 7 th e liberal-dovis h Alternativ e Candidat e Tas k Forc e in order to deny Johnson a second ter m in office. 56 In contras t t o Deveaux , Jerr y Taylo r identifie d himsel f with , an d became a leade r of , th e campu s Ne w Left . Followin g hi s participa tion i n th e 196 4 anti-HUA C protest, th e Buffalo Polic e Department' s Subversive Squa d tappe d Taylor' s phon e an d closel y monitore d hi s subsequent politica l activities . Taylor' s ascensio n i n 196 5 t o th e position o f edito r i n chie f o f th e campu s newspaper , th e Spectrum , resulted i n a n alread y radicalize d publication , whic h ha d de nounced loyalt y oath s an d HUAC , shiftin g furthe r t o th e left . A pacifist deepl y influence d b y Quake r teachings , Taylo r promote d SUNY-Buffalo SD S and argued that the New Lef t had a grand histor ical mission : The New Left must resist a war this nation seems committed to. It must find alternatives to ignorance and deprivation, not just here in this country, but throughou t th e world . I t must prepar e it s participants , no t jus t fo r a momentary flash o f radicalis m durin g th e colleg e years , bu t fo r live s o f quiet, passionate service to ideals. It must surmount the hatreds and betrayals o f tw o hundre d year s o f exploitatio n an d butchery . I t must brin g the whole worl d bac k pas t Kronstad t an d Barcelona , Beki n an d Madrid , bac k past Budapest an d Rotterdam, Leopoldvill e an d Cape Town. I t must bring this country back past Montgomery an d Haneyville, pas t Appomattox and the Bay of Pigs. The New Lef t mus t writ e a new geography , a new grammar . Thes e are not easy things to do, but the tools to do them are at hand.57 As th e Ne w Lef t emerge d a t SUNY-Buffalo , i t cooperate d with , and compete d against , a n entrenche d Ol d Left . Th e chie f campu s Old Lef t organizatio n wa s th e Yout h Agains t Wa r an d Fascism , le d by E d Wolkenstein , wh o ha d bee n expelle d fro m th e Communis t party i n 196 1 fo r Maois t sympathies . YAWF' s anti-Vietna m Wa r leaflets i n Januar y 196 5 avoide d mentionin g th e group' s affinit y fo r the Communis t Chines e dictatorship . Rather , th e Maoist s argue d that thei r intentio n wa s t o oppos e th e escalatio n o f th e Vietna m conflict i n orde r t o avoi d provokin g a Thir d Worl d War . YAW F presented a moderat e politica l fron t t o students , denounce d anti Communist extremists , an d allie d wit h othe r antiwar organizations ,

110 "The

Genius of a Nation"

chiefly SDS . Formin g alliance s wit h othe r group s o n th e lef t wa s important t o YAWF , fo r it s discipline d cadre s wishe d t o influenc e and the n tak e ove r thei r allies ' organizations . Havin g successfull y seized contro l o f a riva l lef t group , YAWF' s member s abandone d any pretens e a t ideological moderatio n an d toleration. 58 A ke y SUNY-Buffal o YAW F leade r i n the 1960 s wa s Gerr y Gross , the so n o f a local furrier . Gros s joined th e campu s SD S chapte r an d became a n organize r o f th e Buffal o Draf t Resistanc e Unio n (BDRU) . The YAW F chai r receive d extraordinar y attentio n fro m th e FB I be cause, unbeknowns t t o him , on e o f YAWF' s Buffal o founder s wa s a police informant . Gros s won hi s wa y int o the hearts of th e city's FBI agents i n 196 5 fo r writin g a n effusiv e lette r t o Communis t China' s representative i n Canad a an d erroneousl y sendin g i t t o th e Nation alist Chines e (Taiwan ) consulate : While i n Toront o durin g "Internationa l Day s o f Protest, " on e o f m y comrades ha d th e pleasur e o f meetin g yo u an d o f expressin g hi s war m regards for The People's Republic of China and the Chinese People's inter nationalist struggle against U.S. imperialism. He suggested to me that I write to yo u i n orde r t o expres s m y suppor t fo r th e positio n o f Th e People' s Republic o f Chin a o n Vietna m an d als o t o expres s m y sincer e thank s for you r suppor t fo r ou r studen t demonstration s agains t th e U.S . wa r i n Vietnam. .. . We are attempting in a sincere way to study hard the thinking of Mao Tse-Tung on philosophy s o as to be better able to apply materialist dialec tics to our struggle against the Johnson Administration ruling clique and to expose the hypocrisy of religious leaders and organizations tha t back these murderers. Bemused, Taiwan' s representativ e forwarde d Gross' s lette r t o th e Department o f Justice. 59 Radical student s wh o wer e no t attracte d t o YAW F an d SD S at tempted t o wor k wit h bot h group s whil e declinin g t o embrac e thei r ideological agendas . On e suc h studen t wa s Larr y Faulkner , th e so n of a notabl e Ne w Yor k Cit y Ol d Lef t attorney . Faulkne r ha d com pleted hi s undergraduat e studie s a t Cornell wher e h e ha d worked i n the campu s SAN E chapte r wit h graduat e student , an d late r SUNY Buffalo facult y activist , Charli e Haynie . Afte r th e Cornel l SAN E chapter electe d t o picke t th e Sovie t embassy , a s wel l a s th e Whit e House, o n behalf o f a n atmospheric nuclea r weapons tes t ban treaty, Faulkner dissented : "Whe n th e Unite d State s test s atomi c bomb s i t is fo r war ; whe n th e Sovie t Unio n test s atomi c bomb s i t i s fo r

"The Genius of a Nation" 11

1

peace." Faulkne r becam e les s dogmati c b y 196 5 whe n h e entere d graduate schoo l a t SUNY-Buffalo an d became a draft resiste r as wel l as a draf t counselo r t o working-clas s Buffal o teenagers . Th e activis t rejected movemen t violenc e a s counterproductiv e an d trie d t o con vince radical s tha t confrontin g th e polic e woul d onl y antagoniz e a n already suspiciou s community . H e als o worrie d abou t a n anti-Se mitic backlas h i n Buffalo , give n th e fac t tha t man y o f th e studen t advocates o f violence wer e Jewish. 60 An industria l cente r lon g dominate d b y automobile , chemical , and stee l corporations , Buffalo' s largel y blue-collar an d ethni c Cath olic populatio n ha d no t achieve d politica l powe r unti l th e Ne w Deal. An d relativ e economi c securit y wa s no t realize d unti l th e industrial unio n movement , a numbe r o f whos e organizer s wer e Jewish Communis t part y members , overcam e th e ope n shop . Afte r World Wa r II , th e ethnics , i n reactio n t o th e Sovie t conques t o f Eastern Europe, ouste d thei r radical Jewish unio n officers . Thi s wa s the beginnin g o f a n ethno-cultura l an d ideologica l struggl e whic h continued int o th e 1960s , give n ne w lif e b y student-polic e confron tations. Exacerbatin g cultura l tension s wa s a n emergin g rac e prob lem. Eight y thousan d Souther n black s moved t o Buffalo i n the post war years , creatin g a ghett o whic h encompasse d fort y block s an d where one-fift h o f it s resident s receive d welfar e payments . Whit e university radicals , man y o f the m Jews, fel t mor e kinshi p wit h poo r blacks tha n wit h working-clas s Pole s an d therefor e gravitate d toward s the ghetto. Suc h tie s mad e th e ethni c communit y wary. 61 By the tim e o f th e city' s first race riot, and afte r black nationalist s at SUNY-Buffalo i n 196 8 assaulte d Commo n Councilma n Raymon d Lewandowski, a stou t defende r o f th e polic e department , ethnics ' fears ha d bee n seemingl y realized : whit e universit y radical s an d black militant s wer e conspirin g t o har m them . I t wa s n o wonder , then, tha t Commo n Councilma n Willia m Lyma n sponsore d a reso lution requirin g landlord s t o notif y th e polic e i f the y ha d an y stu dent tenant s s o tha t the y coul d b e monitored . Buffalo' s Democrati c congressman, Richar d McCarthy , wh o ha d bee n electe d i n th e 196 4 Democratic landslide , als o decrie d th e peace movement. 62 And yet , i n spit e o f th e Buffal o community' s ingraine d anti Communism, hostilit y toward s th e studen t antiwa r movement , an d anti-Semitism, th e majorit y o f resident s wen t o n recor d agains t th e Vietnam Wa r as earl y a s the summe r o f 1966 . Th e Buffal o Commo n Council i n 196 6 canvasse d voter s o n th e wa r an d foun d tha t 8 1

112 "Th

e Geniu s of a Nation "

percent favore d negotiation s wit h Nort h Vietna m whil e a stron g minority, 4 0 percent , wante d th e Unite d State s t o withdra w it s troops. Faulkne r appreciate d th e ethnics ' frustratio n wit h a wa r which wa s killin g thei r son s an d sough t t o buil d bridge s t o th e community. Unfortunately , man y radical s wer e no t s o discernin g and answered anti-Communis m an d anti-Semitism wit h violent rad icalism an d anti-Catholicism . Community-studen t relation s wors ened a s polic e agent s i n SD S an d YAW F became prominen t leader s in th e movement . On e SD S polic e agen t provocateu r revele d i n hi s role a s Jewis h radica l com e t o Buffal o t o aveng e himsel f upo n cul turally conservativ e Italian s an d Poles. 63 Although oppositio n t o antiwar protest was grea t in the city, suc h sentiment exercise d littl e influence o n the campus. On e explanatio n for this developmen t i s tha t the two likel y bastions o f conservatism , the Gree k syste m an d th e athleti c department , wer e inconsequen tial. Merel y eigh t hundre d student s wer e member s o f fraternitie s and sororitie s i n 1966 , givin g SUNY-Buffal o on e o f th e smalles t Greek population s fo r a university o f it s siz e i n th e country . Athlet ics, i n particula r football , receive d minima l emphasi s an d inspire d even les s studen t enthusiasm . Consequently , libera l politica l activ ism becam e a n importan t outle t fo r students ' energies . I n addition , the influ x o f radical Ne w Yorkers , a s well a s Meyerson's progressiv e administrative style , reinforce d th e campus * libera l ambiance . Fo r these reasons , b y th e fal l o f 1965 , SUNY-Buffal o YA F had jus t twent y members, a s oppose d t o SDS' s tw o hundred , an d thereafte r wen t into rapi d decline. 64 The SUNY-Buffal o studen t antiwa r movemen t attracte d a larg e number o f Jew s (4 4 percent) , mor e tha n twic e thei r proportiona l representation o n campus. (Se e Table 3.9. ) Male students dominate d the antiwa r ranks . I t wa s als o a n undergraduat e movement . Addi tionally, 4 7 percen t o f th e activist s wer e residents o f New Yor k Cit y and it s suburbs , whil e jus t 2 9 percen t cam e fro m Buffal o an d th e Niagara Frontier . Onl y a handfu l wer e no t Ne w Yor k residents . I n contrast, 5 8 percen t o f prowa r studen t activist s claime d Norther n and Wester n Europea n ancestr y an d 2 8 percen t wer e Souther n an d Eastern Europea n Catholics . (Se e Tabl e 3.10. ) Sixty-thre e percen t came fro m th e Niagar a Frontier . Prowar , lik e antiwar , student s wer e overwhelmingly males , undergraduates , an d Ne w Yor k Stat e resi dents. Th e crucia l difference s betwee n th e two group s wer e cultura l and residential . Mor e Jew s an d Catholic s identified , respectively ,

"The Geniu s of a Nation" 11

3

Table 3.9 SUNY-Buffalo Antiwa r Studen t Activists , 1965-197 2 ( N = 231* )

Ethnicity

NorthernWestern European 49%

SouthernEastern European Jewis 7% 44

Gender

Female 23%

Male

Residence I

Metropolitan Area 51%

New York City and it s suburbs 47%

Residence II

In-state 92%

Out-of-state 8%

Status

Undergraduate 92%

h %

77% Niagara Frontier 29%

Graduate 8%

*Percentages reported for residence and status are based upon the 231 students I identified out of a total of 427 (54%). The figuresreported for gender are from the entire data base, while the percentages given for ethnicity are derived from 379 of a total of 427 (86%) names. Given what appeared to be 48 anglicized surnames, I chose not to include them in the calculations. Percentages are not cited for majors in the Buffalo tables because the campus directories did not provide such information. with th e anti - an d pr o war positions , whil e contrastin g residentia l origins underscore d th e histori c upstat e an d Ne w Yor k City politica l cleavage. Analyzing th e member s o f th e BDRU , SDS , an d YAWF , w e lear n that th e radical s wer e disproportionatel y Jewish , 6 2 percent , whil e just 3 percen t cam e fro m Souther n an d Easter n Europea n Catholi c backgrounds. (Se e Tabl e 3.11. ) Radical s fro m Norther n an d Wester n European background s accounte d fo r 2 9 percen t o f th e membershi p of leftis t organizations . I n addition , 4 6 percen t o f th e radical s wer e New Yor k Cit y are a resident s whil e jus t a thir d haile d fro m th e Niagara Frontier . Finally , 4 2 percen t wer e Jewish Ne w Yorkers . With littl e oppositio n fro m prowa r students , an d blesse d wit h two universit y presidents , Cliffor d Furna s an d Marti n Meyerson , who respecte d th e right o f student s t o dissen t politically , th e SUNY Buffalo studen t antiwa r movemen t blossome d o n th e campus . A

114 "The

Genius of a Nation"

Table 3.10 SUNY-Buffalo Prowa r Studen t Activists , 1965-197 2 ( N = 117 1P }

Ethnicity

NorthernWestern European 58%

SouthernEastern European 28%

Gender

Female 15%

Male 85%

Residence I

Metropolitan Area 24%

Residence II

In-state 96%

Out-of-state 4%

Status

Undergraduate 96%

Graduate 4%

Jewish 14%

New York City and it s suburbs 18%

Niagara Frontier 63%

*Of 191 name s collected, I identified 11 7 (61%) as to majors, residence, and status. The figures reported for gender and ethnicity are derived from the entire data base. number o f student s ha d alread y bee n mobilize d b y th e anti-HUA C protest an d communit y civi l right s wor k b y th e tim e th e Vietna m War escalate d militarily . SUNY-Buffal o i n 196 5 wa s a libera l cam pus whic h electe d activis t studen t governmen t representative s an d endorsed th e left-of-cente r editorial s publishe d i n th e Spectrum . A t the sam e time , however , antiwa r students , lik e their facult y counter parts, foun d themselve s culturall y an d politicall y isolate d fro m th e Buffalo community . Whe n Meyerso n proclaime d hi s intentio n t o make SUNY-Buffal o "th e Berkele y o f th e East, " th e majorit y o f students embrace d hi s visio n o f creatin g a n intellectuall y progres sive, nationally respecte d institutio n o f higher education . On e anon ymous Cassandra , though , anticipate d ominou s developments : "Ca n they hop e t o have tha t university' s [Berkeley's ] greatnes s withou t it s scandal, strif e an d ugliness?" 6 5 Kent Stat e Universit y The lank y Ken t Stat e undergraduat e entere d hi s plac e o f work , Sam's Pizz a Shop , an d greete d severa l friends . Dissatisfie d wit h th e

"The Genius of a Nation" 11

5

Table 3.11 SUNY-Buffalo SDS , YAWF , an d BDRU , 1965-197 0 ( N = 69*)

Ethnicity

NorthernWestern European 29%

SouthernEastern European 3%

Gender

Female 17%

Male 83%

Residence I

New York City and its suburbs 46%

Residence II

In-State 90%

Out-of-state 10%

Status

Undergraduate 75%

Graduate 25%

Jewish 62%

Niagara Frontier 33%

*The figuresreported above are derived from the entire data base. Percentages reported for ethnicity do not add up to 100 because I excluded Puerto Ricans from the cultural category. Greek system' s dominatio n o f universit y studen t lif e an d wit h Kent' s bland cultura l conformity , h e an d hi s friend s ha d organize d a ra cially integrate d antifraternit y club , "Th e Macedonians,'' whic h me t at Sam's . Thei r politica l activitie s wer e confine d t o intellectua l ru minations. H e wa s th e so n o f a Sout h Carolin a cotto n farme r wh o had relocate d hi s famil y t o Akro n i n orde r t o escap e grindin g pov erty. An d s o hi s fathe r foun d th e America n dream : unrelentin g toi l in a n Akro n tir e factory . Th e so n wante d t o g o t o college , bu t hi s father argue d tha t a ma n di d no t nee d mor e tha n a hig h schoo l education t o wor k i n th e factory . A s th e prospec t o f spendin g th e rest of hi s lif e i n a factory di d no t appeal t o the son, he studie d hard , won a debat e scholarshi p t o Ken t State , an d lef t home . H e becam e the first an d onl y membe r o f hi s famil y t o atten d college . Bu t hi s college educatio n a t onc e alienate d hi m fro m routinize d universit y life a s wel l a s expande d hi s intellectua l horizons . Afte r thre e year s at Ken t Stat e h e ha d ha d enoug h an d lef t fo r Ne w Yor k Cit y t o become a playwright . Te n year s later , Car l Oglesb y wa s nationa l president o f SD S and , fo r a while, on e o f the most influentia l figures in the American Left. 66

116 "The

Genius of a Nation"

Oglesby's educatio n a t Kent State provide d hi m wit h the intellec tual tool s necessar y t o connec t th e economi c exploitatio n o f poo r Americans t o tha t o f Thir d Worl d citizens . Further , hi s culturall y and economicall y deprive d backgroun d enable d hi m t o understan d the aspiration s o f th e les s privilege d an d t o sympathiz e wit h revo lutionaries seekin g t o fre e themselve s fro m Wester n economi c an d political domination . Wit h rhetorical flourishe s reminiscen t o f To m Watson an d Hue y Long , thi s Souther n populis t i n 196 5 looke d t o Jeffersonian defense s o f revolutio n an d considere d America n an d global politic s t o b e informe d b y th e struggl e betwee n th e poo r an d the rich. 67 While Ken t State's conventional life-styl e endure d fo r the remain der o f th e 1950s , th e force s o f chang e ha d begu n t o overcom e th e university's cultura l inerti a b y th e earl y 1960s . Th e rat e o f expand ing studen t enrollment , growin g 4 8 percen t fro m 196 3 t o 1964 , an d the constructio n o f mor e dormitories , signale d Ken t State' s transfor mation fro m a commute r an d teacher s colleg e t o a residentia l an d academically comprehensiv e university . A s th e onl y publi c institu tion o f highe r educatio n i n th e are a (th e stat e universitie s o f Akron , Cleveland, an d Youngstow n wer e no t establishe d unti l th e mid 1960s), Ken t Stat e dre w i n student s fro m th e regio n wh o eithe r could no t affor d t o attend , o r could no t gai n admittanc e to , Oberli n and Wester n Reserv e University . Consequently , th e university's stu dent bod y ha d man y son s an d daughter s o f Akron , Cleveland , an d Youngstown blue-colla r worker s an d businessmen . Th e majorit y o f students i n th e 1960 s were , no t surprisingly , fro m Norther n an d Western Europea n backgrounds , althoug h one-fift h claime d South ern an d Easter n Europea n Catholi c ancestry . Thi s underscore d th e humble clas s origin s o f man y student s since , nationally , th e major ity o f Catholi c ethnic s wer e workin g an d lowe r middl e class . Les s than 5 percent o f Ken t State' s studen t bod y wer e Jewish, indicatin g that thei r proportiona l representatio n o n th e campu s wa s signifi cantly lowe r tha n was th e nor m at more prestigious universities. 68 Kent Stat e seeme d t o b e a n unlikel y plac e t o hav e a studen t movement i n the earl y 1960s . Nonetheless , a student movemen t di d take shape . Th e Ken t Stat e studen t movement' s dynam o wa s Ton y Walsh, th e so n o f Iris h Catholi c immigrants . Place d i n a Clevelan d orphanage a t an earl y age , Walsh' s mothe r havin g die d shortl y afte r his birt h an d hi s fathe r unabl e t o suppor t him , h e wa s eventuall y taken i n b y a n ill-tempere d uncle . Th e uncl e ha d bee n a soldie r i n

"The Genius of a Nation" 11

7

the Iris h Republica n Arm y (IRA ) bu t fled th e Emeral d Isl e on e ste p ahead o f th e Englis h authorities . Settlin g i n Cleveland , Walsh' s un cle became deepl y involve d i n the struggl e i n the 1930 s t o unioniz e Republic Steel' s wor k force . Give n Republi c Steel' s obstinacy , th e uncle wa s mor e tha n willing t o emplo y IRA-styl e tactic s agains t th e corporation's privat e securit y forces . Year s later , whe n Wals h worke d as a cadd y a t a n exclusiv e Clevelan d gol f club , h e woul d liste n t o senior executive s o f Republi c Stee l denounc e labo r union s i n gen eral, an d on e "wil d Iris h bastard " unio n organize r i n particular . Walsh wisel y chos e no t t o revea l hi s kinship , contentin g himsel f with a smirk. 69 Walsh wa s drafte d int o th e arm y i n 1958 , statione d fo r a while a t Ft. Benning , Georgia , wher e h e develope d a stron g distast e fo r Southern racial discrimination . Afte r his military discharg e i n 1961 , he worke d a t a variet y o f jobs , mad e friend s wit h severa l blac k co workers, an d married . Havin g spen t hi s formativ e year s i n a n or phanage, an d the n wit h a n activis t uncle , Wals h ha d develope d profound sympathie s fo r the les s fortunate , whil e hi s militar y expe riences le d hi m t o scor n socia l regimentation . Hi s desir e t o furthe r the cause s o f socia l justic e an d cultura l diversit y wa s realize d whe n he enrolle d a t Ken t Stat e a s a n honor s student . I n 1963 , Wals h an d several studen t civi l right s activist s founde d a university chapte r o f the Congres s o f Racia l Equalit y (CORE) . Althoug h ther e wer e n o more tha n twent y member s o f th e KS U CORE , th e organizatio n became controversial . Th e presiden t o f th e KS U studen t govern ment, whos e fathe r wa s a conservativ e polic e lieutenant , resigne d in protes t after hi s fello w representative s gav e officia l recognitio n t o the radica l group . KS U COR E activists initiate d campaign s t o inte grate cit y swimmin g pool s an d forme d a n A d ho c Committe e o n Free Speec h i n th e fal l o f 196 3 whic h challenge d th e university' s ban o n politica l activitie s o n th e campus . Th e organizatio n als o protested agains t th e university' s polic y o f in loco parentis, a s wel l as succeeded i n electin g Wals h to the studen t government. 70 The university' s studen t activist s i n 1963-196 4 wer e a n ideolog ically divers e an d politicall y persecute d group . Walsh , no t entirel y facetiously, describe d himsel f a s a n "Iris h Catholi c Bolshi " whos e political philosoph y wa s summe d u p in this advice t o protestors: "If it feel s good , d o it. " On e o f Walsh' s opponent s i n th e studen t gov ernment sa w i n tha t statemen t th e seed s o f Communism . Th e ortho dox Marxist s i n th e KS U COR E gravitated toward s Englis h instruc -

118 "The

Genius of a Nation"

tor and Youn g Socialis t Allianc e (YSA ) leade r Bob Ehrlich. A vetera n of th e Souther n Freedo m Rides , Ehrlic h tende d t o b e somewha t paranoid. However , hi s fea r o f politica l surveillanc e an d retributio n was justified . I n Novembe r 1965 , Ehrlic h an d severa l KS U radical s were arreste d afte r police , o n th e pretex t tha t th e radical s wer e serving alcoho l withou t a license, raide d a Socialist Workers ' part y function i n Cleveland . Addin g t o Ehrlic h an d th e YSA' s sens e o f vulnerability wa s hostil e loca l newspape r publicity . Th e Record Courier mad e i t a point , beginnin g i n 1963 , t o identif y YS A mem bers an d conten d tha t th e grou p wa s o n th e U.S . attorne y general' s list o f subversiv e organizations . I t was not , an d publishe r an d Ken t State trustee presiden t Rober t Dix kne w tha t it was not. 71 Following a visit t o KS U in the fall o f 196 4 by a State Departmen t representative wh o defende d Johnson' s Indochin a policy , Wals h and Ehrlic h founde d th e Ken t Committe e t o En d th e Wa r i n Viet nam. Th e KCEW V had les s than a dozen members , includin g Josep h Jackson, th e so n o f th e group' s facult y advisor , Sidne y Jackson , an d Bob Bresnahan , a YS A organize r whos e fathe r wa s a n executiv e o f the Ridgewa y Expres s Compan y i n Akron . I n th e earl y day s o f th e KCEWV's existence , fe w facult y endorse d th e peac e grou p an d man y professors, mostl y thos e lackin g tenure , wer e anxiou s les t the y ap peared t o be sympatheti c t o th e organization . I n contrast, loca l clergy , notably Willia m Jacob s o f th e Universit y Christia n Fellowshi p Union , Peter Richardso n o f th e Unitarian-Universalis t Church , an d Donal d Miller o f th e Newma n Center , publicl y supporte d th e KCEW V an d provided facilitie s t o the activists . Rev . Richardso n eve n wen t s o fa r as t o counse l student s o n conscientiou s objection , advis e studen t draft resisters, an d open a coffeehouse i n the basement o f the Unitar ian Churc h whic h serve d a s a meetin g plac e fo r KCEW V members . One frequen t gues t o f th e coffeehous e wa s a campu s polic e office r who tape d activists ' conversations. 72 University presiden t Whit e an d th e campu s polic e wer e no t th e only partie s wh o too k a n activ e interes t i n th e KCEWV . Th e Ken t Police Departmen t an d th e Portag e Count y prosecutor' s office , a s well a s the Ohio highway patro l an d the Cleveland field offic e o f th e FBI, als o monitore d th e organization , especiall y afte r i t recruite d more member s b y th e mid-1960s . Studen t reporter s fo r th e campu s newspaper, th e Dail y Ken t Stater , an d th e campu s radi o station , WKSU, enthusiasticall y collecte d informatio n o n th e KCEW V fo r the universit y administratio n an d loca l la w enforcemen t agencies .

"The Genius of a Nation" 11

9

The directo r o f WKSU , Bo b Carpenter , als o wa s no t abov e circulat ing storie s ove r th e radi o that KCEW V leade r Ruth Gibson ha d bee n impregnated a t variou s time s b y assorte d militants . O n th e campu s and off , KCEW V members generall y travele d i n group s i n cas e the y were se t upon by hawkish student s o r community residents . O n on e occasion, a t a Kent taver n i n 1965 , Josep h Jackson becam e involve d in a discussio n o f th e Vietna m Wa r an d wa s roughl y ejecte d fro m the bar. He felt pani c an d isolation. 73 Given thi s environmen t o f hostilit y an d repression , i t i s no t sur prising tha t a number o f freshme n an d sophomore s wh o joine d th e KCEWV i n 196 6 wer e warpe d b y thei r experience s an d woun d u p as universit y an d nationa l Weatherme n leader s b y 1969 . Initially , the KCEWV' s founder s opte d fo r communit y dialogue , rejectin g confrontational tactic s which , the y believed , wer e neithe r feasibl e nor desirable . Bu t th e nex t generatio n o f KCEW V members were , i n 1966-1967, beginnin g t o acces s th e virtue s o f educationa l outreac h programs an d movin g tentativel y toward s th e ide a o f revolutionar y violence. O n th e sid e o f confrontatio n wer e middle - an d upper middle-class antiwa r activists : Ric k Erickson , th e so n o f a forme r Democratic mayo r of Akron; Howie Emmer, whose parent s had bee n Ohio Communis t part y organizer s an d victim s o f McCarthyis m i n the 1950s—thoug h hi s parent s stil l manage d t o liv e i n affluen t Shaker Heights; an d Robi n Marks, th e daughte r o f a successful Ne w York City writer . Pitte d agains t thes e privilege d radical s wer e work ing-class activist s suc h a s Jim Powri e wh o cam e t o Ken t Stat e o n a football scholarship . Powri e identifie d wit h hi s working-clas s Iris h Catholic heritag e whic h Emme r castigate d a s racis t an d bourgeois . He coul d onl y repl y i n injure d tone s tha t i t mad e n o sens e t o alienate Kent residents an d students wh o wer e largel y working clas s and ha d relative s bein g killed b y the Viet Cong. 74 As th e seed s o f ideologica l an d clas s division s i n th e campu s antiwar movemen t wer e plante d i n 1966-1967 , a cultura l revolu tion ha d begun . Th e cit y o f Kent' s proximit y t o th e Ohi o Turnpik e and othe r majo r highway s mad e i t a convenien t wa y statio n fro m points Eas t to Cleveland , Detroit , an d Chicago . Wit h th e burgeonin g resident studen t population , Ken t becam e a youth-oriente d locale . Easy acces s an d th e yout h marke t attracte d roc k 'n ' rol l an d jaz z bands fro m Cleveland , Detroit , an d Chicago , whic h foun d i n Kent' s remarkable numbe r o f bar s a plac e t o wor k o n thei r act s befor e breaking int o th e majo r leagues . Jo e Wals h haunte d Kent' s tavern s

120 ' T h

e Geniu s of a Nation"

Table 3.1 2 KSU Antiwa r Studen t Activists , 1965-197 2 ( N = 275*)

Ethnicity

NorthernWestern European 72%

SouthernEastern European Jewis 13% 15

Gender

Female 34%

Male 66%

Residence I

Metropolitan Area 31%

Cleveland and its suburbs 16%

Residence II

In-state 72%

Out-of-state 28%

Status

Undergraduate 80%

Graduate 20%

h %

*Of 413 names collected, I identified 275 (66%) as to residence. The figuresreported for ethnicity, gender, and status are derived from the entire data base. Percentages are not cited for majors in the Kent State tables because the campus directories did not provide such information. developing hi s sound , an d on e o f Lo u Reed' s "cellophane-wrapped " dancers studie d a t Ken t State , spendin g he r summer s v/it h th e "Vel vet Underground " i n Ne w York . Consequently , a n iconoclasti c mu sical subcultur e develope d i n conservativ e Kent , a subcultur e i n which KCEW V member s an d "Devo " founder s Bo b Lewis , a lower middle-class Wels h Methodist , an d Jerr y Casale , a working-clas s Italian Catholic , sough t t o fuse leftis t politic s wit h rock . Throughou t the 1960s , th e fam e o f Kent' s ba r an d musi c scen e sprea d acros s th e Midwest, makin g th e cit y a magne t fo r revelers , drifters , an d activ ists. Increasingly , th e city' s resident s wer e tor n betwee n thei r desir e to profi t fro m thei r studen t tourists , an d fea r tha t la w an d orde r wa s cracking unde r th e weigh t o f pot-smokin g Communists. 75 Kent State' s activist s were, beyond obviou s ideologica l an d counter cultural attributes , atypica l students . T o begi n with , 1 5 percen t o f Kent Stat e antiwa r student s wer e Jewish , thoug h the y represente d merely 5 percen t o f th e overal l studen t bod y i n 1969 . (Se e Tabl e 3.12.) Further , 3 1 percen t cam e fro m metropolita n area s an d 1 6

"The Genius of a Nation" 12

1

Table 3.13 KCEWV, 1964 --1967 ( N = 47*)

Ethnicity

NorthernWestern European 66%

SouthernEastern European Jewis 17% 17

Gender

Female 23%

Male 77%

Residence I

Metropolitan Area 32%

Cleveland and its suburbs 15%

Residence II

In-state 72%

Out-of-state 28%

Status

Undergraduate 89%

Graduate 11%

h %

*KCEWV constant membership from the years 1964 to 1967 probably added up to no more than 70 students, although by the spring of 1967 as many as 200 students showed up forKCEWV peace rallies. According toKCEWV presidents Tony Walsh (1964-1966) and Ruth Gibson (19661968), yearly membership was, on the average, as follows: 1964,12; 1965,12; 1966, 20; 1967, 40. Percentages reported for residence are based upon the 47 students I identified out of a total of 53. Figures cited for ethnicity, gender, and status are derived from the entire data base. percent were residents o f Cleveland an d its suburbs. In contrast, jus t 17 percen t an d 9 percent , respectively , o f th e studen t bod y cam e from metropolita n area s an d Clevelan d an d it s suburbs . Addition ally, 2 0 percen t o f antiwa r student s wer e graduat e students , eve n though the y represente d onl y 7 percen t o f th e studen t population . Finally, 2 8 percen t o f antiwa r student s claime d out-of-stat e resi dences compare d t o 1 7 percen t o f the student body . Examining th e studen t compositio n o f th e KCEW V fro m 196 4 t o 1967 w e find a disproportionat e numbe r o f Jews , out-of-stat e resi dents, an d student s fro m metropolita n areas . (Se e Tabl e 3.13. ) I n comparison t o th e genera l categor y o f antiwa r students , however , we find tha t the KCEWV attracted fewer graduat e students an d mor e Southern an d Easter n Europea n Catholics . Afte r th e mor e doctri naire activist s abandone d th e KCEW V i n 196 8 an d founde d a cam pus SD S chapter , th e leftis t antiwa r movemen t becam e eve n les s

122 "The

Genius of a Nation"

Table 3.14 KSU SDS , 1968 --1969 ( N = 66*)

Ethnicity

NorthernWestern European 63%

SouthernEastern European Jewis 18% 19

Gender

Female 27%

Male 73%

Residence I

Metropolitan Area 51%

Cleveland and its suburbs 21%

Residence II

In-state 59%

Out-of-state 41%

Status

Undergraduate 94%

Graduate 6%

h %

*Of the 77 SDS members noted, I identified 66 (85%) as to residence and status. Figures reported for ethnicity, gender, and status are derived from the entire data base. representative o f th e campus an d th e liberal-dovis h campu s antiwa r movement. (Se e Tabl e 3.14. ) Ken t Stat e SD S wa s overwhelmingl y an undergraduat e organization , wit h a substantia l minorit y o f out of-state student s (4 1 percent ) an d a majorit y o f metropolita n resi dents (5 1 percent) . Jewis h student s wer e disproportionatel y repre sented i n th e KS U SD S (1 9 percent ) but , i n contras t t o th e othe r campus SD S chapter s profiled , th e grou p ha d a substantial numbe r of Souther n an d Easter n Europea n Catholic s (1 8 percent) , largel y Italian ethnics . O f course , a s a mainl y working - an d lower-middle class school , KS U had a great number o f ethni c Catholic student s i n general, fa r mor e tha n a t comparabl e stat e institution s o f highe r education. Prowar activist s wer e generall y male , whil e antiwa r activist s claimed a somewha t large r proportio n o f females . (Se e Tabl e 3.15. ) Few graduat e student s an d out-of-stat e resident s wer e found i n pro war activis t ranks . Seventy-thre e percen t o f prowa r student s wer e from Norther n an d Wester n Europea n backgrounds , v/hil e 2 0 per cent claime d Souther n an d Easter n Europea n ancestry . Jus t 7 per -

"The Genius of a Nation" 12

3

Table 3.15 KSU Prowa r Studen t Activists , 1964-197 0 ( N = 57*)

Ethnicity

NorthernWestern European 73%

SouthernEastern European Jewis 20% 7

Gender

Female 7%

Male 93%

Residence I

Metropolitan Area 28%

Cleveland and its suburbs 14%

Residence II

In-state 86%

Out-of-state 14%

Status

Undergraduate 94%

Graduate 6%

%

h

*Of 69 names collected, I identified 57 (82%) as to residence. Figures reported for ethnicity, gender, and status are derived from the entire data base. cent wer e Jewish . A disproportionat e numbe r o f prowa r studen t activists, a s wa s tru e for their antiwar counterparts , cam e fro m met ropolitan areas . Whethe r o r no t bein g raise d i n cosmopolita n envi ronments, rathe r than in smal l town s lik e mos t KS U students, mad e prowar activist s les s violen t tha n hawkis h student s i n general , i s debatable. Kent Stat e studen t peac e activist s operate d i n a profoundl y hos tile environment , culturall y se t apar t from th e campu s an d th e Ken t community. Onl y a handfu l o f facult y supporte d th e antiwa r stu dents, an d th e professors ' mora l an d intellectua l contribution s t o campus peac e organization s wer e minimal . Fa r mor e importan t t o students wer e th e activis t clerg y wh o provide d advice , facilities , and encouragemen t t o antiwa r students . Th e studen t antiwa r move ment ha d bee n founde d b y a curious mixtur e o f working-class Cath olics, upper-middle-clas s Protestants , an d re d diape r babies . I n th e halcyon day s o f 196 4 an d earl y 1965 , i t appeare d a s i f th e Indo chinese conflic t coul d b e quickly resolve d b y students throug h peti tions an d nonviolen t protest . Despit e cultura l an d clas s differences ,

124 "The

Genius of a Nation "

as wel l a s politica l isolation , Ken t State' s antiwa r studen t activist s were member s o f a small , close-kni t family . A s th e wa r escalated , activists experience d intensifie d campu s an d communit y persecu tion. Yet the peace movement grew . But in reacting to local hostility , class an d cultura l difference s whic h ha d bee n mute d i n 196 5 bega n to tear the movement apart . The emergenc e o f studen t politica l activis m a t stat e school s pre dated th e 196 4 uprisin g a t Berkele y which , accordin g t o variou s scholars, spawne d whit e studen t activism . Studen t activist s a t Kent State, Michiga n State , an d SUNY-Buffalo , thei r number s varyin g from campu s t o campus , wer e involve d i n fre e speec h protest s sev eral month s prio r t o th e Berkele y Fre e Speec h Movement . I n addi tion, studen t activist s a t Kent State , Michiga n State , an d Pen n Stat e had establishe d antiwa r organization s months , i f no t years , befor e the militar y escalatio n o f th e Vietna m Wa r and th e foundin g o f th e famous Berkele y Vietna m Da y Committee. 76 Moreover, contrar y t o scholar s wh o hav e contende d tha t stat e university studen t activist s wer e les s articulate , intelligent , an d ef fective tha n thei r elit e educate d counterparts , th e fac t remain s tha t eloquent, bright , an d dynamic , a s wel l a s nationall y prominent , antiwar studen t leader s emerge d fro m les s well-regarde d universi ties: Car l Davidson , Clinto n Deveaux , Howi e Emmer , Car l Oglesby , and And y Stapp , t o lis t onl y a few . Thes e activist s contribute d a moral an d politica l approac h t o th e peac e movement , a n approac h shaped b y thei r clas s an d cultura l values . Se t fort h b y particula r activists were possibilitie s fo r ClO-inspired studen t syndicalis m an d Old Testament-influence d Marxis t liberatio n theology . However , clas s and cultura l difference s amon g activists , an d betwee n activist s an d community residents , ultimatel y undermine d suc h sweepin g vi sions, leavin g i n thei r wak e politica l fragmentatio n an d bitte r con flict.77 The influenc e o f th e loca l environmen t o n th e developmen t o f each campus * antiwar movemen t wa s significant . Student s di d reac t to nationa l event s an d th e eb b an d flo w o f th e civi l right s an d anti Vietnam Wa r movements . A t th e sam e time , though , students ' tac tics an d perception s o f America n societ y reflecte d thei r immediat e cultural an d politica l environment . Th e type of relationship antiwa r students ha d wit h universit y administrators , prowa r students , la w enforcement agencies , an d community resident s determine d th e mod e

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5

of dissen t a s wel l a s th e way s i n whic h confrontatio n unfolded . Each campu s wa s quit e differen t fro m th e other s i n suc h regard s and bore littl e semblanc e t o the so-calle d activis t schools : Berkeley , Columbia, Harvard , an d Michigan . State universit y studen t activist s greatl y differe d fro m elit e uni versity protestor s a s fa r a s clas s an d cultura l origin s ar e concerned . Activists fro m th e les s prestigiou s universitie s dre w upo n a divers e membership o f re d diape r babies , upper-middle-clas s secularize d Protestants, an d working - an d lower-middle-clas s Catholic s an d Protestants. A t th e elit e schools , studen t activist s wer e overwhelm ingly middle an d upper middle class . Moreover , eve n though Jewis h students represente d a significan t par t o f SD S an d th e Ne w Lef t a t the stat e universities , thei r numbers , wit h th e exceptio n o f SUNY Buffalo, wer e muc h greate r at schools suc h a s Columbia an d Michi gan (anywher e fro m 5 0 to 7 5 percent) . Finally , th e stat e universitie s claimed fa r mor e Catholi c studen t activist s tha n th e heavil y WAS P elite schools. 78

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In response t o Viet Cong attack s o n U.S . military personne l i n Sout h Vietnam, Lyndo n Johnso n bega n i n Februar y 196 5 t o bom b Nort h Vietnam. Oppositio n t o hi s Indochin a polic y appeare d o n man y campuses, coalescin g onc e h e bega n t o dispatc h larg e number s o f combat force s t o Sout h Vietna m i n March . Initially , stat e universit y protestors wer e a small minorit y an d regarde d i n thei r communitie s as Communis t subversives . A t suc h locales , antiwa r protes t fro m 1965 t o 196 7 wa s nonviolen t an d th e mos t commo n type s o f protes t against th e wa r wer e teach-ins , peac e petition s addresse d t o John son, and low-ke y picketing . In contras t t o th e stat e universities , elit e school s experience d a n immediate wav e o f violen t protest . I n th e fal l o f 1965 , thirty-eigh t University o f Michiga n student s wer e arreste d fo r tryin g t o clos e down a n An n Arbo r draf t board . Amon g thos e take n int o custod y were Dian a Oughton , a Bry n Maw r graduat e an d th e daughte r o f a n affluent Illinoi s restauranteur , an d Bil l Ayers, th e so n o f a multimil lionaire utilitie s compan y president . Threat s b y Selectiv e Servic e t o draft Ayer s an d th e othe r privilege d mal e Michiga n militant s wer e mysteriously an d rapidl y withdrawn. 1 A yea r later , Berkele y activist s physicall y intimidate d on-campu s naval recruiter s an d th e smal l minorit y o f hawkis h students ; Har vard SDSer s ambushe d McNamara' s car , refusin g t o allo w th e de fense secretar y t o leav e th e campu s unti l subjecte d t o a n extende d session o f jeerin g an d cursing ; an d five hundre d Chicag o student s occupied a campu s buildin g t o protes t universit y administratio n o f 129

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a Selectiv e Servic e examination . B y 1967 , Wisconsi n radicals , pro testing Do w Chemica l recruiter s a t th e university , wer e smashin g windows an d brandishin g clubs . Th e majorit y o f th e activist s fro m these universitie s wer e uppe r middl e an d uppe r class , chiefl y th e children o f lawyers , doctors , academics , an d corporat e executives. 2 Interestingly, afte r Madiso n polic e arreste d ninetee n Wisconsi n students a t th e Do w protest , th e chancello r poste d thei r bai l an d th e state attorne y genera l castigate d th e officer s fo r excessiv e us e o f force agains t th e childre n o f wealth y alumni . Thu s seemingl y im mune fro m seriou s crimina l prosecutio n an d universit y discipline , Berkeley, Chicago , Michigan , an d Wisconsi n activist s subsequentl y adopted eve n mor e violen t tactics . Wisconsi n militant s repai d th e university fo r it s consideratio n b y firebombing th e offic e o f th e associate dea n fo r studen t academi c affairs. 3 As th e elit e universitie s witnesse d violen t demonstrations , an d less privilege d activist s a t stat e school s struggle d t o build a popular , nonviolent peac e movement , th e wa r escalated . A t th e sam e time , the peac e movemen t expanded . However , oppositio n t o th e antiwa r movement increase d throughou t 196 5 an d 1966 , wit h th e publi c directing it s ange r a t th e restiv e campuses . B y 1967 , frustration wit h the peac e movement' s inabilit y t o sto p th e wa r sparke d mountin g dissension withi n campu s antiwa r ranks . Moreover , ideologica l an d cultural division s amon g peac e activist s becam e difficul t t o ignore . As th e publi c becam e disenchante d wit h Johnso n an d hi s failur e t o win th e Vietna m War , an d a s rac e riot s erupte d acros s America , th e campus advocate s o f nonviolen t protes t a t th e stat e universitie s began t o los e contro l o f th e peac e movement . Simultaneously , cam pus activist s expose d th e universities ' tie s t o th e defens e establish ment an d th e academ y becam e a target, as well a s a locale, of protest . Battle line s wer e draw n an d the y ra n throug h th e hear t o f th e sprawling campuse s whic h owe d thei r expansio n an d prosperit y t o an increasingl y discredited , divisiv e Col d Wa r foreig n policy . Michigan Stat e Universit y On th e evenin g o f Marc h 4 , 1965 , Lawrenc e Battistin i spok e t o a small numbe r o f student s i n th e campu s YS A chapter . Battistini , a Southeast Asia n specialist , informe d hi s spars e audienc e tha t John son's Vietna m polic y woul d inevitabl y replicat e France' s futile , hu -

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miliating experienc e i n Indochina. Further , he argued , Americ a wa s illegally intervenin g i n a civi l wa r betwee n th e Saigo n governmen t and th e dissiden t Nationa l Liberatio n Fron t (NLF) . "Neithe r th e United Nation's charter , nor customary international law, " Battistin i contended, "concede s th e righ t t o hel p eithe r sid e i n a civi l war. " Americans who believed tha t the Indochinese conflic t wa s the resul t of Communist aggressio n from North Vietnam, instea d o f an interna l civil uprising , th e professo r concluded , wer e th e victim s o f presi dential an d pres s duplicity. 4 After Battistin i finished hi s remarks , Bria n Keleher , politica l sci ence graduat e studen t an d vic e presiden t o f th e MS U YSA , an nounced tha t th e MS U SD S an d YS A wer e sponsorin g a peac e march o n Washingto n fo r Apri l 1 7 i n orde r t o protes t Johnson' s Vietnam policy. On e thousand demonstrators , includin g thirty MS U students, wer e expecte d t o attend the peace rally. It seemed tha t fe w MSU student s an d faculty , an d American s i n general , wer e inter ested i n Vietnam , trustin g Johnson t o champion democrac y a t hom e and abroad. 5 Johnson's decisio n t o sen d th e U.S . Marine s to DaNang o n Marc h 8, 1965 , immediatel y generate d greate r interes t i n Vietnam . Battis tini, Greer , Donoghue , an d Rokeac h organize d th e seventeen-mem ber A d ho c MS U Facult y Committe e fo r Peac e i n Vietnam . The y also arrange d fo r a Vietna m teach-i n a t th e universit y o n Apri l 11 . MSU's first Vietnam teach-in attracted 2,00 0 students, includin g on e hundred disruptive , hawkis h Youn g Democrats , an d wa s twic e in terrupted b y bom b threats . Th e Youn g Democrat s an d th e MS U Young American s fo r Freedo m repeatedl y heckle d th e antiwa r speakers. Hawkis h faculty , wh o believe d tha t professional s shoul d not criticiz e th e government , glare d hostilel y a t thei r antiwa r col leagues. Despit e th e tense, chaoti c atmospher e o f the teach-in, man y students an d facult y fel t tha t i t ha d a solid intellectua l conten t tha t clearly define d th e issue s and , a s th e first open , campus-wid e anti war statement, len t a sense o f legitimac y t o its participants. 6 Students an d facult y a t th e teach-i n passe d tw o resolution s b y acclamation: first, the U.S. mus t immediatel y negotiat e a n end to the war; an d second , MS U shoul d wor k t o eliminat e th e potentia l fo r future internationa l conflic t b y establishin g a campu s Wa r an d Peac e Research Center . I n a lette r t o Hannah , Donoghu e expresse d hop e that Johnson had been observin g event s i n East Lansing :

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The President and his advisors are unaware of the deep concern and the moral distres s whic h tha t polic y [Vietnam ] ha s induce d amon g man y o f us... Ou r government, once aware of our moral concern, will be responsive to the citizens' quest for justice and human decency. 7 Reinhard Mohr , politica l scienc e graduat e studen t an d chai r o f MSU SDS , wa s equall y optimisti c abou t the power o f the teach-in i n promoting awareness , fo r i t effectivel y raise d hithert o indifferen t students' consciousnes s o f Vietnam . On e hundre d an d thirt y MS U students attende d th e Apri l 1 7 rall y i n Washington , fou r time s th e original numbe r wh o ha d signe d u p fo r th e antiwa r protes t tw o weeks befor e th e teach-in. 8 Hawkish faculty , chiefl y Vietna m Projec t veteran s le d b y Fishel , castigated Battistini , Donoghue , an d Greer . Th e MS U YA F an d th e People t o Peopl e Associatio n joine d th e anti-Communis t facult y chorus. I n scathin g letter s t o th e edito r o f th e Stat e News, hostil e students an d facult y accuse d antiwa r activist s o f bein g "cowards, " "Communist appeasers, " "psychotics, " an d "traitors. " Presiden t Johnson als o quietl y intervene d o n behal f o f th e campu s hawks , giving Fishel $25,00 0 i n privat e fund s t o establish a national pr o war speakers' bureau and informatio n center. 9 Organizers o f th e MS U Facult y Committe e fo r Peac e i n Vietna m challenged th e pr o war campu s organization , th e MS U Friend s o f Vietnam, t o a serie s o f debates . Fishe l se t th e acrimoniou s ton e o f the debate s b y misquotin g an d insultin g Battistin i an d Greer , whil e his colleague s i n th e audienc e heckle d th e peac e activists . Afte r Greer receive d a standin g ovatio n fro m hundred s o f student s i n Anthony Hall , Fishe l snapped : "Afte r that , I' m no t sur e whethe r t o address yo u a s member s o f th e Madmen' s Society , o r Future Beast s of America." 10 The first confrontatio n betwee n antiwa r student s an d th e univer sity administratio n occurre d i n Octobe r 196 5 a t th e studen t union . Twenty student s fro m MS U SD S se t u p booth s o n eithe r sid e o f a marine recruitin g tabl e whic h feature d battl e films o f U.S . aircraf t napalming variou s targets . Tw o o f th e activist s quietl y hel d u p placards bearin g th e picture s o f childre n disfigure d b y napal m burns . The marine s threatene d the m wit h bodil y har m unles s the y lef t th e building. Soon , th e Placemen t Burea u directo r demande d tha t th e antiwar student s vacat e th e premise s immediately . Actin g o n thei r own initiative , five SDSer s refused t o obey his order . The directo r of the MS U Departmen t o f Publi c Safet y subsequentl y charge d the m

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with trespassin g an d distributin g commercia l literatur e o n univer sity property . Afte r th e SDSer s wer e release d o n bail , awaitin g thei r trial i n Marc h 1966 , th e Stat e News derisivel y labele d the m "Viet niks" an d condemne d the m fo r violatin g th e propert y right s o f th e university. 11 Alarmed a t the growin g numbe r o f antiwa r activists an d the mas s of leftis t literatur e floodin g th e campus , YAF , th e Michiga n branc h of the American Legion, an d the MSU chapter of the Delta Tau Delt a fraternity, whic h dominate d th e studen t government , collecte d 15,87 2 student, faculty , an d communit y residents ' signature s o n a petitio n supporting Johnson' s Vietna m policy . Th e Stat e News welcome d YAF's initiative , bu t argue d i n Novembe r tha t Senato r Barr y Gold water's proposa l fo r endin g th e wa r throug h th e nonstop , intensiv e bombing o f North Vietnam was superio r to Johnson's surgica l bomb ing strateg y an d us e o f counterinsurgenc y groun d forces . Thi s edi torial, publishe d a fe w week s afte r th e universit y ha d prohibite d reporters fro m coverin g th e activitie s o f th e Committe e fo r Studen t Rights, le d fou r o f th e five studen t editor s t o qui t an d foun d Th e Paper. 12 During th e interi m betwee n th e State News walkou t an d th e founding o f The Paper, fort y MS U antiwa r students , subdue d b y YAF's succes s i n rallyin g suppor t fo r Johnson , a s wel l a s b y th e unabated escalatio n o f th e Vietna m War , mad e a second pilgrimag e to Washingto n o n Novembe r 27 . A t th e previou s sprin g rall y th e mood ha d bee n cheerful , wit h activist s believin g tha t onc e Johnso n saw ho w man y American s objecte d t o his Vietna m polic y h e woul d quickly see k peace . Th e ensuin g month s o f increase d troo p commit ments an d draf t call s rapidl y deflate d thei r optimism . Wit h winte r approaching, th e 50,00 0 peopl e wh o assemble d i n Washington real ized tha t the struggle for peace would b e a long, tiring process. The y would hav e t o continu e t o organiz e large r rallies , whil e hostil e critics branded the m a s traitors and Communists . That November da y in 1965 , however, di d offer the activists som e consolation an d inspiratio n t o tak e bac k t o thei r campuses . Car l Oglesby, presiden t o f th e nationa l SDS , provide d a n analysi s o f American liberalis m an d foreign polic y tha t became th e cornerston e of the New Lef t interpretatio n o f the Vietnam War. He compared th e Communist insurrectio n i n Sout h Vietna m to the American Revolu tion. O f cours e th e Communist s committe d excesses , bu t revolu tions, includin g th e America n Revolution , wer e b y definitio n blood y

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affairs. I n thi s manner , h e enable d antiwa r activist s t o rationaliz e that the y wer e no t appeasin g th e Communists . Rather , the y wer e furthering th e ideal s o f Pain e an d Jefferso n whic h ha d bee n cor rupted b y liberal s wh o shamelessl y denounce d an y socia l move ment a s Soviet-directe d i f i t challenge d America n militar y an d eco nomic interests . No w antiwa r partisan s coul d respon d t o th e red-baiters tha t the y wer e th e tru e patriots , defendin g traditiona l democratic America n value s agains t "corporat e libera l imperial ism." 13 Shortly afte r Oglesby' s rivetin g speech , Selectiv e Servic e directo r Lewis Hershey , citin g a need fo r mor e soldiers , ordere d tha t colleg e student draf t deferment s (2-S ) b e cut by at least 2 0 percent. I n order to maintai n 2 - S statu s a t MSU , student s ha d t o hav e a "C " grad e average an d scor e 7 0 percen t o n a Selectiv e Servic e intelligenc e examination, a n examinatio n largel y compose d o f mathematic s questions whic h favore d engineerin g an d busines s major s an d place d liberal art s an d socia l scienc e major s a t a great disadvantage . Colo nel John Holmes, directo r of Selective Servic e i n Michigan, exhorte d President Hanna h t o expe l eve r greate r numbers o f students , statin g that only 1 0 percen t o f th e MS U studen t bod y wa s qualifie d t o be i n school. Th e othe r 9 0 percent , Holme s argued , wer e unworth y o f college education s an d wer e shirkin g thei r patrioti c dut y i n Viet nam. 14 The prospec t o f losin g 2 - S statu s an d bein g compelle d t o fight i n an "unjus t war " weighe d heavil y o n th e mind s o f students . Ji m Thomas, a MS U sophomor e an d frien d o f SDSe r Stev e Badrich , decided i n Marc h 196 6 t o enlis t i n th e marine s rathe r tha n spen d two mor e anxious years at the university whil e hi s draf t board mad e frequent inquirie s int o his academi c standing . Mik e Kindman, Meri t Scholar an d edito r o f Th e Paper , wa s saddene d b y Thomas * deci sion, bu t recognize d tha t universit y student s wh o struggle d t o kee p their 2 - S statu s were onl y puttin g of f th e inevitable : The wa r ma y wel l g o o n fo r years . W e i n colleg e ar e lik e me n i n a n overcrowded lifeboat; some have to be pushed over the side to save the rest. .. . Our time i s limited ; fou r year s . . . les s wit h uppe r divisio n standing . And w e al l wonder , a s w e si t i n classe s an d g o t o meetings , finding ou r "adventure and usefulness no t so close to the bone of combat,'' if help will arrive in time.15 Perceiving tha t th e threa t o f th e draf t ha d grow n exponentiall y since Novembe r o f 1965 , providin g large r numbers o f apprehensive ,

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potential recruit s fo r th e antiwa r movement , MS U SD S accelerate d its peac e educatio n offensiv e i n Eas t Lansing . I n Marc h 1966 , SD S focused attentio n o n th e cour t case s o f th e five student s wh o ha d been arreste d i n th e unio n i n October . Note d Ne w Yor k Cit y civi l liberties attorne y Conra d Lyn n unsuccessfull y represente d th e five antiwar activist s befor e a Lansin g justic e o f th e peace . Lyn n ap pealed thei r conviction s a t th e Ingha m Count y Circui t Cour t o n March 29 . Circui t Cour t judge Marvi n Salmo n increase d thei r fines, sentenced th e activist s t o ten-to-thirt y da y jai l terms , an d denie d them bai l despit e thei r expresse d intentio n t o appea l t o th e Michi gan Suprem e Court . Th e Detroi t Free Press criticize d Salmon' s de cison t o den y th e student s bail , notin g tha t "i t forced the m t o serv e the sentence s h e impose d befor e thei r appeal s coul d b e hear d an d judged, thus inflictin g punishmen t whateve r the outcome." 16 Immediately followin g Salmon' s ruling , twenty-eigh t student s camped i n fron t o f Cowle s House , Hannah' s campu s residence . Fo r three ver y col d day s an d night s the y fasted , protestin g th e Circui t Court's denia l o f du e proces s o f law . Amon g th e campers , muc h t o Hannah's chagrin , wer e Jan e Mun n an d Louis e Holmes , th e daugh ter o f Michiga n Selectiv e Servic e directo r Joh n Holmes . Unfriendl y students thre w wate r balloons a t them an d Hannah refused t o spea k to th e "martyrs. " B y th e thir d da y o f th e protest , tw o hundre d students rallie d aroun d Beaumon t Towe r an d th e protes t ha d be come a major stor y fo r th e state' s leadin g newspape r an d televisio n stations. 17 Although th e Michigan Suprem e Cour t upheld th e conviction s o f the antiwa r students , th e campu s peac e movement , throug h th e trials an d relate d protes t rallies , garnere d favorabl e publicit y fro m the Detroi t Free Press, i f no t fro m th e conservativ e Republica n Lan sing Stat e Journal. Hannah' s refusa l t o establis h a dialogue wit h th e campers, a s wel l a s hi s insistenc e tha t prosecutin g attorne y Donal d Reisig deman d maximu m sentence s fo r th e activists , accordin g t o the Fre e Press , undermine d hi s imag e a s a champion o f civi l right s and du e process. 18 Just a s th e controvers y surroundin g th e trial s o f th e antiwa r pro testors bega n t o subside , th e radica l Wes t Coas t magazine Rampart s published i n it s Apri l issu e a sensational stor y abou t MSU-CI A tie s in th e defunc t Vietna m Project . Th e fallou t fro m th e Ramparts ' bombshell blankete d MSU . Th e Free Press , th e New York Times, and th e thre e nationa l televisio n network s descende d upo n Cowle s

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House; state senato r Jack Faxon, D-Detroit , announce d tha t a special hearing o f th e Subcommitte e o n Higher Education woul d b e held i n May t o investigat e MSU-CI A links ; MS U politica l scientis t an d for mer assistan t t o th e hea d o f th e Vietna m Project , Rober t Scigliano , resigned an d fled t o SUNY-Buffalo ; an d th e stat e legislatur e re scinded a $1 0 millio n appropriatio n t o MS U whic h wa s t o hav e been use d t o establis h a la w school . Fishe l calle d th e Ramparts article a "silly, slim y smear " an d defende d th e Vietna m Project : "i t was necessar y t o buil d a moder n polic e forc e fo r a moder n state , which i s nothin g t o b e ashame d of. " O n Apri l 14 , a flustered Ralp h Smuckler, forme r hea d o f th e Vietna m Projec t an d no w dea n o f International Programs , assure d th e State News tha t MS U di d no t provide cove r fo r CI A operation s i n Indochin a i n th e 1950s . A fe w hours later , however , h e admitte d t o the New York Times tha t MS U and the CIA had had a special arrangemen t by which CI A operative s were grante d facult y statu s a t th e university . Hanna h contradicte d Smuckler's admissio n o f MSU-CI A cooperatio n an d h e i n tur n wa s contradicted b y forme r CI A inspecto r genera l Lyma n Kirkpatrick . Kirkpatrick observe d tha t onl y a n "idiot " coul d no t hav e know n that the CIA had used th e MSU Vietnam Projec t as a front. 19 On Apri l 23 , Hanna h informe d th e new s medi a tha t Ramparts ' deceitful attac k o n MS U merite d contemptuou s silenc e instea d o f vocal defense . Nonetheless , Hanna h defende d MSU' s rol e i n creat ing th e Sout h Vietnames e state . Michiga n State' s primar y mission , he contended , wa s t o carr y ou t nationa l polic y fo r the benefi t o f th e free world : When ou r facult y member s ar e engage d i n providin g service , eithe r within Michigan, elsewhere in the country, or overseas, we do not consider their activities as a "diversion o f the university," but instead a recognition of a significant an d defensible function of the university. To sa y tha t a universit y shoul d neve r undertak e t o serv e th e nationa l policy i s to deny the right of the public university to exist. In everything it does, th e publi c universit y carrie s ou t th e national policy... . W e are not about to abandon that mission . 20 Furthermore, Hanna h argued , Ramparts* charg e tha t the Vietna m Project serve d a s a front fo r th e CI A wa s a lie. "Michiga n Stat e di d not hav e a spy operatio n withi n it s Vietnam Project . I t did no t hav e CIA peopl e operatin g unde r cove r provide d b y th e university , o r i n secret fro m th e Vietnamese government. " Hannah also denie d Ram -

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parts' clai m tha t MS U mad e $2 5 millio n fro m th e Vietna m Projec t (or nearly one-fift h o f MSU' s annua l operatin g budge t fro m 195 5 t o 1962), citin g a significantly lowe r figure o f $7. 8 million . Finally , h e assured taxpayer s tha t "n o armament s no r ammunition s wer e sup plied throug h th e Michiga n Stat e contract. ,, Ramparts' inventor y o f MSU-procured weapon s fo r Diem coul d onl y be a forgery. 21 The MS U president' s pres s conferenc e di d no t resolv e th e Ram parts controversy . Kirkpatric k continue d t o insis t that , unti l 1959 , the CIA had use d th e Vietnam Projec t a s a front for covert activities , and Smuckle r confirme d MSU-CI A link s before th e stat e legislature . If students , faculty , o r reporter s wishe d t o verif y Ramparts ' repor t of MSU' s $2 5 millio n i n profit s o r role i n procurin g armament s fo r Diem, the y ha d onl y t o g o t o th e librar y an d chec k ou t Rober t Scigliano an d Gu y Fox' s Technica l Assistanc e i n Vietnam : Th e MSU Experience o r The Final Repor t Covering Actvities of the MS U Vietnam Advisory Group. O n pag e fou r o f Technica l Assistance, Scigliano an d Fo x state d tha t th e federa l governmen t gav e th e uni versity $25 million for the MSU project, and the Ramparts inventor y of MSU-procure d weapon s tha t Hannah claimed wa s a forgery cam e from Th e Fina l Report . A MS U studen t ha d photocopie d th e inven tory and maile d i t to Ramparts. 22 Fishel redouble d hi s effort s t o defen d America n polic y i n Viet nam, addressin g a thousand curiou s an d suspiciou s student s i n th e Union Ballroo m o n Apri l 20 . Bu t hi s prais e fo r Johnso n fel l upo n deaf ears . Rampart s ha d undermine d hi s scholarl y credibilit y a s well a s deal t a death blo w t o campu s prowa r organizations . SDSer s Steve Badrich , Joe l Schkloven , an d Davi d Hooke r dedicate d a son g to Fishe l whic h the y performe d o n campu s (sun g t o th e tun e o f Johnny Rivers' "Secre t Agent Man") : Sitting in his Berkey office on e day, Saigon planning tables the next day, Wesley always gets his way, He's backed by the CIA, Odds are he'll be anywhere tomorrow. Super-Fishel man, Super-Fishel man, Where Wesley takes his field-trips Not even Bond would go. Saigon's first regime was his creation, We wondered where he went that spring vacation, Because in the public eye,

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He's a teacher, not a spy, A servant of the truth, and not the nation. Super-Fishel man, Super-Fishel man, We haven't lost a teacher, We've gained an agent man.23 MSU SDS , i n spit e of , o r because of , suc h entertainment , becam e in 196 6 a magne t fo r large r number s o f bright , nonconformis t stu dents. And y Pyle , a Meri t Schola r an d lanky , slow-talkin g Wes t Virginian, joine d SD S because i t was a n intellectua l refug e fro m th e anonymity an d isolatio n o f dormitor y life . Georg e Fis h ha d bee n a nonconformist sinc e hi s first da y o n campu s whe n h e ha d annoye d university official s b y wearin g a n antiwa r butto n durin g clas s regis tration. H e looke d t o SD S a s a n organizatio n i n whic h t o expres s unorthodox idea s a s well a s a sanctuary fro m a dormitory roommat e whose one-wor d vocabulary , "Fuck! " offende d th e Meri t Scholar' s parochial schoo l sensibilities . SD S a t MS U attracte d a variet y o f characters—radicalized Catholics , culturall y displace d Jews , secu larized Protestants , an d countercultura l rebels . Th e organizatio n wa s loose enoug h t o allo w it s member s t o engag e i n an y numbe r o f uncoordinated politica l activities : writin g an d publishin g Th e Pa per; puttin g togethe r antiwa r teach-in s an d rallies ; establishin g a leftist film serie s whic h largel y financed th e chapter' s projects ; an d laying plan s t o wres t contro l o f th e studen t governmen t awa y fro m the conservative fraternities . I f MSU SDS had one weakness i n 1966 , it was , ironically , als o it s strength : a disproportionat e shar e o f cre ative academi c superstar s wh o sometime s behave d lik e jealou s in tellectual prim a donnas . Jac k and Su e Sattel , being a few year s olde r than th e ne w SDSers , increasingl y functione d a s th e chapter' s bi g brother and sister , soothin g bruised ego s and cooling dow n inflame d passions. 24 As MS U SD S grew, a new studen t antiwa r organization cam e int o existence, th e Universit y Christia n Movement . Durin g the Rampart s controversy, a number o f concerne d student s i n the hitherto apoliti cal Unite d Campu s Christia n Fellowshi p grapple d wit h th e issu e o f Vietnam an d Michiga n State' s contributio n t o th e establishmen t o f the undemocrati c Saigo n government . Th e MS U Christia n Fellow ship cam e t o the conclusio n tha t a political an d religiou s universit y organization wa s neede d t o oppos e th e war , whil e a t the sam e tim e offering a n alternative to the secularized SDS . At a stormy, maratho n national meetin g o f th e Unite d Campu s Christia n Fellowshi p o n

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September 6 , 1966 , a member o f th e MS U delegation , Bil l Skocpol , Merit Schola r an d STE P veteran, wrot e tiredl y t o his fianc6e, Thed a Barron, tha t a new activis t Universit y Christia n Movemen t oppose d to th e Vietna m Wa r woul d replac e th e Christia n Fellowship . Th e UCM would wor k toward s establishin g communit y rappor t i n orde r to reform the university, educat e the people about Vietnam and civi l rights, an d striv e to ensure socia l democrac y fo r the world. 25 In East Lansing, a n informa l allianc e emerge d betwee n MS U SD S and th e UC M base d upo n a friendshi p networ k rathe r tha n upo n ideological considerations . Thed a Barron , als o a Merit Schola r an d STEP veteran wh o wa s muc h furthe r t o the lef t tha n he r Texas-bre d fiance, wa s friend s wit h th e Sattels , a s wel l a s wit h Cha r Jolles an d Kris Steensma , SDSer s an d writer s fo r Th e Paper . MS U UC M activ ist Dav e Stockman , lik e Skocpo l a former Goldwate r supporte r an d devout Methodist , attende d SD S meetings, wrot e for The Paper , an d earned Su e SatteF s respect , i f no t th e respec t o f othe r SDSer s wh o viewed th e UCM' s concep t o f "Jesu s Christ , Th e Revolutionary " a s somewhat overdrawn . Badric h considere d Stockma n an d th e UC M to b e rathe r "parochial " an d "naive. " Bu t then , h e ha d gotte n thi s impression fro m Stockman' s girlfrien d who m Badric h wa s als o dat ing. 26 While MS U SD S an d th e UC M intensified thei r campaig n agains t the wa r an d establishe d a nascen t populis t alliance , Th e Pape r carried a serie s o f dispatche s fro m Vietna m b y marin e privat e Ji m Thomas. MS U student s rea d the terse, depressin g storie s an d poem s Thomas wrot e an d contemplate d thei r ow n fate s afte r graduation . One poem , addresse d t o a n imaginar y Vie t Con g guerilla , reveale d Thomas' frustratio n a t having t o fight a n insane , futil e wa r agains t a people h e coul d no t hate : It is an affair between you and me, This momentary madness that allows us, who toe no party lines when we're calm, To engage in comparing reflexes, Winner to walk still, and see. If behind these eyes may grow remorse, it should be ours to hold, together with no bit of balm, Save knowing we shared what mattered to us. What do we care for his so lofty tears, He who survives, since he never was here

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To gain a part of our sorrows, our cares, Knowledge of loss of what never will be? We died, you and I, when we might have shared Rice and a bowl of nuc-doc, which is tea. On December 20,1966 , Thoma s wa s kille d i n action. 27 With Thomas ' deat h burne d int o thei r minds , MS U SDSer s Mik e Price, a graduat e speec h studen t an d chapte r theorist , an d Harve y Goldman wen t t o th e nationa l SD S conventio n a t Berkeley . Th e national SDS , o n Decembe r 28 , vote d t o for m antidraf t union s i n order t o disrup t militar y recruitmen t an d induction . SD S ha d com mitted itsel f t o illegal confrontatio n wit h the federal government . T o Goldman, mora l an d constitutiona l la w mad e thi s confrontatio n necessary: When a system that is malfunctioning uses its laws to repress opposition, then, i n orde r t o b e effective , w e mus t strik e a t th e oppressiv e law s an d expose the m fo r wha t the y are . Th e Selectiv e Servic e Ac t i s morall y an d constitutionally repugnant . I t violate s th e 13t h Amendmen t (whic h pro hibits involuntar y servitud e o f an y kind ) an d i s designe d s o tha t i f on e encourages oppositio n and refusal t o serve, the penalties will be severe. If, in order to present genuine alternatives to the American people, it is necessary to break the "law," then the obligations of our moral law will force us to commit such a crime continually. 28 The MSU SDS' s decision to form an antidraft union, which Stock man an d th e UC M quickl y endorsed , evidence d a n awakene d spiri t of politica l activis m an d boldnes s amon g students . Whe n Ke n Law less, a n America n though t an d languag e instructor , wa s fired i n th e fall o f 196 6 fo r editin g th e leftist , pornographi c studen t literar y journal Zeitgeist , 1,00 0 student s occupie d Besse y Hall , hom e o f th e professor's department . Thi s even t represente d th e first tim e MS U students occupie d a campu s building . Ou t o f th e Besse y Hal l sit-i n arose Unite d Student s (US) , a radica l studen t right s grou p whic h replaced th e moribund , moderat e Committe e fo r Studen t Rights . The chai r o f US , Dic k Oestreicher , a Meri t Schola r an d Ne w Yor k City red diaper baby, soo n joined SDS. 29 While invigoratin g studen t activism , th e Besse y Hal l demonstra tion als o reveale d smal l ideologica l fissures amon g th e university' s antiwar faculty . Wit h th e welcom e assistanc e o f Rampart s i n 1966 , activist facult y ha d vanquishe d thei r prowa r facult y opponent s an d discredited Hanna h an d hawkis h sentimen t o n th e campus . Bu t th e

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new studen t militanc y divide d antiwa r facult y ranks . Predictably , faculty activis t Larrow e ha d joine d th e student s i n th e occupatio n of Bessey Hall. Though not necessarily a fan of Lawless' Beat poetry, he believe d tha t faculty an d student s ha d th e righ t to publis h what ever incomprehensibl e musing s cam e t o thei r fertil e minds . Greer , on th e othe r hand , abhorre d th e potentia l fo r violenc e associate d with sit-in s an d argue d fo r calm , rationa l discourse . A s Larrow e increasingly identifie d himsel f wit h th e Ne w Left , Gree r move d closer to the community' s nonconfrontationa l dovis h clergy. 30 Greer an d loca l clerg y convene d th e Interfait h Convocatio n o n War an d Peac e a t th e Eas t Lansin g People' s Churc h i n Januar y an d February o f 1967 . Th e Convocatio n brough t togethe r thre e hundre d liberal-dovish MS U faculty , students , an d communit y religiou s leaders. Gree r warne d th e Convocatio n participant s tha t th e Viet nam Wa r undermine d America' s imag e a s a frien d o f peac e an d increased th e risk of nuclear confrontatio n wit h Russia and China : The war has severely injure d our position so far as our image goes in most parts of the world . .. no t one major power has offered us military asistance in Vietnam ; eve n thos e nation s whic h ar e ou r allie s an d ou r presume d friends show little sympathy for our military intervention in Asia. Many, in fact, hav e bee n shocked , no t onl y b y the interventio n i n Vietnam , bu t by our reckless manne r of conductin g the war—in such a way as to provoke, openly and persistently, military counter-actions by China, Russia, or both. Fortunately, they haven't reacted yet, but it isn't because we haven't given them a n opportunity . Th e long-hel d vie w i n th e worl d o f Americ a a s a peace-loving, moral, and humane nation has been profoundly shaken. 31 A fe w week s afte r th e Convocation , th e UC M regiona l headquar ters o f th e Vietna m Strateg y Committe e endorse d nationa l war s o f liberation from Western domination : We suppor t th e effort s o f peopl e o f underdevelope d nation s t o fre e themselves fro m oppressive politica l system s an d condemn the consisten t U.S. policy of anti-revolutionism. We recognize the need for new economic, social an d political structure s i n the emerging nations o f Asia, Africa , an d Latin America i n orde r to provid e fo r self determinatio n an d an adequate standard of living for their population. Since th e regiona l UC M ha d develope d a n interpretatio n o f th e Vietnam Wa r somewha t simila r t o tha t o f th e nationa l SDS , thoug h the forme r wa s mor e concerne d wit h th e threa t o f Marxis t dictator ships tha n th e latter , MS U SD S an d UC M began t o coordinat e thei r

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antiwar activities . Kindman , Price , Stockman , an d thirty-nin e othe r activists place d a n advertisemen t i n Th e Pape r statin g thei r inten tion t o refus e t o fight i n Vietna m an d t o encourag e other s t o d o likewise. 32 Stockman, a s chair of the MSU UCM Peace Coordinating Commit tee, als o helpe d draf t a proposal fo r antiwa r activist s t o captur e th e student governmen t i n th e sprin g 196 7 elections . I f a larg e shar e o f students coul d b e educate d t o se e th e Vietna m Wa r withi n th e context o f undemocratic , un-America n imperialis m an d racism , Stockman believed , the n th e radical s woul d hav e enoug h vote s t o gain contro l o f th e studen t government . Th e newl y radicalize d stu dent governmen t coul d the n challeng e th e university' s defense-re lated research and demand tha t students b e given more freedom an d power. Upo n achievin g thes e goals , th e UCM-SD S coalitio n coul d emerge as a model fo r a national radica l thir d part y movement. 33 The 196 7 sprin g studen t governmen t election s wer e th e mos t intense, an d bizarre , tha t ha d eve r occurre d i n Eas t Lansing . Coor dinating th e radicals ' campaig n effort s wa s W . C . Blanton , a Meri t Scholar fro m Kentuck y an d a n edito r o f Th e Paper . A bor n politi cian, Blanto n ha d t o glos s ove r th e strikin g ideologica l an d cultura l differences amon g th e Ne w Left , UCM , an d liberal-dovis h candi dates an d thei r organizations. Fo r example, UC M activist Gi l Peach , a sociology graduat e student , define d hi s grou p as radical i n philos ophy, but moderate i n approach: "Basically, w e believe the bombin g should b e stoppe d an d th e U.S . shoul d negotiat e wit h th e Nationa l Liberation Front . Bu t ther e i s n o nee d t o gro w beard s an d rebel. " In contrast, SDSe r Bra d Lang , wh o ha d helpe d t o establis h th e annua l "Gentle Thursday " festivitie s o n campu s whic h fuse d antiwa r dis sent, roc k music , an d LSD , characterize d th e wa r a s a n imperialist capitalist conspiracy . I n spit e o f th e incompatibilit y o f th e antiwa r groups an d candidates , Blanto n an d SD S capture d contro l o f th e student government. 34 Having gaine d contro l o f th e studen t government , antiwa r MS U students attende d th e Apri l Nationa l Vietna m Wee k Mobilizatio n rally in New Yor k City, along with 250,00 0 othe r concerned citizens . Stockman wen t t o th e rally , bu t believe d marchin g t o b e o f limite d political value , fo r Vietnam polic y maker s wer e onl y product s o f a n

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insensitive capitalis t system . Consequently , h e argued , i t wa s th e "System" that had to be changed : It will tak e more than a leisurely strol l dow n Madison Avenue, o r even revulsion toward war atrocities, to put this ghastly thing to an end. The real determinants of the war are built into the structure of the corporate system. Concomitantly, politica l indifferenc e an d moral insentiency ar e inter-woven in the fabric of middle-class culture. Unless people get out and start radicalizing themselves and others, LB Jand his wizards will lea d us right into the "Great Society" which George Orwell prophesied in his famous novel. 35 A wee k afte r th e Mobilizatio n rally , SANE , Clerg y an d Lait y Concerned abou t Vietnam , Rev . Marti n Luthe r King , Jr. , an d Car l Oglesby, amon g othe r organization s an d individuals , announce d that the y wer e sponsorin g Vietna m Summer , a nationwid e antiwa r project operate d b y students, workers , professionals , an d clergy an d aimed a t educatin g th e publi c abou t th e foll y o f Johnson' s Vietna m policy an d ho w t o effec t it s change . Sinc e Johnso n ha d ignore d th e Vietnam Wee k rallies i n New Yor k City and Sa n Francisco, Vietna m Summer organizer s hope d t o establis h communicatio n amon g th e people oppose d t o th e war , politiciz e th e indifferent , an d conver t the hostile i n order to exert grass-roots pressur e o n Congress. 36 In the greater Lansing area , one hundre d volunteers , largel y MS U students an d a fe w communit y residents , worke d fo r th e Vietna m Summer Projec t whic h wa s headquartere d a t th e Wesle y Founda tion. Rev . Jondah l serve d a s chai r o f th e ten-membe r steerin g com mittee. Lansin g Vietnam Summe r cas t a wide ideologica l net , as wa s evident i n th e compositio n o f it s steerin g committe e an d sponsors : Battistini, Greer , Larrowe , Repas , Zolto n Ferency , Su e Sattel , Rev . Day, Rev . Morrison , an d Stockman . Man y o f th e MS U facult y sponsoring Lansin g Vietna m Summe r ha d previousl y worke d together o n plannin g th e winte r Interfait h Convocatio n o n Wa r an d Peace. 37 From th e beginnin g o f Jun e t o th e en d o f September , Lansin g Vietnam Summe r volunteer s canvasse d on e votin g precinc t ever y week, urgin g communit y resident s t o addres s thei r concern s abou t the wa r t o Congress , loca l newspapers , busines s associates , friends , and relatives . I n th e first thre e week s o f Lansin g Vietna m Summer , 2,000 ne w peopl e wer e reached . Compilation s fro m a random sam ple o f 15 0 questionnaire s indicate d tha t whil e ther e wa s littl e sup port i n Lansin g fo r th e curren t prosecutio n o f th e war , peopl e disa -

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greed o n ho w t o en d th e carnage . Fift y percen t favore d a negotiate d withdrawal, whil e anothe r 3 5 percen t advocate d a n all-ou t militar y effort t o win , followe d b y a U.S . withdrawal . Significantly , thos e advocating negotiation s fel t powerless , ignore d b y th e administra tion i n Washingto n an d resigne d t o th e continue d escalatio n o f th e war.38 A numbe r o f volunteers , includin g Stockman , recommende d tha t community member s participat e i n th e Citizen s fo r a New Politics , "an independen t gras s root s politica l force " workin g "throug h th e electoral proces s fo r pervasiv e chang e i n th e domesti c an d foreig n policy whic h create d th e Vietna m tragedy. " Bert Garskoff describe d the CN P a s a n "antiwa r alternativ e t o th e establishe d parties. " Re publicans an d Democrats , h e argued , belonge d t o "tw o indistin guishable an d equall y corrup t politica l parties—th e grea t tweedle dum an d tweedledee o f the modern scene." 39 To man y o f th e SD S an d UC M member s involve d i n Lansin g Vietnam Summer , th e CN P seeme d t o b e th e radica l coalitio n part y of th e futur e tha t coul d brin g abou t fundamenta l socia l change . However, t o the MSU activists ' dismay , th e drea m of a radical coali tion part y die d tha t ver y Septembe r a s Vietna m Summe r cam e t o a close. Garskoff , alon g wit h radical s an d antiwa r liberal s fro m acros s the nation , gathere d i n Chicag o a s a result o f a call b y th e Nationa l Conference fo r Ne w Politic s t o forg e a national thir d party . Militan t Black Panther s intimidate d an d dominate d th e cacophonou s whit e convention crowd . The y defeate d a resolution t o for m a third part y and issue d a n anti-Semiti c diatrib e agains t Israel . Garskoff , wh o believed blacks , no t whites , represente d America' s revolutionar y vanguard, endorse d th e Panthers ' actions . Hi s acquiescence , an d that o f man y fello w Jewis h SDSers , fostere d divisio n an d diverte d attention fro m th e antiwa r struggle . Th e CN P conventio n foreshad owed th e disintegratio n o f SDS , a s religiou s Jewis h an d Christia n SDS members clashe d wit h their secularized colleagues. 40 Following th e mixe d communit y respons e t o Lansin g Vietna m Summer an d th e CN P debacle , MS U student s onc e agai n marche d on Washington. Th e spirit of the October 196 7 rally, unlike the 196 5 April an d November marches, was confrontational; moderates ' plea s for reconciliatio n ha d give n wa y t o call s fo r "Confrontin g th e War makers." On e hundre d thousan d protestors , frustrate d wit h th e un relenting escalatio n o f th e war , an d tire d o f hawk s accusin g the m o f prolonging th e wa r throug h thei r peac e activism , wer e determine d

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to wag e symboli c wa r agains t th e Pentagon . Jef f Snoyer , a reporte r for Th e Paper , describe d hi s frustratio n wit h Johnson' s respons e t o antiwar protes t an d subsequen t radicalizatio n a s a resul t o f th e events o f that violent , excitin g fall day : When I ha d lef t Eas t Lansing , I ha d decide d no t t o becom e directl y involved in the militant aspect of the march. As a college student, I couldn't afford th e tim e or expense o f a n arrest , an d I believed tha t demonstration s for peac e shoul d b e peacefu l an d tha t ou r mer e presenc e i n number s wa s worth something . Well , I walke d u p a slop e an d someho w ende d u p i n front o f th e grou p whic h mad e th e firs t charg e u p th e Pentago n steps . Soldiers b y th e hundred s poure d ou t o f th e Pentago n door s an d furiousl y began bashin g face s wit h th e butts o f thei r rifles . I was sincerel y fo r peac e and non-violence , bu t I found mysel f grabbin g the ar m o f a GI whose rifl e butt wa s abou t t o crus h i n th e hea d o f a girl in fron t o f me ; I was pushin g and bein g hit—soldier s wer e rushin g al l aroun d us—wha t wa s happen ing???? The mobilization' s them e wa s "Confron t th e Warmakers." . . . Thi s was American s fighting Americans , pitte d agains t eac h othe r b y th e Sys tem.41 Snoyer an d hi s fello w protestor s sa t dow n aroun d th e Pentagon , temporarily checkin g th e GIs ' advance . I n th e evening , afte r a fe w hundred student s burne d thei r draf t cards , U.S . marshal s move d i n on th e activists , clubbin g an d arrestin g thos e sittin g i n thei r path . ' T h e Armie s o f th e Night " ha d brough t th e wa r home . A t MSU , th e era o f petition s an d teach-in s ha d com e t o a close . Contendin g antiwar factions , on e advocatin g confrontatio n wit h th e "System " and th e othe r committe d t o community organizing , bega n to emerge . Pennsylvania Stat e Universit y President Walke r wa s no t i n goo d spirit s i n Decembe r 196 4 whe n he informe d alumn i tha t th e Communist s ha d launche d thei r cam paign t o seiz e contro l o f th e nation' s universities . H e di d assur e hi s conservative audience , however , tha t subversive s woul d no t b e abl e to operat e wel l i n Stat e College . Pen n Stat e wa s blessed , Walke r observed, i n bein g "ou t i n th e stick s wher e student s an d facult y members can' t fad e bac k int o th e community " afte r stirrin g u p trou ble. Bu t still , h e continued , "suc h troubl e . . . coul d com e t o Pen n State unless w e prepar e som e defense." 4 2 Confronted wit h Walker' s thinl y veile d threats , Pen n State' s peac e activists chos e th e pat h o f polit e defiance . Afte r Johnso n bega n

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bombing Nort h Vietna m i n Februar y 1965 , SENS E leader s Phili p Henning, a Ne w Jerse y residen t an d a Quaker , an d Car l Davidso n organized a thirty-perso n marc h acros s th e campus . A fe w day s later, SENS E members, wit h Rev. Cleeton's support , embarke d upo n a three-da y hunge r strik e fo r peace . Thei r reason s fo r fastin g wer e forthright: We believe that the government's actions in Vietnam are morally wrong, and as Americans we all feel guilt for those actions. We now feel th e necessity o f fasting to show symbolicall y ou r empathy with the Vietnamese peopl e wh o are suffering immeasurabl y a s a result of U.S. supported actions and U.S. supported dictatorships in their country. During th e peac e fast , Davidso n expresse d hi s persona l opinio n o n how t o en d th e war , quotin g Presiden t Kennedy : "Neve r fea r t o negotiate—it commit s u s to nothing othe r than reason." 43 The campu s respons e t o SENSE D peac e protest s wa s no t eve n remotely sympathetic . Hawkis h Dail y Collegian editor s endorse d Johnson's tempere d Vietna m policy , characterize d SENSE' S cal l fo r negotiations a s ludicrous , an d publishe d numerou s pr o war letter s by facult y an d students . On e small-town , Wester n Pennsylvani a student stoutl y defende d th e war : South Vietna m i s th e presen t battlefiel d o f th e Col d War . Korea , Lao s and Cuba are former battlefields. Americ a has never had a decisive victor y over Communism on any of the battlefields because of self-restraint. . . . It i s tim e fo r th e Unite d State s t o sho w it s strengt h t o th e worl d b y turning Sout h Vietna m int o a place o f victory . Americ a i s capabl e of win ning i n Sout h Vietnam an d I sincerely hop e tha t it doe s not restrain itsel f here. Nothing woul d pleas e m e mor e tha n t o kno w tha t th e wa r ha s bee n carried into North Vietnam. Even though this runs the risk of another world war, what good is living if one doesn't have something that is worth dying for?44 Following th e first barrag e o f prowa r Daily Collegia n editorial s and hawkis h letters , Davidso n criticize d th e advocate s o f militar y escalation: It seems tha t a great man y peopl e i n thi s countr y hav e accepte d th e ide a that to negotiate in Vietnam is, in some way, to lose. I think this idea is extremely dangerous because it undermines that spirit of creativ e dialogue , compromis e an d huma n interactio n o n whic h ou r democratic ideals are based.

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To negotiate in Vietnam does not signify failure ; it only signifies tha t we recognize our opponent as a human capable of reason and dialogue. . . . Anothe r dangerou s attitud e I find i s th e willingnes s o f s o man y people t o advocate, ou t of frustration , i f nothing else, th e escalation of the war. To these people I would say this: that unless you personally are willing to die right now over "the issues" in Vietnam, then you have no ground on which to make this same claim of others. . . . Finally , the most dangerous attitude that has prevailed lately, is that war i n som e wa y solve s a problem . A t best , I woul d sa y tha t wa r onl y dissolves immediat e problem s whil e creatin g man y mor e fo r th e future . War signifies, withou t glory , th e utte r failur e an d complet e breakdow n of all that is human in men. . . . Whil e there is still time, let us urge our government to cease fire and negotiate i n Vietnam. Le t us try to succeed wit h reason rather than to fail with bullets. 45 Despite Davidson' s eloquen t appeal , th e escalatin g Vietna m Wa r remained a remot e concer n t o th e majorit y o f PS U student s an d faculty. Johnson' s introductio n o f U.S . comba t force s int o Sout h Vietnam, however , generate d more campus interest in the war. SENS E and facult y activist s Keddie , Withall , an d Roze n organize d a teach in o n Apri l 8 . Tw o hundre d student s attended , a smal l turnou t compared t o othe r campuses . Nonetheless , Roze n considere d th e event t o hav e bee n a succes s sinc e i t attracte d " a grea t man y stu dents wh o ordinaril y don' t com e t o these things." 46 Following th e teach-in , SENS E an d th e PS U Socialis t Clu b esca lated thei r peac e offensive . Thei r achievement s wer e underwhelm ing; just thirty-nin e PS U student s wen t t o the Apri l peac e marc h i n Washington. Th e editor s o f th e Dail y Collegian trivialize d an d cas tigated th e Washingto n antiwa r rally , describin g th e demonstrator s as "militants " wit h unkemp t beard s an d lon g hair . Appalled , Rev . Cleeton remonstrate d agains t th e campu s newspape r fo r emphasiz ing th e appearance s o f a fe w activist s whil e ignorin g respecte d dovish speaker s suc h a s Senator Ernest Gruening. 47 Hostility toward s PSU' s antiwa r activist s wa s widespread , goin g far beyond th e Daily Collegian*s slante d reporting. Whe n the Social ist Clu b invite d a Haverfor d Colleg e activis t t o com e t o Pen n Stat e in Apri l t o narrat e a Vie t Con g propagand a film, chao s ensued . Hundreds o f hawkis h student s crowde d int o th e Spark s Buildin g t o curse th e speaker . Th e Pittsburg h Pres s joine d th e pr o war chorus , condemning Walke r for allowing th e film t o be shown a t the univer sity:

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Officials o f the Pennsylvania State University have a duty to explain why a Communist propagand a film on Vietnam was permitted to be shown in a classroom. . . . This shocking lack of responsibility on the part of university leaders ca n onl y b e regarde d a s an insult t o the U.S . serviceme n wh o ar e dying in Vietnam. . . . Ther e can be no excuse fo r university official s allowin g thi s type of enemy propaganda... . Academi c freedo m i s distorte d whe n i t condone s activity in support of a band of terrorists such as the Viet Cong who—under the pretext of "liberation''—hav e slaughtere d hundred s of Vietnamese vil lagers who dare d to oppose them , and many Americans who went to their aid. Penn State owes an apology to all Pennsylvanians fo r this shameful an d disgusting incident. . . , 48 In complet e agreemen t wit h th e Pittsburg h Press, th e PS U YA F declared, "W e didn' t hea r anybod y yel l fo r 'academi c freedom ' fo r the Nazi s durin g World War II." YAF also accused SENS E and othe r "peace mongers " o f offerin g American s a progra m o f "piecemea l surrender" t o th e Communists . Bu t fo r al l o f that , YA F newslette r editor an d studen t right s activis t Car l Thormeyer ha d kind word s i n April fo r pas t SENS E presiden t an d studen t governmen t presiden tial candidat e Barr y Clemson. YAF' s relative politica l toleranc e wa s further underscore d whe n Thormeye r becam e a summer Daily Collegian reporter , coverin g th e activitie s o f SENS E an d campu s civi l rights groups . Hi s column s wer e mor e objective tha n standar d Dail y Collegian fare. 49 PSU YAF , i n th e month s followin g Johnson' s escalatio n o f th e Vietnam War , embrace d an y numbe r o f seemingl y contradictor y political attitudes . Th e organizatio n supporte d SENSE' S right to spea k out against the war, but did not believe tha t the concept o f academi c freedom extende d t o arbitraril y define d Communists . Thormeye r and YA F were sympatheti c t o the civil right s cause an d participate d in campu s protest s agains t i n Joc o parentis . Th e studen t conserva tives considere d SENSE' S advocac y o f a negotiate d U.S . settlemen t with th e Vie t Con g t o b e treasonous , yet , i n th e sam e breath , de scribed th e peac e activist s a s well-intentioned pacifist s an d counte d Clemson an d Socialis t Clu b activis t Ji m Gran t amon g thei r friends . Such ideologica l inconsistencie s wer e bor n o f a feeling o f intellec tual isolatio n whic h YA F and SENS E share d i n 1965 , a s wel l a s th e fact tha t face-to-fac e interactio n moderate d th e conservatives ' ab stract political ideals. 50

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If th e campu s Righ t appeare d tor n betwee n it s dua l desire s t o support an d denounc e th e radicals , the n th e campu s Lef t i n th e fal l of 196 5 wa s n o less o f two, o r several, minds . SENSE' S membership , according t o activis t an d Englis h graduat e studen t Pau l Ennis , range d from conservativ e t o Communist. H e also note d tha t "th e only thin g that unifie s th e membershi p i s tha t al l o f the m d o tak e issu e wit h some arme d conflic t tha t i s goin g o n aroun d th e globe . Som e tak e issue wit h all , som e wit h a particular conflict. " O n th e issu e o f th e Vietnam War, Ennis stated , som e SENS E activists favore d a military de-escalation and negotiations while other s advocated a n immediat e American withdrawal . Ma x Molinaro , a freshma n SENS E membe r who ha d bee n a Studen t Peac e Unio n activis t a t th e academicall y respected Philadelphi a Centra l Hig h School , advance d a modes t view o f th e valu e o f antiwa r protest: "I think the most I can d o is try to ge t rid o f som e o f th e stupidit y an d poor , fallaciou s reasonin g b y which peopl e o n th e America n scen e ar e makin g thei r decisions. " To Molinaro , th e wa r wa s th e resul t o f a serie s o f tragi c mistake s which coul d b e correcte d b y negotiation s wit h Nort h Vietnam . I n contrast, Jame s Creegan , Molinaro' s hig h schoo l frien d an d a fresh man Socialis t Clu b leade r an d SENS E partisan , di d no t believ e tha t the war was a product o f America n foreig n polic y makers ' mistake n reasoning. Rather , the war provided evidenc e o f America n capitalis t plans t o "maintai n th e entir e underdevelope d worl d a s a sourc e o f colonial exploitation. " Creegan, and SENSE' S hard left faction , wante d the NL F to defea t U.S . imperialis m an d encourag e othe r Third Worl d peoples t o do the same. 51 The philosophical chas m increasingly separatin g SENSE'S radical (violent revolutionary ) an d conservativ e (pacifis t t o libera l dovish ) factions wa s temporaril y bridge d b y th e issu e o f draf t resistanc e which al l member s could , i n varyin g degrees , support . I n October , four member s o f th e Socialis t Clu b an d SENS E burne d thei r draf t registration card s a t th e campu s mal l a s on e hundre d student s watched. Livel y discussio n ensue d whe n Creega n urged the studen t body t o "joi n us agains t th e wa r machine o f Unite d State s imperial ism whic h i s perpetuatin g mos t o f th e crime s o f this war. " Hawkis h students pummele d Creega n and FB I agents from Philadelphia soo n descended upo n Stat e College i n searc h o f the draft resisters. 52 Walker warne d tha t th e draf t resiste r limite d "hi s employmen t possibilities . . . no t onl y becaus e hi s loyalt y i s suspected , bu t be cause hi s rationalit y als o i s questioned. " H e di d no t understan d th e

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activists; the y wer e profoundl y moralistic , no t career-minded . So cialist Clu b leade r an d Ne w Jerse y nativ e Jaco b Heyma n defende d his action s a s necessary t o promote socia l justice : Whether an unjust la w i s local stat e or federal la w [it ] is stil l a n unjust law an d mus t b e corrected . N o la w i s sacre d an d irrevocable , bu t ha s t o change with the times. In January 1964, with this principle in mind, I civilly disobeyed th e state of Georgia's trespass law which wa s used as an instrument to maintain that government's policy of segregation. . . . W e were arrested for breaking the trespass law.... I n the same sense I civill y disobeye d th e recen t draf t car d law... . I vie w th e draf t a s a n instrument o f th e Unite d State s governmen t fo r continuing it s unjustifie d war against the Vietnamese people. . . . I would willfull y serv e i n a wa r agains t a fascist o r a reactionar y government, but would object violently to being drafted to fight against the Vietnamese people in their struggle for independence. 53 SENSE presiden t And y Stap p describe d hi s action s a s absolutel y necessary t o sto p th e war , fo r "W e wouldn' t b e fightin g i n Vietna m now i f w e didn' t hav e th e draft . Th e draf t i s no t th e caus e bu t th e means.'' Afte r Stap p mad e thi s brie f publi c statemen t h e disap peared. Rumor s abounde d o n the campus a s to his whereabout s an d YAF members wh o inquire d afte r Stapp' s fate were me t with fearfu l looks. I t later develope d tha t Stapp , face d wit h th e choic e o f priso n or militar y induction , chos e th e latter . Whil e statione d a t Ft . Sill , Oklahoma, h e becam e a n organize r o f th e antiwa r Soldiers ' Unio n and wa s subsequentl y court-martiale d i n 1967. 54 With Stapp' s mysteriou s disappearance , an d unannounce d visi tations b y FB I agents , PSU' s antiwa r student s i n th e fal l o f 196 5 were clearl y o n th e defensive . Worse , hawkis h student s continue d to assaul t peac e activist s an d t o disrup t antiwa r events . Durin g a SENSE picket o f a campus gues t speaker , Genera l Maxwel l Taylor , a Vietnam polic y architect , a crowd surrounde d th e thirty demonstra tors. Th e prowa r partisan s marche d i n a n ever-narrowin g circl e around th e picketers , lobbin g egg s an d hurlin g obscenitie s a t them . This continue d fo r som e tim e whil e campu s polic e officer s looke d on, prepare d t o arres t th e antiwa r demonstrator s i f the y attempte d to break ou t o f th e circle . An d so , th e campu s peac e movemen t wa s under symbolic an d actua l siege. 55 The Daily Collegian's editor s offere d n o quarte r t o SENS E activ ists, characterizin g the m a s "extremist, " "hysterical/ ' an d a n "em -

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barrassment" t o th e university . DaiJ y CoJJegia n new s edito r Lauri e Devine, wh o ha d covere d th e fal l draf t car d burnings, eagerl y coop erated wit h th e FBI , identifyin g al l o f th e activist s involve d an d expressing gle e a t th e prospec t o f thei r imprisonment . Th e PS U Greek syste m i n Novembe r sen t 5,00 0 prowa r postcard s t o U.S . soldiers i n Vietnam , an d th e studen t governmen t joine d th e Greek s in defending Johnson' s foreig n policy . Thi s was no t surprisin g sinc e PSU's fraternitie s an d sororities , representin g th e larges t Gree k sys tem i n th e country , dominate d th e studen t governmen t an d ha d decisively defeate d al l o f th e radica l an d YA F refor m candidate s i n the spring elections. Meanwhil e i n Harrisburg, the state senat e over whelmingly passe d a ba n o n radica l speaker s an d organization s a t public universitie s wh o "exploi t th e yout h i n ou r countr y an d thu s plant th e seeds o f dissen t i n the minds o f ou r college students." 56 Despite thi s hostil e environment , th e campu s peac e movemen t a t least mad e it s presenc e known . I n additio n t o picketin g Taylo r an d burning draf t cards , te n Socialis t Clu b member s i n Octobe r brave d residents' taunt s an d marche d i n fron t o f a Stat e Colleg e arm y re cruiting office. Tha t same month, a s part of the International Day s of Protest whic h involve d peac e demonstration s i n on e hundre d American cities , SENSE , fo r th e first time , pickete d th e ORL , thu s publicly linkin g university-militar y researc h to U.S . Col d War-Viet nam Wa r policy . Ye t Roze n wa s abl e t o convinc e jus t fort y PS U students an d facult y t o participat e i n th e Novembe r peac e rall y i n Washington. 57 A bitter fall gave way to a winter of discontent for campus antiwa r activists. SENS E attempte d t o g o fro m dormitor y t o dormitor y pro voking discussio n o f th e war , an d onc e agai n pickete d th e Stat e College army recruiting office, thi s time being pelted with snowball s and icicle s fo r severa l freezin g hours . A fe w day s afte r thi s protest , its organizer , Mar k Gould, a n undergraduate libera l art s major fro m New Yor k City, wa s on e o f nin e student s arreste d by sixtee n under cover polic e officer s o n th e campu s fo r marijuan a possession . No t coincidentally, al l nin e wer e well-know n activist s i n SENS E an d the Socialis t Club . The peac e activist s als o tried another one hundred hour peace fas t i n the Hetzel Unio n Buildin g (HUB ) in orde r to rais e students' politica l consciousness. 58 One factio n o f SENSE , tirin g o f ineffectiv e peac e fast s an d polit e picketing, attempte d t o pus h th e organizatio n furthe r t o th e left . I n

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response, Molinar o advance d a n amendmen t t o th e organization' s policy statemen t placin g SENS E o n recor d agains t violen t revolu tion: SENSE, whil e sympatheti c towar d th e aspiration s o f th e Vietnames e people, must , a s a n organizatio n favorin g peacefu l settlemen t o f conflict , state that we cannot support military means to achieve a victory by any side in an armed conflict. This amendmen t sparke d intens e discussion , wit h Creegan support ing Thir d Worl d arme d revolutio n an d declarin g tha t "th e cause s for war in this worl d ar e basically starvatio n and socia l degradation , and the main part y responsible fo r it is the United State s through it s foreign policy. " Unabl e t o reconcil e th e pacifis t an d Marxis t posi tions, Molinar o an d ten other SENS E members resigned. 59 With th e departur e fro m SENS E o f man y o f it s mos t moderat e and effectiv e members , an d wit h Davidson' s decisio n t o pursu e graduate studie s a t Nebraska, th e organizatio n wa s crippled . Believ ing tha t SENS E ha d outlive d it s usefulness , Goul d move d t o estab lish a campus SD S chapter : The nee d fo r a n SD S chapte r o n thi s campu s ha s bee n show n b y th e recent factionalis m i n SENSE , whic h o f cours e point s ou t th e lac k o f a unified radical student movement. . . . W e ask for student support insomuch as the students of this campus are th e futur e member s o f ou r societ y and , i f the y ente r ou r societ y an d want t o se e a truly democrati c society—the n the y can' t affor d t o be apa thetic and unconcerned, whic h is my impression of the Penn State student body as a whole. Eventually, Molinar o joine d SD S i n hope s o f exertin g a moderatin g influence o n the chapter. Writin g frequently t o his friends, Davidso n chided the m for sowing division s withi n th e peace movement. 60 As th e campu s Lef t fragmente d an d furthe r isolate d itself , YA F was experiencin g it s ow n problems . Thormeyer , th e organization' s most dynami c leader , ha d ha d to devote les s time to YAF, preparin g himself fo r graduatio n an d servic e i n Vietnam . A n Erie , Pennsylva nia, undergraduate an d devou t Baptist , Denn y Tanner , ha d assume d more organizationa l responsibilitie s bu t prove d t o be, a s YA F activ ist Tom Bennett lamented , a terrible administrator. H e did, however , remain tru e t o Thormeyer' s lead , insofa r a s h e strongl y supporte d the Vietna m War , whil e condemnin g student s i n Februar y wh o

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mocked th e SENS E peac e fast . Bu t unabl e t o motivat e th e member ship an d recruit new followers , YA F entered two ver y lea n years. 61 With th e Righ t an d Lef t i n disarray , moderat e activist s sough t t o exert their limited influenc e o n the campus . Th e PSU Newman Clu b inspired th e Studen t Ecumenica l Counci l t o sponso r a "Peace Pray In." Pam Tross , a n educatio n majo r and counci l president , se t fort h the religious-minded students ' view o f the Vietnam War: We ar e concerne d abou t th e schis m whic h wa r i s causin g i n ou r ow n country an d th e inhuma n sufferin g whic h i t i s causin g i n Vietnam . W e surmise that the situation may grow worse. We wish to take positive actions to reunite the country and to push toward an honorable peace . . . . At th e Wesle y Foundation , Rev . Cleeton , wh o ha d earne d a reputa tion a s a committed civi l libertaria n an d frien d o f SENS E and YAF , launched i n Marc h a "Student-Facult y Roundtable " serie s o n th e war. Roundtabl e discussio n participant s include d forme r SENS E member Roge r Marsh , wh o describe d th e philosoph y o f conscien tious objection , an d SD S facult y adviso r Keddie , wh o denounce d Selective Servic e fo r primaril y draftin g "th e workin g classes " an d "the culturally deprived." 62 Clemson an d twenty-fiv e pacifist-oriente d student s wh o wer e at tempting t o keep SENS E viable, initiate d a n annual Saturda y picke t against th e wa r i n March . A fe w week s late r the y demonstrate d i n front o f a State Colleg e draf t board . (On e board member state d after wards tha t h e di d no t believ e i n awardin g studen t draf t deferment s to liberal arts majors since societ y di d not need "thei r kind," assum ing tha t anyon e wh o di d no t stud y engineerin g o r medicin e wa s a likely Communist. ) Th e beleaguered SENS E activists als o attempte d to marc h i n th e Apri l 3 0 Stat e Colleg e Loyalt y Da y Parade, bu t irat e police officer s roughl y remove d the m from the line. 63 Few student s participate d i n th e campu s clergy' s roundtabl e dis cussions an d peac e pray-ins , an d eve n fewe r turne d ou t fo r wha t became SENSE' S final antiwa r demonstrations . Consequently , th e spring o f 196 6 di d no t see m t o offe r muc h promis e t o th e campu s antiwar movement. Bu t then the unexpecte d happened : a n awaken ing o f long-dorman t mass studen t discontent . Clemson , A d ho c Committee fo r Student Freedo m co-chair , calle d fo r a student right s rally i n April . Tw o thousan d student s appeare d i n fron t o f Ol d Main, th e universit y administratio n building . Tw o week s later , fol lowing anothe r larg e rally , five hundre d student s occupie d Ol d Mai n

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seeking a n audienc e wit h Walker . Bu t suc h actio n di d no t translat e into suppor t fo r th e campu s antiwa r movemen t sinc e th e student s were demonstratin g fo r les s stric t curfe w hour s an d dormitor y visi tation rules , an d no t protestin g agains t th e wa r an d universit y mili tary research. Still , man y student s ha d became comfortabl e wit h th e idea o f protes t and learne d tha t authority coul d b e challenged. 64 Changing PS U studen t attitude s toward s protes t an d authorit y could als o b e see n i n th e column s o f th e Daily Collegian. B y th e spring o f 1966 , a grou p o f left-leanin g reporter s wer e assumin g positions o f greate r influence . New s edito r an d Philadelphi a under graduate Julie Moshinsk y urge d furthe r protes t o n behal f o f studen t rights, accuse d th e studen t governmen t o f attemptin g t o co-op t th e student right s movement , an d ridicule d anti-Communis t extremis m which ha d le d t o America n militar y interventio n i n Vietnam . Th e Daily Collegian' s refor m faction , le d b y Bil l Lee , als o gav e front page coverag e t o Ramparts' MSU-CIA expose , subtl y informin g PS U students tha t stat e universitie s wer e greatl y implicate d i n th e con duct o f the war. 65 As greate r number s o f PS U student s champione d studen t rights , and reformer s too k contro l o f th e campu s newspaper , Davidson , who ha d bee n keepin g abreas t o f development s i n Stat e College , charted ne w direction s fo r the national SDS . At Clear Lake, Iowa, i n August, Davidson characterize d th e universities a s managerial train ing center s i n whic h student s wer e prepare d t o becom e "scabs " fo r "corporate liberalism. " Critica l o f single-issu e studen t refor m groups , and dismaye d wit h out-of-touc h SD S intellectuals , Davidso n advo cated studen t syndicalism : I use th e term "syndicalism " fo r a crucial reason . I n the labo r struggle, the syndicalist union s worke d for industrial democrac y an d worker's control, rathe r tha n bette r wage s an d workin g conditions . Likewis e . . . th e issue fo r u s i s "studen t control. . . .What w e d o not wan t i s a "company union" student movement that sees itself a s a body that, under the rubric of "liberalization," help s a paternal administratio n mak e bette r rules for us . What w e d o wan t i s a unio n o f student s wher e th e student s themselve s decide fo r themselve s wha t kin g o f rule s the y wan t o r don' t want . O r whether they need rules at a l l . .. 6 6 Even thoug h Davidson' s idea s woul d determin e th e directio n o f the nationa l SD S fo r th e nex t tw o years , fe w i n th e PS U SD S fol lowed hi s lea d o r took hi s advice , a not uncommo n situatio n a s fa r as Nationa l Offic e an d campu s chapte r relation s wen t i n th e 1960s .

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In the fall, SD S subsumed SENSE , despit e Davidson' s argumen t tha t a merger woul d onl y furthe r isolat e campu s radical s an d hinde r th e peace movemen t fro m broadenin g it s membershi p base . However , SDS leade r Nei l Buckle y di d no t welcom e dove s an d libertarian s into th e movemen t unles s the y first recante d thei r politica l errors . Thus, with just sixty determine d members , SD S claimed the campu s antiwar movemen t a s it s own , an d fraternizin g wit h YAF , th e en emy, becam e unthinkable. 67 Having transforme d SENS E int o "th e Vietna m ar m o f SDS, " a s Philadelphia SDSe r Norman Schwart z s o aptly put it, SD S launche d its fal l offensive . I n October , SDSer s attende d Mass , wishin g t o illustrate tha t th e Catholi c churc h ha d a lon g histor y o f supportin g right-wing regimes , an d no t jus t i n Sout h Vietnam . Whil e th e lib eral-dovish pries t conducte d services , SDSer s place d i n th e pew s copies o f a n articl e describin g th e ideologica l harmon y betwee n Nazism an d Catholicism . No t conten t t o defil e a hous e o f worshi p with anti-Catholi c propaganda , SDSer s als o publicly denounce d th e "Pennsylvania primitive s fro m th e bac k wood s an d smal l towns " who debase d th e university' s cultura l an d intellectua l life . Fo r a n organization disproportionatel y represente d b y Jew s an d Philadel phians, an d operatin g i n a cultural milie u whic h wa s heavil y Cath olic, Protestant , an d rural , suc h tactic s wer e no t a t all conduciv e t o expanding th e movement' s following. 68 That fal l Pen n Stat e SD S als o devote d attentio n t o othe r projects , including a boycot t o f th e studen t governmen t elections . Mean while, th e PS U SD S affiliate , th e Hille l Liberatio n Front , whic h Leverett Mille n ha d founde d i n October , se t t o work . I n contras t t o the devou t ex-Catholics , suc h a s Nei l Buckley , wh o ha d disrupte d Mass, Mille n an d th e HL F politely leaflete d Sabbat h service s a t th e Hillel Foundatio n an d sough t t o advanc e dialogue , no t confronta tion. Committe d t o reachin g ou t t o th e loca l community , th e HLF , in cooperatio n wit h Rev . Cleeton , documente d whit e working-clas s poverty i n Centr e County . Millen , campu s doves , an d facult y activ ist John Withal l als o cam e togethe r i n a futile effor t t o elec t Cleeto n to Congress . Mos t SDSer s scorne d thi s undertaking , wit h Creega n arguing that electora l politic s woul d no t awake n th e America n peo ple "t o th e fact s o f America n imperialism " an d enabl e the m "t o realize th e revolutionary chang e necessar y t o destroy it." 69 In addition t o the tension s whic h wer e eviden t i n SDS' s contrast ing ideologica l an d tactica l beliefs , personalit y politic s severel y

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hampered th e organization . Nei l Buckley , a "Hollywoo d versio n o f a campu s radical " hi s critic s claimed , ha d a n enormou s eg o a s wel l as ambition s t o becom e a nationa l Ne w Lef t figure. Jealou s o f Cree gan's influenc e i n th e chapter , Buckle y a t on e poin t ha d t o b e re strained fro m beatin g u p hi s rival . Whe n Buckle y an d Creega n wer e not fighting eac h other , the y wer e lockin g horn s wit h Pa m Farley , who wa s increasingl y disguste d wit h th e mal e SDSers ' sexism . I n December 1965 , a t a nationa l SD S conferenc e i n Illinois , Farle y ha d encouraged th e wome n delegate s t o mee t separatel y i n th e ladies ' restroom. Thi s actio n wo n he r fe w accolade s and , whe n sh e too k the sam e cours e o f actio n a t Pen n State , mad e he r highl y unpopula r with th e mal e SD S leadership . Ther e wa s als o a proble m wit h con trasting approache s t o th e developin g countercultur e sinc e man y SDSers enjoye d dope . Creega n ha d littl e patienc e wit h suc h self indulgence an d trie d t o se t a refine d tone , alway s wearin g a whit e shirt, blac k tie , an d blac k pants . Give n th e contentiou s exampl e o f the chapter' s leaders , wh o wer e loosel y tie d t o th e Nationa l Office , few PS U SDSer s wer e intereste d i n joinin g an d financially support ing the Nationa l SDS. 70 In spit e o f th e organization' s personalit y an d ideologica l conflict s in th e fal l o f 1966 , PS U SDSer s realize d tha t th e chapte r wa s to o small an d vulnerabl e t o allo w interna l conflic t t o becom e debilitat ing. Jus t ho w vulnerabl e th e chapte r wa s becam e clea r a t it s las t 1966 antiwar demonstration . I n November, Presiden t Walke r invite d former Austrailia n prim e ministe r Si r Rober t Gordo n Menzie s t o come t o Stat e Colleg e an d defen d America' s Vietna m p>olicy . Deter mined t o challeng e Menzies ' pr o war views , SDSer s attende d hi s lecture a t Schwa b Hall . A s soo n a s th e SDSers , wh o wer e seate d i n the balcony , quietl y unfurle d a protes t banner , campu s securit y officers demande d thei r identificatio n card s an d wrot e dow n thei r names. Afterwards , Withal l an d th e Centr e Count y ACL U chapte r issued a shar p condemnatio n o f Walke r fo r intimidatin g antiwa r protestors. Walke r ignore d thei r criticis m an d too k disciplinar y ac tion agains t th e students. 7 1 The winte r o f 196 7 bega n miserabl y fo r SD S an d the n worsened . In January, Walke r refuse d t o reveal whethe r o r not h e ha d provide d the name s o f SDSer s t o HUA C investigators . Furthe r troubl e devel oped fro m a n unexpecte d quarter : Joh n Warner , th e blac k presiden t of th e Studen t Unio n fo r Racia l Equalit y (SURE) , expelle d th e orga nization's whit e members . Severa l whit e an d blac k studen t civi l

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rights veteran s proteste d Warner' s exclusionis t policy , bu t whit e SDSers denounce d the m a s racists . SDS' s suppor t fo r Blac k Powe r further alienate d th e campu s fro m th e radical s an d le d dovis h stu dents t o wonde r ho w SD S coul d oppos e white , bu t no t black , rac ism. 72 SDS's unpopularit y o n th e campu s mounte d throughou t th e win ter. A t a SD S dormitor y foru m i n January , a studen t argue d tha t i f SDSers di d no t lik e th e universit y the n the y shoul d dro p ou t o f school. Buckle y replie d tha t suc h a n actio n would b e lik e "commit ting suicid e i f on e doe s no t lik e th e worl d rathe r tha n tryin g t o change it. " Th e audienc e the n urge d Buckle y t o commi t suicide . Following tha t incident , th e chapte r learne d tha t i t lacke d eve n minimal studen t suppor t whe n twent y SDSer s proteste d agains t American use of napalm in Vietnam. Dozens of students wrote angr y letters to the editor s o f the Daily Collegian , defendin g napal m as the "oozing salvation " fro m Communism . On e typical lette r writer con tended tha t the purpos e o f th e Vie t Cong is strictl y terror ; whereas th e purpos e o f th e bombing—of th e napalm—is t o flush out the VC and thus rid the country of terror …. Th e Viet Cong have shown their mettle by taking the leader of each village they terrorize and splitting his legs like we would a wishbone . . . ho w d o you fight that kind of ungodl y savageness ? You fight it just as forcefully a s it is provoked. You hit them with the same type of warfare that they are using—because it is the only thing those animals understand . . . 7 3 The radicals ' unpopularit y wa s furthe r drive n hom e a s the y at tempted t o determine i f Walker had been in contact with th e HUAC . After th e presiden t decline d t o mee t wit h SDS , seventee n student s took ove r his office . Cleeto n convince d th e student s t o leave, whic h they did , onl y t o resum e thei r sit-i n day s later . Threatene d wit h arrest at the secon d sit-in , an d awar e tha t their protest, i n Buckley' s words, "woul d hav e arouse d n o suppor t fro m eithe r facult y o r stu dents a t th e tim e an d woul d hav e effectivel y ende d SDS' s campu s operations fo r th e res t o f th e year, " they left . Buckle y soo n accuse d Cleeton of plotting with Walker to thwart the movement an d slande r SDS. Actually , Cleeto n had convince d hawkis h student s no t to charg e into Ol d Main and assaul t th e radicals. 74 Fortunately fo r SDSers , the y ha d a valuabl e all y i n th e Dail y Collegian. It s editor s devote d a n entire wee k o f front-pag e coverag e to the state-wid e SD S conventio n a t PSU i n February and carrie d a n

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extended an d sympatheti c analysi s o f th e Ne w Lef t i n April . Dail y Collegian editor-in-chie f Bil l Lee , althoug h occasionall y critica l o f his friends , particularl y fo r supportin g SURE' s exclusio n o f white s and fo r denigratin g Cleeton , praise d PS U SDSer s fo r thei r intelli gence an d articulation. Vehemently oppose d to the war. Lee pleade d for a negotiate d peac e settlemen t an d condemne d thos e student s who supporte d th e use o f napal m i n Indochina. 75 Over th e cours e o f th e winte r a reactio n t o th e Dail y Collegia n and SD S congealed . Hawkis h faculty , administrators , an d studen t government representative s denounce d th e campu s pape r fo r it s leftist editorials . Afte r Le e finished hi s ter m a s edito r i n th e sprin g of 1967 , th e Dail y Collegia n move d fro m a Ne w Lef t t o a dovis h position an d YA F member s Lind a Cahil l an d Laur a Wertheime r became reporters . Th e YA F chapte r wa s rejuvenated , thank s t o th e forceful leadershi p o f Harol d Wexler , a Levittown , Pennsylvania , political scienc e major . YA F als o benefited fro m th e influ x o f hawk ish student s fro m Philadelphi a an d Ne w Yor k City . Man y o f thes e students wer e culturall y conservativ e Jew s wh o viewe d SDSers , doves, an d Blac k Power advocate s a s anti-Semitic fascists. 76 Even thoug h a number o f SDSers , includin g Buckle y an d Millen , had grow n wear y o f campu s organizin g an d decide d t o dro p ou t o f school, the y enthusiasticall y lai d plan s fo r a series o f sprin g action s against th e war . PS U SD S organize d a teach-in o n th e wa r i n Apri l and invited Davi d McReynolds o f the War Resisters League to speak . Prior t o th e teach-in , whic h attracte d fou r hundre d students , SD S rallied on e hundre d student s o n th e universit y mal l whil e heckler s shouted obscenitie s an d PS U maintenanc e crew s spraye d th e dem onstrators wit h chemicals. 77 A few day s afte r the teach-in an d campus rally , on e hundre d PS U students an d faculty—th e larges t contingen t o f PS U student s ye t t o take par t i n a protes t outsid e o f Stat e College—wen t t o Ne w Yor k City to participate i n the Sprin g Mobilization marc h against the war. Eight PSU SDSer s wer e amon g the two hundre d youth s wh o burne d their draf t card s i n Centra l Park . Mille n movingl y proclaime d hi s opposition t o the war : I am opposed to the United States Governments immoral , illegal and genocidal wa r against th e Vietnames e peopl e i n their struggl e fo r self-determi nation . . . Al l conscriptio n i s coerciv e an d anti-democratic , an d . . . i t i s used b y th e Unite d State s Governmen t t o oppres s peopl e i n th e Unite d States and around the world.

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. . . I hope that a sense of urgency will move campus people to leave the campus t o resis t th e draf t an d organiz e a movement o f resistanc e t o th e draft an d th e wa r wit h it s bas e i n poor , workin g class , an d middl e clas s communities. . . . I regret only tha t I had to strike a match and violate the holiness of the Sabbat h in committin g th e act of draf t car d burning—I ca n only hop e that Go d wil l loo k dow n upo n wha t I did an d say—Amen , brother . [Au thor's note: Orthodox Judaism prohibits starting fires on the Sabbath.] Soon afte r th e draf t car d burnings , th e FB I onc e agai n descende d upon Stat e Colleg e i n searc h o f th e resisters , thei r addresse s pro vided t o th e agent s b y th e universit y administration . A t th e sam e time, th e Manhatta n Distric t Cour t subpoenae d seve n PS U SDSer s to stand trial for their acts. 78 By far , th e majorit y o f PS U student s wh o marche d i n Ne w Yor k City an d attende d th e campu s teach-i n wer e libera l doves , no t SD S partisans. I t wa s obviou s a s earl y a s th e winte r o f 196 6 tha t tw o separate an d competin g strain s o f antiwa r dissen t wer e emergin g o n the campus : on e o f th e confrontationa l an d radica l SD S variet y an d the othe r nonconfrontationa l an d dovish . I n libera l doves ' ranks , campus clerg y playe d leadin g roles . Boye r an d Cleeto n organize d peace fast s an d antiwa r ecumenica l services , an d provide d draf t counseling to anxious students . Dismaye d with the collapse o f SENSE , its forme r adviso r Boyer , a Worl d Wa r I I conscientiou s objector , sought t o encourag e a pacifis t alternativ e t o SDS' s militancy . Fol lowing Boye r an d Cleeton' s lead , intern s a t th e campu s Presbyter ian, United Church of Christ, and Lutheran churches establishe d th e "Jawbone," a place a t which student s coul d liste n to folk musi c an d discuss socia l justic e issues. 79 The dove s an d a few o f th e radical s se t asid e thei r philosophica l differences whil e workin g o n th e loca l Vietna m Summe r projec t which th e Stat e Colleg e Friend s Meetin g an d Bil l Le e coordinated . Three hundre d student , faculty , an d clerg y volunteer s canvasse d central Pennsylvania , vainl y attemptin g t o mobiliz e sentimen t agains t the war . Onc e summe r ended , Georg e Andrews, a n assistant profes sor o f mathematics , founde d th e Citizen s fo r Peac e i n Vietna m i n order t o continu e loca l antiwa r organizin g an d convinc e th e electo rate to vote for dovish candidates. 80 Meanwhile man y SDSer s no t involve d i n th e Vietna m Summe r project, an d utterl y contemptuou s o f th e electora l system , pursue d their ow n form s o f protes t an d organizing . O n Jul y 4 , si x SDSer s

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joined a n Independenc e Da y parad e i n Stat e College , displayin g a n American flag upo n whic h th e words , "Make Love , No t War, " ha d been painted . Affronted , resident s bea t th e protestors , afte r whic h the polic e arreste d th e SDSer s fo r flag desecratio n an d disorderl y conduct. Thi s spectacl e s o upse t prowa r facult y stalwar t Henr y Al binski tha t h e testifie d o n th e SDSers * behal f a t thei r trial . Centr e County judg e R . Pau l Campbel l fined an d imprisone d th e activists , but wen t eas y o n th e on e femal e defendant , Shelle y Janoff , a Pitts burgh speech major : "Shelley's jus t a little, singl e gal, " Judge Campbell intoned , "She' s no t quit e a s knowledgeabl e o r sophisticated a s the other s an d I fel t sh e coul d becom e a victi m o f som e o f thes e over-zealous demonstrators." 81 A numbe r o f PS U SDSer s tha t summe r eschewe d stree t protest s for their ow n versio n o f communit y organizing , establishin g a com mune i n nearb y Bellefonte . Initially , Buckley , wh o ha d announce d with muc h fanfar e hi s intentio n t o leav e schoo l i n order to work fo r revolution, sough t t o creat e a communal environmen t whic h woul d serve t o radicaliz e th e workin g poor . However , th e SD S commun e quickly becam e a magne t fo r juvenil e revelers . Non e o f thes e teen agers wer e intereste d i n SD S diatribe s o n revolution . Indeed , th e often drunke n stree t kid s physicall y intimidate d th e middle-clas s SDSers. B y August , th e commun e ha d disbanded , succeedin g onl y in convincin g th e local s tha t SD S wishe d t o corrup t th e moral s o f their children. 82 The beginnin g o f th e fal l sessio n sa w PS U student s presente d with decidedl y contradictor y message s fro m thei r elders . Walke r spoke t o 5,00 0 enterin g freshmen , warnin g the m t o avoi d self-righ teous, delude d antiwa r activists . A mont h later , Senato r Josep h Clark, a Pennsylvani a Democrat , appeare d o n th e campus . H e argue d tha t a negotiate d peac e settlemen t i n Vietna m wa s desirabl e an d de fended th e patriotis m o f antiwa r protestors . Comin g fro m a hithert o uncritical supporte r o f Johnson , Clark' s tal k serve d t o legitimat e campus peac e dissent. 83 Clark's speech indicate d that campus antiwar dissent had becom e almost acceptable ; th e studen t governmen t eve n wen t s o fa r a s t o criticize Selectiv e Servic e directo r Hershe y fo r wantin g t o draf t im mediately studen t antiwa r protestors . Emboldened , SDS , havin g learned little , becam e mor e militant . (Certai n members ha d learned , however, way s i n whic h t o promot e themselve s i n th e eye s o f th e National Office , falsel y informin g New Left Notes, th e nationa l SD S

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newspaper, i n th e fal l tha t PS U SD S wa s th e first part y whic h uncovered nava l researc h o n th e campus. ) Whe n CI A recruiter s came t o PSU , SD S sponsore d a teach-in . A t th e teach-in , newl y appointed politica l scienc e instructo r Ji m Petra s describe d th e CI A as "a n agenc y o f subversio n . . . minimizin g socia l refor m . . . sub verting student s the y brin g t o th e Unite d State s fro m foreig n coun tries." No t conten t wit h jus t holdin g a teach-in, SDSer s harasse d th e CIA recruiters . Th e Dail y Collegian' s editor s chastise d the m fo r using "militanc y t o sto p militancy " an d "tramplin g ove r th e rights " of others. 84 Undeterred b y criticis m fro m SDS' s onl y significant , albei t luke warm, supporter , Ji m Gran t condemne d thos e who , i n th e nam e o f democratic pluralism , decrie d militan t confrontation : A society which ca n fight wars all over the globe making the world saf e fo r colonialism an d exploitatio n i n orde r to maintain th e wealth an d powe r of those forces that control the society, is hardly democratic . Such a societ y canno t b e change d b y nice , quie t peacefu l methods... . Hitler could no t be removed fro m powe r nonviolently no r can the forces of colonialism an d imperialis m b e remove d fro m th e back s o f th e oppresse d without a struggle... . . . . Powe r comes only to those who take, whether on a university campu s or in a tropical jungle whether "fair " o r "four* means is used . . . . Such rhetori c ha d littl e appea l t o mos t students , bu t Creega n at tributed th e lac k o f campu s suppor t t o SDS' s tactica l moderation . Obviously, mor e intens e protest s wer e require d fo r 1968. 85 The Stat e Universit y o f Ne w Yor k a t Buffal o Disturbed b y Johnson' s bombin g o f Nort h Vietna m i n Februar y 1965 , Rick Salte r an d Dav e Gardine r sough t ou t professor s E d Powel l an d Sid Willhelm . Afte r quic k deliberation , th e graduat e an d facult y sociologists decide d t o distribut e antiwa r literatur e o n th e campu s and enliste d th e enthusiasti c suppor t o f Spectru m edito r Jerr y Tay lor. Sinc e th e universit y administratio n woul d no t permi t th e activ ists t o se t u p a literatur e tabl e i n th e Norto n Unio n unles s the y ha d a forma l organizationa l name , Salte r an d Powel l chos e t o cal l them selves th e SUNY-Buffal o SDS. 86 The SUNY-Buffal p SD S chapte r immediatel y se t ou t t o publiciz e the antiwa r messag e a t th e university , wit h Taylo r usin g th e Spec -

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trum t o condem n th e wa r an d infor m student s o f th e upcomin g eleven-hour campu s Vietna m teach-in. T o the SDSers ' delight, 1,50 0 students an d faculty, instea d of the fifty they had anticipated, turne d out fo r th e Apri l 5 teach-in. I n contrast t o th e MS U teach-in , onl y a handful o f hawkis h engineerin g student s pickete d th e even t an d it s organizers permitte d prowa r position s t o b e represented . Philoso phy professo r Marvi n Zimmerma n vigorousl y defende d th e war , arguing tha t whil e th e America n bombin g o f Vietna m wa s a caus e for concern, th e alternativ e t o slaughtering thousands o f Vietnames e would b e a Communist victor y followe d b y eve n greate r bloodshed . Unfortunately fo r Zimmerman , mos t student s wer e repulse d b y hi s contention tha t killing was necessar y t o prevent furthe r killing. 87 Taylor, a teach-in participan t a s well a s organizer, considere d th e event a grea t succes s an d urge d Spectrum reader s t o enlis t i n SD S and marc h for peace i n Washington . On e hundred an d fifty student s and faculty too k his advic e an d demonstrated a t the nation's capital . The energeti c edito r nex t organize d a n antiwa r marc h dow n Mai n Street from th e campu s i n earl y May, promptin g Congressman Rich ard McCarthy t o castigate th e Soviet-inspire d SD S and the editors of the Buffal o Courier-Expres s t o deman d tha t Furna s expe l th e dis loyal demonstrators . Joinin g the hawkis h chorus , a small numbe r of students, wit h Zimmerman' s assistance , circulate d a prowa r peti tion o n th e campu s prio r t o th e Buffal o rally . Althoug h the y gar nered a respectabl e 3,20 0 signatures , thi s figure wa s fa r belo w th e number o f student s wh o endorse d simila r petition s a t othe r stat e universities. Further , th e overwhelmin g majorit y o f prowa r letter s which appeare d i n th e Spectru m advocate d a negotiated peac e set tlement, no t a military escalatio n o f the conflict. 88 By summer , SDSer s realize d tha t th e mos t vehemen t supporter s of th e wa r woul d no t b e fello w students , bu t rather , communit y members. Congressma n McCarth y championed U.S . foreig n policy : The right of a peaceful peopl e to exist outside the Communist orbit is being brutally challenged. The Unite d State s ha s intervene d t o uphol d th e right o f thi s peopl e t o control its own future. . . . th e United States could not possibly withdraw from the war without a catastrophi c let-dow n o f th e force s resistin g Communis m al l ove r th e globe... The local pres s reiterated McCarthy' s contentions an d featured read ers' letter s whic h brande d campu s activist s a s disloya l an d recom mended tha t they be drafte d and , hopefully, killed. 89

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Brushing asid e th e community' s denunciations , th e pacifis t cor e of SD S urge d adoptio n o f nonviolen t tactic s t o en d th e war . A t a well-attended SUNY-Buffal o "Solve-In " o n th e Vietna m Wa r i n July , Taylor exhorte d draft-ag e yout h t o "conside r th e alternativ e o f con scientious objectio n . . . choos e no t t o wor k i n defens e industries , choose no t to pay the defens e par t of you r taxes" and adop t "volun tary poverty a s the mora l equivalen t t o war." Although unwillin g t o take a vo w o f poverty , thirt y SDSer s committe d themselve s t o th e principle o f civi l disobedienc e an d participate d i n th e Committe e for Non-Violen t Action' s (CNVA ) Washingto n peac e protes t i n Au gust. 90 Troubled tha t activist s wer e confinin g thei r effort s t o th e campu s and i n Washington , YAW F chai r an d SDSe r Gerr y Gros s urge d stu dents t o "g o t o th e peopl e i n th e Buffal o an d Niagar a Fall s area s with ou r literatur e . . . " becaus e "poll s indicat e tha t ther e exist s a large antiwar sentimen t amon g th e workers i n these areas. " Concur ring wit h Gross , SDS , a s par t o f th e Octobe r Internationa l Day s o f Protest, organize d rallie s i n Buffalo' s LaFayett e Squar e an d i n fron t of th e U.S . Consulat e i n Toronto . Bu t i f th e Buffal o protes t wa s intended t o pave th e wa y fo r a student-worker peac e coalition , the n it failed miserably . A s on e hundred student s an d faculty pickete d i n downtown Buffalo , a larger crowd assembled o n the steps o f the cit y hall t o liste n t o Mayo r Cheste r Kowal l rea d a "Proclamatio n o f Vietnam Da y i n recognitio n o f th e patriotic , selfles s an d dedicate d efforts o f serviceme n fighting dail y i n thi s grea t an d nobl e caus e o f combating Communism. " Catholi c schoo l childre n an d member s o f the Buffal o Veteran s o f Foreig n War s wave d America n flags an d loudly applaude d Kowall . Meanwhil e a t th e SD S protest , passin g workers an d teenager s shouted , "cowards , yello w bellies! " FB I an d police officer s wer e also presen t photographin g the demonstrators. 91 Paradoxically, th e peac e protes t i n Toront o prove d t o b e bette r attended an d received . Fou r hundred America n student s fro m SUNY Buffalo, Cornell , Rochester , an d Syracuse , an d nin e hundre d Cana dians, pickete d th e consulate . SUNY-Buffal o SDSe r Stev e Crafts , a graduate English student , delivere d a ringing cal l fo r peace : The United States is waging an immoral war against the people of Vietnam. We are asked to condone the indiscriminate slaughter of men, women and children in the name of peace and freedom. There are many Americans who have deluded themselves into believing that napalm, saturation bombing and trained killers are mechanisms o f peace ; and that news manipula tions, violation s o f internationa l law , an d support of ruthless dictators . . .

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are i n th e interest s o f freedom . Suc h belief s ar e the produc t o f a morally and spiritually bereft society . Thoreau wa s t o sa y o f anothe r war : "Ho w doe s i t becom e a ma n t o behave towar d thi s America n governmen t today ? I answer, tha t he canno t without disgrac e b e associate d with it. " We have com e today , refusin g t o associate with the disgraceful brutality in Southeast Asia. But w e canno t dissociat e ourselve s fro m th e struggle s o f million s t o attain true peace through freedom from social and economic oppression. We mourn the deaths of Vietnamese and American people, and on their behalf and for all mankind, WE DECLARE PEACE.92 A fe w SUNY-Buffal o students , distresse d wit h th e exten t o f cam pus antiwa r sentiment , bega n i n th e fal l t o voic e loudl y thei r com plaints t o the universit y administration . Receivin g word s o f encour agement bu t n o actio n fro m Richar d Siggelkow , dea n o f students , they turne d t o Zimmerma n fo r guidance . Th e philosopher , deepl y concerned abou t th e "misguided " campu s pacifist s an d th e Com munist fron t SDS , helpe d the m foun d i n November th e Student s fo r U.S. i n Vietnam . Th e organizers , thirt y YA F an d Youn g Democra t members, circulate d a petition o n th e campu s t o have that "commi e editor'' o f th e Spectru m remove d an d preven t SDSer s Salte r an d Powell fro m usin g th e pape r a s a radica l forum . On e anti-Commu nist studen t suggeste d tha t the Spectrum , "thi s treason sheet, " chang e its nam e t o th e "Re d Hanoi Express/ ' Sadl y fo r th e hawks , the y were abl e t o persuad e jus t thirty-eigh t student s t o atten d a prowa r October YAF demonstration i n Washington. 93 Frustrated campu s hawks , unabl e t o acquir e a mas s following , formed i n January 196 6 a more militant organization, th e Committe e for Victor y i n Vietnam : "Havin g observe d th e complet e lac k o f de mocracy, bruta l totalitarianism , an d persecutio n o f opposition , whic h has take n plac e i n Communis t nations , w e believ e tha t the force s o f Communism shoul d b e vigorousl y opposed. " Althoug h critica l o f Vietnamese Communis t persecution , th e hawks , largel y YA F mem bers, sa w n o mora l contradictio n i n persecutin g peac e activists . During a January SD S campu s peac e vigil , YA F activist s descende d upon th e SDSer s screaming , "the y don' t eve n believ e i n God—let' s kill them. " Thi s inciden t upse t th e studen t bod y an d YA F subse quently becam e defunct. 94 SDSers, assure d tha t the y ha d a soli d bas e o f suppor t o n th e campus, bega n mailin g moderatel y phrase d fund-raisin g letter s t o community resident s though t to be receptive t o their peace message .

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In additio n t o writte n appeals , pacifist s i n th e chapter , groupe d around Da n Katz , suburba n Buffal o undergraduat e an d membe r o f the Wester n Ne w Yor k chapte r o f th e CNVA , champione d commu nity antiwa r demonstrations . Thei r first communit y protes t o f 1966 , picketing th e appearanc e o f Humphre y a t th e Statle r Hilton , ende d sourly i n arres t an d prosecutio n fo r disturbin g th e peace . A t Katz' s trial, a polic e office r testifie d tha t h e ha d recognize d th e SDSe r fro m previous protest s an d decide d t o arres t th e chie f troublemaker. 95 Confronted wit h polic e an d communit y hostility , th e pacifist s i n SDS als o increasingl y foun d themselve s engage d i n a n ideologica l struggle wit h mor e sanguin e chapte r members . Sinc e th e fal l o f 1965, wit h th e influ x o f YAW F member s int o th e chapter , SUNY Buffalo SD S ha d bee n tor n betwee n tw o competin g impulses . Th e first impulse , identifie d wit h Taylor , Salter , an d Powell , embrace d the idea s o f ideologica l pluralis m an d tactica l spontaneity . I n con trast, th e secon d impulse , represente d b y th e YAW F partisans , dic tated ideologica l rigidit y an d organizationa l discipline . B y March o f 1966, thes e competin g impulse s bega n t o divid e th e chapter . Taylo r published searin g Spectru m editorial s lambastin g SDSe r an d Brook lyn nativ e Barbar a Brod y fo r he r "doctrinaire* ' an d "authoritaria n logic." He wa s particularl y incense d b y Brody' s demand s tha t SDS' s alternative educatio n project , th e SUNY-Buffal o Fre e University , become " a trainin g cente r fo r politica l radicals , an d tha t i t mus t include a 'revolutionary * (on e mus t suppos e 'Marxist-Leninist' ) bias. " To Taylor , Salte r an d Powell , "n o authorit y shoul d b e unques tioned," regardles s o f whethe r tha t authorit y wa s th e America n military-industrial comple x o r a revolutionar y Marxis t liberatio n movement. Further , the y identifie d wit h th e mora l example s tha t pacifist Quake r facult y suc h a s Newto n Garve r provided . Brod y an d YAWF, however , insiste d tha t effectiv e radicalis m require d a frame work grounde d i n Marxis t theor y an d championshi p o f violen t rev olutionary change. 96 Despite th e Brody-YAW F challenge , th e origina l cor e o f SD S accelerated th e pac e o f antiwa r organizing . SDSers ' efforts , i n wha t had becom e a familiar pattern , wer e receive d wit h mixe d responses : enthusiasm o n th e campu s an d hostilit y i n th e community . I n lat e March, SD S an d YAWF , temporaril y settin g asid e thei r differences , rallied i n LaFayett e Square . Durin g thi s protest , severa l Buffal o res idents jumpe d o n Willhel m an d a number o f othe r demonstrator s a s the spectator s chanted , "Communis t kike s g o bac k t o Ne w Yor k

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City." Immediatel y afte r th e confrontation , th e Buffal o Commo n Council vote d 1 2 t o 1 i n favo r o f a resolutio n callin g fo r Furna s t o "investigate th e us e o f stat e facilitie s an d agencie s t o conduc t anti Vietnam activities." 97 On th e othe r hand , campu s antiwa r protes t proceede d wit h broad based support . SD S sponsore d a "Dialogue fo r Peace" i n March an d April whic h include d a popula r teach-i n an d soa p bo x speeches . The Spectru m contribute d t o th e peac e educatio n offensiv e b y fea turing a lengthy serie s o n university-military research . Further, SDSer s Salter, Bil l Mayrl , an d Car l Ratne r forme d a committe e t o promot e draft resistance . Establishe d i n February , th e Graduat e Student-Fac ulty Committe e o n th e Selectiv e Servic e (GFCSS) , wit h th e ai d o f student governmen t presiden t Clinto n Deveau x an d th e SUNY-Buf falo AAU P chapter , launche d it s attack on th e draf t i n April : Since the probability of an individual attending college is greatly dependent o n variou s factors , i.e.—hi s financial status , socio-economi c back ground, etc. , studen t defermen t permit s members of certain "classes" only to avoi d militar y service . No t onl y i s thi s undemocrati c an d unworth y of the theoretical American tradition, but it is also resented by many members of th e non-academi c community , resultin g i n increase d anti-intellectual ism. Sectors of the American population who are the most politically influ ential i n our society, th e middle and upper classes, may remain aloof fro m the calamity of war. . . . th e military , throug h th e Selectiv e Servic e System , i s underminin g the autonomy of the university by establishing for the university the definitive qualities of intellectualism an d intellectuals, usin g the coercive devic e of the 2-S deferment . Due t o excessiv e pressures , man y student s ar e encourage d t o confor m academically, t o cheat , an d t o plagiarize . Fea r o f lo w grade s discourage s experimentation in course work and selection. In these instances, the Selective Service System is destroying the idea of the university. 98 The GFCS S organizer s soo n foun d themselve s embroile d i n con troversy whe n the y challenge d universit y administratio n coopera tion with Selectiv e Service . Furna s resented th e activists' insistenc e that h e no t forwar d studen t grade s t o Selectiv e Service , a s wel l a s their call s fo r th e universit y t o ceas e administratin g th e Selectiv e Service exa m whic h decide d whethe r o r not student s retaine d thei r draft deferments . Subsequently , afte r a n initia l meetin g wit h th e GFCSS, h e decline d furthe r contac t wit h SDS . Risin g t o th e occa sion, fifteen member s o f GFCS S i n earl y Ma y spontaneousl y occu -

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pied Furnas * Haye s Hal l office . Take n b y surprise , th e president , who wa s preparin g t o retir e an d fearfu l tha t hi s law-and-orde r sub ordinates migh t overreact , agree d t o negotiate , wit h Deveau x actin g as a mediator. Th e SDSer s consente d t o end their forty-five-hour sit in, bu t no t t o forsak e agitation . Tha t wee k the y hel d a n ope n foru m on th e draf t whic h attracte d 35 0 sympatheti c student s an d faculty . After th e forum , thre e hundre d students , le d b y Salte r an d GFCS S member Larr y Faulkner , pickete d Haye s Hall . The y wer e quickl y joined b y a n additiona l 1,00 0 students . Perplexed , Furna s chos e t o have his successo r wor k out a solution. " With summe r brea k an d Furnas * departure , th e activist s bide d their tim e unti l th e fal l sessio n an d th e installatio n o f Marti n Mey erson a s th e ne w universit y president . However , ther e wa s on e major student antiwa r protest in August, the CNVA's Hiroshima Da y Peace Walk . Thi s demonstration , lik e it s predecessors , wa s marre d by violence . A s CNV A member s marche d fro m th e campu s t o th e American-Canadian Peac e Bridge , resident s screamed , "J e w s! Jews ! Show m e a Jew commi e an d I'l l sho w yo u a faggot!" an d "Kil l th e Jews—to th e ovens! " Buffal o polic e officer s di d nothin g t o calm th e hecklers; indeed , the y ignore d th e prowa r partisans ' provocation s and chos e t o arrest CNV A marche r an d sociolog y graduat e studen t Bill Sande r fo r blockin g th e sidewalk . Durin g th e arrest , a n ethni c Italian policema n flung th e pacifis t agains t a patro l car , splittin g open Sander' s head. 100 The fal l sessio n bega n o n a hopefu l not e fo r antiwa r activist s a s Meyerson pledge d t o promot e dialogu e o n th e campus . A t hi s first campus pres s conference , th e libera l educato r propounde d a ne w administrative philosoph y an d style : " I think student s ough t to tak e a majo r par t i n discussio n o f polic y an d o f educationa l issue s tha t face them. " T o reassur e student s tha t h e wa s committe d t o hi s ow n version o f participator y democracy , Meyerso n se t ou t t o settl e th e issue o f universit y cooperatio n wit h Selectiv e Service . H e worke d closely wit h th e studen t governmen t t o sponso r a university-wid e forum o n the draf t and approve d o f th e holding o f a binding campu s referendum t o determin e whethe r o r not th e Selectiv e Servic e exa m would b e administered . Afte r thre e day s o f balloting , 2,20 5 o f 3,27 8 student an d facult y voter s (6 7 percent ) approve d universit y admin istration of th e Selectiv e Servic e exam. 101 SDSers wer e no t please d wit h th e referendu m results . Unwillin g to admi t tha t th e campus , whil e sympatheti c t o th e Left , wa s firmly

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liberal-centrist, Salte r an d th e ne w Spectru m edito r an d SD S mem ber from State n Island , Ne w York , Davi d Edelman , lashe d ou t agains t Meyerson. Edelma n an d SD S characterize d th e presiden t a s "a slic k liberal" wh o desire d t o preserv e "th e anti-democrati c structur e o f the university " b y usin g democrati c trapping s suc h a s th e referen dum. I n th e sam e vein , Salter , i n article s whic h appeare d i n th e Spectrum an d New Left Notes, claime d tha t Meyerso n ha d sched uled th e referendu m a t shor t notic e befor e student s ha d bee n full y apprised o f th e large r issue s involved . Further , Salte r contended , "the cooperatio n betwee n militar y an d universit y violate d a funda mental principl e o f th e universit y (autonom y fro m th e state ) an d therefore wa s a question whic h coul d no t b e decide d o n b y a refer endum." Meyerso n astutel y replie d tha t SDSer s ha d bee n agitatin g against Selectiv e Servic e fo r several month s and , therefore , ha d ha d plenty o f tim e t o swa y student s t o vot e fo r a chang e i n universit y policy. Additionally , Powel l an d Willhelm , admirer s o f Meyerson , felt tha t students ha d a right to vote i n favor of something whic h th e sociologists philosophicall y opposed . The y wer e als o uncomfort able wit h SDS' s positio n tha t som e issue s wer e to o fundamenta l t o be subjec t t o arbitratio n o r a vote . Suc h a position , Powel l an d Willhelm believed , drasticall y redefine d th e concep t o f participa tory democrac y t o mea n tha t th e peopl e wh o wer e t o decid e woul d only be those wit h th e correc t ideologica l line. 102 Recriminations fro m th e disastrou s referendum , o n to p of pacifis t SDSers* ineffectiveness i n attracting community support , gave muc h encouragement t o YAWF partisans. Convince d tha t they coul d com bat "corporat e libera l fascists " lik e Meyerso n bette r than SDS , YAW F members, no w a significan t presenc e i n SDS , issue d i n Octobe r a n ultimatum t o th e chapter : eithe r accep t disciplin e o r quit. Angered , Edelman ridicule d YAW F whil e th e majorit y o f SDSer s resigne d from th e organization . Car l Ratne r smugl y claime d tha t thes e ex members woul d no t be missed sinc e the y had "nothin g t o sa y abou t anything" and, in any event, were "red-baiters" and "McCarthyites. " Jim Hansen , a graduat e philosoph y student , joine d th e fray , attack ing participator y democrac y a s a n ineffectiv e mean s t o fight Col d War liberalism . Wha t wa s required , YAW F contended , wa s a ne w SDS whic h recognize d th e nee d fo r revolutionar y violenc e an d movement leadership . No t surprisingly , i n Novembe r th e Buffal o Common Council , whic h ha d barel y tolerate d th e ol d pacifist-ori ented SDS , prohibite d th e ne w SD S fro m demonstratin g i n La Fayette Square. 103

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The Commo n Council' s politicall y motivate d ba n o n SDS-YAW F protests i n Buffal o wa s jus t on e o f man y setback s experience d b y campus activists . I n particular , th e mor e open-minde d SDSers , al ready reelin g fro m th e YAW E conques t an d purg e o f thei r chapter , lost Ric k Salter' s leadership . A s earl y a s Augus t 1965 , th e Immigra tion Divisio n o f th e Justic e Departmen t i n Buffalo , respondin g t o anonymous calls , ha d move d t o revok e Salter' s studen t vis a an d deport hi m t o Canada. Althoug h Salte r assured th e governmen t tha t he wa s no t a Communist part y member , th e Immigratio n an d Natu ralization Servic e (INS ) wa s unconvinced . Salte r an d hi s four-year old daughte r wer e force d t o leav e th e Unite d State s i n Octobe r 1966. 104 With Salte r ou t o f th e way , th e YAWF-SD S feare d n o seriou s campus oppositio n t o th e escalatio n o f antiwa r militancy . I n addi tion t o demandin g tha t Meyerso n overtur n th e result s o f th e fal l referendum, th e radical s develope d ne w tactic s wit h whic h t o op pose militar y recruitment o n the campus . Subsequently , twenty-fiv e activists maintaine d a sustaine d sit-i n an d se t u p literatur e table s next t o militar y recruiter s i n th e Norto n Union . Intens e discussion s ensued amon g students an d between radicals and army, marine, an d navy personnel . Non-violen t hippie s joine d th e protest s i n April , distributing rose s an d lollipop s t o everyon e an d brushin g asid e th e militant activist s wh o though t the y shoul d b e arme d wit h basebal l bats in cas e o f trouble wit h the administration. 105 Meyerson, countin g o n libera l studen t an d faculty suppor t fo r hi s sweeping educationa l reforms , chos e no t t o provok e a violen t con frontation b y physicall y removin g th e activist s fro m th e union . In stead, h e sen t a n eloquent lette r to undergraduate SDSe r Don Blank : The university ca n no more forbid on e type o f recruitment visi t tha n it can forbid one kind of speaker... . It must be emphasized tha t our tradition has been to protect the right of students interested in any programs, as well as the right of dissent. However, al l member s o f th e universit y communit y mus t continu e t o share responsibility fo r maintaining a climate i n which divers e view s ca n be expressed, freely and without harassment, lest dissent become a form of minority tyranny. 106 Meyerson's defens e o f civi l liberties , an d Blank' s subsequen t re tort that free speec h di d no t extend t o a military whic h wa s engage d in killing , ha d littl e appea l t o th e campu s countercultura l forces . I n the spring , Mik e Aldrich , a n undergraduat e fro m Sout h Dakot a an d

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flower powe r advocate , founde d LEMAR . Countercultura l student s and facult y als o organize d a n Apri l "Angr y Art s Festival " an d Ma y "Taurian Festiva l o f th e Druids " whic h include d antiwa r plays , poetry readings , dances , an d bod y paintings . Mor e tha n 2,00 0 peo ple gathere d i n nearb y Delawar e Par k t o tun e in , b y fa r th e larges t campus peac e demonstratio n u p t o tha t time . Convince d tha t the y were constructin g a free zon e i n fascis t Buffalo , th e politicize d hip pies proclaimed : "whe n th e stenc h choke s th e lif e o f freedo m an d feeds th e monste r o f conformit y whic h stand s guar d ove r ou r grea t society, w e mus t aris e and unit e t o slap this beast." 107 Buffalo resident s observe d th e ris e o f th e campu s countercultur e with dismay . Man y local s cheere d th e arres t o f LEMAR' s facult y advisor, Lesli e Fiedler , an d wrot e t o Meyerso n denouncin g LEMA R and th e radica l Spectru m editor s wh o publishe d "filth , perversio n and degeneration. " Hawk s i n the studen t government , realizin g tha t Deveaux's grea t involvemen t i n nationa l antiwa r organizin g lef t th e liberals temporaril y leaderless , mad e thei r play . Thes e representa tives, al l engineerin g an d busines s majors , denie d fund s fo r a cam pus Studen t Mobilizatio n Committe e (SMC ) antiwa r marc h i n Washington an d demande d Edelman' s resignation . I f Edelma n di d not resign , the y vowe d t o withhol d appropriation s fro m th e Spec trum, effectivel y abolishin g th e newspaper. 108 The Englis h department , whic h include d som e o f th e most deter mined civi l libertarian s on the campus, soundl y rebuked the studen t government fo r seekin g t o contro l th e newspaper s editoria l policy . But suc h effort s mattere d little , sinc e Buffal o radi o an d televisio n stations ha d joine d th e battl e agains t th e Spectrum . Wit h commu nity support , th e conservative factio n i n the student government fel t confident enoug h t o ignor e Meyerson' s subsequen t defens e o f fre e speech an d a free press . Soon , Edelma n an d th e Ne w Left-oriente d Spectrum reporter s resigned . However , withi n a few months , othe r radicals ha d taken over the paper. 109 As th e battl e fo r contro l o f th e Spectru m approache d it s climax , the Buffal o Mobilization , a loos e coalitio n o f ideologicall y divers e clergy, faculty , an d students , defie d th e Commo n Counci l b y rally ing i n LaFayett e Square . Luthera n ministe r Ke n Sherma n an d Cath olic pries t John Pietra read a joint statemen t t o the crowd o f 250 : The church in America can no longer preach peace in its sanctuary and then sanction, and send with blessing, its youth to kill. God i s th e judge amon g nation s an d Go d will s tha t nation s no t lif t u p military might against nations.

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Significantly, Buffal o polic e officer s an d locals , respectfu l o f clergy men, di d not harass the antiwa r demonstrators . Afte r the rally, how ever, the FBI exerted pressur e o n the Barnabite Orde r to have Fathe r Pietra transferred t o Toronto. 110 Following th e Mobilizatio n peac e rally , Rev . Sherman , SUNY Buffalo biophysic s instructo r Donal d Mikulecki , an d SM C activis t Bill Yate s establishe d a Vietna m Summe r projec t i n Buffal o an d founded a n alternativ e newspaper , th e Buffal o Insighter . Th e SMC , in cooperatio n wit h Quaker s an d loca l clergy , provide d draf t coun seling t o are a youths, showe d antiwa r films, distribute d peac e liter ature an d canvasse d th e communit y i n orde r t o nurtur e oppositio n to the war . Meanwhile , th e Buffalo Insighter investigate d universit y and communit y militar y research. Mobilizatio n organizer s als o con ducted a Hiroshim a Da y antiwa r marc h throug h th e cit y whic h attracted fou r hundre d participants . Thi s time , polic e officer s an d hecklers di d no t attack the marchers. 111 The SUNY-Buffal o SMC , le d b y undergraduat e an d Buffal o In sighter edito r Mik e McKeatin g an d SDSe r an d Chicag o nativ e Car l Kronberg, champione d a militan t lin e governe d b y "th e Marxia n principle o f democrati c centralism/ ' T o demonstrat e t o Buffal o tha t the SM C was goin g t o brin g th e wa r home , activist s leaflete d work ing-class hig h schools . Fa r fro m revolutionizin g cit y youth , how ever, blue-colla r juveniles , wh o resente d th e privilege d radicals , mobbed th e vanguar d o f th e proletariat . Unchastened , Yate s trum peted tha t th e radical s ha d wo n a significan t victor y a t th e hig h schools an d calle d fo r mor e suc h revolutionar y activit y sinc e "elec toral politic s ar e a fraud." 112 Despite McKeatin g an d Kronberg' s disdai n fo r electora l politics , there were som e activists wh o retaine d faith in the electoral process . Don Mikulecki an d twent y Vietna m Summe r volunteers , supporter s of th e Citizen s fo r a Ne w Politic s an d th e Blac k Panthers , labore d mightily o n behal f o f Rev . Herma n Coles ' Commo n Counci l cam paign. Th e radical s anticipate d tha t Coles , th e pasto r o f th e Salem Riverside Unite d Churc h o f Christ , woul d los e th e election . Never theless, Mikuleck i argue d tha t Coles' campaign serve d a n importan t community educatio n function : Its main objectiv e i s to raise important issue s befor e th e cit y an d poin t t o the failure of other candidates to address themselves to these issues, whic h include: The effec t o f th e Vietna m Wa r o n Buffal o …. Th e rat e o f economi c growth in Buffalo i s lower when the nation is preoccupied by war produc-

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tion, so that as the Vietnam War escalates, the Niagara Frontier begins to lag behind in providing new jobs... . The problem s o f th e inne r cit y an d th e nee d fo r th e whit e ma n t o understand and support the concept of "Black Power." Mr. Coles sees a real need fo r educating th e whit e communit y t o overcome racis m and to learn to trust the black man's ability to take the initiative in bringing about social change.113 Unfortunately fo r the SMC , resident s wer e no t willin g t o suppor t Black Power . Republica n Alfreda Slominski , appealin g to her ethni c constituency's desir e fo r law an d order , smashe d Coles . He r victory , in a predominantly Democrati c city , wa s th e produc t o f a mountin g backlash agains t campu s protes t an d th e blac k uprisin g i n Buffalo' s ghetto i n June . Accordin g t o th e regiona l ACLU , Buffal o polic e escalated th e racia l conflic t b y randoml y gassin g an d clubbin g blacks . In response t o suc h criticism , polic e official s blame d th e rio t o n th e outside agitator s who attende d an d taught at SUNY-Buffalo. 114 Disturbed b y th e communit y backlas h agains t th e university , an d dreading th e likelihoo d o f increase d campu s unrest , Meyerso n trie d to seiz e th e initiativ e an d pleas e al l discontente d parties . T o Buffa lo's black communit y h e promise d universit y scholarship s an d pro grams t o alleviat e poverty . T o the city' s bitte r ethnic populac e Mey erson pledge d tha t SUNY-Buffalo , wit h it s enormou s financial an d intellectual resources , woul d revitaliz e th e region' s economy . T o students th e presiden t offere d expande d cultura l facilitie s an d th e creation o f intellectuall y stimulatin g storefron t colleges . An d t o medical, biophysics , an d engineering faculty , upse t with the univer sity's evolvin g commitmen t t o th e libera l arts , h e approve d o f th e acquisition o f a Themis grant . Bu t i n attempting to placate disparat e campus an d communit y constituencies , Meyerso n reveale d hi s po litical weakness . Radica l student s an d foe s i n th e faculty , adminis tration, an d communit y realize d tha t a politically secur e universit y president woul d no t be so eage r to please everyone. 115 Meyerson's sens e tha t campu s unres t wa s abou t t o ente r a mor e intense phas e prove d correct . I n October, severa l hundre d students , faculty, an d clerg y gathere d a t th e Norto n Unio n t o urg e massiv e draft resistance . Willhelm , havin g becom e mor e militan t sinc e hi s beating an d Salter' s deportation , spok e o f th e necessit y t o "liberat e ourselves befor e w e ca n g o t o anothe r countr y an d liberat e them. " And liberation , th e sociologis t concluded , require d draf t resistanc e so a s t o "dr y u p th e military' s ocean. " Goin g on e ste p furthe r tha n

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Willhelm, Mikuleck i contende d tha t "there is no differenc e betwee n the America n governmen t (i n this war ) an d the suppor t th e Germa n people gav e t o th e Naz i governmen t whe n i t destroye d si x millio n innocent people." 116 Following thi s protest , Larr y Faulkne r an d a fe w friend s an nounced thei r intentio n t o resis t inductio n int o th e militar y an d published a n open lette r to the FBI: Many of u s hav e neve r before bee n involve d i n a political movemen t an d have becom e resister s fo r strictl y humanitaria n reasons . W e questio n th e sincerity of a government that bombs and burns women and children in the name of freedom. Originally, jail s wer e buil t t o protec t peacefu l citizen s fro m thos e wh o would violate their basic rights. Now we place peaceful peopl e in prison to protect a war-like majorit y fro m exposur e t o reason and sanity. You r soul . . . mus t surely recognize the obvious absurdity of this course. Inspired b y suc h well-reasone d defiance , fifty-one SUNY-Buffal o students turne d i n thei r draf t cards , an d severa l Resistanc e rallies , with th e numbe r o f participant s rangin g u p t o si x hundred , wer e held o n the campus an d in downtown Buffal o throughou t the fall. 117 The spiri t o f campu s dissen t seeme d contagious . On e hundre d and fort y activist s too k par t i n a "Marc h o n Buffalo' s Wa r Indus tries" i n Octobe r an d th e SM C sponsored a two-day antiwa r convo cation which attracte d five hundre d participants . Answerin g the cal l to "Confron t th e Warmakers " i n Washington , 52 5 SUNY-Buffal o students an d facult y rallie d a t the Pentagon. Libera l studen t govern ment representatives , caugh t u p i n thi s environmen t o f escalatin g protest, routed their conservative opponent s an d passed a resolution demanding a n en d t o th e war . Tw o hawkis h representative s re signed i n disgust , pavin g th e wa y fo r studen t governmen t presiden t and New Yor k City resident Stewar t Edelstein to call for a university ban on campu s militar y recruiters. 118 SDS-YAWF an d th e SMC , heartene d b y th e momentu m o f cam pus activism , bega n a relentless crusad e agains t military , Dow , an d CIA recruiting a t the university . SM C leaders McKeatin g an d Kron berg responde d t o Meyerson' s repeate d defens e o f academi c free dom for all : We feel tha t you canno t tak e the bourgeois libera l position that you are against the napalming of children, but you defend Dow Chemical's right to recruit peopl e t o napalm . O r that you ar e against th e CIA' s murdering of

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thousands of people around the globe daily, but that you defend their right to come on campus and coerce people into doing the murdering. This i s no t a matte r o f fre e speech . W e ar e no t talkin g abou t th e CIA coming o n campu s t o explai n thei r philosoph y o r policy . We'r e talkin g about the m comin g o n campu s an d holdin g secre t meeting s with a fe w potential murderers in the basement of the Placement Center. 119 Twenty faculty , notabl y Powell , Willhelm , an d Mikulecki , en dorsed th e essential s o f th e SMC' s analysi s an d pledge d i n a n ope n letter t o th e campu s t o "bloc k acces s an d i n othe r way s t o obstruc t recruiters fro m Do w Chemica l Compan y an d th e Centra l Intelli gence Agenc y shoul d the y appea r o n ou r campus/ ' Othe r facult y argued befor e th e facult y senat e tha t "recruitmen t i s no t a n educa tional functio n o f the university." Further, they contended that , "th e chief caus e o f disorde r o n this o r other campuses i s not the irrespon sibility o f students . I t is th e stubbor n continuatio n o f a n unjust an d futile wa r b y a governmen t unresponsiv e t o th e mora l tormen t thi s war inflict s upo n th e generatio n compelle d t o fight i t " Th e facult y senate debate d fo r thre e tens e hour s befor e votin g 19 7 t o 7 2 t o permit recruiting . Meyerso n influence d th e outcom e o f th e vote , warning tha t Internal threat s t o th e universit y throug h disorder s ca n easil y resul t i n our losing control of our own affairs . . . disorder breeds further disorder .. . the use of force (eve n "no n violent") breed s counterforce. Th e use of force more ofte n tha n no t i s beyon d th e contro l o f universit y authorities . Th e fabric of a university, even the strongest, is a fragile thing .. . 12° But th e Lef t woul d no t hee d Meyerson' s warning , for , i n Miku lecki's words , th e universit y ha d playe d "int o th e hand s o f war makers b y dividin g student s ove r th e questio n o f academi c free dom." I n December , thre e hundre d demonstrators , man y o f the m dressed fo r battl e i n khak i gree n dungarees , dashe d abou t th e cam pus i n searc h o f Do w recruiters . Th e universit y spirite d th e me n from Do w fro m on e buildin g t o another, barel y keeping ahea d o f th e protestors. Rumor s o f the recruiters' whereabouts abounded , leadin g roving band s o f u p t o five hundre d student s t o searc h Haye s Hal l and th e Norto n Union . Exhausted , th e Do w representative s fled , causing Bil l Mayr l t o gloat , "clearl y ou r movemen t ha s score d a victory i n a battle tha t c o n t i n u e s . . . . Th e movemen t wil l continu e to struggl e t o sto p th e us e o f universit y facilitie s b y wa r crimi nals." 121

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The SMC-Do w clas h provoke d wildl y differen t responses . Pacifis t philosophy professo r Newto n Garver , appalle d b y th e protestors ' mob spirit , praise d campu s polic e officer s fo r thei r self-control . Students di d no t kno w wha t t o mak e o f th e affair , registerin g thei r confusion i n a studen t government-sponsore d referendum . Mor e than fou r hundre d vote d t o ba n CI A an d Do w recruiter s fro m th e campus, whil e ove r 1,80 0 favore d thei r presence . An d a growin g anti-Meyerson factio n i n th e administration , convince d tha t h e ha d encouraged disorde r throug h hi s civi l libertaria n stances , force d a change i n universit y policy . Henceforth , studen t disrupter s woul d be suspende d o r expelled. 122 As acrimon y overcam e th e campus , Mayr l calle d fo r a final meet ing o f radical s prio r t o Christma s break . Th e 15 0 peopl e i n atten dance wer e unsur e a s t o whethe r o r no t new , les s dramati c tactic s should b e developed . N o consensu s emerged . However , th e grou p did agre e tha t a right-win g reactio n o n th e campu s an d of f wa s unlikely. Violenc e an d repression , the y believed , woul d no t occu r in th e Ne w Year . Ye t severa l leader s advise d th e activist s "t o wea r heavy clothe s an d t o bring helmets " a t future demonstrations. 1 2 3 Kent Stat e Universit y Having acquire d invaluabl e experienc e i n campu s organizin g wit h the Ken t Stat e COR E chapter , Ton y Wals h an d Dav e Edward s se t out i n th e fal l o f 196 4 t o buil d a peac e movement . Th e Ken t Com mittee t o En d th e Wa r i n Vietna m claime d jus t a doze n studen t members an d receive d financial an d mora l suppor t fro m a handfu l of faculty : Sidne y Jackson , Bo b Ehrlich , an d Englis h professor s Dori s Franklin, Willia m Hildebrand , an d Howar d Vincent , a Quaker. Mos t students ignore d th e grou p whil e th e faculty , wh o were , KCEW V member Josep h Jackso n noted , "armchai r academic s an d anti-Com munists, , , maintaine d a contemptuou s attitud e toward s th e activ ists. 124 Once th e Vietna m Wa r escalated , indifferenc e an d contemp t gav e way t o hostilit y an d persecution . A t th e first campu s antiwa r dem onstration i n th e university' s history , i n Februar y 1965 , th e doze n KCEWV an d Youn g Socialis t Allianc e member s wer e viciousl y mobbed. Ove r on e hundre d hawkis h student s pelte d th e activist s with apple s an d orange s an d kicke d YS A secretar y Barbar a Broc k i n the face . Passion s inflamed , th e hawk s grabbe d th e protestors ' plac -

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ards and confiscate d an d burne d antiwa r literatur e which th e KCEWV had brough t t o th e demonstration . Shocked , Jo e Kuachta, a campu s police office r an d frien d o f Walsh , rope d of f th e picketer s t o preven t further assaults . However , th e crow d simpl y retreate d a fe w yard s and the n thre w rock s a t th e col d an d terrifie d activists . Presiden t White decline d t o take disciplinary actio n against th e assailants. 125 Remarkably, th e KCEW V an d th e YS A electe d t o continu e dem onstrating o n the campu s whil e Wals h and Joseph Jackson doggedl y spoke agains t th e wa r i n th e university' s dinin g halls . Ehrlich , risk ing hi s continue d employment , fired of f a great numbe r o f letter s t o the Dail y Ken t Stater t mos t o f whic h wer e no t published , urgin g students t o become informe d an d politicall y active : If Ken t Stat e Universit y i s goin g t o produc e student s wh o ar e aliv e intellectually an d emotionally , som e kin d o f engagemen t wit h th e ver y serious problem s tha t transcen d th e no w ver y limite d boundarie s o f th e university, problem s tha t ca n b e mad e t o b e "studen t activities " i f th e students want them to be, is absolutely essential. Ehrlich, Walsh , an d Jackson's effort s wer e not entirely unsuccessful . By April , th e KCEWV' s weekl y demonstration s attracte d twent y participants, a s oppose d t o twelve , an d thirty-si x Ken t Stat e stu dents attende d th e Washingto n peac e rally . O f course , hawkis h stu dents continue d t o assaul t th e activists , bu t no w ther e wer e suffi cient number s o f committe d protestor s t o fend of f attacks. 126 The universit y communit y an d th e townspeopl e lashe d ou t agains t the antiwa r activists . I n April , Whit e describe d th e KCEWV' s orga nizers a s publicity-seekin g "martyrs' ' an d opine d tha t th e YSA' s goals "ar e distastefu l t o the overwhelmin g majorit y o f us . Similarly , the mas s o f student s withi n a tru e universit y proces s wil l com e t o see th e shallownes s o f it s arguments. " Followin g White' s lead , th e editors o f th e Dail y Ken t State r taunte d th e KCEW V an d advise d hawkish student s t o refrai n fro m violenc e sinc e thi s onl y mad e th e nonviolent antiwa r activist s appea r "mature, " "respectable, " an d "sympathetic." Th e campu s newspaper , a s well a s the Record-Cou rier, also prominentl y feature d numerou s hawkis h letter s an d greatl y publicized th e Youn g Democrat s an d Youn g Republicans ' Ma y pro war campu s rall y whic h brough t ou t tw o hundre d students . An d many communit y resident s an d facult y expresse d thei r feeling s i n hateful letter s t o Sidne y Jackson . H e calml y responde d t o th e corre spondents wh o ha d th e integrit y t o sign their names :

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I do no t believ e w e ca n defea t th e Vie t Con g an y mor e tha n th e French , because the VC's are local people fighting for their own territory and we are outsiders. Just because a few "operators " like our guns and dollars doesn' t change that. The Asian Communists have such a vast job to do to feed their millions that the y ar e i n n o positio n t o tak e u s on , eve n i f the y wante d to—b y attacking us at home. The millions see m to respond in large measure to what the Asian Communists offe r them . Tha t i s thei r privilege . I do no t se e tha t anyon e ap pointed us to try to stop i t . . .. Ou r presence in Asia makes no sense. 127 Anti- an d prowa r demonstration s continue d throughou t th e sum mer an d fal l o f 1965 , wit h th e latte r man y time s large r tha n th e former. A t th e campu s KCEW V demonstration s agains t th e wa r an d ROTC that fall , hawkis h student s i n th e dormitorie s flew America n flags fro m thei r window s a s the y blaste d th e Sta r Spangle d Banne r on their stereos t o drow n ou t antiwar chants. KCEW V member Mik e Van DeVere sough t to reason with the hawks : This countr y i s base d an d evolve d fro m demonstration , th e right o f ever y man to disagree, and the duty of these who dissent to publicly criticize. I hear the words "American " and "freedom"—thes e word s hav e a hollow an d empt y ring—whe n the y com e fro m thos e wh o attemp t t o crus h criticism and apparently don't have any imagination and fear those who do. Do these concept s o f "Americanism " mean—no dissent— a complet e lac k of imagination—and freedom to do only that which is popular? Those few student s and faculty members who truly believe in "freedo m of speech" and the "American way" should . .. hav e the intestinal fortitud e to suppor t thos e wh o wis h t o exercis e thei r righ t t o fre e speec h an d dis sent.128 Weary o f th e unrelentin g persecutio n th e KCEW V an d th e YS A faced a t ever y protest , Barbar a Broc k instigate d a demonstratio n i n February 196 6 agains t th e Dail y Ken t Stater s biase d an d hostil e coverage o f th e antiwa r movement . Althoug h thi s actio n ha d n o effect o n th e campu s newspaper' s hawkis h editors , i t di d impres s a number o f student s an d facult y wh o pause d i n fron t o f Bowma n Hall to listen to Ehrlich, Van DeVere, and Walsh's pleas for fair play . Subsequently, te n facult y member s bestirre d themselve s i n Apri l t o form a committee o n th e draf t an d conscientiou s objection . Sensin g a smal l chang e i n campu s opinion , Wals h an d hi s compatriot s fel t emboldened t o participat e i n th e KS U sprin g parade . Transformin g Walsh's ratt y '5 8 Dodge convertibl e int o a n antiwar float, the KCEW V

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followed th e parad e quee n throug h Kent' s streets . Broc k passe d ou t peace button s an d literatur e o n napal m whil e Edward s an d Ro y Iglee, wh o wer e dresse d i n blac k an d wearin g gasmasks , wave d t o the stunned spectators . Intrigue d by the KCEWV display, two hundre d students attende d a Ma y antiwa r rall y o n Blanke t Hil l an d loudl y cheered th e activists. 129 Even thoug h th e KCEW V discovere d tha t i t wa s possibl e t o mo bilize sympatheti c crowds , th e numbe r o f committe d activist s re mained small . It s rank s wer e als o deplenishe d b y Walsh' s gradua tion an d Barbar a Gregorich' s force d resignatio n fro m th e facult y i n June, a consequenc e o f he r arres t i n Novembe r 196 5 a t a Clevelan d Socialist Workers ' part y meeting . A t th e first peac e vigi l o f th e fal l of 1966 , onl y twent y student s participated . Bu t th e disappointin g turnout di d no t dete r Josep h Jackso n fro m speakin g a t dormitor y functions an d maintaining a lonely vigi l a t a KCEWV literature tabl e in th e union . Hi s persistenc e pai d of f b y Octobe r a s a grou p o f freshmen joine d an d reinvigorated th e organization. Amon g the ne w recruits wer e tw o wildl y differen t undergraduate s wh o soo n playe d leading role s i n th e KCEWV—Rut h Gibson , a lower-middle-clas s Methodist fro m Wes t Virginia , an d Howi e Emmer , a Cleveland re d diaper baby. 130 The KCEW V soo n steppe d u p th e pace , a s wel l a s broadene d th e scope, o f it s activities. I n the fall, th e activist s brough t Dr . Benjami n Spock t o th e campu s t o spea k agains t th e war . I n addition , on e student peac e partisa n an d a professor, i n cooperation wit h a former KCEWV member an d writer for an alternative Clevelan d newspaper , established a n undergroun d networ k t o conduc t draf t resister s t o Canada. B y th e sprin g o f 1967 , th e campu s peac e movemen t ha d made notabl e headway . On e hundre d an d fifty student s an d facult y journeyed t o New Yor k City for th e Apri l Mobilizatio n rall y an d th e KCEWV ha d persuade d 24 0 student s an d eighty-on e largel y timi d faculty member s t o sig n a n antiwa r advertisement . An d th e KCEWV' s weekly campu s peac e vigil s bega n t o brin g ou t a n averag e o f thirt y picketers. However , th e activist s realize d tha t ther e wa s stil l muc h work t o b e done . I n a Marc h studen t government-sponsore d refer endum o n th e Vietna m War , 72 7 o f 1,18 5 (6 1 percent ) o f student s who cas t ballot s favore d escalatin g th e conflict . Moreover , demon strators continue d t o b e assaulte d o n th e campu s an d i n Kent' s streets.131 To dampe n furthe r th e spirit s o f antiwa r activists , Ken t polic e

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began i n th e fal l t o com e ont o th e campu s i n orde r t o photograp h KCEWV picketers . Ken t Stat e securit y office r Donal d Schwartz miller argue d that it was vital to photograph KCEW V members s o a s "to protec t th e universit y fro m professiona l demonstrators. " Elabo rating o n thi s theme , Ken t polic e chie f Ro y Thompso n state d tha t the polic e wer e searchin g fo r "outsid e troublemakers. " Gibso n de cried the photographing as "a form of intimidation and harassment. " She also wryly observe d tha t "i t seems kin d o f ridiculous t o look fo r professional demonstrator s o n thi s campu s wher e ther e hav e neve r been an y before. " Th e activist s soo n learne d tha t th e Ken t polic e had entere d th e campu s a t president White' s invitatio n a s well a s at the behest of th e Cleveland field offic e o f the FBI. 132 Campus, city , an d federa l polic e agent s bega n to pa y attentio n t o the Ken t Stat e antiwa r movemen t becaus e b y Octobe r 196 7 i t ha d become large r and , therefore , mor e threatenin g t o th e anti-Commu nist universit y presiden t an d boar d o f trustees . Tw o hundre d KS U students, th e greates t contingen t yet , marche d o n th e Pentago n tha t fall. KCEW V member s Ji m Powri e an d Howi e Emme r cam e awa y from th e Washingto n confrontatio n wit h significantl y differen t per spectives. Powri e foun d th e night he spen t o n the Pentagon ground s to b e bot h "romanti c an d terrifying. " Th e burl y Irishma n wa s sym pathetic toward s th e soldier s wh o surrounde d th e demonstrators , perceiving tha t the y were , lik e him , "scare d working-clas s yout h hoping t o avoi d violence. " Reconciliation , no t confrontation , Powrie believed, woul d en d the war. Emmer, on the other hand, ha d charged int o th e soldier s and , exhilarated , thereafte r champione d active resistance agains t politica l authority : We are willing to bodily disrupt and be arrested and maybe beaten because the wa r i s escalatin g s o rapidl y an d viciously . W e still mus t wor k i n ou r communities o n a n intellectua l level , bu t w e als o hav e t o b e willin g t o engage in creative forms of disruption such as non-violently sitting in. 133 While Emme r bega n t o advocat e confrontationa l tactics , Gibso n maintained fait h i n peac e education . Th e KCEW V received encour agement i n thi s fro m th e campu s Newma n Club , whic h sponsore d antiwar lectures by Catholic clergy, and from Rev. Jacobs, who coun seled student s o n the draf t an d took part in the KCEWV's Novembe r Vietnam teach-in . Severa l youn g facult y recentl y recruite d t o th e university, includin g Ke n Calkins , To m Dubis , an d Pete r Churchill , joined wit h twelv e protes t veteran s t o give Ken t Stat e it s first teach -

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in o n th e war . Th e teach-i n brough t ou t tw o hundre d students , a small numbe r compare d t o othe r universities . Bu t i t wa s a solid , albeit tardy , beginning , an d th e teach-i n di d encourag e severa l ad ditional facult y member s t o voic e publicl y thei r oppositio n t o th e war. 134 Now tha t dissen t wa s seemin g t o catc h on , an d respectable clerg y and facult y ha d identifie d themselve s wit h th e peac e movement , previously fearfu l student s bega n to use th e campu s newspape r a s a forum fo r criticizin g th e campu s hawks . Overwhelme d b y th e vol ume o f antiwa r letter s comin g in , pr o war Dail y Ken t State r editor s felt compelle d t o publis h mor e tha n the y ha d previously . Outrage d at th e newspape r fo r printin g antiwa r letters , right-win g student s contended tha t th e editor s ha d "see n fit t o prostitutionalize " th e paper, makin g i t " a wailin g wal l wher e th e minorit y opinion s . . . can gai n prestige. " Others , notabl y campu s studen t politic o Fran k Frisina, warne d tha t th e newspape r an d th e KCEW V were i n leagu e with th e Communist s t o undermine th e free world. 135 Inured t o campu s oppositio n b y thi s poin t and , i n an y event , preferring writte n attac k t o physica l assault , th e KCEW V wen t be yond peac e vigil s t o activ e protes t agains t militar y an d corporat e recruiters wh o cam e ont o th e campus . I n November , seventy-fiv e students spen t tw o hour s peacefull y demonstratin g agains t a Do w representative wh o wa s conductin g interview s i n Stophe r Hall . Spectators flung mu d a t the demonstrator s an d tor e away an d torche d several o f thei r "Do w Burn s Babies ' " placard s whil e Emme r rea d aloud th e group's statement : Today a representative o f th e Dow Chemical Co . is interviewing candi dates for employment. This company manufactures napalm, which is essentially jellie d gasoline . Thi s jellie d gasolin e i s use d a s a n anti-personne l weapon i n Vietnam . Upo n explosio n i t scatters , clingin g t o peopl e an d burning them. In the rural villages which bear the brunt of the napalm attacks, everyone is considered the enemy and is subject to the indiscriminate burning of the napalm. . . . W e canno t stan d b y an d le t thes e atrocitie s b e carrie d ou t i n ou r name. Yo u can help stop these atrocities by writing letters of protest to the Dow Chemical Co. , Midland, Michigan , an d by joining us in opposition t o the war in Vietnam. 136 With a sens e o f triumph , th e demonstrator s lef t th e scene , som e headed fo r th e "Blin d Owl " t o liste n t o fol k musi c an d ge t stoned .

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Others went hom e t o plan an upcoming rall y at a Cleveland militar y induction center . Afte r three years of organizin g an d demonstrating , the KCEW V ha d grow n fro m twelv e t o fifty member s an d dissen t had becom e a par t o f th e campus * cultura l landscape . Th e move ment, the y believed, wa s a t last on the move. 137

F I V E " Y o u D o n ' t N e e da

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From th e Te t Offensiv e t o King' s assassination , whic h produce d a new roun d o f rac e rioting , Americ a i n 196 8 wa s disenchante d wit h the Vietna m Wa r an d tire d o f socia l protes t an d Grea t Societ y re form. I n th e wak e o f th e sprin g studen t uprisin g an d th e summe r violence a t th e Democrati c Nationa l Conventio n i n Chicago , antiwa r activists an d thei r opponent s increasingl y sa w th e visio n o f th e apocalypse. Moderat e force s i n th e campus-base d peac e movemen t competed against , an d ofte n los t groun d to , th e radica l advocate s o f violent confrontation . America n societ y i n genera l becam e polarize d in 1968-1969 . Presiden t Nixon' s pledge s t o restor e la w an d order , and emotiona l plea s fo r suppor t o f hi s foreig n polic y amon g dis gruntled blue-colla r ethni c Democrats , furthere d class , cultural , an d political division s i n America . With th e failur e o f Eugen e McCarthy' s effort s t o chang e th e Dem ocratic party' s Vietna m Wa r policy , an d wit h th e assassinatio n o f Democratic Senato r Rober t Kenned y o f New York , the onl y national , mainstream politicia n wh o appeale d t o students , ethnics , an d blacks , more disenchante d colleg e youth s flocked t o SDS . Large r number s of student s becam e enamore d wit h confrontationa l protes t tactics . Throughout 196 9 student s an d polic e clashe d acros s th e nation , draft resistanc e mounted , an d ROT C an d campu s militar y researc h projects becam e foca l point s o f protest . Simultaneously , SD S splin tered an d ne w movement s o n campus—Blac k Power , Ga y Power , and women' s liberation—divide d students . A cul t o f extremis m exerted itsel f a s radical s attacke d libera l dove s an d provoke d com 182

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munity hostility . Event s ha d take n a life o f thei r own , sweepin g u p individuals an d campus antiwar organizations and rushing all toward s a Day of Judgment . The tren d toward s violen t antiwa r protes t i n 1968-196 9 was , a s it ha d bee n i n 1965-1967 , stronges t a t th e elit e universities . A t Berkeley, Columbia, Cornell , Michigan, an d Wisconsin, upper-middle class WASP an d secularized Jewish radicals occupie d o r firebombe d university buildings . Elit e universit y adminstrators , disincline d t o alienate wealth y libera l alumn i b y curbin g th e excesse s o f thei r children, di d littl e t o hal t suc h activities . Morever , th e majorit y o f the studen t bod y an d facult y a t these school s tende d t o suppor t th e radicals an d participat e i n violen t protests , furthe r limitin g th e ef fectiveness o f university administrator s an d loca l polic e i n restorin g order. Emboldened b y th e eas e wit h whic h the y assume d comman d o f their campuses , elit e educate d activists , particularl y Maoist s fro m Harvard and Weathermen fro m Michigan, move d t o wrest contro l o f the nationa l SD S fro m thei r les s violen t counterpart s an d t o gai n control o f campu s chapter s a t school s suc h a s Michiga n Stat e an d Kent State . Les s privilege d nationa l Ne w Lef t figures, notabl y Gre g Calvert, Car l Davidson, an d Car l Oglesby , unsuccessfull y attempte d to chec k thei r elit e opponents * advance . Meanwhil e a t th e stat e universities, SD S chapters , a s a result o f th e effort s o f Michiga n an d Columbia activists , divide d alon g clas s an d religiou s lines . Stat e university student s fro m upper-middle-clas s an d re d diape r bab y backgrounds tende d t o follo w th e lea d o f th e elit e universit y radi cals, whil e les s affluent , an d generall y Catholi c an d "low-status " Protestant activists , trie d t o champio n educationa l forum s an d non violent protest . Moderate antiwa r activist s a t th e stat e school s repudiate d SDS , while hawkis h students , usuall y a majorit y o f th e studen t bod y a t these institutions , vigorousl y condemned , an d frequently assaulted , peace activists . A t th e sam e time , man y stat e universit y presidents , supported b y a les s affluen t an d mor e conservativ e alumn i grou p than thei r elit e universit y colleagues , an d egge d o n b y a number o f faculty dependen t upo n militar y researc h contracts , ofte n move d decisively t o crus h dovis h an d radica l antiwa r organizations . Elit e university radical s desire d campu s polarizatio n an d universit y ad ministration an d communit y retributio n in order to radicalize large r numbers o f student s fo r th e revolution . The y manage d t o polariz e

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the stat e school s an d provok e violenc e an d campu s an d communit y hostility; th e revolution , though , di d no t come . Michigan Stat e Universit y The Unite d States , MS U SDSer s agreed , wa s i n seriou s trouble . Since th e beginnin g o f th e Te t Offensiv e o n Januar y 29 , 1968 , thou sands o f America n soldier s ha d los t thei r live s an d Johnso n sa w hi s credibility wit h Establishmen t figures an d th e publi c evaporate . I t was a n angry , an d apprehensive , MS U presiden t wh o delivere d hi s annual "Stat e o f th e University " address : The grea t dissenter s i n ou r history—suc h a s Mr . Justice [Olive r Wendell ] Holmes—have consistentl y sough t t o bring about reformation , no t revolu tion. The y hav e no t challenge d th e fundamenta l assumptions . The y ac cepted the necessity for order and orderly processe s of change if our natio n was to survive... . But how different i t is with the radical dissenters of our day! They would arrogate t o themselve s alon e th e righ t t o dissent . The y woul d confin e th e exercise o f th e freedo m o f speec h t o thos e wh o agre e wit h them . Som e boldly proclai m tha t the y wil l no t b e conten t unti l th e whol e syste m i s wrecked and brought d o w n . . . . Faced by the necessity to declare allegiance, each of us is free personall y to choos e hi s ow n loyalty . Bu t fo r a university—this university—ther e i s no choice . . . . I t mus t b e prou d t o b e revile d a s a par t o f 'Th e Establish ment." 1 Equally concerne d wit h escalatin g radica l protest , bu t als o op posed t o th e war , facult y activis t Thoma s Gree r an d th e dovis h historians Bil l Hixso n an d Ji m Hooke r joine d wit h radica l academ ics Larrow e an d Joh n Masterso n t o advanc e McCarthy' s presidentia l campaign. Afte r McCarthy' s unexpectedl y stron g showin g i n th e New Hampshir e Democrati c primary , nearl y fou r hundre d MS U students flocke d t o hi s cause , canvassin g fo r peac e i n th e adjacen t primary state s o f Indian a an d Wisconsin . Prio r t o th e McCarth y campaign, thes e dovis h students , thoug h critica l o f th e Vietna m conflict, ha d no t bee n th e antiwa r movement' s mos t activ e partici pants. The y ha d difficult y understandin g SDS' s Talmudi c ideologi cal discourse s and , frustrated , seldo m showe d u p fo r subsequen t meetings. A t th e sam e time , th e majorit y o f McCarthy' s volunteer s were no t attracte d t o th e Universit y Christia n Movement , fo r the y lacked th e dee p religiou s conviction s tha t characterize d Bil l Skoc -

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pol an d Dav e Stockman . Th e McCarth y crusad e offere d studen t doves, wh o believe d i n th e electora l process , a suitabl e plac e t o channel thei r energies an d ange r with the war. 2 While facult y McCarth y supporter s organize d a university-wid e discussion o f th e Vietna m Wa r durin g regula r clas s meeting s o n April 1 6 an d 17 , concerne d campu s clerg y establishe d a draft coun seling office . Rev . Poh l too k ove r th e ne w Draf t Informatio n Cente r (DIC) with th e assistanc e o f Larrow e an d Masterson , a mathematic s professor. B y August, the y had counseled ove r five hundred anxiou s MSU student s o n conscientiou s objectio n an d alternativ e service . The DI C differe d fro m th e SD S draf t counselin g cente r i n tha t th e radicals urge d student s no t t o cooperat e wit h th e governmen t b y applying fo r conscientiou s objecto r statu s o r volunteering fo r alter native service. 3 The draf t weighe d heavil y upo n students , particularl y thos e abou t to graduate . I n a harried lette r t o hi s mother , Skocpo l reviewe d hi s options an d expresse d uncertaint y abou t the future : Coast Guar d i s swamped—the y won' t eve n sen d th e stuf f t o finish th e application.... I' m a selective objecto r not a co, an d it' s far too lat e fo r a believable applicatio n anyway. I won't change majors on the whim of tired old men—"channelling" is one of the worst features of the draft. Teachin g I will continue to try to arrange …. Jai l is out, but Canada is, like the draft, only a n undesirabl e alternative . "Goin g in " ma y b e easy , bu t th e conse quences aren't. Whic h is worse , burning my bridges or burning other peoples' villages? . . . Th e trut h i s tha t i f ther e ar e no lega l alternatives , the n I am stuck with a dec k ful l o f ba d cards... . Unti l al l hop e i s gone , m y opinion s o n what part of my life I want amputated are bound to be transient.4 Campus securit y officer s soo n descende d upo n th e DI C an d ac cused Poh l o f encouragin g draf t evasion . Th e forme r marin e denie d the accusatio n an d state d tha t h e onl y informe d youth s o n th e pacifist positio n an d supplied the m with literatur e o n conscientiou s objection. Th e officer s accepte d hi s defense , bu t Poh l wa s deepl y disturbed, for he believed, correctly , that the charges brought agains t him wer e the result o f investigativ e wor k by undercover agent s wh o had com e t o him posin g a s concerned students. 5 The issu e o f polic e surveillanc e an d infiltratio n explode d i n lat e May o n th e campu s followin g th e arres t o f thirtee n student s fo r marijuana possession . Tw o day s afte r th e arrests , fou r hundre d stu dents demonstrate d i n front of the Hannah Administration Building .

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A militan t factio n o f SDS , le d b y Bet h Shapiro , a sociolog y majo r from Brookline , Massachusetts , an d Ric k Kibbey , a Justi n Morril l student fro m Sa n Mateo , California , storme d campus , city , and count y police line s i n a n attemp t t o occup y th e building . Twenty-si x stu dents, includin g a SD S membe r wh o wa s als o a polic e informant , were arreste d i n th e ensuin g mele e wit h th e 12 0 polic e officers . According t o Shapiro , th e rea l issu e wa s th e presenc e o f informants , not drugs , o n the campus . Th e campu s an d Eas t Lansing polic e ofte n arrested student s fo r dru g possessio n an d the n offere d t o dro p th e charges i f the y woul d infor m o n othe r student s an d attend , an d write report s on , SD S or UC M meetings. 6 Michigan Stat e ha d neve r experience d riot , o r see n th e blac k fla g of anarch y raise d o n it s buildings . A fe w shor t year s ago , pristin e sorority wome n serenade d madras-cla d fraternit y men , whil e fac ulty entertaine d eac h othe r wit h barbecues . Bu t no w i t wa s th e spring o f 1968 , a sprin g whic h bega n an d ende d wit h politica l assassinations an d whic h sa w on e millio n colleg e student s o n on e hundred campuse s engage d i n antiwa r protest . A mentalit y o f con frontation overcam e man y students , surprisin g SDS . And y Pyl e wa s amazed tha t a fe w peopl e coul d organiz e a rall y o f hundred s i n jus t minutes b y wavin g a blac k flag. Mor e sanguine , Bra d Lan g warne d of escalatin g governmen t repression : The coo l head s see m t o b e losin g contro l al l ove r th e country , an d i t shouldn't com e a s an y surpris e tha t MS U canno t maintai n it s coo l an y longer than anybod y else . After all , MSU is not really a bastion o f progres sivism; it is, at best, just another urba n complex , a microcosm o f the natio n as a whole . A s tha t natio n sink s deepe r an d deepe r int o a moras s o f riot police, yahoos, paranoids, an d warmongers , i t is fitting an d prope r that ou r alma mate r shoul d no t onl y kee p u p wit h th e genera l trends , bu t a t time s actually lea d th e way . Th e universit y tha t traine d Diem' s palac e guar d i s certainly capabl e o f institutin g a reign o f terro r agains t it s mor e rebelliou s students.7 That exhilaratin g an d tragi c sprin g als o witnesse d th e first cam pus protes t agains t ROTC . Durin g th e Ma y 2 5 ROT C Fiel d Days , eighty largel y religious-pacifis t protestor s an d thei r children , man y of who m carrie d smal l whit e crosses , marche d acros s campu s t o th e appropriately name d Demonstratio n Hall , hom e o f ROTC . Spottin g a moc k Vietnames e hut , a cardboard structur e wire d wit h dynamite , the Jame s Anderso n family , Larrowe , an d other s forme d a circl e around i t an d sa t down , causin g th e parent s o f th e cadet s t o boo .

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Meanwhile, ROT C cadet s stage d a pitche d battle , complet e wit h Viet Con g dead . Ever y tim e a n enem y cade t died , th e childre n placed a cros s o n hi s chest . Afte r th e battle , Gree n Beret s cam e ou t on th e field an d twirle d thei r rifles , bayonet s unsheathed . T o Lar rowe's horror , th e childre n ra n i n betwee n th e performin g soldiers , playing bal l an d illustratin g th e dange r youn g Vietnames e face d every day . A majo r fro m ROT C approache d th e grou p an d threat ened eithe r t o arres t the m o r blo w the m t o pieces . Larrow e wen t over to fellow economis t Walte r Adams an d discusse d th e war wit h an upse t Gree n Bere t captain . Adam s dryl y recommende d tha t th e military leve l on e les s hamlet . Th e soldie r reluctantly agree d afte r i t became apparen t tha t th e administration , concerne d abou t a publi c backlash agains t MS U fo r arrestin g clean-cu t Quakers , di d no t wis h to take a stand a t Demonstration Hall. 8 The reactio n o f th e stat e legislatur e t o th e sprin g antiwa r activi ties o n campu s wa s immediat e an d hostile . Stat e Senato r Charle s Youngblood, D-Detroit , followin g MS U SDS' s unsuccessfu l attemp t to occup y th e Hanna h Administratio n Building , labele d SD S a n organization o f "bearde d clowns, " "hopheads, " an d "out-of-state " student agitator s promotin g anarch y an d decadenc e o n campus . Youngblood state d that MSU was the property of the authorities, no t the activists , an d suggeste d tha t Hanna h reevaluat e th e admission s policy fo r out-of-stat e student s o r els e universit y appropriation s would b e slashed . Hannah , however , coul d no t drasticall y reduc e the numbe r o f out-of-stat e agitators , fo r th e majorit y o f the m wer e his cherishe d Meri t Scholars. 9 In a crue l twis t o f fate , th e nationa l SDS , catchin g Hanna h b y surprise, lai d plan s t o hol d it s 196 8 annua l conventio n a t MSU . State Representativ e Harol d Clark , D-Warren , an d Stat e Senato r Joh n Bowman, D-Roseville , lashe d ou t agains t Hannah , demandin g hi s resignation i f h e ha d knowingl y allowe d th e SD S conventio n t o b e held a t MSU. Clar k added tha t SD S wa s "teachin g thing s w e ar e al l against i n thi s country , an d the y shoul d no t b e allowe d a t a state supported university/ ' Th e Michiga n branc h o f th e America n Le gion attacke d Hanna h fo r allowin g a n un-America n organizatio n t o convene a t MS U an d buil d bomb s an d destro y Selectiv e Service . Similarly, th e Michigan Departmen t o f the Veterans o f Foreign Wars condemned Hanna h an d argued tha t SD S was no t entitle d t o consti tutional guarantee s o f freedom o f speech. 10 The 196 8 SD S conventio n evolve d int o a bizarr e affair . Radica l

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attorney an d sultr y Chicago activis t Bernardin e Dohr n paraded aroun d the campu s dresse d i n a black leathe r miniskir t whil e championin g the caus e o f revolutionar y Communism . Stat e legislator s wh o ha d come t o th e campu s t o denounc e Hanna h i n person , whe n no t gawking a t Dohrn, walke d throug h th e studen t unio n gazin g a t post ers o f Ch e Guevar a an d pickin g u p co-e d hippies . A grou p o f anar cho-syndicalists fro m Ne w Yor k City , 'Th e Motherfuckers,' ' en hanced th e conventio n atmospher e b y distributin g "diaphragms " (diagrams) whic h detaile d th e proces s b y whic h th e SD S "orgasm " (organization) coul d b e restructured . Shapiro , notin g th e presenc e of a number o f conferenc e participant s wit h crewcut s an d suits , FB I agents sh e surmised , pu t togethe r a worksho p o n "Sabotag e an d Explosives." Al l o f th e agent s attende d th e fake d workshop , thu s being diverte d fro m som e o f th e rea l sessions. 11 In addition t o being strange , th e conventio n wa s als o noteworth y for it s divisiveness , a s th e thre e hundre d undercove r polic e agent s watched th e five hundre d authenti c delegate s contes t th e futur e o f SDS. Th e Maois t Progressiv e Labo r (PL) , whic h ha d bee n borin g within variou s campu s chapter s i n th e East , advance d a program t o organize worker s fo r revolution . I n orde r t o effec t a "Worker-Stu dent Allianc e (WSA), " th e P L insiste d tha t SDSer s woul d hav e t o forsake drugs , lon g hair , an d othe r middle-clas s countercultura l ac coutrements whic h alienate d th e proletariat . Anothe r faction, groupe d around Dohrn , Columbi a SDSe r Mar k Rudd , an d upper-middl e an d upper-class An n Arbor-base d radical s suc h a s Ji m Mellen , Bil l Ay ers, Dian a Oughton , an d Terr y Robbins , sough t t o unit e wit h th e Black Panthers , th e Vie t Cong , an d othe r Thir d Worlder s i n thei r struggle agains t "America n imperialism. " Shake n b y th e venomou s exchanges whic h ensue d betwee n th e P L an d An n Arbo r factions , delegates departe d fro m Eas t Lansin g convince d tha t th e movemen t leaders wer e no t i n touc h wit h reality . Still , the y wer e prepare d fo r some kin d o f increase d militan t action. 12 In the aftermath o f th e convention , MS U SD S grew bolder a s wel l as mor e ideologicall y divided . Tha t fall , SD S marshale d 1,50 0 stu dents i n fron t o f Hannah' s campu s residenc e t o bur n a black card board coffi n containin g 1,00 0 copie s o f th e university' s new , an d more restrictive, rule s governing campus protest . This well-attende d rally, however , belie d th e fac t tha t SD S ha d fragmente d int o fou r distinct groups . Mik e Pric e an d Georg e Fis h incline d toward s th e PL position, while upper-middle-class SDSer s Lang and Scott Braley,

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with th e assistanc e o f Garskoff , advance d th e An n Arbo r line . Sha piro, Dic k Oestreicher , an d man y other s floated betwee n th e P L an d Ann Arbo r camps . Meanwhile , Jac k an d Su e Satte l an d thei r sup porters sough t les s an d les s successfull y t o hea l th e breach , hopin g for reconciliation . Thei r effort s faile d sinc e th e MS U chapte r wa s one o f tw o whic h Ayer s an d Melle n ha d targete d fo r conquest. 13 A metamorphosi s overcam e man y i n th e campu s studen t Left . I n 1967, Oestreicher , th e shy , clean-cu t leade r o f th e Unite d Students , had bee n shocke d whe n a small dormitor y kiss-i n protestin g univer sity rule s agains t publi c pettin g degenerate d int o a 1,500-perso n passion pit . B y 1968-1969 , Oestreiche r ha d grow n hi s hai r lon g an d had marche d int o a hawkis h histor y facult y member' s office , sa luted, an d informe d th e incredulou s professo r tha t h e woul d no t serve a s a teachin g assistan t i n hi s "militaristic , imperialistic " courses. Kristin e Steensma , a n acquaintanc e o f Skocpol' s preco cious fiancee, bega n datin g Lan g an d too k t o wearin g leathe r jacket s and comba t gear . An d the n ther e wa s Lind a Evans , a Justi n Morril l student fro m Iowa . Th e daughte r o f affluen t Republica n parents , Evans, wh o ha d bee n groome d t o atten d Radcliffe , cam e unde r Bral ey's influence . Sh e soo n becam e tie d int o th e Ayers-Melle n SD S network. 14 As MS U SD S fragmented , a ver y smal l radical-pacifis t grou p emerged o n campus , Th e Resistance . Th e goa l o f th e MS U Resis tance wa s straightforwar d an d defiant : t o undermin e "Selectiv e Ser vice b y takin g th e positio n o f complet e an d ope n non-cooperatio n with th e draft. " Resistanc e member s denounce d Selectiv e Servic e "because i t i s a n integra l par t o f a syste m tha t pursue s a bruta l wa r in Southeas t Asia , tha t activel y oppose s attempt s a t socia l revolu tion i n th e underdevelope d world , tha t exploit s th e blac k peopl e o f America, tha t maintain s institution s ove r whic h ordinar y citizen s exercise virtuall y n o control." 1 5 SDSers admire d th e courag e o f the Resister s an d agree d wit h thei r analysis o f th e functio n o f Selectiv e Servic e a s a tool o f imperialism , but contende d tha t th e effectivenes s o f a protes t movemen t i s se verely limite d i f al l o f it s member s ar e i n prison . Ric k Kibbey , watching th e Resister s depar t fo r jai l on e b y one , wa s reminde d o f a bizarre idea , curren t i n th e 1960s , tha t committin g suicide , thu s denying you r min d an d bod y t o th e "System, " represente d th e ulti mate i n radica l resistance. 16 The half-doze n member s o f th e MS U Resistance , largel y Justi n

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Morrill an d humanitie s majors , whil e sustainin g eac h other' s faith , worked t o for m a mutuall y supportiv e community . Stev e Seick , a Tacoma, Washington , freshman , claime d tha t afte r year s o f fea r o f Selective Servic e an d it s coerciv e powers , hi s decisio n t o resis t th e draft, alon g with hi s friends , ha d liberate d hi m fro m terro r and self hatred. Mik e Seraphinoff , a Justi n Morril l senior , considere d hi s renunciation o f Selectiv e Servic e t o b e a rejection o f killin g an d a n affirmation o f right and huma n community. 17 In a lette r t o hi s loca l draf t board , Ric k Kowall , a Justin Morril l student fro m Alabama, explaine d wh y h e ha d became a resister: You cannot begi n t o eliminat e warfar e b y allowing yoursel f t o participat e in a n organizatio n dedicate d t o wagin g it . I t wa s fo r tha t reaso n tha t I returned m y draf t car d t o thi s boar d i n Novembe r 1968 , knowin g tha t I would willfull y refus e t o repor t fo r tha t induction , an d knowin g tha t th e probable penalt y fo r such a n act would b e arrest and imprisonment. Bu t I wanted t o us e i t a s a public platfor m fro m whic h I might spea k ou t an d perhaps be heard, if only by one other, so that perhaps people would begin to pay heed to what was happening and to nurture the value of human life and resolve our problems with sanity and sensitivity. The federa l governmen t subsequentl y imprisone d Kowal l fo r six teen month s an d then , upo n hi s release , ordere d hi m t o repor t fo r induction int o th e militar y o r else fac e anothe r prison term . Kowall , however, continue d hi s resistance. 18 Outraged b y a government whic h imprisone d nonviolen t individ uals an d foisted tw o hawkis h presidentia l candidate s upo n the elec torate, th e UC M joine d force s wit h th e Greate r Lansin g Communit y Organization (GLCO) , a legacy o f Vietnam Summer , i n orde r to elec t local dovis h candidates . MS U SDSers , accordin g t o Do n Mader , a working-class radical-pacifis t activist , wer e scornfu l o f th e electora l process an d distrustfu l o f thos e "whos e radicalis m wa s religious / pacifist i n origin ,, rathe r tha n "Marxist/sectarian. " Subsequently , SDS bega n t o purg e member s wh o wer e no t sufficientl y committe d to revolution . Mader , Jeff Snoyer , an d Ji m Ebert, Kindman' s succes sor a s edito r o f Th e Paper , cam e unde r increase d attac k a s "baggyass liberals. " B y lat e fall , Oestreiche r an d Dav e Freedman , a subur ban New Yorker , gained contro l o f Th e Paper. 19 Meanwhile, Brale y an d Evan s endeavore d t o promot e confronta tion an d militanc y o n th e campus . Tw o opportunitie s t o d o s o presented themselve s i n January an d Februar y o f 1969 : a retiremen t celebration fo r Hanna h an d th e dismissa l o f Garskoff . Fro m An n

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Arbor cam e Ayers , Mellen , an d Oughto n t o incit e violence . Si x hundred student s occupie d th e Administratio n Buildin g an d pick eted Hannah' s "Farewel l Address. " Concerne d tha t event s wer e becoming dangerousl y ou t o f control , Jac k Satte l an d Car l Oglesby , who wa s passin g through East Lansing on a speaking tour, sough t t o calm th e protestors . Unfortunatel y fo r th e tw o working-clas s radi cals, th e upper-clas s Michiga n activist s ignore d thei r plea s t o desis t from smashin g windows . Ironically , the y escape d fro m th e polic e patrols unscathed , whil e officer s bea t Oglesb y an d footbal l player s ambushed Sattel. 20 The boar d o f trustees , concerne d wit h escalatin g radica l activis m on campu s an d unabl e t o agre e o n who m t o burde n wit h th e presi dency, decide d i n March to appoint th e politicall y moderat e Walte r Adams a s interi m universit y president . Urban e an d erudite , Adam s believed i n limite d reform s o f th e universit y an d supporte d civi l rights, whil e vigorousl y opposin g sweepin g radica l chang e o f exist ing socia l institutions . Adam s ha d supporte d th e Vietna m polic y o f Presidents Kenned y an d Johnson, but as the war dragged on with n o end i n sight , h e cam e t o th e conclusio n tha t th e wa r wa s n o longe r economically an d politicall y viable. 21 To dea l wit h "irresponsibl e radicals " wh o threatene d disorde r and wh o increase d th e likelihoo d o f a right-wing politica l reaction , Adams recommende d cooptation : Giving people a stake in the system by making them an integral part of the decision-making proces s i s possibl y th e mos t deradicalizin g strateg y tha t can b e followed . Participatio n give s the m a n understandin g o f th e rang e and complexit y o f th e problem s whic h mus t b e deal t with . I t moderate s extremist an d unrealistic demands . I t commits participant s to suppor t the decisions which have been reached. The campu s antiwa r groups , particularl y th e bickerin g SDS , ha d understood Republica n Col d Warrio r Hanna h an d counte d upo n him to respond ineptl y to protest, thus garnering greater student an d faculty suppor t fo r th e antiwa r movement . Bu t i n th e cours e o f hi s tenure a s interi m president , Adam s change d th e game . H e adroitl y confronted radical s wit h bitin g satir e an d trie d t o isolat e the m fro m the "moderate " student body. 22 SDS, whic h ha d oppose d th e Vietna m Wa r lon g befor e Adam s became a dove , playe d int o hi s hands . Adam s showe d u p a t ever y demonstration, defuse d potentiall y violen t situations , eschewe d po -

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lice force , an d successfull y stol e th e show . Angere d an d frustrated , SDSers, instea d o f engagin g Adam s i n rationa l dialogue , countere d urbanity wit h profanity , screaming , "Ea t shi t Adams ! Fuckin g son ofabitch!" Their clums y handlin g o f th e sprin g anti-ROTC rallies (a t which on e femal e SDSe r kicke d Adam s i n th e groin) , thei r harden ing sectaria n line , an d thei r increase d relianc e upo n profanit y t o express thei r feelings ruine d SDS' s reputatio n wit h antiwa r liberals . In addition , th e growin g dru g subcultur e o n campus , accordin g t o SDS leaders , resulte d i n hundreds o f students comin g to demonstra tions stone d an d uncontrollable . Further , personalit y an d ideologi cal conflict s withi n SD S confuse d an d disguste d potentia l recruit s and cripple d it s effectivenes s a s a major studen t antiwa r force . SD S effectively alienate d broa d campu s suppor t for radicalism. 23 Ideological division s withi n th e campu s Lef t becam e irreconcil able afte r th e Apri l ROT C protests . P L supporter s firmly assume d command o f MS U SD S an d le t i t b e know n tha t th e extremist s grouped aroun d Braley , Evans , an d Lan g wer e unwelcome . Facult y activists Anderson , Larrowe , an d Masterson , wh o ha d assiste d i n the recen t foundin g o f th e campu s Ne w Universit y Conferenc e (NUC ) chapter, gav e th e SDS-P L thei r support . O n th e defensive , Brale y attempted t o forg e a n allianc e wit h campu s blac k militants , bu t discovered tha t "America' s colonia l subjects " di d no t wan t t o over throw th e capitalis t system , bu t rather , sough t t o b e integrate d int o it. Sickene d b y th e evolvin g politica l factionalis m o n th e campus , key SD S leader s lef t Eas t Lansing. And y Pyl e ha d alread y joine d hi s girlfriend a t Ken t Stat e whil e th e Sattel s prepare d t o tak e u p resi dence i n Detroit to work i n th e Radical Education Project (REP) , on e of th e las t SD S communitie s whic h ha d no t bee n take n ove r b y th e Maoists o r the Ann Arbo r activists. 24 The nationa l SD S formall y destroye d itsel f i n Chicag o a t it s Jun e convention. Dohr n an d Melle n announce d thei r manifesto , "Yo u don't nee d a weatherma n t o kno w whic h wa y th e win d blows, " whose titl e wa s take n from Bo b Dylan's crypti c song , "Subterranea n Homesick Blues. " Th e "Weatherme n Manifesto " condemne d coun terrevolutionary whit e working-clas s Americans , praise d th e Blac k Panthers, an d sough t t o emulat e th e Vie t Con g b y wagin g guerill a warfare i n the United States . T o underscore thei r revolutionary zeal , the Weatherme n chanted , "Ho , Ho , H o Ch i Minh ! Dar e t o Struggle , Dare t o Win! " Michiga n an d Ken t Stat e Weatherme n swun g motor -

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cycle chain s inche s i n front o f th e face s o f th e twenty-four member s of th e MS U delegatio n wh o remaine d rivete d t o thei r seat s i n th e Chicago Coliseum . A t th e conclusio n o f thi s demonstration , thre e hundred o f th e 1,50 0 delegate s marche d ou t o f th e coliseu m an d founded th e Weatherme n Underground . Evan s wa s quickl y electe d to the Weatherma n National Interi m Council. 25 Determined t o brin g th e wor d o f th e revolutio n t o America n youth, th e Weatherme n initiate d invasion s o f school s fro m Ne w York City to Chicago. I n late July, ten women fro m th e "Moto r City " Weather collective , includin g MS U SDSe r Denis e Ryan , invade d Macomb Count y Communit y Colleg e i n th e working-clas s Detroi t suburb o f Warren . The y interrupte d a class an d pummele d student s who wer e no t intereste d i n learnin g "ho w th e Vietnames e wome n carry o n arme d struggl e togethe r wit h Vietnames e me n agains t U.S . imperialism." A mont h later , Evans , wh o ha d jus t returne d fro m Hanoi, le d a n assaul t o n Pittsburgh . Th e Weathe r contingent , com prised largel y o f WASPs , deeme d Pittsburg h th e perfec t "pi g city " in whic h t o wag e wa r agains t "racist " blue-collar ethnics . Seventy five Weatherwomen , cla d i n leather jackets and carrying a Viet Con g flag, storme d throug h th e corridor s o f th e Sout h Hill s Hig h School . It too k a platoo n o f polic e officer s t o dislodg e th e club-wieldin g women an d t o captur e Evan s an d nationa l SD S organize r Cath y Wilkerson. Bot h wome n jumpe d bai l an d fled t o Chicag o i n plent y of time to participate i n the October "Day s of Rage" protests. Havin g traveled acros s stat e line s t o incit e riot , Evan s wa s no w a federa l fugitive, wante d i n Chicago , Detroit , an d Pittsburgh . Withi n a fe w months, authoritie s i n Sa n Francisco, St . Louis, an d Tucson charge d her wit h constructin g bombs , an d Clevelan d sough t Evan s fo r firebombing a police officer' s home. 26 As Lind a Evans * reputatio n gre w i n th e Midwest , SDSer s justifi ably becam e increasingl y concerned , eve n paranoid , abou t polic e surveillance. MS U polic e schoo l student s Joh n Donnelly an d Davi d Epstein, i n additio n t o severa l ROT C cadets, joine d SD S i n orde r t o write report s o n th e radicals . Stat e polic e trooper s fro m th e Re d Squad tailed SDSer s and faculty activist s Larrowe and Robert Repas, recording th e licens e plat e number s o f car s parke d nea r thei r resi dences. Re d Squa d agent s als o radioe d i n constan t report s o n th e activists' every movemen t an d compelle d th e First National Ban k of East Lansin g t o provid e informatio n o n SDS' s checkin g accoun t

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transactions. No t t o be outdone , th e East Lansing Police Departmen t maintained a twenty-four-hour vigi l i n front o f Shapiro' s apartment , photographing al l wh o cam e an d left. 27 With th e beginnin g o f th e fal l session , th e GLCO , th e Wesle y Foundation, an d th e studen t governmen t bega n t o pla n a loca l Oc tober 1 5 Moratoriu m marc h agains t th e war . Studen t governmen t leader To m Samet , n o fa n o f SDS , althoug h W . C . Blanto n ha d managed hi s successfu l sprin g 196 8 campaign , requeste d Adam s t o suspend classe s an d mak e facilitie s availabl e fo r discussio n o f th e war prio r t o th e marc h fro m th e campu s t o th e stat e capital . Adam s divined MS U students' "incendiar y mood, " "frustration," an d "sad ness." Th e interi m presiden t realize d tha t i f h e di d no t mak e a gesture o f friendship , the n th e marc h woul d procee d withou t hi s steadying guidance . Worse , th e students , b y boycotting thei r classe s to atten d th e rally , woul d hav e succeeded , ips o facto, i n shuttin g down th e university . Fearin g tha t a shutdow n woul d antagoniz e taxpayers an d stat e legislators , Adam s mad e clas s attendanc e op tional an d provide d universit y facilities. 28 Liberal Republica n governo r Willia m Millike n defie d a Nixo n White Hous e orde r an d attende d th e mas s antiwa r meetin g a t th e MSU Auditorium . A t th e auditorium , Michigan' s Democrati c Sena tor, Phili p Hart , denounce d th e conflic t tha t h e ha d supporte d fo r years an d Adams , disdainin g mora l an d lega l argument s agains t th e war, discusse d th e negativ e impac t o f th e conflic t o n America' s economy. Followin g th e antiwa r speeches , Adam s place d himself a t the hea d o f th e mile-lon g processio n o f 8,00 0 student s an d facult y and mad e th e tre k t o th e capital . Hopin g t o reinforc e th e harmoni ous, moderat e imag e o f th e march , Adams , a maste r o f politica l theatre, carrie d a small America n flag and inaccuratel y claime d tha t SDS ha d boycotte d th e Moratoriu m fo r reason s o f Marxis t ideologi cal purity. 29 Adams' pronouncement s an d effort s notwithstanding , th e loca l Moratorium wa s anythin g bu t harmoniou s an d moderate . Speakin g to hundred s o f MS U an d hig h schoo l student s a t th e Eas t Lansin g High Schoo l gymnasium , Norma n Pollack , radica l historia n an d member o f th e NUC , systematicall y attacke d Adams ' economi c analysis o f the war. The Vietnam War, Pollack contended , di d profi t the nation , o r a t leas t th e defens e contractor s an d multinationa l corporations. An d th e studen t government , althoug h gratefu l fo r Adams' cooperation , wa s disguste d wit h particula r liberals ' pas t

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and qualife d continue d suppor t o f th e war . O n Novembe r 15 , stu dent governmen t representative s sen t blac k Christma s wreath s t o Hart an d othe r Michiga n legislators . Further , th e studen t govern ment clashe d wit h th e universit y administratio n afte r Adam s de clined t o suspen d classe s fo r th e nationa l Mobilizatio n marc h o n Washington i n November. 30 The Novembe r Mobilizatio n i n Washingto n wa s th e larges t peac e protest i n America n history , attractin g 800,00 0 demonstrators , in cluding a seve n hundred-perso n contingen t fro m MSU . Antiwa r liberals, smartin g fro m Vic e Presiden t Spir o Agnew' s attack s o n th e moderate Octobe r Moratorium, decline d t o support th e more radica l November Mobilization . Th e nationa l televisio n networks , to o in timidated b y th e Whit e Hous e t o carr y liv e coverag e o f th e demon stration, reporte d tha t Nixo n ha d ignore d th e protes t and , instead , watched a televised footbal l game . Angered an d tired, MSU student s returned t o Eas t Lansing , annoye d tha t Nixo n ha d flippantly dis missed th e antiwa r movement . The y wer e quickl y deal t anothe r blow. Th e boar d o f trustee s decide d t o replac e Adam s wit h Clifto n Wharton.31 Despite th e nearl y uniqu e succes s tha t Adam s enjoye d i n chan neling studen t an d faculty frustratio n wit h the war away from form s of violen t expression , a s wel l a s hi s popularit y wit h students — 17,033 student s endorse d a petitio n i n suppor t o f hi s retentio n a s president, an d eve n a few SDSer s admired thei r worthy opponent — the cigar-chompin g professo r wa s simpl y to o controversia l t o re main i n office . Hawkis h legislator s an d a fe w facult y applie d pres sure o n th e trustee s t o ge t ri d o f tha t "radical. " Consequently , th e campus wa s saddle d wit h Wharton . A proteg e o f Nelso n Rockefel ler and a n aloof administrato r wh o ha d extensiv e tie s t o AID, Whar ton coul d no t hope , an d woul d no t try , t o b e a rallyin g poin t fo r liberal doves . Indeed , dove s an d radical s considere d MSU' s first black presiden t t o b e a n "Ore o Cookie"—blac k o n th e outsid e an d white o n th e inside . Wit h Adam s remove d fro m power , th e SD S i n disarray, th e UC M no w disbande d an d absorbe d int o GLCO , and . the McCarth y dove s disfranchise d b y hawkis h politicians , n o uni fied campu s voic e spok e agains t th e war . Anarch y an d sponta neous, violen t confrontation s wer e boun d t o follow. 32

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Pennsylvania Stat e Universit y Penn State' s administrator s waste d littl e tim e i n th e earl y day s o f 1968 t o la y dow n th e law . Biophysic s departmen t hea d Ernes t Pol lard argue d befor e th e facult y senat e tha t "disrupters " shoul d b e suspended sinc e mos t antiwa r student s ha d " a revolutionar y poin t of view " an d wer e "determine d t o overthro w th e government. " A s part o f th e university' s toughe r policy , dovis h studen t governmen t representative Ji m Wome r revealed , federa l narcotic s agent s ha d been statione d a t th e campu s i n orde r t o plan t dop e o n activist s an d then arres t the m fo r dru g possession . Further , Wome r disclose d tha t university securit y force s wer e wiretappin g radicals ' telephones. 33 The administration' s ster n pronouncement s an d extensiv e sur veillance activitie s wer e wildl y inappropriat e give n th e fac t tha t th e radical dissenter s wer e s o smal l i n numbe r an d ha d ye t t o engag e i n violent protest . Facult y activis t Ji m Petra s pleade d wit h apatheti c students t o buil d a mas s antiwa r movemen t whil e campu s hawk s referred t o peac e demonstrator s a s "demonsTRATTORS. " PS U SDSer s were abl e t o attrac t jus t a doze n student s t o thei r Februar y rall y against th e university' s ID A affiliation . Fe w peopl e seeme d t o b e interested i n SDS' s contentio n tha t this university , throug h ID A and othe r militar y R& D project s suc h a s th e Ordnance Researc h Laboratory , directl y aid s i n th e proces s o f genocide , now aime d a t th e Vietnames e an d surel y t o b e aime d i n th e nex t severa l years agains t th e people s o f Laos , Thailand , Cambodia , Bolivia , Colombi a . . . and th e Afro-American populatio n o f U.S. urban ghettoe s which share s the neo-colonial statu s of Third World peoples. 34 Unanticipated development s o n th e campu s i n th e spring , how ever, quickl y brough t fort h protes t o n a larger scal e an d unleashe d a wave o f hatred . Blac k activists , followin g th e lea d o f forme r SUR E president Joh n Warner , bega n demonstratin g fo r th e increase d re cruitment o f blac k students , th e establishmen t o f a blac k studie s program, an d th e lowerin g o f universit y admission s standards . War ner, presiden t o f th e campu s blac k studen t organization , th e Doug lass Association , se t fort h hi s philosoph y i n n o uncertai n terms : " I hate whites. . . . It' s jus t bette r t o hat e al l white s an d wor k fro m there. . . . Th e whit e ma n i s useles s t o blacks. " Subsequently , i n May, on e hundre d black s occupie d Ol d Main . Fearin g negativ e na tional publicit y and , therefore , reluctan t t o emplo y forc e agains t

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black, a s oppose d t o white , activists , Walke r agree d t o negotiat e with Warner. 35 The Douglas s Associatio n mad e i t clea r tha t black s di d no t wan t to b e identifie d i n students ' o r administrators ' mind s wit h SD S radicals, eve n thoug h SDSers , wit h th e exceptio n o f campu s clergy , were th e organization' s onl y whit e supporters . Indeed , a number o f Catholic student s proteste d th e university' s decisio n t o cance l classe s because o f King' s assassinatio n i n April , whil e compellin g student s to atten d lecture s o n Goo d Friday , seemingl y elevatin g th e morta l above Christ . I t di d no t hel p matter s an y whe n Warne r accuse d al l whites, includin g dovis h clerg y an d SDSers , o f bein g complici t i n King's murder : " A whit e perso n mournin g th e deat h o f Marti n Lu ther Kin g Jr., is lik e a man o n deat h ro w mournin g th e deat h o f th e person who m h e killed . H e doe s no t mour n becaus e h e i s sorry ; h e mourns becaus e h e ha s bee n foun d out. " Outraged , whit e student s urged Warner and his supporter s t o return to Africa. 36 In this environmen t o f poisone d rac e relations, SDSer s compete d against Blac k Powe r activist s an d th e 70 0 recentl y politicize d Mc Carthy, an d 22 5 Kennedy , studen t volunteer s fo r campu s attention . The radicals ' nee d fo r publicit y increase d throughou t th e sprin g a s student an d facult y supporter s o f McCarth y move d toward s forgin g a nascen t peac e coalitio n whos e ideolog y wa s libera l dovish , rathe r than Ne w Left . T o promot e th e radica l position , thirt y SDSer s esca lated protes t agains t th e IDA . SDSer s chos e t o focu s o n th e IDA , instead o f the ORL, in part because Socialis t Clu b leader and SENS E partisan Jame s Creega n viewe d th e forme r a s mor e relevan t t o th e issue o f America n exploitatio n o f the Third World. Also , Nei l Buck ley, no w a traveling national SD S correspondent, wa s on e o f the fe w State College activist s excite d b y the Columbia uprisin g and , conse quently, eage r t o follo w Rudd' s cal l fo r furthe r anti-ID A protests . Fortunately fo r them , severa l studen t governmen t representative s had becom e converte d dove s followin g th e Te t Offensiv e an d wer e willing t o sponsor a n IDA teach-in. 37 The Ma y 1 6 ID A teach-i n include d thre e Columbi a SDSers , Ji m Petras, an d PS U SDSer s Creega n an d Jef f Berger , a Brooklyn gradu ate philosoph y student . Pollar d an d universit y vic e presiden t fo r research, E . F . Osborn , defende d th e IDA . Fiv e hundre d dove s lis tened t o the acrimoniou s discussion , eve n though, overall , the y ha d been underrepresente d a t th e teach-in' s afternoo n sessio n an d no t represented a t al l a t th e evenin g session . Creega n fired th e first

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salvo, contendin g tha t th e ID A supresse d "nationalis t revolution s which ar e forme d b y peopl e tryin g t o thro w of f th e yok e o f Ameri can dominatio n an d oppression/ ' a s well a s perpetuated i n Vietna m "an illegal , totalitaria n puppe t regim e o f th e Americans/ ' Pollar d bristled a t thi s speec h an d countere d tha t university-militar y re search wa s necessar y t o preven t th e ris e o f futur e Hitlers . Similarly , Osborn claimed tha t such research ha d saved the United State s fro m Nazi dominatio n i n th e 1940 s an d vowe d tha t th e natio n "won' t b e a sittin g duc k agai n fo r th e countrie s tha t ar e preparin g fo r war/ ' Rejecting Osbor n an d Pollard' s reference s t o Worl d Wa r I I whic h implicitly likene d Hitle r t o H o Ch i Minh , Berge r responde d tha t America, no t Nort h Vietnam , wa s th e "fascis t nation. " Osbor n los t control o f himsel f afte r a student i n th e audienc e questione d Walk er's tie s t o th e DoD . Incense d tha t anyon e woul d sugges t tha t Walk er's motive s wer e les s tha n pure , Osbor n snapped , "th e hel l wit h you." Surprise d b y hi s vehemen t retort , th e audienc e hoote d an d jeered Osborn. 38 At lon g last , PS U SD S score d a few point s agains t th e universit y administration. Campu s suppor t fo r SDS , however , remaine d lim ited. Accordin g t o a n opinio n surve y undertake n b y th e sociolog y department tha t spring , n o mor e tha n 1 2 percen t o f student s ap proved o f civi l disobedienc e tactics ; th e overwhelmin g majorit y o f students thu s repudiate d th e much-publicize d SD S action s an d campus buildin g seizure s whic h ha d take n plac e elsewhere . Fur ther, 6 8 percen t oppose d a n immediat e U.S . militar y withdrawa l from Vietna m an d 3 7 percen t terme d themselve s dove s whil e an other 3 7 percen t considere d themselve s t o be hawks. Th e remainde r were undecided . Recognizin g tha t a t hear t Pen n Stat e wa s a con servative campus , YA F leade r an d Daily Collegia n reporte r Laur a Wertheimer agitate d fo r th e expulsio n o f SDSers . Groupe d behin d the presidentia l banner s o f Reaga n and Nixon , YAFer s declare d wa r on the "anti-Semitic, " "fascist, " an d "law-breaking, " Left. 39 Undeterred b y SDS' s minima l progres s a t Pen n State , Buckle y took of f fo r th e nationa l SD S conventio n a t Michiga n State , con vinced tha t "a s a politica l movement , w e ar e o n t o something , an d They [Th e Establishment ] kno w it. " Concerne d wit h th e growin g influence o f th e P L supporter s i n variou s campu s SD S chapters , Buckley worke d wit h Nationa l Offic e leader s Gre g Calvert an d Car l Davidson t o eliminat e th e Maois t threat . Buckley , wit h th e advic e

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and assistanc e o f Well s Keddie , bega n hi s anti-P L assaul t b y outlin ing several importan t goals of SDS : First, tha t thi s movemen t i n genera l an d SD S i n particula r i s ultimatel y committed to the destruction of imperialism and therefore committed to the requisite destructio n o f capitalism ; second , tha t ou r movemen t i s a n ele ment o f th e revolutionary vanguar d painfull y formin g fro m th e innard s of America; third, that the objective conditions for revolution are not with us, but ar e comin g u p (relatively ) fast , an d tha t ou r pre-revolutionar y condi tions must be conditioned fo r the coming struggle; fourth, that by the time the revolution is upon us, we will have transformed from the movement as we know it today into a revolutionary political party; fifth, that we have not fulfilled ou r potential a s a political movemen t i n the pas t and , i f w e con tinue to follow ou r past course, tha t we will suffe r deepl y as a total movement; sixth, tha t ou r failure , whil e i n par t a result o f persona l contradic tions, i s ultimatel y solvabl e i n term s o f organizationa l restructuring ; an d seventh, tha t now i s th e time t o change ou r subjective condition s t o meet new objectiv e condition s realizin g tha t simultaneousl y w e mus t develo p still newe r form s o f organizatio n whic h wil l supplan t thos e w e no w for m when the former shall have outlived their political relevance. 40 The cal l fo r the reorganizatio n o f SD S wa s ke y t o Buckley's ideo logical agenda . T o achiev e this , th e PS U activis t urge d ever y SD S chapter t o creat e stud y groups , o r cells , whic h woul d facilitat e th e education o f politica l cadres . In order to coordinate the cells, centra l committees ha d t o be established, thu s providin g firm, ideologicall y correct (i.e. , anti-PL) leadership a t the weekly executiv e sessions . P L forces a t th e conventio n ha d a field da y wit h Buckley' s positio n paper, pointin g ou t th e Sovie t framewor k fo r contro l whic h in formed hi s proposal . Eve n Davidson , n o fa n o f th e Maoist s who m he considere d t o be largely privileged Harvard-educate d elitists , wa s upset wit h th e ide a o f cell s an d centra l committees . A s Davidso n observed, Buckley' s terminolog y calle d u p "vision s o f dar k cella r meetings, stockin g cap s an d burie d weapons. " Buckley' s percep tions notwithstanding , 196 8 Americ a wa s no t 191 7 Russia . Afte r much heate d debate , th e contes t betwee n th e SD S Nationa l Offic e and the PL partisans remaine d unresolved. 41 In August , PS U SDSer s Norma n Schwart z an d Jef f Berge r jour neyed t o th e Chicag o Nationa l Democrati c Part y Convention . Schwartz, accustome d t o th e low-ke y antiwa r protest s a t Stat e Col lege, gape d i n wondermen t a t the thousand s o f rio t police . "Loo k at

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the busloads o f cops, " he remarked t o a friend, "They'r e al l ove r th e place." And the n h e became scared , "Christ , loo k out , they're gonn a charge." Pursue d dow n Lak e Shor e Drive , Schwart z elude d th e po lice withou t takin g a single hit . Other s wer e no t s o fortunate . Later , while marchin g toward s th e Hilto n Hotel , a policema n arreste d Schwartz "fo r moltin g an d being a creep. It' s a new law . I just mad e it up. " No t amused , h e brok e fre e an d spen t th e remainde r o f th e protest duckin g polic e bill y clubs. 42 Determined no w mor e tha n eve r t o mobiliz e Pen n Stat e student s against th e "System, " Schwart z sa w a golden opportunit y t o d o jus t that wit h th e loomin g universit y an d communit y housin g shortage . As fal l registratio n began , SD S se t u p thre e tent s o n th e Ol d Mai n lawn an d mad e camp . Fiv e hundre d curiou s an d upse t students , largely freshme n withou t a plac e t o live , joine d th e SD S encamp ment. Soon , the y erecte d a municipa l sign , "Walkertown, " an d se t up a sound system , playin g rock 'n ' roll musi c whic h blaste d a good part o f Stat e College . Seizin g th e chanc e t o politiciz e Walkertown' s residents, Creega n distribute d anti-ID A an d ROT C leaflets . Newl y elected studen t governmen t presiden t Wome r joine d SD S i n Walk ertown an d urge d student s t o become politicall y active . Keddi e als o spoke, encouragin g th e student s t o appl y pressur e o n Walke r an d not t o expec t larg e facult y suppor t sinc e tha t woul d no t happe n "until hel l freeze s ove r o r unti l yo u graduate. " Mor e direct , Berge r told hi s audienc e tha t no w wa s th e tim e t o eliminat e Walker , fo r "the mor e militan t w e get , th e bette r chanc e h e ha s o f losin g hi s job." 43 Walkertown elicite d varyin g response s fro m th e campus . Assail ants beat up a non-SDS graduat e studen t o n the Old Main lawn, an d hawkish student s lobbe d a tear ga s capsul e a t SDSer s Berger , Cree gan, an d Su e Davidoff , a n undergraduat e Philadelphi a philosoph y major. ROT C cadet s als o invade d th e community , wreckin g th e Walkertown generator , an d campu s polic e refuse d t o respon d t o complaints fro m student s wh o wer e subsequentl y attacked . O n th e other hand, th e Daily Collegian endorse d Walkertow n an d Schwart z was electe d t o the studen t government. 44 Walker wa s no t a t al l please d wit h th e hono r whic h SDSer s ha d bestowed upo n hi m whe n the y ha d selecte d th e nam e fo r their city . The enraged presiden t fired a young College of Human Developmen t instructor wh o ha d brashl y calle d fo r hi s resignation . H e als o ex erted pressur e o n the Methodist churc h hierarchy to have Rev. Clee -

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ton remove d fro m th e Wesle y Foundatio n an d sen t packin g fro m State College . Walke r the n rea d th e rio t ac t t o 5,50 0 freshme n a t a university convocation : Penn State offers no sanctuary to any person or group which advocate s the initiation of physical force or intimidation, or the takeover of classrooms or office buildings . Such action is irresponsible, and to permit it would be equally irresponsible. We at Penn State will act immediately, firmly, and without hesitation to deal with any student or group guilty of such tactics. 45 Despite Walker' s warning , campu s dove s an d radical s wer e un willing t o retrea t fro m activism . I n the past , oppositio n t o th e Viet nam Wa r and th e administratio n ha d bee n smal l an d sporadic . Thi s was n o longe r true by the fall o f 1968 . A change i n campus attitude s towards authorit y ha d take n place , i n par t becaus e th e nationa l political syste m ha d prove n t o b e unresponsiv e t o call s fo r change . Additionally, th e evolvin g demographi c compositio n o f th e univer sity resulte d i n greate r number s o f generall y libera l Philadelphia n students coming to Penn State . SDSers, now on e hundred i n numbe r and finally i n tune wit h a larger segment o f the studen t body, wisel y advocated popula r actions : ren t strike s agains t rapaciou s Stat e Col lege landlord s an d th e creatio n o f a student bil l o f right s t o protec t undergraduates fro m arbitrar y disciplinar y procedure s impose d b y the administration . Dovis h faculty , chiefl y Joh n Withall , Marvi n Rozen, an d educatio n professo r Ke n Wodtke, als o bega n t o develo p strategies t o brin g abou t th e abolitio n o f th e ORL . Th e Daily Colle gian's editor s enliste d i n thi s cause , vowin g t o eliminat e th e ORL , "along with al l othe r university collusio n wit h th e military." 46 Although Pen n Stat e activist s enjoye d a hitherto unthinkabl e leve l of support , the y continue d t o b e a distinct , besiege d minority . Jus t sixty SDSer s participate d i n a n anti-electio n da y protes t i n Novem ber and , a s the y marche d throug h Stat e College' s streets , resident s pelted the m wit h eggs . SDSer s als o generate d littl e communit y o r campus sympath y when , t o protes t a visi t t o Walke r b y hi s clos e friend, Genera l Willia m Westmoreland , the y blocked th e president' s driveway. Pennsylvani a stat e troopers roughly removed the student s and Well s Keddi e a s Walke r laughe d approvingly . I n response , th e seventy-five SDSer s screame d "Hei l Hitler " an d "Gestapo " a t th e policemen. Enrage d b y th e Left' s increase d militancy , YA F leader s warned Walke r that they might file a legal sui t against the universit y unless al l studen t dissenter s wer e expelled. 47

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The stat e legislatur e concurre d wit h YAF , adoptin g sweepin g laws t o crus h campu s dissen t afte r th e Christmas-Ne w Yea r recess . In 1969 , conservativ e rura l legislator s empowere d th e Pennsylvani a Education Departmen t t o den y financial ai d t o student s wh o ha d been convicte d o f disruptin g classe s an d othe r academi c functions . The legislatur e als o summone d Walke r t o Harrisbur g i n February . Senate majorit y whi p Alber t Pechan , th e autho r o f th e 1950 s Penn sylvania loyalt y oath , informe d Walke r tha t stat e appropriation s t o PSU woul d b e slashe d unles s h e too k stronge r action s agains t cam pus activists . Othe r legislator s vigorousl y denounce d th e Douglas s Association an d Philadelphia-base d militants . Walke r urged the leg islators no t t o confuse th e reasonable Douglas s Association wit h th e militant SDS , a ploy t o furthe r th e black-whit e spli t o n th e campus . Further, h e promise d tha t "th e a x wil l fal l i f classe s ar e disrupted , interviewers harassed, propert y destroyed o r buildings taken over." 48 Walker, indeed , di d le t th e a x fal l i n February . SDSer s To m Richdale, a Ne w Jerse y histor y major , Dann y Gallo , a Ne w Yor k graduate mathematic s student , an d Malori e Tolles , a Wayne, Penn sylvania, nativ e an d former SENS E member, marche d int o Old Mai n to presen t Walke r wit h a lis t o f nonnegotiabl e demands , includin g the abolitio n o f ROT C and i n loc o parentis . H e refused t o meet wit h the activists , promptin g five hundre d students , onl y a minorit y o f them SDSers, to occupy Ol d Main for seven hours. As many as 1,50 0 hawkish student s gathere d outsid e screaming , 'Thro w th e bum s out," an d "W e wan t th e coons, " th e latte r i n referenc e t o th e Doug lass Associatio n member s wh o wer e maintainin g thei r own separat e sit-in. Walke r sough t a cour t injunctio n t o preven t furthe r sit-in s and filed a complaint agains t eigh t SD S leader s an d 25 0 John Does . Subsequently, Centr e Count y judg e A . H . Lipe z grante d th e injunc tion and denounce d "mo b rule." 49 The administratio n simultaneousl y opene d u p a secon d fron t against campu s activists , attemptin g to close dow n th e undergroun d newspaper, th e Wate r Tunnel , an d t o prosecut e it s editor s fo r pub lishing obscen e material . Rus s Farb , a Ne w Hyd e Park , Ne w York , journalism major , Schwartz , Ja y Shore , a n Oreland , Pennsylvania , liberal art s majo r an d forme r Dail y Collegia n columnist , an d Alva n Youngberg ha d decide d t o establis h a n undergroun d newspape r with mone y the y solicite d fro m Walkertow n residents . Unabl e t o find a printe r i n Stat e Colleg e willin g t o publis h a radical newspa per, whos e nam e wa s take n fro m th e campus ' Garfiel d Thoma s

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Water Tunne l torped o testin g center , th e SDSer s mad e expensiv e publishing arrangement s wit h friend s i n Philadelphia . Th e Wate r Tunnel's first issu e i n January featured o n it s cove r a photograph o f John Lennon and Yoko Ono , who wer e no t wearing any clothes, an d ran advertisement s b y student s i n searc h o f other s intereste d i n group sex. Subsequen t issue s deal t with university-military researc h and provide d scathin g profile s o f Walke r an d th e boar d o f trustees . Walker, no t on e t o tak e criticis m lightly , ha d Stat e Colleg e an d campus polic e o n Februar y 1 7 arres t th e Water Tunnel' s ke y staf f members. 50 Shore and his colleague s stoo d tria l i n Bellfonte i n April, charge d with distributin g pornographi c materials . Defens e attorne y Thoma s Sterling pointe d ou t t o Judg e R . Pau l Campel l an d th e jur y tha t Playboy an d variou s pornographi c magazine s coul d readil y b e pur chased i n Stat e College . Therefore , h e contended , i t wa s legall y inconsistent t o apply Pennsylvania's obscenit y la w just to the Wate r Tunnel, unles s ther e wa s a n unconstitutiona l politica l motiv e be hind th e prosecution . T o driv e hom e hi s argument , Sterlin g com pelled a prosecutio n exper t witnes s o n pornography , durin g cros s examination, t o rea d alou d sexuall y explici t literatur e whic h ha d been bough t i n Stat e College . Afte r arousin g th e jury , h e shrewdl y called a s defens e witnesse s Rev . Dal e Winter , a campu s Wesle y Foundation intern , an d Rev . Rober t Boyer . Th e respectabl e clergy men contende d tha t th e Wate r Tunne l wa s primaril y politica l i n nature an d di d no t a s a whol e appea l t o bas e sexua l desires . Con fused, th e jury could no t arrive at a verdict. Late r Campell dismisse d the charge s sinc e th e prosecution' s cas e wa s no t stron g enoug h t o hold u p i n a court of law. 51 In hopin g tha t repressio n woul d quel l campu s dissent , Walke r grievously erred . Instead , h e gav e muc h impetu s t o campu s protest , particularly afte r bannin g th e Wate r Tunnel , authorizin g universit y police t o recor d th e name s o f al l wh o sol d th e newspaper , an d mailing threatening letter s to the parents o f the students involve d i n its publication . H e als o alienate d a numbe r o f facult y b y sendin g administrators t o a meeting of seventy academics who were oppose d to th e Water Tunnel ban . Administrator s informe d th e facult y tha t Walker di d no t believ e tha t instructors , particularl y thos e withou t tenure, ha d an y busines s interferin g i n thi s matter . Th e studen t government condemne d th e ba n an d th e Daily Collegian countere d that the OR L was the real "obscenity " o n the campus. 52

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As a result o f universit y administratio n repression , SDSer s wer e less an d les s willin g t o liste n t o Keddie' s plea s t o shu n counterpro ductive, violen t confrontations . Laure y Petkov , a Philadelphi a his tory major, argued that SDS was justified i n promoting confrontatio n since th e chapte r represente d th e people , whil e Walke r an d Nixo n served th e interest s o f racist , militaristi c wa r criminals . I n the sam e vein, Berge r state d tha t ther e existe d a right-wing conspirac y dedi cated t o perpetuatin g capitalis t imperialis m an d oppression . T o combat thi s conspiracy , SDSer s argued , th e "powe r structure " an d its "reactionary , narrow-minded , an d bigoted " supporter s ha d t o b e overthrown. I n orde r t o accomplis h this , nonviolen t tactic s ha d t o give way to violent revolution . A s Dianne Weiss, a graduate politica l science studen t fro m Philadelphia , reasoned , violen t confrontatio n was actuall y les s violen t tha n pacifism : What th e pacifisti c an d non-violen t positio n assume s i s tha t i f yo u don' t act, you have not committed a violent act. Violence is committed every day in our society—in th e ghettoes as well a s in Vietnam.... Jus t because on e doesn't pull the trigger doesn't absolve one of the guilt of compliance . . . . Therefore, I take the position that an individual i s less violent if he takes part in a violent demonstration either against the war in Vietnam or against racism tha n i f h e remain s apathetic . Fo r the first person's violen t action , while i t ma y hav e hospitalize d a fe w policemen , ma y hav e cause d hi s government to cease its war one day sooner, thereby saving twenty lives. In this situation , then , th e first perso n throug h hi s violen t action s actuall y saved severa l individuals ' lives . Th e secon d perso n b y hi s apath y wa s demonstrating compliance with the policies of his government, and thereby participating implicitly in the slaughtering of many people. 53 Convinced tha t pacifism an d nonviolen t protes t were no differen t from apath y an d complicity , SDSer s intensifie d thei r struggl e agains t "American imperialism. " A half-doze n SDSer s storme d int o th e HUB i n Apri l t o haras s militar y recruiter s an d tea r u p thei r litera ture. Severa l hawkis h student s the n bea t u p th e radicals . I n May , two hundre d students , le d b y Barr y Stein , a Huntingdo n Valley , Pennsylvania, undergraduate , marche d t o Ol d Mai n an d attempte d to lowe r th e America n fla g t o half-mas t i n hono r o f a protestor wh o had bee n slai n b y polic e a t Berkeley . A hostil e crow d converge d a t the flagpol e and , wit h campu s an d stat e polic e troopers , battle d th e SDSers. A fe w day s later , fifty SDSer s returne d t o th e Ol d Mai n lawn, built a brick fireplace, an d then, payin g homage to their polic e adversaries, roaste d a pig . Affronte d b y SDS' s sprin g protests , YA F

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leader Laur a Wertheimer obtaine d a court injunctio n t o preven t th e radicals fro m demonstratin g o n th e campus . Sinc e thi s marke d th e first time i n the nation' s history that one studen t group had sought a court injunctio n agains t another , Presiden t Nixo n sen t a lette r o f commendation t o the PSU YAF. 54 Committed t o demonstratin g solidarit y wit h SDS , Keddie , Westby , Petras, Pa m Farley , an d Diann e Weis s founde d a NU C chapter . Describing Stat e College a s "provincial , isolated, " and "middl e class, " the PS U NU C vigorousl y defende d students ' right s t o stag e nonvio lent occupation s o f Ol d Main. Followin g th e flagpol e confrontation , the NU C condemned th e administratio n fo r arresting a SDSer whil e ignoring the provocation s o f hawkish students. 55 Uncomfortable wit h th e NUC' s propensit y t o excus e radica l ex tremism, a s well a s with SDS' s nihilistic militancy , dovis h students , faculty, an d clerg y founde d i n the sprin g the Coalitio n fo r Peace. I n March, seven studen t member s o f the coalition reaffirmed thei r fait h in nonviolent protes t and rebuked SDS , maintaining that true "resis tance embrace s non-violen t non-cooperation " an d require s "over whelming courag e an d a stron g commitmen t t o th e futur e o f man kind." A t a studen t government-sponsore d Ma y Vietna m teach-in , Rev. Winter , a coalition supporter , decrie d ideologica l polarization , pleading wit h student s t o reunite th e countr y an d "restor e to Amer ica th e spiri t i t onc e possessed. " Tha t sam e month , Withal l sharpl y criticized SDS : The goals and objectives o f the tiny group of provocateurs i s to harass and disrupt, creat e disorde r an d thu s brin g dow n th e existin g politica l an d economic structur e tha t propagate s huma n degradatio n an d society' s ills . They imagin e the y coul d star t fro m scratc h an d buil d a better an d mor e humane socia l order . Thes e violen t revolutionarie s ar e terribly impatien t with th e slo w pac e o f participator y an d discipline d action . Thei r impa tience has foundation an d goads them to violent o r fanatic acts . They tend to alienat e peopl e fro m thei r caus e an d set-bac k thei r caus e b y thei r ex cesses.56 SDS prove d incapabl e o f curbin g it s excesses . Buckley , concerne d with purgin g th e P L fro m th e nationa l SD S an d eliminatin g th e vestiges o f Creegan' s influenc e fro m th e campu s chapte r (h e lef t State Colleg e i n 1968) , succeede d onl y i n dividin g PS U SDS . Th e radical sough t t o restric t campu s an d nationa l SD S membershi p t o those wh o accepte d revolutionar y Marxis t tenets . H e als o desire d editorial contro l ove r th e Wate r Tunne l whic h ha d bee n printin g

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liberal-dovish article s b y th e Coalitio n fo r Peace . SDSer s a t Pen n State, an d a t th e nationa l conventio n i n Chicago , blaste d Buckley' s naked powe r play . Disguste d wit h Buckley , a s wel l a s wit h th e P L "police agents, " Pam Farley organize d a new grou p in Stat e College , the Women' s Liberatio n Fron t (WLF) , t o promot e feminis t issue s and wor k wit h th e Coalitio n fo r Peace . Severa l femal e activist s abandoned SD S an d joine d th e WLF . Othe r SDSer s becam e Weath ermen. I n July , Barr y Stei n an d Sand y Rosenthall , a Philadelphi a labor relation s major , wer e arreste d wit h severa l member s o f a Co lumbus, Ohio , Weatherme n collectiv e fo r incitin g th e blac k com munity t o riot. 57 The NU C attempte d i n th e fal l t o chec k SDS' s dissolution . Form ing a n allianc e wit h th e Blac k Studen t Union , th e successo r t o th e Douglass Association , th e NU C and SD S issue d a September "Man ifesto o n Repression." Th e manifesto calle d fo r "a dramatic increas e in th e numbe r o f blac k peopl e a t Pen n State " an d "a n en d t o th e Vietnam Wa r an d th e university' s complicit y wit h suc h wars. " No t everyone i n th e NUC , however , wa s eage r t o wor k wit h SDS . Al though Jame s Petra s endorse d th e Left' s goa l t o brin g abou t a "radi cal chang e i n th e distributio n [o f power ] withi n socia l an d eco nomic, a s wel l a s politica l institutions, " h e ha d bee n les s tha n thrilled wit h SDS' s drift toward violent extremism . Similarly , Farle y detested man y mal e SDSers ' sexis m an d deplore d th e chapter' s ideological attack s o n th e Coalitio n fo r Peace . A segmen t o f th e chapter agree d wit h Farle y an d Petra s an d abandone d SD S fo r th e Coalition fo r Peace . I n turn , a SDSe r physicall y threatene d Petra s and man y snidel y referred t o Farley' s feminis t grou p a s "th e wom en's militia." 58 Student leftist s coul d tak e som e col d comfor t fro m th e fac t tha t the campu s Righ t was experiencin g it s own division s an d acrimony . At th e Septembe r nationa l YA F conventio n i n St . Louis , th e Penn sylvania an d Californi a delegation s wer e expelle d fo r libertaria n tendencies. Returnin g t o Stat e College , ex-YA F membe r Do n Erns berger, a Hatboro , Pennsylvania , undergraduat e politica l scienc e major, forme d th e Student s fo r Individua l Libert y (SIL) . Ernsberger , who supporte d th e abolitio n o f th e draf t an d a n end t o the war , ha d long bee n a source o f embarrassmen t t o the PSU YAF . Significantly , it wa s largel y small-tow n Protestan t YAFer s wh o joine d SIL . The y were uncomfortabl e wit h Wertheime r an d Harol d Wexler' s willing ness t o us e th e court s t o stifl e SDS' s righ t to free speec h an d assem -

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bly and , further , coul d no t relat e t o thei r intens e hatre d o f apostat e Jewish SDSer s wh o supporte d Blac k Powe r an d oppose d Zionism . Contemptuous o f thei r forme r friends , Jewis h an d Souther n an d Eastern Europea n Catholi c conservative s reaffiliate d wit h th e na tional YA F an d intensifie d th e struggl e agains t thos e o n th e campu s who supporte d Communists. 59 While th e campu s Lef t an d Righ t fragmente d an d engage d i n internecine sectaria n conflict , th e tw o hundre d member s o f th e Co alition fo r Peac e assume d leadershi p o f th e campu s antiwa r move ment. Dail y Collegia n reporte r and coalition activist Stev e Soloman , a Lafayett e Hill , Pennsylvania , undergraduate , wrot e a penetratin g series i n Octobe r o n th e IDA , ORL , an d PS U militar y researc h i n general. Pete r Wood , undergraduat e co-chai r o f th e coalition , estab lished a State College Peac e Cente r and coordinate d a well-receive d draft counselin g program . Othe r coalitio n member s organize d com mittees t o educat e th e publi c o n university-militar y researc h an d planned th e larges t antiwa r rallie s an d teach-in s i n th e university' s history. 60 The Octobe r 1 5 Moratoriu m prove d t o b e a popular , albei t divi sive, event . Walke r refuse d t o suspen d classe s fo r th e PS U Morato rium. Tw o hundre d faculty , a numbe r o f who m lacke d tenur e an d were NU C members , defie d Walke r an d cancele d thei r classes . Ad ditionally, 5,00 0 student s boycotte d lecture s t o spen d mos t o f th e day at the HUB listenin g to folk musi c an d participating i n a continuous teach-in . Spo t checks o f the campus indicate d tha t engineerin g and scienc e classroom s wer e filled, whil e libera l art s an d socia l science classroom s wer e deserted. 61 Pennsylvania Democrati c part y activist Milton Shap p spok e agains t the war at Schwab Hall a s 1,70 0 peopl e listened : Ours is a peaceful protes t symbolizing th e determinatio n o f a n aroused people to return the nation to the true pursuit of peace. Our desire is to heal the gaping wounds inflicted upon all of us by this immoral war. . . . I f the reaso n wh y ou r soldiers patro l th e ric e paddie s 10,00 0 mile s away is to stop the spread of Communism, the n the rulers in Moscow and Peking must be thrilled at our display of stupidity. They have yet to lose a single man in the Vietnam War. It is we, not they who are bogged down. Following hi s speech , Shap p receive d a standin g ovation . Keddi e then wen t u p t o th e podiu m an d attacke d Shapp , arguin g tha t th e war was no t the result o f a misguided polic y o f Communis t contain -

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ment, bu t rathe r a cas e stud y i n America n imperialism . Th e audi ence wa s unimpressed. 6 2 ORL facult y accuse d th e Moratoriu m organizer s o f encouragin g further Communis t aggressio n b y thei r advocac y o f appeasement . Residents wer e n o les s oppose d t o th e Moratorium , arguin g tha t students wh o sough t t o en d th e wa r shoul d hav e "th e hel l bea t out a them." Thei r loathin g o f the campu s peac e movemen t heightene d a s 4,000 candle-carryin g protestor s marche d throug h th e street s o f Stat e College an d the n se t u p a vigil outsid e o f the Garfiel d Thoma s Wate r Tunnel. A t th e hea d o f th e march , uninvite d SDSer s wave d a Vie t Cong flag. Campu s Luthera n ministe r Fre d Reis z tried t o reason wit h them bu t wa s me t wit h curse s an d clenche d fists. Later , the coalitio n disassociated itsel f fro m SDS : "Thi s i s a peac e marc h t o en d a da y of concer n ove r th e wa r an d a Vie t Con g fla g ha s n o plac e here. " New Yor k Cit y SDSe r Dan a Friedma n defende d th e organization' s action: By carrying the NLF flag, SDS declares ope n suppor t fo r th e aims of th e Vietnamese people . W e d o no t fee l tha t th e so-calle d "violence " o f th e oppressed Vietnames e i s immoral o r unjustified. I n the face o f U.S. imperialism, an y an d al l method s o f struggl e ar e imperativ e i n orde r t o achiev e their just revolutionary demands . We, the members of SDS, declare not only our suppor t fo r th e tota l victor y o f th e NLF , bu t als o fo r th e liberatio n struggles of all people oppressed b y U.S. imperialism. 63 In spit e o f left - an d right-win g criticism , th e Coalitio n fo r Peac e proceeded t o organiz e a Novembe r 1 5 Mobilizatio n agains t th e war . The Novembe r protes t was , however , muc h mor e subdue d tha n th e October Moratorium . Rev . Winte r hel d a n emotiona l memoria l ser vice fo r thos e wh o ha d die d i n th e Vietna m War . Bu t i n general , fewer peopl e participate d i n th e Mobilizatio n protest . Significantly , dovish an d radica l facult y an d student s hel d separat e antiwa r work shops. Studen t radical s los t wha t littl e credibilit y the y ha d o n th e campus Whe n the y ha d bullie d thei r wa y t o th e fron t o f th e Octobe r Moratorium marc h an d displaye d thei r Vie t Con g flag. Further , Ked die's reputatio n wit h dove s suffere d whe n h e lamel y excuse d thi s action. Thus , eve n thoug h th e campu s peac e movemen t ha d grow n greatly sinc e th e sprin g o f 1968 , i t ha d reache d a n impasse. 64 The Stat e Universit y o f Ne w Yor k a t Buffal o In th e wak e o f th e Te t Offensive , liberal-dovis h student s an d facult y sought t o spar k campu s enthusias m o n behal f o f McCarthy' s presi -

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dential campaign . Fre d Snel l urge d colleague s an d student s no t t o reject the American politica l system , bu t cautioned tha t they shoul d be prepare d t o accep t a limite d victory ; t o wit , eve n i f McCarth y proved unsuccessful , hi s crusad e woul d galvaniz e dovis h refor m elements withi n th e Democrati c party . Th e biophysicist' s realis m and moderation , however , inspire d littl e confidenc e i n McCarth y and provoke d ridicul e fro m th e campu s Left . Philosoph y graduat e student Bo b Cohen spok e fo r man y i n th e SUNY-Buffal o SD S whe n he savage d McCarth y an d accused dove s o f usin g the antiwa r move ment for their personal advantage . Further , he cried : They won't bring us the changes in the society that we want. Because th e wa r i n Vietna m i s s o reptilian , w e jum p a t th e first man who say s he i s goin g t o stop th e war . W e forced ourselve s o n people , w e developed ne w concepts , w e wer e th e one s wh o brough t th e issu e t o th e people.65 Larry Faulkner, while disdainfu l o f liberal doves ' efforts t o reform the Democrati c party , wa s n o fa n o f Cohen's . Joinin g force s wit h Rev. Kennet h Sherma n an d Rene e Ferber , th e mothe r o f nationa l Resistance founde r Michae l Ferber , Faulkne r thre w himsel f int o community draf t counseling . Althoug h Buffalo polic e officer s intim idated Faulkne r an d othe r voluntee r draf t counselors , man y resi dents appreciate d th e fac t tha t th e pacifists , i n contras t t o Cohe n and th e SD S hardliners , di d no t reflexively cal l culturall y conserva tive Catholic s "racist , fascis t pigs. " Unfortunatel y fo r Faulkner , h e could no t devot e th e tim e necessar y t o counterac t Cohen' s growin g power i n the campu s antiwa r movement sinc e th e FBI and Selectiv e Service ha d cam e dow n har d on him. T o keep himself ou t of prison , Faulkner ha d t o prepar e fo r interminabl e governmen t hearing s an d appeals. 66 Greatly supportiv e o f Faulkner' s effort s t o resis t th e draft , an d equally determine d t o presen t alternative s t o SDS' s cal l fo r violen t confrontations, facult y activist s attempte d t o provid e mora l leader ship t o th e campu s antiwa r movement . I n March, Snel l introduce d a resolution t o the faculty senat e whic h urge d the Presiden t o f th e Unite d State s . . . t o tak e al l immediat e step s t o see k immediate negotiation s fo r a n immediat e cessatio n o f arme d conflic t an d destruction in Vietnam, immediate de-escalation of the military forces present and immediate relief o f human suffering. Furthermore , the faculty senate urgentl y recommend s tha t al l necessar y actio n program s b e institute d immediately t o reliev e th e stres s an d indignatio n existen t amon g th e de -

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prived peopl e o f thi s natio n an d thereby , hopefully , avoi d furthe r violen t domestic confrontation . The facult y senat e adopte d th e resolution , th e "stronges t denuncia tion o f th e wa r b y a majo r America n university, " observe d th e Spectrum, b y a vot e o f 9 1 t o 37 . Hawkis h philosoph y professor s Marvin Zimmerma n an d Willia m Baume r attacke d th e resolutio n and sough t unsuccessfull y i n Apri l t o hav e th e facult y senat e de clare it null an d void. 67 Dovish an d radica l faculty , chiefl y Snell , E d Powell , an d Si d Willhelm, als o i n Marc h organize d a "Strike fo r Knowledge" whic h promoted a variety o f antiwa r forums . Th e studen t governmen t en dorsed th e strik e an d the n wen t o n t o condem n th e war , militar y recruiting o n th e campus , an d university-militar y research . Outsid e speakers, includin g Jonatha n Schel l an d indicte d draf t resistanc e leaders Michae l Ferber , Mitchel l Goodman , an d Benjami n Spock , came t o SUNY-Buffalo . Thi s all-sta r lineu p brough t ou t hundreds , even thoug h n o faculty , an d generall y n o students , fro m th e chem istry, education , an d engineerin g department s participated . Limite d in it s bas e o f support , th e forum s als o expose d ideologica l tension s within th e campu s peac e movement . Snel l an d Cohe n clashe d a t a panel discussion , whil e YAW F leade r Gerr y Gros s calle d fo r activ ists to "brin g the moral outrag e o f the war into the streets." 68 SDS an d YAWF , throwin g cautio n t o th e wind , opte d o n Augus t 7 t o begi n a dramati c antiwa r protes t i n th e community . Bruc e Beyer, a Buffalo WASP , refuse d t o be inducte d int o the military an d took symboli c sanctuar y insid e th e Elmwoo d Unitaria n Church . H e was accompanie d b y Gros s and othe r members o f th e newl y forme d Buffalo Draf t Resistanc e Union . Tw o hundre d student s an d faculty , as wel l a s Rene e Ferber , enliste d i n the cause . A s Judy Collin s san g folk song s an d long-haired youth s smoke d dop e on the church lawn , the demonstratio n assume d th e appearanc e o f a summe r carnival . Even th e Catholi c hig h schoo l student s wh o pickete d th e churc h and carrie d placard s whic h read , "Kee p Mar x ou t o f th e Church, " were a sourc e o f amusemen t t o th e youths . Rev . J . D. Wright , assis tant ministe r o f th e church , however , foun d littl e caus e fo r merri ment. Havin g reluctantl y gon e alon g wit h Ferbe r an d othe r churc h members' reques t t o gran t sanctuar y t o th e activists , h e wa s receiv ing numerou s threats . "I f yo u wan t you r churc h burne d t o hell, " one anonymou s residen t informe d Wright , "jus t kee p o n protectin g draft evaders." 69

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Cohen state d tha t "i f th e authoritie s com e t o th e church' ' t o ge t the draf t resisters , "the y ma y hav e t o d o s o ove r ou r dea d bodies. " Alarmed b y suc h provocativ e rhetoric , Faulkne r pleade d wit h Cohe n and hi s follower s t o b e les s bloody-minded . H e als o demande d tha t they no t brin g basebal l bat s an d motorcycl e chain s int o th e church . On Augus t 19 , dozen s o f FB I agents , Buffal o polic e officers , an d federal marshal s storme d th e church . Usin g blackjack s t o clea r th e center aisl e o f protestors , federa l marshal s capture d Beyer . I n all , eight youths wer e arreste d for draft evasion and/or assaulting federa l agents. No t coincidentally , amon g thos e charge d wit h assaul t wer e prominent campu s radical s Car l Kronber g an d Gross . Afte r a BDRU leader secretl y me t wit h FB I agent s a t th e Fores t Law n Cemetery , the federa l governmen t als o decide d t o indic t SD S leade r Bil l Yate s for assault. The y quickl y became know n a s the "Buffal o Nine." 70 A stat e of wa r now existe d betwee n campu s an d community . Th e Spectrum conveye d campu s attitude s toward s Buffal o b y featurin g illustrations o f arme d soldier s with swastika s an d running Ron Cobb's apocalyptic undergroun d cartoons . It s editor s als o savage d Meyer son fo r no t takin g stand s agains t racism , polic e repression , an d military recruitin g o n th e campus . Th e studen t governmen t es chewed moderatio n and , further , abandone d it s functio n a s a delib erative, representativ e bod y b y allowin g al l student s wh o showe d up fo r a meetin g t o vote . Subsequently , SD S an d YAW F cam e t o student governmen t meeting s i n forc e t o gran t themselve s mone y from the student activitie s fun d an d to pass resolutions condemnin g racism in Buffalo. 71 SDS, claimin g i n th e fal l o f 196 8 five hundre d members , man y having recentl y joine d th e organizatio n i n reactio n t o th e sanctuar y confrontation, entere d a n intens e phas e o f protest . Championin g antiwar educationa l project s ove r violen t confrontations , Charle s "Speed" Powrie , brothe r o f Ken t Stat e activis t Ji m Powrie , warne d activists no t t o provok e furthe r th e ange r o f blu e colla r residents . Contemptuous o f suc h counterrevolutionar y sentiments , YAW F in formed th e working-class Iris h Catholic radica l tha t "we cas t our lo t with thos e wh o wan t t o fight fascism , no t thos e wh o bo w dow n before it. " Subsequently , i n earl y Octobe r fou r hundre d demonstra tors, shoutin g "two , four , six , eight , w e don' t wan t a fascis t state, " marched int o th e Wa r Memoria l Auditoriu m t o protes t a n appear ance by Nixon. Buffal o polic e charged into the demonstrators' ranks . The nex t day , i n respons e t o th e arres t o f Gros s an d tw o other s fo r assaulting polic e officers , on e hundre d student s pickete d th e Buf -

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falo Cit y Courthous e prio r t o th e arraignments . Whe n th e judg e ordered th e courtroo m cleare d o f jeering spectators , SDSer s chante d "Fascist judge s mus t go! " Perturbed , th e ethni c Polis h judg e thre w the book a t Gross and hi s comrades. 72 With a militancy whic h surpasse d tha t of SDS , Buffalo polic e an d residents intensifie d thei r struggl e agains t radicalism . O n Octobe r 16, Polic e Sergean t Geral d Donova n nervousl y walke d pas t the BDR U and Urba n Actio n headquarter s a t Mai n an d Wes t Ferr y street s a s students shoute d "pig, " "oink, " an d "soowie. " Angered , Donova n left th e scene , returnin g a shor t whil e late r wit h a specia l tactica l squad. Th e officer s seize d Kronber g and allegedly vowe d t o kill hi m if h e trie d t o escape. The n th e polic e raide d th e Urban Action office , where th e Buffalo Nin e Defense Committe e publishe d it s own news paper, Liberate d Communit y News, an d arreste d Buffalo Insighte r editor Bil l Mault . Takin g si x student s bac k t o th e Col d Sprin g Sta tion House , officer s allegedl y bea t the m fo r ove r a n hour , mad e numerous anti-Semiti c remarks , an d threatene d t o carv e a peac e symbol o n Kronberg's chest . Th e Buffalo ACL U demanded a n inves tigation o f polic e brutality , bu t Polic e Commissione r Felicett a countered tha t "th e polic e officer s involve d acte d i n a manner com patible wit h thei r oath of office." 73 Frightened b y th e Octobe r student-polic e battles , Meyerso n hel d a specia l meetin g o f th e facult y whic h h e opene d t o students . Th e president onc e agai n warne d tha t immoderat e protes t wa s provok ing a violen t communit y backlas h ove r whic h h e ha d n o control . Unfortunately fo r Meyerson, few students , particularly SDSers , wer e in the mood t o listen to him. Englis h instructo r and antiwar partisa n Barbara Solomo n capture d th e campus an d community mentalit y i n an Octobe r issu e o f Harper's . Sh e describe d a growing collectio n o f left-oriented scholar s who commute d weekl y via jet plane from Ne w York Cit y t o Buffalo , unwillin g t o establis h root s i n th e communit y and buil d a rappor t wit h students . Ther e wa s also , Solomo n ob served, disorientatio n an d mani a o n th e campu s an d mutua l com munity-university paranoi a an d loathing . Al l i n all , student s an d faculty, sh e concluded , wer e trappe d i n a simultaneously stimulat ing and stiflin g "Yello w Submarine." 74 Lacking th e resolve , a s wel l a s th e ability , t o brin g orde r t o a n increasingly choati c campus , Meyerso n ha d to accept the bitter con sequences o f th e university' s pell-mel l expansion , acquisitio n o f military researc h contracts , an d ill-conceive d ques t fo r academi c

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superstars wh o ha d n o loyalt y t o th e institution . SDS , cognizan t o f the president' s powerlessnes s t o influenc e events , dre w u p i n th e winter o f 196 9 a n extensiv e lis t o f nonnegotiabl e demand s deliber ately designe d t o b e s o unreasonabl e an d unrealisti c tha t Meyerso n would b e hel d u p fo r ridicul e regardles s o f whethe r h e accepte d o r rejected th e dictates . Amon g thei r demands , SDSer s wanted : vet o power ove r th e facult y senate ; th e remova l o f th e Buffal o polic e commissioner; a n en d t o university-militar y research ; th e abolitio n of ROTC ; and th e withdrawa l o f federa l charge s agains t th e Buffal o Nine. 75 The beginnin g o f th e Buffal o Nin e tria l i n Februar y adde d t o Meyerson's difficulties . A s 15 0 student s an d facult y pickete d th e U.S. Courthouse , chantin g 'Tre e th e Nine—Th e Trial' s a Crime, " residents commente d tha t al l o f th e radica l "scum, " no t "jus t nin e of 'em, " shoul d b e imprisoned . Insid e th e courthouse , federa l pros ecutor Edgar NeMoyer presented th e government's case . Prosecutio n witness Herma n Erickson , a Buffal o Courier-Expres s reporte r wh o had bee n presen t a t the churc h o n th e da y o f th e raid , testifie d tha t federal authoritie s ha d entere d th e sanctuar y unarme d whil e Beye r carried a weapo n wit h whic h h e use d t o strik e FB I agen t Richar d Schaller. Whe n on e o f th e defens e attorney s showe d Erickso n pho tographs o f arme d FB I agent s enterin g th e church , th e reporte r re versed hi s testimony . Schalle r gav e furthe r inconsisten t testimony , claiming tha t th e FB I had no t use d a house acros s fro m th e churc h as a surveillanc e outpost . Durin g cross-examination , Schalle r ac knowledged tha t h e ha d bee n i n error , forgettin g abou t th e movi e cameras whic h h e installe d o n the third floor of the house. 76 Not conten t t o discredi t th e government' s wea k case , th e defen dants an d thei r lawyer s decide d t o us e th e tria l a s "a n organizin g tool" with whic h t o demonstrat e tha t the judicial syste m wa s a vital component o f "bourgeoi s domination. " A t campu s rallies , an d i n the courtroom , defens e attorne y Michael Kenned y exhorte d radical s to "sta y i n th e streets " an d no t t o expec t justic e fro m th e judiciary . Beyer, Gross , Kronberg, and the other defendants informe d th e cour t that sinc e the y supporte d th e "oppresse d peopl e al l aroun d th e world," i t was necessar y t o resist a n "immoral, illegal , racist , politi cally insan e wa r o n th e Vietnames e people. " Th e defendant s als o stated tha t they wer e "o f th e working class ; our acts were i n opposi tion t o th e capitalis t clas s becaus e w e wan t a n en d t o capitalis t rul e and th e buildin g o f socialism. " (I f th e defendant s wer e workin g

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class, thei r background s indicate d otherwise , fo r thei r rank s in cluded graduate s o f th e elit e Manliu s Militar y Preparator y School , the upper-middle-clas s Chicag o Nicholseen Hig h School , an d MIT. ) Judge John Curtin, wh o ha d worke d hi s wa y u p through the judicia l system a t a time whe n Buffalo' s upper-middle-clas s Protestan t pro fessionals (e.g. , th e parent s o f som e o f th e defendants ) considere d Irish Catholic s t o b e barbarian s a t th e gate , wa s visibl y upse t wit h the radicals . H e foun d n o jo y i n th e knowledg e tha t a ne w trial would hav e t o b e hel d i n Septembe r sinc e th e jur y coul d no t arriv e at a verdict fo r several o f th e defendants. Beyer , however , receive d a three-year priso n sentence. 77 Moved b y the Buffalo Nine' s rhetoric , campu s activist s worke d t o end bourgeoi s dominatio n a t th e university . I n lat e February , 1,00 0 students, protestin g th e tria l an d ROTC , stage d a n all-nigh t sit-i n a t the Norto n Union . Fo r th e nex t five day s massiv e rallie s wer e hel d on campus . Yout h Internationa l Part y (Yippie ) leade r Jerr y Rubi n captured th e revolutionary imagination s o f the protestors by wavin g a Vie t Con g fla g an d showerin g hi s audienc e wit h marijuan a joints . Seeking t o cal m inflame d passions , Meyerso n an d Warre n Benni s sponsored i n earl y Marc h a week-long , university-wid e teach-in . They encourage d al l studen t group s t o participat e an d hope d tha t dialogue woul d promot e responsibl e dissent . Meyerson , however , miscalculated, fo r th e teach-i n becam e a foru m whic h th e radical s used t o buil d u p outrag e agains t ROT C and th e university' s Themi s research.78 A littl e mor e tha n a wee k afte r th e teach-in , SD S an d YAW F organized a boycott o f classe s an d a rally agains t Themi s an d Judg e Curtin. YAW F membe r Pau l Dominic k darkl y informe d fello w stu dents tha t i t wa s "u p t o u s t o sto p the m [th e universit y administra tion] physically " fro m proceedin g wit h constructio n o f Themi s re search facilities . Spectru m colleg e edito r Dori e Klei n o f Ne w Yor k City als o encourage d student s t o driv e Themi s fro m th e campus . Student governmen t presiden t Bil l Austi n adde d hi s voic e t o thos e of th e demonstrators , demandin g th e "smashin g o f th e military industrial campus. " Finally , SD S issue d it s manifest o o n Themis : It i s tim e tha t w e comba t th e dangerou s an d growin g militaris m i n ou r society.... Th e deman d t o remove al l militar y research from thi s campu s was mad e severa l week s ag o . . . bu t th e administratio n ha d ignore d i t completely! It is time we searched our consciences an d began to act for the things we stand for before it is too late, and we go down the road of fascism as projects such as Themis grind on unopposed. 79

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Whipped int o a frenzy, severa l hundre d student s descende d upo n the Themi s constructio n site , demolishin g th e shed s whic h house d building materials . The n th e demonstrator s marche d int o Haye s Hall. Whil e a fe w student s climbe d int o th e building' s towe r an d rang th e bell s o f liberation , other s roughl y ejecte d Newto n Garver , unwilling t o listen to the Quaker's objection s t o the occupation. Th e protestors smashe d glas s door s an d window s unti l Meyerson , wh o had jus t returne d fro m a n out-of-tow n trip , mad e hi s wa y int o th e building. Escorte d b y severa l unarmed , an d nervous , campu s polic e officers, Meyerso n trie d to ope n negotiations . Unbeknowns t t o Mey erson, Pete r Rega n ha d summone d 15 0 Buffal o policeme n t o Haye s Hall. Th e students , angere d by the presence o f their mortal enemies , refused t o negotiate. Exhausted , Meyerso n lef t th e building an d tha t night, a t th e insistenc e o f Rega n an d studen t affair s vic e presiden t Richard Siggelkow , wh o wa s complainin g abou t the "radica l fascis t left," obtaine d a restraining orde r to halt the occupation . Fiv e activ ists wer e single d ou t fo r thei r rol e i n th e protest , includin g Bo b Cohen and YAWF leader Dan Bentivogli. 80 The embattle d presiden t promptl y requeste d tha t the facult y sen ate hol d a specia l meetin g t o resolv e th e Themi s controversy . Fou r hundred academic s an d a fe w hundre d student s crowde d int o th e Kleinhans Musi c Hal l o n Marc h 2 6 an d participate d i n a maratho n debate. Radica l historia n Gabrie l Kolk o vigorously attacke d Themis . Snell, wh o ha d spoke n a t the Marc h 1 9 rally, but had been appalle d by the students' subsequen t violence , als o denounced Themis . Med ical Schoo l an d engineering faculty argued loudly o n behalf o f Themi s and, i n private , wrot e blisterin g letter s t o Meyerso n demandin g th e imprisonment o f radica l student s an d thei r facult y supporters . Un able to resolve th e issue, th e faculty senat e agree d to discuss i t again in late April. Prio r to the second debate , Meyerso n gave student s th e opportunity t o vot e o n Themi s an d ROT C an d rende r thei r verdic t on th e Marc h 1 9 protest . A bar e majorit y o f voter s favore d Themi s and ROT C an d nearl y two-third s criticize d th e destructio n o f th e Themis shed s an d th e Haye s Hal l occupation . I n respons e t o th e vote, whic h th e Spectrum decrie d a s a n administratio n propagand a tool, a studen t flung tw o Moloto v cocktail s int o th e no w fenced-i n Themis site. 81 By this point , th e Buffal o Commo n Counci l an d th e stat e legisla ture ha d entere d th e fray . Councilme n Buyer s an d Lyma n calle d fo r Meyerson's resignatio n an d th e legislatur e i n Apri l overwhelmingl y passed a comprehensiv e antistuden t rio t bill . Give n thes e develop -

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ments, i t wa s understandabl e tha t th e administratio n refuse d t o allow th e national SD S to hold it s 1969 convention a t the university , even thoug h SUNY-Buffal o SD S wa s stil l a n officiall y recognize d student organizatio n an d Ne w Yor k ha d th e greates t numbe r o f chapters (thirty-five ) i n the nation. Subsequently , SUNY-Buffal o SDSe r and Spectru m reporte r Barbar a Morrison, wh o attende d th e conven tion i n Chicago , defende d th e expulsio n o f th e P L and champione d the Weathermen. 82 In lat e Septembe r th e secon d tria l o f th e Buffal o Nin e com menced. A t a SDS-sponsore d symposiu m o n politica l repression , which feature d Susa n Sonta g an d othe r left-win g Ne w Yor k Cit y luminaries, a Buffalo Nin e defens e attorne y observed tha t the judge s were th e chie f capitalis t oppressor s sinc e the y wer e th e one s "wh o let th e pig s operate. ,, Afte r th e symposium , seve n hundre d student s and facult y pickete d th e courthouse , screamin g "Ho , Ho , H o Ch i Minh, NL F i s Gonn a Win! " SDSe r an d defendan t Ra y Malak , whe n called upo n b y Judge John Henderson t o stand an d be introduce d t o the court , raise d hi s fist i n a power salute . Bil l Yate s an d Bil l Berr y followed suit , ignorin g Henderson' s cautio n tha t ther e wa s n o nee d for an y suc h gestures . Wit h that , th e relationshi p betwee n th e judg e and th e defens e attorney s an d defendant s becam e stormy . Judg e Henderson repeatedl y overrule d counsel' s objection s an d strov e t o prevent th e issue o f the Vietnam War from being interjected int o th e case. Th e judg e als o cite d Mala k an d Yate s fo r contemp t o f cour t after the y refuse d t o stan d whe n h e calle d a recess . Mala k the n informed th e judg e tha t h e coul d no t stan d an d hono r a judicia l system which merite d onl y contemp t an d "spit." 83 After a month of , onc e again , inconsisten t governmen t testimony , the jur y deliberate d fo r tw o day s befor e acquittin g Berr y an d Kron berg an d convictin g Mala k an d Yates . Unabl e t o arriv e a t a verdic t on Gross , th e governmen t decide d t o dro p hi s case . Mala k an d Yates, upo n bein g sentenced t o three years' imprisonment, rendere d their ow n verdict . Defiant , Mala k proclaime d tha t "yo u ca n jai l a revolutionary, bu t yo u can' t jai l a revolution!" N o les s determined , Yates warned , "th e America n governin g clas s ha s cause d m e t o b e branded a criminal . . . . The peopl e i n tim e wil l declar e wh o reall y are th e criminals... . I pledge t o th e peopl e tha t I shall continu e t o act for freedom." 84 As i n th e spring , th e secon d Buffal o Nin e trial coincide d with , and fe d into , anothe r wav e o f revulsio n agains t Themis . Beyer , ou t

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on bai l pendin g appeal s an d no w a SDSer , intone d i n Septembe r that 'Themis mus t fal l again. " More poetic, othe r SDSer s chante d a t rallies, "I f Themi s goe s up , Themi s blow s up! " Joinin g SD S i n opposition t o Themis , Charli e Hayni e an d Chi p Planck , politica l scientist an d maste r o f th e storefron t Tolsto y College , founde d a loose organizatio n o f largel y young , untenure d instructors , th e Rad ical Facult y Caucus . B y now disillusione d wit h the political system , Snell joine d th e group . Kolko , o n th e othe r hand , disdaine d th e Radical Faculty , fo r h e believe d tha t th e natio n wa s o n th e verg e o f a conservativ e counterrevolutio n and , therefore , th e Lef t shoul d no t further antagoniz e th e Right . Bewildere d b y Kolko' s attitude , th e Radical Facult y promote d anti-Themi s sentimen t o n th e campu s and transforme d th e storefron t college s int o radica l organizin g cen ters.85 In addition to anti-Themis agitation , the campus Left also steppe d up protes t agains t ROTC . O n the da y o f th e Octobe r 1 5 Moratorium , one hundre d SD S an d YAW F member s ransacke d th e office s o f th e Air Force ROTC. After smashin g offic e equipmen t an d windows, th e demonstrators carrie d awa y files an d book s whic h the y burne d i n a gigantic bonfire . The y the n charge d pas t th e president' s Haye s Hal l office shoutin g "U p Agains t a Wall , Motherfucker! " Outraged , Re gan, actin g i n plac e o f Meyerso n wh o ha d take n a leave o f absence , called i n the FBI. Within two weeks, ninetee n activist s were charge d with burglary, conspirac y t o incite riot, and vandalism. 86 The campu s reactio n t o th e anti-ROT C protest s wa s confused . Rev. Sherman , wh o ha d resigne d hi s paris h positio n t o devot e him self full-tim e t o organizin g th e are a Clerg y an d Lait y Concerne d about Vietnam, denounce d SD S and contended tha t the peace move ment shoul d broade n it s bas e o f support , develo p coalition s wit h liberals, an d ru n dovis h candidate s fo r office . Th e ministe r als o observed tha t th e moderat e peac e movemen t ha d achieve d som e success i n Buffalo , wit h Mayo r Fran k Sedit a publicl y endorsin g th e Moratorium. Eve n Congressman Richard McCarthy had urged Nixo n to negotiat e a n en d t o th e war . Cohen , exhibitin g hi s contemp t fo r Sherman an d th e doves , countere d tha t "SD S i s no t a popular front . It has certai n principles . On e o f thes e i s t o creat e a socialist revolu tion in this country." Given SDS's mission, Cohe n told students , th e movement mus t no t join forces wit h libera l dove s lik e Sherma n an d Sedita, bu t instead "mov e extremel y t o the left." 87 Faculty member s wer e als o a t odds wit h eac h other . Th e Radica l

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Faculty, committe d t o abolishin g university-militar y research , se t forth it s positio n befor e a n acrimoniou s facult y senat e meetin g i n November: We are convinced fro m our study o f American foreign polic y that the uses of ROT C graduates ar e insupportabl e o n mora l an d politica l grounds . W e do not wis h t o continue a program in which student s fro m th e University of Buffal o ar e pu t i n a positio n wher e the y eithe r subjec t themselve s t o court martia l o r commit murde r o n th e innocen t t o protec t landlord s an d the wealthy in Vietnam, or perhaps in years to come, in South Africa, South America, Laos, Thailand, Indonesia, or wherever the theory and practice of counter-insurgency may send them... . Acceptance of funds from the Defense Department sanctions and perpetuates th e unwarrante d importanc e o f militar y mone y an d perspective s i n the structur e o f scholarl y researc h i n thi s country . Thi s suppor t structur e needs opposition , no t encouragement . Th e wa y t o chang e i t i s t o sto p having anything to do with i t . . . . Conservatives o n th e faculty , man y o f the m possessin g Do D con tracts, onc e agai n wrot e viciou s letter s t o th e presiden t i n whic h they blasted Snell . Moderates answere d that they could no t "in goo d conscience tak e a stan d i n politica l roles : left , righ t o r middle, " because "whe n a universit y take s a stan d i t become s a politica l instrument comparabl e t o a politica l party. " An d dove s suc h a s Garver, smartin g fro m hi s roug h handlin g b y SDS , adopte d a n anti war and antiradica l protes t stance. 88 Confronted wit h out-of-contro l studen t protes t an d a n embittere d faculty, th e hard-liners i n th e administratio n consolidate d thei r powe r as the liberals gathered around Bennis rapidly lost ground. Historia n Theodore Friend , a dove, a s wel l a s a n assistan t t o Regan , privatel y warned Benni s tha t th e studen t Lef t wa s underminin g th e liberals ' effectiveness i n th e administration . H e als o note d tha t "conversa tions wit h som e o f th e violen t radical s . . . giv e th e impressio n o f young me n an d wome n hig h o n self-righteousnes s an d narcissisti c heroism, ap t t o ge t furthe r an d furthe r involve d wit h th e euphori a of publicit y an d the ecstas y o f violence." 89 Meanwhile, th e Buffal o communit y wa s workin g ou t it s ow n ambiguous attitude s toward s campu s protes t an d th e Vietna m War . Mayor Sedita' s Novembe r re-electio n victor y agains t law-and-orde r and hawkis h candidat e Slominsk i mad e i t clea r tha t the majorit y o f voters wer e wear y o f th e war . However , wa r wearines s di d no t translate int o war m suppor t fo r th e peac e movement , particularl y

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for it s larg e campu s component . Mos t resident s di d no t distinguis h between dove s an d violen t radica l students , henc e the y di d no t object whe n Buffal o polic e trie d t o break u p a n Octobe r Moratoriu m march o f severa l thousan d peopl e fro m th e campu s t o Niagara Square . In part , th e loca l an d nationa l new s media , b y emphasizin g violen t rather tha n les s visuall y dramati c nonviolen t demonstrations , influ enced resident s agains t campu s activists . Bu t then , student s an d faculty wer e largel y responsibl e fo r thei r poo r publi c image . Afte r all, wha t coul d blue-colla r ethni c Catholic s hav e mad e o f a studen t body an d facult y whic h publishe d th e Buffalo Marijuana Review (Leslie Fiedle r an d "Fugs " leade r E d Sanders , "consultan t gurus," ) and a n alternativ e newspaper , th e Undercurren t (Bil l Maul t an d Barbara Morrison , editors) , whic h carrie d photograph s o f homosex uals engage d i n ana l an d ora l sex ? Resident s wer e repulsed , ventin g their ange r i n anonymou s hat e letter s t o Meyerson , an d the n t o th e more receptiv e actin g president : Why kid yourself o r any other of the law abiding people about the scu m attending you r school ? A great man y o f th e bums , blac k an d white , re d o r yellow, stin k t o the hig h heavens . The y ar e the filth o f the New York stat e area. Only way to treat th e BASTARDS, crac k down an d thro w the scum out . There isn't any way you can deal with this type but to get tough. So the y represen t peace , the y don' t kno w th e meanin g o f peac e an d decency. But sooner or later as one of your good stated after servin g 3 years in Vietnam , the y wil l hav e t o ge t a hair-cut , tak e a bath , an d g o to work . What a big surpris e whe n the y find ou t the y ar e totall y unfitte d t o ear n a living.90 And so , conservativ e an d radica l force s square d of f agains t eac h other, wit h libera l dove s caugh t i n th e middl e an d force d t o tak e sides. Tw o year s o f escalatin g protes t an d violence—196 8 an d 196 9 —had se t th e stag e for a n eve n mor e intens e phas e o f confrontation . Kent Stat e Universit y The earl y month s o f 196 8 were a t onc e a time o f succes s an d frustra tion fo r th e KCEWV . Antiwa r educatio n forum s i n th e dormitories , as wel l a s th e KCEWV' s determine d picket s an d vigils , raise d th e level o f politica l consciousnes s o n th e campus . On e thousan d stu dents participate d i n a campu s memoria l marc h fo r Rev . Kin g i n

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April an d 24 0 canvasse d i n Indian a i n Ma y o n behal f o f Rober t Kennedy. Bu t the campu s Left , althoug h encourage d b y the fact tha t more student s ha d a t last became politicall y engaged , wa s no t a t al l pleased tha t the y ha d embrace d a dovish , rathe r tha n a radical , intellectual approac h t o th e Vietna m Wa r an d America n rac e rela tions. Studen t peac e activis t Dav e Edward s sharpl y criticize d Ken nedy's an d McCarthy' s supporter s fo r viewin g th e Vietna m Wa r a s an aberration, th e produc t o f misguide d America n foreig n policy . I n reality, Edward s contended , th e wa r wa s a carefull y thought-ou t endeavor designe d t o promot e U.S . imperialis m an d counterrevolu tion i n th e Thir d World . KCEW V member s als o too k littl e comfor t in the realizatio n tha t whil e ther e wer e a number o f student s o n th e campus oppose d t o the us e o f napal m i n Vietnam, onl y fort y peopl e in February chos e t o picket Do w recruiter s a t the union. 91 Dissatisfied wit h th e KCEWV' s emphasi s upo n nonviolent , mora l witness peac e vigil s an d educatio n projects , severa l activist s bega n to cal l fo r mor e action . Th e advocate s o f actio n forme d th e cor e o f the newl y create d Studen t Religiou s Liberal s (SRL) , a campus draf t resistance grou p whic h was , despit e it s name , highl y secularize d and radical . Headquartere d a t the Ken t Unitarian-Universalis t Churc h on th e floor above th e Yello w Unicor n Coffeehouse , SR L and KCEWV activists Georg e Hoffman an d Vince Modugno , bot h Cuyahoga Falls , Ohio, residents , counsele d student s o n conscientiou s objectio n an d coordinated protest s agains t Do w recruiters . Convince d tha t libera l doves ha d fo r to o lon g acquiesce d i n th e destructio n o f Vietnam , and critica l o f KCEW V leader s fo r clingin g t o ideologica l an d tacti cal moderatio n whic h di d nothin g t o hal t it , th e SR L establishe d a SDS chapter at Kent State. Praising SDS as "basically anarchist , anti establishment, anti-draf t an d actio n oriented, " Hoffma n an d hi s al lies committe d themselve s t o buildin g a radica l movemen t a t th e university. 92 KCEWV leader s Rut h Gibso n an d Josep h Jackso n wer e deter mined t o kee p th e organizatio n an d it s nonviolen t principle s aliv e even a s mor e o f th e membershi p drifte d int o SDS . I n late April , th e KCEWV organize d a peaceful antiwa r rall y o n th e Common s whic h featured loca l fol k singer s an d dovis h clerg y speakers . A s a fe w hundred student s recline d o n Blanke t Hill , hawkis h athlete s i n Sto pher Hall , arme d wit h high-powere d ai r rifles , opene d fire o n Rev . Peter Richardson an d a visiting Catholi c priest . Afte r KCEW V secre tary Caro l Carso n complaine d t o campu s securit y officers , th e ad -

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ministration ha d Gibso n arreste d fo r having earlie r that da y chalke d a rall y notic e o n th e library . Charge d wit h vandalis m an d violatin g White's decre e tha t the KCEW V could no t publiciz e th e rally o n th e campus, Gibso n wa s take n t o th e Ken t polic e station . Alon e an d frightened, th e normally perk y activist broke down an d cried. Whit e made n o effor t t o prosecut e Stophe r Hall' s vigilantes . Campu s radi o director Bo b Carpente r waxe d enthusiastic , praisin g th e hawkis h students an d Whit e fo r "turnin g th e tables " o n th e KCEW V whic h for so long had infringe d upo n the "constitutiona l rights " of Dow b y picketing it s recruiters . Subsequently , SDSer s pointe d t o Gibson' s feminine weakness , an d to White's indirec t encouragemen t o f right wing violenc e o n th e campus , a s compellin g argument s fo r a mor e militant an d masculin e campu s radica l organization. 93 Seizing th e initiativ e fro m th e moderate s i n th e KCEWV , SDSer s in earl y Ma y stage d a protes t agains t Huber t Humphre y wh o wa s speaking a t th e university' s Memoria l Gymnasium . O n cue , 15 0 white an d blac k students , th e latte r belongin g t o th e recentl y estab lished Blac k Unite d Student s (BUS) , marche d ou t o f th e gym . Th e vice presiden t angril y le d th e audienc e o f 10,00 0 i n a noisy booin g session. Mi m Jackson , a hig h schoo l student , joine d th e walkout , anxiously awaitin g attack . He r big brothe r Joseph, repulse d b y SD S threatrics, was les s concerne d wit h the audience's ugl y reaction. Fa r more disturbin g t o hi m ha d bee n th e SDS-le d hecklin g whic h ha d preceded th e walkout . Thi s denia l o f Humphrey' s righ t t o spea k freely sen t a "chill dow n his spine " and led him to view the radical s as "elitists " dedicate d t o silencin g thos e wh o di d no t agre e wit h them. Ji m Powrie , wh o ha d refraine d fro m heckling , plaintivel y responded tha t the protes t "wa s not to victimize Mr . Humphrey no r deny hi m th e righ t t o s p e a k . . . . I t was , quit e simply , a n ac t o f conscience" directe d agains t " a supporter o f a n illegal an d immora l war tha t continue s t o kil l hundred s o f peopl e daily. " However , Powrie di d no t spea k fo r the entir e chapter . Howi e Emme r and Ric k Erickson reasone d tha t Col d Wa r liberal s lik e Humphre y ha d n o right to free speec h an d had to be silenced. 94 Buoyed b y th e anti-Humphre y protest , Howi e Emme r an d Ric k Erickson drov e t o Michigan Stat e t o participat e i n th e Nationa l SD S convention. A t Eas t Lansing , th e KS U SDSer s becam e enamore d o f Dohrn, me t wit h Bil l Ayer s an d Ji m Mellen , an d re-establishe d contact wit h Mar k Rudd . (Erickso n ha d becom e acquainte d wit h Rudd whil e visitin g Columbi a durin g tha t campus ' celebrate d sprin g

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uprising.) I t was decide d b y Ayer s an d Mellen , onc e the y ha d purge d the Ann Arbo r SDS chapter of thos e opposed t o aggressive, confron tational protests , t o creat e a network o f Michigan-Ohi o SD S travel ers. Excite d b y Emmer's account s o f th e awakenin g whit e an d blac k student movemen t a t Kent State , an d attracte d t o the town' s flower ing counterculture , Terr y Robbins , a Kenyon Colleg e dropou t who , Carl Oglesb y observed , though t h e wa s Butc h Cassid y t o Ayers * Sundance Kid , mad e th e universit y hi s bas e o f operations . Th e enormously wealth y Ayer s donate d a printing pres s whic h enable d the KS U an d Northeas t Ohi o SD S t o publis h thei r ow n newspaper , Maggie's Farm . Emme r an d Mar k Lencl' s parents , wh o wer e als o former Ohi o Communis t part y organizers , provide d furthe r assis tance b y leasin g a Clevelan d offic e buildin g fo r th e Michigan-Ohi o SDS travelers . Arme d wit h Blac k Panthe r an d Thir d Worl d revolu tionary Communis t principles , a s wel l a s wit h th e collecte d work s of Bo b Dylan, Emme r and Erickson se t out in the fall t o intensify th e struggle a t Ken t State . Paradoxically , th e KS U SD S hous e wher e Erickson live d ha d bee n th e mode l fo r th e "Bate s Motel " i n Alfre d Hitchcock's Psycho. 95 To Emme r an d Erickson' s delight , 25 0 student s cam e t o SDS' s first meetin g i n th e fal l o f 1968 . Amon g th e crow d wer e abou t tw o dozen forme r member s o f th e KCEWV , suc h a s Bil l Whitaker , th e gregarious so n o f a U.S. Stee l Corporatio n vic e president . Bu t by fa r the majority o f students a t the September SDS meeting had had littl e previous contac t wit h th e campu s antiwa r movement . Ke n Ham mond, a working-clas s suburba n Clevelan d undergraduate , di d no t associate wit h th e activist s unti l th e sprin g o f 196 8 whe n h e me t Emmer an d Modugn o i n a class. Bu t i t too k th e Kin g an d Kenned y assassinations, an d th e Chicag o Democrati c Convention , t o mov e Hammond t o join SDS. Similarly , Alan Canfora, a sophomore whos e father was a Barberton, Ohio , Democrati c councilma n an d vice pres ident o f hi s UA W local , becam e politicall y activ e onl y tha t fall . Even then , Canfor a move d slowl y int o th e SD S cam p whil e main taining tie s t o th e KS U Youn g Democrats . Hi s roommate , To m Grace , a Syracuse , Ne w York , freshman , eventuall y followe d Canfor a int o SDS, bu t neithe r embraced , no r completel y understood , Ne w Lef t ideology. 96 Grace an d Canfor a receive d thei r first exposur e t o KS U SD S ac tion tactic s o n Octobe r 3 . Travelin g wit h th e KS U Democrat s t o

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protest a Nixo n appearanc e a t th e Universit y o f Akron , th e tw o watched i n aw e a s tw o hundre d Ken t Stat e an d Oberli n Colleg e SDSers o n th e hal l balcon y shouted , "Ho , Ho , H o Ch i Minh , NL F i s Gonna Win! " Canfor a turne d t o Grac e and , callin g th e stai d Youn g Democrats "reall y lame, " suggeste d tha t the y mov e u p t o th e bal cony. Sensin g that the "SDSer s were the more effective Nixo n hater s than th e Youn g Democrats, " Grac e agreed . Whe n th e SDSer s bega n to chan t "Sie g Heil! " Nixo n pointe d t o th e balcon y an d vowe d tha t decent Americans i n November woul d "shou t dow n the protestors. " The audienc e wildl y applaude d an d then , durin g a momen t o f si lence befor e Nixo n resume d speaking , a SDSe r calle d bac k t o th e podium, "Yo u fuckin g asshole! " Canfor a an d Grac e accompanie d SDS bac k t o Kent , wit h th e forme r enormousl y impresse d b y th e radicals an d th e latte r far less enthusiastic . I t was difficul t fo r a self described Col d Wa r Democrat , an d Iris h Catholi c parochia l schoo l graduate, t o identif y wit h suc h a radical , a s wel l a s foul-mouthed , movement. Bu t o n th e othe r hand , Grac e realized , Ken t Stat e SD S had brough t off , accordin g t o Tim e magazine , th e "mos t successfu l disruption" o f a Nixon speec h durin g the campaign. 97 Following th e anti-Nixo n protest , SD S sough t t o establis h firmly in students ' mind s tha t th e campu s chapte r wa s par t o f a larger , growing nationa l radica l movement . T o accomplis h this , an d t o fill the chapter' s empt y coffers , the y brough t Rud d to KS U an d charge d admission. Eigh t hundre d student s hear d th e medi a celebrit y spea k at th e universit y auditorium . Grac e an d th e majorit y o f student s were turne d of f b y Rudd's profanit y an d incoherence . Afte r th e talk , Rudd an d Emme r engage d i n a battl e o f wit s wit h campu s radi o reporter Maggi e Murvay , refusin g t o le t he r leav e wit h a tap e sh e had mad e o f th e speech . Tha t night , a n undergraduate , wh o ha d been inspire d b y Rudd' s rhetoric, sough t hi m ou t a t Erickson's home . He learne d tha t Rud d coul d no t spea k t o anyon e a t th e momen t since h e wa s havin g se x wit h a groupie i n a room of f o f th e kitchen . Within minutes , Rud d cam e ou t o f th e kitche n an d demande d tha t Erickson turn ove r to him al l the money KS U SDS ha d collected . A s Erickson and Rudd cam e clos e t o blows, th e incredulous undergrad uate departed. 98 KSU SDS also wished t o broaden its political bas e on the campus . Since Ayers , Dohrn , an d Robbin s ha d take n the positio n tha t black s represented th e American revolutionary vanguard , Emmer and Mark

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Real, a former Catholi c seminarian , dutifull y forge d a n alliance wit h BUS. Emme r provide d th e convolute d argument s o n behal f o f a SDS-BUS collaboration : The America n empir e i s institutionally racis t an d violent . Al l o f u s ar e affected b y American racism . Som e o f u s hav e taken that one ste p furthe r and have decided that the task of the white radical must be to build a white radical movement. . . . Th e blac k communit y i n Americ a i s i n fac t a colon y withi n th e mother country and is excluded as such. Young white people are trained to perform th e jobs needed t o extend a racist societ y an d older white peopl e perform jobs which preserve a racist society... . The black revolutionary movemen t an d the white radical movement are building paralle l liberatio n struggle s agains t the same syste m o f power , i n which a few make the major decisions which clearly affect al l of our lives. Eldridge Cleaver , ministe r o f informatio n fo r th e Blac k Panthe r part y ha s said, "Th e young people o f America, black and white, hav e reaffirmed m y faith i n humanity. " Th e soundes t wa y i n whic h w e ca n ai d ou r blac k brothers and sisters is to get our white shit together." SDS got its "whit e shi t together" on November 13 , blockading th e Placement Offic e t o protest th e presence o f two Oakland , California , Police Departmen t recruiters . Considerin g th e Oaklan d Polic e De partment t o b e a racis t organizatio n whic h persecute d th e Blac k Panthers, Emmer and 15 0 SDSers joined 15 0 BUS members in a fivehour sit-in . Rea l arrive d wit h a portabl e loudspeaker , statin g tha t any white studen t i n the building wh o di d not join the sit-in "woul d be considere d a member o f th e Ken t polic e force. " Exactl y wha t h e meant b y tha t statemen t require d littl e imagination ; Rea l too k th e Viet Cong concept o f revolutionar y justic e very seriously. 100 White terme d th e SDS-BU S demonstratio n "intolerable " an d promptly filed lega l charge s agains t Emmer , Erickson , an d eigh t other activists. Meanwhile , a few hundre d hostil e student s gathere d outside o f th e Placemen t Offic e screaming , "Kil l th e nigger-lovers! " Gibson, uncomfortabl e wit h SDS' s tactic s bu t a sit-i n participan t nonetheless, calle d severa l sympatheti c facult y an d aske d the m t o escort the demonstrators throug h the vicious crowd . Their presence , however, di d no t dete r severa l doze n counterprotestors , wh o wer e armed wit h motorcycl e chains , fro m severel y whippin g th e activ ists. Campu s polic e an d administrator s mad e n o attemp t t o halt th e attack.101 Angered b y th e vigilant e violence , a s wel l a s b y th e administra -

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tion's actions , BU S leade r Bo b Pickett , a Perth Amboy , Ne w Jersey , native, resigne d hi s positio n a s vice presiden t o f the student govern ment an d convince d 25 0 blac k student s t o leav e th e campus . A s al l but a doze n blac k Ken t Stat e student s marche d of f th e campu s t o exile i n Akron , Whit e an d hi s subordinate s issue d pres s release s and circulate d severa l presidentia l bulletin s amon g th e facult y whic h accused Picket t o f coercin g th e majorit y o f black s int o joinin g th e walkout. SD S quickl y organize d a sympath y strik e an d a teach-i n and demande d tha t the university gran t amnesty t o the activists : We call on students to suggest to your professor at the beginning of class to devote th e clas s t o discussio n o f th e issue s o f amnest y fo r SD S an d BUS . . . . I F YOU R PROFESSO R REFUSES , W E AS K YO U T O LEAV E YOUR CLASSROOM AND ASK YOUR CLASSMATES TO JOIN YOU.... Amnesty fo r al l i s th e only positio n o f integrity ; fo r thes e time s i t i s imperative that we do not allow these students who took the only real and moral position possible to be punished. THE PRECEDENT OF ARBITRARY PUNISHMENT FOR MORAL ACTS I S CLEARLY MORE SERIOUS THAN THE POSSIBILITY OF IMAGINARY ACTS OF FUTURE LICENSE.102 The majorit y o f faculty , a s wel l a s th e Daily Kent Stater , urge d White t o punis h th e SD S an d BU S leaders . Onl y peac e activist s Sidney Jackso n an d To m Loug h openl y praise d th e radical s fo r publicizing th e issu e o f racism . I n turn, man y SDSer s deride d Jack son fo r hi s suggestio n tha t the y migh t b e abl e t o wor k successfull y through "prope r administratio n channels. " Fortunatel y fo r th e ac tivists, th e president , tryin g to stave of f a n investigation by the Ohi o Civil Right s Commission , decide d withi n a week o f th e BU S walk out t o dro p al l charges . SDSer s wer e exultant , feelin g that , i n Ham mond's words , " a rea l victor y ha d bee n won. " Grace , wh o ha d declined t o joi n Canfor a i n th e sit-in , wa s dul y impresse d wit h th e protest whic h convince d hi m tha t "i f peopl e joine d togethe r i n numbers an d stuc k together, " th e force s o f socia l chang e woul d emerge victorious. Pickett , however , ha d a different perspective . H e was no t impresse d b y th e SD S antic s whic h ha d precede d th e dem onstration, includin g invasion s o f classroom s i n orde r t o counte r the teaching s o f hawkis h facult y an d a n anti-ROT C protes t whic h saw SDSer s running alongside o f cadets screaming, "Kill , Kill, Kill! " The blac k studen t leade r an d hi s follower s though t tha t SDSer s ha d used BU S a s a "shield " t o protec t themselve s fro m administratio n retribution an d t o furthe r thei r ow n politica l agenda . The y als o concluded tha t Emme r an d Erickso n wante d "t o liv e thei r fantasie s

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out" an d garne r publicity : "Thos e cat s love d thei r headlines . The y would rea d the paper s to each other about themselves. The y wante d to use u s to get themselves som e bi g headlines. ,, Afte r BU S returne d to campus , cooperatio n betwee n th e tw o group s ende d an d Picket t became a n outspoken dov e an d criti c o f SDS. 103 Powrie share d BUS' s disenchantmen t wit h th e SD S leadership . Although traine d b y Robbin s t o operat e th e SD S printin g press , h e did not identify himsel f wit h the Ayers-Dohrn factio n i n the campu s chapter. Strongl y oppose d t o th e disruptiv e confrontation s whic h Emmer an d Erickso n ha d staged , an d planne d t o stage , Powri e con tended tha t th e chapte r shoul d appea l t o dove s an d organiz e peac e education forum s suc h a s a SDS "Fre e University," the latte r under taking elicitin g Lough' s stron g endorsement . Seein g meri t i n Pow rie's ideas , Hammon d coordinate d dormitor y draf t counselin g an d antiwar organizin g session s and , wit h th e grea t assistanc e o f Mari lynn Davis , researche d an d publishe d KS U SDS' s mos t formidabl e recruiting document , a twenty-page pamphle t entitled , "Wh o Rule s Kent?" Gibso n an d Meliss a Whitaker , wif e o f Bil l Whitaker , als o added thei r voices , pleadin g wit h Erickso n t o esche w violenc e an d to b e mor e sensitiv e t o women' s issues . Erickson , wh o resente d assertive women , ignore d Gibson' s entreaties , regardin g he r a s " a pain i n th e ass. " H e als o flippantl y dismisse d Whitaker' s feminis t concerns a s nothin g mor e tha n a n insignifican t "pot s an d pan s revolution" whe n compare d t o th e heroi c anti-imperialis t struggle s of th e Vie t Con g an d th e Blac k Panthers . I n th e sam e vein , Emme r accused Powri e o f bein g a timi d libera l wh o woul d sel l himsel f t o the stat e i f the price was right. 104 To underscore thei r commitment t o revolution, Emme r and Erickson spen t th e earl y day s o f 196 9 developin g th e national SD S "Ven ceremos Brigade " whic h sen t 21 6 studen t volunteer s t o Cub a t o assist i n th e suga r can e harvest . The y als o organize d a fifty-member KSU SD S contingen t whic h wen t t o Washingto n t o protes t Nixon' s inauguration. Canfor a an d Grace joined the SDS caravan and viewe d a fiery debat e a t St . Stephen' s Churc h betwee n Dav e Dellinge r an d Rudd. A s Rudd , i n profan e terms , calle d fo r violen t disruptio n o f the inauguratio n parade , Grac e fel t disgusted . Th e nex t day , afte r Emmer, Erickson , an d Robbin s ha d argue d fo r militan t action , th e SDSers gathere d i n Frankli n Park . Wit h th e approac h o f th e presi dential procession , someon e i n th e crow d thre w a bottle a t Nixon' s car. Washingto n polic e officer s the n charge d th e demonstrators .

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Canfora an d Grac e brok e int o a ru n an d woun d u p i n th e blac k ghetto whic h bot h considere d " a much safe r plac e t o b e tha n Penn sylvania Avenue. " Th e polic e arreste d fou r KS U SDSer s an d se verely clubbe d a young woma n wh o ha d crosse d thei r path . Havin g witnessed wha t wa s t o hi m a n unprovoke d an d thoroug h beating , Grace returned t o Kent State firmly oppose d t o the Vietnam War. 105 Canfora an d Grac e began to frequent som e SD S functions, includ ing films, slid e shows , an d lectures . Bot h wer e stirre d b y SDS' s Saturday mornin g educationa l discussion s o n ROT C an d th e link s between oversea s imperialis m an d th e domesti c repressio n o f th e internal America n blac k colony. Bu t they were far less impresse d b y the increasingl y acrimoniou s debate s betwee n Powri e an d Emmer . The friend s als o receive d a n unexpecte d shoc k when , a t on e meet ing, Ji m Melle n contende d tha t "w e hav e t o reall y ge t dow n t o th e serious busines s o f developin g a Youn g Communis t movemen t i n this country. " Feelin g th e pul l o f thei r Catholic , anti-Communis t upbringings, Canfor a an d Grac e lef t th e meetin g an d fo r a whil e stayed awa y fro m SDS . Bu t the y the n ha d a chang e o f heart , wit h Canfora arguin g "tha t SD S wa s th e onl y grou p o n campu s tha t wa s coming ou t wit h an y concret e analysi s o f things , especiall y th e war , and they weren' t afrai d o f action." 106 Although Canfor a an d Grac e ma y hav e bee n attracte d t o SDS' s analysis o f the war, they di d no t appreciat e tha t the chapte r had an y number o f conflictin g analyses . I n numerous photograph s an d illus trations, Maggie' s Far m portraye d th e Vie t Con g a s nobl e heroes . Powrie di d not care for the Viet Cong, but their pictures were carrie d at Emmer' s insistence . Ken t Stat e SD S leaflet s wer e inevitabl y le d off b y a line fro m "Subterranea n Homesic k Blues " which Erickson' s wife Cand y playe d ove r an d ove r agai n o n he r stereo , muc h t o th e neighbors' annoyance . Th e radicals ' frame d thei r appeal s t o stu dents i n soarin g rhetoric which echoe d Kennedy' s Inauguratio n Ad dress. But , a t th e sam e time , thei r phrasin g tende d t o b e weighte d down b y obtuse Marxist-Leninist analysi s We live in a world that is becoming increasingly restrictive—a world where we have less and less control over those things that most directly affect our lives. A s youn g peopl e livin g i n Americ a today , and , mor e especially , a s students attending Kent State University, there are certain realities that to a greater or lesser degree we must face each day. The Students for a Democratic Society is an education and social actio n anti-imperialist organizatio n dedicated to increasing democracy in all phases

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of common life. It seeks to promote the active participation of young people in the formation o f a movement t o build a society fre e from poverty, igno rance, war, exploitation and the inhumanity of man to man. This strang e combinatio n o f Kenned y an d Leni n reflecte d th e ideo logical diversit y o f th e campu s chapter , bu t also , mor e importantly , pointed t o Powri e an d Emmer' s irreconcilabl e worldview s an d cul tures. Powri e looke d t o a tradition o f triumphant , nonviolent , Irish American politica l activism . I n contrast , Emme r coul d onl y reflec t upon a n Easter n Europea n Jewis h cultura l experienc e whos e high lights include d pogroms , force d emigration , an d deat h camps. 107 Such cultura l an d ideologica l division s notwithstanding , th e SD S militants launche d thei r "Sprin g Offensive " i n April . SD S de manded, amon g othe r things , th e abolitio n o f ROT C and th e Liqui d Crystals Institute , i n it s eye s genocida l institution s whic h con tributed "t o the repression o f peopl e o f colo r all ove r the world wh o are strugglin g agains t exploitatio n an d oppressio n b y th e America n ruling class.' ' O n Apri l 8 , thre e SDSer s requeste d a meetin g wit h White i n orde r to discus s th e university' s "complicit y wit h th e Wa r Machine." Whe n h e refuse d t o tal k wit h th e activists , 25 0 student s marched t o the administratio n building . Fistfight s betwee n hawkis h students an d th e activist s brok e ou t an d th e presiden t ordere d Em mer and Erickson's arres t and suspension. 108 On April 16 , Mellen , standin g o n to p o f a n overturne d tras h can , warned jeerin g campu s hawk s tha t I kno w tha t ther e ar e som e pig s ou t ther e wh o stil l thin k w e shoul d occupy Vietnam. And there are some pigs out there who still think they can go into the ghettoes and push people around. Well, what we're telling you is that you can' t d o it anymore! We are no longer asking you to come and help us make a revolution. We're telling you that the revolution has begun, and the only choic e you have to make is which side you're on. And we're also telling you that if you get in the way of that revolution, it's going to run right over you. As soo n a s Melle n finished, tw o hundre d SDSers , insistin g tha t Emmer an d Erickson' s close d suspensio n hearing s b e opene d t o th e public, marche d t o th e Musi c an d Speec h Building . Ther e the y clashed wit h thre e hundre d students , som e o f who m carrie d base ball bats. Discoverin g a n unlocked sid e entranc e to the building, th e SDSers proceeded t o the third floor. Onc e they arrived at the hearin g

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room, th e activist s discovere d tha t th e universit y ha d statione d a large bod y o f Ohi o highwa y patrolme n i n th e basement . Facin g arrest, man y SDSer s wer e rescue d b y speec h professo r Car l Moor e and youn g facult y membe r Ke n Calkins wh o showe d the m a servic e elevator which th e polic e ha d overlooked. 109 Canfora an d Grace , who , caugh t u p i n th e hea t o f th e moment , had entered the building, wer e relieved t o have been extricated fro m White's trap . Fifty-nin e SDSers , however , wer e no t s o fortunate . Those arrested , wit h th e exceptio n o f a female blac k studen t who m the administratio n release d s o a s no t t o pus h SD S an d BU S bac k together, wer e quickl y suspende d o r expelle d an d late r place d o n trial fo r conspiracy , trespassing , an d riot . Th e campu s AAU P chap ter endorse d White' s action s an d warne d tha t continue d SD S dis ruptions woul d onl y antagoniz e legislator s an d taxpayer s wh o al ready resisted fundin g stat e highe r education . Calkins , despit e havin g rescued many of the activists, also condemned th e radicals. Satisfie d that h e ha d th e suppor t o f th e majorit y o f th e faculty , Whit e con cluded th e inciden t b y bannin g an y campu s grou p tha t sponsore d SDS meeting s an d speakers . Th e presiden t chos e no t t o punis h th e prowar students wh o had , whil e assaultin g th e SDSers , accidentall y destroyed universit y property. 110 With th e cor e SD S membershi p expelled , an d man y leader s re maining in jail until they could pos t bail, the chapter was financially and politicall y crippled . A t on e point , th e radicals wer e s o strappe d for funds , wha t littl e mone y the y ha d raise d goin g fo r lega l ex penses, tha t the y requeste d th e phon e compan y t o shu t of f servic e to th e SD S house . Th e FBI , havin g pu t a grea t dea l o f effor t int o tapping th e students ' phones , promptl y pai d thei r phon e bill s an d restored service . A fe w activist s wh o ha d take n backseat s t o th e leadership, Joyc e Cecora , a strikingl y beautifu l studen t fro m Cleve land, Cand y Erickson , Gibson , Hammond , an d forme r MS U SDSe r Andy Pyle , sough t t o rall y th e campus . Dovis h students , outrage d by th e SD S ba n an d White' s thwarte d attemp t a t th e Musi c an d Speech Buildin g t o tra p an d prosecut e th e entir e chapter , forme d the Concerne d Citizen s o f Ken t State . Despit e bein g confronte d b y faculty wh o cam e t o meeting s i n orde r t o repor t o n it s activitie s t o the administration , an d contendin g wit h studen t informant s work ing for the campus police , th e committee's effort s wer e no t fruitless . Several hundre d hithert o apolitica l students , enrage d b y th e facult y

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and White' s tactic s o f intimidation , an d disguste d wit h th e admin istration fo r doin g nothin g t o hal t hawkis h right-win g violence , participated i n campus protes t rallies. 111 Not realizin g tha t hi s actions , rathe r tha n thos e o f SDS , ha d radicalized a significan t minorit y o f students , Whit e joine d Maggi e Murvay i n Washingto n t o testif y o n campu s subversio n befor e th e House Internal Securit y Committee (formerl y HUAC). Revealing that administrators ha d me t i n secre t a s earl y a s Jul y 196 8 t o la y th e groundwork fo r dealing with campu s activists , Whit e then launche d a tirad e agains t SDS , "a n enem y o f democrati c procedure , o f aca demic freedom , an d o f th e essentia l universit y characteristic s o f study, discussion , an d resolution. " Afte r h e ha d finished, Murva y testified that , whil e a campu s radi o reporter , sh e ha d als o bee n a Kent undercove r polic e office r responsibl e fo r taping activists ' con versations. Sh e provide d th e committe e wit h th e name s o f thirty two Ken t Stat e SDSers , focusin g particularl y o n Jewis h members . The congressme n share d Murvay' s obsessio n wit h Jewis h radical s and als o commente d upo n th e tie s Emme r an d Mar k Lend , bot h Jewish, ha d t o th e Communis t part y throug h thei r parents . Othe r witnesses inadvertentl y disclose d t o the committee th e exten t o f th e political surveillanc e apparatu s th e universit y ha d established , whic h included usin g Daily Ken t State r reporters a s informants. 112 Warped b y thei r campu s experiences , th e KS U activist s mad e their presenc e fel t a t th e Nationa l SD S conventio n i n Chicago . Pa rading throug h th e hal l wit h thei r Michiga n allies , Ken t Stat e SDSer s heaped abus e upo n thei r Michiga n Stat e opponent s an d the n de parted wit h Ayer s an d Dohrn . Powrie , unhapp y wit h Emmer , bu t also angere d b y th e elitis t P L organizers, wh o "al l wen t t o Harvar d and wer e straight-lookin g an d cam e t o th e conventio n i n chartere d planes," lef t th e conventio n i n disgust . A s th e las t o f th e Weather men mad e thei r exit , MS U SDSe r Dic k Oestreiche r wryl y observe d that "i n a n organizatio n know n fo r it s crazies , Ken t Stat e SD S wa s in a class by itself." 113 The Weatherme n quickl y appointe d Ken t Stat e SDSe r "Corky " Benedict t o it s Nationa l Interi m Council , an d Emmer , Erickson , Lend, Coli n Nieburger , Real , an d Robbin s assume d nationa l Weath ermen leadershi p positions . Decidin g tha t summe r t o brin g the rev olution t o Ohio' s oppresse d blacks , Ken t Stat e Weatherme n estab lished communa l house s i n Akron, Athens, Cleveland, an d Columbus . In the Columbus commune , whic h wa s under Emmer, Erickson, an d

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Robbins' command , th e Weathermen , whe n no t engage d i n grou p sex, committed suc h revolutionary act s as parading with a Viet Cong flag throug h a loca l par k o n Independenc e Da y an d spray-paintin g the wall s o f a hig h schoo l wit h th e slogans , "Of f th e Pigs, " "Vie t Cong Will Win," and "Fuc k U.S. Imperialism." Sinc e th e men of th e house wer e bus y wit h thes e activities , a s wel l a s hangin g ou t o n street corner s discussin g revolutio n wit h loca l youths , on e femal e SDSer ha d t o obtai n a jo b i n a stripteas e clu b i n orde r t o pa y th e rent. Th e situatio n wa s th e sam e i n Akron , compellin g Ken t Stat e SDSer Robi n Marks , th e daughte r o f a successfu l Ne w Yor k Cit y writer, t o get work a s a barmaid i n a Lebanese tavern . On e nigh t th e Akron radical s urge d everyon e t o ge t gun s t o fight th e police . Ap palled, Marks argued with the commune's leader s and then, shoute d down, fled. Columbu s commun e activist s went on e step further tha n their Akro n counterparts , actuall y bringin g a .22 , a shotgun, an d a n M-l int o th e house . Th e Akro n commun e soo n collapse d an d th e Columbus Weatherme n wer e finally drive n fro m th e cit y b y thei r unresponsive, impoverishe d neighbors . Addin g insul t t o injury, Co lumbus polic e authoritie s charge d th e Weatherme n wit h havin g fanned th e flames o f th e city' s July 2 1 rac e riot. A few month s later , in October , Emme r an d Benedic t wer e arreste d fo r their roles i n th e "Days of Rage " trashing of Chicago. 114 Disturbed b y th e directio n i n whic h SD S wa s heading , Powri e spirited th e chapter' s printin g pres s t o hi s brothe r i n Buffal o s o tha t it woul d no t fal l int o Emmer' s hands . Powri e an d hi s supporter s also carrie d basebal l bat s i n cas e o f attac k b y th e Weathermen . Sectarian line s hardene d t o th e poin t wher e And y Pyle' s girlfriend , the daughte r of a Kent State faculty member , broke off thei r relation ship i n orde r t o joi n th e Weatherme n underground . Powri e an d Hammond's repeate d attempt s t o bring abou t a reconciliation o f th e campus chapte r failed miserably . A s early as May, the working-clas s activists ha d invite d Emme r an d hi s upper-middle-clas s supporter s to shar e ic e crea m an d comradeship . Bobb i Smith , wh o wa s white , denounced Powri e fo r servin g vanilla—instea d o f chocolate—ic e cream, a crime onl y a blue-collar racis t would commit . Th e iron y o f the Ken t Stat e Weatherme n an d anti-Weatherme n relationshi p wa s further drive n hom e whe n th e activist s wer e convicte d fo r thei r roles i n th e Sprin g Offensive . Powrie , th e advocat e o f politica l edu cation, spen t a yea r i n a n institutio n fo r th e criminall y insane . Emmer an d Erickson , th e proponent s o f violence , serve d forty-fiv e

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days o f jai l time . Bu t then , Powrie' s fathe r wa s a meter reader , not , like Erickson's , a former Akro n mayo r wit h clou t i n th e Ohi o Dem ocratic party. 115 With the beginning o f the 196 9 fall session , Whit e finally realize d that hi s effort s t o crus h studen t activis m ha d backfired . Th e cumu lative impac t o f fou r year s o f escalatin g war , an d universit y an d community hostilit y toward s eve n th e mos t politicall y moderat e activists, ha d outrage d an d mobilize d a hithert o unthinkabl e num ber o f students . Vie t Con g flags wer e displaye d i n th e window s o f the Tri-Tower s dormitor y comple x an d it s hall s wer e thic k wit h marijuana smoke . Libera l studen t governmen t representatives , le d by Crai g Morgan, a n Uppe r Arlington , Ohio , resident , criticize d th e war and President White . Th e new editor s and reporters of the Dail y Kent Stater , sickene d b y th e rol e thei r predecessor s ha d playe d a s police informants , followe d Morgan' s lead . Mik e Alewitz, th e presi dent (an d onl y member ) o f th e Youn g Socialis t Alliance , Pickett , and Hammon d wer e give n specia l Dail y Ken t State r antiwa r col umns an d the y eagerl y cooperate d wit h Morga n t o organiz e a n Oc tober 1 5 Moratoriu m marc h i n Kent . Calkins , Sidne y Jackson , an d Lough, a founde r o f th e newl y establishe d campu s NU C chapter , delivered impassione d addresse s agains t th e war , an d Jo e Wals h and th e "Jame s Gang " performe d antiwa r roc k songs . Afterwards , 3,000 student s peacefull y marche d throug h Ken t an d 5,00 0 boycot ted thei r classes . A mont h later , 24 0 KS U students , th e larges t con tingent i n the university's history , marche d o n Washington. 116 But th e oppositio n t o th e campu s antiwa r movemen t remaine d large an d vehement . I n an April studen t government-sponsore d ref erendum, 4,74 5 student s ha d endorse d White' s bannin g o f SDS , with 3,01 2 student s opposed . Thi s polarizatio n o f th e campu s con tinued int o th e fall . Hawkis h studen t governmen t leade r Fran k Fri sina, wit h pape r an d a printin g pres s provide d b y th e administra tion, distribute d anti-SD S scar e circular s o n th e campus . I n thes e circulars, Frisin a red-baite d hi s dovis h rival s i n the studen t govern ment an d accuse d the m o f bein g "fronts " fo r SD S an d th e Commu nists. I t di d no t matte r t o th e haw k tha t tw o o f th e peopl e h e denounced a s subversive s wer e Vietna m veterans . Campus , city , and count y polic e authorities , a s wel l a s th e judiciary , als o ha d decided t o expan d thei r politica l surveillanc e activities , wit h Ken t State securit y office r Schwartzmiller , Ken t polic e chie f Thompson ,

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and Judg e Rober t Ken t meetin g a t th e Twinlake s Countr y Clu b t o prepare a plan for dealing wit h future campu s incidents . An d Whit e condemned SDSer s an d "bleedin g heart " liberals wh o gav e comfor t to th e radica l "culprits. " H e als o refuse d t o cance l classe s i n recog nition o f th e Octobe r Moratoriu m an d Novembe r Mobilizatio n an d warned student s no t t o interfer e wit h norma l universit y func tions. 117 In additio n t o hawkis h opposition , th e campu s antiwa r move ment als o contende d wit h ideologica l divisions . B y fa r the majorit y of antiwa r student s wer e nonviolen t doves , whos e rank s include d a Jewish fraternity , anti-Nixo n Youn g Republicans , an d th e loca l ACL U chapter. Thei r positio n wa s bes t summe d u p b y th e campu s news paper editor s wh o urge d a n immediat e en d t o th e wa r les t "ideal ists" becam e "mor e frustrated " an d woun d u p believin g "tha t vio lence i s th e onl y wa y t o accomplis h anything. " I n contrast , a har d core o f radicals , al l member s o f th e NU C an d th e banne d SD S chapter, identifie d wit h th e Vie t Cong . Th e radical s castigate d th e doves fo r claimin g tha t th e NL F committe d atrocitie s i n Vietnam , not appreciating , the y argued , tha t Communist violenc e wa s fa r les s severe tha n America n violenc e an d wa s necessar y t o defea t U.S . imperialism. Liberal s an d radical s compete d agains t eac h othe r fo r the allegianc e o f the campus, bu t the latter group was too small, an d largely without forcefu l leadership , t o be effective. 118 As th e Ken t Stat e antiwa r movemen t bickere d an d coalesced , events ha d bee n takin g plac e i n Columbu s whic h woul d hav e seri ous ramification s fo r th e university . Ohi o legislator s drafte d anti student rio t bills an d calle d fo r investigations o f antiwa r activis m a t the state' s publi c an d privat e universities . Majo r Genera l Sylveste r Del Corso , commande r o f th e Ohi o National Guard , warne d tha t th e antiwar movemen t wa s par t o f "th e internationa l Communis t con spiracy" whic h sough t t o destro y America . An d Governo r Jame s Rhodes, wh o wa s t o fac e th e formidabl e Rober t Taft Jr. , in th e stat e Republican Senat e primar y in the spring , wa s desperatel y searchin g for a popular campaig n issue . Awar e o f a mounting publi c reactio n against campu s activism , an d a desir e fo r la w an d order , Rhode s decided t o get tough with student demonstrators . I n December 1969 , after thre e blac k student s a t th e Universit y o f Akro n ha d stage d a nonviolent Blac k Powe r protest , Rhode s sen t seve n hundre d Na tional Guardsme n t o occup y th e campus . Th e Guardsme n provide d

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the news medi a an d the public with dramati c pictures whic h under lined Rhodes ' decisiv e leadershi p an d bolstered hi s popularit y wit h the electorate . I f ther e wer e t o b e an y mor e campu s disturbances , the governo r le t i t b e know n tha t h e wa s prepare d t o emplo y what ever force necessar y t o restore order. 119

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On th e evenin g o f Februar y 17,1970 , 25 0 student s assemble d i n th e MSU Unio n t o discus s way s o f protestin g th e conviction s o f th e Chicago Seven , th e antiwa r activist s wh o ha d disrupte d th e 196 8 Democratic convention . Th e MS U Weathermen , le d b y Bra d Lang , showed u p i n leathe r jacket s an d carrie d six-foot-lon g iro n fenc e posts. Althoug h i t wa s onl y seventee n degree s outside , th e protest ors marche d ove r t o th e Eas t Lansin g Cit y Hal l singin g (t o th e Bea tles' "Com e Together" ) "Tras h Together" : We are the Trashmen we've got Rocks and bottles we've got Stones and sticks and right on Politics! We fight the pigs, they try to bust, One thing I can tell you is the winner is us! Trash together, right now, off the pig! Radio report s tha t a mo b ha d gathere d a t cit y hal l brough t ou t a fe w hundred curiou s studen t an d facult y spectators . Angr y an d excited , the Weatherme n bega n smashin g th e cit y hall' s window s wit h thei r fence posts . Th e soun d o f shatterin g glass , shouting , an d cheerin g attracted eve n mor e spectators , swellin g th e crow d t o 1,200 . Twent y minutes elapse d befor e polic e officers , equippe d wit h bill y club s and tea r gas , storme d ou t o f cit y hall . Th e officer s indiscriminatel y clubbed an d gasse d everyon e i n sight . Reinforce d wit h Lansin g po lice an d stat e troopers , the y slowl y pushe d th e unrul y crow d dow n 237

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Abbott Stree t toward s th e campus . I n th e cours e o f thei r retreat , students, wh o befor e bein g gasse d ha d ha d n o intentio n o f makin g trouble, angril y trashe d th e Eas t Lansin g Stat e Ban k an d Jacobson' s department store . A s tear gas shrouded Gran d River Avenue an d th e police arreste d hundred s o f students , Bil l Hixso n sli d madl y abou t on th e ic y pavemen t a s h e dragge d t o safet y th e falle n wif e o f a colleague. Findin g refuge , th e dovis h histor y professo r watche d th e Kafkaesque scen e unfold . H e stare d a t a thermometer whic h regis tered a t zer o degree s an d wondere d apprehensivel y wha t war m spring day s woul d brin g to MSU. 1 As Eas t Lansin g recovere d fro m th e Chicag o Seve n protest, SUNY Buffalo becam e a comba t zone . O n Februar y 25 , fort y student s ral lied t o protes t th e presenc e o f Buffal o polic e a t th e previou s eve ning's basketbal l game . Marchin g t o Haye s Hall , the y demande d t o meet wit h Regan . Whe n h e refuse d t o talk to them, severa l student s pitched rock s at his offic e window . Suddenly , Buffal o polic e officer s appeared an d chase d th e vandal s bac k t o th e Norto n Union . On e hundred an d fifty student s wer e millin g aroun d th e unio n whe n a breathless studen t fle w int o the building an d shouted tha t the polic e were coming . Reflexively , th e student s pile d couches , chairs , an d trash can s agains t th e doors . Bu t th e barricade s di d no t slo w dow n the club-wieldin g officers . Man y student s wer e beate n unti l the y lost consciousness. 2 When th e police , wit h severa l handcuffe d student s i n tow , lef t the union , the y wer e greete d b y fou r hundre d protestor s wh o thre w rocks, traffi c signs , an d tras h can s a t them . Frightened , th e officer s fled t o the Lockwood Library , usin g their prisoners a s shields. Soon , more policeme n arrive d o n th e campu s an d mad e a secon d blood y sweep o f th e unio n wher e thre e hundre d student s ha d rebuil t th e barricades. B y thi s point , eigh t hundre d student s ha d gathere d i n the area , exchangin g curse s an d blow s wit h th e police . Th e officer s fired s o muc h tea r gas that Charlie Haynie's wif e an d two littl e girls , who wer e leavin g th e unio n afte r havin g watche d a movie , nearl y collapsed fo r wan t o f fres h air . Studen t governmen t representativ e Janet Cohen , a suburba n Ne w Yorker , attempte d t o administe r first aid t o th e injure d students . Frenzie d officers , yelling , "Ge t tha t fucking cunt! " slamme d he r int o th e sid e o f a van . Sh e ha d t o b e hospitalized. A t th e 16t h Precinct , eightee n student s wer e booke d for incitin g riot . Surveyin g th e bleedin g demonstrators , man y o f whom wer e Jewish , th e policeme n allegedl y muttere d tha t Americ a

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"should hav e le t Hitle r win , he' d hav e know n ho w t o tak e car e o f fuckers." 3 The nex t day , 1,00 0 student s attacke d Haye s Hall , campu s polic e headquarters, th e Themis constructio n sheds , an d the ROTC offices . Setting afir e a picku p truc k parke d a t th e Themi s site , th e demon strators the n trashe d a universit y polic e car . Thirt y Buffal o polic e officers a t th e Winspea r Avenu e campu s entrance , sensin g tha t th e screaming student s chargin g towards the m mean t n o good, fled. Bu t before th e protestor s coul d savo r thei r victory , tw o hundre d polic e reinforcements arrived , thi s tim e equippe d wit h rio t guns , grenad e launchers, a K-9 corps, an d a helicopter. Th e crowd , no w swolle n t o 1,500, chante d "Pig s go home!" an d 'Towe r t o the People!" Severa l tense minutes passe d before the students disbanded . Rega n obtaine d a cour t orde r t o restrai n Bo b Cohen , Terr y Keegan , Car l Kronberg , and othe r SDSer s fro m leadin g furthe r protests . Disguste d wit h th e radicals, Regan' s assistant , Theodor e Friend , signe d a n affidavi t i n support o f the restraining order. 4 Convinced tha t the presenc e o f Buffal o policeme n o n the campu s had provoke d subsequen t studen t rioting , Warre n Benni s trie d t o find ou t wh o ha d summone d the m t o the university . Rega n assure d his subordinat e tha t th e polic e ha d cam e o n thei r ow n volition . However, th e Spectru m unearthe d secre t adminstratio n memoran dums whic h clearl y indicate d tha t Rega n an d Ed Doty , vic e presi dent fo r operation s an d systems , ha d requeste d th e cit y t o sen d th e officers. Disturbe d by Regan's actions, Bennis resigned. Othe r liberal administrators, feelin g isolate d an d betraye d afte r Meyerso n an nounced hi s intention to leave SUNY-Buffalo, followe d Bennis ' lead. 5 Meanwhile, hundred s o f student s blocke d th e entrance s t o nu merous universit y building s an d smashe d on e hundre d windows . Three day s later , o n March 2 , 4,000 student s marche d t o Haye s Hal l where the y burne d Rega n i n effigy. Tw o hundre d libera l art s facult y voted t o boycot t classe s whil e othe r professor s bitterl y debate d th e issues o f polic e force , studen t suspensions , ROTC , an d Themis . Faced wit h th e firebombing o f severa l buildings , an d informe d tha t some facult y wer e carryin g loade d revolver s t o defen d themselve s from studen t radicals , Rega n requeste d th e cit y t o restor e orde r a t the university . Rega n als o suspende d twent y students , includin g Dan Bentivogli , Bo b Cohen , an d Barbar a Morrison . Subsequently , on Marc h 8 , fou r hundre d Buffal o policeme n occupie d th e campus . Richard Siggelko w warne d that , i f necessary , th e officer s woul d

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remain a t SUNY-Buffal o indefinitely . The n th e Eri e Count y gran d jury, base d upo n informatio n provide d b y th e administration , in dicted man y SD S and YAW F members fo r inciting riot. 6 A numbe r o f politicall y moderat e professor s establishe d th e Fac ulty Peac e Patro l t o preven t student s fro m firebombing mor e build ings an d t o persuad e th e polic e t o b e les s violent . Thei r effort s proved fruitless. O n the extremely col d night of March 12 , hundred s of student s engage d i n a fou r hour-lon g runnin g battl e wit h polic e occupation forces . Th e evening' s spectacl e bega n wit h a bonfire i n front o f th e ROT C offices wher e student s torche d a n America n flag . Then th e demonstrator s marche d toward s polic e line s chanting , "Ho, Ho , H o Ch i Minh—NL F i s Gonn a Win! " an d "U p Agains t a Wall, Motherfucker! " A grou p o f Peac e Patro l member s place d themselves betwee n th e student s an d th e police . Surprised , th e crowd, afte r hurlin g a Molotov cocktai l a t the academics , turne d t o march o n th e Themi s site . There , th e protestor s tor e dow n a fence . Afterwards, the y ra n t o Haye s Hall , smashin g window s alon g th e way. Whe n thre e Peac e Patro l volunteer s attempte d t o hal t the ram page, th e student s screame d "Pigs! " and "Strikebreakers! " an d bea t them. Th e police , n o mor e fon d o f th e professor s tha n wer e th e students, als o attacked severa l Peac e Patrol members. With the scen t of fres h bloo d i n thei r nostrils , officer s storme d abou t Mai n Stree t dragging nonprotestin g student s fro m restaurant s an d slammin g the m into th e pavement . A t th e sam e time , the y clubbe d loca l new s re porters as well a s an Associated Pres s photographer. 7 The studen t uprisin g provoke d a variet y o f responses . Member s of th e SUNY-Buffal o Veteran s Clu b blaste d Rega n fo r turnin g th e campus int o a n "America n Vietnam. " Further , 26 3 professor s a t a faculty senat e meeting called for Regan's resignation while the Graduate-Undergraduate Studen t Judiciar y charge d th e administratio n with engagin g i n "disruptive , illegal , unconscionabl e violence. " I n contrast, th e universit y alumn i associatio n praise d Rega n an d th e Buffalo police . Th e stat e legislatur e als o extende d it s regard s t o th e acting presiden t an d launche d a n investigatio n int o th e rol e th e storefront college s ha d playe d a s agents of campu s chaos. 8 Desiring to express suppor t fo r the studen t strike , and shocke d b y Regan's resor t t o polic e force , sevent y facult y member s convene d a special meeting . Peac e Patrol organizers David Hays and Nick Good man announce d tha t th e tim e fo r actio n wa s overdue ; $200,00 0 worth o f propert y damag e ha d alread y bee n don e t o th e universit y

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and 12 5 students , faculty , an d polic e ha d bee n hospitalized . Good man argue d that Regan was insan e fo r having playe d int o the hand s of th e radica l lunatics . I f Rega n an d SD S wer e no t stopped , h e warned, student-polic e confrontation s woul d eventuall y culminat e in shooting s an d death . A debat e the n ensue d betwee n th e younger , and mor e militant , facult y an d thei r somewha t older , an d mor e cautious, colleagues . Hayni e an d radica l historia n Michae l Frisc h urged th e facult y t o occup y Haye s Hal l t o protes t Regan' s us e o f police forc e an d cour t injunctions . Fearfu l tha t Rega n woul d arrest , fire, an d possibl y shoo t facult y demonstrators , Gabrie l Kolk o in formed Hayni e tha t h e coul d no t suppor t a sit-in. Nearl y hal f o f th e faculty concurre d wit h Kolko , leavin g forty-fiv e t o occup y Haye s Hall. 9 The professor s troope d ove r t o Haye s Hal l o n Marc h 15 , prompt ing Dot y t o summo n th e polic e an d t o arres t tha t "bastard " Fre d Snell an d "hi s graduat e students. " Sittin g aroun d a tabl e i n th e president's office , th e facult y wer e warne d t o leave . Ra y Federman , a Frenc h Je w an d forme r Worl d Wa r I I Resistanc e fighter, becam e agitated. Attemptin g t o cal m him , Ma x Wicker t rea d alou d al l to o appropriate selection s fro m Kafka' s Th e Trial . On e b y one , th e police lifte d th e academic s fro m their chairs and passe d the m ou t of the crowde d office . I t wa s no t to o lon g befor e the y wer e i n jail , facing priso n sentence s o f u p t o si x year s fo r crimina l trespas s an d violating Regan' s cour t injunction . Kolk o wen t t o th e jai l an d pro ceeded t o dres s dow n Haynie . Afterwards , Kolk o informed hi m tha t he ha d pu t hi s hous e u p o n bon d i n orde r t o rais e bai l mone y an d retain a lawyer. 10 Students, shocke d b y the arres t of s o man y faculty , quiete d dow n for a while . However , th e universit y remaine d unsettled . I n April , hawkish philosophe r Willia m Baume r swore ou t an affidavit agains t two radical academics , accusin g them of assisting students i n block ading th e entrance s t o universit y buildings . A n embittere d facult y senate, man y o f it s hithert o neutra l member s radicalize d b y th e arrests o f thei r colleagues , vote d t o abolis h ROT C an d convince d Regan t o resign . Hars h feeling s amon g faculty , administrators , an d students mounte d afte r th e gran d jur y indicte d Bruc e Beye r an d additional SDSer s an d YAW F members fo r their roles i n th e winte r riots. No t conten t wit h that , juror s als o demande d th e personne l records and academic transcripts of ninety-one faculty and students , including draf t resiste r Larr y Faulkne r wh o ha d no t engage d i n an y

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violent activitie s o n the campus . Further , the grand jury, noting tha t many SDSer s and a number of the faculty arreste d on March 15 wer e affiliated wit h th e storefron t colleges , ordere d SUNY-Buffal o t o tur n over the appropriat e clas s rosters , lectur e notes , an d cours e descrip tions. Anyon e o n th e campu s wh o ha d take n a public stan d agains t Themis, ROTC , o r th e Vietna m War , whethe r libera l o r radical , pacifist o r violent, wa s to be investigated an d perhaps sent to prison . Community resident s cheere d th e gran d jur y an d bega n a popula r petition campaig n demandin g tha t th e universit y expel l it s dissi dents. 11 After si x year s o f worsenin g campus-communit y relations , th e winter riots at SUNY-Buffalo were , perhaps , t o be expected. Bu t that such disruptio n als o occurre d a t a relatively cal m campu s lik e Pen n State, highlighte d th e pervasivenes s o f America n studen t disaffec tion i n th e earl y month s o f 1970 . Ironically , th e antiwa r movemen t at Pen n Stat e appeare d stalle d an d divide d i n February . Divisio n was al l to o eviden t tha t mont h followin g a SD S rai d o n a ROT C dance an d protes t i n th e HU B agains t nav y recruiters . Th e Peac e Coalition condemne d SDSer s fo r shoutin g obscenitie s a t the cadet s and thei r dates , an d chastise d th e radical s fo r punchin g counterde monstrators i n th e HUB . Pa m Farle y als o denounce d SDS . I n turn , SDS leade r Jef f Berge r characterize d th e Peac e Coalitio n an d othe r campus critic s a s "fascists." 12 SDSers* response s t o th e campu s Blac k Powe r movemen t deep ened dissensio n betwee n liberal s an d radicals . Th e radical s sup ported Blac k Studen t Unio n leade r Ala n "Commande r Ali " Cun ningham, a Philadelphi a undergraduate , wh o describe d th e Peac e Coalition's Jewis h member s a s "Koshe r Nationals. " Accordin g t o Commander Ali , th e dovis h Jew s expresse d thei r "demente d whit e supremacy complex* ' by criticizing the Viet Cong and promoting th e cause o f "racis t Zionism/ ' Outraged , YA F condemne d Commande r Ali an d SDS' s "racism " an d "anti-Semiti c fascism. " I n response , SDSers argue d tha t sinc e thei r chapte r wa s "3 0 percen t Jewish, " they coul d no t possibl y b e anti-Semiti c o r racist. Further , SD S con tended, give n th e fac t tha t PS U YA F wa s "9 0 percen t WASP, " th e conservatives wer e b y cultur e an d breedin g natura l anti-Semite s and whit e supremacists . Thoroughl y provoked , YA F pointe d ou t that no t onl y wa s a thir d o f it s membershi p Jewish , bu t moreover , the chapter' s Jew s wer e religiousl y observant , a s oppose d t o SDS' s Jewish apostates . T o th e campus , th e Jewish, black , dovish , radical ,

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and YA F charge s an d countercharge s wer e unfathomable . Peac e Coalition activist s warne d tha t thes e rancorou s publi c exchange s were tarnishing the reputation o f the campu s antiwa r movement. 13 With th e comin g o f war m sprin g days , a deepl y divide d campu s movement engage d i n vigorou s protes t activities . O n Apri l 14 , sev enty blac k student s occupie d a universit y building . The y exclude d whites fro m the antiracis m sit-in . Th e next day , the Peace Coalition , with n o blac k student s present , pickete d th e ORL . O f th e thre e hundred protestors , onl y a minorit y wer e SDSers . However , th e radicals mad e u p fo r thei r lac k o f number s throug h th e boisterou s shouting of , "Of f th e pigs! " Followin g th e OR L picket , th e demon strators marche d t o Ol d Mai n an d requeste d a meeting wit h Walke r in orde r to discus s university-militar y research . Whe n h e refuse d t o talk with th e Peace Coalition' s representatives , 25 0 student s entere d Old Main . Severa l radical s bega n runnin g throug h th e building , smashing vendin g machine s unti l stoppe d b y Wells Keddie . Gradu ally, th e bul k o f students , no t wishin g t o spar k a violent confronta tion, lef t th e building. Th e on e hundred remainin g student s listene d to SDSer s mak e impassione d speeche s fro m th e secon d floo r bal cony. Meanwhile , Walke r obtaine d a cour t injunctio n t o hal t th e occupation an d brough t eighty-fiv e stat e trooper s t o th e campus . Offering n o resistance , th e student s consente d t o b e take n int o cus tody an d transporte d t o jai l i n th e five polic e buse s parke d behin d Old Main. 14 The wor d sprea d quickl y aroun d th e campu s tha t Walke r ha d brought i n outsid e force . Withi n fifteen minutes , 1,00 0 student s assembled outsid e o f Ol d Main . Individually , an d the n i n groups , students smashe d th e vehicles ' headlight s an d windows . A s police men escorte d th e arreste d student s t o th e buses , th e crow d bega n screaming "pig s of f campus " an d throwin g rocks . The n student s used stree t signs , tras h cans , an d constructio n material s t o erec t barricades o n th e street . Officer s grabbe d lon g board s an d forme d a flying wedg e t o swee p clea r Polloc k Road . Th e buse s slowl y go t under way , periodicall y stoppin g s o policeme n coul d jum p ou t an d beat the rock-throwing protestors who line d the route. In all, twenty nine student s wer e arreste d an d score s injured. 15 Deploying stat e troopers against a small numbe r of students trans formed a limited, nonviolen t protes t int o a massive, bruta l riot . Th e next day , 2,00 0 angr y students rallie d outsid e o f Old Main, demand ing amnest y fo r th e quickl y dubbe d "Pen n Stat e Twenty-Nine " an d

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calling fo r th e abolitio n o f th e OR L an d ROTC . Moderate s i n th e Peace Coalitio n urge d student s t o remai n cal m an d sough t t o ope n negotiations wit h Walker . However , th e presiden t maintaine d tha t there wa s nothin g t o negotiate . Hi s uncompromisin g stanc e prompte d one hundre d student s o n Apri l 2 0 t o smas h th e window s o f hi s campus residence. Desirin g retribution, Walker spent the next mornin g helping 28 0 stat e troopers se t u p base a t Beaver Stadium . A t 5 P.M., five busload s o f polic e surrounde d Ol d Mai n wher e a delegation o f students wa s vainl y tryin g t o arrang e a meetin g wit h Walker . Re buffed, th e delegate s lef t th e buildin g wher e the y wer e me t b y th e riot squad . Onc e again , th e campu s grapevin e humme d wit h th e news tha t a bust wa s imminent . Soon , 2,00 0 student s converge d o n Old Main . Anothe r roun d o f roc k throwin g ensued , promptin g th e police t o flail th e students . Th e buse s heade d bac k t o th e stadiu m amidst chant s o f "Sie g Heil! " A mor e tam e grou p o f student s san g "America the Beautiful" an d offered marijuan a joints to the police. 16 A fe w hour s later , a crowd o f 5,00 0 student s an d facult y marche d through th e campu s an d Pa m Farle y an d Geof f Sill , a graduat e English studen t fro m Ohi o an d NU C member , organize d a strik e committee. Th e followin g day , 6,00 0 peopl e peacefull y rallie d o n the Ol d Mai n lawn . Concerne d tha t Republica n governo r Raymon d Shafer woul d mak e goo d hi s threa t t o sen d th e Pennsylvani a Na tional Guar d t o PSU , Democrati c gubernatoria l candidat e Milto n Shapp cam e t o th e campu s o n Apri l 22 . Speakin g t o a crow d o f 2,000 whic h ha d gathere d outsid e o f Ol d Main , Shap p criticize d Walker's us e o f excessiv e forc e an d pleade d wit h student s t o avoi d provoking furthe r administration violence. 17 By th e las t wee k o f April , th e entir e campus , no t just th e antiwa r movement, ha d becom e divide d an d embittered . Walker' s decisio n to obtai n a permanent injunctio n agains t campu s protest , an d mov e to suspen d Farle y an d Sill , worsene d th e deterioratin g situation . Both had been the campus voice o f relative political moderatio n an d they ha d intervened , a t som e ris k t o themselves , t o preven t SDSer s from vandalizin g universit y property . Th e president' s credibilit y with man y student s decline d rapidl y afte r th e televisio n magazin e show "6 0 Minutes " aire d a n expos e o f OR L cos t overrun s an d ad ministrative corruption . Further , t o Walker' s chagrin , a n unprece dented numbe r o f facult y (293 ) publicl y joine d th e Daily Collegia n and th e studen t governmen t i n a n anti-administratio n an d antiwa r chorus. 18

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But still , man y facult y endorse d Walker' s action s an d 25 0 stu dents signe d a petition praisin g the stat e police an d demandin g tha t all member s o f campu s antiwa r organization s b e expelled . Seventy five percen t o f thes e studen t hawk s wer e busines s an d scienc e ma jors, 9 8 percen t cam e fro m Pennsylvania , 7 4 percent claime d small town residences , an d 8 7 percen t wer e o f Norther n an d Wester n European extraction . The y wer e th e pola r opposite s o f th e antiwa r students. Th e two riva l world s o f the campus , th e on e local , heavil y Protestant an d Catholic , an d career-oriented , an d th e othe r cosmo politan, disproportionatel y Jewish , an d concerned wit h abstrac t ide als, had com e int o ope n cultura l an d ideologica l conflict. 19 The protest s an d violenc e whic h ha d take n plac e sinc e Februar y at PSU , SUNY-Buffalo , an d MS U graphicall y illustrate d tha t th e universities ha d los t their institutional stabilit y an d coul d n o longe r claim th e statu s o f neutra l Ivor y Tower s whic h ros e abov e nationa l discord. Initiative s a t th e loca l leve l t o introduc e outsid e polic e force t o the university , o r U.S. militar y escalatio n o f th e war , invari ably sparke d spontaneous , uncoordinate d campu s protests . Thi s wa s the reality which man y educators , an d even a few astut e politicians , recognized. Tragically , however , thi s realit y di d no t penetrat e throug h the wall s o f th e Whit e House . O n Apri l 30 , Nixo n announce d tha t American militar y force s ha d invade d Cambodia . Thus , Nixo n ex panded th e wa r whic h h e ha d bee n electe d t o end . Th e campu s response cam e swiftl y a s student s firebombed ROT C building s a t Maryland, Michiga n State , Washington, Wisconsin , an d Yale. 20 While campu s protest s erupte d acros s th e nation , five hundre d Kent Stat e student s gathere d a t th e Common s o n Ma y 1 . I t wa s a n upset crow d which , claimin g tha t Nixo n ha d kille d democracy , buried a cop y o f th e constitution . BU S hel d a separat e rall y high lighted b y blac k Ohi o Stat e student s who , speakin g fro m recen t experience, warne d tha t if the National Guar d came t o Kent, "broth ers and sisters " would b e the first shot. I n the evening , a s thousand s of student s celebrate d th e first war m sprin g nigh t o f th e ter m b y drinking themselve s int o a stupor , a fist fight brok e ou t a t J.B.'s , a Water Street bar. The fight quickl y spille d int o the stree t and turne d into a riot after a middle-aged Ken t resident attempte d t o use hi s ca r to run dow n th e students . A mo b of fou r hundred student s an d out of-town reveler s the n rampage d throug h downtow n Kent , smashin g windows an d causin g $7,50 0 wort h o f propert y damage . B y 12:3 0 A.M., Mayo r LeRoy Satrom, withou t notifyin g th e university admin -

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istration, declare d a stat e o f civi l emergenc y an d requeste d assis tance fro m th e Ohi o Nationa l Guard . Meanwhile , cit y polic e ar rested fourtee n student s and , wit h th e ai d o f tea r gas, pushe d 1,50 0 back t o th e campus . Weatherme n leader s Howi e Emme r an d Ric k Erickson, bot h jus t release d fro m jail , ha d bee n spotte d amon g th e cro\yd. 21 Kent Stat e wa s quie t o n th e mornin g an d afternoo n o f Ma y 2 . Bu t that nigh t a peacefu l rall y a t th e Common s degenerate d int o a riot . Unidentified individuals—unidentifie d becaus e anyon e wit h a camera wa s beate n i n orde r t o preven t picture s fro m bein g taken — set fire t o th e ROT C building . Conservativ e geolog y professo r an d World Wa r I I vetera n Glen n Frank , wh o wa s workin g wit h NU C member an d Ne w Yor k graduat e studen t Stev e Sharof f t o chec k violent outbreak s o n th e campus , unsuccessfull y defende d th e building. Whe n severa l student s assaulte d Frank , Rut h Gibso n fough t her way throug h the crow d an d rescued th e academic. Fireme n wh o came ont o th e scen e wer e pelte d wit h rock s an d thei r wate r hose s cut. They returned shortl y afterwards wit h a police escor t and extin guished th e flames. Late r tha t night , th e ROT C building wa s agai n torched, th e fire visibl e fo r mile s awa y an d givin g th e impressio n that th e entir e campu s wa s aflame . A t tha t point , Troo p G o f th e National Guar d occupie d th e campus , eeril y silhouette d b y th e fire. With tea r ga s an d fixed bayonets , th e soldier s quickl y disperse d a crowd o f five hundre d students . Th e arsonist s woul d subsequentl y be describe d a s police agen t provocateurs , Weathermen , o r ordinary students, dependin g upo n who m on e asked . I n an y event , notabl e Kent Stat e Weathermen fle d th e vicinity. 22 The uprisin g ha d caugh t Gibso n an d Ke n Hammon d b y surprise . Indeed, o n th e mornin g o f Ma y 2 , Hammond , hi s wife , an d Bil l Whitaker ha d gon e t o Buffalo t o attend a radical conferenc e an d di d not return to Kent State until Monday , May 4. The activists had bee n aware o f mountin g studen t frustratio n wit h th e universit y adminis tration an d th e war . Earlie r tha t spring , Crai g Morga n ha d bee n elected studen t governmen t president , defeatin g Fran k Frisina' s hawkish politica l machine . Th e campaig n ha d bee n th e mos t bitte r in th e university' s history , wit h th e hawk s engagin g i n viciou s red baiting. Conservative s ha d als o attacke d "Hanoi , Ohio, " th e Tri Towers dormitor y comple x wher e man y antiwa r student s lived . Under cove r o f darkness , vigilante s sneake d int o th e dormitor y an d dumped broke n glas s throughou t th e halls . I n mid-April , 25 0 stu -

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dents ha d rallie d a t th e Common s t o protes t th e wa r an d 2,00 0 turned ou t to liste n to Jerry Rubin. 23 Despite thi s evidenc e o f campu s discontent , Gibso n ha d no t an ticipated violenc e an d abhorre d it s ver y prospect . Whe n Terr y Rob bins, Dian a Oughton , an d Te d Gol d ha d blow n themselve s u p o n March 2 i n Ne w York Cit y whil e constructin g a bom b t o b e use d against arm y personnel , sh e ha d breathe d a sig h o f relief . I f th e Weathermen ha d bee n successful , Gibso n believe d tha t thei r actio n would hav e initiate d unprecedente d governmen t repressio n di rected agains t al l activists . Bu t still , sh e wa s gravel y concerned . While ther e was a large antiwar movement at Kent State, and thoug h that movement ha d never been overtly violent, student s lacke d lead ership an d organizationa l discipline . White' s decisio n t o prosecut e even moderat e activist s suc h a s Jim Powrie, an d sustaine d hostilit y towards campu s peac e groups , ha d create d a leadership an d organi zational vacuum . Th e campu s situation , sh e feared , coul d becom e even mor e violent an d chaotic. 24 When th e soldier s occupie d th e university , a number o f student s who live d of f campu s too k refuge i n th e Tri-Towers. Severa l facult y met wit h Guar d officer s an d the n assure d th e student s tha t the y could safel y retur n home. A s Alan Canfora and his roommates walke d across th e campus , the y wer e blocke d b y a n armore d personne l carrier. Havin g jus t burie d hi s bes t frien d wh o ha d bee n kille d i n Vietnam, Canfor a attempte d t o engag e a soldie r i n a discussio n o f the war . Th e Guardsma n slamme d hi m t o th e groun d wit h th e but t of hi s M- l comba t rifle . Othe r student s quickl y learne d tha t th e soldiers, exhauste d an d tens e afte r having spen t th e previou s week s being sho t a t b y strikin g Teamsters , wer e i n n o moo d t o talk . Re questing a meetin g wit h Satro m an d White , severa l hundre d stu dents o n Ma y 3 stage d a sit-i n a t th e intersectio n o f Eas t Mai n an d Lincoln Streets . Egge d o n by Governor Rhodes's pres s conferenc e i n Kent a t whic h h e bellowe d tha t h e intende d t o "eradicate " th e "Communist element, " Guardsme n charge d th e students . Wit h bay onets unsheathed , the y stabbe d severa l student s an d arreste d fiftyone. Alliso n Krause , a dovish Pittsburg h undergraduate , ha d earlie r given a flower t o a soldier and begged him to refrain from violence. 25 Andy Pyl e an d severa l friend s passe d muc h o f Sunda y nigh t spreading the wor d o n campu s tha t the May 4 rally a t the Common s would g o o n a s previousl y schedule d i n spit e o f th e mayor' s ba n o n campus rallies . Throughou t th e nigh t the y dodge d tank s an d heli -

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copter searchlight s t o ensur e a goo d turnout . Earl y Monda y morn ing, a n anxiou s Mik e Alewit z calle d Hammond . Th e YS A leade r suggested tha t th e activist s hol d a n emergenc y meetin g t o se e i f th e 11:30 A.M . rall y shoul d b e canceled . The y opte d t o procee d wit h the antiwar and anti-Guar d demonstration . Meanwhile , BU S activis t Bob Pickett ha d assiste d i n evacuatin g th e entir e black studen t pop ulation fro m Kent . White , wh o ha d bee n ou t o f tow n whe n th e troubles began , joine d severa l othe r administrator s a t th e Brow n Derby restauran t fo r earl y mornin g cocktails . Th e administratio n had decide d t o allo w th e Guar d t o dea l wit h th e rally , unwillin g t o go to the Commons an d cal m students ' an d soldiers ' passions. 26 Mourning hi s friend , an d angr y with th e soldiers , man y o f who m had politica l connection s whic h enable d them to join the Guard an d thus avoid servic e i n Vietnam, Canfor a arrived at the Commons wit h a blac k fla g whic h h e ha d fashione d fro m hi s apartment' s drapes . Tom Grace , returnin g from a n exam, joine d Canfora . B y noon, 2,00 0 students ha d gathere d aroun d th e victor y bel l an d 10,00 0 stoo d of f and watche d th e rally . Prio r t o speaking , Hammon d an d hi s wif e separated, les t bot h wer e arreste d togethe r an d unabl e t o bai l th e other ou t o f jail . A s h e climbe d u p o n th e bel l housin g an d spoke , the Guardsme n fired tea r ga s an d drov e student s t o th e parkin g lot . Peace activist s Bo b Lewis an d Jerry Casale watche d i n terrified awe , mixed wit h disgust , whe n "middle-class " studen t "crazies " lobbe d rocks an d spen t tea r ga s canister s a t th e distan t Guardsmen . On e group o f soldier s force d student s behin d Taylo r an d Johnso n hall s and the n marche d ont o th e practic e playin g field. Anothe r grou p o f Guardsmen kep t vigi l betwee n Taylo r an d Prentic e halls . Spottin g Canfora, wh o wa s defiantl y wavin g hi s flag, severa l soldier s a t th e football field knel t an d aime d thei r rifles a t him. Jef f Miller , a transfer studen t fro m MS U an d libera l antiwa r Republican , stoo d nea r Canfora an d Hammon d an d shoute d epithet s a t th e Guardsmen . A handful o f faculty , largel y thos e wh o ha d issue d a publi c condem nation o f th e Guar d o n Ma y 3 , stoo d b y a s ineffectiv e peac e mar shals. 27 The soldier s assembled , conferre d amon g themselves, an d marche d away fro m th e student s an d toward s Blanke t Hill . Arrivin g a t th e top of the hill nea r the pagoda , the y turned and fired into the crowd . In thirtee n second s th e Guardsme n expende d sixty-on e rounds . A few hundre d fee t awa y i n th e parkin g lot , Alliso n Kraus e fel l mor tally wounded. Jef f Miller's face was blown off . Canfor a took a bullet

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in th e wris t an d Grace , sho t i n th e foot , writhe d i n agony . Loade d onto a n ambulance , Grac e watche d a s medica l attendant s pulle d a sheet ove r Sand y Scheuer' s head . Fou r dead , nin e wounded . A young femal e runawa y knel t besid e Mille r and , arm s outstretched , wept. 28 Stunned silence . The n hysterica l crying . Marilyn n Hammon d frantically searche d fo r he r husban d and , finding hi m unharmed , fainted. A n antiwa r studen t an d Vietna m veteran , wit h bloo d al l about him , stare d int o th e distance . Th e student s spontaneousl y sa t down o n th e ground . Whe n th e Guar d commande r ordere d the m t o move o r be fired upon again , freshma n Mi m Jackson stoicall y awaite d death. Glen n Frank pleaded wit h th e office r t o desist, bu t was curtl y dismissed. Wit h tear s wellin g i n hi s eye s an d voic e cracking , h e urged student s t o leav e th e Commons : "They'r e goin g t o shoo t u s again. We'r e going t o be slaughtered . They'v e go t guns an d th e gun s are at our t h r o a t s . . . ." Slowly , th e student s aros e an d dispersed . A colleague the n helped th e trembling professo r home. 29 As soo n a s th e nationa l new s medi a relaye d th e stor y fro m Ken t State, America' s campuse s experience d a second , eve n mor e con vulsive, wav e o f protest . A t 1,35 0 universitie s an d colleges , 4,350,00 0 students participate d i n demonstration s agains t th e shooting s an d the invasio n o f Cambodia . A t SUNY-Buffalo , 2,50 0 student s marche d down Mai n Stree t o n Ma y 6 an d late r tha t evenin g a handfu l firebombed th e ROT C offices . Cit y polic e promptl y lai d sieg e t o th e university. Fro m careening patrol cars , officers sho t several student s who wer e walkin g t o thei r classes . Non e wer e engage d i n protes t activities. Othe r policeme n fired tea r ga s int o universit y buildings . Warren Bennis, o n hi s wa y t o a first aid statio n t o offe r assistanc e t o injured students , wa s gassed . Th e leve l o f unprovoke d polic e vio lence becam e s o grea t a s sprin g ter m woun d dow n tha t Rega n filed an officia l protest . I n respons e t o universit y criticis m o f th e police , Common Councilma n Geral d Whale n exclaimed , "Th e hel l wit h gas, bring out the bullets!" 30 The Pen n Stat e activist s wh o ha d bee n arreste d durin g th e Apri l riots wer e embroile d i n a losin g lega l battl e wit h Walke r whe n th e Kent Stat e shooting s occurred . Linkin g thi s lega l contes t wit h th e Ohio slayings , th e Coalitio n fo r Peac e calle d fo r a strike. Organize d and mobilize d a s neve r before , activist s enliste d th e ai d o f severa l dynamic speakers . O n th e evenin g o f Ma y 5 , tw o hundre d student s listened to SUNY-Buffalo professo r an d Hayes Hall sit-in participan t

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William Fleischman n argu e tha t event s a t Ken t Stat e an d Buffal o were par t o f a nationa l patter n o f governmen t repression . Th e nex t day, 4,00 0 student s marche d acros s campu s i n a funeral processio n to honor the Kent Stat e victims. Tw o KS U faculty doves , Jerry Lewi s and Richard Taylor, a Quaker, spoke movingly to the demonstrators , criticizing th e Ohi o Guardsme n an d implorin g student s t o esche w violent protest. 31 The exten t o f studen t an d facult y disaffectio n soo n dawne d o n Walker, leadin g hi m t o proclai m Ma y 6 t o b e a da y o f mourning . However, man y student s wer e no t convince d tha t h e ha d suddenl y became supportiv e o f dissent . Indeed , Walker' s decisio n t o procee d with th e universit y hearing s o n th e Apri l protests , whic h culmi nated i n th e expulsio n o f seve n students , th e suspensio n o f five fo r up t o tw o years , an d th e placin g o f ninetee n o n disciplinar y proba tion, illustrate d hi s actua l feeling s toward s activists . Th e presiden t also won fe w accolade s i n the wake o f a bitter May 1 2 faculty senat e meeting. A t thi s meeting , al l bu t a handfu l o f academic s vote d i n favor o f a shar p antiwa r resolution . Administratio n supporte r an d faculty senat e chai r Arthur Lewis declare d th e resolution voi d sinc e a unanimou s vot e wa s required . Eigh t hundre d student s wh o ha d been observin g th e meetin g loudl y booe d Lewis , an d man y profes sors coldl y realize d tha t Walke r considere d thei r opinion s t o b e superfluous. 32 Such administratio n action s onl y serve d t o provid e furthe r mo mentum t o th e studen t strike . Clas s attendanc e i n th e College s o f Education, Huma n Development , an d Libera l Art s plummete d t o below 5 0 percen t an d man y libera l art s an d socia l scienc e facult y joined th e strike . I n a studen t government-sponsore d referendu m held o n Ma y 1 2 an d 13 , 18,00 0 students , th e larges t turnou t i n th e university's history , vote d o n whethe r o r no t t o suppor t th e strike . More tha n 11,00 0 opte d t o substitut e regula r classe s wit h antiwa r teach-ins. Bu t i n spit e o f thi s unprecedente d leve l o f campu s sup port fo r antiwa r activism , th e universit y wa s jus t a s polarize d i n May a s i t ha d bee n i n April . Clas s attendanc e i n th e College s o f Agriculture, Busines s Administration , an d Engineerin g remaine d high an d ver y fe w busines s an d scienc e facult y participate d i n th e teach-ins. Campu s divisio n an d tensio n carrie d o n throug h t o th e end o f the sprin g term. 33 Campus polarizatio n wa s no t uniqu e t o Penn State . Withi n hour s

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of th e Ken t Stat e shootings , Michiga n Stat e student s an d facult y were organizin g on e o f th e mos t successful , a s wel l a s divisive , antiwar strike s i n th e nation . O n Ma y 5 , 1,00 0 peopl e marche d through th e campu s chanting , "O n strike—shu t i t down ! 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 —we don' t wan t you r fuckin g war ! 5 , 6 , 7 , 8—w e don' t wan t you r fascist state! " Smal l group s cu t throug h th e classroo m buildings , their shout s emptyin g th e lectur e halls . Soon , 3,00 0 student s sur rounded the Hannah Administration Building , demandin g that President Wharto n hono r th e slai n Ken t Stat e student s an d urg e Nixo n to withdraw fro m Cambodia. 34 The MS U studen t governmen t immediatel y hel d a n emergenc y meeting, disrupte d b y th e hecklin g o f prowa r engineerin g an d busi ness majors . A t Ric k Kibbey' s insistence , th e studen t governmen t hammered ou t a unanimousl y supporte d resolutio n callin g fo r a strike unti l Nixo n withdre w fro m Cambodi a an d MS U terminate d ROTC. Even the State News editoria l staff , angere d by the Kent Stat e tragedy an d th e invasio n o f Cambodia , brok e rank s wit h Wharto n and supporte d th e strike. 35 That evening , 7,00 0 peopl e wen t t o th e auditoriu m an d fo r si x confusing, exhaustin g hour s debate d an d vote d o n strik e issues . Black militants , seizin g a n opportunit y t o exploi t th e guil t o f whit e students an d threatenin g t o continu e t o dra g ou t th e meeting , suc cessfully adde d thei r demands—fre e Blac k Panthe r leade r Bobb y Seale, increas e minorit y enrollment , an d lowe r admission s stan dards fo r blacks—t o th e whit e antiwa r students ' proposal s t o driv e ROTC off campus . Similarly , th e emergin g gay-liberatio n advocate s blurred th e antiwa r messag e o f th e studen t uprisin g wit h thei r cal l for protection fro m polic e harassmen t an d brutality. 36 Initially, Wharto n perceive d himsel f a s a sane mediato r betwee n anti- an d prostrik e factions , tryin g t o tak e a middle course , bu t thi s irked al l involved , particularl y th e America n Legio n an d th e stat e legislature. Therefore , tw o week s int o th e strike , Wharto n suc cumbed t o th e pressur e o f law-and-orde r stat e legislator s an d news paper editors. At first, he tried threats, declarin g that striking facult y would b e fire d an d activis t student s woul d b e flunked ou t o f th e university. Whe n threat s prove d ineffective , Wharto n resorte d t o more direc t intimidation . O n May 15 , he calle d i n the state police t o gas th e participant s o f a Demonstratio n Hal l sit-i n and , thre e day s later, t o arres t 13 4 whit e student s attendin g a discussio n o n racis m

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at the union . Th e president , awar e o f hi s Buffal o counterpart' s mis takes, waite d unti l facult y activist s ha d lef t befor e sendin g i n th e police. 37 Significant a s the y ma y hav e bee n see n a t th e time , Wharton' s tactics o f threatenin g an d intimidatin g student s an d facult y wer e not th e mos t importan t factor s contributin g t o th e strike' s collaps e by th e thir d wee k o f May . I n retrospect , th e strik e movemen t wa s not a s stron g an d unifie d a s i t initiall y appeared . Althoug h 12,00 0 people wen t o n strik e May 5 , this represented onl y 3 2 percent of th e student body . Accordin g t o th e MS U Socia l Scienc e Researc h Bu reau, 5 1 percen t o f graduat e student s an d 3 2 percen t o f undergradu ates vigorousl y oppose d th e studen t government' s prostrik e resolu tion. Fifty-fiv e percen t o f graduat e student s an d 4 0 percen t o f undergraduates denounce d th e Demonstratio n Hal l sit-in , an d full y 53 percen t o f undergraduate s an d 6 3 percen t o f facult y concurred , in varying degrees, tha t withdrawal fro m Vietnam would undermin e America's prestig e an d credibility. 38 MSU's striker s wer e largel y socia l scienc e o r humanities majors , while ver y fe w har d scienc e o r business majors, wh o constitute d 4 6 percent of the student body, participate d i n the strike. The conserva tive, competitiv e har d scienc e an d busines s majors , concerne d abou t finding well-pai d position s i n respectable corporation s o r in govern ment, generall y di d no t wis h eithe r t o wrec k thei r grad e poin t aver ages o r risk arres t b y striking . The y wer e als o mor e hawkis h an d t o the politica l righ t o f libera l art s majors. Th e relativel y popula r anti war movemen t ha d bee n unabl e t o penetrat e th e "Ne w Campus, " built b y Do D an d AI D contracts , an d conver t larg e number s o f stu dents an d faculty . Th e conservativ e ethica l an d politica l makeu p o f the hard sciences wa s no t receptive t o the liberal-left argument s tha t the libera l art s put forward. 39 Even o n th e "Ol d Campus, " th e hear t o f th e MS U antiwa r move ment, no t al l departments , faculty , an d student s supporte d th e strike . Even i f on e assume s tha t al l o f th e 12,00 0 striker s majore d i n th e social science s o r th e humanities , thi s stil l account s fo r onl y 5 9 percent o f suc h majors . Consequently , a t leas t 4 1 percen t o f thes e majors di d no t participat e i n th e strike . Jame s Madiso n student s boycotted thei r classes , bu t th e dea n an d man y o f th e college' s faculty considere d th e strike "inappropriat e t o the learning process " and i n violatio n o f th e university' s "politica l neutrality. " Th e his -

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tory faculty , lik e thei r counterpart s i n politica l science , ha d bee n bitterly divide d eve r since Johnson's escalatio n o f the war. 40 Another proble m with th e strike was students ' rapidly decreasin g commitment t o holdin g ou t agains t Wharto n unti l thei r demand s were met . Prio r t o Ma y 8 , 3 2 percen t o f undergraduate s an d 5 6 percent o f graduat e student s strongl y oppose d th e strike . Afte r Ma y 8, 42 percen t o f undergraduate s an d 6 5 percen t o f graduate student s strongly oppose d striking . Th e traum a o f th e Cambodi a invasio n and Ken t Stat e ha d temporaril y draw n togethe r radical , antiwa r liberal, an d hithert o apolitica l student s an d faculty . Afte r th e first week o f th e strike , however , a s th e shoc k ove r Cambodi a an d Ken t State subsided , th e moo d o f th e campu s too k o n a holida y spirit . This wa s understandable , fo r 7 1 percen t o f th e striker s ha d neve r participated i n an antiwar demonstration . Thei r roots i n the antiwa r movement wer e shallo w an d easil y severed. 41 Flagging commitment t o the strik e might also be explained b y th e campus perceptio n o f th e strik e leaders ' motives an d ideology . Sev enty-two percen t o f undergraduates believe d t o some exten t that th e demand to release Seal e was the strike leaders' deliberat e attemp t to include blac k student s i n th e strike . Anothe r 7 0 percen t o f under graduates sai d tha t strik e leader s ha d exploite d th e Ken t Stat e trag edy i n order to radicalize them . Th e majority o f faculty (6 1 percent) , graduate student s (5 4 percent) , an d undergraduate s (5 4 percent ) called themselve s libera l o r moderate. Ver y fe w facult y ( 2 percent) , graduate student s ( 3 percent) , an d undergraduate s ( 5 percent ) con sidered themselve s t o b e radical . Ye t i t wa s thi s minorit y o f radica l faculty an d students , notabl y NU C member s Charle s Larrow e an d Norman Pollack , an d SDSer s Ric k Kibbe y an d Bet h Shapiro , wh o organized th e strike . Amon g antiwa r liberal s an d moderates , SDS , and t o a lesse r exten t th e NUC , stoo d i n il l repute , fo r th e radical s had barre d liberal s fro m speakin g a t antiwa r rallie s an d ha d bore d audiences wit h thei r complicated , polemica l worldvie w o f capital ism, racism , an d th e Vietna m War . I n th e wak e o f SDS' s disastrou s confrontations wit h Adam s an d th e Weathermen' s trashin g o f Eas t Lansing, 7 2 percen t o f undergraduates , 9 2 percen t o f graduat e stu dents, an d 9 1 percen t o f faculty , i n varyin g degree s considere d th e New Lef t too hostile an d antagonistic t o be effective. 42 As th e radical s wer e no t respected , unabl e t o gai n a committe d following, an d incapabl e o f overcomin g negativ e perception s an d

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misperceptions, i t wa s inevitabl e tha t th e strik e woul d pete r out . Once th e passion s o f th e moderat e majorit y o f striker s receded , th e out-of-touch radica l minorit y wa s lef t t o stan d alone . Wharto n onl y needed t o wai t ou t wha t wa s reall y a spontaneous reaction , an d no t a rooted , coheren t movement . Whe n th e moderat e masse s defecte d from th e strike , Wharto n cracke d dow n freel y o n th e die-har d mi nority. 43 Although th e nation' s campuse s ha d becom e deepl y divided , Amer ican societ y a s a whol e wa s overwhelmingl y o f on e min d i n th e aftermath o f th e Kent State tragedy: more students shoul d hav e bee n shot. Fro m Nixo n o n down , a consensu s emerged . Th e consensu s was tha t becaus e campu s dissen t ha d turne d violen t sinc e 1968 , legal authorit y ha d t o reasser t itsel f b y an y mean s necessary . No t surprisingly, thi s reaction against campus protes t was greatest in th e city o f Ken t an d Portag e County . Withi n hour s o f th e shootings , Kent policeme n raide d th e house s o f suspecte d radicals . I t seeme d that a radica l wa s anyon e unde r th e ag e o f 30 . Rhodes , De l Corso , and newspape r publishe r an d KS U truste e Rober t Di x adde d fue l t o the fire by claimin g tha t studen t sniper s ha d sho t an d kille d a t leas t one Guardsman . Th e Hammonds , fearfu l tha t " a real reign of terror " was beginnin g i n Kent, fle d t o Buffalo an d staye d briefl y wit h Spee d Powrie. And y Pyl e too k of f fo r Oberli n wher e a fe w hundre d Ken t State student s ha d proclaime d themselve s i n exil e fro m America . When Arthu r Kraus e arrive d i n Ken t t o collec t hi s daughter' s pos sessions, he r landlord , afte r praisin g th e Guardsmen , demande d th e balance o f th e rent . Kraus e an d al l o f th e parent s o f th e shootin g victims receive d numerou s hat e letters , man y o f whic h wer e post marked from Kent. Community resident s als o spread the word abou t town tha t Alliso n Kraus e "deserve d t o die " sinc e sh e wa s "preg nant," ha d "syphilis " and , wors t o f all , wa s a "Jew. " Onl y th e las t part of thi s litan y wa s accurate. 44 Portage Count y Republica n part y chai r Seabur y Ford , wh o ha d a local reputatio n fo r tellin g funn y "nigge r jokes, " pushe d fo r th e criminal indictment s o f well-know n Ken t Stat e activists . Subse quently, th e Portag e Count y gran d jur y indicte d twenty-fou r stu dents an d sociolog y professo r To m Loug h fo r conspirac y t o commi t riot. Weatherme n wer e no t amon g thos e indicted ; onl y dove s an d radicals wit h a reputation fo r advocatin g nonviolen t protest . (Sinc e local la w enforcemen t agencie s claime d t o hav e eliminate d th e

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Weathermen presenc e i n Ken t i n 1969 , count y official s coul d no t i n 1970 indic t peopl e wh o n o longe r officiall y existed. ) Canfora , b y virtue o f havin g bee n sho t b y th e Guard , wa s indicte d alon g wit h Gibson, Hammond, an d Craig Morgan. Lough had attracted attentio n for having draw n u p the May 3 faculty critiqu e o f the Guard. Sidne y Jackson an d Ke n Calkin s wer e no t indicte d since , i n contras t t o Lough, the y ha d neithe r supporte d SD S no r prominentl y involve d themselves i n th e NUC . Juror s als o condemne d th e Scranto n Com mission which , reluctantl y appointe d b y Nixo n t o investigat e th e shootings, ha d exonerate d activist s an d condemned th e Guardsmen . Ford and his allie s wer e furthe r enrage d when th e FBI, after sendin g one hundre d agent s t o Kent , conclude d tha t th e soldier s ha d fired without du e cause . A t n o time , th e FB I observed , wer e Guardsme n in danger , an d subsequen t Guardsme n storie s statin g otherwis e wer e contrived. 45 With th e beginnin g o f th e fal l term , rumor s abounde d a t Ken t State tha t fifty FB I undercove r agent s wer e enrolle d a s students . Kent an d campu s police , thei r rank s swelle d an d thei r equipmen t upgraded thank s t o th e stat e legislature' s unusua l generosity , rou tinely stoppe d an d searche d an y yout h wit h lon g hai r or blue jeans . Grace, wh o no w ha d a permanen t limp , bega n t o plac e pebble s o n the hoo d o f hi s car . If the pebble s wer e gon e whe n h e returne d fro m class, the n h e kne w tha t a resident ha d opene d th e hoo d t o tampe r with th e brake s an d engine . Face d wit h suc h intens e polic e an d community harassment , hundred s o f student s bega n wearin g T-shirt s which ha d a bitte r log o emblazone d o n them : "Ken t Polic e Stat e University." 46 The shootings, an d the subsequent reaction, had radicalized thou sands o f Ken t Stat e students . Determine d t o fight th e gran d jury , Hammond returne d an d helpe d t o foun d a defens e committe e an d the Ken t Liberatio n Fron t (KLF) . Forme r Ken t antiwa r leade r Ton y Walsh, no w a lawyer, offere d lega l assistance . Bil l Arthrell an d Jerry Persky, a former SDSer , establishe d a popular Yippie chapte r whic h combined radica l analysi s wit h countercultura l attributes . Workin g together, th e activists organize d a n October 1 6 campus marc h whic h brought ou t 2,00 0 student s wh o demande d th e abolitio n o f ROT C and th e LCI , an d calle d fo r th e droppin g o f th e indictments . Tha t same month , 4,00 0 student s participate d i n a "Ken t 25 " campu s rally. Whit e refuse d t o mee t wit h th e students , bu t di d issu e a position pape r i n whic h h e condemne d activist s an d defende d ROT C

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and the Liquid Crystals Institute. Mos t faculty, wit h the vocal excep tions o f Sidne y Jackson and Glenn Frank, followed White' s lead. 47 Despite White' s effort s t o dismis s th e activist s an d salvag e th e university's reputatio n wit h th e state legislature , h e had t o live wit h the fac t tha t Ken t Stat e ha d becom e a n internationa l symbo l o f antiwar protes t an d governmen t repression . A decisiv e poin t i n history ha d bee n reached . Al l o f th e cultura l ambiguitie s o f Col d War-Vietnam Wa r Americ a whic h ha d bee n buildin g u p fo r year s were suddenl y an d viciousl y expressed . American s hate d th e peac e movement an d despise d th e war ; supporte d Nixo n bu t demande d that U.S . militar y force s withdra w fro m Cambodi a an d ultimatel y Vietnam. Fo r a few brie f week s th e mountin g crescend o o f campu s dissent acros s th e natio n ha d becom e linke d an d activist s spok e a s one. Thi s developmen t wa s t o be shor t lived . Campu s activist s turne d away fro m Ken t Stat e an d onc e agai n confronte d th e problem s o f dealing wit h nationa l development s a s they affecte d thei r localities . But th e Ken t Stat e traged y wa s neve r fa r from students ' minds . Th e bitter tast e o f deat h ha d foreve r change d th e mentalit y o f th e cam pus-based antiwa r movement . On e ha d onl y t o tun e i n t o a rock 'n ' roll radi o statio n t o hea r Crosby , Stills , Nash , an d Youn g blas t ou t "Ohio" t o realiz e tha t a n angr y an d alienate d generatio n ha d bee n reborn in 1970 : Tin soldiers and Nixon's coming, This summer I hear the drumming, Four dead in Ohio! Four dead in Ohio!

Epilogue: " W e Stan d agains t Fear , Hate

,

Systems, an d Structure s No t i n th e Service o f Man" : Legacie s o f Protes t

In th e month s followin g th e 197 0 strike , th e campu s Lef t collapsed . MSU SDS , cripple d b y ideologica l division s an d th e los s o f it s mos t dynamic leader s an d members , fade d away . Stev e Badric h an d Georg e Fish ha d lef t MSU , an d Lind a Evan s ha d gon e underground . Evans , however, wa s soo n capture d b y th e FBI . Released , sh e disappeare d until 198 3 whe n sh e wa s arreste d an d charge d wit h plantin g a bom b in th e U.S . Capito l Building . Th e Pape r cease d publicatio n an d th e alternative newspape r whic h too k it s place , th e Bogu e Stree t Bridge , was mor e oriente d toward s countercultura l tha n politica l issues . Significantly, th e mos t popula r antiwa r organization s a t MS U afte r the strik e wer e largel y community-directe d an d based : th e Greate r Lansing Communit y Organizatio n an d th e Lansing-MS U Vietna m Veterans Agains t th e Wa r (VVAW) . Th e tw o group s wer e als o lib eral-dovish an d sough t t o wor k throug h th e electora l syste m t o achieve socia l chang e an d peace. 1 Penn Stat e SD S also fell upo n har d times , losin g membershi p an d discontinuing publicatio n o f th e Water Tunnel fo r lac k o f funds . Nonetheless, i t continue d t o b e active , filing lega l sui t agains t th e university i n connectio n wit h th e 197 0 student-polic e riot . Th e radicals als o trie d t o buil d u p campu s oppositio n t o Walker' s suc cessor, Joh n Oswald , wh o ha d annoye d man y activist s b y declarin g that th e "universit y mus t no t allo w itsel f t o becom e a n instrumen t for socia l o r politica l change/ ' H e als o create d som e bitternes s b y concurring wit h Walker' s decisio n t o den y tenur e t o Well s Keddie . 257

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However, th e majorit y o f campu s dissenter s regarde d th e ne w pres ident a s a benig n figure. The y woul d neve r b e abl e t o promot e opposition t o Oswal d t o th e sam e degre e tha t SD S ha d mobilize d sentiment agains t Walker. 2 In contras t t o th e PS U SDS , th e Coalitio n fo r Peac e ha d becom e somewhat mor e popula r an d a n increasingl y assertiv e forc e a t th e university. I n 1971 , dovis h an d radica l pacifist s affiliate d wit h th e Coalition fo r Peac e founde d a n undergroun d newspaper , th e Hen derson Station . It s editor s embrace d th e desirabilit y o f cultura l an d ideological diversit y an d sough t t o buil d a jus t society . Toward s those ends , th e editor s an d writers , amon g the m Rev . Fre d Reisz , advocated a variet y o f nonviolen t tactic s t o oppos e th e war . Larr y Smuckler, a n undergraduat e psycholog y majo r fro m Philadelphia , urged reader s no t t o pa y thei r "wa r taxes," an d othe r writer s publi cized th e Coalitio n fo r Peace' s studen t vote r registratio n drive . Th e editors wer e als o carefu l t o avoi d th e Wate r Tunnel' s controversia l example, refusin g t o prin t article s whic h containe d obscenities . Fi nally, i n spit e o f th e polemic s directe d agains t th e Coalitio n fo r Peace b y th e radicals , th e Henderso n Statio n publishe d article s b y SDSers suc h a s Geoff Sill. 3 Even thoug h th e Coalitio n fo r Peac e ha d grown , th e Pen n Stat e antiwar movement di d no t hav e th e strengt h to rout its conservativ e foes. I n 1971 , a Republican Centr e Count y judg e undercu t th e liber als' voter registratio n effort s b y rulin g that , regardless o f federa l la w to the contrary , PS U student s wer e no t to be considere d communit y residents. Therefore , student s coul d no t registe r t o vot e i n Stat e College an d thos e wh o ha d registere d prio r t o thi s rulin g wer e required t o plac e thei r ballot s i n separat e boxes . Whe n th e poll s closed, count y official s destroye d th e students ' ballots . Meanwhile , residents organize d a prowar "March for Victory" in Washington. 4 Mounting ideologica l an d cultura l division s furthe r limite d th e PSU antiwar movement's effectiveness . Coalitio n member Steve Sol oman crosse d sword s wit h SD S leade r Don Sassoon , a British polit ical scienc e graduat e studen t wh o viciousl y denounce d th e dove s and thei r ideolog y o f peacefu l change . Pa m Farle y outrage d SDSer s by arguin g that while th e Vietnam Wa r was imperialistic , th e move ment ha d t o embrac e nonviolen t protes t an d rejec t th e philosoph y of revolutionar y violence . O n th e cultura l front , blac k militant s scorned th e Coalitio n fo r Peace , ye t demande d tha t whit e activist s support thei r politica l agenda : increase d blac k studen t enrollment ,

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lowered admission s standard s fo r blacks , an d th e employmen t o f more blac k facult y regardles s o f academi c qualifications . I n addi tion, a ne w activis t grou p appeare d o n th e campus , Homophile s o f Penn Stat e (HOPS) , whos e inten t wa s t o promot e homosexua l life styles an d right s i n Stat e College . T o b e politicall y correct , antiwa r leaders ha d t o suppor t th e blac k an d homosexua l militants , o r b e branded racist s an d homophobes . Thus , th e majorit y o f PS U stu dents cam e t o th e erroneou s conclusio n tha t peace , affirmativ e ac tion, an d homosexuality wer e interconnecte d causes . I n reality, black s and homosexual s insiste d upo n financial an d mora l ai d fro m th e Coalition for Peace and SDS, but did not reciprocate by participatin g in antiwar organizing an d protest. 5 Cultural an d ideologica l divisions , a s wel l a s th e conservativ e local environment , ensure d tha t th e antiwa r movemen t woul d hav e great difficult y i n recapturin g th e momentu m gaine d i n 1970 . A n attempt i n Februar y 197 1 t o organiz e a student strik e t o protes t th e American-backed Sout h Vietnames e Arm y invasio n o f Lao s fizzled. Campus demonstration s agains t university-military research , sched uled t o coincid e wit h th e Ma y Day civi l disobedienc e peac e action s in Washington , fare d somewha t bette r an d attracte d si x hundre d participants. Unfortunately , th e rall y i n fron t o f Ol d Mai n o n Apri l 19 degenerated int o a farce when a SDSer denounced a n administra tor a s a n "enem y o f th e people " an d sho t hi m wit h a squirt gun . A subsequent attemp t b y tw o hundre d student s t o bloc k traffi c o n South Atherto n Stree t an d Colleg e Avenu e succeede d i n furthe r alienating residents . Th e editor s o f th e Daily Collegian wer e partic ularly alarme d b y thi s actio n whic h resulte d i n 12 0 stat e policeme n descending upo n Stat e College . I t wa s eviden t tha t a handfu l o f militants wer e inten t upo n provokin g renewe d confrontation s wit h the polic e i n orde r t o radicaliz e th e campus . Unlik e th e previou s spring, however , th e polic e wer e o n thei r bes t behavior . Addition ally, PS U W A W member s mad e sur e that the militants di d no t tak e control o f th e situation . On e veteran , Lo u Redden , wa s greatl y dis turbed b y th e advocate s o f confrontatio n an d argue d tha t "anyon e who start s any violence i s a pig." 6 In stark contrast to Penn State, the antiwar movement a t Michigan State, perhap s becaus e o f th e disappearanc e o f th e self-defeatin g radical studen t Left , expanded . O n th e first anniversar y o f th e Ken t State slayings , 3,00 0 MS U student s peacefull y proteste d agains t th e war. Defyin g Presiden t Wharton , wh o ha d threatene d t o doc k th e

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pay o f an y facult y wh o cancele d classe s i n recognitio n o f th e event , New Universit y Conferenc e organizer s John Masterson, Norman Pollack, an d Charle s Larrow e coordinate d th e demonstration . Standin g in fron t o f Demonstratio n Hall , sevent y Vietna m veteran s pinne d their comba t medal s o n a dumm y corps e whic h symbolize d th e MSU student s wh o ha d die d i n Vietnam . Forme r presiden t Walte r Adams the n rea d alou d th e length y lis t o f Michiga n resident s wh o had been kille d i n Indochina. Afterwards , th e sobbin g World War II veteran, n o longe r abl e to criticiz e th e wa r in terms o f col d econom ics, delivere d a n impassione d mora l appea l fo r peace : " . . . en d thi s war whic h i s destroyin g thi s countr y an d tha t fo r whic h i t stands . Let u s hono r th e memor y o f thos e wh o hav e los t thei r live s b y bringing their living brothers home." 7 Wharton coul d no t hav e bee n please d wit h th e antiwa r activitie s of his predecessor . Bu t then, Adams wa s not the only perso n at MSU defying th e president . Whe n Wharto n fired natura l scientis t an d NUC organize r Eilee n va n Tasse l fo r he r rol e i n th e 197 0 strike , h e had expecte d th e professor t o depar t meekly fro m the campus. Afte r all, wheneve r Hanna h ha d dismisse d a facult y membe r fo r leftis t political activism , th e academi c quickl y an d quietl y lef t town . Un fortunately fo r Wharton , va n Tasse l wa s no t a meek academic . Sh e retained a lawye r an d successfull y sue d MS U t o ge t bac k he r job . The presiden t als o discovere d tha t h e coul d n o longe r maintai n th e university's polic y o f in loco parentis . I n the sprin g o f 1971 , Justi n Morrill student s remove d th e bolte d door s separatin g th e me n an d women's section s o f thei r dormitor y an d cas t the m int o th e Re d Cedar River . The n th e residentia l colleg e student s institute d th e gender integratio n o f thei r suites . Othe r dormitor y resident s fol lowed thei r lead . Wharto n appeare d eve n les s infallibl e afte r th e courts dismisse d th e charge s h e ha d brough t agains t th e student s arrested a t Demonstratio n Hal l an d th e unio n i n 1970 . Finally , th e editors o f th e Stat e News , savorin g th e day s o f editoria l freedo m which the y ha d enjoye d durin g th e strike , refuse d an y longe r t o submit t o administratio n censorship . Recognizin g tha t h e ha d be come th e mos t ineffectua l an d powerles s presiden t i n MSU' s his tory, Wharto n wearil y gav e th e campu s newspape r it s indepen dence. 8 In Buffalo , th e studen t Lef t ha d descende d int o irrationalit y an d chaos. SDSers , followin g th e lea d o f a forme r Trotskyis t wh o late r took th e alia s o f Lyndo n LaRouche , invade d classroom s i n orde r t o

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prevent' 'racist" and ' 'imperialist*' professor s fro m teaching . YAW F went int o rapi d declin e afte r it s adul t leader s expelle d Gerr y Gros s and most o f the studen t membershi p fo r deviating from the Marxist Maoist line . Studen t leftist s los t on e o f thei r bes t leader s whe n convicted Buffal o Nin e defendan t Bruc e Beyer jumped bai l an d fled to Sweden . Th e radica l editor s o f th e Spectru m exhibite d thei r contempt fo r religiously observan t Jewish students , an d communit y moral sensibilitie s i n general , b y denouncin g Zionis m a s a racis t ideology an d featurin g a n advertisement whic h depicte d Doroth y o f The Wizar d of O z saying , "Whic h wa y t o th e gan g bang ? Don' t g o wrong th e first week ! Joi n th e Spectru m an d g o ba d th e secon d week!" Later, the Spectru m carrie d full-page photograph s o f couple s engaged i n sexual intercourse , informin g student s tha t if they joine d the paper' s staff , the y too could hav e a good time. 9 As th e studen t Lef t fel l apart , demoralizatio n an d ideologica l division se t i n amon g th e faculty . Marvi n Resnikoff , a radical phys icist, an d To m Rainey , a historia n an d membe r o f th e People' s Coalition, a communit y peac e organization , wer e denie d tenure . A number o f dovis h faculty , includin g Theodor e Frien d an d Newto n Garver, joine d force s wit h forme r presiden t Pete r Rega n t o endors e local Conservativ e part y candidates wh o champione d la w an d orde r in th e cit y an d o n th e campus . Meanwhile , five universit y official s resigned, discontente d wit h Presiden t Rober t Ketter' s attempt s t o undo Meyerson' s reforms . Throughou t th e university , facult y an d graduate student s denounce d on e anothe r i n th e column s o f th e Spectrum an d in department meetings. O n the defensive, th e radica l faculty score d one major victory: Meyerson quietly convinced Kette r not t o continu e wit h th e prosecutio n o f th e forty-fiv e facult y wh o had been arreste d i n 1970. 10 SUNY-Buffalo facult y an d studen t antiwa r activist s als o endure d unrelenting communit y attack . Th e Eri e Count y gran d jur y recom mended th e dismissa l o f facult y wh o refuse d t o sig n loyalt y oaths , described th e storefron t college s a s a "radica l nucleus " whic h threatened th e university , an d implicit y blame d Meyerson' s liberal , permissive administratio n fo r settin g th e stag e fo r th e 197 0 riots . Buffalo politicia n Alfred a Slominsk i adde d he r voic e t o tha t o f th e grand jury, arguing that: "The good kid s who liv e i n our communit y can't g o t o colleg e becaus e there' s n o roo m fo r them . I' m quit e sur e that i f w e woul d eliminat e thi s radica l elemen t an d pu t th e decen t kids o f ou r communit y [in] , w e woul d b e bette r off . Th e whol e

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nation woul d gain. " Additionally , a right-wing vigilant e grou p firebombed a studen t cooperativ e i n th e Allentow n distric t o f Buffal o and police officer s o n motorcycles charge d through a crowd o f 1,50 0 university peac e protestor s a t a May Da y antiwa r demonstratio n i n Niagara Square. 11 Buffalo resident s an d policemen , thoug h eage r t o denounc e an d assault middle-clas s peac e protestors , avoide d confrontation s wit h the university' s tw o hundre d antiwa r Vietna m veterans . Over whelmingly blue-collar , Catholic , an d from the Niagara Frontier, th e SUNY-Buffalo VVA W defie d th e community' s imag e o f th e privi leged Ne w Yor k City antiwar protestor. Indeed , th e hawkish Buffal o Courier-Express wrot e sympatheti c account s o f th e activis t veteran s and Buffal o policeme n stoo d b y i n uncomfortabl e silenc e wheneve r VVAW member s stage d antiwa r demonstration s i n th e city . Scorn ing what remained o f the campu s studen t Left , veteran s suc h a s Gail Graham, a working-class SUNY-Buffal o VVA W organi2:er, kept order at antiwa r rallie s t o mak e sur e tha t left- an d right-win g extremist s did no t provok e confrontations. 12 The difficultie s whic h confronte d Buffal o antiwa r partisan s wer e nearly a s grea t a s thos e whic h Ken t Stat e activist s face d afte r 1970 . With th e approac h o f th e first anniversar y o f th e shootings , th e ne w university president , Glen n Olds , attempte d t o contro l memoria l observances, unsuccessfull y bannin g outsid e speaker s an d restrict ing the numbe r of student s an d activists fro m acros s the nation wh o wished t o com e t o Ken t State . Ken t polic e officer s infiltrate d th e campus VVA W chapte r and , wit h th e adven t o f spring , swep t th e city's street s clea r o f wha t seeme d t o the m t o b e outsid e agitators . They accomplishe d thi s b y indiscriminatel y firing woode n pellet s at student s an d clubbin g anyon e wh o go t i n thei r way , includin g Rev. To m Taggar t o f th e Unite d Christia n Fellowship . Th e studen t government bega n t o instruc t th e campu s o n first ai d an d civi l disobedience tactic s an d criticize d man y faculty fo r spying o n activ ists an d helpin g th e Ken t polic e singl e ou t particula r protestor s fo r beatings. 13 Even though the first memorial observanc e passe d largel y withou t great incident , th e campu s remaine d unsettle d becaus e prosecutio n had begu n o f th e twenty-fiv e individual s wh o ha d bee n indicte d i n 1970. Thoroughl y disguste d wit h Governo r Rhode s an d Seabur y Ford, Ohi o Democrati c senato r Stephe n Youn g denounce d th e Por tage Count y gran d jur y a s " a frau d an d a fakery." Radica l attorne y

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William Kunstle r followe d sui t an d offere d t o defen d KS U studen t government presiden t an d Ken t 2 5 defendan t Crai g Morgan . Ulti mately, afte r glarin g nationa l new s medi a exposur e an d frequent , bitter protes t rallies , Ohi o attorne y genera l Willia m Brow n decide d not t o continu e wit h th e prosecutions . Despit e thi s development , Tom Loug h conclude d tha t th e shooting s an d th e subsequen t indict ments ha d "succeede d i n stampin g ou t th e political vitalit y o f th e nation, an d particularl y o f th e nation' s youth. " Th e Unite d States , Lough concluded , wa s "beyon d salvaging." 14 Not everyon e i n th e antiwar movemen t wa s as sanguine a s Lough . In East Lansing , b y th e sprin g o f 1972 , campu s antiwa r activist s ha d organized successfu l studen t vote r registratio n drive s whic h re sulted i n th e electio n o f dove s t o th e cit y counci l an d th e Ingha m County boar d o f commissioners . Georg e Griffiths , a GLC O leade r who, a s a Lansin g ACL U membe r ha d champione d studen t rights ' activist Pau l Schif f i n 1966 , use d hi s cit y counci l sea t t o promot e the caus e o f peace . O n Apri l 18 , th e cit y council' s dovis h majorit y passed a resolutio n callin g fo r Nixo n "t o immediatel y ceas e al l bombing o f Nort h Vietnam , an d t o accelerat e th e withdrawa l o f al l American force s i n Southeas t Asia. " Meanwhile , Adam s an d Lar rowe joine d force s wit h th e 385-membe r MS U VVAW . Afte r don ning thei r Worl d Wa r I I uniforms , th e professor s an d a VVA W delegation me t wit h th e universit y boar d o f trustee s an d demande d that MS U g o o n recor d agains t th e war . Unabl e t o resis t a grou p o f activists whos e patriotis m wa s unassailable , th e trustee s adopte d a strongly worde d antiwa r resolution. 15 With the fall o f the two bastions o f prowar sentimen t an d politica l conservatism i n Eas t Lansing—th e boar d o f trustee s an d th e cit y council—it seeme d a s i f everyon e accepte d th e ide a tha t chang e could b e wrough t throug h mora l suasio n an d th e electora l system . Moreover, SD S wa s dea d an d GLC O an d th e VVA W wer e fa r mor e moderate, polite , an d effective . Consequently , man y student s an d faculty believe d tha t th e er a o f mass , disruptiv e protester s wa s over . It therefor e cam e a s a shoc k whe n subsequen t event s prove d other wise. In th e wanin g day s o f April , Nixo n ordere d America n nava l force s to min e Haiphon g Harbor , Nort h Vietnam' s majo r port . Concerne d that America n mine s woul d sin k Sovie t an d Chines e ship s an d thu s precipitate Worl d Wa r III , th e nation' s campuse s exploded . A t th e University o f Massachusetts , demonstrator s attacke d ROT C office s

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and protestor s a t th e Universit y o f Marylan d becam e s o disruptiv e that the governor called ou t the National Guard . Eight hundred Ken t State students occupie d th e new ROT C offices, resultin g in the arrest of 12 9 protestors , th e bulk o f the m forme r SDSer s an d activist s wh o had bee n presen t a t th e Common s o n Ma y 4 , 1970 . I n East Lansing , four hundre d dove s an d veteran s me t i n th e unio n t o discus s th e latest escalatio n o f th e war . Th e crow d overflowe d outsid e o f th e building. Loca l polic e officers , thinkin g tha t the y wer e witnessin g a reprise o f th e 197 0 strike , promptl y gasse d everyon e i n th e vicinity . Enraged, th e student s fled, onl y t o retur n a n hou r late r wit h 3,00 0 reinforcements an d a number of laundr y cart s which ha d been take n from Justi n Morril l an d Jame s Madiso n colleges . Th e protestor s positioned th e cart s a t th e intersectio n o f Abbot t Stree t an d Gran d River Avenue an d se t up camp. 16 Governor Willia m Milliken , i n respons e t o th e blockad e o f th e major highway leadin g t o th e capital , reluctantl y declare d a state o f emergency. No t wishin g t o emulat e th e exampl e o f Rhodes , fo r whom Millike n ha d nothin g bu t contempt , an d displease d wit h Nixon, th e libera l Republica n governo r initiall y hope d tha t a dis play o f forc e migh t cal m th e situtation . Subsequently , h e sen t stat e police helicopter s t o hove r ove r Eas t Lansing , a n actio n which , i n the eye s o f number s o f students , conjure d u p image s o f a "banan a republic coup. " During the second evenin g of the blockade, student s bought ou t merchants ' liquo r stock s an d thumbe d thei r nose s a t seething Eas t Lansin g polic e officer s wh o ha d receive d reprimand s from the city council . Member s o f the VVAW talked wit h policeme n and student s i n a n attemp t t o relieve tensions . The y als o deal t wit h some forme r Michiga n Weatherme n wh o cam e t o Eas t Lansin g t o promote violen t confrontation . No t wishin g t o se e MS U becom e another Ken t State , th e veterans , wh o regarde d th e Weatherme n a s "a bunc h o f upper-middle-clas s faggot s wh o wante d t o fuc k eac h other," chased th e radicals ou t o f town. 17 Towards th e mornin g o f the third da y of the protest , tw o hundre d East Lansing , Lansing , an d stat e polic e officer s move d i n wit h bull dozers, tea r gas , an d clubs , quickl y re-openin g Gran d Rive r Avenu e to traffic . Eigh t hundre d student s leap t o n bicycle s an d circle d a section o f th e highway unti l polic e violentl y pulle d the m from thei r seats. Stat e polic e trooper s the n deploye d o n th e roo f o f Jacobson' s department store , trainin g thei r rifle s o n th e stree t below . Thou sands o f students , carefu l no t to set foot o n Grand River Avenue, th e

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free fire zone , glare d silentl y a t th e troopers . Suddenly , a studen t threw somethin g a t Jacobsen's , causin g th e crow d t o gas p an d th e troopers t o stiffen . A trooper , crouchin g o n th e roof , pu t asid e hi s gun an d caugh t th e object . H e smile d an d tosse d th e frisbe e bac k towards th e campus . Th e blockad e wa s ove r an d th e crow d sense d that th e wa r a t hom e ha d als o ended. 1 8 At Pen n State , i n respons e t o th e minin g o f Haiphon g Harbor , th e Coalition fo r Peac e calle d fo r a rall y i n fron t o f Ol d Main . T o th e organizers' surprise , th e initia l crow d o f tw o hundre d gre w t o 2,00 0 chanting student s wh o soo n marche d throug h th e street s o f Stat e College an d pickete d th e OR L an d th e Garfiel d Thoma s Wate r Tun nel. Resident s wer e irat e tha t student s wer e blockin g traffi c alon g College Avenu e an d Atherto n Street , promptin g severa l motorist s t o accelerate an d plo w int o th e crowd . Othe r local s careene d throug h State Colleg e i n picku p trucks , swingin g basebal l bat s a t students . Enraged b y suc h actions , whic h injure d dozen s o f youths , 5,50 0 protestors turne d ou t th e nex t da y an d blocke d th e mai n street s o f the town . Sympatheti c t o th e students ' cause , newl y electe d Gover nor Milto n Shap p ordere d th e temporar y shutdow n o f th e OR L an d dispatched Lt . Governor Ernes t Klin e t o talk t o the demonstrators. 19 The campu s remaine d tens e fo r th e nex t week , bu t onc e students ' anger an d enthusias m waned , mas s protes t collapse d permanently . As attendanc e a t subsequen t rallie s tapere d off , th e Coalitio n fo r Peace realize d tha t i t coul d no t sustai n politica l momentum . Worse , the activist s ha d t o clos e their Peac e Cente r i n Septembe r becaus e o f lack o f funds . Th e universit y administratio n quickl y reopene d th e ORL. Wit h th e dove s utterl y demoralized , SDSer s seize d contro l o f the Henderso n Station. Immediately , th e radical s purge d moderate s from th e staf f an d bega n publishin g anonymous , strang e articles , including a piec e whic h contende d tha t Jew s wer e treate d bette r i n the "democratic " Sovie t Unio n tha n i n th e "racist, " "imperialistic " state o f Israel . Withi n a fe w month s th e pape r cease d publication . SDS an d th e Coalitio n fo r Peace , a s wel l a s YAF , fade d fro m th e scene b y lat e 1972 , kille d b y studen t apath y an d a hostil e loca l political environment. 2 0 If th e grea t postprotes t letdow n a t Pen n Stat e i n 197 2 prove d anything, i t demonstrate d tha t i n Americ a al l politic s reall y ar e local. Althoug h nationa l development s shape d th e framewor k i n which event s too k plac e a t Pen n Stat e an d othe r campuse s i n th e 1960s, local value s an d actor s determine d th e substanc e of , and gav e

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enormous variet y to , th e historica l texture . Consequently , sweepin g generalizations o f th e perio d ar e suspect , fo r historical pattern s an d sociological paradigm s d o no t alway s fit th e actua l loca l situation . Every university , an d ever y communit y i n whic h tha t institutio n was located , wa s differen t i n term s o f ethni c composition , physica l size, history , an d ideologica l orientation . Communitie s unprepared , or unwilling , t o embrac e chang e an d tolerat e dissent—Stat e Col lege, Buffalo , an d Kent—reacted harshl y t o antiwar protest . Moreover, a t thes e schools , th e communit y viewe d faculty , stu dents, and , sometimes , universit y administrator s a s outsider s sub verting the traditional order . This was not true at MSU, but the Stat e of Michigan generall y had a polity imbue d wit h the spirit of progres sivism. Eve n thoug h Ne w Yor k coul d clai m t o b e th e bastio n o f modern liberalis m an d th e fon t o f cultura l pluralism , thi s ignore s the fact that there are two New Yorks : New Yor k City and everythin g else. Buffal o wa s no t Ne w Yor k Cit y an d th e majorit y o f SUNY Buffalo administrators , faculty , an d student s wh o wante d i t to be s o were rudel y awakene d t o that reality . There wer e othe r realitie s whic h informe d th e er a o f campu s protest. On e o f th e mos t importan t o f thos e realitie s wa s tha t Amer ica's institution s o f highe r education , desirin g t o promot e nationa l security an d t o further th e caus e o f globa l Communis t containment , involved themselve s i n militar y research . Federa l grant s trans formed quie t agricultura l an d teachin g college s int o sprawlin g aca demic complexe s an d enable d a n unprecedente d numbe r o f Ameri cans fro m differin g clas s an d cultura l background s t o obtai n a university education . Fro m th e MS U Vietna m Projec t t o th e Pen n State OR L an d Projec t Themis , stat e universitie s seize d th e oppor tunity t o achiev e a n institutiona l greatnes s o n a pa r wit h tha t o f more prestigiou s school s whil e championin g democrac y aroun d th e world. Ye t these development s sowe d th e seeds o f discontent , brough t to fruitio n b y th e Vietna m Wa r an d ultimatel y bloomin g a t Ken t State. The stat e universit y administrator s responsibl e fo r transformin g their school s int o academicall y comprehensiv e institution s o f highe r education, an d wh o als o tie d thei r campuse s t o th e DoD , di d no t anticipate th e long-ter m politica l consequence s o f thei r actions . Joh n Hannah, Eri c Walker , an d Rober t Whit e faile d t o understan d th e mounting revol t o f students , faculty , an d campu s clerg y wh o re jected university-militar y researc h o n th e ground s tha t i t mad e th e

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academy complici t i n wha t the y considere d t o b e a n unjus t an d unnecessary war . Subsequently , stat e universit y administrator s de termined tha t protes t agains t th e war , ROTC , an d th e OR L or MS U technical assistanc e program s i n th e Thir d World , wa s Communist inspired. I f Communist-inspired , the y reasoned , politica l surveil lance and/o r repression directe d agains t campu s peac e activist s wa s required. Les s sanguin e an d somewha t mor e i n tun e wit h dovis h antiwar sentiment , Marti n Meyerso n though t tha t h e coul d reaso n with protestors . Tragically , mos t o f hi s rebelliou s students , an d some o f his faculty , wer e no t reasonable . When confronte d wit h disruptiv e studen t protest , elit e universit y administrators wer e fa r les s pron e t o introduc e polic e forc e tha n their stat e universit y counterparts . Cornel l administrator s i n 196 9 did nothin g t o sto p blac k militant s fro m carryin g rifle s o n th e cam pus an d physicall y intimidatin g whit e facult y an d students . Simi larly, Columbi a official s i n 196 8 allowe d student s t o occup y build ings and disrupt classes for days until finally, an d reluctantly, bringin g in cit y polic e forces . I n part , th e reluctanc e o f elit e universit y ad ministrators t o chec k irresponsibl e protes t stemme d fro m strongl y held civi l libertaria n value s acquire d durin g thei r ow n libera l art s training at Ivy League schools. Mor e important, given the prominen t social origin s o f th e majorit y o f elit e universit y studen t activists , administrators wer e carefu l no t t o arouse th e wrath o f economicall y and politicall y powerfu l parent s b y havin g th e polic e clu b an d ga s their children . Stat e universit y administrators , generall y les s well educated an d ofte n unexpose d t o th e humanities , di d no t plac e a high valu e o n civi l liberties . Further , sinc e th e bul k o f stat e univer sity student s wer e middl e t o working class , suc h administrator s di d not hav e t o worr y abou t seriou s economi c an d politica l retaliatio n from parents whose childre n ha d run afoul o f the police. Thi s realit y meant tha t i f Nationa l Guardsme n wer e t o com e ont o a campus an d bayonet o r kill students , the n th e institutio n involve d woul d no t b e a Harvard, but rather a Kent State . While universit y administrator s trie d t o cop e wit h socia l force s beyond thei r contro l an d experience , facultie s polarize d ove r th e issue o f th e Vietna m Wa r and campu s antiwa r protest . A t th e onse t of th e U.S . militar y escalatio n o f th e war , man y academic s wh o supported America n foreig n polic y i n Indochin a tende d t o hav e vested interest s i n th e continuatio n o f th e Col d War . Thi s wa s par ticularly true at the state universities wher e engineerin g an d scienc e

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departments define d thei r schools ' academi c an d cultura l mindse t and whic h becam e dependen t upo n militar y researc h contracts . Af filiation wit h th e IDA , participatio n i n technica l assistanc e pro grams i n th e Thir d Worl d suc h a s th e MS U Vietna m Project , an d DoD researc h contracts , wer e al l powerfu l incentive s fo r academic s seeking t o furthe r thei r career s whil e servin g th e nationa l interest . Academics wh o wer e th e mos t voca l i n thei r oppositio n t o th e war , and lou d i n thei r criticis m o f militar y research-oriente d faculty , were thos e withou t Do D ties . Col d Wa r fundin g policie s create d a t least tw o stream s o f faculty : thos e wh o looke d t o Washingto n an d the Pentago n an d thos e wh o believe d i n separatio n o f universit y and Defens e Department . Th e Vietna m Wa r brough t th e tw o stream s of facult y int o open , bitte r conflict . Whe n studen t protes t becam e increasingly violen t afte r 1967 , th e facult y Col d Wa r dissenter s frag mented int o variou s ideologica l factions . Th e academ y stil l ha s no t recovered fro m th e intellectual , political , an d cultura l aftershock s o f the war . In additio n t o th e wa r an d university-militar y research , th e na tion's facult y als o polarize d i n respons e t o mass , unprecedente d student revolt . Studen t activist s suc h a s To m Hayde n credite d American colleg e yout h wit h abolishin g racia l segregation , endin g the Vietna m War , reformin g th e Democrati c party , an d compellin g the federa l governmen t t o reconsider it s Cold Wa r foreign policy . H e also note d tha t fro m 196 5 t o 1971 , 26,35 8 student s wer e arrested , fourteen killed , an d thousand s injure d o r expelle d fo r protestin g against th e war . Whil e Hayden' s claim s ar e overdrawn , h e i s correc t in pointin g t o th e pivota l rol e universit y student s playe d i n Ameri can politics . Ove r fou r millio n American s participate d i n antiwa r protest, wit h student s representin g a vita l componen t o f th e peac e movement. An d SDS , o n th e extrem e lef t o f th e antiwa r movement , had 100,00 0 member s i n 196 8 a t hundred s o f nonelit e stat e univer sities, a significan t numbe r an d developmen t give n tha t i n 196 2 th e organization wa s jus t a smal l collectio n o f elit e college-educate d radicals. O f course , Johnson' s Vietna m polic y mad e SD S popular , rather tha n th e organization' s ideologica l agenda . Bu t despit e SDS' s remarkable progress , i t too k Nixon' s invasio n o f Cambodia , an d th e killings a t Ken t State , t o mobiliz e million s o f student s agains t th e war. Initially, studen t activist s suc h a s Carl Davidson, Jack Sattel , Jerr y Taylor, an d Ton y Wals h sponsore d teach-ins , collecte d signature s

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for peac e petitions , publishe d antiwa r literature , an d organize d ral lies. I n 1965 , the y believe d tha t i f "th e Establishment " coul d onl y see patrioti c citizens ' concern s abou t the war, it would end . Instead , the war escalated. Frustrate d wit h trying to educate th e government , student activist s sometime s forge d campu s populis t alliance s (th e UCM an d SD S a t MSU ) an d other s turne d t o electora l channels . Liberal doves , i n th e aftermat h o f th e aborte d McCarth y campaign , found tha t politica l leader s restricte d acces s t o th e powe r structure . The wa r continue d t o escalat e an d entere d mor e intens e stage s o f violence. Radical s bickere d wit h thei r libera l allies , fough t wit h each other , fragmented , an d ultimatel y opte d fo r eithe r clas s o r guerilla war against the powe r structure . The 1960 s studen t antiwa r movement caugh t up great numbers o f culturally divers e partisan s wh o share d a general sens e o f idealis m mixed wit h feeling s o f alienatio n fro m society . Cultura l diversit y gave th e studen t peac e movemen t a n enriche d politica l visio n sel dom see n i n th e histor y o f mas s movement s i n America . I n Car l Davidson, Dav e Stockman , Leveret t Millen , an d Car l Oglesby , th e student antiwa r movemen t coul d choos e from , o r attemp t t o com bine, the currents of labor syndicalism, socia l gospel , Ol d Testamen t prophecy, an d populism . Bu t a t th e sam e time , histor y weighe d heavily upo n students . Antiwa r studen t activists , reflectin g th e large r society, wer e profoundl y divide d alon g class , ethnic , religious , an d racial line s and , subsequently , th e product s o f man y ofte n irrecon cilable cultura l heritages . Suc h cultura l division s ultimatel y frag mented SD S an d othe r antiwa r groups , an d spawne d movement s within movements . Cultura l an d clas s division s wer e als o eviden t between campu s antiwa r group s and , i n SDS , informe d chapte r relationships wit h th e Nationa l Office . Th e tension s betwee n elit e and nonelite universit y SD S chapters (th e upper-class Michiga n an d Columbia Weatherme n an d thei r working-clas s Ken t Stat e an d Michigan Stat e opponents ) contribute d furthe r t o th e cultura l an d class struggl e waged i n antiwar studen t ranks . At the state universities, a variety of local an d nationally affiliate d student antiwa r group s emerge d i n th e 1960 s an d earl y 1970s . Eac h organization possesse d a particula r critiqu e o f th e wa r an d Ameri can society , a produc t o f th e differen t cultura l value s an d experi ences student s brough t t o th e groups . Th e Resistanc e attracte d largel y middle- t o upper-middle-clas s Protestan t pacifist s wh o embrace d the concep t o f individua l mora l witnes s agains t perceive d evil .

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Members o f th e UCM , overwhelmingl y workin g t o lowe r middl e class, foun d pacifis m appealing , bu t wer e willin g t o support violen t revolutionary movement s abroa d t o a n exten t i f the y furthere d th e cause o f socia l justic e an d wer e no t totalitarian . Rhetoricall y revo lutionary, th e UC M at MSU an d othe r campuses i n practice avoide d violent confrontation s wit h authorit y an d stresse d th e desirabilit y of working to achieve peacefu l chang e through the electoral process . It is importan t t o kee p i n min d tha t th e grea t majorit y o f antiwa r students eithe r involve d themselve s i n dovis h loca l nationa l politi cal campaign s and/o r participate d i n campu s an d communit y peac e demonstrations, bu t di d no t formally affiliat e wit h an y organization . This organizationall y an d ideologicall y unaffiliate d mas s repre sented SDSers ' hope s fo r buildin g a larg e radica l movement . Occa sionally, SDSer s succeede d i n mobilizing an d radicalizing th e mass , but only temporaril y an d the n only because nationa l politica l devel opments an d th e introductio n o f outsid e polic e forc e t o the campu s aroused students . I n general , mos t student s rejecte d SDS' s increas ingly violen t styl e an d championshi p o f revolutionary Communism , being muc h mor e comfortabl e wit h a moderat e Coalitio n fo r Peac e or GLCO. Further , SDSers , regardles s o f whic h campu s chapte r the y belonged to , castigate d th e democrati c electora l process , criticize d pacifism, an d b y th e lat e 1960 s expende d grea t energ y attackin g dovish organizations . B y bein g agains t everything , i t wa s difficul t for students an d faculty t o discern exactl y wha t SD S was for . Beyond ideologica l contests , th e relativ e succes s o r failure o f a n antiwar organizatio n ofte n depende d upo n th e cultura l ambianc e o f the campus . Michiga n State , whil e not , a s Rampart s note d i n 1966 , "the Pari s o f th e Midwest, " wa s fa r mor e libera l an d cosmopolita n than Ken t Stat e an d Pen n State . Consequently , MS U activist s wer e able t o foun d an d sustai n a variet y o f peac e organization s whic h spanned th e ideologica l spectru m fro m SD S o n th e vaguel y Marxis t left t o th e socia l gospel-oriente d UC M an d th e dovis h GLC O on th e right. Conservativ e an d prowa r studen t group s di d no t thriv e a t MSU. Thi s wa s i n star k contras t t o PSU an d KS U where th e studen t and facult y antiwa r movemen t remaine d small , isolated , an d unde r ideological an d ofte n physica l attac k throughou t th e 1960s . I n re sponse t o a hostil e environment , Pen n Stat e SD S becam e increas ingly strident , whil e th e Weatherme n tendenc y subsume d muc h o f Kent State SDS . Such difference s i n politica l outcome s wer e als o bound u p i n th e

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nature o f th e institutions . MS U an d SUNY-Buffal o place d grea t em phasis upo n th e libera l arts , creatin g mor e philosophicall y divers e campuses. Thes e institution s wer e academicall y comprehensiv e i n real term s an d ha d studen t bodie s mor e incline d t o peac e activism . Kent Stat e an d Pen n State , however , thoug h enrollin g large r num bers o f libera l art s majors , neve r transcende d thei r origin s a s engi neering o r education colleges . Bot h institution s enrolle d largel y en gineering an d educatio n major s wh o tende d t o b e conservativ e an d hawkish. Th e poo l o f potentia l antiwa r supporter s wa s limite d an d the cultura l environmen t o f thes e school s conventional , a s wel l a s hostile toward s dissent . Al l o f this point s t o the fact tha t while stat e university student s wer e muc h mor e vocationall y minde d an d hawkish tha n thei r elit e libera l art s universit y peers , ther e wer e gradations amon g suc h school s i n term s o f academi c emphasi s an d cultural diversity . Th e mor e libera l art s oriente d an d intellectuall y diverse th e institution , th e mor e dovis h o r radical th e student s an d faculty. Nowhere i s th e influenc e o f th e campu s an d communit y environ ment o n th e university-base d antiwa r movemen t mor e eviden t tha n in Buffalo . A s a n urban-industria l cente r populate d largel y b y anti Communist Catholics , Buffal o i n th e 1960 s wa s a cultura l battle ground. SUNY-Buffal o student s an d facult y i n th e 1960 s wer e in creasingly draw n fro m th e rank s o f th e middl e an d upper-middl e classes, ha d secularize d Protestan t an d Jewis h backgrounds , an d came largel y fro m cosmopolitan , libera l Ne w Yor k City . Class , eth nicity, religion , an d politica l orientatio n divide d campu s an d com munity t o a n exten t fa r beyon d tha t experience d i n Eas t Lansing , Kent, an d Stat e College . Cultura l animositie s datin g fro m th e 1930 s and th e earl y year s o f th e Col d Wa r were brough t t o th e surfac e b y the escalatin g Vietna m Wa r an d SUNY-Buffal o peac e protest . Th e campus antiwa r movemen t responde d t o communit y hostilit y b y moving furthe r t o the lef t an d adoptin g violen t tactics . SUNY-Buffalo antiwa r students , wh o wer e fa r t o th e lef t o f thei r counterparts a t MSU , PS U an d Ken t Stat e prio r t o th e escalatio n o f the Vietna m War , als o contende d wit h a n establishe d Ol d Lef t i n the city . Thi s Ol d Lef t quickl y seize d contro l of , an d the n intellec tually corrupted , SDS . Jerry Taylor's vision o f a n independent, ideo logically inclusive , pacifisti c Ne w Lef t coul d no t endure attac k fro m the communit y an d underminin g fro m withi n b y th e sectarian , vio lence-prone YAWF .

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Advocates o f nonviolen t antiwa r protes t fare d n o bette r a t Ken t State. Th e working - an d lower-middle-clas s supporter s o f peac e education an d nonviolen t protes t wer e n o matc h fo r upper-middle class sectaria n activists suc h as Howie Emmer, Bill Ayers, and Terry Robbins. Ji m Powrie , Ke n Hammond , an d Rut h Gibson , brough t u p in household s whic h stresse d th e importanc e o f civilit y an d com promise, wer e incapabl e o f respondin g wit h sufficien t vigo r t o op ponents wh o ha d bee n taugh t tha t control , manipulation , an d con frontation wer e positiv e cultura l attributes . Wit h Emmer' s an d Robbins' ris e t o powe r i n th e Ken t Stat e SDS , force s wer e se t i n motion whic h culminate d i n th e tragi c confrontatio n wit h th e Ohi o National Guar d i n 1970 . Where student an d faculty antiwa r activists cooperate d wit h cam pus an d loca l clerg y an d rejecte d radica l extremis m an d violen t confrontation, th e peac e movemen t achieve d som e success . A t MSU , the UC M an d late r GLCO , supporte d b y Revs . Keit h Poh l an d Lyn n Jondahl, capture d politica l contro l o f thei r community . Religious oriented peac e protestor s als o conveye d a positive imag e o n an d of f the campu s whic h earne d th e respect , i f no t alway s th e endorse ment, o f resident s an d som e importan t stat e politician s suc h a s Governor William Milliken . Th e sam e ma y be sai d to a lesser exten t for Pen n State , wher e th e Coalitio n fo r Peac e an d it s dovis h clerg y and facult y supporter s wer e abl e t o build , temporarily , a mass , nonviolent antiwa r movement . In Buffalo , th e VVA W generate d sympath y an d som e suppor t from th e community . Bu t then , th e studen t activist s wh o joine d th e VVAW wer e draw n fro m th e are a an d cam e largel y fro m Catholi c and working-clas s backgrounds . Thes e wer e no t alie n SDSers , bu t rather th e childre n o f th e Buffal o community . Fo r this reason , the y did no t experienc e communit y attacks . Further , thei r action s re ceived a fai r hearin g fro m Buffalo' s ethni c residents . I n general , however, th e campus-base d antiwa r movemen t faile d t o appea l t o off-campus constituencies , thu s severel y limitin g it s effectivenes s while provokin g a cultural an d politica l backlas h acros s the nation . It woul d b e somewha t misleadin g t o clos e o n thi s not e o f post 1960s backlash, o r to observe that campus-based mas s protest ende d in th e sprin g o f 1972 . Certainl y afte r 197 0 th e nationa l new s medi a devoted les s attentio n t o the peac e movemen t an d the Vietnam War . But th e peac e movemen t wa s no t finished i n 197 2 and , moreover , many student s remaine d politicall y active , canvassin g fo r libera l

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doves suc h a s Georg e McGover n rathe r tha n takin g thei r protes t t o the streets . Beyon d th e McGover n presidentia l campaign , ther e wa s a much les s commente d upo n antiwa r strai n whic h ha d emerge d i n the nation: the Catholic Ne w Left . In Buffalo , a grou p o f Iris h Catholi c youths , largel y product s o f the city' s parochia l schools , bega n i n 197 1 t o raid are a draf t boards . Over the next severa l month s the y stol e 32,00 0 draf t files. Followin g each nocturna l break-in , th e youth s maile d th e files t o draft-age d males, explainin g t o the m tha t the y coul d no t b e inducte d int o th e military i f Selectiv e Servic e di d no t hav e thei r files. I t wa s u p t o each individual, th e activist s stated , to decide i f h e wished t o return the file t o hi s draf t board . Profoundl y pacifistic , th e youth s calle d themselves 'Th e Buffalo " an d informe d th e loca l new s medi a that : "We stan d agains t fear , hate , systems , an d structure s no t i n th e service o f man , th e militar y industria l comple x whic h ha s ru n ram pant an d a t the verg e o f destroyin g ou r life system—ou r mothe r th e earth." 21 One nigh t i n th e fal l o f 1971 , five o f Th e Buffal o wer e appre hended durin g a draft boar d break-in . Amon g th e five wa s Jeremia h Horrigan, th e so n o f th e Buffal o Bill s genera l manager . E d Powel l put his house up on bond to help with legal expenses an d Horrigan' s father enliste d th e ai d o f a loca l Iris h Catholi c attorney , Vincen t Doyle. A Joh n Kenned y Democra t wh o ha d fough t hi s wa y int o th e Protestant Establishment , Doyl e me t wit h hi s client s an d attempte d to pu t togethe r a traditiona l lega l defense . However , th e youth s politely tol d Doyl e tha t the y di d no t wis h t o conten d th e federa l government's crimina l charges . Rather , the y wer e willin g t o admi t their guilt, but wanted t o argue that their actions had been necessar y to en d th e war . Aghast , Doyl e futilel y argue d wit h the m an d finally concurred. The n th e activist s urge d Doyl e no t t o worr y abou t jur y examination an d selection ; the y woul d accep t whateve r jur y th e prosecuting attorne y chose . Anothe r passionat e exchang e occurred , but onc e agai n Doyl e thre w u p hi s hands . Consequently , th e jur y was, accordin g t o Doyle , compose d entirel y o f "WASPs—Whit e Anglo Saxo n Protestants. " Th e Iris h juris t wa s particularl y dis turbed b y thi s development ; h e coul d no t sa y WAS P withou t spit ting. 22 The tria l o f Th e Buffal o commence d i n th e sprin g o f 1972 , Judg e John Curti n presiding . Throughou t th e trial , th e youth s wer e re spectful toward s th e judg e an d jur y an d explaine d thei r action s i n

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moderate tones . Impresse d b y th e youths , Curtin , i n a dramati c turnabout fro m th e Buffal o Nin e proceedings , allowe d th e defen dants t o pu t th e wa r o n trial . Citin g Catholi c churc h teaching s o n peace an d socia l justice , a s wel l a s th e lesson s o f th e Nurember g War Crimes trials , Th e Buffal o pleade d fo r an end t o war and man' s inhumanity t o man . Da y afte r da y testimon y concernin g th e war , particularly th e stories of loca l Vietnam veterans, weighed mor e an d more heavily upo n Curti n an d the Buffalo Catholi c communit y whic h expressed sympath y fo r it s co-religionists . Finally , th e defens e reste d and th e jur y deliberated . Quickly , th e jur y foun d th e defendant s guilty, pavin g th e wa y fo r sentence s rangin g u p t o twelv e years ' imprisonment. 23 After a momen t o f silence , Curtin , voic e crackin g an d fighting back tears , stated , "You r lov e o f countr y i s abov e tha t o f mos t othe r citizens. I f other s ha d th e sam e sens e o f morality , th e wa r woul d have bee n ove r a lon g tim e ago. " Curti n vacate d th e sentence s an d released th e defendants . Wit h thi s decision , h e establishe d a lega l precedent whic h recognize d tha t federal law s may have to be broken to ensure tha t justice an d peac e prevail. 24

Notes

Introduction 1. Jame s Miller, "Democracy Is in the Streets"; From Port Huron to the Siege of Chicago (Ne w York: Simon and Schuster, 1987); Tom Hayden, Reunion: A Memoir (New York: Random House, 1988); Todd'Gitlin, The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (Ne w York : Bantam, 1989) ; Godfrey Hodgson , Americ a i n Ou r Time : From World War II to Nixon, What Happened and Why (New York: Vintage Books, 1978); Kenneth Keniston, Youth and Dissent (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1971); Michael Miles, The Radical Probe: The Logic of Student Rebellion (New York: Atheneum, 1971) ; J. Anthony Lukas , Don't Shoot—W e Are Your Children! (New York: Dell, 1971) ; "Makin g Sens e o f th e Sixties, " produce d b y Rick i Gree n an d Davi d Hoffman, WETA-TV Washington, D.C., and Varied Directions International, 1990. 2. Pete r Collier and David Horowitz, Destructive Generation: Second Thoughts about the Sixties (New York : Summit Books , 1990) ; Hayden , Reunion ; Patric k J. Buchanan, Right from the Beginning (Washington , D.C. : Regnery Gateway , 1990); Allan Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind: How Higher Education Has Failed Democracy and Impoverished the Souls of Today's Students (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988). 3. Nanc y Zaroulis and Gerald Sullivan, Who Spoke Up? American Protest against the War in Vietnam, 1963-1975 (Ne w York : Doubleday, Inc. , 1984) ; Charles DeBenedetti and Charles Chatfield, A n American Ordeal: The Anti-War Movement of the Vietnam Era (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1990); Hayden, Reunion. 4. Collie r and Horowitz, Destructive Generation; Buchanan, Right from the Beginning; Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind; Hodgson, America in Our Time; Christopher Lasch, The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations (New York: Warner Books, 1979); Dinesh D'Souza, Illiberal Education: The Politics of Race and Sex on Campus (New York: The Free Press, 1991). 5. Michae l Novak, The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics: Politics and Culture in the Seventies (New York: Macmillan, 1972); Kevin P. Phillips, The Emerging Republican Majority (Ne w Rochelle, N.Y.: Arlington House, 1970); Michael W. Miles, The Odyssey of the American Right (Ne w York: Oxford Universit y Press, 1980); Everett 275

276 Introduction Carll Ladd, Jr., Where Have All the Voters Gone? The Fracturing of America's PoJiticaJ Parties (New York: W. W. Norton, 1978). 6. Ma x Heirich, Spiral of Conflict: Berkeley, 1964 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1971); Miller, "Democracy Is in the Streets"; Irwin Unger, The Movement: A History of the American New Left, 1959-197 2 (New York: Harper and Row, 1974); Kirkpatrick Sale, SDS (Ne w York: Random House, 1973); W. J. Rorabaugh, Berkeley at War: The 1960s (New York: Oxford Universit y Press, 1989); Jerome H. Skolnick, The Politics of Protest (Ne w York: Ballantine Books, 1970); George R. Vickers, The Formation of the New Left: The Early Years (Lexington , Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1975); Stanley Rothman and S. Robert Lichter, Roots of Radicalism: Jews, Christians, and the New Left (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Gitlin, The Sixties; Richard Flacks, "Th e Liberate d Generation, " i n Shirle y M . Clark an d Joh n P . Clark, eds. , Youth i n Moder n Society (New York: Holt, Rinehart an d Winston , 1972) , 319-39; Hayden, Reunion. 7. S . Robert Lichter, Stanley Rothman and Linda S. Lichter in The Media Elite: America's New Power Brokers (Bethesda , Md.: Adler and Adler, 1936) , provide an extensive analysi s o f th e clas s an d cultura l backgrounds , an d politica l values , of hundreds of influential journalists who began their careers in the 1960s. Overwhelmingly, the journalists are East Coast WASPs and Jews, graduates of elite universities, and cultural liberals . Todd Gitlin in The WhoJe World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), details the symbiotic relationship between upper-middle-class reporters and activists i n th e 1960s . A s for th e background s an d consequen t biase s o f activist s turned memoi r writers and scholars , consider the following: James Miller, scholar, was a member of the Brandeis SDS; Todd Gitlin, scholar, attended Harvard, Michigan, and Berkele y and wa s a member o f the Michigan an d nationa l SDS ; Richard Flacks, scholar, attended Michigan and was a founder o f that school's SDS chapter; and Tom Hayden, memoir writer, was also a founder o f the Michigan and national SDS. On the other side of the political divide, Peter Collier and David Horowitz spent their day s of radical yout h i n the Berkele y area, while Allan Bloo m was a faculty member at Cornell in 1969. 8. H . Edward Ransford , "Blu e Colla r Anger : Reactions t o Studen t an d Blac k Protest," America n Sociological Review 27 (June 1972) : 333-46; J . Michael Ross, Reeve D . Vanneman , an d Thoma s F . Pettigrew , "Pattern s o f Suppor t fo r Georg e Wallace: Implications for Racial Change," Journal of Social Issues 36 (Spring 1976): 69-91; Sheldon G . Levy, "Polarization i n Racial Attitudes," Public Opinion Quar terly 3 6 (Summer 1972) : 221-34; Samue l Lubell , Th e Hidden Crisi s i n America n Politics (New York: W.W. Norton, 1971). 9. Car l Davidson, PSU-SENSE-Students for Peace and national vice president of SDS, telephone conversatio n wit h author , 6 May 1988; Carl Davidson, Formal Remarks Made at the Kent State University Students for a Democratic Society Reunion, Kent, Ohio, 6 May 1989; Carl Davidson, "Toward a Student Syndicalist Movement or University Reform Revisited," working paper prepared for the National Convention of the Students for a Democratic Society at Clear Lake, Iowa, August 1966 (Thomas Bennett Personal Papers—copy in author's possession); Victor Rabinowitz, attorney at law, New York City, letter to author, 25 February 1988. Rabinowitz defended Stapp at his military court-martial. 10. Stev e Badrich, MS U SDS, letter t o author, 4 October 1987 ; Donald Mader,

1. "Bastions of Ou r De/ense " 27

7

MSU SDS, letter to author, 4 August 1988 ; Abe Peck, Uncovering the Sixties : The Life and Times of the Undergroun d Pres s (Ne w York : Pantheon , 1985) ; Warren Hinckle, Robert Scheer, and So l Stern, "The University o n the Make," Ramparts 4 (April 1966): 54-57; Donna Lloyd Ellis, "The Underground Press in America: 19551970," Journal of Popular Culture 5 (Summer 1971): 102-24; Bertram Garskoff, MSU SDS faculty advisor , telephone conversation with author, 5 November 1988; Unger, The Movement , 138 ; Thomas Powers , Diana: The Making of a Terrorist (Boston : Houghton Mifflin, 1971) ; Larry Grathwohl, Bringing Down America: An FBI Informer With the Weathermen (New Rochelle, N.Y.: Arlington House, 1976); DeBenedetti and Chatfield, An American Ordeal, 109. 11. Spectrum (Buffalo, New York), 29 September 1967; Milton Viorst, Fire in the Streets: America in the 1960s (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), 383-420; Fred Snell, SUNY-Buffalo antiwa r faculty activist , letter to author, 3 January 1988 ; Sale, SDS, 618; Stephen M. Kohn, Jailed for Peace: The History of American Draft Law Violators, 1658-1985 (Ne w York: Praeger, 1987) , 89-90; Mauree n Considine , The Buffalo, Buffalo , Ne w York, interview with author, 26 August 1988; Vincent Doyle, attorney for The Buffalo, Buffalo , New York, interview with author, 26 August 1988; Griffin (Buffalo , Ne w York), 17 September 1971. Griffin is the student newspaper of Buffalo's Jesuit college, Canisius. 12. Ton y Walsh, KCEWV, telephone conversation with author, 14 January 1989; Joseph Jackson, KCEWV, telephone conversatio n wit h author, 2 5 September 1989 ; Andy Pyle , KS U and MS U SDS, Kent, Ohio, intervie w wit h author , 5 May 1989; Daily Kent Stater (Kent, Ohio), 7 July 1964; Sale, SDS, 576, 580-83, 603, 648. 1. "Bastion s of Our Defense" 1. Clar k Kerr, The Uses of the University (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1963), 53; Liberation News Service (Washington, D.C.), 31 October 1967; Miller, "Democracy Is in the Streets, " 25 ; Lawrenc e Wittner , Col d Wa r America : From Hiroshima to Watergate (New York: Praeger, 1974), 124, 320. 2. Marti n J. Oppenheimer, ed., The American Military (New York: Aldine, 1971), 5; Adam Yarmolinsky, The Military Establishment: Its Impact on American Society (New York: Harper and Row, 1971), 304-6, 310. 3. Jame s Ridgeway , Th e Close d Corporation : American Universities in Crisis (New York: Random House, 1968), 223-35. 4. Vanneva r Bush, Pieces of the Action (New York: William Morrow, 1972), 31, 39; Robert L . Geiger, T o Advance Knowledge: The Growth of American Research Universities, 1900-1940 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 246-67; Robert C. Cook, ed., Presidents of American Colleges and Universities, 1933-1934 , 1s t ed. (New York: Robert C. Cook, 1933); Robert C. Cook, ed., Presidents and Professors in American Colleges and Universities, 1935-1936,1st ed. (New York: Robert C. Cook, 1935). 5. Cook , ed. , President s of American Colleges and Universities, 1933-1934 ; Cook, ed., Presidents and Professors in American Colleges and Universities, 19351936; Who's Who in America, 1932-1933, vol . 1 7 (Chicago: Marquis Who's Who, 1932). 6. Jacque s McKee n Cattel l e t al. , eds. , Leaders in Education: A Biographical Directory, 1941, 2d ed. (New York: Science Press, 1941); Cattell and E. E. Ross, eds.,

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. "Bastions of Ou r Defense"

Leaders in Education: A Biographical Directory, 1948 , 3d ed. (Lancaster, Penn.: The Science Press, 1948) ; Cook, ed., Presidents of American College s and Universities , 1952-1953, 2 d ed . (Nashville , Tenn. : Who's Wh o i n America n Education , 1952) ; Cook, ed., Presidents and Deans of American Colleges and Universities, 1964-1965 , vol. 7 (Nashville, Tenn. : Who' s Wh o i n America n Education , 1964) ; Cattell, ed. , Directory of American Scholars: A Biographical Directory, 1957, 3 d ed. (New York: R. R. Bowker, 1957); Who's Who in America, 1952-1953, vol. 27 (Chicago: Marquis Who's Who, 1952); Iowa State Government, Iowa Oflicial Register , 1959-1960, 48th Number (Des Moines, Iowa: Iowa State Government, 1960), 237-39; Iowa State Government, Iowa Official Register, 1963-1964 , 50t h Number (Des Moines, Iowa: Iowa State Government, 1964), 256-57. 7. Cook , ed., Who's Who in American Education: An Illustrated Biographical Directory of Eminent Living Educators of the United States and Canada, 1965-1966, 22d ed . (Nashville , Tenn. : Who' s Wh o i n America n Education , 1966) ; Cook, ed., Who's Who in American Education, 1967-1968 , 23d ed. (Hattiesburg, Miss.: Who's Who in American Education, 1968); Russell W. Calkins, ed., Who's Who in American College an d University Administration , 1970-197 1 (Ne w York : Cromwell-Collie r Educational, 1970); Jacques McKeen Cattell et al., eds., Leaders in Education, 19701971, 4th ed. (New York: Jacques Cattell Press and R. R. Bowker, 1971); Who's Who in America, 1972-1973, vol. 37 (Chicago: Marquis Who's Who, 1972); Who's Who in America, 1966-1967 ; "Themis : Do D Plan t o Sprea d th e Wealt h Raise s Question s in Academe," Science 15 5 (3 February 1967) : 584; Ridgeway, The Closed Corporation, 146. 8. Seymou r E . Harris, A Statistical Portrait of Higher Educatio n (Ne w York: McGraw-Hill, 1972), 267, 277; Wittner, Cold War America, 124, 319. 9. Wittner , Cold War America, 124; Sale, SDS, 501. 10. Kerr , The Uses of the University, 88. 11. Miller , ''Democracy Is in the Streets," 25. 12. Cook , ed. , President s an d Dean s of America n College s an d Universities , 1964-1965; John A. Hannah, "The State of the University in February, 1969," address at th e Michiga n Stat e Universit y Facult y Convocation , 1 0 February 196 9 (Robert Repas Persona l Papers—cop y i n author' s possession) ; Michiga n Stat e University , "John A. Hannah Retrospective," Format, 1969 (Robert Repas Personal Papers—copy in author's possession); Lansing State Journal (Lansing, Mich.), 9 January 1969. 13. Joh n A . Hannah, Memoirs (Eas t Lansing, Mich.: Michigan Stat e Universit y Press, 1980), 54. 14. Joh n A. Hannah, "The State of the University in February, 1968," address at the Michigan State University Faculty Convocation, 12 February 1968 (Robert Repas Personal Papers—copy in author's possession); State News (East Lansing, Mich.), 19 January 1968 ; Michigan Stat e Universit y Offic e o f the Registrar, Budget for Fiscal Year 1966 (Eas t Lansing , Mich.: Michigan Stat e University Offic e o f th e Registrar, 1966); Michigan Stat e University Offic e o f the Registrar, Student Enrollmen t (East Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State University Office of the Registrar), 1950-1970; Ridgeway, The Closed Corporation, 223-35. 15. The Paper (East Lansing, Mich.), 17 November 1966. 16. Hannah , "The State of the University in February, 1968"; Hinckle et al., "The University on the Make," 54-57; Michigan State University Advisory Group, Final Report Covering Activities of the MSU Vietnam Advisory Group for the Period May

1. "Bastions of Our Defense" 27

9

20, 1965 - June 30 , 1962 (Saigon, Vietnam : Michiga n Stat e Universit y Advisor y Group, 1962), 23-26, 61-64, 77; Robert Scigliano and Guy Fox, Technical Assistance in Vietnam: The MSU Experience (New York: Praeger, 1965), 4,40, 41; MSU Vietnam Project, "Requisitions," "Civil Police," "Administration," "Budget," "Refugees" (MSU Vietnam Project Papers, Box 17, Boxes 53-68, MSU Archives). 17. Hinckl e et al., "The University on the Make," 54-60; Adrian Jaffe and Milton C. Taylor, "Th e Professor-Diplomat : An n Arbo r an d Cambridg e Wer e Never Like This," New Republic 146 (5 March 1962): 28-30; State News, 6 January 1965. 18. Charle s Larrowe, MSU SDS faculty advisor , East Lansing, Mich., interview with author , 1 7 November 1983 ; Robert Repas, MSU faculty antiwa r activist , East Lansing, Mich., interview with author, 13 October 1983; John A. Hannah, president of Michigan State University, lette r to Dr. Robert Repas, MSU School of Industrial and Labor Relations, 18 March 1959 (Robert Repas Personal Papers—copy in author's possession). 19. Larrow e interview. 20. Jame s T. Selcraig, The Red Scare in the Midwest, 1945-1955: A State and Local Study (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 1982), 103-4,116. 21. Georg e Griffiths, GLCO, telephone conversation with author, 15 October 1983; Repas interview; "Report of the Special Committee on Political Surveillance by the East Lansing Police Department, Larry Owen, Chairman," East Lansing, Mich., City of East Lansing , 197 7 (George Griffiths Persona l Papers—cop y i n author' s posses sion); Lansing State Journal, 14 February 1962. 22. Repa s interview; Robert Repas letter to author, 29 December 1987; John W. Truitt, director, Men's Division of Student Affairs, Michiga n State University, letter to James R. Humphrey, director of Life Marketing, Mutual Service Insurance Companies, St. Paul, Minn., 3 March 1961 (Robert Repas Personal Papers—copy in author's possession); Sale, SDS, 329; State News, 29 April 1965, 23 August 1966. 23. Repa s interview; Larrow e interview; Calkins, ed., Who's Who in American College and University Administration , 1970-1971; Cattel l e t al., eds. , Leaders in Education, 4th ed. 24. Repa s interview; Larrowe interview; Selcraig, The Red Scare in the Midwest, 1945-1955, 4 ; Harris, A Statistical Portrait of Higher Education, 280-83 , 728 . For the correspondenc e o f MS U president Joh n Hannah , se e "Hanna h Papers " i n th e Michigan State University Archives. 25. Stephe n E. Ambrose and Richard H. Immerman, Milton S. Eisenhower: Educational Statesman (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983), 108-45. 26. Ambros e and Immerman, Miiton S. Eisenhower, 146-65; Ellen W. Schrecker, No Ivory Tower: McCarthyism an d th e Universitie s (Ne w York: Oxford Universit y Press, 1986), 115-16, 290, 313, 317; Dr. Ellen W. Schrecker, Department of History, Yeshiva College , Ne w Yor k City , lette r t o author , 7 October 1988 . I n he r letter , Schrecker graciously identified the PSU AAUP representative and anti-Semite. 27. Vanc e Packard , The Status Seekers: An Exploration of Class Behavior in America and the Hidden Barrier s That Affect You, Your Community, Your Future (New York: David McKay, 1959), 174; Who's Who in America, 1973-1974, vol . 38 (Chicago: Marquis Who's Who, 1973). 28. Daily Collegian (State College, Penn.), 17 November 1965, 6 October 1966, 26 February 1970 ; The Pennsylvania Stat e University Office o f the Vice President fo r Research, Sponsored Research, Fiscal Year 1961-1962 (University Park , Penn. :

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. "Bastion s of Ou r Defense"

Pennsylvania State University, 1962), 12; Cook, ed., Presidents and Deans of American Colleges an d Universities, 1964-1965 ; Oppenheimer, ed. , The American Military, 6 ; "Harvar d Underwate r Soun d Laboratory, " Nois e Level 1 (July 1981) : 1- 2 (newsletter o f th e Pennsylvani a Stat e Universit y Applie d Researc h Laboratory) ; Pennsylvania State University, The Garfield Thomas Water Tunnel: 25 Years, 19491974 (University Park, Penn.: Pennsylvania State University, 1974). Noise Level and the Garfield Thomas Water Tunnel were provided to the author by the Department of the Navy. 29. Ambros e and Immerman, MiJton S. Eisenhower, 108-45; Daily Collegian, 14 April 1965, 1 July 1965, 3 May 1972; Cook, ed., Presidents and Deans of American Colleges and Universities, 1964-1965 . 30. The Water Tunnel (State College, Penn.), 1 0 March 1969 ; Eric Walker and Buckminster Fuller , Approaching the Benign Environment (Ne w York: Macmillan, 1970), 115. 31. Daily Collegian, 30 March 1965, 25 September 1966,18 October 1971. 32. Daily Collegian, 6 January 1965, 20 September 1967. 33. Calkins , ed., Who's Who in American College and University Administration, 1970-1971; Cattell et al., eds., Leaders in Education, 4th ed. 34. Daily Collegian, 1 1 January 1967 , 16 February 1967 , 10 January 1968 ; Neil Buckley, Penn State SDS, letter to Greg Calvert, National President of SDS, 11 February 196 7 (Neil Buckley Papers, Historical Collections and Labor Archives, PSU Library). 35. Pa m Farley, PSU NUC, telephone conversation with author, 3 October 1988; Sale, SDS, 643 ; Daily Collegian, 3 0 January 1968 , 12 February 1969 , 14 November 1969; John Finnegan, PSU Young Democrats Club, FBI file(John Finnegan Personal Papers—notes from file in author's possession). 36. Daily Collegian, 29 October 1969, 2 April 1970. 37. Warre n Bennis , The Leanin g Ivor y Towe r (Sa n Francisco : Jossey-Bass , 1973), 23. 38. Ibid. , 87-145. 39. Cook , ed. , President s an d Dean s of America n College s an d Universities , 1964-1965; Ridgeway , The Closed Corporation, 128-30 ; Stephe n Strickland , ed. , Sponsored Research in American Universities and Colleges, 1967 (Washington, D.C.: American Counci l o n Education , 1967) , 33-44 ; Sparkl e Moor e Furnas , Memoria l Biographical Record of Clifford C. Furnas, 2 vols., privately printed by Sparkle Moore Furnas, 1975 . Furnas' wife , Sparkle , taped extensiv e interview s wit h he r husband prior to his death. She did not, however, bother to edit the transcripts. Consequently, one i s give n grea t insigh t int o Presiden t Furnas ' critica l attitud e toward s SUNY chancellor Gould and a number of SUNY-Buffalo administrators and faculty. 40. Spectrum , 1 8 September 1964 , 1 4 April 1966 ; Bennis , The Leaning Ivor y Tower, 112-28. 41. Schrecker , No Ivory Tower, 113-14 ; Spectrum , 4 December 1964 , 1 5 June 1965; Furnas, Memorial Biographical Record of Clifford C. Furnas, vol. 2; Clifford C. Furnas, president of the State University of New York at Buffalo, lette r to Samuel B. Gould, SUN Y chancellor, 1 0 November 196 4 (Offic e o f th e Chancellor-President , Central Files, Permanent Files, 1938-1969, Box 7, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 42. Hon . Dori s Varn , Hous e o f Representatives , Stat e o f Arizona , lette r t o the president o f the University o f Buffalo, 2 7 February 196 3 (Office o f the Chancellor-

1. "Bastions of Ou r Defense" 28

1

President, Centra l Files , Permanen t Files , 1938-1969 , Bo x 7 , SUNY-Buffal o Ar chives); Dr. Clifford Furnas , president of SUNY-Buffalo, letter to the Hon. Doris Varn, 11 March 196 3 (Office o f the Chancellor-President, Centra l Files, Permanent Files, 1938-1969, Bo x 7, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; Statement Concernin g Dr. William T. Parry, associate professo r o f philosoph y a t the University o f Buffalo, b y T. R. McConnell, chancellor of the university, 1953 (Office of the Chancellor-President, Central Files, Permanent Files, 1938-1969, Box 7, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; Clifford C . Furnas, president o f the State University of New York at Buffalo, Statemen t to the News Media, 26 May 1964 (Office of the Chancellor-President, Central Files, Permanent Files , 1938-1969 , Bo x 7 , SUNY-Buffal o Archives) ; Spectrum , 2 5 September 1964; Furnas, Memorial Biographical Record of Clifford C . Furnas, vol. 2; Niagara Frontier Civil Liberties (Buffalo, New York), October, 1963 (Elizabeth Olmsted Smith Papers, Box 15, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 43. Spectrum , 14 April 1966; Bennis, The Leaning Ivory Tower, 112-27; Calkins, ed., Who's Who in American College and Universit y Administration , 1970-1971; Martin Meyerson, The City and the University (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1969), 7-16. 44. Marti n Meyerson, Office of the President, University of New York at Buffalo, Press Release on Project Themis, 18 April 1969 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; Snell letter to author, 8 March 1988; Bennis, The Leaning Ivory Tower, 129-45; Dr. Paul Ehrlich, Department of Chemical Engineering, SUNYBuffalo, lette r to Martin Meyerson, 21 March 1969 (Office o f the President, Central Files, Research, Box 38, SUNY-Buffalo Archives); Dr. Raymond Ewell, vice president for Research , SUNY-Buffalo , memorandu m t o Marti n Meyerson , 2 2 October 196 8 (Office of the President, Central Files, Research, Box 38, SUNY-Buffalo Archives); Dr. William J. Walbesser, Department of Electrical Engineering, SUNY-Buffalo, lette r to Martin Meyerson, 2 2 March 196 9 (Office o f the President, Central Files , Research, Box 38, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 45. Spectrum, 17 November 1967. 46. Oppenheimer , ed., The American Military, 9; Dr. Raymond Ewell, vice president fo r Research , SUNY-Buffalo , "Fundin g o f Sponsore d Researc h a t th e Stat e University of New York at Buffalo, 1960-1969, " internal memorandum (Office of the President, Central Files, Research, Box 38, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 47. Bennis , The Leaning fvory Tower , 129-45; A. P. Aversano, vice president of the Foster-Milbur n Compan y an d presiden t o f th e SUNY-Buffal o Genera l Alumn i Board, letter to Martin Meyerson, 25 September 1968 (Office of the President, Central Files, Administration, Bo x 9, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; Spectrum , 1 April 1966 , 8 April 1966,18 September 1967, 26 September 1967, 27 February 1970, 6 March 1970, 9 March 1970, 20 April 1970, 8 May 1970,12 June 1970,10 July 1970; Snell letter, 8 March 1988; Elwin Powell, SUNY-Buffalo SD S faculty advisor , letters to author, 12 November 1987 , 1 9 December 1987 ; Sidney Willhelm , SUNY-Buffal o SD S faculty advisor, letter to author, 17 January 1988. 48. Spectrum , 1 6 September 1966 , 28 June 1968, 7 November 1969, 24 January 1972, 7 February 1972 ; Richard O'Connor , SUNY-Buffal o undergraduat e student , "Student Association Bail Fund Service" information card issued along with student identification card , 1970 (Richard O'Connor Personal Papers—copy in author's possession). During th e February-May , 1970 , upheava l a t SUNY-Buffalo , a studen t stol e a

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campus security officer's logboo k from a n unoccupied polic e cruiser. This logbook records i n grea t detai l Snell' s dail y activities . Th e logboo k i s i n Campu s Unrest , 1965-1970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives. 49. Larr y Faulkner , BDRU , telephone conversatio n wit h author , 2 5 May 1988; Spectrum, 2 3 Septembe r 1966 ; Joh n L . Duffy , Specia l Agen t i n Charge , Federa l Bureau of Investigation, Department of Justice, Buffalo, Ne w York, letter to author, 30 September 1987; Sharon Fischer, BDRU, and Karl Meller, SUNY-Buffalo YAWF, FBI files (Elwin Powell Personal Papers—notes from filesin author's possession). 50. Sale , SDS, 499-500, 645-46; Joe Eszterhas and Michael D. Roberts, 13 Seconds: Confrontation at Kent State (New York: College Notes and Texts, 1970), 34, 48-49, 67 ; Daily Ken t Stater , 1 4 January 1970 ; Ruth Gibson , KCEWV , telephone conversation with author, 4 February 1989. 51. Selcraig , The Red Scare in the Midwest, 1945-1955 , 33-36, 102,124; Lionel S. Lewis, Cold War on Campus: A Study of the Politics of Organizational Contro l (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1988), 83-84; Harris, A Statistical Portrait of Higher Education, 728 . Schrecker informed m e that sh e discovered n o political firings o f Kent State faculty i n the AAUP Archives. She suspects, as do I, that given the example of Ohio State and the fact that Ohio had its own Un-American Activities Committee, Kent State took the precaution of not knowingly hiring politically questionable faculty. Since access to Kent State administration files is restricted, there is no way to prove or disprove this contention. 52. Dail y Kent Stater , 2 1 July 1964 , 3 October 1967 , 23 October 1968 ; Big US (Cleveland, Ohio), 26 April 1969; Scott L. Bills, Kent State, May 4: Echoes through a Decade (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1982), 141-42. 53. Daily Kent Stater, 20 May 1969. 54. Daily Kent Stater, 6 April 1969, 20 May 1969, 30 October 1969; Eszterhas and Roberts, 13 Seconds, 45-70; Gibson conversation; Calkins, ed., Who's Who in American College and University Administration, 1970-1971; Daily Collegian, 20 August 1970; Tom Grace, KSU SDS, telephone conversation with author, 3 March 1989. 55. Daily Kent Stater, 30 Apri l 1968 ; Gibso n conversation . Havin g consulte d every referenc e wor k availabl e o n America n educators , I coul d find littl e o r n o information o n Ken t State' s administrator s i n 1970 . What biographica l dat a wer e available indicate d tha t Ken t State' s administrator s claime d n o specia l academi c accomplishments. 56. Josep h Jackson conversation; Gibson conversation; Daily Kent Stater, 27 October 1967, 22 May 1969. 57. Eszterha s and Roberts , 1 3 Seconds, 100-3 ; Daily Kent Stater , 1 0 December 1969. 2. 'Thos e Peopl e Would Do the Damndest Things" 1. Harve y Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism: The Depression Decade (New York: Basic Books, 1984), 69-84, 349-64; Schrecker, No Ivory Tower, 12-83. 2. Klehr , The Heyday of American Communism, 349-409; Schrecker, No Ivory Tower, 63-125 ; Christophe r Lasch , Th e Agon y of the American Left (New York: Vintage Books, 1969), 61-114. 3. Theodor e Draper and Nathan Glazer, in separate reviews of Schrecker's study of McCarthyism and the universities (New Republic, 6 October 1986 and 26 January

2. ' T h o s e Peopl e Woul d Do the Damndest Things " 28

3

1987, respectively), provide an insight into the lingering bitterness liberal and nonCommunist radical faculty feel for their Communist colleagues from the 1950s. Leslie Fiedler, in Being Busted (New York: Stein and Day, 1969), described his disgust with Communists in the 1930 s and 1940s . For a good discussion o f New Left academi c analyses of Third World Communist wars of national liberation, see Viorst, Fire in the Streets, 465-504. A n excellen t primar y sourc e i s Staughto n Lyn d an d To m Hayden, The Other Side (New York: New American Library, 1967). 4. Michae l Frisch , SUNY-Buffal o facult y antiwa r activist , lette r t o author, 30 April 1989. 5. Ala n E . Bayer , College an d University Faculty: A Statistical Description (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Commission on Higher Education, 1970), 12-13; Hodgson, America in Our Time, 53. 6. Bayer , College and University Faculty, 20-21. 7. Ibid. , 19. 8. Seymou r Martin Lipset and Everett C. Ladd, Jr., "The Politics of American Sociologists," American Journal of Sociology 78 (July 1972): 67-104. 9. Lipse t and Ladd, "The Politics of American Sociologists," 67-104. 10. New University Conference Newsletter (Chicago, Illinois), May 1968 (Samuel P. Hay s Collection , Universit y o f Pittsburg h Archives) ; Sale , SDS, 412-13; New University Conference Newsletter, November 1968 (Samuel P. Hays Collection, University of Pittsburgh Archives); Lynn Jondahl, Unrest on Campus: A Christian Perspective (New York: Friendship Press, 1970), 68-69. 11. Hinckl e et. al., "The University on the Make," 55; Thomas Greer, MSU faculty antiwar activist, East Lansing, Mich., interview with author, 13 October 1983. 12. "Michiga n State University Vietnam Project Briefing Information, 1 October 1958" (MSU Vietnam Project Papers, Box 16, MSU Archives). 13. Wesle y R. Fishel, "Vietnam's Democratic One-Man Rule," New Leader 42 (2 November 1959): 10-13; Repas interview. Repas witnessed Fishel' s performance at the state legislature. 14. Adria n Jaffe an d Milton C. Taylor, "A Crumbling Bastion: Flattery and Lies Won't Save Vietnam," New Republic 144 (19 June 1961): 17-20; Washington Post, 17 June 1962. 15. Whil e working on my senior history thesis in 1983-1984 at MSU on the MSU anti-Vietnam Wa r movement, my roommate, John Wesley Rowden, and I started a landscaping business. In the spring of 198 4 one of our clients turned ou t to be Dr. Ralph Turner. After work , Turner would invit e us into his den and tal k about the MSU Vietnam Project. 16. Washington Post, 17 June 1962; State News, 1 April 1965; John D. Donoghue, Cam An, A Fishing Village in Central Vietnam (East Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State University Advisory Group, 1960). 17. State News, 1 April 1965, 8 April 1965,12 April 1965; Greer interview. 18. State News, 20 April 1965, 28 April 1966. 19. Gree r interview; State News, 1 2 May 1965, 14 April 1966, 20 April 1966, 12 May 1966; Newsweek 67 (25 April 1966): 78; MSU Faculty antiwar petition addressed to Presiden t Lyndo n Johnson , 2 7 Februar y 196 7 (Studen t Radicalis m Collection , MSU Special Collections). 20. Repa s interview; Larrowe interview; Robert Repas, "Open Letter to the MSU Campus on University Political Surveillance, 10 April 1967" (Robert Repas Personal

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. "Those Peopl e Woul d D o the Damndes t Things "

Papers—copy in author's possession); John A. Hannah, president of Michigan State University, lette r t o Dr . Rober t Repas , Schoo l o f Labo r an d Industria l Relations , concerning compulsory ROTC, 18 March 1959 (Robert Repas Personal Papers—copy in author's possession). 21. Repa s letters, 29 December 1987 and 30 June 1988; Robert Repas, Michigan State Police Red Squad File (Robert Repas Personal Papers—copy in author's possession); Ja n Garrett , MS U Youn g Socialis t Club , lette r t o author , 5 Augus t 1988. 22. Repa s interview; Rober t Repas, "Summar y o f Phone Conversation betwee n President John Hannah and Bob Repas, 25 June 1965" (Robert Repas Personal Papers —copy in author's possession); Larrowe interview. 23. Larrow e interview; State News, 28 March 1968. 24. Stat e News, 2 June 1965; Greer interview; Thomas Greer, "What Is the War Doing to Us in the World of International Politics?" Address presented to the Interfaith Convocation on War and Peace, East Lansing, Mich., 15 January 1967 (Student Radicalism Collection, MSU Special Collections). 25. Jame s Anderson, MSU Resistance faculty advisor, East Lansing, Mich., interview with author, 7 November 1983; The Paper, 17 April 1968. 26. Bertra m E. Garskoff, "Wh o Says the Curriculum Is Irrelevant! ROTC and the University," New University Conference Newsletter, November 1968 (Samuel P. Hays Collection, Universit y o f Pittsburg h Archives) ; State News, 1 November 1966 , 7 November 1966; Garskoff conversation . 27. Garskof f conversation ; George Fish, MSU SDS, telephone conversation with author, 16 March 1989; Repas interview; Unger, The Movement, 138. 28. State News, 28 February 1967; MSU Faculty antiwar petition; Michigan State University Bureau of Social Science Research, "Omnibus Survey #2, 1970," 11-13, 19, 5 7 (Willia m Hixso n Persona l Papers , Departmen t o f History , Michiga n Stat e University). The MSU antiwar faculty database, as well as the databases for the other schools, was compiled b y consulting the relevant campus newspapers, both mainstream and underground, antiwar petitions and other arcane documents found in the various archives and in individuals' possession. Oral interviews also generated names and provided an insight into the leadership and ideology of liberal-dovish and radical faculty. Core faculty is defined as those academics whose activism went a great deal beyond signin g antiwar petitions. Affiliation wit h various peace organizations, and demonstrations an d teach-ins in which faculty participated , were the chief criteri a used t o select th e core faculty. Departmenta l affiliation s an d academic ranks were determined by consulting the appropriate university faculty directories from 1964 to 1973. The categorization of antiwar faculty activists as liberal dovish or radical is based upon the following methodology: first, oral interviews of faculty an d students who identified facult y as falling into one or the other broad groupings; second, speeches and positio n paper s put out by particular facult y indicatin g their ideological leanings; and third, faculty membershi p in organizations which were explicitly radical, e.g., the New University Conference. 29. Repa s interview; Larrowe interview; The Paper, 1 6 May 1967; Ferency Campaign, Fact Sheet, 1982 (Zolton Ferency Personal Papers—copy in author's possession). 30. Keit h Pohl, MSU UCM advisor, East Lansing, Mich., interview with author, 4

2. "Thos e Peopl e Woul d Do the Damndest Things " 28

5

October 1983; Lynn Jondahl, GLCO, Lansing, Mich., interview with author, 10 November 1983; Repas interview; Larrowe interview. 31. Joh n Withall, PSU faculty antiwar activist, letter to author, 18 December 1987. 32. Ibid . 33. Ibid . 34. Ibid. ; Daily Collegian, 25 October 1968. 35. Jame s Andrews, State College, PSU Friends, letter to author, 27 October 1987. Andrews attended the Quaker session at which Kennedy's Cuban policy was debated in October 1962. 36. Daily Collegian, 20 November 1965,15 October 1969. 37. Davi d Westby, PSU NUC, letter to author, 14 December 1987; James Petras, PSU NUC, telephone conversatio n wit h author , 7 July 1988 ; Daily Collegian, 2 7 September 1971. 38. Daily Collegian, 2 November 1965, 29 October 1968; Henderson Station (State College, Perm.), 3 November 1971. 39. Petra s conversation; Daily Collegian, 24 July 1969. 40. Henderso n Station, 1 January 1971. 41. Jame s Creegan, PSU SDS, telephone conversation with author, 11 July 1988. 42. Petra s conversation ; Daily Collegian, 1 2 Octobe r 1966 , 1 7 Octobe r 1969 ; Victor Marchetti and John D. Marks, The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence (New York: Dell, 1975), 11. 43. Daily Collegian, 29 May 1969, 23 October 1969, 24 October 1969. 44. Daily Collegian, 12 November 1965,16 February 1967, 22 October 1969. 45. Daily Collegian, 27 May 1966,15 October 1969. 46. Dr . Newton Garver , Department o f Philosophy, SUNY-Buffalo , lette r t o Dr. David S . Price, State University of New York, Albany, New York, 11 August 1964 (Office o f the Chancellor/President, Central Files, Permanent Files, 1938-1969, Box 7, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; Dr. Netwon Garver, Statement of Act of Civil Disobedience i n 1948 , t o Departmen t o f Philosoph y an d SUNY-Buffal o presiden t Cliffor d Furnas, May 1965 (Office of the Chancellor/President, Central Files, Permanent Files, 1938-1969, Bo x 7 , SUNY-Buffal o Archives) ; Dr . Newton Garver , lette r t o SUNYBuffalo president Clifford Furnas, 11 August 1964 (Office of the Chancellor/President, Central Files, Permanent Files, 1938-1969, Box 7, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 47. Spectrum , 2 2 October 1971 ; Faulkner conversation; Powell letter to author, 16 April 1988. The FBI fileof Sharon Fischer notes that a SDS and BDRU leader met with federal agent s at the Forest Lawn Cemetery in Buffalo o n 10 September 1968. Although the name of the SDS leader is blacked out, the description of the person in question, his activities, and whereabouts, coupled wit h the suspicions of Faulkner and Powell, make it clear who the informer was. 48. Fiedler , Being Busted, 93. 49. Ibid . 136 ; Charli e Haynie , SUNY-Buffal o facult y antiwa r activist , Buffalo , New York, interview with author, 26 August 1988. 50. Fiedler , Being Busted, 96. 51. Snel l letter, 3 January 1988. 52. Dr . Donald W . Rennie, Departmen t o f Physiology , SUNY-Buffalo , Buffalo , letter to SUNY-Buffalo actin g president Peter Regan, 20 October 1969 (Office o f the President, Central Files, Administration, Box 8, SUNY-Buffalo Archives); Spectrum, 16 June 1967, 22 October 1968; Snell letters, 3 January 1988, 8 March 1988.

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. ' T h o s e Peopl e Woul d Do th e Damndes t Things "

53. Snel l letter, 3 January 1988; SUNY-Buffalo Radica l Faculty Caucus, "Substitute Motion on the Moratorium, 11 November 1969" (Office of the President, Central Files, Administration, Box 8, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; Haynie interview; Spectrum, 26 January 1968,15 October 1969. 54. Dr . Robert E. Mates, chair, Departmen t o f Mechanica l Engineering , SUNYBuffalo, letter to SUNY-Buffalo president Martin Meyerson, 20 March 1969 (Office of the President, Central Files, Research, Box 38, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; Dr. Daniel H. Murray, dean of the School of Pharmacy, SUNY-Buffalo, " A Unanimous Resolution by the Executive Committee of the School of Pharmacy, 21 March 1969" (Office of the President, Central Files, Research, Box 38, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; "Unanimous Resolution by the Faculty of the Department of Pathology, SUNY-Buffalo, 2 1 March 1969" (Office of the President, Central Files, Research, Box 38, SUNY-Buffalo Archives); Dr. Ernest Hausmann, assistant dean of the School of Denistry, "A Resolution by the Executive Committee of the School of Denistry, 21 March 1969" (Office of the President, Central Files, Research, Box 38, SUNY-Buffalo Archives); Spectrum, 18 December 1964, 12 December 1967; Dr. Marvin Zimmerman, Department of Philosophy, SUNY-Buffalo, "Commo n Sense: Addressed to the Academic Community, December 1967" (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 55. Calkins , ed., Leaders i n Education, 1970-1971 , 4t h ed. ; Spectrum, 2 8 July 1967,14 April 1969, 3 March 1970, 29 April 1970, 7 October 1970, 26 April 1971. 56. Powel l letter, 12 November 1987; Sidney Willhelm, SUNY-Buffalo SD S advisor, letter to author, 17 January 1988. 57. Powel l letter, 19 December 1987; Willhelm letter ; Frisch letter, 8 December 1987. 58. Spectrum , 2 April 1965. 59. Ibid. , 20 October 1969; Haynie interview. 60. Hayni e interview. 61. Ibid. ; Powel l letter , 1 2 Novembe r 1987 ; Frisc h letter , 3 0 Apri l 1989 . An excellent analysis of the 1960s counterculture is Lasch, The Culture of Narcissism. 62. Hayni e interview ; Powel l letter , 1 2 November 1987 ; Frisch letter , 3 0 April 1989. 63. Mi m Jackson, KSU antiwar student, Kent, Ohio, interview with author, 7 May 1989; Joseph Jackson conversation; Tim Smith and Scott L. Bills, "My Perspective Is Socialism: An Interview with Clara Jackson about the Life and Political Perspective of Sidney Jackson," Left Review 4 (Fall 1979): 1-7. Mim and Joseph Jackson are the children of the late Sidney Jackson. 64. Mi m Jackson, Kent, Ohio interview with author, 7 May 1989; Joseph Jackson conversation; Dr . Sidney L . Jackson, Ken t Stat e University, lette r t o Hon. John F. Kennedy, president of the United States, 7 January 1962 (Sidney L. Jackson Papers, Box 1, Kent State University Archives). 65. Mi m Jackson interview; Joseph Jackson conversation. 66. Harri s Dante, Kent State antiwar faculty activist , letter to author, 2 February 1988; Ottavio Casale, Kent State antiwar faculty activist, letter to author, 2 February 1988; Harris Dante, "The Kent State Tragedy: Lessons for Teachers," Social Education 35 (April 1971): 357-361. The controversy surrounding antiwar protest and the slayings a t Ken t Stat e ha s continue d unabate d sinc e 1970 . Most faculty , anti - or prowar, never responded to my research inquiries. Casale and Dante, while opposed

3. ' T h e Geniu s of a Nation" 28

7

to the war, vigorously defended White after the shootings and argued that the university was politically inactive and had a history of promoting free speech. 67. Daily Kent Stater, 2 March 1967 , 7 April 1967 , 29 November 1967 ; Gibson conversation. 68. Daily Kent Stater, 17 October 1967, 20 October 1967, 9 November 1967. 69. Ibid. , 16 April 1968; Bills, Kent State, May 4,100-104. 70. Daily Kent Stater, 11 October 1968,15 May 1969. 71. Ibid. , 13 November 1969. 3. "Th e Genius of a Nation" 1. Natha n C. Belth, A Promise to Keep: A Narrative of the American Encounter with Anti-Semitism (Ne w York: Schocken Books, 1981), 188-89; Hodgson, America in Our Time, 53; William E. Leuchtenberg, Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932-1940 (Ne w York: Harper and Row, 1963), 129, 187, 257, 336; Robert A. Caro, The Path to Power: The Years of Lyndon Johnson (New York: Vintage Books, 1983), 238, 338-39, 349-51, 417-18; E. Digby Baltzell, The Protestant Establishment: Aristocracy and Caste in America (New York: Vintage Books, 1964), 335-52. 2. Miller , "Democracy Is in the Streets," 24-26; Kerr, The Uses of the University; Lasch , The Agony of the American Left, 61-114; Hodgson , Americ a i n Ou r Time, 67-98,186, 460-61, 469. 3. Hodgson , America i n Ou r Time, 53 , 67-69; Vickers, The Formation of the New Left, 111-13; Miller, "Democracy Is in the Streets," 100-102,123-25,151, 205, 331-33; Keniston , Yout h and Dissen t an d The Uncommitted: Alienated Yout h in American Society (New York: Dell, 1965). 4. Hodgson , America in Our Time, 315-16, 334-41. 5. Lasch , The Culture of Narcissism, 256-58 ; Skolnick, The Politics of Protest, 93,103-4,117. 6. Heirich , Spiral of Conflict, 53-54. Daniel Yankelovitch's survey of university students, an d American s a t large, in Fortune , vol. 80, January 1969 , confirms thi s argument. 7. Fo r astute analyses of news media class biases and the 1960s, see Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News: A Study of CBS Evenin g News, NBC Nightly News, Newsweek and Time (New York: Vintage Books, 1980), and Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching, 30-31. Standard scholarly works on the 1960s student movement which focus on privileged youths include: Powers, Diana; Flacks , "The Liberated Generation," 319-39 ; Rothma n an d Lichter , Root s of Radicalism; Sale , SDS; Gitlin , The Sixties; Miller, "Democracy Is in the Streets." 8. Natha n Glazer, "The New Left and the Jews," Jewish Journal of Sociology 11 (December 1969): 121-32; John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New York: Atheneum, 1978), 66-67, 92-94,160-61; Packard, The Status Seekers, 264-83; Rothman and Lichter, Roots of Radicalism, 82. 9. Glazer , "Th e Ne w Left an d th e Jews," 121-32 ; Gitlin , The Sixties, 25-26; Miller, "Democracy Is in the Streets," 136-37; Rothman and Lichter, Roots of Radicalism, 82; Hayden, Reunion, 96; Packard, The Status Seekers, 264-83. 10. Hayden , Reunion , 96 ; Packard, The Status Seekers, 122-23 , 203-4 ; Alle n Gutman, The Wound in the Heart: America and the Spanish Civil War (New York:

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. "Th e Genius of a Nation "

Free Press of Glencoe, 1962), 43; George Q. Flynn, RooseveJt and Romanism: Catholics and American Diplomacy, 1937-1945 (Westport , Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1976), 9; Father Charles Owe n Rice, "Th e Dynamite o f th e Encyclicals," radi o address, KDKA, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1 5 May, 1937 (Rice Papers, Box 27, University of Pittsburgh Archives). 11. Rothma n and Lichter, Roots of Radicalism, 83 ; Miller, "Democracy Is in the Streets," 179, 237, 242, 310-11; Sale, SDS 204-5 , 207, 279-80; Miles, The Radical Probe, 174. 12. Richar d Sennett and Jonathan Cobb, The Hidden Injuries of Class (New York: Vintage Books, 1973), 26-27; Fish conversations, 1 6 August 1988, 16 March 1989; James Powrie, KS U SDS, Forma l Remark s Made at the KS U SDS Reunion, Kent, Ohio, 5 May 1989. 13. Car l Oglesby, national president of SDS, Formal Remarks Made at the KSU SDS Reunion , Kent , Ohio , 5 May 1989 ; Carl Davidso n conversatio n an d Formal Remarks Made at the KSU SDS Reunion, Kent , Ohio, 6 May 1989; Robert Lewis, KCEWV and KSU SDS, Kent, Ohio, interview with author, 6 May 1989; Fish conversations, 16 August 1988 and 16 March 1989; Powrie, KSU SDS Reunion; Sue Sattel, MSU SDS, letter to author, 10 July 1988. 14. Sale , SDS, 206. 15. Gitlin , The Sixties, 87-101; Hayden, Reunion, 102; Walsh conversation; Jack Sattel, MSU SDS, letter to author, 5 July 1988; Badrich letters, 4 October 1987 and 18 March 1989. 16. Garret t letter. 17. Ibid . 18. Ibid. ; Jan Garrett, "Chronology of the Young Socialist Club-Hannah Confrontation," no date (Jan Garrett Personal Papers—copy in author's possession); State News, 22 May 1976. 19. Garrett , "Chronolog y o f th e Youn g Socialis t Club-Hanna h Confrontation; " Repas letters to author, 29 December 1987 and 30 June 1988; Ellis, "The Underground Press in America," 102-24. 20. Larr y Lack, MSU Friends of SNCC, telephone conversation with author, 17 August 1988. 21. State News, 2 8 May 1965; William Skocpol, MSU UCM, letter to author, 21 November 1983; William Skocpol, "Repor t on Summer Experience with STEP for Honors College," 1965 (William Skocpol Personal Papers—copy in author's possession). 22. State News, 2 8 May 1965; Michigan State University Student Directory, 19641965 (East Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State University, 1964); Jack Sattel letter. 23. Jac k Sattel letter. 24. Ibid . 25. Ibid. ; Sue Sattel letter. 26. Jac k Sattel letter; Sue Sattel letter; Fish conversations, 16 August 1988 and 16 March 1989. 27. Su e Sattel letter; Skocpol letter to author; Melissa Whitaker, KSU SDS, Kent, Ohio, interview with author, 6 May 1989. For a good discussion of sexism in the New Left, see Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970). 28. Bruc e Douglass, "The Student Christian Movement and Student Politics," in

3. "Th e Geniu s of a Nation" 28

9

Bruce Douglass, ed.f Reflections on Protest (Richmond, Va.: John Know Press, 1967), 13; William Skocpol, letter to Theda Barron (Skocpol), 6 September 196 6 (William Skocpol Personal Papers—copy in author's possession); Pohl interview. 29. Poh l interview; Keith Pohl, Michigan Red Squad File (in author's possession). 30. Poh l interview. 31. Ibid. ; Jondahl interview; State News, 21 April 1967. 32. Mar y Bivins, MSU antiwar student, East Lansing, Mich., interview with author, 4 October 1983; Keniston, Youth and Dissent, 345; Skocpol letter to author; Pete Canon, letter; Pyle interview. Bivins and Canon were discontented Nationa l Merit Scholarship winners. Bivins was one of the Merit Scholars interviewed by Keniston in Youth and Dissent. 33. The Paper, 6 March 1967,12 April 1967; Badrich letters, 4 October 1987 and 18 March 1989; Ellis, "The Underground Press in America," 102-24. 34. Pyl e interview; Badrich letter, 13 May 1988. 35. Th e student anti- and pro war databases for each of the campuses were compiled by recording every single name I came across in the mainstream, underground and conservative alternative newspapers, appropriate materials located in the universities' archives, individuals' FB I and Michigan Red Squad files which they shared with me, and oral interviews. Organizational affiliations wer e noted as I consulted these sources. Ethnicity was derived from a conservative surname analysis, consulting Patrick Hanks and Flavia Hodges, A Dictionary of Surnames (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988) and Benzion C. Kagonoff, A Dictionary of Jewish Names and Their History (Ne w York: Schocken Books , 1977) . Northern-Western Europea n includes English and German Protestants as well as Irish and German Catholics. Frequently lackin g activists ' middl e names , i t wa s impossibl e t o segregat e Germa n Catholics and Protestants—e.g., Catholics' middle names are frequently Saints' names. Majors were garnered from the student directories for the years 1961-1973, campus newspaper s an d universit y administratio n document s (ofte n civi l complain t forms). Libera l arts/socia l scienc e major s includ e th e department s o f art , English, history, politica l science , sociology , an d socia l work . Business/scienc e major s in clude those students studying accounting, agriculture, business, chemistry, engineering, and physics . Activists' residence s were determined b y consulting the student directories. Residential subcategories were based on the U.S. population in 1960. A metropolitan area is defined a s an area with a population of over one million, (e.g., New York City, Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit); a large city is one with a population between 500,000-999,000 (e.g., Pittsburgh); a medium-size city is one with a population of 100,000-499,000; a small city is one with a population of 50,000-99,000; and a small town is one with a population of 2,000-49,000. 36. Th e data on the overall MSU student body are based upon figuresreported in 1969-1970 b y th e MS U Offic e o f th e Registrar . Females , 4 2 percent ; males , 5 8 percent; libera l arts/socia l scienc e majors , 5 4 percent; business-science majors , 46 percent; in-state, 83 percent; out-of-state, 17 percent; National Merit Scholars/Honors College students, 2 percent; residential college students (James Madison and Justin Morrill only), 2 percent. I determined th e proportion of Jewish students on campus by taking a random sampling of names from th e MSU student directories and then employing a conservative surname analysis. 37. Th e data on the overall student body are drawn from information publishe d in 1969 by the MSU Office of the Registrar.

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. "The Genius of a Nation"

38. Th e classic work on labor politics, particularly in Pennsylvania in the 1930s, is Arthur Schlesinger, Jr.'s, volumes on the New Deal. Transcripts of Father Charles Owen Rice's prolabor radio speeches may be found i n the University of Pittsburgh Archives. 39. Davidso n conversation and KSU SDS Reunion. 40. Ibid . 41. Ibid . Sal e mad e som e disparagin g remark s abou t th e locatio n o f th e 196 6 National SDS convention in Clear Lake, Iowa. He obviously did not know the history of the region and how appropriate that site was to the "prairie power" activists. 42. Davidso n conversation; Neil Buckley letter to Carl Davidson, 1967 (Neil Buckley Papers, Historical Collections and Labor Archives, PSU Library); Daily Collegian, 17 April 1965. 43. Daily Collegian, 2 2 Septembe r 1965 , 2 5 Apri l 1966 , 1 8 Novembe r 1966 ; Creegan conversation. 44. Creega n conversation ; Thomas Bennett, PSU YAF, Pittsburgh, Penn., interview with author, 25 March 1989; Farley conversation; Carl Thormeyer, PSU YAF, letter to author, 25 October 1988. 45. Davi d L. Westby and Richard G. Braungart, "Class and Politics in the Family Backgrounds of Student Political Activists," American Sociologica l Review 31 (Oc tober 1966): 690-92. PSU SENSE members in 1965 were identified b y consulting the Daily Collegian an d the n determinin g their variou s characteristics, residence, and majors by using the PSU student directories. 46. Andrew s letter. 47. Creega n conversation; Farley conversation. 48. Thormeye r letter; Bennett interview; Newsletter of the Young Americans for Freedom a t Pen n State , Th e Student Conservativ e (Stat e College, Penn.), Summer Issue, 1967 (Thomas Bennett Personal Papers—copy in author's possession); Westby and Braungart , "Class and Politics in the Family Backgrounds of Student Political Activists," 690-92; Penn State Ad hoc Committee for Student Freedom, "Open Letter to President Eric Walker," 10 May 1965 (Thomas Bennett Personal Papers—copy in author's possession). 49. Daily Collegian, 18 February 1970; Westby and Braungart, "Class and Politics in the Family Backgrounds of Student Political Activists," 690-92. 50. Dat a on the overall composition of the PSU student body in 1969 were kindly provided t o me by the PSU Office o f the Registrar. While the data provided by the PSU Office of the Registrar did not break students down by specific: home residences, the data did provide county totals. This proved to be quite useful, as Philadelphia is a county as well as a city. Here are some basic data on the overall PSU student body in 1969: 31 percent female; 5 4 percent liberal arts/social science majors; 12 percent out-of-state; 7 percent Philadelphia residents; 84 percent undergraduates. 51. Westb y an d Braungart , "Clas s an d Politic s i n th e Famil y Background s of Student Political Activists," 690-92. 52. U.S . Congress, House Committee on Un-American Activities, Investigation of Communist Activities in the Buffalo, New York Area, part I, 85th Congress, 2 October 1957. 53. Unite d Anti-Communist Action Committee of Western New York, "Membership Roster , 1964 " (Elwi n Powel l Persona l Papers—cop y i n author' s possession) ; Albert J. Weinert, director, Speakers' Bureau, United Anti-Communist Action Com-

3. "Th e Geniu s of a Nation" 29

1

mittee of Western New York, letter to the Hon. John R. Pillion, 19 April 1964 (Elwin Powell Personal Papers—copy in author's possession); Hon. John R. Pillion, letter to Mr. Kenneth Maher, Jr., United Anti-Communist Action Committee of Western New York, 22 April 1964 (Elwin Powell Personal Papers—copy in author's possession). 54. Walte r Goodman , Th e Committee: The Extraordinary Caree r of the House Committee on Un-American Activities (Baltimore: Pelican Books, 1969), 453-55. 55. Spectrum , 2 October 1964 , 23 October 1964 , 30 October 1964 , 2 9 January 1965,19 February 1965, 5 April 1965. 56. Spectrum , 30 April 1965, 8 April 1966, 29 September 1967. 57. Spectrum , 4 December 1964,11 December 1964, 23 April 1965,10 December 1965,10 October 1967; Willhelm letter. 58. Spectrum , 1 2 Apri l 1966 , 1 7 Octobe r 1967 ; SUNY-Buffal o YAW F leaflet , "Escalation i n Vietnam Today, World War III Tomorrow," January 1965 (Elizabeth Olmsted Smith Papers, Box 17, SUNY-Buffalo Archives); Spirit and the Sword, "End the War in Vietnam," 1965 (Elizabeth Olmsted Smith Papers, Box 17, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 59. Geral d Gross, SUNY-Buffalo YAWF , FBI File (Elwin Powell Personal Papers —notes from filein author's possession); Gerald Gross, letter to the Peoples' Republic of China representative i n Canada , include d i n Gross' s FB I File (cop y of lette r i n author's possession); Fischer FBI File. Fischer's FBI filementions a police informant in the Buffalo YAWF. She noted in the margins of the filethe probable identity of the informant, a Buffalo YAWF founder. 60. Hayni e interview; Faulkner conversation. 61. Spectrum , 11 March 1966,11 February 1970. 62. Spectrum , 7 May 1965, 30 July 1965, 8 February 1966, 8 April 1966, 5 July 1968,13 December 1968. 63. Spectrum , 5 August 1966 ; Faulkne r conversation ; Powel l letter , 1 6 April 1988. 64. Spectrum , 15 October 1965, 28 January 1966, 1 February 1966, 8 April 1966, 15 April 1966; Marcella Branagan, SUNY-Buffalo antiwar student, letter to author, 28 July 1989. 65. Spectrum , 19 April 1965. 66. Oglesb y KSU SDS Reunion. 67. Oglesb y KSU SDS Reunion; Carl Oglesby and Richard Shaull , Containment and Chang e (New York: Macmillan, 1967) , 112-39; Paul Jacobs and Sau l Landau, The New Radicals: A Report with Documents (New York: Vintage Books, 1966), 25766. 68. Daily Kent Stater, 7 July 1964. The KSU student directories did not provide information o n students ' majors . Sinc e th e KS U Office o f th e Registra r neve r re sponded t o my inquiries concernin g th e social characteristic s o f th e KSU student body in 1969-1970, I was forced t o select at random 240 students from th e 19691970 KSU student directory and compile my own profile of the overall student body: Northern-Western European , 7 4 percent ; Southern-Easter n European , 2 2 percent ; Jewish, 5 percent; undergraduate, 9 3 percent; graduate, 7 percent; in-state, 83 percent; out-of-state, 1 7 percent; metropolitan area, 17 percent; Cleveland an d its suburbs, 9 percent; Cleveland residents, 4 percent; female, 43 percent; male, 57 percent. 69. Wals h conversation. 70. Ibid .

292 4

. "Let Us Try to Succeed with Reason"

71. Ibid. ; Daily Kent Stater, 12 January 1965; Joseph Jackson conversation. 72. Wals h conversation; Joseph Jackson conversation; Gibson conversation; Daily Kent Stater, 27 October 1967,14 February 1968. 73. Wals h conversation; Joseph Jackson conversation; Gibson conversation. 74. Gibso n conversation; Howie Emmer, KCEWV and KSU SDS, Formal Remarks Made at the KSU SDS Reunion, Kent, Ohio, 5 May 1989; Powrie KSU SDS Reunion; Robin Marks, KSU SDS, Formal Remarks Made at the KSU SDS Reunion, Kent, Ohio, 6 May 1989. 75. Gibso n conversation; Lewis interview. 76. Heirich , Spiral of Conflict, and Hodgson, America in Our Time, among others, contend that the Berkeley FSM represented the birth of white student activism. 77. Gitlin, The Sixties, Miller, "Democracy Is in the Streets," and Sale, SDS, a s well as other scholars, have argued that the state university studen t activist s were generally intellectually inferior to their elite educated counterparts. 78. Rothma n and Lichter, Roots of Radicalism, an d Richard Flacks, "The Liberated Generation," in Clark and Clark, eds., Youth in Modern Society, profiled radical activists a t Chicago , Columbia, an d Michiga n an d conclude d tha t i n genera l Jews were heavily represented i n the ranks of the New Left. They were, but far less so at the less prestigious state universities. 4. "Le t Us Try to Succeed with Reason" 1. Zarouli s and Sullivan, Who Spoke Up? 106. 2. Unger , The Movement, 103; Sale, SDS, 302 ; Richard Flacks, "The Liberated Generation," in Clark and Clark, eds., Youth in Modern Society, 319-39; F. Chandler Young, "Th e Importance o f Students , 1949-1974, " i n Alla n G . Bogue and Robert Taylor, eds. , Th e Universit y of Wisconsin: On e Hundre d an d Twenty-Fiv e Year s (Madison: University o f Wisconsin Press , 1975) , 131-56; Lukas, Don't Shoot —We Are Your Children.' 9-61. 3. Young , "The Importance of Students, 1949-1974," 131-56. 4. State News, 8 March 1965. 5. Ibid. , 9 March 1965. 6. Ibid. , 8 April 1965, 12 April 1965; Greer interview; Bivins interview. 7. Dr . John Donoghue, Department of Anthropology, Michigan State University, letter to MSU president John Hannah, 12 April 1965 (Hannah Papers, MSU Archives); Resolutions o f th e MS U Vietnam Teach-in , 1 1 April 196 5 (Hanna h Papers , MSU Archives); Greer interview. 8. Stat e News, 20 April 1965. 9. Ibid. , 12 April 1965, 21 April 1965, 22 April 1965; DeBenedetti and Chatfield, An American Ordeal, 109. 10. State News, 12 May 1965; Greer interview. 11. State News, 13 October 1965,18 October 1965; Michigan Free Speech Defense Circular, 1966 (Student Radicalism Collection, MSU Special Collections); Fish conversation, 16 August 1988. 12. State News, 17 November 1965; The Paper, 3 December 1965. 13. Jacob s and Landau, The New Radicals, 258-59. 14. State News, 11 October 1966.

4. "Let Us Try to Succee d wit h Reason" 29

3

15. The Paper, 28 March 1966. 16. Detroi t Fre e Press , 2 April 1966 ; Michigan Fre e Speec h Defens e Circular , 1966. 17. State News, 30 March 1966, 31 March 1966; Detroit Free Press, 2 April 1966. 18. Detroi t Fre e Press , 2 April 1966 ; Michigan Fre e Speec h Defens e Circular , 1966. 19. Hinckl e et al., "The University on the Make," 53-55; Newsweek 67 (25 April 1966): 78; New York Times, 14 April 1966; State News, 14 April 1966, 20 April 1966, 12 May 1966. 20. Lansin g State Journal, 24 April 1966. 21. Ibid . 22. Repa s interview ; Michiga n Stat e Universit y Advisor y Group , Fina l Repor t Covering Activities of the MSU Vietnam Advisory Group for the Period May 20, 1955-June 30, 1962, 23-26, 61-64, 77; Sciglian o and Fox, Technical Assistance in Vietnam, 4; State News, 20 April 1966; The Paper, 7 April 1966,19 May 1966. 23. Badric h letters, 4 October 1987, 13 May 1988, 17 May 1988; State News, 2 0 April 1966; The Paper, 7 April 1966. 24. Badric h letters, 4 October 1987, 13 May 1988, 17 May 1988; Fish conversation, 16 August 1988; Pyle interview; Jack Sattel letter; Sue Sattel letter. 25. Skocpo l letter to author; Skocpol letter to Theda Barron; Pohl interview. 26. Badric h letters, 4 October 1987,13 May 1988,17 May 1988; Jack Sattel letter; Sue Sattel letter; George Fish conversation, 16 August 1988. 27. Th e Paper, 27 January 1967. 28. Harve y Goldman, "MSU-SDS Announcement o f National SDS Draft Resolution," 1 8 January 196 7 (Student Radicalis m Collection , MSU Special Collections) ; SDS, "SDS Draft Resolution, " 2 8 December 196 6 (Studen t Radicalis m Collection , MSU Special Collections). 29. The Paper, Fall Orientation Issue, August 1968; Skocpol letter to author. 30. Gree r interview; Larrowe interview; State News, 16 November 1966. 31. Interfait h Convocatio n on War and Peace Circular, 30 November 1966 (Student Radicalism Collection, MSU Special Collections); Greer, "What Is the War Doing to Us in the World of International Politics?" 32. The Paper, 4 April 1967; UCM, Regional Headquarters Staff of Vietnam Strategy Committee, "General Policy Statement of the Peace Strategy Committee," Spring 1967 (Lynn Jondahl Personal Papers—copy in author's possession). 33. MSU-UCM , "1967 Student Elections Proposal," Spring 1967 (Lynn Jondahl Personal Papers—copy in author's possession); MSU-UCM, "Peace Strategy Committee Report, " 2 0 Februar y 196 7 (Lyn n Jondahl Persona l Papers—cop y i n author' s possession); Pohl interview; Jondahl interview. 34. State News, 10 March 1967; Badrich letters, 4 October 1987,13 May 1988,17 May 1988. 35. The Paper, 25 April 1967. 36. J . Robert Nelson, "Vietnam Summer, " Christian Centur y 84 (24 May 1967): 678-79; Lansing Vietnam Summer Project, "Lansing Vietnam Summer Newsletter," East Lansing, July 196 7 (Lynn Jondahl Persona l Papers—cop y i n author' s posses sion). 37. Lansin g Vietnam Summe r Project, "Lansin g Vietnam Summe r Letter to the

294 4.

"Let Us Try to Succeed with Reason"

Public," East Lansing, 26 May 1967 (Lynn Jondahl Personal Papers—copy in author's possession); Towne-Courie r Enterpris e (Eas t Lansing , Mich.) , 1 August 1967 ; Sue Sattel letter. 38. "Lansin g Vietnam Summe r Newsletter"; Lansing Vietnam Summe r Project , "Things You Can Do to Express Your Concern," July 1967 (Lynn Jondahl Personal Papers—copy i n author' s possession) ; Dave Stockman lette r to Friends of Lansing Vietnam Summer, July 1967 (Lynn Jondahl Personal Papers—copy in author's possession); The Paper, 16 May 1967. 39. "Thing s You Can do to Express Your Concern;" Stockman letter; The Paper, 16 May 1967. 40. Lansin g Vietnam Summer, "Perspectives for Action," 21 August 1967 (Lynn Jondahl Personal Papers—copy in author's possession); Unger, The Movement, 138; Garskoff conversation . 41. The Paper, 7 November 1967. 42. Daily Collegian, 6 January 1965. 43. Ibid. , 15 February 1965, 24 February 1965, 25 February 1965. 44. Ibid. , 17 February 1965,18 February 1965. 45. Ibid. , 24 February 1965. 46. Withal l letter; Daily CoIJegian, 7 April 1965, 9 April 1965,10 April 1965. 47. Daily Collegian, 20 April 1965, 21 April 1965. 48. Ibid. , 27 April 1965, 28 April 1965, 30 April 1965. 49. Ibid. , 19 August 1965; Student Conservative, 1 March 1965,12 April 1965, 26 April 1965, 20 May 1965 . 50. Thormeye r letter ; Bennet t interview ; Newslette r o f th e YAF at Pen n State , Freedom! 20 May 1963 (Thomas Bennett Personal Papers—copy in author's possession); Daily CoIJegian, 29 September 1965, 29 October 1965. 51. Daily CoIJegian, 28 October 1965, 30 October 1965; Creegan conversation. 52. Creega n conversation; Daily CoIJegian, 19 October 1965. 53. Daily Collegian, 23 October 1965, 28 October 1965. 54. Ibid. , 20 October 1965, 2 June 1967; Rabinowitz letter; Bennett interview. 55. Daily CoIJegian, 10 November 1965. 56. Ibid. , 1 7 April 1965 , 1 1 September 1965 , 2 5 September 1965 , 1 2 October 1965, 2 2 October 1965 , 2 3 October 1965 , 2 7 October 1965 , 6 November 1965 , 24 November 1965; Bennett interview; PSU YAF, "Report of the Penn State YAF," 1966 (Thomas Bennett Personal Papers—copy in author's possession). 57. Daily CoIJegian, 2 October 1965,15 October 1965, 20 November 1965. 58. Ibid. , 28 January 1966, 8 February 1966,10 February 1966, 19 February 1966; Farley conversation. 59. Daily CoIJegian, 2 8 January 1966 , 2 9 January 1966 , 1 February 1966 , 1 1 February 1966; Creegan conversation. 60. Daily Collegian, 1 February 1966; Creegan conversation. 61. Bennet t interview; PSU YAF Memorandums from Carl Thormeyer to Dennis Tanner, 7 July 1965,10 August 1965, 27 July 1965 (Thomas Bennett Personal Papers —copies in author's possession); Thormeyer letter; Daily CoIJegian, 9 February 1966. 62. Bennet t interview; Daily CoIJegian, 18 February 1966, 23 February 1966, 29 April 1966, 30 April 1966. 63. Daily Collegian, 8 March 1966, 5 May 1966, 4 October 1966. 64. Ibid. , 3 0 Apri l 1966 , 1 1 Ma y 1966 ; PS U A d ho c Committe e fo r Studen t

4. "Le t Us Try to Succeed with Reason" 29

5

Freedom, Open Letter to the President o f the University, 1 0 May 1966 (Carl Thormeyer Personal Papers—copy in author's possession). 65. Daily Collegian, 2 April 1966; Daily Collegian, 19 April 1966, 23 April 1966, 30 April 1966. 66. Davidson , "Towar d a Student Syndicalis t Movemen t o r University Refor m Revisted," working paper prepared for the National Convention of the Students for a Democratic Societ y a t Clea r Lake , Iowa , Augus t 196 6 (Thoma s Bennet t Persona l Papers-copy in author's possession). 67. Thormeye r letter; Bennett interview; Daily Collegian, 7 October 1966. 68. Daily Collegian, 7 October 1966; Steve Accardy and Neil Buckley et al., "The Movement, Part I," Students for a Democratic Society, Penn State chapter, December 1966 (Thoma s Bennet t Persona l Papers—cop y i n author' s possession) ; New Left Notes, 16 December 1966. 69. Daily Collegian, 6 October 1966, 13 October 1966,19 October 1966, 22 October 1966,1 November 1966,19 November 1966, 22 November 1966. 70. Bennet t interview; Farley conversation; Creegan conversation; Neil Buckley letter t o Cath y Wilkerson , SD S National Office , 1 8 Februar y 196 7 (Nei l Buckle y Papers, Historical Collections and Labor Archives, PSU Library). 71. Withal l letter ; Daily Collegian, 2 2 Novembe r 1966 , 2 9 November 1966 , 2 December 1966. 72. New Left Notes, 27 January 1967; Daily Collegian, 17 January 1967,18 January 1967,19 January 1967, 20 January 1967, 26 January 1967, 7 February 1967, 2 March 1967. 73. Daily Collegian, 1 2 January 1967, 16 February 1967, 21 February 1967; PSU SDS circular o n napalm , "Ho w Do w Chemical Serve s You, " 196 7 (Nei l Buckle y Papers, Historical Collections and Labor Archives, PSU Library). 74. Daily Collegian, 1 February 1967, 2 February 1967, 3 February 1967, 4 February 1967; New Left Notes, 20 February 1967; Neil Buckley, "Penn State SDS Sit-in . . . 2/5/67 , Summar y o f Events " (Nei l Buckle y Papers , Historica l Collection s an d Labor Archives, PSU Library). 75. Progress (Clearfield , Penn.) , 7 January 1967 (Neil Buckley Papers, Historical Collections and Labo r Archives, PSU Library); Neil Buckley letter to Greg Calvert, National SD S president, 1 1 February 196 7 (Neil Buckley Papers, Historical Collections and Labor Archives, PSU Library); Daily Collegian, 18 January 1967, 21 January 1967, 2 February 1967 , 21 February 1967 , 22 February 1967 , 23 February 1967 , 24 February 1967, 28 February 1967,12 April 1967. 76. Bennet t interview ; PS U YAF circular o n th e Dejaeghe r debate , "Unprece dented Debate, " Ma y 196 7 (Thoma s Bennet t Persona l Papers—cop y i n author' s possession); Don Ernsberger, PSU YAF, Ogontz campus of PSU, letter to Tom Bennett, PSU YAF, PSU main campus, 3 February 1967 (Thomas Bennett Personal Papers —copy in author's possession); PSU YAF circular, "Join Young Americans for Freedom," 1967 (Thomas Bennett Personal Papers—copy in author's possession); Daily Collegian, 2 March 1967,17 March 1967. 77. Daily Collegian, 22 February 1967, 8 March 1967,11 April 1967; Neil Buckley letter to his sister, 28 March 1967 (Neil Buckley Papers, Historical Collections and Labor Archives, PSU Library). 78. Daily Collegian, 1 5 April 1967,18 April 1967, 20 April 1967, 21 April 1967, 22 April 1967,14 November 1967,17 November 1967; Creegan conversation.

296 4

. "Le t Us Tr y to Succee d wit h Reason "

79. Rober t Boyer, PSU clergy antiwar activist, letters to author, 9 December 1987 and 2 6 Januar y 1988 ; Dail y Collegian , 1 4 Februar y 1967 , 1 5 Februar y 1967 , 2 8 February 1967, 2 March 1967. 80. Daily Collegian, 3 1 May 1967, 29 June 1967, 17 August 1967 , 27 September 1967, 28 September 1967. 81. Ibid. , 6 July 1967,13 July 1967, 20 July 1967, 26 September 1967,18 September 1968. 82. Creega n conversation; Neil Buckley letter to Carl Davidson, 1967 ; Sale, SDS, 141-42; Nei l Buckle y Pres s Release-lette r t o Dr . Henr y W . Sams , head , Englis h Department, PSU , 8 March 196 7 (Nei l Buckle y Papers , Historica l Collection s an d Labor Archives, PSU Library). 83. Daily CoJJegian, 20 September 1967, 24 October 1967. 84. Ibid. , 18 October 1967,19 October 1967, 24 October 1967, 25 October 1967, 2 November 1967, 22 November 1967; Sale, SDS, 380. Sale, relying on New Left Notes for a great deal of his information o n campus activism, credited SD S for being the first grou p at PSU to "uncover" the ORL. This should serve as a warning to scholars that New Left Notes1 report s o f SD S chapter activitie s an d achievement s mus t be taken with a grain of salt. It may be that the publication functioned a s a forum fo r self-serving and publicity-seeking individuals. 85. Dail y Collegian, 1 November 1967, 7 November 1967. 86. Willhel m letter; Powell letter, 12 November 1987. 87. Powel l letter, 12 November 1987; Spectrum, 26 March 1965, 5 April 1965, 9 April 1965. 88. Spectrum , 23 April 1965, 30 April 1965, 7 May 1965. 89. Ibid. , 30 July 1965, 8 October 1965. 90. Ibid. , 16 July 1965, 30 July 1965,13 August 1965. 91. Ibid. , 24 September 1965, 1 October 1965, 8 October 1965, 15 October 1965, 22 October 1965; Gross FBI File. 92. Spectrum , 22 October 1965. 93. Ibid. , 1 October 1965, 15 October 1965, 22 October 1965, 5 November 1965, 12 November 1965, 23 November 1965,10 December 1965, 8 April 1966. 94. Ibid. , 28 January 1966, 1 February 1966,15 April 1966. 95. Ibid. , 4 February 1966 , 1 1 March 1966 ; SUNY-Buffal o SDS , Fund Raisin g Letter t o th e Buffal o Community , 196 6 (Elizabet h Olmste d Smit h Papers , Bo x 17, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 96. Spectrum , 22 February 1966,15 March 1966; Powell letter, 16 April 1988. 97. Ibid. , 1 April 1966, 8 April 1966. 98. Ibid. , 28 January 1966, 25 February 1966,1 April 1966, 8 April 1966,12 April 1966, 26 April 1966, 5 May 1966, 6 May 1966. 99. Ibid. , 3 May 1966, 5 May 1966, 9 May 1966, 10 May 1966; New Left Notes, 6 May 1966; Willhelm letter; Faulkner conversation; see Furnas, Memorial Biographical Record of Clifford C . Furnas, fo r th e president' s runnin g commentar y o n hi s subordinates. 100. Spectrum , 12 August 1966. 101. Ibid. , 7 September 1966, 30 September 1966, 4 October 1966. 102. Ibid. , 27 September 1966, 30 September 1966, 4 October 1966,15 November 1966; New Left Notes, 28 Octobe r 1966 ; Faulkne r conversation ; Willhel m letter ; Powell letter, 12 November 1987; Haynie interview.

4. "Let Us Try to Succee d wit h Reason" 29

7

103. Spectrum , 21 October 1966, 25 October 1966, 28 October 1966,1 November 1966, 4 Novembe r 1966 , 3 1 October 1967 ; Gross FB I File; SUNY-Buffal o YAW F leaflet, "U.S. Bombs Hanoi!" 1966 (Elizabeth Olmsted Smith Papers, Box 17, SUNYBuffalo Archives); Powell letter, 16 April 1988. 104. Spectrum , 28 October 1966; Elwin H. Powell, "Promoting the Decline of the Rising State: Documents of Resistance and Renewal from the Alternative Community, Buffalo, 1965-1976, " Catalyst 9 (1977): 63-65; Powell letter, 12 November 1987. 105. Spectrum , 31 January 1967, 7 February 1967,14 February 1967, 28 February 1967, 3 March 1967, 7 March 1967, 7 April 1967. 106. Ibid. , 3 March 1967,11 April 1967. 107. Ibid. , 3 March 1967, 7 April 1967,11 April 1967, 5 May 1967, 22 September 1967; Powell letter, 19 December 1987. 108. Spectrum , 3 1 January 1967 , 14 April 1967 , 18 April 1967 ; George C. Cox, Buffalo communit y resident, letter to SUNY-Buffalo presiden t Martin Meyerson, 17 March 196 7 (Campu s Unrest , 1965-1970 , Bo x 1 , SUNY-Buffal o Archives) ; Ann a O'Connor, Buffal o communit y resident , lette r t o SUNY-Buffal o presiden t Marti n Meyerson, 1 0 April 196 7 (Campu s Unrest , 1965-1970 , Bo x 1 , SUNY-Buffal o Ar chives). 109. Spectrum , 4 April 1967, 21 April 1967, 25 April 1967, 23 June 1967; FacultyStudent Committee to Oppose Censorship, letter to SUNY-Buffalo presiden t Martin Meyerson, 2 5 April 196 7 (Campu s Unrest , 1965-1970 , Bo x 1 , SUNY-Buffal o Ar chives). 110. Spectrum , 14 March 1967, 11 April 1967, 4 August 1967, 27 October 1967; Buffalo Insighter (Buffalo , Ne w York), 20 November 196 7 (Campus Unrest, 1965 1970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 111. Buffalo Insighter, 25 September 1967; Vietnam Summer, Erie County, circular, 1967 (Elizabeth Olmsted Smith Papers, Box 17, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 112. Car l Kronberg, SUNY-Buffalo YAWF , FBI File (Elwin Powell Personal Papers—notes fro m file in author's possession) ; Spectrum, 2 3 June 1967 ; Buffalo Insighter, 1 July 1967, 25 September 1967. 113. Buffalo Insighter , 2 5 September 1967 ; Spectrum, 1 1 August 1967 , 26 September 1967,17 October 1967. 114. Spectrum , 14 June 1967. 115. Ibid. , 26 September 1967; Branagan letter; Snell letter, 8 March 1988; Bennis, The Leaning Ivory Tower, 129-45; Meyerson, The City and the University, 7-16. 116. Spectrum , 17 October 1967, 20 October 1967. 117. Ibid. , 8 Decembe r 1967 ; Buffal o Insighter , 2 0 Novembe r 1967 ; Faulkne r conversation. 118. Spectrum, 20 October 1967, 27 October 1967,17 November 1967,15 December 1967; Buffalo Insighter, 25 September 1967. 119. Spectrum, 3 November 1967 , 17 November 1967 ; SUNY-Buffalo presiden t Martin Meyerson, Open Letter to Faculty Colleagues and Students, 30 October 1967 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 120. SUNY-Buffal o presiden t Marti n Meyerson , Ope n Lette r t o Student s an d Faculty Colleagues, 1 3 December 1967 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 1, SUNYBuffalo Archives) ; Dr. George Hochfield e t al., A Statement for the Approval of the Faculty Senate, November 196 7 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffal o Archives); Spectrum, 17 November 1967,12 December 1967.

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121. Spectrum , 7 November 1967,15 December 1967,19 December 1967; Sharon Edelman, Review of Student Activism, 1965-1967 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 122. SUNY-Buffal o Studen t Senat e Referendum, Campu s Recruitment, Results , December 196 7 (Campu s Unrest , 1965-1970 , Bo x 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; Dr. Newton Garver, Department of Philosophy, Open Letter to Colleagues, 19 December 1967 (Campu s Unrest , 1965-1970 , Bo x 1 , SUNY-Buffal o Archives) ; Spectrum , 3 November 1967, 8 December 1967,12 December 1967,15 December 1967,19 December 1967. 123. Spectrum , 19 December 1967. 124. Josep h Jackson conversation; Walsh conversation. 125. Josep h Jackson conversation; Walsh conversation; Daily Kent Stater, 12 February 1965. 126. Josep h Jackson conversation; Walsh conversation; Daily Kent Stater, 2 0 April 1965,19 May 1965, 8 April 1965,14 April 1965,15 April 1965. 127. Josep h Jackson conversation; Walsh conversation; Daily Kent Stater, 6 April 1965, 15 April 1965 , 11 May 1965, 12 May 1965; Dr. Sidney L. Jackson, School of Library Science, Kent State University, letter to Mrs. Henry Lewis, Kent community resident, 2 April 1965 (Sidney Jackson Papers, Box 1, Kent State Archives). 128. Josep h Jackson conversation; Walsh conversation; Daily Kent Stater, 11 November 1965,16 November 1965. 129. Josep h Jackson conversation; Walsh conversation; Daily Kent Stater, 24 February 1966, 8 April 1966. 130. Josep h Jackson conversation; Walsh conversation; Gibson conversation. 131. Josep h Jackson conversation; Gibson conversation; Daily Kent Stater, 1 Marc h 1967,18 April 1967, 25 May 1967, 2 June 1967. 132. Josep h Jackso n conversation ; Gibso n conversation ; Daily Kent Stater, 2 7 October 1967, 31 October 1967, 2 November 1967. 133. Powri e KSU SDS Reunion; Emmer KSU SDS Reunion; Daily Kent Stater, 20 October 1967, 2 November 1967. 134. Gibso n conversation; DaiJy Kent Stater, 1 7 October 1967, 20 October 1967, 27 October 1967, 3 November 1967, 9 November 1967, 29 November 1967. 135. Daily Kent Stater, 3 1 October 1967, 8 November 1967, 14 November 1967, 21 November 1967. 136. Ibid. , 1 November 1967, 2 November 1967,14 November 1967. 137. Josep h Jackson conversation; Daily Kent Stater, 6 December 1967, 7 December 1967. 5. "Yo u Don't Need a Weatherman" 1. Badric h letter , 2 4 July 1988 ; MSU president John A. Hannah, "Stat e of the University," address t o Faculty Convocation , 1 2 February 196 8 (Robert Repas Personal Papers—copy in author's possession). 2. Badric h letter, 13 May 1988; State News, 1 5 February 1968; William Hixson, MSU faculty antiwa r actvist , Eas t Lansing , Mich. , intervie w wit h author , 4 April 1984. 3. The Paper, 1 0 April 1968 , 17 April 1968 , 24 April 1968; Academic Days o f

5. "Yo u Don't Need a Weatherman" 29

9

Conscience, circular, April 1968 (Student Radicalism Collection, MSU Special Collections); State News, 17 April 1968; Pohl interview; Pohl Red Squad File. 4. Willia m Skocpol letter to his mother, 18 June 1968 (William Skocpol Personal Papers—copy in author's possession). 5. Poh l interview; Pohl Red Squad File. 6. Bet h Shapiro, MSU SDS, East Lansing, Mich., interview with author, 2 February 1984; Rick Kibbey, MSU SDS, telephone conversation with author, 21 November 1983 ; Skocpo l lette r t o author ; State News, 30 Ma y 1968 , 1 9 June 1968 , 2 6 September 1968; Fish Red Squad File. 7. State News, 20 June 1968, 26 September 1968; Pyle interview; Larrowe interview. 8. Larrow e interview; State News, 26 May 1968; Mader letter. 9. Lansin g State Journal, 14 June 1968,15 June 1968. 10. America n Legion , Departmen t o f Michigan , lette r t o MS U president John Hannah, 2 August 1968 (Hannah Papers, MSU Archives); Veterans of Foreign Wars, Department of Michigan, letter to MSU president John Hannah, 30 June 1968 (Hannah Papers, MSU Archives); Lansing State Journal, 15 June 1968. 11. Th e Motherfuckers, "The Destructuring of SDS," June 1968 (Student Radicalism Collection, MSU Special Collections); MSU SDS, "General Agenda for Panels, Workshops, National Convention and National Council," and "Specific Area Workshops," June 1968 (Student Radicalism Collection, MSU Special Collections); Lansing State Journal, 1 5 June 1968; Shapiro interview; Hixson interview; Sale, SDS, 455-70; Fish Red Squad File; George Fish FBI File (George Fish Personal Paperscopy in author's possession). 12. Sale , SDS, 455-70. 13. State News, 30 Septembe r 1968 , 1 Octobe r 1968 ; Fis h conversations , 1 6 August 1988, 3 September 1989 and 16 March 1989; Garskoff conversation. 14. Pyl e interview; Skocpol letter to author; State News, 1 March 1967, 2 March 1967; Jack Sattel letter ; Sue Satte l letter . Fo r information regardin g Linda Evans' background, I am indebted to the Ft. Dodge, Iowa, public library for providing me with excerpted copies of the following: The Dodger '65, Ft. Dodge, Iowa, High School Yearbook, and the 1964 Ft. Dodge, Iowa, City Directory. The 2 December 1990 issue of the Des Moines Register (Des Moines, Iowa) carried a lengthy article on Evans and her trial that year for planting eight bombs between 1983 and 1985. 15. MS U Resistance Newsletter, November 1968 (Student Radicalism Collection, MSU Special Collections); State News, 15 October 1968. 16. MS U Resistance circular, 1968 (Student Radicalism Collection, MSU Special Collections); Kibbey conversation. 17. Resistanc e circular; State Journal, 15 November 1968. 18. Ric k Kowal l lette r t o hi s draf t board , 1 1 January 197 0 (Jame s Anderso n Personal Papers—copy in author's possession); Anderson interview. 19. Made r letter. 20. Fis h Red Squad File; Fish conversations, 1 6 August 1988 and 3 September 1989; Pyle interview; Andy Pyle, Michigan State Police Red Squad File (Andy Pyle Personal Papers—notes from filein author's possession); Garskoff conversation; Carl Oglesby, Kent, Ohio, interview with author, 5 May 1989; State News, 1 1 February 1969,12 February 1969.

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21. Larrow e interview ; Repa s interview ; Shapir o interview ; Th e Paper, 1 May 1969. 22. Associate d Student s o f Michiga n Stat e Universit y Minute s (ASMSU , MSU student government), 11 February 1969 (East Lansing, Mich.: ASMSU); Walter Adams, The Test (New York; Macmillan, 1971), 118. 23. Adams , The Test, 52; Kibbey conversation; Larrow e interview ; Poh l inter view; Shapiro interview ; Fis h conversation , 1 6 August 1988 ; MSU SDS, "Abolish ROTC," 29 October 1969 (Student Radicalism Collection, MSU Special Collections); New York Times, 5 January 1969; State News, 21 January 1971. 24. Jac k Sattel letter; Sue Sattel letter; Fish conversation, 1 6 August 1988; Pyle interview; State News, 29 April 1969 , 1 May 1969 , 9 May 1969; Jack Sattel, Sue Sattel, Janet Dowty , St u Dowt y e t al. , Radical Education Project , Detroit , letter to supporters, Jul y 196 9 (Nei l Buckle y Papers , Historica l Collection s an d Labo r Archives, PSU Library.) 25. Fis h conversation, 16 August 1988; Shapiro interview; Fish Red Squad File; Sale, SDS, 557-80. 26. Sale , SDS, 576, 588, 589, 624, 648, 649. 27. Repor t of the Special Committee on Political Surveillance by the East Lansing Police Department; Pyle Red Squad File; Fish interview, 3 September 1989; Shapiro interview; Frank Donner, "Spies on Campus," PJayboy 15 (March 1968): 108, 115, 144-45, 147-50; James Ridgeway, "Patriots on the Campus," New Republic 156 (25 March 1967) : 12-13. Davi d Epstein had joine d SD S in 1968 , ostensibly t o write a Master's Thesis, "The Students for a Democratic Society at Michigan State University, 1968-1969: A Case Study" (Michigan State University School of Police Administration and Public Administration, 1970). However, he did not, according to Shapiro and Fish, inform SDSer s of his intentions; they only discovered his purpose by accident. Further, prior to 1968 he had been an outspoken hawk, then he informed SDSers that he had changed his mind and was drawn to the radicals. Activists later discovered that Epstein had been with the Army Military Police in Vietnam. 28. To m Samet, MSU antiwar student, letter to author, 12 July 1988; Adams, The Test, 47-48, 98-107; ASMSU Minutes, 30 September 1969. 29. Adams , The Test, 102-7; Kibbey conversation. 30. ASMS U Minutes, 28 October 1969 and 18 November 1969; Kibbey conversation; Norman Pollack, MSU NUC, telephone conversatio n wit h author, 1 4 October 1983. 31. Anderso n interview. 32. Larrow e interview; Repas interview; Fish conversation, 16 August 1988; State News, 6 May 1969 , 9 Octobe r 1969 ; Clifto n Ore o Wharto n Researc h Committee , "Clifton Ore o Wharton: A Fact Sheet, " Fal l 197 0 (Studen t Radicalis m Collection , MSU Special Collections); Who's Who in America, 1973-1974. 33. Daily Collegian, 1 0 January 1968, 6 February 1968; New Left Notes, 1 2 February 1968; Farley conversation. 34. Daily Collegian , 1 9 January 1968 , 21 February 1968 , 22 February 1968 , 29 February 1968 , 1 March 1968; PSU SDS leaflet o n the IDA, "Walker Attends Secret Meeting Today," February 1968 (Thomas Bennett Personal Papers—copy in author's possession). 35. Daily Collegian, 3 May 1968,14 May 1968. 36. Daily Collegian, 6 April 1968 , 9 April 1968 , 9 May 1968, 14 May 1968, 15

5. "Yo u Don't Need a Weatherman" 30

1

May 1968, 17 May 1968; PSU SDS, Southpaw (Stat e College, Penn.), 13 May 1968 (Student Activism Records, Box 1, PSU Library). 37. Creega n conversation; Daily Collegian, 7 March 1968, 29 March 1968, 2 April 1968, 4 April 1968, 6 April 1968,11 April 1968, 8 May 1968, 9 May 1968; Southpaw, 13 May 1968. 38. Creega n conversation; Daily Collegian, 1 5 May 1968, 16 May 1968, 17 Ma y 1968. 39. Bennet t interview; Daily Collegian, 16 January 1968, 6 February 1968, 3 April 1968,16 May 1968,10 October 1968, 20 November 1968. 40. Creega n conversation; Sale, SDS, 459 , 463-64; Greg Calvert, national president of SDS, letter to Neil Buckley, 22 January 1968 (Neil Buckley Papers, Historical Collections and Labor Archives, PSU Library); Neil Buckley, position paper for the 1968 National SDS convention, "Burning Questions of Our Movement," June 1968 (Neil Buckley Papers, Historical Collections and Labor Archives, PSU Library). 41. Davidso n conversation; Buckley, "Burning Questions of Our Movement." 42. Daily Collegian, 27 September 1968. 43. Creega n conversation; Withall letter; Daily Collegian, 18 September 1968, 25 September 1968, 27 September 1968, 1 October 1968, 12 October 1968, 15 October 1968,18 October 1968. 44. Creega n conversation; Daily Collegian, 2 4 Septembe r 1968 , 2 8 September 1968,18 October 1968, 8 November 1968, 20 November 1968. 45. Daily Collegian, 1 8 September 1968, 5 November 1968, 8 November 1968; Creegan conversation; Petras conversation; Dale Winter, PSU clergy antiwar activist, letter to author, 28 January 1988. 46. Daily Collegian, 2 October 1968, 4 October 1968, 9 October 1968, 23 October 1968, 26 October 1968,1 November 1968, 5 November 1968. 47. Ibid. , 1 2 October 1968 , 5 November 1968 , 6 November 1968 , 7 November 1968,12 November 1968. 48. Ibid. , 25 February 1969; Joseph E. Gonzalez, Jr., special assistant for Legislative Relations , Rutgers , Th e Stat e University , "Stat e Law s o f 196 9 Dealin g wit h Student Unrest," 5 November 1969 (Office of the President, Central Files, Administration, Box 8, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 49. Daily Collegian , 1 8 February 1969, 2 5 February 1969, 27 February 1969, 8 May 1969; Statement of Judge A. H. Lipez in Centre County Court, 28 February 1969 (Student Activism Records, Box 1, PSU Archives); In the Court of Common Pleas of Centre County, Pennsylvania, The Pennsylvania State University vs. Alvin Youngberg, et ah, defendants, Complaint , April Term , 196 9 (Studen t Activism Records, Box 1, PSU Library). 50. Daily Collegian, 2 0 November 1968 , 1 8 February 1969 ; Water Tunnel, 27 January 1969,10 February 1969, 24 February 1969,10 March 1969. 51. Daily Collegian, 24 September 1969; In the Court of Common Pleas of Centre County, Pennsylvania, Commonwealth vs. Stephen AJvan Youngberg, Russell Steven Farb, Jay Robert Shore, Transcript of Trial, 14 April 1969 (Student Activism Records, Box 1, PSU Library). 52. Daily Collegian, 1 4 January 1969 , 2 8 January 1969 , 3 1 January 1969 , 1 1 February 1969,12 February 1969,18 February 1969,19 February 1969; Petras conversation. 53. Wate r Tunnel, 2 4 February 1969 ; Daily Collegian, 1 8 April 1969 , 2 1 May

302 5

. "You Don't Nee d a Weatherman "

1969; PSU SDS circular o n SDS ideology and studen t governmen t elections , "The Platform—The Candidates," 1969 (Student Activism Records, Box 1, PSU Library). 54. Dail y Collegian, 2 5 April 1969, 2 May 1969, 22 May 1969, 23 May 1969, 27 May 1969 ; Bennet t interview ; Presiden t Richar d M . Nixon, lette r t o Mr . Douglas Cooper, 1 3 May 1969 (Thomas Bennett Personal Papers—copy i n author's possession); Charles L. Lewis, vice president for Student Affairs, letter to Barry Stein, Scott F. Gibbs, Malorie Tolles, Cletus J. Wineland, 23 May 1969 (Student Activism Records, Box 1, PSU Library). 55. Daily CoJJegian, 2 6 Apri l 1969 , 3 0 Apri l 1969 , 2 7 Ma y 1969 ; PSU NUC, "Organizing an NUC Chapter at PSU," 1969 (Pam Farley Personal Papers—copy in author's possession); Farley conversation; Petras conversation. 56. Daily CoJJegian, 8 May 1969, 28 May 1969; Water TunneJ, 10 March 1969. 57. Farle y conversation; Creegan conversation; Daily CoJJegian, 14 August 1969; Neil Buckley proposal for restructuring SDS , "Get Organized," 196 9 (Neil Buckley Papers, Historical Collections and Labor Archives, PSU Library). 58. Farle y conversation; Petras conversation; DaiJy CoJJegian, 24 September 1969, 17 October 1969, 23 October 1969, 24 October 1969, 31 October 1969; Water TunneJ, 21 September 1969,13 November 1969. 59. Bennet t interview; Daily Collegian, 3 October 1969, 9 October 1969,17 October 1969,1 November 1969. 60. Wate r TunneJ, 2 1 September 1969 ; Daily CoJJegian , 24 September 1969 , 26 September 1969,15 October 1969, 22 October 1969, 24 October 1969. 61. Daily Collegian, 1 5 October 1969 , 16 October 1969 ; PSU NUC, "NUC Supports Call for Antiwar Strike on October 15th," 1969 (Pam Farley Personal Papers— copy in author's possession). 62. DaiJ y CoJJegian, 16 October 1969. 63. Petra s conversation; Daily CoJJegian, 16 October 1969 , 22 October 1969, 23 October 1969, 28 October 1969, 30 October 1969; Water TunneJ, 2 November 1969. 64. Daily CoJJegian, 23 October 1969, 13 November 1969, 15 November 1969, 20 November 1969 ; PSU NUC circular o n Novembe r 15 , 196 9 Mobilization (Studen t Activism Records, Box 1, PSU Library); PSU Coalition for Peace, "Final Instructions for People Going to Washington, November 13-15," November 1969 (Student Activism Records, Box 1, PSU Library); PSU Coalition for Peace, "Program for November Mobilization a t Stat e College," November 196 9 (Student Activis m Records , Box 1, PSU Library). 65. Spectrum , 26 January 1968, 2 February 1968,19 March 1968, 26 March 1968; Snell letter, 3 January 1988. 66. Faulkne r conversation; Spectrum, 26 January 1968,16 February 1968; Buffalo Draft Counselling Center circular, "Draft Counsellin g Seminar," 28 November 1967 (Elizabeth Olmsted Smith Papers, Box 16, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 67. Resolutio n Propose d b y the Faculty Senat e of the State University o f New York at Buffalo, Marc h 8, 1968 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffal o Archives); Spectrum, 12 March 1968,15 March 1968,19 March 1968, 30 April 1968. 68. Spectrum , 15 March 1968,19 March 1968, 22 March 1968; Faculty Committee for Peace in Vietnam circular, "Strike for Knowledge," March 1968 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; SUNY-Buffalo Studen t Senate, Student Senate Statement on the War and the Draft, March 1968 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; SUNY-Buffalo Graduat e Student Association, Reso-

5. "Yo u Don' t Nee d a Weatherman " 30

3

lution of the Graduate Student Association on the Strike for Knowledge, March 1968 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 69. Spectrum , 8 March 1968,16 August 1968, 24 February 1969; Michael Ferber and Staughton Lynd, The Resistance (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971), 193; Buffalo Nine Defense Committee , "Buffalo's Chicago , or When the Gloves Came off i n Buffalo, " 1968 (Campu s Unrest , 1965-1970 , Bo x 1 , SUNY-Buffal o Archives) ; Buffal o Nin e Defense Committee , "Nin e Protester s Brutall y Attacke d Nee d You r Help, " 196 8 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; Buffalo Nin e Defense Committee Newsletter, "Draft Resistanc e and Symbolic Sanctuary," 1969 (Elizabeth Olmsted Smith Papers, Box 15, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 70. Faulkne r conversation; Powell, "Promoting the Decline of the Rising State," 69-70; Spectrum , 9 Augus t 1968 , 1 0 Septembe r 1968 , 1 7 Februar y 1969 ; Gross FBI File; Fischer FBI File; Buffalo Nin e Defense Committee, "Nine Protestors Brutlly Attacked Need Your Help;" Buffalo Nin e Defense Committee Newsletter, "Draft Resistance an d Symboli c Sanctuary; " Liberate d Communit y New s (Buffalo , Ne w York), 2 1 Augus t 196 8 (Campu s Unrest , 1965-1970 , Bo x 1 , SUNY-Buffal o Ar chives). 71. Spectrum , 2 7 September 1968 , 4 October 1968 , 8 October 1968, 18 October 1968, 5 November 1968. 72. Ibid. , 1 7 September 1968 , 27 September 1968 , 1 1 October 1968 , 1 October 1968. 73. Ibid. , 8 October 1968 , 22 October 1968 , 8 November 1968 , 14 March 1969; Liberated Community News, 21 August 1968. 74. Spectrum , 2 2 Octobe r 1968 ; Barbara Probs t Solomon , "Lif e i n th e Yellow Submarine: Buffalo's SUNY," Harper's 237 (October 1968): 96-102. 75. Spectrum , 2 1 February 1969 , 3 March 1969 ; Joe Striker circular, "Wher e is Meyerson At?" 1969 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 76. Spectrum , 19 February 1969, 21 February 1969, 24 February 1969. 77. Ibid., 26 February 1969, 3 March 1969, 21 March 1969,11 April 1969, 27 June 1969, 19 September 1969 ; Buffalo Nin e Defense Committee Press Release, 1 March 1969 (Campu s Unrest , 1965-1970 , Bo x 1 , SUNY-Buffal o Archives) ; Buffal o Nin e Defense Committee, "Fact Sheet," 1969 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 1, SUNYBuffalo Archives); Buffalo Nine Defense Committee, "The Political Declaration of the Buffalo Nine: Non-cooperation with 'our' Government," 1969 (Campus Unrest, 19651970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; Buffalo Nin e Defense Committee Newsletter, "Draft Resistance and Symbolic Sanctuary." 78. Spectrum , 2 8 February 1969 , 3 March 1969 , 7 March 1969 ; Committee to Transform U B (SUNY-Buffalo SD S and YAWF), "Strike? The Decisions of the Mass Meeting," Februar y 196 9 (Campu s Unrest , 1965-1970 , Bo x 1 , SUNY-Buffal o Ar chives); Stewart Edelstein, Acting Chairman of Graduate Student Association Executive Committe e e t al. , "Ope n Lette r t o th e Universit y Community, " Marc h 196 9 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; SUNY-Buffalo Offic e of the vice president fo r Academi c Development, Memorandum t o all Department Heads, 3 March 1969 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; Warren Bennis et al., Office o f the vice president, Memorandum t o the University Community, 1 0 March 1969 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives); SUNY-Buffal o Graduat e Studen t Associatio n an d Studen t Associatio n de mands, "Strike?" 1969 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives,);

304 5

. "Yo u Don't Need a Weatherman"

Col. John J. Herbert, Jr., professor of aerospace studies, SUNY-Buffalo, Open Letter to the Campus and Air Force ROTC Fact Sheet, 10 March 1969 (Campus Unrest, 19651970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 79. Communit y for Real Change (SUNY-Buffalo SDS and YAWF) circular, "Let's Get the Military Off!" March 1969 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives); Community fo r Real Change circular, " A Call to Action," March 1969 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Bo x 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives); Community for Real Change circular , "Polic y Stat e o f th e Community fo r Real Change, " March 1969 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970 , Bo x 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; Spectrum, 7 March 1969,10 March 1969,19 March 1969. 80. Spectrum , 24 March 1969, 26 March 1969,18 April 1969, 7 May 1969; SUNYBuffalo SD S circular, "Joi n to Figh t th e Injunctio n Now! " March 196 9 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 81. Snel l letter , 3 January 1988; Spectrum, 2 1 March 1969, 26 March 1969, 11 April 1969, 14 April 1969, 16 April 1969,18 April 1969, 21 April 1969, 5 May 1969; SUNY-Buffalo president Martin Meyerson, Open Letter to the Campus, 18 April 1969 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Bo x 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives); SUNY-Buffalo president Martin Meyerson letter to the Executive Committee, Faculty Senate, 22 April 1969 (Campu s Unrest , 1965-1970 , Bo x 1 , SUNY-Buffal o Archives) ; Dr. Robert J. Good, Department o f Chemica l Engineering , lette r to Martin Meyerson, 2 4 March 1969 (Offic e o f th e President , Centra l Files , Research , Bo x 38, SUNY-Buffal o Archives); Dr. Paul Ehrlich letter to Martin Meyerson, 24 March 1969; Dr. James En glish, Dean, School of Denistry, letter to Martin Meyerson, 1 April 1969 (Office of the President, Centra l Files, Research , Box 38, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; Dr. Robert E. Mates letter to Martin Meyerson, 20 March 1969; Dr. William J. Wallbesser letter to Martin Meyerson, 22 March 1969; Internal SUNY-Buffalo administration memorandum on security precaution s an d use of polic e force , 3 April 196 9 (Offic e o f the President, Central Files, Administration, Box 8, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 82. Sale , SDS, 530; Spectrum, 17 March 1969, 24 March 1969, 26 March 1969,16 April 1969 , 1 3 June 1969, 3 July 1969 ; State of New York, 6610-A i n Assembly, February 18 , 1969 , An Act, Article 129-A , Regulatio n by Colleges of Conduct on Campus and Other College Property Used for Educational Purposes (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Bo x 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; Gonzalez, State Laws of 1969 Dealing with Student Unrest. 83. Spectrum , 1 9 September 1969, 22 September 1969, 24 September 1969, 26 September 1969, 6 October 1969, 8 October 1969, 24 October 1969. 84. Spectrum , 29 September 1969, 3 October 1969, 10 October 1969, 13 October 1969, 1 7 Octobe r 1969 , 2 0 Octobe r 1969 , 2 2 Octobe r 1969 , 2 4 Octobe r 1969 , 3 November 1969,12 November 1969. 85. Ibid. , 19 September 1969,15 October 1969; Haynie interview. 86. Spectrum, 12 September 1969,17 October 1969, 20 October 1969, 31 October 1969, 5 December 1969. 87. Ibid. , 13 October 1969, 31 October 1969, 24 November 1969. 88. Ibid. , 31 October 1969, 3 November 1969, 7 November 1969; Radical Faculty Caucus, "Abolish ROTC at SUNYAB: Statement of the Radical Faculty," 3 November 1969 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 1, SUNY-Buffalo Archives); Radical Faculty Caucus, "Substitute Motion on the Moratorium," 11 November 1969; SUNY-Buffalo Moratorium leaflet, October 1969, with accompanying note from Newton Garver to

5. "Yo u Don' t Nee d a Weatherman " 30

5

Acting President Peter Regan (Office of the President, Administration, Central Files, Box 8, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; Dr. Ronald Rennie letter to Acting President Peter Regan, 20 October 1969. 89. Spectrum , 7 November 1969,12 November 1969; SUNY-Buffalo provost Rollo Handy, letter to Morris L. Horowitz (October 1969 Moratorium organizer), president, University Union Activities Board, 12 October 1969 (Office of the President, Administration, Central Files, Box 8, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; Morris L. Horowitz letter to Dr. Peter Regan, 10 October 196 9 (Office o f the President, Administration, Central Files, Bo x 8, SUNY-Buffal o Archives) ; Theodore Friend , offic e o f assistan t t o the president, memorandum to Dr. Warren Bennis, 29 October 1969 (Office of the President, Administration, Central Files, Box 8, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; SUNY-Buffal o Acting President Peter F. Regan, Open Letter to Members of the University Community, 1 0 Novembe r 196 9 (Campu s Unrest , 1965-1969 , Bo x 2 , SUNY-Buffal o Ar chives); Acting President Peter Regan, bulletin and memorandum to university community, 1 0 Novembe r 196 9 (Campu s Unrest , 1965-1969 , Bo x 2 , SUNY-Buffal o Archives); actin g presiden t Pete r Rega n bulleti n t o th e universit y community , 4 December 1969 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1969, Box 2, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 90. Spectrum , 7 November 1969 ; 1 4 Novembe r 1969 , 1 7 Novembe r 1969 , 17 December 1969; Griffin, 2 1 March 1969, 23 April 1969, 18 September 1969; anonymous hate letter to Acting President Regan, 16 October 1969 (Office of the President, Administration, Central Files, Box 8, SUNY-Buffalo Archives); see Buffalo Marijuana Review (Buffalo, Ne w York) , 1969-197 1 (Undergroun d Newspape r Collectio n o n Microfilm, University of Pittsburgh Library); Undercurrent (Buffalo, Ne w York), 19691972 (Undergroun d Newspape r Collectio n o n Microfilm , Universit y o f Pittsburg h Library). 91. Josep h Jackson conversation; Gibson conversation; Daily Kent Stater, 9 February 1968, 23 February 1969, 9 April 1968, 8 May 1968. 92. Josep h Jackson conversation; Gibson conversation; Daily Kent Stater, 1 7 January 1968, 23 January 1968, 22 February 1968, 23 February 1968, 8 May 1968. 93. Josep h Jackson conversation; Gibson conversation; Daily Kent Stater, 30 April 1968, 7 May 1968. 94. Josep h Jackson conversation ; Gibso n conversation ; Mim Jackson interview ; Daily Kent Stater, 7 May 1968, 8 May 1968. 95. Sale , SDS, 3 , 490, 577-78; Gitlin, The Sixties, 386-87 ; Gibson conversation; Powrie KS U SDS Reunion; Emme r KS U SDS Reunion; Eszterha s an d Roberts , 13 Seconds, 58 ; James A. Michener, Kent State: What Happened and Why (New York: Ballantine Books, 1971), 76-77; Hearings before the Committee on Internal Security, Ninety-First Congress, First Session, June 24 and 25,1969, Investigation of Students for a Democratic Society, Part 2, Kent State University (Washington , D.C. : U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969). Michener's book must be used with care; activists insist that he deliberately misquoted them and listened too much to Kent's Republican civic leaders. 96. Grac e conversation; Ken Hammond, "History Lesson: Kent State, A Participant's Memoir, " March 197 4 (May 4th Collection, Box 21, KSU Archives); Viorst, Fire in the Streets, 510; Eszterhas and Roberts, 13 Seconds, 45-69. 97. Grac e conversation; Viorst, Fire in the Streets, 511-12. 98. Grac e conversation ; Eszterha s an d Roberts , 1 3 Seconds, 48-49 ; Michener , Kent State, 92-93.

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. "Yo u Don' t Nee d a Weatherman "

99. KS U SDS, Maggie's Farm (Kent, Ohio), 12 November 1968 (May 4th Collection, Box 20, KSU Archives). 100. Daily Kent Stater, 14 November 1968; Maggie's Farm, 12 November 1968. 101. Gibso n conversation; Daily Kent Stater, 14 November 1968. 102. KS U SDS leaflet, " I Rea d th e New s Today, O h Boy : 250 Black Student s Exiled from KSU," November 1968 (May 4th Collection, Box 20, KSU Archives); KSU SDS leaflet, "Say Yes to Boycott! Say No to Business as Usual," November 1968 (May 4th Collection, Box 21, KSU Archives); Robert I. White, KSU Office of the President, Special Bulletin to all Faculty and Staff, 18 November 1968 (May 4th Collection, Box 20, KSU Archives); Robert I. White, KSU Office of the President, Special Bulletin to All Faculty and Staff, 25 November 1968 (May 4th Collection, KSU Archives); Robert E. Matson , Dea n o f Student s Office , pres s release , 1 8 November 196 8 (Ma y 4t h Collection, Box 20, KSU Archives). 103. Hammond , "History Lesson"; Grace conversation; Viorst, Fire in the Streets, 512-13; Eszterhas and Roberts, 13 Seconds, 57 ; New Left Notes, 1 1 December 1968; Daily Kent Stater, 1 November 1968 , 5 November 1968 , 1 4 Novembe r 1968 , 2 1 November 1968; KSU Faculty Senate, Statement by the University Committee of the University Facult y Senate , 2 2 November 196 8 (Ma y 4th Collection , Bo x 21, KSU Archives); KS U Faculty Senate , Universit y Facult y Senat e Minutes , 1 9 December 1968 (May 4th Collection, Box 21, KSU Archives); Pyle interview. 104. Whitake r interview ; Grac e conversation; Powri e KS U SDS Reunion; KSU SDS, "Who Rules Kent?" (Ma y 4th Collection, Bo x 20, KSU Archives); KSU SDS, "SDS Draft Committee," December 1968 (May 4th Collection, Box 21, KSU Archives); KSU SDS leaflet, "Kent Free University," no date (May 4th Collection, Box 21, KSU Archives); Sale, SDS, 489 ; Gibson conversation; Daily Kent Stater, 8 October 1968, 11 October 1968. 105. Grac e conversation; Viorst, Fire in the Streets, 513-15; Sale, SDS, 517. 106. Grac e conversation; Viorst, Fire in the Streets, 515-16. 107. Grac e conversation; Pyl e interview ; Powri e KSU SDS Reunion; KSU SDS leaflet, "20 Years of Schooling and They Put You on the Day Shift," no date (May 4th Collection, Box 20, KSU Archives); Maggie's Farm, printing press plates on display at the Kent State SDS Reunion, Kent, Ohio, 5 May 1989. 108. Grac e conversation; Emmer KSU SDS Reunion; Powrie KSU SDS Reunion; Pyle conversation; Gibson interview; Viorst, Fire in the Streets, 516-18 ; Big US, 2 6 April 1969; Daily Kent Stater, 6 April 1969, 9 April 1969, 10 April 1969; KSU SDS leaflet, "Liqui d Crystal s Chained Shut! " Spring 1969 (May 4th Collection, Box 21, KSU Archives); KSU SDS leaflet, "Abolish Liberalism!" Spring 1969 (May 4th Collection, Bo x 20, KSU Archives); KS U SDS position paper , "No w I s the Time o f th e Furnaces, and Only Light Should be Seen," Spring 1969 (May 4th Collection, Box 20, KSU Archives). 109. New Left Notes, 2 4 April 1969 ; Sale, SDS, 555 ; KSU SDS leaflet, "Ope n it Up, or Shut it Down!" 15 April 1969 (May 4th Collection, Box 21, KSU Archives); Bills, Kent State, May 4,100-104; KSU SDS leaflet, "Kent Thugs," Spring 1969 (May 4th Collection, Box 20, KSU Archives); Grace conversation; Pyle interview; Emmer KSU SDS Reunion; Powrie KSU SDS Reunion; Viorst, Fire in the Streets, 516-18. 110. Daily Kent Stater, 6 April 1969; Powrie KSU SDS Reunion; Emmer KSU SDS Reunion; Grace interview; Dr. Gene Wenninger, Department o f Sociolog y and Anthropology, Memorandum t o All Staff, 2 1 April 196 9 (May 4th Collection, Box 20,

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7

KSU Archives); Executive Committee of the Kent State Chapter, American Association of University Professors, Memorandum to Kent State University Community, 21 April 1969 (May 4th Collection, Box 20, KSU Archives). 111. Pyl e interview; Whitaker interview; Gibson conversation; Daily Kent Stater, 15 May 1969,16 May 1969, 21 May 1969, 22 May 1969; Hammond, "History Lesson"; Committee of the Concerned Citizens of Kent State leaflet, "Rally," Spring 1969 (May 4th Collection, Box 20, KSU Archives); Committee of the Concerned Citizens of Kent State leaflet , "See k th e Truth ! Ac t o n You r Conscience! " Sprin g 196 9 (Ma y 4th Collection, Bo x 20, KSU Archives); KSU SDS leaflet, "Min d F.U.C.K* " May 1969 (May 4th Collection, Box 20, KSU Archives); Wenninger, Memorandum to All Staff, 21 April 1969. 112. Hous e Internal Securit y Committee, Investigation of Students for a Democratic Society, Part 2, Kent State University, 477-568. 113. Sale , SDS, 558-74 ; Emmer KSU SDS Reunion; Powrie KSU SDS Reunion; Richard Oestreicher, MSU SDS, Pittsburgh, Penn., interview with author, 11 January 1989. 114. Sale , SDS, 576, 580-83, 603 , 648; Daily Kent Stater, 1 0 October 1969 , 23 October 1969; Daily Collegian, 14 August 1969; Marks KSU SDS Reunion. 115. Hammond , "Histor y Lesson" ; Powri e KS U SDS Reunion; Pyl e interview ; Gibson conversation; Eszterhas and Roberts, 13 Seconds, 68-69. 116. Pyl e interview ; Daily Kent Stater, 9 Octobe r 1969 , 1 0 Octobe r 1969 , 16 October 1969, 31 October 1969,11 November 1969,12 November 1969,13 November 1969,14 November 1969, 5 December 1969; Pyle FBI File. 117. Daily Kent Stater, 1 5 May 1969, 20 May 1969, 14 October 1969, 16 October 1969, 14 November 1969, 20 November 1969, 14 January 1970; [Frank Frisina] AntiSDS scare circulars , n o title , 196 9 (Ma y 4t h Collection , Bo x 21 , KS U Archives); Committee o f Concerne d Citizen s o f Ken t State , "See k th e Truth ! Ac t o n You r Conscience!" (May 4th Collection, Box 20, KSU Archives): Concerned Students for Ohlweiler-Goodwin (Committe e of Concerned Citizens of Kent State) circular, "Appeal to Justice!" 1969 (May 4th Collection, Box 20, KSU Archives); Dr. Gene Wenninger, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Memorandum to All Staff, Graduate Assistants, etc. , on Referendum, 2 4 April 196 9 (May 4th Collection, Bo x 20, KSU Archives); Eszterhas an d Roberts , 1 3 Seconds, 67; Chief Ro y Thompson, Securit y Officer Schwartzmiller , Judg e Robert Ken t et al. , "Recap o f Meetin g of Twinlakes Country Club, May 7,1969" (May 4th Collection, Box 21, KSU Archives). 118. Dail y Ken t Stater, 3 October 1969 , 7 October 1969 , 8 Octobe r 1969 , 14 October 1969 , 1 7 October 1969 , 2 9 October 1969 , 30 October 1969 , 1 8 November 1969; KSU NUC leaflet, "New University Conference," no date, spring 1969 (May 4th Collection, Box 21, KSU Archives); KSU NUC leaflet, "Keeper s of the Faith," 1969 (May 4th Collection, Box 21, KSU Archives). 119. Spectrum , 10 December 1969; Daily Kent Stater, 15 May 1969, 20 May 1969, 14 January 1970; Eszterhas and Roberts, 13 Seconds, 100-103,136-44. 6. 'Ti n Soldier s an d Nixon's Coming " 1. Fis h conversation , 1 6 Augus t 1988 ; Larrow e interview ; Hixso n interview ; Kibbey conversation; State News, 1 9 February 1970 ; A Song from th e Weather Ma-

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"Tin Soldiers and Nixon's Coming"

chine, "Trash Together," 1969 (Student Radicalism Collection, MSU Special Collections). 2. Bennis , The Leaning Ivory Tower, 88-89 ; James Beckley, Graduate Student, State University o f New York at Buffalo, Statemen t of Events of 2 5 February 1970 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 2, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 3. Beckley , Statement o f Events of 25 February 1970 ; Haynie interview; Spectrum, 26 February 1970,15 March 1970. 4. Spectrum , 20 February 1970 , 27 February 1970 , 10 March 1970; SUNY-Buffalo Pres s Packet , "Summar y o f Campu s Securit y Activities , Februar y 25 , 1970 " (Campus Unrest , 1965-1970 , Bo x 2 , SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; Stat e Universit y of New York at Buffalo vs . Terry Keegan et al., Order to Show Cause with Temporary Restraining Order, 5 March 1970 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 2, SUNY-Buffalo Archives); Transcript of Remarks Made by Dr. Peter F. Regan, acting president, State University of New York at Buffalo, over WBEN-TV, Sunday, March 1,1970 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 2, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 5. Bennis , The Leaning Ivory Tower, 89-95 ; Spectrum , 3 0 Januar y 1970 , 4 February 1970, 27 February 1970; Warren G. Bennis, acting executive vice president, letter o f resignatio n addresse d t o Actin g President Pete r F . Regan, 9 March 197 0 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 2, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 6. Spectrum , 2 March 1970 , 3 March 1970 , 4 March 1970 , 6 March 1970 , 9 March 1970, 10 March 1970, 11 March 1970; SUNY-Buffalo Facult y of Engineering and Applie d Sciences , Referendum Concernin g Campus Demands, 1 1 March 1970 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 2, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; Open Meeting of Faculty, Student s an d Staff , Departmen t o f Biology , SUNY-Buffalo , Friday , Marc h 6, 1970 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 2, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; Peter F. Regan, acting president, letter to commissioner Frank N. Felicetta, Police Department, City of Buffalo , Buffalo , Ne w York, 7 March 197 0 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970 , Bo x 2, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; SUNY-Buffalo Actin g President Pete r F. Regan, Notice of Suspension, 5 March 197 0 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970 , Bo x 2, SUNY-Buffalo Ar chives); Acting President Pete r F. Regan, Open letter to Colleagues, 8 March 1970 (Campus Unrest-1965-1970, Box 2, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 7. Spectrum , 9 March 1970,13 March 1970; SUNY-Buffalo, The Faculty-Student Campus Peac e Patro l circular , Marc h 197 0 (Campu s Unrest , 1965-1970 , Bo x 2 , SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 8. Spectrum, 6 March 1970 , 1 3 March 1970 , 1 6 March 1970 ; SUNY-Buffal o Graduate-Undergraduate Student Judiciary, Order for a Permanent Injunction against the SUNY-Buffalo administration , 17 March 1970 (Campus Unrest, 1965-1970, Box 2, SUNY-Buffalo Archives); John M. Carter, vice president for alumni affairs, letter to Acting Presiden t Pete r F . Regan, 1 2 March 197 0 (Offic e o f th e President , Centra l Files, Administration, Box 8, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 9. Spectrum, 16 March 1970; Haynie interview; Bennis, The Leaning Ivory Tower, 27. 10. Spectrum , 16 March 1970; Haynie interview. 11. Eri e County, New York, Grand Jury Subpeona issued to Peter F. Regan, acting president of the State University of New York at Buffalo, 1 April 1970 (Office of the President, Central Files, Administration, Box 8, SUNY-Buffalo Archives) ; Spectrum, 3 April 1970, 6 April 1970, 10 April 1970, 15 April 1970, 20 April 1970; Mrs. Joseph Lang, Buffalo communit y resident, letter and enclosed antiriot petition addressed to

6. "Ti n Soldier s an d Nixon' s Coming " 30

9

Dr. Peter Regan, 4 April 1970 (Office of the President, Central Files, Administration, Box 8, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 12. Farle y conversation; Daily Collegian, 10 February 1970,13 February 1970,17 February 1970,19 February 1970, 20 February 1970. 13. Farle y conversation; Petras conversation; Daily Collegian , 1 6 January 1970, 20 January 1970, 22 January 1970,18 February 1970, 20 February 1970. 14. Petra s conversation; Daily Collegian, 2 April 1970 , 9 April 1970 , 1 0 April 1970,14 April 1970,15 April 1970,16 April 1970, 29 September 1970. 15. Petra s conversation; Daily Collegian, 1 6 April 1970, 17 April 1970, 29 September 1970. 16. Petra s conversation; Daily Collegian, 1 7 April 1970, 18 April 1970, 21 April 1970, 22 April 1970. 17. Daily Collegian, 22 April 1970, 23 April 1970, 24 April 1970, 28 April 1970. 18. Pa m Farley , lette r t o th e hea d o f th e Englis h departmen t describin g he r involvement wit h th e studen t strik e committee , Apri l 197 0 (Pa m Farle y Persona l Papers—copy in author's possession); James A. Rhodes, dean of student affairs office , Penn State, letter of suspension to Geoffrey Sill , 29 April 1970 (Pam Farley Personal Papers—copy in author's possession); Daily Collegian, 14 April 1970,15 April 1970, 17 April 1970,18 April 1970, 21 April 1970, 22 April 1970, 23 April 1970, 28 October 1970,18 November 1970. 19. Pen n State student petition praising the state police and denouncing antiwar students, 16 April 1970 (Student Activism Records, Box 1, PSU Library). The social characteristics of the petition signer s were garnered from th e appropriate PSU student directories. 20. US News and World Report 68 (29 June 1970): 20-22; State News, 2 9 April 1970, 30 April 1970. 21. Ma y 4th Task Force, A Chronology—Kent, Ohio, May 1-4, 1970, n.d. (May 4th Collection, Box 20, KSU Archives); LeRoy M. Satrom, mayor, City of Kent, letter to commander of troops, Ohio National Guard, 2 May 1970 (May 4th Collection, Box 21, KSU Archives); LeRo y M. Satrom, mayor , City of Kent, Proclamation o f Civil Emergency, 2 May 1970 (May 4th Collection, Box 21, KSU Archives); Michener, Kent State, 47-63. 22. Michener , Kent State, 125-28 , 174-98; A Chronology—Kent, Ohio, May 14,1970. 23. Hammond , "History Lesson"; Bills, Kent State, May 4, 82-91; Pyle interview; Daily Kent Stater, 15 April 1970,16 April 1970. 24. Gibso n conversation; Bills, Kent State, May 4, 82-91. 25. A Chronology—Kent, Ohio, May 1-4, 1970; Viorst, Fire in the Streets, 532 34; Pyle interview; Michener, Kent State, 245-51. 26. Pyl e interview ; Hammond , "Histor y Lesson. " Fo r White's behavio r before , during, and immediately after the shootings, see his testimony in, President [Scranton] Commission o n Campus Unrest , Report, (Washington , D.C. : U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970). 27. A Chronology—Kent, Ohio , May 1-4 , 1970 ; Hammond, "Histor y Lesson" ; Viorst, Fire in the Streets, 534-37; Joan Morrison and Robert K. Morrison, eds., From Camelot to Kent State: The Sixties Experience in the Words of Those Who Lived It (New York : New Yor k Time s Books , 1987) , 329-35 ; Lewi s interview ; Bills , Kent State, May 4,100-104.

310 6

. ' T i n Soldiers and Nixon's Coming"

28. A Chronology—Kent, Ohio , May 1-4 , 1970 ; Hammond, "Histor y Lesson" ; Viorst, Fire in the Streets, 537-39 ; Morrison an d Morrison, From Camelot to Kent State, 329-35; Eszterhas and Roberts, 13 Seconds, 161-64. 29. A Chronology—Kent, Ohio , May 1-4 , 1970 ; Hammond, "Histor y Lesson" ; Mim Jackson interview; Eszterhas and Roberts, 13 Seconds, 165-76. 30. Hayden , Reunion, 501 , 505; Sale, SDS, 479 , 636; Spectrum, 6 May 1970, 8 May 1970; Peter F. Regan, SUNY-Buffalo acting president, letter to Frank N. Felicetta, commissioner, Buffal o Polic e Department , 1 3 May 197 0 (Offic e o f th e President , Central Files, Administration, SUNY-Buffalo Archives). 31. Daily Collegian, 5 May 1970, 6 May 1970, 7 May 1970; Pyle FBI File. 32. Daily Collegian, 5 May 1970, 6 May 1970, 7 May 1970,13 May 1970, 22 May 1970, 29 September 1970; Petras conversation; Farley conversation. 33. Daily Collegian, 8 May 1970, 9 May 1970,14 May 1970, 21 May 1970, 22 May 1970. 34. State News, 5 May 1970, 6 May 1970. 35. Kibbe y conversation; Shapiro interview; ASMSU Minutes, May 5, 1970; Bogue Street Bridge, Summer Orientation Issue, 1970; State News, 5 May 1970. 36. Bogu e Stree t Bridge , Summe r Orientatio n Issue , 1970 ; Larrow e interview ; Pollack conversation; State News, 7 May 1970, 8 May 1970. 37. Committe e to Abolish ROTC, "ROTC Sit-in Fact Sheet," 18 May 1970 (Student Radicalis m Collection , MS U Specia l Collections) ; ASMS U Minutes , Ma y 5 , 1970; State News, 5 May 1970, 6 May 1970, 7 May 1970, 8 May 1970, 14 May 1970, 15 May 1970; Larrowe interview; Pollack conversation; Repas interview; John Masterson, MS U NUC, telephone conversatio n wit h author , 3 1 October 1983 ; MSU-SDS Worker Student Alliance, "The Meaning Behind the May 19th Bust," September 21, 1970 (Student Radicalism Collection, MSU Special Collections). 38. "MS U Omnibus Survey #2, 1970," 44, 55, 58, 59. 39. Lansin g State Journal, 7 May 1970. 40. Richar d Zinman, MSU conservative faculty member , interview with author, 18 October 1983; Michigan State University Office o f the Registrar, Student Enrollment, Spring, 1970. 41. "Omnibu s Survey #2," 44, 47; Pollack conversation. 42. "Omnibu s Survey #2," 11-13 , 19, 57; Bogue Street Bridge, Fall Orientation Issue, 1970. 43. Larrow e interview; Repas interview; Shapiro interview; Pollack conversation. 44. Hammond , "History Lesson" ; Pyle interview; Sale , SDS, 638-39 ; Eszterhas and Roberts , 1 3 Seconds, 189-211 , 295-305 ; Michener, Kent State, 369-84, 389 423, 439-90 ; Ken t Stat e i n Exil e leaflets , Oberlin , Ohio , Ma y 197 0 (Christophe r Densmore Personal Papers—copies in author's possession). 45. Michener , Ken t State , 475-96 ; Spectrum , 3 0 Septembe r 1970 , 2 1 October 1970, 2 6 Octobe r 1970 , 2 6 Octobe r 1970 , 2 8 Octobe r 1970 ; Daily Collegian, 1 7 October 1970, 21 October 1970. 46. Grac e conversation; Pyl e interview ; Gibso n conversation ; Bills , Kent State, May 4, 92-99. 47. Hammond , "History Lesson"; Bills, Kent State, May 4, 92-99; Walsh conversation; Ken t Liberatio n Fron t an d Yippi e leaflet , "Figh t fo r Change , Suppor t th e Demands," Fal l 197 0 (Ma y 4t h Collection , Bo x 21 , KS U Archives) ; KS U Yippie leaflet, "The Price of Liberty Is Less than the Cost of Oppression," Fall 1970 (May 4th

Epilogue 31

1

Collection, Box 20, KSU Archives); Kent State president Robert I. White, KSU Position Paper, October 1970 (May 4th Collection, Box 20, KSU Archives); Kent Liberation Front circular on Portage County Grand Jury, Fall 1970 (May 4th Collection, Box 21, KSU Archives). Epilogue 1. Su e Sattel letter; Shapiro interview; Grathwohl, Bringing down America. 2. Farle y conversation; Daily Collegian, 5 February 1970, 25 June 1970, 9 July 1970, 28 September 1970, 29 September 1970 , 30 September 1970, 3 October 1970, 15 October 1970 , 1 0 November 1970 , 1 1 November 1970 , 1 2 November 1970 , 17 November 1970. 3. Daily Collegian, 2 September 1971; Henderson Station, 15 July 1971, 6 October 1971,19 October 1971, 25 January 1972, 8 February 1972, 5 April 1972. 4. Daily Collegian, 11 February 1971,16 April 1971,13 October 1971,1 November 1971; Henderson Station, 19 October 1971. 5. Henderso n Station, 6 October 1971, 19 October 1971, 3 November 1971, 25 January 1972, 8 February 1972, 5 April 1972; Daily Collegian, 13 February 1971, 17 February 1971 , 19 February 1971 , 15 November 1971 ; Pam Farley, Violence Workshop Report of Discussion: Preliminary Draft , 197 1 (Pam Farley Personal Papers— copy in author's possession); Pam Farley, Nixon's New Plans for the War, 1971 (Pa m Farley Personal Papers—copy in author's possession); Farley conversation. 6. Daily Collegian, 9 February 1971 , 1 1 February 1971 , 1 2 February 1971 , 13 February 1971,16 April 1971, 20 April 1971, 28 April 1971, 6 May 1971, 7 May 1971, 8 May 1971, 14 May 1971, 2 September 1971 ; Henderson Station, 6 October 1971; Coalition fo r Peace , Fac t Shee t o n Protes t Rall y o n Apri l 19 , 197 1 (PSU Student Activism Records, Box 1, PSU Library); David A. Dankovic et al., Coalition for Peace, letter to Dean Russell E. Larson, 19 April 1971 (PSU Student Activism Records, Box 1, PSU Library). 7. State News, 30 April 1971, 3 May 1971, 6 May 1971. 8. Larrow e interview; Pollack conversation; Sue Korlan, MSU antiwar student, East Lansing, Mich., interview with author, 14 February 1984. 9. Spectrum, 23 September 1970, 30 September 1970, 25 June 1971, 2 July 1971, 5 November 1971, 23 February 1972; Faulkner conversation; Fischer FBI File; Bruce Beyer FBI File (Elwin Powell Personal Papers—notes fro m fil e i n author's posses sion). 10. Hayni e interview; Spectrum, 10 February 1971, 12 February 1971, 4 October 1971, 8 October 1971, 22 October 1971, 18 February 1971 , 3 March 1972, 8 March 1972. 11. Spectrum , 29 January 1971, 1 February 1971, 24 February 1971, 5 May 1971, 7 May 1971,15 November 1971. 12. Gai l Graham, SUNY-Buffalo WAW, letter to author, 22 January 1988; Buffalo Courier-Express (Buffalo, New York), 27 February 1972; Spectrum, 29 October 1971; Column Left, March! (Buffalo, New York), 1971 (Gail Graham Personal Papers—copy in author' s possession) . Colum n Left, March! wa s th e publicatio n o f th e SUNY Buffalo WAW. 13. Ken t Stat e Studen t Governmen t handout , "Bleedin g an d Shock, " 2 6 April 1971 (May 4th Collection, Box 20, KSU Archives); Kent State Student Government

312 Epilogu

e

handout, "Tea r Gas and Mace, " 26 April 197 1 (May 4th Collection, Bo x 20, KSU Archives); Craig Morgan, president of the KSU student government, "Memorial to the Slain Students of Kent State University," 3 May 1971 (May 4th Collection, Box 20, KSU Archives); Kent May Day Coalition, "Open Kent!" May 1971 (May 4th Collection, Box 21, KSU Archives); Kent May Day Coalition, "May 4th Revival!" May 1971 (May 4th Collection, Box 21, KSU Archives); Kent May Day Coalition, "The Hour's Getting Late," May 1971 (May 4th Collection, Box 21, KSU Archives); KSU Yippies, "A Stron g Win d Blow s i n Kent! " Ma y 197 1 (Ma y 4t h Collection , Bo x 20 , KSU Archives); KSU administration positio n paper , "Memoria l Observance," May 1971 (May 4t h Collection , Bo x 20 , KS U Archives); Pau l Kriese , "Committe e fo r Non violence Activitie s fo r Wate r Stree t Nights, " 9 June 197 1 (Mary Vincent Persona l Papers—copy in author's possession); Paul Kriese, Kent Friends Meeting, report on activities, winter and spring quarters, August 1971 (Mary Vincent Personal Papers— copy in author's possession) ; Rev. Tom Taggart, Campus United Christia n Fellow ship, account o f Kent police violence, May 1971 (Mary Vincent Personal Papers— copy i n author' s possession) ; KS U studen t government , "Keepin g Ken t Open, " May 1971 (Mary Vincent Personal Papers—copy in author's possession); Pyle interview. 14. Thoma s Lough letter to Jon Krosnick, 19 November 1975 (May 4th Collection, Box 21 , KSU Archives); Spectrum , 1 0 December 1971 ; KSU Yippies, Stum p City (Kent, Ohio), 1971 (May 4th Collection, Box 20, KSU Archives); Craig Morgan, Press Release, 1 5 March 197 1 (Mary Vincent Persona l Papers—copy i n author's possession); U.S . Senato r Stephe n M . Youn g lette r t o Ohi o Adjutan t Genera l Dan a L. Stewart, 16 August 1971 (May 4th Collection, Box 20, KSU Archives). 15. State News, 20 April 1972, 21 April 1972, 24 April 1972, 5 May 1972; Griffiths conversation; Jondahl interview; East Lansing City Council, "A Resolution Concerning the War in Southeast Asia, " 18 April 197 2 (George Griffiths Persona l Papers— copy in author's possession). 16. Korla n interview; Hixson interview; State News, 10 May 1972; Jerry M. Lewis and Raymond J. Adamek, "Anti-ROTC Sit-in: A Sociological Analysis," Sociological Quarterly 1 5 (Autumn 1974) : 542-47; Spectrum, 2 1 April 1972 , 24 April 1972, 26 April 1972. 17. Korla n interview; Terry Heineman, Lansing VVAW, Seattle, Wash., interview with author, 22 December 1987. 18. Korla n interview; State News, 10 May 1972. 19. Daily Collegian, 3 May 1972, 5 May 1972, 8 May 1972,10 May 1972, 11 May 1972,12 May 1972,19 May 1972; Coalition for Peace, "May 4—Schedule of Events," 4 Ma y 197 2 (Studen t Activis m Records , Bo x 1 , PSU Library); Pennsylvani a Stat e University Departmen t o f Publi c Information , "Chronolog y o f Ma y 197 2 Events," May 1972 (Student Activism Records, Box 1, PSU Library). 20. "Chronolog y o f Ma y 197 2 Events; " Richar d G . Cunningham, "Informatio n Statement o n the Ordnance Research Laboratory," 15 May 1972 (Student Activism Records, Box 1, PSU Library); Henderson Station, December 1972, March 1972; Daily Collegian, 2 May 1972 , 1 6 May 1972 , 1 7 May 1972 , 1 8 May 1972, 30 June 1972; Bennett interview. 21. Th e Buffalo , "Statemen t o f Th e Buffalo, " 197 1 (Elizabet h Olmste d Smit h Papers, Box 15, SUNY-Buffalo Archives); Spectrum, 1 November 1971,19 November

Epilogue 31

3

1971; Griffin, 1 7 March 1971, 17 September 1971, 19 November 1971, 18 February 1972. 22. Considin e interview; Doyle interview; Griffin, 18 February 1972. 23. Spectrum , 2 4 April 1972 , 28 April 1972 ; Considine interview; Doyle interview. 24. Spectrum , 2 June 1972; Considine interview; Doyle interview.

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322 Bibliography Bills, Scott L. Kent State, May 4: Echoes throug h a Decade. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1982. Bloom, Allan. The Closing of the American Mind: How Higher Education Has Failed Democracy and Impoverishe d the Souls of Today's Students . New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988. Bogue, Allan G., and Robert Taylor, eds. The University of Wisconsin: One Hundred Twenty-Five Years. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1975. Buchanan, Patrick J. Right from th e Beginning. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Gateway, 1990. Calkins, Russell W., ed. Who's Who in American College and University Administration, 1970-1971. New York: Cromwell-Collier Educational, 1970. Caro, Robert A. The Path to Power: The Years of Lyndon ]ohnson. New York: Vintage Books, 1983. Cattell, Jacques McKeen. Directory of American Scholars: A Biographical Directory, 1957. 3d ed. New York: R. R. Bowker, 1957. Cattell, Jacques McKeen, et al., eds. Leaders in Education: A Biographical Directory, 1941, 2d ed. New York: The Science Press, 1941. Cattell, Jacques McKeen, and E. E. Ross, eds. Leaders in Education: A Biographical Directory, 1948 , 3d ed. Lancaster, Penn.: The Science Press, 1948. Caute, David. The Year of the Barricades: A Journey through 1968 . New York: Harper and Row, 1988. Cook, Robert C, ed . Presidents an d Dean s of American College s and Universities , 1964-1965. Nashville, Tenn.: Who's Who in American Education, 1964. Presidents and Professors in American Colleges and Universities, 1935-1936. New York: Robert C. Cook, 1935. Presidents of American College s an d Universities, 1933-1934. Ne w York: Robert C. Cook, 1933. Presidents of American College s and Universities , 1952-1953 , 2d ed. Nashville, Tenn.: Who's Who in American Education, 1952. Who's Who in American Education: An Illustrated Biographical Directory of Eminent Living Educators of the United States and Canada, 1965-1966 , 22d ed. Nashville, Tenn.: Who's Who in American Education, 1966. Who's Who i n American Education, 1967-1968 , 23d ed. Hattiesburg, Miss.: Who's Who in American Education, 1968. DeBenedetti, Charles , an d Charle s Chatfield . A n America n Ordeal: The Anti-War Movement of the Vietnam Era. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1990. D'Souza, Dinesh. Illiberal Education: The Politics of Race and Sex on Campus. New York: Free Press, 1991. Eszterhas, Joe, and Michael D. Roberts. 13 Seconds: Confrontation at Kent State. New York: College Notes and Texts, 1970. Evans, Sara. Personal Politics: Th e Roots of Women's Liberation i n the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970. Farber, David. Chicago, '68. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988. Flynn, Georg e Q . Roosevelt and Romanism: Catholics and American Diplomacy , 1937-1945. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1976. Fussell, Paul. Class. New York: Ballantine Books, 1990. Gans, Herbert J. Deciding What's News: A Study of CBS Evening News, NBC Nightly News, Newsweek and Time. New York: Vintage Books, 1980.

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Yarmolinsky, Adam. The Military Establishment: Its Impact on American Society. New York: Harper and Row, 1971. Zaroulis, Nancy, and Gerald Sullivan. Who Spoke Up? American Protest against the War in Vietnam, 1963-1975. New York: Doubleday, 1984. Articles Draper, Theodore . "Th e Clas s Struggle : The Myt h o f th e Communis t Professors, " New Republic 196 (26 January 1987): 29-36. Ellis, Donna Lloyd . "Th e Undergroun d Pres s i n America : 1955-1970, " Journal of Popular Culture 5 (Summer 1971): 102-24. Glazer, Nathan. "The Professors and the Party," New Republic 195 (6 October 1986): 39-42. "Harvard Underwater Sound Laboratory," Noise Level 1 (July 1981): 1-2. Levy, Sheldon G . "Polarization i n Racia l Attitudes, " Public Opinio n Quarterl y 36 (Summer 1972): 221-34. Peterson, Patti McGili. "Student Organizations and the Anti-War Movement in America, 1900-1960," American Studies Quarterly 13 (Spring 1972): 131-48. Ransford, H. Edward. "Blue Collar Anger: Reactions to Student and Black Protest," American Sociological Review 27 (June 1972): 333-46. Ross, J. Michael, Reeve D. Vanneman, and Thomas F. Pettigrew. "Patterns of Support for George Wallace: Implications for Racial Change," Journal of Social Issues 3 6 (Spring 1976): 69-91. Treaster, W. Lowell. "MSU's Fabulous Centennial Revisited, " MSU Alumni Magazine 3 (Fall 1983): 13. Films Green, Ricki, and David Hoffman, Producers . "Making Sense of the Sixties." WETATV Washington, D.C., and Varied Directions International, 1990.

Index

Academic freedom, 2 , 61, 148, 174; challenging for, 50; threat to, 44 ACLU. See American Civil Liberties Union Adams, Walter, 187, 260; cooptation by, 191, 195; November 15 Mobilization and, 195; October 15 Moratorium and, 194; replacement of, 195; SDS and, 191-92, 253; VVAW and, 263 Ad hoc Committee for a Vote for Peace (PSU), Withali and, 55 Ad hoc Committee for Student Freedom (PSU), 97, 101, 153 Ad hoc Committee on Free Speech (KSU), Walsh and, 117 Ad hoc Committee on Vietnam (PSU), 56,57 Ad hoc Faculty Committee for Peace in Vietnam (MSU), 131 Administrators, mentality of, 8 Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), 18, 37 AEC. See Atomic Energy Commission Agency for International Development (AID): grants from, 22, 23; Hannah and, 21; SUNY-Buffalo and , 34 Agnew, Spiro, 195 AID. See Agency for International Development Akers, Forest, 25, 30 Albinski, Henry, prowar stance of, 6061, 160

Aldrich, Mike, 169-70 Alewitz, Mike, 232, 248 Alternative Candidate Task Force (SUNY-Buffalo), 10 9 Alternative service, 185 American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), 50, 53, 54, 84, 233; academic freedom and, 61; criticism by, 172; police brutality and, 212 American Friends of Vietnam (MSU): debates with, 132; Fishel and, 49 American Friends Service (Quaker), 50, 56 American Legion, 187, 251 American Serviceman's Union, Stapp and, 6, 99, 150 American Youth for Democracy (AYD), 24 Anarcho-syndicalists, 188 Anderson, James: activism of, 52, 186; SDS-PL and, 192 Andrews, George, 159 Andrews, Jim, activism of, 100-101 "Angry Arts Festival," 170 Anti-Communism, 13, 41, 52, 112, 164, 266; in Buffalo, 111 ; at PSU, 60-61 Antidraft unions , 140. See also Buffalo Draft Resistance Union Anti-Semitism, 64, 111, 112; accusations of, 242; reacting to, 69. See also Jews Anti-student riot bills, 233 327

328 Inde

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Antiwar databases (MSU), compiling, 284 n.28, 289 n.35 Antiwar faculty activists, 61-62; community reaction to, 261; comparison of, 73-75; disciplining, 19, 24; division among, 140-41; firing,42-43, 46, 74-75; growth of, 180; isolation of, 114; opposition to, 51, 68; profile of, 45-46, 53, 59, 64, 68, 72-73, 74; surveillance of, 59; tenure for, 73-75 . See also New Left faculty; Prowar faculty activists Antiwar movement, xi, 101; community reaction to, 124-25, 172, 218-19, 240, 242, 254-56, 266, 271, 272, 286-87 n.66; division in, 82, 119-20, 159, 233, 242-43, 251, 259; elite school, 129-30; final days of, 9, 27273; growth of, 2-5, 7-9, 113-14, 160, 186; isolation of, 270; myths about, 2-3; nonviolence and, 129, 130; opposition to, 111-12, 232, 256; organizing, 8; realities of, 265-68; support for, 153-54; violence and, 8, 129, 183 Antiwar student activists, 2, 30, 95; in campus government, 114; Catholic, 5, 78, 79, 80, 98, 113, 123, 125; community reaction to, 261; confrontation with, 132-33, 267; cultural diversity among, 130, 269, 297 n.77; disciplining, 19, 20, 44, 135, 233; elite university, 125; hostility for, 35, 38, 12324, 147, 150, 176, 178-79, 202; isolation of, 107, 114; Jewish, 79-80, 81; middle-class, 3, 5, 78, 81, 123, 125, 130, 262; nonviolent, 233; patriotism of, 160; profile of, 78-79, 90-94, 99100, 104-7, 112-13, 116, 120-22; Protestant, 80-81, 123, 125; state university, 82-83, 125, 129; stereotype of, 79; unaffiliated, 270 ; upper-class, 130; working-class, 3, 5, 40, 78, 81, 123, 125. See also New Left students; Prowar student activists Aptheker, Herbert, 69 ARPA. See Advanced Research Projects Agency

Arthrell, Bill, 255 Aspaturian, Vernon, prowar stance of, 60-61 Atomic Energy Commission (AEC): funds from , 13 , 14, 22; PSU and, 28; SUNY-Buffalo and , 34 Austin, Bill, 214 Aversano, A. P., 34 AYD. See American Youth for Democracy Ayers, Bill, 6, 53, 221-22, 223, 226, 230; activism of, 79, 191, 272; arrest of, 129; at SDS convention, 18, 189 Badrich, Steve, 6, 90, 134, 139, 257; song by, 137-38 Barron, Theda, 139 Battistini, Lawrence: activism of, 49; criticism of, 132; Lansing Vietnam Summer and, 143; speech by, 130-31 Baumer, William, 210, 241 BCI. See Ohio Bureau of Criminal Investigation BDRU. See Buffalo Draf t Resistance Union Bell, Daniel, on higher education, 76 Benedict, "Corky": arrest of, 231; Weathermen and, 230 Bennett, Tom, 152 Bennis, Warren, 31, 59, 218; gassing of, 249; resignation of, 239; teach-in and, 214 Bentivogli, Dan, 215; suspension of, 239 Berger, Jeff, 204; criticism by, 242; Democratic Convention and, 199; teach-in and, 197; on university-military research, 198; Walkertown and, 200 Berkeley Free Speech Movement (FSM), 7, 33, 58, 124; influence of, 292 n.76; Walker on, 29 Berry, Bill, 216 Bessey Hail (MSU), sit-in at, 140-41 Beyer, Bruce, 261; draft resistanc e by, 210-11; indictment of, 241; Themis and, 216-17; trial of, 213, 214 Black activists, 3, 192, 196-97, 251; Co-

Index 32 alition for Peace and, 258-59; support for, 259 Blacklisting, 69, 80 BlackPanthers Black Panthers, 171, 224, 226; Garskoff and, 52, 53, 144; SDS and, 188; Weathermen and, 192 Black Power, 38-39, 68, 103, 182, 233; criticism of, 157, 158; division in, 242; SDS and, 197, 207; SMC and, 172 Black students; preferential treatmen t for, 2; SDS and, 259; walkout by, 225, 248 Black Student Union, 206. See also Douglass Association Black studies program, 2, 196 Black United Students (BUS), 226; protest by, 221, 245; SDS and, 224 Blank, Don, 169 Blanket Hill (KSU), rally at, 178 Blanton, W. C, 194 ; activism of, 142 Blau, Julian, 59; dismissal of, 27 Bluestone, Gene, 24 Bogue Street Bridge, 25 7 Bolton, Arthur, 107 Bowman, John, 187 Bowman Hall (KSU), protesting at, 177 Boyer, Robert, 98, 203; peace fasts and, 159 Bradley, Kaye, 87 Braley, Scott, 188-89; activism of, 190; SDS-PL and, 192 Brandstatter, Arthur, 23 Braungart, Richard, 99; on YAF, 102 Bresnahan, Bob, KCEWV and, 118 Brock, Barbara, 175; activism of, 177; spring parade and, 178 Brody, Barbara, 165 Brown, Sam, 6, 109 Brown, William, 263 Brydges, Earl, 35 Buckley, Neil, 158; commune and, 160; Creegan and, 156; dissent by, 97-98; SDS and, 155, 157, 198-99; SDS-PL and, 199, 205-6; Water Tunnel and, 205-6 Buffalo, The , trial of, 273-74 Buffalo Common Council, 68, 111-12,

9

170; Furnas and, 166; SUNY-Buffaio SDS and, 168-69; Themis controversy and,215-16 Buffalo Courier-Express: quote from, 108-9; on SDS, 162; VVAW and, 262 Buffalo Draft Resistance Union (BDRU), 35, 110, 212; Beyer case and, 210; membership profile of, 113, 115 Buffalo Insighter, 17 1 Buffalo Marijuana Review, 21 9 Buffalo Nine, 261, 274; indictment of, 211; second trial of, 216-17; support for, 213-14 Buffalo Nine Defense Committee, newspaper by, 212 Buffalo Police Department, 65, 74, 218; criticism of, 172, 212; draft resistanc e and, 211; encounter with, 35, 238, 239, 249; October 15 Moratorium and, 219; surveillance by, 109 BUS. See Black United Students Bush, Vannevar: on national security, 14; OSRD and, 17 Business majors, pro war stand of, 94 Buyers, Councilman, Meyerson and, 215 Cahill, Linda, 158 Calkins, Ken, 229, 255; activism of, 7172; October 15 Moratorium and, 232; teach-in and, 179-80 Calvert, Greg, 97, 183, 198 Cambodia, invasion of, 245, 249, 251, 256, 268 Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND), 66-67 Campbell, R. Paul, 160, 203 Canfora, Alan: activism of, 225, 226-27, 229, 247, 248; indictment of, 255; SDS and, 222-23, 227; wounding of, 248 Carnegie Commission, survey by, 44 Carpenter, Bob, 119, 221 Carson, Carol, 220 Carter, Amy, 6 Casale, Jerry, 120, 248, 286-87 n.66 Catholic church: right-wing regimes and, 155; teachings of, 274

330 Inde

x

Catholic New Left, emergence of, 273 Catholics: anti-Communist, 271; discrimination against, 80, 112; KCEWV and, 121; at KSU, 116; nonviolent protest and, 183; pro war, 112-13; SDS and, 92, 122, 138; as student activists, 5, 78, 79, 80, 98, 113, 123, 125; YAF and, 102, 103 Cecora, Joyce, 229 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA): MSU links with, 136, 137; recruitment by, 34, 40, 59, 62, 161, 173, 174, 175 Chapman, Duane, 24 Charmbury, H. Beecher, quote of, 30 Chicago Seven, xii; protest for, 237-38 Christian Fellowship, 139 Churchill, Peter, teach-in and, 179-80 CIA. See Central Intelligence Agency Citizens for a New Politics (CNP), 6, 53, 144,171 Citizens for Peace in Vietnam, 159 Civil disobedience, 52, 96, 259; approval of, 198; instructions in, 262 Civil liberties, 50, 70, 114, 117, 148, 169; concern for, 267; faculty suppor t for, 45 Civil Rights Commission, Hannah and, 21, 2 4 Civil Rights Committee (SUNY-Buffalo) , 108 Civil rights movement, 1, 67, 78 Clark, Harold, 187 Clark, Joseph, 160 Class: division by, 271; influence of, 7; students as, 77 Cleaver, Eldridge, 224 Cleeton, Alan, 55, 98, 147, 157, 158; HLF and, 155; peace fasts and, 146, 159; removal of, 200-201; roundtable series by, 153 Clemson, Barry, activism of, 101, 153 Clergy, antiwar, 7, 54, 98, 123, 141, 159, 180, 27 2 Clergy and Laity Concerned about Vietnam, 217; Vietnam Summer and, 143 Cleveland Plain Dealer, open letter in, 71

CND. See Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament CNP. See Citizens for a New Politics CNVA. See Committee for Non-Violent Action Coalition for Peace, 205, 206; blacks and, 258-59; criticism of, 242; decline of, 265; gays and, 259; leadership by, 207; November 15 Mobilization and, 208; popularity of, 258, 270, 272; protest by, 244, 265; SDS and, 208; strike call by, 249; voter registration drive by, 258 Cobb, Ron, 211 Cohen, Bob, 209, 210, 215, 217; on draft resistance, 211; on McCarthy, 209; suspension of, 239 Cohen, Janet, 238 Coles, Herman, 171, 172 College A (storefront college) , 65 Collier, Peter, 1, 2, 276 n.7 Collins, Judy, 210 Columbia University, protest at, 267 Columbus Weathermen, commune of, 231 Committee for a SANE Nuclear Policy (SANE), 67; Vietnam Summer and, 143 Committee for Non-Violent Action (CNVA), 163; demonstration by, 165, 167 Committee for Student Rights (CSR) (MSU), 50, 90, 133, 140; Hannah and, 23 Committee for Victory in Vietnam, 164 Common Council. See Buffalo Common Council Commons (KSU), rally at, 246-48 Communes, 230-31; establishing, 160 Communism: containing, 13, 41, 52, 266; opposition to, 60-61, 111, 112, 164 Communist party, 42; Jews and, 69 Communists: firing,42; repression of, 43 Concerned Citizens of Kent State, 229 "Confront th e Warmakers," 144-45; SUNY-Buffalo student s at, 173

Index 33

1

Day, Warren: activism of, 54; Lansing Vietnam Summer and, 143 "Days of Rage," 193, 231 De-escalation, support for, 45, 71, 148, 209-10. See also Escalation; Withdrawal DEGs. See Depth Education Groups Del Corso, Sylvester, 254; on antiwar movement, 233 Dellinger, Dave, debate with, 226 Delta Sigma Phi (MSU), Thompson and, 84 Delta Tau Delta (MSU), pro war stance of, 133 Democratic Coalition for Western New York, 65 Democratic National Convention, 9, 222; SDS at, 199; violence at, 182 Democratic party, transformation of , 2 Demonstration Hall (MSU), demonstration at, 186-87, 251, 252, 260 Department of Defense (DoD): funding from, 13 , 14, 22, 60, 218, 268; KSU and, 37; PSU and, 28, 30, 60; SUNYBuffalo and , 34, 66; Themis and, 1718; ties to, 266, 268 Department of Public Safety (DPS) (MSU), surveillance by, 83 Daily Collegian (PSU), 99, 259; antiwar sentiments of, 244; on CIA, 161; criti- Department of the Army, MSU and, 23 Depth Education Groups (DEGs), 88 cism by, 146, 147; on napalm, 157; Detroit Free Press, 135; Lack and, 84 on ORL, 201, 203; reform faction at, Deveaux, Clinton, 6, 124, 166, 167, 170; 154; SDS and, 157-58; on SENSE, activism of, 108-9 150-51; Walkertown and, 200 Daily Kent Stater, 72 ; antiwar columns Devine, Laurie, FBI cooperation by, 151 "Dialogue for Peace," SUNY-Buffal o in, 232; antiwar letters to, 176, 180; SDS and, 166 on BUS, 225; KCEWV and, 176; proDIC. See Draft Information Center testing, 177; on SDS, 225; surveilDiem, Ngo Dinh, 6, 22; Fishel and, 46lance by, 118, 230 47; MSUAG and, 48 Darling, Byron, dismissal of, 36 Discrimination, protesting, 85, 108, 117 Davidoff, Sue , 200 Dissent, hostility towards, 242, 254-56, Davidson, Carl, 6,100, 124, 183, 198; 271 activism of, 96-97, 268, 269; critiDix, Robert C, 38 , 118,254 cism of, 97-98; on escalation, 146DoD. See Department of Defense 47; SDS and, 152, 154, 155; SDS-PL Dohrn, Bernardine, 188, 223, 226, 230; and, 199; on student syndicalism, Weathermen and, 192 154-55 Dominick, Paul, 214 Davis, Marilynn. See Hammond, MariDonaldson, Ivanhoe, 84 lynn Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), 117-18 Conscientious objection, 96, 153, 163, 185,220 Construction, appropriations for, 26, 36 CORE. See Congress of Racial Equality Cornell University, protest at, 267 Counterculture, rise of, 75, 170 Cowles House (MSU), protest at, 135 Crafts, Steve, quote of, 163-64 Creegan, James, 155, 161, 205; activism of, 101, 148; armed revolution and, 152; Buckley and, 156; teach-in and, 197-98; Walkertown and, 200 Crosby, Stills, Nash, and Young, music of, 256 Crossland, Peter, quote of, 71 CSR. See Committee for Student Rights Cultural affiliation, influenc e of, 7-8 Cultural ambience, importance of, 27071 Cultural tensions, 81-82, 111, 269, 271 Cunningham, Alan "Commander Ali," 242 Curtin, John: The Buffalo tria l and, 273-74; criticism of, 214

332 Inde

x

Donnelly, John, surveillance by, 193 Donoghue, John: activism of, 131; criticism by, 48-49, 131-32 Donovan, Gerald, 212 Doty, Ed, 239, 241 Douglass Association, 196; SDS and, 197, 202; sit-in by, 202. See also Black Student Union Doves. See Liberal doves Dow Chemical Company, recruiting by, 34, 40, 62, 130, 173, 174, 175, 180, 220, 221 Dowty, Stu and Janet Goldwasser, 86 Doyle, Vincent, 273 Draft, 133 ; threat of, 134-35. See also Selective Service Draft boards, raids on, 273 Draft cards, burning, 145, 151, 158-59, 173 Draft counseling, 88, 111, 159, 171, 179, 185, 207, 209, 226 Draft deferments , 78 , 134, 153, 166 Draft Information Cente r (DIC), 185 Draft resistance, 89, 158-59, 185; FB I and, 148; promoting, 71-72, 148, 166, 172-73, 178; SDS and, 210 Drug subculture, 68, 142, 156, 185, 232; SDS and, 192 Dubis, Tom, teach-in and, 179-80 Dylan, Bob, 192 East Lansing City Hall, protest march to, 237 East Lansing Police Department, surveillance by, 194 Ebert, Jim, 190 Edelman, Dave, 168; resignation of, 170; on YAWF, 168 Edelstein, Stewart, 173 Education majors, profile of, 271 Edwards, Dave, 220; organizing by, 175; spring parade and, 178 Ehrlich, Bob, 71, 176, 177; activism of, 118; KCEWV and, 118, 175 Eisenhower, Dwight, 21, 27 Eisenhower, Milton, at PSU, 27-28 Elite universities: military contracting

and, 14; student activism at, 3-4, 267; violence at, 130, 183. See also State universities Elmwood Unitarian Church (Buffalo) , Beyer sanctuary at, 210-11 Emmer, Howie, 7, 124, 246; activism of, 119, 179, 222, 223, 272; anti-Humphrey protest and, 221; BUS and, 224, 225-26; Communist ties of, 230; debate with, 227, 228; imprisonment of, 231-32; KCEWV and, 178; on recruiters, 180; suspension hearings of, 228-29; Venceremos Brigade and, 226; Weathermen and, 230 Engineering majors, profile of, 271 Ennis, Paul, on SENSE, 149 Epstein, David, 300 n.27; surveillance by, 193-94 Erickson, Candy, 227, 229 Erickson, Herman, 213 Erickson, Rick, 7, 222, 223, 224, 246; activism of, 119; anti-Humphrey protest and, 221; BUS and, 225-26; imprisonment of, 231-32; suspension hearings of, 228-29; Venceremos Brigade and, 226; Weathermen and, 230 Ernsberger, Don, SIL and, 206 Escalation, 271; criticism of, 48-49, 77-78, 146-47; protesting, 144-45, 161, 245, 249, 263-64, 267, 269; support for, 61. See aJso De-escalation Ethnicity, 289 n.35; division by, 271 Evans, Linda, 6, 257; activism of, 189, 190; reputation of, 193; SDS-PL and, 192; trial of, 299 n.14; Weathermen and,193 Faculty: changing role of, 43-44; growth of, 19, 22, 32; influence of, 7; mentality of, 8; social and political profile of, 44-45 Faculty activism: growth of, 2-3, 42; at KSU, 68-73, 73-75; at MSU, 46-54, 73-75; at PSU, 54-62, 73-75; at SUNY-Buffalo, 62-68 , 73-75 Faculty activists. See Antiwar faculty activists; Pro war faculty activists

Index 33 Faculty Ad hoc Committee for De-escalation of the War in Vietnam (KSU), 71 Faculty Committee for Peace in Vietnam (MSU), 49; debate with, 132 Faculty Peace Patrol (SUNY-Buffalo) , 240-41 Fahri, Leon, pro war stance of, 66 Farb, Russ, Water Tunnel and, 202 Farley, Pam: activism of, 99, 101; criticism by, 242; nonviolence and, 258; NUC and, 205; on sexism, 156, 206; suspension of, 244; WLF and, 206 Fasts, 146, 151, 153, 159 Faulkner, Larry, 285 n.47; activism of, 110-12, 241-42; draft resistance by, 173, 209, 211; picketing by, 167 Faxon, Jack, 136 FBI. See Federal Bureau of Investigation Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 24, 217, 209, 289 n.35; cooperating with, 151; draft resistance and, 14850, 159, 211; harassment by, 69, 80; on Ohio National Guard, 255; PSU and, 30; surveillance by, 35, 36, 179, 188 Federman, Ray, 241 Feinberg Loyalty Oath (1949), 32, 62, 63, 66, 108 Felicetta, Frank, 35, 212 Feminist issues. See Women's issues Ferber, Michael, 209, 210 Ferber, Ren6e, draft counseling by, 209, 210 Ferency, Zolton: activism of, 54; Lansing Vietnam Summer and, 143 Fiedler, Leslie, 32, 219; activism of, 6364; arrest of 64; on Buffalo, 63 ; on Communists, 42; on LEMAR, 170; surveillance of, 63 Fifth Estate, 8 4 Final Report Covering Activities of the MSU Vietnam Advisory Group, The (Scigliano and Fox), 137 Financial aid. See Grants Fish, George, 257, 300 n.27; activism of, 86; PL position and, 188; SDS and, 138

3

Fishel, Wesley, 6; criticism by, 132; criticism of, 137-38; Vietnam Project and, 46-47, 49-50, 136 Flacks, Richard, 276 n.7; NUC and, 46; SDS and, 80 Flay, Joseph, 96 Fleischmann, William, 250 Foner, Phil, 69 Ford, Seabury, 254, 262 Foreign Operations Administration, grant from, 22. See also Agency for International Development Fox, Guy, writing of, 137 Franczyk, Gus, 35 Frank, Glenn, 246, 249, 256 Franklin, Doris, KCEWV and, 175 Fraternities. See Greek system Freedman, Dave, The Paper and, 190 Freedom of speech, 2, 3, 7, 84, 187, 206; denial of, 1, 40 Freedom Rides, 24, 85, 118 Free University (SDS), 72, 165, 226 Friedman, Dana, 208 Frieley, Charles, 17 Friend, Theodore, 218, 239, 261 Frisch, Michael, 43, 68, 241 Frisina, Frank, 36, 246; prowar stance of, 180; red-baiting by, 232 FSM. See Berkeley Free Speech Movement Furnas, Clifford C , 65, 68, 113, 162, 167; Common Council and, 166; defense establishment and, 31; loyalty oath and, 32; popularity of, 33; Selective Service and, 166 Gallo, Danny, 202 Gardiner, Dave, activism of, 161 Garfield Thomas Water Tunnel, 28; picketing at, 265; vigil at, 208 Garrett, Edward (Gewirts), activism of, 83 Garrett, Jan, activism of, 83-84 Garskoff, Bertram : activism of, 52-53; Black Panthers and, 144; CNP and, 6, 144; firingof, 53, 190; SDS and, 52; at SDS convention, 189

334 Inde

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Garver, Newton, 165, 215, 218, 261; activism of, 62-63, 64; on Dow-SMC clash, 175; on Feinberg Loyalty Oath, 62 Gay rights, 68, 182, 251, 259 "Gentle Thursday" festivities, 142 GFCSS. See Graduate Student-Faculty Committee on the Selective Service Gibson, Ruth, 119, 246, 247; activism of, 38, 224, 229, 272; arrest of, 221; indictment of, 255; KCEWV and, 178; nonviolence and, 220; on surveillance, 179; women's issues and, 226 Gitlin, Todd, 82, 276 n.7 GLCO. See Greater Lansing Community Organization Gold, Ted, death of, 247 Goldman, Harvey, 86, 140 Goldwater, Barry, 107, 133 Goodman, Mitchell, 210, 241 Goodman, Nick, 240 Gotolski, William, research of, 61 Gould, Mark, arrest of, 151 Gould, Samuel, 32, 66, 280 n.39; SDS and,152 Grace, Tom, 255; activism of, 225, 22627, 229, 248; SDS and, 222-23, 227; wounding of, 249 Graduate Student-Faculty Committee on the Selective Service (GFCSS) (SUNY-Buffalo), 166-6 7 Graham, Gail, activism of, 262 Graham, Saxon, prowar stance of, 66 Grant, Jim: activism of, 99, 101; on militant confrontation, 16 1 Grants: defense-related, 15 , 18, 22, 23, 33, 37, 43; education, 19, 26, 32, 76. See also Project Themis Great Depression, activism during, 42 Greater Lansing Community Organization (GLCO), 51, 257; effectiveness of , 263, 270, 272; October 15 Moratorium and, 194; UCM and, 190, 195 Greek system: influence of, 115; prowar postcards from, 151 Green, Robert, 24 Greer, Thomas, 47; activism of, 49-50, 131; criticism of, 132; Humphrey in-

cident and, 51-52; Lansing Vietnam Summer and, 143; McCarthy campaign and, 184; rational discourse and,141 Gregorich, Barbara, resignation of, 178 Griffiths, George , 263 Gross, Gerry, 163, 210, 212, 213; activism of, 110; arrest of, 211; expulsion of, 261 Gruening, Ernest, 147 Haber, Al, 86 Hammond, Ken, 248, 254; activism of, 229, 246, 272; Daily Kent Stater and, 232; defense committee and, 255; draft counselin g by, 226; indictment of, 255; SDS and, 222, 231 Hammond, Marilynn, 226, 246, 248, 249,254 Hannah, John, 31, 90, 140, 184, 260; CIA cooperation and, 136-37; comic strip about, 90; Communist subversion and, 24-26, 95; educational philosophy of, 20, 21, 39-41; faculty activism and, 25, 50, 53-54; letter to, 131-32; in Joco parentis and, 89; public service of, 20-26; retirement of, 190-91; SDS and, 39, 95, 187, 188; ROTC and, 23; student activism and, 23-24, 25; university-military research and, 22, 40, 266; Vietnam Project and, 136-37; YSC and, 83, 84 Hannah Administration Building (MSU), 251; demonstration at, 18587 Hansen, Jim, 168 Harassment, 179, 255; by FBI, 69, 80 Hart, Philip, 195; October 15 Moratorium and,194 Harvard University, national security and, 18 Hatcher, Harlan, 20 Hayden, Tom, 1, 77, 86, 276 n.7; on protest movement, 268; SDS and, 82 Hayes Hall (SUNY-Buffalo), demonstra tion at, 215, 238-41 Haynie, Charlie, 110, 238, 241; on righ-

Index 33 teous violence, 67-68; Themis and, 217 Hays, David, 240 Henderson, John, 216 Henderson Station, 258, 265 Henning, Philip, 146 Hershey, Lewis, 134; criticism of, 160 Hetzel Union Building (HUB) (PSU), 207; peace fast in, 151; protest at, 96, 242 Heyman, Jacob, on draft resistance , 150 Higher education: commitment to, 19; discrimination in, 76-77 Hildebrand, William: activism of, 71; KCEWV and, 175 Hillel Foundation, 155 Hillel Liberation Front (HLF): Millen and, 98-99; work of, 155 Hiroshima Day Peace Walk (CNVA), 167, 171 Hixson, Bill, 238; McCarthy campaign and, 184 HLF. See Hillel Liberation Front Hoffman, Abbie , 6 Hoffman, George , 220 Holmes, John, 135; on patriotic duty, 134 Holmes, Louise, activism of, 135 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 184 Homophiles of Penn State (HOPS), work of, 259 Homosexuals. See Gay rights Honors students: activism of, 92, 95, 187; recruiting, 89-90 Hooker, David, song by, 137-38 Hooker, Jim, McCarthy campaign and, 184 HOPS. See Homophiles of Penn State Horowitz, David, 1-2, 276 n.7 Horrigan, Jeremiah, 273 House Internal Security Committee, testimony before, 230 House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), 32, 36, 66, 84; Buffalo investigation of, 107-8; protest against, 108, 109, 114; testifying before, 24; Walker and, 156, 157. See

5

also House Internal Security Committee Hovde, Frederick, OSRD and, 17 HRB Singer, 59-60 HUAC. See House Un-American Activities Committee HUB. See Hetzel Union Building Humphrey, Hubert, protesting, 51, 165, 221 Hunger strike. See Fasts IDA. See Institute for Defense Analysis Iglee, Roy, spring parade and, 178 Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), Salter case and, 169 Informants. See Surveillance In loco parentis: abolishing, 1, 260; protesting, 78, 89, 97, 117, 148, 202 INS. See Immigration and Naturalization Service Institute for Defense Analysis (IDA), 268; foundation of , 17; members of, 17; protesting, 196, 197-98; at PSU, 28, 59 Interfaith Convocatio n on War and Peace, 141, 143 International Days of Protest, 151; SUNY-Buffalo SD S and, 163 Jackson, Joseph, 119, 178, 286 n.63; activism of, 221; KCEWV and, 118, 175; nonviolence and, 220; speech by, 176 Jackson, Mim, 249, 286 n.63; activism of, 221 Jackson, Sidney, 118, 255, 256, 286 n.63; activism of, 69-70; hate letters to, 176-77; KCEWV and, 175; Kennedy correspondence of, 69; October 15 Moratorium and, 232; on racism, 225 Jacobs, William: draft counseling by, 179; KCEWV and, 118 Jaffe, Adrian, 47 Janoff, Shelley , 160 "Jawbone" (State College), establishment of, 159 J.B.'s (Kent bar), fightat, 245 Jews: antiwar, 79-81, 104, 112-13, 120;

336 Inde

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Jews (Continued) Communist party and, 69; cultural anxiety for, 80, 111; KCEWV and, 121; at KSU, 116; New Left and, 9899, 292 n.78; prowar, 95, 104, 123; SDS and, 92, 105-6, 107, 122, 138, 144, 158, 207; SENSE and, 99; violent protest and, 183; YAF and, 102, 103, 104. See also Anti-Semitism Johns Hopkins University: defense research at, 13; Eisenhower at, 27 Johnson, Lyndon, 5, 6, 49; criticism of, 130, 131-32, 184; escalation by, 129, 131, 145-46, 147, 161; Fishel and, 132; Hannah and, 21; higher education and, 76; support for, 133, 137, 151; Vietnam Week and, 143 Jolles, Char, 139 Jondahl, Lynn, 272; activism of, 54; Lansing Vietnam Summer and, 143; on Stockman, 89; UCM and, 88 Katz, Dan, 165 KCEWV. See Kent Committee to End the War in Vietnam Keddie, Wells, 201, 204, 243; activism of, 57-58; criticism of, 208; NUC and, 205; SDS-PL and, 199; Selective Service and, 153; on Shapp, 207-8; teach-in by, 147; tenure denial for, 59, 257; Walkertown and, 200 Keegan, Terry, 239 Keleher, Brian, 86, 131 Keniston, Kenneth, 77 Kennedy, John: Hannah and, 21; quote of, 146 Kennedy, Michael, 213 Kennedy, Robert, 9, 220; assassination of, 182, 222; campaign for, 197 Kent Committee to End the War in Vietnam (KCEWV), 38, 72, 120; attacking, 119, 175-76, 177; Catholics in, 121; demonstrations by, 176, 177; foundation of, 70-71, 118; growth of, 175, 178, 180-81; Jews in, 121; KSU spring parade and, 177-78; nonviolence and, 220; outreach by, 119; profile for , 121-22; SDS and, 221; suc-

cess for, 219-20; surveillance of, 118-19, 179 Kent Liberation Front (KLF), 255 Kent Police Department, 72 , 255; KCEWV and, 118; surveillance by, 38, 73, 178-79, 262 Kent State University (KSU): antiwar movement at, 4, 7, 36-41, 124-25, 175-81, 219-23, 245-56, 262-63, 272, 286-87 n.66; black student walkout at, 225; defense-related grant s for, 18, 37; faculty activism at, 68-75; growth of, 36-37, 116, 119; international symbolism of, 256; NUC at, 46; shootings at, 3-4, 9, 248-49, 268; spring parade at, 177-78; student activism at, 114-24; student profile of, 116; subculture at, 120 Kent State University SDS, 7, 72, 227; banning of, 229, 232; Catholics and, 122; Jews and, 122; LCI and, 70; membership profile of, 121-22; newspaper by, 222; political base of, 223; "Spring Offensive" of , 228; tactics of, 222-23; Themis and, 37-38; Weathermen and,270 "Kent 25," rally for, 255 Kerr, Clark: on higher education, 76; on universities, 20 Ketter, Robert, 261 Kibbey, Rick: activism of, 186; The Resistance and, 189; student strike and, 251,253 Killian, James, Jr., IDA and, 17 Kindman, Michael, 6, 134; draft resis tance by, 142 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 9; assassination of, 182, 197, 222; memorial march for, 219-20; Vietnam Summer and, 143 Kirkpatrick, Lyman, on MSU-CIA cooperation, 136, 137 Klein, Dorie, 214 KLF. See Kent Liberation Front Kline, Ernest, 265 Kochery, David, 107 Kolko, Gabriel, 241; Radical Faculty Caucus and, 217; Themis and, 215

Index 33

7

Lessin, Ed, 86 Lessin, Sheri, 86, 87 Lewandowski, Raymond, 111 Lewis, Arthur, antiwar resolution and, 250 Lewis, Bob, 120, 248 Lewis, Jerry, 250 Liberal arts majors: activism of, 78-79, 95, 106-7; draft deferments for, 153; profile of, 271; student strike and, 252 Liberal doves, 45-46, 62, 122, 141, 159; criticism of, 182, 208-9; election of, 263; problems for, 219; proportion of, Labor-International Affairs Program 59, 64, 74 (American Friends Service Committee Liberated Community News, 21 2 [Quaker]), 50 Liberation News Service, 6 Lack, Larry, activism of, 84-85 Liberation theology, 124 Ladd, Everett, on Carnegie Commission Lingis, Alphonso, 96 report, 45 Lipez, A. H., 202 LaFayette Square (Buffalo), rallies at, Lipset, Seymour, on Carnegie Commis163, 165, 168, 170 sion report, 45 "Land Grant Man" (comi c strip), 90 Liquid Crystals Institute (LCI) (KSU) : Lang, Brad, 257; activism of, 142; on defense of, 256; Jackson and, 70; opgovernment repression, 186; at SDS position to, 228, 255; work of, 37 convention, 188-89; SDS-PL and, 192; Weathermen and, 237 Look magazine, 89 Lorch, Lee, 59; dismissal of, 27 Lansbury, George, 54 Lough, Tom, 226, 263; activism of, 72; Lansing State Journal, 13 5 indictment of, 72, 254; on racism, 225 Lansing Vietnam Summer. See Vietnam Summer Lowenstein, Allard, 6 Larrowe, Charles, 53, 84; activism of, Loyalty oaths, 27, 32, 62, 63, 66; oppo50-51, 141, 186-87; draft counseling sition to, 43, 50, 108, 261. See aJso by, 185; McCarthy campaign and, Feinberg Loyalty Oath; Pechan Loy184; NUC and, 260; SDS-PL and, 192; alty Oath student strike and, 253; surveillance Lyman, William, 111, 215 of, 193; VVAW and, 263 Lynd, Staughton, NUC and, 46 Lawless, Ken: Beat poetry of, 141; firing Lynn, Conrad, defense by, 135 of, 140 McCarthy, Eugene, 51, 52, 62; campaign LCI. See Liquid Crystals Institute of, 182, 184-85, 197, 208-9; support Lee, Bill, 30; activism of, 99, 154; PSU for, 65 SDS and, 158; Vietnam Summer and, McCarthy, Richard, 111, 217; on foreign 159 policy, 162 Legalize Marijuana (LEMAR), 63, 169McCarthyism, 43, 80, 119 70 "Macedonians, The" (antifraternity LEMAR. See Legalize Marijuana club, KSU), 115 Lemisch, Jesse, NUC and, 46 Lend, Mark, 7; activism of, 222; Weath- McGovern, George, 273 McKeating, Mike, militancy of, 171 ermen and,230 Kowall, Chester, proclamation by, 163 Kowall, Rick, draft resistance by, 190 Krause, Allison, 247, 254; death of, 248 Krause, Arthur, hate letters to, 254 Kronberg, Carl, 212, 213; acquittal of, 216; arrest of, 211; militancy of, 171; restraining order on, 239 KSU. See Kent State University Kuachta, Joe, 176 Kudzu, 6 Kunstler, William, 263

338 Inde

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McNamara, Robert, 3; Themis and, 17 Macomb County Community College (Michigan), Weathermen invasion of, 193 MacRae, Wendell Scott, 27 McReynolds, David, 158 Mader, Donald, 6, 190 Maggie's Farm, 222, 227 Malak, Ray, conviction of, 216 Mansfield, Mike, 47 Maoists, 188, 192; opposition to, 199; SDS and, 183 "March for Victory," organization of, 258 "March on Buffalo's Wa r Industries," participants in, 173 Marijuana, 156 , 232; arrest for, 185 Marks, Robin, activism of, 119, 231 Marsh, Roger, conscientious objection and,153 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), defense research at, 13 Masterson, John: draft counselin g by, 185; McCarthy campaign and, 184; NUC and, 260; SDS-PL and, 192 Mates, Robert, prowar stance of, 66 Mault, Bill, 212, 219 Max, Steve, SDS and, 80 Mayrl, Bill: on Dow-SMC clash, 17475; draft resistanc e and, 166 Mellen, Jim, 221-22, 227; militancy of, 191; on revolution, 228; at SDS convention, 188, 189; Weathermen and, 192 Menzies, Robert Gordon, 156 Meyers, Al, 83 Meyerson, Martin, 64, 65, 67, 217, 239; antiwar activists and, 113, 167, 215, 261, 267; Buffalo Nin e and, 213-14; on civil liberties, 169; criticism of, 168, 211; education reform of, 31. 33, 34-35, 39-41, 169, 172; hate letters for, 219; military research and, 20, 212-13; political weakness of, 33-34, 172-73; progressivism of, 112, 114; on recruitment, 34, 174; ROTC and, 215; SDS and, 169, 213; Selective Service referendum and , 167; teach-in

and, 214; Themis and, 33, 34, 172, 215; on violent protest, 212; YAWF and,169 Michigan State University (MSU): admissions policy of, 21; antiwar protest at, 25, 130-45, 184-85, 251-54; CIA links to, 136, 137; faculty activism at, 46-54, 73-75; growth of, 2122; Hannah and, 20-26; NUC at, 46; student activism at, 4, 6, 124-25, 252-53, 259-60, 264-65; student strike at, 251-52; violence at, 23738, 245; weapons development at, 17, 22 Michigan State University Advisory Group (MSUAG), 22-23, 48 Michigan State University Police School, 22-23 Michigan State University SDS, 90, 184; Catholics and, 92, 138; confrontation with, 87, 132-33; founding of, 85, 86-87; fragmentation of , 188-89, 257; growth of, 138; Jews and, 92, 138; membership profile of, 89, 92-94; peace education offensive by , 135; peace march by, 131; PL control of, 192; Stockman and, 89; UCM and, 139, 141-42; women in, 92; work of, 137-39 Mikulecki, Donald, 173; on academic freedom, 174 ; on Coles, 171-72; Vietnam Summer and, 171 Military recruitment. See Recruitment Military research. See University-military research Millen, Leverett, 158; activism of, 9899, 155, 269 Miller, Donald, 118 Miller, James, 276 n.7 Miller, Jeff, death of, 248-49 Milliken, William, 264, 272; October 15 Moratorium and, 194 MIT. See Massachusetts Institute of Technology Modugno, Vince, 220, 222 Mohr, Reinhard, on teach-ins, 132 Molinaro, Max: activism of, 148; SDS and, 152; SENSE and, 152

Index 33 Moore, Carl, 229 Morgan, Craig, 232, 263; election of, 246; indictment of, 255 Morrell, David, pro war stance of, 101 Morrison, Barbara, 216, 219, 239 Morrison, Rev., Lansing Vietnam Summer and, 143 Morrisson, Truman, activism of, 54 Moshinsky, Julie, activism of, 154 "Motherfuckers, The " (anarcho-syndicalists), 188 "Motor City" Weather collective, 193 MSU. See Michigan State University MSUAG. See Michigan State University Advisory Group Munn, Clarence "Biggie," 90 Munn, Jane, 90; activism of, 135 Murray, Philip, 96 Murvay, Maggie, 223; surveillance by, 36; testimony of, 230 Napalm: opposition to, 157, 173, 180, 220; support for, 158 NASA. See National Aeronautics and Space Administration Nation, 66, 83 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA): funding from , 13, 14, 22; SUNY-Buffalo and , 34 National Conference for New Politics, Black Panthers at, 144 National Interim Council (Weathermen), 230 National Liberation Front (NLF), 131 National Merit Scholarship-Honor students: as antiwar activists, 92, 95, 187; recruiting, 89-90 National Recovery Act, 96 National Science Foundation (NSF), 28 National SDS Convention: KSU activists at, 18, 97, 187-89, 216, 230; at MSU, 221-22; at PSU, 157-58 National security, 18-19, 266 National Student Christian Federation, 87 National Vietnam Week Mobilization rally, Stockman at, 142-43 NeMoyer, Edgar, 213

9

New Frontier, student activists and, 78 New Left, 45-46, 57, 62, 82; attitudes toward, 58-59; emergence of, 109; Jews and, 98-99, 292 n.78; sexism in, 87-88; Vietnam War interpretation by, 133-34 New Left faculty, 43, 51, 52, 59, 64; antiwar movement and, 53. See also Antiwar faculty activists New Left Notes (SDS) , 160-61, 168, 296 n.84 New Left students, 51, 64, 65, 77-78; working-class, 81. See also Antiwar student activists Newman Club: KCEWV and, 179; "Peace Pray-In" by, 153 New Republic, 83 New University Conference (NUC) , 52, 192, 232, 233, 260; founding of, 46; at KSU, 72; at MSU, 50, 51; protest by, 205; at PSU, 57, 205; SDS and, 206 New York Times, 135 , 136 Nieburger, Colin, Weathermen and, 230 Nixon, Richard, 204, 217, 263, 264; campus dissent and, 254; election of, 2, 5, 9; escalation by, 39, 245, 251; Hannah and, 21, 22; law and order pledge of, 182; protesting, 211, 223, 226-27, 245; Scranton Commission and, 255; support for, 256; YAF and, 205 NLF. See National Liberation Front Nonviolence, 86, 130; calls for, 71, 272. See also Violence Northeast Ohio SDS, newspaper by, 222 November 15 Mobilization, 170-71, 208, 233; KCEWV and, 178; MSU contingent at, 195 NSF. See National Science Foundation NUC. See New University Conference Oakland Police Department, recruitment by, 224 October 15 Moratorium, 217, 219, 233; disharmony at, 194-95; opposition to, 208; organization of, 232; popularity of, 207

340 Inde

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Oestreicher, Dick, 140, 230; The Paper and, 190; PL position and, 189 Office o f Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), 17 Oglesby, Carl, 124, 183, 191, 222; activism of, 115-16, 269; Vietnam Summer and, 143; Vietnam War analysis by, 133-34 Ohio Bureau of Criminal Investigation (BCI), 38 Ohio Civil Rights Commission, 225 Ohio National Guard, 3, 246; blacks and, 245; confrontation with , 38-39, 247-49, 272; criticism for, 250, 255 Ohio Un-American Activities Committee, 282 n.51; hearings by, 36 Old Main (PSU), protest at, 205, 243, 244 Olds, Glenn, 262 Oliver, Robert, pro war stance of, 60-61 "100 Things to Know about Communism" (HUAC), 84 Open Letter to President Johnson, endorsement of, 71 Ordnance Research Laboratory (ORL), 208; establishment of, 28; expose on, 244; opportunities from, 266 ; protesting, 151, 196, 197, 243, 201, 203, 244, 265, 267; SDS and, 296 n.84 ORL. See Ordnance Research Laboratory Osborn, E. F., 197; on university-military research, 198 OSRD. See Office o f Scientific Research and Development Oswald, John, 257, 258 Oughton, Diana, 6, 53; activism of, 79, 191; arrest of, 129; death of, 247; at SDS convention, 188 Pacifists, 45-46, 204, 270; in SDS, 163, 164-65. See also Radical pacifist s Packard, Vance, 80; anecdote by, 27 Palladino, Nunzio, antiwar strike and, 60 Paper, The, 134, 138, 139, 142; control of, 190; decline of, 257; establishment of, 6, 90, 133

Parry, William, HUAC and, 32 Peace and Freedom party (Black Panthers), 52. See also Black Panthers Peace Coalition. See Coalition for Peace Peace movement. See Antiwar movement Peach, Gil, activism of, 142 Pechan, Albert, 27, 202 Pechan Loyalty Oath, opposition to, 50 Pegg, Charles, surveillance by, 24 Penn State. See Pennsylvania State University "Penn State Twenty-Nine," 243-44 Pennsylvania Education Department, pressure from, 202 Pennsylvania State University (PSU): AEC and, 28; antiwar activism at, 4, 6, 145-61, 196-208, 249-50, 25759, 265-66; defense work at, 17, 28, 30, 40, 75; Eisenhower at, 27-28; engineering at, 26-31; faculty activism at, 54-62, 73-75; informant network at, 30; NUC at, 46; political conservatism of, 27, 29; student activism at, 30, 95-107, 124-25; student strike at, 249-50; violence at, 242-45 Pennsylvania State University SDS, 30, 98; membership profile of, 106-7; organizing by, 160; problems for, 15557, 257, 265; Spring Mobilization march and, 158; support for, 158, 196, 198, 201, 258; teach-ins by, 158, 161; women and, 99 Pennsylvania State University YAF, 97, 242-43; criticism by, 148; criticism of, 101; membership profile of, 102; problems for, 148, 152-53, 206-7, 265. See also Young Americans for Freedom Pentagon, protest at, 145 People to People Association (MSU), 49,132 Persky, Jerry, 255 Petitions: antiwar, 51, 71, 129, 269; prowar, 162 Petkov, Laurey, 204-5 Petras, James, 196; activism of, 58; on

Index 34 CIA, 161; NUC and, 205; teach-in and, 197; violence and, 206 Picketing, 129, 151, 153, 167, 219, 265 Pickett, Bob, 232; on SDS, 226; walkout by, 248, 225 Pietra, John: statement by, 170; transfer of, 171 Pillion, John R., 107-8 Pittsburgh Press, on Walker, 147-48 PL. See Students for a Democratic Society-Progressive Labor Planck, Chip, Themis and, 217 Pohl, Keith, 272; activism of, 54; DIC and, 185; on Stockman, 89; UCM and, 88 Point Four program, Hannah and, 21, 22 Polarization, 232, 267, 268; criticism of, 205; presidents and, 41; push for, 183-84 Police, 65, 72, 74, 218, 255; criticism of, 172, 212; draft resistanc e and, 211; encounter with, 35, 238, 239, 249; KCEWV and, 118; October 15 Moratorium and, 219; surveillance by, 38, 73, 109, 178-79, 194, 262 Political background, influence of, 8, 82, 271 Political conservatism, 19-20, 27, 29 Pollack, Norman: on Adams, 194; NUC and, 260 Pollard, Ernest, 30, 196; on universitymilitary research, 198 Popular Front organizations, 42, 68-69 Port Huron Statement (SDS), 82 Potter, Paul, 99 Powell, Ed, 165, 174, 273, 285 n.47; activism of, 66-67; on participatory democracy, 168; strike and, 210 Powrie, Charles "Speed," 211, 254 Powrie, Jim, 211, 221, 230; activism of, 119, 179, 272; debate with, 227, 228; imprisonment of, 231-32; prosecution of, 247; on SDS, 226 Presidents: comparison of, 16; federal government connections and, 15-17; military contracting and, 14-15; polarization and, 41; profile of, 16

1

Price, Mike: draft resistance by, 140, 142; PL position and, 188 "Proclamation of Vietnam Day," 163 Progressive Labor (PL). See Students for a Democratic Society-Progressive Labor Project Themis: development of, 17-18; grants from, 18 , 33; opportunities from, 266; protesting, 34, 40, 65-66, 214-17, 239, 240; SDS and, 214-15; vote on, 215 Protestants, 80-81, 123, 125; nonviolent protest and, 183 Pro war databases (MSU), compiling, 289 n.35 Pro war faculty activists: letters from, 146; profile of, 245; at PSU, 60-62; at SUNY-Buffalo, 66 ; victory over, 140. See also Antiwar faculty activists Prowar student activists, 95, 164, 167; hostility of, 147, 150; Jewish, 122-23; letters from, 146; profile of, 94, 1037, 112-14, 122-23; YAF and, 104. See also Antiwar student activists PSU. See Pennsylvania State University Pyle, Andy, 192, 229, 231, 247, 254; on antiwar protest, 186; SDS and, 138 Quakers. See American Friends Service Racism: accusations of, 242, 251; opposition to, 1, 157, 172, 211; publicizing, 225 Radical Education Project (REP) (MSU), Sattels and, 192 Radical Faculty Caucus (SUNY-Buffalo) , foundation of , 65, 217 Radicalism, 220; escalation of, 183-84, 191; rejection of, 212, 253-54, 272; SDS and, 129, 19 2 Radical pacifists, 45-46, 59, 64, 67; hostility toward, 68; proportion of, 74. See also Pacifists Rainey, Tom, tenure denial for, 261 Ramparts, 138, 140, 270; expose by, 49, 54, 135-37, 154 Ratner, Carl, 166, 168 Reagan, Ronald, 2, 60

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Real, Mark, 223-24, 230 Record-Courier, 118 ; prowar letters to, 176 Recruitment: blocking, 140, 173-75, 204, 224; by CIA, 34, 40, 59, 62, 161, 173, 174, 175; by Dow, 34, 40, 62, 130, 173, 174, 175, 180, 220, 221; protesting, 169, 180, 210, 220, 221; SDS and, 173-74; SMC and, 173-74; YAWF and, 173-74 Red-baiting, 73, 102, 134, 232, 246 Redden, Lou, on nonviolence, 259 Red diaper babies, 80, 123, 125, 183 Red Squads (MSU), 24, 83, 86, 289 n.35; establishment of, 25; surveillance by, 88, 193-94 Reed, Lou,120 Regan, Peter, 218, 261; antiwar protestors and, 238, 239, 241; Buffalo polic e and, 65, 215, 249; criticism of, 240; FBI and,217 Reisig, Donald, 135 Reisz, Fred, 208; nonviolence and, 258 Religion, influence of, 7, 76, 271 Religious protestors, 8, 45-46, 272 REP. See Radical Education Project Repas, Robert, 84; activism of, 50-51, 53; Lansing Vietnam Summer and, 143; surveillance of, 193 Republic Steel, 117 Reserve Officers' Trainin g Corps (ROTC), 52, 83; defense of, 255; firebombing, 245, 246, 249; Hannah and, 23; opposition to, 50, 54, 65, 96, 200, 227, 228; protesting, 177, 186-87, 192, 202, 213, 214, 218, 239, 241, 242, 244, 251, 255, 263-64, 267; SDS and, 217, 225; vote on, 215 Reserve Officers' Trainin g Corps Field Days, protesting at, 186-87 Resistance, The, 52; emergence of, 189; members of, 269; SDS and, 189 Resnikoff, Marvin , tenure denial for, 261 Rhee, Syngman, 61 Rhodes, James, 36, 254, 262, 264; antiwar movement and, 233-34, 247;

Ohio National Guard and, 38-39; popularity of, 237 Rice, Charles Owen, 96 Richardson, Peter, 220; KCEWV and, 118 Richdale, Tom, 202 Rioting, 111, 130, 172, 182, 231, 238, 242 Rizzo, Frank, 102 Robbins, Terry, 222, 223, 226; activism of, 79, 272; death of, 247; at SDS convention, 188; Weathermen and, 23031 Rockefeller, Nelson, 39, 195; Hannah and,21 Rockwell, Willard F., 30 Rokeach, Milton, activism of, 49, 131 Romney, George, 54 Roosevelt, Eleanor, Hannah and, 21 Roosevelt, Franklin, 96; academics and, 43; higher education and, 76 Rosenberg, Julius and Ethel, 80 Rosenthall, Sandy, arrest of, 206 ROTC. See Reserve Officers' Trainin g Corps Rozen, Marvin: activism of, 56-57, 201; peace rally and, 151; teach-in by, 147 Rubin, Jerry, 214, 247 Rudd, Mark, 221-22, 223; debate with, 226; IDA and, 197; at SDS convention, 188 Ryan, Denise, 87, 193 Saalberg, Harvey, prowar stance of, 73 Salmon, Marvin, 135 Salter, Rick, 165; activism of, 66, 161; deportation of, 169, 172; draft resistance and, 166; picketing by, 167; Selective Service referendum and , 168 Samet, Tom, 194 Sam's Pizza Shop (Kent), student activists at, 114-15 Sander, Bill, arrest of, 167 Sanders, Ed, 219 SANE. See Committee for a SANE Nuclear Policy Sassoon, Don, 258

Index 34 Satrom, LeRoy, 39, 245-46, 247 Sattel, Jack, 138, 139, 191, 192; activism of, 85-86, 90, 268; at SDS convention, 189; on YSC, 86 Sattel, Sue Van Eyck, 138, 139, 192; activism of, 86, 87; Lansing Vietnam Summer and, 143; at SDS convention, 189; on Stockman, 89 Schaller, Richard, 213 Schell, Jonathan, 210 Scheuer, Sandy, death of, 249 Schiff, Paul, 86, 263; expulsion of, 5051; suspension of, 23 Schkloven, Joel, song by, 137-38 Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr.: on higher education, 76; social reform movement and, 82 Scholarship students. See Honors students Schwartz, Norman: arrest of, 200; Democratic Convention and, 199; SDS and, 155; Water TunneJ and, 202 Schwartzmiller, Donald, surveillance by, 179, 232 Science majors, prowar stand of, 94 Scigliano, Robert: resignation of, 136; writing of, 137 Scranton Commission, condemnation for, 255 SDS. See Students for a Democratic Society SDS-PL. See Students for a Democratic Society-Progressive Labor Seale, Bobby, 251, 253 Sedita, Frank: October 15 Moratorium and, 217; re-election of, 218 Seick, Steve, draft resistance by, 190 Selective Service, 129, 153, 209; criticism of, 166; fear of, 190; SDS and, 167-68; support for, 187; undermining, 6, 189, 273. See also Draft Selective Service Act (1948), 140; disobedience of, 62 Selective Service exam, 130, 134, 166; referendum on , 167-68, 169 SENSE, 96-98, 290 n.45; collapse of, 148, 151-52, 159; criticism of, 146, 148, 150-51; Jews and, 99; march by,

3

146, 151, 153; membership of, 99100; peace fast by, 153; peace offensive by, 147; SDS and, 155 Seraphinoff, Mike , draft resistanc e by, 190 Shafer, Raymond, 244 Shapiro, Beth, 300 n.27; activism of, 186; PL position and, 189; at SDS convention, 188; student strike and, 253; surveillance of, 193 Shapp, Milton, 265; on October 15 Moratorium, 207; speech by, 244 Sharoff, Steve , 246 Sherman, Kenneth: anti-ROTC protest and, 217; draft counselin g by, 209; statement by, 170; Vietnam Summer and, 171 Shero, Jeff, quote of, 81-82 Shipman, Robert: research of, 61 Shore, Jay: arrest of, 203; Water TunneJ and, 202 Shotsberger, Steven, criticism of, 72 Siggelkow, Richard, 164, 215, 239 SIL. See Students for Individual Liberty Sill, Geoff, 258; suspension of, 244 Sit-ins: at KSU, 179, 247; at MSU, 14041, 251, 252; at PSU, 157, 202, 243; SDS and, 167, 224; at SUNY-Buffalo , 169,214 "60 Minutes," ORL expose by, 244 Skocpol, Bill, 139; UCM and, 184-85 Slominski, Alfreda: on Coles, 172; defeat of, 218; quote of, 261-62 SMC. See Student Mobilization Committee Smith, Bobbi, 231 Smith, Chitra, 49 Smith, Warren, activism of, 56 Smuckler, Larry, nonviolence and, 258 Smuckler, Ralph, on MSU-CIA cooperation, 136, 137 SNCC. See Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee Snell, Fred: activism of, 64-65; arrest of, 65, 241; criticism of, 218; Radical Faculty Caucus and, 217; resolution by, 209-10; strike and, 210; Themis and,215

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Snoyer, Jeff, 190 ; on antiwar protest, 145 Socialist Club (PSU): peace offensiv e by, 147; picketing by, 151; Rozen and, 56 Social science majors, activism of, 7879, 95, 106-7, 252 Soldiers' Union. See American Serviceman's Union Soloman, Steve, 258; on military research, 207 Solomon, Barbara, 212 "Solve-In" (SUNY-Buffalo), Taylo r at, 163 Sontag, Susan, 216 South Vietnamese Constitution, MSU writing of, 47 Sparks, Edwin, 27 Spectrum, 109, 114, 168, 210, 211, 239, 261; control of, 170; criticism by, 165; peace education offensive and , 166; prowar letters to, 162; Themis and, 215 Spellman, Francis Cardinal, 47 Spock, Benjamin, 210 ; at KSU, 178 Sporn, Paul, dismissal of, 32 Spring Mobilization march, PSU SDS at, 158 Spring Offensive, 228 , 231 Sproul, Robert, OSRD and, 17 SRL. See Student Religious Liberals Stapp, Andy, 6, 124; activism of, 99; on draft resistance , 150 State College Friends Meeting, Vietnam Summer and, 159 State College Loyalty Day Parade, SENSE and, 153 State College Peace Center: closing of, 265; establishment of, 207 State News (MSU), 49, 84, 85, 136, 260; criticism by, 132, 133; Hannah and, 23, 24; informants at , 83; strike support from, 251 State universities: foreign polic y and, 4, 7; SDS at, 183, 268; weapons research and development at, 18-19. See also Elite universities State University of New York-Buffalo

(SUNY-Buffalo): admission s standards at, 34; antiwar movement at, 4, 6-7, 31-35, 161-75, 208-19, 238-42, 260-62, 271; cultural pluralism at, 266; faculty activism at, 62-68, 73 75; KSU shootings and, 249; military research at, 34, 66; New Left ideology at, 64; SDS convention at, 216; student activism at, 107-14, 124-25; Themis grant for, 18, 33; violence at, 242,245 State University of New York-Buffalo SDS, 35, 66, 216; antiwar message of, 161-62; boycott by, 214; Common Council and, 168-69 State University of New York-Buffalo Veterans Club, on Regan, 240 Steensma, Kris, 139; activism of, 189 Stein, Barry: activism of, 204; arrest of, 206 STEP. See Student Tutorial Education Project Sterling, Thomas, 203 Stevens, Don, 54, 84 Stockman, David, 139; activism of, 8889, 269; CNP and, 144; draft resis tance by, 140, 142; Lansing Vietnam Summer and, 143; quote of, 89; UC M and,142, 185 Storefront colleges , 217, 242; activism at, 35; criticism of, 66; investigation of, 68; SDS at, 65, 72, 165, 226 "Strike for Knowledge," organizers of, 210 Strikers, profile of, 252-53 Strikes, 249-50; problems for, 251-54 Student activism: at KSU, 114-24, 12425; at MSU, 83-95, 124-25; opposition to, 44, 45; at PSU, 95-107, 12425; at SUNY-Buffalo, 107-14 , 12425; support for, 45; white, 78; 124; women and, 105 Student activists. See Antiwar student activists; Prowar student activists Student bill of rights, SDS and, 201 Student Ecumenical Council (PSU), "Peace Pray-In" by, 153

Index 34 "Student-Faculty Roundtable" series, 153 Student Mobilization Committee (SMC): Black Power and, 172; convocation by, 173; march by, 170; recruiting and, 173-74; at SUNY-Buffalo, 17 1 Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC): Hannah and, 24; Lack and, 84; MSU Friends of, 84-85 Student population, growth of, 19, 21, 29-30, 32, 37, 77, 11 9 Student Religious Liberals (SRL), 220 Student rights, challenging for, 50, 78 Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), 1, 6, 7, 82; anti-Nixon protest by, 222-23; antiwar liberals and, 192; criticism of, 58, 157, 183, 205, 242, 270; division in, 87, 107, 182, 183, 188-89, 192, 195, 263, 269; election boycott by, 155; fund-raising letter s by, 164-65; illegal confrontation and , 140; informants in , 112, 186; membership of, 104, 112, 211, 182, 268; membership profile of, 113, 115; offensive by, 155; popularity of, 268; student government and, 142, 211. See also National SDS Convention; various university SDS chapters Students for a Democratic Society National Office, 87 , 97, 154; financial support for, 156; PL problem and, 199; struggles with, 83, 269 Students for a Democratic Society-Progressive Labor (SDS-PL), 188, 230; criticism of, 199; influence of, 198; purging of, 205, 216; support for, 192 Students for Individual Liberty (SIL), 206 Students for U.S. in Vietnam, founding of, 164 Student Tutorial Education Project (STEP), 85 Student Union for Racial Equality (SURE), 156-57, 158 Study groups, creation of, 199 SUNY-Buffalo. See State University of New York-Buffalo

5

SURE. See Student Union for Racial Equality Surveillance: by FBI, 36, 179, 188; at KSU, 36, 38, 73, 118-19, 178-79, 229, 230, 232, 255, 262; at MSU, 24, 50, 83, 88, 185-86; at PSU, 59, 196; by Red Squads, 88, 193-94; at SUNYBuffalo, 35 , 63, 108, 109, 267 Syndicalism, 124, 154-55, 269; Davidson and, 97 Taft, Robert, Jr., 233 Taggart, Tom, 262 Tanner, Carlie, 87 Tanner, Denny, YAF and, 152 "Taurian Festival of the Druids," 170 Taylor, Jerry, 165; activism of, 108-9, 161-62, 268; New Left and, 109, 271; at "Solve-In," 163; teach-in and, 162 Taylor, Maxwell, 150, 151 Taylor, Milton, 47; Vietnam Project and, 48, 49 Taylor, Richard, 250 Teach-ins, 129, 268; at KSU, 71, 17980; at MSU, 49, 88, 131, 138, 161; power of, 132; at PSU, 55, 56, 57, 158, 197, 205, 207, 250; at SUNY-Buffalo, 162 Technical Assistance in Vietnam: The MSU Experience (Sciglian o and Fox), 137 Tet Offensive, 9 ; impact of, 182, 184, 197-98, 208 Themis. See Project Themis Thomas, Jim: enlistment of, 134; poetry from, 139-4 0 Thomas, Norman, 50 Thompson, Robert, 50, 84 Thompson, Roy, 36; surveillance by, 179, 23 2 Thormeyer, Carl: activism of, 101; civil rights and, 148; YAF and, 152 Time magazine, 223 TOCSIN, 82 Tolies, Malorie, 202 Tolstoy College, 217 Trilling, Lionel, 42

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Tri-Towers dormitory (KSU), antiwar students at, 246, 247 Tross, Pam, quote of, 153 Truitt, John, 24 Truman, Harry, 62; Hannah and, 21 Trustees: appointment of, 30; conservatism of, 19-20 Tschan, Francis, 27 Turner, Ralph, 283 n.15; Vietnam Project and, 48, 49 2-S status, 134, 166 UB. See University of Buffal o UCM. See University Christian Movement Undercurrent, 219 Underground Press Syndicate, 6 United Anti-Communist Action Committee, hearings of, 108 United Campus Christian Fellowship (MSU), 138-39 United Steel Workers of America, 58 United Students (US), 189; foundation of, 140 University Christian Movement (UCM), 184; antidraft unio n and, 140; disbandment of, 195; foundation of , 8788, 138; GLCO and, 190; informants in, 186; Lansing Vietnam Summer and, 144; membership of, 270; membership profile of, 89; pacifism of, 270; SDS and, 139, 141-42; social issues and, 88; support for, 272; work of, 139 University Methodist Church (East Lansing), UCM activists and, 88 University-military research, 7, 8, 1819, 176; defense of, 61; dependence on, 268; funding for , 13-14, 266; opposition to, 4-5, 44-45, 50, 61, 210, 213, 218, 243, 259, 266-67 University of Akron: Black Power demonstration at, 38-39; National Guard at, 233-34 University of Buffalo (UB) , transformation of, 31. See also State University of New York-Buffal o

University of California system , defense contracts for, 13, 17 University of Delaware, defense contracts for, 17 University of Hawaii, defense contracts for, 17 University of Illinois, defense contracts for, 13, 1 4 University of Maryland, violence at, 245, 26 4 University of Massachusetts, violence at, 263 University of Michigan: defense contracts for, 13, 14, 17; violence at, 129 University of Pennsylvania, defens e contracts for, 14 University of Washington, violence at, 245 University of Wisconsin, violence at, 130,245 Urban Action headquarters (Buffalo) , police raid at, 212 US. See United Students Van De Vere, Mike, on demonstrations, 177 Van Eyck, Sue. See Sattel, Sue Van Eyck Van Tassel, Eileen; suit by, 260 Venceremos Brigade, organization of, 226 Verala, Mary, 80 Veterans of Foreign Wars, 163; Hannah and,187 Viet Cong: SDS and, 58; support for, 58, 188, 192, 208, 226, 227, 232, 233 Vietnam Day Committee, 7, 124 Vietnamese Bureau of Investigation, creation of, 22 Vietnamese Special Police, revamping, 22 Vietnam Project (MSU) , 23, 95, 268; expose of, 49, 135-37; Fishel and, 47; Hannah and, 136-37; opportunities from, 266 "Vietnam's Democratic One-Man Rule" (Fishel), quote from, 47

Index 34 Vietnam Strategy Committee (UCM), on wars of liberation, 141 Vietnam Summer, 89; impact of, 190; at MSU, 143-44; at PSU, 159; SDS and, 144, 159; sponsors for, 143, 171 Vietnam Veterans Against the War (VVAW): at KSU, 262; at MSU, 257, 263, 264; at PSU, 259; at SUNY-Buffalo, 262; support for, 263, 272 Vietnam Week, rallies during, 142-43 Vigils, 178, 180, 219, 220 Vincent, Howard, KCEWV and, 175 Violence, 8, 183, 268; justifiable, 67-68 ; pacifism and , 204. See also Nonviolence Voter registration drives, 258, 263 VVAW. See Vietnam Veterans Against the War Walker, Eric, 31, 39, 197, 204, 257; antiwar activists and, 29, 40, 145-46, 154, 156, 160, 243, 249, 250; Coalition for Peace and, 244; DoD and, 198; draft resisters and, 148-49; educational philosophy of, 41; faculty activists and, 56-58; HUAC and, 156, 157; injunction by , 244; October 15 Moratorium and, 207; prowar criticism of, 147-48; SDS and, 157, 200201, 258; support for, 245; universitymilitary research and, 28-29, 266; Water Tunnei and, 202-3; YAF and, 201-2 Walkertown, 200, 202 Wallace, George, 5 Walsh, Joe, music by, 119, 232 Walsh, Tony, 177, 178; activism of, 7, 116-17, 175, 176, 268; civil rights and, 117; KCEWV and, 118; legal assistance from, 255 Warner, John, activism of, 156-57, 196-97 Washington Post, 48 Water Tunnel, 56, 205-6, 258; attacking, 202-3; decline of, 257 Weatherman National Interim Council, Evans and, 193

7

Weathermen, 79, 119, 264, 269; bomb making by, 247; commune of, 231; founding of, 6, 7, 9, 192-93; at KSU, 192-93, 230-31, 246, 254-55, 270; at Michigan, 53, 192-93, 264; at MSU, 237; at PSU, 206; race rioting and, 231; SDS and, 183, 270; support for, 216; violence by, 253 "Weathermen Manifesto," 192 Weatherwomen, 193 Weiss, Dianne: NUC and, 205; on violent confrontation, 204 Werbe, Peter, 84 Wertheimer, Laura, 158, 206; court injunction by, 205; SDS and, 198 Wesley Foundation, 201; October 15 Moratorium and, 194 Westby, David, 99; activism of, 57; NUC and, 205; on YAF, 10 2 Westmoreland, William, 201 Wexler, Harold, 158, 206 Whalen, Gerald, 249 Wharton, Clifton: appointment of, 195; student strike and, 251-54, 259-60 Whitaker, Bill, 222, 226, 246 Whitaker, Melissa, 226 White, Robert, 70, 247, 287 n.66; AAUP and, 229; antiwar activism and, 3738, 39, 73, 232, 247; educational philosophy of, 41; KCEWV and, 118, 176, 221; LCI and, 256; November 15 Mobilization and, 233; October 15 Moratorium and, 233; Ohio National Guard and, 248; ROTC and, 255-56; SDS and, 228, 229-30, 232, 233; surveillance and, 179; testimony of, 230; university-military research and, 266; on YSA, 17 6 "Who Rules Kent?" (SDS pamphlet), 226 Wickert, Max, 241 Wike, Joyce, 107 Wilkerson, Cathy, 193 Willhelm, Sid, 174; activism of, 66-67, 161, 172-73; attack on, 165; on participatory democracy, 168; strike and, 210 Wilson, Woodrow, 43

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Winter, Dale, 203; November 15 Mobilization and, 208; on polarization, 205 Withall, John, 156; activism of, 54-56, 201; on SDS, 205; teach-in by, 55, 147 Withdrawal: opposition to, 198, 252; support for, 45, 46, 112. See also Deescalation WKSU (radio station), surveillance by, 118-19 WLF. See Women's Liberation Front Wodtke, Ken, activism of, 201 Wolkenstein, Ed, 107, 108 Wolkenstein, Rachel, 108 Women: activism of, 105; prowar activism of, 95, 104, 122; SDS and, 92, 99 Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, 86 Women's issues, 2, 87-88, 99, 182, 226; promotion of, 206 Women's Liberation Front (WLF), founding of, 206 Womer, Jim, 196; Walkertown and, 200 Wood, Peter, activism of, 207 Worker-Student Alliance (WSA), 188 Wright, J. D., 210 WSA. See Worker-Student Alliance YAF. See Young Americans for Freedom Yale University: military contracting by, 14; national security and, 18; violence at, 245 Yates, Bill: conviction of, 216; indictment of, 211; Vietnam Summer and, 171 YAWF. See Youth Against War and Fascism Yippie. See Youth International Party Young, Stephen, 262 Young Americans for Freedom (YAF),

60, 99, 132, 158, 201-2; Catholics and, 102, 103; criticism of, 40; decline of, 164; heckling by, 131; Jews and, 102, 103, 104; membership of, 104, 112; membership profile of, 106-7; prowar stance of, 104, 133, 198; SDS and, 155; splintering of, 107. See also Pennsylvania State University YAF Youngberg, Alvan, Water Tunnel and, 202 Youngblood, Charles, 187 Young Democrats, 222-23; heckling by, 131; support for, 176 Young People's Socialist League, 63 Young Republicans, 233; support for, 176 Young Socialist Alliance (YSA), 118; attacking, 175-76; peace march by, 131; persecution of, 177 Young Socialist Club (YSC), 50, 83-84, 85 Youth Against War and Fascism (YAWF), 35, 109-10, 271; banning, 169; boycott by, 214; decline of, 261; draft resistanc e and, 210; indictment of, 240; membership profile for, 113, 115; police agents in, 112; purge of, 169; recruiting and, 17374; ROTC raid by, 217; SDS and, 165, 168; student government and, 211 Youth International Party (Yippie), 214, 255 YSA. See Young Socialist Alliance YSC. See Young Socialist Club Zarichny, Jim, expulsion of, 23-24 Zeitgeist, 14 0 Zimmerman, Marvin, 65, 164, 210; prowar stance of, 162

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