Calculus, Early Transcendentals, International Metric Eighth Edition [8 ed.] 9781305272378

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CALCULUS Early TranscEndEnTals EighTh EdiTion mETric vErsion

JamEs sTEwarT M C MASTER UNIVERSITY AND UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

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Contents PrEfacE

xi

To ThE sTudEnT

xxiii

calculaTors, comPuTErs, and oThEr graPhing dEvicEs diagnosTic TEsTs

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xxvi

a Preview of calculus 1

1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

Four Ways to Represent a Function 10 Mathematical Models: A Catalog of Essential Functions 23 New Functions from Old Functions 36 Exponential Functions 45 Inverse Functions and Logarithms 55 Review 68

Principles of Problem Solving 71

2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8

The Tangent and Velocity Problems 78 The Limit of a Function 83 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws 95 The Precise Definition of a Limit 104 Continuity 114 Limits at Infinity; Horizontal Asymptotes 126 Derivatives and Rates of Change 140 Writing Project • Early Methods for Finding Tangents 152 The Derivative as a Function 152 Review 165

Problems Plus 169

iii Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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Contents

3 3.1

Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions 172 Applied Project • Building a Better Roller Coaster 182 3.2 The Product and Quotient Rules 183 3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 190 3.4 The Chain Rule 197 Applied Project • Where Should a Pilot Start Descent? 208 3.5 Implicit Differentiation 208 Laboratory Project • Families of Implicit Curves 217 3.6 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions 218 3.7 Rates of Change in the Natural and Social Sciences 224 3.8 Exponential Growth and Decay 237 Applied Project • Controlling Red Blood Cell Loss During Surgery 244 3.9 Related Rates 245 3.10 Linear Approximations and Differentials 251 Laboratory Project • Taylor Polynomials 258 3.11 Hyperbolic Functions 259 Review 266

Problems Plus 270

4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7

4.8 4.9

Maximum and Minimum Values 276 Applied Project • The Calculus of Rainbows 285 The Mean Value Theorem 287 How Derivatives Affect the Shape of a Graph 293 Indeterminate Forms and l’Hospital’s Rule 304 Writing Project • The Origins of l’Hospital’s Rule 314 Summary of Curve Sketching 315 Graphing with Calculus and Calculators 323 Optimization Problems 330 Applied Project • The Shape of a Can 343 Applied Project • Planes and Birds: Minimizing Energy 344 Newton’s Method 345 Antiderivatives 350 Review 358

Problems Plus 363

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Contents

5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5

Areas and Distances 366 The Definite Integral 378 Discovery Project • Area Functions 391 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 392 Indefinite Integrals and the Net Change Theorem 402 Writing Project • Newton, Leibniz, and the Invention of Calculus 411 The Substitution Rule 412 Review 421

Problems Plus 425

6 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5

Areas Between Curves 428 Applied Project • The Gini Index 436 Volumes 438 Volumes by Cylindrical Shells 449 Work 455 Average Value of a Function 461 Applied Project • Calculus and Baseball 464 Applied Project • Where to Sit at the Movies 465 Review 466

Problems Plus 468

7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8

Integration by Parts 472 Trigonometric Integrals 479 Trigonometric Substitution 486 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions 493 Strategy for Integration 503 Integration Using Tables and Computer Algebra Systems 508 Discovery Project • Patterns in Integrals 513 Approximate Integration 514 Improper Integrals 527 Review 537

Problems Plus 540

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Contents

8 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5

Arc Length 544 Discovery Project • Arc Length Contest 550 Area of a Surface of Revolution 551 Discovery Project • Rotating on a Slant 557 Applications to Physics and Engineering 558 Discovery Project • Complementary Coffee Cups 568 Applications to Economics and Biology 569 Probability 573 Review 581

Problems Plus 583

9 9.1 9.2 9.3

9.4 9.5 9.6

Modeling with Differential Equations 586 Direction Fields and Euler’s Method 591 Separable Equations 599 Applied Project • How Fast Does a Tank Drain? 608 Applied Project • Which Is Faster, Going Up or Coming Down? 609 Models for Population Growth 610 Linear Equations 620 Predator-Prey Systems 627 Review 634

Problems Plus 637

10 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4

Curves Defined by Parametric Equations 640 Laboratory Project • Running Circles Around Circles 648 Calculus with Parametric Curves 649 Laboratory Project • Bézier Curves 657 Polar Coordinates 658 Laboratory Project • Families of Polar Curves 668 Areas and Lengths in Polar Coordinates 669

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Contents

10.5 10.6

Conic Sections 674 Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates 682 Review 689

Problems Plus 692

11 11.1

Sequences 694 Laboratory Project • Logistic Sequences 707 11.2 Series 707 11.3 The Integral Test and Estimates of Sums 719 11.4 The Comparison Tests 727 11.5 Alternating Series 732 11.6 Absolute Convergence and the Ratio and Root Tests 737 11.7 Strategy for Testing Series 744 11.8 Power Series 746 11.9 Representations of Functions as Power Series 752 11.10 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 759 Laboratory Project • An Elusive Limit 773 Writing Project • How Newton Discovered the Binomial Series 773 11.11 Applications of Taylor Polynomials 774 Applied Project • Radiation from the Stars 783 Review 784

Problems Plus 787

12 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6

Three-Dimensional Coordinate Systems 792 Vectors 798 The Dot Product 807 The Cross Product 814 Discovery Project • The Geometry of a Tetrahedron 823 Equations of Lines and Planes 823 Laboratory Project • Putting 3D in Perspective 833 Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces 834 Review 841

Problems Plus 844

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Contents

13 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4

Vector Functions and Space Curves 848 Derivatives and Integrals of Vector Functions 855 Arc Length and Curvature 861 Motion in Space: Velocity and Acceleration 870 Applied Project • Kepler’s Laws 880 Review 881

Problems Plus 884

14 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7

14.8

Functions of Several Variables 888 Limits and Continuity 903 Partial Derivatives 911 Tangent Planes and Linear Approximations 927 Applied Project • The Speedo LZR Racer 936 The Chain Rule 937 Directional Derivatives and the Gradient Vector 946 Maximum and Minimum Values 959 Applied Project • Designing a Dumpster 970 Discovery Project • Quadratic Approximations and Critical Points 970 Lagrange Multipliers 971 Applied Project • Rocket Science 979 Applied Project • Hydro-Turbine Optimization 980 Review 981

Problems Plus 985

15 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5

Double Integrals over Rectangles 988 Double Integrals over General Regions 1001 Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates 1010 Applications of Double Integrals 1016 Surface Area 1026

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Contents

15.6 Triple Integrals 1029 Discovery Project • Volumes of Hyperspheres 1040

15.7 Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates 1040 Discovery Project • The Intersection of Three Cylinders 1044 15.8 Triple Integrals in Spherical Coordinates 1045 Applied Project • Roller Derby 1052

15.9 Change of Variables in Multiple Integrals 1052 Review 1061

Problems Plus 1065

16 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8

Vector Fields 1068 Line Integrals 1075 The Fundamental Theorem for Line Integrals 1087 Green’s Theorem 1096 Curl and Divergence 1103 Parametric Surfaces and Their Areas 1111 Surface Integrals 1122 Stokes’ Theorem 1134 Writing Project • Three Men and Two Theorems 1140 16.9 The Divergence Theorem 1141 16.10 Summary 1147 Review 1148

Problems Plus 1151

17 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4

Second-Order Linear Equations 1154 Nonhomogeneous Linear Equations 1160 Applications of Second-Order Differential Equations 1168 Series Solutions 1176 Review 1181

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Contents

A B C D E F G H I

Numbers, Inequalities, and Absolute Values A2 Coordinate Geometry and Lines A10 Graphs of Second-Degree Equations A16 Trigonometry A24 Sigma Notation A34 Proofs of Theorems A39 The Logarithm Defined as an Integral A50 Complex Numbers A57 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises A65

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Preface This International Metric Version differs from the regular version of Calculus: Early Transcendentals, Eighth Edition, in several ways: The units used in almost all of the examples and exercises have been changed from US Customary units to metric units. There are a small number of exceptions: In some engineering applications (principally in Section 8.3) it may be useful for some engineers to be familiar with US units. And I wanted to retain a few exercises (for example, those involving baseball) where it would be inappropriate to use metric units. I’ve changed the examples and exercises involving real-world data to be more international in nature, so that the vast majority of them now come from countries other than the United States. For example, there are now exercises and examples concerning Hong kong postal rates; Canadian public debt; unemployment rates in Australia; hours of daylight in Ankara, Turkey; isothermals in China; percentage of the population in rural Argentina; populations of Malaysia, Indonesia, Mexico, and India; and power consumption in Ontario, among many others. In addition to changing exercises so that the units are metric and the data have a more international flavor, a number of other exercises have been changed as well, the result being that about 10% of the exercises are different from those in the regular version.

The art of teaching, Mark Van Doren said, is the art of assisting discovery. I have tried to write a book that assists students in discovering calculus—both for its practical power and its surprising beauty. In this edition, as in the first seven editions, I aim to convey to the student a sense of the utility of calculus and develop technical competence, but I also strive to give some appreciation for the intrinsic beauty of the subject. Newton undoubtedly experienced a sense of triumph when he made his great discoveries. I want students to share some of that excitement. The emphasis is on understanding concepts. I think that nearly everybody agrees that this should be the primary goal of calculus instruction. In fact, the impetus for the current calculus reform movement came from the Tulane Conference in 1986, which formulated as their first recommendation: Focus on conceptual understanding. I have tried to implement this goal through the Rule of Three: “Topics should be presented geometrically, numerically, and algebraically.” Visualization, numerical and graphical experimentation, and other approaches have changed how we teach conceptual reasoning in fundamental ways. More recently, the Rule of Three has been expanded to become the Rule of Four by emphasizing the verbal, or descriptive, point of view as well. In writing the eighth edition my premise has been that it is possible to achieve conceptual understanding and still retain the best traditions of traditional calculus. The book contains elements of reform, but within the context of a traditional curriculum. xi Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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I have written several other calculus textbooks that might be preferable for some instructors. Most of them also come in single variable and multivariable versions. ●

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Calculus, Eighth Edition, International Metric Version, is similar to the present textbook except that the exponential, logarithmic, and inverse trigonometric functions are covered in the second semester. Essential Calculus, Second Edition, International Edition, is a much briefer book (840 pages), though it contains almost all of the topics in Calculus, Eighth Edition, International Metric Version. The relative brevity is achieved through briefer exposition of some topics and putting some features on the website. Essential Calculus: Early Transcendentals, Second Edition, International Edition, resembles Essential Calculus, International Edition, but the exponential, logarithmic, and inverse trigonometric functions are covered in Chapter 3. Calculus: Concepts and Contexts, Fourth Edition, Metric International Edition, emphasizes conceptual understanding even more strongly than this book. The coverage of topics is not encyclopedic and the material on transcendental functions and on parametric equations is woven throughout the book instead of being treated in separate chapters. Calculus: Early Vectors introduces vectors and vector functions in the first semester and integrates them throughout the book. It is suitable for students taking engineering and physics courses concurrently with calculus. Brief Applied Calculus, International Edition, is intended for students in business, the social sciences, and the life sciences. Biocalculus: Calculus for the Life Sciences is intended to show students in the life sciences how calculus relates to biology. Biocalculus: Calculus, Probability, and Statistics for the Life Sciences contains all the content of Biocalculus: Calculus for the Life Sciences as well as three additional chapters covering probability and statistics.

The changes have resulted from talking with my colleagues and students at the University of Toronto and from reading journals, as well as suggestions from users and reviewers. Here are some of the many improvements that I’ve incorporated into this edition: ●

The data in examples and exercises have been updated to be more timely.

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New examples have been added (see Examples 6.1.5, 11.2.5, and 14.3.3, for instance). And the solutions to some of the existing examples have been amplified. Three new projects have been added: The project Controlling Red Blood Cell Loss During Surgery (page 244) describes the ANH procedure, in which blood is extracted from the patient before an operation and is replaced by saline solution. This dilutes the patient’s blood so that fewer red blood cells are lost during bleeding and the extracted blood is returned to the patient after surgery. The project Planes and Birds: Minimizing Energy (page 344) asks how birds can minimize power and energy by flapping their wings versus gliding. In the project The Speedo LZR Racer (page 936) it is explained that this suit reduces drag in the water and, as

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Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Preface

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a result, many swimming records were broken. Students are asked why a small decrease in drag can have a big effect on performance. I have streamlined Chapter 15 (Multiple Integrals) by combining the first two sections so that iterated integrals are treated earlier. More than 20% of the exercises in each chapter are new. Here are some of my favorites: 2.7.61, 2.8.36–38, 3.1.79–80, 3.11.54, 4.1.69, 4.3.34, 4.3.66, 4.4.80, 4.7.39, 4.7.67, 5.1.19–20, 5.2.67–68, 5.4.70, 6.1.51, 8.1.39, 12.5.81, 12.6.29–30, 14.6.65–66. In addition, there are some good new Problems Plus. (See Problems 12–14 on page 272, Problem 13 on page 363, Problems 16–17 on page 426, and Problem 8 on page 986.)

conceptual Exercises The most important way to foster conceptual understanding is through the problems that we assign. To that end I have devised various types of problems. Some exercise sets begin with requests to explain the meanings of the basic concepts of the section. (See, for instance, the first few exercises in Sections 2.2, 2.5, 11.2, 14.2, and 14.3.) Similarly, all the review sections begin with a Concept Check and a True-False Quiz. Other exercises test conceptual understanding through graphs or tables (see Exercises 2.7.17, 2.8.35–38, 2.8.47–52, 9.1.11–13, 10.1.24–27, 11.10.2, 13.2.1–2, 13.3.33–39, 14.1.1–2, 14.1.32–38, 14.1.41–44, 14.3.3–10, 14.6.1–2, 14.7.3–4, 15.1.6–8, 16.1.11–18, 16.2.17–18, and 16.3.1–2). Another type of exercise uses verbal description to test conceptual understanding (see Exercises 2.5.10, 2.8.66, 4.3.69–70, and 7.8.67). I particularly value problems that combine and compare graphical, numerical, and algebraic approaches (see Exercises 2.6.45–46, 3.7.27, and 9.4.4).

graded Exercise sets Each exercise set is carefully graded, progressing from basic conceptual exercises and skill-development problems to more challenging problems involving applications and proofs.

real-world data My assistants and I spent a great deal of time looking in libraries, contacting companies and government agencies, and searching the Internet for interesting real-world data to introduce, motivate, and illustrate the concepts of calculus. As a result, many of the examples and exercises deal with functions defined by such numerical data or graphs. See, for instance, Figure 1 in Section 1.1 (seismograms from the Northridge earthquake), Exercise 2.8.35 (unemployment rates), Exercise 5.1.16 (velocity of the space shuttle Endeavour), and Figure 4 in Section 5.4 (San Francisco power consumption). Functions of two variables are illustrated by a table of values of the wind-chill index as a function of air temperature and wind speed (Example 14.1.2). Partial derivatives are introduced in Section 14.3 by examining a column in a table of values of the heat index (perceived air temperature) as a function of the actual temperature and the relative humidity. This example is pursued further in connection with linear approximations (Example 14.4.3). Directional derivatives are introduced in Section 14.6 by using a temperature contour map to estimate the rate of change of temperature at Reno in the direction of Las Vegas. Double integrals are used to estimate the average snowfall in Colorado on December Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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20–21, 2006 (Example 15.1.9). Vector fields are introduced in Section 16.1 by depictions of actual velocity vector fields showing San Francisco Bay wind patterns.

Projects One way of involving students and making them active learners is to have them work (perhaps in groups) on extended projects that give a feeling of substantial accomplishment when completed. I have included four kinds of projects: Applied Projects involve applications that are designed to appeal to the imagination of students. The project after Section 9.3 asks whether a ball thrown upward takes longer to reach its maximum height or to fall back to its original height. (The answer might surprise you.) The project after Section 14.8 uses Lagrange multipliers to determine the masses of the three stages of a rocket so as to minimize the total mass while enabling the rocket to reach a desired velocity. Laboratory Projects involve technology; the one following Section 10.2 shows how to use Bézier curves to design shapes that represent letters for a laser printer. Writing Projects ask students to compare present-day methods with those of the founders of calculus—Fermat’s method for finding tangents, for instance. Suggested references are supplied. Discovery Projects anticipate results to be discussed later or encourage discovery through pattern recognition (see the one following Section 7.6). Others explore aspects of geometry: tetrahedra (after Section 12.4), hyperspheres (after Section 15.6), and intersections of three cylinders (after Section 15.7). Additional projects can be found in the Instructor’s Guide (see, for instance, Group Exercise 5.1: Position from Samples).

Problem solving Students usually have difficulties with problems for which there is no single well-defined procedure for obtaining the answer. I think nobody has improved very much on George Polya’s four-stage problem-solving strategy and, accordingly, I have included a version of his problem-solving principles following Chapter 1. They are applied, both explicitly and implicitly, throughout the book. After the other chapters I have placed sections called Problems Plus, which feature examples of how to tackle challenging calculus problems. In selecting the varied problems for these sections I kept in mind the following advice from David Hilbert: “A mathematical problem should be difficult in order to entice us, yet not inaccessible lest it mock our efforts.” When I put these challenging problems on assignments and tests I grade them in a different way. Here I reward a student significantly for ideas toward a solution and for recognizing which problem-solving principles are relevant.

Technology The availability of technology makes it not less important but more important to clearly understand the concepts that underlie the images on the screen. But, when properly used, graphing calculators and computers are powerful tools for discovering and understanding those concepts. This textbook can be used either with or without technology and I use two special symbols to indicate clearly when a particular type of machine is required. The icon ; indicates an exercise that definitely requires the use of such technology, but that is not to say that it can’t be used on the other exercises as well. The symbol CAS is reserved for problems in which the full resources of a computer algebra system (like Maple, Mathematica, or the TI-89) are required. But technology doesn’t make pencil and paper obsolete. Hand calculation and sketches are often preferable to technology for illustrating and reinforcing some concepts. Both instructors and students need to develop the ability to decide where the hand or the machine is appropriate.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Preface

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Tools for Enriching calculus TEC is a companion to the text and is intended to enrich and complement its contents. (It is now accessible in the eBook via CourseMate and Enhanced WebAssign. Selected Visuals and Modules are available at www.stewartcalculus.com.) Developed by Harvey keynes, Dan Clegg, Hubert Hohn, and myself, TEC uses a discovery and exploratory approach. In sections of the book where technology is particularly appropriate, marginal icons direct students to TEC Modules that provide a laboratory environment in which they can explore the topic in different ways and at different levels. Visuals are animations of figures in text; Modules are more elaborate activities and include exercises. Instructors can choose to become involved at several different levels, ranging from simply encouraging students to use the Visuals and Modules for independent exploration, to assigning specific exercises from those included with each Module, or to creating additional exercises, labs, and projects that make use of the Visuals and Modules. TEC also includes Homework Hints for representative exercises (usually odd-numbered) in every section of the text, indicated by printing the exercise number in red. These hints are usually presented in the form of questions and try to imitate an effective teaching assistant by functioning as a silent tutor. They are constructed so as not to reveal any more of the actual solution than is minimally necessary to make further progress.

Enhanced webassign Technology is having an impact on the way homework is assigned to students, particularly in large classes. The use of online homework is growing and its appeal depends on ease of use, grading precision, and reliability. With the Eighth Edition we have been working with the calculus community and WebAssign to develop an online homework system. Up to 70% of the exercises in each section are assignable as online homework, including free response, multiple choice, and multi-part formats. The system also includes Active Examples, in which students are guided in step-bystep tutorials through text examples, with links to the textbook and to video solutions.

website Visit CengageBrain.com or stewartcalculus.com for these additional materials: ●

Homework Hints

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Algebra Review

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Lies My Calculator and Computer Told Me

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History of Mathematics, with links to the better historical websites

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Additional Topics (complete with exercise sets): Fourier Series, Formulas for the Remainder Term in Taylor Series, Rotation of Axes

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Archived Problems (Drill exercises that appeared in previous editions, together with their solutions)

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Challenge Problems (some from the Problems Plus sections from prior editions)

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Links, for particular topics, to outside Web resources

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Selected Visuals and Modules from Tools for Enriching Calculus (TEC)

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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Preface

diagnostic Tests

The book begins with four diagnostic tests, in Basic Algebra, Analytic Geometry, Functions, and Trigonometry.

a Preview of calculus

This is an overview of the subject and includes a list of questions to motivate the study of calculus.

1 functions and models

From the beginning, multiple representations of functions are stressed: verbal, numerical, visual, and algebraic. A discussion of mathematical models leads to a review of the standard functions, including exponential and logarithmic functions, from these four points of view.

2 limits and derivatives

The material on limits is motivated by a prior discussion of the tangent and velocity problems. Limits are treated from descriptive, graphical, numerical, and algebraic points of view. Section 2.4, on the precise definition of a limit, is an optional section. Sections 2.7 and 2.8 deal with derivatives (especially with functions defined graphically and numerically) before the differentiation rules are covered in Chapter 3. Here the examples and exercises explore the meanings of derivatives in various contexts. Higher derivatives are introduced in Section 2.8.

3 differentiation rules

All the basic functions, including exponential, logarithmic, and inverse trigonometric functions, are differentiated here. When derivatives are computed in applied situations, students are asked to explain their meanings. Exponential growth and decay are now covered in this chapter.

4 applications of differentiation

The basic facts concerning extreme values and shapes of curves are deduced from the Mean Value Theorem. Graphing with technology emphasizes the interaction between calculus and calculators and the analysis of families of curves. Some substantial optimization problems are provided, including an explanation of why you need to raise your head 42° to see the top of a rainbow.

5 integrals

The area problem and the distance problem serve to motivate the definite integral, with sigma notation introduced as needed. (Full coverage of sigma notation is provided in Appendix E.) Emphasis is placed on explaining the meanings of integrals in various contexts and on estimating their values from graphs and tables.

6 applications of integration

Here I present the applications of integration—area, volume, work, average value—that can reasonably be done without specialized techniques of integration. General methods are emphasized. The goal is for students to be able to divide a quantity into small pieces, estimate with Riemann sums, and recognize the limit as an integral.

7 Techniques of integration

All the standard methods are covered but, of course, the real challenge is to be able to recognize which technique is best used in a given situation. Accordingly, in Section 7.5, I present a strategy for integration. The use of computer algebra systems is discussed in Section 7.6.

8 further applications of integration

Here are the applications of integration—arc length and surface area—for which it is useful to have available all the techniques of integration, as well as applications to biology, economics, and physics (hydrostatic force and centers of mass). I have also included a section on probability. There are more applications here than can realistically be covered in a given course. Instructors should select applications suitable for their students and for which they themselves have enthusiasm.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Preface

xvii

9 differential Equations

Modeling is the theme that unifies this introductory treatment of differential equations. Direction fields and Euler’s method are studied before separable and linear equations are solved explicitly, so that qualitative, numerical, and analytic approaches are given equal consideration. These methods are applied to the exponential, logistic, and other models for population growth. The first four or five sections of this chapter serve as a good introduction to first-order differential equations. An optional final section uses predatorprey models to illustrate systems of differential equations.

10 Parametric Equations and Polar coordinates

This chapter introduces parametric and polar curves and applies the methods of calculus to them. Parametric curves are well suited to laboratory projects; the two presented here involve families of curves and Bézier curves. A brief treatment of conic sections in polar coordinates prepares the way for Kepler’s Laws in Chapter 13.

11 infinite sequences and series

The convergence tests have intuitive justifications (see page 719) as well as formal proofs. Numerical estimates of sums of series are based on which test was used to prove convergence. The emphasis is on Taylor series and polynomials and their applications to physics. Error estimates include those from graphing devices.

12 vectors and the geometry of space

The material on three-dimensional analytic geometry and vectors is divided into two chapters. Chapter 12 deals with vectors, the dot and cross products, lines, planes, and surfaces.

13 vector functions

This chapter covers vector-valued functions, their derivatives and integrals, the length and curvature of space curves, and velocity and acceleration along space curves, culminating in Kepler’s laws.

14 Partial derivatives

Functions of two or more variables are studied from verbal, numerical, visual, and algebraic points of view. In particular, I introduce partial derivatives by looking at a specific column in a table of values of the heat index (perceived air temperature) as a function of the actual temperature and the relative humidity.

15 multiple integrals

Contour maps and the Midpoint Rule are used to estimate the average snowfall and average temperature in given regions. Double and triple integrals are used to compute probabilities, surface areas, and (in projects) volumes of hyperspheres and volumes of intersections of three cylinders. Cylindrical and spherical coordinates are introduced in the context of evaluating triple integrals.

16 vector calculus

Vector fields are introduced through pictures of velocity fields showing San Francisco Bay wind patterns. The similarities among the Fundamental Theorem for line integrals, Green’s Theorem, Stokes’ Theorem, and the Divergence Theorem are emphasized.

17 second-order differential Equations

Since first-order differential equations are covered in Chapter 9, this final chapter deals with second-order linear differential equations, their application to vibrating springs and electric circuits, and series solutions.

Calculus, Early Transcendentals, Eighth Edition, International Metric Version, is supported by a complete set of ancillaries developed under my direction. Each piece has been designed to enhance student understanding and to facilitate creative instruction. The tables on pages xxi–xxii describe each of these ancillaries.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

xviii

Preface

The preparation of this and previous editions has involved much time spent reading the reasoned (but sometimes contradictory) advice from a large number of astute reviewers. I greatly appreciate the time they spent to understand my motivation for the approach taken. I have learned something from each of them.

Eighth Edition reviewers Jay Abramson, Arizona State University Adam Bowers, University of California San Diego Neena Chopra, The Pennsylvania State University Edward Dobson, Mississippi State University Isaac Goldbring, University of Illinois at Chicago Lea Jenkins, Clemson University Rebecca Wahl, Butler University

Technology reviewers Maria Andersen, Muskegon Community College Eric Aurand, Eastfield College Joy Becker, University of Wisconsin–Stout Przemyslaw Bogacki, Old Dominion University Amy Elizabeth Bowman, University of Alabama in Huntsville Monica Brown, University of Missouri–St. Louis Roxanne Byrne, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center Teri Christiansen, University of Missouri–Columbia Bobby Dale Daniel, Lamar University Jennifer Daniel, Lamar University Andras Domokos, California State University, Sacramento Timothy Flaherty, Carnegie Mellon University Lee Gibson, University of Louisville Jane Golden, Hillsborough Community College Semion Gutman, University of Oklahoma Diane Hoffoss, University of San Diego Lorraine Hughes, Mississippi State University Jay Jahangiri, Kent State University John Jernigan, Community College of Philadelphia

Brian karasek, South Mountain Community College Jason kozinski, University of Florida Carole krueger, The University of Texas at Arlington ken kubota, University of Kentucky John Mitchell, Clark College Donald Paul, Tulsa Community College Chad Pierson, University of Minnesota, Duluth Lanita Presson, University of Alabama in Huntsville karin Reinhold, State University of New York at Albany Thomas Riedel, University of Louisville Christopher Schroeder, Morehead State University Angela Sharp, University of Minnesota, Duluth Patricia Shaw, Mississippi State University Carl Spitznagel, John Carroll University Mohammad Tabanjeh, Virginia State University Capt. koichi Takagi, United States Naval Academy Lorna TenEyck, Chemeketa Community College Roger Werbylo, Pima Community College David Williams, Clayton State University Zhuan Ye, Northern Illinois University

Previous Edition reviewers B. D. Aggarwala, University of Calgary John Alberghini, Manchester Community College Michael Albert, Carnegie-Mellon University Daniel Anderson, University of Iowa Amy Austin, Texas A&M University Donna J. Bailey, Northeast Missouri State University Wayne Barber, Chemeketa Community College Marilyn Belkin, Villanova University Neil Berger, University of Illinois, Chicago David Berman, University of New Orleans Anthony J. Bevelacqua, University of North Dakota Richard Biggs, University of Western Ontario Robert Blumenthal, Oglethorpe University

Martina Bode, Northwestern University Barbara Bohannon, Hofstra University Jay Bourland, Colorado State University Philip L. Bowers, Florida State University Amy Elizabeth Bowman, University of Alabama in Huntsville Stephen W. Brady, Wichita State University Michael Breen, Tennessee Technological University Robert N. Bryan, University of Western Ontario David Buchthal, University of Akron Jenna Carpenter, Louisiana Tech University Jorge Cassio, Miami-Dade Community College Jack Ceder, University of California, Santa Barbara Scott Chapman, Trinity University

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Preface

Zhen-Qing Chen, University of Washington—Seattle James Choike, Oklahoma State University Barbara Cortzen, DePaul University Carl Cowen, Purdue University Philip S. Crooke, Vanderbilt University Charles N. Curtis, Missouri Southern State College Daniel Cyphert, Armstrong State College Robert Dahlin M. Hilary Davies, University of Alaska Anchorage Gregory J. Davis, University of Wisconsin–Green Bay Elias Deeba, University of Houston–Downtown Daniel DiMaria, Suffolk Community College Seymour Ditor, University of Western Ontario Greg Dresden, Washington and Lee University Daniel Drucker, Wayne State University kenn Dunn, Dalhousie University Dennis Dunninger, Michigan State University Bruce Edwards, University of Florida David Ellis, San Francisco State University John Ellison, Grove City College Martin Erickson, Truman State University Garret Etgen, University of Houston Theodore G. Faticoni, Fordham University Laurene V. Fausett, Georgia Southern University Norman Feldman, Sonoma State University Le Baron O. Ferguson, University of California—Riverside Newman Fisher, San Francisco State University José D. Flores, The University of South Dakota William Francis, Michigan Technological University James T. Franklin, Valencia Community College, East Stanley Friedlander, Bronx Community College Patrick Gallagher, Columbia University–New York Paul Garrett, University of Minnesota–Minneapolis Frederick Gass, Miami University of Ohio Bruce Gilligan, University of Regina Matthias k. Gobbert, University of Maryland, Baltimore County Gerald Goff, Oklahoma State University Stuart Goldenberg, California Polytechnic State University John A. Graham, Buckingham Browne & Nichols School Richard Grassl, University of New Mexico Michael Gregory, University of North Dakota Charles Groetsch, University of Cincinnati Paul Triantafilos Hadavas, Armstrong Atlantic State University Salim M. Haïdar, Grand Valley State University D. W. Hall, Michigan State University Robert L. Hall, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee Howard B. Hamilton, California State University, Sacramento Darel Hardy, Colorado State University Shari Harris, John Wood Community College Gary W. Harrison, College of Charleston Melvin Hausner, New York University/Courant Institute Curtis Herink, Mercer University Russell Herman, University of North Carolina at Wilmington Allen Hesse, Rochester Community College Randall R. Holmes, Auburn University James F. Hurley, University of Connecticut

xix

Amer Iqbal, University of Washington—Seattle Matthew A. Isom, Arizona State University Gerald Janusz, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign John H. Jenkins, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Prescott Campus Clement Jeske, University of Wisconsin, Platteville Carl Jockusch, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Jan E. H. Johansson, University of Vermont Jerry Johnson, Oklahoma State University Zsuzsanna M. kadas, St. Michael’s College Nets katz, Indiana University Bloomington Matt kaufman Matthias kawski, Arizona State University Frederick W. keene, Pasadena City College Robert L. kelley, University of Miami Akhtar khan, Rochester Institute of Technology Marianne korten, Kansas State University Virgil kowalik, Texas A&I University kevin kreider, University of Akron Leonard krop, DePaul University Mark krusemeyer, Carleton College John C. Lawlor, University of Vermont Christopher C. Leary, State University of New York at Geneseo David Leeming, University of Victoria Sam Lesseig, Northeast Missouri State University Phil Locke, University of Maine Joyce Longman, Villanova University Joan McCarter, Arizona State University Phil McCartney, Northern Kentucky University Igor Malyshev, San Jose State University Larry Mansfield, Queens College Mary Martin, Colgate University Nathaniel F. G. Martin, University of Virginia Gerald Y. Matsumoto, American River College James Mckinney, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona Tom Metzger, University of Pittsburgh Richard Millspaugh, University of North Dakota Lon H. Mitchell, Virginia Commonwealth University Michael Montaño, Riverside Community College Teri Jo Murphy, University of Oklahoma Martin Nakashima, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona Ho kuen Ng, San Jose State University Richard Nowakowski, Dalhousie University Hussain S. Nur, California State University, Fresno Norma Ortiz-Robinson, Virginia Commonwealth University Wayne N. Palmer, Utica College Vincent Panico, University of the Pacific F. J. Papp, University of Michigan–Dearborn Mike Penna, Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis Mark Pinsky, Northwestern University Lothar Redlin, The Pennsylvania State University Joel W. Robbin, University of Wisconsin–Madison Lila Roberts, Georgia College and State University E. Arthur Robinson, Jr., The George Washington University Richard Rockwell, Pacific Union College

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

xx

Preface

Rob Root, Lafayette College Richard Ruedemann, Arizona State University David Ryeburn, Simon Fraser University Richard St. Andre, Central Michigan University Ricardo Salinas, San Antonio College Robert Schmidt, South Dakota State University Eric Schreiner, Western Michigan University Mihr J. Shah, Kent State University–Trumbull Qin Sheng, Baylor University Theodore Shifrin, University of Georgia Wayne Skrapek, University of Saskatchewan Larry Small, Los Angeles Pierce College Teresa Morgan Smith, Blinn College William Smith, University of North Carolina Donald W. Solomon, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee Edward Spitznagel, Washington University Joseph Stampfli, Indiana University kristin Stoley, Blinn College M. B. Tavakoli, Chaffey College

Magdalena Toda, Texas Tech University Ruth Trygstad, Salt Lake Community College Paul Xavier Uhlig, St. Mary’s University, San Antonio Stan Ver Nooy, University of Oregon Andrei Verona, California State University–Los Angeles klaus Volpert, Villanova University Russell C. Walker, Carnegie Mellon University William L. Walton, McCallie School Peiyong Wang, Wayne State University Jack Weiner, University of Guelph Alan Weinstein, University of California, Berkeley Theodore W. Wilcox, Rochester Institute of Technology Steven Willard, University of Alberta Robert Wilson, University of Wisconsin–Madison Jerome Wolbert, University of Michigan–Ann Arbor Dennis H. Wortman, University of Massachusetts, Boston Mary Wright, Southern Illinois University–Carbondale Paul M. Wright, Austin Community College Xian Wu, University of South Carolina

In addition, I would like to thank R. B. Burckel, Bruce Colletti, David Behrman, John Dersch, Gove Effinger, Bill Emerson, Dan kalman, Quyan khan, Alfonso Gracia-Saz, Allan MacIsaac, Tami Martin, Monica Nitsche, Lamia Raffo, Norton Starr, and Jim Trefzger for their suggestions; Al Shenk and Dennis Zill for permission to use exercises from their calculus texts; COMAP for permission to use project material; George Bergman, David Bleecker, Dan Clegg, Victor kaftal, Anthony Lam, Jamie Lawson, Ira Rosenholtz, Paul Sally, Lowell Smylie, and Larry Wallen for ideas for exercises; Dan Drucker for the roller derby project; Thomas Banchoff, Tom Farmer, Fred Gass, John Ramsay, Larry Riddle, Philip Straffin, and klaus Volpert for ideas for projects; Dan Anderson, Dan Clegg, Jeff Cole, Dan Drucker, and Barbara Frank for solving the new exercises and suggesting ways to improve them; Marv Riedesel and Mary Johnson for accuracy in proofreading; Andy Bulman-Fleming, Lothar Redlin, Gina Sanders, and Saleem Watson for additional proofreading; and Jeff Cole and Dan Clegg for their careful preparation and proofreading of the answer manuscript. In addition, I thank those who have contributed to past editions: Ed Barbeau, George Bergman, Fred Brauer, Andy Bulman-Fleming, Bob Burton, David Cusick, Tom DiCiccio, Garret Etgen, Chris Fisher, Leon Gerber, Stuart Goldenberg, Arnold Good, Gene Hecht, Harvey keynes, E. L. koh, Zdislav kovarik, kevin kreider, Emile LeBlanc, David Leep, Gerald Leibowitz, Larry Peterson, Mary Pugh, Lothar Redlin, Carl Riehm, John Ringland, Peter Rosenthal, Dusty Sabo, Doug Shaw, Dan Silver, Simon Smith, Saleem Watson, Alan Weinstein, and Gail Wolkowicz. I also thank kathi Townes, Stephanie kuhns, kristina Elliott, and kira Abdallah of TECHarts for their production services and the following Cengage Learning staff: Cheryll Linthicum, content project manager; Stacy Green, senior content developer; Samantha Lugtu, associate content developer; Stephanie kreuz, product assistant; Lynh Pham, media developer; Ryan Ahern, marketing manager; and Vernon Boes, art director. They have all done an outstanding job. I have been very fortunate to have worked with some of the best mathematics editors in the business over the past three decades: Ron Munro, Harry Campbell, Craig Barth, Jeremy Hayhurst, Gary Ostedt, Bob Pirtle, Richard Stratton, Liz Covello, and now Neha Taleja. All of them have contributed greatly to the success of this book. james stewart Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Instructor’s Guide by Douglas Shaw ISBN 978-1-305-39371-4 Each section of the text is discussed from several viewpoints. The Instructor’s Guide contains suggested time to allot, points to stress, text discussion topics, core materials for lecture, workshop/discussion suggestions, group work exercises in a form suitable for handout, and suggested homework assignments.

Complete Solutions Manual Single Variable Early Transcendentals ISBN 978-1-305-27262-0 Multivariable ISBN 978-1-305-38699-0 Includes worked-out solutions to all exercises in the text.

Printed Test Bank By William Steven Harmon ISBN 978-1-305-38722-5 Contains text-specific multiple-choice and free response test items.

TEC TOOLS FOR ENRICHING™ CALCULUS By James Stewart, Harvey keynes, Dan Clegg, and developer Hubert Hohn Tools for Enriching Calculus (TEC) functions as both a powerful tool for instructors and as a tutorial environment in which students can explore and review selected topics. The Flash simulation modules in TEC include instructions, written and audio explanations of the concepts, and exercises. TEC is accessible in the eBook via CourseMate and Enhanced WebAssign. Selected Visuals and Modules are available at www.stewartcalculus.com.

Enhanced WebAssign® www.webassign.net Printed Access Code: ISBN 978-1-285-85826-5 Instant Access Code ISBN: 978-1-285-85825-8 Exclusively from Cengage Learning, Enhanced WebAssign offers an extensive online program for Stewart’s Calculus to encourage the practice that is so critical for concept mastery. The meticulously crafted pedagogy and exercises in our proven texts become even more effective in Enhanced WebAssign, supplemented by multimedia tutorial support and immediate feedback as students complete their assignments. Key features include: n

Thousands of homework problems that match your textbook’s end-of-section exercises

n

Opportunities for students to review prerequisite skills and content both at the start of the course and at the beginning of each section

n

Read It eBook pages, Watch It videos, Master It tutorials, and Chat About It links

n

A customizable Cengage YouBook with highlighting, notetaking, and search features, as well as links to multimedia resources

n

Personal Study Plans (based on diagnostic quizzing) that identify chapter topics that students will need to master

n

A WebAssign Answer Evaluator that recognizes and accepts equivalent mathematical responses in the same way an instructor grades

n

A Show My Work feature that gives instructors the option of seeing students’ detailed solutions

n

Visualizing Calculus Animations, Lecture Videos, and more

Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero (login.cengage.com) This flexible online system allows you to author, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple Cengage Learning solutions; create multiple test versions in an instant; and deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever you want.

Stewart Website www.stewartcalculus.com Contents: Homework Hints n Algebra Review n Additional Topics n Drill exercises n Challenge Problems n Web Links n History of Mathematics n Tools for Enriching Calculus (TEC)

■ Electronic items ■ Printed items

(Table continues on page xxii)

xxi Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Cengage Customizable YouBook YouBook is an eBook that is both interactive and customizable. Containing all the content from Stewart’s Calculus, YouBook features a text edit tool that allows instructors to modify the textbook narrative as needed. With YouBook, instructors can quickly reorder entire sections and chapters or hide any content they don’t teach to create an eBook that perfectly matches their syllabus. Instructors can further customize the text by adding instructor-created or YouTube video links. Additional media assets include animated figures, video clips, highlighting and note-taking features, and more. YouBook is available within Enhanced WebAssign. CourseMate CourseMate is a perfect self-study tool for students, and requires no set up from instructors. CourseMate brings course concepts to life with interactive learning, study, and exam preparation tools that support the printed textbook. CourseMate for Stewart’s Calculus includes an interactive eBook, Tools for Enriching Calculus, videos, quizzes, flashcards, and more. For instructors, CourseMate includes Engagement Tracker, a first-of-its-kind tool that monitors student engagement. CengageBrain.com To access additional course materials, please visit www.cengagebrain.com. At the CengageBrain.com home page, search for the ISBN of your title (from the back cover of your book) using the search box at the top of the page. This will take you to the product page where these resources can be found.

Student Solutions Manual Single Variable Early Transcendentals ISBN 978-1-305-27263-7 Multivariable ISBN 978-1-305-38698-3 Provides completely worked-out solutions to all oddnumbered exercises in the text, giving students a chance to check their answer and ensure they took the correct steps

to arrive at the answer. The Student Solutions Manual can be ordered or accessed online as an eBook at www.cengagebrain.com by searching the ISBN. Study Guide Single Variable Early Transcendentals By Richard St. Andre ISBN 978-1-305-27914-8 Multivariable By Richard St. Andre ISBN 978-1-305-27184-5 For each section of the text, the Study Guide provides students with a brief introduction, a short list of concepts to master, and summary and focus questions with explained answers. The Study Guide also contains self-tests with exam-style questions. The Study Guide can be ordered or accessed online as an eBook at www.cengagebrain.com by searching the ISBN. A Companion to Calculus By Dennis Ebersole, Doris Schattschneider, Alicia Sevilla, and kay Somers ISBN 978-0-495-01124-8 Written to improve algebra and problem-solving skills of students taking a calculus course, every chapter in this companion is keyed to a calculus topic, providing conceptual background and specific algebra techniques needed to understand and solve calculus problems related to that topic. It is designed for calculus courses that integrate the review of precalculus concepts or for individual use. Order a copy of the text or access the eBook online at www.cengagebrain.com by searching the ISBN. Linear Algebra for Calculus by konrad J. Heuvers, William P. Francis, John H. kuisti, Deborah F. Lockhart, Daniel S. Moak, and Gene M. Ortner ISBN 978-0-534-25248-9 This comprehensive book, designed to supplement the calculus course, provides an introduction to and review of the basic ideas of linear algebra. Order a copy of the text or access the eBook online at www.cengagebrain.com by searching the ISBN.

■ Electronic items ■ Printed items

xxii Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

To the Student Reading a calculus textbook is different from reading a newspaper or a novel, or even a physics book. Don’t be discouraged if you have to read a passage more than once in order to understand it. You should have pencil and paper and calculator at hand to sketch a diagram or make a calculation. Some students start by trying their homework problems and read the text only if they get stuck on an exercise. I suggest that a far better plan is to read and understand a section of the text before attempting the exercises. In particular, you should look at the definitions to see the exact meanings of the terms. And before you read each example, I suggest that you cover up the solution and try solving the problem yourself. You’ll get a lot more from looking at the solution if you do so. Part of the aim of this course is to train you to think logically. Learn to write the solutions of the exercises in a connected, step-by-step fashion with explanatory sentences— not just a string of disconnected equations or formulas. The answers to the odd-numbered exercises appear at the back of the book, in Appendix I. Some exercises ask for a verbal explanation or interpretation or description. In such cases there is no single correct way of expressing the answer, so don’t worry that you haven’t found the definitive answer. In addition, there are often several different forms in which to express a numerical or algebraic answer, so if your answer differs from mine, don’t immediately assume you’re wrong. For example, if the answer given in the back of the book is s2 2 1 and you obtain 1y (1 1 s2 ), then you’re right and rationalizing the denominator will show that the answers are equivalent. The icon ; indicates an exercise that definitely requires the use of either a graphing calculator or a computer with graphing software. But that doesn’t mean that graphing devices can’t be used to check your work on the other exercises as well. The symbol CAS is reserved for problems in

which the full resources of a computer algebra system (like Maple, Mathematica, or the TI-89) are required. You will also encounter the symbol |, which warns you against committing an error. I have placed this symbol in the margin in situations where I have observed that a large proportion of my students tend to make the same mistake. Tools for Enriching Calculus, which is a companion to this text, is referred to by means of the symbol TEC and can be accessed in the eBook via Enhanced WebAssign and CourseMate (selected Visuals and Modules are available at www.stewartcalculus.com). It directs you to modules in which you can explore aspects of calculus for which the computer is particularly useful. You will notice that some exercise numbers are printed in red: 5. This indicates that Homework Hints are available for the exercise. These hints can be found on stewartcalculus.com as well as Enhanced WebAssign and CourseMate. The homework hints ask you questions that allow you to make progress toward a solution without actually giving you the answer. You need to pursue each hint in an active manner with pencil and paper to work out the details. If a particular hint doesn’t enable you to solve the problem, you can click to reveal the next hint. I recommend that you keep this book for reference purposes after you finish the course. Because you will likely forget some of the specific details of calculus, the book will serve as a useful reminder when you need to use calculus in subsequent courses. And, because this book contains more material than can be covered in any one course, it can also serve as a valuable resource for a working scientist or engineer. Calculus is an exciting subject, justly considered to be one of the greatest achievements of the human intellect. I hope you will discover that it is not only useful but also intrinsically beautiful. JAMES STEWART

xxiii Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Calculators, Computers, and Other Graphing Devices

xxiv

© Dan Clegg

You can also use computer software such as Graphing Calculator by Pacific Tech (www.pacifict.com) to perform many of these functions, as well as apps for phones and tablets, like Quick Graph (Colombiamug) or Math-Studio (Pomegranate Apps). Similar functionality is available using a web interface at WolframAlpha.com.

© Dan Clegg

© Dan Clegg

Advances in technology continue to bring a wider variety of tools for doing mathematics. Handheld calculators are becoming more powerful, as are software programs and Internet resources. In addition, many mathematical applications have been released for smartphones and tablets such as the iPad. Some exercises in this text are marked with a graphing icon ; , which indicates that the use of some technology is required. Often this means that we intend for a graphing device to be used in drawing the graph of a function or equation. You might also need technology to find the zeros of a graph or the points of intersection of two graphs. In some cases we will use a calculating device to solve an equation or evaluate a definite integral numerically. Many scientific and graphing calculators have these features built in, such as the Texas Instruments TI-84 or TI-Nspire CX. Similar calculators are made by Hewlett Packard, Casio, and Sharp.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

The CAS icon is reserved for problems in which the full resources of a computer algebra system (CAS) are required. A CAS is capable of doing mathematics (like solving equations, computing derivatives or integrals) symbolically rather than just numerically. Examples of well-established computer algebra systems are the computer software packages Maple and Mathematica. The WolframAlpha website uses the Mathematica engine to provide CAS functionality via the Web. Many handheld graphing calculators have CAS capabilities, such as the TI-89 and TI-Nspire CX CAS from Texas Instruments. Some tablet and smartphone apps also provide these capabilities, such as the previously mentioned MathStudio.

© Dan Clegg

© Dan Clegg

© Dan Clegg

In general, when we use the term “calculator” in this book, we mean the use of any of the resources we have mentioned.

xxv Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Diagnostic Tests Success in calculus depends to a large extent on knowledge of the mathematics that precedes calculus: algebra, analytic geometry, functions, and trigonometry. The following tests are intended to diagnose weaknesses that you might have in these areas. After taking each test you can check your answers against the given answers and, if necessary, refresh your skills by referring to the review materials that are provided.

A 1. Evaluate each expression without using a calculator. (a) s23d4 (b) 234 (c) 324 (d)

5 23 5 21

(e)

SD 2 3

22

(f) 16 23y4

2. Simplify each expression. Write your answer without negative exponents. (a) s200 2 s32 (b) s3a 3b 3 ds4ab 2 d 2 (c)

S

3x 3y2 y 3 x 2 y21y2

D

22

3. Expand and simplify. (a) 3sx 1 6d 1 4s2x 2 5d

(b) sx 1 3ds4x 2 5d

(c) ssa 1 sb dssa 2 sb d

(d) s2x 1 3d2

(e) sx 1 2d3 4. Factor each expression. (a) 4x 2 2 25 (c) x 3 2 3x 2 2 4x 1 12 (e) 3x 3y2 2 9x 1y2 1 6x 21y2

(b) 2x 2 1 5x 2 12 (d) x 4 1 27x (f) x 3 y 2 4xy

5. Simplify the rational expression. (a)

x 2 1 3x 1 2 x2 2 x 2 2

(c)

x2 x11 2 x 24 x12 2

2x 2 2 x 2 1 x13 ? x2 2 9 2x 1 1 y x 2 x y (d) 1 1 2 y x (b)

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Diagnostic Tests

6. Rationalize the expression and simplify. s10 s5 2 2

(a)

(b)

7. Rewrite by completing the square. (a) x 2 1 x 1 1

s4 1 h 2 2 h

(b) 2x 2 2 12x 1 11

8. Solve the equation. (Find only the real solutions.)

(c) x 2 2 x 2 12 − 0

2x 2x 2 1 − x11 x (d) 2x 2 1 4x 1 1 − 0

(e) x 4 2 3x 2 1 2 − 0

(f) 3 x 2 4 − 10

(a) x 1 5 − 14 2 12 x

(g) 2xs4 2 xd

21y2

(b)

|

|

2 3 s4 2 x − 0

9. Solve each inequality. Write your answer using interval notation. (a) 24 , 5 2 3x < 17 (b) x 2 , 2x 1 8 (c) xsx 2 1dsx 1 2d . 0 (d) x 2 4 , 3

|

|

2x 2 3 (e) x 2 2 1

(e) x 2 1 y 2 , 4

(f) 9x 2 1 16y 2 − 144

ANSWERS TO DIAGNOSTIC TEST B: ANALYTIC GEOMETRY 1. (a) y − 23x 1 1 (c) x − 2

(b) y − 25 (d) y −

1 2x

26

5. (a)

(b)

y

(c)

y

3

1

2

2. sx 1 1d2 1 s y 2 4d2 − 52

1

y=1- 2 x

0

3. Center s3, 25d, radius 5 4. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

y

x

_1

234 4x 1 3y 1 16 − 0; x-intercept 24, y-intercept 2 16 3 s21, 24d 20 3x 2 4y − 13 sx 1 1d2 1 s y 1 4d2 − 100

(d)

_4

4x

0

0

2

x

_2

y

(e)

y 2

(f ) ≈+¥=4

y 3

0 _1

1

x

0

2

x

0

4 x

y=≈-1

If you had difficulty with these problems, you may wish to consult the review of analytic geometry in Appendixes B and C.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Diagnostic Tests

xxix

C y

1. The graph of a function f is given at the left. (a) State the value of f s21d. (b) Estimate the value of f s2d. (c) For what values of x is f sxd − 2? (d) Estimate the values of x such that f sxd − 0. (e) State the domain and range of f.

1 0

1

x

2. If f sxd − x 3, evaluate the difference quotient

f s2 1 hd 2 f s2d and simplify your answer. h

3. Find the domain of the function.

FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 1

(a) f sxd −

2x 1 1 x 1x22

(b) tsxd −

2

3 x s x 11

(c) hsxd − s4 2 x 1 sx 2 2 1

2

4. How are graphs of the functions obtained from the graph of f ? (a) y − 2f sxd (b) y − 2 f sxd 2 1 (c) y − f sx 2 3d 1 2 5. Without using a calculator, make a rough sketch of the graph. (a) y − x 3 (b) y − sx 1 1d3 (c) y − sx 2 2d3 1 3 2 (d) y − 4 2 x (e) y − sx (f) y − 2 sx (g) y − 22 x (h) y − 1 1 x21 6. Let f sxd −

H

1 2 x 2 if x < 0 2x 1 1 if x . 0

(a) Evaluate f s22d and f s1d.

(b) Sketch the graph of f.

7. If f sxd − x 2 1 2x 2 1 and tsxd − 2x 2 3, find each of the following functions. (a) f 8 t (b) t 8 f (c) t 8 t 8 t

ANSWERS TO DIAGNOSTIC TEST C: FUNCTIONS 1. (a) 22 (c) 23, 1 (e) f23, 3g, f22, 3g

(b) 2.8 (d) 22.5, 0.3

5. (a)

0

4. (a) Reflect about the x-axis (b) Stretch vertically by a factor of 2, then shift 1 unit downward (c) Shift 3 units to the right and 2 units upward

(d)

(g)

y (2, 3)

1 1

x

2

(h)

x 0

(f)

y

0

x

y

0

_1

(e)

y 4

0

(c)

y

1

2. 12 1 6h 1 h 2 3. (a) s2`, 22d ø s22, 1d ø s1, `d (b) s2`, `d (c) s2`, 21g ø f1, 4g

(b)

y

1

x

1

x

x

y

0

1

y 1

0 _1

1

x

0

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

x

xxx

Diagnostic Tests

6. (a) 23, 3

(b)

7. (a) s f 8 tdsxd − 4x 2 2 8x 1 2

y

(b) s t 8 f dsxd − 2x 2 1 4x 2 5

1 _1

(c) s t 8 t 8 tdsxd − 8x 2 21

x

0

If you had difficulty with these problems, you should look at sections 1.1–1.3 of this book.

D 1. Convert from degrees to radians. (a) 3008 (b) 2188 2. Convert from radians to degrees. (a) 5y6 (b) 2 3. Find the length of an arc of a circle with radius 12 cm if the arc subtends a central angle of 308. 4. Find the exact values. (a) tansy3d (b) sins7y6d

(c) secs5y3d

5. Express the lengths a and b in the figure in terms of . 24

6. If sin x − 13 and sec y − 54, where x and y lie between 0 and y2, evaluate sinsx 1 yd.

a ¨

7. Prove the identities. b

FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 5

(a) tan  sin  1 cos  − sec 

(b)

2 tan x − sin 2x 1 1 tan 2x

8. Find all values of x such that sin 2x − sin x and 0 < x < 2. 9. Sketch the graph of the function y − 1 1 sin 2x without using a calculator.

ANSWERS TO DIAGNOSTIC TEST D: TRIGONOMETRY

s4 1 6 s2 d

1. (a) 5y3

(b) 2y10

6.

2. (a) 1508

(b) 3608y < 114.68

8. 0, y3, , 5y3, 2

3. 2 cm

1 15

9.

4. (a) s3

(b) 221

5. (a) 24 sin 

(b) 24 cos 

y 2

(c) 2 _π

0

π

x

If you had difficulty with these problems, you should look at Appendix D of this book.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

A Preview of Calculus By the time you finish this course, you will be able to calculate the length of the curve used to design the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, determine where a pilot should start descent for a smooth landing, compute the force on a baseball bat when it strikes the ball, and measure the amount of light sensed by the human eye as the pupil changes size.

CALCULUS IS FUNDAMENTALLY DIFFERENT FROM the mathematics that you have studied previously: calculus is less static and more dynamic. It is concerned with change and motion; it deals with quantities that approach other quantities. For that reason it may be useful to have an overview of the subject before beginning its intensive study. Here we give a glimpse of some of the main ideas of calculus by showing how the concept of a limit arises when we attempt to solve a variety of problems.

1 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

2

A PREVIEW OF CALCULUS

The Area Problem

A¡

The origins of calculus go back at least 2500 years to the ancient Greeks, who found areas using the “method of exhaustion.” They knew how to find the area A of any polygon by dividing it into triangles as in Figure 1 and adding the areas of these triangles. It is a much more difficult problem to find the area of a curved figure. The Greek method of exhaustion was to inscribe polygons in the figure and circumscribe polygons about the figure and then let the number of sides of the polygons increase. Figure 2 illustrates this process for the special case of a circle with inscribed regular polygons.

A∞

A™ A¢

A£

A=A¡+A™+A£+A¢+A∞

FIGURE 1

A£

A¢

A∞

Aß

A¶



A¡™



FIGURE 2

Let An be the area of the inscribed polygon with n sides. As n increases, it appears that An becomes closer and closer to the area of the circle. We say that the area of the circle is the limit of the areas of the inscribed polygons, and we write TEC In the Preview Visual, you can see how areas of inscribed and circumscribed polygons approximate the area of a circle.

y

A − lim An nl`

The Greeks themselves did not use limits explicitly. However, by indirect reasoning, Eudoxus (fifth century bc) used exhaustion to prove the familiar formula for the area of a circle: A − r 2. We will use a similar idea in Chapter 5 to find areas of regions of the type shown in Figure 3. We will approximate the desired area A by areas of rectangles (as in Figure 4), let the width of the rectangles decrease, and then calculate A as the limit of these sums of areas of rectangles. y

y

(1, 1)

y

(1, 1)

(1, 1)

(1, 1)

y=≈ A 0

1

x

0

1 4

1 2

3 4

1

x

0

1

x

0

1 n

1

x

FIGURE 3

The area problem is the central problem in the branch of calculus called integral calculus. The techniques that we will develop in Chapter 5 for finding areas will also enable us to compute the volume of a solid, the length of a curve, the force of water against a dam, the mass and center of gravity of a rod, and the work done in pumping water out of a tank.

The Tangent Problem Consider the problem of trying to find an equation of the tangent line t to a curve with equation y − f sxd at a given point P. (We will give a precise definition of a tangent line in

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

A PREVIEW OF CALCULUS

3

Chapter 2. For now you can think of it as a line that touches the curve at P as in Figure 5.) Since we know that the point P lies on the tangent line, we can find the equation of t if we know its slope m. The problem is that we need two points to compute the slope and we know only one point, P, on t. To get around the problem we first find an approximation to m by taking a nearby point Q on the curve and computing the slope mPQ of the secant line PQ. From Figure 6 we see that

y

t y=ƒ P

0

x

FIGURE 5

1

mPQ −

f sxd 2 f sad x2a

Now imagine that Q moves along the curve toward P as in Figure 7. You can see that the secant line rotates and approaches the tangent line as its limiting position. This means that the slope mPQ of the secant line becomes closer and closer to the slope m of the tangent line. We write

The tangent line at P y

t

m − lim mPQ Q lP

Q { x, ƒ} ƒ-f(a)

P { a, f(a)}

and we say that m is the limit of mPQ as Q approaches P along the curve. Because x approaches a as Q approaches P, we could also use Equation 1 to write

x-a

a

0

x

x

FIGURE 6 The secant line at PQ y

t Q P

0

FIGURE 7 Secant lines approaching the tangent line

x

2

f sxd 2 f sad x2a

m − lim

xla

Specific examples of this procedure will be given in Chapter 2. The tangent problem has given rise to the branch of calculus called differential calculus, which was not invented until more than 2000 years after integral calculus. The main ideas behind differential calculus are due to the French mathematician Pierre Fermat (1601–1665) and were developed by the English mathematicians John Wallis (1616–1703), Isaac Barrow (1630–1677), and Isaac Newton (1642–1727) and the German mathematician Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716). The two branches of calculus and their chief problems, the area problem and the tangent problem, appear to be very different, but it turns out that there is a very close connection between them. The tangent problem and the area problem are inverse problems in a sense that will be described in Chapter 5.

Velocity When we look at the speedometer of a car and read that the car is traveling at 48 kmyh, what does that information indicate to us? We know that if the velocity remains constant, then after an hour we will have traveled 48 km. But if the velocity of the car varies, what does it mean to say that the velocity at a given instant is 48 kmyh? In order to analyze this question, let’s examine the motion of a car that travels along a straight road and assume that we can measure the distance traveled by the car (in meters) at l-second intervals as in the following chart: t − Time elapsed ssd

0

1

2

3

4

5

d − Distance smd

0

2

9

24

42

71

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4

A PREVIEW OF CALCULUS

As a first step toward finding the velocity after 2 seconds have elapsed, we find the average velocity during the time interval 2 < t < 4: change in position time elapsed

average velocity −

42 2 9 422

−

− 16.5 mys Similarly, the average velocity in the time interval 2 < t < 3 is average velocity −

24 2 9 − 15 mys 322

We have the feeling that the velocity at the instant t − 2 can’t be much different from the average velocity during a short time interval starting at t − 2. So let’s imagine that the distance traveled has been measured at 0.l-second time intervals as in the following chart: t

2.0

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

d

9.00

10.02

11.16

12.45

13.96

15.80

Then we can compute, for instance, the average velocity over the time interval f2, 2.5g: 15.80 2 9.00 − 13.6 mys 2.5 2 2

average velocity −

The results of such calculations are shown in the following chart: Time interval

f2, 3g

f2, 2.5g

f2, 2.4g

f2, 2.3g

f2, 2.2g

f2, 2.1g

Average velocity smysd

15.0

13.6

12.4

11.5

10.8

10.2

The average velocities over successively smaller intervals appear to be getting closer to a number near 10, and so we expect that the velocity at exactly t − 2 is about 10 mys. In Chapter 2 we will define the instantaneous velocity of a moving object as the limiting value of the average velocities over smaller and smaller time intervals. In Figure 8 we show a graphical representation of the motion of the car by plotting the distance traveled as a function of time. If we write d − f std, then f std is the number of meters traveled after t seconds. The average velocity in the time interval f2, tg is

d

Q { t, f(t)}

average velocity −

which is the same as the slope of the secant line PQ in Figure 8. The velocity v when t − 2 is the limiting value of this average velocity as t approaches 2; that is,

20 10 0

change in position f std 2 f s2d − time elapsed t22

P { 2, f(2)} 1

2

FIGURE 8

3

4

5

t

v − lim

tl2

f std 2 f s2d t22

and we recognize from Equation 2 that this is the same as the slope of the tangent line to the curve at P.

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5

A PREVIEW OF CALCULUS

Thus, when we solve the tangent problem in differential calculus, we are also solving problems concerning velocities. The same techniques also enable us to solve problems involving rates of change in all of the natural and social sciences.

The Limit of a Sequence In the fifth century bc the Greek philosopher Zeno of Elea posed four problems, now known as Zeno’s paradoxes, that were intended to challenge some of the ideas concerning space and time that were held in his day. Zeno’s second paradox concerns a race between the Greek hero Achilles and a tortoise that has been given a head start. Zeno argued, as follows, that Achilles could never pass the tortoise: Suppose that Achilles starts at position a 1 and the tortoise starts at position t1. (See Figure 9.) When Achilles reaches the point a 2 − t1, the tortoise is farther ahead at position t2. When Achilles reaches a 3 − t2, the tortoise is at t3. This process continues indefinitely and so it appears that the tortoise will always be ahead! But this defies common sense. a¡

a™

a£

a¢

a∞

...

t¡

t™

t£

t¢

...

Achilles tortoise

FIGURE 9

One way of explaining this paradox is with the idea of a sequence. The successive positions of Achilles sa 1, a 2 , a 3 , . . .d or the successive positions of the tortoise st1, t2 , t3 , . . .d form what is known as a sequence. In general, a sequence ha nj is a set of numbers written in a definite order. For instance, the sequence

h1, 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , . . . j can be described by giving the following formula for the nth term: an − a¢ a£

a™

0

1 n

We can visualize this sequence by plotting its terms on a number line as in Figure 10(a) or by drawing its graph as in Figure 10(b). Observe from either picture that the terms of the sequence a n − 1yn are becoming closer and closer to 0 as n increases. In fact, we can find terms as small as we please by making n large enough. We say that the limit of the sequence is 0, and we indicate this by writing

a¡ 1

(a) 1

lim

nl`

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

( b)

FIGURE 10

n

1 −0 n

In general, the notation lim a n − L

nl`

is used if the terms a n approach the number L as n becomes large. This means that the numbers a n can be made as close as we like to the number L by taking n sufficiently large.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

6

A PREVIEW OF CALCULUS

The concept of the limit of a sequence occurs whenever we use the decimal representation of a real number. For instance, if a 1 − 3.1 a 2 − 3.14 a 3 − 3.141 a 4 − 3.1415 a 5 − 3.14159 a 6 − 3.141592 a 7 − 3.1415926 f then

lim a n − 

nl`

The terms in this sequence are rational approximations to . Let’s return to Zeno’s paradox. The successive positions of Achilles and the tortoise form sequences ha nj and htn j, where a n , tn for all n. It can be shown that both sequences have the same limit: lim a n − p − lim tn

nl`

nl`

It is precisely at this point p that Achilles overtakes the tortoise.

The Sum of a Series Another of Zeno’s paradoxes, as passed on to us by Aristotle, is the following: “A man standing in a room cannot walk to the wall. In order to do so, he would first have to go half the distance, then half the remaining distance, and then again half of what still remains. This process can always be continued and can never be ended.” (See Figure 11.)

1 2

FIGURE 11

1 4

1 8

1 16

Of course, we know that the man can actually reach the wall, so this suggests that perhaps the total distance can be expressed as the sum of infinitely many smaller distances as follows: 3

1−

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ∙∙∙ 1 n 1 ∙∙∙ 2 4 8 16 2

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A PREVIEW OF CALCULUS

7

Zeno was arguing that it doesn’t make sense to add infinitely many numbers together. But there are other situations in which we implicitly use infinite sums. For instance, in decimal notation, the symbol 0.3 − 0.3333 . . . means 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 ∙∙∙ 10 100 1000 10,000 and so, in some sense, it must be true that 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 ∙∙∙ − 10 100 1000 10,000 3 More generally, if dn denotes the nth digit in the decimal representation of a number, then 0.d1 d2 d3 d4 . . . −

d1 d2 d3 dn 1 2 1 3 1 ∙∙∙ 1 n 1 ∙∙∙ 10 10 10 10

Therefore some infinite sums, or infinite series as they are called, have a meaning. But we must define carefully what the sum of an infinite series is. Returning to the series in Equation 3, we denote by sn the sum of the first n terms of the series. Thus s1 − 12 − 0.5 s2 − 12 1 14 − 0.75 s3 − 12 1 14 1 18 − 0.875 1 s4 − 12 1 14 1 18 1 16 − 0.9375 1 1 s5 − 12 1 14 1 18 1 16 1 32 − 0.96875 1 1 1 s6 − 12 1 14 1 18 1 16 1 32 1 64 − 0.984375 1 1 1 1 s7 − 12 1 14 1 18 1 16 1 32 1 64 1 128 − 0.9921875

f 1 s10 − 12 1 14 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 1024 < 0.99902344

f s16 −

1 1 1 1 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 16 < 0.99998474 2 4 2

Observe that as we add more and more terms, the partial sums become closer and closer to 1. In fact, it can be shown that by taking n large enough (that is, by adding sufficiently many terms of the series), we can make the partial sum sn as close as we please to the number 1. It therefore seems reasonable to say that the sum of the infinite series is 1 and to write 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ∙∙∙ 1 n 1 ∙∙∙ − 1 2 4 8 2 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

8

A PREVIEW OF CALCULUS

In other words, the reason the sum of the series is 1 is that lim sn − 1

nl`

In Chapter 11 we will discuss these ideas further. We will then use Newton’s idea of combining infinite series with differential and integral calculus.

Summary We have seen that the concept of a limit arises in trying to find the area of a region, the slope of a tangent to a curve, the velocity of a car, or the sum of an infinite series. In each case the common theme is the calculation of a quantity as the limit of other, easily calculated quantities. It is this basic idea of a limit that sets calculus apart from other areas of mathematics. In fact, we could define calculus as the part of mathematics that deals with limits. After Sir Isaac Newton invented his version of calculus, he used it to explain the motion of the planets around the sun. Today calculus is used in calculating the orbits of satellites and spacecraft, in predicting population sizes, in estimating how fast oil prices rise or fall, in forecasting weather, in measuring the cardiac output of the heart, in calculating life insurance premiums, and in a great variety of other areas. We will explore some of these uses of calculus in this book. In order to convey a sense of the power of the subject, we end this preview with a list of some of the questions that you will be able to answer using calculus: 1. How can we explain the fact, illustrated in Figure 12, that the angle of elevation from an observer up to the highest point in a rainbow is 42°? (See page 285.)

rays from sun

138°

2. How can we explain the shapes of cans on supermarket shelves? (See page 343.) 3. Where is the best place to sit in a movie theater? (See page 465.)

rays from sun

42°

4. How can we design a roller coaster for a smooth ride? (See page 182.) 5. How far away from an airport should a pilot start descent? (See page 208.)

observer

FIGURE 12

6. How can we fit curves together to design shapes to represent letters on a laser printer? (See page 657.) 7. How can we estimate the number of workers that were needed to build the Great Pyramid of Khufu in ancient Egypt? (See page 460.) 8. Where should an infielder position himself to catch a baseball thrown by an outfielder and relay it to home plate? (See page 465.) 9. Does a ball thrown upward take longer to reach its maximum height or to fall back to its original height? (See page 609.) 10. How can we explain the fact that planets and satellites move in elliptical orbits? (See page 876.) 11. How can we distribute water flow among turbines at a hydroelectric station so as to maximize the total energy production? (See page 980.) 12. If a marble, a squash ball, a steel bar, and a lead pipe roll down a slope, which of them reaches the bottom first? (See page 1052.)

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

1 Often a graph is the best way to represent a function because it conveys so much information at a glance. Shown is a graph of the vertical ground acceleration created by the 2011 earthquake near Tohoku, Japan. The earthquake had a magnitude of 9.0 on the Richter scale and was so powerful that it moved northern Japan 2.4 meters closer to North America.

Functions and Models

Pictura Collectus/Alamy

(cm/s@) 2000 1000 0

time _1000 _2000 0

50

100

150

200 Seismological Society of America

The fundamenTal objecTs ThaT we deal with in calculus are functions. This chapter prepares the way for calculus by discussing the basic ideas concerning functions, their graphs, and ways of transforming and combining them. We stress that a function can be represented in different ways: by an equation, in a table, by a graph, or in words. We look at the main types of functions that occur in calculus and describe the process of using these functions as mathematical models of real-world phenomena.

9 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

10

Chapter 1

Functions and Models

Functions arise whenever one quantity depends on another. Consider the following four situations. A. The area A of a circle depends on the radius r of the circle. The rule that connects r and A is given by the equation A − r 2. With each positive number r there is associated one value of A, and we say that A is a function of r. Year

Population (millions)

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

1650 1750 1860 2070 2300 2560 3040 3710 4450 5280 6080 6870

B. The human population of the world P depends on the time t. The table gives estimates of the world population Pstd at time t, for certain years. For instance, Ps1950d < 2,560,000,000 But for each value of the time t there is a corresponding value of P, and we say that P is a function of t. C. The cost C of mailing an envelope depends on its weight w. Although there is no simple formula that connects w and C, the post office has a rule for determining C when w is known. D. The vertical acceleration a of the ground as measured by a seismograph during an earthquake is a function of the elapsed time t. Figure 1 shows a graph generated by seismic activity during the Northridge earthquake that shook Los Angeles in 1994. For a given value of t, the graph provides a corresponding value of a. a

{cm/s@}

100

50

5

FIGURE 1 Vertical ground acceleration during the Northridge earthquake

10

15

20

25

30

t (seconds)

_50 Calif. Dept. of Mines and Geology

Each of these examples describes a rule whereby, given a number (r, t, w, or t), another number (A, P, C, or a) is assigned. In each case we say that the second number is a function of the first number. A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set D exactly one element, called f sxd, in a set E. We usually consider functions for which the sets D and E are sets of real numbers. The set D is called the domain of the function. The number f sxd is the value of f at x and is read “ f of x.” The range of f is the set of all possible values of f sxd as x varies throughout the domain. A symbol that represents an arbitrary number in the domain of a function f is called an independent variable. A symbol that represents a number in the range of f is called a dependent variable. In Example A, for instance, r is the independent variable and A is the dependent variable.

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SeCtion 1.1

x (input)

f

ƒ (output)

FIGURE 2 Machine diagram for a function f

x

ƒ a

f(a)

f

D

11

Four Ways to Represent a Function

It’s helpful to think of a function as a machine (see Figure 2). If x is in the domain of the function f, then when x enters the machine, it’s accepted as an input and the machine produces an output f sxd according to the rule of the function. Thus we can think of the domain as the set of all possible inputs and the range as the set of all possible outputs. The preprogrammed functions in a calculator are good examples of a function as a machine. For example, the square root key on your calculator computes such a function. You press the key labeled s (or s x ) and enter the input x. If x , 0, then x is not in the domain of this function; that is, x is not an acceptable input, and the calculator will indicate an error. If x > 0, then an approximation to s x will appear in the display. Thus the s x key on your calculator is not quite the same as the exact mathematical function f defined by f sxd − s x . Another way to picture a function is by an arrow diagram as in Figure 3. Each arrow connects an element of D to an element of E. The arrow indicates that f sxd is associated with x, f sad is associated with a, and so on. The most common method for visualizing a function is its graph. If f is a function with domain D, then its graph is the set of ordered pairs hsx, f sxdd | x [ Dj

E

(Notice that these are input-output pairs.) In other words, the graph of f consists of all points sx, yd in the coordinate plane such that y − f sxd and x is in the domain of f. The graph of a function f gives us a useful picture of the behavior or “life history” of a function. Since the y-coordinate of any point sx, yd on the graph is y − f sxd, we can read the value of f sxd from the graph as being the height of the graph above the point x (see Figure 4). The graph of f also allows us to picture the domain of f on the x-axis and its range on the y-axis as in Figure 5.

FIGURE 3 Arrow diagram for f

y

y

{ x, ƒ}

range

ƒ

y  ƒ(x)

f(2) f(1) 0

1

2

x

x

x

0

domain

FIGURE 4 y

example 1 The graph of a function f is shown in Figure 6. (a) Find the values of f s1d and f s5d. (b) What are the domain and range of f ? Solution

1 0

FIGURE 5

1

x

FIGURE 6 The notation for intervals is given in Appendix A.

(a) We see from Figure 6 that the point s1, 3d lies on the graph of f, so the value of f at 1 is f s1d − 3. (In other words, the point on the graph that lies above x − 1 is 3 units above the x-axis.) When x − 5, the graph lies about 0.7 units below the x-axis, so we estimate that f s5d < 20.7. (b) We see that f sxd is defined when 0 < x < 7, so the domain of f is the closed interval f0, 7g. Notice that f takes on all values from 22 to 4, so the range of f is h y | 22 < y < 4j − f22, 4g

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■

12

Chapter 1

Functions and Models

y

example 2 Sketch the graph and find the domain and range of each function. (a) fsxd − 2x 2 1 (b) tsxd − x 2 Solution

y=2x-1 0 -1

x

1 2

FIGURE 7 y (2, 4)

y=≈ (_1, 1)

(a) The equation of the graph is y − 2x 2 1, and we recognize this as being the equation of a line with slope 2 and y-intercept 21. (Recall the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line: y − mx 1 b. See Appendix B.) This enables us to sketch a portion of the graph of f in Figure 7. The expression 2x 2 1 is defined for all real numbers, so the domain of f is the set of all real numbers, which we denote by R. The graph shows that the range is also R. (b) Since ts2d − 2 2 − 4 and ts21d − s21d2 − 1, we could plot the points s2, 4d and s21, 1d, together with a few other points on the graph, and join them to produce the graph (Figure 8). The equation of the graph is y − x 2, which represents a parabola (see Appendix C). The domain of t is R. The range of t consists of all values of tsxd, that is, all numbers of the form x 2. But x 2 > 0 for all numbers x and any positive number y is a square. So the range of t is hy | y > 0j − f0, `d. This can also be seen from Figure 8. ■

1 0

1

x

example 3 If f sxd − 2x 2 2 5x 1 1 and h ± 0, evaluate

f sa 1 hd 2 f sad . h

Solution We first evaluate f sa 1 hd by replacing x by a 1 h in the expression for f sxd:

FIGURE 8

f sa 1 hd − 2sa 1 hd2 2 5sa 1 hd 1 1 − 2sa 2 1 2ah 1 h 2 d 2 5sa 1 hd 1 1 − 2a 2 1 4ah 1 2h 2 2 5a 2 5h 1 1 The expression

Then we substitute into the given expression and simplify: f sa 1 hd 2 f sad s2a 2 1 4ah 1 2h 2 2 5a 2 5h 1 1d 2 s2a 2 2 5a 1 1d − h h

f sa 1 hd 2 f sad h in Example 3 is called a difference quotient and occurs frequently in calculus. As we will see in Chapter 2, it represents the average rate of change of f sxd between x − a and x − a 1 h.

−

2a 2 1 4ah 1 2h 2 2 5a 2 5h 1 1 2 2a 2 1 5a 2 1 h

−

4ah 1 2h 2 2 5h − 4a 1 2h 2 5 h

■

representations of Functions There are four possible ways to represent a function: ● ● ● ●

verbally numerically visually algebraically

(by a description in words) (by a table of values) (by a graph) (by an explicit formula)

If a single function can be represented in all four ways, it’s often useful to go from one representation to another to gain additional insight into the function. (In Example 2, for instance, we started with algebraic formulas and then obtained the graphs.) But certain functions are described more naturally by one method than by another. With this in mind, let’s reexamine the four situations that we considered at the beginning of this section.

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SeCtion 1.1

t (years since 1900)

Population (millions)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

1650 1750 1860 2070 2300 2560 3040 3710 4450 5280 6080 6870

A. The most useful representation of the area of a circle as a function of its radius is probably the algebraic formula Asrd − r 2, though it is possible to compile a table of values or to sketch a graph (half a parabola). Because a circle has to have a positive radius, the domain is hr | r . 0j − s0, `d, and the range is also s0, `d. B. We are given a description of the function in words: Pstd is the human population of the world at time t. Let’s measure t so that t − 0 corresponds to the year 1900. The table of values of world population provides a convenient representation of this function. If we plot these values, we get the graph (called a scatter plot) in Figure 9. It too is a useful representation; the graph allows us to absorb all the data at once. What about a formula? Of course, it’s impossible to devise an explicit formula that gives the exact human population Pstd at any time t. But it is possible to find an expression for a function that approximates Pstd. In fact, using methods explained in Section 1.2, we obtain the approximation Pstd < f std − s1.43653 3 10 9 d ∙ s1.01395d t Figure 10 shows that it is a reasonably good “fit.” The function f is called a mathematical model for population growth. In other words, it is a function with an explicit formula that approximates the behavior of our given function. We will see, however, that the ideas of calculus can be applied to a table of values; an explicit formula is not necessary.

P

P

5x10'

0

13

Four Ways to Represent a Function

5x10'

20

40 60 80 Years since 1900

FIGURE 9

100

120

t

0

20

40 60 80 Years since 1900

100

120

t

FIGURE 10

A function defined by a table of values is called a tabular function.

w (grams)

Cswd (dollars)

0 , w < 20 20 , w < 30 30 , w < 40 40 , w < 50 ∙ ∙ ∙

2.90 5.50 7.00 8.50 ∙ ∙ ∙

The function P is typical of the functions that arise whenever we attempt to apply calculus to the real world. We start with a verbal description of a function. Then we may be able to construct a table of values of the function, perhaps from instrument readings in a scientific experiment. Even though we don’t have complete knowledge of the values of the function, we will see throughout the book that it is still possible to perform the operations of calculus on such a function. C. Again the function is described in words: Let Cswd be the cost of mailing a large envelope with weight w. The rule that the Hong Kong Post Office used as of 2015 for mail to Taiwan is as follows: the cost is $2.90 for 20 g or less, $5.50 for 30 g or less, and $1.50 for each additional 10 g or part thereof. The table of values shown in the margin is the most convenient representation for this function, though it is possible to sketch a graph (see Example 10). D. The graph shown in Figure 1 is the most natural representation of the vertical acceleration function astd. It’s true that a table of values could be compiled, and it is even possible to devise an approximate formula. But everything a geologist needs to

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14

Chapter 1

Functions and Models

know— amplitudes and patterns — can be seen easily from the graph. (The same is true for the patterns seen in electrocardiograms of heart patients and polygraphs for lie-detection.) In the next example we sketch the graph of a function that is defined verbally.

T

example 4 When you turn on a hot-water faucet, the temperature T of the water depends on how long the water has been running. Draw a rough graph of T as a function of the time t that has elapsed since the faucet was turned on.

0

Solution The initial temperature of the running water is close to room temperature because the water has been sitting in the pipes. When the water from the hot-water tank starts flowing from the faucet, T increases quickly. In the next phase, T is constant at the temperature of the heated water in the tank. When the tank is drained, T decreases to the temperature of the water supply. This enables us to make the rough sketch of T as a function of t in Figure 11. ■

t

FIGURE 11

In the following example we start with a verbal description of a function in a physical situation and obtain an explicit algebraic formula. The ability to do this is a useful skill in solving calculus problems that ask for the maximum or minimum values of quantities.

example 5 A rectangular storage container with an open top has a volume of 10 m3. The length of its base is twice its width. Material for the base costs $10 per square meter; material for the sides costs $6 per square meter. Express the cost of materials as a function of the width of the base. Solution We draw a diagram as in Figure 12 and introduce notation by letting w and 2w be the width and length of the base, respectively, and h be the height. The area of the base is s2wdw − 2w 2, so the cost, in dollars, of the material for the base is 10s2w 2 d. Two of the sides have area wh and the other two have area 2wh, so the cost of the material for the sides is 6f2swhd 1 2s2whdg. The total cost is therefore

h w

C − 10s2w 2 d 1 6f2swhd 1 2s2whdg − 20 w 2 1 36 wh

2w

FIGURE 12

To express C as a function of w alone, we need to eliminate h and we do so by using the fact that the volume is 10 m3. Thus w s2wdh − 10

which gives

10 5 2 − 2w w2

h−

Substituting this into the expression for C, we have PS In setting up applied functions as in Example 5, it may be useful to review the principles of problem solving as discussed on page 71, particularly Step 1: Understand the Problem.

S D

C − 20w 2 1 36w

5

w

2

− 20w 2 1

180 w

Therefore the equation Cswd − 20w 2 1

180 w

w.0

expresses C as a function of w.

■

example 6 Find the domain of each function. (a) f sxd − sx 1 2

(b) tsxd −

1 x2 2 x

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SeCtion 1.1

domain convention If a function is given by a formula and the domain is not stated explicitly, the convention is that the domain is the set of all numbers for which the formula makes sense and defines a real number.

Four Ways to Represent a Function

15

Solution

(a) Because the square root of a negative number is not defined (as a real number), the domain of f consists of all values of x such that x 1 2 > 0. This is equivalent to x > 22, so the domain is the interval f22, `d. (b) Since 1 1 tsxd − 2 − x 2x xsx 2 1d and division by 0 is not allowed, we see that tsxd is not defined when x − 0 or x − 1. Thus the domain of t is hx | x ± 0, x ± 1j which could also be written in interval notation as s2`, 0d ø s0, 1d ø s1, `d

y

■

The graph of a function is a curve in the xy-plane. But the question arises: Which curves in the xy-plane are graphs of functions? This is answered by the following test.

x=a (a, b)

The Vertical Line Test A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of a function of x if and only if no vertical line intersects the curve more than once. 0

x

a

(a) This curve represents a function. y (a, c)

x=a

(a, b)

0

a

x

(b) This curve doesn’t represent a function.

FIGURE 13

The reason for the truth of the Vertical Line Test can be seen in Figure 13. If each vertical line x − a intersects a curve only once, at sa, bd, then exactly one function value is defined by f sad − b. But if a line x − a intersects the curve twice, at sa, bd and sa, cd, then the curve can’t represent a function because a function can’t assign two different values to a. For example, the parabola x − y 2 2 2 shown in Figure 14(a) is not the graph of a function of x because, as you can see, there are vertical lines that intersect the parabola twice. The parabola, however, does contain the graphs of two functions of x. Notice that the equation x − y 2 2 2 implies y 2 − x 1 2, so y − 6sx 1 2 . Thus the upper and lower halves of the parabola are the graphs of the functions f sxd − s x 1 2 [from Example 6(a)] and tsxd − 2s x 1 2 . [See Figures 14(b) and (c).] We observe that if we reverse the roles of x and y, then the equation x − hsyd − y 2 2 2 does define x as a function of y (with y as the independent variable and x as the dependent variable) and the parabola now appears as the graph of the function h. y

y

y

_2 (_2, 0)

FIGURE 14

0

x

_2 0

(a) x=¥-2

(b) y=œ„„„„ x+2

x

0

x

(c) y=_œ„„„„ x+2

piecewise Defined Functions The functions in the following four examples are defined by different formulas in different parts of their domains. Such functions are called piecewise defined functions.

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16

Chapter 1

Functions and Models

example 7 A function f is defined by f sxd −

H

1 2 x if x < 21 x2 if x . 21

Evaluate f s22d, f s21d, and f s0d and sketch the graph. Solution Remember that a function is a rule. For this particular function the rule is the following: First look at the value of the input x. If it happens that x < 21, then the value of f sxd is 1 2 x. On the other hand, if x . 21, then the value of f sxd is x 2.

Since 22 < 21, we have f s22d − 1 2 s22d − 3. Since 21 < 21, we have f s21d − 1 2 s21d − 2. y

Since 0 . 21, we have f s0d − 0 2 − 0.

1

_1

0

1

x

FIGURE 15

How do we draw the graph of f ? We observe that if x < 21, then f sxd − 1 2 x, so the part of the graph of f that lies to the left of the vertical line x − 21 must coincide with the line y − 1 2 x, which has slope 21 and y-intercept 1. If x . 21, then f sxd − x 2, so the part of the graph of f that lies to the right of the line x − 21 must coincide with the graph of y − x 2, which is a parabola. This enables us to sketch the graph in Figure 15. The solid dot indicates that the point s21, 2d is included on the graph; the open dot indicates that the point s21, 1d is excluded from the graph. ■ The next example of a piecewise defined function is the absolute value function. Recall that the absolute value of a number a, denoted by | a |, is the distance from a to 0 on the real number line. Distances are always positive or 0, so we have

For a more extensive review of absolute values, see Appendix A.

|a| > 0

for every number a

For example,

| 3 | − 3 | 23 | − 3 | 0 | − 0 | s2 2 1 | − s2 2 1 | 3 2  | −  2 3 In general, we have

|a| − a | a | − 2a

if a > 0 if a , 0

(Remember that if a is negative, then 2a is positive.)

example 8 Sketch the graph of the absolute value function f sxd − | x |.

y

Solution From the preceding discussion we know that

y=| x |

|x| − 0

FIGURE 16

x

H

x if x > 0 2x if x , 0

Using the same method as in Example 7, we see that the graph of f coincides with the line y − x to the right of the y-axis and coincides with the line y − 2x to the left of the y-axis (see Figure 16). ■

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SeCtion 1.1

Four Ways to Represent a Function

17

y

example 9 Find a formula for the function f graphed in Figure 17.

1

Solution The line through s0, 0d and s1, 1d has slope m − 1 and y-intercept b − 0, so its equation is y − x. Thus, for the part of the graph of f that joins s0, 0d to s1, 1d, we have

0

x

1

f sxd − x

FIGURE 17

if 0 < x < 1

The line through s1, 1d and s2, 0d has slope m − 21, so its point-slope form is

Point-slope form of the equation of a line: y 2 y1 − msx 2 x 1 d

y 2 0 − s21dsx 2 2d So we have

See Appendix B.

or

f sxd − 2 2 x

y−22x

if 1 , x < 2

We also see that the graph of f coincides with the x-axis for x . 2. Putting this information together, we have the following three-piece formula for f :

H

x if 0 < x < 1 f sxd − 2 2 x if 1 , x < 2 0 if x . 2

■

example 10 In Example C at the beginning of this section we considered the cost Cswd of mailing a large envelope with weight w. In effect, this is a piecewise defined function because, from the table of values on page 13, we have

C 10.00 8.00 6.00

Cswd −

4.00 2.00

0

10

20

30

40

50

FIGURE 18

w

2.90 5.50 7.00 8.50 ∙ ∙ ∙

if if if if

0 , w < 20 20 , w < 30 30 , w < 40 40 , w < 50

The graph is shown in Figure 18. You can see why functions similar to this one are called step functions—they jump from one value to the next. Such functions will be ■ studied in Chapter 2.

Symmetry If a function f satisfies f s2xd − f sxd for every number x in its domain, then f is called an even function. For instance, the function f sxd − x 2 is even because

y

f s2xd − s2xd2 − x 2 − f sxd f(_x)

ƒ _x

0

FIGURE 19 An even function

x

x

The geometric significance of an even function is that its graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis (see Figure 19). This means that if we have plotted the graph of f for x > 0, we obtain the entire graph simply by reflecting this portion about the y-axis. If f satisfies f s2xd − 2f sxd for every number x in its domain, then f is called an odd function. For example, the function f sxd − x 3 is odd because f s2xd − s2xd3 − 2x 3 − 2f sxd

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18

Chapter 1

Functions and Models

The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin (see Figure 20). If we already have the graph of f for x > 0, we can obtain the entire graph by rotating this portion through 1808 about the origin.

y

_x

ƒ

0 x

x

example 11 Determine whether each of the following functions is even, odd, or neither even nor odd. (a) f sxd − x 5 1 x (b) tsxd − 1 2 x 4 (c) hsxd − 2x 2 x 2 Solution

f s2xd − s2xd5 1 s2xd − s21d5x 5 1 s2xd

(a)

FIGURE 20 An odd function

− 2x 5 2 x − 2sx 5 1 xd − 2f sxd Therefore f is an odd function. (b) So t is even.

ts2xd − 1 2 s2xd4 − 1 2 x 4 − tsxd

(c)

hs2xd − 2s2xd 2 s2xd2 − 22x 2 x 2

Since hs2xd ± hsxd and hs2xd ± 2hsxd, we conclude that h is neither even nor odd. ■ The graphs of the functions in Example 11 are shown in Figure 21. Notice that the graph of h is symmetric neither about the y-axis nor about the origin.

1

y

y

y

1

f

g

h

1 1

1

_1

x

x

1

x

_1

FIGURE 21

( b)

(a)

(c)

increasing and Decreasing Functions The graph shown in Figure 22 rises from A to B, falls from B to C, and rises again from C to D. The function f is said to be increasing on the interval fa, bg, decreasing on fb, cg, and increasing again on fc, dg. Notice that if x 1 and x 2 are any two numbers between a and b with x 1 , x 2, then f sx 1 d , f sx 2 d. We use this as the defining property of an increasing function. y

B

D

y=ƒ C f(x™) A

FIGURE 22

0 a x¡

f(x¡)

x™

b

c

d

x

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SeCtion 1.1

19

Four Ways to Represent a Function

A function f is called increasing on an interval I if f sx 1 d , f sx 2 d

whenever x 1 , x 2 in I

y

It is called decreasing on I if

y=≈

f sx 1 d . f sx 2 d

In the definition of an increasing function it is important to realize that the inequality f sx 1 d , f sx 2 d must be satisfied for every pair of numbers x 1 and x 2 in I with x 1 , x 2. You can see from Figure 23 that the function f sxd − x 2 is decreasing on the interval s2`, 0g and increasing on the interval f0, `d.

x

0

whenever x 1 , x 2 in I

FIGURE 23

1.1 EXERCISES 1. If f sxd − x 1 s2 2 x and tsud − u 1 s2 2 u , is it true that f − t? 2. If f sxd −

x2 2 x x21

tsxd − x

and

is it true that f − t? 3. The graph of a function f is given. (a) State the value of f s1d. (b) Estimate the value of f s21d. (c) For what values of x is f sxd − 1? (d) Estimate the value of x such that f sxd − 0. (e) State the domain and range of f. (f) On what interval is f increasing? y

(c) (d) (e) (f)

Estimate the solution of the equation f sxd − 21. On what interval is f decreasing? State the domain and range of f. State the domain and range of t.

5. Figure 1 was recorded by an instrument operated by the California Department of Mines and Geology at the University Hospital of the University of Southern California in Los Angeles. Use it to estimate the range of the vertical ground acceleration function at USC during the Northridge earthquake. 6. In this section we discussed examples of ordinary, everyday functions: Population is a function of time, postage cost is a function of weight, water temperature is a function of time. Give three other examples of functions from everyday life that are described verbally. What can you say about the domain and range of each of your functions? If possible, sketch a rough graph of each function. 7–10 Determine whether the curve is the graph of a function of x. If it is, state the domain and range of the function.

1 0

x

1

7.

8.

y

1

1

4. The graphs of f and t are given.

0

y

1

0

x

1

x

1

x

y

g f 2

0

9. 2

x

10.

y 1 0

y 1

1

x

0

(a) State the values of f s24d and ts3d. (b) For what values of x is f sxd − tsxd?

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20

Chapter 1

Functions and Models

11. Shown is a graph of the global average temperature T during the 20th century. Estimate the following. (a) The global average temperature in 1950 (b) The year when the average temperature was 14.2°C (c) The year when the temperature was smallest? Largest? (d) The range of T T (•C)

y

A

B

C

100

0

20

15. The graph shows the power consumption for a day in September in San Francisco. (P is measured in megawatts; t is measured in hours starting at midnight.) (a) What was the power consumption at 6 am? At 6 pm? (b) When was the power consumption the lowest? When was it the highest? Do these times seem reasonable?

14

13 1900

2000 t

1950

Source: Adapted from Globe and Mail [Toronto], 5 Dec. 2009. Print.

12. Trees grow faster and form wider rings in warm years and grow more slowly and form narrower rings in cooler years. The figure shows ring widths of a Siberian pine from 1500 to 2000. (a) What is the range of the ring width function? (b) What does the graph tend to say about the temperature of the earth? Does the graph reflect the volcanic eruptions of the mid-19th century?

Ring width (mm)

R

P 800 600 400 200 0

3

6

9

12

15

18

21

t

Pacific Gas & Electric

16. Sketch a rough graph of the number of hours of daylight as a function of the time of year. 17. Sketch a rough graph of the outdoor temperature as a function of time during a typical spring day.

1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

18. Sketch a rough graph of the market value of a new car as a function of time for a period of 20 years. Assume the car is well maintained. 19. Sketch the graph of the amount of a particular brand of coffee sold by a store as a function of the price of the coffee. 1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

2000 t

Year Source: Adapted from G. Jacoby et al., “Mongolian Tree Rings and 20thCentury Warming,” Science 273 (1996): 771–73.

13. You put some ice cubes in a glass, fill the glass with cold water, and then let the glass sit on a table. Describe how the temperature of the water changes as time passes. Then sketch a rough graph of the temperature of the water as a function of the elapsed time. 14. Three runners compete in a 100-meter race. The graph depicts the distance run as a function of time for each runner. Describe in words what the graph tells you about this race. Who won the race? Did each runner finish the race?

20. You place a frozen pie in an oven and bake it for an hour. Then you take it out and let it cool before eating it. Describe how the temperature of the pie changes as time passes. Then sketch a rough graph of the temperature of the pie as a function of time. 21. A homeowner mows the lawn every Wednesday afternoon. Sketch a rough graph of the height of the grass as a function of time over the course of a four-week period. 22. An airplane takes off from an airport and lands an hour later at another airport, 400 km away. If t represents the time in minutes since the plane has left the terminal building, let xstd be the horizontal distance traveled and ystd be the altitude of the plane. (a) Sketch a possible graph of xstd. (b) Sketch a possible graph of ystd.

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SeCtion 1.1

(c) Sketch a possible graph of the ground speed. (d) Sketch a possible graph of the vertical velocity. 23. Temperature readings T (in °C) were recorded every three hours from midnight to 3:00 pm in Montréal on June 13, 2004. The time t was measured in hours from midnight.

30. f sxd −

0

3

6

9

12

15

T

21.5

19.8

20.0

22.2

24.8

25.8

x14 x2 2 9

24. Researchers measured the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of eight adult male subjects after rapid consumption of 30 mL of ethanol (corresponding to two standard alcoholic drinks). The table shows the data they obtained by averaging the BAC (in mgymL) of the eight men. (a) Use the readings to sketch the graph of the BAC as a function of t. (b) Use your graph to describe how the effect of alcohol varies with time. t (hours)

BAC

t (hours)

BAC

0 0.2 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5

0 0.25 0.41 0.40 0.33 0.29 0.24

1.75 2.0 2.25 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

0.22 0.18 0.15 0.12 0.07 0.03 0.01

Source: Adapted from P. Wilkinson et al., “Pharmacokinetics of Ethanol after Oral Administration in the Fasting State,” Journal of Pharmacokinetics and Biopharmaceutics 5 (1977): 207–24.

25. If f sxd − 3x 2 2 x 1 2, find f s2d, f s22d, f sad, f s2ad, f sa 1 1d, 2 f sad, f s2ad, f sa 2 d, [ f sad] 2, and f sa 1 hd. 26. A spherical balloon with radius r centimeters has volume Vsrd − 43 r 3. Find a function that represents the amount of air required to inflate the balloon from a radius of r centimeters to a radius of r 1 1 centimeters. 27–30 Evaluate the difference quotient for the given function. Simplify your answer. 27. f sxd − 4 1 3x 2 x 2,

f s3 1 hd 2 f s3d h

28. f sxd − x 3,

f sa 1 hd 2 f sad h

1 29. f sxd − , x

f sxd 2 f sad x2a

32. f sxd −

1 sx 2 5x 4

2x 3 2 5 x 1x26 2

34. tstd − s3 2 t 2 s2 1 t

3 33. f std − s 2t 2 1

35. hsxd − (a) Use the readings to sketch a rough graph of T as a function of t. (b) Use your graph to estimate the temperature at 11:00 am.

f sxd 2 f s1d x21

x13 , x11

31–37 Find the domain of the function. 31. f sxd −

t

21

Four Ways to Represent a Function

2

36. f sud −

37. Fs pd − s2 2 s p

u11 1 11 u11

38. Find the domain and range and sketch the graph of the function hsxd − s4 2 x 2 . 39–40 Find the domain and sketch the graph of the function. 39. f sxd − 1.6x 2 2.4

40. tstd −

t2 2 1 t11

41–44 Evaluate f s23d, f s0d, and f s2d for the piecewise defined function. Then sketch the graph of the function. 41. f sxd −

42. f sxd − 43. f sxd −

44. f sxd −

H H H H

x 1 2 if x , 0 1 2 x if x > 0

3 2 21 x if x , 2 2x 2 5 if x > 2 x 1 1 if x < 21 x2 if x . 21

21 if x < 1 7 2 2x if x . 1

45–50 Sketch the graph of the function.

| |

|

45. f sxd − x 1 x

|

47. tstd − 1 2 3t 49. f sxd −

H| | x 1

46. f sxd − x 1 2

|

|

|| |

|

48. hstd − t 1 t 1 1

| | | |

if x < 1 if x . 1

50. tsxd −

|| x | 2 1|

51–56 Find an expression for the function whose graph is the given curve. 51. The line segment joining the points s1, 23d and s5, 7d 52. The line segment joining the points s25, 10d and s7, 210d 53. The bottom half of the parabola x 1 s y 2 1d2 − 0 54. The top half of the circle x 2 1 s y 2 2d 2 − 4

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22

Chapter 1

55.

Functions and Models

56.

y

1

1 0

64. A cell phone plan has a basic charge of $35 a month. The plan includes 400 free minutes and charges 10 cents for each additional minute of usage. Write the monthly cost C as a function of the number x of minutes used and graph C as a function of x for 0 < x < 600.

y

0

x

1

1

x

57–61 Find a formula for the described function and state its domain. 57. A rectangle has perimeter 20 m. Express the area of the rectangle as a function of the length of one of its sides. 2

58. A rectangle has area 16 m . Express the perimeter of the rectangle as a function of the length of one of its sides. 59. Express the area of an equilateral triangle as a function of the length of a side. 60. A closed rectangular box with volume 6 m3 has length twice the width. Express the height of the box as a function of the width. 61. An open rectangular box with volume 2 m3 has a square base. Express the surface area of the box as a function of the length of a side of the base. 62. A Norman window has the shape of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircle. If the perimeter of the window is 10 m, express the area A of the window as a function of the width x of the window.

65. In a certain province the maximum speed permitted on freeways is 100 kmyh and the minimum speed is 50 kmyh. The fine for violating these limits is $10 for every kilometer per hour above the maximum speed or below the minimum speed. Express the amount of the fine F as a function of the driving speed x and graph Fsxd for 0 < x < 180. 66. An electricity company charges its customers a base rate of $10 a month, plus 6 cents per kilowatt-hour (kWh) for the first 1200 kWh and 7 cents per kWh for all usage over 1200 kWh. Express the monthly cost E as a function of the amount x of electricity used. Then graph the function E for 0 < x < 2000. 67. In a certain country, income tax is assessed as follows. There is no tax on income up to $10,000. Any income over $10,000 is taxed at a rate of 10%, up to an income of $20,000. Any income over $20,000 is taxed at 15%. (a) Sketch the graph of the tax rate R as a function of the income I. (b) How much tax is assessed on an income of $14,000? On $26,000? (c) Sketch the graph of the total assessed tax T as a function of the income I. 68. The functions in Example 10 and Exercise 67 are called step functions because their graphs look like stairs. Give two other examples of step functions that arise in everyday life. 69–70 Graphs of f and t are shown. Decide whether each function is even, odd, or neither. Explain your reasoning. 69.

70.

y

y

g f

f x

x

x

63. A box with an open top is to be constructed from a rectangular piece of cardboard with dimensions 12 cm by 20 cm by cutting out equal squares of side x at each corner and then folding up the sides as in the figure. Express the volume V of the box as a function of x. 20 x

x

x

x

x

x

12 x

x

g

71. (a) If the point s5, 3d is on the graph of an even function, what other point must also be on the graph? (b) If the point s5, 3d is on the graph of an odd function, what other point must also be on the graph? 72. A function f has domain f25, 5g and a portion of its graph is shown. (a) Complete the graph of f if it is known that f is even. (b) Complete the graph of f if it is known that f is odd.

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SeCtion 1.2 Mathematical Models: A Catalog of Essential Functions

y

75. f sxd −

x x11

23

| |

76. f sxd − x x

77. f sxd − 1 1 3x 2 2 x 4 78. f sxd − 1 1 3x 3 2 x 5 _5

0

5

x

79. If f and t are both even functions, is f 1 t even? If f and t are both odd functions, is f 1 t odd? What if f is even and t is odd? Justify your answers.

73–78 Determine whether f is even, odd, or neither. If you have a graphing calculator, use it to check your answer visually.

80. If f and t are both even functions, is the product ft even? If f and t are both odd functions, is ft odd? What if f is even and t is odd? Justify your answers.

x2 74. f sxd − 4 x 11

x 73. f sxd − 2 x 11

A mathematical model is a mathematical description (often by means of a function or an equation) of a real-world phenomenon such as the size of a population, the demand for a product, the speed of a falling object, the concentration of a product in a chemical reaction, the life expectancy of a person at birth, or the cost of emission reductions. The purpose of the model is to understand the phenomenon and perhaps to make predictions about future behavior. Figure 1 illustrates the process of mathematical modeling. Given a real-world problem, our first task is to formulate a mathematical model by identifying and naming the independent and dependent variables and making assumptions that simplify the phenomenon enough to make it mathematically tractable. We use our knowledge of the physical situation and our mathematical skills to obtain equations that relate the variables. In situations where there is no physical law to guide us, we may need to collect data (either from a library or the Internet or by conducting our own experiments) and examine the data in the form of a table in order to discern patterns. From this numerical representation of a function we may wish to obtain a graphical representation by plotting the data. The graph might even suggest a suitable algebraic formula in some cases.

Real-world problem

Formulate

Mathematical model

Solve

Mathematical conclusions

Interpret

Real-world predictions

Test

FIGURE 1 The modeling process

The second stage is to apply the mathematics that we know (such as the calculus that will be developed throughout this book) to the mathematical model that we have formulated in order to derive mathematical conclusions. Then, in the third stage, we take those mathematical conclusions and interpret them as information about the original real-world phenomenon by way of offering explanations or making predictions. The final step is to test our predictions by checking against new real data. If the predictions don’t compare well with reality, we need to refine our model or to formulate a new model and start the cycle again. A mathematical model is never a completely accurate representation of a physical situation—it is an idealization. A good model simplifies reality enough to permit math-

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24

Chapter 1

Functions and Models

ematical calculations but is accurate enough to provide valuable conclusions. It is important to realize the limitations of the model. In the end, Mother Nature has the final say. There are many different types of functions that can be used to model relationships observed in the real world. In what follows, we discuss the behavior and graphs of these functions and give examples of situations appropriately modeled by such functions.

linear Models The coordinate geometry of lines is reviewed in Appendix B.

When we say that y is a linear function of x, we mean that the graph of the function is a line, so we can use the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line to write a formula for the function as y − f sxd − mx 1 b where m is the slope of the line and b is the y-intercept. A characteristic feature of linear functions is that they grow at a constant rate. For instance, Figure 2 shows a graph of the linear function f sxd − 3x 2 2 and a table of sample values. Notice that whenever x increases by 0.1, the value of f sxd increases by 0.3. So f sxd increases three times as fast as x. Thus the slope of the graph y − 3x 2 2, namely 3, can be interpreted as the rate of change of y with respect to x. y

y=3x-2

0

1

x

_2

x

f sxd − 3x 2 2

1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

1.0 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.5

FIGURE 2

example 1 (a) As dry air moves upward, it expands and cools. If the ground temperature is 20°C and the temperature at a height of 1 km is 10°C, express the temperature T (in °C) as a function of the height h (in kilometers), assuming that a linear model is appropriate. (b) Draw the graph of the function in part (a). What does the slope represent? (c) What is the temperature at a height of 2.5 km? Solution

(a) Because we are assuming that T is a linear function of h, we can write T − mh 1 b We are given that T − 20 when h − 0, so 20 − m ? 0 1 b − b In other words, the y-intercept is b − 20. We are also given that T − 10 when h − 1, so 10 − m ? 1 1 20 The slope of the line is therefore m − 10 2 20 − 210 and the required linear function is T − 210h 1 20

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25

SECTION 1.2 Mathematical Models: A Catalog of Essential Functions

(b) The graph is sketched in Figure 3. The slope is m − 210°Cykm, and this represents the rate of change of temperature with respect to height. (c) At a height of h − 2.5 km, the temperature is

T 20

T=_10h+20 10

0

■

T − 210s2.5d 1 20 − 25°C 1

h

3

If there is no physical law or principle to help us formulate a model, we construct an empirical model, which is based entirely on collected data. We seek a curve that “fits” the data in the sense that it captures the basic trend of the data points.

FIGURE 3

ExamplE 2 Table 1 lists the average carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere, measured in parts per million at Mauna Loa Observatory from 1980 to 2012. Use the data in Table 1 to find a model for the carbon dioxide level. SOLUTION We use the data in Table 1 to make the scatter plot in Figure 4, where t represents time (in years) and C represents the CO2 level (in parts per million, ppm).

C (ppm) 400

Table 1 Year

CO 2 level (in ppm)

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996

338.7 341.2 344.4 347.2 351.5 354.2 356.3 358.6 362.4

Year

CO 2 level (in ppm)

1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

366.5 369.4 373.2 377.5 381.9 385.6 389.9 393.8

390 380 370 360 350 340 1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

t

FIGURE 4 Scatter plot for the average CO2 level

Notice that the data points appear to lie close to a straight line, so it’s natural to choose a linear model in this case. But there are many possible lines that approximate these data points, so which one should we use? One possibility is the line that passes through the first and last data points. The slope of this line is 393.8 2 338.7 55.1 − − 1.721875 < 1.722 2012 2 1980 32 We write its equation as C 2 338.7 − 1.722st 2 1980d or 1

C − 1.722t 2 3070.86

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26

CHAPTER 1

Functions and Models

Equation 1 gives one possible linear model for the carbon dioxide level; it is graphed in Figure 5. C (ppm) 400 390 380 370 360 350

FIGURE 5

340

Linear model through first and last data points A computer or graphing calculator finds the regression line by the method of least squares, which is to minimize the sum of the squares of the vertical distances between the data points and the line. The details are explained in Section 14.7.

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

t

Notice that our model gives values higher than most of the actual CO2 levels. A better linear model is obtained by a procedure from statistics called linear regression. If we use a graphing calculator, we enter the data from Table 1 into the data editor and choose the linear regression command. (With Maple we use the fit[leastsquare] command in the stats package; with Mathematica we use the Fit command.) The machine gives the slope and y-intercept of the regression line as m − 1.71262

b − 23054.14

So our least squares model for the CO2 level is 2

C − 1.71262t 2 3054.14

In Figure 6 we graph the regression line as well as the data points. Comparing with Figure 5, we see that it gives a better fit than our previous linear model. C (ppm) 400 390 380 370 360 350 340

FIGURE 6 The regression line

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

t

■

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SECTION 1.2 Mathematical Models: A Catalog of Essential Functions

27

ExamplE 3 Use the linear model given by Equation 2 to estimate the average CO2 level for 1987 and to predict the level for the year 2020. According to this model, when will the CO2 level exceed 420 parts per million? SOLUTION Using Equation 2 with t − 1987, we estimate that the average CO2 level in

1987 was Cs1987d − s1.71262ds1987d 2 3054.14 < 348.84 This is an example of interpolation because we have estimated a value between observed values. (In fact, the Mauna Loa Observatory reported that the average CO2 level in 1987 was 348.93 ppm, so our estimate is quite accurate.) With t − 2020, we get Cs2020d − s1.71262ds2020d 2 3054.14 < 405.35 So we predict that the average CO2 level in the year 2020 will be 405.4 ppm. This is an example of extrapolation because we have predicted a value outside the time frame of observations. Consequently, we are far less certain about the accuracy of our prediction. Using Equation 2, we see that the CO2 level exceeds 420 ppm when 1.71262t 2 3054.14 . 420 Solving this inequality, we get t.

3474.14 < 2028.55 1.71262

We therefore predict that the CO2 level will exceed 420 ppm by the year 2029. This prediction is risky because it involves a time quite remote from our observations. In fact, we see from Figure 6 that the trend has been for CO2 levels to increase rather more rapidly in recent years, so the level might exceed 420 ppm well before 2029. ■

y 2

Polynomials A function P is called a polynomial if 0

1

x

Psxd − a n x n 1 a n21 x n21 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 a 2 x 2 1 a 1 x 1 a 0

(a) y=≈+x+1

where n is a nonnegative integer and the numbers a 0 , a 1, a 2 , . . . , a n are constants called the coefficients of the polynomial. The domain of any polynomial is R − s2`, `d. If the leading coefficient a n ± 0, then the degree of the polynomial is n. For example, the function Psxd − 2x 6 2 x 4 1 25 x 3 1 s2

y 2

1

x

(b) y=_2≈+3x+1

FIGURE 7 The graphs of quadratic functions are parabolas.

is a polynomial of degree 6. A polynomial of degree 1 is of the form Psxd − mx 1 b and so it is a linear function. A polynomial of degree 2 is of the form Psxd − ax 2 1 bx 1 c and is called a quadratic function. Its graph is always a parabola obtained by shifting the parabola y − ax 2, as we will see in the next section. The parabola opens upward if a . 0 and downward if a , 0. (See Figure 7.) A polynomial of degree 3 is of the form Psxd − ax 3 1 bx 2 1 cx 1 d

a±0

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28

CHAPTER 1

Functions and Models

and is called a cubic function. Figure 8 shows the graph of a cubic function in part (a) and graphs of polynomials of degrees 4 and 5 in parts (b) and (c). We will see later why the graphs have these shapes. y

y

1

2

20 1

0

FIGURE 8

y

x

1

x

(a) y=˛-x+1

x

1

(b) y=x$-3≈+x

(c) y=3x%-25˛+60x

Polynomials are commonly used to model various quantities that occur in the natural and social sciences. For instance, in Section 3.7 we will explain why economists often use a polynomial Psxd to represent the cost of producing x units of a commodity. In the following example we use a quadratic function to model the fall of a ball. Table 2 Time (seconds)

Height (meters)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

450 445 431 408 375 332 279 216 143 61

ExamplE 4 A ball is dropped from the upper observation deck of the CN Tower, 450 m above the ground, and its height h above the ground is recorded at 1-second intervals in Table 2. Find a model to fit the data and use the model to predict the time at which the ball hits the ground. SOLUTION We draw a scatter plot of the data in Figure 9 and observe that a linear model is inappropriate. But it looks as if the data points might lie on a parabola, so we try a quadratic model instead. Using a graphing calculator or computer algebra system (which uses the least squares method), we obtain the following quadratic model:

h − 449.36 1 0.96t 2 4.90t 2

3 h (meters)

h

400

400

200

200

0

2

4

6

8

t (seconds)

0

2

4

6

8

FIGURE 9

FIGURE 10

Scatter plot for a falling ball

Quadratic model for a falling ball

t

In Figure 10 we plot the graph of Equation 3 together with the data points and see that the quadratic model gives a very good fit. The ball hits the ground when h − 0, so we solve the quadratic equation 24.90t 2 1 0.96t 1 449.36 − 0

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29

SECTION 1.2 Mathematical Models: A Catalog of Essential Functions

The quadratic formula gives t−

20.96 6 ss0.96d2 2 4s24.90d s449.36d 2s24.90d

The positive root is t < 9.67, so we predict that the ball will hit the ground after about 9.7 seconds. ■

Power Functions A function of the form f sxd − x a, where a is a constant, is called a power function. We consider several cases. (i ) a − n, where n is a positive integer The graphs of f sxd − x n for n − 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are shown in Figure 11. (These are polynomials with only one term.) We already know the shape of the graphs of y − x (a line through the origin with slope 1) and y − x 2 [a parabola, see Example 1.1.2(b)]. y

y=≈

y

y=x

y

1

1

0

1

x

0

y=x#

y

x

0

1

x

0

y=x%

y

1

1

1

y=x$

1

1

x

0

1

FIGURE 11 Graphs of f sxd − x n for n − 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

The general shape of the graph of f sxd − x n depends on whether n is even or odd. If n is even, then f sxd − x n is an even function and its graph is similar to the parabola y − x 2. If n is odd, then f sxd − x n is an odd function and its graph is similar to that of y − x 3. Notice from Figure 12, however, that as n increases, the graph of y − x n becomes flatter near 0 and steeper when | x | > 1. (If x is small, then x 2 is smaller, x 3 is even smaller, x 4 is smaller still, and so on.) y

A family of functions is a collection of functions whose equations are related. Figure 12 shows two families of power functions, one with even powers and one with odd powers.

y

y=x$ y=x^

y=x# y=≈

(_1, 1)

(1, 1)

(1, 1) y=x%

0

x

(_1, _1)

FIGURE 12

0

x

(i i) a − 1yn, where n is a positive integer n x is a root function. For n − 2 it is the square root The function f sxd − x 1yn − s function f sxd − sx , whose domain is f0, `d and whose graph is the upper half of the

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x

30

CHAPTER 1

Functions and Models n x is parabola x − y 2. [See Figure 13(a).] For other even values of n, the graph of y − s 3 similar to that of y − sx . For n − 3 we have the cube root function f sxd − sx whose domain is R (recall that every real number has a cube root) and whose graph is shown n 3 in Figure 13(b). The graph of y − s x for n odd sn . 3d is similar to that of y − s x.

y

y (1, 1) 0

FIGURE 13 Graphs of root functions y

y=∆ 1 0

x

1

(1, 1) x

0

x (a) ƒ=œ„

x

x (b) ƒ=Œ„

(iii) a − 21 The graph of the reciprocal function f sxd − x 21 − 1yx is shown in Figure 14. Its graph has the equation y − 1yx, or xy − 1, and is a hyperbola with the coordinate axes as its asymptotes. This function arises in physics and chemistry in connection with Boyle’s Law, which says that, when the temperature is constant, the volume V of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure P: V−

C P

where C is a constant. Thus the graph of V as a function of P (see Figure 15) has the same general shape as the right half of Figure 14. Power functions are also used to model species-area relationships (Exercises 30–31), illumination as a function of distance from a light source (Exercise 29), and the period of revolution of a planet as a function of its distance from the sun (Exercise 32).

FIGURE 14 The reciprocal function V

Rational Functions A rational function f is a ratio of two polynomials: 0

f sxd −

P

FIGURE 15 Volume as a function of pressure at constant temperature

where P and Q are polynomials. The domain consists of all values of x such that Qsxd ± 0. A simple example of a rational function is the function f sxd − 1yx, whose domain is hx | x ± 0j; this is the reciprocal function graphed in Figure 14. The function

y

f sxd −

2

FIGURE 16 ƒ=

2x 4 2 x 2 1 1 x2 2 4

is a rational function with domain hx | x ± 62j. Its graph is shown in Figure 16.

20 0

Psxd Qsxd

2x$-≈+1 ≈-4

x

Algebraic Functions A function f is called an algebraic function if it can be constructed using algebraic operations (such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and taking roots) starting with polynomials. Any rational function is automatically an algebraic function. Here are two more examples: f sxd − sx 2 1 1

tsxd −

x 4 2 16x 2 3 1 sx 2 2ds x11 x 1 sx

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31

SECTION 1.2 Mathematical Models: A Catalog of Essential Functions

When we sketch algebraic functions in Chapter 4, we will see that their graphs can assume a variety of shapes. Figure 17 illustrates some of the possibilities. y

y

y

1

1

2

1

_3

x

0

0

(b) ©=$œ„„„„„„ ≈-25

(a) ƒ=xœ„„„„ x+3

FIGURE 17

x

5

x

1

(c) h(x)=x@?#(x-2)@

An example of an algebraic function occurs in the theory of relativity. The mass of a particle with velocity v is m − f svd −

m0 s1 2 v 2yc 2

where m 0 is the rest mass of the particle and c − 3.0 3 10 5 kmys is the speed of light in a vacuum.

Trigonometric Functions Trigonometry and the trigonometric functions are reviewed on Reference Page 2 and also in Appendix D. In calculus the convention is that radian measure is always used (except when otherwise indicated). For example, when we use the function f sxd − sin x, it is understood that sin x means the sine of the angle whose radian measure is x. Thus the graphs of the sine and cosine functions are as shown in Figure 18.

The Reference Pages are located at the back of the book.

y _ _π

π 2

y 3π 2

1 0 _1

π 2

π

_π 2π

5π 2

3π

_

π 2

1 π 0

x _1

(a) ƒ=sin x

π 2

3π 3π 2

2π

5π 2

x

(b) ©=cos x

FIGURE 18

Notice that for both the sine and cosine functions the domain is s2`, `d and the range is the closed interval f21, 1g. Thus, for all values of x, we have 21 < sin x < 1

21 < cos x < 1

or, in terms of absolute values,

| sin x | < 1

| cos x | < 1

Also, the zeros of the sine function occur at the integer multiples of ; that is, sin x − 0

when

x − n n an integer

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32

CHAPTER 1

Functions and Models

An important property of the sine and cosine functions is that they are periodic functions and have period 2. This means that, for all values of x, sinsx 1 2d − sin x

cossx 1 2d − cos x

The periodic nature of these functions makes them suitable for modeling repetitive phenomena such as tides, vibrating springs, and sound waves. For instance, in Example 1.3.4 we will see that a reasonable model for the number of hours of daylight in Philadelphia t days after January 1 is given by the function

F

Lstd − 12 1 2.8 sin

2 st 2 80d 365

G

1 ? 1 2 2 cos x SOLUTION This function is defined for all values of x except for those that make the denominator 0. But

ExamplE 5 What is the domain of the function f sxd −

1 2 2 cos x − 0

&?

cos x −

1 2

&?

x−

 5 1 2n or x − 1 2n 3 3

where n is any integer (because the cosine function has period 2). So the domain of f is the set of all real numbers except for the ones noted above. ■ y

The tangent function is related to the sine and cosine functions by the equation tan x −

1 _

3π 2

0

_π _ π 2

π 2

3π 2

π

x

sin x cos x

and its graph is shown in Figure 19. It is undefined whenever cos x − 0, that is, when x − 6y2, 63y2, . . . . Its range is s2`, `d. Notice that the tangent function has period : tansx 1 d − tan x

The remaining three trigonometric functions (cosecant, secant, and cotangent) are the reciprocals of the sine, cosine, and tangent functions. Their graphs are shown in Appendix D.

FIGURE 19 y − tan x

y

Exponential Functions

y

1 0

1

(a) y=2®

FIGURE 20

for all x

x

1 0

1

(b) y=(0.5)®

x

The exponential functions are the functions of the form f sxd − b x, where the base b is a positive constant. The graphs of y − 2 x and y − s0.5d x are shown in Figure 20. In both cases the domain is s2`, `d and the range is s0, `d. Exponential functions will be studied in detail in Section 1.4, and we will see that they are useful for modeling many natural phenomena, such as population growth (if b . 1) and radioactive decay (if b , 1d.

Logarithmic Functions The logarithmic functions f sxd − log b x, where the base b is a positive constant, are the inverse functions of the exponential functions. They will be studied in Section 1.5. Figure

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33

SECTION 1.2 Mathematical Models: A Catalog of Essential Functions

y

21 shows the graphs of four logarithmic functions with various bases. In each case the domain is s0, `d, the range is s2`, `d, and the function increases slowly when x . 1.

y=log™ x y=log£ x

1

0

x

1

y=log∞ x y=log¡¸ x

ExamplE 6 Classify the following functions as one of the types of functions that we have discussed. (a) f sxd − 5 x (b) tsxd − x 5 11x (c) hsxd − (d) ustd − 1 2 t 1 5t 4 1 2 sx SOLUTION

(a) f sxd − 5 x is an exponential function. (The x is the exponent.) (b) tsxd − x 5 is a power function. (The x is the base.) We could also consider it to be a polynomial of degree 5.

FIGURE 21

(c) hsxd −

11x is an algebraic function. 1 2 sx

(d) ustd − 1 2 t 1 5t 4 is a polynomial of degree 4.

1.2

EXERCISES

1–2 Classify each function as a power function, root function, polynomial (state its degree), rational function, algebraic function, trigonometric function, exponential function, or logarithmic function.

(c) hsxd −

F

(d) ustd − 1 2 1.1t 1 2.54t 2

g

(f ) wsd − sin  cos 2

(e) vstd − 5 t 2. (a) y −  x

f

(b) y − x 

(c) y − x 2 s2 2 x 3 d

(d) y − tan t 2 cos t

x

sx 2 1 3 x 11s 3

s 11s

(f ) y −

3–4 Match each equation with its graph. Explain your choices. (Don’t use a computer or graphing calculator.) 3. (a) y − x 2

y

4

2x 3 1 2 x2

3 (d) y − s x

(c) y − x 3

(b) y − 3 x

4. (a) y − 3x

(b) tsxd − sx

1. (a) f sxd − log 2 x

(e) y −

■

(b) y − x 5

G

5–6 Find the domain of the function.

(c) y − x 8 5. f sxd −

y

g

cos x 1 2 sin x

6. tsxd −

1 1 2 tan x

h

0

f

x

7. (a) Find an equation for the family of linear functions with slope 2 and sketch several members of the family. (b) Find an equation for the family of linear functions such that f s2d − 1 and sketch several members of the family. (c) Which function belongs to both families? 8. What do all members of the family of linear functions f sxd − 1 1 msx 1 3d have in common? Sketch several members of the family.

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34

CHAPTER 1

Functions and Models

9. What do all members of the family of linear functions f sxd − c 2 x have in common? Sketch several members of the family. 10. Find expressions for the quadratic functions whose graphs are shown. y

y (_2, 2)

f

(0, 1) (4, 2)

0

x

g 0

3

x

(1, _2.5)

11. Find an expression for a cubic function f if f s1d − 6 and f s21d − f s0d − f s2d − 0. 12. Recent studies indicate that the average surface temperature of the earth has been rising steadily. Some scientists have modeled the temperature by the linear function T − 0.02t 1 8.50, where T is temperature in °C and t represents years since 1900. (a) What do the slope and T-intercept represent? (b) Use the equation to predict the average global surface temperature in 2100. 13. If the recommended adult dosage for a drug is D (in mg), then to determine the appropriate dosage c for a child of age a, pharmacists use the equation c − 0.0417Dsa 1 1d. Suppose the dosage for an adult is 200 mg. (a) Find the slope of the graph of c. What does it represent? (b) What is the dosage for a newborn? 14. The manager of a weekend flea market knows from past experience that if he charges x dollars for a rental space at the market, then the number y of spaces he can rent is given by the equation y − 200 2 4x. (a) Sketch a graph of this linear function. (Remember that the rental charge per space and the number of spaces rented can’t be negative quantities.) (b) What do the slope, the y-intercept, and the x-intercept of the graph represent? 15. The relationship between the Fahrenheit sFd and Celsius sCd temperature scales is given by the linear function F − 95 C 1 32. (a) Sketch a graph of this function. (b) What is the slope of the graph and what does it represent? What is the F-intercept and what does it represent? 16. Kelly leaves Winnipeg at 2:00 pm and drives at a constant speed west along the Trans-Canada highway. He passes Brandon, 210 km from Winnipeg, at 4:00 pm. (a) Express the distance traveled in terms of the time elapsed. (b) Draw the graph of the equation in part (a). (c) What is the slope of this line? What does it represent?

17. Biologists have noticed that the chirping rate of crickets of a certain species is related to temperature, and the relationship appears to be very nearly linear. A cricket produces 112 chirps per minute at 20°C and 180 chirps per minute at 29°C. (a) Find a linear equation that models the temperature T as a function of the number of chirps per minute N. (b) What is the slope of the graph? What does it represent? (c) If the crickets are chirping at 150 chirps per minute, estimate the temperature. 18. The manager of a furniture factory finds that it costs $2200 to manufacture 100 chairs in one day and $4800 to produce 300 chairs in one day. (a) Express the cost as a function of the number of chairs produced, assuming that it is linear. Then sketch the graph. (b) What is the slope of the graph and what does it represent? (c) What is the y-intercept of the graph and what does it represent? 19. At the surface of the ocean, the water pressure is the same as the air pressure above the water, 1.05 kgycm2. Below the surface, the water pressure increases by 0.10 kgycm2 for every meter of descent. (a) Express the water pressure as a function of the depth below the ocean surface. (b) At what depth is the pressure 7 kgycm2? 20. The monthly cost of driving a car depends on the number of kilometers driven. Lynn found that in May it cost her $380 to drive 768 km and in June it cost her $460 to drive 1280 km. (a) Express the monthly cost C as a function of the distance driven d, assuming that a linear relationship gives a suitable model. (b) Use part (a) to predict the cost of driving 2400 km per month. (c) Draw the graph of the linear function. What does the slope represent? (d) What does the y-intercept represent? (e) Why does a linear function give a suitable model in this situation? 21–22 For each scatter plot, decide what type of function you might choose as a model for the data. Explain your choices. 21. (a)

y

0

(b)

x

y

0

x

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35

SECTION 1.2 Mathematical Models: A Catalog of Essential Functions

22. (a) y

(b) y

0

x

0

x

; 23. The table shows (lifetime) peptic ulcer rates (per 100 population) for various family incomes as reported by the National Health Interview Survey.

Income

Ulcer rate (per 100 population)

$4,000 $6,000 $8,000 $12,000 $16,000 $20,000 $30,000 $45,000 $60,000

14.1 13.0 13.4 12.5 12.0 12.4 10.5 9.4 8.2

; 25. Anthropologists use a linear model that relates human femur (thighbone) length to height. The model allows an anthropologist to determine the height of an individual when only a partial skeleton (including the femur) is found. Here we find the model by analyzing the data on femur length and height for the eight males given in the following table. (a) Make a scatter plot of the data. (b) Find and graph the regression line that models the data. (c) An anthropologist finds a human femur of length 53 cm. How tall was the person? Femur length (cm)

Height (cm)

Femur length (cm)

Height (cm)

50.1 48.3 45.2 44.7

178.5 173.6 164.8 163.7

44.5 42.7 39.5 38.0

168.3 165.0 155.4 155.8

; 26. When laboratory rats are exposed to asbestos fibers, some of them develop lung tumors. The table lists the results of several experiments by different scientists. (a) Find the regression line for the data. (b) Make a scatter plot and graph the regression line. Does the regression line appear to be a suitable model for the data? (c) What does the y-intercept of the regression line represent?

(a) Make a scatter plot of these data and decide whether a linear model is appropriate. (b) Find and graph a linear model using the first and last data points. (c) Find and graph the least squares regression line. (d) Use the linear model in part (c) to estimate the ulcer rate for an income of $25,000. (e) According to the model, how likely is someone with an income of $80,000 to suffer from peptic ulcers? (f ) Do you think it would be reasonable to apply the model to someone with an income of $200,000? ; 24. Biologists have observed that the chirping rate of crickets of a certain species appears to be related to temperature. The table shows the chirping rates for various temperatures. Temperature (°C)

Chirping rate (chirpsymin)

Temperature (°C)

Chirping rate (chirpsymin)

20 22 24 26 28

113 128 143 158 173

30 32 34 36

188 203 218 233

(a) Make a scatter plot of the data. (b) Find and graph the regression line. (c) Use the linear model in part (b) to estimate the chirping rate at 40°C.

Asbestos Percent of mice exposure that develop (fibersymL) lung tumors 50 400 500 900 1100

2 6 5 10 26

Asbestos Percent of mice exposure that develop (fibersymL) lung tumors 1600 1800 2000 3000

42 37 38 50

; 27. The table shows world average daily oil consumption from 1985 to 2010 measured in thousands of barrels per day. (a) Make a scatter plot and decide whether a linear model is appropriate. (b) Find and graph the regression line. (c) Use the linear model to estimate the oil consumption in 2002 and 2012. Years since 1985

Thousands of barrels of oil per day

0 5 10 15 20 25

60,083 66,533 70,099 76,784 84,077 87,302

Source: US Energy Information Administration

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36

CHAPTER 1

Functions and Models

; 28. The table shows the percentage of the population of Argentina that has lived in rural areas from 1995 to 2000. Find a model for the data and use it to estimate the rural percentage in 1988 and 2002.

Year

Percentage rural

Year

Percentage rural

1955 1960 1965 1970 1975

30.4 26.4 23.6 21.1 19.0

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

17.1 15.0 13.0 11.7 10.5

29. Many physical quantities are connected by inverse square laws, that is, by power functions of the form f sxd − kx 22. In particular, the illumination of an object by a light source is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source. Suppose that after dark you are in a room with just one lamp and you are trying to read a book. The light is too dim and so you move halfway to the lamp. How much brighter is the light? 30. It makes sense that the larger the area of a region, the larger the number of species that inhabit the region. Many ecologists have modeled the species-area relation with a power function and, in particular, the number of species S of bats living in caves in central Mexico has been related to the surface area A of the caves by the equation S − 0.7A0.3. (a) The cave called Misión Imposible near Puebla, Mexico, has a surface area of A − 60 m2. How many species of bats would you expect to find in that cave? (b) If you discover that four species of bats live in a cave, estimate the area of the cave.

(b) The Caribbean island of Dominica has area 291 mi 2. How many species of reptiles and amphibians would you expect to find on Dominica? Island

A

N

Saba Monserrat Puerto Rico Jamaica Hispaniola Cuba

4 40 3,459 4,411 29,418 44,218

5 9 40 39 84 76

; 32. The table shows the mean (average) distances d of the planets from the sun (taking the unit of measurement to be the distance from the earth to the sun) and their periods T (time of revolution in years). (a) Fit a power model to the data. (b) Kepler’s Third Law of Planetary Motion states that “ The square of the period of revolution of a planet is proportional to the cube of its mean distance from the sun.” Does your model corroborate Kepler’s Third Law?

; 31. The table shows the number N of species of reptiles and amphibians inhabiting Caribbean islands and the area A of the island in square miles. (a) Use a power function to model N as a function of A.

Planet Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

d

T

0.387 0.723 1.000 1.523 5.203 9.541 19.190 30.086

0.241 0.615 1.000 1.881 11.861 29.457 84.008 164.784

In this section we start with the basic functions we discussed in Section 1.2 and obtain new functions by shifting, stretching, and reflecting their graphs. We also show how to combine pairs of functions by the standard arithmetic operations and by composition.

Transformations of Functions By applying certain transformations to the graph of a given function we can obtain the graphs of related functions. This will give us the ability to sketch the graphs of many functions quickly by hand. It will also enable us to write equations for given graphs. Let’s first consider translations. If c is a positive number, then the graph of y − f sxd 1 c is just the graph of y − f sxd shifted upward a distance of c units (because each y-coordi-

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SECTION 1.3

37

New Functions from Old Functions

nate is increased by the same number c). Likewise, if tsxd − f sx 2 cd, where c . 0, then the value of t at x is the same as the value of f at x 2 c (c units to the left of x). Therefore the graph of y − f sx 2 cd is just the graph of y − f sxd shifted c units to the right (see Figure 1). Vertical and Horizontal Shifts Suppose c . 0. To obtain the graph of

y − f sxd 1 c, shift the graph of y − f sxd a distance c units upward y − f sxd 2 c, shift the graph of y − f sxd a distance c units downward y − f sx 2 cd, shift the graph of y − f sxd a distance c units to the right y − f sx 1 cd, shift the graph of y − f sxd a distance c units to the left

y

y

y=ƒ+c

y=f(x+c)

c

y =ƒ

y=cƒ (c>1)

y=f(_x)

y=f(x-c)

y=ƒ c 0

y= 1c ƒ

c x

c

x

0

y=ƒ-c y=_ƒ

FIGURE 1 Translating the graph of f

FIGURE 2 Stretching and reflecting the graph of f

Now let’s consider the stretching and reflecting transformations. If c . 1, then the graph of y − cf sxd is the graph of y − f sxd stretched by a factor of c in the vertical direction (because each y-coordinate is multiplied by the same number c). The graph of y − 2f sxd is the graph of y − f sxd reflected about the x-axis because the point sx, yd is replaced by the point sx, 2yd. (See Figure 2 and the following chart, where the results of other stretching, shrinking, and reflecting transformations are also given.) Vertical and Horizontal Stretching and Reflecting Suppose c . 1. To obtain the

graph of y − cf sxd, stretch the graph of y − f sxd vertically by a factor of c y − s1ycd f sxd, shrink the graph of y − f sxd vertically by a factor of c y − f scxd, shrink the graph of y − f sxd horizontally by a factor of c y − f sxycd, stretch the graph of y − f sxd horizontally by a factor of c y − 2f sxd, reflect the graph of y − f sxd about the x-axis y − f s2xd, reflect the graph of y − f sxd about the y-axis

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38

CHAPTER 1

Functions and Models

Figure 3 illustrates these stretching transformations when applied to the cosine function with c − 2. For instance, in order to get the graph of y − 2 cos x we multiply the y-coordinate of each point on the graph of y − cos x by 2. This means that the graph of y − cos x gets stretched vertically by a factor of 2. y

y=2 cos x

y

2

y=cos x

2

1

1 y= 2

0

y=cos 1 x

y=cos 2x

2

1

cos x x

1

0

x

y=cos x

FIGURE 3

ExamplE 1 Given the graph of y − sx , use transformations to graph y − sx 2 2, y − sx 2 2 , y − 2sx , y − 2sx , and y − s2x . SOLUTION The graph of the square root function y − sx , obtained from Figure 1.2.13(a), is shown in Figure 4(a). In the other parts of the figure we sketch y − sx 2 2 by shifting 2 units downward, y − sx 2 2 by shifting 2 units to the right, y − 2sx by reflecting about the x-axis, y − 2sx by stretching vertically by a factor of 2, and y − s2x by reflecting about the y-axis. y

y

y

y

y

y

1 0

x

1

x

0

0

x

2

x

0

x

0

x

0

_2

(a) y=œ„x

(b) y=œ„-2 x

(d) y=_œ„x

(c) y=œ„„„„ x-2

(f) y=œ„„ _x

(e) y=2œ„x



FIGURE 4

■

ExamplE 2 Sketch the graph of the function f sxd − x 2 1 6x 1 10. SOLUTION Completing the square, we write the equation of the graph as

y − x 2 1 6x 1 10 − sx 1 3d2 1 1 This means we obtain the desired graph by starting with the parabola y − x 2 and shifting 3 units to the left and then 1 unit upward (see Figure 5). y

y

1

(_3, 1) 0

FIGURE 5

(a) y=≈

x

_3

_1

0

(b) y=(x+3)@+1

x

■

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 1.3

39

New Functions from Old Functions

ExamplE 3 Sketch the graphs of the following functions. (a) y − sin 2x (b) y − 1 2 sin x SOLUTION

(a) We obtain the graph of y − sin 2x from that of y − sin x by compressing horizontally by a factor of 2. (See Figures 6 and 7.) Thus, whereas the period of y − sin x is 2, the period of y − sin 2x is 2y2 − . y

y

y=sin x

1 0

π 2

π

y=sin 2x

1 x

0 π π 4

x

π

2

FIGURE 7

FIGURE 6

(b) To obtain the graph of y − 1 2 sin x, we again start with y − sin x. We reflect about the x-axis to get the graph of y − 2sin x and then we shift 1 unit upward to get y − 1 2 sin x. (See Figure 8.) y

y=1-sin x

2 1 0

FIGURE 8

π 2

π

3π 2

x

2π

■

ExamplE 4 Figure 9 shows graphs of the number of hours of daylight as functions of the time of the year at several latitudes. Given that Ankara, Turkey, is located at approximately 408N latitude, find a function that models the length of daylight at Ankara. 20 18 16 14 12

20° N 30° N 40° N 50° N

Hours 10 8

FIGURE 9

6

Graph of the length of daylight from March 21 through December 21 at various latitudes

4

Source: Adapted from L. Harrison, Daylight, Twilight, Darkness and Time (New York: Silver, Burdett, 1935), 40.

0

60° N

2 Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

40

CHAPTER 1

Functions and Models

SOLUTION Notice that each curve resembles a shifted and stretched sine function. By looking at the blue curve we see that, at the latitude of Ankara, daylight lasts about 14.8 hours on June 21 and 9.2 hours on December 21, so the amplitude of the curve (the factor by which we have to stretch the sine curve vertically) is 12 s14.8 2 9.2d − 2.8. By what factor do we need to stretch the sine curve horizontally if we measure the time t in days? Because there are about 365 days in a year, the period of our model should be 365. But the period of y − sin t is 2, so the horizontal stretching factor is 2y365. We also notice that the curve begins its cycle on March 21, the 80th day of the year, so we have to shift the curve 80 units to the right. In addition, we shift it 12 units upward. Therefore we model the length of daylight in Ankara on the tth day of the year by the function

F

Lstd − 12 1 2.8 sin

y

_1

0

1

x

(a) y=≈-1

2 st 2 80d 365

G

■

Another transformation of some interest is taking the absolute value of a function. If y − | f sxd|, then according to the definition of absolute value, y − f sxd when f sxd > 0 and y − 2f sxd when f sxd , 0. This tells us how to get the graph of y − | f sxd| from the graph of y − f sxd: The part of the graph that lies above the x-axis remains the same; the part that lies below the x-axis is reflected about the x-axis.

ExamplE 5 Sketch the graph of the function y − | x 2 2 1 |.

y

SOLUTION We first graph the parabola y − x 2 2 1 in Figure 10(a) by shifting the _1

0

1

(b) y=| ≈-1 |

FIGURE 10

x

parabola y − x 2 downward 1 unit. We see that the graph lies below the x-axis when 21 , x , 1, so we reflect that part of the graph about the x-axis to obtain the graph of y − | x 2 2 1| in Figure 10(b). ■

Combinations of Functions Two functions f and t can be combined to form new functions f 1 t, f 2 t, ft, and fyt in a manner similar to the way we add, subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers. The sum and difference functions are defined by s f 1 tdsxd − f sxd 1 tsxd

s f 2 tdsxd − f sxd 2 tsxd

If the domain of f is A and the domain of t is B, then the domain of f 1 t is the intersection A > B because both f sxd and tsxd have to be defined. For example, the domain of f sxd − sx is A − f0, `d and the domain of tsxd − s2 2 x is B − s2`, 2g, so the domain of s f 1 tdsxd − sx 1 s2 2 x is A > B − f0, 2g. Similarly, the product and quotient functions are defined by s ftdsxd − f sxd tsxd

SD

f f sxd sxd − t tsxd

The domain of ft is A > B, but we can’t divide by 0 and so the domain of fyt is hx [ A > B | tsxd ± 0j. For instance, if f sxd − x 2 and tsxd − x 2 1, then the domain of the rational function s fytdsxd − x 2ysx 2 1d is h x | x ± 1j, or s2`, 1d ø s1, `d. There is another way of combining two functions to obtain a new function. For example, suppose that y − f sud − su and u − tsxd − x 2 1 1. Since y is a function of u and u is, in turn, a function of x, it follows that y is ultimately a function of x.

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SECTION 1.3

New Functions from Old Functions

41

We compute this by substitution: y − f sud − f stsxdd − f sx 2 1 1d − sx 2 1 1 x (input)

g

©

f•g

The procedure is called composition because the new function is composed of the two given functions f and t. In general, given any two functions f and t, we start with a number x in the domain of t and calculate tsxd. If this number tsxd is in the domain of f, then we can calculate the value of f s tsxdd. Notice that the output of one function is used as the input to the next function. The result is a new function hsxd − f s tsxdd obtained by substituting t into f. It is called the composition (or composite) of f and t and is denoted by f 8 t (“ f circle t”). Definition Given two functions f and t, the composite function f 8 t (also called the composition of f and t) is defined by

f

s f 8 tdsxd − f s tsxdd

f { ©} (output)

FIGURE 11

The f 8 t machine is composed of the t machine (first) and then the f machine.

The domain of f 8 t is the set of all x in the domain of t such that tsxd is in the domain of f. In other words, s f 8 tdsxd is defined whenever both tsxd and f s tsxdd are defined. Figure 11 shows how to picture f 8 t in terms of machines.

ExamplE 6 If f sxd − x 2 and tsxd − x 2 3, find the composite functions f 8 t and t 8 f. SOLUTION We have

s f 8 tdsxd − f s tsxdd − f sx 2 3d − sx 2 3d2 s t 8 f dsxd − ts f sxdd − tsx 2 d − x 2 2 3

■

NOTE You can see from Example 6 that, in general, f 8 t ± t 8 f. Remember, the notation f 8 t means that the function t is applied first and then f is applied second. In Example 6, f 8 t is the function that first subtracts 3 and then squares; t 8 f is the function that first squares and then subtracts 3.

ExamplE 7 If f sxd − sx and tsxd − s2 2 x , find each of the following functions and their domains. (a) f 8 t (b) t 8 f (c) f 8 f (d) t 8 t SOLUTION

(a)

4 s f 8 tdsxd − f stsxdd − f (s2 2 x ) − ss2 2 x − s 22x

The domain of f 8 t is hx | 2 2 x > 0j − hx | x < 2j − s2`, 2g. (b)

If 0 < a < b, then a 2 < b 2.

s t 8 f dsxd − ts f sxdd − t (sx ) − s2 2 sx

For sx to be defined we must have x > 0. For s2 2 sx to be defined we must have 2 2 sx > 0, that is, sx < 2, or x < 4. Thus we have 0 < x < 4, so the domain of t 8 f is the closed interval f0, 4g. (c)

4 s f 8 f dsxd − f s f sxdd − f (sx ) − ssx − s x

The domain of f 8 f is f0, `d.

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42

CHAPTER 1

Functions and Models

st 8 tdsxd − tstsxdd − t (s2 2 x ) − s2 2 s2 2 x

(d)

This expression is defined when both 2 2 x > 0 and 2 2 s2 2 x > 0. The first inequality means x < 2, and the second is equivalent to s2 2 x < 2, or 2 2 x < 4, or x > 22. Thus 22 < x < 2, so the domain of t 8 t is the closed interval f22, 2g. ■ It is possible to take the composition of three or more functions. For instance, the composite function f 8 t 8 h is found by first applying h, then t, and then f as follows: s f 8 t 8 hdsxd − f stshsxddd

ExamplE 8 Find f 8 t 8 h if f sxd − xysx 1 1d, tsxd − x 10, and hsxd − x 1 3. SOLUTION

s f 8 t 8 hdsxd − f stshsxddd − f s tsx 1 3dd − f ssx 1 3d10 d −

sx 1 3d10 sx 1 3d10 1 1

■

So far we have used composition to build complicated functions from simpler ones. But in calculus it is often useful to be able to decompose a complicated function into simpler ones, as in the following example.

ExamplE 9 Given Fsxd − cos2sx 1 9d, find functions f , t, and h such that F − f 8 t 8 h. SOLUTION Since Fsxd − fcossx 1 9dg 2, the formula for F says: First add 9, then take

the cosine of the result, and finally square. So we let hsxd − x 1 9 Then

tsxd − cos x

f sxd − x 2

s f 8 t 8 hdsxd − f stshsxddd − f s tsx 1 9dd − f scossx 1 9dd − fcossx 1 9dg 2 − Fsxd

1.3

■

EXERCISES

1. Suppose the graph of f is given. Write equations for the graphs that are obtained from the graph of f as follows. (a) Shift 3 units upward. (b) Shift 3 units downward. (c) Shift 3 units to the right. (d) Shift 3 units to the left. (e) Reflect about the x-axis. (f ) Reflect about the y-axis. (g) Stretch vertically by a factor of 3. (h) Shrink vertically by a factor of 3. 2. Explain how each graph is obtained from the graph of y − f sxd. (a) y − f sxd 1 8 (b) y − f sx 1 8d (c) y − 8 f sxd (d) y − f s8xd (e) y − 2f sxd 2 1 (f ) y − 8 f s 81 xd 3. The graph of y − f sxd is given. Match each equation with its graph and give reasons for your choices.

(a) y − f sx 2 4d (c) y − 13 f sxd (e) y − 2 f sx 1 6d

(b) y − f sxd 1 3 (d) y − 2f sx 1 4d

y

@

6

3

!

f

#

$ _6

_3

%

0

3

6

x

_3

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 1.3

4. The graph of f is given. Draw the graphs of the following functions. (a) y − f sxd 2 3 (b) y − f sx 1 1d (c) y −

1 2

f sxd

(d) y − 2f sxd

New Functions from Old Functions

9–24 Graph the function by hand, not by plotting points, but by starting with the graph of one of the standard functions given in Section 1.2, and then applying the appropriate transformations. 9. y − 2x 2

y

10. y − sx 2 3d2

x

1

5. The graph of f is given. Use it to graph the following functions. (a) y − f s2xd (b) y − f s 21xd (c) y − f s2xd

(d) y − 2f s2xd

12. y − 1 2

13. y − 2 cos 3x

14. y − 2 sx 1 1

15. y − x 2 2 4x 1 5

16. y − 1 1 sin  x

17. y − 2 2 sx

18. y − 3 2 2 cos x

19. y − sin ( 21 x )

20. y −

21. y − 12 s1 2 cos xd

22. y − 1 2 2 sx 1 3

|

23. y − sx 2 1

y 1 0

x

1

6–7 The graph of y − s3x 2 x 2 is given. Use transformations to create a function whose graph is as shown. y

y=œ„„„„„„ 3x-≈

1.5 0

6.

x

3

7.

y

y

3 _4

_1 0

x _1 _2.5

0

2

5

x

8. (a) How is the graph of y − 2 sin x related to the graph of y − sin x? Use your answer and Figure 6 to sketch the graph of y − 2 sin x. (b) How is the graph of y − 1 1 sx related to the graph of y − sx ? Use your answer and Figure 4(a) to sketch the graph of y − 1 1 sx .

1 x

11. y − x 3 1 1

2

0

43

|

2 22 x

|

24. y − cos  x

|

25. The city of New Delhi, India, is located at latitude 30°N. Use Figure 9 to find a function that models the number of hours of daylight at New Delhi as a function of the time of year. To check the accuracy of your model, use the fact that on March 31 the sun rises at 6:13 am and sets at 6:39 pm in New Delhi. 26. A variable star is one whose brightness alternately increases and decreases. For the most visible variable star, Delta Cephei, the time between periods of maximum brightness is 5.4 days, the average brightness (or magnitude) of the star is 4.0, and its brightness varies by 60.35 magnitude. Find a function that models the brightness of Delta Cephei as a function of time. 27. Some of the highest tides in the world occur in the Bay of Fundy on the Atlantic Coast of Canada. At Hopewell Cape the water depth at low tide is about 2.0 m and at high tide it is about 12.0 m. The natural period of oscillation is about 12 hours and on June 30, 2009, high tide occurred at 6:45 am. Find a function involving the cosine function that models the water depth Dstd (in meters) as a function of time t (in hours after midnight) on that day. 28. In a normal respiratory cycle the volume of air that moves into and out of the lungs is about 500 mL. The reserve and residue volumes of air that remain in the lungs occupy about 2000 mL and a single respiratory cycle for an average human takes about 4 seconds. Find a model for the total volume of air Vstd in the lungs as a function of time. 29. (a) How is the graph of y − f ( x ) related to the graph of f ? (b) Sketch the graph of y − sin x . (c) Sketch the graph of y − s x .

| | | | | |

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44

CHAPTER 1

Functions and Models

30. Use the given graph of f to sketch the graph of y − 1yf sxd. Which features of f are the most important in sketching y − 1yf sxd? Explain how they are used. y

1 0

52. Use the table to evaluate each expression. (a) f s ts1dd (b) ts f s1dd (d) ts ts1dd (e) s t 8 f ds3d x

1

2

3

4

5

6

f sxd

3

1

4

2

2

5

tsxd

6

3

2

1

2

3

x

1

31–32 Find (a) f 1 t, (b) f 2 t, (c) f t, and (d) fyt and state their domains. 31. f sxd − x 3 1 2x 2,

tsxd − 3x 2 2 1

32. f sxd − s3 2 x ,

tsxd − sx 2 2 1

53. Use the given graphs of f and t to evaluate each expression, or explain why it is undefined. (a) f s ts2dd (b) ts f s0dd (c) s f 8 tds0d (d) s t 8 f ds6d (e) s t 8 tds22d (f ) s f 8 f ds4d y

g

33–38 Find the functions (a) f 8 t, (b) t 8 f , (c) f 8 f , and (d) t 8 t and their domains. 33. f sxd − 3x 1 5,

tsxd − x 2 1 x

34. f sxd − x 3 2 2,

tsxd − 1 2 4x

37. f sxd − x 1

1 , x

38. f sxd − sx ,

tsxd −

x

2

54. Use the given graphs of f and t to estimate the value of f s tsxdd for x − 25, 24, 23, . . . , 5. Use these estimates to sketch a rough graph of f 8 t.

tsxd − x 2 1 1

36. f sxd − sin x,

f

2

0

tsxd − 4x 2 3

35. f sxd − sx 1 1,

(c) f s f s1dd (f ) s f 8 tds6d

x11 x12

y

3 tsxd − s 12x

g 1

39–42 Find f 8 t 8 h. 39. f sxd − 3x 2 2, tsxd − sin x,

0

40. f sxd − x 2 4 ,

tsxd − 2 x, hsxd − sx

41. f sxd − sx 2 3 ,

tsxd − x 2,

|

42. f sxd − tan x,

|

tsxd −

x , x21

45. Fsxd −

3 x s 3 11s x

47. vstd − secst 2 d tanst 2 d

hsxd − x 3 1 2 55. A stone is dropped into a lake, creating a circular ripple that travels outward at a speed of 60 cmys. (a) Express the radius r of this circle as a function of the time t (in seconds). (b) If A is the area of this circle as a function of the radius, find A 8 r and interpret it.

3 hsxd − s x

44. Fsxd − cos2 x 46. Gsxd − 48. ustd −

Î 3

x 11x

tan t 1 1 tan t

49–51 Express the function in the form f 8 t 8 h. 49. Rsxd − ssx 2 1 51. Sstd − sin2scos td

x

f

43–48 Express the function in the form f 8 t. 43. Fsxd − s2 x 1 x 2 d 4

1

hsxd − x 2

8 50. Hsxd − s 21 x

| |

56. A spherical balloon is being inflated and the radius of the balloon is increasing at a rate of 2 cmys. (a) Express the radius r of the balloon as a function of the time t (in seconds). (b) If V is the volume of the balloon as a function of the radius, find V 8 r and interpret it. 57. A ship is moving at a speed of 30 kmyh parallel to a straight shoreline. The ship is 6 km from shore and it passes a lighthouse at noon. (a) Express the distance s between the lighthouse and the ship

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SECTION 1.4 Exponential Functions

as a function of d, the distance the ship has traveled since noon; that is, find f so that s − f sdd. (b) Express d as a function of t, the time elapsed since noon; that is, find t so that d − tstd. (c) Find f 8 t. What does this function represent? 58. An airplane is flying at a speed of 350 kmyh at an altitude of 1 km and passes directly over a radar station at time t − 0. (a) Express the horizontal distance d (in kilometers) that the plane has flown as a function of t. (b) Express the distance s between the plane and the radar station as a function of d. (c) Use composition to express s as a function of t. 59. The Heaviside function H is defined by Hstd −

H

0 if t , 0 1 if t > 0

It is used in the study of electric circuits to represent the sudden surge of electric current, or voltage, when a switch is instantaneously turned on. (a) Sketch the graph of the Heaviside function. (b) Sketch the graph of the voltage Vstd in a circuit if the switch is turned on at time t − 0 and 120 volts are applied instantaneously to the circuit. Write a formula for Vstd in terms of Hstd. (c) Sketch the graph of the voltage Vstd in a circuit if the switch is turned on at time t − 5 seconds and 240 volts are applied instantaneously to the circuit. Write a formula for Vstd in terms of Hstd. (Note that starting at t − 5 corresponds to a translation.)

45

represents a gradual increase in voltage or current in a circuit. (a) Sketch the graph of the ramp function y − tHstd. (b) Sketch the graph of the voltage Vstd in a circuit if the switch is turned on at time t − 0 and the voltage is gradually increased to 120 volts over a 60-second time interval. Write a formula for Vstd in terms of Hstd for t < 60. (c) Sketch the graph of the voltage Vstd in a circuit if the switch is turned on at time t − 7 seconds and the voltage is gradually increased to 100 volts over a period of 25 seconds. Write a formula for Vstd in terms of Hstd for t < 32. 61. Let f and t be linear functions with equations f sxd − m1 x 1 b1 and tsxd − m 2 x 1 b 2. Is f 8 t also a linear function? If so, what is the slope of its graph? 62. If you invest x dollars at 4% interest compounded annually, then the amount Asxd of the investment after one year is Asxd − 1.04x. Find A 8 A, A 8 A 8 A, and A 8 A 8 A 8 A. What do these compositions represent? Find a formula for the composition of n copies of A. 63. (a) If tsxd − 2x 1 1 and hsxd − 4x 2 1 4x 1 7, find a function f such that f 8 t − h. (Think about what operations you would have to perform on the formula for t to end up with the formula for h.) (b) If f sxd − 3x 1 5 and hsxd − 3x 2 1 3x 1 2, find a function t such that f 8 t − h. 64. If f sxd − x 1 4 and hsxd − 4x 2 1, find a function t such that t 8 f − h. 65. Suppose t is an even function and let h − f 8 t. Is h always an even function? 66. Suppose t is an odd function and let h − f 8 t. Is h always an odd function? What if f is odd? What if f is even?

60. The Heaviside function defined in Exercise 59 can also be used to define the ramp function y − ctHstd, which

The function f sxd − 2 x is called an exponential function because the variable, x, is the exponent. It should not be confused with the power function tsxd − x 2, in which the variable is the base. In general, an exponential function is a function of the form f sxd − b x In Appendix G we present an alternative approach to the exponential and logarithmic functions using integral calculus.

where b is a positive constant. Let’s recall what this means. If x − n, a positive integer, then bn − b ? b ? ∙ ∙ ∙ ? b n factors 0

If x − 0, then b − 1, and if x − 2n, where n is a positive integer, then b 2n −

1 bn

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

46

CHAPTER 1

Functions and Models

If x is a rational number, x − pyq, where p and q are integers and q . 0, then

y

q q b x − b pyq − s b − ss bd p

1 0

1

x

FIGURE 1 Representation of y − 2 x, x rational

p

But what is the meaning of b x if x is an irrational number? For instance, what is meant by 2 s3 or 5? To help us answer this question we first look at the graph of the function y − 2 x, where x is rational. A representation of this graph is shown in Figure 1. We want to enlarge the domain of y − 2 x to include both rational and irrational numbers. There are holes in the graph in Figure 1 corresponding to irrational values of x. We want to fill in the holes by defining f sxd − 2 x, where x [ R, so that f is an increasing function. In particular, since the irrational number s3 satisfies 1.7 , s3 , 1.8 2 1.7 , 2 s3 , 2 1.8

we must have

and we know what 21.7 and 21.8 mean because 1.7 and 1.8 are rational numbers. Similarly, if we use better approximations for s3 , we obtain better approximations for 2 s3: 1.73 , s3 , 1.74

?

2 1.73 , 2 s3 , 2 1.74

1.732 , s3 , 1.733

?

2 1.732 , 2 s3 , 2 1.733

1.7320 , s3 , 1.7321

?

2 1.7320 , 2 s3 , 2 1.7321

1.73205 , s3 , 1.73206 ? 2 1.73205 , 2 s3 , 2 1.73206 . . . . . . . . . . . . A proof of this fact is given in J. Marsden and A. Weinstein, Calculus Unlimited (Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin/Cummings, 1981).

It can be shown that there is exactly one number that is greater than all of the numbers 2 1.7,

2 1.73,

2 1.732,

2 1.7320,

2 1.73205,

...

2 1.733,

2 1.7321,

2 1.73206,

...

and less than all of the numbers 2 1.8,

2 1.74,

s3

We define 2 to be this number. Using the preceding approximation process we can compute it correct to six decimal places: 2 s3 < 3.321997 Similarly, we can define 2 x (or b x, if b . 0) where x is any irrational number. Figure 2 shows how all the holes in Figure 1 have been filled to complete the graph of the function f sxd − 2 x, x [ R. y

1

FIGURE 2 y − 2 x, x real

0

1

x

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 1.4 Exponential Functions

47

The graphs of members of the family of functions y − b x are shown in Figure 3 for various values of the base b. Notice that all of these graphs pass through the same point s0, 1d because b 0 − 1 for b ± 0. Notice also that as the base b gets larger, the exponential function grows more rapidly (for x . 0). ” 4 ’®

” 2 ’®

1

1

y

10®

4®

2®

If 0 , b , 1, then b x approaches 0 as x becomes large. If b . 1, then b x approaches 0 as x decreases through negative values. In both cases the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote. These matters are discussed in Section 2.6.

1.5®

1®

0

FIGURE 3

1

x

You can see from Figure 3 that there are basically three kinds of exponential functions y − b x. If 0 , b , 1, the exponential function decreases; if b − 1, it is a constant; and if b . 1, it increases. These three cases are illustrated in Figure 4. Observe that if b ± 1, then the exponential function y − b x has domain R and range s0, `d. Notice also that, since s1ybd x − 1yb x − b 2x, the graph of y − s1ybd x is just the reflection of the graph of y − b x about the y-axis. y

y

y

1

(0, 1)

(0, 1) 0

FIGURE 4

(a) y=b®, 0 0. So the graph of f 21 is the right half of the parabola y − 2x 2 2 1 and this seems reasonable from Figure 10. ■

y=f –!(x)

FIGURE 10

Logarithmic Functions If b . 0 and b ± 1, the exponential function f sxd − b x is either increasing or decreasing and so it is one-to-one by the Horizontal Line Test. It therefore has an inverse function f 21, which is called the logarithmic function with base b and is denoted by log b. If we use the formulation of an inverse function given by (3), f 21sxd − y &?

f syd − x

then we have 6

log b x − y &? b y − x

Thus, if x . 0, then log b x is the exponent to which the base b must be raised to give x. For example, log10 0.001 − 23 because 1023 − 0.001. The cancellation equations (4), when applied to the functions f sxd − b x and 21 f sxd − log b x, become log b sb x d − x for every x [ R 7

b log x − x for every x . 0 b

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

60

CHAPTER 1

y

Functions and Models

y=x

y=b®, b>1 0

x

The logarithmic function log b has domain s0, `d and range R. Its graph is the reflection of the graph of y − b x about the line y − x. Figure 11 shows the case where b . 1. (The most important logarithmic functions have base b . 1.) The fact that y − b x is a very rapidly increasing function for x . 0 is reflected in the fact that y − log b x is a very slowly increasing function for x . 1. Figure 12 shows the graphs of y − log b x with various values of the base b . 1. Since log b 1 − 0, the graphs of all logarithmic functions pass through the point s1, 0d. y

y=log b x, b>1

y=log™ x y=log£ x

FIGURE 11

1

0

1

x

y=log∞ x y=log¡¸ x

FIGURE 12

The following properties of logarithmic functions follow from the corresponding properties of exponential functions given in Section 1.4. Laws of Logarithms If x and y are positive numbers, then 1. log b sxyd − log b x 1 log b y 2. log b

SD x y

− log b x 2 log b y

3. log b sx r d − r log b x

(where r is any real number)

ExamplE 6 Use the laws of logarithms to evaluate log 2 80 2 log 2 5. SOLUTION Using Law 2, we have

log 2 80 2 log 2 5 − log 2

S D 80 5

because 2 4 − 16.

− log 2 16 − 4 ■

Natural Logarithms Notation for logarithms Most textbooks in calculus and the sciences, as well as calculators, use the notation ln x for the natural logarithm and log x for the “common logarithm,” log10 x. In the more advanced mathematical and scientific literature and in computer languages, however, the notation log x usually denotes the natural logarithm.

Of all possible bases b for logarithms, we will see in Chapter 3 that the most convenient choice of a base is the number e, which was defined in Section 1.4. The logarithm with base e is called the natural logarithm and has a special notation: log e x − ln x If we put b − e and replace log e with “ln” in (6) and (7), then the defining properties of the natural logarithm function become

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SECTION 1.5 Inverse Functions and Logarithms

8

ln x − y

&? e y − x

lnse x d − x

x[R

ln x

x.0

9

e

61

−x

In particular, if we set x − 1, we get ln e − 1

ExamplE 7 Find x if ln x − 5. SOLUTION 1 From (8) we see that

ln x − 5

means

e5 − x

Therefore x − e 5. (If you have trouble working with the “ln” notation, just replace it by log e. Then the equation becomes log e x − 5; so, by the definition of logarithm, e 5 − x.) SOLUTION 2 Start with the equation

ln x − 5 and apply the exponential function to both sides of the equation: e ln x − e 5 But the second cancellation equation in (9) says that e ln x − x. Therefore x − e 5.

■

ExamplE 8 Solve the equation e 523x − 10. SOLUTION We take natural logarithms of both sides of the equation and use (9):

lnse 523x d − ln 10 5 2 3x − ln 10 3x − 5 2 ln 10 x − 13 s5 2 ln 10d Since the natural logarithm is found on scientific calculators, we can approximate the solution: to four decimal places, x < 0.8991. ■

ExamplE 9 Express ln a 1 12 ln b as a single logarithm. SOLUTION Using Laws 3 and 1 of logarithms, we have

ln a 1 12 ln b − ln a 1 ln b 1y2 − ln a 1 lnsb − ln ( asb )

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■

62

CHAPTER 1

Functions and Models

The following formula shows that logarithms with any base can be expressed in terms of the natural logarithm. 10 Change of Base Formula For any positive number b sb ± 1d, we have log b x −

ln x ln b

PROOF Let y − log b x. Then, from (6), we have b y − x. Taking natural logarithms of

both sides of this equation, we get y ln b − ln x. Therefore y−

ln x ln b

■

Scientific calculators have a key for natural logarithms, so Formula 10 enables us to use a calculator to compute a logarithm with any base (as shown in the following example). Similarly, Formula 10 allows us to graph any logarithmic function on a graphing calculator or computer (see Exercises 43 and 44).

ExamplE 10 Evaluate log 8 5 correct to six decimal places. SOLUTION Formula 10 gives

log 8 5 −

ln 5 < 0.773976 ln 8

■

y

y=´

Graph and Growth of the Natural Logarithm

y=x

1

y=ln x

0 x

1

The graphs of the exponential function y − e x and its inverse function, the natural logarithm function, are shown in Figure 13. Because the curve y − e x crosses the y-axis with a slope of 1, it follows that the reflected curve y − ln x crosses the x-axis with a slope of 1. In common with all other logarithmic functions with base greater than 1, the natural logarithm is an increasing function defined on s0, `d and the y-axis is a vertical asymptote. (This means that the values of ln x become very large negative as x approaches 0.)

ExamplE 11 Sketch the graph of the function y − lnsx 2 2d 2 1. FIGURE 13 The graph of y − ln x is the reflection of the graph of y − e x about the line y − x. y

SOLUTION We start with the graph of y − ln x as given in Figure 13. Using the transformations of Section 1.3, we shift it 2 units to the right to get the graph of y − lnsx 2 2d and then we shift it 1 unit downward to get the graph of y − lnsx 2 2d 2 1. (See Figure 14.) y

y=ln x 0

(1, 0)

y

x=2

x=2 y=ln(x-2)-1

y=ln(x-2) x

0

2

(3, 0)

x

0

2

x (3, _1)

FIGURE 14

■

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63

SECTION 1.5 Inverse Functions and Logarithms

Although ln x is an increasing function, it grows very slowly when x . 1. In fact, ln x grows more slowly than any positive power of x. To illustrate this fact, we compare approximate values of the functions y − ln x and y − x 1y2 − sx in the following table and we graph them in Figures 15 and 16. You can see that initially the graphs of y − sx and y − ln x grow at comparable rates, but eventually the root function far surpasses the logarithm.

x

1

2

5

10

50

100

500

1000

10,000

100,000

ln x

0

0.69

1.61

2.30

3.91

4.6

6.2

6.9

9.2

11.5

sx

1

1.41

2.24

3.16

7.07

10.0

22.4

31.6

100

316

ln x sx

0

0.49

0.72

0.73

0.55

0.46

0.28

0.22

0.09

0.04

y

y 20

x y=œ„ 1 0

x y=œ„

y=ln x

y=ln x x

1

FIGURE 15

0

1000 x

FIGURE 16

Inverse Trigonometric Functions When we try to find the inverse trigonometric functions, we have a slight difficulty: Because the trigonometric functions are not one-to-one, they don’t have inverse functions. The difficulty is overcome by restricting the domains of these functions so that they become one-to-one. You can see from Figure 17 that the sine function y − sin x is not one-to-one (use the Horizontal Line Test). But the function f sxd − sin x, 2y2 < x < y2, is one-toone (see Figure 18). The inverse function of this restricted sine function f exists and is denoted by sin 21 or arcsin. It is called the inverse sine function or the arcsine function. y

y

y=sin x _ π2 _π

FIGURE 17

0

π 2

π

0

x

π 2

FIGURE 18

y − sin x, 22 < x < 2

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x

64

CHAPTER 1

Functions and Models

Since the definition of an inverse function says that f 21sxd − y &?

f syd − x

we have sin21x − y &? sin y − x

sin21x ±

1 sin x

and 2

  1)

&? sec y − x

and y [ f0, y2d ø f, 3y2d

&? cot y − x

and

y − cot21x sx [ Rd _1

0

π

x

2π

The choice of intervals for y in the definitions of csc21 and sec21 is not universally agreed upon. For instance, some authors use y [ f0, y2d ø sy2, g in the definition of sec21. [You can see from the graph of the secant function in Figure 26 that both this choice and the one in (11) will work.]

FIGURE 26 y − sec x

1. (a) What is a one-to-one function? (b) How can you tell from the graph of a function whether it is one-to-one? 2. (a) Suppose f is a one-to-one function with domain A and range B. How is the inverse function f 21 defined? What is the domain of f 21? What is the range of f 21? (b) If you are given a formula for f, how do you find a formula for f 21? (c) If you are given the graph of f, how do you find the graph of f 21? 3–14 A function is given by a table of values, a graph, a formula, or a verbal description. Determine whether it is one-to-one. 3.

4.

x

1

2

3

4

5

6

f sxd

1.5

2.0

3.6

5.3

2.8

2.0

x

1

2

3

4

5

6

f sxd

1.0

1.9

2.8

3.5

3.1

2.9

5.

y [ s0, d

6.

y

10. f sxd − x 4 2 16

9. f sxd − 2x 2 3 11. tsxd − 1 2 sin x

3 12. tsxd − s x

13. f std is the height of an arrow t seconds after it is launched upward. 14. f std is your shoe size at age t. 15. Assume that f is a one-to-one function. (a) If f s4d − 7, what is f 21s7d? (b) If f 21s8d − 2, what is f s2d? 16. If f sxd − x 5 1 x 3 1 x, find f 21s3d and f s f 21s2dd. 17. If tsxd − 3 1 x 1 e x, find t21s4d. 18. The graph of f is given. (a) Why is f one-to-one? (b) What are the domain and range of f 21? (c) What is the value of f 21s2d? (d) Estimate the value of f 21s0d. y

y 1 x 0

x

7.

8.

y

x

1

x

y

x

19. The formula C − 59 sF 2 32d, where F > 2459.67, expresses the Celsius temperature C as a function of the Fahrenheit temperature F. Find a formula for the inverse function and interpret it. What is the domain of the inverse function?

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SECTION 1.5 Inverse Functions and Logarithms

20. In the theory of relativity, the mass of a particle with speed  is m0 m − f svd − s1 2 v 2yc 2 where m 0 is the rest mass of the particle and c is the speed of light in a vacuum. Find the inverse function of f and explain its meaning. 21–26 Find a formula for the inverse of the function. 4x 2 1 21. f sxd − 1 1 s2 1 3x 22. f sxd − 2x 1 3 x e 23. f sxd − e 2x21 24. y − 1 1 2e x 26. y −

12e 1 1 e2x

28. f sxd − 1 1 e2x

y

39. ln 20 2 2 ln 2 41.

1 3

3

40. ln b 1 2 ln c 2 3 ln d 1 2

lnsx 1 2d 1 fln x 2 lnsx 2 1 3x 1 2d2 g

43. y − log 1.5 x,

29–30 Use the given graph of f to sketch the graph of f 21. 29.

39–41 Express the given quantity as a single logarithm.

; 43–44 Use Formula 10 to graph the given functions on a common screen. How are these graphs related?

21 21 ; 27–28 Find an explicit formula for f and use it to graph f , f, and the line y − x on the same screen. To check your work, see whether the graphs of f and f 21 are reflections about the line.

27. f sxd − s4 x 1 3

3

(b) e lnsln e d

38. (a) e2ln 2

42. Use Formula 10 to evaluate each logarithm correct to six decimal places. (a) log 5 10 (b) log 3 57

2x

25. y − lnsx 1 3d

67

30. y

44. y − ln x,

y − ln x,

y − log 10 x,

y − log 10 x, x

y−e,

y − log 50 x

y − 10 x

45. Suppose that the graph of y − log 2 x is drawn on a coordinate grid where the unit of measurement is a centimeter. How many kilometers to the right of the origin do we have to move before the height of the curve reaches 1 m? 0.1 ; 46. Compare the functions f sxd − x and tsxd − ln x by graphing both f and t in several viewing rectangles. When does the graph of f finally surpass the graph of t?

1 1 0

0 1

2

x

x

31. Let f sxd − s1 2 x 2 , 0 < x < 1. (a) Find f 21. How is it related to f ? (b) Identify the graph of f and explain your answer to part (a). 3 1 2 x3 . 32. Let tsxd − s (a) Find t 21. How is it related to t? (b) Graph t. How do you explain your answer to part (a)? ;

33. (a) (b) (c) (d)

How is the logarithmic function y − log b x defined? What is the domain of this function? What is the range of this function? Sketch the general shape of the graph of the function y − log b x if b . 1.

34. (a) What is the natural logarithm? (b) What is the common logarithm? (c) Sketch the graphs of the natural logarithm function and the natural exponential function with a common set of axes. 35–38 Find the exact value of each expression. 35. (a) log 2 32

(b) log 8 2

1 36. (a) log 5 125

(b) lns1ye 2 d

37. (a) log 10 40 1 log 10 2.5 (b) log 8 60 2 log 8 3 2 log 8 5

47–48 Make a rough sketch of the graph of each function. Do not use a calculator. Just use the graphs given in Figures 12 and 13 and, if necessary, the transformations of Section 1.3. 47. (a) y − log 10sx 1 5d

(b) y − 2ln x

48. (a) y − lns2xd

(b) y − ln x

| |

49–50 (a) What are the domain and range of f ? (b) What is the x-intercept of the graph of f ? (c) Sketch the graph of f. 49. f sxd − ln x 1 2

50. f sxd − lnsx 2 1d 2 1

51–54 Solve each equation for x. 51. (a) e 724x − 6 2

(b) lns3x 2 10d − 2

52. (a) lnsx 2 1d − 3

(b) e 2x 2 3e x 1 2 − 0

53. (a) 2 x25 − 3

(b) ln x 1 lnsx 2 1d − 1

54. (a) lnsln xd − 1

(b) e ax − Ce bx, where a ± b

55–56 Solve each inequality for x. 55. (a) ln x , 1

(b) e x > 3

56. (a) 1 , e 3x21 , 2

(b) 1 2 2 ln x , 3

57. (a) Find the domain of f sxd − lnse x 2 3d. (b) Find f 21 and its domain.

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68

CAS

CAS

CHAPTER 1

Functions and Models

58. (a) What are the values of e ln 300 and lnse 300 d? (b) Use your calculator to evaluate e ln 300 and lnse 300 d. What do you notice? Can you explain why the calculator has trouble?

65. (a) csc21 s2

59. Graph the function f sxd − sx 3 1 x 2 1 x 1 1 and explain why it is one-to-one. Then use a computer algebra system to find an explicit expression for f 21sxd. (Your CAS will produce three possible expressions. Explain why two of them are irrelevant in this context.)

68. (a) arcsinssins5y4dd

60. (a) If tsxd − x 6 1 x 4, x > 0, use a computer algebra system to find an expression for t 21sxd. (b) Use the expression in part (a) to graph y − tsxd, y − x, and y − t 21sxd on the same screen. 61. If a bacteria population starts with 100 bacteria and doubles every three hours, then the number of bacteria after t hours is n − f std − 100 ∙ 2 ty3. (a) Find the inverse of this function and explain its meaning. (b) When will the population reach 50,000? 62. When a camera flash goes off, the batteries immediately begin to recharge the flash’s capacitor, which stores electric charge given by Qstd − Q 0 s1 2 e 2tya d (The maximum charge capacity is Q 0 and t is measured in seconds.) (a) Find the inverse of this function and explain its meaning. (b) How long does it take to recharge the capacitor to 90% of capacity if a − 2? 63–68 Find the exact value of each expression. 63. (a) cos21 s21d

(b) sin21s0.5d

64. (a) tan21 s3

(b) arctans21d

1

(b) arcsin 1

66. (a) sin

(21ys2 ) 21 cot (2s3 )

(b) cos21 (s3 y2 )

67. (a)

(b) sec21 2

21

5 (b) cos (2 sin21 (13 ))

69. Prove that cosssin21 xd − s1 2 x 2 . 70–72 Simplify the expression. 70. tanssin21 xd

71. sinstan21 xd

72. sins2 arccos xd

; 73-74 Graph the given functions on the same screen. How are these graphs related? 73. y − sin x, 2y2 < x < y2; 74. y − tan x, 2y2 , x , y2;

y − sin21x; 21

y − tan x;

y−x y−x

75. Find the domain and range of the function tsxd − sin21s3x 1 1d 21 ; 76. (a) Graph the function f sxd − sinssin xd and explain the appearance of the graph. (b) Graph the function tsxd − sin21ssin xd. How do you explain the appearance of this graph?

77. (a) If we shift a curve to the left, what happens to its reflection about the line y − x? In view of this geometric principle, find an expression for the inverse of tsxd − f sx 1 cd, where f is a one-to-one function. (b) Find an expression for the inverse of hsxd − f scxd, where c ± 0.

REvIEw

CONCEpT CHECK 1. (a) What is a function? What are its domain and range? (b) What is the graph of a function? (c) How can you tell whether a given curve is the graph of a function? 2. Discuss four ways of representing a function. Illustrate your discussion with examples. 3. (a) What is an even function? How can you tell if a function is even by looking at its graph? Give three examples of an even function. (b) What is an odd function? How can you tell if a function is odd by looking at its graph? Give three examples of an odd function.

Answers to the Concept Check can be found on the back endpapers.

4. What is an increasing function? 5. What is a mathematical model? 6. Give an example of each type of function. (a) Linear function (b) Power function (c) Exponential function (d) Quadratic function (e) Polynomial of degree 5 (f ) Rational function 7. Sketch by hand, on the same axes, the graphs of the following functions. (a) f sxd − x (b) tsxd − x 2 (c) hsxd − x 3

(d) jsxd − x 4

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CHAPTER 1

8. Draw, by hand, a rough sketch of the graph of each function. (b) y − tan x (c) y − e x (a) y − sin x (d) y − ln x (e) y − 1yx (f ) y − x (g) y − sx (h) y − tan21 x

| |

9. Suppose that f has domain A and t has domain B. (a) What is the domain of f 1 t? (b) What is the domain of f t? (c) What is the domain of fyt? 10. How is the composite function f 8 t defined? What is its domain? 11. Suppose the graph of f is given. Write an equation for each of the graphs that are obtained from the graph of f as follows. (a) Shift 2 units upward. (b) Shift 2 units downward. (c) Shift 2 units to the right. (d) Shift 2 units to the left. (e) Reflect about the x-axis.

(f ) (g) (h) (i) ( j)

Review

Reflect about the y-axis. Stretch vertically by a factor of 2. Shrink vertically by a factor of 2. Stretch horizontally by a factor of 2. Shrink horizontally by a factor of 2.

12. (a) What is a one-to-one function? How can you tell if a function is one-to-one by looking at its graph? (b) If f is a one-to-one function, how is its inverse function f 21 defined? How do you obtain the graph of f 21 from the graph of f ? 13. (a) How is the inverse sine function f sxd − sin21 x defined? What are its domain and range? (b) How is the inverse cosine function f sxd − cos21 x defined? What are its domain and range? (c) How is the inverse tangent function f sxd − tan21 x defined? What are its domain and range?

TRUE-FaLSE qUIz Determine whether the statement is true or false. If it is true, explain why. If it is false, explain why or give an example that disproves the statement. 1. If f is a function, then f ss 1 td − f ssd 1 f std. 2. If f ssd − f std, then s − t. 3. If f is a function, then f s3xd − 3 f sxd. 4. If x 1 , x 2 and f is a decreasing function, then f sx 1 d . f sx 2 d. 5. A vertical line intersects the graph of a function at most once. 6. If f and t are functions, then f 8 t − t 8 f.

7. If f is one-to-one, then f 21sxd − 8. You can always divide by e x.

1 . f sxd

9. If 0 , a , b, then ln a , ln b. 10. If x . 0, then sln xd6 − 6 ln x. ln x x 11. If x . 0 and a . 1, then − ln . ln a a 12. tan21s21d − 3y4 sin21x cos21x 14. If x is any real number, then sx 2 − x. 13. tan21x −

EXERCISES 1. Let f be the function whose graph is given.

(f ) Is f one-to-one? Explain. (g) Is f even, odd, or neither even nor odd? Explain. 2. The graph of t is given.

y

f

y

g

1 1

x 1 0 1

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Estimate the value of f s2d. Estimate the values of x such that f sxd − 3. State the domain of f. State the range of f. On what interval is f increasing?

69

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

x

State the value of ts2d. Why is t one-to-one? Estimate the value of t21s2d. Estimate the domain of t21. Sketch the graph of t21.

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70

CHAPTER 1

Functions and Models

21. The table gives the population of Indonesia (in millions) for the years 1950–2000. Decide what type of model is appropriate and use your model to predict the population of Indonesia in 2010.

3. If f sxd − x 2 2 2x 1 3, evaluate the difference quotient f sa 1 hd 2 f sad h 4. Sketch a rough graph of the yield of a crop as a function of the amount of fertilizer used. 5–8 Find the domain and range of the function. Write your answer in interval notation. 5. f sxd − 2ys3x 2 1d

6. tsxd − s16 2 x 4

7. hsxd − lnsx 1 6d

8. Fstd − 1 1 sin 2t

9. Suppose that the graph of f is given. Describe how the graphs of the following functions can be obtained from the graph of f. (a) y − f sxd 1 8 (b) y − f sx 1 8d (c) y − 1 1 2 f sxd (d) y − f sx 2 2d 2 2 (e) y − 2f sxd (f ) y − f 21sxd

Year

Population

Year

Population

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975

80 86 96 107 120 134

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

150 166 182 197 212

22. A small-appliance manufacturer finds that it costs $9000 to produce 1000 toaster ovens a week and $12,000 to produce 1500 toaster ovens a week. (a) Express the cost as a function of the number of toaster ovens produced, assuming that it is linear. Then sketch the graph. (b) What is the slope of the graph and what does it represent? (c) What is the y-intercept of the graph and what does it represent?

10. The graph of f is given. Draw the graphs of the following functions. (a) y − f sx 2 8d (b) y − 2f sxd (c) y − 2 2 f sxd (d) y − 12 f sxd 2 1 21 (e) y − f sxd (f ) y − f 21sx 1 3d

23. If f sxd − 2x 1 ln x, find f 21s2d.

y

24. Find the inverse function of f sxd −

25. Find the exact value of each expression. (a) e 2 ln 3 (b) log10 25 1 log10 4

1 0

x11 . 2x 1 1

1

(c) tansarcsin 12 d

x

26. Solve each equation for x. (a) e x − 5 x (c) ee − 2

11–16 Use transformations to sketch the graph of the function. 11. y − sx 2 2d3

12. y − 2 sx

13. y − x 2 2 2 x 1 2

14. y − lnsx 1 1d

15. f sxd − 2cos 2x

16. f sxd −

H

17. Determine whether f is even, odd, or neither even nor odd. (a) f sxd − 2x 5 2 3x 2 1 2 (b) f sxd − x 3 2 x 7 2 (c) f sxd − e2x (d) f sxd − 1 1 sin x

19. If f sxd − ln x and tsxd − x 2 2 9, find the functions (a) f 8 t, (b) t 8 f , (c) f 8 f , (d) t 8 t, and their domains. 20. Express the function Fsxd − 1ysx 1 sx as a composition of three functions.

(b) ln x − 2 (d) tan21x − 1

27. The half-life of palladium-100, 100 Pd, is four days. (So half of any given quantity of 100 Pd will disintegrate in four days.) The initial mass of a sample is one gram. (a) Find the mass that remains after 16 days. (b) Find the mass mstd that remains after t days. (c) Find the inverse of this function and explain its meaning. (d) When will the mass be reduced to 0.01g?

2x if x , 0 e x 2 1 if x > 0

18. Find an expression for the function whose graph consists of the line segment from the point s22, 2d to the point s21, 0d together with the top half of the circle with center the origin and radius 1.

(d) sinscos21s54dd

28. The population of a certain species in a limited environment with initial population 100 and carrying capacity 1000 is Pstd −

;

100,000 100 1 900e2t

where t is measured in years. (a) Graph this function and estimate how long it takes for the population to reach 900. (b) Find the inverse of this function and explain its meaning. (c) Use the inverse function to find the time required for the population to reach 900. Compare with the result of part (a).

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

principles of problem Solving 1 UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM

There are no hard and fast rules that will ensure success in solving problems. However, it is possible to outline some general steps in the problem-solving process and to give some principles that may be useful in the solution of certain problems. These steps and principles are just common sense made explicit. They have been adapted from George Polya’s book How To Solve It. The first step is to read the problem and make sure that you understand it clearly. Ask yourself the following questions: What is the unknown? What are the given quantities? What are the given conditions? For many problems it is useful to draw a diagram and identify the given and required quantities on the diagram. Usually it is necessary to introduce suitable notation In choosing symbols for the unknown quantities we often use letters such as a, b, c, m, n, x, and y, but in some cases it helps to use initials as suggestive symbols; for instance, V for volume or t for time.

2 THINK OF A PLAN

Find a connection between the given information and the unknown that will enable you to calculate the unknown. It often helps to ask yourself explicitly: “How can I relate the given to the unknown?” If you don’t see a connection immediately, the following ideas may be helpful in devising a plan. Try to Recognize Something Familiar Relate the given situation to previous knowledge. Look at the unknown and try to recall a more familiar problem that has a similar unknown. Try to Recognize Patterns Some problems are solved by recognizing that some kind of pattern is occurring. The pattern could be geometric, or numerical, or algebraic. If you can see regularity or repetition in a problem, you might be able to guess what the continuing pattern is and then prove it. Use Analogy Try to think of an analogous problem, that is, a similar problem, a related problem, but one that is easier than the original problem. If you can solve the similar, simpler problem, then it might give you the clues you need to solve the original, more difficult problem. For instance, if a problem involves very large numbers, you could first try a similar problem with smaller numbers. Or if the problem involves three-dimensional geometry, you could look for a similar problem in two-dimensional geometry. Or if the problem you start with is a general one, you could first try a special case. Introduce Something Extra It may sometimes be necessary to introduce something new, an auxiliary aid, to help make the connection between the given and the unknown. For instance, in a problem where a diagram is useful the auxiliary aid could be a new line drawn in a diagram. In a more algebraic problem it could be a new unknown that is related to the original unknown. Take Cases We may sometimes have to split a problem into several cases and give a different argument for each of the cases. For instance, we often have to use this strategy in dealing with absolute value.

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Work Backward Sometimes it is useful to imagine that your problem is solved and work backward, step by step, until you arrive at the given data. Then you may be able to reverse your steps and thereby construct a solution to the original problem. This procedure is commonly used in solving equations. For instance, in solving the equation 3x 2 5 − 7, we suppose that x is a number that satisfies 3x 2 5 − 7 and work backward. We add 5 to each side of the equation and then divide each side by 3 to get x − 4. Since each of these steps can be reversed, we have solved the problem. Establish Subgoals In a complex problem it is often useful to set subgoals (in which the desired situation is only partially fulfilled). If we can first reach these subgoals, then we may be able to build on them to reach our final goal. Indirect Reasoning Sometimes it is appropriate to attack a problem indirectly. In using proof by contradiction to prove that P implies Q, we assume that P is true and Q is false and try to see why this can’t happen. Somehow we have to use this information and arrive at a contradiction to what we absolutely know is true. Mathematical Induction In proving statements that involve a positive integer n, it is frequently helpful to use the following principle. principle of Mathematical Induction Let Sn be a statement about the positive integer n. Suppose that

1. S1 is true. 2. Sk11 is true whenever Sk is true. Then Sn is true for all positive integers n. This is reasonable because, since S1 is true, it follows from condition 2 swith k − 1d that S2 is true. Then, using condition 2 with k − 2, we see that S3 is true. Again using condition 2, this time with k − 3, we have that S4 is true. This procedure can be followed indefinitely. 3 CARRY OUT THE PLAN

In Step 2 a plan was devised. In carrying out that plan we have to check each stage of the plan and write the details that prove that each stage is correct.

4 LOOK BACK

Having completed our solution, it is wise to look back over it, partly to see if we have made errors in the solution and partly to see if we can think of an easier way to solve the problem. Another reason for looking back is that it will familiarize us with the method of solution and this may be useful for solving a future problem. Descartes said, “Every problem that I solved became a rule which served afterwards to solve other problems.” These principles of problem solving are illustrated in the following examples. Before you look at the solutions, try to solve these problems yourself, referring to these Principles of Problem Solving if you get stuck. You may find it useful to refer to this section from time to time as you solve the exercises in the remaining chapters of this book. ExamplE 1 Express the hypotenuse h of a right triangle with area 25 m2 as a function of its perimeter P.

PS Understand the problem

SOLUTION Let’s first sort out the information by identifying the unknown quantity and

the data: Unknown: hypotenuse h Given quantities: perimeter P, area 25 m 2 72 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

PS Draw a diagram

It helps to draw a diagram and we do so in Figure 1. h b

FIGURE 1 a PS Connect the given with the unknown PS Introduce something extra

In order to connect the given quantities to the unknown, we introduce two extra variables a and b, which are the lengths of the other two sides of the triangle. This enables us to express the given condition, which is that the triangle is right-angled, by the Pythagorean Theorem: h2 − a2 1 b2 The other connections among the variables come by writing expressions for the area and perimeter: 25 − 12 ab P−a1b1h Since P is given, notice that we now have three equations in the three unknowns a, b, and h: 1

h2 − a2 1 b2

2

25 − 12 ab

3

PS Relate to the familiar

P−a1b1h

Although we have the correct number of equations, they are not easy to solve in a straightforward fashion. But if we use the problem-solving strategy of trying to recognize something familiar, then we can solve these equations by an easier method. Look at the right sides of Equations 1, 2, and 3. Do these expressions remind you of anything familiar? Notice that they contain the ingredients of a familiar formula: sa 1 bd2 − a 2 1 2ab 1 b 2 Using this idea, we express sa 1 bd2 in two ways. From Equations 1 and 2 we have sa 1 bd2 − sa 2 1 b 2 d 1 2ab − h 2 1 4s25d From Equation 3 we have sa 1 bd2 − sP 2 hd2 − P 2 2 2Ph 1 h 2

Thus

h 2 1 100 − P 2 2 2Ph 1 h 2 2Ph − P 2 2 100 h−

P 2 2 100 2P

This is the required expression for h as a function of P.

■

As the next example illustrates, it is often necessary to use the problem-solving principle of taking cases when dealing with absolute values. ExamplE 2 Solve the inequality | x 2 3 | 1 | x 1 2 | , 11. SOLUTION Recall the definition of absolute value:

|x| −

H

x if x > 0 2x if x , 0 73

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It follows that

|x 2 3| − −

H H

x23 2sx 2 3d

if x 2 3 > 0 if x 2 3 , 0

x23 2x 1 3

if x > 3 if x , 3

x12 2sx 1 2d

if x 1 2 > 0 if x 1 2 , 0

x12 2x 2 2

if x > 22 if x , 22

Similarly

|x 1 2| − −

PS Take cases

H H

These expressions show that we must consider three cases: x , 22

22 < x , 3

x>3

CASE I If x , 22, we have

| x 2 3 | 1 | x 1 2 | , 11 2x 1 3 2 x 2 2 , 11 22x , 10 x . 25 CASE II If 22 < x , 3, the given inequality becomes 2x 1 3 1 x 1 2 , 11 5 , 11

(always true)

CASE III If x > 3, the inequality becomes x 2 3 1 x 1 2 , 11 2x , 12 x,6 Combining cases I, II, and III, we see that the inequality is satisfied when 25 , x , 6. So the solution is the interval s25, 6d. ■ In the following example we first guess the answer by looking at special cases and recognizing a pattern. Then we prove our conjecture by mathematical induction. In using the Principle of Mathematical Induction, we follow three steps: Step 1 Prove that Sn is true when n − 1. Step 2 Assume that Sn is true when n − k and deduce that Sn is true when n − k 1 1. Step 3 Conclude that Sn is true for all n by the Principle of Mathematical Induction. 74 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

ExamplE 3 If f0sxd − xysx 1 1d and fn11 − f0 8 fn for n − 0, 1, 2, . . . , find a formula for fnsxd. PS Analogy: Try a similar, simpler problem

SOLUTION We start by finding formulas for fnsxd for the special cases n − 1, 2, and 3.

S D

x f1sxd − s f0 8 f0dsxd − f0( f0sxd) − f0 x11

x x x11 x11 x − − − x 2x 1 1 2x 1 1 11 x11 x11

S

x f2sxd − s f0 8 f1 dsxd − f0( f1sxd) − f0 2x 1 1

D

x x 2x 1 1 2x 1 1 x − − − x 3x 1 1 3x 1 1 11 2x 1 1 2x 1 1

S

x f3sxd − s f0 8 f2 dsxd − f0( f2sxd) − f0 3x 1 1

D

x x 3x 1 1 3x 1 1 x − − − x 4x 1 1 4x 1 1 11 3x 1 1 3x 1 1

PS Look for a pattern

We notice a pattern: The coefficient of x in the denominator of fnsxd is n 1 1 in the three cases we have computed. So we make the guess that, in general, 4

fnsxd −

x sn 1 1dx 1 1

To prove this, we use the Principle of Mathematical Induction. We have already verified that (4) is true for n − 1. Assume that it is true for n − k, that is, fksxd −

Then

x sk 1 1dx 1 1

S

x fk11sxd − s f0 8 fk dsxd − f0( fksxd) − f0 sk 1 1dx 1 1

D

x x sk 1 1d x 1 1 sk 1 1dx 1 1 x − − − x sk 1 2d x 1 1 sk 1 2d x 1 1 11 sk 1 1dx 1 1 sk 1 1dx 1 1 This expression shows that (4) is true for n − k 1 1. Therefore, by mathematical induction, it is true for all positive integers n.

■

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1. One of the legs of a right triangle has length 4 cm. Express the length of the altitude perpendicular to the hypotenuse as a function of the length of the hypotenuse.

problems

2. The altitude perpendicular to the hypotenuse of a right triangle is 12 cm. Express the length of the hypotenuse as a function of the perimeter.

|

| | | Solve the inequality | x 2 1 | 2 | x 2 3 | > 5.

3. Solve the equation 2x 2 1 2 x 1 5 − 3. 4.

|

| | | Sketch the graph of the function tsxd − | x 2 1 | 2 | x 2 4 |. Draw the graph of the equation x 1 | x | − y 1 | y |.

5. Sketch the graph of the function f sxd − x 2 2 4 x 1 3 . 6. 7.

2

2

8. Sketch the region in the plane consisting of all points sx, yd such that

|x 2 y| 1 |x| 2 |y| < 2 9. The notation maxha, b, . . .j means the largest of the numbers a, b, . . . . Sketch the graph of each function. (a) f sxd − maxhx, 1yxj (b) f sxd − maxhsin x, cos xj (c) f sxd − maxhx 2, 2 1 x, 2 2 xj 10. Sketch the region in the plane defined by each of the following equations or inequalities. (a) maxhx, 2yj − 1 (b) 21 < maxhx, 2yj < 1 (c) maxhx, y 2 j − 1 11. Evaluate slog 2 3dslog 3 4dslog 4 5d ∙ ∙ ∙ slog 31 32d. 12. (a) Show that the function f sxd − ln ( x 1 sx 2 1 1 ) is an odd function. (b) Find the inverse function of f. 13. Solve the inequality lnsx 2 2 2x 2 2d < 0. 14. Use indirect reasoning to prove that log 2 5 is an irrational number. 15. A driver sets out on a journey. For the first half of the distance she drives at the leisurely pace of 60 kmyh; she drives the second half at 120 kmyh. What is her average speed on this trip? 16. Is it true that f 8 s t 1 hd − f 8 t 1 f 8 h? 17. Prove that if n is a positive integer, then 7 n 2 1 is divisible by 6. 18. Prove that 1 1 3 1 5 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 s2n 2 1d − n 2. 19. If f0sxd − x 2 and fn11sxd − f0s fnsxdd for n − 0, 1, 2, . . . , find a formula for fnsxd. 1 and fn11 − f0 8 fn for n − 0, 1, 2, . . . , find an expression for fnsxd and 22x use mathematical induction to prove it. (b) Graph f0 , f1, f2 , f3 on the same screen and describe the effects of repeated composition.

20. (a) If f0sxd − ;

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2

Limits and Derivatives

The maximum sustainable swimming speed S of salmon depends on the water temperature T. Exercise 58 in Section 2.7 asks you to analyze how S varies as T changes by estimating the derivative of S with respect to T. © Jody Ann / Shutterstock.com

In A PREVIEW OF CALCULUS (page 1) we saw how the idea of a limit underlies the various branches of calculus. It is therefore appropriate to begin our study of calculus by investigating limits and their properties. The special type of limit that is used to find tangents and velocities gives rise to the central idea in differential calculus, the derivative.

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78

Chapter 2

Limits and Derivatives

In this section we see how limits arise when we attempt to find the tangent to a curve or the velocity of an object.

t

the tangent problem

(a) P C

t

l

The word tangent is derived from the Latin word tangens, which means “touching.” Thus a tangent to a curve is a line that touches the curve. In other words, a tangent line should have the same direction as the curve at the point of contact. How can this idea be made precise? For a circle we could simply follow Euclid and say that a tangent is a line that intersects the circle once and only once, as in Figure 1(a). For more complicated curves this definition is inadequate. Figure l(b) shows two lines l and t passing through a point P on a curve C. The line l intersects C only once, but it certainly does not look like what we think of as a tangent. The line t, on the other hand, looks like a tangent but it intersects C twice. To be specific, let’s look at the problem of trying to find a tangent line t to the parabola y − x 2 in the following example.

(b)

ExamplE 1 Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y − x 2 at the

FIGURE 1

point Ps1, 1d. SOLUtION We will be able to find an equation of the tangent line t as soon as we know its slope m. The difficulty is that we know only one point, P, on t, whereas we need two points to compute the slope. But observe that we can compute an approximation to m by choosing a nearby point Qsx, x 2 d on the parabola (as in Figure 2) and computing the slope mPQ of the secant line PQ. [A secant line, from the Latin word secans, meaning cutting, is a line that cuts (intersects) a curve more than once.] We choose x ± 1 so that Q ± P. Then

y

Q {x, ≈} y=≈

t

P (1, 1) x

0

mPQ − FIGURE 2

x2 2 1 x21

For instance, for the point Qs1.5, 2.25d we have x

mPQ

2 1.5 1.1 1.01 1.001

3 2.5 2.1 2.01 2.001

x

mPQ

0 0.5 0.9 0.99 0.999

1 1.5 1.9 1.99 1.999

mPQ −

2.25 2 1 1.25 − − 2.5 1.5 2 1 0.5

The tables in the margin show the values of mPQ for several values of x close to 1. The closer Q is to P, the closer x is to 1 and, it appears from the tables, the closer mPQ is to 2. This suggests that the slope of the tangent line t should be m − 2. We say that the slope of the tangent line is the limit of the slopes of the secant lines, and we express this symbolically by writing lim mPQ − m

Q lP

and

lim

xl1

x2 2 1 −2 x21

Assuming that the slope of the tangent line is indeed 2, we use the point-slope form of the equation of a line [y 2 y1 − msx 2 x 1d, see Appendix B] to write the equation of the tangent line through s1, 1d as y 2 1 − 2sx 2 1d

or

y − 2x 2 1

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79

SeCtION 2.1 The Tangent and Velocity Problems

Figure 3 illustrates the limiting process that occurs in this example. As Q approaches P along the parabola, the corresponding secant lines rotate about P and approach the tangent line t. y

y

y

Q t

t

t Q

Q P

P

0

P

0

x

0

x

x

Q approaches P from the right y

y

y

t

Q

t

P

t

P

P

Q 0

0

x



FIGURE 3 TEC In Visual 2.1 you can see how the process in Figure 3 works for additional functions.

t

Q

0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10

100.00 81.87 67.03 54.88 44.93 36.76

Q 0

x

Q approaches P from the left

■

Many functions that occur in science are not described by explicit equations; they are defined by experimental data. The next example shows how to estimate the slope of the tangent line to the graph of such a function.

ExamplE 2 The flash unit on a camera operates by storing charge on a capacitor and releasing it suddenly when the flash is set off. The data in the table describe the charge Q remaining on the capacitor (measured in microcoulombs) at time t (measured in seconds after the flash goes off ). Use the data to draw the graph of this function and estimate the slope of the tangent line at the point where t − 0.04. [Note: The slope of the tangent line represents the electric current flowing from the capacitor to the flash bulb (measured in microamperes).] SOLUtION In Figure 4 we plot the given data and use them to sketch a curve that approximates the graph of the function. Q (microcoulombs) 100 90 80 70 60 50

FIGURE 4

x

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

t (seconds)

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80

Chapter 2

Limits and Derivatives

Given the points Ps0.04, 67.03d and Rs0.00, 100.00d on the graph, we find that the slope of the secant line PR is mPR −

R

mPR

(0.00, 100.00) (0.02, 81.87) (0.06, 54.88) (0.08, 44.93) (0.10, 36.76)

2824.25 2742.00 2607.50 2552.50 2504.50

100.00 2 67.03 − 2824.25 0.00 2 0.04

The table at the left shows the results of similar calculations for the slopes of other secant lines. From this table we would expect the slope of the tangent line at t − 0.04 to lie somewhere between 2742 and 2607.5. In fact, the average of the slopes of the two closest secant lines is 1 2 s2742

2 607.5d − 2674.75

So, by this method, we estimate the slope of the tangent line to be about 2675. Another method is to draw an approximation to the tangent line at P and measure the sides of the triangle ABC, as in Figure 5. Q (microcoulombs) 100 90 80

A P

70 60 50

FIGURE 5

0

B

C

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

t (seconds)

This gives an estimate of the slope of the tangent line as The physical meaning of the answer in Example 2 is that the electric current flowing from the capacitor to the flash bulb after 0.04 seconds is about 2670 microamperes.

2

| AB | < 2 80.4 2 53.6 − 2670 0.06 2 0.02 | BC |

■

the Velocity problem If you watch the speedometer of a car as you travel in city traffic, you see that the speed doesn’t stay the same for very long; that is, the velocity of the car is not constant. We assume from watching the speedometer that the car has a definite velocity at each moment, but how is the “instantaneous” velocity defined? Let’s investigate the example of a falling ball.

ExamplE 3 Suppose that a ball is dropped from the upper observation deck of the CN Tower in Toronto, 450 m above the ground. Find the velocity of the ball after 5 seconds. SOLUtION Through experiments carried out four centuries ago, Galileo discovered that the distance fallen by any freely falling body is proportional to the square of the time it has been falling. (This model for free fall neglects air resistance.) If the distance fallen

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SeCtION 2.1 The Tangent and Velocity Problems

81

after t seconds is denoted by sstd and measured in meters, then Galileo’s law is expressed by the equation sstd − 4.9t 2 The difficulty in finding the velocity after 5 seconds is that we are dealing with a single instant of time st − 5d, so no time interval is involved. However, we can approximate the desired quantity by computing the average velocity over the brief time interval of a tenth of a second from t − 5 to t − 5.1: change in position time elapsed

Steve Allen / Stockbyte / Getty Images

average velocity −

−

ss5.1d 2 ss5d 0.1

−

4.9s5.1d2 2 4.9s5d2 − 49.49 mys 0.1

The following table shows the results of similar calculations of the average velocity over successively smaller time periods.

The CN Tower in Toronto was the tallest freestanding building in the world for 32 years.

Average velocity smysd

Time interval 5 1

23–28 Use a table of values to estimate the value of the limit. If you have a graphing device, use it to confirm your result graphically. ln x 2 ln 4 1 1 p9 23. lim 24. lim xl4 p l 21 1 1 p 15 x24

1 1 sin x if x , 0 12. f sxd − cos x if 0 < x <  sin x if x . 

25. lim

H H

l0

sin 3 tan 2

26. lim

tl0

27. lim1 x x ; 13–14 Use the graph of the function f to state the value of each limit, if it exists. If it does not exist, explain why. (a) lim2 f sxd (b) lim1 f sxd (c) lim f sxd xl0

13. f sxd −

xl0

1 1 1 e 1yx

xl0

14. f sxd −

x2 1 x sx 3 1 x 2

15–18 Sketch the graph of an example of a function f that satisfies all of the given conditions. 15. lim2 f sxd − 2, xl1

16. lim2 f sxd − 1, xl0

lim1 f sxd − 1,

xl2

lim f sxd − 22,

x l 11

lim1 f sxd − 21,

xl0

f s2d − 1,

f s1d − 2 lim2 f sxd − 0,

xl2

f s0d is undefined

5t 2 1 t

28. lim1 x 2 ln x

x l0

x l0

2 ; 29. (a) By graphing the function f sxd − scos 2x 2 cos xdyx and zooming in toward the point where the graph crosses the y-axis, estimate the value of lim x l 0 f sxd. (b) Check your answer in part (a) by evaluating f sxd for values of x that approach 0.

; 30. (a) Estimate the value of lim

xl0

sin x sin x

by graphing the function f sxd − ssin xdyssin xd. State your answer correct to two decimal places. (b) Check your answer in part (a) by evaluating f sxd for values of x that approach 0.

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94

Chapter 2

Limits and Derivatives

(b) Evaluate f sxd for x − 0.04, 0.02, 0.01, 0.005, 0.003, and 0.001. Guess again.

31–43 Determine the infinite limit. x11 x11 31. lim1 32. lim2 x l5 x 2 5 x l5 x 2 5 33. lim

x l1

22x sx 2 1d2

34. lim2 x l3

lim

xl0

1 sec x x

38. lim2 cot x x l

39. lim 2 x csc x

40. lim2

x l2

xl2

41. lim1

x 2 2 2x 2 8 x 2 2 5x 1 6

42. lim1

S

x l2

xl0

x 2 2 2x x 2 2 4x 1 4 ;

D

1 2 ln x x

43. lim sln x 2 2 x22 d xl0

44. (a) Find the vertical asymptotes of the function y− ;

x l1

;

x2 1 1 3x 2 2x 2

1 1 and lim1 3 x l1 x 2 1 x3 2 1

(a) by evaluating f sxd − 1ysx 3 2 1d for values of x that approach 1 from the left and from the right, (b) by reasoning as in Example 9, and (c) from a graph of f.

; 46. (a) By graphing the function f sxd − stan 4xdyx and zooming in toward the point where the graph crosses the y-axis, estimate the value of lim x l 0 f sxd. (b) Check your answer in part (a) by evaluating f sxd for values of x that approach 0. 47. (a) Estimate the value of the limit lim x l 0 s1 1 xd1yx to five decimal places. Does this number look familiar? (b) Illustrate part (a) by graphing the function ; y − s1 1 xd1yx.

|

|

x ; 48. (a) Graph the function f sxd − e 1 ln x 2 4 for 0 < x < 5. Do you think the graph is an accurate representation of f ? (b) How would you get a graph that represents f better?

49. (a) Evaluate the function f sxd − x 2 2 s2 xy1000d for x − 1, 0.8, 0.6, 0.4, 0.2, 0.1, and 0.05, and guess the value of lim

xl0

S

x2 2

2x 1000

tan x 2 x . x3

(c) Evaluate hsxd for successively smaller values of x until you finally reach a value of 0 for hsxd. Are you still confident that your guess in part (b) is correct? Explain why you eventually obtained 0 values. (In Section 4.4 a method for evaluating this limit will be explained.) (d) Graph the function h in the viewing rectangle f21, 1g by f0, 1g. Then zoom in toward the point where the graph crosses the y-axis to estimate the limit of hsxd as x approaches 0. Continue to zoom in until you observe distortions in the graph of h. Compare with the results of part (c).

; 51. Graph the function f sxd − sinsyxd of Example 4 in the viewing rectangle f21, 1g by f21, 1g. Then zoom in toward the origin several times. Comment on the behavior of this function. 52. Consider the function f sxd − tan

(b) Confirm your answer to part (a) by graphing the function. 45. Determine lim2

(b) Guess the value of lim

36. lim1 lnssin xd

x l5

xlsy2d1

sx sx 2 3d 5

xl0

35. lim1 lnsx 2 2 25d 37.

50. (a) Evaluate hsxd − stan x 2 xdyx 3 for x − 1, 0.5, 0.1, 0.05, 0.01, and 0.005.

D

1 . x

(a) Show that f sxd − 0 for x −

1 1 1 , , ,...  2 3

(b) Show that f sxd − 1 for x −

4 4 4 , , ,...  5 9

(c) What can you conclude about lim1 tan xl0

1 ? x

; 53. Use a graph to estimate the equations of all the vertical asymptotes of the curve y − tans2 sin xd

2 < x < 

Then find the exact equations of these asymptotes. 54. In the theory of relativity, the mass of a particle with velocity v is m0 m− s1 2 v 2yc 2 where m 0 is the mass of the particle at rest and c is the speed of light. What happens as v l c2? ; 55. (a) Use numerical and graphical evidence to guess the value of the limit lim xl1

x3 2 1 sx 2 1

(b) How close to 1 does x have to be to ensure that the function in part (a) is within a distance 0.5 of its limit?

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SeCtION 2.3 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws

95

In Section 2.2 we used calculators and graphs to guess the values of limits, but we saw that such methods don’t always lead to the correct answer. In this section we use the following properties of limits, called the Limit Laws, to calculate limits.

Limit Laws Suppose that c is a constant and the limits lim f sxd

xla

and

lim tsxd

xla

exist. Then 1. lim f f sxd 1 tsxdg − lim f sxd 1 lim tsxd xla

xla

xla

2. lim f f sxd 2 tsxdg − lim f sxd 2 lim tsxd xla

xla

xla

3. lim fcf sxdg − c lim f sxd xla

xla

4. lim f f sxd tsxdg − lim f sxd ? lim tsxd xla

xla

5. lim

lim f sxd f sxd xla − tsxd lim tsxd

xla

xla

if lim tsxd ± 0 xla

xla

Sum Law Difference Law Constant Multiple Law Product Law Quotient Law

These five laws can be stated verbally as follows: 1. The limit of a sum is the sum of the limits. 2. The limit of a difference is the difference of the limits. 3. The limit of a constant times a function is the constant times the limit of the function. 4. The limit of a product is the product of the limits. 5. The limit of a quotient is the quotient of the limits (provided that the limit of the denominator is not 0). It is easy to believe that these properties are true. For instance, if f sxd is close to L and tsxd is close to M, it is reasonable to conclude that f sxd 1 tsxd is close to L 1 M. This gives us an intuitive basis for believing that Law 1 is true. In Section 2.4 we give a precise definition of a limit and use it to prove this law. The proofs of the remaining laws are given in Appendix F.

y

f 1

0

g

FIGURE 1

1

x

ExamplE 1 Use the Limit Laws and the graphs of f and t in Figure 1 to evaluate the following limits, if they exist. f sxd (a) lim f f sxd 1 5tsxdg (b) lim f f sxd tsxdg (c) lim x l 22 xl1 x l 2 tsxd SOLUtION

(a) From the graphs of f and t we see that lim f sxd − 1

x l 22

and

lim tsxd − 21

x l 22

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96

Chapter 2

Limits and Derivatives

Therefore we have lim f f sxd 1 5tsxdg − lim f sxd 1 lim f5tsxdg

(by Limit Law 1)

− lim f sxd 1 5 lim tsxd

(by Limit Law 3)

x l 22

x l 22

x l 22

x l 22

x l 22

− 1 1 5s21d − 24 (b) We see that lim x l 1 f sxd − 2. But lim x l 1 tsxd does not exist because the left and right limits are different: lim tsxd − 22

lim tsxd − 21

x l 12

x l 11

So we can’t use Law 4 for the desired limit. But we can use Law 4 for the one-sided limits: lim f f sxdtsxdg − lim2 f sxd ? lim2 tsxd − 2 ? s22d − 24

x l 12

x l1

x l1

lim f f sxdtsxdg − lim1 f sxd ? lim1 tsxd − 2 ? s21d − 22

x l 11

x l1

x l1

The left and right limits aren’t equal, so lim x l 1 f f sxdtsxdg does not exist. (c) The graphs show that lim f sxd < 1.4

xl2

lim tsxd − 0

and

xl2

Because the limit of the denominator is 0, we can’t use Law 5. The given limit does not exist because the denominator approaches 0 while the numerator approaches a nonzero ■ number. If we use the Product Law repeatedly with tsxd − f sxd, we obtain the following law. Power Law

6. lim f f sxdg n − f lim f sxdg n x la

x la

where n is a positive integer

In applying these six limit laws, we need to use two special limits: 7.

lim c − c

xla

8.

lim x − a

xla

These limits are obvious from an intuitive point of view (state them in words or draw graphs of y − c and y − x), but proofs based on the precise definition are requested in the exercises for Section 2.4. If we now put f sxd − x in Law 6 and use Law 8, we get another useful special limit. 9.

lim x n − a n

xla

where n is a positive integer

A similar limit holds for roots as follows. (For square roots the proof is outlined in Exercise 2.4.37.) 10.

n n x −s a lim s

xla

where n is a positive integer

(If n is even, we assume that a . 0.)

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SeCtION 2.3 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws

97

More generally, we have the following law, which is proved in Section 2.5 as a consequence of Law 10. 11.

Root Law

n n lim f sxd f sxd − s lim s x la

where n is a positive integer

x la

f sxd . 0.g f If n is even, we assume that xlim la Newton and Limits Isaac Newton was born on Christmas Day in 1642, the year of Galileo’s death. When he entered Cambridge University in 1661 Newton didn’t know much mathematics, but he learned quickly by reading Euclid and Descartes and by attending the lectures of Isaac Barrow. Cambridge was closed because of the plague in 1665 and 1666, and Newton returned home to reflect on what he had learned. Those two years were amazingly productive for at that time he made four of his major discoveries: (1) his representation of functions as sums of infinite series, including the binomial theorem; (2) his work on differential and integral calculus; (3) his laws of motion and law of universal gravitation; and (4) his prism experiments on the nature of light and color. Because of a fear of controversy and criticism, he was reluctant to publish his discoveries and it wasn’t until 1687, at the urging of the astronomer Halley, that Newton published Principia Mathematica. In this work, the greatest scientific treatise ever written, Newton set forth his version of calculus and used it to investigate mechanics, fluid dynamics, and wave motion, and to explain the motion of planets and comets. The beginnings of calculus are found in the calculations of areas and volumes by ancient Greek scholars such as Eudoxus and Archimedes. Although aspects of the idea of a limit are implicit in their “method of exhaustion,” Eudoxus and Archimedes never explicitly formulated the concept of a limit. Likewise, mathematicians such as Cavalieri, Fermat, and Barrow, the immediate precursors of Newton in the development of calculus, did not actually use limits. It was Isaac Newton who was the first to talk explicitly about limits. He explained that the main idea behind limits is that quantities “approach nearer than by any given difference.” Newton stated that the limit was the basic concept in calculus, but it was left to later mathematicians like Cauchy to clarify his ideas about limits.

ExamplE 2 Evaluate the following limits and justify each step. (a) lim s2x 2 2 3x 1 4d

(b) lim

x l5

x l 22

x 3 1 2x 2 2 1 5 2 3x

SOLUtION

(a)

lim s2x 2 2 3x 1 4d − lim s2x 2 d 2 lim s3xd 1 lim 4

x l5

x l5

x l5

x l5

(by Laws 2 and 1)

− 2 lim x 2 2 3 lim x 1 lim 4

(by 3)

− 2s5 2 d 2 3s5d 1 4

(by 9, 8, and 7)

x l5

x l5

x l5

− 39 (b) We start by using Law 5, but its use is fully justified only at the final stage when we see that the limits of the numerator and denominator exist and the limit of the denominator is not 0. x 3 1 2x 2 2 1 lim − x l 22 5 2 3x

lim sx 3 1 2x 2 2 1d

x l 22

(by Law 5)

lim s5 2 3xd

x l 22

lim x 3 1 2 lim x 2 2 lim 1

−

x l 22

x l 22

x l 22

lim 5 2 3 lim x

x l 22

−

x l 22

s22d3 1 2s22d2 2 1 5 2 3s22d

−2

(by 1, 2, and 3)

(by 9, 8, and 7)

1 11

■

NOTE If we let f sxd − 2x 2 2 3x 1 4, then f s5d − 39. In other words, we would have gotten the correct answer in Example 2(a) by substituting 5 for x. Similarly, direct substitution provides the correct answer in part (b). The functions in Example 2 are a polynomial and a rational function, respectively, and similar use of the Limit Laws proves that direct substitution always works for such functions (see Exercises 57 and 58). We state this fact as follows. Direct Substitution Property If f is a polynomial or a rational function and a is in the domain of f , then lim f sxd − f sad x la

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

98

Chapter 2

Limits and Derivatives

Functions with the Direct Substitution Property are called continuous at a and will be studied in Section 2.5. However, not all limits can be evaluated by direct substitution, as the following examples show.

ExamplE 3 Find lim xl1

x2 2 1 . x21

SOLUtION Let f sxd − sx 2 2 1dysx 2 1d. We can’t find the limit by substituting x − 1

because f s1d isn’t defined. Nor can we apply the Quotient Law, because the limit of the denominator is 0. Instead, we need to do some preliminary algebra. We factor the numerator as a difference of squares: x2 2 1 sx 2 1dsx 1 1d − x21 x21 Notice that in Example 3 we do not have an infinite limit even though the denominator approaches 0 as x l 1. When both numerator and denominator approach 0, the limit may be infinite or it may be some finite value.

The numerator and denominator have a common factor of x 2 1. When we take the limit as x approaches 1, we have x ± 1 and so x 2 1 ± 0. Therefore we can cancel the common factor and then compute the limit by direct substitution as follows: lim

xl1

x2 2 1 sx 2 1dsx 1 1d − lim xl1 x21 x21 − lim sx 1 1d xl1

−111−2 The limit in this example arose in Example 2.1.1 when we were trying to find the tangent to the parabola y − x 2 at the point s1, 1d.

■

NOTE In Example 3 we were able to compute the limit by replacing the given function f sxd − sx 2 2 1dysx 2 1d by a simpler function, tsxd − x 1 1, with the same limit. This is valid because f sxd − tsxd except when x − 1, and in computing a limit as x approaches 1 we don’t consider what happens when x is actually equal to 1. In general, we have the following useful fact.

y

y=ƒ

3

If f sxd − tsxd when x ± a, then lim f sxd − lim tsxd, provided the limits exist.

2

xla

x la

1 0

1

2

3

x

ExamplE 4 Find lim tsxd where x l1

y

y=©

3 2 1 0

1

2

3

x

tsxd −

H

x 1 1 if x ± 1  if x − 1

SOLUtION Here t is defined at x − 1 and ts1d − , but the value of a limit as x approaches 1 does not depend on the value of the function at 1. Since tsxd − x 1 1 for x ± 1, we have

lim tsxd − lim sx 1 1d − 2

xl1

■

xl1

FIGURE 2 The graphs of the functions f (from Example 3) and t (from Example 4)

Note that the values of the functions in Examples 3 and 4 are identical except when x − 1 (see Figure 2) and so they have the same limit as x approaches 1.

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SeCtION 2.3 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws

ExamplE 5 Evaluate lim

hl0

99

s3 1 hd2 2 9 . h

SOLUtION If we define

Fshd −

s3 1 hd2 2 9 h

then, as in Example 3, we can’t compute lim h l 0 Fshd by letting h − 0 since Fs0d is undefined. But if we simplify Fshd algebraically, we find that Fshd −

s9 1 6h 1 h 2 d 2 9 6h 1 h 2 hs6 1 hd − − −61h h h h

(Recall that we consider only h ± 0 when letting h approach 0.) Thus lim

hl0

ExamplE 6 Find lim

tl0

s3 1 hd2 2 9 − lim s6 1 hd − 6 hl0 h

■

st 2 1 9 2 3 . t2

SOLUtION We can’t apply the Quotient Law immediately, since the limit of the denominator is 0. Here the preliminary algebra consists of rationalizing the numerator:

lim

tl0

st 2 1 9 2 3 st 2 1 9 2 3 st 2 1 9 1 3 − lim  2 t tl0 t2 st 2 1 9 1 3 − lim

st 2 1 9d 2 9 t (st 2 1 9 1 3)

− lim

t2 t 2 (st 2 1 9 1 3)

− lim

1 st 1 9 1 3

tl0

tl0

tl0

−

2

2

1 slim st 1 9d 1 3 2

t l0

Here we use several properties of limits (5, 1, 10, 7, 9).

−

1 1 − 313 6

This calculation confirms the guess that we made in Example 2.2.2.

■

Some limits are best calculated by first finding the left- and right-hand limits. The following theorem is a reminder of what we discovered in Section 2.2. It says that a twosided limit exists if and only if both of the one-sided limits exist and are equal. 1 Theorem lim f sxd − L xla

if and only if

lim f sxd − L − lim1 f sxd

x l a2

x la

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100

Chapter 2

Limits and Derivatives

When computing one-sided limits, we use the fact that the Limit Laws also hold for one-sided limits.

ExamplE 7 Show that lim | x | − 0. xl0

SOLUtION Recall that The result of Example 7 looks plausible from Figure 3. y

|x| −

H

x if x > 0 2x if x , 0

Since | x | − x for x . 0, we have lim | x | − lim1 x − 0

y=|x|

x l 01

x l0

For x , 0 we have | x | − 2x and so lim | x | − lim2 s2xd − 0

x l 02

0

x

x l0

Therefore, by Theorem 1, lim | x | − 0

FIGURE 3

■

xl0

ExamplE 8 Prove that lim

xl0

| x | does not exist. x

| |

| |

SOLUtION Using the facts that x − x when x . 0 and x − 2x when x , 0, we

have y

lim

|x| −

lim

|x| −

x l 01

|x|

y= x

1 0

x l 02

x

x

x

lim

x − lim1 1 − 1 x l0 x

lim

2x − lim2 s21d − 21 x l0 x

x l 01

x l 02

_1

Since the right- and left-hand limits are different, it follows from Theorem 1 that lim x l 0 | x |yx does not exist. The graph of the function f sxd − | x |yx is shown in Figure 4 and supports the one-sided limits that we found. ■

FIGURE 4

ExamplE 9 If f sxd −

H

sx 2 4 8 2 2x

if x . 4 if x , 4

determine whether lim x l 4 f sxd exists. SOLUtION Since f sxd − sx 2 4 for x . 4, we have

It is shown in Example 2.4.3 that lim x l 01 sx − 0.

lim f sxd − lim1 s x 2 4 − s4 2 4 − 0

x l 41

x l4

Since f sxd − 8 2 2x for x , 4, we have

y

lim f sxd − lim2 s8 2 2xd − 8 2 2 ? 4 − 0

x l 42

x l4

The right- and left-hand limits are equal. Thus the limit exists and 0

4

x

lim f sxd − 0

xl4

FIGURE 5

The graph of f is shown in Figure 5.

■

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SeCtION 2.3 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws

Other notations for v x b are fxg and :x;. The greatest integer function is sometimes called the floor function.

ExamplE 10 The greatest integer function is defined by v x b − the largest integer that is less than or equal to x. (For instance, v4 b − 4, v 4.8b − 4, v  b − 3, vs2 b − 1,

v212 b − 21.) Show that lim x l3 v x b does not exist.

y

SOLUtION The graph of the greatest integer function is shown in Figure 6. Since

4

v x b − 3 for 3 < x , 4, we have

3

lim v x b − lim1 3 − 3

x l 31

y=[ x ]

2

x l3

Since v x b − 2 for 2 < x , 3, we have

1 0

101

1

2

3

4

5

lim v x b − lim2 2 − 2

x

x l 32

x l3

Because these one-sided limits are not equal, lim xl3 v x b does not exist by Theorem 1. ■ The next two theorems give two additional properties of limits. Their proofs can be found in Appendix F.

FIGURE 6 Greatest integer function

2 Theorem If f sxd < tsxd when x is near a (except possibly at a) and the limits of f and t both exist as x approaches a, then lim f sxd < lim tsxd

xla

xla

3 The Squeeze Theorem If f sxd < tsxd < hsxd when x is near a (except possibly at a) and lim f sxd − lim hsxd − L

xla

y

h g

xla

lim tsxd − L

then

xla

L

f 0

FIGURE 7

a

x

The Squeeze Theorem, which is sometimes called the Sandwich Theorem or the Pinching Theorem, is illustrated by Figure 7. It says that if tsxd is squeezed between f sxd and hsxd near a, and if f and h have the same limit L at a, then t is forced to have the same limit L at a. 1 − 0. xl0 x SOLUtION First note that we cannot use

ExamplE 11 Show that lim x 2 sin

lim x 2 sin

xl0

1 1 − lim x 2 ? lim sin xl0 xl0 x x

because lim x l 0 sins1yxd does not exist (see Example 2.2.4). Instead we apply the Squeeze Theorem, and so we need to find a function f smaller than tsxd − x 2 sins1yxd and a function h bigger than t such that both f sxd and hsxd approach 0. To do this we use our knowledge of the sine function. Because the sine of Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

102

Chapter 2

Limits and Derivatives

any number lies between 21 and 1, we can write. 4

21 < sin

1 0 for all x and so, multiplying each side of the inequalities in (4) by x 2, we get y

2x 2 < x 2 sin

y=≈

1 < x2 x

as illustrated by Figure 8. We know that lim x 2 − 0

x

0

and

xl0

lim s2x 2 d − 0

xl0

y − x 2 sins1yxd

Taking f sxd − 2x 2, tsxd − x 2 sins1yxd, and hsxd − x 2 in the Squeeze Theorem, we obtain 1 lim x 2 sin − 0 xl0 x

1. Given that

4. lim sx 2 1 xds3x 2 1 6d

y=_≈

FIGURE 8

lim f sxd − 4

xl2

xl 21

lim tsxd − 22

lim hsxd − 0

xl 2

xl2

find the limits that exist. If the limit does not exist, explain why. (a) lim f f sxd 1 5tsxdg (b) lim f tsxdg 3 xl2

xl2

(c) lim sf sxd

(d) lim

xl2

(e) lim

x l2

xl2

tsxd hsxd

(f ) lim

xl2

3f sxd tsxd tsxdhsxd f sxd

2. The graphs of f and t are given. Use them to evaluate each limit, if it exists. If the limit does not exist, explain why. (a) lim f f sxd 1 tsxdg (b) lim f f sxd 2 tsxdg x l2

5. lim

t l 22

t4 2 2 2t 2 3t 1 2

(d) lim

x l 21

x l3

(e) lim fx f sxdg x l2

9. lim

xl2

Î

0

2x 2 1 1 3x 2 2

lim

x l2

x2 1 x 2 6 − lim sx 1 3d x l2 x22

is correct.

x l2

1

x

x2 1 x 2 6 x22

12. lim

x l 23

2

13. lim

x l2

x 2x16 x22

14. lim

xl4

3–9 Evaluate the limit and justify each step by indicating the appropriate Limit Law(s). x l 22

15. lim

t l 23

17. lim

hl0

t 29 2t 1 7t 1 3 2

s25 1 hd2 2 25 h

16. lim

x 2 1 3x x 2 x 2 12

x l 21

18. lim

hl0

x 2 1 3x x 2 x 2 12 2

2

2

3. lim s3x 4 1 2x 2 2 x 1 1d

2

11–32 Evaluate the limit, if it exists.

1 x

D

x2 1 x 2 6 −x13 x22

11. lim 1

t2 2 2 t 2 3t 1 5 3

10. (a) What is wrong with the following equation?

y=©

y=ƒ

0

tl2

S

(b) In view of part (a), explain why the equation

f sxd tsxd

y

1

8. lim

xl8

x l 21

y

ul 22

3 7. lim s1 1 s x ds2 2 6x 2 1 x 3 d

(f ) f s21d 1 lim tsxd

2

6. lim su 4 1 3u 1 6

2

xl0

(c) lim f f sxd tsxdg

■

2x 2 1 3x 1 1 x 2 2 2x 2 3

s2 1 hd3 2 8 h

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

103

SeCtION 2.3 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws

19. lim

x l3

21. lim

hl0

x23 x 3 2 27

20. lim

s9 1 h 2 3 h

22. lim

tl1

t4 2 1 t3 2 1

ul 2

40. Prove that lim1 sx e sinsyxd − 0. x l0

41–46 Find the limit, if it exists. If the limit does not exist, explain why. 2x 1 12 41. lim s2x 1 x 2 3 d 42. lim xl3 x l 26 x 1 6

s4u 1 1 2 3 u22

|

1 1 2 x 3 23. lim x l3 x 2 3

21

24. lim

hl0

s3 1 hd 2 3 h

43. lim 2 x l 0.5

25. lim

tl0

s1 1 t 2 s1 2 t t

26. lim

t l 21

x 2 1 2x 1 1 x4 2 1

45. lim2 x l0

27. lim

x l 16

29. lim

tl0

31. lim

hl0

4 2 sx 16x 2 x 2

S

2x 2 1 3 2 x2

| 2x

S

x 2 4x 1 4 x 4 2 3x 2 2 4

30. lim

sx 1 9 2 5 x14

x l2

1 1 2 t s1 1 t t

D

xl24

1 1 2 2 sx 1 hd2 x 32. lim hl0 h

; 33. (a) Estimate the value of x l0

S

x l0

H

sgn x −

D

21 if x , 0 20 if x − 0 21 if x . 0

|

(iv) lim sgn x xl0

|

48. Let tsxd − sgnssin xd . (a) Find each of the following limits or explain why it does not exist. (i) lim1 tsxd (ii) lim2 tsxd (iii) lim tsxd x l0

x l0

(iv) lim1 tsxd

(v)

x l

x l0

lim2 tsxd

x l

(vi) lim tsxd x l

(b) For which values of a does lim x l a tsxd not exist? (c) Sketch a graph of t.

; 35. Use the Squeeze Theorem to show that lim x l 0 sx 2 cos 20xd − 0. Illustrate by graphing the functions f sxd − 2x 2, tsxd − x 2 cos 20x, and hsxd − x 2 on the same screen.

49. Let tsxd −

x2 1 x 2 6 . x22

|

|

(a) Find (i) lim1 tsxd

Illustrate by graphing the functions f, t, and h (in the notation of the Squeeze Theorem) on the same screen. 37. If 4x 2 9 < f sxd < x 2 2 4x 1 7 for x > 0, find lim f sxd. xl4

38. If 2x < tsxd < x 2 x 1 2 for all x, evaluate lim tsxd. 2

xl1

(ii) lim2 tsxd

x l2

x l2

(b) Does lim x l 2 tsxd exist? (c) Sketch the graph of t. 50. Let f sxd −

; 36. Use the Squeeze Theorem to show that  −0 lim sx 3 1 x 2 sin x l0 x

2 39. Prove that lim x cos − 0. x l0 x

| |

x l0

xl0

s3 1 x 2 s3 x

1 1 2 x x

(a) Sketch the graph of this function. (b) Find each of the following limits or explain why it does not exist. (i) lim1 sgn x (ii) lim2 sgn x (iii) lim sgn x

to estimate the value of lim x l 0 f sxd to two decimal places. (b) Use a table of values of f sxd to estimate the limit to four decimal places. (c) Use the Limit Laws to find the exact value of the limit.

4

46. lim1

47. The signum (or sign) function, denoted by sgn, is defined by

; 34. (a) Use a graph of f sxd −

| |

22 x 21x

x l 22

| |D

|

44. lim

x l0

x s1 1 3x 2 1

by graphing the function f sxd − xyss1 1 3x 2 1d. (b) Make a table of values of f sxd for x close to 0 and guess the value of the limit. (c) Use the Limit Laws to prove that your guess is correct.

4

|

2

sx 1 hd3 2 x 3 h

lim

|

1 1 2 x x

2

28. lim

|

21

H

x2 1 1 if x , 1 sx 2 2d 2 if x > 1

(a) Find lim x l12 f sxd and lim x l11 f sxd. (b) Does lim x l1 f sxd exist? (c) Sketch the graph of f. 51. Let Bstd −

H

4 2 12 t

if t , 2

st 1 c

if t > 2

Find the value of c so that lim Bstd exists. tl2

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

104

Chapter 2

Limits and Derivatives

f sxd 2 8 − 10, find lim f sxd. xl1 x21 f sxd 60. If lim 2 − 5, find the following limits. xl0 x f sxd (a) lim f sxd (b) lim xl0 xl0 x 61. If x 2 if x is rational f sxd − 0 if x is irrational 59. If lim

52. Let tsxd −

x 3 2 2 x2 x23

if if if if

xl1

x,1 x−1 1,x 21 for all x and so 2 1 cos x . 0 everywhere. Thus the ratio

ExamplE 7 Evaluate lim

x l

f sxd −

sin x 2 1 cos x

is continuous everywhere. Hence, by the definition of a continuous function, lim

x l

sin x sin  0 − lim f sxd − f sd − − −0 x l 2 1 cos x 2 1 cos  221

■

Another way of combining continuous functions f and t to get a new continuous function is to form the composite function f 8 t. This fact is a consequence of the following theorem. This theorem says that a limit symbol can be moved through a function symbol if the function is continuous and the limit exists. In other words, the order of these two symbols can be reversed.

8 Theorem If f is continuous at b and lim tsxd − b, then lim f s tsxdd − f sbd. x la x la In other words,

S

D

lim f stsxdd − f lim tsxd

xla

xl a

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SeCtion 2.5 Continuity

121

Intuitively, Theorem 8 is reasonable because if x is close to a, then tsxd is close to b, and since f is continuous at b, if tsxd is close to b, then fs tsxdd is close to f sbd. A proof of Theorem 8 is given in Appendix F.

ExamplE 8 Evaluate lim arcsin x l1

S

D

1 2 sx . 12x

SoLUtion Because arcsin is a continuous function, we can apply Theorem 8:

lim arcsin

x l1

S

1 2 sx 12x

D

S S S

D

− arcsin lim

1 2 sx 12x

− arcsin lim

1 2 sx (1 2 sx ) (1 1 sx )

− arcsin lim

1 1 1 sx

− arcsin

x l1

x l1

x l1

D

D

1  − 2 6

■

n Let’s now apply Theorem 8 in the special case where f sxd − s x , with n being a positive integer. Then n tsxd f s tsxdd − s

and

S

D

f lim tsxd − xla

t s xd s xlim la n

If we put these expressions into Theorem 8, we get n n lim tsxd tsxd − s lim s

xla

xla

and so Limit Law 11 has now been proved. (We assume that the roots exist.) 9 Theorem If t is continuous at a and f is continuous at tsad, then the composite function f 8 t given by s f 8 tds xd − f s ts xdd is continuous at a. This theorem is often expressed informally by saying “a continuous function of a continuous function is a continuous function.” proof Since t is continuous at a, we have

lim tsxd − tsad

xla

Since f is continuous at b − tsad, we can apply Theorem 8 to obtain lim f stsxdd − f stsadd

xla

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

122

Chapter 2

Limits and Derivatives

which is precisely the statement that the function hsxd − f s tsxdd is continuous at a; that is, f 8 t is continuous at a.

■

ExamplE 9 Where are the following functions continuous? (a) hsxd − sinsx 2 d (b) Fsxd − lns1 1 cos xd SoLUtion

(a) We have hsxd − f s tsxdd, where 2

tsxd − x 2

_10

10

_6

FIGURE 7 y − lns1 1 cos xd

and

f sxd − sin x

Now t is continuous on R since it is a polynomial, and f is also continuous everywhere. Thus h − f 8 t is continuous on R by Theorem 9. (b) We know from Theorem 7 that f sxd − ln x is continuous and tsxd − 1 1 cos x is continuous (because both y − 1 and y − cos x are continuous). Therefore, by Theorem 9, Fsxd − f s tsxdd is continuous wherever it is defined. Now ln s1 1 cos xd is defined when 1 1 cos x . 0. So it is undefined when cos x − 21, and this happens when x − 6, 63, . . . . Thus F has discontinuities when x is an odd multiple of  and is continuous on the intervals between these values (see Figure 7). ■ An important property of continuous functions is expressed by the following theorem, whose proof is found in more advanced books on calculus. 10 The Intermediate Value Theorem Suppose that f is continuous on the closed interval fa, bg and let N be any number between f sad and f sbd, where f sad ± f sbd. Then there exists a number c in sa, bd such that f scd − N. The Intermediate Value Theorem states that a continuous function takes on every intermediate value between the function values f sad and f sbd. It is illustrated by Figure 8. Note that the value N can be taken on once [as in part (a)] or more than once [as in part (b)]. y

y

f(b)

f(b)

y=ƒ

N N

y=ƒ

f(a) 0

c b

(a)

y f(a)

y=N

f(b) a

FIGURE 9

x

0

a c¡

c™

c£

b

x

(b)

FIGURE 8

y=ƒ

N

0

a

f(a)

b

x

If we think of a continuous function as a function whose graph has no hole or break, then it is easy to believe that the Intermediate Value Theorem is true. In geometric terms it says that if any horizontal line y − N is given between y − f sad and y − f sbd as in Figure 9, then the graph of f can’t jump over the line. It must intersect y − N somewhere. It is important that the function f in Theorem 10 be continuous. The Intermediate Value Theorem is not true in general for discontinuous functions (see Exercise 50).

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123

SeCtion 2.5 Continuity

One use of the Intermediate Value Theorem is in locating roots of equations as in the following example.

ExamplE 10 Show that there is a root of the equation 4x 3 2 6x 2 1 3x 2 2 − 0 between 1 and 2. SoLUtion Let f sxd − 4x 3 2 6x 2 1 3x 2 2. We are looking for a solution of the given

equation, that is, a number c between 1 and 2 such that f scd − 0. Therefore we take a − 1, b − 2, and N − 0 in Theorem 10. We have f s1d − 4 2 6 1 3 2 2 − 21 , 0 f s2d − 32 2 24 1 6 2 2 − 12 . 0

and

Thus f s1d , 0 , f s2d; that is, N − 0 is a number between f s1d and f s2d. Now f is continuous since it is a polynomial, so the Intermediate Value Theorem says there is a number c between 1 and 2 such that f scd − 0. In other words, the equation 4x 3 2 6x 2 1 3x 2 2 − 0 has at least one root c in the interval s1, 2d. In fact, we can locate a root more precisely by using the Intermediate Value Theorem again. Since f s1.2d − 20.128 , 0

f s1.3d − 0.548 . 0

and

a root must lie between 1.2 and 1.3. A calculator gives, by trial and error, f s1.22d − 20.007008 , 0

f s1.23d − 0.056068 . 0

and

so a root lies in the interval s1.22, 1.23d.

■

We can use a graphing calculator or computer to illustrate the use of the Intermediate Value Theorem in Example 10. Figure 10 shows the graph of f in the viewing rectangle f21, 3g by f23, 3g and you can see that the graph crosses the x-axis between 1 and 2. Figure 11 shows the result of zooming in to the viewing rectangle f1.2, 1.3g by f20.2, 0.2g. 3

0.2

3

_1

_3

FIGURE 10

1.2

1.3

_0.2

FIGURE 11

In fact, the Intermediate Value Theorem plays a role in the very way these graphing devices work. A computer calculates a finite number of points on the graph and turns on the pixels that contain these calculated points. It assumes that the function is continuous and takes on all the intermediate values between two consecutive points. The computer therefore “connects the dots” by turning on the intermediate pixels. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

124

Chapter 2

Limits and Derivatives

1. Write an equation that expresses the fact that a function f is continuous at the number 4. 2. If f is continuous on s2`, `d, what can you say about its graph? 3. (a) From the graph of f , state the numbers at which f is discontinuous and explain why. (b) For each of the numbers stated in part (a), determine whether f is continuous from the right, or from the left, or neither.

10. Explain why each function is continuous or discontinuous. (a) The temperature at a specific location as a function of time (b) The temperature at a specific time as a function of the distance due west from Paris (c) The altitude above sea level as a function of the distance due west from Paris (d) The cost of a taxi ride as a function of the distance traveled (e) The current in the circuit for the lights in a room as a function of time 11–14 Use the definition of continuity and the properties of limits to show that the function is continuous at the given number a.

y

11. f sxd − x 2 1 s7 2 x , 12. tstd −

_4

_2

0

2

4

x

6

a−4

2

t 1 5t , a−2 2t 1 1

13. psvd − 2s3v 2 1 1 , a − 1 3 14. f sxd − 3x 4 2 5x 1 s x2 1 4 ,

4. From the graph of t, state the intervals on which t is continuous. y

_3

_2

0

15 –16 Use the definition of continuity and the properties of limits to show that the function is continuous on the given interval. 15. f sxd − x 1 sx 2 4 , f4, `d 16. tsxd −

1

2

3

x

5 – 8 Sketch the graph of a function f that is continuous except for the stated discontinuity. 5. Discontinuous, but continuous from the right, at 2 6. Discontinuities at 21 and 4, but continuous from the left at 21 and from the right at 4 7. Removable discontinuity at 3, jump discontinuity at 5 8. Neither left nor right continuous at 22, continuous only from the left at 2 9. The toll T charged for driving on a certain stretch of a toll road is $5 except during rush hours (between 7 am and 10 am and between 4 pm and 7 pm) when the toll is $7. (a) Sketch a graph of T as a function of the time t, measured in hours past midnight. (b) Discuss the discontinuities of this function and their significance to someone who uses the road.

a−2

x21 , s2`, 22d 3x 1 6

17– 22 Explain why the function is discontinuous at the given number a. Sketch the graph of the function. 1 17. f sxd − a − 22 x12 18. f sxd −

19. f sxd −

H

1 x12 1

H

x 1 3 if x < 21 2x if x . 21

H H H

x2 2 x 20. f sxd − x 2 2 1 1

if x ± 22

a − 22

if x − 22

if x ± 1

a − 21

a−1

if x − 1

cos x if x , 0 21. f sxd − 0 if x − 0 1 2 x 2 if x . 0

a−0

2x 2 2 5x 2 3 22. f sxd − x23 6

a−3

if x ± 3 if x − 3

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SeCtion 2.5 Continuity

H

23 –24 How would you “remove the discontinuity” of f ? In other words, how would you define f s2d in order to make f continuous at 2? x2 2 x 2 2 x22

23. f sxd −

1 1 x2 if x < 0 43. f sxd − 2 2 x if 0 , x < 2 sx 2 2d2 if x . 2

x 2 2 3x 1 2 x2 1 x 2 6

24. f sxd −

44. The gravitational force exerted by the planet Earth on a unit mass at a distance r from the center of the planet is

25 – 32 Explain, using Theorems 4, 5, 7, and 9, why the function is continuous at every number in its domain. State the domain. 2

2x 2 x 2 1 25. Fsxd − x2 1 1 sx 2 2 x3 2 2

2

x 11 26. Gsxd − 2x 2 2 x 2 1

27. Qsxd −

29. Astd − arcsins1 1 2td 31. Msxd −

Î

11

Fsrd −

sin t

3

1 x

28. Rstd −

e 2 1 cos t

30. Bsxd −

tan x s4 2 x 2

; 33 –34 Locate the discontinuities of the function and illustrate by graphing. 34. y − lnstan xd

35 – 38 Use continuity to evaluate the limit.

x l1

5 2 x2 11x

40. f sxd −

H H

1 2 x2 ln x

H

cx 2 1 2x if x , 2 x 3 2 cx if x > 2

46. Find the values of a and b that make f continuous everywhere.

f sxd −

x2 2 4 if x , 2 x22 ax 2 2 bx 1 3 if 2 < x , 3 2x 2 a 1 b if x > 3

47. Suppose f and t are continuous functions such that ts2d − 6 and lim x l2 f3 f sxd 1 f sxd tsxdg − 36. Find f s2d.

38. lim 3 sx

48. Let f sxd − 1yx and tsxd − 1yx 2. (a) Find s f + tds xd. (b) Is f + t continuous everywhere? Explain.

2 22x24

xl4

39 – 40 Show that f is continuous on s2`, `d. 39. f sxd −

if r > R

36. lim sinsx 1 sin xd x l

S D

37. lim ln

f sxd −

2

x l2

if r , R

45. For what value of the constant c is the function f continuous on s2`, `d? 2

35. lim x s20 2 x 2

GMr R3 GM r2

where M is the mass of Earth, R is its radius, and G is the gravitational constant. Is F a continuous function of r?

32. Nsrd − tan21 s1 1 e2r d

1 33. y − 1 1 e 1yx

125

if x < 1 if x . 1

sin x if x , y4 cos x if x > y4

49. Which of the following functions f has a removable discontinuity at a? If the discontinuity is removable, find a function t that agrees with f for x ± a and is continuous at a. (a) f sxd −

x4 2 1 , a−1 x21

(b) f sxd −

x 3 2 x 2 2 2x , x22

a−2

(c) f sxd − v sin x b , a −  41– 43 Find the numbers at which f is discontinuous. At which of these numbers is f continuous from the right, from the left, or neither? Sketch the graph of f .

H H

x 2 if x , 21 if 21 < x , 1 41. f sxd − x 1yx if x > 1 2x if x < 1 42. f sxd − 3 2 x if 1 , x < 4 if x . 4 sx

50. Suppose that a function f is continuous on [0, 1] except at 0.25 and that f s0d − 1 and f s1d − 3. Let N − 2. Sketch two possible graphs of f , one showing that f might not satisfy the conclusion of the Intermediate Value Theorem and one showing that f might still satisfy the conclusion of the Intermediate Value Theorem (even though it doesn’t satisfy the hypothesis). 51. If f sxd − x 2 1 10 sin x, show that there is a number c such that f scd − 1000. 52. Suppose f is continuous on f1, 5g and the only solutions of the equation f sxd − 6 are x − 1 and x − 4. If f s2d − 8, explain why f s3d . 6.

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126

Chapter 2

Limits and Derivatives

53– 56 Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that there is a root of the given equation in the specified interval.

65. Prove that cosine is a continuous function.

53. x 4 1 x 2 3 − 0, s1, 2d

66. (a) Prove Theorem 4, part 3. (b) Prove Theorem 4, part 5.

54. ln x − x 2 sx ,

67. For what values of x is f continuous?

s2, 3d

55. sx − 1 2 x, s0, 1d 3

f sxd −

56. sin x − x 2 2 x, s1, 2d

H

0 if x is rational 1 if x is irrational

68. For what values of x is t continuous? 57 – 58 (a) Prove that the equation has at least one real root. (b) Use your calculator to find an interval of length 0.01 that contains a root. 57. cos x − x 3

58. ln x − 3 2 2x

H

tsxd −

0 if x is rational x if x is irrational

69. Is there a number that is exactly 1 more than its cube? 70. If a and b are positive numbers, prove that the equation

; 59– 60 (a) Prove that the equation has at least one real root. (b) Use your graphing device to find the root correct to three decimal places. 59. 100e2xy100 − 0.01x 2

a b 1 3 −0 x 3 1 2x 2 2 1 x 1x22 has at least one solution in the interval s21, 1d. 71. Show that the function

60. arctan x − 1 2 x f sxd − 61– 62 Prove, without graphing, that the graph of the function has at least two x-intercepts in the specified interval.

H

x 4 sins1yxd 0

if x ± 0 if x − 0

is continuous on s2`, `d.

| |

61. y − sin x 3, s1, 2d 62. y − x 2 2 3 1 1yx, s0, 2d

72. (a) Show that the absolute value function Fsxd − x is continuous everywhere. (b) Prove that if f is a continuous function on an interval, then so is f . (c) Is the converse of the statement in part (b) also true? In other words, if f is continuous, does it follow that f is continuous? If so, prove it. If not, find a counterexample.

| |

63. Prove that f is continuous at a if and only if lim f sa 1 hd − f sad

| |

hl0

64. To prove that sine is continuous, we need to show that lim x l a sin x − sin a for every real number a. By Exercise 63 an equivalent statement is that lim sinsa 1 hd − sin a

hl0

Use (6) to show that this is true.

73. A Tibetan monk leaves the monastery at 7:00 am and takes his usual path to the top of the mountain, arriving at 7:00 pm. The following morning, he starts at 7:00 am at the top and takes the same path back, arriving at the monastery at 7:00 pm. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that there is a point on the path that the monk will cross at exactly the same time of day on both days.

In Sections 2.2 and 2.4 we investigated infinite limits and vertical asymptotes. There we let x approach a number and the result was that the values of y became arbitrarily large (positive or negative). In this section we let x become arbitrarily large (positive or negative) and see what happens to y. Let’s begin by investigating the behavior of the function f defined by f sxd −

x2 2 1 x2 1 1

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SeCtion 2.6

as x becomes large. The table at the left gives values of this function correct to six decimal places, and the graph of f has been drawn by a computer in Figure 1.

f sxd

x 0 61 62 63 64 65 610 650 6100 61000

127

Limits at Infinity; Horizontal Asymptotes

21 0 0.600000 0.800000 0.882353 0.923077 0.980198 0.999200 0.999800 0.999998

y

y=1

0

1

y=

≈-1 ≈+1

x

FIGURE 1

As x grows larger and larger you can see that the values of f sxd get closer and closer to 1. (The graph of f approaches the horizontal line y − 1 as we look to the right.) In fact, it seems that we can make the values of f sxd as close as we like to 1 by taking x sufficiently large. This situation is expressed symbolically by writing lim

xl`

x2 2 1 −1 x2 1 1

In general, we use the notation lim f sxd − L

xl`

to indicate that the values of f sxd approach L as x becomes larger and larger. y

1 Intuitive Definition of a Limit at Infinity Let f be a function defined on some interval sa, `d. Then lim f sxd − L

y=L

y=ƒ

0

xl`

means that the values of f sxd can be made arbitrarily close to L by requiring x to be sufficiently large.

x

Another notation for lim x l ` f sxd − L is

y

f sxd l L

y=ƒ

as

xl`

The symbol ` does not represent a number. Nonetheless, the expression lim f sxd − L x l` is often read as “the limit of f sxd, as x approaches infinity, is L”

y=L 0

x

y

y=L

y=ƒ 0

x

FIGURE 2 Examples illustrating lim f sxd − L xl`

or

“the limit of f sxd, as x becomes infinite, is L”

or

“the limit of f sxd, as x increases without bound, is L”

The meaning of such phrases is given by Definition 1. A more precise definition, similar to the «,  definition of Section 2.4, is given at the end of this section. Geometric illustrations of Definition 1 are shown in Figure 2. Notice that there are many ways for the graph of f to approach the line y − L (which is called a horizontal asymptote) as we look to the far right of each graph. Referring back to Figure 1, we see that for numerically large negative values of x, the values of f sxd are close to 1. By letting x decrease through negative values without bound, we can make f sxd as close to 1 as we like. This is expressed by writing lim

x l2`

x2 2 1 −1 x2 1 1

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

128

Chapter 2

Limits and Derivatives

The general definition is as follows. y

y=ƒ

2 Definition Let f be a function defined on some interval s2`, ad. Then lim f sxd − L

x l 2`

y=L 0

x y

means that the values of f sxd can be made arbitrarily close to L by requiring x to be sufficiently large negative.

Again, the symbol 2` does not represent a number, but the expression lim f sxd − L x l 2` is often read as

y=ƒ

“the limit of f sxd, as x approaches negative infinity, is L”

y=L

0

x

FIGURE 3 Examples illustrating lim f sxd − L x l 2`

Definition 2 is illustrated in Figure 3. Notice that the graph approaches the line y − L as we look to the far left of each graph. 3 Definition The line y − L is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve y − f sxd if either lim f sxd − L or lim f sxd − L x l`

x l 2`

For instance, the curve illustrated in Figure 1 has the line y − 1 as a horizontal asymptote because x2 2 1 lim 2 −1 xl` x 1 1

y π 2

An example of a curve with two horizontal asymptotes is y − tan21x. (See Figure 4.) In fact,

0 x

4

lim tan21 x − 2

x l2`

 2

lim tan21 x −

xl`

 2

_ π2

so both of the lines y − 2y2 and y − y2 are horizontal asymptotes. (This follows from the fact that the lines x − 6y2 are vertical asymptotes of the graph of the tangent function.)

FIGURE 4 y − tan21x

EXAMPLE 1 Find the infinite limits, limits at infinity, and asymptotes for the function

y

f whose graph is shown in Figure 5. SoLUtion We see that the values of f sxd become large as x l 21 from both sides, so 2

lim f sxd − `

x l21

0

2

x

Notice that f sxd becomes large negative as x approaches 2 from the left, but large positive as x approaches 2 from the right. So lim f sxd − 2`

x l 22

FIGURE 5

and

lim f sxd − `

x l 21

Thus both of the lines x − 21 and x − 2 are vertical asymptotes.

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SeCtion 2.6

Limits at Infinity; Horizontal Asymptotes

129

As x becomes large, it appears that f sxd approaches 4. But as x decreases through negative values, f sxd approaches 2. So lim f sxd − 4

and

xl`

lim f sxd − 2

x l2`

This means that both y − 4 and y − 2 are horizontal asymptotes.

EXAMPLE 2 Find lim

xl`

■

1 1 and lim . x l2` x x

SoLUtion Observe that when x is large, 1yx is small. For instance,

1 − 0.01 100

y

y=∆

0

FIGURE 6 lim

xl`

1 1 − 0, lim −0 x l2` x x

1 − 0.0001 10,000

1 − 0.000001 1,000,000

In fact, by taking x large enough, we can make 1yx as close to 0 as we please. Therefore, according to Definition 1, we have lim

x

xl`

1 −0 x

Similar reasoning shows that when x is large negative, 1yx is small negative, so we also have 1 lim −0 x l2` x It follows that the line y − 0 (the x-axis) is a horizontal asymptote of the curve y − 1yx. (This is an equilateral hyperbola; see Figure 6.)

■

Most of the Limit Laws that were given in Section 2.3 also hold for limits at infinity. It can be proved that the Limit Laws listed in Section 2.3 (with the exception of Laws 9 and 10) are also valid if “x l a” is replaced by “x l `” or “x l 2`.” In particular, if we combine Laws 6 and 11 with the results of Example 2, we obtain the following important rule for calculating limits. 5 Theorem If r . 0 is a rational number, then lim

xl`

1 −0 xr

If r . 0 is a rational number such that x r is defined for all x, then lim

x l2`

1 −0 xr

EXAMPLE 3 Evaluate lim

x l`

3x 2 2 x 2 2 5x 2 1 4x 1 1

and indicate which properties of limits are used at each stage. SoLUtion As x becomes large, both numerator and denominator become large, so it isn’t obvious what happens to their ratio. We need to do some preliminary algebra. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

130

Chapter 2

Limits and Derivatives

To evaluate the limit at infinity of any rational function, we first divide both the numerator and denominator by the highest power of x that occurs in the denominator. (We may assume that x ± 0, since we are interested only in large values of x.) In this case the highest power of x in the denominator is x 2, so we have 3x 2 2 x 2 2 1 2 32 2 2 3x 2 x 2 2 x2 x x lim − lim − lim x l ` 5x 2 1 4x 1 1 x l` x l ` 5x 2 1 4x 1 1 4 1 51 1 2 2 x x x 2

S S

D D

1 2 2 2 x x − 4 1 lim 5 1 1 2 xl` x x lim 3 2

xl`

(by Limit Law 5)

1 2 2 lim x l` x l` x x l` − 1 lim 5 1 4 lim 1 lim x l` x l` x x l` lim 3 2 lim

y

y=0.6 0

FIGURE 7 y−

3x 2 2 x 2 2 5x 2 1 4x 1 1

1

1 x2 1 x2

(by 1, 2, and 3)

x

−

32020 51010

−

3 5

(by 7 and Theorem 5)

A similar calculation shows that the limit as x l 2` is also 35. Figure 7 illustrates the results of these calculations by showing how the graph of the given rational function approaches the horizontal asymptote y − 35 − 0.6. ■

EXAMPLE 4 Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the graph of the function f sxd −

s2x 2 1 1 3x 2 5

SoLUtion Dividing both numerator and denominator by x and using the properties of limits, we have

Î

s2x 2 1 1 x s2x 2 1 1 lim − lim − lim x l ` 3x 2 5 xl` xl` 3x 2 5 x lim

xl`

− lim

xl`

2x 2 1 1 x2 3x 2 5 x

Î Î S D 21

32

5 x

1 x2

lim 2 1 lim

xl`

xl`

−

lim 3 2 5 lim

xl`

xl`

(since sx 2 − x for x . 0)

1 x2 1 x

−

s2 1 0 s2 − 325?0 3

Therefore the line y − s2 y3 is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SeCtion 2.6

Limits at Infinity; Horizontal Asymptotes

131

In computing the limit as x l 2`, we must remember that for x , 0, we have sx 2 − | x | − 2x. So when we divide the numerator by x, for x , 0 we get

Î

s2x 2 1 1 s2x 2 1 1 − −2 x 2 sx 2

Î

2x 2 1 1 −2 x2

21

1 x2

Therefore

s2x 1 1 lim − lim x l2` x l2` 3x 2 5 2

21

1 x2

5 32 x

Î

2 −

1 s2 x2 −2 1 3 3 2 5 lim x l2` x 2 1 lim

x l2`

Thus the line y − 2s2 y3 is also a horizontal asymptote. A vertical asymptote is likely to occur when the denominator, 3x 2 5, is 0, that is, when x − 53. If x is close to 53 and x . 53, then the denominator is close to 0 and 3x 2 5 is positive. The numerator s2x 2 1 1 is always positive, so f sxd is positive. Therefore

y

œ„2

y= 3

lim

x

x l s5y3d1

œ„2

y= _ 3

x=

s2x 2 1 1 −` 3x 2 5

(Notice that the numerator does not approach 0 as x l 5y3). If x is close to 53 but x , 53, then 3x 2 5 , 0 and so f sxd is large negative. Thus

5 3

lim

FIGURE 8 y−

Î

2

x l s5y3d2

s2 x 2 1 1

s2x 2 1 1 − 2` 3x 2 5

The vertical asymptote is x − 53. All three asymptotes are shown in Figure 8.

3x 2 5

■

EXAMPLE 5 Compute lim (sx 2 1 1 2 x). x l`

SoLUtion Because both sx 2 1 1 and x are large when x is large, it’s difficult to see We can think of the given function as having a denominator of 1.

what happens to their difference, so we use algebra to rewrite the function. We first multiply numerator and denominator by the conjugate radical: lim (sx 2 1 1 2 x) − lim (sx 2 1 1 2 x) ?

x l`

x l`

− lim

y

x l`

y=œ„„„„„-x ≈+1

FIGURE 9

1

sx 2 1 1d 2 x 2 1 − lim 2 1 1 1 x 2 x l ` sx 1 1 1 x sx

Notice that the denominator of this last expression (sx 2 1 1 1 x) becomes large as x l ` (it’s bigger than x). So

1 0

sx 2 1 1 1 x sx 2 1 1 1 x

x

lim (sx 2 1 1 2 x) − lim

x l`

x l`

1 −0 sx 1 1 1 x 2

Figure 9 illustrates this result.

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■

132

Chapter 2

Limits and Derivatives

S D

1 . x22

EXAMPLE 6 Evaluate lim1 arctan x l2

SoLUtion If we let t − 1ysx 2 2d, we know that t l ` as x l 2 1. Therefore, by the

second equation in (4), we have

S D 1 x22

lim arctan

x l 21

− lim arctan t − tl`

 2

■

The graph of the natural exponential function y − e x has the line y − 0 (the x-axis) as a horizontal asymptote. (The same is true of any exponential function with base b . 1.) In fact, from the graph in Figure 10 and the corresponding table of values, we see that

lim e x − 0

6

x l 2`

Notice that the values of e x approach 0 very rapidly. y

y=´

1 0

x

1

x

ex

0 21 22 23 25 28 210

1.00000 0.36788 0.13534 0.04979 0.00674 0.00034 0.00005

FIGURE 10

EXAMPLE 7 Evaluate lim2 e 1yx. x l0

PS The problem-solving strategy for Examples 6 and 7 is introducing something extra (see page 71). Here, the something extra, the auxiliary aid, is the new variable t.

SoLUtion If we let t − 1yx, we know that t l 2` as x l 02. Therefore, by (6),

lim e 1yx − lim e t − 0

x l 02

t l 2`

(See Exercise 81.)

■

EXAMPLE 8 Evaluate lim sin x. xl`

SoLUtion As x increases, the values of sin x oscillate between 1 and 21 infinitely often and so they don’t approach any definite number. Thus lim x l` sin x does not exist. ■

infinite Limits at infinity The notation lim f sxd − `

x l`

is used to indicate that the values of f sxd become large as x becomes large. Similar meanCopyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SeCtion 2.6

Limits at Infinity; Horizontal Asymptotes

133

ings are attached to the following symbols: lim f sxd − `

lim f sxd − 2`

x l 2`

x l`

lim f sxd − 2`

x l 2`

EXAMPLE 9 Find lim x 3 and lim x 3.

y

xl`

y=˛

0

x l2`

SoLUtion When x becomes large, x 3 also becomes large. For instance,

10 3 − 1000

x

100 3 − 1,000,000

1000 3 − 1,000,000,000

In fact, we can make x 3 as big as we like by requiring x to be large enough. Therefore we can write lim x 3 − ` xl`

FIGURE 11 lim x 3 − `, lim x 3 − 2`

xl`

Similarly, when x is large negative, so is x 3. Thus

x l2`

lim x 3 − 2`

x l2`

y

y=´

These limit statements can also be seen from the graph of y − x 3 in Figure 11.

■

Looking at Figure 10 we see that lim e x − `

x l`

y=˛

100

0

1

but, as Figure 12 demonstrates, y − e x becomes large as x l ` at a much faster rate than y − x 3.

x

EXAMPLE 10 Find lim sx 2 2 xd. x l`

FIGURE 12 e x is much larger than x 3 when x is large.

SoLUtion It would be wrong to write

lim sx 2 2 xd − lim x 2 2 lim x − ` 2 `

x l`

x l`

x l`

The Limit Laws can’t be applied to infinite limits because ` is not a number (` 2 ` can’t be defined). However, we can write lim sx 2 2 xd − lim xsx 2 1d − `

x l`

x l`

because both x and x 2 1 become arbitrarily large and so their product does too.

EXAMPLE 11 Find lim

xl`

■

x2 1 x . 32x

SoLUtion As in Example 3, we divide the numerator and denominator by the highest power of x in the denominator, which is just x:

lim

x l`

x2 1 x x11 − 2` − lim x l` 3 32x 21 x

because x 1 1 l ` and 3yx 2 1 l 0 2 1 − 21 as x l `. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

■

134

Chapter 2

Limits and Derivatives

The next example shows that by using infinite limits at infinity, together with intercepts, we can get a rough idea of the graph of a polynomial without having to plot a large number of points.

EXAMPLE 12 Sketch the graph of y − sx 2 2d4sx 1 1d3sx 2 1d by finding its intercepts and its limits as x l ` and as x l 2`. SoLUtion The y-intercept is f s0d − s22d4s1d3s21d − 216 and the x-intercepts are

found by setting y − 0: x − 2, 21, 1. Notice that since sx 2 2d4 is never negative, the function doesn’t change sign at 2; thus the graph doesn’t cross the x-axis at 2. The graph crosses the axis at 21 and 1. When x is large positive, all three factors are large, so

y

0

_1

1

2

x

lim sx 2 2d4sx 1 1d3sx 2 1d − `

xl`

When x is large negative, the first factor is large positive and the second and third factors are both large negative, so _16

lim sx 2 2d4sx 1 1d3sx 2 1d − `

x l2`

FIGURE 13 y − sx 2 2d4 sx 1 1d3 sx 2 1d

Combining this information, we give a rough sketch of the graph in Figure 13.

■

precise Definitions Definition 1 can be stated precisely as follows. 7 Precise Definition of a Limit at Infinity Let f be a function defined on some interval sa, `d. Then lim f sxd − L xl`

means that for every « . 0 there is a corresponding number N such that if

x.N

then

| f sxd 2 L | , «

In words, this says that the values of f sxd can be made arbitrarily close to L (within a distance «, where « is any positive number) by requiring x to be sufficiently large (larger than N, where N depends on «). Graphically it says that by keeping x large enough (larger than some number N) we can make the graph of f lie between the given horizontal lines y − L 2 « and y − L 1 « as in Figure 14. This must be true no matter how small we choose «. y

y=L+∑ ∑ L ∑ y=L-∑ 0

FIGURE 14 lim f sxd − L

xl`

y=ƒ ƒ is in here

x

N when x is in here

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SeCtion 2.6

135

Limits at Infinity; Horizontal Asymptotes

Figure 15 shows that if a smaller value of « is chosen, then a larger value of N may be required.

y=ƒ y=L+∑ L y=L-∑

FIGURE 15

0

N

lim f sxd − L

x

xl`

Similarly, a precise version of Definition 2 is given by Definition 8, which is illustrated in Figure 16.

8 Definition Let f be a function defined on some interval s2`, ad. Then lim f sxd − L

x l 2`

means that for every « . 0 there is a corresponding number N such that if

x,N

then

| f sxd 2 L | , «

y

y=ƒ y=L+∑ L y=L-∑ 0

N

FIGURE 16

x

lim f sxd − L

x l2`

In Example 3 we calculated that lim

xl`

3x 2 2 x 2 2 3 − 5x 2 1 4x 1 1 5

In the next example we use a graphing device to relate this statement to Definition 7 with L − 35 − 0.6 and « − 0.1. TEC In Module 2.4y2.6 you can explore the precise definition of a limit both graphically and numerically.

EXAMPLE 13 Use a graph to find a number N such that if

x.N

then

Z

3x 2 2 x 2 2 2 0.6 5x 2 1 4x 1 1

Z

, 0.1

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136

Chapter 2

Limits and Derivatives

SoLUtion We rewrite the given inequality as

3x 2 2 x 2 2 , 0.7 5x 2 1 4x 1 1

0.5 ,

We need to determine the values of x for which the given curve lies between the horizontal lines y − 0.5 and y − 0.7. So we graph the curve and these lines in Figure 17. Then we use the cursor to estimate that the curve crosses the line y − 0.5 when x < 6.7. To the right of this number it seems that the curve stays between the lines y − 0.5 and y − 0.7. Rounding up to be safe, we can say that

1 y=0.7 y=0.5 y=

3≈-x-2 5≈+4x+1

15

0

if

x.7

Z

then

3x 2 2 x 2 2 2 0.6 5x 2 1 4x 1 1

Z

, 0.1

FIGURE 17

In other words, for « − 0.1 we can choose N − 7 (or any larger number) in Definition 7.

■

1 − 0. x

EXAMPLE 14 Use Definition 7 to prove that lim

xl`

SoLUtion Given « . 0, we want to find N such that

if

then

x.N

Z

1 20 x

Z

,«

In computing the limit we may assume that x . 0. Then 1yx , « &? x . 1y«. Let’s choose N − 1y«. So if

x.N−

1 «

then

Z

1 20 x

Z

−

1 ,« x

Therefore, by Definition 7, lim

xl`

1 −0 x

Figure 18 illustrates the proof by showing some values of « and the corresponding values of N. y

y

y

∑=1 ∑=0.2 0

FIGURE 18

N=1

x

0

∑=0.1 N=5

x

0

N=10

x

■

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SeCtion 2.6

137

Limits at Infinity; Horizontal Asymptotes

Finally we note that an infinite limit at infinity can be defined as follows. The geometric illustration is given in Figure 19.

y

y=M M

0

9 Definition of an Infinite Limit at Infinity Let f be a function defined on some interval sa, `d. Then lim f sxd − `

x

N

xl`

means that for every positive number M there is a corresponding positive number N such that if x . N then f sxd . M

FIGURE 19 lim f sxd − `

xl`

Similar definitions apply when the symbol ` is replaced by 2`. (See Exercise 80.)

y

1. Explain in your own words the meaning of each of the following. (a) lim f sxd − 5 (b) lim f sxd − 3 xl`

x l 2`

1

2. (a) Can the graph of y − f sxd intersect a vertical asymptote? Can it intersect a horizontal asymptote? Illustrate by sketching graphs. (b) How many horizontal asymptotes can the graph of y − f sxd have? Sketch graphs to illustrate the possibilities. 3. For the function f whose graph is given, state the following. (a) lim f sxd (b) lim f sxd x l`

x l 2`

(c) lim f sxd

(d) lim f sxd

x l1

x l3

0

5–10 Sketch the graph of an example of a function f that satisfies all of the given conditions. 5. lim f sxd − 2`,

(e) The equations of the asymptotes

lim f sxd − 5,

xl0

6. lim f sxd − `,

lim

lim f sxd − 0,

lim f sxd − `,

x l2

1

x

lim f sxd − `,

lim f sxd − 2`,

x l 222

f s0d − 0

x l`

7. lim f sxd − 2`,

x l`

f sxd − `,

lim f sxd − 0,

x l 2`

1

lim f sxd − 25

x l 2`

x l 221

xl2

y

x

2

x l`

lim f sxd − 0,

x l 2`

lim f sxd − 2`

x l 01

x l 02

8. lim f sxd − 3, lim2 f sxd − `, lim1 f sxd − 2`, f is odd x l2

xl`

9. f s0d − 3, 4. For the function t whose graph is given, state the following. (a) lim tsxd (b) lim tsxd x l`

(c) lim tsxd x l3

(e)

lim tsxd

x l 221

x l 2`

(d) lim tsxd x l0

x l2

lim f sxd − 4,

x l 02

lim f sxd − 2`,

x l 2`

lim f sxd − 2,

x l 01

lim f sxd − 2`,

x l 42

lim f sxd − `,

x l 41

lim f sxd − 3

x l`

10. lim f sxd − 2`, xl3

lim f sxd − 2,

x l`

f s0d − 0,

f is even

(f ) The equations of the asymptotes

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138

CHAPTER 2

Limits and Derivatives

; 11. Guess the value of the limit

35. lim arctanse x d xl`

2

lim

x l`

x 2x

by evaluating the function f sxd − x 2y2 x for x − 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 50, and 100. Then use a graph of f to support your guess. ; 12. (a) Use a graph of

S D

2 f sxd − 1 2 x

xl`

e 3x 2 e23x e 3x 1 e23x

38. lim

sin2 x x2 1 1

xl`

1 2 ex 1 1 2e x

37. lim

36. lim

xl`

39. lim se22x cos xd xl`

40. lim1 tan21sln xd xl0

41. lim flns1 1 x 2 d 2 lns1 1 xdg xl `

x

42. lim flns2 1 xd 2 lns1 1 xdg xl `

to estimate the value of lim x l ` f sxd correct to two decimal places. (b) Use a table of values of f sxd to estimate the limit to four decimal places. 13–14 Evaluate the limit and justify each step by indicating the appropriate properties of limits. 13. lim

xl`

2x 2 2 7 5x 2 1 x 2 3

14. lim

xl`

Î

9x 3 1 8x 2 4 3 2 5x 1 x 3

xl`

1 2x 1 3

17. lim

x l 2`

16. lim

xl`

1 2 x 2 x2 2x 2 2 7

3x 1 5 x24 2 2 3y 2 5y 2 1 4y t 2 t st 2t 3y2 1 3t 2 5

st 1 t 2 2t 2 t 2

20. lim

21. lim

s9x 6 2 x x3 1 1

22. lim

s9x 6 2 x x3 1 1

23. lim

s1 1 4x 6 2 2 x3

24. lim

s1 1 4x 6 2 2 x3

25. lim

sx 1 3x 4x 2 1

xl`

xl`

xl`

tl `

x l 2`

x l 2`

2

xl`

28. lim (s4x 2 1 3x 1 2 x ) x l2`

30. lim

x l 2`

31. lim

xl`

33. lim sx 2 1 2x 7 d x l 2`

)

(c) lim2 f sxd

(d) lim1 f sxd

xl0 x l1

(e) Use the information from parts (a)–(d) to make a rough sketch of the graph of f. ; 45. (a) Estimate the value of lim (sx 2 1 x 1 1 1 x)

x l 2`

by graphing the function f sxd − sx 2 1 x 1 1 1 x. (b) Use a table of values of f sxd to guess the value of the limit. (c) Prove that your guess is correct. ; 46. (a) Use a graph of f sxd − s3x 2 1 8x 1 6 2 s3x 2 1 3x 1 1

47–52 Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of each curve. If you have a graphing device, check your work by graphing the curve and estimating the asymptotes.

( x 1 sx 2 1 2x )

x 4 2 3x 2 1 x x3 2 x 1 2

(b) lim1 f sxd

to estimate the value of lim x l ` f sxd to one decimal place. (b) Use a table of values of f sxd to estimate the limit to four decimal places. (c) Find the exact value of the limit.

x l`

x l`

2 1 2 find each of the following limits. x ln x

(a) lim f sxd

x 1 3x 4x 2 1

27. lim (s9x 2 1 x 2 3x)

29. lim (sx 2 1 ax 2 sx 2 1 bx

xl`

(c) Use the information from parts (a) and (b) to make a rough sketch of the graph of f.

2

26. lim

x l1

(b) Use a table of values to estimate lim f sxd.

xl1

19. lim

tl`

xl1

xl`

18. lim

yl`

xl0

44. For f sxd −

15–42 Find the limit or show that it does not exist. 15. lim

x find each of the following limits. ln x (i) lim1 f sxd (ii) lim2 f sxd (iii) lim1 f sxd

43. (a) For f sxd −

32. lim se2x 1 2 cos 3xd

47. y −

5 1 4x x13

48. y −

2x 2 1 1 3x 1 2x 2 1

49. y −

2x 2 1 x 2 1 x2 1 x 2 2

50. y −

1 1 x4 x2 2 x4

xl`

34. lim

x l 2`

1 1 x6 x4 1 1

2

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 2.6

x3 2 x x 2 6x 1 5

51. y −

52. y −

2

Limits at Infinity; Horizontal Asymptotes

139

It is known that f has a removable discontinuity at x − 21 and lim x l21 f sxd − 2. Evaluate (a) f s0d (b) lim f sxd

2e x e 25 x

xl`

; 53. Estimate the horizontal asymptote of the function 3

f sxd −

60–64 Find the limits as x l ` and as x l 2`. Use this information, together with intercepts, to give a rough sketch of the graph as in Example 12.

2

3x 1 500x x 3 1 500x 2 1 100x 1 2000

60. y − 2x 3 2 x 4

by graphing f for 210 < x < 10. Then calculate the equation of the asymptote by evaluating the limit. How do you explain the discrepancy?

62. y − x 3sx 1 2d 2sx 2 1d 63. y − s3 2 xds1 1 xd 2s1 2 xd 4

; 54. (a) Graph the function f sxd −

64. y − x 2sx 2 2 1d 2sx 1 2d s2x 2 1 1 3x 2 5

s2x 1 1 3x 2 5 2

lim

s2x 1 1 3x 2 5 2

and

lim

x l 2`

;

Psxd − 3x 5 2 5x 3 1 2x

Psxd Qsxd

67. Find lim x l ` f sxd if, for all x . 1, 10e x 2 21 5sx , f sxd , 2e x sx 2 1

if the degree of P is (a) less than the degree of Q and (b) greater than the degree of Q. 56. Make a rough sketch of the curve y − x n (n an integer) for the following five cases: (i) n − 0 (ii) n . 0, n odd (iii) n . 0, n even (iv) n , 0, n odd (v) n , 0, n even Then use these sketches to find the following limits. (a) lim1 x n (b) lim2 x n x l0

68. (a) A tank contains 5000 L of pure water. Brine that contains 30 g of salt per liter of water is pumped into the tank at a rate of 25 Lymin. Show that the concentration of salt after t minutes (in grams per liter) is Cstd −

(b) What happens to the concentration as t l `?

(d) lim x n

x l`

x l 2`

69. In Chapter 9 we will be able to show, under certain assumptions, that the velocity vstd of a falling raindrop at time t is vstd − v *s1 2 e 2ttyv * d

57. Find a formula for a function f that satisfies the following conditions: lim f sxd − 0,

lim f sxd − `,

x l 32

30t 200 1 t

x l0

(c) lim x n

x l 6`

Qsxd − 3x 5

by graphing both functions in the viewing rectangles f22, 2g by f22, 2g and f210, 10g by f210,000, 10,000g. (b) Two functions are said to have the same end behavior if their ratio approaches 1 as x l `. Show that P and Q have the same end behavior.

55. Let P and Q be polynomials. Find lim

xl`

; 66. By the end behavior of a function we mean the behavior of its values as x l ` and as x l 2`. (a) Describe and compare the end behavior of the functions

(b) By calculating values of f sxd, give numerical estimates of the limits in part (a). (c) Calculate the exact values of the limits in part (a). Did you get the same value or different values for these two limits? [In view of your answer to part (a), you might have to check your calculation for the second limit.]

xl`

sin x . x (b) Graph f sxd − ssin xdyx. How many times does the graph cross the asymptote?

65. (a) Use the Squeeze Theorem to evaluate lim

How many horizontal and vertical asymptotes do you observe? Use the graph to estimate the values of the limits

x l`

61. y − x 4 2 x 6

lim f sxd − 2`,

x l0

f s2d − 0,

lim f sxd − 2`

x l 31

58. Find a formula for a function that has vertical asymptotes x − 1 and x − 3 and horizontal asymptote y − 1. 59. A function f is a ratio of quadratic functions and has a vertical asymptote x − 4 and just one x-intercept, x − 1.

;

where t is the acceleration due to gravity and v * is the terminal velocity of the raindrop. (a) Find lim t l ` vstd. (b) Graph vstd if v* − 1 mys and t − 9.8 mys2. How long does it take for the velocity of the raindrop to reach 99% of its terminal velocity?

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

140

CHAPTER 2

Limits and Derivatives

2xy10 and y − 0.1 on a common ; 70. (a) By graphing y − e screen, discover how large you need to make x so that e 2xy10 , 0.1. (b) Can you solve part (a) without using a graphing device?

76. (a) How large do we have to take x so that 1ysx , 0.0001? (b) Taking r − 12 in Theorem 5, we have the statement lim

xl`

; 71. Use a graph to find a number N such that if

x.N

Z

then

Z

3x2 1 1 2 1.5 , 0.05 2x 2 1 x 1 1

1 sx

−0

Prove this directly using Definition 7. 77. Use Definition 8 to prove that lim

; 72. For the limit

x l2`

lim

xl`

1 2 3x sx 2 1 1

− 23

1 − 0. x

78. Prove, using Definition 9, that lim x 3 − `. xl`

illustrate Definition 7 by finding values of N that correspond to « − 0.1 and « − 0.05. ; 73. For the limit

79. Use Definition 9 to prove that lim e x − `. xl`

80. Formulate a precise definition of 1 2 3x

lim

x l2`

sx 2 1 1

−3

lim f sxd − 2`

x l2`

illustrate Definition 8 by finding values of N that correspond to « − 0.1 and « − 0.05.

Then use your definition to prove that lim s1 1 x 3 d − 2`

; 74. For the limit

x l2`

lim sx ln x − `

81. (a) Prove that

xl`

lim f sxd − lim1 f s1ytd

illustrate Definition 9 by finding a value of N that corresponds to M − 100. 75. (a) How large do we have to take x so that 1yx 2 , 0.0001? (b) Taking r − 2 in Theorem 5, we have the statement lim

xl`

1 −0 x2

tl0

xl`

and

f s1ytd lim f sxd − t lim l 02

xl2`

if these limits exist. (b) Use part (a) and Exercise 65 to find lim x sin

x l 01

Prove this directly using Definition 7.

1 x

The problem of finding the tangent line to a curve and the problem of finding the velocity of an object both involve finding the same type of limit, as we saw in Section 2.1. This special type of limit is called a derivative and we will see that it can be interpreted as a rate of change in any of the natural or social sciences or engineering.

Tangents If a curve C has equation y − f sxd and we want to find the tangent line to C at the point Psa, f sadd, then we consider a nearby point Qsx, f sxdd, where x ± a, and compute the slope of the secant line PQ: mPQ −

f sxd 2 f sad x2a

Then we let Q approach P along the curve C by letting x approach a. If mPQ approaches Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 2.7

141

Derivatives and Rates of Change

y

Q{ x, ƒ } ƒ-f(a)

P { a, f(a)} x-a

0

a number m, then we define the tangent t to be the line through P with slope m. (This amounts to saying that the tangent line is the limiting position of the secant line PQ as Q approaches P. See Figure 1.)

1 Definition The tangent line to the curve y − f sxd at the point Psa, f sadd is the line through P with slope

a

x

x

m − lim

xla

f sxd 2 f sad x2a

provided that this limit exists. y

t Q

In our first example we confirm the guess we made in Example 2.1.1.

Q Q

P

EXAMPLE 1 Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y − x 2 at the point Ps1, 1d. SOLUTION Here we have a − 1 and f sxd − x 2, so the slope is x

0

m − lim

x l1

f sxd 2 f s1d x2 2 1 − lim x l1 x 2 1 x21

FIGURE 1

− lim

x l1

sx 2 1dsx 1 1d x21

− lim sx 1 1d − 1 1 1 − 2 x l1

Point-slope form for a line through the point sx1 , y1 d with slope m:

Using the point-slope form of the equation of a line, we find that an equation of the tangent line at s1, 1d is

y 2 y1 − msx 2 x 1 d

y 2 1 − 2sx 2 1d

TEC Visual 2.7 shows an animation of Figure 2.

2

y − 2x 2 1

1.5

1.1

(1, 1)

2

■

We sometimes refer to the slope of the tangent line to a curve at a point as the slope of the curve at the point. The idea is that if we zoom in far enough toward the point, the curve looks almost like a straight line. Figure 2 illustrates this procedure for the curve y − x 2 in Example 1. The more we zoom in, the more the parabola looks like a line. In other words, the curve becomes almost indistinguishable from its tangent line.

(1, 1)

0

or

0.5

(1, 1)

1.5

0.9

FIGURE 2 Zooming in toward the point (1, 1) on the parabola y − x 2

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

1.1

142

CHAPTER 2

Limits and Derivatives

Q { a+h, f(a+h)} y

t

There is another expression for the slope of a tangent line that is sometimes easier to use. If h − x 2 a, then x − a 1 h and so the slope of the secant line PQ is mPQ −

P { a, f(a)} f(a+h)-f(a)

h 0

a

f sa 1 hd 2 f sad h

a+h

x

FIGURE 3

(See Figure 3 where the case h . 0 is illustrated and Q is to the right of P. If it happened that h , 0, however, Q would be to the left of P.) Notice that as x approaches a, h approaches 0 (because h − x 2 a) and so the expression for the slope of the tangent line in Definition 1 becomes

2

m − lim

hl0

f sa 1 hd 2 f sad h

EXAMPLE 2 Find an equation of the tangent line to the hyperbola y − 3yx at the point s3, 1d. SOLUTION Let f sxd − 3yx. Then, by Equation 2, the slope of the tangent at s3, 1d is

m − lim

hl0

f s3 1 hd 2 f s3d h

3 3 2 s3 1 hd 21 31h 31h − lim − lim hl0 h l 0 h h − lim

y

x+3y-6=0

hl0

y=

2h 1 1 − lim 2 −2 h l 0 hs3 1 hd 31h 3

3 x

Therefore an equation of the tangent at the point s3, 1d is (3, 1)

y 2 1 − 213 sx 2 3d

x

0

which simplifies to FIGURE 4

The hyperbola and its tangent are shown in Figure 4.

position at time t=a

position at time t=a+h s

0

f(a+h)-f(a)

f(a) f(a+h)

FIGURE 5

x 1 3y 2 6 − 0 ■

Velocities In Section 2.1 we investigated the motion of a ball dropped from the CN Tower and defined its velocity to be the limiting value of average velocities over shorter and shorter time periods. In general, suppose an object moves along a straight line according to an equation of motion s − f std, where s is the displacement (directed distance) of the object from the origin at time t. The function f that describes the motion is called the position function of the object. In the time interval from t − a to t − a 1 h the change in position is f sa 1 hd 2 f sad. (See Figure 5.)

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 2.7

Derivatives and Rates of Change

143

The average velocity over this time interval is

s

Q { a+h, f(a+h)}

average velocity −

P { a, f(a)}

displacement f sa 1 hd 2 f sad − time h

h

0

a

mPQ=

a+h

t

f(a+h)-f(a) h

which is the same as the slope of the secant line PQ in Figure 6. Now suppose we compute the average velocities over shorter and shorter time intervals fa, a 1 hg. In other words, we let h approach 0. As in the example of the falling ball, we define the velocity (or instantaneous velocity) vsad at time t − a to be the limit of these average velocities:

 average velocity

FIGURE 6

3

vsad − lim

hl0

f sa 1 hd 2 f sad h

This means that the velocity at time t − a is equal to the slope of the tangent line at P (compare Equations 2 and 3). Now that we know how to compute limits, let’s reconsider the problem of the falling ball.

EXAMPLE 3 Suppose that a ball is dropped from the upper observation deck of the CN Tower, 450 m above the ground. (a) What is the velocity of the ball after 5 seconds? (b) How fast is the ball traveling when it hits the ground? Recall from Section 2.1: The distance (in meters) fallen after t seconds is 4.9t 2.

SOLUTION We will need to find the velocity both when t − 5 and when the ball hits the ground, so it’s efficient to start by finding the velocity at a general time t. Using the equation of motion s − f std − 4.9t 2, we have

f st 1 hd 2 f std 4.9st 1 hd2 2 4.9t 2 − lim hl0 h h

vstd − lim

hl0

− lim

4.9st 2 1 2th 1 h 2 2 t 2 d 4.9s2th 1 h 2 d − lim hl0 h h

− lim

4.9hs2t 1 hd − lim 4.9s2t 1 hd − 9.8t hl0 h

hl0

hl0

(a) The velocity after 5 seconds is vs5d − s9.8ds5d − 49 mys. (b) Since the observation deck is 450 m above the ground, the ball will hit the ground at the time t when sstd − 450, that is, 4.9t 2 − 450 This gives t2 −

450 4.9

and

t−

Î

450 < 9.6 s 4.9

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144

CHAPTER 2

Limits and Derivatives

The velocity of the ball as it hits the ground is therefore

v

SÎ D Î 450 4.9

− 9.8

450 < 94 mys 4.9

■

Derivatives We have seen that the same type of limit arises in finding the slope of a tangent line (Equation 2) or the velocity of an object (Equation 3). In fact, limits of the form lim

h l0

f sa 1 hd 2 f sad h

arise whenever we calculate a rate of change in any of the sciences or engineering, such as a rate of reaction in chemistry or a marginal cost in economics. Since this type of limit occurs so widely, it is given a special name and notation.

f 9sad is read “ f prime of a.”

4 Definition The derivative of a function f at a number a, denoted by f 9sad, is f sa 1 hd 2 f sad f 9sad − lim h l0 h if this limit exists. If we write x − a 1 h, then we have h − x 2 a and h approaches 0 if and only if x approaches a. Therefore an equivalent way of stating the definition of the derivative, as we saw in finding tangent lines, is

5

f 9sad − lim

xla

f sxd 2 f sad x2a

EXAMPLE 4 Find the derivative of the function f sxd − x 2 2 8x 1 9 at the number a. SOLUTION From Definition 4 we have

Definitions 4 and 5 are equivalent, so we can use either one to compute the derivative. In practice, Definition 4 often leads to simpler computations.

f 9sad − lim

h l0

f sa 1 hd 2 f sad h

− lim

fsa 1 hd2 2 8sa 1 hd 1 9g 2 fa 2 2 8a 1 9g h

− lim

a 2 1 2ah 1 h 2 2 8a 2 8h 1 9 2 a 2 1 8a 2 9 h

− lim

2ah 1 h 2 2 8h − lim s2a 1 h 2 8d h l0 h

h l0

h l0

h l0

− 2a 2 8

■

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SECTION 2.7

Derivatives and Rates of Change

145

We defined the tangent line to the curve y − f sxd at the point Psa, f sadd to be the line that passes through P and has slope m given by Equation 1 or 2. Since, by Definition 4, this is the same as the derivative f 9sad, we can now say the following.

The tangent line to y − f sxd at sa, f sadd is the line through sa, f sadd whose slope is equal to f 9sad, the derivative of f at a.

If we use the point-slope form of the equation of a line, we can write an equation of the tangent line to the curve y − f sxd at the point sa, f sadd:

y

y=≈-8x+9

y 2 f sad − f 9sadsx 2 ad

EXAMPLE 5 Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y − x 2 2 8x 1 9 at 0

the point s3, 26d.

x

SOLUTION From Example 4 we know that the derivative of f sxd − x 2 2 8x 1 9 at

(3, _6)

the number a is f 9sad − 2a 2 8. Therefore the slope of the tangent line at s3, 26d is f 9s3d − 2s3d 2 8 − 22. Thus an equation of the tangent line, shown in Figure 7, is

y=_2 x

y 2 s26d − s22dsx 2 3d

FIGURE 7

or

y − 22x

■

Rates of Change

y

Q { ¤, ‡}

Suppose y is a quantity that depends on another quantity x. Thus y is a function of x and we write y − f sxd. If x changes from x 1 to x 2, then the change in x (also called the increment of x) is Dx − x 2 2 x 1 and the corresponding change in y is

P {⁄, fl}

Îy

Dy − f sx 2d 2 f sx 1d Îx 0

⁄

The difference quotient ¤

Dy f sx 2d 2 f sx 1d − Dx x2 2 x1

x

average rate of change − mPQ instantaneous rate of change − slope of tangent at P

FIGURE 8

is called the average rate of change of y with respect to x over the interval fx 1, x 2g and can be interpreted as the slope of the secant line PQ in Figure 8. By analogy with velocity, we consider the average rate of change over smaller and smaller intervals by letting x 2 approach x 1 and therefore letting Dx approach 0. The limit of these average rates of change is called the (instantaneous) rate of change of y with respect to x at x − x1, which (as in the case of velocity) is interpreted as the slope of the tangent to the curve y − f sxd at Psx 1, f sx 1dd:

6

instantaneous rate of change − lim

Dx l 0

Dy f sx2 d 2 f sx1d − lim x lx Dx x2 2 x1 2

1

We recognize this limit as being the derivative f 9sx 1d. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

146

CHAPTER 2

Limits and Derivatives

We know that one interpretation of the derivative f 9sad is as the slope of the tangent line to the curve y − f sxd when x − a. We now have a second interpretation: y

The derivative f 9sad is the instantaneous rate of change of y − f sxd with respect to x when x − a.

Q

P

x

FIGURE 9 The y-values are changing rapidly at P and slowly at Q.

The connection with the first interpretation is that if we sketch the curve y − f sxd, then the instantaneous rate of change is the slope of the tangent to this curve at the point where x − a. This means that when the derivative is large (and therefore the curve is steep, as at the point P in Figure 9), the y-values change rapidly. When the derivative is small, the curve is relatively flat (as at point Q) and the y-values change slowly. In particular, if s − f std is the position function of a particle that moves along a straight line, then f 9sad is the rate of change of the displacement s with respect to the time t. In other words, f 9sad is the velocity of the particle at time t − a. The speed of the particle is the absolute value of the velocity, that is, | f 9sad |. In the next example we discuss the meaning of the derivative of a function that is defined verbally.

EXAMPLE 6 A manufacturer produces bolts of a fabric with a fixed width. The cost of producing x meters of this fabric is C − f sxd dollars. (a) What is the meaning of the derivative f 9sxd? What are its units? (b) In practical terms, what does it mean to say that f 9s1000d − 9? (c) Which do you think is greater, f 9s50d or f 9s500d? What about f 9s5000d? SOLUTION

(a) The derivative f 9sxd is the instantaneous rate of change of C with respect to x; that is, f 9sxd means the rate of change of the production cost with respect to the number of meters produced. (Economists call this rate of change the marginal cost. This idea is discussed in more detail in Sections 3.7 and 4.7.) Because f 9sxd − lim

Dx l 0

DC Dx

the units for f 9sxd are the same as the units for the difference quotient DCyDx. Since DC is measured in dollars and Dx in meters, it follows that the units for f 9sxd are dollars per meter. (b) The statement that f 9s1000d − 9 means that, after 1000 meters of fabric have been manufactured, the rate at which the production cost is increasing is $9ym. (When x − 1000, C is increasing 9 times as fast as x.) Since Dx − 1 is small compared with x − 1000, we could use the approximation Here we are assuming that the cost function is well behaved; in other words, Csxd doesn’t oscillate rapidly near x − 1000.

f 9s1000d
4

165

65. Nick starts jogging and runs faster and faster for 3 mintues, then he walks for 5 minutes. He stops at an intersection for 2 minutes, runs fairly quickly for 5 minutes, then walks for 4 minutes. (a) Sketch a possible graph of the distance s Nick has covered after t minutes. (b) Sketch a graph of dsydt. 66. When you turn on a hot-water faucet, the temperature T of the water depends on how long the water has been running. (a) Sketch a possible graph of T as a function of the time t that has elapsed since the faucet was turned on. (b) Describe how the rate of change of T with respect to t varies as t increases. (c) Sketch a graph of the derivative of T. 67. Let  be the tangent line to the parabola y − x 2 at the point s1, 1d. The angle of inclination of  is the angle  that  makes with the positive direction of the x-axis. Calculate  correct to the nearest degree.

(b) Sketch the graph of f. (c) Where is f discontinuous? (d) Where is f not differentiable?

2

Review

REvIEw

CONCEPT CHECK

Answers to the Concept Check can be found on the back endpapers.

1. Explain what each of the following means and illustrate with a sketch. (a) lim f sxd − L (b) lim1 f sxd − L (c) lim2 f sxd − L x la

(d) lim f sxd − ` x la

x la

x la

(e) lim f sxd − L x l`

2. Describe several ways in which a limit can fail to exist. Illustrate with sketches. 3. State the following Limit Laws. (a) Sum Law (b) Difference Law (c) Constant Multiple Law (d) Product Law (e) Quotient Law (f ) Power Law (g) Root Law

7. (a) What does it mean for f to be continuous at a? (b) What does it mean for f to be continuous on the interval s2`, `d? What can you say about the graph of such a function? 8. (a) Give examples of functions that are continuous on f21, 1g. (b) Give an example of a function that is not continuous on f0, 1g. 9. What does the Intermediate Value Theorem say? 10. Write an expression for the slope of the tangent line to the curve y − f sxd at the point sa, f sadd.

4. What does the Squeeze Theorem say?

11. Suppose an object moves along a straight line with position f std at time t. Write an expression for the instantaneous velocity of the object at time t − a. How can you interpret this velocity in terms of the graph of f ?

5. (a) What does it mean to say that the line x − a is a vertical asymptote of the curve y − f sxd? Draw curves to illustrate the various possibilities. (b) What does it mean to say that the line y − L is a horizontal asymptote of the curve y − f sxd? Draw curves to illustrate the various possibilities.

12. If y − f sxd and x changes from x 1 to x 2, write expressions for the following. (a) The average rate of change of y with respect to x over the interval fx 1, x 2 g. (b) The instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at x − x 1.

6. Which of the following curves have vertical asymptotes? Which have horizontal asymptotes? (a) y − x 4 (b) y − sin x (c) y − tan x (d) y − tan21x (e) y − e x (f ) y − ln x (g) y − 1yx (h) y − sx

13. Define the derivative f 9sad. Discuss two ways of interpreting this number. 14. Define the second derivative of f. If f std is the position function of a particle, how can you interpret the second derivative?

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166

Chapter 2

Limits and Derivatives

15. (a) What does it mean for f to be differentiable at a? (b) What is the relation between the differentiability and continuity of a function? (c) Sketch the graph of a function that is continuous but not differentiable at a − 2.

16. Describe several ways in which a function can fail to be differentiable. Illustrate with sketches.

TRUE-FALSE QUIZ Determine whether the statement is true or false. If it is true, explain why. If it is false, explain why or give an example that disproves the statement. 1. lim

x l4

S

2x 8 2 x24 x24

D

2x 8 − lim 2 lim x l4 x 2 4 x l4 x 2 4

lim sx 2 3d x23 xl1 − lim sx 2 1 2x 2 4d x 2 1 2x 2 4

17. If f is continuous at 5 and f s5d − 2 and f s4d − 3, then lim x l 2 f s4x 2 2 11d − 2.

xl1

18. If f is continuous on f21, 1g and f s21d − 4 and f s1d − 3, then there exists a number r such that r , 1 and f srd − .

x2 2 9 4. −x13 x23 5. lim

xl3

14. If f has domain f0, `d and has no horizontal asymptote, then lim x l ` f sxd − ` or lim x l ` f sxd − 2`.

16. If f s1d . 0 and f s3d , 0, then there exists a number c between 1 and 3 such that f scd − 0.

x l1

xl1

13. A function can have two different horizontal asymptotes.

15. If the line x − 1 is a vertical asymptote of y − f sxd, then f is not defined at 1.

lim sx 2 1 6x 2 7d x 2 1 6x 2 7 x l1 − 2. lim 2 x l 1 x 1 5x 2 6 lim sx 2 1 5x 2 6d 3. lim

12. If lim x l 0 f sxd − ` and lim x l 0 tsxd − `, then lim x l 0 f f sxd 2 tsxdg − 0.

| |

19. Let f be a function such that lim x l 0 f sxd − 6. Then there exists a positive number  such that if 0 , x , , then f sxd 2 6 , 1.

x2 2 9 − lim sx 1 3d xl3 x23

|

| |

|

6. If lim x l 5 f sxd − 2 and lim x l 5 tsxd − 0, then limx l 5 f f sxdytsxdg does not exist.

20. If f sxd . 1 for all x and lim x l 0 f sxd exists, then lim x l 0 f sxd . 1.

7. If lim x l5 f sxd − 0 and lim x l 5 tsxd − 0, then lim x l 5 f f sxdytsxdg does not exist.

21. If f is continuous at a, then f is differentiable at a. 22. If f 9srd exists, then lim x l r f sxd − f srd.

8. If neither lim x l a f sxd nor lim x l a tsxd exists, then lim x l a f f sxd 1 tsxdg does not exist.

23.

9. If lim x l a f sxd exists but lim x l a tsxd does not exist, then lim x l a f f sxd 1 tsxdg does not exist.

24. The equation x 10 2 10x 2 1 5 − 0 has a root in the interval s0, 2d.

d 2y − dx 2

S D dy dx

2

10. If lim x l 6 f f sxd tsxdg exists, then the limit must be f s6d ts6d.

25. If f is continuous at a, so is f .

11. If p is a polynomial, then lim x l b psxd − psbd.

26. If f is continuous at a, so is f .

| |

| |

EXERCISES 1. The graph of f is given.

(iv) lim f sxd

(v)

x l4

y

(vii) lim f sxd x l`

lim f sxd

x l0

(vi) lim2 f sxd x l2

(viii) lim f sxd x l 2`

(b) State the equations of the horizontal asymptotes. (c) State the equations of the vertical asymptotes. (d) At what numbers is f discontinuous? Explain. 1 0

x

1

2. Sketch the graph of a function f that satisfies all of the following conditions: lim f sxd − 22, lim f sxd − 0, lim f sxd − `, x l 2`

(a) Find each limit, or explain why it does not exist. (i) lim1 f sxd (ii) lim 1 f sxd (iii) lim f sxd x l2

x l 23

x l 23

lim f sxd − 2`,

x l 32

xl`

x l 23

lim f sxd − 2,

x l 31

f is continuous from the right at 3

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Chapter 2

3–20 Find the limit. 3. lim e

x3 2 x

4.

x l1

x2 2 9 x l 23 x 1 2x 2 3 sh 2 1d3 1 1 7. lim h l0 h 5. lim

9. lim

r l9

6.

2

8.

sr sr 2 9d4

10.

|

11. lim

ul1

u 21 u 3 1 5u 2 2 6u

sx 2 2 9 13. lim x l ` 2x 2 6

31–32 Show that the function is continuous on its domain. State the domain. sx 2 2 9 31. hsxd − xe sin x 32. tsxd − 2 x 22

|

33–34 Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that there is a root of the equation in the given interval.

sx 1 6 2 x x 3 2 3x 2

12. lim

xl3

33. x 5 2 x 3 1 3x 2 5 − 0,

sx 2 2 9 14. lim x l 2` 2x 2 6 1 2 2x 2 2 x 4 16. lim x l 2` 5 1 x 2 3x 4

15. lim2 lnssin xd x l

17. lim (sx 1 4x 1 1 2 x) 18. lim e 2

x l`

xl`

19. lim1 tan21s1yxd

20. lim

x l0

xl1

34. cos sx − e 2 2, x

x 2x 2

S

1 1 1 2 x21 x 2 3x 1 2

D

; 21–22 Use graphs to discover the asymptotes of the curve. Then prove what you have discovered. 21. y −

cos x x2

22. y − sx 2 1 x 1 1 2 sx 2 2 x

23. If 2x 2 1 < f sxd < x 2 for 0 , x , 3, find lim x l1 f sxd. 24. Prove that lim x l 0 x 2 coss1yx 2 d − 0. 25–28 Prove the statement using the precise definition of a limit. 25. lim s14 2 5xd − 4

26. lim sx − 0

27. lim sx 2 2 3xd − 22

28. lim1

3

xl2

xl0

xl2

29. Let

xl4

2 −` sx 2 4

H

if x , 0 s2x f sxd − 3 2 x if 0 < x , 3 sx 2 3d2 if x . 3 (a) Evaluate each limit, if it exists. (i) lim1 f sxd

(ii) lim2 f sxd

(iii) lim f sxd

(iv) lim2 f sxd

(v) lim1 f sxd

(vi) lim f sxd

x l0 x l3

x l0 x l3

x l0

(b) Where is f discontinuous? (c) Sketch the graph of f.

x l3

35. (a) Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve y − 9 2 2x 2 at the point s2, 1d. (b) Find an equation of this tangent line. 36. Find equations of the tangent lines to the curve

at the points with x-coordinates 0 and 21. 37. The displacement (in meters) of an object moving in a straight line is given by s − 1 1 2t 1 14 t 2, where t is measured in seconds. (a) Find the average velocity over each time period. (i) f1, 3g (ii) f1, 2g (iii) f1, 1.5g (iv) f1, 1.1g (b) Find the instantaneous velocity when t − 1. 38. According to Boyle’s Law, if the temperature of a confined gas is held fixed, then the product of the pressure P and the volume V is a constant. Suppose that, for a certain gas, PV − 4000, where P is measured in pascals and V is measured in liters. (a) Find the average rate of change of P as V increases from 3 L to 4 L. (b) Express V as a function of P and show that the instantaneous rate of change of V with respect to P is inversely proportional to the square of P. 39. (a) Use the definition of a derivative to find f 9s2d, where f sxd − x 3 2 2x. (b) Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y − x 3 2 2x at the point (2, 4). (c) Illustrate part (b) by graphing the curve and the tan; gent line on the same screen.

lim

tsxd −

2 1 2 3x

40. Find a function f and a number a such that

30. Let 2x 2 x 2 22x x24 

s1, 2d

s0, 1d

y−

2

167

(a) For each of the numbers 2, 3, and 4, discover whether t is continuous from the left, continuous from the right, or continuous at the number. (b) Sketch the graph of t.

x2 2 9 lim 2 x l 3 x 1 2x 2 3 x2 2 9 lim1 2 x l 1 x 1 2x 2 3 t2 2 4 lim 3 t l2 t 2 8 42v lim v l 41 4 2 v

4

Review

if if if if

0 2

81. Let f sxd −

Give a formula for t9 and sketch the graphs of t and t9.

|

73. (a) For what values of x is the function f sxd − x 2 2 9 differentiable? Find a formula for f 9. (b) Sketch the graphs of f and f 9.

|

| |

80. The graph of any quadratic function f sxd − ax 2 1 bx 1 c is a parabola. Prove that the average of the slopes of the tangent lines to the parabola at the endpoints of any interval f p, qg equals the slope of the tangent line at the midpoint of the interval.

|

|

74. Where is the function hsxd − x 2 1 1 x 1 2 differentiable? Give a formula for h9 and sketch the graphs of h and h9. 75. Find the parabola with equation y − ax 2 1 bx whose tangent line at (1, 1) has equation y − 3x 2 2.

77. For what values of a and b is the line 2x 1 y − b tangent to the parabola y − ax 2 when x − 2? 78. Find the value of c such that the line y − the curve y − csx .

applied project

82. A tangent line is drawn to the hyperbola xy − c at a point P. (a) Show that the midpoint of the line segment cut from this tangent line by the coordinate axes is P. (b) Show that the triangle formed by the tangent line and the coordinate axes always has the same area, no matter where P is located on the hyperbola. 83. Evaluate lim

1 6 is tangent to

x 1000 2 1 . x21

84. Draw a diagram showing two perpendicular lines that intersect on the y-axis and are both tangent to the parabola y − x 2. Where do these lines intersect? 85. If c . 12, how many lines through the point s0, cd are normal lines to the parabola y − x 2? What if c < 12? 86. Sketch the parabolas y − x 2 and y − x 2 2 2x 1 2. Do you think there is a line that is tangent to both curves? If so, find its equation. If not, why not?

building a better roller coaster

f L¡

3 2x

x2 if x < 2 mx 1 b if x . 2

Find the values of m and b that make f differentiable everywhere.

xl1

76. Suppose the curve y − x 4 1 ax 3 1 bx 2 1 cx 1 d has a tangent line when x − 0 with equation y − 2x 1 1 and a tangent line when x − 1 with equation y − 2 2 3x. Find the values of a, b, c, and d.

H

P Q L™

Suppose you are asked to design the first ascent and drop for a new roller coaster. By studying photographs of your favorite coasters, you decide to make the slope of the ascent 0.8 and the slope of the drop 21.6. You decide to connect these two straight stretches y − L 1sxd and y − L 2 sxd with part of a parabola y − f sxd − a x 2 1 bx 1 c, where x and f sxd are measured in meters. For the track to be smooth there can’t be abrupt changes in direction, so you want the linear segments L 1 and L 2 to be tangent to the parabola at the transition points P and Q. (See the figure.) To simplify the equations, you decide to place the origin at P. 1. (a) Suppose the horizontal distance between P and Q is 30 m. Write equations in a, b, and c that will ensure that the track is smooth at the transition points. (b) Solve the equations in part (a) for a, b, and c to find a formula for f sxd. (c) Plot L 1, f , and L 2 to verify graphically that the transitions are smooth. ; (d) Find the difference in elevation between P and Q. 2. The solution in Problem 1 might look smooth, but it might not feel smooth because the piecewise defined function [consisting of L 1sxd for x , 0, f sxd for 0 < x < 30, and

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SECTION 3.2 The Product and Quotient Rules

183

© Susana Ortega / Shutterstock.com

L 2sxd for x . 30] doesn’t have a continuous second derivative. So you decide to improve the design by using a quadratic function qsxd − ax 2 1 bx 1 c only on the interval 3 < x < 27 and connecting it to the linear functions by means of two cubic functions: tsxd − kx 3 1 lx 2 1 mx 1 n

0 0, where s is measured y − 2x sin x at the point sy2, d. in centimeters and t in seconds. (Take the positive direction (b) Illustrate part (a) by graphing the curve and the tangent to be downward.) line on the same screen. (a) Find the velocity and acceleration at time t. (a) Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve (b) Graph the velocity and acceleration functions. y − 3x 1 6 cos x at the point sy3,  1 3d. (c) When does the mass pass through the equilibrium (b) Illustrate part (a) by graphing the curve and the tangent position for the first time? line on the same screen. (d) How far from its equilibrium position does the mass travel? (a) If f sxd − sec x 2 x, find f 9sxd. (e) When is the speed the greatest? (b) Check to see that your answer to part (a) is reasonable by graphing both f and f 9 for x , y2. 37. A ladder 6 m long rests against a vertical wall. Let  be the angle between the top of the ladder and the wall and let x be (a) If f sxd − e x cos x, find f 9sxd and f 99sxd. the distance from the bottom of the ladder to the wall. If the (b) Check to see that your answers to part (a) are reasonable bottom of the ladder slides away from the wall, how fast by graphing f , f 9, and f 99. does x change with respect to  when  − y3? If Hsd −  sin , find H9sd and H99sd. 38. An object with mass m is dragged along a horizontal plane by a force acting along a rope attached to the object. If the If f std − sec t, find f 0sy4d.

| |

28. ; 29. 30.

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SECTION 3.4 The Chain Rule

rope makes an angle  with the plane, then the magnitude of the force is mt F−  sin  1 cos  where  is a constant called the coefficient of friction. (a) Find the rate of change of F with respect to . (b) When is this rate of change equal to 0? (c) If m − 20 kg, t − 9.8 mys2, and  − 0.6, draw the graph of F as a function of  and use it to locate the value of  for which dFyd − 0. Is the value consistent with your answer to part (b)?

;

55. Differentiate each trigonometric identity to obtain a new (or familiar) identity. sin x 1 (a) tan x − (b) sec x − cos x cos x 1 1 cot x (c) sin x 1 cos x − csc x 56. A semicircle with diameter PQ sits on an isosceles triangle PQR to form a region shaped like a two-dimensional ice-cream cone, as shown in the figure. If Asd is the area of the semicircle and Bsd is the area of the triangle, find lim

39–50 Find the limit.

l 01

sin 5x 3x tan 6t 41. lim t l 0 sin 2t sin 3x 43. lim x l 0 5x 3 2 4x

sin x sin x cos  2 1 42. lim l0 sin  sin 3x sin 5x 44. lim xl0 x2

sin  45. lim  l 0  1 tan 

46. lim csc x sinssin xd

39. lim

xl0

cos  2 1 2 2 1 2 tan x 49. lim x l y4 sin x 2 cos x 47. lim

l0

Asd Bsd

40. lim

xl0

A(¨) P

10 cm

10 cm ¨

xl0

2

sinsx d x sinsx 2 1d 50. lim 2 xl1 x 1 x 2 2

Q B(¨)

R

48. lim

xl0

57. The figure shows a circular arc of length s and a chord of length d, both subtended by a central angle . Find lim

l 01

51–52 Find the given derivative by finding the first few derivatives and observing the pattern that occurs. 99

51.

d ssin xd dx 99

197

d

s d s

35

52.

d sx sin xd dx 35

53. Find constants A and B such that the function y − A sin x 1 B cos x satisfies the differential equation y99 1 y9 2 2y − sin x. 1 54. (a) Evaluate lim x sin . xl` x 1 (b) Evaluate lim x sin . xl0 x (c) Illustrate parts (a) and (b) by graphing y − x sins1yxd. ;

¨

x . s1 2 cos 2x (a) Graph f . What type of discontinuity does it appear to have at 0? (b) Calculate the left and right limits of f at 0. Do these values confirm your answer to part (a)?

; 58. Let f sxd −

Suppose you are asked to differentiate the function Fsxd − sx 2 1 1 The differentiation formulas you learned in the previous sections of this chapter do not enable you to calculate F9sxd.

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198

CHAPTER 3

Differentiation Rules

See Section 1.3 for a review of composite functions.

Observe that F is a composite function. In fact, if we let y − f sud − su and let u − tsxd − x 2 1 1, then we can write y − Fsxd − f stsxdd, that is, F − f 8 t. We know how to differentiate both f and t, so it would be useful to have a rule that tells us how to find the derivative of F − f 8 t in terms of the derivatives of f and t. It turns out that the derivative of the composite function f 8 t is the product of the derivatives of f and t. This fact is one of the most important of the differentiation rules and is called the Chain Rule. It seems plausible if we interpret derivatives as rates of change. Regard duydx as the rate of change of u with respect to x, dyydu as the rate of change of y with respect to u, and dyydx as the rate of change of y with respect to x. If u changes twice as fast as x and y changes three times as fast as u, then it seems reasonable that y changes six times as fast as x, and so we expect that dy dy du − dx du dx The Chain Rule If t is differentiable at x and f is differentiable at tsxd, then the composite function F − f 8 t defined by Fsxd − f stsxdd is differentiable at x and F9 is given by the product F9sxd − f 9s tsxdd ? t9sxd In Leibniz notation, if y − f sud and u − tsxd are both differentiable functions, then dy dy du − dx du dx

James Gregory The first person to formulate the Chain Rule was the Scottish mathematician James Gregory (1638–1675), who also designed the first practical reflecting telescope. Gregory discovered the basic ideas of calculus at about the same time as Newton. He became the first Professor of Mathematics at the University of St. Andrews and later held the same position at the University of Edinburgh. But one year after accepting that position he died at the age of 36.

COMMENTS ON THE PROOF OF THE CHAIN RULE Let Du be the change in u correspond-

ing to a change of Dx in x, that is, Du − tsx 1 Dxd 2 tsxd Then the corresponding change in y is Dy − f su 1 Dud 2 f sud It is tempting to write dy Dy − lim Dxl 0 dx Dx 1

− lim

Dy Du ? Du Dx

− lim

Dy Du ? lim Du Dx l 0 Dx

− lim

Dy Du ? lim Du Dx l 0 Dx

Dx l 0

Dx l 0

Du l 0

−

(Note that Du l 0 as Dx l 0 since t is continuous.)

dy du du dx

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SECTION 3.4 The Chain Rule

199

The only flaw in this reasoning is that in (1) it might happen that Du − 0 (even when Dx ± 0) and, of course, we can’t divide by 0. Nonetheless, this reasoning does at least suggest that the Chain Rule is true. A full proof of the Chain Rule is given at the end of this section. ■ The Chain Rule can be written either in the prime notation s f 8 td9sxd − f 9stsxdd ? t9sxd

2

or, if y − f sud and u − tsxd, in Leibniz notation: dy dy du − dx du dx

3

Equation 3 is easy to remember because if dyydu and duydx were quotients, then we could cancel du. Remember, however, that du has not been defined and duydx should not be thought of as an actual quotient.

ExamplE 1 Find F9sxd if Fsxd − sx 2 1 1. SOLUTION 1 (using Equation 2): At the beginning of this section we expressed F as Fsxd − s f 8 tdsxd − f stsxdd where f sud − su and tsxd − x 2 1 1. Since

f 9sud − 12 u21y2 −

1 2 su

and

t9sxd − 2x

F9sxd − f 9stsxdd ? t9sxd

we have

−

1 x ? 2x − 2 1 1 2 sx 2 1 1 sx

SOLUTION 2 (using Equation 3): If we let u − x 2 1 1 and y − su , then

dy du 1 1 x − s2xd − s2xd − 2 2 du dx 2 su 2 sx 1 1 sx 1 1

F9sxd −

■

When using Formula 3 we should bear in mind that dyydx refers to the derivative of y when y is considered as a function of x (called the derivative of y with respect to x), whereas dyydu refers to the derivative of y when considered as a function of u (the derivative of y with respect to u). For instance, in Example 1, y can be considered as a function of x ( y − s x 2 1 1 ) and also as a function of u ( y − su ). Note that dy x − F9sxd − 2 dx sx 1 1

whereas

dy 1 − f 9sud − du 2 su

NOTE In using the Chain Rule we work from the outside to the inside. Formula 2 says that we differentiate the outer function f [at the inner function tsxd] and then we multiply by the derivative of the inner function. d dx

f

s tsxdd

outer function

evaluated at inner function

−

f9

stsxdd

derivative of outer function

evaluated at inner function

?

t9sxd derivative of inner function

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

200

CHAPTER 3

Differentiation Rules

ExamplE 2 Differentiate (a) y − sinsx 2 d and (b) y − sin2x. SOLUTION

(a) If y − sinsx 2 d, then the outer function is the sine function and the inner function is the squaring function, so the Chain Rule gives dy d − dx dx

sin

sx 2 d

outer function

evaluated at inner function

cos

sx 2 d

derivative of outer function

evaluated at inner function

−

?

2x derivative of inner function

− 2x cossx 2 d (b) Note that sin2x − ssin xd2. Here the outer function is the squaring function and the inner function is the sine function. So dy d − ssin xd2 dx dx inner function

See Reference Page 2 or Appendix D.

−

2

?

derivative of outer function

ssin xd

?

evaluated at inner function

cos x derivative of inner function

The answer can be left as 2 sin x cos x or written as sin 2x (by a trigonometric identity known as the double-angle formula). ■ In Example 2(a) we combined the Chain Rule with the rule for differentiating the sine function. In general, if y − sin u, where u is a differentiable function of x, then, by the Chain Rule, dy dy du du − − cos u dx du dx dx Thus

d du ssin ud − cos u dx dx

In a similar fashion, all of the formulas for differentiating trigonometric functions can be combined with the Chain Rule. Let’s make explicit the special case of the Chain Rule where the outer function f is a power function. If y − f tsxdg n, then we can write y − f sud − u n where u − tsxd. By using the Chain Rule and then the Power Rule, we get dy dy du du − − nu n21 − nftsxdg n21 t9sxd dx du dx dx 4 The Power Rule Combined with the Chain Rule If n is any real number and u − tsxd is differentiable, then d du su n d − nu n21 dx dx Alternatively,

d ftsxdg n − nf tsxdg n21 ? t9sxd dx

Notice that the derivative in Example 1 could be calculated by taking n − 12 in Rule 4.

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SECTION 3.4 The Chain Rule

201

ExamplE 3 Differentiate y − sx 3 2 1d100. SOLUTION Taking u − tsxd − x 3 2 1 and n − 100 in (4), we have

dy d d − sx 3 2 1d100 − 100sx 3 2 1d99 sx 3 2 1d dx dx dx − 100sx 3 2 1d99 ? 3x 2 − 300x 2sx 3 2 1d99

ExamplE 4 Find f 9sxd if f sxd − SOLUTION First rewrite f :

Thus

■

1 . sx 1 x 1 1 3

2

f sxd − sx 2 1 x 1 1d21y3

f 9sxd − 213 sx 2 1 x 1 1d24y3

d sx 2 1 x 1 1d dx

− 213 sx 2 1 x 1 1d24y3s2x 1 1d

■

ExamplE 5 Find the derivative of the function tstd −

S D t22 2t 1 1

9

SOLUTION Combining the Power Rule, Chain Rule, and Quotient Rule, we get

S D S D S D

t9std − 9

t22 2t 1 1

8

d dt

t22 2t 1 1

8

−9

s2t 1 1d ? 1 2 2st 2 2d 45st 2 2d8 − 2 s2t 1 1d s2t 1 1d10

t22 2t 1 1

■

ExamplE 6 Differentiate y − s2x 1 1d5sx 3 2 x 1 1d4. The graphs of the functions y and y9 in Example 6 are shown in Figure 1. Notice that y9 is large when y increases rapidly and y9 − 0 when y has a horizontal tangent. So our answer appears to be reasonable. 10

dy d d − s2x 1 1d5 sx 3 2 x 1 1d4 1 sx 3 2 x 1 1d4 s2x 1 1d5 dx dx dx − s2x 1 1d5 ? 4sx 3 2 x 1 1d3

d sx 3 2 x 1 1d dx

1 sx 3 2 x 1 1d4 ? 5s2x 1 1d4

yª _2

1

y _10

FIGURE 1

SOLUTION In this example we must use the Product Rule before using the Chain Rule:

d s2x 1 1d dx

− 4s2x 1 1d5sx 3 2 x 1 1d3s3x 2 2 1d 1 5sx 3 2 x 1 1d4s2x 1 1d4 ? 2 Noticing that each term has the common factor 2s2x 1 1d4sx 3 2 x 1 1d3, we could factor it out and write the answer as dy − 2s2x 1 1d4sx 3 2 x 1 1d3s17x 3 1 6x 2 2 9x 1 3d dx

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

■

202

CHAPTER 3

Differentiation Rules

ExamplE 7 Differentiate y − e sin x. SOLUTION Here the inner function is tsxd − sin x and the outer function is the exponential function f sxd − e x. So, by the Chain Rule, More generally, the Chain Rule gives

dy d d − se sin x d − e sin x ssin xd − e sin x cos x dx dx dx

d u du se d − e u dx dx

■

We can use the Chain Rule to differentiate an exponential function with any base b . 0. Recall from Section 1.5 that b − e ln b. So b x − se ln b d x − e sln bdx and the Chain Rule gives d d d sb x d − se sln bdx d − e sln bdx sln bdx dx dx dx − e sln bdx ∙ ln b − b x ln b because ln b is a constant. So we have the formula Don’t confuse Formula 5 (where x is the exponent) with the Power Rule (where x is the base):

d sb x d − b x ln b dx

5

d sx n d − nx n21 dx

In particular, if b − 2, we get d s2 x d − 2 x ln 2 dx

6 In Section 3.1 we gave the estimate

d s2 x d < s0.69d2 x dx This is consistent with the exact formula (6) because ln 2 < 0.693147. The reason for the name “Chain Rule” becomes clear when we make a longer chain by adding another link. Suppose that y − f sud, u − tsxd, and x − hstd, where f , t, and h are differentiable functions. Then, to compute the derivative of y with respect to t, we use the Chain Rule twice: dy dy dx dy du dx − − dt dx dt du dx dt

ExamplE 8 If f sxd − sinscosstan xdd, then f 9sxd − cosscosstan xdd

d cosstan xd dx

− cosscosstan xddf2sinstan xdg

d stan xd dx

− 2cosscosstan xdd sinstan xd sec2x Notice that we used the Chain Rule twice.

■

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SECTION 3.4 The Chain Rule

203

ExamplE 9 Differentiate y − e sec 3. SOLUTION The outer function is the exponential function, the middle function is the secant function, and the inner function is the tripling function. So we have

dy d − e sec 3 ssec 3d d d d s3d d

− e sec 3 sec 3 tan 3 − 3e sec 3 sec 3 tan 3

■

How to Prove the Chain Rule Recall that if y − f sxd and x changes from a to a 1 Dx, we define the increment of y as Dy − f sa 1 Dxd 2 f sad According to the definition of a derivative, we have lim

Dx l 0

Dy − f 9sad Dx

So if we denote by « the difference between the difference quotient and the derivative, we obtain lim « − lim

Dx l 0

«−

But

Dx l 0

S

D

Dy 2 f 9sad − f 9sad 2 f 9sad − 0 Dx

Dy 2 f 9sad Dx

?

Dy − f 9sad Dx 1 « Dx

If we define « to be 0 when Dx − 0, then « becomes a continuous function of Dx. Thus, for a differentiable function f, we can write 7

Dy − f 9sad Dx 1 « Dx

where

« l 0 as Dx l 0

and « is a continuous function of Dx. This property of differentiable functions is what enables us to prove the Chain Rule. PROOF OF THE CHAIN RULE Suppose u − tsxd is differentiable at a and y − f sud is differentiable at b − tsad. If Dx is an increment in x and Du and Dy are the corresponding increments in u and y, then we can use Equation 7 to write

8

Du − t9sad Dx 1 «1 Dx − ft9sad 1 «1 g Dx

where «1 l 0 as Dx l 0. Similarly 9

Dy − f 9sbd Du 1 «2 Du − f f 9sbd 1 «2 g Du

where «2 l 0 as Du l 0. If we now substitute the expression for Du from Equation 8 into Equation 9, we get Dy − f f 9sbd 1 «2 gft9sad 1 «1 g Dx

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

204

CHAPTER 3

Differentiation Rules

Dy − f f 9sbd 1 «2 gft9sad 1 «1 g Dx

so

As Dx l 0, Equation 8 shows that Du l 0. So both «1 l 0 and «2 l 0 as Dx l 0. Therefore dy Dy − lim − lim f f 9sbd 1 «2 g ft9sad 1 «1 g Dx l 0 Dx Dx l 0 dx − f 9sbd t9sad − f 9stsadd t9sad This proves the Chain Rule.

■

3.4 EXERCISES 1–6 Write the composite function in the form f s tsxdd. [Identify the inner function u − tsxd and the outer function y − f sud.] Then find the derivative dyydx. 1. y − sin 4x

2. y − s4 1 3x

3. y − s1 2 x 2 d10

4. y − tanssin xd

5. y − e sx

6. y − s2 2 e x

7–46 Find the derivative of the function. 7. Fsxd − s5x 6 1 2x 3 d 4

8. Fsxd − s1 1 x 1 x 2 d 99

9. f sxd − s5x 1 1

10. f sxd −

1 3 x2 2 1 s

11. f sd − coss 2 d

12. tsd − cos2 

13. y − x 2e 23x

14. f std − t sin t

15. f std − e at sin bt

16. tsxd − e x

2

19. hstd − st 1 1d2y3 s2t 2 2 1d3

21. y −

Î

22. y − x 1

23. y − e tan  25. tsud −

S

24. f std − 2 t u3 2 1 u3 1 1

D

27. rstd − 10 2st 29. Hsrd −

23

S D

x x11

sr 2 2 1d 3 s2r 1 1d 5

8

26. sstd −

33. Gsxd − 4 Cyx

34. Us yd −

35. y − sinstan 2xd

36. y − sec 2 smd

37. y − cot 2ssin d

38. y − s1 1 xe22x

39. f std − tanssecscos tdd

40. y − e sin 2x 1 sinse 2x d

41. f std − tanse t d 1 e tan t

42. y − sinssinssin xdd

43. tsxd − s2ra rx 1 nd p

44. y − 2 3

45. y − cos ssinstan xd

46. y − fx 1 sx 1 sin2 xd3 g 4

st 1 1 3

S D y4 1 1 y2 1 1

5

4x

47–50 Find y9 and y 99.

18. tsxd − sx 2 1 1d3 sx 2 1 2d6 20. Fstd − s3t 2 1d s2t 1 1d

32. Fstd −

2x

17. f sxd − s2x 2 3d4 sx 2 1 x 1 1d5

4

t2

31. Fstd − e t sin 2t

1 x

48. y −

49. y − s1 2 sec t

50. y − e e

x

5

3

Î

1 s1 1 tan xd 2

47. y − cosssin 3d

1 1 sin t 1 1 cos t

28. f szd − e zysz21d 30. Jsd − tan 2 snd

51–54 Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve at the given point. 51. y − 2 x, s0, 1d

52. y − s1 1 x 3 , s2, 3d

53. y − sinssin xd, s, 0d

54. y − xe 2x , s0, 0d

2

55. (a) Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y − 2ys1 1 e2x d at the point s0, 1d. (b) Illustrate part (a) by graphing the curve and the tangent line ; on the same screen.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 3.4 The Chain Rule

| |

56. (a) The curve y − x ys2 2 x 2 is called a bullet-nose curve. Find an equation of the tangent line to this curve at the point s1, 1d. (b) Illustrate part (a) by graphing the curve and the tangent ; line on the same screen.

66. If f is the function whose graph is shown, let hsxd − f s f sxdd and tsxd − f sx 2 d. Use the graph of f to estimate the value of each derivative. (a) h9s2d (b) t9s2d y

57. (a) If f sxd − x s2 2 x , find f 9sxd. (b) Check to see that your answer to part (a) is reasonable by comparing the graphs of f and f 9. 2

;

; 58. The function f sxd − sinsx 1 sin 2xd, 0 < x < , arises in applications to frequency modulation (FM) synthesis. (a) Use a graph of f produced by a calculator to make a rough sketch of the graph of f 9. (b) Calculate f 9sxd and use this expression, with a calculator, to graph f 9. Compare with your sketch in part (a).

205

y=ƒ

1 0

1

x

67. If tsxd − sf sxd , where the graph of f is shown, evaluate t9s3d. y

59. Find all points on the graph of the function f sxd − 2 sin x 1 sin2x at which the tangent line is horizontal. 60. At what point on the curve y − s1 1 2x is the tangent line perpendicular to the line 6x 1 2y − 1? 61. If Fsxd − f stsxdd, where f s22d − 8, f 9s22d − 4, f 9s5d − 3, ts5d − 22, and t9s5d − 6, find F9s5d. 62. If hsxd − s4 1 3f sxd , where f s1d − 7 and f 9s1d − 4, find h9s1d.

f

1 0

1

x

68. Suppose f is differentiable on R and  is a real number. Let Fsxd − f sx  d and Gsxd − f f sxdg . Find expressions for (a) F9sxd and (b) G9sxd. 69. Suppose f is differentiable on R. Let Fsxd − f se x d and Gsxd − e f sxd. Find expressions for (a) F9sxd and (b) G9sxd.

63. A table of values for f , t, f 9, and t9 is given. x

f sxd

tsxd

f 9sxd

t9sxd

1 2 3

3 1 7

2 8 2

4 5 7

6 7 9

70. Let tsxd − e cx 1 f sxd and hsxd − e kx f sxd, where f s0d − 3, f 9s0d − 5, and f 99s0d − 22. (a) Find t9s0d and t99s0d in terms of c. (b) In terms of k, find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of h at the point where x − 0. 71. Let rsxd − f s tshsxddd, where hs1d − 2, ts2d − 3, h9s1d − 4, t9s2d − 5, and f 9s3d − 6. Find r9s1d.

(a) If hsxd − f stsxdd, find h9s1d. (b) If Hsxd − ts f sxdd, find H9s1d. 64. Let f and t be the functions in Exercise 63. (a) If Fsxd − f s f sxdd, find F9s2d. (b) If Gsxd − tstsxdd, find G9s3d. 65. If f and t are the functions whose graphs are shown, let usxd − f s tsxdd, vsxd − ts f sxdd, and w sxd − ts tsxdd. Find each derivative, if it exists. If it does not exist, explain why. (a) u9s1d (b) v9s1d (c) w9s1d

72. If t is a twice differentiable function and f sxd − x tsx 2 d, find f 99 in terms of t, t9, and t99. 73. If Fsxd − f s3f s4 f sxddd, where f s0d − 0 and f 9s0d − 2, find F9s0d. 74. If Fsxd − f sx f sx f sxddd, where f s1d − 2, f s2d − 3, f 9s1d − 4, f 9s2d − 5, and f 9s3d − 6, find F9s1d. 75. Show that the function y − e 2x sA cos 3x 1 B sin 3xd satisfies the differential equation y99 2 4y9 1 13y − 0.

y

f

76. For what values of r does the function y − e rx satisfy the differential equation y99 2 4y9 1 y − 0? g

77. Find the 50th derivative of y − cos 2x.

1 0

1

x

78. Find the 1000th derivative of f sxd − xe2x.

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206

CHAPTER 3

Differentiation Rules

79. The displacement of a particle on a vibrating string is given ; by the equation sstd − 10 1 14 sins10 td where s is measured in centimeters and t in seconds. Find the velocity of the particle after t seconds. 85. 80. If the equation of motion of a particle is given by s − A cosst 1 d, the particle is said to undergo simple harmonic motion. (a) Find the velocity of the particle at time t. (b) When is the velocity 0? 81. A Cepheid variable star is a star whose brightness alternately increases and decreases. The most easily visible such star is Delta Cephei, for which the interval between times of maximum brightness is 5.4 days. The average brightness of this star is 4.0 and its brightness changes by 60.35. In view of these data, the brightness of Delta Cephei at time t, where t is measured in days, has been modeled by the function

S D

Bstd − 4.0 1 0.35 sin

2 t 5.4

82. In Example 1.3.4 we arrived at a model for the length of daylight (in hours) in Ankara, Turkey, on the tth day of the year:

F

2 st 2 80d 365

The average blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of eight male subjects was measured after consumption of 15 mL of ethanol (corresponding to one alcoholic drink). The resulting data were modeled by the concentration function Cstd − 0.0225te 20.0467t where t is measured in minutes after consumption and C is measured in mgymL. (a) How rapidly was the BAC increasing after 10 minutes? (b) How rapidly was it decreasing half an hour later? Source: Adapted from P. Wilkinson et al., “Pharmacokinetics of Ethanol after Oral Administration in the Fasting State,” Journal of Pharmacokinetics and Biopharmaceutics 5 (1977): 207–24.

86. In Section 1.4 we modeled the world population from 1900 to 2010 with the exponential function Pstd − s1436.53d ? s1.01395d t

(a) Find the rate of change of the brightness after t days. (b) Find, correct to two decimal places, the rate of increase after one day.

Lstd − 12 1 2.8 sin

(c) Graph p for the case a − 10, k − 0.5 with t measured in hours. Use the graph to estimate how long it will take for 80% of the population to hear the rumor.

G

Use this model to compare how the number of hours of daylight is increasing in Ankara on March 21 and May 21. ; 83. The motion of a spring that is subject to a frictional force or a damping force (such as a shock absorber in a car) is often modeled by the product of an exponential function and a sine or cosine function. Suppose the equation of motion of a point on such a spring is sstd − 2e21.5t sin 2t where s is measured in centimeters and t in seconds. Find the velocity after t seconds and graph both the position and velocity functions for 0 < t < 2. 84. Under certain circumstances a rumor spreads according to the equation 1 pstd − 1 1 ae 2k t where pstd is the proportion of the population that has heard the rumor at time t and a and k are positive constants. [In Section 9.4 we will see that this is a reasonable equation for pstd.] (a) Find lim t l ` pstd. (b) Find the rate of spread of the rumor.

where t − 0 corresponds to the year 1900 and Pstd is measured in millions. According to this model, what was the rate of increase of world population in 1920? In 1950? In 2000? 87. A particle moves along a straight line with displacement sstd, velocity vstd, and acceleration astd. Show that dv astd − vstd ds Explain the difference between the meanings of the derivatives dvydt and dvyds. 88. Air is being pumped into a spherical weather balloon. At any time t, the volume of the balloon is Vstd and its radius is rstd. (a) What do the derivatives dVydr and dVydt represent? (b) Express dVydt in terms of drydt. ; 89. The flash unit on a camera operates by storing charge on a capacitor and releasing it suddenly when the flash is set off. The following data describe the charge Q remaining on the capacitor (measured in microcoulombs, mC) at time t (measured in seconds). t

0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

Q

100.00

81.87

67.03

54.88

44.93

36.76

(a) Use a graphing calculator or computer to find an exponential model for the charge. (b) The derivative Q9std represents the electric current (measured in microamperes, mA) flowing from the capacitor to the flash bulb. Use part (a) to estimate the current when t − 0.04 s. Compare with the result of Example 2.1.2.

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SECTION 3.4 The Chain Rule

; 90. The table gives the population of Mexico (in millions) in the 20th-century census years. Year

Population

Year

Population

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950

13.6 15.2 14.3 16.6 19.7 25.8

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

34.9 48.2 66.8 81.2 97.5

(a) Use a graphing calculator or computer to fit an exponential function to the data. Graph the data points and the exponential model. How good is the fit? (b) Estimate the rates of population growth in 1950 and 1960 by averaging slopes of secant lines. (c) Use the exponential model in part (a) to find a model for the rate of growth of the Mexican population in the 20th century. (d) Use your model in part (c) to estimate the rates of growth in 1950 and 1960. Compare with your estimates in part (b). CAS

CAS

91. Computer algebra systems have commands that differentiate functions, but the form of the answer may not be convenient and so further commands may be necessary to simplify the answer. (a) Use a CAS to find the derivative in Example 5 and compare with the answer in that example. Then use the simplify command and compare again. (b) Use a CAS to find the derivative in Example 6. What happens if you use the simplify command? What happens if you use the factor command? Which form of the answer would be best for locating horizontal tangents? 92. (a) Use a CAS to differentiate the function f sxd −

Î

x4 2 x 1 1 x4 1 x 1 1

and to simplify the result. (b) Where does the graph of f have horizontal tangents? (c) Graph f and f 9 on the same screen. Are the graphs consistent with your answer to part (b)? 93. Use the Chain Rule to prove the following. (a) The derivative of an even function is an odd function. (b) The derivative of an odd function is an even function.

207

94. Use the Chain Rule and the Product Rule to give an alternative proof of the Quotient Rule. [Hint: Write f sxdytsxd − f sxdf tsxdg 21.] 95. (a) If n is a positive integer, prove that d ssinn x cos nxd − n sinn21x cossn 1 1dx dx (b) Find a formula for the derivative of y − cosnx cos nx that is similar to the one in part (a). 96. Suppose y − f sxd is a curve that always lies above the x-axis and never has a horizontal tangent, where f is differentiable everywhere. For what value of y is the rate of change of y 5 with respect to x eighty times the rate of change of y with respect to x? 97. Use the Chain Rule to show that if  is measured in degrees, then d  ssin d − cos  d 180 (This gives one reason for the convention that radian measure is always used when dealing with trigonometric functions in calculus: the differentiation formulas would not be as simple if we used degree measure.) 98. (a) Write x − sx 2 and use the Chain Rule to show that

| |

d x − dx

| |

|

x

|x|

|

(b) If f sxd − sin x , find f 9sxd and sketch the graphs of f and f 9. Where is f not differentiable? (c) If tsxd − sin x , find t9sxd and sketch the graphs of t and t9. Where is t not differentiable?

| |

99. If y − f sud and u − tsxd, where f and t are twice differentiable functions, show that d2y d2y − dx 2 du 2

S D du dx

2

1

dy d 2u du dx 2

100. If y − f sud and u − tsxd, where f and t possess third derivatives, find a formula for d 3 yydx 3 similar to the one given in Exercise 99.

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208

CHAPTER 3

Differentiation Rules

APPLIED PROJECT

WHERE SHOULD A PILOT START DESCENT? An approach path for an aircraft landing is shown in the figure and satisfies the following conditions:

y

y=P(x)

0

(i) The cruising altitude is h when descent starts at a horizontal distance , from touchdown at the origin. (ii) The pilot must maintain a constant horizontal speed v throughout descent. (iii) The absolute value of the vertical acceleration should not exceed a constant k (which is much less than the acceleration due to gravity).

h

x



1. Find a cubic polynomial Psxd − ax 3 1 bx 2 1 cx 1 d that satisfies condition (i) by imposing suitable conditions on Psxd and P9sxd at the start of descent and at touchdown. 2. Use conditions (ii) and (iii) to show that 6h v 2 0, where t is measured in seconds and s in meters. (a) Find the velocity at time t. (b) What is the velocity after 1 second? (c) When is the particle at rest? (d) When is the particle moving in the positive direction? (e) Find the total distance traveled during the first 6 seconds. (f) Draw a diagram like Figure 2 to illustrate the motion of the particle. (g) Find the acceleration at time t and after 1 second. ; (h) Graph the position, velocity, and acceleration functions for 0 < t < 6. (i) When is the particle speeding up? When is it slowing down? 9t t2 1 9

1. f std − t 3 2 8t 2 1 24t

2. f std −

3. f std − sinsty2d

4. f std − t 2e 2t

5. Graphs of the velocity functions of two particles are shown, where t is measured in seconds. When is each particle speeding up? When is it slowing down? Explain. (a) √ (b) √

0

1

t

0

1

t

6. Graphs of the position functions of two particles are shown, where t is measured in seconds. When is each particle speeding up? When is it slowing down? Explain. (a) s (b) s

0

1

t

0

1

t

7. The height (in meters) of a projectile shot vertically upward from a point 2 m above ground level with an initial velocity of 24.5 mys is h − 2 1 24.5t 2 4.9t 2 after t seconds. (a) Find the velocity after 2 s and after 4 s. (b) When does the projectile reach its maximum height? (c) What is the maximum height? (d) When does it hit the ground? (e) With what velocity does it hit the ground? 8. If a ball is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 24.5 mys, then its height after t seconds is s − 24.5t 2 4.9t 2. (a) What is the maximum height reached by the ball? (b) What is the velocity of the ball when it is 29.4 m above the ground on its way up? On its way down? 9. If a rock is thrown vertically upward from the surface of Mars with velocity 15 mys, its height after t seconds is h − 15t 2 1.86t 2. (a) What is the velocity of the rock after 2 s? (b) What is the velocity of the rock when its height is 25 m on its way up? On its way down? 10. A particle moves with position function s − t 4 2 4t 3 2 20t 2 1 20t

t>0

(a) At what time does the particle have a velocity of 20 mys? (b) At what time is the acceleration 0? What is the significance of this value of t? 11. (a) A company makes computer chips from square wafers of silicon. It wants to keep the side length of a wafer very close to 15 mm and it wants to know how the area Asxd of a wafer changes when the side length x changes. Find A9s15d and explain its meaning in this situation. (b) Show that the rate of change of the area of a square with respect to its side length is half its perimeter. Try to explain geometrically why this is true by drawing a square whose side length x is increased by an amount Dx. How can you approximate the resulting change in area DA if Dx is small?

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234

CHAPTER 3

Differentiation Rules

12. (a) Sodium chlorate crystals are easy to grow in the shape of cubes by allowing a solution of water and sodium chlorate to evaporate slowly. If V is the volume of such a cube with side length x, calculate dVydx when x − 3 mm and explain its meaning. (b) Show that the rate of change of the volume of a cube with respect to its edge length is equal to half the surface area of the cube. Explain geometrically why this result is true by arguing by analogy with Exercise 11(b). 13. (a) Find the average rate of change of the area of a circle with respect to its radius r as r changes from (i) 2 to 3 (ii) 2 to 2.5 (iii) 2 to 2.1 (b) Find the instantaneous rate of change when r − 2. (c) Show that the rate of change of the area of a circle with respect to its radius (at any r) is equal to the circumference of the circle. Try to explain geometrically why this is true by drawing a circle whose radius is increased by an amount Dr. How can you approximate the resulting change in area DA if Dr is small? 14. A stone is dropped into a lake, creating a circular ripple that travels outward at a speed of 60 cmys. Find the rate at which the area within the circle is increasing after (a) 1 s, (b) 3 s, and (c) 5 s. What can you conclude? 15. A spherical balloon is being inflated. Find the rate of increase of the surface area sS − 4r 2 d with respect to the radius r when r is (a) 20 cm, (b) 40 cm, and (c) 60 cm. What conclusion can you make? 4 3 3 r ,

16. (a) The volume of a growing spherical cell is V − where the radius r is measured in micrometers (1 μm − 1026 m). Find the average rate of change of V with respect to r when r changes from (i) 5 to 8 μm (ii) 5 to 6 μm (iii) 5 to 5.1 μm (b) Find the instantaneous rate of change of V with respect to r when r − 5 μm. (c) Show that the rate of change of the volume of a sphere with respect to its radius is equal to its surface area. Explain geometrically why this result is true. Argue by analogy with Exercise 13(c). 17. The mass of the part of a metal rod that lies between its left end and a point x meters to the right is 3x 2 kg. Find the linear density (see Example 2) when x is (a) 1 m, (b) 2 m, and (c) 3 m. Where is the density the highest? The lowest? 18. If a tank holds 5000 liters of water, which drains from the bottom of the tank in 40 minutes, then Torricelli’s Law gives the volume V of water remaining in the tank after t minutes as 1 td V − 5000 s1 2 40

2

0 < t < 40

Find the rate at which water is draining from the tank after (a) 5 min, (b) 10 min, (c) 20 min, and (d) 40 min. At what time is the water flowing out the fastest? The slowest? Summarize your findings.

19. The quantity of charge Q in coulombs (C) that has passed through a point in a wire up to time t (measured in seconds) is given by Qstd − t 3 2 2t 2 1 6t 1 2. Find the current when (a) t − 0.5 s and (b) t − 1 s. [See Example 3. The unit of current is an ampere (1 A − 1 Cys).] At what time is the current lowest? 20. Newton’s Law of Gravitation says that the magnitude F of the force exerted by a body of mass m on a body of mass M is F−

GmM r2

where G is the gravitational constant and r is the distance between the bodies. (a) Find dFydr and explain its meaning. What does the minus sign indicate? (b) Suppose it is known that the earth attracts an object with a force that decreases at the rate of 2 Nykm when r − 20,000 km. How fast does this force change when r − 10,000 km? 21. The force F acting on a body with mass m and velocity v is the rate of change of momentum: F − sdydtdsmvd. If m is constant, this becomes F − ma, where a − dvydt is the acceleration. But in the theory of relativity the mass of a particle varies with v as follows: m − m 0 ys1 2 v 2yc 2 , where m 0 is the mass of the particle at rest and c is the speed of light. Show that F−

m0a s1 2 v 2yc 2 d3y2

22. Some of the highest tides in the world occur in the Bay of Fundy on the Atlantic Coast of Canada. At Hopewell Cape the water depth at low tide is about 2.0 m and at high tide it is about 12.0 m. The natural period of oscillation is a little more than 12 hours and on June 30, 2009, high tide occurred at 6:45 am. This helps explain the following model for the water depth D (in meters) as a function of the time t (in hours after midnight) on that day: Dstd − 7 1 5 cosf0.503st 2 6.75dg How fast was the tide rising (or falling) at the following times? (a) 3:00 am (b) 6:00 am (c) 9:00 am (d) Noon 23. Boyle’s Law states that when a sample of gas is compressed at a constant temperature, the product of the pressure and the volume remains constant: PV − C. (a) Find the rate of change of volume with respect to pressure. (b) A sample of gas is in a container at low pressure and is steadily compressed at constant temperature for 10 minutes. Is the volume decreasing more rapidly at the beginning or the end of the 10 minutes? Explain. (c) Prove that the isothermal compressibility (see Example 5) is given by  − 1yP.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 3.7

24. If, in Example 4, one molecule of the product C is formed from one molecule of the reactant A and one molecule of the reactant B, and the initial concentrations of A and B have a common value fAg − fBg − a molesyL, then fCg − a 2ktysakt 1 1d where k is a constant. (a) Find the rate of reaction at time t. (b) Show that if x − fCg, then dx − ksa 2 xd2 dt

Rates of Change in the Natural and Social Sciences

235

(e) In Section 1.1 we modeled Pstd with the exponential function f std − s1.43653 3 10 9 d ? s1.01395d t Use this model to find a model for the rate of population growth. (f) Use your model in part (e) to estimate the rate of growth in 1920 and 1980. Compare with your estimates in parts (a) and (d). (g) Estimate the rate of growth in 1985. ; 28. The table shows how the average age of first marriage of Japanese women has varied since 1950.

(c) What happens to the concentration as t l `? (d) What happens to the rate of reaction as t l `? (e) What do the results of parts (c) and (d) mean in practical terms? 25. In Example 6 we considered a bacteria population that doubles every hour. Suppose that another population of bacteria triples every hour and starts with 400 bacteria. Find an expression for the number n of bacteria after t hours and use it to estimate the rate of growth of the bacteria population after 2.5 hours. 26. The number of yeast cells in a laboratory culture increases rapidly initially but levels off eventually. The population is modeled by the function a n − f std − 1 1 be20.7t where t is measured in hours. At time t − 0 the population is 20 cells and is increasing at a rate of 12 cellsyhour. Find the values of a and b. According to this model, what happens to the yeast population in the long run? ; 27. The table gives the population of the world Pstd, in millions, where t is measured in years and t − 0 corresponds to the year 1900.

t

Population (millions)

t

Population (millions)

0 10 20 30 40 50

1650 1750 1860 2070 2300 2560

60 70 80 90 100 110

3040 3710 4450 5280 6080 6870

(a) Estimate the rate of population growth in 1920 and in 1980 by averaging the slopes of two secant lines. (b) Use a graphing device to find a cubic function (a thirddegree polynomial) that models the data. (c) Use your model in part (b) to find a model for the rate of population growth. (d) Use part (c) to estimate the rates of growth in 1920 and 1980. Compare with your estimates in part (a).

t

Astd

t

Astd

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980

23.0 23.8 24.4 24.5 24.2 24.7 25.2

1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

25.5 25.9 26.3 27.0 28.0 28.8

(a) Use a graphing calculator or computer to model these data with a fourth-degree polynomial. (b) Use part (a) to find a model for A9std. (c) Estimate the rate of change of marriage age for women in 1990. (d) Graph the data points and the models for A and A9. 29. Refer to the law of laminar flow given in Example 7. Consider a blood vessel with radius 0.01 cm, length 3 cm, pressure difference 3000 dynesycm2, and viscosity  − 0.027. (a) Find the velocity of the blood along the centerline r − 0, at radius r − 0.005 cm, and at the wall r − R − 0.01 cm. (b) Find the velocity gradient at r − 0, r − 0.005, and r − 0.01. (c) Where is the velocity the greatest? Where is the velocity changing most? 30. The frequency of vibrations of a vibrating violin string is given by 1 T f− 2L 

Î

where L is the length of the string, T is its tension, and  is its linear density. [See Chapter 11 in D. E. Hall, Musical Acoustics, 3rd ed. (Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole, 2002).] (a) Find the rate of change of the frequency with respect to (i) the length (when T and  are constant), (ii) the tension (when L and  are constant), and (iii) the linear density (when L and T are constant). (b) The pitch of a note (how high or low the note sounds) is determined by the frequency f . (The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch.) Use the signs of the

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236

CHAPTER 3

Differentiation Rules

derivatives in part (a) to determine what happens to the pitch of a note (i) when the effective length of a string is decreased by placing a finger on the string so a shorter portion of the string vibrates, (ii) when the tension is increased by turning a tuning peg, (iii) when the linear density is increased by switching to another string. 31. Suppose that the cost (in dollars) for a company to produce x pairs of a new line of jeans is Csxd − 2000 1 3x 1 0.01x 2 1 0.0002x 3 (a) Find the marginal cost function. (b) Find C9s100d and explain its meaning. What does it predict? (c) Compare C9s100d with the cost of manufacturing the 101st pair of jeans. 32. The cost function for a certain commodity is Csqd − 84 1 0.16q 2 0.0006q 2 1 0.000003q 3 (a) Find and interpret C9s100d. (b) Compare C9s100d with the cost of producing the 101st item. 33. If psxd is the total value of the production when there are x workers in a plant, then the average productivity of the workforce at the plant is psxd Asxd − x (a) Find A9sxd. Why does the company want to hire more workers if A9sxd . 0? (b) Show that A9sxd . 0 if p9sxd is greater than the average productivity. 34. If R denotes the reaction of the body to some stimulus of strength x, the sensitivity S is defined to be the rate of change of the reaction with respect to x. A particular example is that when the brightness x of a light source is increased, the eye reacts by decreasing the area R of the pupil. The experimental formula R−

;

40 1 24x 0.4 1 1 4x 0.4

has been used to model the dependence of R on x when R is measured in square millimeters and x is measured in appropriate units of brightness. (a) Find the sensitivity. (b) Illustrate part (a) by graphing both R and S as functions of x. Comment on the values of R and S at low levels of brightness. Is this what you would expect? 35. Patients undergo dialysis treatment to remove urea from their blood when their kidneys are not functioning properly. Blood is diverted from the patient through a machine that filters out urea. Under certain conditions, the duration of dialysis required, given that the initial urea concentration is c . 1, is

given by the equation

S

t − ln

3c 1 s9c 2 2 8c 2

D

Calculate the derivative of t with respect to c and interpret it. 36. Invasive species often display a wave of advance as they colonize new areas. Mathematical models based on random dispersal and reproduction have demonstrated that the speed with which such waves move is given by the function f srd − 2 sDr , where r is the reproductive rate of individuals and D is a parameter quantifying dispersal. Calculate the derivative of the wave speed with respect to the reproductive rate r and explain its meaning. 37. The gas law for an ideal gas at absolute temperature T (in kelvins), pressure P (in atmospheres), and volume V (in liters) is PV − nRT, where n is the number of moles of the gas and R − 0.0821 is the gas constant. Suppose that, at a certain instant, P − 8.0 atm and is increasing at a rate of 0.10 atmymin and V − 10 L and is decreasing at a rate of 0.15 Lymin. Find the rate of change of T with respect to time at that instant if n − 10 mol. 38. In a fish farm, a population of fish is introduced into a pond and harvested regularly. A model for the rate of change of the fish population is given by the equation

S

D

dP Pstd Pstd 2 Pstd − r0 1 2 dt Pc where r0 is the birth rate of the fish, Pc is the maximum population that the pond can sustain (called the carrying capacity), and  is the percentage of the population that is harvested. (a) What value of dPydt corresponds to a stable population? (b) If the pond can sustain 10,000 fish, the birth rate is 5%, and the harvesting rate is 4%, find the stable population level. (c) What happens if  is raised to 5%? 39. In the study of ecosystems, predator-prey models are often used to study the interaction between species. Consider populations of tundra wolves, given by Wstd, and caribou, given by Cstd, in northern Canada. The interaction has been modeled by the equations dC − aC 2 bCW dt

dW − 2cW 1 dCW dt

(a) What values of dCydt and dWydt correspond to stable populations? (b) How would the statement “The caribou go extinct” be represented mathematically? (c) Suppose that a − 0.05, b − 0.001, c − 0.05, and d − 0.0001. Find all population pairs sC, W d that lead to stable populations. According to this model, is it possible for the two species to live in balance or will one or both species become extinct?

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SECTION 3.8

Exponential Growth and Decay

237

In many natural phenomena, quantities grow or decay at a rate proportional to their size. For instance, if y − f std is the number of individuals in a population of animals or bacteria at time t, then it seems reasonable to expect that the rate of growth f 9std is proportional to the population f std; that is, f 9std − kf std for some constant k. Indeed, under ideal conditions (unlimited environment, adequate nutrition, immunity to disease) the mathematical model given by the equation f 9std − kf std predicts what actually happens fairly accurately. Another example occurs in nuclear physics where the mass of a radioactive substance decays at a rate proportional to the mass. In chemistry, the rate of a unimolecular first-order reaction is proportional to the concentration of the substance. In finance, the value of a savings account with continuously compounded interest increases at a rate proportional to that value. In general, if ystd is the value of a quantity y at time t and if the rate of change of y with respect to t is proportional to its size ystd at any time, then dy − ky dt

1

where k is a constant. Equation 1 is sometimes called the law of natural growth (if k . 0d or the law of natural decay (if k , 0). It is called a differential equation because it involves an unknown function y and its derivative dyydt. It’s not hard to think of a solution of Equation 1. This equation asks us to find a function whose derivative is a constant multiple of itself. We have met such functions in this chapter. Any exponential function of the form ystd − Ce kt, where C is a constant, satisfies y9std − Cske kt d − ksCe kt d − kystd We will see in Section 9.4 that any function that satisfies dyydt − ky must be of the form y − Ce kt. To see the significance of the constant C, we observe that ys0d − Ce k?0 − C Therefore C is the initial value of the function. 2 Theorem The only solutions of the differential equation dyydt − ky are the exponential functions ystd − ys0de kt

Population Growth What is the significance of the proportionality constant k? In the context of population growth, where Pstd is the size of a population at time t, we can write 3 The quantity

dP − kP dt

or

1 dP −k P dt

1 dP P dt

is the growth rate divided by the population size; it is called the relative growth rate.

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According to (3), instead of saying “the growth rate is proportional to population size” we could say “the relative growth rate is constant.” Then (2) says that a population with constant relative growth rate must grow exponentially. Notice that the relative growth rate k appears as the coefficient of t in the exponential function Ce kt. For instance, if dP − 0.02P dt and t is measured in years, then the relative growth rate is k − 0.02 and the population grows at a relative rate of 2% per year. If the population at time 0 is P0, then the expression for the population is Pstd − P0 e 0.02t

ExamplE 1 Use the fact that the world population was 2560 million in 1950 and 3040 million in 1960 to model the population of the world in the second half of the 20th century. (Assume that the growth rate is proportional to the population size.) What is the relative growth rate? Use the model to estimate the world population in 1993 and to predict the population in the year 2020. SOLUTION We measure the time t in years and let t − 0 in the year 1950. We measure the population Pstd in millions of people. Then Ps0d − 2560 and Ps10d − 3040. Since we are assuming that dPydt − kP, Theorem 2 gives

Pstd − Ps0de kt − 2560e kt Ps10d − 2560e 10k − 3040 k−

1 3040 ln < 0.017185 10 2560

The relative growth rate is about 1.7% per year and the model is Pstd − 2560e 0.017185t We estimate that the world population in 1993 was Ps43d − 2560e 0.017185s43d < 5360 million The model predicts that the population in 2020 will be Ps70d − 2560e 0.017185s70d < 8524 million The graph in Figure 1 shows that the model is fairly accurate to the end of the 20th century (the dots represent the actual population), so the estimate for 1993 is quite reliable. But the prediction for 2020 is riskier. P 6000

P=2560e 0.017185t

Population (in millions)

FIGURE 1 A model for world population growth in the second half of the 20th century

0

20

Years since 1950

40

t

■

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SECTION 3.8

Exponential Growth and Decay

239

Radioactive Decay Radioactive substances decay by spontaneously emitting radiation. If mstd is the mass remaining from an initial mass m0 of the substance after time t, then the relative decay rate 1 dm 2 m dt has been found experimentally to be constant. (Since dmydt is negative, the relative decay rate is positive.) It follows that dm − km dt where k is a negative constant. In other words, radioactive substances decay at a rate proportional to the remaining mass. This means that we can use (2) to show that the mass decays exponentially: mstd − m0 e kt Physicists express the rate of decay in terms of half-life, the time required for half of any given quantity to decay.

ExamplE 2 The half-life of radium-226 is 1590 years. (a) A sample of radium-226 has a mass of 100 mg. Find a formula for the mass of the sample that remains after t years. (b) Find the mass after 1000 years correct to the nearest milligram. (c) When will the mass be reduced to 30 mg? SOLUTION

(a) Let mstd be the mass of radium-226 (in milligrams) that remains after t years. Then dmydt − km and ms0d − 100, so (2) gives mstd − ms0de kt − 100e kt In order to determine the value of k, we use the fact that ms1590d − 12 s100d. Thus 100e 1590k − 50

so

e 1590k − 12

1590k − ln 12 − 2ln 2

and

k−2

ln 2 1590

mstd − 100e2sln 2dty1590

Therefore

We could use the fact that e ln 2 − 2 to write the expression for mstd in the alternative form mstd − 100 3 2 2ty1590 (b) The mass after 1000 years is ms1000d − 100e2sln 2d1000y1590 < 65 mg (c) We want to find the value of t such that mstd − 30, that is, 100e2sln 2dty1590 − 30

or

e2sln 2dty1590 − 0.3

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We solve this equation for t by taking the natural logarithm of both sides: 150

2

ln 2 t − ln 0.3 1590

m=100e_(ln 2)t/1590

Thus

t − 21590

m=30 4000

0

FIGURE 2

ln 0.3 < 2762 years ln 2

■

As a check on our work in Example 2, we use a graphing device to draw the graph of mstd in Figure 2 together with the horizontal line m − 30. These curves intersect when t < 2800, and this agrees with the answer to part (c).

Newton’s Law of Cooling Newton’s Law of Cooling states that the rate of cooling of an object is proportional to the temperature difference between the object and its surroundings, provided that this difference is not too large. (This law also applies to warming.) If we let Tstd be the temperature of the object at time t and Ts be the temperature of the surroundings, then we can formulate Newton’s Law of Cooling as a differential equation: dT − ksT 2 Ts d dt where k is a constant. This equation is not quite the same as Equation 1, so we make the change of variable ystd − Tstd 2 Ts . Because Ts is constant, we have y9std − T 9std and so the equation becomes dy − ky dt We can then use (2) to find an expression for y, from which we can find T.

ExamplE 3 A bottle of soda pop at room temperature (22°C) is placed in a refrigerator where the temperature is 7°C. After half an hour the soda pop has cooled to 16°C. (a) What is the temperature of the soda pop after another half hour? (b) How long does it take for the soda pop to cool to 10°C? SOlUTION (a) Let Tstd be the temperature of the soda after t minutes. The surrounding temperature is Ts − 78C, so Newton’s Law of Cooling states that dT − ksT 2 7d dt If we let y − T 2 7, then ys0d − Ts0d 2 7 − 22 2 7 − 15, so y is a solution of the initial-value problem, dy − ky dt

ys0d − 15

and by (2) we have ystd − ys0de kt − 15e kt We are given that Ts30d − 16, so ys30d − 16 2 7 − 9 and 15e 30k − 9

e 30k − 35

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SECTION 3.8

Exponential Growth and Decay

241

Taking logarithms, we have k−

ln ( 35 ) < 20.01703 30

Thus ystd − 15e 20.01703t Tstd − 7 1 15e 20.01703t Ts60d − 7 1 15e 20.01703s60d < 12.4 So after another half hour the pop has cooled to about 12°C. (b) We have Tstd − 10 when 7 1 15e 20.01703t − 10 3 e 20.01703t − 15 − 15

t−

T

ln ( 15 ) < 94.5 20.01703

22

The pop cools to 10°C after about 1 hour 35 minutes. 7 0

Notice that in Example 3, we have 30

60

90

t

lim Tstd − lim s7 1 15e 20.01703t d − 7 1 15  0 − 7

tl`

FIGURE 3

tl`

which is to be expected. The graph of the temperature function is shown in Figure 3.

Continuously Compounded Interest ExamplE 4 If $1000 is invested at 6% interest, compounded annually, then after 1 year the investment is worth $1000s1.06d − $1060, after 2 years it’s worth $f1000s1.06dg1.06 − $1123.60, and after t years it’s worth $1000s1.06dt. In general, if an amount A0 is invested at an interest rate r sr − 0.06 in this example), then after t years it’s worth A0 s1 1 rd t. Usually, however, interest is compounded more frequently, say, n times a year. Then in each compounding period the interest rate is ryn and there are nt compounding periods in t years, so the value of the investment is

S D

A0 1 1

r n

nt

For instance, after 3 years at 6% interest a $1000 investment will be worth $1000s1.06d3 − $1191.02 with annual compounding $1000s1.03d6 − $1194.05 with semiannual compounding $1000s1.015d12 − $1195.62 with quarterly compounding $1000s1.005d36 − $1196.68 with monthly compounding

S

$1000 1 1

0.06 365

D

365 ? 3

− $1197.20 with daily compounding

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Differentiation Rules

You can see that the interest paid increases as the number of compounding periods snd increases. If we let n l `, then we will be compounding the interest continuously and the value of the investment will be

S FS F S F S

r n

D

− lim A0

11

r n

− A0 lim

11

r n

− A0 lim

11

1 m

Astd − lim A0 1 1 nl`

nl`

nl`

ml `

nt

DG DG DG nyr

rt

nyr

rt

m

rt

(where m − nyr)

But the limit in this expression is equal to the number e (see Equation 3.6.6). So with continuous compounding of interest at interest rate r, the amount after t years is Astd − A0 e rt If we differentiate this equation, we get dA − rA0 e rt − rAstd dt which says that, with continuous compounding of interest, the rate of increase of an investment is proportional to its size. Returning to the example of $1000 invested for 3 years at 6% interest, we see that with continuous compounding of interest the value of the investment will be As3d − $1000e s0.06d3 − $1197.22 Notice how close this is to the amount we calculated for daily compounding, $1197.20. But the amount is easier to compute if we use continuous compounding. ■

3.8 EXERCISES 1. A population of protozoa develops with a constant relative growth rate of 0.6028 per member per day. On day zero the population consists of two members. Find the population size after seven days. 2. A common inhabitant of human intestines is the bacterium Escherichia coli, named after the German pediatrician Theodor Escherich, who identified it in 1885. A cell of this bacterium in a nutrient-broth medium divides into two cells every 20 minutes. The initial population of a culture is 50 cells. (a) Find the relative growth rate. (b) Find an expression for the number of cells after t hours.

(c) Find the number of cells after 6 hours. (d) Find the rate of growth after 6 hours. (e) When will the population reach a million cells? 3. A bacteria culture initially contains 100 cells and grows at a rate proportional to its size. After an hour the population has increased to 420. (a) Find an expression for the number of bacteria after t hours. (b) Find the number of bacteria after 3 hours. (c) Find the rate of growth after 3 hours. (d) When will the population reach 10,000?

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SECTION 3.8

4. A bacteria culture grows with constant relative growth rate. The bacteria count was 400 after 2 hours and 25,600 after 6 hours. (a) What is the relative growth rate? Express your answer as a percentage. (b) What was the initial size of the culture? (c) Find an expression for the number of bacteria after t hours. (d) Find the number of cells after 4.5 hours. (e) Find the rate of growth after 4.5 hours. (f) When will the population reach 50,000? 5. The table gives estimates of the world population, in millions, from 1750 to 2000. Year

Population

Year

Population

1750 1800 1850

790 980 1260

1900 1950 2000

1650 2560 6080

(a) Use the exponential model and the population figures for 1750 and 1800 to predict the world population in 1900 and 1950. Compare with the actual figures. (b) Use the exponential model and the population figures for 1850 and 1900 to predict the world population in 1950. Compare with the actual population. (c) Use the exponential model and the population figures for 1900 and 1950 to predict the world population in 2000. Compare with the actual population and try to explain the discrepancy. 6. The table gives the population of Indonesia, in millions, for the second half of the 20th century. Year

Population

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

83 100 122 150 182 214

(a) Assuming the population grows at a rate proportional to its size, use the census figures for 1950 and 1960 to predict the population in 1980. Compare with the actual figure. (b) Use the census figures for 1960 and 1980 to predict the population in 2000. Compare with the actual population. (c) Use the census figures for 1980 and 2000 to predict the population in 2010 and compare with the actual population of 243 million. (d) Use the model in part (c) to predict the population in 2020. Do you think the prediction will be too high or too low? Why?

Exponential Growth and Decay

243

7. Experiments show that if the chemical reaction N2O5 l 2NO 2 1 12 O 2 takes place at 45 8C, the rate of reaction of dinitrogen pentoxide is proportional to its concentration as follows: 2

dfN2O5g − 0.0005fN2O5g dt

(See Example 3.7.4.) (a) Find an expression for the concentration fN2O5g after t seconds if the initial concentration is C. (b) How long will the reaction take to reduce the concentration of N2O5 to 90% of its original value? 8. Strontium-90 has a half-life of 28 days. (a) A sample has a mass of 50 mg initially. Find a formula for the mass remaining after t days. (b) Find the mass remaining after 40 days. (c) How long does it take the sample to decay to a mass of 2 mg? (d) Sketch the graph of the mass function. 9. The half-life of cesium-137 is 30 years. Suppose we have a 100-mg sample. (a) Find the mass that remains after t years. (b) How much of the sample remains after 100 years? (c) After how long will only 1 mg remain? 10. A sample of tritium-3 decayed to 94.5% of its original amount after a year. (a) What is the half-life of tritium-3? (b) How long would it take the sample to decay to 20% of its original amount? 11. Scientists can determine the age of ancient objects by the method of radiocarbon dating. The bombardment of the upper atmosphere by cosmic rays converts nitrogen to a radioactive isotope of carbon, 14C, with a half-life of about 5730 years. Vegetation absorbs carbon dioxide through the atmosphere and animal life assimilates 14C through food chains. When a plant or animal dies, it stops replacing its carbon and the amount of 14 C begins to decrease through radioactive decay. Therefore the level of radioactivity must also decay exponentially. A discovery revealed a parchment fragment that had about 74% as much 14C radioactivity as does plant material on the earth today. Estimate the age of the parchment. 12. Dinosaur fossils are too old to be reliably dated using carbon-14. (See Exercise 11.) Suppose we had a 68-millionyear-old dinosaur fossil. What fraction of the living dinosaur’s 14C would be remaining today? Suppose the minimum detectable amount is 0.1%. What is the maximum age of a fossil that we could date using 14C? 13. Dinosaur fossils are often dated by using an element other than carbon, such as potassium-40, that has a longer half-life (in this case, approximately 1.25 billion years). Suppose the minimum detectable amount is 0.1% and a dinosaur is dated

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244

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Differentiation Rules

with 40 K to be 68 million years old. Is such a dating possible? In other words, what is the maximum age of a fossil that we could date using 40 K? 14. A curve passes through the point s0, 5d and has the property that the slope of the curve at every point P is twice the y-coordinate of P. What is the equation of the curve? 15. A roast turkey is taken from an oven when its temperature has reached 85°C and is placed on a table in a room where the temperature is 22°C. (a) If the temperature of the turkey is 65 8C after half an hour, what is the temperature after 45 minutes? (b) When will the turkey have cooled to 40 8C? 16. In a murder investigation, the temperature of the corpse was 32.5°C at 1:30 pm and 30.3°C an hour later. Normal body temperature is 37.0°C and the temperature of the surroundings was 20.0°C. When did the murder take place?

19. The rate of change of atmospheric pressure P with respect to altitude h is proportional to P, provided that the temperature is constant. At 15°C the pressure is 101.3 kPa at sea level and 87.14 kPa at h − 1000 m. (a) What is the pressure at an altitude of 3000 m? (b) What is the pressure at the top of Mount McKinley, at an altitude of 6187 m? 20. (a) If $1000 is borrowed at 8% interest, find the amounts due at the end of 3 years if the interest is compounded (i) annually, (ii) quarterly, (iii) monthly, (iv) weekly, (v) daily, (vi) hourly, and (vii) continuously. (b) Suppose $1000 is borrowed and the interest is com; pounded continuously. If Astd is the amount due after t years, where 0 < t < 3, graph Astd for each of the interest rates 6%, 8%, and 10% on a common screen.

17. When a cold drink is taken from a refrigerator, its temperature is 5°C. After 25 minutes in a 20°C room its temperature has increased to 10°C. (a) What is the temperature of the drink after 50 minutes? (b) When will its temperature be 15°C?

21. (a) If $3000 is invested at 5% interest, find the value of the investment at the end of 5 years if the interest is compounded (i) annually, (ii) semiannually, (iii) monthly, (iv) weekly, (v) daily, and (vi) continuously. (b) If Astd is the amount of the investment at time t for the case of continuous compounding, write a differential equation and an initial condition satisfied by Astd.

18. A freshly brewed cup of coffee has temperature 958C in a 20°C room. When its temperature is 70°C, it is cooling at a rate of 1°C per minute. When does this occur?

22. (a) How long will it take an investment to double in value if the interest rate is 6% compounded continuously? (b) What is the equivalent annual interest rate?

APPLIED PROJECT

CONTROLLING RED BLOOD CELL LOSS DURING SURGERY A typical volume of blood in the human body is about 5 L. A certain percentage of that volume (called the hematocrit) consists of red blood cells (RBCs); typically the hematocrit is about 45% in males. Suppose that a surgery takes four hours and a male patient bleeds 2.5 L of blood. During surgery the patient’s blood volume is maintained at 5 L by injection of saline solution, which mixes quickly with the blood but dilutes it so that the hematocrit decreases as time passes.

© Condor 36 / Shutterstock.com

1. Assuming that the rate of RBC loss is proportional to the volume of RBCs, determine the patient’s volume of RBCs by the end of the operation. 2. A procedure called acute normovolemic hemodilution (ANH) has been developed to minimize RBC loss during surgery. In this procedure blood is extracted from the patient before the operation and replaced with saline solution. This dilutes the patient’s blood, resulting in fewer RBCs being lost during the bleeding. The extracted blood is then returned to the patient after surgery. Only a certain amount of blood can be extracted, however, because the RBC concentration can never be allowed to drop below 25% during surgery. What is the maximum amount of blood that can be extracted in the ANH procedure for the surgery described in this project? 3. What is the RBC loss without the ANH procedure? What is the loss if the procedure is carried out with the volume calculated in Problem 2?

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SECTION 3.9

Related Rates

245

If we are pumping air into a balloon, both the volume and the radius of the balloon are increasing and their rates of increase are related to each other. But it is much easier to measure directly the rate of increase of the volume than the rate of increase of the radius. In a related rates problem the idea is to compute the rate of change of one quantity in terms of the rate of change of another quantity (which may be more easily measured). The procedure is to find an equation that relates the two quantities and then use the Chain Rule to differentiate both sides with respect to time.

ExamplE 1 Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon so that its volume increases at a rate of 100 cm3ys. How fast is the radius of the balloon increasing when the diameter is 50 cm? PS According to the Principles of Problem Solving discussed on page 71, the first step is to understand the problem. This includes reading the problem carefully, identifying the given and the unknown, and introducing suitable notation.

SOLUTION We start by identifying two things:

the given information: the rate of increase of the volume of air is 100 cm3ys and the unknown: the rate of increase of the radius when the diameter is 50 cm In order to express these quantities mathematically, we introduce some suggestive notation: Let V be the volume of the balloon and let r be its radius. The key thing to remember is that rates of change are derivatives. In this problem, the volume and the radius are both functions of the time t. The rate of increase of the volume with respect to time is the derivative dVydt, and the rate of increase of the radius is drydt. We can therefore restate the given and the unknown as follows:

PS The second stage of problem solving is to think of a plan for connecting the given and the unknown.

Given:

dV − 100 cm3ys dt

Unknown:

dr dt

when r − 25 cm

In order to connect dVydt and drydt, we first relate V and r by the formula for the volume of a sphere: V − 43 r 3 In order to use the given information, we differentiate each side of this equation with respect to t. To differentiate the right side, we need to use the Chain Rule: dV dV dr dr − − 4r 2 dt dr dt dt Now we solve for the unknown quantity:

Notice that, although dVydt is constant, drydt is not constant.

dr 1 dV − dt 4r 2 dt

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If we put r − 25 and dVydt − 100 in this equation, we obtain dr 1 1 100 − − dt 4s25d2 25 The radius of the balloon is increasing at the rate of 1ys25d < 0.0127 cmys.

■

ExamplE 2 A ladder 5 m long rests against a vertical wall. If the bottom of the ladder slides away from the wall at a rate of 1 mys, how fast is the top of the ladder sliding down the wall when the bottom of the ladder is 3 m from the wall?

wall

5

y

x

ground

FIGURE 1

SOLUTION We first draw a diagram and label it as in Figure 1. Let x meters be the distance from the bottom of the ladder to the wall and y meters the distance from the top of the ladder to the ground. Note that x and y are both functions of t (time, measured in seconds). We are given that dxydt − 1 mys and we are asked to find dyydt when x − 3 m (see Figure 2). In this problem, the relationship between x and y is given by the Pythagorean Theorem: x 2 1 y 2 − 25

Differentiating each side with respect to t using the Chain Rule, we have dy dt

=?

2x

dx dy 1 2y −0 dt dt

y

and solving this equation for the desired rate, we obtain x dx dt

dy x dx −2 dt y dt =1

When x − 3, the Pythagorean Theorem gives y − 4 and so, substituting these values and dxydt − 1, we have

FIGURE 2

dy 3 3 − 2 s1d − 2 mys dt 4 4 The fact that dyydt is negative means that the distance from the top of the ladder to the ground is decreasing at a rate of 34 mys. In other words, the top of the ladder is sliding down the wall at a rate of 34 mys. ■

ExamplE 3 A water tank has the shape of an inverted circular cone with base radius 2 m and height 4 m. If water is being pumped into the tank at a rate of 2 m 3ymin, find the rate at which the water level is rising when the water is 3 m deep. 2

r 4 h

SOLUTION We first sketch the cone and label it as in Figure 3. Let V, r, and h be the volume of the water, the radius of the surface, and the height of the water at time t, where t is measured in minutes. We are given that dVydt − 2 m 3ymin and we are asked to find dhydt when h is 3 m. The quantities V and h are related by the equation

V − 13 r 2h FIGURE 3

but it is very useful to express V as a function of h alone. In order to eliminate r, we use

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SECTION 3.9

Related Rates

247

the similar triangles in Figure 3 to write r 2 − h 4 and the expression for V becomes V−

SD

h 1  3 2

r−

2

h−

h 2

 3 h 12

Now we can differentiate each side with respect to t: dV  2 dh − h dt 4 dt so

dh 4 dV − dt h 2 dt

Substituting h − 3 m and dVydt − 2 m 3ymin, we have dh 4 8 − ?2− dt s3d2 9 The water level is rising at a rate of 8ys9d < 0.28 mymin. PS Look back: What have we learned from Examples 1–3 that will help us solve future problems?

WARNING A common error is to substitute the given numerical information (for quantities that vary with time) too early. This should be done only after the differentiation. (Step 7 follows Step 6.) For instance, in Example 3 we dealt with general values of h until we finally substituted h − 3 at the last stage. (If we had put h − 3 earlier, we would have gotten dVydt − 0, which is clearly wrong.)

■

Problem Solving Strategy It is useful to recall some of the problem-solving principles from page 71 and adapt them to related rates in light of our experience in Examples 1–3: 1. Read the problem carefully. 2. Draw a diagram if possible. 3. Introduce notation. Assign symbols to all quantities that are functions of time. 4. Express the given information and the required rate in terms of derivatives. 5. Write an equation that relates the various quantities of the problem. If necessary, use the geometry of the situation to eliminate one of the variables by substitution (as in Example 3). 6. Use the Chain Rule to differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to t. 7. Substitute the given information into the resulting equation and solve for the unknown rate. The following examples are further illustrations of the strategy.

C

x

y z B

FIGURE 4

A

ExamplE 4 Car A is traveling west at 90 kmyh and car B is traveling north at 100 kmyh. Both are headed for the intersection of the two roads. At what rate are the cars approaching each other when car A is 60 m and car B is 80 m from the intersection? SOLUTION We draw Figure 4, where C is the intersection of the roads. At a given time t, let x be the distance from car A to C, let y be the distance from car B to C, and let z be the distance between the cars, where x, y, and z are measured in kilometers. We are given that dxydt − 290 kmyh and dyydt − 2100 kmyh. (The derivatives are negative because x and y are decreasing.) We are asked to find dzydt. The equation

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248

CHAPTER 3

Differentiation Rules

that relates x, y, and z is given by the Pythagorean Theorem: z2 − x 2 1 y 2 Differentiating each side with respect to t, we have 2z

dz dx dy − 2x 1 2y dt dt dt dz 1 − dt z

S

x

dx dy 1y dt dt

D

When x − 0.06 km and y − 0.08 km, the Pythagorean Theorem gives z − 0.1 km, so dz 1 − f0.06s290d 1 0.08s2100dg dt 0.1 − 2134 kmyh The cars are approaching each other at a rate of 134 kmyh.

■

ExamplE 5 A man walks along a straight path at a speed of 1.5 mys. A searchlight is located on the ground 6 m from the path and is kept focused on the man. At what rate is the searchlight rotating when the man is 8 m from the point on the path closest to the searchlight? SOLUTION We draw Figure 5 and let x be the distance from the man to the point on the path closest to the searchlight. We let  be the angle between the beam of the searchlight and the perpendicular to the path. We are given that dxydt − 1.5 mys and are asked to find dydt when x − 8. The equation that relates x and  can be written from Figure 5: x

x − tan  6

6

x − 6 tan 

¨

Differentiating each side with respect to t, we get dx d − 6 sec2 dt dt

FIGURE 5

so

d 1 dx − cos2 dt 6 dt −

1 1 cos2 s1.5d − cos2 6 4

When x − 8, the length of the beam is 10, so cos  − 35 and d 1 − dt 4

SD 3 5

2

−

9 − 0.09 100

The searchlight is rotating at a rate of 0.09 radys.

■

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SECTION 3.9

Related Rates

249

3.9 EXERCISES 1. If V is the volume of a cube with edge length x and the cube expands as time passes, find dVydt in terms of dxydt.

3 cmys. How fast is the x-coordinate of the point changing at that instant?

2. (a) If A is the area of a circle with radius r and the circle expands as time passes, find dAydt in terms of drydt. (b) Suppose oil spills from a ruptured tanker and spreads in a circular pattern. If the radius of the oil spill increases at a constant rate of 1 mys, how fast is the area of the spill increasing when the radius is 30 m?

13–16 (a) What quantities are given in the problem? (b) What is the unknown? (c) Draw a picture of the situation for any time t. (d) Write an equation that relates the quantities. (e) Finish solving the problem.

3. Each side of a square is increasing at a rate of 6 cmys. At what rate is the area of the square increasing when the area of the square is 16 cm2?

13. A plane flying horizontally at an altitude of 2 km and a speed of 800 kmyh passes directly over a radar station. Find the rate at which the distance from the plane to the station is increasing when it is 3 km away from the station.

4. The length of a rectangle is increasing at a rate of 8 cmys and its width is increasing at a rate of 3 cmys. When the length is 20 cm and the width is 10 cm, how fast is the area of the rectangle increasing? 5. A cylindrical tank with radius 5 m is being filled with water at a rate of 3 m3ymin. How fast is the height of the water increasing? 6. The radius of a sphere is increasing at a rate of 4 mmys. How fast is the volume increasing when the diameter is 80 mm? 7. The radius of a spherical ball is increasing at a rate of 2 cmymin. At what rate is the surface area of the ball increasing when the radius is 8 cm? 8. The area of a triangle with sides of lengths a and b and contained angle  is A − 12 ab sin  (a) If a − 2 cm, b − 3 cm, and  increases at a rate of 0.2 radymin, how fast is the area increasing when  − y3? (b) If a − 2 cm, b increases at a rate of 1.5 cmymin, and  increases at a rate of 0.2 radymin, how fast is the area increasing when b − 3 cm and  − y3? (c) If a increases at a rate of 2.5 cmymin, b increases at a rate of 1.5 cmymin, and  increases at a rate of 0.2 radymin, how fast is the area increasing when a − 2 cm, b − 3 cm, and  − y3? 9. Suppose y − s2x 1 1 , where x and y are functions of t. (a) If dxydt − 3, find dyydt when x − 4. (b) If dyydt − 5, find dxydt when x − 12.

14. If a snowball melts so that its surface area decreases at a rate of 1 cm2ymin, find the rate at which the diameter decreases when the diameter is 10 cm. 15. A street light is mounted at the top of a 6-meter-tall pole. A man 2 m tall walks away from the pole with a speed of 1.5 mys along a straight path. How fast is the tip of his shadow moving when he is 10 m from the pole? 16. At noon, ship A is 150 km west of ship B. Ship A is sailing east at 35 kmyh and ship B is sailing north at 25 kmyh. How fast is the distance between the ships changing at 4:00 pm? 17. Two cars start moving from the same point. One travels south at 30 kmyh and the other travels west at 72 kmyh. At what rate is the distance between the cars increasing two hours later? 18. A spotlight on the ground shines on a wall 12 m away. If a man 2 m tall walks from the spotlight toward the building at a speed of 1.6 mys, how fast is the length of his shadow on the building decreasing when he is 4 m from the building? 19. A man starts walking north at 1.2 mys from a point P. Five minutes later a woman starts walking south at 1.6 mys from a point 200 m due east of P. At what rate are the people moving apart 15 min after the woman starts walking? 20. A baseball diamond is a square with side 90 ft. A batter hits the ball and runs toward first base with a speed of 24 ftys. (a) At what rate is his distance from second base decreasing when he is halfway to first base? (b) At what rate is his distance from third base increasing at the same moment?

10. Suppose 4x 2 1 9y 2 − 36, where x and y are functions of t. (a) If dyydt − 13, find dxydt when x − 2 and y − 23 s5 . (b) If dxydt − 3, find dy ydt when x − 22 and y − 23 s5 . 11. If x 2 1 y 2 1 z 2 − 9, dxydt − 5, and dyydt − 4, find dzydt when sx, y, zd − s2, 2, 1d. 12. A particle is moving along a hyperbola xy − 8. As it reaches the point s4, 2d, the y-coordinate is decreasing at a rate of

90 ft

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250

Chapter 3

Differentiation Rules

21. The altitude of a triangle is increasing at a rate of 1 cmymin while the area of the triangle is increasing at a rate of 2 cm 2ymin. At what rate is the base of the triangle changing when the altitude is 10 cm and the area is 100 cm2?

the shape of a cone whose base diameter and height are always equal. How fast is the height of the pile increasing when the pile is 3 m high?

22. A boat is pulled into a dock by a rope attached to the bow of the boat and passing through a pulley on the dock that is 1 m higher than the bow of the boat. If the rope is pulled in at a rate of 1 mys, how fast is the boat approaching the dock when it is 8 m from the dock?

23. At noon, ship A is 100 km west of ship B. Ship A is sailing south at 35 kmyh and ship B is sailing north at 25 kmyh. How fast is the distance between the ships changing at 4:00 pm? 24. A particle moves along the curve y − 2 sinsxy2d. As the particle passes through the point ( 13 , 1), its x-coordinate increases at a rate of s10 cmys. How fast is the distance from the particle to the origin changing at this instant? 25. Water is leaking out of an inverted conical tank at a rate of 10,000 cm 3ymin at the same time that water is being pumped into the tank at a constant rate. The tank has height 6 m and the diameter at the top is 4 m. If the water level is rising at a rate of 20 cmymin when the height of the water is 2 m, find the rate at which water is being pumped into the tank. 26. A trough is 6 m long and its ends have the shape of isosceles triangles that are 1 m across at the top and have a height of 50 cm. If the trough is being filled with water at a rate of 1.2 m 3ymin, how fast is the water level rising when the water is 30 cm deep? 27. A water trough is 10 m long and a cross-section has the shape of an isosceles trapezoid that is 30 cm wide at the bottom, 80 cm wide at the top, and has height 50 cm. If the trough is being filled with water at the rate of 0.2 m 3ymin, how fast is the water level rising when the water is 30 cm deep? 28. A swimming pool is 5 m wide,10 m long, 1 m deep at the shallow end, and 3 m deep at its deepest point. A crosssection is shown in the figure. If the pool is being filled at a rate of 0.1 m 3ymin, how fast is the water level rising when the depth at the deepest point is 1 m? 1 2 1.5

3

4

1.5

29. Gravel is being dumped from a conveyor belt at a rate of 3 m 3ymin, and its coarseness is such that it forms a pile in

30. A kite 50 m above the ground moves horizontally at a speed of 2 mys. At what rate is the angle between the string and the horizontal decreasing when 100 m of string has been let out? 31. The sides of an equilateral triangle are increasing at a rate of 10 cmymin. At what rate is the area of the triangle increasing when the sides are 30 cm long? 32. How fast is the angle between the ladder and the ground changing in Example 2 when the bottom of the ladder is 3 m from the wall? 33. The top of a ladder slides down a vertical wall at a rate of 0.15 mys. At the moment when the bottom of the ladder is 3 m from the wall, it slides away from the wall at a rate of 0.2 mys. How long is the ladder? 34. According to the model we used to solve Example 2, what happens as the top of the ladder approaches the ground? Is the model appropriate for small values of y? 35. If the minute hand of a clock has length r (in centimeters), find the rate at which it sweeps out area as a function of r. ; 36. A faucet is filling a hemispherical basin of diameter 60 cm with water at a rate of 2 Lymin. Find the rate at which the water is rising in the basin when it is half full. [Use the following facts: 1 L is 1000 cm3. The volume of the portion of a sphere with radius r from the bottom to a height h is V −  (rh 2 2 13 h 3), as we will show in Chapter 6.] 37. Boyle’s Law states that when a sample of gas is compressed at a constant temperature, the pressure P and volume V satisfy the equation PV − C, where C is a constant. Suppose that at a certain instant the volume is 600 cm3, the pressure is 150 kPa, and the pressure is increasing at a rate of 20 kPaymin. At what rate is the volume decreasing at this instant? 38. When air expands adiabatically (without gaining or losing heat), its pressure P and volume V are related by the equation PV 1.4 − C, where C is a constant. Suppose that at a certain instant the volume is 400 cm3 and the pressure is 80 kPa and is decreasing at a rate of 10 kPaymin. At what rate is the volume increasing at this instant?

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SeCtion 3.10 Linear Approximations and Differentials

39. If two resistors with resistances R1 and R2 are connected in parallel, as in the figure, then the total resistance R, measured in ohms (V), is given by 1 1 1 − 1 R R1 R2 If R1 and R2 are increasing at rates of 0.3 Vys and 0.2 Vys, respectively, how fast is R changing when R1 − 80 V and R2 − 100 V?

R¡

R™

40. Brain weight B as a function of body weight W in fish has been modeled by the power function B − 0.007W 2y3, where B and W are measured in grams. A model for body weight as a function of body length L (measured in centimeters) is W − 0.12L2.53. If, over 10 million years, the average length of a certain species of fish evolved from 15 cm to 20 cm at a constant rate, how fast was this species’ brain growing when the average length was 18 cm? 41. Two sides of a triangle have lengths 12 m and 15 m. The angle between them is increasing at a rate of 2 8ymin. How fast is the length of the third side increasing when the angle between the sides of fixed length is 60°? 42. Two carts, A and B, are connected by a rope 12 m long that passes over a pulley P (see the figure). The point Q is on the floor 4 m directly beneath P and between the carts. Cart A is being pulled away from Q at a speed of 0.5 mys. How fast is cart B moving toward Q at the instant when cart A is 3 m from Q?

4m B Q

43. A television camera is positioned 1200 m from the base of a rocket launching pad. The angle of elevation of the camera has to change at the correct rate in order to keep the rocket in sight. Also, the mechanism for focusing the camera has to take into account the increasing distance from the camera to the rising rocket. Let’s assume the rocket rises vertically and its speed is 200 mys when it has risen 900 m. (a) How fast is the distance from the television camera to the rocket changing at that moment? (b) If the television camera is always kept aimed at the rocket, how fast is the camera’s angle of elevation changing at that same moment? 44. A lighthouse is located on a small island 3 km away from the nearest point P on a straight shoreline and its light makes four revolutions per minute. How fast is the beam of light moving along the shoreline when it is 1 km from P? 45. A plane flies horizontally at an altitude of 5 km and passes directly over a tracking telescope on the ground. When the angle of elevation is y3, this angle is decreasing at a rate of y6 radymin. How fast is the plane traveling at that time? 46. A Ferris wheel with a radius of 10 m is rotating at a rate of one revolution every 2 minutes. How fast is a rider rising when his seat is 16 m above ground level? 47. A plane flying with a constant speed of 300 kmyh passes over a ground radar station at an altitude of 1 km and climbs at an angle of 308. At what rate is the distance from the plane to the radar station increasing a minute later? 48. Two people start from the same point. One walks east at 4 kmyh and the other walks northeast at 2 kmyh. How fast is the distance between the people changing after 15 minutes? 49. A runner sprints around a circular track of radius 100 m at a constant speed of 7 mys. The runner’s friend is standing at a distance 200 m from the center of the track. How fast is the distance between the friends changing when the distance between them is 200 m?

P

A

251

50. The minute hand on a watch is 8 mm long and the hour hand is 4 mm long. How fast is the distance between the tips of the hands changing at one o’clock?

We have seen that a curve lies very close to its tangent line near the point of tangency. In fact, by zooming in toward a point on the graph of a differentiable function, we noticed that the graph looks more and more like its tangent line. (See Figure 2.7.2.) This observation is the basis for a method of finding approximate values of functions. The idea is that it might be easy to calculate a value f sad of a function, but difficult (or even impossible) to compute nearby values of f . So we settle for the easily computed

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252

Chapter 3

Differentiation Rules

values of the linear function L whose graph is the tangent line of f at sa, f sadd. (See Figure 1.) In other words, we use the tangent line at sa, f sadd as an approximation to the curve y − f sxd when x is near a. An equation of this tangent line is

y

y=ƒ y=L(x)

{a, f(a)}

y − f sad 1 f 9sadsx 2 ad and the approximation

0

x

f sxd < f sad 1 f 9sadsx 2 ad

1

FIGURE 1

is called the linear approximation or tangent line approximation of f at a. The linear function whose graph is this tangent line, that is,

Lsxd − f sad 1 f 9sadsx 2 ad

2

is called the linearization of f at a.

EXAMPLE 1 Find the linearization of the function f sxd − sx 1 3 at a − 1 and use it to approximate the numbers s3.98 and s4.05 . Are these approximations overestimates or underestimates? SoLUtion The derivative of f sxd − sx 1 3d1y2 is

f 9sxd − 12 sx 1 3d21y2 −

1 2sx 1 3

and so we have f s1d − 2 and f 9s1d − 14. Putting these values into Equation 2, we see that the linearization is Lsxd − f s1d 1 f 9s1dsx 2 1d − 2 1 14 sx 2 1d −

7 x 1 4 4

The corresponding linear approximation (1) is sx 1 3
0 y − tanh21x

&? tanh y − x

The remaining inverse hyperbolic functions are defined similarly (see Exercise 28).

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262

CHAPTER 3

Differentiation Rules

We can sketch the graphs of sinh21, cosh21, and tanh21 in Figures 8, 9, and 10 by using Figures 1, 2, and 3. y

y y

0 0

x

_1 0

FIGURE 8 y − sinh 21 x domain − R

range − R

1

x

x

1

FIGURE 9 y − cosh 21 x

FIGURE 10 y − tanh 21 x

domain − f1, `d

domain − s21, 1d

range − f0, `d

range − R

Since the hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of exponential functions, it’s not surprising to learn that the inverse hyperbolic functions can be expressed in terms of logarithms. In particular, we have:

Formula 3 is proved in Example 3. The proofs of Formulas 4 and 5 are requested in Exercises 26 and 27.

3

sinh21x − lns x 1 sx 2 1 1 d

x[R

4

cosh21x − lns x 1 sx 2 2 1 d

x>1

5

tanh21x − 12 ln

S D 11x 12x

21 , x , 1

ExamplE 3 Show that sinh21x − lns x 1 sx 2 1 1 d. SOLUTION Let y − sinh21x. Then

x − sinh y −

e y 2 e2y 2

e y 2 2x 2 e2y − 0

so or, multiplying by e y,

e 2y 2 2xe y 2 1 − 0 This is really a quadratic equation in e y: se y d2 2 2xse y d 2 1 − 0 Solving by the quadratic formula, we get ey −

2x 6 s4x 2 1 4 − x 6 sx 2 1 1 2

Note that e y . 0, but x 2 sx 2 1 1 , 0 (because x , sx 2 1 1). Thus the minus sign is inadmissible and we have e y − x 1 sx 2 1 1

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SECTION 3.11

Hyperbolic Functions

263

y − lnse y d − lns x 1 sx 2 1 1 d

Therefore

sinh21x − lns x 1 sx 2 1 1 d

This shows that

(See Exercise 25 for another method.)

■

6 Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Notice that the formulas for the derivatives of tanh21x and coth21x appear to be identical. But the domains of these functions have no numbers in common: tanh21x is defined for x , 1, whereas coth21x is defined for x . 1.

| | | |

d 1 ssinh21xd − dx s1 1 x 2

d 1 scsch21xd − 2 dx x | | sx 2 1 1

d 1 scosh21xd − 2 dx sx 2 1

d 1 ssech21xd − 2 dx x s1 2 x 2

d 1 stanh21xd − dx 1 2 x2

d 1 scoth21xd − dx 1 2 x2

The inverse hyperbolic functions are all differentiable because the hyperbolic functions are differentiable. The formulas in Table 6 can be proved either by the method for inverse functions or by differentiating Formulas 3, 4, and 5.

ExamplE 4 Prove that

d 1 ssinh21xd − . dx s1 1 x 2

SOLUTION 1 Let y − sinh21x. Then sinh y − x. If we differentiate this equation implic-

itly with respect to x, we get cosh y

dy −1 dx

Since cosh2 y 2 sinh2 y − 1 and cosh y > 0, we have cosh y − s1 1 sinh2 y , so dy 1 1 1 − − − 2 dx cosh y s1 1 sinh y s1 1 x 2 SOLUTION 2 From Equation 3 (proved in Example 3), we have

d d ssinh21xd − lns x 1 sx 2 1 1 d dx dx 1

−

d s x 1 sx 2 1 1 d x 1 sx 2 1 1 dx

−

1 x 1 sx 2 1 1

S

11

x sx 1 1

−

sx 2 1 1 1 x ( x 1 sx 2 1 1 ) sx 2 1 1

−

1 sx 2 1 1

2

D

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■

264

CHAPTER 3

Differentiation Rules

ExamplE 5 Find

d ftanh21ssin xdg. dx

SOLUTION Using Table 6 and the Chain Rule, we have

d 1 d ftanh21ssin xdg − ssin xd 2 dx 1 2 ssin xd dx −

1 cos x cos x − − sec x 2 1 2 sin x cos2x

■

3.11 EXERCISES 1–6 Find the numerical value of each expression. 1. (a) sinh 0

(b) cosh 0

2. (a) tanh 0

(b) tanh 1

3. (a) coshsln 5d

(b) cosh 5

4. (a) sinh 4

(b) sinhsln 4d

5. (a) sech 0

(b) cosh21 1

6. (a) sinh 1

(b) sinh21 1

21. If cosh x − 53 and x . 0, find the values of the other hyperbolic functions at x. 22. (a) Use the graphs of sinh, cosh, and tanh in Figures 1–3 to draw the graphs of csch, sech, and coth. (b) Check the graphs that you sketched in part (a) by using a ; graphing device to produce them. 23. Use the definitions of the hyperbolic functions to find each of the following limits. (a) lim tanh x (b) lim tanh x xl`

(d) lim sinh x

(e) lim sech x

(f) lim coth x

(g) lim1 coth x

(h) lim2 coth x

(i)

( j) lim

xl`

7–19 Prove the identity. 7. sinhs2xd − 2sinh x (This shows that sinh is an odd function.) 8. coshs2xd − cosh x (This shows that cosh is an even function.) 9. cosh x 1 sinh x − e x 2x

10. cosh x 2 sinh x − e

x l2`

(c) lim sinh x xl` x l0

lim csch x

x l2`

x l2` xl` x l0

xl`

sinh x ex

24. Prove the formulas given in Table 1 for the derivatives of the functions (a) cosh, (b) tanh, (c) csch, (d) sech, and (e) coth.

12. coshsx 1 yd − cosh x cosh y 1 sinh x sinh y

25. Give an alternative solution to Example 3 by letting y − sinh21x and then using Exercise 9 and Example 1(a) with x replaced by y.

13. coth2x 2 1 − csch2x

26. Prove Equation 4.

tanh x 1 tanh y 14. tanhsx 1 yd − 1 1 tanh x tanh y

27. Prove Equation 5 using (a) the method of Example 3 and (b) Exercise 18 with x replaced by y.

11. sinhsx 1 yd − sinh x cosh y 1 cosh x sinh y

15. sinh 2x − 2 sinh x cosh x 16. cosh 2x − cosh2x 1 sinh2x 17. tanhsln xd − 18.

x2 2 1 x2 1 1

1 1 tanh x − e 2x 1 2 tanh x

19. scosh x 1 sinh xdn − cosh nx 1 sinh nx (n any real number)

28. For each of the following functions (i) give a definition like those in (2), (ii) sketch the graph, and (iii) find a formula similar to Equation 3. (a) csch 21 (b) sech21 (c) coth21 29. Prove the formulas given in Table 6 for the derivatives of the following functions. (a) cosh21 (b) tanh21 (c) csch21 21 21 (d) sech (e) coth 30–45 Find the derivative. Simplify where possible.

20. If tanh x − 12 13 , find the values of the other hyperbolic functions at x.

30. f sxd − e x cosh x 31. f sxd − tanh sx

32. tsxd − sinh 2 x

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SECTION 3.11

33. hsxd − sinhsx 2 d

Hyperbolic Functions

265

y

34. hsxd − lnscosh xd

35. tsxd − coshsln xd

¨ 5

36. y − sech x s1 1 ln sech xd 1 1 sinh t 1 2 sinh t

37. y − e cosh 3x

38. f std −

39. tstd − t coth st 2 1 1

40. y − sinhscosh xd

41. Gsxd −

1 2 cosh x 1 1 cosh x

43. y − x sinh21sxy3d 2 s9 1 x 2

d2y t − dx 2 T

44. y − sech21 se2x d 45. y − coth21 ssec xd

d dx

Î 4

1 1 tanh x − 12 e xy2. 1 2 tanh x

d 47. Show that arctanstanh xd − sech 2x. dx 48. The Gateway Arch in St. Louis was designed by Eero Saarinen and was constructed using the equation y − 211.49 2 20.96 cosh 0.03291765x

;

for the central curve of the arch, where x and y are measured in meters and x < 91.20. (a) Graph the central curve. (b) What is the height of the arch at its center? (c) At what points is the height 100 m? (d) What is the slope of the arch at the points in part (c)?

| |

49. If a water wave with length L moves with velocity v in a body of water with depth d, then v−

Î

S D

tL 2d tanh 2 L

where t is the acceleration due to gravity. (See Figure 5.) Explain why the approximation v
0, where b and c are positive constants. (a) Find the velocity and acceleration functions. (b) Show that the particle always moves in the positive direction.

f

0

; 82. (a) Graph the function f sxd − x 2 2 sin x in the viewing rectangle f0, 8g by f22, 8g. (b) On which interval is the average rate of change larger: f1, 2g or f2, 3g? (c) At which value of x is the instantaneous rate of change larger: x − 2 or x − 5? (d) Check your visual estimates in part (c) by computing f 9sxd and comparing the numerical values of f 9s2d and f 9s5d.

Î

f sxd tsxd

89. A particle moves on a vertical line so that its coordinate at time t is y − t 3 2 12t 1 3, t > 0. (a) Find the velocity and acceleration functions. (b) When is the particle moving upward and when is it moving downward? (c) Find the distance that the particle travels in the time interval 0 < t < 3. (d) Graph the position, velocity, and acceleration functions ; for 0 < t < 3. (e) When is the particle speeding up? When is it slowing down? 90. The volume of a right circular cone is V − 13 r 2h, where r is the radius of the base and h is the height. (a) Find the rate of change of the volume with respect to the height if the radius is constant.

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CHAPTER 3

(b) Find the rate of change of the volume with respect to the radius if the height is constant. 91. The mass of part of a wire is x s1 1 sx d kilograms, where x is measured in meters from one end of the wire. Find the linear density of the wire when x − 4 m.

(a) Find the marginal cost function. (b) Find C9s100d and explain its meaning. (c) Compare C9s100d with the cost of producing the 101st item. 93. A bacteria culture contains 200 cells initially and grows at a rate proportional to its size. After half an hour the population has increased to 360 cells. (a) Find the number of bacteria after t hours. (b) Find the number of bacteria after 4 hours. (c) Find the rate of growth after 4 hours. (d) When will the population reach 10,000? 94. Cobalt-60 has a half-life of 5.24 years. (a) Find the mass that remains from a 100-mg sample after 20 years. (b) How long would it take for the mass to decay to 1 mg? 95. Let Cstd be the concentration of a drug in the bloodstream. As the body eliminates the drug, Cstd decreases at a rate that is proportional to the amount of the drug that is present at the time. Thus C9std − 2kCstd, where k is a positive number called the elimination constant of the drug. (a) If C0 is the concentration at time t − 0, find the concentration at time t. (b) If the body eliminates half the drug in 30 hours, how long does it take to eliminate 90% of the drug? 96. A cup of hot chocolate has temperature 80°C in a room kept at 20°C. After half an hour the hot chocolate cools to 60°C. (a) What is the temperature of the chocolate after another half hour? (b) When will the chocolate have cooled to 40°C? 97. The volume of a cube is increasing at a rate of 10 cm3ymin. How fast is the surface area increasing when the length of an edge is 30 cm? 98. A paper cup has the shape of a cone with height 10 cm and radius 3 cm (at the top). If water is poured into the cup at a rate of 2 cm3ys, how fast is the water level rising when the water is 5 cm deep? 99. A balloon is rising at a constant speed of 2 mys. A boy is cycling along a straight road at a speed of 5 mys. When he passes under the balloon, it is 15 m above him. How fast is the distance between the boy and the balloon increasing 3 s later?

269

100. A waterskier skis over the ramp shown in the figure at a speed of 10 mys. How fast is she rising as she leaves the ramp?

1m

92. The cost, in dollars, of producing x units of a certain commodity is Csxd − 920 1 2x 2 0.02x 2 1 0.00007x 3

Review

5m

101. The angle of elevation of the sun is decreasing at a rate of 0.25 radyh. How fast is the shadow cast by a 400-ft-tall building increasing when the angle of elevation of the sun is y6? ; 102. (a) Find the linear approximation to f sxd − s25 2 x 2 near 3. (b) Illustrate part (a) by graphing f and the linear approximation. (c) For what values of x is the linear approximation accurate to within 0.1? 3 1 1 3x at a − 0. 103. (a) Find the linearization of f sxd − s State the corresponding linear approximation and use it 3 to give an approximate value for s 1.03 . (b) Determine the values of x for which the linear approxi; mation given in part (a) is accurate to within 0.1.

104. Evaluate dy if y − x 3 2 2x 2 1 1, x − 2, and dx − 0.2. 105. A window has the shape of a square surmounted by a semicircle. The base of the window is measured as having width 60 cm with a possible error in measurement of 0.1 cm. Use differentials to estimate the maximum error possible in computing the area of the window. 106–108 Express the limit as a derivative and evaluate. 106. lim

x l1

108. lim

x 17 2 1 x21

 l y3

107. lim

hl0

4 16 1 h 2 2 s h

cos  2 0.5  2 y3

109. Evaluate lim

xl0

s1 1 tan x 2 s1 1 sin x . x3

110. Suppose f is a differentiable function such that f s tsxdd − x and f 9sxd − 1 1 f f sxdg 2. Show that t9sxd − 1ys1 1 x 2 d. 111. Find f 9sxd if it is known that d f f s2xdg − x 2 dx 112. Show that the length of the portion of any tangent line to the astroid x 2y3 1 y 2y3 − a 2y3 cut off by the coordinate axes is constant.

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Problems Plus

Before you look at the examples, cover up the solutions and try them yourself first. ExamPlE 1 How many lines are tangent to both of the parabolas y − 21 2 x 2 and y − 1 1 x 2 ? Find the coordinates of the points at which these tangents touch the parabolas. SOLUTION To gain insight into this problem, it is essential to draw a diagram. So we sketch the parabolas y − 1 1 x 2 (which is the standard parabola y − x 2 shifted 1 unit upward) and y − 21 2 x 2 (which is obtained by reflecting the first parabola about the x-axis). If we try to draw a line tangent to both parabolas, we soon discover that there are only two possibilities, as illustrated in Figure 1. Let P be a point at which one of these tangents touches the upper parabola and let a be its x-coordinate. (The choice of notation for the unknown is important. Of course we could have used b or c or x 0 or x1 instead of a. However, it’s not advisable to use x in place of a because that x could be confused with the variable x in the equation of the parabola.) Then, since P lies on the parabola y − 1 1 x 2, its y-coordinate must be 1 1 a 2. Because of the symmetry shown in Figure 1, the coordinates of the point Q where the tangent touches the lower parabola must be s2a, 2s1 1 a 2 dd. To use the given information that the line is a tangent, we equate the slope of the line PQ to the slope of the tangent line at P. We have

y

P 1

x _1

Q

FIGURE 1

mPQ −

1 1 a 2 2 s21 2 a 2 d 1 1 a2 − a 2 s2ad a

If f sxd − 1 1 x 2, then the slope of the tangent line at P is f 9sad − 2a. Thus the condition that we need to use is that 1 1 a2 − 2a a y

3≈ ≈ 1 ≈ 2

0.3≈ 0.1≈

x

0

y=ln x

FIGURE 2 y

y=c ≈ c=?

0

a

y=ln x

FIGURE 3

x

Solving this equation, we get 1 1 a 2 − 2a 2, so a 2 − 1 and a − 61. Therefore the points are (1, 2) and s21, 22d. By symmetry, the two remaining points are s21, 2d and s1, 22d. ■ ExamPlE 2 solution?

For what values of c does the equation ln x − cx 2 have exactly one

SOLUTION One of the most important principles of problem solving is to draw a diagram, even if the problem as stated doesn’t explicitly mention a geometric situation. Our present problem can be reformulated geometrically as follows: For what values of c does the curve y − ln x intersect the curve y − cx 2 in exactly one point? Let’s start by graphing y − ln x and y − cx 2 for various values of c. We know that, for c ± 0, y − cx 2 is a parabola that opens upward if c . 0 and downward if c , 0. Figure 2 shows the parabolas y − cx 2 for several positive values of c. Most of them don’t intersect y − ln x at all and one intersects twice. We have the feeling that there must be a value of c (somewhere between 0.1 and 0.3) for which the curves intersect exactly once, as in Figure 3. To find that particular value of c, we let a be the x-coordinate of the single point of intersection. In other words, ln a − ca 2, so a is the unique solution of the given equation. We see from Figure 3 that the curves just touch, so they have a common tangent line when x − a. That means the curves y − ln x and y − cx 2 have the same slope when x − a. Therefore 1 − 2ca a

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Solving the equations ln a − ca 2 and 1ya − 2ca, we get ln a − ca 2 − c ?

y

1 1 − 2c 2

Thus a − e 1y2 and

y=ln x 0

c−

x

ln a ln e 1y2 1 − − 2 a e 2e

For negative values of c we have the situation illustrated in Figure 4: All parabolas y − cx 2 with negative values of c intersect y − ln x exactly once. And let’s not forget about c − 0: The curve y − 0x 2 − 0 is just the x-axis, which intersects y − ln x exactly once. To summarize, the required values of c are c − 1ys2ed and c < 0. ■

FIGURE 4

1. Find points P and Q on the parabola y − 1 2 x 2 so that the triangle ABC formed by the x-axis and the tangent lines at P and Q is an equilateral triangle. (See the figure.)

Problems

y

A

P B

;

Q 0

C

x

2. Find the point where the curves y − x 3 2 3x 1 4 and y − 3sx 2 2 xd are tangent to each other, that is, have a common tangent line. Illustrate by sketching both curves and the common tangent. 3. Show that the tangent lines to the parabola y − ax 2 1 bx 1 c at any two points with x-coordinates p and q must intersect at a point whose x-coordinate is halfway between p and q. 4. Show that d dx 5. If f sxd − lim tlx

S

sin2 x cos2 x 1 1 1 cot x 1 1 tan x

D

− 2cos 2x

sec t 2 sec x , find the value of f 9sy4d. t2x

6. Find the values of the constants a and b such that lim

y

xl0

3 ax 1 b 2 2 5 s − x 12

7. Show that sin21stanh xd − tan21ssinh xd.

x

FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 8

8. A car is traveling at night along a highway shaped like a parabola with its vertex at the origin (see the figure). The car starts at a point 100 m west and 100 m north of the origin and travels in an easterly direction. There is a statue located 100 m east and 50 m north of the origin. At what point on the highway will the car’s headlights illuminate the statue? 9. Prove that

dn ssin4 x 1 cos4 xd − 4n21 coss4x 1 ny2d. dx n

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10. If f is differentiable at a, where a . 0, evaluate the following limit in terms of f 9sad: lim

xla

f sxd 2 f sad sx 2 sa

11. The figure shows a circle with radius 1 inscribed in the parabola y − x 2. Find the center of the circle. y

y=≈

1

1

0

x

12. Find all values of c such that the parabolas y − 4x 2 and x − c 1 2y 2 intersect each other at right angles. 13. How many lines are tangent to both of the circles x 2 1 y 2 − 4 and x 2 1 sy 2 3d 2 − 1? At what points do these tangent lines touch the circles? x 46 1 x 45 1 2 , calculate f s46ds3d. Express your answer using factorial notation: 11x n! − 1 ? 2 ? 3 ? ∙ ∙ ∙ ? sn 2 1d ? n.

14. If f sxd −

15. The figure shows a rotating wheel with radius 40 cm and a connecting rod AP with length 1.2 m. The pin P slides back and forth along the x-axis as the wheel rotates counterclockwise at a rate of 360 revolutions per minute. (a) Find the angular velocity of the connecting rod, dydt, in radians per second, when  − y3. (b) Express the distance x − OP in terms of . (c) Find an expression for the velocity of the pin P in terms of .

|

|

y

A å

¨

P (x, 0) x

O

16. Tangent lines T1 and T2 are drawn at two points P1 and P2 on the parabola y − x 2 and they intersect at a point P. Another tangent line T is drawn at a point between P1 and P2 ; it intersects T1 at Q1 and T2 at Q2. Show that

| PQ | 1 | PQ | − 1 | PP | | PP | 1

2

1

2

17. Show that dn se ax sin bxd − r ne ax sinsbx 1 nd dx n where a and b are positive numbers, r 2 − a 2 1 b 2, and  − tan21sbyad.

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18. Evaluate lim

xl

e sin x 2 1 . x2

19. Let T and N be the tangent and normal lines to the ellipse x 2y9 1 y 2y4 − 1 at any point P on the ellipse in the first quadrant. Let x T and yT be the x- and y-intercepts of T and x N and yN be the intercepts of N. As P moves along the ellipse in the first quadrant (but not on the axes), what values can x T , yT , x N, and yN take on? First try to guess the answers just by looking at the figure. Then use calculus to solve the problem and see how good your intuition is. y

yT

T

2

P xT

xN 0

3

20. Evaluate lim

xl0

x

N

yN

sins3 1 xd2 2 sin 9 . x

21. (a) Use the identity for tansx 2 yd (see Equation 14b in Appendix D) to show that if two lines L 1 and L 2 intersect at an angle , then tan  −

m 2 2 m1 1 1 m1 m 2

where m1 and m 2 are the slopes of L 1 and L 2, respectively. (b) The angle between the curves C1 and C2 at a point of intersection P is defined to be the angle between the tangent lines to C1 and C2 at P (if these tangent lines exist). Use part (a) to find, correct to the nearest degree, the angle between each pair of curves at each point of intersection. (i) y − x 2 and y − sx 2 2d2 (ii) x 2 2 y 2 − 3 and x 2 2 4x 1 y 2 1 3 − 0 22. Let Psx 1, y1d be a point on the parabola y 2 − 4px with focus Fs p, 0d. Let  be the angle between the parabola and the line segment FP, and let  be the angle between the horizontal line y − y1 and the parabola as in the figure. Prove that  − . (Thus, by a principle of geometrical optics, light from a source placed at F will be reflected along a line parallel to the x-axis. This explains why paraboloids, the surfaces obtained by rotating parabolas about their axes, are used as the shape of some automobile headlights and mirrors for telescopes.) y

å 0

∫ P(⁄, ›)

y=›

x

F(p, 0) ¥=4px

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23. Suppose that we replace the parabolic mirror of Problem 22 by a spherical mirror. Although the mirror has no focus, we can show the existence of an approximate focus. In the figure, C is a semicircle with center O. A ray of light coming in toward the mirror parallel to the axis along the line PQ will be reflected to the point R on the axis so that /PQO − /OQR (the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection). What happens to the point R as P is taken closer and closer to the axis?

Q P

¨ ¨ A

R

O

24. If f and t are differentiable functions with f s0d − ts0d − 0 and t9s0d ± 0, show that C

lim

xl0

FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 23 25. Evaluate lim

xl0

CAS

f sxd f 9s0d − tsxd t9s0d

sinsa 1 2xd 2 2 sinsa 1 xd 1 sin a . x2

26. (a) The cubic function f sxd − xsx 2 2dsx 2 6d has three distinct zeros: 0, 2, and 6. Graph f and its tangent lines at the average of each pair of zeros. What do you notice? (b) Suppose the cubic function f sxd − sx 2 adsx 2 bdsx 2 cd has three distinct zeros: a, b, and c. Prove, with the help of a computer algebra system, that a tangent line drawn at the average of the zeros a and b intersects the graph of f at the third zero. 27. For what value of k does the equation e 2x − ksx have exactly one solution? 28. For which positive numbers a is it true that a x > 1 1 x for all x? 29. If y−

show that y9 −

x sa 2 2 1

2

2 sa 2 2 1

arctan

sin x a 1 sa 2 2 1 1 cos x

1 . a 1 cos x

30. Given an ellipse x 2ya 2 1 y 2yb 2 − 1, where a ± b, find the equation of the set of all points from which there are two tangents to the curve whose slopes are (a) reciprocals and (b) negative reciprocals. 31. Find the two points on the curve y − x 4 2 2x 2 2 x that have a common tangent line. 32. Suppose that three points on the parabola y − x 2 have the property that their normal lines intersect at a common point. Show that the sum of their x-coordinates is 0. 33. A lattice point in the plane is a point with integer coordinates. Suppose that circles with radius r are drawn using all lattice points as centers. Find the smallest value of r such that any line with slope 25 intersects some of these circles. 34. A cone of radius r centimeters and height h centimeters is lowered point first at a rate of 1 cmys into a tall cylinder of radius R centimeters that is partially filled with water. How fast is the water level rising at the instant the cone is completely submerged? 35. A container in the shape of an inverted cone has height 16 cm and radius 5 cm at the top. It is partially filled with a liquid that oozes through the sides at a rate proportional to the area of the container that is in contact with the liquid. (The surface area of a cone is rl, where r is the radius and l is the slant height.) If we pour the liquid into the container at a rate of 2 cm3ymin, then the height of the liquid decreases at a rate of 0.3 cmymin when the height is 10 cm. If our goal is to keep the liquid at a constant height of 10 cm, at what rate should we pour the liquid into the container?

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4

Applications of Differentiation

When we view the world around us, the light entering the eye near the center of the pupil is perceived brighter than light entering closer to the edges of the pupil. This phenomenon, known as the Stiles–Crawford effect, is explored as the pupil changes in radius in Exercise 80 on page 313. © Tatiana Makotra / Shutterstock.com

We have already investigated some of the applications of derivatives, but now that we know the differentiation rules we are in a better position to pursue the applications of differentiation in greater depth. Here we learn how derivatives affect the shape of a graph of a function and, in particular, how they help us locate maximum and minimum values of functions. Many practical problems require us to minimize a cost or maximize an area or somehow find the best possible outcome of a situation. In particular, we will be able to investigate the optimal shape of a can and to explain the location of rainbows in the sky.

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276

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

Some of the most important applications of differential calculus are optimization problems, in which we are required to find the optimal (best) way of doing something. Here are examples of such problems that we will solve in this chapter:

• What is the shape of a can that minimizes manufacturing costs? • What is the maximum acceleration of a space shuttle? (This is an important •

question to the astronauts who have to withstand the effects of acceleration.) What is the radius of a contracted windpipe that expels air most rapidly during a cough?

• At what angle should blood vessels branch so as to minimize the energy expended by the heart in pumping blood? These problems can be reduced to finding the maximum or minimum values of a function. Let’s first explain exactly what we mean by maximum and minimum values. We see that the highest point on the graph of the function f shown in Figure 1 is the point s3, 5d. In other words, the largest value of f is f s3d − 5. Likewise, the smallest value is f s6d − 2. We say that f s3d − 5 is the absolute maximum of f and f s6d − 2 is the absolute minimum. In general, we use the following definition.

y 4 2

0

4

2

x

6

1 Definition Let c be a number in the domain D of a function f. Then f scd is the • absolute maximum value of f on D if f scd > f sxd for all x in D.

FigurE 1

• absolute minimum value of f on D if f scd < f sxd for all x in D.

y

f(d) f(a) a

0

b

c

d

e

x

FigurE 2 Abs min f sad, abs max f sdd, loc min f scd, f sed, loc max f sbd, f sdd

loc max

4

loc and abs min

loc min

2 0

FigurE 3

I

J

K

4

8

12

2 Definition The number f scd is a

• l ocal maximum value of f if f scd > f sxd when x is near c. • local minimum value of f if f scd < f sxd when x is near c.

y 6

An absolute maximum or minimum is sometimes called a global maximum or minimum. The maximum and minimum values of f are called extreme values of f . Figure 2 shows the graph of a function f with absolute maximum at d and absolute minimum at a. Note that sd, f sddd is the highest point on the graph and sa, f sadd is the lowest point. In Figure 2, if we consider only values of x near b [for instance, if we restrict our attention to the interval sa, cd], then f sbd is the largest of those values of f sxd and is called a local maximum value of f . Likewise, f scd is called a local minimum value of f because f scd < f sxd for x near c [in the interval sb, dd, for instance]. The function f also has a local minimum at e. In general, we have the following definition.

x

In Definition 2 (and elsewhere), if we say that something is true near c, we mean that it is true on some open interval containing c. For instance, in Figure 3 we see that f s4d − 5 is a local minimum because it’s the smallest value of f on the interval I. It’s not the absolute minimum because f sxd takes smaller values when x is near 12 (in the interval K, for instance). In fact f s12d − 3 is both a local minimum and the absolute minimum. Similarly, f s8d − 7 is a local maximum, but not the absolute maximum because f takes larger values near 1.

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SECTION 4.1 Maximum and Minimum Values

277

example 1 The function f sxd − cos x takes on its (local and absolute) maximum value of 1 infinitely many times, since cos 2n − 1 for any integer n and 21 < cos x < 1 for all x. (See Figure 4.) Likewise, coss2n 1 1d − 21 is its minimum value, where n is any integer. y Local and absolute maximum

0

π

2π

3π

x

FigurE 4 Local and absolute minimum

y − cosx

■

y

y=≈

0

example 2 If f sxd − x 2, then f sxd > f s0d because x 2 > 0 for all x. Therefore x

FigurE 5 Mimimum value 0, no maximum

f s0d − 0 is the absolute (and local) minimum value of f. This corresponds to the fact that the origin is the lowest point on the parabola y − x 2. (See Figure 5.) However, there is no highest point on the parabola and so this function has no maximum value. ■

example 3 From the graph of the function f sxd − x 3, shown in Figure 6, we see that this function has neither an absolute maximum value nor an absolute minimum value. In fact, it has no local extreme values either. ■

y

example 4 The graph of the function

y=˛

f sxd − 3x 4 2 16x 3 1 18x 2 0

21 < x < 4

x

FigurE 6 No mimimum, no maximum

is shown in Figure 7. You can see that f s1d − 5 is a local maximum, whereas the absolute maximum is f s21d − 37. (This absolute maximum is not a local maximum because it occurs at an endpoint.) Also, f s0d − 0 is a local minimum and f s3d − 227 is both a local and an absolute minimum. Note that f has neither a local nor an absolute maximum at x − 4. y (_1, 37)

y=3x$-16˛+18≈

(1, 5) _1

1

2

3

4

5

x

(3, _27)

FigurE 7

■

We have seen that some functions have extreme values, whereas others do not. The following theorem gives conditions under which a function is guaranteed to possess extreme values.

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278

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Applications of Differentiation

3 The Extreme Value Theorem If f is continuous on a closed interval fa, bg, then f attains an absolute maximum value f scd and an absolute minimum value f sdd at some numbers c and d in fa, bg. The Extreme Value Theorem is illustrated in Figure 8. Note that an extreme value can be taken on more than once. Although the Extreme Value Theorem is intuitively very plausible, it is difficult to prove and so we omit the proof. y

0

y

a

c

d b

0

x

y

a

c

d=b

x

0

a c¡

d

c™ b

x

FigurE 8 Functions continuous on a closed interval always attain extreme values.

Figures 9 and 10 show that a function need not possess extreme values if either hypothesis (continuity or closed interval) is omitted from the Extreme Value Theorem. y

y

3

1

0

y {c, f (c)}

{d, f (d )} 0

c

FigurE 11

d

x

1

2

x

0

2

x

FIGURE 9

FIGURE 10

This function has minimum value f(2)=0, but no maximum value.

This continuous function g has no maximum or minimum.

The function f whose graph is shown in Figure 9 is defined on the closed interval [0, 2] but has no maximum value. (Notice that the range of f is [0, 3). The function takes on values arbitrarily close to 3, but never actually attains the value 3.) This does not contradict the Extreme Value Theorem because f is not continuous. [Nonetheless, a discontinuous function could have maximum and minimum values. See Exercise 13(b).] The function t shown in Figure 10 is continuous on the open interval (0, 2) but has neither a maximum nor a minimum value. [The range of t is s1, `d. The function takes on arbitrarily large values.] This does not contradict the Extreme Value Theorem because the interval (0, 2) is not closed. The Extreme Value Theorem says that a continuous function on a closed interval has a maximum value and a minimum value, but it does not tell us how to find these extreme values. Notice in Figure 8 that the absolute maximum and minimum values that are between a and b occur at local maximum or minimum values, so we start by looking for local extreme values. Figure 11 shows the graph of a function f with a local maximum at c and a local minimum at d. It appears that at the maximum and minimum points the tangent lines are horizontal and therefore each has slope 0. We know that the derivative is the slope of the

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SECTION 4.1 Maximum and Minimum Values

279

tangent line, so it appears that f 9scd − 0 and f 9sdd − 0. The following theorem says that this is always true for differentiable functions. 4 Fermat’s Theorem If f has a local maximum or minimum at c, and if f 9scd exists, then f 9scd − 0.

Fermat Fermat’s Theorem is named after Pierre Fermat (1601–1665), a French lawyer who took up mathematics as a hobby. Despite his amateur status, Fermat was one of the two inventors of analytic geometry (Descartes was the other). His methods for finding tangents to curves and maximum and minimum values (before the invention of limits and derivatives) made him a forerunner of Newton in the creation of differential calculus.

PROOF Suppose, for the sake of definiteness, that f has a local maximum at c. Then, according to Definition 2, f scd > f sxd if x is sufficiently close to c. This implies that if h is sufficiently close to 0, with h being positive or negative, then

f scd > f sc 1 hd and therefore f sc 1 hd 2 f scd < 0

5

We can divide both sides of an inequality by a positive number. Thus, if h . 0 and h is sufficiently small, we have f sc 1 hd 2 f scd 0 h

h,0

So, taking the left-hand limit, we have f 9scd − lim

hl0

f sc 1 hd 2 f scd f sc 1 hd 2 f scd − lim2 >0 h l 0 h h

We have shown that f 9scd > 0 and also that f 9scd < 0. Since both of these inequalities must be true, the only possibility is that f 9scd − 0. We have proved Fermat’s Theorem for the case of a local maximum. The case of a local minimum can be proved in a similar manner, or we could use Exercise 78 to ■ deduce it from the case we have just proved (see Exercise 79). The following examples caution us against reading too much into Fermat’s Theorem: We can’t expect to locate extreme values simply by setting f 9sxd − 0 and solving for x. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

280

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Applications of Differentiation

y

example 5 If f sxd − x 3, then f 9sxd − 3x 2, so f 9s0d − 0. But f has no maximum or minimum at 0, as you can see from its graph in Figure 12. (Or observe that x 3 . 0 for x . 0 but x 3 , 0 for x , 0.) The fact that f 9s0d − 0 simply means that the curve y − x 3 has a horizontal tangent at s0, 0d. Instead of having a maximum or minimum at s0, 0d, the curve crosses its horizontal tangent there. ■

y=˛

0

x

example 6 The function f sxd − | x | has its (local and absolute) minimum value at 0, but that value can’t be found by setting f 9sxd − 0 because, as was shown in Example 2.8.5, f 9s0d does not exist. (See Figure 13.) ■

FigurE 12 If f sxd − x 3, then f 9s0d − 0, but f has no maximum or minimum.

WARNING Examples 5 and 6 show that we must be careful when using Fermat’s Theorem. Example 5 demonstrates that even when f 9scd − 0 there need not be a maximum or minimum at c. (In other words, the converse of Fermat’s Theorem is false in general.) Furthermore, there may be an extreme value even when f 9scd does not exist (as in Example 6). Fermat’s Theorem does suggest that we should at least start looking for extreme values of f at the numbers c where f 9scd − 0 or where f 9scd does not exist. Such numbers are given a special name.

y

y=|x | 0

x

FigurE 13

6 Definition A critical number of a function f is a number c in the domain of f such that either f 9scd − 0 or f 9scd does not exist.

| |

If f sxd − x , then f s0d − 0 is a minimum value, but f 9s0d does not exist.

example 7 Find the critical numbers of f sxd − x 3y5s4 2 xd. SOLUTION The Product Rule gives Figure 14 shows a graph of the function f in Example 7. It supports our answer because there is a horizontal tangent when x − 1.5 fwhere f 9sxd − 0g and a vertical tangent when x − 0 fwhere f 9sxd is undefinedg. 3.5

_0.5

5

f 9sxd − x 3y5s21d 1 s4 2 xd(53 x22y5) − 2x 3y5 1

−

3s4 2 xd 5x 2 y5

25x 1 3s4 2 xd 12 2 8x − 5x 2y5 5x 2y5

[The same result could be obtained by first writing f sxd − 4x 3y5 2 x 8y5.] Therefore f 9sxd − 0 if 12 2 8x − 0, that is, x − 32, and f 9sxd does not exist when x − 0. Thus the critical numbers are 32 and 0. ■ In terms of critical numbers, Fermat’s Theorem can be rephrased as follows (compare Definition 6 with Theorem 4):

_2

FigurE 14

7 If f has a local maximum or minimum at c, then c is a critical number of f.

To find an absolute maximum or minimum of a continuous function on a closed interval, we note that either it is local [in which case it occurs at a critical number by (7)] or it occurs at an endpoint of the interval, as we see from the examples in Figure 8. Thus the following three-step procedure always works.

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SECTION 4.1 Maximum and Minimum Values

281

The Closed interval Method To find the absolute maximum and minimum values of a continuous function f on a closed interval fa, bg: 1. Find the values of f at the critical numbers of f in sa, bd. 2. Find the values of f at the endpoints of the interval. 3. The largest of the values from Steps 1 and 2 is the absolute maximum value; the smallest of these values is the absolute minimum value.

example 8 Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function 212 < x < 4

f sxd − x 3 2 3x 2 1 1

f

g

SOLUTION Since f is continuous on 2 21, 4 , we can use the Closed Interval Method:

f sxd − x 3 2 3x 2 1 1 f 9sxd − 3x 2 2 6x − 3xsx 2 2d y 20

y=˛-3≈+1 (4, 17)

Since f 9sxd exists for all x, the only critical numbers of f occur when f 9sxd − 0, that is, x − 0 or x − 2. Notice that each of these critical numbers lies in the interval s212 , 4d. The values of f at these critical numbers are

15

f s0d − 1

10

f s2d − 23

The values of f at the endpoints of the interval are

5 1 _1 0 _5

f s212 d − 18

2 3

4

f s4d − 17

x

Comparing these four numbers, we see that the absolute maximum value is f s4d − 17 and the absolute minimum value is f s2d − 23. Note that in this example the absolute maximum occurs at an endpoint, whereas the absolute minimum occurs at a critical number. The graph of f is sketched in Figure 15.

(2, _3)

FigurE 15

■

If you have a graphing calculator or a computer with graphing software, it is possible to estimate maximum and minimum values very easily. But, as the next example shows, calculus is needed to find the exact values.

example 9 (a) Use a graphing device to estimate the absolute minimum and maximum values of the function f sxd − x 2 2 sin x, 0 < x < 2. (b) Use calculus to find the exact minimum and maximum values.

8

SOLUTION

0 _1

FigurE 16

2π

(a) Figure 16 shows a graph of f in the viewing rectangle f0, 2g by f21, 8g. By moving the cursor close to the maximum point, we see that the y-coordinates don’t change very much in the vicinity of the maximum. The absolute maximum value is about 6.97 and it occurs when x < 5.2. Similarly, by moving the cursor close to the minimum point, we see that the absolute minimum value is about 20.68 and it occurs when x < 1.0. It is possible to get more accurate estimates by zooming in toward the maximum and minimum points (or using a built-in maximum or minimum feature),

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282

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

but instead let’s use calculus. (b) The function f sxd − x 2 2 sin x is continuous on f0, 2g. Since f 9sxd − 1 2 2 cos x, we have f 9sxd − 0 when cos x − 12 and this occurs when x − y3 or 5y3. The values of f at these critical numbers are f sy3d − and

f s5y3d −

   2 2 sin − 2 s3 < 20.684853 3 3 3 5 5 5 2 2 sin − 1 s3 < 6.968039 3 3 3

The values of f at the endpoints are f s0d − 0

and

f s2d − 2 < 6.28

Comparing these four numbers and using the Closed Interval Method, we see that the absolute minimum value is f sy3d − y3 2 s3 and the absolute maximum value is f s5y3d − 5y3 1 s3 . The values from part (a) serve as a check on our work. ■

example 10 The Hubble Space Telescope was deployed on April 24, 1990, by the space shuttle Discovery. A model for the velocity of the shuttle during this mission, from liftoff at t − 0 until the solid rocket boosters were jettisoned at t − 126 s, is given by vstd − 0.0003968t 3 2 0.02752t 2 1 7.196t 2 0.9397 (in meters per second). Using this model, estimate the absolute maximum and minimum values of the acceleration of the shuttle between liftoff and the jettisoning of the boosters.

NASA

SOLUTION We are asked for the extreme values not of the given velocity function, but rather of the acceleration function. So we first need to differentiate to find the acceleration:

astd − v9std −

d s0.0003968t 3 2 0.02752t 2 1 7.196t 2 0.9397d dt

− 0.0011904t 2 2 0.05504t 1 7.196 We now apply the Closed Interval Method to the continuous function a on the interval 0 < t < 126. Its derivative is a9std − 0.0023808t 2 0.05504 The only critical number occurs when a9std − 0: t1 −

0.05504 < 23.12 0.0023808

Evaluating astd at the critical number and at the endpoints, we have as0d − 7.196

ast1 d < 6.56

as126d < 19.16

So the maximum acceleration is about 19.16 mys2 and the minimum acceleration is about 6.56 mys2.

■

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283

SECTION 4.1 Maximum and Minimum Values

1. Explain the difference between an absolute minimum and a local minimum.

(c) Sketch the graph of a function that has a local maximum at 2 and is not continuous at 2.

2. Suppose f is a continuous function defined on a closed interval fa, bg. (a) What theorem guarantees the existence of an absolute maximum value and an absolute minimum value for f ? (b) What steps would you take to find those maximum and minimum values?

12. (a) Sketch the graph of a function on [21, 2] that has an absolute maximum but no local maximum. (b) Sketch the graph of a function on [21, 2] that has a local maximum but no absolute maximum.

3–4 For each of the numbers a, b, c, d, r, and s, state whether the function whose graph is shown has an absolute maximum or minimum, a local maximum or minimum, or neither a maximum nor a minimum. 3.

4. y

y

13. (a) Sketch the graph of a function on [21, 2] that has an absolute maximum but no absolute minimum. (b) Sketch the graph of a function on [21, 2] that is discontinuous but has both an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum. 14. (a) Sketch the graph of a function that has two local maxima, one local minimum, and no absolute minimum. (b) Sketch the graph of a function that has three local minima, two local maxima, and seven critical numbers. 15–28 Sketch the graph of f by hand and use your sketch to find the absolute and local maximum and minimum values of f. (Use the graphs and transformations of Sections 1.2 and 1.3.)

0 a b

c d

r

0

s x

a

b

c d

r

s x

15. f sxd − 12 s3x 2 1d, 16. f sxd − 2 2

5–6 Use the graph to state the absolute and local maximum and minimum values of the function. 5.

6.

y

y=ƒ

0

1

1

x

0

17. f sxd − 1yx,

x 22

x>1

18. f sxd − 1yx, 1 , x , 3

y

y=©

1

1 3 x,

19. f sxd − sin x,

0 < x , y2

20. f sxd − sin x,

0 , x < y2

21. f sxd − sin x,

2y2 < x < y2

22. f std − cos t, 23y2 < t < 3y2 1

x

23. f sxd − ln x,

0,x 1

_2

2

for all x

(since x 2 > 0) so f 9sxd can never be 0. This gives a contradiction. Therefore the equation can’t have two real roots. ■ Our main use of Rolle’s Theorem is in proving the following important theorem, which was first stated by another French mathematician, Joseph-Louis Lagrange.

_3

FIGURE 2

The Mean Value Theorem is an example of what is called an existence theorem. Like the Intermediate Value Theorem, the Extreme Value Theorem, and Rolle’s Theorem, it guarantees that there exists a number with a certain property, but it doesn’t tell us how to find the number.

The Mean Value Theorem Let f be a function that satisfies the following hypotheses: 1. f is continuous on the closed interval fa, bg. 2. f is differentiable on the open interval sa, bd. Then there is a number c in sa, bd such that 1

f 9scd −

or, equivalently,

f sbd 2 f sad b2a

f sbd 2 f sad − f 9scdsb 2 ad

2

Before proving this theorem, we can see that it is reasonable by interpreting it geometrically. Figures 3 and 4 show the points Asa, f sadd and Bsb, f sbdd on the graphs of two differentiable functions. The slope of the secant line AB is 3

mAB −

f sbd 2 f sad b2a

which is the same expression as on the right side of Equation 1. Since f 9scd is the slope of the tangent line at the point sc, f scdd, the Mean Value Theorem, in the form given by Equation 1, says that there is at least one point Psc, f scdd on the graph where the slope of the tangent line is the same as the slope of the secant line AB. In other words, there is a point P where the tangent line is parallel to the secant line AB. (Imagine a line far away that stays parallel to AB while moving toward AB until it touches the graph for the first time.) y

y

P¡

P { c, f(c)}

B

P™

A

A{ a, f(a)} B { b, f(b)} 0

FIGURE 3

a

c

b

x

0

a

c¡

c™

b

x

FIGURE 4

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SECTION 4.2 The Mean Value Theorem

y

y=ƒ h(x)

A ƒ

B 0

a

x f(a)+

b

x

f(b)-f(a) (x-a) b-a

FIGURE 5

Lagrange and the Mean Value Theorem The Mean Value Theorem was first formulated by Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736–1813), born in Italy of a French father and an Italian mother. He was a child prodigy and became a professor in Turin at the tender age of 19. Lagrange made great contributions to number theory, theory of functions, theory of equations, and analytical and celestial mechanics. In particular, he applied calculus to the analysis of the stability of the solar system. At the invitation of Frederick the Great, he succeeded Euler at the Berlin Academy and, when Frederick died, Lagrange accepted King Louis XVI’s invitation to Paris, where he was given apartments in the Louvre and became a professor at the Ecole Polytechnique. Despite all the trappings of luxury and fame, he was a kind and quiet man, living only for science.

289

PROOF We apply Rolle’s Theorem to a new function h defined as the difference between f and the function whose graph is the secant line AB. Using Equation 3 and the point-slope equation of a line, we see that the equation of the line AB can be written as f sbd 2 f sad y 2 f sad − sx 2 ad b2a

y − f sad 1

or as

f sbd 2 f sad sx 2 ad b2a

So, as shown in Figure 5, hsxd − f sxd 2 f sad 2

4

f sbd 2 f sad sx 2 ad b2a

First we must verify that h satisfies the three hypotheses of Rolle’s Theorem. 1. The function h is continuous on fa, bg because it is the sum of f and a first-degree polynomial, both of which are continuous. 2. The function h is differentiable on sa, bd because both f and the first-degree polynomial are differentiable. In fact, we can compute h9 directly from Equation 4: h9sxd − f 9sxd 2

f sbd 2 f sad b2a

(Note that f sad and f f sbd 2 f sadgysb 2 ad are constants.) 3.

hsad − f sad 2 f sad 2

f sbd 2 f sad sa 2 ad − 0 b2a

hsbd − f sbd 2 f sad 2

f sbd 2 f sad sb 2 ad b2a

− f sbd 2 f sad 2 f f sbd 2 f sadg − 0 Therefore hsad − hsbd. Since h satisfies the hypotheses of Rolle’s Theorem, that theorem says there is a number c in sa, bd such that h9scd − 0. Therefore 0 − h9scd − f 9scd 2 and so

f 9scd −

f sbd 2 f sad b2a

f sbd 2 f sad b2a

■

ExamplE 3 To illustrate the Mean Value Theorem with a specific function, let’s consider f sxd − x 3 2 x, a − 0, b − 2. Since f is a polynomial, it is continuous and differentiable for all x, so it is certainly continuous on f0, 2g and differentiable on s0, 2d. Therefore, by the Mean Value Theorem, there is a number c in s0, 2d such that f s2d 2 f s0d − f 9scds2 2 0d Now f s2d − 6, f s0d − 0, and f 9sxd − 3x 2 2 1, so this equation becomes 6 − s3c 2 2 1d2 − 6c 2 2 2 which gives c 2 − 43, that is, c − 62ys3 . But c must lie in s0, 2d, so c − 2ys3 . Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

290

CHAPTER 4

y

Applications of Differentiation

Figure 6 illustrates this calculation: The tangent line at this value of c is parallel to the secant line OB. ■

y=˛- x B

ExamplE 4 If an object moves in a straight line with position function s − f std, then the average velocity between t − a and t − b is O c

FIGURE 6

2

f sbd 2 f sad b2a

x

and the velocity at t − c is f 9scd. Thus the Mean Value Theorem (in the form of Equation 1) tells us that at some time t − c between a and b the instantaneous velocity f 9scd is equal to that average velocity. For instance, if a car traveled 180 km in 2 hours, then the speedometer must have read 90 kmyh at least once. In general, the Mean Value Theorem can be interpreted as saying that there is a number at which the instantaneous rate of change is equal to the average rate of change over an interval. ■ The main significance of the Mean Value Theorem is that it enables us to obtain information about a function from information about its derivative. The next example provides an instance of this principle.

ExamplE 5 Suppose that f s0d − 23 and f 9sxd < 5 for all values of x. How large can f s2d possibly be? SOLUTION We are given that f is differentiable (and therefore continuous) everywhere. In particular, we can apply the Mean Value Theorem on the interval f0, 2g. There exists a number c such that

f s2d 2 f s0d − f 9scds2 2 0d f s2d − f s0d 1 2f 9scd − 23 1 2f 9scd

so

We are given that f 9sxd < 5 for all x, so in particular we know that f 9scd < 5. Multiplying both sides of this inequality by 2, we have 2f 9scd < 10, so f s2d − 23 1 2f 9scd < 23 1 10 − 7 The largest possible value for f s2d is 7.

■

The Mean Value Theorem can be used to establish some of the basic facts of differential calculus. One of these basic facts is the following theorem. Others will be found in the following sections. 5 Theorem If f 9sxd − 0 for all x in an interval sa, bd, then f is constant on sa, bd. PROOF Let x 1 and x 2 be any two numbers in sa, bd with x 1 , x 2. Since f is differentiable on sa, bd, it must be differentiable on sx 1, x 2 d and continuous on fx 1, x 2 g. By applying the Mean Value Theorem to f on the interval fx 1, x 2 g, we get a number c such that x 1 , c , x 2 and

6

f sx 2 d 2 f sx 1d − f 9scdsx 2 2 x 1d

Since f 9sxd − 0 for all x, we have f 9scd − 0, and so Equation 6 becomes f sx 2 d 2 f sx 1 d − 0

or

f sx 2 d − f sx 1 d

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SECTION 4.2 The Mean Value Theorem

291

Therefore f has the same value at any two numbers x 1 and x 2 in sa, bd. This means that f is constant on sa, bd. ■ Corollary 7 says that if two functions have the same derivatives on an interval, then their graphs must be vertical translations of each other there. In other words, the graphs have the same shape, but could be shifted up or down.

7 Corollary If f 9sxd − t9sxd for all x in an interval sa, bd, then f 2 t is constant on sa, bd; that is, f sxd − tsxd 1 c where c is a constant. PROOF Let Fsxd − f sxd 2 tsxd. Then

F9sxd − f 9sxd 2 t9sxd − 0 for all x in sa, bd. Thus, by Theorem 5, F is constant; that is, f 2 t is constant.

■

NOTE Care must be taken in applying Theorem 5. Let f sxd −

H

1 if x . 0 x − | x | 21 if x , 0

The domain of f is D − hx | x ± 0j and f 9sxd − 0 for all x in D. But f is obviously not a constant function. This does not contradict Theorem 5 because D is not an interval. Notice that f is constant on the interval s0, `d and also on the interval s2`, 0d.

ExamplE 6 Prove the identity tan21 x 1 cot21 x − y2. SOLUTION Although calculus isn’t needed to prove this identity, the proof using calculus is quite simple. If f sxd − tan21 x 1 cot21 x, then

f 9sxd −

1 1 2 −0 1 1 x2 1 1 x2

for all values of x. Therefore f sxd − C, a constant. To determine the value of C, we put x − 1 [because we can evaluate f s1d exactly]. Then    C − f s1d − tan21 1 1 cot21 1 − 1 − 4 4 2 21 21 Thus tan x 1 cot x − y2. ■

1. The graph of a function f is shown. Verify that f satisfies the hypotheses of Rolle’s Theorem on the interval f0, 8g. Then estimate the value(s) of c that satisfy the conclusion of Rolle’s Theorem on that interval. y

3. The graph of a function t is shown. y y=©

y=ƒ 1 0

1

x

1 0

1

x

2. Draw the graph of a function defined on f0, 8g such that f s0d − f s8d − 3 and the function does not satisfy the conclusion of Rolle’s Theorem on f0, 8g.

(a) Verify that t satisfies the hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem on the interval f0, 8g. (b) Estimate the value(s) of c that satisfy the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem on the interval f0, 8g. (c) Estimate the value(s) of c that satisfy the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem on the interval f2, 6g.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

292

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

4. Draw the graph of a function that is continuous on f0, 8g where f s0d − 1 and f s8d − 4 and that does not satisfy the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem on f0, 8g. 5–8 Verify that the function satisfies the three hypotheses of Rolle’s Theorem on the given interval. Then find all numbers c that satisfy the conclusion of Rolle’s Theorem. 5. f sxd − 2 x 2 2 4 x 1 5, f21, 3g

7. f sxd − sins xy2d, fy2, 3y2g

26. Suppose that 3 < f 9sxd < 5 for all values of x. Show that 18 < f s8d 2 f s2d < 30.

f 12 , 2g

27. Does there exist a function f such that f s0d − 21, f s2d − 4, and f 9sxd < 2 for all x?

9. Let f sxd − 1 2 x 2y3. Show that f s21d − f s1d but there is no number c in s21, 1d such that f 9scd − 0. Why does this not contradict Rolle’s Theorem? 10. Let f sxd − tan x. Show that f s0d − f sd but there is no number c in s0, d such that f 9scd − 0. Why does this not contradict Rolle’s Theorem? 11–14 Verify that the function satisfies the hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem on the given interval. Then find all numbers c that satisfy the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem.

13. f sxd − e 22x,

14. f sxd −

x , x12

f1, 4g

; 15–16 Find the number c that satisfies the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem on the given interval. Graph the function, the secant line through the endpoints, and the tangent line at sc, f scdd. Are the secant line and the tangent line parallel? 15. f sxd − sx , f0, 4g

|

19–20 Show that the equation has exactly one real root. 20. x 3 1 e x − 0

21. Show that the equation x 3 2 15x 1 c − 0 has at most one root in the interval f22, 2g. 22. Show that the equation x 4 1 4x 1 c − 0 has at most two real roots. 23. (a) Show that a polynomial of degree 3 has at most three real roots.

for all a and b

32. If f 9sxd − c (c a constant) for all x, use Corollary 7 to show that f sxd − cx 1 d for some constant d. 33. Let f sxd − 1yx and

tsxd −

1 x 11

16. f sxd − e , f0, 2g

18. Let f sxd − 2 2 2 x 2 1 . Show that there is no value of c such that f s3d 2 f s0d − f 9scds3 2 0d. Why does this not contradict the Mean Value Theorem?

19. 2 x 1 cos x − 0

30. Suppose f is an odd function and is differentiable everywhere. Prove that for every positive number b, there exists a number c in s2b, bd such that f 9scd − f sbdyb.

2x

17. Let f sxd − s x 2 3d22. Show that there is no value of c in s1, 4d such that f s4d 2 f s1d − f 9scds4 2 1d. Why does this not contradict the Mean Value Theorem?

|

29. Show that sin x , x if 0 , x , 2.

| sin a 2 sin b | < | a 2 b |

f22, 2g

f0, 3g

28. Suppose that f and t are continuous on fa, bg and differentiable on sa, bd. Suppose also that f sad − tsad and f 9sxd , t9sxd for a , x , b. Prove that f sbd , tsbd. [Hint: Apply the Mean Value Theorem to the function h − f 2 t.]

31. Use the Mean Value Theorem to prove the inequality

11. f sxd − 2x 2 2 3x 1 1, f0, 2g 12. f sxd − x 3 2 3x 1 2,

24. (a) Suppose that f is differentiable on R and has two roots. Show that f 9 has at least one root. (b) Suppose f is twice differentiable on R and has three roots. Show that f 0 has at least one real root. (c) Can you generalize parts (a) and (b)? 25. If f s1d − 10 and f 9sxd > 2 for 1 < x < 4, how small can f s4d possibly be?

6. f sxd − x 3 2 2x 2 2 4x 1 2, f22, 2g

8. f sxd − x 1 1y x,

(b) Show that a polynomial of degree n has at most n real roots.

if x . 0 1 x

if x , 0

Show that f 9sxd − t9sxd for all x in their domains. Can we conclude from Corollary 7 that f 2 t is constant? 34. Use the method of Example 6 to prove the identity 2 sin21x − cos21s1 2 2x 2 d

x>0

x21  − 2 arctan sx 2 . x11 2 36. At 2:00 pm a car’s speedometer reads 50 kmyh. At 2:10 pm it reads 65 kmyh. Show that at some time between 2:00 and 2:10 the acceleration is exactly 90 kmyh2.

35. Prove the identity arcsin

37. Two runners start a race at the same time and finish in a tie. Prove that at some time during the race they have the same speed. [Hint: Consider f std − tstd 2 hstd, where t and h are the position functions of the two runners.] 38. A number a is called a fixed point of a function f if f sad − a. Prove that if f 9sxd ± 1 for all real numbers x, then f has at most one fixed point.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 4.3 How Derivatives Affect the Shape of a Graph

y

293

Many of the applications of calculus depend on our ability to deduce facts about a function f from information concerning its derivatives. Because f 9sxd represents the slope of the curve y − f sxd at the point sx, f sxdd, it tells us the direction in which the curve proceeds at each point. So it is reasonable to expect that information about f 9sxd will provide us with information about f sxd.

D B

What Does f 9 Say About f ? C

A

x

0

FIGURE 1

To see how the derivative of f can tell us where a function is increasing or decreasing, look at Figure 1. (Increasing functions and decreasing functions were defined in Section 1.1.) Between A and B and between C and D, the tangent lines have positive slope and so f 9sxd . 0. Between B and C, the tangent lines have negative slope and so f 9sxd , 0. Thus it appears that f increases when f 9sxd is positive and decreases when f 9sxd is negative. To prove that this is always the case, we use the Mean Value Theorem. Increasing/Decreasing Test

Let’s abbreviate the name of this test to the I/D Test.

(a) If f 9sxd . 0 on an interval, then f is increasing on that interval. (b) If f 9sxd , 0 on an interval, then f is decreasing on that interval. PROOF

(a) Let x 1 and x 2 be any two numbers in the interval with x1 , x2. According to the definition of an increasing function (page 19), we have to show that f sx1 d , f sx2 d. Because we are given that f 9sxd . 0, we know that f is differentiable on fx1, x2 g. So, by the Mean Value Theorem, there is a number c between x1 and x2 such that f sx 2 d 2 f sx 1 d − f 9scdsx 2 2 x 1 d

1

Now f 9scd . 0 by assumption and x 2 2 x 1 . 0 because x 1 , x 2. Thus the right side of Equation 1 is positive, and so f sx 2 d 2 f sx 1 d . 0

or

f sx 1 d , f sx 2 d

This shows that f is increasing. Part (b) is proved similarly.

■

ExamplE 1 Find where the function f sxd − 3x 4 2 4x 3 2 12x 2 1 5 is increasing and where it is decreasing. SOLUTION We start by differentiating f :

f 9sxd − 12x 3 2 12x 2 2 24x − 12xsx 2 2dsx 1 1d

_1

0

2

x

To use the IyD Test we have to know where f 9sxd . 0 and where f 9sxd , 0. To solve these inequalities we first find where f 9sxd − 0, namely at x − 0, 2, and 21. These are the critical numbers of f , and they divide the domain into four intervals (see the number line at the left). Within each interval, f 9sxd must be always positive or always negative. (See Examples 3 and 4 in Appendix A.) We can determine which is the case for each interval from the signs of the three factors of f 9sxd, namely, 12x, x 2 2, and x 1 1, as shown in the following chart. A plus sign indicates that the given expression is positive, and a minus sign indicates that it is negative. The last col-

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

294

CHAPTER 4

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umn of the chart gives the conclusion based on the IyD Test. For instance, f 9sxd , 0 for 0 , x , 2, so f is decreasing on (0, 2). (It would also be true to say that f is decreasing on the closed interval f0, 2g.)

20

Interval _2

3

x , 21

x22

x11

f 9sxd

f

2

2

2

2

decreasing on (2`, 21)

21 , x , 0

2

2

1

1

increasing on (21, 0)

0,x,2 x.2

1 1

2 1

1 1

2 1

decreasing on (0, 2) increasing on (2, `)

_30

FIGURE 2

12x

The graph of f shown in Figure 2 confirms the information in the chart.

■

Local Extreme Values Recall from Section 4.1 that if f has a local maximum or minimum at c, then c must be a critical number of f (by Fermat’s Theorem), but not every critical number gives rise to a maximum or a minimum. We therefore need a test that will tell us whether or not f has a local maximum or minimum at a critical number. You can see from Figure 2 that f s0d − 5 is a local maximum value of f because f increases on s21, 0d and decreases on s0, 2d. Or, in terms of derivatives, f 9sxd . 0 for 21 , x , 0 and f 9sxd , 0 for 0 , x , 2. In other words, the sign of f 9sxd changes from positive to negative at 0. This observation is the basis of the following test. The First Derivative Test Suppose that c is a critical number of a continuous function f. (a) If f 9 changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a local maximum at c. (b) If f 9 changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a local minimum at c. (c) If f 9 is positive to the left and right of c, or negative to the left and right of c, then f has no local maximum or minimum at c. The First Derivative Test is a consequence of the IyD Test. In part (a), for instance, since the sign of f 9sxd changes from positive to negative at c, f is increasing to the left of c and decreasing to the right of c. It follows that f has a local maximum at c. It is easy to remember the First Derivative Test by visualizing diagrams such as those in Figure 3. y

y

y

y

fª(x)0

fª(x)0 fª(x)0 x

0

c

x

(c) No maximum or minimum

0

c

x

(d) No maximum or minimum

FIGURE 3

ExamplE 2 Find the local minimum and maximum values of the function f in Example 1.

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295

SECTION 4.3 How Derivatives Affect the Shape of a Graph

SOLUTION From the chart in the solution to Example 1 we see that f 9sxd changes from negative to positive at 21, so f s21d − 0 is a local minimum value by the First Derivative Test. Similarly, f 9 changes from negative to positive at 2, so f s2d − 227 is also a local minimum value. As noted previously, f s0d − 5 is a local maximum value because f 9sxd changes from positive to negative at 0. ■

ExamplE 3 Find the local maximum and minimum values of the function tsxd − x 1 2 sin x

0 < x < 2

SOLUTION As in Example 1, we start by finding the critical numbers. The derivative is:

t9sxd − 1 1 2 cos x so t9sxd − 0 when cos x − The solutions of this equation are 2y3 and 4y3. Because t is differentiable everywhere, the only critical numbers are 2y3 and 4y3. We split the domain into intervals according to the critical numbers. Within each interval, t9sxd is either always positive or always negative and so we analyze t in the following chart. 212.

The 1 signs in the chart come from the fact that t9sxd . 0 when cos x . 2 12. From the graph of y − cos x, this is true in the indicated intervals.

t9sxd − 1 1 2 cos x

Interval

t

0 , x , 2y3

1

increasing on s0, 2y3d

2y3 , x , 4y3 4y3 , x , 2

2 1

decreasing on s2y3, 4y3d increasing on s4y3, 2d

Because t9sxd changes from positive to negative at 2y3, the First Derivative Test tells us that there is a local maximum at 2y3 and the local maximum value is

6

ts2y3d −

S D

2 2 2 s3 1 2 sin − 12 3 3 3 2

−

2 1 s3 < 3.83 3

Likewise, t9sxd changes from negative to positive at 4y3 and so 0

2π 3

4π 3

2π

ts4y3d −

FIGURE 4

S D

4 4 4 s3 1 2 sin − 12 2 3 3 3 2

−

4 2 s3 < 2.46 3

is a local minimum value. The graph of t in Figure 4 supports our conclusion.

tsxd − x 1 2 sin x

■

What Does f 99 Say About f ? Figure 5 shows the graphs of two increasing functions on sa, bd. Both graphs join point A to point B but they look different because they bend in different directions. How can we distinguish between these two types of behavior? B

y

B

y

g

f A

A 0

FIGURE 5

a

b

(a)

x

0

b

a

(b)

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

x

296

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

In Figure 6 tangents to these curves have been drawn at several points. In (a) the curve lies above the tangents and f is called concave upward on sa, bd. In (b) the curve lies below the tangents and t is called concave downward on sa, bd.

B

y

f

Definition If the graph of f lies above all of its tangents on an interval I, then it is called concave upward on I. If the graph of f lies below all of its tangents on I, it is called concave downward on I.

A 0

x

Figure 7 shows the graph of a function that is concave upward (abbreviated CU) on the intervals sb, cd, sd, ed, and se, pd and concave downward (CD) on the intervals sa, bd, sc, dd, and sp, qd.

(a) Concave upward

B

y

y

D g

B

P

C

A 0

x

0 a

c

CD

(b) Concave downward

FIGURE 6

b

d

CU

e

CD

CU

p

CU

q

x

CD

FIGURE 7

Let’s see how the second derivative helps determine the intervals of concavity. Looking at Figure 6(a), you can see that, going from left to right, the slope of the tangent increases. This means that the derivative f 9 is an increasing function and therefore its derivative f 0 is positive. Likewise, in Figure 6(b) the slope of the tangent decreases from left to right, so f 9 decreases and therefore f 0 is negative. This reasoning can be reversed and suggests that the following theorem is true. A proof is given in Appendix F with the help of the Mean Value Theorem. Concavity Test (a) If f 0sxd . 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave upward on I. (b) If f 0sxd , 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave downward on I.

ExamplE 4 Figure 8 shows a population graph for Cyprian honeybees raised in an apiary. How does the rate of population increase change over time? When is this rate highest? Over what intervals is P concave upward or concave downward? P 80

Number of bees (in thousands)

60 40 20

0

FIGURE 8

3

6

9

12

15

18

t

Time (in weeks)

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SECTION 4.3 How Derivatives Affect the Shape of a Graph

297

SOLUTION By looking at the slope of the curve as t increases, we see that the rate of increase of the population is initially very small, then gets larger until it reaches a maximum at about t − 12 weeks, and decreases as the population begins to level off. As the population approaches its maximum value of about 75,000 (called the carrying capacity), the rate of increase, P9std, approaches 0. The curve appears to be concave upward on (0, 12) and concave downward on (12, 18). ■

In Example 4, the population curve changed from concave upward to concave downward at approximately the point (12, 38,000). This point is called an inflection point of the curve. The significance of this point is that the rate of population increase has its maximum value there. In general, an inflection point is a point where a curve changes its direction of concavity. Definition A point P on a curve y − f sxd is called an inflection point if f is continuous there and the curve changes from concave upward to concave downward or from concave downward to concave upward at P. For instance, in Figure 7, B, C, D, and P are the points of inflection. Notice that if a curve has a tangent at a point of inflection, then the curve crosses its tangent there. In view of the Concavity Test, there is a point of inflection at any point where the second derivative changes sign.

ExamplE 5 Sketch a possible graph of a function f that satisfies the following conditions: sid f 9sxd . 0 on s2`, 1d, f 9sxd , 0 on s1, `d siid f 0sxd . 0 on s2`, 22d and s2, `d, f 0sxd , 0 on s22, 2d siiid lim f sxd − 22, lim f sxd − 0

y

-2

0

x l 2`

SOLUTION Condition (i) tells us that f is increasing on s2`, 1d and decreasing on s1, `d. Condition (ii) says that f is concave upward on s2`, 22d and s2, `d, and conx cave downward on s22, 2d. From condition (iii) we know that the graph of f has two horizontal asymptotes: y − 22 (to the left) and y − 0 (to the right). We first draw the horizontal asymptote y − 22 as a dashed line (see Figure 9). We then draw the graph of f approaching this asymptote at the far left, increasing to its maximum point at x − 1, and decreasing toward the x-axis as at the far right. We also make sure that the graph has inflection points when x − 22 and 2. Notice that we made the curve bend upward for x , 22 and x . 2, and bend downward when x is between 22 and 2. ■

2

1

y=_2

FIGURE 9

y

f

0

ƒ

f(c) c

Another application of the second derivative is the following test for identifying local maximum and minimum values. It is a consequence of the Concavity Test, and serves as an alternative to the First Derivative Test. The Second Derivative Test Suppose f 0 is continuous near c. (a) If f 9scd − 0 and f 0scd . 0, then f has a local minimum at c.

P f ª(c)=0

x l`

(b) If f 9scd − 0 and f 0scd , 0, then f has a local maximum at c. x

FIGURE 10 f 99scd . 0, f is concave upward

x

For instance, part (a) is true because f 0sxd . 0 near c and so f is concave upward near c. This means that the graph of f lies above its horizontal tangent at c and so f has a local minimum at c. (See Figure 10.)

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

298

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

ExamplE 6 Discuss the curve y − x 4 2 4x 3 with respect to concavity, points of inflection, and local maxima and minima. Use this information to sketch the curve. SOLUTION If f sxd − x 4 2 4x 3, then

f 9sxd − 4x 3 2 12x 2 − 4x 2sx 2 3d f 0sxd − 12x 2 2 24x − 12xsx 2 2d To find the critical numbers we set f 9sxd − 0 and obtain x − 0 and x − 3. (Note that f 9 is a polynomial and hence defined everywhere.) To use the Second Derivative Test we evaluate f 0 at these critical numbers: f 0s0d − 0

Since f 9s3d − 0 and f 0s3d . 0, f s3d − 227 is a local minimum. [In fact, the expression for f 9sxd shows that f decreases to the left of 3 and increases to the right of 3.] Since f 0s0d − 0, the Second Derivative Test gives no information about the critical number 0. But since f 9sxd , 0 for x , 0 and also for 0 , x , 3, the First Derivative Test tells us that f does not have a local maximum or minimum at 0. Since f 0sxd − 0 when x − 0 or 2, we divide the real line into intervals with these numbers as endpoints and complete the following chart.

y

y=x$-4˛ (0, 0) 2

inflection points

3

f 0s3d − 36 . 0

x

Interval

f 99sxd − 12 x sx 2 2d

s2`, 0d

1

upward

s0, 2d s2, `d

2 1

downward upward

Concavity

(2, _16)

(3, _27)

FIGURE 11

The point s0, 0d is an inflection point since the curve changes from concave upward to concave downward there. Also s2, 216d is an inflection point since the curve changes from concave downward to concave upward there. Using the local minimum, the intervals of concavity, and the inflection points, we sketch the curve in Figure 11. ■ NOTE The Second Derivative Test is inconclusive when f 0scd − 0. In other words, at such a point there might be a maximum, there might be a minimum, or there might be neither (as in Example 6). This test also fails when f 0scd does not exist. In such cases the First Derivative Test must be used. In fact, even when both tests apply, the First Derivative Test is often the easier one to use.

ExamplE 7 Sketch the graph of the function f sxd − x 2y3s6 2 xd1y3. SOLUTION Calculation of the first two derivatives gives Use the differentiation rules to check these calculations.

f 9sxd −

42x x 1y3s6 2 xd2y3

f 0sxd −

28 x 4y3s6 2 xd5y3

Since f 9sxd − 0 when x − 4 and f 9sxd does not exist when x − 0 or x − 6, the critical numbers are 0, 4, and 6. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 4.3 How Derivatives Affect the Shape of a Graph

Try reproducing the graph in Figure 12 with a graphing calculator or computer. Some machines produce the complete graph, some produce only the portion to the right of the y-axis, and some produce only the portion between x − 0 and x − 6. For an explanation and cure, see Example 7 in “Graphing Calculators and Computers” at www.stewartcalculus.com. An equivalent expression that gives the correct graph is y − sx 2 d1y3 ?

|

62x 62x

||

62x

|

1y3

y 4

(4, 2%?#)

3 2

Interval

42x

x 1y3

s6 2 xd2y3

f 9sxd

f

299

x,0

1

2

1

2

decreasing on s2`, 0d

0,x,4

1

1

1

1

increasing on s0, 4d

4,x,6 x.6

2 2

1 1

1 1

2 2

decreasing on s4, 6d decreasing on s6, `d

To find the local extreme values we use the First Derivative Test. Since f 9 changes from negative to positive at 0, f s0d − 0 is a local minimum. Since f 9 changes from positive to negative at 4, f s4d − 2 5y3 is a local maximum. The sign of f 9 does not change at 6, so there is no minimum or maximum there. (The Second Derivative Test could be used at 4 but not at 0 or 6 since f 0 does not exist at either of these numbers.) Looking at the expression for f 0sxd and noting that x 4y3 > 0 for all x, we have f 0sxd , 0 for x , 0 and for 0 , x , 6 and f 0sxd . 0 for x . 6. So f is concave downward on s2`, 0d and s0, 6d and concave upward on s6, `d, and the only inflection point is s6, 0d. The graph is sketched in Figure 12. Note that the curve has vertical tangents at s0, 0d and s6, 0d because | f 9sxd | l ` as x l 0 and as x l 6. ■

ExamplE 8 Use the first and second derivatives of f sxd − e 1yx, together with asymp0

1

2

3

4

5

7 x

y=x@ ?#(6-x)!?#

totes, to sketch its graph. SOLUTION Notice that the domain of f is hx | x ± 0j, so we check for vertical asymptotes by computing the left and right limits as x l 0. As x l 01, we know that t − 1yx l `, so lim1 e 1yx − lim e t − ` tl `

xl 0

FIGURE 12

and this shows that x − 0 is a vertical asymptote. As x l 02, we have t − 1yx l 2`, so lim2 e 1yx − lim e t − 0 xl 0

TEC In Module 4.3 you can practice using information about f 9, f 0, and asymptotes to determine the shape of the graph of f.

tl2`

As x l 6`, we have 1yx l 0 and so lim e 1yx − e 0 − 1

xl 6`

This shows that y − 1 is a horizontal asymptote (both to the left and right). Now let’s compute the derivative. The Chain Rule gives f 9sxd − 2

e 1yx x2

Since e 1yx . 0 and x 2 . 0 for all x ± 0, we have f 9sxd , 0 for all x ± 0. Thus f is decreasing on s2`, 0d and on s0, `d. There is no critical number, so the function has no local maximum or minimum. The second derivative is f 0sxd − 2

x 2e 1yxs21yx 2 d 2 e 1yxs2xd e 1yxs2x 1 1d − 4 x x4

Since e 1yx . 0 and x 4 . 0, we have f 0sxd . 0 when x . 212 sx ± 0d and f 0sxd , 0 when x , 212. So the curve is concave downward on s2`, 212 d and concave upward on

s212 , 0d and on s0, `d. The inflection point is s212 , e22d. To sketch the graph of f we first draw the horizontal asymptote y − 1 (as a dashed line), together with the parts of the curve near the asymptotes in a preliminary sketch Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

300

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

[Figure 13(a)]. These parts reflect the information concerning limits and the fact that f  is decreasing on both s2`, 0d and s0, `d. Notice that we have indicated that f sxd l 0 as x l 02 even though f s0d does not exist. In Figure 13(b) we finish the sketch by incorporating the information concerning concavity and the inflection point. In Figure 13(c) we check our work with a graphing device. y

y

y=‰ 4

inflection point y=1

y=1 _3

0

0

x

(a) Preliminary sketch

3

x

_1

(b) Finished sketch

(c) Computer confirmation

FIGURE 13

■

(b) At what values of x does f have a local maximum or minimum? 5. y

1–2 Use the given graph of f to find the following. (a) The open intervals on which f is increasing. (b) The open intervals on which f is decreasing. (c) The open intervals on which f is concave upward. (d) The open intervals on which f is concave downward. (e) The coordinates of the points of inflection. 1.

2.

y

y=fª(x) 0

2

4

6

x

y

6.

y y=fª(x)

1

1

0 0

1

x

0

1

3. Suppose you are given a formula for a function f. (a) How do you determine where f is increasing or decreasing? (b) How do you determine where the graph of f is concave upward or concave downward? (c) How do you locate inflection points? 4. (a) State the First Derivative Test. (b) State the Second Derivative Test. Under what circumstances is it inconclusive? What do you do if it fails?

x

2

4

6

8

x

7. In each part state the x-coordinates of the inflection points of f. Give reasons for your answers. (a) The curve is the graph of f. (b) The curve is the graph of f 9. (c) The curve is the graph of f 0. y

0

2

4

6

8

x

5–6 The graph of the derivative f 9 of a function f is shown. (a) On what intervals is f increasing or decreasing?

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SECTION 4.3 How Derivatives Affect the Shape of a Graph

8. The graph of the first derivative f 9 of a function f is shown. (a) On what intervals is f increasing? Explain. (b) At what values of x does f have a local maximum or minimum? Explain. (c) On what intervals is f concave upward or concave downward? Explain. (d) What are the x-coordinates of the inflection points of f ? Why? y y=fª(x)

27. f 9s0d − f 9s2d − f 9s4d − 0, f 9sxd . 0 if x , 0 or 2 , x , 4, f 9sxd , 0 if 0 , x , 2 or x . 4, f 0sxd . 0 if 1 , x , 3, f 0sxd , 0 if x , 1 or x . 3 28. f 9sxd . 0 for all x ± 1, vertical asymptote x − 1, f 99sxd . 0 if x , 1 or x . 3, f 99sxd , 0 if 1 , x , 3 29. f 9s5d − 0, f 9sxd , 0 when x , 5, f 9sxd . 0 when x . 5, f 99s2d − 0, f 99s8d − 0, f 99sxd , 0 when x , 2 or x . 8, f 99sxd . 0 for 2 , x , 8, lim f sxd − 3, lim f sxd − 3 xl 2`

xl`

0

2

4

6

8

x

9–18 (a) Find the intervals on which f is increasing or decreasing. (b) Find the local maximum and minimum values of f. (c) Find the intervals of concavity and the inflection points.

30. f 9s0d − f 9s4d − 0, f 9sxd − 1 if x , 21, f 9sxd . 0 if 0 , x , 2, f 9sxd , 0 if 21 , x , 0 or 2 , x , 4 or x . 4, lim2 f 9sxd − `, lim1 f 9sxd − 2`, x l2

x l2

f 99sxd . 0 if 21 , x , 2 or 2 , x , 4, f 0sxd , 0 if x . 4 31. f 9sxd . 0 if x ± 2, f 99sxd . 0 if x , 2, f 99sxd , 0 if x . 2, f has inflection point s2, 5d, lim f sxd − 8, lim f sxd − 0

9. f sxd − x 3 2 3x 2 2 9x 1 4 10. f sxd − 2x 3 2 9x 2 1 12x 2 3 11. f sxd − x 4 2 2x 2 1 3

12. f sxd −

13. f sxd − sin x 1 cos x, 0 < x < 2

x2 2 x 13

14. f sxd − cos2 x 2 2 sin x, 0 < x < 2 15. f sxd − e 2x 1 e2x

16. f sxd − x 2 ln x

17. f sxd − x 2 2 x 2 ln x

18. f sxd − sx e2x

19–21 Find the local maximum and minimum values of f using both the First and Second Derivative Tests. Which method do you prefer? x2 19. f sxd − x 5 2 5x 1 3 20. f sxd − x21 4 21. f sxd − sx 2 s x 22. (a) Find the critical numbers of f sxd − x 4sx 2 1d3. (b) What does the Second Derivative Test tell you about the behavior of f at these critical numbers? (c) What does the First Derivative Test tell you? 23. Suppose f 0 is continuous on s2`, `d. (a) If f 9s2d − 0 and f 0s2d − 25, what can you say about f ? (b) If f 9s6d − 0 and f 0s6d − 0, what can you say about f ? 24–31 Sketch the graph of a function that satisfies all of the given conditions. 24. (a) f 9sxd , 0 and f 0sxd , 0 for all x (b) f 9sxd . 0 and f 0sxd . 0 for all x

xl 2`

xl`

32. Suppose f s3d − 2, f 9s3d − 12, and f 9sxd . 0 and f 0sxd , 0 for all x. (a) Sketch a possible graph for f. (b) How many solutions does the equation f sxd − 0 have? Why? (c) Is it possible that f 9s2d − 13? Why? 33. Suppose f is a continuous function where f sxd . 0 for all x, f s0d − 4, f 9s xd . 0 if x , 0 or x . 2, f 9s xd , 0 if 0 , x , 2, f 99s21d − f 99s1d − 0, f 99s xd . 0 if x , 21 or x . 1, f 99s xd , 0 if 21 , x , 1. (a) Can f have an absolute maximum? If so, sketch a possible graph of f. If not, explain why. (b) Can f have an absolute minimum? If so, sketch a possible graph of f. If not, explain why. (c) Sketch a possible graph for f that does not achieve an absolute minimum. 34. The graph of a function y − f sxd is shown. At which point(s) are the following true? dy d 2y and are both positive. (a) dx dx 2 dy d 2y (b) and are both negative. dx dx 2 dy d 2y (c) is negative but is positive. dx dx 2 y C

25. (a) f 9sxd . 0 and f 0sxd , 0 for all x (b) f 9sxd , 0 and f 0sxd . 0 for all x

| |

A

26. f 9s1d − f 9s21d − 0, f 9sxd , 0 if x , 1, f 9sxd . 0 if 1 , x . 2, f 9sxd − 21 if x . 2, f 0sxd , 0 if 22 , x , 0, inflection point s0, 1d

| |

301

| |

0

D E

B

x

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302

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

(e) Use the information from parts (a)–(d) to sketch the graph of f. 1 1 x2 2 4 50. f sxd − 2 49. f sxd − 1 1 2 2 x x x 14 ex 51. f sxd − sx 2 1 1 2 x 52. f sxd − 1 2 ex

35–36 The graph of the derivative f 9 of a continuous function f is shown. (a) On what intervals is f increasing? Decreasing? (b) At what values of x does f have a local maximum? Local minimum? (c) On what intervals is f concave upward? Concave downward? (d) State the x-coordinate(s) of the point(s) of inflection. (e) Assuming that f s0d − 0, sketch a graph of f.

53. f sxd − e 2x

54. f sxd − x 2 16 x 2 2 23 ln x

2

56. f sxd − e arctan x

55. f sxd − lns1 2 ln xd

35. y

y=fª(x)

57. Suppose the derivative of a function f is f 9sxd − sx 1 1d2 sx 2 3d5 sx 2 6d 4. On what interval is f increasing?

2

0

2

4

6

58. Use the methods of this section to sketch the curve y − x 3 2 3a 2x 1 2a 3, where a is a positive constant. What do the members of this family of curves have in common? How do they differ from each other?

8 x

_2

36. y

y=fª(x) 2

0

2

4

6

8 x

; 59–60 (a) Use a graph of f to estimate the maximum and minimum values. Then find the exact values. (b) Estimate the value of x at which f increases most rapidly. Then find the exact value. x11 59. f sxd − 60. f s xd − x 2 e2x sx 2 1 1 ; 61–62 (a) Use a graph of f to give a rough estimate of the intervals of concavity and the coordinates of the points of inflection. (b) Use a graph of f 0 to give better estimates.

_2

37–48 (a) Find the intervals of increase or decrease. (b) Find the local maximum and minimum values. (c) Find the intervals of concavity and the inflection points. (d) Use the information from parts (a)–(c) to sketch the graph. Check your work with a graphing device if you have one. 37. f sxd − 2x 3 2 3x 2 2 12x

38. f sxd − 2 1 3x 2 x 3

39. f sxd − 12 x 4 2 4x 2 1 3

40. tsxd − 200 1 8x 3 1 x 4

41. f sxd − 2 1 2x 2 2 x 4

42. hsxd − 5x 3 2 3x 5

43. Fsxd − x s6 2 x

44. Gsxd − 5x 2y3 2 2x 5y3

45. Csxd − x 1y3sx 1 4d

46. f sxd − lnsx 2 1 9d

47. f sd − 2 cos  1 cos 2 , 0 <  < 2 48. Ssxd − x 2 sin x, 0 < x < 4

61. f sxd − sin 2x 1 sin 4x, 2

62. f sxd − sx 2 1d sx 1 1d CAS

0 0. (b) Deduce that e x > 1 1 x 1 12 x 2 for x > 0. (c) Use mathematical induction to prove that for x > 0 and any positive integer n, ex > 1 1 x 1

xn x2 1 ∙∙∙ 1 2! n!

85. Show that a cubic function (a third-degree polynomial) always has exactly one point of inflection. If its graph has three x-intercepts x 1, x 2, and x 3, show that the x-coordinate of the inflection point is sx 1 1 x 2 1 x 3 dy3. ; 86. For what values of c does the polynomial Psxd − x 4 1 cx 3 1 x 2 have two inflection points? One inflection point? None? Illustrate by graphing P for several values of c. How does the graph change as c decreases? 87. Prove that if sc, f scdd is a point of inflection of the graph of f and f 0 exists in an open interval that contains c, then f 0scd − 0. [Hint: Apply the First Derivative Test and Fermat’s Theorem to the function t − f 9.] 4

88. Show that if f sxd − x , then f 0s0d − 0, but s0, 0d is not an inflection point of the graph of f . 89. Show that the function tsxd − x x has an inflection point at s0, 0d but t0s0d does not exist.

| |

90. Suppose that f 09 is continuous and f 9scd − f 0scd − 0, but f -scd . 0. Does f have a local maximum or minimum at c? Does f have a point of inflection at c? 91. Suppose f is differentiable on an interval I and f 9sxd . 0 for all numbers x in I except for a single number c. Prove that f is increasing on the entire interval I. 92. For what values of c is the function 1 f sxd − cx 1 2 x 13 increasing on s2`, `d? 93. The three cases in the First Derivative Test cover the situations one commonly encounters but do not exhaust all possibilities. Consider the functions f, t, and h whose values at 0 are all 0 and, for x ± 0, f sxd − x 4 sin

1 x

S D

tsxd − x 4 2 1 sin

S

hsxd − x 4 22 1 sin

1 x

D

1 x

(a) Show that 0 is a critical number of all three functions but their derivatives change sign infinitely often on both sides of 0. (b) Show that f has neither a local maximum nor a local minimum at 0, t has a local minimum, and h has a local maximum.

Suppose we are trying to analyze the behavior of the function ln x Fsxd − x21 Although F is not defined when x − 1, we need to know how F behaves near 1. In particular, we would like to know the value of the limit ln x lim 1 x l1 x 2 1 In computing this limit we can’t apply Law 5 of limits (the limit of a quotient is the quotient of the limits, see Section 2.3) because the limit of the denominator is 0. In fact, although the limit in (1) exists, its value is not obvious because both numerator and denominator approach 0 and 00 is not defined. In general, if we have a limit of the form lim

xla

f sxd tsxd

where both f sxd l 0 and tsxd l 0 as x l a, then this limit may or may not exist and is called an indeterminate form of type 00. We met some limits of this type in Chapter 2. For rational functions, we can cancel common factors: lim

x l1

x2 2 x xsx 2 1d x 1 − lim − lim − 2 x l1 x 1 1 x l1 sx 1 1dsx 2 1d x 21 2

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Section 4.4

Indeterminate Forms and l’Hospital’s Rule

305

We used a geometric argument to show that lim

xl0

sin x −1 x

But these methods do not work for limits such as (1), so in this section we introduce a systematic method, known as l’Hospital’s Rule, for the evaluation of indeterminate forms. Another situation in which a limit is not obvious occurs when we look for a horizontal asymptote of F and need to evaluate the limit ln x x21

lim

2

xl`

It isn’t obvious how to evaluate this limit because both numerator and denominator become large as x l `. There is a struggle between numerator and denominator. If the numerator wins, the limit will be ` (the numerator was increasing significantly faster than the denominator); if the denominator wins, the answer will be 0. Or there may be some compromise, in which case the answer will be some finite positive number. In general, if we have a limit of the form lim

y

xla

f g

0

a

y

x

where both f sxd l ` (or 2`) and tsxd l ` (or 2`), then the limit may or may not exist and is called an indeterminate form of type `y`. We saw in Section 2.6 that this type of limit can be evaluated for certain functions, including rational functions, by dividing numerator and denominator by the highest power of x that occurs in the denominator. For instance, 1 x2 x 21 120 1 lim − lim − − 2 x l ` 2x 1 1 xl` 1 210 2 21 2 x

y=m¡(x-a)

12

2

y=m™(x-a) 0

a

f sxd tsxd

x

This method does not work for limits such as (2), but l’Hospital’s Rule also applies to this type of indeterminate form.

FIGURE 1 Figure 1 suggests visually why l’Hospital’s Rule might be true. The first graph shows two differentiable functions f and t, each of which approaches 0 as x l a. If we were to zoom in toward the point sa, 0d, the graphs would start to look almost linear. But if the functions actually were linear, as in the second graph, then their ratio would be m1sx 2 ad m1 − m2sx 2 ad m2 which is the ratio of their derivatives. This suggests that lim

xla

f sxd f 9sxd − lim x l a t9sxd tsxd

L’Hospital’s Rule Suppose f and t are differentiable and t9sxd ± 0 on an open interval I that contains a (except possibly at a). Suppose that lim f sxd − 0

and

lim f sxd − 6`

and

xla

or that

xla

lim tsxd − 0

xla

lim tsxd − 6`

xla

(In other words, we have an indeterminate form of type 00 or `y`.) Then lim

xla

f sxd f 9sxd − lim x l a t9sxd tsxd

if the limit on the right side exists (or is ` or 2`). NOTE 1 L’Hospital’s Rule says that the limit of a quotient of functions is equal to the limit of the quotient of their derivatives, provided that the given conditions are satisfied.

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306

chapter 4

Applications of Differentiation

It is especially important to verify the conditions regarding the limits of f and t before using l’Hospital’s Rule. L’Hospital L’Hospital’s Rule is named after a French nobleman, the Marquis de l’Hospital (1661–1704), but was discovered by a Swiss mathematician, John Bernoulli (1667–1748). You might sometimes see l’Hospital spelled as l’Hôpital, but he spelled his own name l’Hospital, as was common in the 17th century. See Exercise 83 for the example that the Marquis used to illustrate his rule. See the project on page 314 for further historical details.

NOTE 2 L’Hospital’s Rule is also valid for one-sided limits and for limits at infinity or negative infinity; that is, “x l a” can be replaced by any of the symbols x l a1, x l a2, x l `, or x l 2`. NOTE 3 For the special case in which f sad − tsad − 0, f 9 and t9 are continuous, and t9sad ± 0, it is easy to see why l’Hospital’s Rule is true. In fact, using the alternative form of the definition of a derivative, we have

f 9sxd f 9sad lim − − x l a t9sxd t9sad

f sxd 2 f sad f sxd 2 f sad x2a x2a − lim x l a tsxd 2 tsad tsxd 2 tsad lim xla x2a x2a

lim

xla

f sxd 2 f sad f sxd − lim x l a tsxd 2 tsad tsxd

− lim

xla

fsince f sad − tsad − 0g

It is more difficult to prove the general version of l’Hospital’s Rule. See Appendix F.

ExamplE 1 Find lim

xl1

ln x . x21

SoLUtion Since

lim ln x − ln 1 − 0

and

x l1

lim sx 2 1d − 0

x l1

the limit is an indeterminate form of type 00 , so we can apply l’Hospital’s Rule: Notice that when using l’Hospital’s Rule we differentiate the numerator and denominator separately. We do not use the Quotient Rule.

d sln xd dx ln x 1yx − lim lim − lim xl1 1 xl1 x 2 1 xl1 d sx 2 1d dx − lim

xl1

The graph of the function of Example 2 is shown in Figure 2. We have noticed previously that exponential functions grow far more rapidly than power functions, so the result of Example 2 is not unexpected. See also Exercise 73. 20

ExamplE 2 Calculate lim

xl`

ex . x2

SoLUtion We have lim x l ` e x − ` and lim x l ` x 2 − `, so the limit is an indetermi-

nate form of type `y`, and l’Hospital’s Rule gives d se x d ex dx ex lim 2 − lim − lim xl` x xl` d x l ` 2x sx 2 d dx

10

FIGURE 2

■

Since e x l ` and 2x l ` as x l `, the limit on the right side is also indeterminate, but a second application of l’Hospital’s Rule gives

y= ´ ≈ 0

1 −1 x

lim

xl`

ex ex ex − lim − lim −` x l ` 2x xl` 2 x2

■

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Section 4.4

The graph of the function of Example 3 is shown in Figure 3. We have discussed previously the slow growth of logarithms, so it isn’t surprising that this ratio approaches 0 as x l `. See also Exercise 74.

ExamplE 3 Calculate lim

xl`

Indeterminate Forms and l’Hospital’s Rule

307

ln x . sx

SoLUtion Since ln x l ` and sx l ` as x l `, l’Hospital’s Rule applies:

lim

xl`

2

1yx 1yx ln x − lim 1 21y2 − lim x l ` xl` x x 1y (2sx ) s 2

Notice that the limit on the right side is now indeterminate of type 00 . But instead of applying l’Hospital’s Rule a second time as we did in Example 2, we simplify the expression and see that a second application is unnecessary:

y= ln x œ„ x 0

10,000

lim

_1

xl`

1yx ln x 2 − lim − lim −0 x l ` x 1y 2 x x l ` (s ) s sx

■

FIGURE 3

In both Examples 2 and 3 we evaluated limits of type `y`, but we got two different results. In Example 2, the infinite limit tells us that the numerator e x increases significantly faster than the denominator x 2, resulting in larger and larger ratios. In fact, y − e x grows more quickly than all the power functions y − x n (see Exercise 73). In Example 3 we have the opposite situation; the limit of 0 means that the denominator outpaces the numerator, and the ratio eventually approaches 0.

ExamplE 4 Find lim

xl0

tan x 2 x . (See Exercise 2.2.50.) x3

SoLUtion Noting that both tan x 2 x l 0 and x 3 l 0 as x l 0, we use l’Hospital’s

Rule: lim

xl0

tan x 2 x sec2x 2 1 − lim 3 xl0 x 3x 2

Since the limit on the right side is still indeterminate of type 00 , we apply l’Hospital’s Rule again: lim

xl0

The graph in Figure 4 gives visual confirmation of the result of Example 4. If we were to zoom in too far, however, we would get an inaccurate graph because tan x is close to x when x is small. See Exercise 2.2.50(d). 1

0

Because lim x l 0 sec2 x − 1, we simplify the calculation by writing lim

xl0

2 sec2x tan x 1 tan x 1 tan x − lim sec2 x ? lim − lim xl0 6x 3 xl0 x 3 xl 0 x

We can evaluate this last limit either by using l’Hospital’s Rule a third time or by writing tan x as ssin xdyscos xd and making use of our knowledge of trigonometric limits. Putting together all the steps, we get y=

_1

sec2x 2 1 2 sec2x tan x − lim xl0 3x 2 6x

tan x- x ˛

lim

1

xl0

tan x 2 x sec 2 x 2 1 2 sec 2 x tan x − lim − lim xl0 xl0 x3 3x 2 6x −

FIGURE 4

1 tan x 1 sec 2 x 1 lim − lim − 3 xl0 x 3 xl0 1 3

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■

308

chapter 4

Applications of Differentiation

ExamplE 5 Find lim2 xl

sin x . 1 2 cos x

SoLUtion If we blindly attempted to use l’Hospital’s Rule, we would get

lim

x l 2

sin x cos x − lim − 2` 1 2 cos x x l 2 sin x

This is wrong! Although the numerator sin x l 0 as x l  2, notice that the denominator s1 2 cos xd does not approach 0, so l’Hospital’s Rule can’t be applied here. The required limit is, in fact, easy to find because the function is continuous at  and the denominator is nonzero there: lim2

xl

sin x sin  0 − − −0 1 2 cos x 1 2 cos  1 2 s21d

■

Example 5 shows what can go wrong if you use l’Hospital’s Rule without thinking. Other limits can be found using l’Hospital’s Rule but are more easily found by other methods. (See Examples 2.3.3, 2.3.5, and 2.6.3, and the discussion at the beginning of this section.) So when evaluating any limit, you should consider other methods before using l’Hospital’s Rule.

indeterminate products If lim x l a f sxd − 0 and lim x l a tsxd − ` (or 2`), then it isn’t clear what the value of lim x l a f f sxd tsxdg, if any, will be. There is a struggle between f and t. If f wins, the answer will be 0; if t wins, the answer will be ` (or 2`). Or there may be a compromise where the answer is a finite nonzero number. This kind of limit is called an indeterminate form of type 0 ? `. We can deal with it by writing the product ft as a quotient: ft −

f 1yt

or

ft −

t 1yf

This converts the given limit into an indeterminate form of type 00 or `y` so that we can use l’Hospital’s Rule. Figure 5 shows the graph of the function in Example 6. Notice that the function is undefined at x − 0; the graph approaches the origin but never quite reaches it.

ExamplE 6 Evaluate lim1 x ln x. x l0

SoLUtion The given limit is indeterminate because, as x l 0 1, the first factor sxd

approaches 0 while the second factor sln xd approaches 2`. Writing x − 1ys1yxd, we have 1yx l ` as x l 0 1, so l’Hospital’s Rule gives

y

lim x ln x − lim1

x l 01

y=x ln x

xl0

ln x 1yx − lim1 − lim1 s2xd − 0 xl0 x l 0 21yx 2 1yx

■

NOTE In solving Example 6 another possible option would have been to write lim x ln x − lim1

x l 01

0

1

FIGURE 5

xl0

x 1yln x

x

This gives an indeterminate form of the type 00, but if we apply l’Hospital’s Rule we get a more complicated expression than the one we started with. In general, when we rewrite an indeterminate product, we try to choose the option that leads to the simpler limit.

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Section 4.4

Indeterminate Forms and l’Hospital’s Rule

309

indeterminate Differences If lim x l a f sxd − ` and lim x l a tsxd − `, then the limit lim f f sxd 2 tsxdg

xla

is called an indeterminate form of type ` 2 `. Again there is a contest between f and t. Will the answer be ` ( f wins) or will it be 2` (t wins) or will they compromise on a finite number? To find out, we try to convert the difference into a quotient (for instance, by using a common denominator, or rationalization, or factoring out a common factor) so that we have an indeterminate form of type 00 or `y`.

ExamplE 7 Compute lim1 x l1

S

D

1 1 2 . ln x x21

SoLUtion First notice that 1ysln xd l ` and 1ysx 2 1d l ` as x l 11, so the limit

is indeterminate of type ` 2 `. Here we can start with a common denominator: lim

x l11

S

1 1 2 ln x x21

D

− lim1 x l1

x 2 1 2 ln x sx 2 1d ln x

Both numerator and denominator have a limit of 0, so l’Hospital’s Rule applies, giving x 2 1 2 ln x lim − lim1 x l11 sx 2 1d ln x x l1

1 x x21 − lim1 x l1 1 x 2 1 1 x ln x sx 2 1d ? 1 ln x x 12

Again we have an indeterminate limit of type 00 , so we apply l’Hospital’s Rule a second time: x21 1 lim − lim1 x l11 x 2 1 1 x ln x x l1 1 1 1 x ? 1 ln x x 1 1 − lim1 − ■ x l1 2 1 ln x 2

ExamplE 8 Calculate lim se x 2 xd. xl`

SoLUtion This is an indeterminate difference because both e x and x approach infinity.

We would expect the limit to be infinity because e x l ` much faster than x. But we can verify this by factoring out x : ex 2 x − x

S D ex 21 x

The term e xyx l ` as x l ` by l’Hospital’s Rule and so we now have a product in which both factors grow large:

F S DG

lim se x 2 xd − lim x

xl`

xl`

ex 21 x

−`

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310

chapter 4

Applications of Differentiation

indeterminate powers Several indeterminate forms arise from the limit lim − f f sxdg tsxd

x la

1. lim f sxd − 0

and

2. lim f sxd − `

and

3. lim f sxd − 1

and

xla xla xla

lim tsxd − 0

type 0 0

lim tsxd − 0

type ` 0

xla xla

lim tsxd − 6` type 1`

xla

Each of these three cases can be treated either by taking the natural logarithm:

Although forms of the type 0 0, `0, and 1` are indeterminate, the form 0 ` is not indeterminate. (See Exercise 86.)

y − f f sxdg tsxd,

let

then ln y − tsxd ln f sxd

or by writing the function as an exponential: f f sxdg tsxd − e tsxd ln f sxd (Recall that both of these methods were used in differentiating such functions.) In either method we are led to the indeterminate product tsxd ln f sxd, which is of type 0 ? `.

ExamplE 9 Calculate lim1 s1 1 sin 4xdcot x. xl0

SoLUtion First notice that as x l 0 1, we have 1 1 sin 4x l 1 and cot x l `, so the

given limit is indeterminate (type 1`). Let y − s1 1 sin 4xdcot x Then

ln y − lnfs1 1 sin 4xdcot x g − cot x lns1 1 sin 4xd −

lns1 1 sin 4xd tan x

so l’Hospital’s Rule gives 4 cos 4x lns1 1 sin 4xd 1 1 sin 4x lim ln y − lim1 − lim1 −4 x l 01 xl 0 xl0 tan x sec2x So far we have computed the limit of ln y, but what we want is the limit of y. To find this we use the fact that y − e ln y: The graph of the function y − x x, x . 0, is shown in Figure 6. Notice that although 0 0 is not defined, the values of the function approach 1 as x l 01. This confirms the result of Example 10.

lim s1 1 sin 4xdcot x − lim1 y − lim1 e ln y − e 4

x l 01

xl0

■

xl0

ExamplE 10 Find lim1 x x. xl0

SoLUtion Notice that this limit is indeterminate since 0 x − 0 for any x . 0 but

2

x 0 − 1 for any x ± 0. (Recall that 0 0 is undefined.) We could proceed as in Example 9 or by writing the function as an exponential: x x − se ln x d x − e x ln x In Example 6 we used l’Hospital’s Rule to show that _1

2 0

FIGURE 6

lim x ln x − 0

x l 01

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Section 4.4

Indeterminate Forms and l’Hospital’s Rule

311

Therefore lim x x − lim1 e x ln x − e 0 − 1

x l 01

1–4 Given that lim tsxd − 0

lim f sxd − 0

xla

lim psxd − `

xla

7. The graph of a function f and its tangent line at 0 are shown. f sxd What is the value of lim x ? xl0 e 2 1

lim hsxd − 1

xla

xla

y

lim qs xd − `

y=x

xla

which of the following limits are indeterminate forms? For those that are not an indeterminate form, evaluate the limit where possible. 1. (a) lim

f sxd tsxd

(b) lim

f sxd psxd

(c) lim

hsxd psxd

(d) lim

psxd f sxd

(e) lim

psxd qsxd

xla

xla

xla

xla

xla

2. (a) lim f f sxdpsxdg

y=ƒ 0

x

8–68 Find the limit. Use l’Hospital’s Rule where appropriate. If there is a more elementary method, consider using it. If l’Hospital’s Rule doesn’t apply, explain why. 8. lim

x23 x2 2 9

9. lim

x 2 2 2x 2 8 x24

10. lim

x3 1 8 x12

x 3 2 2x 2 1 1 x l1 x3 2 1

12. lim

6x 2 1 5x 2 4 4x 2 1 16x 2 9

cos x 1 2 sin x

14. lim

xl3

(b) lim fhsxdpsxdg

xla

■

xl0

xla

(c) lim f psxdqsxdg xla

x l4

3. (a) lim f f sxd 2 psxdg

(b) lim f psxd 2 qsxdg

xla

11. lim

xla

(c) lim f psxd 1 qsxdg

x l 22

x l 1y2

xla

13.

4. (a) lim f f sxdg tsxd

(b) lim f f sxdg psxd

xl a

(c) lim fhsxdg

lim

x l sy2d1

xla

(d) lim f psxdg f sxd

psxd

xla

15. lim

xla

tl0

qsxd (f) lim spsxd

(e) lim f psxdg qsxd xla

e 2t 2 1 sin t

xla

5.

y

6.

y=1.8(x-2)

f

ln x sin x

ln x x

22. lim

ln ln x x

23. lim

t8 2 1 t5 2 1

24. lim

8t 2 5t t

f

g

25. lim

s1 1 2x 2 s1 2 4x x

26. lim

e uy10 u3

0

27. lim

ex 2 1 2 x x2

28. lim

sinh x 2 x x3

tl1

2

2 4

x

y=5 (x-2)

sx

xl`

xl0

y=1.5(x-2)

x

0

g

1 2 sin  csc 

20. lim

ln x

19. lim

21. lim1

y

 l y2

1 1 cos  1 2 cos 

lim

 l y2

5–6 Use the graphs of f and t and their tangent lines at s2, 0d to f sxd . find lim x l 2 tsxd

16. lim

18. lim

17.

xl0

1 2 sin  1 1 cos 2

tan 3x sin 2x

xl0

l

xl1

xl`

tl0

ul `

y=2-x xl0

xl0

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312

chapter 4

Applications of Differentiation

tanh x tan x

29. lim

xl0

30. lim

xl0

x 2 sin x x 2 tan x

21

67. lim1 s1 1 sin 3xd 1yx

sin x x

32. lim

sln xd x

33. lim

x3x 3 21

34. lim

cos mx 2 cos nx x2

xl`

x

xl0

xl0

x sinsx 2 1d 36. lim x l 1 2x 2 2 x 2 1

arctans2 xd 37. lim1 xl0 ln x

x 38. lim x l 0 tan21s4xd

xa 2 1 39. lim b , b±0 xl1 x 2 1

e x 2 e2x 2 2x 40. lim xl0 x 2 sin x

x a 2 ax 1 a 2 1 sx 2 1d2

xl1

x la

69. lim

S D 11

2 x

x

70. lim

xl0

71. f sxd − e x 2 1,

43. lim cot 2x sin 6x

44. lim1 sin x ln x

72. f sxd − 2x sin x,

45. lim sin 5x csc 3x

46. lim x ln 1 2

S D

x l 2`

tsxd − sec x 2 1

73. Prove that lim

1 x

47. lim x e

48. lim x

xl`

xl`

49. lim1 ln x tans xy2d x l1

51. lim

xl1

S S

53. lim1 x l0

3y2

D D

50.

lim cos x sec 5x

1 1 2 x x e 21

54. lim1

xl0

xl0

S

1 1 2 x tan21 x

xl`

56. lim1 flnsx 7 2 1d 2 lnsx 5 2 1dg x l1

57. lim1 x sx

58. lim1 stan 2 xd x

59. lim s1 2 2xd1yx

60. lim

61. lim1 x 1ys12xd

62. lim x sln 2dys1 1 ln xd

63. lim x 1yx

64. lim x e

65. lim1 s4x 1 1d cot x

66. lim s2 2 xdtansxy2d

x l1

xl`

x l0

D

75–76 What happens if you try to use l’Hospital’s Rule to find the limit? Evaluate the limit using another method. x sec x 75. lim 76. lim 2 xl ` sx 2 1 1 x l sy2d tan x x ; 77. Investigate the family of curves f sxd − e 2 cx. In particular, find the limits as x l 6` and determine the values of c for which f has an absolute minimum. What happens to the minimum points as c increases?

55. lim sx 2 ln xd

xl0

ln x −0 xp

for any number p . 0. This shows that the logarithmic function approaches infinity more slowly than any power of x.

x l sy2d2

52. lim scsc x 2 cot xd

x l0

xl`

sins1yxd

x 1 2 x21 ln x

ex −` xn

74. Prove that lim

3 2x 2

5x 2 4x 3x 2 2x

for any positive integer n. This shows that the exponential function approaches infinity faster than any power of x.

x l0

xl0

2x11

tsxd − x 3 1 4x

xl` xl0

D

; 71–72 Illustrate l’Hospital’s Rule by graphing both f sxdytsxd and f 9sxdyt9sxd near x − 0 to see that these ratios have the same limit as x l 0. Also, calculate the exact value of the limit.

cos x lnsx 2 ad lnse x 2 e a d

42. lim1

2x 2 3 2x 1 5

; 69–70 Use a graph to estimate the value of the limit. Then use l’Hospital’s Rule to find the exact value.

xl`

x 1 sin x 35. lim x l 0 x 1 cos x

41. lim

xl`

xl0

S

2

31. lim

xl0

68. lim

xl0

xl`

S D 11

a x

bx

xl`

2x

xl`

xl1

78. If an object with mass m is dropped from rest, one model for its speed v after t seconds, taking air resistance into account, is mt v− s1 2 e 2ctym d c where t is the acceleration due to gravity and c is a positive constant. (In Chapter 9 we will be able to deduce this equation from the assumption that the air resistance is proportional to the speed of the object; c is the proportionality constant.) (a) Calculate lim t l ` v. What is the meaning of this limit? (b) For fixed t, use l’Hospital’s Rule to calculate lim cl 01 v. What can you conclude about the velocity of a falling object in a vacuum?

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Section 4.4

79. If an initial amount A0 of money is invested at an interest rate r compounded n times a year, the value of the investment after t years is

S D

r A − A0 1 1 n

Indeterminate Forms and l’Hospital’s Rule

81. Some populations initally grow exponentially but eventually level off. Equations of the form Pstd −

nt

If we let n l `, we refer to the continuous compounding of interest. Use l’Hospital’s Rule to show that if interest is compounded continuously, then the amount after t years is A − A0 e rt 80. Light enters the eye through the pupil and strikes the retina, where photoreceptor cells sense light and color. W. Stanley Stiles and B. H. Crawford studied the phenomenon in which measured brightness decreases as light enters farther from the center of the pupil. (See the figure.)

M 1 1 Ae 2kt

where M, A, and k are positive constants, are called logistic equations and are often used to model such populations. (We will investigate these in detail in Chapter 9.) Here M is called the carrying capacity and represents the maximum population M 2 P0 , where P0 is the size that can be supported, and A − P0 initial population. (a) Compute lim tl ` Pstd. Explain why your answer is to be expected. (b) Compute lim Ml ` Pstd. (Note that A is defined in terms of M.) What kind of function is your result? 82. A metal cable has radius r and is covered by insulation so that the distance from the center of the cable to the exterior of the insulation is R. The velocity v of an electrical impulse in the cable is

SD SD

v − 2c

B A

2

r R

ln

r R

where c is a positive constant. Find the following limits and interpret your answers. (a) lim1 v (b) lim1 v R lr

A light beam A that enters through the center of the pupil measures brighter than a beam B entering near the edge of the pupil.

They detailed their findings of this phenomenon, known as the Stiles–Crawford effect of the first kind, in an important paper published in 1933. In particular, they observed that the amount of luminance sensed was not proportional to the area of the pupil as they expected. The percentage P of the total luminance entering a pupil of radius r mm that is sensed at the retina can be described by P−

1 2 102r r 2 ln 10

2

r l0

83. The first appearance in print of l’Hospital’s Rule was in the book Analyse des Infiniment Petits published by the Marquis de l’Hospital in 1696. This was the first calculus textbook ever published and the example that the Marquis used in that book to illustrate his rule was to find the limit of the function y−

3 aax s2a 3x 2 x 4 2 a s 4 3 a2s ax

as x approaches a, where a . 0. (At that time it was common to write aa instead of a 2.) Solve this problem. 84. The figure shows a sector of a circle with central angle . Let Asd be the area of the segment between the chord PR and the arc PR. Let Bsd be the area of the triangle PQR. Find lim  l 01 sdysd.

where  is an experimentally determined constant, typically about 0.05. (a) What is the percentage of luminance sensed by a pupil of radius 3 mm? Use  − 0.05. (b) Compute the percentage of luminance sensed by a pupil of radius 2 mm. Does it make sense that it is larger than the answer to part (a)? (c) Compute lim1 P. Is the result what you would expect? rl0 Is this result physically possible? Source: Adapted from W. Stiles and B. Crawford, “The Luminous Efficiency of Rays Entering the Eye Pupil at Different Points.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 112 (1933): 428–50.

313

P A(¨) B(¨ ) ¨ O

R

Q

85. Evaluate

F

S DG

lim x 2 x 2 ln

xl`

11x x

.

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314

chapter 4

Applications of Differentiation

86. Suppose f is a positive function. If lim xl a f sxd − 0 and lim xl a tsxd − `, show that

90. If f 0 is continuous, show that lim

hl0

lim f f sxdg tsxd − 0

f sx 1 hd 2 2 f sxd 1 f sx 2 hd − f 0sxd h2

xla

This shows that 0 ` is not an indeterminate form.

91. Let f sxd −

87. If f 9 is continuous, f s2d − 0, and f 9s2d − 7, evaluate f s2 1 3xd 1 f s2 1 5xd lim xl0 x 88. For what values of a and b is the following equation true? lim

xl0

S

b sin 2x 1a1 2 x3 x

D

−0

lim

f sx 1 hd 2 f sx 2 hd − f 9sxd 2h

Explain the meaning of this equation with the aid of a diagram.

WRITING PROJECT

2

if x ± 0 if x − 0

(a) Use the definition of derivative to compute f 9s0d. (b) Show that f has derivatives of all orders that are defined on R. [Hint: First show by induction that there is a polynomial pnsxd and a nonnegative integer k n such that f sndsxd − pnsxdf sxdyx kn for x ± 0.] ; 92. Let

89. If f 9 is continuous, use l’Hospital’s Rule to show that

hl0

H

e21yx 0

f sxd −

H| | x 1

x

if x ± 0 if x − 0

(a) Show that f is continuous at 0. (b) Investigate graphically whether f is differentiable at 0 by zooming in several times toward the point s0, 1d on the graph of  f . (c) Show that f is not differentiable at 0. How can you reconcile this fact with the appearance of the graphs in part (b)?

THE ORIGINS OF L’HOSPITAL’S RULE

Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library

L’Hospital’s Rule was first published in 1696 in the Marquis de l’Hospital’s calculus textbook Analyse des Infiniment Petits, but the rule was discovered in 1694 by the Swiss mathematician John (Johann) Bernoulli. The explanation is that these two mathematicians had entered into a curious business arrangement whereby the Marquis de l’Hospital bought the rights to Bernoulli’s mathematical discoveries. The details, including a translation of l’Hospital’s letter to Bernoulli proposing the arrangement, can be found in the book by Eves [1]. Write a report on the historical and mathematical origins of l’Hospital’s Rule. Start by providing brief biographical details of both men (the dictionary edited by Gillispie [2] is a good source) and outline the business deal between them. Then give l’Hospital’s statement of his rule, which is found in Struik’s sourcebook [4] and more briefly in the book of Katz [3]. Notice that l’Hospital and Bernoulli formulated the rule geometrically and gave the answer in terms of differentials. Compare their statement with the version of l’Hospital’s Rule given in Section 4.4 and show that the two statements are essentially the same. 1. Howard Eves, In Mathematical Circles (Volume 2: Quadrants III and IV) (Boston: Prindle, Weber and Schmidt, 1969), pp. 20–22. 2. C. C. Gillispie, ed., Dictionary of Scientific Biography (New York: Scribner’s, 1974). See the article on Johann Bernoulli by E. A. Fellmann and J. O. Fleckenstein in Volume II and the article on the Marquis de l’Hospital by Abraham Robinson in Volume VIII.

www.stewartcalculus.com The Internet is another source of information for this project. Click on History of Mathematics for a list of reliable websites.

3. Victor Katz, A History of Mathematics: An Introduction (New York: HarperCollins, 1993), p. 484. 4. D. J. Struik, ed., A Sourcebook in Mathematics, 1200 –1800 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969), pp. 315–16.

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SECTION 4.5 Summary of Curve Sketching

30

y=8˛-21≈+18x+2

_2

4 _10

FIGURE 1 8

y=8˛-21≈+18x+2 0

2

6

FIGURE 2

315

So far we have been concerned with some particular aspects of curve sketching: domain, range, and symmetry in Chapter 1; limits, continuity, and asymptotes in Chapter 2; derivatives and tangents in Chapters 2 and 3; and extreme values, intervals of increase and decrease, concavity, points of inflection, and l’Hospital’s Rule in this chapter. It is now time to put all of this information together to sketch graphs that reveal the important features of functions. You might ask: Why don’t we just use a graphing calculator or computer to graph a curve? Why do we need to use calculus? It’s true that modern technology is capable of producing very accurate graphs. But even the best graphing devices have to be used intelligently. It is easy to arrive at a misleading graph, or to miss important details of a curve, when relying solely on technology. (See “Graphing Calculators and Computers” at www.stewartcalculus.com, especially Examples 1, 3, 4, and 5. See also Section 4.6.) The use of calculus enables us to discover the most interesting aspects of graphs and in many cases to calculate maximum and minimum points and inflection points exactly instead of approximately. For instance, Figure 1 shows the graph of f sxd − 8x 3 2 21x 2 1 18x 1 2. At first glance it seems reasonable: It has the same shape as cubic curves like y − x 3, and it appears to have no maximum or minimum point. But if you compute the derivative, you will see that there is a maximum when x − 0.75 and a minimum when x − 1. Indeed, if we zoom in to this portion of the graph, we see that behavior exhibited in Figure 2. Without calculus, we could easily have overlooked it. In the next section we will graph functions by using the interaction between calculus and graphing devices. In this section we draw graphs by first considering the following information. We don’t assume that you have a graphing device, but if you do have one you should use it as a check on your work.

Guidelines for Sketching a Curve

y

0

x

(a) Even function: reflectional symmetry y

0

(b) Odd function: rotational symmetry

FIGURE 3

x

The following checklist is intended as a guide to sketching a curve y − f sxd by hand. Not every item is relevant to every function. (For instance, a given curve might not have an asymptote or possess symmetry.) But the guidelines provide all the information you need to make a sketch that displays the most important aspects of the function. A. Domain It’s often useful to start by determining the domain D of f , that is, the set of values of x for which f sxd is defined. B. Intercepts The y-intercept is f s0d and this tells us where the curve intersects the y-axis. To find the x-intercepts, we set y − 0 and solve for x. (You can omit this step if the equation is difficult to solve.) C. Symmetry (i ) If f s2xd − f sxd for all x in D, that is, the equation of the curve is unchanged when x is replaced by 2x, then f is an even function and the curve is symmetric about the y-axis. This means that our work is cut in half. If we know what the curve looks like for x > 0, then we need only reflect about the y-axis to obtain the complete curve [see Figure 3(a)]. Here are some examples: y − x 2, y − x 4, y − | x |, and y − cos x. (ii) If f s2xd − 2f sxd for all x in D, then f is an odd function and the curve is symmetric about the origin. Again we can obtain the complete curve if we know what it looks like for x > 0. [Rotate 180° about the origin; see Figure 3(b).] Some simple examples of odd functions are y − x, y − x 3, y − x 5, and y − sin x.

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316

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

(iii) If f sx 1 pd − f sxd for all x in D, where p is a positive constant, then f is called a periodic function and the smallest such number p is called the period. For instance, y − sin x has period 2 and y − tan x has period . If we know what the graph looks like in an interval of length p, then we can use translation to sketch the entire graph (see Figure 4). y

period p

FIGURE 4 Periodic function: translational symmetry

a-p

0

a

a+p

a+2p

x

D. Asymptotes (i) Horizontal Asymptotes. Recall from Section 2.6 that if either lim x l ` f sxd − L or lim x l2 ` f sxd − L, then the line y − L is a horizontal asymptote of the curve y − f sxd. If it turns out that lim x l ` f sxd − ` (or 2`), then we do not have an asymptote to the right, but this fact is still useful information for sketching the curve. (ii) Vertical Asymptotes. Recall from Section 2.2 that the line x − a is a vertical asymptote if at least one of the following statements is true: 1

lim f sxd − `

x l a1

lim f sxd − 2`

x l a1

lim f sxd − `

x l a2

lim f sxd − 2`

x l a2

(For rational functions you can locate the vertical asymptotes by equating the denominator to 0 after canceling any common factors. But for other functions this method does not apply.) Furthermore, in sketching the curve it is very useful to know exactly which of the statements in (1) is true. If f sad is not defined but a is an endpoint of the domain of f, then you should compute lim xl a f sxd or lim xl a f sxd, whether or not this limit is infinite. (iii) Slant Asymptotes. These are discussed at the end of this section. Intervals of Increase or Decrease Use the I/D Test. Compute f 9sxd and find the intervals on which f 9sxd is positive ( f is increasing) and the intervals on which f 9sxd is negative ( f is decreasing). Local Maximum and Minimum Values Find the critical numbers of f [the numbers c where f 9scd − 0 or f 9scd does not exist]. Then use the First Derivative Test. If f 9 changes from positive to negative at a critical number c, then f scd is a local maximum. If f 9 changes from negative to positive at c, then f scd is a local minimum. Although it is usually preferable to use the First Derivative Test, you can use the Second Derivative Test if f 9scd − 0 and f 0scd ± 0. Then f 0scd . 0 implies that f scd is a local minimum, whereas f 0scd , 0 implies that f scd is a local maximum. Concavity and Points of Inflection Compute f 0sxd and use the Concavity Test. The curve is concave upward where f 0sxd . 0 and concave downward where f 0sxd , 0. Inflection points occur where the direction of concavity changes. Sketch the Curve Using the information in items A– G, draw the graph. Sketch the asymptotes as dashed lines. Plot the intercepts, maximum and minimum points, and inflection points. Then make the curve pass through these points, rising and falling according to E, with concavity according to G, and approaching the asymptotes. 2

E.

F.

G.

H.

1

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 4.5 Summary of Curve Sketching

317

If additional accuracy is desired near any point, you can compute the value of the derivative there. The tangent indicates the direction in which the curve proceeds.

ExamplE 1 Use the guidelines to sketch the curve y − A. The domain is hx

|x

2

2 1 ± 0j − hx

2x 2 . x2 2 1

| x ± 61j − s2`, 21d ø s21, 1d ø s1, `d

B. The x- and y-intercepts are both 0. C. Since f s2xd − f sxd, the function f is even. The curve is symmetric about the y-axis. D.

lim

x l6`

2x 2 2 − lim −2 x l6` 1 2 1yx 2 x 21 2

Therefore the line y − 2 is a horizontal asymptote. Since the denominator is 0 when x − 61, we compute the following limits: y

lim1

x l1

y=2

lim 1

x l 21

0

x=_1

x

2x 2 −` x2 2 1 2x 2 − 2` x 21

f 9sxd −

E.

2x 2 −` x 21

x l 21

2

sx 2 2 1ds4xd 2 2x 2 ? 2x 24x − 2 2 2 sx 2 1d sx 2 1d2

Since f 9sxd . 0 when x , 0 sx ± 21d and f 9sxd , 0 when x . 0 sx ± 1d, f is increasing on s2`, 21d and s21, 0d and decreasing on s0, 1d and s1, `d. F. The only critical number is x − 0. Since f 9 changes from positive to negative at 0, f s0d − 0 is a local maximum by the First Derivative Test.

y

G. y=2

lim 2

x l1

2

FIGURE 5 We have shown the curve approaching its horizontal asymptote from above in Figure 5. This is confirmed by the intervals of increase and decrease.

2x 2 − 2` x 21 2

Therefore the lines x − 1 and x − 21 are vertical asymptotes. This information about limits and asymptotes enables us to draw the preliminary sketch in Figure 5, showing the parts of the curve near the asymptotes.

x=1

Preliminary sketch

lim2

f 0sxd −

sx 2 2 1d2 s24d 1 4x ? 2sx 2 2 1d2x 12x 2 1 4 − 2 2 4 sx 2 1d sx 2 1d3

Since 12x 2 1 4 . 0 for all x, we have 0 x

x=_1

x=1

FIGURE 6 Finished sketch of y −

2x 2 x2 2 1

f 0sxd . 0 &?

x 2 2 1 . 0 &?

|x| . 1

and f 0sxd , 0 &? | x | , 1. Thus the curve is concave upward on the intervals s2`, 21d and s1, `d and concave downward on s21, 1d. It has no point of inflection since 1 and 21 are not in the domain of f. H. Using the information in E – G, we finish the sketch in Figure 6. ■

ExamplE 2 Sketch the graph of f sxd − A. Domain − hx

x2 . sx 1 1

| x 1 1 . 0j − hx | x . 21j − s21, `d

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

318

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

B. The x- and y-intercepts are both 0. C. Symmetry: None D. Since lim

xl`

x2 −` sx 1 1

there is no horizontal asymptote. Since sx 1 1 l 0 as x l 211 and f sxd is always positive, we have x2 lim 1 −` x l 21 sx 1 1 and so the line x − 21 is a vertical asymptote. E.

G. y= 0

FIGURE 7

3x 2 1 4x xs3x 1 4d sx 1 1 s2xd 2 x 2 ? 1y( 2sx 1 1 ) − 3y2 − x11 2sx 1 1d 2sx 1 1d3y2

We see that f 9sxd − 0 when x − 0 (notice that 243 is not in the domain of f ), so the only critical number is 0. Since f 9sxd , 0 when 21 , x , 0 and f 9sxd . 0 when x . 0, f is decreasing on s21, 0d and increasing on s0, `d. F. Since f 9s0d − 0 and f 9 changes from negative to positive at 0, f s0d − 0 is a local (and absolute) minimum by the First Derivative Test.

y

x=_1

f 9sxd −

≈ x+1 œ„„„„ x

f 0sxd −

2sx 1 1d3y2s6x 1 4d 2 s3x 2 1 4xd3sx 1 1d1y2 3x 2 1 8x 1 8 − 4sx 1 1d3 4sx 1 1d5y2

Note that the denominator is always positive. The numerator is the quadratic 3x 2 1 8x 1 8, which is always positive because its discriminant is b 2 2 4ac − 232, which is negative, and the coefficient of x 2 is positive. Thus f 0sxd . 0 for all x in the domain of f, which means that f is concave upward on s21, `d and there is no point of inflection. H. The curve is sketched in Figure 7. ■

ExamplE 3 Sketch the graph of f sxd − xe x. A. B. C. D.

The domain is R. The x- and y-intercepts are both 0. Symmetry: None Because both x and e x become large as x l `, we have lim x l ` xe x − `. As x l 2`, however, e x l 0 and so we have an indeterminate product that requires the use of l’Hospital’s Rule: lim xe x − lim

x l2`

x l2`

x 1 − lim s2e x d − 0 2x − x lim l2` x l2` e 2e2x

Thus the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote. E.

f 9sxd − xe x 1 e x − sx 1 1de x

Since e x is always positive, we see that f 9sxd . 0 when x 1 1 . 0, and f 9sxd , 0 when x 1 1 , 0. So f is increasing on s21, `d and decreasing on s2`, 21d. F. Because f 9s21d − 0 and f 9 changes from negative to positive at x − 21, f s21d − 2e21 < 20.37 is a local (and absolute) minimum. G.

f 0sxd − sx 1 1de x 1 e x − sx 1 2de x Since f 0sxd . 0 if x . 22 and f 0sxd , 0 if x , 22, f is concave upward on

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319

SECTION 4.5 Summary of Curve Sketching y

y=x´

s22, `d and concave downward on s2`, 22d. The inflection point is s22, 22e22 d < s22, 20.27d. H. We use this information to sketch the curve in Figure 8.

1 _2

ExamplE 4 Sketch the graph of f sxd −

_1 x (_1, _1/e)

FIGURE 8

■

cos x . 2 1 sin x

A. The domain is R. B. The y-intercept is f s0d − 12. The x-intercepts occur when cos x − 0, that is, x − sy2d 1 n, where n is an integer. C. f is neither even nor odd, but f sx 1 2d − f sxd for all x and so f is periodic and has period 2. Thus, in what follows, we need to consider only 0 < x < 2 and then extend the curve by translation in part H. D. Asymptotes: None E.

f 9sxd −

s2 1 sin xds2sin xd 2 cos x scos xd 2 sin x 1 1 −2 s2 1 sin xd 2 s2 1 sin xd 2

The denominator is always positive, so f 9sxd . 0 when 2 sin x 1 1 , 0 &? sin x , 221 &? 7y6 , x , 11y6. So f is increasing on s7y6, 11y6d and decreasing on s0, 7y6d and s11y6, 2d. F. From part E and the First Derivative Test, we see that the local minimum value is f s7y6d − 21ys3 and the local maximum value is f s11y6d − 1ys3 . G. If we use the Quotient Rule again and simplify, we get f 0sxd − 2

2 cos x s1 2 sin xd s2 1 sin xd 3

Because s2 1 sin xd 3 . 0 and 1 2 sin x > 0 for all x, we know that f 0sxd . 0 when cos x , 0, that is, y2 , x , 3y2. So f is concave upward on sy2, 3y2d and concave downward on s0, y2d and s3y2, 2d. The inflection points are sy2, 0d and s3y2, 0d. H. The graph of the function restricted to 0 < x < 2 is shown in Figure 9. Then we extend it, using periodicity, to the complete graph in Figure 10. y

”

1 2

π 2

π

11π 1 6 , œ„3

y

’

3π 2

1 2

2π x

_π

π

2π

3π

x

1 - ’ ” 7π 6 , œ„3

FIGURE 9

■

FIGURE 10

ExamplE 5 Sketch the graph of y − lns4 2 x 2 d. A. The domain is hx

| 42x

2

. 0j − hx

|x

2

, 4j − hx

| | x | , 2j − s22, 2d

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320

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

B. The y-intercept is f s0d − ln 4. To find the x-intercept we set y − lns4 2 x 2 d − 0 We know that ln 1 − 0, so we have 4 2 x 2 − 1 ? x 2 − 3 and therefore the x-intercepts are 6s3 . C . Since f s2xd − f sxd, f is even and the curve is symmetric about the y-axis. D. We look for vertical asymptotes at the endpoints of the domain. Since 4 2 x 2 l 0 1 as x l 2 2 and also as x l 221, we have lim lns4 2 x 2 d − 2`

lim lns4 2 x 2 d − 2`

x l 22

x l 221

Thus the lines x − 2 and x − 22 are vertical asymptotes. f 9sxd −

E. y (0, ln 4)

x=_2

x=2

{_ œ„3, 0}

0

Since f 9sxd . 0 when 22 , x , 0 and f 9sxd , 0 when 0 , x , 2, f is increasing on s22, 0d and decreasing on s0, 2d. F . The only critical number is x − 0. Since f 9 changes from positive to negative at 0, f s0d − ln 4 is a local maximum by the First Derivative Test.

x

{œ„ 3, 0}

22x 4 2 x2

G.

f 0sxd −

s4 2 x 2 ds22d 1 2xs22xd 28 2 2x 2 − s4 2 x 2 d2 s4 2 x 2 d2

Since f 0sxd , 0 for all x, the curve is concave downward on s22, 2d and has no inflection point. H. Using this information, we sketch the curve in Figure 11. ■

FIGURE 11 y − lns4 2 x 2 d

Slant Asymptotes Some curves have asymptotes that are oblique, that is, neither horizontal nor vertical. If

y

y=ƒ

lim f f sxd 2 smx 1 bdg − 0

xl`

ƒ-(mx+b) y=mx+b

0

x

where m ± 0, then the line y − mx 1 b is called a slant asymptote because the vertical distance between the curve y − f sxd and the line y − mx 1 b approaches 0, as in  Figure  12. (A similar situation exists if we let x l 2`.) For rational functions, slant  asymptotes occur when the degree of the numerator is one more than the degree of the denominator. In such a case the equation of the slant asymptote can be found by long division as in the following example.

FIGURE 12

ExamplE 6 Sketch the graph of f sxd − A. B. C. D.

x3 . x 11 2

The domain is R − s2`, `d. The x- and y-intercepts are both 0. Since f s2xd − 2f sxd, f is odd and its graph is symmetric about the origin. Since x 2 1 1 is never 0, there is no vertical asymptote. Since f sxd l ` as x l ` and f sxd l 2` as x l 2`, there is no horizontal asymptote. But long division

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321

SECTION 4.5 Summary of Curve Sketching

gives f sxd −

x x3 −x2 2 x 11 x 11 2

This equation suggests that y − x is a candidate for a slant asymptote. In fact, x f sxd 2 x − 2 2 −2 x 11

1 x 1 11 2 x

l0

as

x l 6`

So the line y − x is a slant asymptote. f 9sxd −

E.

sx 2 1 1ds3x 2 d 2 x 3 ? 2x x 2sx 2 1 3d − sx 2 1 1d2 sx 2 1 1d2

Since f 9sxd . 0 for all x (except 0), f is increasing on s2`, `d. F. Although f 9s0d − 0, f 9 does not change sign at 0, so there is no local maximum or minimum. f 0sxd −

G.

y=

y

˛ ≈+1

sx 2 1 1d2 s4x 3 1 6xd 2 sx 4 1 3x 2 d ? 2sx 2 1 1d2x 2xs3 2 x 2 d − 2 4 sx 1 1d sx 2 1 1d3

Since f 0sxd − 0 when x − 0 or x − 6s3 , we set up the following chart: x

3 2 x2

sx 2 1 1d3

f 99sxd

f

2

2

1

1

CU on (2`, 2s3 )

2

1

1

2

CD on (2s3 , 0)

0 , x , s3

1

1

1

1

CU on ( 0, s3 )

x . s3

1

2

1

2

CD on (s3 , `)

Interval ”œ„3,

3 œ„ 3 ’ 4

x , 2s3

0

”_œ„3,

2s3 , x , 0 x

3 3œ„ _ 4 ’

inflection points y=x

The points of inflection are (2s3 , 243 s3 ), s0, 0d, and (s3 , 34 s3 ). H. The graph of f is sketched in Figure 13.

FIGURE 13

1–54 Use the guidelines of this section to sketch the curve. 3

1. y − x 1 3x

2

3

3. y − 2 2 15x 1 9x 2 x

3

4. y − 8x 2 2 x 4 6. y − x 5 2 5x

7. y − 15 x 5 2 83 x 3 1 16x

8. y − s4 2 x 2 d 5

x2 2 4 x 2 2 2x

x 2 x2 2 2 3x 1 x 2

12. y − 1 1

13. y −

x x2 2 4

14. y −

1 x2 2 4

15. y −

x2 x 19

16. y −

sx 2 1d2 x2 1 1

17. y −

x21 x2

18. y − 1 1

2

5. y − xsx 2 4d3

9. y −

11. y −

2. y − x 1 6x 1 9x 2

10. y −

x 2 1 5x 25 2 x 2

■

2

1 1 1 2 x x

1 1 1 2 x x

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322

CHAPTER 4

19. y −

Applications of Differentiation

x3 x 11

20. y −

3

length, and h is Planck’s constant. Sketch the graph of E as a function of . What does the graph say about the energy?

x3 x22

21. y − 2sx 2 x

3 22. y − sx 2 4ds x

23. y − sx 2 1 x 2 2

24. y − sx 2 1 x 2 x

25. y −

x sx 1 1

26. y − x s2 2 x 2

27. y −

s1 2 x 2 x

28. y −

2

x sx 2 2 1

29. y − x 2 3x 1y3

30. y − x 5y3 2 5x 2y3

3 31. y − s x2 2 1

3 32. y − s x3 1 1

3

34. y − x 1 cos x

33. y − sin x 35. y − x tan x,

2y2 , x , y2

36. y − 2x 2 tan x,

2y2 , x , y2

37. y − sin x 1 s3 cos x, 22 < x < 2

sin x 1 1 cos x

40. y −

41. y − arctanse x d

sin x 2 1 cos x

42. y − s1 2 xde x

43. y − 1ys1 1 e 2x d 44. y − e2x sin x, 0 < x < 2 45. y −

1 1 ln x x

46. y − x 2 ln x

x 22

x

1 1 1 ae2kt

where pstd is the proportion of the population that knows the rumor at time t and a and k are positive constants. (a) When will half the population have heard the rumor? (b) When is the rate of spread of the rumor greatest? (c) Sketch the graph of p. 58. A model for the concentration at time t of a drug injected into the bloodstream is Cstd − Kse2at 2 e2bt d where a, b, and K are positive constants and b . a. Sketch the graph of the concentration function. What does the graph tell us about how the concentration varies as time passes?

48. y − e yx

49. y − lnssin xd

50. y − lns1 1 x 3d

51. y − xe21yx

52. y −

53. y − e arctan x

54. y − tan21

ln x x2

y−2

W 4 WL 3 WL 2 2 x 1 x 2 x 24EI 12EI 24EI

where E and I are positive constants. (E is Young’s modulus of elasticity and I is the moment of inertia of a crosssection of the beam.) Sketch the graph of the deflection curve. y

W

2

47. y − s1 1 e d

0 L

S D x21 x11

55. In the theory of relativity, the mass of a particle is m−

pstd −

59. The figure shows a beam of length L embedded in concrete walls. If a constant load W is distributed evenly along its length, the beam takes the shape of the deflection curve

38. y − csc x 2 2sin x, 0 , x ,  39. y −

57. A model for the spread of a rumor is given by the equation

m0 s1 2 v 2yc 2

where m 0 is the rest mass of the particle, m is the mass when the particle moves with speed v relative to the observer, and c is the speed of light. Sketch the graph of m as a function of v. 56. In the theory of relativity, the energy of a particle is E − sm 02 c 4 1 h 2 c 2y2 where m 0 is the rest mass of the particle,  is its wave

60. Coulomb’s Law states that the force of attraction between two charged particles is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The figure shows particles with charge 1 located at positions 0 and 2 on a coordinate line and a particle with charge 21 at a position x between them. It follows from Coulomb’s Law that the net force acting on the middle particle is Fsxd − 2

k k 1 x2 sx 2 2d2

0,x,2

where k is a positive constant. Sketch the graph of the net force function. What does the graph say about the force? +1

_1

+1

0

x

2

x

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SECTION 4.6

61–64 Find an equation of the slant asymptote. Do not sketch the curve. x2 1 1 4x 3 2 10x 2 2 11x 1 1 61. y − 62. y − x11 x 2 2 3x 2x 3 2 5x 2 1 3x 63. y − x2 2 x 2 2

72. Show that the curve y − sx 2 1 4x has two slant asymptotes: y − x 1 2 and y − 2x 2 2. Use this fact to help sketch the curve. 73. Show that the lines y − sbyadx and y − 2sbyadx are slant asymptotes of the hyperbola sx 2ya 2 d 2 s y 2yb 2 d − 1.

26x 4 1 2x 3 1 3 64. y − 2x 3 2 x

74. Let f sxd − sx 3 1 1dyx. Show that lim f f sxd 2 x 2 g − 0

65–70 Use the guidelines of this section to sketch the curve. In guideline D find an equation of the slant asymptote. 65. y −

x2 x21

66. y −

1 1 5x 2 2x 2 x22

67. y −

x3 1 4 x2

68. y −

x3 sx 1 1d2

69. y − 1 1 12 x 1 e2x

x l 6`

This shows that the graph of f approaches the graph of y − x 2, and we say that the curve y − f sxd is asymptotic to the parabola y − x 2. Use this fact to help sketch the graph of f. 75. Discuss the asymptotic behavior of f sxd − sx 4 1 1dyx in the same manner as in Exercise 74. Then use your results to help sketch the graph of f.

70. y − 1 2 x 1 e 11xy3

76. Use the asymptotic behavior of f sxd − sin x 1 e2x to sketch its graph without going through the curvesketching procedure of this section.

71. Show that the curve y − x 2 tan21x has two slant asymptotes: y − x 1 y2 and y − x 2 y2. Use this fact to help sketch the curve.

You may want to read “Graphing Calculators and Computers” at www.stewartcalculus.com if you haven’t already. In particular, it explains how to avoid some of the pitfalls of graphing devices by choosing appropriate viewing rectangles.

323

Graphing with Calculus and Calculators

The method we used to sketch curves in the preceding section was a culmination of much of our study of differential calculus. The graph was the final object that we produced. In this section our point of view is completely different. Here we start with a graph produced by a graphing calculator or computer and then we refine it. We use calculus to make sure that we reveal all the important aspects of the curve. And with the use of graphing devices we can tackle curves that would be far too complicated to consider without technology. The theme is the interaction between calculus and calculators.

ExamplE 1 Graph the polynomial f sxd − 2x 6 1 3x 5 1 3x 3 2 2x 2. Use the graphs of f 9 and f 0 to estimate all maximum and minimum points and intervals of concavity. SOLUTION If we specify a domain but not a range, many graphing devices will deduce a suitable range from the values computed. Figure 1 shows the plot from one such device if we specify that 25 < x < 5. Although this viewing rectangle is useful for showing that the asymptotic behavior (or end behavior) is the same as for y − 2x 6, it is obviously hiding some finer detail. So we change to the viewing rectangle f23, 2g by f250, 100g shown in Figure 2. 100

41,000 y=ƒ y=ƒ _3 _5

5 _50

_1000

FIGURE 1

2

FIGURE 2

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324

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

From this graph it appears that there is an absolute minimum value of about 215.33 when x < 21.62 (by using the cursor) and f is decreasing on s2`, 21.62d and increasing on s21.62, `d. Also there appears to be a horizontal tangent at the origin and inflection points when x − 0 and when x is somewhere between 22 and 21. Now let’s try to confirm these impressions using calculus. We differentiate and get

20 y=fª(x)

_3

2

f 9sxd − 12x 5 1 15x 4 1 9x 2 2 4x

_5

f 0sxd − 60x 4 1 60x 3 1 18x 2 4

FIGURE 3 1 y=ƒ _1

1

_1

FIGURE 4 10 _3

2 y=f ·(x)

When we graph f 9 in Figure 3 we see that f 9sxd changes from negative to positive when x < 21.62; this confirms (by the First Derivative Test) the minimum value that we found earlier. But, perhaps to our surprise, we also notice that f 9sxd changes from positive to negative when x − 0 and from negative to positive when x < 0.35. This means that f has a local maximum at 0 and a local minimum when x < 0.35, but these were hidden in Figure 2. Indeed, if we now zoom in toward the origin in Figure 4, we see what we missed before: a local maximum value of 0 when x − 0 and a local minimum value of about 20.1 when x < 0.35. What about concavity and inflection points? From Figures 2 and 4 there appear to be inflection points when x is a little to the left of 21 and when x is a little to the right of 0. But it’s difficult to determine inflection points from the graph of f , so we graph the second derivative f 0 in Figure 5. We see that f 0 changes from positive to negative when x < 21.23 and from negative to positive when x < 0.19. So, correct to two decimal places, f is concave upward on s2`, 21.23d and s0.19, `d and concave downward on s21.23, 0.19d. The inflection points are s21.23, 210.18d and s0.19, 20.05d. We have discovered that no single graph reveals all the important features of this polynomial. But Figures 2 and 4, when taken together, do provide an accurate picture. ■

_30

ExamplE 2 Draw the graph of the function

FIGURE 5

f sxd −

x 2 1 7x 1 3 x2

in a viewing rectangle that contains all the important features of the function. Estimate the maximum and minimum values and the intervals of concavity. Then use calculus to find these quantities exactly. SOLUTION Figure 6, produced by a computer with automatic scaling, is a disaster. Some graphing calculators use f210, 10g by f210, 10g as the default viewing rectangle, so let’s try it. We get the graph shown in Figure 7; it’s a major improvement. 3  10!*

10 y=ƒ _10

y=ƒ

_5

10

5 _10

FIGURE 6

FIGURE 7

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SECTION 4.6

Graphing with Calculus and Calculators

325

The y-axis appears to be a vertical asymptote and indeed it is because 10

x 2 1 7x 1 3 −` x2

lim

xl0

y=ƒ y=1 _20

20

_5

FIGURE 8

Figure 7 also allows us to estimate the x-intercepts: about 20.5 and 26.5. The exact values are obtained by using the quadratic formula to solve the equation x 2 1 7x 1 3 − 0; we get x − (27 6 s37 )y2. To get a better look at horizontal asymptotes, we change to the viewing rectangle f220, 20g by f25, 10g in Figure 8. It appears that y − 1 is the horizontal asymptote and this is easily confirmed: lim

x l 6`

2

_3

0

S

7 x 2 1 7x 1 3 3 − lim 1 1 1 2 2 x l 6` x x x

D

−1

To estimate the minimum value we zoom in to the viewing rectangle f23, 0g by f24, 2g in Figure 9. The cursor indicates that the absolute minimum value is about 23.1 when x < 20.9, and we see that the function decreases on s2`, 20.9d and s0, `d and increases on s20.9, 0d. The exact values are obtained by differentiating:

y=ƒ

f 9sxd − 2

7 6 7x 1 6 2 2 3 − 2 x x x3

_4

This shows that f 9sxd . 0 when 267 , x , 0 and f 9sxd , 0 when x , 267 and when 37 x . 0. The exact minimum value is f (2 67 ) − 2 12 < 23.08. Figure 9 also shows that an inflection point occurs somewhere between x − 21 and x − 22. We could estimate it much more accurately using the graph of the second derivative, but in this case it’s just as easy to find exact values. Since

FIGURE 9

f 0sxd −

14 18 2s7x 1 9d 3 1 4 − x x x4

we see that f 0sxd . 0 when x . 297 sx ± 0d. So f is concave upward on s297 , 0d and s0, `d and concave downward on s2`, 297 d. The inflection point is s297 , 271 27 d. The analysis using the first two derivatives shows that Figure 8 displays all the major aspects of the curve. ■

ExamplE 3 Graph the function f sxd − 10

y=ƒ _10

10

x 2sx 1 1d3 . sx 2 2d2sx 2 4d4

SOLUTION Drawing on our experience with a rational function in Example 2, let’s start by graphing f in the viewing rectangle f210, 10g by f210, 10g. From Figure 10 we have the feeling that we are going to have to zoom in to see some finer detail and also zoom out to see the larger picture. But, as a guide to intelligent zooming, let’s first take a close look at the expression for f sxd. Because of the factors sx 2 2d2 and sx 2 4d4 in the denominator, we expect x − 2 and x − 4 to be the vertical asymptotes. Indeed

_10

FIGURE 10

lim

x l2

x 2sx 1 1d3 −` sx 2 2d2sx 2 4d4

and

lim

xl4

x 2sx 1 1d3 −` sx 2 2d2sx 2 4d4

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

326

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

To find the horizontal asymptotes, we divide numerator and denominator by x 6: x 2 sx 1 1d3 ? x 2sx 1 1d3 x3 x3 − 2 4 − 2 sx 2 2d sx 2 4d sx 2 2d sx 2 4d4 ? x2 x4

S D S DS D 3

1 1 11 x x

12

2 x

2

12

4 x

4

y

_1

1

2

3

4

This shows that f sxd l 0 as x l 6`, so the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote. It is also very useful to consider the behavior of the graph near the x-intercepts using an analysis like that in Example 2.6.12. Since x 2 is positive, f sxd does not change sign at 0 and so its graph doesn’t cross the x-axis at 0. But, because of the factor sx 1 1d3, the graph does cross the x-axis at 21 and has a horizontal tangent there. Putting all this information together, but without using derivatives, we see that the curve has to look something like the one in Figure 11. Now that we know what to look for, we zoom in (several times) to produce the graphs in Figures 12 and 13 and zoom out (several times) to get Figure 14.

x

FIGURE 11

0.05

0.0001

500 y=ƒ

y=ƒ _100

1

_1.5

0.5

y=ƒ _1 _0.05

_0.0001

FIGURE 13

FIGURE 12

10 _10

FIGURE 14

We can read from these graphs that the absolute minimum is about 20.02 and occurs when x < 220. There is also a local maximum 0 and x < 600 (otherwise A , 0) So the function that we wish to maximize is Asxd − 1200x 2 2x 2

0 < x < 600

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332

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

The derivative is A9sxd − 1200 2 4x, so to find the critical numbers we solve the equation 1200 2 4x − 0 which gives x − 300. The maximum value of A must occur either at this critical number or at an endpoint of the interval. Since As0d − 0, As300d − 180,000, and As600d − 0, the Closed Interval Method gives the maximum value as As300d − 180,000. [Alternatively, we could have observed that A0sxd − 24 , 0 for all x, so A is always concave downward and the local maximum at x − 300 must be an absolute maximum.] Thus the rectangular field should be 300 m deep and 600 m wide. ■

ExamplE 2 A cylindrical can is to be made to hold 1 L of oil. Find the dimensions that will minimize the cost of the metal to manufacture the can. SOLUTION Draw the diagram as in Figure 3, where r is the radius and h the height (both in centimeters). In order to minimize the cost of the metal, we minimize the total surface area of the cylinder (top, bottom, and sides). From Figure 4 we see that the sides are made from a rectangular sheet with dimensions 2r and h. So the surface area is

h

r

A − 2r 2 1 2rh

FIGURE 3

We would like to express A in terms of one variable, r. To eliminate h we use the fact that the volume is given as 1 L, which is equivalent to 1000 cm3. Thus

2πr r

r 2h − 1000 which gives h − 1000ysr 2 d. Substitution of this into the expression for A gives h

A − 2r 2 1 2r

Area 2{πr@}

Area (2πr)h

S D 1000 r 2

− 2r 2 1

2000 r

We know r must be positive, and there are no limitations on how large r can be. Therefore the function that we want to minimize is

FIGURE 4

Asrd − 2r 2 1

2000 r

r.0

To find the critical numbers, we differentiate: y

A9srd − 4r 2 y=A(r)

1000

0

10

FIGURE 5

r

2000 4sr 3 2 500d − r2 r2

3 Then A9srd − 0 when r 3 − 500, so the only critical number is r − s 500y . Since the domain of A is s0, `d, we can’t use the argument of Example 1 concern3 ing endpoints. But we can observe that A9srd , 0 for r , s 500y and A9srd . 0 for 3 r . s500y , so A is decreasing for all r to the left of the critical number and increas3 500y must give rise to an absolute minimum. ing for all r to the right. Thus r − s [Alternatively, we could argue that Asrd l ` as r l 0 1 and Asrd l ` as r l `, so there must be a minimum value of Asrd, which must occur at the critical number. See Figure 5.]

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SECTION 4.7

In the Applied Project on page 343 we investigate the most economical shape for a can by taking into account other manufacturing costs.

Optimization Problems

333

3 500y is The value of h corresponding to r − s

h−

Î

1000 1000 −2 2 − r s500yd2y3

3

500 − 2r 

3 500y cm and the height Thus, to minimize the cost of the can, the radius should be s should be equal to twice the radius, namely, the diameter. ■

NOTE 1 The argument used in Example 2 to justify the absolute minimum is a variant of the First Derivative Test (which applies only to local maximum or minimum values) and is stated here for future reference.

First Derivative Test for Absolute Extreme Values Suppose that c is a critical number of a continuous function f defined on an interval. (a) If f 9sxd . 0 for all x , c and f 9sxd , 0 for all x . c, then f scd is the absolute maximum value of f. (b) If f 9sxd , 0 for all x , c and f 9sxd . 0 for all x . c, then f scd is the absolute minimum value of f.

TEC Module 4.7 takes you through six additional optimization problems, including animations of the physical situations.

NOTE 2 An alternative method for solving optimization problems is to use implicit differentiation. Let’s look at Example 2 again to illustrate the method. We work with the same equations A − 2r 2 1 2rh r 2h − 1000

but instead of eliminating h, we differentiate both equations implicitly with respect to r: A9 − 4r 1 2rh9 1 2h

r 2h9 1 2rh − 0

The minimum occurs at a critical number, so we set A9 − 0, simplify, and arrive at the equations 2r 1 rh9 1 h − 0 rh9 1 2h − 0 and subtraction gives 2r 2 h − 0, or h − 2r. y

ExamplE 3 Find the point on the parabola y 2 − 2x that is closest to the point s1, 4d. (1, 4)

SOLUTION The distance between the point s1, 4d and the point sx, yd is

d − ssx 2 1d2 1 sy 2 4d2

(x, y)

1 0

¥=2x

1 2 3 4

x

(See Figure 6.) But if sx, yd lies on the parabola, then x − 12 y 2, so the expression for d becomes d − s(12 y2 2 1)2 1 sy 2 4d2

FIGURE 6

(Alternatively, we could have substituted y − s2x to get d in terms of x alone.) Instead of minimizing d, we minimize its square: d 2 − f syd − s 21 y 2 2 1d 2 1 sy 2 4d2

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334

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(You should convince yourself that the minimum of d occurs at the same point as the minimum of d 2, but d 2 is easier to work with.) Note that there are no restrictions on y, so the domain is all real numbers. Differentiating, we obtain f 9syd − 2s 21 y 2 2 1d y 1 2sy 2 4d − y 3 2 8 so f 9s yd − 0 when y − 2. Observe that f 9syd , 0 when y , 2 and f 9syd . 0 when y . 2, so by the First Derivative Test for Absolute Extreme Values, the absolute minimum occurs when y − 2. (Or we could simply say that because of the geometric nature of the problem, it’s obvious that there is a closest point but not a farthest point.) The corresponding value of x is x − 12 y 2 − 2. Thus the point on y 2 − 2x closest to s1, 4d is s2, 2d. [The distance between the points is d − sf s2d − s5 .] ■

ExamplE 4 A man launches his boat from point A on a bank of a straight river, 3 km wide, and wants to reach point B, 8 km downstream on the opposite bank, as quickly as possible (see Figure 7). He could row his boat directly across the river to point C and then run to B, or he could row directly to B, or he could row to some point D between C and B and then run to B. If he can row 6 kmyh and run 8 kmyh, where should he land to reach B as soon as possible? (We assume that the speed of the water is negligible compared with the speed at which the man rows.)

3 km C

A

x D

SOLUTION If we let x be the distance from C to D, then the running distance is 8 km

| DB | − 8 2 x and the Pythagorean Theorem gives the rowing distance as | AD | − sx 1 9 . We use the equation 2

time − B

distance rate

Then the rowing time is sx 2 1 9 y6 and the running time is s8 2 xdy8, so the total time T as a function of x is

FIGURE 7

Tsxd −

82x sx 2 1 9 1 6 8

The domain of this function T is f0, 8g. Notice that if x − 0, he rows to C and if x − 8, he rows directly to B. The derivative of T is T9sxd −

x 2

6sx 1 9

2

1 8

Thus, using the fact that x > 0, we have T9sxd − 0

&?

x 1 − 8 6sx 2 1 9

&?

4x − 3sx 2 1 9

&?

16x 2 − 9sx 2 1 9d

&?

7x 2 − 81

&?

x−

9 s7

The only critical number is x − 9ys7 . To see whether the minimum occurs at this critical number or at an endpoint of the domain f0, 8g, we follow the Closed Interval

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SECTION 4.7 T

335

Method by evaluating T at all three points: y=T(x)

Ts0d − 1.5 1

0

Optimization Problems

2

4

x

6

FIGURE 8

T

S D 9 s7

−11

s7 < 1.33 8

Ts8d −

s73 < 1.42 6

Since the smallest of these values of T occurs when x − 9ys7 , the absolute minimum value of T must occur there. Figure 8 illustrates this calculation by showing the graph of T. Thus the man should land the boat at a point 9ys7 km ( 0). This value of x gives a maximum value of A since As0d − 0 and Asrd − 0. Therefore the area of the largest inscribed rectangle is

S D

A

r s2

−2

r s2

Î

r2 2

r2 − r2 2

SOLUTION 2 A simpler solution is possible if we think of using an angle as a variable. Let  be the angle shown in Figure 10. Then the area of the rectangle is r ¨ r cos ¨

FIGURE 10

r sin ¨

Asd − s2r cos dsr sin d − r 2s2 sin  cos d − r 2 sin 2 We know that sin 2 has a maximum value of 1 and it occurs when 2 − y2. So Asd has a maximum value of r 2 and it occurs when  − y4. Notice that this trigonometric solution doesn’t involve differentiation. In fact, we didn’t need to use calculus at all. ■

Applications to Business and Economics In Section 3.7 we introduced the idea of marginal cost. Recall that if Csxd, the cost function, is the cost of producing x units of a certain product, then the marginal cost is the rate of change of C with respect to x. In other words, the marginal cost function is the derivative, C9sxd, of the cost function.

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Now let’s consider marketing. Let psxd be the price per unit that the company can charge if it sells x units. Then p is called the demand function (or price function) and we would expect it to be a decreasing function of x. (More units sold corresponds to a lower price.) If x units are sold and the price per unit is psxd, then the total revenue is Rsxd − quantity 3 price − xpsxd and R is called the revenue function. The derivative R9 of the revenue function is called the marginal revenue function and is the rate of change of revenue with respect to the number of units sold. If x units are sold, then the total profit is Psxd − Rsxd 2 Csxd and P is called the profit function. The marginal profit function is P9, the derivative of the profit function. In Exercises 59 – 63 you are asked to use the marginal cost, revenue, and profit functions to minimize costs and maximize revenues and profits.

ExamplE 6 A store has been selling 200 flat-screen TVs a week at $350 each. A market survey indicates that for each $10 rebate offered to buyers, the number of TVs sold will increase by 20 a week. Find the demand function and the revenue function. How large a rebate should the store offer to maximize its revenue? SOLUTION If x is the number of TVs sold per week, then the weekly increase in sales is

x 2 200. For each increase of 20 units sold, the price is decreased by $10. So for each 1 additional unit sold, the decrease in price will be 20 3 10 and the demand function is 1 psxd − 350 2 10 20 sx 2 200d − 450 2 2 x

The revenue function is Rsxd − xpsxd − 450x 2 12 x 2 Since R9sxd − 450 2 x, we see that R9sxd − 0 when x − 450. This value of x gives an absolute maximum by the First Derivative Test (or simply by observing that the graph of R is a parabola that opens downward). The corresponding price is ps450d − 450 2 12 s450d − 225 and the rebate is 350 2 225 − 125. Therefore, to maximize revenue, the store should offer a rebate of $125. ■

1. Consider the following problem: Find two numbers whose sum is 23 and whose product is a maximum. (a) Make a table of values, like the one at the right, so that the sum of the numbers in the first two columns is always 23. On the basis of the evidence in your table, estimate the answer to the problem. (b) Use calculus to solve the problem and compare with your answer to part (a).

First number

Second number

Product

1 2 3 . . .

22 21 20 . . .

22 42 60 . . .

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SECTION 4.7

2. Find two numbers whose difference is 100 and whose product is a minimum. 3. Find two positive numbers whose product is 100 and whose sum is a minimum. 4. The sum of two positive numbers is 16. What is the smallest possible value of the sum of their squares? 5. What is the maximum vertical distance between the line y − x 1 2 and the parabola y − x 2 for 21 < x < 2? 6. What is the minimum vertical distance between the parabolas y − x 2 1 1 and y − x 2 x 2 ? 7. Find the dimensions of a rectangle with perimeter 100 m whose area is as large as possible. 8. Find the dimensions of a rectangle with area 1000 m2 whose perimeter is as small as possible. 9. A model used for the yield Y of an agricultural crop as a function of the nitrogen level N in the soil (measured in appropriate units) is Y−

kN 1 1 N2

where k is a positive constant. What nitrogen level gives the best yield? 10. The rate sin mg carbonym 3yhd at which photosynthesis takes place for a species of phytoplankton is modeled by the function P−

100 I I2 1 I 1 4

where I is the light intensity (measured in thousands of footcandles). For what light intensity is P a maximum? 11. Consider the following problem: A farmer with 300 m of fencing wants to enclose a rectangular area and then divide it into four pens with fencing parallel to one side of the rectangle. What is the largest possible total area of the four pens? (a) Draw several diagrams illustrating the situation, some with shallow, wide pens and some with deep, narrow pens. Find the total areas of these configurations. Does it appear that there is a maximum area? If so, estimate it. (b) Draw a diagram illustrating the general situation. Introduce notation and label the diagram with your symbols. (c) Write an expression for the total area. (d) Use the given information to write an equation that relates the variables. (e) Use part (d) to write the total area as a function of one variable. (f ) Finish solving the problem and compare the answer with your estimate in part (a). 12. Consider the following problem: A box with an open top is to be constructed from a square piece of cardboard, 3 m wide, by cutting out a square from each of the four corners and

Optimization Problems

337

bending up the sides. Find the largest volume that such a box can have. (a) Draw several diagrams to illustrate the situation, some short boxes with large bases and some tall boxes with small bases. Find the volumes of several such boxes. Does it appear that there is a maximum volume? If so, estimate it. (b) Draw a diagram illustrating the general situation. Introduce notation and label the diagram with your symbols. (c) Write an expression for the volume. (d) Use the given information to write an equation that relates the variables. (e) Use part (d) to write the volume as a function of one variable. (f ) Finish solving the problem and compare the answer with your estimate in part (a). 13. A farmer wants to fence in an area of 15,000 m2 in a rectangular field and then divide it in half with a fence parallel to one of the sides of the rectangle. How can he do this so as to minimize the cost of the fence? 14. A box with a square base and open top must have a volume of 32,000 cm3. Find the dimensions of the box that minimize the amount of material used. 15. If 1200 cm2 of material is available to make a box with a square base and an open top, find the largest possible volume of the box. 16. A rectangular storage container with an open top is to have a volume of 10 m3. The length of its base is twice the width. Material for the base costs $10 per square meter. Material for the sides costs $6 per square meter. Find the cost of materials for the cheapest such container. 17. Do Exercise 16 assuming the container has a lid that is made from the same material as the sides. 18. A farmer wants to fence in a rectangular plot of land adjacent to the north wall of his barn. No fencing is needed along the barn, and the fencing along the west side of the plot is shared with a neighbor who will split the cost of that portion of the fence. If the fencing costs $30 per linear meter to install and the farmer is not willing to spend more than $1800, find the dimensions for the plot that would enclose the most area. 19. If the farmer in Exercise 18 wants to enclose 150 square meters of land, what dimensions will minimize the cost of the fence? 20. (a) Show that of all the rectangles with a given area, the one with smallest perimeter is a square. (b) Show that of all the rectangles with a given perimeter, the one with greatest area is a square. 21. Find the point on the line y − 2x 1 3 that is closest to the origin. 22. Find the point on the curve y − sx that is closest to the point s3, 0d.

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338

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

23. Find the points on the ellipse 4x 2 1 y 2 − 4 that are farthest away from the point s1, 0d. ; 24. Find, correct to two decimal places, the coordinates of the point on the curve y − sin x that is closest to the point s4, 2d. 25. Find the dimensions of the rectangle of largest area that can be inscribed in a circle of radius r. 26. Find the area of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in the ellipse x 2ya 2 1 y 2yb 2 − 1. 27. Find the dimensions of the rectangle of largest area that can be inscribed in an equilateral triangle of side L if one side of the rectangle lies on the base of the triangle.

39. If you are offered one slice from a round pizza (in other words, a sector of a circle) and the slice must have a perimeter of 60 cm, what diameter pizza will reward you with the largest slice? 40. A fence 2 m tall runs parallel to a tall building at a distance of 1 m from the building. What is the length of the shortest ladder that will reach from the ground over the fence to the wall of the building? 41. A cone-shaped drinking cup is made from a circular piece of paper of radius R by cutting out a sector and joining the edges CA and CB. Find the maximum capacity of such a cup. A

B

28. Find the area of the largest trapezoid that can be inscribed in a circle of radius 1 and whose base is a diameter of the circle.

R

C

29. Find the dimensions of the isosceles triangle of largest area that can be inscribed in a circle of radius r. 30. If the two equal sides of an isosceles triangle have length a, find the length of the third side that maximizes the area of the triangle. 31. A right circular cylinder is inscribed in a sphere of radius r. Find the largest possible volume of such a cylinder. 32. A right circular cylinder is inscribed in a cone with height h and base radius r. Find the largest possible volume of such a cylinder. 33. A right circular cylinder is inscribed in a sphere of radius r. Find the largest possible surface area of such a cylinder. 34. A Norman window has the shape of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircle. (Thus the diameter of the semicircle is equal to the width of the rectangle. See Exercise 1.1.62.) If the perimeter of the window is 10 m, find the dimensions of the window so that the greatest possible amount of light is admitted. 35. The top and bottom margins of a poster are each 6 cm and the side margins are each 4 cm. If the area of printed material on the poster is fixed at 384 cm2, find the dimensions of the poster with the smallest area. 36. A poster is to have an area of 900 cm2 with 3-cm margins at the bottom and sides and a 5-cm margin at the top. What dimensions will give the largest printed area? 37. A piece of wire 10 m long is cut into two pieces. One piece is bent into a square and the other is bent into an equilateral triangle. How should the wire be cut so that the total area enclosed is (a) a maximum? (b) A minimum? 38. Answer Exercise 37 if one piece is bent into a square and the other into a circle.

42. A cone-shaped paper drinking cup is to be made to hold 27 cm3 of water. Find the height and radius of the cup that will use the smallest amount of paper. 43. A cone with height h is inscribed in a larger cone with height H so that its vertex is at the center of the base of the larger cone. Show that the inner cone has maximum volume when h − 13 H. 44. An object with mass m is dragged along a horizontal plane by a force acting along a rope attached to the object. If the rope makes an angle  with a plane, then the magnitude of the force is F−

mt  sin  1 cos 

where  is a constant called the coefficient of friction. For what value of  is F smallest? 45. If a resistor of R ohms is connected across a battery of E volts with internal resistance r ohms, then the power (in watts) in the external resistor is P−

E 2R sR 1 rd 2

If E and r are fixed but R varies, what is the maximum value of the power? 46. For a fish swimming at a speed v relative to the water, the energy expenditure per unit time is proportional to v 3. It is believed that migrating fish try to minimize the total energy required to swim a fixed distance. If the fish are swimming against a current u su , vd, then the time

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SECTION 4.7

required to swim a distance L is Lysv 2 ud and the total energy E required to swim the distance is given by Esvd − av 3 ?

L

47. In a beehive, each cell is a regular hexagonal prism, open at one end with a trihedral angle at the other end as in the figure. It is believed that bees form their cells in such a way as to minimize the surface area for a given side length and height, thus using the least amount of wax in cell construction. Examination of these cells has shown that the measure of the apex angle  is amazingly consistent. Based on the geometry of the cell, it can be shown that the surface area S is given by S − 6sh 2 32 s 2 cot  1 (3s 2s3 y2) csc  where s, the length of the sides of the hexagon, and h, the height, are constants. (a) Calculate dSyd. (b) What angle should the bees prefer? (c) Determine the minimum surface area of the cell (in terms of s and h). Note: Actual measurements of the angle  in beehives have been made, and the measures of these angles seldom differ from the calculated value by more than 28. trihedral angle ¨

339

opposite A on the other side of the lake in the shortest possible time (see the figure). She can walk at the rate of 6 kmyh and row a boat at 3 kmyh. How should she proceed?

v2u

where a is the proportionality constant. (a) Determine the value of v that minimizes E. (b) Sketch the graph of E. Note: This result has been verified experimentally; migrating fish swim against a current at a speed 50% greater than the current speed.

rear of cell

Optimization Problems

B

A

¨ 3

C 3

51. An oil refinery is located on the north bank of a straight river that is 2 km wide. A pipeline is to be constructed from the refinery to storage tanks located on the south bank of the river 6 km east of the refinery. The cost of laying pipe is $400,000ykm over land to a point P on the north bank and $800,000ykm under the river to the tanks. To minimize the cost of the pipeline, where should P be located? ; 52. Suppose the refinery in Exercise 51 is located 1 km north of the river. Where should P be located? 53. The illumination of an object by a light source is directly proportional to the strength of the source and inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source. If two light sources, one three times as strong as the other, are placed 4 m apart, where should an object be placed on the line between the sources so as to receive the least illumination? 54. Find an equation of the line through the point s3, 5d that cuts off the least area from the first quadrant. 55. Let a and b be positive numbers. Find the length of the shortest line segment that is cut off by the first quadrant and passes through the point sa, bd. 56. At which points on the curve y − 1 1 40x 3 2 3x 5 does the tangent line have the largest slope?

h

57. What is the shortest possible length of the line segment that is cut off by the first quadrant and is tangent to the curve y − 3yx at some point?

b

s

front of cell

48. A boat leaves a dock at 2:00 pm and travels due south at a speed of 20 kmyh. Another boat has been heading due east at 15 kmyh and reaches the same dock at 3:00 pm. At what time were the two boats closest together? 49. Solve the problem in Example 4 if the river is 5 km wide and point B is only 5 km downstream from A. 50. A woman at a point A on the shore of a circular lake with radius 3 km wants to arrive at the point C diametrically

58. What is the smallest possible area of the triangle that is cut off by the first quadrant and whose hypotenuse is tangent to the parabola y − 4 2 x 2 at some point? 59. (a) If Csxd is the cost of producing x units of a commodity, then the average cost per unit is csxd − Csxdyx. Show that if the average cost is a minimum, then the marginal cost equals the average cost. (b) If Csxd − 16,000 1 200x 1 4x 3y2, in dollars, find (i) the cost, average cost, and marginal cost at a production level of 1000 units; (ii) the production level that will minimize the average cost; and (iii) the minimum average cost.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

340

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60. (a) Show that if the profit Psxd is a maximum, then the marginal revenue equals the marginal cost. (b) If Csxd − 16,000 1 500x 2 1.6x 2 1 0.004x 3 is the cost function and psxd − 1700 2 7x is the demand function, find the production level that will maximize profit. 61. A baseball team plays in a stadium that holds 55,000 spectators. With ticket prices at $10, the average attendance had been 27,000. When ticket prices were lowered to $8, the average attendance rose to 33,000. (a) Find the demand function, assuming that it is linear. (b) How should ticket prices be set to maximize revenue? 62. During the summer months Terry makes and sells necklaces on the beach. Last summer he sold the necklaces for $10 each and his sales averaged 20 per day. When he increased the price by $1, he found that the average decreased by two sales per day. (a) Find the demand function, assuming that it is linear. (b) If the material for each necklace costs Terry $6, what should the selling price be to maximize his profit? 63. A retailer has been selling 1200 tablet computers a week at $350 each. The marketing department estimates that an additional 80 tablets will sell each week for every $10 that the price is lowered. (a) Find the demand function. (b) What should the price be set at in order to maximize revenue? (c) If the retailer’s weekly cost function is Csxd − 35,000 1 120x what price should it choose in order to maximize its profit? 64. A company operates 16 oil wells in a designated area. Each pump, on average, extracts 240 barrels of oil daily. The company can add more wells but every added well reduces the average daily ouput of each of the wells by 8 barrels. How many wells should the company add in order to maximize daily production? 65. Show that of all the isosceles triangles with a given perimeter, the one with the greatest area is equilateral. 66. Consider the situation in Exercise 51 if the cost of laying pipe under the river is considerably higher than the cost of laying pipe over land ($400,000ykm). You may suspect that in some instances, the minimum distance possible under the river should be used, and P should be located 6 km from the refinery, directly across from the storage tanks. Show that this is never the case, no matter what the “under river” cost is. x2 y2 67. Consider the tangent line to the ellipse 2 1 2 − 1 a b at a point s p, qd in the first quadrant. (a) Show that the tangent line has x-intercept a 2yp and y-intercept b 2yq. (b) Show that the portion of the tangent line cut off by the coordinate axes has minimum length a 1 b.

(c) Show that the triangle formed by the tangent line and the coordinate axes has minimum area ab. CAS

68. The frame for a kite is to be made from six pieces of wood. The four exterior pieces have been cut with the lengths indicated in the figure. To maximize the area of the kite, how long should the diagonal pieces be? a

b

a

b

; 69. A point P needs to be located somewhere on the line AD so that the total length L of cables linking P to the points A, B. and C is minimized (see the figure). Express L as a function of x − AP and use the graphs of L and dLydx to estimate the minimum value of L.

| |

A

P 5m

2m B

3m D

C

70. The graph shows the fuel consumption c of a car (measured in liters per hour) as a function of the speed v of the car. At very low speeds the engine runs inefficiently, so initially c decreases as the speed increases. But at high speeds the fuel consumption increases. You can see that csvd is minimized for this car when v < 48 kmyh. However, for fuel efficiency, what must be minimized is not the consumption in gallons per hour but rather the fuel consumption in liters per kilometer. Let’s call this consumption G. Using the graph, estimate the speed at which G has its minimum value. c

0

40

80

√

71. Let v1 be the velocity of light in air and v2 the velocity of light in water. According to Fermat’s Principle, a ray of light will travel from a point A in the air to a point B in the water by a path ACB that minimizes the time taken. Show that sin  1 v1 − sin  2 v2

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 4.7

where  1 (the angle of incidence) and  2 (the angle of refraction) are as shown. This equation is known as Snell’s Law. A ¨¡

341

Optimization Problems

75. An observer stands at a point P, one unit away from a track. Two runners start at the point S in the figure and run along the track. One runner runs three times as fast as the other. Find the maximum value of the observer’s angle of sight  between the runners.

C

P ¨

¨™ 1

B

72. Two vertical poles PQ and ST are secured by a rope PRS going from the top of the first pole to a point R on the ground between the poles and then to the top of the second pole as in the figure. Show that the shortest length of such a rope occurs when 1 −  2 . P S

S

76. A rain gutter is to be constructed from a metal sheet of width 30 cm by bending up one-third of the sheet on each side through an angle . How should  be chosen so that the gutter will carry the maximum amount of water?

¨ ¨¡ Q

¨™ R

¨

10 cm

10 cm

10 cm

T

73. The upper right-hand corner of a piece of paper, 30 cm by 20 cm, as in the figure, is folded over to the bottom edge. How would you fold it so as to minimize the length of the fold? In other words, how would you choose x to minimize y?

77. Where should the point P be chosen on the line segment AB so as to maximize the angle ? B

2

¨

P 3

30

y

x

5

A

20

74. A steel pipe is being carried down a hallway 3 m wide. At the end of the hall there is a right-angled turn into a narrower hallway 2 m wide. What is the length of the longest pipe that can be carried horizontally around the corner?

78. A painting in an art gallery has height h and is hung so that its lower edge is a distance d above the eye of an observer (as in the figure). How far from the wall should the observer stand to get the best view? (In other words, where should the observer stand so as to maximize the angle  subtended at his eye by the painting?) h

2

¨

d

¨

3

79. Find the maximum area of a rectangle that can be circumscribed about a given rectangle with length L and width W. [Hint: Express the area as a function of an angle .]

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342

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

80. The blood vascular system consists of blood vessels (arteries, arterioles, capillaries, and veins) that convey blood from the heart to the organs and back to the heart. This system should work so as to minimize the energy expended by the heart in pumping the blood. In particular, this energy is reduced when the resistance of the blood is lowered. One of Poiseuille’s Laws gives the resistance R of the blood as R−C

L r4

where L is the length of the blood vessel, r is the radius, and C is a positive constant determined by the viscosity of the blood. (Poiseuille established this law experimentally, but it also follows from Equation 8.4.2.) The figure shows a main blood vessel with radius r1 branching at an angle  into a smaller vessel with radius r 2.

fly in order to minimize the total energy expended in returning to its nesting area? (b) Let W and L denote the energy (in joules) per kilometer flown over water and land, respectively. What would a large value of the ratio WyL mean in terms of the bird’s flight? What would a small value mean? Determine the ratio WyL corresponding to the minimum expenditure of energy. (c) What should the value of WyL be in order for the bird to fly directly to its nesting area D? What should the value of WyL be for the bird to fly to B and then along the shore to D? (d) If the ornithologists observe that birds of a certain species reach the shore at a point 4 km from B, how many times more energy does it take a bird to fly over water than over land?

C

island r™ b

vascular branching A

5 km

r¡

C

¨

D

B

B

nest

13 km a

(a) Use Poiseuille’s Law to show that the total resistance of the blood along the path ABC is R−C

S

D

b csc  a 2 b cot  1 r14 r24

where a and b are the distances shown in the figure. (b) Prove that this resistance is minimized when cos  −

r24 r14

(c) Find the optimal branching angle (correct to the nearest degree) when the radius of the smaller blood vessel is two-thirds the radius of the larger vessel. 81. Ornithologists have determined that some species of birds tend to avoid flights over large bodies of water during daylight hours. It is believed that more energy is required to fly over water than over land because air generally rises over land and falls over water during the day. A bird with these tendencies is released from an island that is 5 km from the nearest point B on a straight shoreline, flies to a point C on the shoreline, and then flies along the shoreline to its nesting area D. Assume that the bird instinctively chooses a path that will minimize its energy expenditure. Points B and D are 13 km apart. (a) In general, if it takes 1.4 times as much energy to fly over water as it does over land, to what point C should the bird

; 82. Two light sources of identical strength are placed 10 m apart. An object is to be placed at a point P on a line ,, parallel to the line joining the light sources and at a distance d meters from it (see the figure). We want to locate P on , so that the intensity of illumination is minimized. We need to use the fact that the intensity of illumination for a single source is directly proportional to the strength of the source and inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source. (a) Find an expression for the intensity Isxd at the point P. (b) If d − 5 m, use graphs of Isxd and I9sxd to show that the intensity is minimized when x − 5 m, that is, when P is at the midpoint of ,. (c) If d − 10 m, show that the intensity (perhaps surprisingly) is not minimized at the midpoint. (d) Somewhere between d − 5 m and d − 10 m there is a transitional value of d at which the point of minimal illumination abruptly changes. Estimate this value of d by graphical methods. Then find the exact value of d. P  x d

10 m

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APPLIED PROJECT The Shape of a Can

applied project

h

r

343

the shape of a can In this project we investigate the most economical shape for a can. We first interpret this to mean that the volume V of a cylindrical can is given and we need to find the height h and radius r that minimize the cost of the metal to make the can (see the figure). If we disregard any waste metal in the manufacturing process, then the problem is to minimize the surface area of the cylinder. We solved this problem in Example 4.7.2 and we found that h − 2r; that is, the height should be the same as the diameter. But if you go to your cupboard or your supermarket with a ruler, you will discover that the height is usually greater than the diameter and the ratio hyr varies from 2 up to about 3.8. Let’s see if we can explain this phenomenon. 1. The material for the cans is cut from sheets of metal. The cylindrical sides are formed by bending rectangles; these rectangles are cut from the sheet with little or no waste. But if the top and bottom discs are cut from squares of side 2r (as in the figure), this leaves considerable waste metal, which may be recycled but has little or no value to the can makers. If this is the case, show that the amount of metal used is minimized when h 8 − < 2.55 r 

Discs cut from squares

2. A more efficient packing of the discs is obtained by dividing the metal sheet into hexagons and cutting the circular lids and bases from the hexagons (see the figure). Show that if this strategy is adopted, then h 4 s3 − < 2.21 r 

Discs cut from hexagons

3. The values of hyr that we found in Problems 1 and 2 are a little closer to the ones that actually occur on supermarket shelves, but they still don’t account for everything. If we look more closely at some real cans, we see that the lid and the base are formed from discs with radius larger than r that are bent over the ends of the can. If we allow for this we would increase hyr. More significantly, in addition to the cost of the metal we need to incorporate the manufacturing of the can into the cost. Let’s assume that most of the expense is incurred in joining the sides to the rims of the cans. If we cut the discs from hexagons as in Problem 2, then the total cost is proportional to 4 s3 r 2 1 2rh 1 ks4r 1 hd where k is the reciprocal of the length that can be joined for the cost of one unit area of metal. Show that this expression is minimized when 3 V s − k

Î 3

2 2 hyr h ? r hyr 2 4 s3

3 ; 4. Plot sV yk as a function of x − hyr and use your graph to argue that when a can is large or joining is cheap, we should make hyr approximately 2.21 (as in Problem 2). But when the can is small or joining is costly, hyr should be substantially larger.

5. Our analysis shows that large cans should be almost square but small cans should be tall and thin. Take a look at the relative shapes of the cans in a supermarket. Is our conclusion usually true in practice? Are there exceptions? Can you suggest reasons why small cans are not always tall and thin?

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344

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

© Targn Pleiades / Shutterstock.com

applied project

planes and Birds: MiniMizing energy Small birds like finches alternate between flapping their wings and keeping them folded while gliding (see Figure 1). In this project we analyze this phenomenon and try to determine how frequently a bird should flap its wings. Some of the principles are the same as for fixed-wing aircraft and so we begin by considering how required power and energy depend on the speed of airplanes.1

figUre 1 1. The power needed to propel an airplane forward at velocity v is P − Av 3 1

BL 2 v

where A and B are positive constants specific to the particular aircraft and L is the lift, the upward force supporting the weight of the plane. Find the speed that minimizes the required power. 2. The speed found in Problem 1 minimizes power but a faster speed might use less fuel. The energy needed to propel the airplane a unit distance is E − Pyv. At what speed is energy minimized? 3. Hows much faster is the speed for minimum energy than the speed for minimum power? 4. In applying the equation of Problem 1 to bird flight we split the term Av 3 into two parts: Ab v 3 for the bird’s body and Aw v 3 for its wings. Let x be the fraction of flying time spent in flapping mode. If m is the bird’s mass and all the lift occurs during flapping, then the lift is mtyx and so the power needed during flapping is

Pflap − sA b 1 Awdv 3 1

Bsmtyxd2 v

The power while wings are folded is Pfold − Abv 3. Show that the average power over an entire flight cycle is P − x Pflap 1 s1 2 xdPfold − Abv 3 1 x Awv 3 1

Bm2t 2 xv

5. For what value of x is the average power a minimum? What can you conclude if the bird flies slowly? What can you conclude if the bird flies faster and faster? 6. The average energy over a cycle is E − Pyv. What value of x minimizes E ?

1. Adapted from R. McNeill Alexander, Optima for Animals (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996.)

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SECTION 4.8

Newton’s Method

345

Suppose that a car dealer offers to sell you a car for $18,000 or for payments of $375 per month for five years. You would like to know what monthly interest rate the dealer is, in effect, charging you. To find the answer, you have to solve the equation 1 0.15

0

0.012

_0.05

figUre 1 Try to solve Equation 1 numerically using your calculator or computer. Some machines are not able to solve it. Others are successful but require you to specify a starting point for the search.

y {x ¡, f(x¡)}

y=ƒ L 0

figUre 2

r

x™ x¡

x

48xs1 1 xd60 2 s1 1 xd60 1 1 − 0

(The details are explained in Exercise 41.) How would you solve such an equation? For a quadratic equation ax 2 1 bx 1 c − 0 there is a well-known formula for the solutions. For third- and fourth-degree equations there are also formulas for the solutions, but they are extremely complicated. If f is a polynomial of degree 5 or higher, there is no such formula (see the note on page 211). Likewise, there is no formula that will enable us to find the exact roots of a transcendental equation such as cos x − x. We can find an approximate solution to Equation 1 by plotting the left side of the equation. Using a graphing device, and after experimenting with viewing rectangles, we produce the graph in Figure 1. We see that in addition to the solution x − 0, which doesn’t interest us, there is a solution between 0.007 and 0.008. Zooming in shows that the root is approximately 0.0076. If we need more accuracy we could zoom in repeatedly, but that becomes tiresome. A faster alternative is to use a calculator or computer algebra system to solve the equation numerically. If we do so, we find that the root, correct to nine decimal places, is 0.007628603. How do these devices solve equations? They use a variety of methods, but most of them make some use of Newton’s method, also called the Newton-Raphson method. We will explain how this method works, partly to show what happens inside a calculator or computer, and partly as an application of the idea of linear approximation. The geometry behind Newton’s method is shown in Figure 2. We wish to solve an equation of the form f sxd − 0, so the roots of the equation correspond to the x-intercepts of the graph of f. The root that we are trying to find is labeled r in the figure. We start with a first approximation x 1, which is obtained by guessing, or from a rough sketch of the graph of f , or from a computer-generated graph of f. Consider the tangent line L to the curve y − f sxd at the point sx 1, f sx 1dd and look at the x-intercept of L, labeled x 2. The idea behind Newton’s method is that the tangent line is close to the curve and so its x-intercept, x2, is close to the x-intercept of the curve (namely, the root r that we are seeking). Because the tangent is a line, we can easily find its x-intercept. To find a formula for x2 in terms of x1 we use the fact that the slope of L is f 9sx1 d, so its equation is y 2 f sx 1 d − f 9sx 1 dsx 2 x 1 d Since the x-intercept of L is x 2 , we know that the point sx 2 , 0d is on the line, and so 0 2 f sx 1 d − f 9sx 1 dsx 2 2 x 1 d If f 9sx 1d ± 0, we can solve this equation for x 2 : x2 − x1 2

f sx 1 d f 9sx 1 d

We use x 2 as a second approximation to r. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

346

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

y

Next we repeat this procedure with x 1 replaced by the second approximation x 2 , using the tangent line at sx 2 , f sx 2 dd. This gives a third approximation:

{x¡, f(x¡)}

x3 − x2 2 {x™, f(x™)}

r 0

x¢

x£

x™ x ¡

x

If we keep repeating this process, we obtain a sequence of approximations x 1, x 2, x 3, x 4, . . . as shown in Figure 3. In general, if the nth approximation is x n and f 9sx n d ± 0, then the next approximation is given by

figUre 3

x n11 − x n 2

2

lim x n − r

nl`

y

x™

0

x¡

r

f sx n d f 9sx n d

If the numbers x n become closer and closer to r as n becomes large, then we say that the sequence converges to r and we write

Sequences were briefly introduced in A Preview of Calculus on page 5. A more thorough discussion starts in Section 11.1.

x£

f sx 2 d f 9sx 2 d

x

Although the sequence of successive approximations converges to the desired root for functions of the type illustrated in Figure 3, in certain circumstances the sequence may not converge. For example, consider the situation shown in Figure 4. You can see that x 2 is a worse approximation than x 1. This is likely to be the case when f 9sx 1d is close to 0. It might even happen that an approximation (such as x 3 in Figure 4) falls outside the domain of f. Then Newton’s method fails and a better initial approximation x 1 should be chosen. See Exercises 31–34 for specific examples in which Newton’s method works very slowly or does not work at all.

figUre 4

EXAMPLE 1 Starting with x 1 − 2, find the third approximation x 3 to the root of the equation x 3 2 2x 2 5 − 0.

tec In Module 4.8 you can investigate how Newton’s method works for several functions and what happens when you change x 1.

SOLUTION We apply Newton’s method with

Figure 5 shows the geometry behind the first step in Newton’s method in Example 1. Since f 9s2d − 10, the tangent line to y − x 3 2 2x 2 5 at s2, 21d has equation y − 10x 2 21 so its x-intercept is x 2 − 2.1.

f sxd − x 3 2 2x 2 5

f 9sxd − 3x 2 2 2

Newton himself used this equation to illustrate his method and he chose x 1 − 2 after some experimentation because f s1d − 26, f s2d − 21, and f s3d − 16. Equation 2 becomes f sx nd x n3 2 2x n 2 5 x n11 − x n 2 − xn 2 f 9sx nd 3x n2 2 2 With n − 1 we have

1

x2 − x1 2

y=˛-2x-5 1.8

and

2.2 x™

−22

f sx1 d x13 2 2x 1 2 5 − x1 2 f 9sx1d 3x12 2 2 2 3 2 2s2d 2 5 − 2.1 3s2d2 2 2

y=10x-21

Then with n − 2 we obtain

_2

figUre 5

x3 − x2 2

s2.1d3 2 2s2.1d 2 5 x 23 2 2x 2 2 5 − 2.1 2 < 2.0946 2 3x 2 2 2 3s2.1d2 2 2

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SECTION 4.8

Newton’s Method

347

It turns out that this third approximation x 3 < 2.0946 is accurate to four decimal places.

■

Suppose that we want to achieve a given accuracy, say to eight decimal places, using Newton’s method. How do we know when to stop? The rule of thumb that is generally used is that we can stop when successive approximations x n and x n11 agree to eight decimal places. (A precise statement concerning accuracy in Newton’s method will be given in Exercise 11.11.39.) Notice that the procedure in going from n to n 1 1 is the same for all values of n. (It is called an iterative process.) This means that Newton’s method is particularly convenient for use with a programmable calculator or a computer. 6 EXAMPLE 2 Use Newton’s method to find s 2 correct to eight decimal places. 6 2 SOLUTION First we observe that finding s is equivalent to finding the positive root of

the equation x6 2 2 − 0 so we take f sxd − x 6 2 2. Then f 9sxd − 6x 5 and Formula 2 (Newton’s method) becomes fsx nd x n6 2 2 x n11 − x n 2 − xn 2 f 9sx nd 6x n5 If we choose x 1 − 1 as the initial approximation, then we obtain x 2 < 1.16666667 x 3 < 1.12644368 x 4 < 1.12249707 x 5 < 1.12246205 x 6 < 1.12246205 Since x 5 and x 6 agree to eight decimal places, we conclude that 6 2 < 1.12246205 s

to eight decimal places.

■

EXAMPLE 3 Find, correct to six decimal places, the root of the equation cos x − x. SOLUTION We first rewrite the equation in standard form:

cos x 2 x − 0 y

Therefore we let f sxd − cos x 2 x. Then f 9sxd − 2sin x 2 1, so Formula 2 becomes

y=x

y=cos x 1

figUre 6

π 2

π

x

x n11 − x n 2

cos x n 2 x n cos x n 2 x n − xn 1 2sin x n 2 1 sin x n 1 1

In order to guess a suitable value for x 1 we sketch the graphs of y − cos x and y − x in Figure 6. It appears that they intersect at a point whose x-coordinate is somewhat less

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348

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

than 1, so let’s take x 1 − 1 as a convenient first approximation. Then, remembering to put our calculator in radian mode, we get x 2 < 0.75036387 x 3 < 0.73911289 x 4 < 0.73908513 x 5 < 0.73908513 Since x 4 and x 5 agree to six decimal places (eight, in fact), we conclude that the root of the equation, correct to six decimal places, is 0.739085. ■

1

Instead of using the rough sketch in Figure 6 to get a starting approximation for Newton’s method in Example 3, we could have used the more accurate graph that a calculator or computer provides. Figure 7 suggests that we use x1 − 0.75 as the initial approximation. Then Newton’s method gives

y=cos x

y=x

x 2 < 0.73911114

1

0

x 3 < 0.73908513

figUre 7

x 4 < 0.73908513 and so we obtain the same answer as before, but with one fewer step.

1. The figure shows the graph of a function f. Suppose that Newton’s method is used to approximate the root s of the equation f sxd − 0 with initial approximation x 1 − 6. (a) Draw the tangent lines that are used to find x 2 and x 3, and estimate the numerical values of x 2 and x 3. (b) Would x 1 − 8 be a better first approximation? Explain.

(a) x1 − 0 (d) x1 − 4

(b) x1 − 1 (e) x1 − 5

(c) x1 − 3

y

0

3

1

x

5

5. For which of the initial approximations x1 − a, b, c, and d do you think Newton’s method will work and lead to the root of the equation f sxd − 0? y

2. Follow the instructions for Exercise 1(a) but use x 1 − 1 as the starting approximation for finding the root r. 3. Suppose the tangent line to the curve y − f sxd at the point s2, 5d has the equation y − 9 2 2x. If Newton’s method is used to locate a root of the equation f sxd − 0 and the initial approximation is x1 − 2, find the second approximation x 2. 4. For each initial approximation, determine graphically what happens if Newton’s method is used for the function whose graph is shown.

a

0

b

c

d

x

6–8 Use Newton’s method with the specified initial approximation x 1 to find x 3, the third approximation to the root of the given equation. (Give your answer to four decimal places.) 6. 2 x 3 2 3x 2 1 2 − 0 ,

x 1 − 21

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SECTION 4.8

7.

2 2 x 2 1 1 − 0, x

x1 − 2

8. x 7 1 4 − 0,

x1 − 21

x n11 −

8 12. s 500

13–14 (a) Explain how we know that the given equation must have a root in the given interval. (b) Use Newton’s method to approximate the root correct to six decimal places.

4

x n11 − 2x n 2 ax n2 (This algorithm enables a computer to find reciprocals without actually dividing.) (b) Use part (a) to compute 1y1.6984 correct to six decimal places. 31. Explain why Newton’s method doesn’t work for finding the root of the equation x 3 2 3x 1 6 − 0

3

14. 22 x 1 9x 2 7x 2 11x − 0,

f3, 4g

if the initial approximation is chosen to be x 1 − 1.

15–16 Use Newton’s method to approximate the indicated root of the equation correct to six decimal places. 15. The positive root of sin x − x 2 16. The positive root of 2 cos x − x 4 17–22 Use Newton’s method to find all solutions of the equation correct to six decimal places. 17. 3 cos x − x 1 1

18. sx 1 1 − x 2 2 x

19. 2 x − 2 2 x 2

20. ln x −

21. cos x − sx

22. tan x − s1 2 x 2

1 x23

32. (a) Use Newton’s method with x 1 − 1 to find the root of the equation x 3 2 x − 1 correct to six decimal places. (b) Solve the equation in part (a) using x 1 − 0.6 as the initial approximation. (c) Solve the equation in part (a) using x 1 − 0.57. (You definitely need a programmable calculator for this part.) (d) Graph f sxd − x 3 2 x 2 1 and its tangent lines at ; x1 − 1, 0.6, and 0.57 to explain why Newton’s method is so sensitive to the value of the initial approximation. 33. Explain why Newton’s method fails when applied to the 3 equation s x − 0 with any initial approximation x 1 ± 0. Illustrate your explanation with a sketch. 34. If

; 23–28 Use Newton’s method to find all the solutions of the equation correct to eight decimal places. Start by drawing a graph to find initial approximations. 23. 22x7 2 5x 4 1 9x 3 1 5 − 0 24. x 5 2 3x 4 1 x 3 2 x 2 2 x 1 6 − 0 x 25. 2 − s1 2 x x 11 26. cossx 2 2 xd − x 4 2

27. 4e 2x sin x − x 2 2 x 1 1 28. lnsx 2 1 2d −

3x sx 2 1 1

D

30. (a) Apply Newton’s method to the equation 1yx 2 a − 0 to derive the following reciprocal algorithm:

13. 3x 4 2 8x 3 1 2 − 0, f2, 3g 5

S

a 1 xn 1 2 xn

(b) Use part (a) to compute s1000 correct to six decimal places.

11–12 Use Newton’s method to approximate the given number correct to eight decimal places. 4 11. s 75

349

29. (a) Apply Newton’s method to the equation x 2 2 a − 0 to derive the following square-root algorithm (used by the ancient Babylonians to compute sa ):

; 9. Use Newton’s method with initial approximation x1 − 21 to find x 2, the second approximation to the root of the equation x 3 1 x 1 3 − 0. Explain how the method works by first graphing the function and its tangent line at s21, 1d. ; 10. Use Newton’s method with initial approximation x1 − 1 to find x 2, the second approximation to the root of the equation x 4 2 x 2 1 − 0. Explain how the method works by first graphing the function and its tangent line at s1, 21d.

Newton’s Method

f sxd −

H

sx 2s2x

if x > 0 if x , 0

then the root of the equation f sxd − 0 is x − 0. Explain why Newton’s method fails to find the root no matter which initial approximation x 1 ± 0 is used. Illustrate your explanation with a sketch. 35. (a) Use Newton’s method to find the critical numbers of the function f sxd − x 6 2 x 4 1 3x 3 2 2x correct to six decimal places. (b) Find the absolute minimum value of f correct to four decimal places.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

350

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

36. Use Newton’s method to find the absolute maximum value of the function f sxd − x cos x, 0 < x < , correct to six decimal places. 37. Use Newton’s method to find the coordinates of the inflection point of the curve y − x 2 sin x, 0 < x < , correct to six decimal places. 38. Of the infinitely many lines that are tangent to the curve y − 2sin x and pass through the origin, there is one that has the largest slope. Use Newton’s method to find the slope of that line correct to six decimal places. 39. Use Newton’s method to find the coordinates, correct to six decimal places, of the point on the parabola y − sx 2 1d 2 that is closest to the origin. 40. In the figure, the length of the chord AB is 4 cm and the length of the arc AB is 5 cm. Find the central angle , in radians, correct to four decimal places. Then give the answer to the nearest degree.

4 cm

48xs1 1 xd60 2 s1 1 xd60 1 1 − 0 Use Newton’s method to solve this equation. 42. The figure shows the sun located at the origin and the earth at the point s1, 0d. (The unit here is the distance between the centers of the earth and the sun, called an astronomical unit: 1 AU < 1.496 3 10 8 km.) There are five locations L 1, L 2, L 3, L 4, and L 5 in this plane of rotation of the earth about the sun where a satellite remains motionless with respect to the earth because the forces acting on the satellite (including the gravitational attractions of the earth and the sun) balance each other. These locations are called libration points. (A solar research satellite has been placed at one of these libration points.) If m1 is the mass of the sun, m 2 is the mass of the earth, and r − m 2ysm1 1 m 2 d, it turns out that the x-coordinate of L 1 is the unique root of the fifth-degree equation psxd − x 5 2 s2 1 rdx 4 1 s1 1 2rdx 3 2 s1 2 rdx 2

5 cm A

Replacing i by x, show that

− 1 2s1 2 rdx 1 r 2 1 − 0

B

and the x-coordinate of L 2 is the root of the equation

¨

psxd 2 2rx 2 − 0 Using the value r < 3.04042 3 10 26, find the locations of the libration points (a) L 1 and (b) L 2. 41. A car dealer sells a new car for $18,000. He also offers to sell the same car for payments of $375 per month for five years. What monthly interest rate is this dealer charging? To solve this problem you will need to use the formula for the present value A of an annuity consisting of n equal payments of size R with interest rate i per time period: A−

R f1 2 s1 1 i d2n g i

y L¢ sun

earth

L∞

L¡

L™

x

L£

A physicist who knows the velocity of a particle might wish to know its position at a given time. An engineer who can measure the variable rate at which water is leaking from a tank wants to know the amount leaked over a certain time period. A biologist who knows the rate at which a bacteria population is increasing might want to deduce what the size of the population will be at some future time. In each case, the problem is to find a function F whose derivative is a known function f. If such a function F exists, it is called an antiderivative of f. definition A function F is called an antiderivative of f on an interval I if F9sxd − f sxd for all x in I.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 4.9

Antiderivatives

351

For instance, let f sxd − x 2. It isn’t difficult to discover an antiderivative of f if we keep the Power Rule in mind. In fact, if Fsxd − 13 x 3, then F9sxd − x 2 − f sxd. But the function Gsxd − 13 x 3 1 100 also satisfies G9sxd − x 2. Therefore both F and G are antiderivatives of f. Indeed, any function of the form Hsxd − 13 x 3 1 C, where C is a constant, is an antiderivative of f. The question arises: Are there any others? To answer this question, recall that in Section 4.2 we used the Mean Value Theorem to prove that if two functions have identical derivatives on an interval, then they must differ by a constant (Corollary 4.2.7). Thus if F and G are any two antiderivatives of f , then y

F9sxd − f sxd − G9sxd

˛

y= 3 +3 ˛

y= 3 +2

so Gsxd 2 Fsxd − C, where C is a constant. We can write this as Gsxd − Fsxd 1 C, so we have the following result.

˛

y= 3 +1 y= ˛ 0

x

3

˛

y= 3 -1 ˛

y= 3 -2

figUre 1 Members of the family of antiderivatives of f sxd − x 2

1 theorem If F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I, then the most general antiderivative of f on I is Fsxd 1 C where C is an arbitrary constant. Going back to the function f sxd − x 2, we see that the general antiderivative of f is 1 C. By assigning specific values to the constant C, we obtain a family of functions whose graphs are vertical translates of one another (see Figure 1). This makes sense because each curve must have the same slope at any given value of x. 1 3 3x

EXAMPLE 1 Find the most general antiderivative of each of the following functions. (a) f sxd − sin x (b) f sxd − 1yx (c) f sxd − x n, n ± 21 SOLUTION

(a) If Fsxd − 2cos x , then F9sxd − sin x, so an antiderivative of sin x is 2cos x. By Theorem 1, the most general antiderivative is Gsxd − 2cos x 1 C. (b) Recall from Section 3.6 that d 1 sln xd − dx x So on the interval s0, `d the general antiderivative of 1yx is ln x 1 C. We also learned that d (ln | x |) − 1x dx for all x ± 0. Theorem 1 then tells us that the general antiderivative of f sxd − 1yx is ln | x | 1 C on any interval that doesn’t contain 0. In particular, this is true on each of the intervals s2`, 0d and s0, `d. So the general antiderivative of f is Fsxd −

H

ln x 1 C1 lns2xd 1 C2

if x . 0 if x , 0

(c) We use the Power Rule to discover an antiderivative of x n. In fact, if n ± 21, then d dx

S D x n11 n11

−

sn 1 1dx n − xn n11

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352

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

Therefore the general antiderivative of f sxd − x n is Fsxd −

x n11 1C n11

This is valid for n > 0 since then f sxd − x n is defined on an interval. If n is negative (but n ± 21), it is valid on any interval that doesn’t contain 0. ■ As in Example 1, every differentiation formula, when read from right to left, gives rise to an antidifferentiation formula. In Table 2 we list some particular antiderivatives. Each formula in the table is true because the derivative of the function in the right column appears in the left column. In particular, the first formula says that the antiderivative of a constant times a function is the constant times the antiderivative of the function. The second formula says that the antiderivative of a sum is the sum of the antiderivatives. (We use the notation F9− f , G9 − t.) 2 table of antidifferentiation formulas

Function

Particular antiderivative

Function

Particular antiderivative

c f sxd

cFsxd

sin x

2cos x

f sxd 1 tsxd

Fsxd 1 Gsxd

2

sec x

tan x

sec x tan x

sec x

n11

To obtain the most general antiderivative from the particular ones in Table 2, we have to add a constant (or constants), as in Example 1.

x n sn ± 21d

x n11

1 x

ln x

1 s1 2 x 2

sin21x

ex

ex

1 1 1 x2

tan21x

bx

bx ln b

cosh x

sinh x

cos x

sin x

sinh x

cosh x

| |

EXAMPLE 2 Find all functions t such that t9sxd − 4 sin x 1

2x 5 2 sx x

SOLUTION We first rewrite the given function as follows:

t9sxd − 4 sin x 1

2x 5 1 sx 2 − 4 sin x 1 2x 4 2 x x sx

Thus we want to find an antiderivative of t9sxd − 4 sin x 1 2x 4 2 x21y2 Using the formulas in Table 2 together with Theorem 1, we obtain We often use a capital letter F to represent an antiderivative of a function f. If we begin with derivative notation, f 9, an antiderivative is f, of course.

tsxd − 4s2cos xd 1 2

x5 x1y2 2 1 1C 5 2

− 24 cos x 1 25 x 5 2 2sx 1 C

■

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SECTION 4.9

Antiderivatives

353

In applications of calculus it is very common to have a situation as in Example 2, where it is required to find a function, given knowledge about its derivatives. An equation that involves the derivatives of a function is called a differential equation. These will be studied in some detail in Chapter 9, but for the present we can solve some elementary differential equations. The general solution of a differential equation involves an arbitrary constant (or constants) as in Example 2. However, there may be some extra conditions given that will determine the constants and therefore uniquely specify the solution.

EXAMPLE 3 Find f if f 9sxd − e x 1 20s1 1 x 2 d21 and f s0d − 22. Figure 2 shows the graphs of the function f 9 in Example 3 and its antiderivative f. Notice that f 9sxd . 0, so f is always increasing. Also notice that when f 9 has a maximum or minimum, f appears to have an inflection point. So the graph serves as a check on our calculation. 40

SOLUTION The general antiderivative of

f 9sxd − e x 1

20 1 1 x2

f sxd − e x 1 20 tan21 x 1 C

is

To determine C we use the fact that f s0d − 22: f s0d − e 0 1 20 tan21 0 1 C − 22

fª _2

3

Thus we have C − 22 2 1 − 23, so the particular solution is

f

f sxd − e x 1 20 tan21 x 2 3

■

_25

figUre 2

EXAMPLE 4 Find f if f 0sxd − 12x 2 1 6x 2 4, f s0d − 4, and f s1d − 1. SOLUTION The general antiderivative of f 0sxd − 12x 2 1 6x 2 4 is

f 9sxd − 12

x2 x3 16 2 4x 1 C − 4x 3 1 3x 2 2 4x 1 C 3 2

Using the antidifferentiation rules once more, we find that f sxd − 4

x4 x3 x2 13 24 1 Cx 1 D − x 4 1 x 3 2 2x 2 1 Cx 1 D 4 3 2

To determine C and D we use the given conditions that f s0d − 4 and f s1d − 1. Since f s0d − 0 1 D − 4, we have D − 4. Since f s1d − 1 1 1 2 2 1 C 1 4 − 1 we have C − 23. Therefore the required function is f sxd − x 4 1 x 3 2 2x 2 2 3x 1 4

■

If we are given the graph of a function f, it seems reasonable that we should be able to sketch the graph of an antiderivative F. Suppose, for instance, that we are given that Fs0d − 1. Then we have a place to start, the point s0, 1d, and the direction in which we move our pencil is given at each stage by the derivative F9sxd − f sxd. In the next example we use the principles of this chapter to show how to graph F even when we don’t have a formula for f. This would be the case, for instance, when f sxd is determined by experimental data. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

354

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

EXAMPLE 5 The graph of a function f is given in Figure 3. Make a rough sketch of an antiderivative F, given that Fs0d − 2.

y

y=ƒ 0

1

2

3

4

x

figUre 3 y

y=F(x)

SOLUTION We are guided by the fact that the slope of y − Fsxd is f sxd. We start at the point s0, 2d and draw F as an initially decreasing function since f sxd is negative when 0 , x , 1. Notice that f s1d − f s3d − 0, so F has horizontal tangents when x − 1 and x − 3. For 1 , x , 3, f sxd is positive and so F is increasing. We see that F has a local minimum when x − 1 and a local maximum when x − 3. For x . 3, f sxd is negative and so F is decreasing on s3, `d. Since f sxd l 0 as x l `, the graph of F becomes flatter as x l `. Also notice that F0sxd − f 9sxd changes from positive to negative at x − 2 and from negative to positive at x − 4, so F has inflection points when x − 2 and x − 4. We use this information to sketch the graph of the antiderivative in Figure 4. ■

2

Rectilinear Motion

1 0

1

figUre 4

x

Antidifferentiation is particularly useful in analyzing the motion of an object moving in a straight line. Recall that if the object has position function s − f std, then the velocity function is vstd − s9std. This means that the position function is an antiderivative of the velocity function. Likewise, the acceleration function is astd − v9std, so the velocity function is an antiderivative of the acceleration. If the acceleration and the initial values ss0d and vs0d are known, then the position function can be found by antidifferentiating twice.

EXAMPLE 6 A particle moves in a straight line and has acceleration given by astd − 6t 1 4. Its initial velocity is vs0d − 26 cmys and its initial displacement is ss0d − 9 cm. Find its position function sstd. SOLUTION Since v9std − astd − 6t 1 4, antidifferentiation gives vstd − 6

t2 1 4t 1 C − 3t 2 1 4t 1 C 2

Note that vs0d − C. But we are given that vs0d − 26, so C − 26 and vstd − 3t 2 1 4t 2 6

Since vstd − s9std, s is the antiderivative of v: sstd − 3

t3 t2 14 2 6t 1 D − t 3 1 2t 2 2 6t 1 D 3 2

This gives ss0d − D. We are given that ss0d − 9, so D − 9 and the required position function is sstd − t 3 1 2t 2 2 6t 1 9

■

An object near the surface of the earth is subject to a gravitational force that produces a downward acceleration denoted by t. For motion close to the ground we may assume that t is constant, its value being about 9.8 mys2 (or 32 ftys2).

EXAMPLE 7 A ball is thrown upward with a speed of 15 mys from the edge of a cliff 140 m above the ground. Find its height above the ground t seconds later. When does it reach its maximum height? When does it hit the ground?

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SECTION 4.9

355

Antiderivatives

SOLUTION The motion is vertical and we choose the positive direction to be upward. At time t the distance above the ground is sstd and the velocity vstd is decreasing. Therefore the acceleration must be negative and we have

astd −

dv − 29.8 dt

Taking antiderivatives, we have vstd − 29.8t 1 C

To determine C we use the given information that vs0d − 15. This gives 15 − 0 1 C, so vstd − 29.8t 1 15

The maximum height is reached when vstd − 0, that is, after 15y9.8 < 1.53 s. Since s9std − vstd, we antidifferentiate again and obtain sstd − 24.9t 2 1 15t 1 D Using the fact that ss0d − 140, we have 140 − 0 1 D and so Figure 5 shows the position function of the ball in Example 7. The graph corroborates the conclusions we reached: The ball reaches its maximum height after 1.5 seconds and hits the ground after about 7.1 seconds.

sstd − 24.9t 2 1 15t 1 140 The expression for sstd is valid until the ball hits the ground. This happens when sstd − 0, and therefore 2sstd − 0; that is, when 4.9t 2 2 15t 2 140 − 0 Using the quadratic formula to solve this equation, we get

200

t−

15 6 s2969 9.8

We reject the solution with the minus sign since it gives a negative value for t. Therefore the ball hits the ground after 8

0

15 1 s2969 < 7.1 s 9.8

figUre 5

1–22 Find the most general antiderivative of the function. (Check your answer by differentiation.) 1. f sxd − 4x 1 7 3. f sxd − 2x 3 2

2.

2 2 3x

f sxd − x 2 2 3x 1 2

4.

f sxd − 6x 5 2 8x 4 2 9x 2

5. f sxd − xs12 x 1 8d

6.

f sxd − sx 2 5d 2

7. f sxd − 7x 2y5 1 8x 24y5

8.

f sxd − xs2 2 xd2

1 5x

9. f sxd − s2 11. f sxd − 3sx 2 2 sx 3

10.

f sxd − e 2

12.

f sxd − sx 2 1 x sx 3

13. f sxd − 15. tstd −

1 2 2 5 x 1 1 t 1 t2 st

■

14. f std −

3t 4 2 t 3 1 6t 2 t4

16. rsd − sec  tan  2 2e  3

17. hsd − 2 sin  2 sec 2 

18. tsv d − 2 cos v 2

19. f sxd − 2 x 1 4 sinh x

20. f sxd − 1 1 2 sin x 1 3ysx

21. f sxd −

2x 4 1 4x 3 2 x , x3

s1 2 v 2

x.0

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356

CHAPTER 4

22. f sxd −

Applications of Differentiation

2x 2 1 5 x2 1 1

51–52 The graph of a function f is shown. Which graph is an antiderivative of f and why? 52. y

51. y ; 23–24 Find the antiderivative F of f that satisfies the given condition. Check your answer by comparing the graphs of f and F.

f

f

b

a

a x

x

b

23. f sxd − 5x 4 2 2x 5, Fs0d − 4

c c

24. f sxd − 4 2 3s1 1 x 2 d21, Fs1d − 0

53. The graph of a function is shown in the figure. Make a rough sketch of an antiderivative F, given that Fs0d − 1.

25–48 Find f. 25. f 0sxd − 20x 3 2 12x 2 1 6x 6

y

y=ƒ

4

26. f 0sxd − x 2 4x 1 x 1 1 27. f 0sxd − 2x 1 3e x

28. f 0sxd − 1yx 2

29. f -std − 12 1 sin t

30. f -std − st 2 2 cos t f s4d − 25

31. f 9sxd − 1 1 3sx , 4

2

33. f 9std − 4ys1 1 t 2 d,

35. f 9sxd − 5x

2y3

,

√

f s1d − 0

34. f 9std − t 1 1yt 3, t . 0,

f s1d − 6 0

f s8d − 21

36. f 9sxd − sx 1 1dysx ,

2y2 , t , y2,

f s1d − 2,

f s21d − 1

2

39. f 0sxd − 22 1 12x 2 12x , f s0d − 4, 40. f 0sxd − 8x 3 1 5,

f s1d − 0,

2

42. f 0std − t 1 1yt ,

t . 0,

43. f 0sxd − 4 1 6x 1 24x 2, 44. f 0sxd − x 3 1 sinh x, x

45. f 0sxd − e 2 2 sin x, 3 46. f 0std − s t 2 cos t,

47. f 0sxd − x 22, 48. f -sxd − cos x,

x . 0,

f s0d − 3,

f s0d − 3, f s0d − 2, f s1d − 0,

55. The graph of f 9 is shown in the figure. Sketch the graph of f if f is continuous on f0, 3g and f s0d − 21. y 2

y=fª(x)

1

f 9s0d − 4

f s2d − 3,

f s0d − 1,

f s0d − 1,

f 9s0d − 12

f 9s1d − 8

f s0d − 3,

41. f 0sd − sin  1 cos , 2

t

f s1d − 5

37. f 9std − sec t ssec t 1 tan td, f sy4d − 21 38. f 9std − 3 t 2 3yt ,

x

1

54. The graph of the velocity function of a particle is shown in the figure. Sketch the graph of a position function.

f s21d − 2

32. f 9sxd − 5x 2 3x 1 4,

0

f 9s1d − 2

0 _1

1

2

x

f s1d − 10

f s2d − 2.6 f sy2d − 0 f s1d − 2 f s2d − 0

f 9s0d − 2,

f 0s0d − 3

49. Given that the graph of f passes through the point (2, 5) and that the slope of its tangent line at sx, f sxdd is 3 2 4x, find f s1d. 50. Find a function f such that f 9sxd − x 3 and the line x 1 y − 0 is tangent to the graph of f .

; 56. (a) Use a graphing device to graph f sxd − 2x 2 3 sx . (b) Starting with the graph in part (a), sketch a rough graph of the antiderivative F that satisfies Fs0d − 1. (c) Use the rules of this section to find an expression for Fsxd. (d) Graph F using the expression in part (c). Compare with your sketch in part (b). ; 57–58 Draw a graph of f and use it to make a rough sketch of the antiderivative that passes through the origin. sin x 57. f sxd − , 22 < x < 2 1 1 x2 58. f sxd − sx 4 2 2 x 2 1 2 2 2, 23 < x < 3

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SECTION 4.9

59–64 A particle is moving with the given data. Find the position of the particle. 59. vstd − sin t 2 cos t, ss0d − 0 60. vstd − t 2 3 st , ss4d − 8 61. astd − 2t 1 1, ss0d − 3, v s0d − 22 63. astd − 10 sin t 1 3 cos t, 2

64. astd − t 2 4t 1 6,

ss0d − 0,

v s0d − 4

ss0d − 0, ss2d − 12

ss0d − 0,

ss1d − 20

producing one item is $562, find the cost of producing 100 items.

73. Since raindrops grow as they fall, their surface area increases and therefore the resistance to their falling increases. A raindrop has an initial downward velocity of 10 mys and its downward acceleration is a−

65. A stone is dropped from the upper observation deck (the Space Deck) of the CN Tower, 450 m above the ground. (a) Find the distance of the stone above ground level at time t. (b) How long does it take the stone to reach the ground? (c) With what velocity does it strike the ground? (d) If the stone is thrown downward with a speed of 5 mys, how long does it take to reach the ground? 66. Show that for motion in a straight line with constant acceleration a, initial velocity v 0, and initial displacement s 0, the displacement after time t is s − 12 at 2 1 v 0 t 1 s 0 67. An object is projected upward with initial velocity v 0 meters per second from a point s0 meters above the ground. Show that 2

fvstdg −

v02

2 19.6fsstd 2 s0 g

68. Two balls are thrown upward from the edge of the cliff in Example 7. The first is thrown with a speed of 15 mys and the other is thrown a second later with a speed of 8 mys. Do the balls ever pass each other? 69. A stone was dropped off a cliff and hit the ground with a speed of 40 mys. What is the height of the cliff? 70. If a diver of mass m stands at the end of a diving board with length L and linear density , then the board takes on the shape of a curve y − f sxd, where EI y 0 − mtsL 2 xd 1 12 tsL 2 xd2 E and I are positive constants that depend on the material of the board and t s, 0d is the acceleration due to gravity. (a) Find an expression for the shape of the curve. (b) Use f sLd to estimate the distance below the horizontal at the end of the board. y

0

357

72. The linear density of a rod of length 1 m is given by sxd − 1ysx , in grams per centimeter, where x is measured in centimeters from one end of the rod. Find the mass of the rod.

2

62. astd − 3 cos t 2 2 sin t,

Antiderivatives

x

71. A company estimates that the marginal cost (in dollars per item) of producing x items is 1.92 2 0.002x. If the cost of

H

9 2 0.9t 0

if 0 < t < 10 if t . 10

If the raindrop is initially 500 m above the ground, how long does it take to fall? 74. A car is traveling at 80 kmyh when the brakes are fully applied, producing a constant deceleration of 7 mys2. What is the distance traveled before the car comes to a stop? 75. What constant acceleration is required to increase the speed of a car from 50 kmyh to 80 kmyh in 5 seconds? 76. A car braked with a constant deceleration of 5 mys2, producing skid marks measuring 60 m before coming to a stop. How fast was the car traveling when the brakes were first applied? 77. A car is traveling at 100 kmyh when the driver sees an accident 80 m ahead and slams on the brakes. What constant deceleration is required to stop the car in time to avoid a pileup? 78. A model rocket is fired vertically upward from rest. Its acceleration for the first three seconds is astd − 18t, at which time the fuel is exhausted and it becomes a freely “falling” body. Fourteen seconds later, the rocket’s parachute opens, and the (downward) velocity slows linearly to 25.5 mys in 5 seconds. The rocket then “floats” to the ground at that rate. (a) Determine the position function s and the velocity function v (for all times t). Sketch the graphs of s and v. (b) At what time does the rocket reach its maximum height, and what is that height? (c) At what time does the rocket land? 79. A high-speed bullet train accelerates and decelerates at the rate of 1.2 mys2. Its maximum cruising speed is 145 kmyh. (a) What is the maximum distance the train can travel if it accelerates from rest until it reaches its cruising speed and then runs at that speed for 15 minutes? (b) Suppose that the train starts from rest and must come to a complete stop in 15 minutes. What is the maximum distance it can travel under these conditions? (c) Find the minimum time that the train takes to travel between two consecutive stations that are 72 km apart. (d) The trip from one station to the next takes 37.5 minutes. How far apart are the stations?

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358

4

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

review

concept checK 1. Explain the difference between an absolute maximum and a local maximum. Illustrate with a sketch. 2. (a) What does the Extreme Value Theorem say? (b) Explain how the Closed Interval Method works. 3. (a) State Fermat’s Theorem. (b) Define a critical number of f. 4. (a) State Rolle’s Theorem. (b) State the Mean Value Theorem and give a geometric interpretation. 5. (a) State the Increasing/Decreasing Test. (b) What does it mean to say that f is concave upward on an interval I? (c) State the Concavity Test. (d) What are inflection points? How do you find them? 6. (a) State the First Derivative Test. (b) State the Second Derivative Test. (c) What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of these tests? 7. (a) What does l’Hospital’s Rule say? (b) How can you use l’Hospital’s Rule if you have a product f sxd tsxd where f sxd l 0 and tsxd l ` as x l a? (c) How can you use l’Hospital’s Rule if you have a difference f sxd 2 tsxd where f sxd l ` and tsxd l ` as x l a?

Answers to the Concept Check can be found on the back endpapers.

(d) How can you use l’Hospital’s Rule if you have a power f f sxdg tsxd where f sxd l 0 and tsxd l 0 as x l a? 8. State whether each of the following limit forms is indeterminate. Where possible, state the limit. 0 ` 0 ` (a) (b) (c) (d) 0 ` ` 0 (e) ` 1 `

(f ) ` 2 `

(g) ` ? `

(h) ` ? 0

(i ) 0 0

(j ) 0 `

(k) ` 0

(l ) 1`

9. If you have a graphing calculator or computer, why do you need calculus to graph a function? 10. (a) Given an initial approximation x1 to a root of the equation f sxd − 0, explain geometrically, with a diagram, how the second approximation x 2 in Newton’s method is obtained. (b) Write an expression for x 2 in terms of x1, f sx 1 d, and f 9sx 1d. (c) Write an expression for x n11 in terms of x n , f sx n d, and f 9sx n d. (d) Under what circumstances is Newton’s method likely to fail or to work very slowly? 11. (a) What is an antiderivative of a function f ? (b) Suppose F1 and F2 are both antiderivatives of f on an interval I. How are F1 and F2 related?

trUe –false qUiz Determine whether the statement is true or false. If it is true, explain why. If it is false, explain why or give an example that disproves the statement. 1. If f 9scd − 0, then f has a local maximum or minimum at c. 2. If f has an absolute minimum value at c, then f 9scd − 0. 3. If f is continuous on sa, bd, then f attains an absolute maximum value f scd and an absolute minimum value f sd d at some numbers c and d in sa, bd.

9. There exists a function f such that f sxd . 0, f 9sxd , 0, and f 0 sxd . 0 for all x. 10. There exists a function f such that f sxd , 0, f 9sxd , 0, and f 0 sxd . 0 for all x. 11. If f and t are increasing on an interval I, then f 1 t is increasing on I. 12. If f and t are increasing on an interval I, then f 2 t is increasing on I.

4. If f is differentiable and f s21d − f s1d, then there is a number c such that c , 1 and f 9scd − 0.

13. If f and t are increasing on an interval I, then f t is increasing on I.

5. If f 9sxd , 0 for 1 , x , 6, then f is decreasing on (1, 6).

14. If f and t are positive increasing functions on an interval I, then f t is increasing on I.

| |

6. If f 0s2d − 0, then s2, f s2dd is an inflection point of the curve y − f sxd. 7. If f 9sxd − t9sxd for 0 , x , 1, then f sxd − tsxd for 0 , x , 1. 8. There exists a function f such that f s1d − 22, f s3d − 0, and f 9sxd . 1 for all x.

15. If f is increasing and f sxd . 0 on I, then tsxd − 1yf sxd is decreasing on I. 16. If f is even, then f 9 is even. 17. If f is periodic, then f 9 is periodic.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

CHAPTER 4

359

Review

20. If lim f sxd − 1 and lim tsxd − `, then

18. The most general antiderivative of f sxd − x 22 is

xl`

xl`

1 Fsxd − 2 1 C x

lim f f sxdg tsxd − 1

xl`

19. If f 9sxd exists and is nonzero for all x, then f s1d ± f s0d.

21. lim

xl0

x −1 ex

eXercises 1–6 Find the local and absolute extreme values of the function on the given interval. 1. f sxd − x 3 2 9x 2 1 24 x 2 2,

f0, 5g

f 9sxd − 2x if 0 , x , 1, f 9sxd − 21 if 1 , x , 3,

17. f is odd,

f 9sxd , 0 for 0 , x , 2,

f 9sxd . 0 for x . 2,

3x 2 4 , x2 1 1

f22, 2g

4. f sxd − sx 2 1 x 1 1 , 5. f sxd − x 1 2 cos x, 6. f sxd − x 2e 2x,

f is continuous and even,

f 9sxd − 1 if x . 3

2. f sxd − xs1 2 x , f21, 1g 3. f sxd −

16. f s0d − 0,

f 0sxd . 0 for 0 , x , 3,

f 0sxd , 0 for x . 3,

lim f sxd − 22

xl`

f22, 1g 18. The figure shows the graph of the derivative f 9of a function f. (a) On what intervals is f increasing or decreasing? (b) For what values of x does f have a local maximum or minimum? (c) Sketch the graph of f 0. (d) Sketch a possible graph of f.

f2, g

f21, 3g

7–14 Evaluate the limit. ex 2 1 x l 0 tan x

7. lim

2x

xl 0

e

4x

xl0

13. lim1 xl1

xl 0

S

tan 4x x 1 sin 2x 2x

22x

e 2e lnsx 1 1d

9. lim

11. lim

8. lim

10. lim

xl `

2 1 2 4x x2

x 1 2 x21 ln x

12. lim

14.

y=f ª(x)

22x

e 2e lnsx 1 1d e

4x

xl`

D

y

_2 _1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

x

2 1 2 4x x2

lim stan xdcos x

x l sy2d 2

19–34 Use the guidelines of Section 4.5 to sketch the curve. 19. y − 2 2 2x 2 x 3

15–17 Sketch the graph of a function that satisfies the given conditions. 15. f s0d − 0, f 9s22d − f 9s1d − f 9s9d − 0, lim f sxd − 0,

xl`

lim f sxd − 2`,

x l6

20. y − 22 x 3 2 3x 2 1 12 x 1 5 21. y − 3x 4 2 4x 3 1 2 23. y −

1 xsx 2 3d2

24. y −

25. y −

sx 2 1d 3 x2

26. y − s1 2 x 1 s1 1 x

f 9sxd , 0 on s2`, 22d, s1, 6d, and s9, `d, f 9sxd . 0 on s22, 1d and s6, 9d, f 0sxd . 0 on s2`, 0d and s12, `d, f 0sxd , 0 on s0, 6d and s6, 12d

22. y − x 2ysx 1 8d

3 27. y − s x2 1 1

1 1 2 x2 sx 2 2d 2

28. y − x 2y3sx 2 3d 2

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

360

CHAPTER 4

29. y − e x sin x,

Applications of Differentiation 2

2cx ; 44. Investigate the family of functions f sxd − cxe . What happens to the maximum and minimum points and the inflection points as c changes? Illustrate your conclusions by graphing several members of the family.

2 < x < 

30. y − 4x 2 tan x, 2y2 , x , y2 2

31. y − sin21s1yxd

32. y − e 2x2x

33. y − sx 2 2de 2x

34. y − x 1 lnsx 2 1 1d

; 35–38 Produce graphs of f that reveal all the important aspects of the curve. Use graphs of f 9 and f 0 to estimate the intervals of increase and decrease, extreme values, intervals of concavity, and inflection points. In Exercise 35 use calculus to find these quantities exactly. 2

35. f sxd −

x 21 x3 3

36. f sxd −

x 11 x6 1 1

37. f sxd − 3x 6 2 5x 5 1 x 4 2 5x 3 2 2x 2 1 2

2

21yx in a viewing rectangle that shows all ; 39. Graph f sxd − e the main aspects of this function. Estimate the inflection points. Then use calculus to find them exactly.

CAS

46. Suppose that f is continuous on f0, 4g, f s0d − 1, and 2 < f 9sxd < 5 for all x in s0, 4d. Show that 9 < f s4d < 21. 47. By applying the Mean Value Theorem to the function f sxd − x 1y5 on the interval f32, 33g, show that 5 2,s 33 , 2.0125

48. For what values of the constants a and b is s1, 3d a point of inflection of the curve y − ax 3 1 bx 2 ? 49. Let tsxd − f sx 2 d, where f is twice differentiable for all x, f 9sxd . 0 for all x ± 0, and f is concave downward on s2`, 0d and concave upward on s0, `d. (a) At what numbers does t have an extreme value? (b) Discuss the concavity of t. 50. Find two positive integers such that the sum of the first number and four times the second number is 1000 and the product of the numbers is as large as possible.

38. f sxd − x 2 1 6.5 sin x, 25 < x < 5

CAS

45. Show that the equation 3x 1 2 cos x 1 5 − 0 has exactly one real root.

51. Show that the shortest distance from the point sx 1, y1 d to the straight line Ax 1 By 1 C − 0 is

| Ax

40. (a) Graph the function f sxd − 1ys1 1 e d . (b) Explain the shape of the graph by computing the limits of f sxd as x approaches `, 2`, 01, and 02. (c) Use the graph of f to estimate the coordinates of the inflection points. (d) Use your CAS to compute and graph f 0. (e) Use the graph in part (d) to estimate the inflection points more accurately. 41–42 Use the graphs of f, f 9, and f 0 to estimate the x-coordinates of the maximum and minimum points and inflection points of f. 41. f sxd −

cos 2 x sx 2 1 x 1 1

,

2 < x < 

42. f sxd − e20.1x lnsx 2 2 1d

1

1 By1 1 C

sA2 1 B 2

1yx

52. Find the point on the hyperbola x y − 8 that is closest to the point s3, 0d. 53. Find the smallest possible area of an isosceles triangle that is circumscribed about a circle of radius r. 54. Find the volume of the largest circular cone that can be inscribed in a sphere of radius r.

|

| |

|

55. In D ABC, D lies on AB, CD  AB, AD − BD − 4 cm, and CD − 5 cm. Where should a point P be chosen on CD so that the sum PA 1 PB 1 PC is a minimum?

|

56.

|

| | | | | | Solve Exercise 55 when | CD | − 2 cm.

57. The velocity of a wave of length L in deep water is v−K

; 43. Investigate the family of functions f sxd − lnssin x 1 C d. What features do the members of this family have in common? How do they differ? For which values of C is f continuous on s2`, `d? For which values of C does f have no graph at all? What happens as C l `?

|

Î

L C 1 C L

where K and C are known positive constants. What is the length of the wave that gives the minimum velocity? 58. A metal storage tank with volume V is to be constructed in the shape of a right circular cylinder surmounted by a

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

CHAPTER 4

hemisphere. What dimensions will require the least amount of metal? 59. A hockey team plays in an arena with a seating capacity of 15,000 spectators. With the ticket price set at $12, average attendance at a game has been 11,000. A market survey indicates that for each dollar the ticket price is lowered, average attendance will increase by 1000. How should the owners of the team set the ticket price to maximize their revenue from ticket sales? ; 60. A manufacturer determines that the cost of making x units of a commodity is

Review

71. f 0sxd − 1 2 6x 1 48x 2,

f s0d − 1,

f 9s0d − 2

72. f 0sxd − 5x 3 1 6x 2 1 2,

f s0d − 3,

f s1d − 22

361

73–74 A particle is moving with the given data. Find the position of the particle. 73. vstd − 2t 2 1ys1 1 t 2 d, ss0d − 1 74. astd − sin t 1 3 cos t, ss0d − 0, v s0d − 2

Csxd − 1800 1 25x 2 0.2x 2 1 0.001x 3 and the demand function is psxd − 48.2 2 0.03x. (a) Graph the cost and revenue functions and use the graphs to estimate the production level for maximum profit. (b) Use calculus to find the production level for maximum profit. (c) Estimate the production level that minimizes the average cost.

x ; 75. (a) If f sxd − 0.1e 1 sin x, 24 < x < 4, use a graph of f to sketch a rough graph of the antiderivative F of f that satisfies Fs0d − 0. (b) Find an expression for Fsxd. (c) Graph F using the expression in part (b). Compare with your sketch in part (a).

; 76. Investigate the family of curves given by f sxd − x 4 1 x 3 1 cx 2

61. Use Newton’s method to find the root of the equation x 5 2 x 4 1 3x 2 2 3x 2 2 − 0 in the interval f1, 2g correct to six decimal places. 62. Use Newton’s method to find all solutions of the equation sin x − x 2 2 3x 1 1 correct to six decimal places. 63. Use Newton’s method to find the absolute maximum value of the function f std − cos t 1 t 2 t 2 correct to eight decimal places. 64. Use the guidelines in Section 4.5 to sketch the curve y − x sin x, 0 < x < 2. Use Newton’s method when necessary. 65–68 Find the most general antiderivative of the function. 65. f sxd − 4 sx 2 6x 2 1 3 66. tsxd −

1 1 1 2 x x 11

67. f std − 2 sin t 2 3e t

In particular you should determine the transitional value of c at which the number of critical numbers changes and the transitional value at which the number of inflection points changes. Illustrate the various possible shapes with graphs. 77. A canister is dropped from a helicopter 500 m above the ground. Its parachute does not open, but the canister has been designed to withstand an impact velocity of 100 mys. Will it burst? 78. In an automobile race along a straight road, car A passed car B twice. Prove that at some time during the race their accelerations were equal. State the assumptions that you make. 79. A rectangular beam will be cut from a cylindrical log of radius 30 cm. (a) Show that the beam of maximal cross-sectional area is a square. (b) Four rectangular planks will be cut from the four sections of the log that remain after cutting the square

68. f sxd − x23 1 cosh x

depth

69–72 Find f. 69. f 9std − 2t 2 3 sin t, u 1 su , u

30

f s0d − 5

2

70. f 9sud −

f s1d − 3

width

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

362

CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

beam. Determine the dimensions of the planks that will have maximal cross-sectional area. (c) Suppose that the strength of a rectangular beam is proportional to the product of its width and the square of its depth. Find the dimensions of the strongest beam that can be cut from the cylindrical log. 80. If a projectile is fired with an initial velocity v at an angle of inclination  from the horizontal, then its trajectory, neglecting air resistance, is the parabola y − stan dx 2

t x2 2v 2 cos 2

0,,

 2

(a) Suppose the projectile is fired from the base of a plane that is inclined at an angle ,  . 0, from the horizontal, as shown in the figure. Show that the range of the projectile, measured up the slope, is given by

Rsd −

2v 2 cos  sins 2 d t cos2

(b) Determine  so that R is a maximum. (c) Suppose the plane is at an angle  below the horizontal. Determine the range R in this case, and determine the angle at which the projectile should be fired to maximize R.

82. If a metal ball with mass m is projected in water and the force of resistance is proportional to the square of the velocity, then the distance the ball travels in time t is sstd −

Î

m ln cosh c

tc mt

where c is a positive constant. Find lim c l 01 sstd. 83. Show that, for x . 0, x , tan21x , x 1 1 x2 84. Sketch the graph of a function f such that f 9sxd , 0 for all x, f 0sxd . 0 for x . 1, f 0sxd , 0 for x , 1, and lim x l6` f f sxd 1 xg − 0.

| |

| |

85. A light is to be placed atop a pole of height h meters to illuminate a busy traffic circle, which has a radius of 20 m. The intensity of illumination I at any point P on the circle is directly proportional to the cosine of the angle  (see the figure) and inversely proportional to the square of the distance d from the source. (a) How tall should the light pole be to maximize I? (b) Suppose that the light pole is h meters tall and that a woman is walking away from the base of the pole at the rate of 1 mys. At what rate is the intensity of the light at the point on her back 1 m above the ground decreasing when she reaches the outer edge of the traffic circle? ¨

y

h

d

20

P

¨ å

R x

0

81. If an electrostatic field E acts on a liquid or a gaseous polar dielectric, the net dipole moment P per unit volume is PsEd −

1 e E 1 e 2E 2 e E 2 e 2E E

Show that lim E l 01 PsEd − 0.

86. Water is flowing at a constant rate into a spherical tank. Let Vstd be the volume of water in the tank and Hstd be the height of the water in the tank at time t. (a) What are the meanings of V9std and H9std? Are these derivatives positive, negative, or zero? (b) Is V 0std positive, negative, or zero? Explain. (c) Let t1, t 2, and t 3 be the times when the tank is one-quarter full, half full, and three-quarters full, respectively. Are the values H 0st1d, H 0st 2 d, and H 0st 3 d positive, negative, or zero? Why?

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Problems Plus

2

1. If a rectangle has its base on the x-axis and two vertices on the curve y − e 2x , show that the rectangle has the largest possible area when the two vertices are at the points of inflection of the curve. 2. Show that sin x 2 cos x < s2 for all x.

|

|

3. Does the function f sxd − e 10 | x22 |2x have an absolute maximum? If so, find it. What about an absolute minimum? 2

| |

4. Show that x 2 y 2 s4 2 x 2 ds4 2 y 2 d < 16 for all numbers x and y such that x < 2 and y < 2.

| |

5. Show that the inflection points of the curve y − ssin xdyx lie on the curve y 2 sx 4 1 4d − 4. 6. Find the point on the parabola y − 1 2 x 2 at which the tangent line cuts from the first quadrant the triangle with the smallest area. 7. If a, b, c, and d are constants such that lim

xl0

ax 2 1 sin bx 1 sin cx 1 sin dx −8 3x 2 1 5x 4 1 7x 6

find the value of the sum a 1 b 1 c 1 d.

y

8. Evaluate lim

Q

xl`

sx 1 2d1yx 2 x 1yx sx 1 3d1yx 2 x 1yx

9. Find the highest and lowest points on the curve x 2 1 x y 1 y 2 − 12. P

|

|

10. Sketch the set of all points sx, yd such that x 1 y < e x. 11. If Psa, a 2 d is any point on the parabola y − x 2, except for the origin, let Q be the point where the normal line at P intersects the parabola again (see the figure). (a) Show that the y-coordinate of Q is smallest when a − 1ys2 . (b) Show that the line segment PQ has the shortest possible length when a − 1ys2 .

x

0

figUre for proBleM 11

12. For what values of c does the curve y − cx 3 1 e x have inflection points? 13. An isosceles triangle is circumscribed about the unit circle so that the equal sides meet at the point s0, ad on the y-axis (see the figure). Find the value of a that minimizes the lengths of the equal sides. (You may be surprised that the result does not give an equilateral triangle.). 14. Sketch the region in the plane consisting of all points sx, yd such that

|

|

2xy < x 2 y < x 2 1 y 2 15. The line y − mx 1 b intersects the parabola y − x 2 in points A and B. (See the figure.) Find the point P on the arc AOB of the parabola that maximizes the area of the triangle PAB.

figUre for proBleM 13 y

y=≈

16. ABCD is a square piece of paper with sides of length 1 m. A quarter-circle is drawn from B to D with center A. The piece of paper is folded along EF, with E on AB and F on AD, so that A falls on the quarter-circle. Determine the maximum and minimum areas that the triangle AEF can have.

B A

17. For which positive numbers a does the curve y − a x intersect the line y − x? y=mx+b

18. For what value of a is the following equation true? O

P

figUre for proBleM 15

x

lim

xl`

S D x1a x2a

x

−e

363 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

P

19. Let f sxd − a 1 sin x 1 a 2 sin 2x 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 a n sin nx, where a 1, a 2, . . . , a n are real numbers and n is a positive integer. If it is given that f sxd < sin x for all x, show that

|

¨

B(¨)

A(¨)

figUre for proBleM 20

D speed of sound=c¡

h

¨ R

S

O speed of sound=c™

figUre for proBleM 21

|

20. An arc PQ of a circle subtends a central angle  as in the figure. Let Asd be the area between the chord PQ and the arc PQ. Let Bsd be the area between the tangent lines PR, QR, and the arc. Find Asd lim  l 01 Bsd

Q

P

|

R

| | |

a 1 1 2a 2 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 na n < 1

21. The speeds of sound c1 in an upper layer and c2 in a lower layer of rock and the thickness  h of the upper layer can be determined by seismic exploration if the speed of sound in the lower layer is greater than the speed in the upper layer. A dynamite charge is detonated at Q a point P and the transmitted signals are recorded at a point Q, which is a distance D from P. The first signal to arrive at Q travels along the surface and takes T1 seconds. The next signal travels from P to a point R, from R to S in the lower layer, and then to Q, taking T2 ¨ seconds. The third signal is reflected off the lower layer at the midpoint O of RS and takes T3 seconds to reach Q. (See the figure.) (a) Express T1, T2, and T3 in terms of D, h, c1, c2, and . (b) Show that T2 is a minimum when sin  − c1yc2. (c) Suppose that D − 1 km, T1 − 0.26 s, T2 − 0.32 s, and T3 − 0.34 s. Find c1, c2, and h. Note: Geophysicists use this technique when studying the structure of the earth’s crust, whether searching for oil or examining fault lines. 22. For what values of c is there a straight line that intersects the curve y − x 4 1 cx 3 1 12x 2 2 5x 1 2 in four distinct points?

d B

E

x

C r

F

23. One of the problems posed by the Marquis de l’Hospital in his calculus textbook Analyse des Infiniment Petits concerns a pulley that is attached to the ceiling of a room at a point C by a rope of length r. At another point B on the ceiling, at a distance d from C (where d . r), a rope of length , is attached and passed through the pulley at F and connected to a weight W. The weight is released and comes to rest at its equilibrium position D. (See the figure.) As l’Hospital argued, this happens when the distance ED is maximized. Show that when the system reaches equilibrium, the value of x is r (r 1 sr 2 1 8d 2 ) 4d Notice that this expression is independent of both W and ,.

|

D

figUre for proBleM 23

|

24. Given a sphere with radius r, find the height of a pyramid of minimum volume whose base is a square and whose base and triangular faces are all tangent to the sphere. What if the base of the pyramid is a regular n-gon? (A regular n-gon is a polygon with n equal sides and angles.) (Use the fact that the volume of a pyramid is 13 Ah, where A is the area of the base.) 25. Assume that a snowball melts so that its volume decreases at a rate proportional to its surface area. If it takes three hours for the snowball to decrease to half its original volume, how much longer will it take for the snowball to melt completely?

figUre for proBleM 26

26. A hemispherical bubble is placed on a spherical bubble of radius 1. A smaller hemispherical bubble is then placed on the first one. This process is continued until n chambers, including the sphere, are formed. (The figure shows the case n − 4.) Use mathematical induction to prove that the maximum height of any bubble tower with n chambers is 1 1 sn .

364 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

5

Integrals

The photo shows Lake Lanier, which is a reservoir in Georgia, USA. In Exercise 70 in Section 5.4 you will estimate the amount of water that flowed into Lake Lanier during a certain time period. JRC, Inc. / Alamy

In chapter 2 we used the tangent and velocity problems to introduce the derivative, which is the central idea in differential calculus. In much the same way, this chapter starts with the area and distance problems and uses them to formulate the idea of a definite integral, which is the basic concept of integral calculus. We will see in Chapters 6 and 8 how to use the integral to solve problems concerning volumes, lengths of curves, population predictions, cardiac output, forces on a dam, work, consumer surplus, and baseball, among many others. There is a connection between integral calculus and differential calculus. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus relates the integral to the derivative, and we will see in this chapter that it greatly simplifies the solution of many problems.

365 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

366

Chapter 5

Integrals

Now is a good time to read (or reread) A Preview of Calculus (see page 1). It discusses the unifying ideas of calculus and helps put in perspective where we have been and where we are going. y

y=ƒ x=a S

x=b

a

0

x

b

In this section we discover that in trying to find the area under a curve or the distance traveled by a car, we end up with the same special type of limit.

the area problem We begin by attempting to solve the area problem: Find the area of the region S that lies under the curve y − f sxd from a to b. This means that S, illustrated in Figure 1, is bounded by the graph of a continuous function f [where f sxd > 0], the vertical lines x − a and x − b, and the x-axis. In trying to solve the area problem we have to ask ourselves: What is the meaning of the word area? This question is easy to answer for regions with straight sides. For a rectangle, the area is defined as the product of the length and the width. The area of a triangle is half the base times the height. The area of a polygon is found by dividing it into triangles (as in Figure 2) and adding the areas of the triangles.

FIGURE 1

|

S − hsx, yd a < x < b, 0 < y < f sxdj

A™ w

h

A¢

A¡

b

l

FIGURE 2

A£

A= 21 bh

A=lw

A=A¡+A™+A£+A¢

However, it isn’t so easy to find the area of a region with curved sides. We all have an intuitive idea of what the area of a region is. But part of the area problem is to make this intuitive idea precise by giving an exact definition of area. Recall that in defining a tangent we first approximated the slope of the tangent line by slopes of secant lines and then we took the limit of these approximations. We pursue a similar idea for areas. We first approximate the region S by rectangles and then we take the limit of the areas of these rectangles as we increase the number of rectangles. The following example illustrates the procedure. y

example 1 Use rectangles to estimate the area under the parabola y − x 2 from 0 to 1

(1, 1)

(the parabolic region S illustrated in Figure 3). SOLUtION We first notice that the area of S must be somewhere between 0 and 1 because S is contained in a square with side length 1, but we can certainly do better than that. Suppose we divide S into four strips S1, S2, S3, and S4 by drawing the vertical lines x − 14, x − 12, and x − 34 as in Figure 4(a).

y=≈ S

y 0

1

y

x

(1, 1)

(1, 1)

y=≈

FIGURE 3 S¢ S™

S£

S¡ 0

FIGURE 4

1 4

1 2

(a)

3 4

1

x

0

1 4

1 2

3 4

1

x

(b)

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

367

SeCtION 5.1 Areas and Distances

We can approximate each strip by a rectangle that has the same base as the strip and whose height is the same as the right edge of the strip [see Figure 4(b)]. In other words, the heights of these rectangles are the values of the function f sxd − x 2 at the right endpoints of the subintervals f0, 14 g, f 41 , 12 g, f 12 , 34 g, and f 34 , 1g. 2

2

2

Each rectangle has width 14 and the heights are ( 14 ) , ( 12 ) , ( 34 ) , and 12. If we let R 4 be the sum of the areas of these approximating rectangles, we get 2

2

2

R4 − 14 ? ( 14 ) 1 14 ? ( 12 ) 1 14 ? ( 34 ) 1 14 ? 12 − 15 32 − 0.46875 From Figure 4(b) we see that the area A of S is less than R 4, so A , 0.46875 Instead of using the rectangles in Figure 4(b) we could use the smaller rectangles in Figure 5 whose heights are the values of f at the left endpoints of the subintervals. (The leftmost rectangle has collapsed because its height is 0.) The sum of the areas of these approximating rectangles is

y (1, 1)

y=≈

2

2

7 L 4 − 14 ? 0 2 1 14 ? ( 14 ) 1 14 ? ( 12 ) 1 14 ? ( 34 ) − 32 − 0.21875 2

We see that the area of S is larger than L 4, so we have lower and upper estimates for A: 0

1 4

1 2

3 4

1

x

0.21875 , A , 0.46875 We can repeat this procedure with a larger number of strips. Figure 6 shows what happens when we divide the region S into eight strips of equal width.

FIGURE 5

y

y (1, 1)

(1, 1)

y=≈

0

FIGURE 6 Approximating S with eight rectangles

1 8

1

(a) Using left endpoints

x

0

1 8

1

x

(b) Using right endpoints

By computing the sum of the areas of the smaller rectangles sL 8 d and the sum of the areas of the larger rectangles sR 8 d, we obtain better lower and upper estimates for A: 0.2734375 , A , 0.3984375 n

Ln

Rn

10 20 30 50 100 1000

0.2850000 0.3087500 0.3168519 0.3234000 0.3283500 0.3328335

0.3850000 0.3587500 0.3501852 0.3434000 0.3383500 0.3338335

So one possible answer to the question is to say that the true area of S lies somewhere between 0.2734375 and 0.3984375. We could obtain better estimates by increasing the number of strips. The table at the left shows the results of similar calculations (with a computer) using n rectangles whose heights are found with left endpoints sL n d or right endpoints sR n d. In particular, we see by using 50 strips that the area lies between 0.3234 and 0.3434. With 1000 strips we narrow it down even more: A lies between 0.3328335 and 0.3338335. A good estimate is obtained by averaging these numbers: A < 0.3333335. ■

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368

Chapter 5

Integrals

From the values in the table in Example 1, it looks as if R n is approaching increases. We confirm this in the next example.

1 3

as n

example 2 For the region S in Example 1, show that the sum of the areas of the upper approximating rectangles approaches 13, that is, lim R n − 13

nl`

SOLUtION R n is the sum of the areas of the n rectangles in Figure 7. Each rectangle has width 1yn and the heights are the values of the function f sxd − x 2 at the points 1yn, 2yn, 3yn, . . . , nyn; that is, the heights are s1ynd2, s2ynd2, s3ynd2, . . . , snynd2. Thus

y (1, 1)

y =≈

Rn −

0

1

x

SD SD SD 1 n

2

1

1 n

2

2 n

1

3 n

1 n

2

1 ∙∙∙ 1

−

1 1 2 ∙ s1 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 n 2 d n n2

−

1 2 s1 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 n 2 d n3

1 n

FIGURE 7

1 n

1 n

SD n n

2

Here we need the formula for the sum of the squares of the first n positive integers:

12 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 n 2 −

1

nsn 1 1ds2n 1 1d 6

Perhaps you have seen this formula before. It is proved in Example 5 in Appendix E. Putting Formula 1 into our expression for R n, we get

Rn − Here we are computing the limit of the sequence hR n j. Sequences and their limits were discussed in A Preview of Calculus and will be studied in detail in Section 11.1. The idea is very similar to a limit at infinity (Section 2.6) except that in writing lim n l ` we restrict n to be a positive integer. In particular, we know that 1 lim − 0 nl ` n When we write lim n l ` Rn − 13 we mean that we can make Rn as close to 13 as we like by taking n sufficiently large.

1 nsn 1 1ds2n 1 1d sn 1 1ds2n 1 1d − 3 ∙ n 6 6n 2

Thus we have lim R n − lim

nl `

nl `

sn 1 1ds2n 1 1d 6n 2

− lim

1 6

− lim

1 6

nl`

nl`

−

S DS D S DS D n11 n

11

1 n

2n 1 1 n

21

1 n

1 1 ?1?2− 6 3

■

It can be shown that the lower approximating sums also approach 13, that is, lim L n − 13

nl`

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369

SeCtION 5.1 Areas and Distances

From Figures 8 and 9 it appears that, as n increases, both L n and R n become better and better approximations to the area of S. Therefore we define the area A to be the limit of the sums of the areas of the approximating rectangles, that is, TEC In Visual 5.1 you can create pictures like those in Figures 8 and 9 for other values of n.

A − lim R n − lim L n − 13 nl`

nl`

y

y

n=10 R¡¸=0.385

0

y

n=50 R∞¸=0.3434

n=30 R£¸Å0.3502

1

x

0

1

x

0

1

x

1

x

FIGURE 8 Right endpoints produce upper sums because f sxd − x 2 is increasing. y

y

n=10 L¡¸=0.285

0

y

n=50 L∞¸=0.3234

n=30 L£¸Å0.3169

1

x

0

1

x

0

FIGURE 9 Left endpoints produce lower sums because f sxd − x 2 is increasing.

Let’s apply the idea of Examples 1 and 2 to the more general region S of Figure 1. We start by subdividing S into n strips S1, S2 , . . . , Sn of equal width as in Figure 10. y

y=ƒ

S¡

FIGURE 10

0

a

S™

⁄

S£

x2

Si

‹

. . . xi-1

Sn

xi

. . . xn-1

b

x

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370

Chapter 5

Integrals

The width of the interval fa, bg is b 2 a, so the width of each of the n strips is Dx −

b2a n

These strips divide the interval fa, bg into n subintervals fx 0 , x 1 g, fx 1, x 2 g, fx 2 , x 3 g, . . . , fx n21, x n g where x 0 − a and x n − b. The right endpoints of the subintervals are x 1 − a 1 Dx, x 2 − a 1 2 Dx, x 3 − a 1 3 Dx, ∙ ∙ ∙ Let’s approximate the ith strip Si by a rectangle with width Dx and height f sx i d, which is the value of f at the right endpoint (see Figure 11). Then the area of the ith rectangle is f sx i d Dx. What we think of intuitively as the area of S is approximated by the sum of the areas of these rectangles, which is R n − f sx 1 d Dx 1 f sx 2 d Dx 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 f sx n d Dx y

Îx

f(xi)

0

a

⁄

x2

‹

b

xi

xi-1

x

FIGURE 11

Figure 12 shows this approximation for n − 2, 4, 8, and 12. Notice that this approximation appears to become better and better as the number of strips increases, that is, as n l `. Therefore we define the area A of the region S in the following way. y

y

0

a

⁄

(a) n=2

b x

0

y

a

⁄

x2

(b) n=4

‹

b

x

0

y

b

a

(c) n=8

x

0

b

a

x

(d) n=12

FIGURE 12

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371

SeCtION 5.1 Areas and Distances

2 Definition The area A of the region S that lies under the graph of the continuous function f is the limit of the sum of the areas of approximating rectangles: A − lim R n − lim f f sx 1 d Dx 1 f sx 2 d Dx 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 f sx n d Dxg nl`

nl`

It can be proved that the limit in Definition 2 always exists, since we are assuming that f is continuous. It can also be shown that we get the same value if we use left endpoints: A − lim L n − lim f f sx 0 d Dx 1 f sx 1 d Dx 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 f sx n21 d Dxg

3

nl`

nl`

In fact, instead of using left endpoints or right endpoints, we could take the height of the ith rectangle to be the value of f at any number x*i in the ith subinterval fx i21, x i g. We call the numbers x1*, x2*, . . . , x n* the sample points. Figure 13 shows approximating rectangles when the sample points are not chosen to be endpoints. So a more general expression for the area of S is A − lim f f sx1* d Dx 1 f sx2* d Dx 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 f sx*n d Dxg

4

nl`

y

Îx

f(x *) i

0

FIGURE 13

a

⁄

x¡*

x2 x™*

‹ x£*

xi-1

xi

b

xn-1

x *i

x

x n*

NOTE It can be shown that an equivalent definition of area is the following: A is the unique number that is smaller than all the upper sums and bigger than all the lower sums. We saw in Examples 1 and 2, for instance, that the area s A − 13 d is trapped between all the left approximating sums L n and all the right approximating sums Rn. The function in those examples, f sxd − x 2, happens to be increasing on f0, 1g and so the lower sums arise from left endpoints and the upper sums from right endpoints. (See Figures 8 and 9.) In general, we form lower (and upper) sums by choosing the sample points x*i so that f sx*i d is the minimum (and maximum) value of f on the ith subinterval. (See Figure 14 and Exercises 7–8.) y

FIGURE 14 Lower sums (short rectangles) and upper sums (tall rectangles)

0

a

b

x

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372

Chapter 5

Integrals

We often use sigma notation to write sums with many terms more compactly. For instance,

This tells us to end with i=n. This tells us to add.

n

n

µ

o f sx i d Dx − f sx 1 d Dx 1 f sx 2 d Dx 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 f sx n d Dx i−1

f(xi) Îx

i=m

This tells us to start with i=m.

So the expressions for area in Equations 2, 3, and 4 can be written as follows: n

If you need practice with sigma notation, look at the examples and try some of the exercises in Appendix E.

o f sx i d Dx n l ` i−1

A − lim

n

o f sx i21 d Dx n l ` i−1

A − lim

n

A − lim

o f sxi*d Dx

n l ` i−1

We can also rewrite Formula 1 in the following way: n

o i2 − i−1

nsn 1 1ds2n 1 1d 6

example 3 Let A be the area of the region that lies under the graph of f sxd − e2x between x − 0 and x − 2. (a) Using right endpoints, find an expression for A as a limit. Do not evaluate the limit. (b) Estimate the area by taking the sample points to be midpoints and using four subintervals and then ten subintervals. SOLUtION

(a) Since a − 0 and b − 2, the width of a subinterval is Dx −

220 2 − n n

So x 1 − 2yn, x 2 − 4yn, x 3 − 6yn, x i − 2iyn, and x n − 2nyn. The sum of the areas of the approximating rectangles is Rn − f sx 1 d Dx 1 f sx 2 d Dx 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 f sx n d Dx − e2x 1 Dx 1 e2x 2 Dx 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 e2x n Dx − e22yn

SD 2 n

1 e24yn

SD 2 n

1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 e22nyn

SD 2 n

According to Definition 2, the area is A − lim Rn − lim nl`

nl`

2 22yn se 1 e24yn 1 e26yn 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 e22nyn d n

Using sigma notation we could write A − lim

nl`

2 n

n

o e22iyn

i−1

It is difficult to evaluate this limit directly by hand, but with the aid of a computer algebra system it isn’t hard (see Exercise 30). In Section 5.3 we will be able to find A more easily using a different method. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SeCtION 5.1 Areas and Distances

(b) With n − 4 the subintervals of equal width Dx − 0.5 are f0, 0.5g , f0.5, 1g , f1, 1.5g, and f1.5, 2g . The midpoints of these subintervals are x1* − 0.25, x2* − 0.75, x3* − 1.25, and x4* − 1.75, and the sum of the areas of the four approximating rectangles (see Figure 15) is

y 1

373

y=e–®

4

M4 − 0

1

2

o f sx*i d Dx i−1

x

− f s0.25d Dx 1 f s0.75d Dx 1 f s1.25d Dx 1 f s1.75d Dx FIGURE 15

− e20.25s0.5d 1 e20.75s0.5d 1 e21.25s0.5d 1 e21.75s0.5d − 12 se20.25 1 e20.75 1 e21.25 1 e21.75 d < 0.8557 So an estimate for the area is A < 0.8557

y 1

With n − 10 the subintervals are f0, 0.2g, f0.2, 0.4g, . . . , f1.8, 2g and the midpoints are * − 1.9. Thus x1* − 0.1, x2* − 0.3, x3* − 0.5, . . . , x10

y=e–®

A < M10 − f s0.1d Dx 1 f s0.3d Dx 1 f s0.5d Dx 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 f s1.9d Dx 0

FIGURE 16

1

2

x

− 0.2se20.1 1 e20.3 1 e20.5 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 e21.9 d < 0.8632 From Figure 16 it appears that this estimate is better than the estimate with n − 4.

■

the Distance problem Now let’s consider the distance problem: Find the distance traveled by an object during a certain time period if the velocity of the object is known at all times. (In a sense this is the inverse problem of the velocity problem that we discussed in Section 2.1.) If the velocity remains constant, then the distance problem is easy to solve by means of the formula distance − velocity 3 time But if the velocity varies, it’s not so easy to find the distance traveled. We investigate the problem in the following example.

example 4 Suppose the odometer on our car is broken and we want to estimate the distance driven over a 30-second time interval. We take speedometer readings every five seconds and record them in the following table: Time (s)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Velocity (kmyh)

27

34

38

46

51

50

45

In order to have the time and the velocity in consistent units, let’s convert the velocity readings to meters per second (1 kmyh − 1000y3600 mys): Time (s) Velocity (mys)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

7.5

9.4

10.6

12.8

14.2

13.9

12.5

During the first five seconds the velocity doesn’t change very much, so we can estimate the distance traveled during that time by assuming that the velocity is constant. If we Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

374

Chapter 5

Integrals

take the velocity during that time interval to be the initial velocity (7.5 mys), then we obtain the approximate distance traveled during the first five seconds: 7.5 mys 3 5 s − 37.5 m Similarly, during the second time interval the velocity is approximately constant and we take it to be the velocity when t − 5 s. So our estimate for the distance traveled from t − 5 s to t − 10 s is 9.4 mys 3 5 s − 47 m If we add similar estimates for the other time intervals, we obtain an estimate for the total distance traveled: s7.5 3 5d 1 s9.4 3 5d 1 s10.6 3 5d 1 s12.8 3 5d 1 s14.2 3 5d 1 s13.9 3 5d − 342 m We could just as well have used the velocity at the end of each time period instead of the velocity at the beginning as our assumed constant velocity. Then our estimate becomes s9.4 3 5d 1 s10.6 3 5d 1 s12.8 3 5d 1 s14.2 3 5d 1 s13.9 3 5d 1 s12.5 3 5d − 367 m If we had wanted a more accurate estimate, we could have taken velocity readings every two seconds, or even every second. ■ √ 15

10

5

0

10

FIGURE 17

20

30

t

Perhaps the calculations in Example 4 remind you of the sums we used earlier to estimate areas. The similarity is explained when we sketch a graph of the velocity function of the car in Figure 17 and draw rectangles whose heights are the initial velocities for each time interval. The area of the first rectangle is 7.5 3 5 − 37.5, which is also our estimate for the distance traveled in the first five seconds. In fact, the area of each rectangle can be interpreted as a distance because the height represents velocity and the width represents time. The sum of the areas of the rectangles in Figure 17 is L 6 − 342, which is our initial estimate for the total distance traveled. In general, suppose an object moves with velocity v − f std, where a < t < b and f std > 0 (so the object always moves in the positive direction). We take velocity readings at times t0 s− ad, t1, t2 , . . . , tn s− bd so that the velocity is approximately constant on each subinterval. If these times are equally spaced, then the time between consecutive readings is Dt − sb 2 adyn. During the first time interval the velocity is approximately f st0 d and so the distance traveled is approximately f st0 d Dt. Similarly, the distance traveled during the second time interval is about f st1 d Dt and the total distance traveled during the time interval fa, bg is approximately n

f st0 d Dt 1 f st1 d Dt 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 f stn21 d Dt −

o f sti21 d Dt

i−1

If we use the velocity at right endpoints instead of left endpoints, our estimate for the total distance becomes n

f st1 d Dt 1 f st2 d Dt 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 f stn d Dt −

o f sti d Dt i−1

The more frequently we measure the velocity, the more accurate our estimates become,

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SeCtION 5.1 Areas and Distances

375

so it seems plausible that the exact distance d traveled is the limit of such expressions: n

n

lim o f sti d Dt o f sti21 d Dt − nl` nl` i−1 i−1

d − lim

5

We will see in Section 5.4 that this is indeed true. Because Equation 5 has the same form as our expressions for area in Equations 2 and 3, it follows that the distance traveled is equal to the area under the graph of the velocity function. In Chapter 6 we will see that other quantities of interest in the natural and social sciences—such as the work done by a variable force or the cardiac output of the heart—can also be interpreted as the area under a curve. So when we compute areas in this chapter, bear in mind that they can be interpreted in a variety of practical ways.

1. (a) By reading values from the given graph of f, use five rectangles to find a lower estimate and an upper estimate for the area under the given graph of f from x − 0 to x − 10. In each case sketch the rectangles that you use. (b) Find new estimates using ten rectangles in each case.

4. (a) Estimate the area under the graph of f sxd − sin x from x − 0 to x − y2 using four approximating rectangles and right endpoints. Sketch the graph and the rectangles. Is your estimate an underestimate or an overestimate? (b) Repeat part (a) using left endpoints.

y 4

y=ƒ

2 0

8

4

x

2. (a) Use six rectangles to find estimates of each type for the area under the given graph of f from x − 0 to x − 12. (i) L 6 (sample points are left endpoints) (ii) R 6 (sample points are right endpoints) (iii) M6 (sample points are midpoints) (b) Is L 6 an underestimate or overestimate of the true area? (c) Is R 6 an underestimate or overestimate of the true area? (d) Which of the numbers L 6, R 6, or M6 gives the best estimate? Explain.

5. (a) Estimate the area under the graph of f sxd − 1 1 x 2 from x − 21 to x − 2 using three rectangles and right endpoints. Then improve your estimate by using six rectangles. Sketch the curve and the approximating rectangles. (b) Repeat part (a) using left endpoints. (c) Repeat part (a) using midpoints. (d) From your sketches in parts (a)–(c), which appears to be the best estimate? ; 6. (a) Graph the function f sxd − x 2 2 ln x

1 y tsxd dx. b

b

a

a

8. If m < f sxd < M for a < x < b, then msb 2 ad < y f sxd dx < Msb 2 ad b

a

y

b

M

y=ƒ m 0

If f sxd > 0, then ya f sxd dx represents the area under the graph of f, so the geometric interpretation of Property 6 is simply that areas are positive. (It also follows directly from the definition because all the quantities involved are positive.) Property 7 says that a bigger function has a bigger integral. It follows from Properties 6 and 4 because f 2 t > 0. Property 8 is illustrated by Figure 16 for the case where f sxd > 0. If f is continuous, we could take m and M to be the absolute minimum and maximum values of f on the interval fa, bg. In this case Property 8 says that the area under the graph of f is greater than the area of the rectangle with height m and less than the area of the rectangle with height M.

a

FIGURE 16

b

x

prOOf Of prOperty 8 Since m < f sxd < M, Property 7 gives

y

b

a

m dx < y f sxd dx < y M dx b

a

b

a

Using Property 1 to evaluate the integrals on the left and right sides, we obtain msb 2 ad < y f sxd dx < Msb 2 ad b

■

a

Property 8 is useful when all we want is a rough estimate of the size of an integral without going to the bother of using the Midpoint Rule. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

388

Chapter 5

Integrals

ExamplE 8 Use Property 8 to estimate y e2x dx. 1

2

0

2

SOLUtION Because f sxd − e2x is a decreasing function on f0, 1g, its absolute maxi-

mum value is M − f s0d − 1 and its absolute minimum value is m − f s1d − e21. Thus, by Property 8,

y

y=1

1

e21s1 2 0d < y e2x dx < 1s1 2 0d 1

y=e–x

2

2

0

e21 < y e2x dx < 1 1

or

2

0

y=1/e

Since e21 < 0.3679, we can write 0.367 < y e2x dx < 1 1

0

1

FIGURE 17

x

2

■

0

The result of Example 8 is illustrated in Figure 17. The integral is greater than the area of the lower rectangle and less than the area of the square.

1. Evaluate the Riemann sum for f sxd − x 2 1, 26 < x < 4, with five subintervals, taking the sample points to be right endpoints. Explain, with the aid of a diagram, what the Riemann sum represents.

4 6. The graph of t is shown. Estimate y22 tsxd dx with six subintervals using (a) right endpoints, (b) left endpoints, and (c) midpoints.

y

2. If f sxd − cos x

0 < x < 3y4

1

evaluate the Riemann sum with n − 6, taking the sample points to be left endpoints. (Give your answer correct to six decimal places.) What does the Riemann sum represent? Illustrate with a diagram.

x

1

3. If f sxd − x 2 2 4, 0 < x < 3, find the Riemann sum with n − 6, taking the sample points to be midpoints. What does the Riemann sum represent? Illustrate with a diagram. 4. (a) Find the Riemann sum for f sxd − 1yx, 1 < x < 2, with four terms, taking the sample points to be right endpoints. (Give your answer correct to six decimal places.) Explain what the Riemann sum represents with the aid of a sketch. (b) Repeat part (a) with midpoints as the sample points. 5. The graph of a function f is given. Estimate y010 f sxd dx using five subintervals with (a) right endpoints, (b) left endpoints, and (c) midpoints. y

1 0

1

x

7. A table of values of an increasing function f is shown. Use the table to find lower and upper estimates for y025 f sxd dx. x

0

5

10

15

20

25

f sxd

242

237

225

26

15

36

8. The table gives the values of a function obtained from an 9 experiment. Use them to estimate y3 f sxd dx using three equal subintervals with (a) right endpoints, (b) left endpoints, and (c) midpoints. If the function is known to be an increasing function, can you say whether your estimates are less than or greater than the exact value of the integral? x f sxd

3

4

5

23.4 22.1 20.6

6

7

8

9

0.3

0.9

1.4

1.8

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

389

SeCtION 5.2 The Definite Integral

26. (a) Find an approximation to the integral y0 sx 2 2 3xd dx using a Riemann sum with right endpoints and n − 8. (b) Draw a diagram like Figure 3 to illustrate the approximation in part (a). (c) Use Theorem 4 to evaluate y04 sx 2 2 3xd dx. (d) Interpret the integral in part (c) as a difference of areas and illustrate with a diagram like Figure 4. 4

9–12 Use the Midpoint Rule with the given value of n to approximate the integral. Round the answer to four decimal places. 9.

y

y2

y

5

0

11.

1

cos4x dx, n − 4

10.

y

1

y



0

x 2e2x dx, n − 4

12.

0

sx 3 1 1 dx, n − 5 x sin2 x dx, n − 4

b2 2 a2 . 2

27. Prove that y x dx − b

CAS

13. If you have a CAS that evaluates midpoint approximations and graphs the corresponding rectangles (use RiemannSum or middlesum and middlebox commands in Maple), check the answer to Exercise 11 and illustrate with a graph. Then repeat with n − 10 and n − 20. 14. With a programmable calculator or computer (see the instructions for Exercise 5.1.9), compute the left and right Riemann sums for the function f sxd − xysx 1 1d on the interval f0, 2g with n − 100. Explain why these estimates show that 0.8946 , y

2

0

x dx , 0.9081 x11

15. Use a calculator or computer to make a table of values of right Riemann sums R n for the integral y0 sin x dx with n − 5, 10, 50, and 100. What value do these numbers appear to be approaching? 16. Use a calculator or computer to make a table of values of left and right Riemann sums L n and R n for the integral 2 y02 e2x dx with n − 5, 10, 50, and 100. Between what two numbers must the value of the integral lie? Can you make a 2 2 similar statement for the integral y21 e2x dx ? Explain.

a

28. Prove that y x 2 dx − b

a

b3 2 a3 . 3

29–30 Express the integral as a limit of Riemann sums. Do not evaluate the limit. 5 1 3 30. y x 2 1 dx 29. y s4 1 x 2 dx 2 1 x

S

CAS

D

31–32 Express the integral as a limit of sums. Then evaluate, using a computer algebra system to find both the sum and the limit. 31.

y



0

32.

sin 5x dx

y

10

2

x 6 dx

33. The graph of f is shown. Evaluate each integral by interpreting it in terms of areas. (a)

y

2

(c)

y

7

0

5

f sxd dx

(b)

y

5

f sxd dx

(d)

y

9

0

0

f sxd dx f sxd dx

y

17–20 Express the limit as a definite integral on the given interval. n e xi 17. lim o Dx, f0, 1g n l ` i−1 1 1 x i

y=ƒ

2

0

2

4

6

8

x

n

18. lim

o xi s1 1 x i3

n l ` i−1

Dx, f2, 5g

n

o x i lns1 1 x i2 d Dx, n l ` i−1

19. lim

n

20. lim

o

n l ` i−1

f2, 6] 34. The graph of t consists of two straight lines and a semicircle. Use it to evaluate each integral.

cos x i Dx, f, 2g xi

(a) 21–25 Use the form of the definition of the integral given in Theorem 4 to evaluate the integral. 21.

y

5

y

0

y

1

21

23.

22

25.

0

s1 1 3xd dx

22.

sx 2 1 x d dx

24.

y

4

y

2

1

0

sx 2 1 2x 2 5 d dx

y

2

0

tsxd dx

(b)

y

6

2

tsxd dx

(c)

y

7

0

tsxd dx

y 4 2

y=©

s2x 2 x 3 d dx 0

4

7 x

sx 3 2 3x 2 d dx

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

390

Chapter 5

Integrals

35–40 Evaluate the integral by interpreting it in terms of areas. 35.

y

4

2

37.

s1 2 xd dx

36.

9

0

y (1 1 s9 2 x ) dx

38.

y | 12 x | dx

40.

0

2

23

39.

y ( 13 x 2 2) dx y ( x 2 s25 2 x ) dx 5

52. If Fsxd − y2 f std dt, where f is the function whose graph is given, which of the following values is largest? (A) Fs0d (B) Fs1d (C) Fs2d (D) Fs3d (E) Fs4d x

2

y

25

3

24

y | 2x 2 1 | dx 1

y=f(t)

0

0

41. Evaluate y s1 1 x 4 dx. 1

1

2

3

t

4

1

42. Given that y sin4 x dx − 38 , what is y sin4  d? 

0

0



43. In Example 5.1.2 we showed that y0 x 2 dx − 13. Use this fact 1

53. Each of the regions A, B, and C bounded by the graph of f and the x-axis has area 3. Find the value of

y

and the properties of integrals to evaluate y0 s5 2 6x 2 d dx. 1

2

f f sxd 1 2x 1 5g dx

24

y

44. Use the properties of integrals and the result of Example 3 to evaluate y13 s2e x 2 1d dx.

B

45. Use the result of Example 3 to evaluate y13 e x12 dx. 46. Use the result of Exercise 27 and the fact that y2 y0 cos x dx − 1 (from Exercise 5.1.31), together with the properties of integrals, to evaluate y0y2 s2 cos x 2 5xd dx. 47. Write as a single integral in the form

y

2

22

yab

f sxd dx 1 y f sxd dx 2 y 5

f sxd dx:

21

22

2

f sxd dx

48. If y28 f sxd dx − 7.3 and y24 f sxd dx − 5.9, find y48 f sxd dx. 49. If y09 f sxd dx − 37 and y09 tsxd dx − 16, find

y

9

0

f2 f sxd 1 3tsxdg dx

_4

0

2

C

x

54. Suppose f has absolute minimum value m and absolute maximum value M. Between what two values must y02 f sxd dx lie? Which property of integrals allows you to make your conclusion? 55–58 Use the properties of integrals to verify the inequality without evaluating the integrals. 55.

y

4

y

1

0

56.

0

sx 2 2 4x 1 4d dx > 0 s1 1 x 2 dx < y s1 1 x dx 1

0

57. 2 < y s1 1 x 2 dx < 2 s2 1

50. Find y0 f sxd dx if 5

f sxd −

H

21

3 x

for x , 3 for x > 3

58.

51. For the function f whose graph is shown, list the following quantities in increasing order, from smallest to largest, and explain your reasoning. (A) y08 f sxd dx

(B) y03 f sxd dx

8 (D) y4 f sxd dx

(E) f 9s1d

 y3 s3  < y sin x dx < y6 12 12

59–64 Use Property 8 to estimate the value of the integral. 59.

y

1

y

2

y

2

x 3 dx

60.

61.

0

1 dx 1 1 x2

62.

63.

0

xe2x dx

64.

1 x 1 4 dx

y

3

y

2

y

2

0

0

(C) y38 f sxd dx

y

0



sx 3 2 3x 1 3d dx sx 2 2 sin xd dx

65–66 Use properties of integrals, together with Exercises 27 and 28, to prove the inequality.

2

0

_2

A

5

x

65.

y

3

1

sx 4 1 1 dx >

26 3

66.

y

y2

0

x sin x dx
21, let Asxd − y s1 1 t 2 d dt x

21

Asxd represents the area of a region. Sketch that region. (b) Use the result of Exercise 5.2.28 to find an expression for Asxd. (c) Find A9sxd. What do you notice? (d) If x > 21 and h is a small positive number, then Asx 1 hd 2 Asxd represents the area of a region. Describe and sketch the region. (e) Draw a rectangle that approximates the region in part (d). By comparing the areas of these two regions, show that Asx 1 hd 2 Asxd < 1 1 x2 h (f) Use part (e) to give an intuitive explanation for the result of part (c). 2 ; 3. (a) Draw the graph of the function f sxd − cossx d in the viewing rectangle f0, 2g by f21.25, 1.25g. (b) If we define a new function t by

tsxd − y cos st 2 d dt x

0

then tsxd is the area under the graph of f from 0 to x [until f sxd becomes negative, at which point tsxd becomes a difference of areas]. Use part (a) to determine the value

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392

Chapter 5

Integrals

of x at which tsxd starts to decrease. [Unlike the integral in Problem 2, it is impossible to evaluate the integral defining t to obtain an explicit expression for tsxd.] (c) Use the integration command on your calculator or computer to estimate ts0.2d, ts0.4d, ts0.6d, . . . , ts1.8d, ts2d. Then use these values to sketch a graph of t. (d) Use your graph of t from part (c) to sketch the graph of t9 using the interpretation of t9sxd as the slope of a tangent line. How does the graph of t9 compare with the graph of f ? 4. Suppose f is a continuous function on the interval fa, bg and we define a new function t by the equation x tsxd − y f std dt a

Based on your results in Problems 1–3, conjecture an expression for t9sxd.

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is appropriately named because it establishes a  connection between the two branches of calculus: differential calculus and integral calculus. Differential calculus arose from the tangent problem, whereas integral calculus arose from a seemingly unrelated problem, the area problem. Newton’s mentor at Cambridge, Isaac Barrow (1630 –1677), discovered that these two problems are actually closely related. In fact, he realized that differentiation and integration are inverse processes. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus gives the precise inverse relationship between the derivative and the integral. It was Newton and Leibniz who exploited this relationship and used it to develop calculus into a systematic mathematical method. In particular, they saw that the Fundamental Theorem enabled them to compute areas and integrals very easily without having to compute them as limits of sums as we did in Sections 5.1 and 5.2. The first part of the Fundamental Theorem deals with functions defined by an equation of the form

y

y=f(t)

1 area=©

0

a

x

b

t

FIGURE 1 y 2

tsxd − y f std dt x

a

where f is a continuous function on fa, bg and x varies between a and b. Observe that t depends only on x, which appears as the variable upper limit in the integral. If x is a fixed number, then the integral yax f std dt is a definite number. If we then let x vary, the number yax f std dt also varies and defines a function of x denoted by tsxd. If f happens to be a positive function, then tsxd can be interpreted as the area under the graph of f from a to x, where x can vary from a to b. (Think of t as the “area so far” function; see Figure 1.)

y=f(t) 1 0

1

2

4

t

ExamplE 1 If f is the function whose graph is shown in Figure 2 and tsxd − y0x f std dt, find the values of ts0d, ts1d, ts2d, ts3d, ts4d, and ts5d. Then sketch a rough graph of t. SOLUtION First we notice that ts0d − y0 f std dt − 0. From Figure 3 we see that ts1d is 0

the area of a triangle: FIGURE 2

ts1d − y f std dt − 12 s1 ? 2d − 1 1

0

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393

SeCtION 5.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

To find ts2d we add to ts1d the area of a rectangle: ts2d − y f std dt − y f std dt 1 y f std dt − 1 1 s1 ? 2d − 3 2

1

0

2

0

1

We estimate that the area under f from 2 to 3 is about 1.3, so ts3d − ts2d 1 y f std dt < 3 1 1.3 − 4.3 3

2

y 2

y 2

y 2

y 2

y 2

1

1

1

1

1

0

t

1

0

1

g(1)=1

2

t

0

g(2)=3

1

2

3

t

0

1

2

4

t

0

1

2

4

t

g(3)Å4.3

g(4)Å3

g(5)Å1.7

FIGURE 3 y

For t . 3, f std is negative and so we start subtracting areas:

4

ts4d − ts3d 1 y f std dt < 4.3 1 s21.3d − 3.0

g

4

3

3

ts5d − ts4d 1 y f std dt < 3 1 s21.3d − 1.7

2

5

4

1 0

1

2

4

3

We use these values to sketch the graph of t in Figure 4. Notice that, because f std is positive for t , 3, we keep adding area for t , 3 and so t is increasing up to x − 3, where it attains a maximum value. For x . 3, t decreases because f std is negative. ■

5 x

FIGURE 4 tsxd − y f std dt x

If we take f std − t and a − 0, then, using Exercise 5.2.27, we have

0

tsxd − y t dt − x

0

Notice that t9sxd − x, that is, t9 − f . In other words, if t is defined as the integral of f by Equation 1, then t turns out to be an antiderivative of f , at least in this case. And if we sketch the derivative of the function t shown in Figure 4 by estimating slopes of tangents, we get a graph like that of f in Figure 2. So we suspect that t9 − f in Example 1 too. To see why this might be generally true we consider any continuous function f with x f sxd > 0. Then tsxd − ya f std dt can be interpreted as the area under the graph of f from a to x, as in Figure 1. In order to compute t9sxd from the definition of a derivative we first observe that, for h . 0, tsx 1 hd 2 tsxd is obtained by subtracting areas, so it is the area under the graph of f from x to x 1 h (the blue area in Figure 5). For small h you can see from the figure that this area is approximately equal to the area of the rectangle with height f sxd and width h:

y

h ƒ 0

a

FIGURE 5

x

x2 2

x+h

b

tsx 1 hd 2 tsxd < hf sxd

t

so

tsx 1 hd 2 tsxd < f sxd h

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394

Chapter 5

Integrals

Intuitively, we therefore expect that t9sxd − lim

hl0

tsx 1 hd 2 tsxd − f sxd h

The fact that this is true, even when f is not necessarily positive, is the first part of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.

We abbreviate the name of this theorem as FTC1. In words, it says that the derivative of a definite integral with respect to its upper limit is the integrand evaluated at the upper limit.

the Fundamental theorem of calculus, Part 1 If f is continuous on fa, bg, then the function t defined by tsxd − y f std dt x

a 0 when f > 0. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus applies to continuous functions. It can’t be applied here because f sxd − 1yx 2 is not continuous on f21, 3g. In fact, f has an infinite discontinuity at x − 0, so

y

3

21

1 dx x2

does not exist.

■

differentiation and Integration as Inverse processes We end this section by bringing together the two parts of the Fundamental Theorem. the Fundamental theorem of calculus Suppose f is continuous on fa, bg. 1. If tsxd − ya f std dt, then t9sxd − f sxd. x

2. ya f sxd dx − Fsbd 2 Fsad, where F is any antiderivative of f , that is, F9− f. b

We noted that Part 1 can be rewritten as d dx

y

x

a

f std dt − f sxd

which says that if f is integrated and then the result is differentiated, we arrive back at the original function f. Since F9sxd − f sxd, Part 2 can be rewritten as

y

b

a

F9sxd dx − Fsbd 2 Fsad

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399

SeCtION 5.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

This version says that if we take a function F, first differentiate it, and then integrate the result, we arrive back at the original function F, but in the form Fsbd 2 Fsad. Taken together, the two parts of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus say that differentiation and integration are inverse processes. Each undoes what the other does. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is unquestionably the most important theorem in calculus and, indeed, it ranks as one of the great accomplishments of the human mind. Before it was discovered, from the time of Eudoxus and Archimedes to the time of Galileo and Fermat, problems of finding areas, volumes, and lengths of curves were so difficult that only a genius could meet the challenge. But now, armed with the systematic method that Newton and Leibniz fashioned out of the Fundamental Theorem, we will see in the chapters to come that these challenging problems are accessible to all of us.

1. Explain exactly what is meant by the statement that “differentiation and integration are inverse processes.” x

2. Let tsxd − y0 f std dt, where f is the function whose graph is shown. (a) Evaluate tsxd for x − 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. (b) Estimate ts7d. (c) Where does t have a maximum value? Where does it have a minimum value? (d) Sketch a rough graph of t.

(d) Where does t have a maximum value? (e) Sketch a rough graph of t. (f) Use the graph in part (e) to sketch the graph of t9sxd. Compare with the graph of f. y 2

0

y

2

5

t

f

1 0

4

1

6

t

3. Let tsxd − y0x f std dt, where f is the function whose graph is shown. (a) Evaluate ts0d, ts1d, ts2d, ts3d, and ts6d. (b) On what interval is t increasing? (c) Where does t have a maximum value? (d) Sketch a rough graph of t. y

5–6 Sketch the area represented by tsxd. Then find t9sxd in two ways: (a) by using Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem and (b) by evaluating the integral using Part 2 and then differentiating. 5. tsxd − y t 2 dt x

1

f

1 0

y

x

9. tsxd − y

x

st 1 t 3 dt

0

1 dt t3 1 1

1

1

5

t

4. Let tsxd − y f std dt, where f is the function whose graph is shown. (a) Evaluate ts0d and ts6d. (b) Estimate tsxd for x − 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. (c) On what interval is t increasing?

6. tsxd − y s2 1 sin td dt x

0

7–18 Use Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to find the derivative of the function. 7. tsxd −

x 0

f

8. tsxd − y lns1 1 t 2 d dt x

1

10. hsud − y

u

0

11. Fsxd − y s1 1 sec t dt

st dt t11

0

F

x

G

Hint: y s1 1 sec t dt − 2y s1 1 sec t dt 0

x

x

0

12. Rs yd − y t 3 sin t dt 2

y

13. hsxd − y ln t dt ex

1

14. Gsxd − y cosst dt 1

x

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400

Chapter 5

15. y − y

3x12

17. y − y

y4

1

sx

Integrals

t dt 1 1 t3

16. y − y

tan x

18. y − y

1

0

 tan  d 

123x

st 1 st dt u3 du 1 1 u2

y

3

1

21.

sx 2 1 2x 2 4d dx

y ( 45 t 2

3

0

23.

y

1

y



y

2

y

4

y

y2

0

25.

x 4y5 dx

0

29.

sx

1

31.

y6

33.

y

1

y

2

y

1

y

1

0

35.

37.

0

39.

41.

y

4

0

43.

y



y

2

4

dv

e u11 du

22

1

y

8

y

2

28.

3

1 16v7) d v

53.

cos  d

30.

1

y y

y3

s3u 2 2dsu 1 1d du

21

32.

y4

34.

y

3

0

36.

y

38.

y

1

y

3

0

42.

y

55.

Î

58.

3 dz z

54.

H H

sin x if 0 < x , y2 cos x if y2 < x < 

y

2

y



y



x23 23

x 24 dx −

G G

1

46. y − x , y − 0, x − 1 2

47. y − 4 2 x , y − 0

cos x dx

22

4 2 dx − 2 2 x3 x

y3

3 8

−2 2

− 21

3 2

sec  tan  d  − sec 

g

sec 2 x dx − tan x

g

 y3

− 23



−0

0

59. tsxd − y

3x

2x

F

u2 2 1 du u2 1 1

G

Hint: y f sud du − y f sud du 1 y f sud du 3x

0

2x

2x

60. tsxd − y

112x

122x

3x

0

t sin t dt

61. Fsxd − y e t dt x2

62. Fsxd − y

2

63. y − y

sin x

cos x

2x

sx

x

arctan t dt

lns1 1 2vd dv

x

; 45–48 Sketch the region enclosed by the given curves and calculate its area.

3

2

y6

dx

2 if 22 < x < 0 f sxd dx where f sxd − 4 2 x 2 if 0 , x < 2

45. y − sx , y − 0, x − 4

y

59–63 Find the derivative of the function.

y 3 2 2y 2 2 y dy y2

s1 2 x 2

1

0

cosh t dt

1y2

y

21

57.

4

x 3 dx

22

s2 sin x 2 e x d dx

1ys2

2

; 55–58 What is wrong with the equation?

56.

2

csc  d

18

y

21

0

2

52. y − sec 2 x, 0 < x < y3

53–54 Evaluate the integral and interpret it as a difference of areas. Illustrate with a sketch.

3 x dx s

y (3 1 x sx ) dx

1

f sxd dx where f sxd −

51. y − sin x, 0 < x < 

0

40.

2s ds

50. y − x , 1 < x < 6

x 100 dx

y (1 2 8v

1

sx e 1 e x d dx

0

44.

dx

v 3 1 3v 6

21

1



csc t cot t dt

v

22.

0 < x < 27

24

21

26.

s1 1 rd3 dr

1

y

1

xs2 1 x 5 d dx 2 1 x2

20.

24.

sin  d

y6

27.

2 43 t 2 1 52 t ) dt

; 49–52 Use a graph to give a rough estimate of the area of the region that lies beneath the given curve. Then find the exact area. 3 49. y − s x,

19–44 Evaluate the integral. 19.

48. y − 2 x 2 x 2, y − 0

64. If f sxd − y0 s1 2 t 2 de t dt, on what interval is f increasing? 2

65. On what interval is the curve y−y

x

0

t2 dt t 1t12 2

concave downward?

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401

SeCtION 5.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

66. Let Fsxd − y1 f std dt, where f is the function whose graph is shown. Where is F concave downward? x

y

0

_1

t

1

x

73–74 Let tsxd − y0 f std dt, where f is the function whose graph is shown. (a) At what values of x do the local maximum and minimum values of t occur? (b) Where does t attain its absolute maximum value? (c) On what intervals is t concave downward? (d) Sketch the graph of t. 73. y 3 2

67. Let Fsxd − y2x e t dt. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y − Fsxd at the point with x-coordinate 2. 2

68. If f sxd − y0 t 0sy6d.

sin x

y s1 1 t 2 dt and ts yd − y3 f sxd dx, find

0 _1

74. 2 s

y

x

0

2t 2

e

x

y

sins t 2y2d dt − 0.2

0.2 0

1

3

5

7

t

9

_0.2

75–76 Evaluate the limit by first recognizing the sum as a Riemann sum for a function defined on f0, 1g. n

75. lim

o

76. lim

1 n

S D SÎ Î Î

n l ` i−1

nl`

CAS

t

8

dt

71. The Fresnel function S was defined in Example 3 and graphed in Figures 7 and 8. (a) At what values of x does this function have local maximum values? (b) On what intervals is the function concave upward? (c) Use a graph to solve the following equation correct to two decimal places: 0

6

0.4

is used in probability, statistics, and engineering. 2 b (a) Show that ya e2t dt − 12 s ferfsbd 2 erfsadg. 2 (b) Show that the function y − e x erfsxd satisfies the differential equation y9 − 2xy 1 2ys .

y

4

f

erfsxd −

CAS

2

_2

4 69. If f s1d − 12, f 9 is continuous, and y1 f 9sxd dx − 17, what is the value of f s4d?

70. The error function

f

1

i4 i 5 1 n n2 1 1 n

2 1 n

3 1 ∙∙∙ 1 n

ÎD n n

72. The sine integral function Sisxd − y

x

0

sin t dt t

is important in electrical engineering. [The integrand f std − ssin tdyt is not defined when t − 0, but we know that its limit is 1 when t l 0. So we define f s0d − 1 and this makes f a continuous function everywhere.] (a) Draw the graph of Si. (b) At what values of x does this function have local maximum values? (c) Find the coordinates of the first inflection point to the right of the origin. (d) Does this function have horizontal asymptotes? (e) Solve the following equation correct to one decimal place:

y

x

0

sin t dt − 1 t

77. Justify (3) for the case h , 0. 78. If f is continuous and t and h are differentiable functions, find a formula for d hsxd y f std dt dx tsxd 79. (a) Show that 1 < s1 1 x 3 < 1 1 x 3 for x > 0. (b) Show that 1 < y01 s1 1 x 3 dx < 1.25. 80. (a) Show that cossx 2d > cos x for 0 < x < 1. (b) Deduce that y0

y6

cossx 2d dx > 12.

81. Show that 0 y tsxd dx

8. If f and t are differentiable and f sxd > tsxd for a , x , b, then f 9sxd > t9sxd for a , x , b. 9.

b

b

a

Îy

b

a

f sxd dx

3

1

b

a

D

f sxd dx − f sxd

2 16. y0 sx 2 x 3 d dx represents the area under the curve y − x 2 x 3 from 0 to 2.

17.

y

1

22

6. If f 9 is continuous on f1, 3g, then y f 9svd dv − f s3d 2 f s1d.

Sy

1 3 dx − 2 x4 8

18. If f has a discontinuity at 0, then y

1

21

f sxd dx does not exist.

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422

Chapter 5

Integrals

ExERCISES 1. Use the given graph of f to find the Riemann sum with six subintervals. Take the sample points to be (a) left endpoints and (b) midpoints. In each case draw a diagram and explain what the Riemann sum represents.

7. The figure shows the graphs of f, f 9, and y0 f std dt. Identify each graph, and explain your choices. x

y

b

y

c y=ƒ

2

x

a 0

2

6

x

8. Evaluate: 1 d (a) y se arctan x d dx 0 dx d x arctan t (c) y e dt dx 0

2. (a) Evaluate the Riemann sum for f sxd − x 2 2 x

0 tsxd for all x in fa, bg, is A − y f f sxd 2 tsxdg dx b

a

Notice that in the special case where tsxd − 0, S is the region under the graph of f and our general definition of area (1) reduces to our previous definition (Definition 5.1.2). Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 6.1 Areas Between Curves

In the case where both f and t are positive, you can see from Figure 3 why (2) is true:

y

A − farea under y − f sxdg 2 farea under y − tsxdg

y=ƒ S

− y f sxd dx 2 y tsxd dx − y f f sxd 2 tsxdg dx b

y=© 0

429

b

a

a

b

x

b

a

a

EXAMPLE 1 Find the area of the region bounded above by y − e x, bounded below by y − x, and bounded on the sides by x − 0 and x − 1.

fIgure 3

A − y f sxddx 2 b

a

y

b

a

SOLUTION The region is shown in Figure 4. The upper boundary curve is y − e x and

tsxddx

the lower boundary curve is y − x. So we use the area formula (2) with f sxd − e x, tsxd − x, a − 0, and b − 1:

y

A − y se x 2 xd dx − e x 2 12 x 2g 0 1

1

0

y=´

− e 2 12 2 1 − e 2 1.5

x=1

1

y=x Îx 0

1

x

fIgure 4

■

In Figure 4 we drew a typical approximating rectangle with width Dx as a reminder of the procedure by which the area is defined in (1). In general, when we set up an integral for an area, it’s helpful to sketch the region to identify the top curve yT , the bottom curve yB, and a typical approximating rectangle as in Figure 5. Then the area of a typical rectangle is syT 2 yBd Dx and the equation n

o syT 2 yBd Dx − ya syT 2 yBd dx n l ` i−1 b

A − lim

y

yT yT-yB yB 0

Îx

a

b

summarizes the procedure of adding (in a limiting sense) the areas of all the typical rectangles. Notice that in Figure 5 the left-hand boundary reduces to a point, whereas in Figure 3 the right-hand boundary reduces to a point. In the next example both of the side boundaries reduce to a point, so the first step is to find a and b.

x

EXAMPLE 2 Find the area of the region enclosed by the parabolas y − x 2 and y − 2x 2 x 2.

fIgure 5

SOLUTION We first find the points of intersection of the parabolas by solving their equations simultaneously. This gives x 2 − 2x 2 x 2, or 2x 2 2 2x − 0. Thus 2xsx 2 1d − 0, so x − 0 or 1. The points of intersection are s0, 0d and s1, 1d. We see from Figure 6 that the top and bottom boundaries are

yT=2x-≈ y (1, 1)

yT − 2x 2 x 2

yB − x 2

and

The area of a typical rectangle is yB=≈

syT 2 yBd Dx − s2x 2 x 2 2 x 2 d Dx

Îx (0, 0)

fIgure 6

x

and the region lies between x − 0 and x − 1. So the total area is A − y s2x 2 2x 2 d dx − 2 y sx 2 x 2 d dx 1

1

0

F

−2

0

x2 x3 2 2 3

G S D 1

−2

0

1 1 2 2 3

−

1 3

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

■

430

CHAPTER 6

Applications of Integration

Sometimes it’s difficult, or even impossible, to find the points of intersection of two curves exactly. As shown in the following example, we can use a graphing calculator or computer to find approximate values for the intersection points and then proceed as before.

EXAMPLE 3 Find the approximate area of the region bounded by the curves y − xysx 2 1 1 and y − x 4 2 x. SOLUTION If we were to try to find the exact intersection points, we would have to solve the equation x − x4 2 x sx 2 1 1 1.5 y=

x œ„„„„„ ≈+1

_1

2 y=x $-x

This looks like a very difficult equation to solve exactly (in fact, it’s impossible), so instead we use a graphing device to draw the graphs of the two curves in Figure 7. One intersection point is the origin. We zoom in toward the other point of intersection and find that x < 1.18. (If greater accuracy is required, we could use Newton’s method or solve numerically on our graphing device.) So an approximation to the area between the curves is A
tsxd for some values of x but tsxd > f sxd for other values of x, then we split the given region S into several regions S1, S2, . . . with areas A1, A2, . . . as shown in Figure 11. We then define the area of the region S to be the sum of the areas of the smaller regions S1, S2 , . . . , that is, A − A1 1 A2 1 ∙ ∙ ∙. Since

fIgure 11

| f sxd 2 tsxd | −

H

f sxd 2 tsxd when f sxd > tsxd tsxd 2 f sxd when tsxd > f sxd

we have the following expression for A. 3 The area between the curves y − f sxd and y − tsxd and between x − a and x − b is b A − y | f sxd 2 tsxd | dx a

When evaluating the integral in (3), however, we must still split it into integrals corresponding to A1, A2 , . . . .

EXAMPLE 6 Find the area of the region bounded by the curves y − sin x, y − cos x, x − 0, and x − y2. SOLUTION The points of intersection occur when sin x − cos x, that is, when x − y4 (since 0 < x < y2). The region is sketched in Figure 12. y y =cos x A¡

y=sin x A™ π 2

x=0

x= 0

fIgure 12

π 4

π 2

x

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SECTION 6.1 Areas Between Curves

433

Observe that cos x > sin x when 0 < x < y4 but sin x > cos x when y4 < x < y2. Therefore the required area is A−y

y2

−y

y4

0

| cos x 2 sin x | dx − A

1

0

scos x 2 sin xd dx 1 y

S

ssin x 2 cos xd dx

1 f2cos x 2 sin xg y4 y2

y4

−

y2

y4

− fsin x 1 cos xg 0

1 A2

D S

1 1 1 1 1 2 0 2 1 1 20 2 1 1 1 s2 s2 s2 s2

D

− 2s2 2 2

y

In this particular example we could have saved some work by noticing that the region is symmetric about x − y4 and so

y=d d

Îy x=g(y) c

A − 2A1 − 2 y

x=f(y)

0

y=c

0

y4

x

scos x 2 sin xd dx

■

Some regions are best treated by regarding x as a function of y. If a region is bounded by curves with equations x − f s yd, x − ts yd, y − c, and y − d, where f and t are continuous and f syd > ts yd for c < y < d (see Figure 13), then its area is A − y f f s yd 2 ts ydg dy d

fIgure 13

c

If we write x R for the right boundary and x L for the left boundary, then, as Figure 14 illustrates, we have d A − y sx R 2 x L d dy

y d

xR

xL

c

Here a typical approximating rectangle has dimensions x R 2 x L and Dy.

Îy xR -x L

EXAMPLE 7 Find the area enclosed by the line y − x 2 1 and the parabola

c 0

y 2 − 2x 1 6. x

fIgure 14

SOLUTION By solving the two equations we find that the points of intersection are s21, 22d and s5, 4d. We solve the equation of the parabola for x and notice from Figure 15 that the left and right boundary curves are

x L − 12 y 2 2 3

and

y

xR − y 1 1 (5, 4)

4 1

x L=2 ¥-3 xR=y+1 0 (_1, _2)

x _2

fIgure 15

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434

CHAPTER 6

Applications of Integration

We must integrate between the appropriate y-values, y − 22 and y − 4. Thus A − y sx R 2 x L d dy − y 4

4

22

22

−y y

y= œ„„„„„ 2x+6

(212 y 2 1 y 1 4) dy

1 2

S D y3 3

1

G

y2 1 4y 2

4

22

■

NOTE We could have found the area in Example 7 by integrating with respect to x instead of y, but the calculation is much more involved. Because the bottom boundary consists of two different curves, it would have meant splitting the region in two and computing the areas labeled A1 and A2 in Figure 16. The method we used in Example 7 is much easier.

y=_ œ„„„„„ 2x+6

fIgure 16

1–4 Find the area of the shaded region. 1. y

2.

10. y − sin x, (1, e)

12. 4x 1 y − 12,

y=xe≈ y=1/x

x−y 21

2

x−y

y=´

x=8

(1, 1)

2

11. x − 1 2 y ,

y

0

x

x

13–28 Sketch the region enclosed by the given curves and find its area. 13. y − 12 2 x 2,

4.

y

14. y − x 2,

y

x=¥-4y x=¥-2

y=1 x=e y

x>0

y − 2xy, 2

x y=Œ„

3.

2 3)g dy

x (_1, _2)

0

2

− 2 61 s64d 1 8 1 16 2 ( 34 1 2 2 8) − 18

y=x-1

0

A¡

−2

(5, 4)

A™

3

4

22

fs y 1 1d 2 ( 21 y

(_3, 3)

y − 4x 2 x 2

15. y − sec 2 x,

y − 8 cos x, 2y3 < x < y3

16. y − cos x,

y − 2 2 cos x, 0 < x < 2 x − 4 1 y2

2

17. x − 2y ,

x

y=_1

x

x=2y-¥

18. y − sx 2 1 ,

x2y−1

19. y − cos  x,

y − 4x 2 2 1

20. x − y 4,

y − s2 2 x ,

21. y − tan x, 5–12 Sketch the region enclosed by the given curves. Decide whether to integrate with respect to x or y. Draw a typical approximating rectangle and label its height and width. Then find the area of the region.

y − x2 2 6

3

22. y − x ,

y−0

y − 2 sin x, 2y3 < x < y3

y−x

23. y − s2x ,

y − 18 x 2,

24. y − cos x,

y − sin 2x,

3

00 2 s1 1 x s9 2 x 2 x x2 31. y − y− 2 , 11x 1 1 x3 ln x 32. y − , x

45. Use a computer algebra system to find the exact area enclosed by the curves y − x 5 2 6x 3 1 4x and y − x. 46. Sketch the region in the xy-plane defined by the inequalities x 2 2y 2 > 0, 1 2 x 2 y > 0 and find its area.

| |

47. Racing cars driven by Chris and Kelly are side by side at the start of a race. The table shows the velocities of each car (in kilometers per hour) during the first 10 seconds of the race. Use the Midpoint Rule to estimate how much farther Kelly travels than Chris does during the first 10 seconds.

f

12

CAS

sln xd2 y− x

t

vC

vK

t

vC

vK

0 1 2 3 4 5

0 32 51 74 86 99

0 35 59 83 98 114

6 7 8 9 10

110 120 130 138 144

128 138 150 157 163

48. The widths (in meters) of a kidney-shaped swimming pool were measured at 2-meter intervals as indicated in the figure. Use the Midpoint Rule to estimate the area of the pool.

33–34 Use calculus to find the area of the triangle with the given vertices. 33. s0, 5d,

s2, 22d,

34. s2, 0d,

s0, 2d,

5.6 5.0 4.8

7.2

s5, 1d

4.8

6.2

s21, 1d

35–36 Evaluate the integral and interpret it as the area of a region. Sketch the region. 35.

6.8

y | sx 1 2 2 x | dx 4

36.

y |3 1

x

21

0

|

2 2 x dx

49. A cross-section of an airplane wing is shown. Measurements of the thickness of the wing, in centimeters, at 20-centimeter intervals are 5.8, 20.3, 26.7, 29.0, 27.6, 27.3, 23.8, 20.5, 15.1, 8.7, and 2.8. Use the Midpoint Rule to estimate the area of the wing’s cross-section.

; 37–40 Use a graph to find approximate x-coordinates of the points of intersection of the given curves. Then find (approximately) the area of the region bounded by the curves. 37. y − x sinsx 2 d, 38. y − e x,

y − x 4,

x>0

200 cm

y − 2 2 x2

39. y − 3x 2 2 2 x, 40. y − 1.3 x,

50. If the birth rate of a population is bstd − 2200e 0.024t people per year and the death rate is dstd − 1460e0.018t people per year, find the area between these curves for 0 < t < 10. What does this area represent?

y − x 3 2 3x 1 4

y − 2 sx

; 41–44 Graph the region between the curves and use your calculator to compute the area correct to five decimal places. 41. y −

2 , 1 1 x4

43. y − tan 2 x,

y − x2 y − sx

2

42. y − e12x ,

y − x4

44. y − cos x,

y − x 1 2 sin 4 x

; 51. In Example 5, we modeled a measles pathogenesis curve by a function f. A patient infected with the measles virus who has some immunity to the virus has a pathogenesis curve that can be modeled by, for instance, tstd − 0.9 f std. (a) If the same threshold concentration of the virus is required for infectiousness to begin as in Example 5, on what day does this occur?

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

436

CHAPTER 6

Applications of Integration

(b) Let P3 be the point on the graph of t where infectiousness begins. It has been shown that infectiousness ends at a point P4 on the graph of t where the line through P3, P4 has the same slope as the line through P1, P2 in Example 5(b). On what day does infectiousness end? (c) Compute the level of infectiousness for this patient. ; 52. The rates at which rain fell, in centimeters per hour, in two different locations t hours after the start of a storm are given by f std − 0.73t 3 2 2t 2 1 t 1 0.6 and tstd − 0.17t 2 2 0.5t 1 1.1. Compute the area between the graphs for 0 < t < 2 and interpret your result in this context. 53. Two cars, A and B, start side by side and accelerate from rest. The figure shows the graphs of their velocity functions. (a) Which car is ahead after one minute? Explain. (b) What is the meaning of the area of the shaded region? (c) Which car is ahead after two minutes? Explain. (d) Estimate the time at which the cars are again side by side. √

y

Rª(x) 3 2 1 0

C ª(x)

50

100

x

2 2 ; 55. The curve with equation y − x sx 1 3d is called Tschirnhausen’s cubic. If you graph this curve you will see that part of the curve forms a loop. Find the area enclosed by the loop.

56. Find the area of the region bounded by the parabola y − x 2, the tangent line to this parabola at s1, 1d, and the x-axis. 57. Find the number b such that the line y − b divides the region bounded by the curves y − x 2 and y − 4 into two regions with equal area. 58. (a) Find the number a such that the line x − a bisects the area under the curve y − 1yx 2, 1 < x < 4. (b) Find the number b such that the line y − b bisects the area in part (a).

A

59. Find the values of c such that the area of the region bounded by the parabolas y − x 2 2 c 2 and y − c 2 2 x 2 is 576.

B 0

is the meaning of the area of the shaded region? Use the Midpoint Rule to estimate the value of this quantity.

1

2

t (min)

54. The figure shows graphs of the marginal revenue function R9 and the marginal cost function C9 for a manufacturer. [Recall from Section 4.7 that Rsxd and Csxd represent the revenue and cost when x units are manufactured. Assume that R and C are measured in thousands of dollars.] What

APPLIeD Project

60. Suppose that 0 , c , y2. For what value of c is the area of the region enclosed by the curves y − cos x, y − cossx 2 cd, and x − 0 equal to the area of the region enclosed by the curves y − cossx 2 cd, x − , and y − 0? 61. For what values of m do the line y − mx and the curve y − xysx 2 1 1d enclose a region? Find the area of the region.

the gInI InDex How is it possible to measure the distribution of income among the inhabitants of a given country? One such measure is the Gini index, named after the Italian economist Corrado Gini, who first devised it in 1912. We first rank all households in a country by income and then we compute the percentage of households whose income is at most a given percentage of the country’s total income. We define a Lorenz curve y − Lsxd on the interval f0, 1g by plotting the point say100, by100d on the curve if the bottom a% of households receive at most b% of the total income. For instance, in Figure 1 (on page 437) the point s0.4, 0.12d is on the Lorenz curve for the United States in 2010 because the poorest 40% of the population received just 12% of the total income. Likewise, the bottom 80% of the population received 50% of the total income, so the point s0.8, 0.5d lies on the Lorenz curve. (The Lorenz curve is named after the American economist Max Lorenz.)

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

APPLIED PROJECT The Gini Index

y

437

Figure 2 shows some typical Lorenz curves. They all pass through the points s0, 0d and s1, 1d and are concave upward. In the extreme case Lsxd − x, society is perfectly egalitarian: the poorest a% of the population receives a% of the total income and so everybody receives the same income. The area between a Lorenz curve y − Lsxd and the line y − x measures how much the income distribution differs from absolute equality. The Gini index (sometimes called the Gini coefficient or the coefficient of inequality) is the area between the Lorenz curve and the line y − x (shaded in Figure 3) divided by the area under y − x.

1

(0.8, 0.5)

1. (a) Show that the Gini index G is twice the area between the Lorenz curve and the line y − x, that is,

(0.4, 0.12)

G − 2 y fx 2 Lsxdg dx 1

0

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

x

(b) What is the value of G for a perfectly egalitarian society (everybody has the same income)? What is the value of G for a perfectly totalitarian society (a single person receives all the income?)

fIgure 1 Lorenz curve for the US in 2010 y 1

2. The following table (derived from data supplied by the US Census Bureau) shows values of the Lorenz function for income distribution in the United States for the year 2010.

(1, 1)

y=x income fraction

x

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Lsxd

0.000

0.034

0.120

0.266

0.498

1.000

(a) What percentage of the total US income was received by the richest 20% of the population in 2010? 0

1 x

population fraction

fIgure 2

(c) Use the quadratic model for the Lorenz function to estimate the Gini index for the United States in 2010.

y

3. The following table gives values for the Lorenz function in the years 1970, 1980, 1990, and 2000. Use the method of Problem 2 to estimate the Gini index for the United States for those years and compare with your answer to Problem 2(c). Do you notice a trend? y =x

y=L( x)

0

(b) Use a calculator or computer to fit a quadratic function to the data in the table. Graph the data points and the quadratic function. Is the quadratic model a reasonable fit?

1

x

x

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1970

0.000

0.041

0.149

0.323

0.568

1.000

1980

0.000

0.042

0.144

0.312

0.559

1.000

1990

0.000

0.038

0.134

0.293

0.530

1.000

2000

0.000

0.036

0.125

0.273

0.503

1.000

fIgure 3 CAS

4. A power model often provides a more accurate fit than a quadratic model for a Lorenz function. If you have a computer with Maple or Mathematica, fit a power function s y − ax k d to the data in Problem 2 and use it to estimate the Gini index for the United States in 2010. Compare with your answer to parts (b) and (c) of Problem 2.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

438

CHAPTER 6

Applications of Integration

In trying to find the volume of a solid we face the same type of problem as in finding areas. We have an intuitive idea of what volume means, but we must make this idea precise by using calculus to give an exact definition of volume. We start with a simple type of solid called a cylinder (or, more precisely, a right cylinder). As illustrated in Figure 1(a), a cylinder is bounded by a plane region B1, called the base, and a congruent region B2 in a parallel plane. The cylinder consists of all points on line segments that are perpendicular to the base and join B1 to B2. If the area of the base is A and the height of the cylinder (the distance from B1 to B2) is h, then the volume V of the cylinder is defined as V − Ah In particular, if the base is a circle with radius r, then the cylinder is a circular cylinder with volume V − r 2h [see Figure 1(b)], and if the base is a rectangle with length l and width w, then the cylinder is a rectangular box (also called a rectangular parallelepiped) with volume V − lwh [see Figure 1(c)].

B™ h h

h B¡

FIGURE 1

w

r

(a) Cylinder V=Ah

(b) Circular cylinder V=πr@h

l (c) Rectangular box V=lwh

For a solid S that isn’t a cylinder we first “cut” S into pieces and approximate each piece by a cylinder. We estimate the volume of S by adding the volumes of the cylinders. We arrive at the exact volume of S through a limiting process in which the number of pieces becomes large. We start by intersecting S with a plane and obtaining a plane region that is called a cross-section of S. Let Asxd be the area of the cross-section of S in a plane Px perpendicular to the x-axis and passing through the point x, where a < x < b. (See Figure 2. Think of slicing S with a knife through x and computing the area of this slice.) The crosssectional area Asxd will vary as x increases from a to b. y

Px S A(a)

A(x) A(b)

FIGURE 2

0

a

x

b

x

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439

SECTION 6.2 Volumes

Let’s divide S into n “slabs” of equal width Dx by using the planes Px1 , Px , . . . to slice the solid. (Think of slicing a loaf of bread.) If we choose sample points x*i in fx i21, x i g, we can approximate the ith slab Si (the part of S that lies between the planes Px i21 and Px i ) by a cylinder with base area Asx*d i and “height” Dx. (See Figure 3.) 2

y

y

Îx

S

0

a

xi-1 x i* xi

b

x

0

⁄

a=x¸

x™

‹

x¢

x∞

xß

x¶=b

x

FIGURE 3

The volume of this cylinder is Asx*i d Dx, so an approximation to our intuitive conception of the volume of the ith slab Si is VsSi d < Asx*i d Dx Adding the volumes of these slabs, we get an approximation to the total volume (that is, what we think of intuitively as the volume): n

V
0 (a) About the x-axis

(b) About the y-axis

35. y − lnsx 6 1 2d, 3

36. y − 1 1 xe2x ,

CAS

y − s3 2 x 3

2

37–38 Use a computer algebra system to find the exact volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by the given curves about the specified line.

38. y − x, y − xe12xy2 ;

2

4

6

8

10 x

(b) Estimate the volume if the region is rotated about the y-axis. Again use the Midpoint Rule with n − 4. CAS

46. (a) A model for the shape of a bird’s egg is obtained by rotating about the x-axis the region under the graph of f sxd − sax 3 1 bx 2 1 cx 1 dds1 2 x 2

y − arctan x 2

37. y − sin2 x, y − 0, 0 < x < ;

A sm2 d 0.53 0.55 0.52 0.50 0.48

x (m) 6 7 8 9 10

y 4

0

; 35–36 Use a graph to find approximate x-coordinates of the points of intersection of the given curves. Then use your calculator to find (approximately) the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the x-axis the region bounded by these curves.

A sm2 d 0.68 0.65 0.64 0.61 0.58 0.59

45. (a) If the region shown in the figure is rotated about the x-axis to form a solid, use the Midpoint Rule with n − 4 to estimate the volume of the solid.

32. y − 0, y − cos 2 x, 2y2 < x < y2 (a) About the x-axis (b) About y − 1 33. x 2 1 4y 2 − 4 (a) About y − 2

447

Use a CAS to find the volume of such an egg. (b) For a red-throated loon, a − 20.06, b − 0.04, c − 0.1, and d − 0.54. Graph f and find the volume of an egg of this species. 47–61 Find the volume of the described solid S.

about y − 21

47. A right circular cone with height h and base radius r

about y − 3

48. A frustum of a right circular cone with height h, lower base radius R, and top radius r 39–42 Each integral represents the volume of a solid. Describe the solid. 39.  y sin x dx

40.  y

41.  y s y 4 2 y 8 d dy

42.  y 3 2 2 (3 2 sx



0

1

0

y2

0 4

1

f

r

fs1 1 cos xd2 2 12 g dx

)2g dx

43. A CAT scan produces equally spaced cross-sectional views of a human organ that provide information about the organ otherwise obtained only by surgery. Suppose that a CAT scan of a human liver shows cross-sections spaced 1.5 cm apart. The liver is 15 cm long and the cross-sectional areas, in square centimeters, are 0, 18, 58, 79, 94, 106, 117, 128, 63, 39, and 0. Use the Midpoint Rule to estimate the volume of the liver.

h R

49. A cap of a sphere with radius r and height h h r

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448

CHAPTER 6

Applications of Integration

50. A frustum of a pyramid with square base of side b, square top of side a, and height h a

60. The base of S is the region enclosed by y − 2 2 x 2 and the x-axis. Cross-sections perpendicular to the y-axis are quarter-circles.

b x

What happens if a − b? What happens if a − 0?

y=2-≈

51. A pyramid with height h and rectangular base with dimensions b and 2b 52. A pyramid with height h and base an equilateral triangle with side a (a tetrahedron)

y

61. The solid S is bounded by circles that are perpendicular to the x-axis, intersect the x-axis, and have centers on the parabola y − 12 s1 2 x 2 d, 21 < x < 1. y

a a a

53. A tetrahedron with three mutually perpendicular faces and three mutually perpendicular edges with lengths 3 cm, 4 cm, and 5 cm

y x x

54. The base of S is a circular disk with radius r. Parallel crosssections perpendicular to the base are squares. 62. The base of S is a circular disk with radius r. Parallel crosssections perpendicular to the base are isosceles triangles with height h and unequal side in the base. (a) Set up an integral for the volume of S. (b) By interpreting the integral as an area, find the volume of S.

55. The base of S is an elliptical region with boundary curve 9x 2 1 4y 2 − 36. Cross-sections perpendicular to the x-axis are isosceles right triangles with hypotenuse in the base. 56. The base of S is the triangular region with vertices s0, 0d, s1, 0d, and s0, 1d. Cross-sections perpendicular to the y-axis are equilateral triangles. 57. The base of S is the same base as in Exercise 56, but crosssections perpendicular to the x-axis are squares. 58. The base of S is the region enclosed by the parabola y − 1 2 x 2 and the x-axis. Cross-sections perpendicular to the y-axis are squares. 59. The base of S is the same base as in Exercise 58, but crosssections perpendicular to the x-axis are isosceles triangles with height equal to the base.

63. (a) Set up an integral for the volume of a solid torus (the donut-shaped solid shown in the figure) with radii r and R. (b) By interpreting the integral as an area, find the volume of the torus.

R r

64. Solve Example 9 taking cross-sections to be parallel to the line of intersection of the two planes. 65. (a) Cavalieri’s Principle states that if a family of parallel planes gives equal cross-sectional areas for two solids

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SECTION 6.3 Volumes by Cylindrical Shells

S1 and S2, then the volumes of S1 and S2 are equal. Prove this principle. (b) Use Cavalieri’s Principle to find the volume of the oblique cylinder shown in the figure.

h r

66. Find the volume common to two circular cylinders, each with radius r, if the axes of the cylinders intersect at right angles.

449

is poured into the bowl to a depth of h centimeters. Find the volume of water in the bowl. 69. A hole of radius r is bored through the middle of a cylinder of radius R . r at right angles to the axis of the cylinder. Set up, but do not evaluate, an integral for the volume cut out. 70. A hole of radius r is bored through the center of a sphere of radius R . r. Find the volume of the remaining portion of the sphere. 71. Some of the pioneers of calculus, such as Kepler and Newton, were inspired by the problem of finding the volumes of wine barrels. (In fact Kepler published a book Stereometria doliorum in 1615 devoted to methods for finding the volumes of barrels.) They often approximated the shape of the sides by parabolas. (a) A barrel with height h and maximum radius R is constructed by rotating about the x-axis the parabola y − R 2 cx 2, 2hy2 < x < hy2, where c is a positive constant. Show that the radius of each end of the barrel is r − R 2 d, where d − ch 2y4. (b) Show that the volume enclosed by the barrel is V − 13 h s2R 2 1 r 2 2 25 d 2 d

67. Find the volume common to two spheres, each with radius r, if the center of each sphere lies on the surface of the other sphere. 68. A bowl is shaped like a hemisphere with diameter 30 cm. A heavy ball with diameter 10 cm is placed in the bowl and water

y

y=2≈-˛ 1

xL=?

0

xR=?

2

x

72. Suppose that a region 5 has area A and lies above the x-axis. When 5 is rotated about the x-axis, it sweeps out a solid with volume V1. When 5 is rotated about the line y − 2k (where k is a positive number), it sweeps out a solid with volume V2 . Express V2 in terms of V1, k, and A.

Some volume problems are very difficult to handle by the methods of the preceding section. For instance, let’s consider the problem of finding the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the y-axis the region bounded by y − 2x 2 2 x 3 and y − 0. (See Figure 1.) If we slice perpendicular to the y-axis, we get a washer. But to compute the inner radius and the outer radius of the washer, we’d have to solve the cubic equation y − 2x 2 2 x 3 for x in terms of y; that’s not easy. Fortunately, there is a method, called the method of cylindrical shells, that is easier to use in such a case. Figure 2 shows a cylindrical shell with inner radius r1, outer radius

FIGURE 1 r

Îr

r¡ r™

h

FIGURE 2 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

450

CHAPTER 6

Applications of Integration

r2, and height h. Its volume V is calculated by subtracting the volume V1 of the inner cylinder from the volume V2 of the outer cylinder: V − V2 2 V1 − r22 h 2 r12 h − sr22 2 r12dh − sr2 1 r1 dsr2 2 r1 dh − 2

r2 1 r1 hsr2 2 r1 d 2

If we let Dr − r2 2 r1 (the thickness of the shell) and r − 12 sr2 1 r1 d (the average radius of the shell), then this formula for the volume of a cylindrical shell becomes

1

V − 2rh Dr

and it can be remembered as V − [circumference][height][thickness] Now let S be the solid obtained by rotating about the y-axis the region bounded by y − f sxd [where f sxd > 0], y − 0, x − a, and x − b, where b . a > 0. (See Figure 3.) y

y

y=ƒ

y=ƒ

0

a

b

0

x

a

b

x

FIGURE 3

We divide the interval fa, bg into n subintervals fx i21, x i g of equal width Dx and let x i be the midpoint of the ith subinterval. If the rectangle with base fx i21, x i g and height f sx i d is rotated about the y-axis, then the result is a cylindrical shell with average radius x i , height f sx i d, and thickness Dx (see Figure 4). So by Formula 1 its volume is Vi − s2x i df f sx i dg Dx y

y

y

y=ƒ

0

a

b x i-1 x–i

FIGURE 4

y=ƒ

x

0

a

b

y=ƒ

x

0

a

b

x

xi

Therefore an approximation to the volume V of S is given by the sum of the volumes of 

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SECTION 6.3 Volumes by Cylindrical Shells

451

these shells: n

V
0, x − 2;

about y − 2

; 33–34 Use a graph to estimate the x-coordinates of the points of intersection of the given curves. Then use this information and your calculator to estimate the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the y-axis the region enclosed by these curves. x 33. y − x 2 2 2x, y − 2 x 11

about y − 22

21–26 (a) Set up an integral for the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by the given curve about the specified axis. (b) Use your calculator to evaluate the integral correct to five decimal places. 2x

4

1

0

15. y − x 3, y − 8, x − 0;

2x 5 dx

31. 2 y

15–20 Use the method of cylindrical shells to find the volume generated by rotating the region bounded by the given curves about the specified axis.

20. x − 2y 2, x − y 2 1 1;

6

29–32 Each integral represents the volume of a solid. Describe the solid.

14. x 1 y − 4, x − y 2 2 4y 1 4

18. y − sx , x − 2y;

4

x−0

x−2

17. y − x 2, y − 2 2 x 2;

2

21. y − xe , y − 0, x − 2;

34. y − e sin x,

CAS

y − x 2 2 4x 1 5

35–36 Use a computer algebra system to find the exact volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by the given curves about the specified line. 35. y − sin 2 x, y − sin 4 x, 0 < x < ; about x − y2 36. y − x 3 sin x, y − 0, 0 < x < ;

about x − 21

about the y-axis

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SECTION 6.4 Work

37–43 The region bounded by the given curves is rotated about the specified axis. Find the volume of the resulting solid by any method. 37. y − 2x 2 1 6x 2 8, y − 0; 2

38. y − 2x 1 6x 2 8, y − 0;

about the x-axis

about the x-axis

40. y 2 2 x 2 − 1, y − 2;

about the y-axis

2

41. x 1 s y 2 1d − 1;

about the y-axis

2

42. x − s y 2 3d , x − 4; about y − 1 43. x − s y 2 1d2, x 2 y − 1;

46. The solid torus of Exercise 6.2.63 47. A right circular cone with height h and base radius r

about the y-axis

39. y 2 2 x 2 − 1, y − 2;

2

455

about x − 21

48. Suppose you make napkin rings by drilling holes with different diameters through two wooden balls (which also have different diameters). You discover that both napkin rings have the same height h, as shown in the figure. (a) Guess which ring has more wood in it. (b) Check your guess: Use cylindrical shells to compute the volume of a napkin ring created by drilling a hole with radius r through the center of a sphere of radius R and express the answer in terms of h.

44. Let T be the triangular region with vertices s0, 0d, s1, 0d, and s1, 2d, and let V be the volume of the solid generated when T is rotated about the line x − a, where a . 1. Express a in terms of V.

h

45–47 Use cylindrical shells to find the volume of the solid. 45. A sphere of radius r

The term work is used in everyday language to mean the total amount of effort required to perform a task. In physics it has a technical meaning that depends on the idea of a force. Intuitively, you can think of a force as describing a push or pull on an object— for example, a horizontal push of a book across a table or the downward pull of the earth’s gravity on a ball. In general, if an object moves along a straight line with position function sstd, then the force F on the object (in the same direction) is given by Newton’s Second Law of Motion as the product of its mass m and its acceleration a: 1

F − ma − m

d 2s dt 2

In the SI metric system, the mass is measured in kilograms (kg), the displacement in meters  (m), the time in seconds (s), and the force in newtons (N − kg∙mys2). Thus a force of 1 N acting on a mass of 1 kg produces an acceleration of 1 mys2. In the US Customary system the fundamental unit is chosen to be the unit of force, which is the pound. In the case of constant acceleration, the force F is also constant and the work done is defined to be the product of the force F and the distance d that the object moves: 2

W − Fd

work − force 3 distance

If F is measured in newtons and d in meters, then the unit for W is a newton-meter, which is called a joule (J). If F is measured in pounds and d in feet, then the unit for W is a foot-pound (ft-lb), which is about 1.36 J.

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456

CHAPTER 6

Applications of Integration

EXAMPLE 1 (a) How much work is done in lifting a 1.2-kg book off the floor to put it on a desk that is 0.7 m high? Use the fact that the acceleration due to gravity is t − 9.8 mys2. (b) How much work is done in lifting a 20-lb weight 6 ft off the ground? SOLUTION

(a) The force exerted is equal and opposite to that exerted by gravity, so Equation 1 gives F − mt − s1.2ds9.8d − 11.76 N and then Equation 2 gives the work done as W − Fd − s11.76 Nds0.7 md < 8.2 J (b) Here the force is given as F − 20 lb, so the work done is W − Fd − s20 lbds6 ftd − 120 ft-lb Notice that in part (b), unlike part (a), we did not have to multiply by t because we were given the weight (which is a force) and not the mass of the object. ■ Equation 2 defines work as long as the force is constant, but what happens if the force is variable? Let’s suppose that the object moves along the x-axis in the positive direction, from x − a to x − b, and at each point x between a and b a force f sxd acts on the object, where f is a continuous function. We divide the interval fa, bg into n subintervals with endpoints x 0 , x 1, . . . , x n and equal width Dx. We choose a sample point x*i in the ith subinterval fx i21, x i g. Then the force at that point is f sx*i d. If n is large, then Dx is small, and since f is continuous, the values of f don’t change very much over the interval fx i21, x i g. In other words, f is almost constant on the interval and so the work Wi that is done in moving the particle from x i21 to x i is approximately given by Equation 2: Wi < f sx*i d Dx Thus we can approximate the total work by n

W
tsxd for a < x < b. Show how to approximate the area between these curves by a Riemann sum and sketch the corresponding approximating rectangles. Then write an expression for the exact area. (b) Explain how the situation changes if the curves have equations x − f s yd and x − ts yd, where f s yd > ts yd for c < y < d.

(b) If S is a solid of revolution, how do you find the crosssectional areas? 4. (a) What is the volume of a cylindrical shell? (b) Explain how to use cylindrical shells to find the volume of a solid of revolution. (c) Why might you want to use the shell method instead of slicing?

2. Suppose that Sue runs faster than Kathy throughout a 1500-meter race. What is the physical meaning of the area between their velocity curves for the first minute of the race?

5. Suppose that you push a book across a 6-meter-long table by exerting a force f sxd at each point from x − 0 to x − 6. What does y06 f sxd dx represent? If f sxd is measured in newtons, what are the units for the integral?

3. (a) Suppose S is a solid with known cross-sectional areas. Explain how to approximate the volume of S by a Riemann sum. Then write an expression for the exact volume.

6. (a) What is the average value of a function f on an interval fa, bg? (b) What does the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals say? What is its geometric interpretation?

EXERCISES 1–6 Find the area of the region bounded by the given curves. 2

1. y − x , y − 4 x 2 x

2

| |

13. y − cos2 x, x < y2, y − 14;

about x − y2

14. y − sx , y − x ; about y − 2 2

2. y − sx , y − 2sx , y − x 2 2 3

3. y − 1yx, 4. x 1 y − 0,

y − x 2,

x−e

x − y 1 3y

5. y − sins xy2d, 6. y − sx ,

y − 0, 2

y − x 2 2 2x

y − x 2,

x−2

7–11 Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by the given curves about the specified axis. 7. y − 2x, y − x 2; about the x-axis 8. x − 1 1 y 2, y − x 2 3; 9. x − 0, x − 9 2 y 2;

about the y-axis

about x − 21

2

10. y − x 1 1, y − 9 2 x 2; about y − 21 11. x 2 2 y 2 − a 2, x − a 1 h (where a . 0, h . 0); about the y-axis

12–14 Set up, but do not evaluate, an integral for the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by the given curves about the specified axis. 12. y − tan x, y − x, x − y3;

about the y-axis

15. Find the volumes of the solids obtained by rotating the region bounded by the curves y − x and y − x 2 about the following lines. (a) The x-axis (b) The y-axis (c) y − 2 16. Let 5 be the region in the first quadrant bounded by the curves y − x 3 and y − 2x 2 x 2. Calculate the following quantities. (a) The area of 5 (b) The volume obtained by rotating 5 about the x-axis (c) The volume obtained by rotating 5 about the y-axis 17. Let 5 be the region bounded by the curves y − tansx 2 d, x − 1, and y − 0. Use the Midpoint Rule with n − 4 to estimate the following quantities. (a) The area of 5 (b) The volume obtained by rotating 5 about the x-axis 2 ; 18. Let 5 be the region bounded by the curves y − 1 2 x and y − x 6 2 x 1 1. Estimate the following quantities. (a) The x-coordinates of the points of intersection of the curves (b) The area of 5 (c) The volume generated when 5 is rotated about the x-axis (d) The volume generated when 5 is rotated about the y-axis

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CHAPTER 6

19–22 Each integral represents the volume of a solid. Describe the solid. 19.

y

y2

0

20.

y

y2

0

21.

y



0

22.

y

4

0

2x cos x dx

;

Review

467

by rotating a parabola about a vertical axis. (a) If its height is 4 ft and the radius at the top is 4 ft, find the work required to pump the water out of the tank. (b) After 4000 ft-lb of work has been done, what is the depth of the water remaining in the tank?

2 cos2x dx

 s2 2 sin xd2 dx 2 s6 2 yds4y 2 y 2 d dy

23. The base of a solid is a circular disk with radius 3. Find the volume of the solid if parallel cross-sections perpendicular to the base are isosceles right triangles with hypotenuse lying along the base. 24. The base of a solid is the region bounded by the parabolas y − x 2 and y − 2 2 x 2. Find the volume of the solid if the cross-sections perpendicular to the x-axis are squares with one side lying along the base. 25. The height of a monument is 20 m. A horizontal crosssection at a distance x meters from the top is an equilateral triangle with side 14 x meters. Find the volume of the monument. 26. (a) The base of a solid is a square with vertices located at s1, 0d, s0, 1d, s21, 0d, and s0, 21d. Each cross-section perpendicular to the x-axis is a semicircle. Find the volume of the solid. (b) Show that the volume of the solid of part (a) can be computed more simply by first cutting the solid and rearranging it to form a cone. 27. A force of 30 N is required to maintain a spring stretched from its natural length of 12 cm to a length of 15 cm. How much work is done in stretching the spring from 12 cm to 20 cm? 28. A 1600-lb elevator is suspended by a 200-ft cable that weighs 10 lbyft. How much work is required to raise the elevator from the basement to the third floor, a distance of 30 ft? 29. A tank full of water has the shape of a paraboloid of revolution as shown in the figure; that is, its shape is obtained

4 ft 4 ft

30. A steel tank has the shape of a circular cylinder oriented vertically with diameter 4 m and height 5 m. The tank is currently filled to a level of 3 m with cooking oil that has a density of 920 kgym3. Compute the work required to pump the oil out through a 1-m spout at the top of the tank. 31. Find the average value of the function f std − sec 2 t on the interval f0, y4g. 32. (a) Find the average value of the function f sxd − 1ysx on the interval f1, 4g. (b) Find the value c guaranteed by the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals such that fave − f scd. (c) Sketch the graph of f on f1, 4g and a rectangle whose area is the same as the area under the graph of f. 33. If f is a continuous function, what is the limit as h l 0 of the average value of f on the interval fx, x 1 hg? 34. Let 51 be the region bounded by y − x 2, y − 0, and x − b, where b . 0. Let 52 be the region bounded by y − x 2, x − 0, and y − b 2. (a) Is there a value of b such that 51 and 52 have the same area? (b) Is there a value of b such that 51 sweeps out the same volume when rotated about the x-axis and the y-axis? (c) Is there a value of b such that 51 and 52 sweep out the same volume when rotated about the x-axis? (d) Is there a value of b such that 51 and 52 sweep out the same volume when rotated about the y-axis?

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Problems Plus

1. (a) Find a positive continuous function f such that the area under the graph of f from 0 to t is Astd − t 3 for all t . 0. (b) A solid is generated by rotating about the x-axis the region under the curve y − f sxd, where f is a positive function and x > 0. The volume generated by the part of the curve from x − 0 to x − b is b 2 for all b . 0. Find the function f. 2. There is a line through the origin that divides the region bounded by the parabola y − x 2 x 2 and the x-axis into two regions with equal area. What is the slope of that line?

y

3. The figure shows a horizontal line y − c intersecting the curve y − 8x 2 27x 3. Find the number c such that the areas of the shaded regions are equal.

y=8x-27˛ y=c

0

x

FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 3

4. A cylindrical glass of radius r and height L is filled with water and then tilted until the water remaining in the glass exactly covers its base. (a) Determine a way to “slice” the water into parallel rectangular cross-sections and then set up a definite integral for the volume of the water in the glass. (b) Determine a way to “slice” the water into parallel cross-sections that are trapezoids and then set up a definite integral for the volume of the water. (c) Find the volume of water in the glass by evaluating one of the integrals in part (a) or part (b). (d) Find the volume of the water in the glass from purely geometric considerations. (e) Suppose the glass is tilted until the water exactly covers half the base. In what direction can you “slice” the water into triangular cross-sections? Rectangular cross-sections? Cross-sections that are segments of circles? Find the volume of water in the glass.

L

r

L

r

5. (a) Show that the volume of a segment of height h of a sphere of radius r is V − 13 h 2s3r 2 hd

r

h

(See the figure.) (b) Show that if a sphere of radius 1 is sliced by a plane at a distance x from the center in such a way that the volume of one segment is twice the volume of the other, then x is a solution of the equation 3x 3 2 9x 1 2 − 0

FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 5

where 0 , x , 1. Use Newton’s method to find x accurate to four decimal places. (c) Using the formula for the volume of a segment of a sphere, it can be shown that the depth x to which a floating sphere of radius r sinks in water is a root of the equation x 3 2 3rx 2 1 4r 3s − 0 where s is the specific gravity of the sphere. Suppose a wooden sphere of radius 0.5 m has specific gravity 0.75. Calculate, to four-decimal-place accuracy, the depth to which the sphere will sink. (d) A hemispherical bowl has radius 12 cm and water is running into the bowl at the rate of 3 cm3ys. (i) How fast is the water level in the bowl rising at the instant the water is 7 cm deep? (ii) At a certain instant, the water is 8 cm deep. How long will it take to fill the bowl? 6. Archimedes’ Principle states that the buoyant force on an object partially or fully submerged in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid that the object displaces. Thus, for an

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y=L-h

object of density  0 floating partly submerged in a fluid of density  f , the buoyant force is 0 given by F −  f t y2h As yd dy, where t is the acceleration due to gravity and As yd is the area of a typical cross-section of the object (see the figure). The weight of the object is given by

y=0 L

h

W − 0t y

y=_h

L2h

As yd dy

2h

(a) Show that the percentage of the volume of the object above the surface of the liquid is

FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 6 100

f 2  0 f

(b) The density of ice is 917 kgym3 and the density of seawater is 1030 kgym3. What percentage of the volume of an iceberg is above water? (c) An ice cube floats in a glass filled to the brim with water. Does the water overflow when the ice melts? (d) A sphere of radius 0.4 m and having negligible weight is floating in a large freshwater lake. How much work is required to completely submerge the sphere? The density of the water is 1000 kgym3. 7. Water in an open bowl evaporates at a rate proportional to the area of the surface of the water. (This means that the rate of decrease of the volume is proportional to the area of the surface.) Show that the depth of the water decreases at a constant rate, regardless of the shape of the bowl.

y

y=2≈

8. A sphere of radius 1 overlaps a smaller sphere of radius r in such a way that their intersection is a circle of radius r. (In other words, they intersect in a great circle of the small sphere.) Find r so that the volume inside the small sphere and outside the large sphere is as large as possible.

C B

P

y=≈

9. The figure shows a curve C with the property that, for every point P on the middle curve y − 2x 2, the areas A and B are equal. Find an equation for C.

A

10. A paper drinking cup filled with water has the shape of a cone with height h and semivertical angle . (See the figure.) A ball is placed carefully in the cup, thereby displacing some of the water and making it overflow. What is the radius of the ball that causes the greatest volume of water to spill out of the cup?

x

0

FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 9

h ¨

y b

x=f(y) h x

FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 11

11. A clepsydra, or water clock, is a glass container with a small hole in the bottom through which water can flow. The “clock” is calibrated for measuring time by placing markings on the container corresponding to water levels at equally spaced times. Let x − f s yd be continuous on the interval f0, bg and assume that the container is formed by rotating the graph of f about the y-axis. Let V denote the volume of water and h the height of the water level at time t. (a) Determine V as a function of h. (b) Show that dV dh −  f f shdg 2 dt dt

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(c) Suppose that A is the area of the hole in the bottom of the container. It follows from Torricelli’s Law that the rate of change of the volume of the water is given by dV − k A sh dt where k is a negative constant. Determine a formula for the function f such that dhydt is a constant C. What is the advantage in having dhydt − C? y

12. A cylindrical container of radius r and height L is partially filled with a liquid whose volume is V. If the container is rotated about its axis of symmetry with constant angular speed , then the container will induce a rotational motion in the liquid around the same axis. Eventually, the liquid will be rotating at the same angular speed as the container. The surface of the liquid will be convex, as indicated in the figure, because the centrifugal force on the liquid particles increases with the distance from the axis of the container. It can be shown that the surface of the liquid is a paraboloid of revolution generated by rotating the parabola

v

L h r

y−h1

x

 2x 2 2t

about the y-axis, where t is the acceleration due to gravity. (a) Determine h as a function of . (b) At what angular speed will the surface of the liquid touch the bottom? At what speed will it spill over the top? (c) Suppose the radius of the container is 2 m, the height is 7 m, and the container and liquid are rotating at the same constant angular speed. The surface of the liquid is 5 m below the top of the tank at the central axis and 4 m below the top of the tank 1 m out from the central axis. (i) Determine the angular speed of the container and the volume of the fluid. (ii) How far below the top of the tank is the liquid at the wall of the container?

FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 12

13. Suppose the graph of a cubic polynomial intersects the parabola y − x 2 when x − 0, x − a, and x − b, where 0 , a , b. If the two regions between the curves have the same area, how is b related to a? CAS

x P

14. Suppose we are planning to make a taco from a round tortilla with diameter 8 inches by bending the tortilla so that it is shaped as if it is partially wrapped around a circular cylinder. We will fill the tortilla to the edge (but no more) with meat, cheese, and other ingredients. Our problem is to decide how to curve the tortilla in order to maximize the volume of food it can hold. (a) We start by placing a circular cylinder of radius r along a diameter of the tortilla and folding the tortilla around the cylinder. Let x represent the distance from the center of the tortilla to a point P on the diameter (see the figure). Show that the cross-sectional area of the filled taco in the plane through P perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder is

S

Asxd − r s16 2 x 2 2 12 r 2 sin

2 s16 2 x 2 r

D

and write an expression for the volume of the filled taco. (b) Determine (approximately) the value of r that maximizes the volume of the taco. (Use a graphical approach with your CAS.)

FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 14

15. If the tangent at a point P on the curve y − x 3 intersects the curve again at Q, let A be the area of the region bounded by the curve and the line segment PQ. Let B be the area of the region defined in the same way starting with Q instead of P. What is the relationship between A and B?

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7

Techniques of Integration

The photo shows a screwworm fly, the first pest effectively eliminated from a region by the sterile insect technique without pesticides. The idea is to introduce into the population sterile males that mate with females but produce no offspring. In Exercise 7.4.67 you will evaluate an integral that relates the female insect population to time. USDA

BECAUSE OF THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM of Calculus, we can integrate a function if we know an antiderivative, that is, an indefinite integral. We summarize here the most important integrals that we have learned so far. x n11 1C n11

yx

n

dx −

ye

x

dx − e x 1 C

sn ± 21d

y

1 dx − ln x 1 C x

| |

yb

x

dx −

bx 1C ln b

y sin x dx − 2cos x 1 C

y cos x dx − sin x 1 C

y sec x dx − tan x 1 C

y csc x dx − 2cot x 1 C

y sec x tan x dx − sec x 1 C

y csc x cot x dx − 2csc x 1 C

y sinh x dx − cosh x 1 C

y cosh x dx − sinh x 1 C

y tan x dx − ln | sec x | 1 C

y cot x dx − ln | sin x | 1 C

2

y

2

SD

x 1 1 dx − tan21 x2 1 a2 a a

1C

y

1 sa 2 2 x 2

SD

dx − sin21

x a

1 C, a . 0

In this chapter we develop techniques for using these basic integration formulas to obtain indefinite integrals of more complicated functions. We learned the most important method of integration, the Substitution Rule, in Section 5.5. The other general technique, integration by parts, is presented in Section 7.1. Then we learn methods that are special to particular classes of functions, such as trigonometric functions and rational functions. Integration is not as straightforward as differentiation; there are no rules that absolutely guarantee obtaining an indefinite integral of a function. Therefore we discuss a strategy for integration in Section 7.5.

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472

CHAPTER 7 Techniques of Integration

Every differentiation rule has a corresponding integration rule. For instance, the Substitution Rule for integration corresponds to the Chain Rule for differentiation. The rule that corresponds to the Product Rule for differentiation is called the rule for integration by parts. The Product Rule states that if f and t are differentiable functions, then d f f sxdtsxdg − f sxd t9sxd 1 tsxd f 9sxd dx In the notation for indefinite integrals this equation becomes

y f f sxd t9sxd 1 tsxd f 9sxdg dx − f sxdtsxd y f sxd t9sxd dx 1 y tsxd f 9sxd dx − f sxd tsxd

or

We can rearrange this equation as

1

y f sxdt9sxd dx − f sxdtsxd 2 y tsxd f 9sxd dx

Formula 1 is called the formula for integration by parts. It is perhaps easier to remember  in the following notation. Let u − f sxd and v − tsxd. Then the differentials are du − f 9sxd dx and dv − t9sxd dx, so, by the Substitution Rule, the formula for integration by parts becomes

y u dv − uv 2 y v du

2

EXAMPLE 1 Find y x sin x dx. SOLUTION USING FORMULA 1 Suppose we choose f sxd − x and t9sxd − sin x. Then

f 9sxd − 1 and tsxd − 2cos x. (For t we can choose any antiderivative of t9.) Thus, using Formula 1, we have

y x sin x dx − f sxd tsxd 2 y tsxd f 9sxd dx − xs2cos xd 2 y s2cos xd dx − 2x cos x 1 y cos x dx − 2x cos x 1 sin x 1 C

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SECTION 7.1 Integration by Parts

473

It’s wise to check the answer by differentiating it. If we do so, we get x sin x, as expected. It is helpful to use the pattern: u−

dv − 

du − 

v−

SOLUTION USING FORMULA 2 Let

Then

u−x

dv − sin x dx

du − dx

v − 2cos x

and so u

d√

u

√

√

du

y x sin x dx − y x sin x dx − x s2cos xd 2 y s2cos xd dx − 2x cos x 1 y cos x dx − 2x cos x 1 sin x 1 C

■

NOTE Our aim in using integration by parts is to obtain a simpler integral than the one we started with. Thus in Example 1 we started with y x sin x dx and expressed it in terms  of the simpler integral y cos x dx. If we had instead chosen u − sin x and dv − x dx, then du − cos x dx and v − x 2y2, so integration by parts gives

y x sin x dx − ssin xd

x2 1 2 2 2

yx

2

cos x dx

Although this is true, y x 2 cos x dx is a more difficult integral than the one we started with. In general, when deciding on a choice for u and dv, we usually try to choose u − f sxd to be a function that becomes simpler when differentiated (or at least not more complicated) as long as dv − t9sxd dx can be readily integrated to give v.

EXAMPLE 2 Evaluate y ln x dx. SOLUTION Here we don’t have much choice for u and dv. Let

u − ln x Then

du −

1 dx x

dv − dx v−x

Integrating by parts, we get

y ln x dx − x ln x 2 y x

dx x

It’s customary to write y 1 dx as y dx.

− x ln x 2 y dx

Check the answer by differentiating it.

− x ln x 2 x 1 C Integration by parts is effective in this example because the derivative of the function f sxd − ln x is simpler than f. ■

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474

CHAPTER 7 Techniques of Integration

EXAMPLE 3 Find y t 2 e t dt. SOLUTION Notice that t 2 becomes simpler when differentiated (whereas e t is

unchanged when differentiated or integrated), so we choose u − t2 Then

dv − e t dt v − et

du − 2t dt

Integration by parts gives

y t e dt − t e 2 t

3

2 t

2 2 y te t dt

The integral that we obtained, y te t dt, is simpler than the original integral but is still not obvious. Therefore we use integration by parts a second time, this time with u − t and dv − e t dt. Then du − dt, v − e t, and

y te dt − te t

t

2 y e t dt

− te t 2 e t 1 C Putting this in Equation 3, we get

yt

e dt − t 2 e t 2 2 y te t dt

2 t

− t 2 e t 2 2ste t 2 e t 1 Cd − t 2 e t 2 2te t 1 2e t 1 C1

where C1 − 22C

■

EXAMPLE 4 Evaluate y e x sin x dx. An easier method, using complex numbers, is given in Exercise 50 in Appendix H.

SOLUTION Neither e x nor sin x becomes simpler when differentiated, but we try choosing u − e x and dv − sin x dx anyway. Then du − e x dx and v − 2cos x, so integration

by parts gives

ye

4

x

sin x dx − 2e x cos x 1 y e x cos x dx

The integral that we have obtained, y e x cos x dx, is no simpler than the original one, but at least it’s no more difficult. Having had success in the preceding example integrating by parts twice, we persevere and integrate by parts again. This time we use u − e x and dv − cos x dx. Then du − e x dx, v − sin x, and

ye

5

x

cos x dx − e x sin x 2 y e x sin x dx

At first glance, it appears as if we have accomplished nothing because we have arrived at y e x sin x dx, which is where we started. However, if we put the expression for y e x cos x dx from Equation 5 into Equation 4 we get

ye

x

sin x dx − 2e x cos x 1 e x sin x 2 y e x sin x dx

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SECTION 7.1 Integration by Parts

475

Figure 1 illustrates Example 4 by show- This can be regarded as an equation to be solved for the unknown integral. Adding ing the graphs of f sxd − e x sin x and y e x sin x dx to both sides, we obtain 1 x Fsxd − 2 e ssin x 2 cos xd. As a visual check on our work, notice that f sxd − 0 2 e x sin x dx − 2e x cos x 1 e x sin x when F has a maximum or minimum.

y

Dividing by 2 and adding the constant of integration, we get

12

ye

F

x

sin x dx − 12 e x ssin x 2 cos xd 1 C

■

f _3

6 _4

If we combine the formula for integration by parts with Part 2 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we can evaluate definite integrals by parts. Evaluating both sides of Formula 1 between a and b, assuming f 9 and t9 are continuous, and using the Fundamental Theorem, we obtain

FIGURE 1

y

6

b

a

f sxd t9sxd dx − f sxdtsxdg a 2 y tsxd f 9sxd dx b

b

a

EXAMPLE 5 Calculate y tan21x dx. 1

0

SOLUTION Let

u − tan21x Then

du −

dv − dx

dx 1 1 x2

v−x

So Formula 6 gives

y

1

0

tan21x dx − x tan21xg 0 2 y 1

y=tan–!x

0 1

x

x dx 1 1 x2

− 1 ? tan21 1 2 0 ? tan21 0 2 y

1

0

Since tan21x > 0 for x > 0, the integral in Example 5 can be interpreted as the area of the region shown in Figure 2. y

1

0

−

x dx 1 1 x2

1  x 2y 2 dx 0 1 1 x 4

To evaluate this integral we use the substitution t − 1 1 x 2 (since u has another meaning in this example). Then dt − 2x dx, so x dx − 12 dt. When x − 0, t − 1; when x − 1, t − 2; so 2 1 x 2 dt y0 1 1 x 2 dx − 12 y1 t − 12 ln | t |g 1 − 12 sln 2 2 ln 1d − 12 ln 2

FIGURE 2

Therefore

y

1

0

tan21x dx −

1 x ln 2   2y dx − 2 0 1 1 x2 4 4 2

EXAMPLE 6 Prove the reduction formula Equation 7 is called a reduction formula because the exponent n has been reduced to n 2 1 and n 2 2.

7

1

y sin x dx − 2 n cos x sin n

n21

x1

n21 n

y sin

n22

x dx

where n > 2 is an integer. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

■

476

CHAPTER 7 Techniques of Integration

SOLUTION Let

u − sin n21x

dv − sin x dx

du − sn 2 1d sin n22x cos x dx

Then

v − 2cos x

so integration by parts gives

y sin x dx − 2cos x sin n

n21

x 1 sn 2 1d y sin n22x cos 2x dx

Since cos 2x − 1 2 sin 2x, we have

y sin x dx − 2cos x sin n

n21

x 1 sn 2 1d y sin n22x dx 2 sn 2 1d y sin n x dx

As in Example 4, we solve this equation for the desired integral by taking the last term on the right side to the left side. Thus we have n y sin n x dx − 2cos x sin n21x 1 sn 2 1d y sin n22x dx 1

y sin x dx − 2 n cos x sin n

or

n21

x1

n21 n

y sin

n22

x dx

■

The reduction formula (7) is useful because by using it repeatedly we could eventually express y sin n x dx in terms of y sin x dx (if n is odd) or y ssin xd0 dx − y dx (if n is even).

1–2 Evaluate the integral using integration by parts with the indicated choices of u and dv. 1.

y xe

2.

y sx ln x dx;

2x

dx;

u − x, dv − e 2x dx u − ln x, dv − sx dx

13.

y t csc

t dt

14.

y x cosh ax dx

15.

y ln sx dx

16.

y

17.

y arctan 4t dt

18.

ys2

19.

yz e

20.

y x tan x dx

21.

y

22.

y sarcsin xd

y

1y2

24.

y

1

y

2

y

2

y

5

y

9

ln y

4

sy

y



y

s3

3–36 Evaluate the integral. 3.

y x cos 5x dx

4.

y ye

5.

y re

ry2

6.

y t sin 2t dt

23.

y sx

2

y t sec

25.

7. 9. 11.

1 2xd cos x dx

y cos yt

4

dr

21

x dx

ln t dt

8. 10. 12.

0.2y

2

dy

2t dt

3

3 z

0

27.

y tan

29.

2y dy

dz

xe 2x dx s1 1 2xd2

0

y ln sx dx 21

2

1

0

x cos x dx

z dz 10 z

26.

ln R dR R2

28.

x sin x cos x dx

30.

ds 2

0

y sinh y dy

s

1

1

2

dx

sx 2 1 1de2x dx w 2 ln w dw dy

arctans1yxd dx

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

477

SECTION 7.1 Integration by Parts

31.

M dM eM

y

5

y

y3

y

1y2

1

33.

0

sln xd2 dx x3

y

2

y

1

r3

0

s4 1 r 2

y

t

1

sin x lnscos xd dx

34.

cos21x dx

36.

0

35.

32.

50. Prove that, for even powers of sine,

y

y2

0

dr

sin 2nx dx −

1 ? 3 ? 5 ? ∙ ∙ ∙ ? s2n 2 1d  2 ? 4 ? 6 ? ∙ ∙ ∙ ? 2n 2

51–54 Use integration by parts to prove the reduction formula. e s sinst 2 sd ds

0

37–42 First make a substitution and then use integration by parts to evaluate the integral.

51.

y sln xd

52.

yx e

n x

n

dx − x sln xd n 2 n y sln xd n21 dx

dx − x ne x 2 n y x n21e x dx

37.

ye

dx

38.

y cossln xd dx

53.

y tan x dx −

tan n21 x 2 y tan n22 x dx sn ± 1d n21

39.

y

 3 coss 2 d d

40.

y

e cos t sin 2t dt

54.

y sec x dx −

tan x sec n22x n22 1 n21 n21

arcsinsln xd dx x

55. Use Exercise 51 to find y sln xd3 dx.

41.

sx

s

sy2



0

y x lns1 1 xd dx

42.

y

n

n

y sec

n22

x dx sn ± 1d

56. Use Exercise 52 to find y x 4e x dx. ; 43–46 Evaluate the indefinite integral. Illustrate, and check that your answer is reasonable, by graphing both the function and its antiderivative (take C − 0). 43.

y xe

45.

yx

3

22x

dx

s1 1 x dx 2

44.

yx

3y2

46.

yx

2

sin 2x dx

(b) Use part (a) and the reduction formula to evaluate y sin 4x dx. 48. (a) Prove the reduction formula 1

n

n21 n

n21

x sin x 1

y cos

n22

x dx

49. (a) Use the reduction formula in Example 6 to show that y2

0

sin n x dx −

n21 n

y

y2

0

sin n22x dx

where n > 2 is an integer. y2 y2 (b) Use part (a) to evaluate y0 sin 3x dx and y0 sin 5x dx. (c) Use part (a) to show that, for odd powers of sine,

y

y2

0

sin 2n11x dx −

y − xe 2x

; 59–60 Use a graph to find approximate x-coordinates of the points of intersection of the given curves. Then find (approximately) the area of the region bounded by the curves. 59. y − arcsins21 xd,

y − 2 2 x2 y − 3x 2 x 2

61–64 Use the method of cylindrical shells to find the volume generated by rotating the region bounded by the curves about the given axis. 61. y − coss xy2d, y − 0, 0 < x < 1;

(b) Use part (a) to evaluate y cos 2x dx. (c) Use parts (a) and (b) to evaluate y cos 4x dx.

y

58. y − x 2e 2x,

y − 4 ln x

60. y − x lnsx 1 1d,

x sin 2x sin 2x dx − 2 1C 2 4

y cos x dx − n cos

57. y − x 2 ln x,

ln x dx

47. (a) Use the reduction formula in Example 6 to show that

y

57–58 Find the area of the region bounded by the given curves.

2 ? 4 ? 6 ? ∙ ∙ ∙ ? 2n 3 ? 5 ? 7 ? ∙ ∙ ∙ ? s2n 1 1d

62. y − e x, y − e2x, x − 1;

about the y-axis

2x

63. y − e , y − 0, x − 21, x − 0; x

64. y − e , x − 0, y − 3;

about the y-axis

about x − 1

about the x-axis

65. Calculate the volume generated by rotating the region bounded by the curves y − ln x, y − 0, and x − 2 about each axis. (a) The y-axis (b) The x-axis 66. Calculate the average value of f sxd − x sec2 x on the interval f0, y4g. 67. The Fresnel function Ssxd − y0 sin(21 t 2) dt was discussed in Example 5.3.3 and is used extensively in the theory of optics. Find y Ssxd dx. [Your answer will involve Ssxd.] x

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478

CHAPTER 7 Techniques of Integration

68. A rocket accelerates by burning its onboard fuel, so its mass decreases with time. Suppose the initial mass of the rocket at liftoff (including its fuel) is m, the fuel is consumed at rate r, and the exhaust gases are ejected with constant velocity ve (relative to the rocket). A model for the velocity of the rocket at time t is given by the equation m 2 rt vstd − 2tt 2 ve ln m

for the case where f is one-to-one and therefore has an inverse function t. Use the figure to show that V − b 2d 2 a 2c 2 y  f ts ydg 2 dy d

c

Make the substitution y − f sxd and then use integration by parts on the resulting integral to prove that V − y 2 x f sxd dx b

where t is the acceleration due to gravity and t is not too large. If t − 9.8 mys 2, m − 30,000 kg, r − 160 kgys, and ve − 3000 mys, find the height of the rocket one minute after liftoff. 69. A particle that moves along a straight line has velocity vstd − t 2e2t meters per second after t seconds. How far will it travel during the first t seconds?

a

74. Let In − y0 sin n x dx. y2

(a) Show that I2n12 < I2n11 < I2n. (b) Use Exercise 50 to show that I 2n12 2n 1 1 − I2n 2n 1 2

70. If f s0d − ts0d − 0 and f 0 and t 0 are continuous, show that

y

a

0

f sxd t 0sxd dx − f sad t9sad 2 f 9sad tsad 1 y f 0sxd tsxd dx a

(c) Use parts (a) and (b) to show that

0

71. Suppose that f s1d − 2, f s4d − 7, f 9s1d − 5, f 9s4d − 3, 4 and f 0 is continuous. Find the value of y1 x f 0sxd dx. 72. (a) Use integration by parts to show that

y f sxd dx − x f sxd 2 y x f 9sxd dx

2n 1 1 I2n11 < 0 and n > 0 are integers.

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SECTION 7.2 Trigonometric Integrals

481

Strategy for Evaluating y sin m x cos n x dx (a) If the power of cosine is odd sn − 2k 1 1d, save one cosine factor and use cos 2x − 1 2 sin 2x to express the remaining factors in terms of sine:

y sin

m

x cos 2k11x dx − y sin m x scos 2xdk cos x dx − y sin m x s1 2 sin 2xdk cos x dx

Then substitute u − sin x. (b) If the power of sine is odd sm − 2k 1 1d, save one sine factor and use sin 2x − 1 2 cos 2x to express the remaining factors in terms of cosine:

y sin

2k11

x cos n x dx − y ssin 2xdk cos n x sin x dx − y s1 2 cos 2xdk cos n x sin x dx

Then substitute u − cos x. [Note that if the powers of both sine and cosine are odd, either (a) or (b) can be used.] (c) If the powers of both sine and cosine are even, use the half-angle identities sin 2x − 12 s1 2 cos 2xd

cos 2x − 12 s1 1 cos 2xd

It is sometimes helpful to use the identity sin x cos x − 12 sin 2x We can use a similar strategy to evaluate integrals of the form y tan mx sec nx dx. Since sdydxd tan x − sec 2x, we can separate a sec 2x factor and convert the remaining (even) power of secant to an expression involving tangent using the identity sec 2x − 1 1 tan 2x. Or, since sdydxd sec x − sec x tan x, we can separate a sec x tan x factor and convert the remaining (even) power of tangent to secant.

EXAMPLE 5 Evaluate y tan 6x sec 4x dx. SOLUTION If we separate one sec 2x factor, we can express the remaining sec 2x factor in

terms of tangent using the identity sec 2x − 1 1 tan 2x. We can then evaluate the integral by substituting u − tan x so that du − sec 2x dx:

y tan x sec x dx − y tan x sec x sec x dx 6

4

6

2

2

− y tan 6x s1 1 tan 2xd sec 2x dx − y u 6s1 1 u 2 d du − y su 6 1 u 8 d du −

u7 u9 1 1C 7 9

− 17 tan 7x 1 19 tan 9x 1 C

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■

482

CHAPTER 7 Techniques of Integration

EXAMPLE 6 Find y tan 5 sec 7 d. SOLUTION If we separate a sec 2 factor, as in the preceding example, we are left

with a sec 5 factor, which isn’t easily converted to tangent. However, if we separate a sec  tan  factor, we can convert the remaining power of tangent to an expression involving only secant using the identity tan 2 − sec 2 2 1. We can then evaluate the integral by substituting u − sec , so du − sec  tan  d:

y tan  sec  d − y tan  sec  sec  tan  d 5

7

4

6

− y ssec 2 2 1d2 sec 6 sec  tan  d − y su 2 2 1d2 u 6 du − y su 10 2 2u 8 1 u 6 d du −

u 11 u9 u7 22 1 1C 11 9 7

1 − 11 sec 11 2 29 sec 9 1 17 sec 7 1 C

■

The preceding examples demonstrate strategies for evaluating integrals of the form y tan mx sec nx dx for two cases, which we summarize here. Strategy for Evaluating y tanmx secnx dx (a) If the power of secant is even sn − 2k, k > 2d, save a factor of sec 2x and use sec 2x − 1 1 tan 2x to express the remaining factors in terms of tan x:

y tan

m

x sec 2kx dx − y tan m x ssec 2xdk21 sec 2x dx − y tan m x s1 1 tan 2xdk21 sec 2x dx

Then substitute u − tan x. (b) If the power of tangent is odd sm − 2k 1 1d, save a factor of sec x tan x and use tan 2x − sec 2x 2 1 to express the remaining factors in terms of sec x:

y tan

2k11

x sec n x dx − y stan 2xdk sec n21x sec x tan x dx − y ssec 2x 2 1dk sec n21x sec x tan x dx

Then substitute u − sec x. For other cases, the guidelines are not as clear-cut. We may need to use identities, integration by parts, and occasionally a little ingenuity. We will sometimes need to be able to integrate tan x by using the formula established in (5.5.5):

y tan x dx − ln | sec x | 1 C Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 7.2 Trigonometric Integrals

483

We will also need the indefinite integral of secant:

Formula 1 was discovered by James Gregory in 1668. (See his biography on page 198.) Gregory used this formula to solve a problem in constructing nautical tables.

y sec x dx − ln | sec x 1 tan x | 1 C

1

We could verify Formula 1 by differentiating the right side, or as follows. First we multiply numerator and denominator by sec x 1 tan x: sec x 1 tan x

y sec x dx − y sec x sec x 1 tan x dx −y

sec 2x 1 sec x tan x dx sec x 1 tan x

If we substitute u − sec x 1 tan x, then du − ssec x tan x 1 sec 2xd dx, so the integral becomes y s1yud du − ln | u | 1 C. Thus we have

y sec x dx − ln | sec x 1 tan x | 1 C EXAMPLE 7 Find y tan 3x dx. SOLUTION Here only tan x occurs, so we use tan 2x − sec 2x 2 1 to rewrite a tan 2x

factor in terms of sec 2x:

y tan x dx − y tan x tan x dx − y tan x ssec x 2 1d dx 3

2

2

− y tan x sec 2x dx 2 y tan x dx −

tan 2x 2 ln | sec x | 1 C 2

In the first integral we mentally substituted u − tan x so that du − sec 2x dx.

■

If an even power of tangent appears with an odd power of secant, it is helpful to express the integrand completely in terms of sec x. Powers of sec x may require integration by parts, as shown in the following example.

EXAMPLE 8 Find y sec 3x dx. SOLUTION Here we integrate by parts with

u − sec x du − sec x tan x dx Then

dv − sec 2x dx v − tan x

y sec x dx − sec x tan x 2 y sec x tan x dx 3

2

− sec x tan x 2 y sec x ssec 2x 2 1d dx − sec x tan x 2 y sec 3x dx 1 y sec x dx

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484

CHAPTER 7 Techniques of Integration

Using Formula 1 and solving for the required integral, we get

y sec x dx − 12 (sec x tan x 1 ln | sec x 1 tan x | ) 1 C 3

■

Integrals such as the one in the preceding example may seem very special but they occur frequently in applications of integration, as we will see in Chapter 8. Integrals of the form y cot m x csc n x dx can be found by similar methods because of the identity 1 1 cot 2x − csc 2x. Finally, we can make use of another set of trigonometric identities: 2 To evaluate the integrals (a) y sin mx cos nx dx, (b) y sin mx sin nx dx, or (c) y cos mx cos nx dx, use the corresponding identity: (a) sin A cos B − 12 fsinsA 2 Bd 1 sinsA 1 Bdg

These product identities are discussed in Appendix D.

(b) sin A sin B − 12 fcossA 2 Bd 2 cossA 1 Bdg (c) cos A cos B − 12 fcossA 2 Bd 1 cossA 1 Bdg

EXAMPLE 9 Evaluate y sin 4x cos 5x dx. SOLUTION This integral could be evaluated using integration by parts, but it’s easier to use the identity in Equation 2(a) as follows:

y sin 4x cos 5x dx − y 12 fsins2xd 1 sin 9xg dx − 12 y s2sin x 1 sin 9xd dx − 12 (cos x 2 19 cos 9x) 1 C

1–49 Evaluate the integral. 1.

y sin x cos x dx

3.

y

3

y2

0

5. 7.

5

y

y2

y



0

11.

y

2

2.

y sin x cos x dx

4.

y

6. 8.

cos 4 s2td dt

10.

sin 2x cos 2x dx

12.

y scos  sin  d 

14.

3

6

y2

0

cos2  d 

y2

0

13.

sin7 cos 5 d

y sin s2td cos s2td dt 0

9.

2

15.

y cot x cos x dx

16.

y tan x cos x dx

17.

y sin x sin 2x dx

18.

y sin x cos( 12 x) dx

19.

y t sin t dt

20.

y cos  cos ssin d d

21.

y tan x sec x dx

22.

y tan

23.

y tan x dx

24.

y stan x 1 tan xd dx

25.

y tan x sec x dx

26.

y

27.

y tan x sec x dx

28.

y tan x sec x dx

29.

y tan x sec x dx

30.

y

sin 5 x dx 5

2

3

2

d dt

sin (sx )

2

2

3

5

2

 sec 4  d

3

y

sx

dx

y x sin x dx 3

y2

0

y

2

3

y t cos st

y

■

s2 2 sin d 2 d

sin2s1ytd dt t2

2

4

6

3

3

6

2

y4

0

sec6  tan6  d 5

y4

0

4

3

tan 4 t dt

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SECTION 7.2 Trigonometric Integrals

31.

y tan x dx

32.

y tan x sec x dx

33.

y x sec x tan x dx

34.

y

35.

5

y

y2

y

y2

y6

37.

y4

cot 2x dx 5

3

cot  csc  d

sin  d cos3 

59.

y csc x cot x dx

38.

y

y2

y

y3

4

4

csc  cot  d

y sin 8x cos 5x dx

42.

y sin 2 sin 6 d

43.

y

y2

44.

y sin x sec x dx

y

y6

45.

0

s1 1 cos 2x dx

1 2 tan 2x dx sec 2x

47.

y

49.

y x tan x dx

46.

48.

3

y

cos x 1 sin x dx sin 2x

y

dx cos x 2 1

about y − 21

66. Household electricity is supplied in the form of alternating current that varies from 155 V to 2155 V with a frequency of 60 cycles per second (Hz). The voltage is thus given by the equation Estd − 155 sins120 td where t is the time in seconds. Voltmeters read the RMS (root-mean-square) voltage, which is the square root of the average value of fEstdg 2 over one cycle. (a) Calculate the RMS voltage of household current. (b) Many electric stoves require an RMS voltage of 220 V. Find the corresponding amplitude A needed for the voltage Estd − A sins120td.

; 51–54 Evaluate the indefinite integral. Illustrate, and check that your answer is reasonable, by graphing both the integrand and its antiderivative (taking C − 0d.

y

about the x-axis

65. A particle moves on a straight line with velocity function vstd − sin t cos 2t. Find its position function s − f std if f s0d − 0.

y4

53.

about the x-axis

5

y0 tan 8 x sec x dx in terms of I.

2

sin 2 x cos 5 x dx

64. y − sec x, y − cos x, 0 < x < y3;

y4

2

2

63. y − sin x, y − cos x, 0 < x < y4; about y − 1

50. If y0 tan 6 x sec x dx − I, express the value of

y x sin sx

y

0

62. y − sin 2 x, y − 0, 0 < x < ;

csc x dx

2

51.

60.

61. y − sin x, y − 0, y2 < x < ;

41.

cos 5t cos 10t dt

cos 3x dx

61–64 Find the volume obtained by rotating the region bounded by the curves about the given axis.

4

40.

0

2

6

y4

y6

y

0

y csc x dx

39.

; 59–60 Use a graph of the integrand to guess the value of the integral. Then use the methods of this section to prove that your guess is correct.

2

36.

485

d dx

sin 3x sin 6x dx

52.

y sin x cos x dx

54.

y

5

3

67–69 Prove the formula, where m and n are positive integers. 67.

sec 4 ( 12 x) dx

56. Evaluate y sin x cos x dx by four methods: (a) the substitution u − cos x (b) the substitution u − sin x (c) the identity sin 2x − 2 sin x cos x (d) integration by parts Explain the different appearances of the answers. 57–58 Find the area of the region bounded by the given curves. y − sin3x, 0 < x < 

58. y − tan x,

y − tan 2 x, 0 < x < y4

y



y



2

3

55. Find the average value of the function f sxd − sin x cos x on the interval f2, g.

57. y − sin 2 x,



2

68. 2

y

69.

2

sin mx cos nx dx − 0

sin mx sin nx dx −

H H

0 if m ± n  if m − n

cos mx cos nx dx −

0 if m ± n  if m − n

70. A finite Fourier series is given by the sum N

f sxd −

o a n sin nx n−1

− a 1 sin x 1 a 2 sin 2x 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 a N sin Nx Show that the mth coefficient a m is given by the formula am −

1 

y



2

f sxd sin mx dx

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486

CHAPTER 7 Techniques of Integration

In finding the area of a circle or an ellipse, an integral of the form y sa 2 2 x 2 dx arises, where a . 0. If it were y xsa 2 2 x 2 dx, the substitution u − a 2 2 x 2 would be effective but, as it stands, y sa 2 2 x 2 dx is more difficult. If we change the variable from x to  by the substitution x − a sin , then the identity 1 2 sin 2 − cos 2 allows us to get rid of the root sign because sa 2 2 x 2 − sa 2 2 a 2 sin 2 − sa 2s1 2 sin 2d − sa 2 cos 2 − a | cos  | Notice the difference between the substitution u − a 2 2 x 2 (in which the new variable is a function of the old one) and the substitution x − a sin  (the old variable is a function of the new one). In general, we can make a substitution of the form x − tstd by using the Substitution Rule in reverse. To make our calculations simpler, we assume that t has an inverse function; that is, t is one-to-one. In this case, if we replace u by x and x by t in the Substitution Rule (Equation 5.5.4), we obtain

y f sxd dx − y f s tstdd t9std dt This kind of substitution is called inverse substitution. We can make the inverse substitution x − a sin  provided that it defines a one-to-one function. This can be accomplished by restricting  to lie in the interval f2y2, y2g. In the following table we list trigonometric substitutions that are effective for the given radical expressions because of the specified trigonometric identities. In each case the restriction on  is imposed to ensure that the function that defines the substitution is one-to-one. (These are the same intervals used in Section 1.5 in defining the inverse functions.) Table of Trigonometric Substitutions Expression

Substitution

Identity

sa 2 2 x 2

x − a sin , 2

  0 because 2y2 <  < y2.) Thus the Inverse Substitution Rule gives

y

3 cos  s9 2 x 2 dx − y 3 cos  d 2 x 9 sin 2 −y

cos 2  d − y cot 2  d sin 2 

− y scsc 2  2 1d d − 2cot  2  1 C

3

Since this is an indefinite integral, we must return to the original variable x. This can be done either by using trigonometric identities to express cot  in terms of sin  − xy3 or by drawing a diagram, as in Figure 1, where  is interpreted as an angle of a right triangle. Since sin  − xy3, we label the opposite side and the hypotenuse as having lengths x and 3. Then the Pythagorean Theorem gives the length of the adjacent side as s9 2 x 2 , so we can simply read the value of cot  from the figure:

x

¨ 9-≈ œ„„„„„

FIGURE 1 sin  −

x 3

cot  −

s9 2 x 2 x

(Although  . 0 in the diagram, this expression for cot  is valid even when  , 0.) Since sin  − xy3, we have  − sin21sxy3d and so

y

SD

x s9 2 x 2 s9 2 x 2 dx − 2 2 sin21 2 x x 3

1C

EXAMPLE 2 Find the area enclosed by the ellipse x2 y2 −1 2 1 a b2 y

SOLUTION Solving the equation of the ellipse for y, we get (0, b)

y2 x2 a2 2 x2 − 1 2 − b2 a2 a2

(a, 0) 0

x

y−

2

x y 1 2 −1 a2 b

b sa 2 2 x 2 a

Because the ellipse is symmetric with respect to both axes, the total area A is four times the area in the first quadrant (see Figure 2). The part of the ellipse in the first quadrant is given by the function

FIGURE 2 2

y−6

or

and so

1 4A

b sa 2 2 x 2 a

−y

a

0

0 0, is rotated about the y-axis.

3

sin 2x cos x lnssin xd dx

19.

dx

513

Patterns in Integrals

2

dx

with a computer algebra system. If it doesn’t return an answer, make a substitution that changes the integral into one that the CAS can evaluate.

Patterns in integrals

In this project a computer algebra system is used to investigate indefinite integrals of families of functions. By observing the patterns that occur in the integrals of several members of the family, you will first guess, and then prove, a general formula for the integral of any member of the family. 1. (a) Use a computer algebra system to evaluate the following integrals. (i)

y

1 dx sx 1 2dsx 1 3d

(ii)

y

1 dx sx 1 1dsx 1 5d

(iii)

y

1 dx sx 1 2dsx 2 5d

(iv)

y

1 dx sx 1 2d2

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514

CHAPTER 7 Techniques of Integration

(b) Based on the pattern of your responses in part (a), guess the value of the integral

y

1 dx sx 1 adsx 1 bd

if a ± b. What if a − b? (c) Check your guess by asking your CAS to evaluate the integral in part (b). Then prove it using partial fractions. 2. (a) Use a computer algebra system to evaluate the following integrals. (i)

y sin x cos 2x dx

(ii)

y sin 3x cos 7x dx

(iii)

y sin 8x cos 3x dx

(b) Based on the pattern of your responses in part (a), guess the value of the integral

y sin ax cos bx dx (c) Check your guess with a CAS. Then prove it using the techniques of Section 7.2. For what values of a and b is it valid? 3. (a) Use a computer algebra system to evaluate the following integrals. (i) (iv)

y ln x dx

(ii)

y x ln x dx

yx

(v)

yx

3

ln x dx

7

(iii)

yx

2

ln x dx

ln x dx

(b) Based on the pattern of your responses in part (a), guess the value of

yx

n

ln x dx

(c) Use integration by parts to prove the conjecture that you made in part (b). For what values of n is it valid? 4. (a) Use a computer algebra system to evaluate the following integrals. (i)

y xe

(iv)

yx e

x

dx

4 x

dx

(ii)

yx e

dx

(v)

yx e

dx

2 x

5 x

(iii)

yx e

3 x

dx

(b) Based on the pattern of your responses in part (a), guess the value of y x 6e x dx. Then use your CAS to check your guess. (c) Based on the patterns in parts (a) and (b), make a conjecture as to the value of the integral

yx e

n x

dx

when n is a positive integer. (d) Use mathematical induction to prove the conjecture you made in part (c).

There are two situations in which it is impossible to find the exact value of a definite integral. The first situation arises from the fact that in order to evaluate yab f sxd dx using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus we need to know an antiderivative of f. Sometimes, however, it is difficult, or even impossible, to find an antiderivative (see Section 7.5). For

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SECTION 7.7

515

Approximate Integration

example, it is impossible to evaluate the following integrals exactly:

y

y

1

0

x¸

⁄

¤

‹

x¢

x

(a) Left endpoint approximation

y

2

e x dx

0

1

s1 1 x 3 dx

21

The second situation arises when the function is determined from a scientific experiment through instrument readings or collected data. There may be no formula for the function (see Example 5). In both cases we need to find approximate values of definite integrals. We already know one such method. Recall that the definite integral is defined as a limit of Riemann sums,  so any Riemann sum could be used as an approximation to the integral: If we divide fa, bg into n subintervals of equal length Dx − sb 2 adyn, then we have

y

y

b

a

n

f sxd dx
0, then the integral represents an area and (1) represents an approximation of this area by the rectangles shown in Figure 1(a). If we choose x *i to be the right endpoint, then x *i − x i and we have

y

y

2

0

⁄ –

¤ –

– ‹

–x¢

(c) Midpoint approximation

x

o f sx i21 d Dx i−1

b

a

n

f sxd dx < Rn −

o f sx i d Dx i−1

[See Figure 1(b).] The approximations L n and Rn defined by Equations 1 and 2 are called the left endpoint approximation and right endpoint approximation, respectively. In Section 5.2 we also considered the case where x *i is chosen to be the midpoint xi of the subinterval fx i21, x i g. Figure 1(c) shows the midpoint approximation Mn, which appears to be better than either L n or Rn. Midpoint rule

FigUre 1

y

b

a

f sxd dx < Mn − Dx f f sx1d 1 f sx2 d 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 f sxn dg Dx −

where

b2a n

xi − 12 sx i21 1 x i d − midpoint of fx i21, x i g

and

Another approximation, called the Trapezoidal Rule, results from averaging the approximations in Equations 1 and 2:

y

b

a

f sxd dx
0 and n − 4. The area of the trapezoid that lies above the ith subinterval is

FigUre 2

Dx

Trapezoidal approximation

S

f sx i21 d 1 f sx i d 2

D

−

Dx f f sx i21 d 1 f sx i dg 2

and if we add the areas of all these trapezoids, we get the right side of the Trapezoidal Rule. y=

1 x

EXAMPLE 1 Use (a) the Trapezoidal Rule and (b) the Midpoint Rule with n − 5 to approximate the integral y12 s1yxd dx. SOLUTION

(a) With n − 5, a − 1, and b − 2, we have Dx − s2 2 1dy5 − 0.2, and so the Trapezoidal Rule gives

y 1

2

FigUre 3

2

1

1 0.2 dx < T5 − f f s1d 1 2 f s1.2d 1 2 f s1.4d 1 2 f s1.6d 1 2 f s1.8d 1 f s2dg x 2

S

− 0.1

1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

D

< 0.695635 1 y= x

This approximation is illustrated in Figure 3. (b) The midpoints of the five subintervals are 1.1, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, and 1.9, so the Midpoint Rule gives

y

2

1

1 dx < Dx f f s1.1d 1 f s1.3d 1 f s1.5d 1 f s1.7d 1 f s1.9dg x 1 5

− 1

2

FigUre 4

S

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9

D

< 0.691908 This approximation is illustrated in Figure 4.

■

In Example 1 we deliberately chose an integral whose value can be computed explicitly so that we can see how accurate the Trapezoidal and Midpoint Rules are. By the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus,

y

2

1

y

b

a

f sxd dx − approximation 1 error

2 1 dx − ln xg 1 − ln 2 − 0.693147 . . . x

The error in using an approximation is defined to be the amount that needs to be added to the approximation to make it exact. From the values in Example 1 we see that the

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SECTION 7.7

Approximate Integration

517

errors in the Trapezoidal and Midpoint Rule approximations for n − 5 are ET < 20.002488

and

EM < 0.001239

ET − y f sxd dx 2 Tn

and

EM − y f sxd dx 2 Mn

In general, we have b

a

tec Module 5.2 / 7.7 allows you to compare approximation methods.

Approximations to

y

1 dx x

2

1

Corresponding errors

It turns out that these observations are true in most cases.

b

a

The following tables show the results of calculations similar to those in Example 1, but for n − 5, 10, and 20 and for the left and right endpoint approximations as well as the Trapezoidal and Midpoint Rules. n

Ln

Rn

Tn

Mn

5

0.745635

0.645635

0.695635

0.691908

10 20

0.718771 0.705803

0.668771 0.680803

0.693771 0.693303

0.692835 0.693069

n

EL

ER

ET

EM

5

20.052488

0.047512

20.002488

0.001239

10 20

20.025624 20.012656

0.024376 0.012344

20.000624 20.000156

0.000312 0.000078

We can make several observations from these tables: 1. In all of the methods we get more accurate approximations when we increase the

value of n. (But very large values of n result in so many arithmetic operations that we have to beware of accumulated round-off error.)

C

2. The errors in the left and right endpoint approximations are opposite in sign and

P

appear to decrease by a factor of about 2 when we double the value of n. 3. The Trapezoidal and Midpoint Rules are much more accurate than the endpoint

B

approximations. 4. The errors in the Trapezoidal and Midpoint Rules are opposite in sign and appear to

decrease by a factor of about 4 when we double the value of n. A

D x i-1

x–i

xi

Trapezoidal Rule.

C R P B Q A

FigUre 5

5. The size of the error in the Midpoint Rule is about half the size of the error in the

D

Figure 5 shows why we can usually expect the Midpoint Rule to be more accurate than the Trapezoidal Rule. The area of a typical rectangle in the Midpoint Rule is the same as the area of the trapezoid ABCD whose upper side is tangent to the graph at P. The area of this trapezoid is closer to the area under the graph than is the area of the trapezoid AQRD used in the Trapezoidal Rule. [The midpoint error (shaded red) is smaller than the trapezoidal error (shaded blue).] These observations are corroborated in the following error estimates, which are proved in books on numerical analysis. Notice that Observation 4 corresponds to the n 2 in each denominator because s2nd2 − 4n 2. The fact that the estimates depend on the size of the second derivative is not surprising if you look at Figure 5, because f 0sxd measures how much the graph is curved. [Recall that f 0sxd measures how fast the slope of y − f sxd changes.]

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518

CHAPTER 7 Techniques of Integration

3 error Bounds Suppose | f 0sxd | < K for a < x < b. If ET and EM are the errors in the Trapezoidal and Midpoint Rules, then

|E | < T

Ksb 2 ad3 12n 2

and

|E | < M

Ksb 2 ad3 24n 2

Let’s apply this error estimate to the Trapezoidal Rule approximation in Example 1. If f sxd − 1yx, then f 9sxd − 21yx 2 and f 0sxd − 2yx 3. Because 1 < x < 2, we have 1yx < 1, so

| f 0sxd | −

Z Z

2 2 < 3 −2 x3 1

Therefore, taking K − 2, a − 1, b − 2, and n − 5 in the error estimate (3), we see that K can be any number larger than all the values of f 0sxd , but smaller values of K give better error bounds.

|

|E |
0 by a parabola as shown in Figure 7. If yi − f sx i d, then Pi sx i , yi d is the point on the curve lying above x i. A typical parabola passes through three consecutive points Pi , Pi11, and Pi12. y

y

P¸

P¡

P∞

P¸(_h, y¸)

Pß

P¡ (0, › )

P™ P£

0

a=x¸

FigUre 7

⁄

x™

x£

P™ (h, fi)

P¢

x¢

x∞

xß=b

x

_h

0

h

x

FigUre 8

To simplify our calculations, we first consider the case where x 0 − 2h, x 1 − 0, and x 2 − h. (See Figure 8.) We know that the equation of the parabola through P0 , P1, and

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520

CHAPTER 7 Techniques of Integration

P2 is of the form y − Ax 2 1 Bx 1 C and so the area under the parabola from x − 2h to x − h is

y

Here we have used Theorem 5.5.7. Notice that Ax 2 1 C is even and Bx is odd.

h

F

sAx 2 1 Bx 1 Cd dx − 2 y sAx 2 1 Cd dx − 2 A h

2h

0

S

−2 A

G

x3 1 Cx 3

h

0

D

h3 h 1 Ch − s2Ah 2 1 6Cd 3 3

But, since the parabola passes through P0s2h, y0 d, P1s0, y1 d, and P2sh, y2 d, we have y0 − As2hd2 1 Bs2hd 1 C − Ah 2 2 Bh 1 C y1 − C y2 − Ah 2 1 Bh 1 C y0 1 4y1 1 y2 − 2Ah 2 1 6C

and therefore

Thus we can rewrite the area under the parabola as h sy0 1 4y1 1 y2 d 3 Now by shifting this parabola horizontally we do not change the area under it. This means that the area under the parabola through P0 , P1, and P2 from x − x 0 to x − x 2 in Figure 7 is still h sy0 1 4y1 1 y2 d 3 Similarly, the area under the parabola through P2 , P3 , and P4 from x − x 2 to x − x 4 is h sy2 1 4y3 1 y4 d 3 If we compute the areas under all the parabolas in this manner and add the results, we get

y

b

a

f sxd dx < −

h h h sy0 1 4y1 1 y2 d 1 sy2 1 4y3 1 y4 d 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 syn22 1 4yn21 1 yn d 3 3 3 h sy0 1 4y1 1 2y2 1 4y3 1 2y4 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 2yn22 1 4yn21 1 yn d 3

Although we have derived this approximation for the case in which f sxd > 0, it is a reasonable approximation for any continuous function f and is called Simpson’s Rule after the English mathematician Thomas Simpson (1710–1761). Note the pattern of coefficients: 1, 4, 2, 4, 2, 4, 2, . . . , 4, 2, 4, 1. simpson Thomas Simpson was a weaver who taught himself mathematics and went on to become one of the best English mathematicians of the 18th century. What we call Simpson’s Rule was actually known to Cavalieri and Gregory in the 17th century, but Simpson popularized it in his book Mathematical Dissertations (1743).

simpson’s rule

y

b

a

f sxd dx < Sn −

Dx f f sx 0 d 1 4 f sx 1 d 1 2 f sx 2 d 1 4 f sx 3 d 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 3 1 2 f sxn22 d 1 4 f sxn21 d 1 f sxn dg

where n is even and Dx − sb 2 adyn.

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SECTION 7.7

Approximate Integration

521

EXAMPLE 4 Use Simpson’s Rule with n − 10 to approximate y12 s1yxd dx. SOLUTION Putting f sxd − 1yx, n − 10, and Dx − 0.1 in Simpson’s Rule, we obtain

y

2

1

1 dx < S10 x −

Dx f f s1d 1 4 f s1.1d 1 2 f s1.2d 1 4 f s1.3d 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 2 f s1.8d 1 4 f s1.9d 1 f s2dg 3

−

0.1 3

S

1 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2

< 0.693150

D ■

Notice that, in Example 4, Simpson’s Rule gives us a much better approximation sS10 < 0.693150d to the true value of the integral sln 2 < 0.693147. . .d than does the Trapezoidal Rule sT10 < 0.693771d or the Midpoint Rule sM10 < 0.692835d. It turns out (see Exercise 50) that the approximations in Simpson’s Rule are weighted averages of those in the Trapezoidal and Midpoint Rules: S2n − 13 Tn 1 23 Mn (Recall that ET and EM usually have opposite signs and | EM | is about half the size of | ET |.) In many applications of calculus we need to evaluate an integral even if no explicit formula is known for y as a function of x. A function may be given graphically or as a table of values of collected data. If there is evidence that the values are not changing rapidly, then the Trapezoidal Rule or Simpson’s Rule can still be used to find an approximate value for yab y dx, the integral of y with respect to x.

EXAMPLE 5 Figure 9 shows data traffic on the link from the United States to SWITCH, the Swiss academic and research network, on February 10, 1998. Dstd is the data throughput, measured in megabits per second sMbysd. Use Simpson’s Rule to estimate the total amount of data transmitted on the link from midnight to noon on that day. D 8 6 4 2

0

3

6

9

12

15

18

21

24 t (hours)

FigUre 9 SOLUTION Because we want the units to be consistent and Dstd is measured in megabits per second, we convert the units for t from hours to seconds. If we let Astd be the amount of data (in megabits) transmitted by time t, where t is measured in seconds, then A9std − Dstd. So, by the Net Change Theorem (see Section 5.4), the total amount

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

522

CHAPTER 7 Techniques of Integration

of data transmitted by noon (when t − 12 3 60 2 − 43,200) is As43,200d − y

43,200

0

Dstd dt

We estimate the values of Dstd at hourly intervals from the graph and compile them in the table. t (hours)

t (seconds)

Dstd

t (hours)

t (seconds)

Dstd

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

0 3,600 7,200 10,800 14,400 18,000 21,600

3.2 2.7 1.9 1.7 1.3 1.0 1.1

7 8 9 10 11 12

25,200 28,800 32,400 36,000 39,600 43,200

1.3 2.8 5.7 7.1 7.7 7.9

Then we use Simpson’s Rule with n − 12 and Dt − 3600 to estimate the integral:

y

43,200

0

Astd dt <
a, then

y

`

a

f sxd dx − lim

y

t

f sxd dx

tl` a

provided this limit exists (as a finite number). (b) If ytb f sxd dx exists for every number t < b, then

y

b

2`

y t l2`

f sxd dx − lim

t

b

f sxd dx

provided this limit exists (as a finite number). b The improper integrals ya` f sxd dx and y2` f sxd dx are called convergent if the corresponding limit exists and divergent if the limit does not exist. (c) If both ya` f sxd dx and y2` f sxd dx are convergent, then we define a

y

`

2`

f sxd dx − y

a

2`

f sxd dx 1 y f sxd dx `

a

In part (c) any real number a can be used (see Exercise 76).

Any of the improper integrals in Definition 1 can be interpreted as an area provided that f is a positive function. For instance, in case (a) if f sxd > 0 and the integral ya` f sxd dx is convergent, then we define the area of the region S − hsx, yd | x > a, 0 < y < f sxdj in Figure 3 to be AsSd − y f sxd dx `

a

This is appropriate because ya f sxd dx is the limit as t l ` of the area under the graph of  f from a to t. `

y

y=ƒ S

FIGURE 3

0

a

x

EXAMPLE 1 Determine whether the integral y1` s1yxd dx is convergent or divergent. SoLUtion According to part (a) of Definition 1, we have

y

`

1

t 1 t 1 dx − lim y dx − lim ln | x |g 1 tl` 1 x tl` x

− lim sln t 2 ln 1d − lim ln t − ` tl`

tl`

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529

SeCtion 7.8 Improper Integrals

The limit does not exist as a finite number and so the improper integral y1 s1yxd dx is divergent. ■ `

Let’s compare the result of Example 1 with the example given at the beginning of this section: ` 1 ` 1 y1 x 2 dx converges y1 x dx diverges Geometrically, this says that although the curves y − 1yx 2 and y − 1yx look very similar for x . 0, the region under y − 1yx 2 to the right of x − 1 (the shaded region in Figure 4) has finite area whereas the corresponding region under y − 1yx (in Figure 5) has infinite area. Note that both 1yx 2 and 1yx approach 0 as x l ` but 1yx 2 approaches 0 faster than 1yx. The values of 1yx don’t decrease fast enough for its integral to have a finite value. y

y

y=

1 ≈

y=

1 x

infinite area

finite area 0

0

x

1

FIGURE 4

1

x

FIGURE 5

`

y1 s1yx 2 d dx converges

y1 s1yxd dx diverges `

EXAMPLE 2 Evaluate y xe x dx. 0

2`

SoLUtion Using part (b) of Definition 1, we have

y

0

2`

xe x dx − lim

y

t l2` t

0

xe x dx

We integrate by parts with u − x, dv − e x dx so that du − dx, v − e x:

y

0

t

xe x dx − xe xg t 2 y e x dx 0

0

t

− 2te t 2 1 1 e t TEC In Module 7.8 you can investigate visually and numerically whether several improper integrals are convergent or divergent.

We know that e t l 0 as t l 2`, and by l’Hospital’s Rule we have lim te t − lim

t l2`

t l2`

t 1 − lim t l2` 2e2t e2t

− lim s2e t d − 0 t l2`

Therefore

y

0

2`

xe x dx − lim s2te t 2 1 1 e t d t l2`

− 20 2 1 1 0 − 21

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■

530

Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

1 dx. 1 1 x2 SoLUtion It’s convenient to choose a − 0 in Definition 1(c):

EXAMPLE 3 Evaluate y

`

2`

y

`

2`

1 0 1 ` 1 dx 2 dx − y 2 dx 1 y 2` 0 11x 11x 1 1 x2

We must now evaluate the integrals on the right side separately:

y

`

0

t 1 t dx − lim tan21xg 0 y 2 dx − tlim 2 l` 0 1 1 x tl` 11x

− lim stan 21 t 2 tan21 0d − lim tan21 t − tl`

y

0

2`

tl`

 2

0 1 0 dx 21 2 dx − lim y 2 − lim tan xg t t l 2` t 1 1 x t l 2` 11x

S D

− lim stan 21 0 2 tan 21 td − 0 2 2 t l 2`

 2

−

 2

Since both of these integrals are convergent, the given integral is convergent and y

y=

1 1+≈ 0

FIGURE 6

y

area=π

`

2`

x

1   1 − 2 dx − 11x 2 2

Since 1ys1 1 x 2 d . 0, the given improper integral can be interpreted as the area of the infinite region that lies under the curve y − 1ys1 1 x 2 d and above the x-axis (see Figure 6). ■

EXAMPLE 4 For what values of p is the integral

y

`

1

convergent?

1 dx xp

SoLUtion We know from Example 1 that if p − 1, then the integral is divergent, so let’s assume that p ± 1. Then

y

`

1

1 t 2p x2p11 x dx − lim y p dx − tlim l` 1 t l ` 2p 1 1 x − lim

tl`

F

G

x−t

x−1

G

1 1 21 p21 12p t

If p . 1, then p 2 1 . 0, so as t l `, t p21 l ` and 1yt p21 l 0. Therefore

y

`

1

1 1 p dx − x p21

if p . 1

and so the integral converges. But if p , 1, then p 2 1 , 0 and so 1 − t 12p l ` t p21 and the integral diverges.

as t l ` ■

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SeCtion 7.8 Improper Integrals

531

We summarize the result of Example 4 for future reference:

2

y

`

1

1 dx is convergent if p . 1 and divergent if p < 1. xp

type 2: Discontinuous integrands y

y=ƒ

0

a

x=b

Suppose that f is a positive continuous function defined on a finite interval fa, bd but has a vertical asymptote at b. Let S be the unbounded region under the graph of f and above the x-axis between a and b. (For Type 1 integrals, the regions extended indefinitely in a horizontal direction. Here the region is infinite in a vertical direction.) The area of the part of S between a and t (the shaded region in Figure 7) is

x

t b

Astd − y f sxd dx t

a

FIGURE 7

If it happens that Astd approaches a definite number A as t l b2, then we say that the area of the region S is A and we write

y

b

a

f sxd dx − lim2 tlb

y

t

a

f sxd dx

We use this equation to define an improper integral of Type 2 even when f is not a positive function, no matter what type of discontinuity f has at b. Parts (b) and (c) of Definition 3 are illustrated in Figures 8 and 9 for the case where f sxd > 0 and f has vertical asymptotes at a and c, respectively.

3 Definition of an Improper Integral of Type 2 (a) If f is continuous on fa, bd and is discontinuous at b, then

y

y

b

a

f sxd dx − lim2 tlb

y

t

a

f sxd dx

if this limit exists (as a finite number). (b) If f is continuous on sa, bg and is discontinuous at a, then

y

b

a

0

a t

b

x

f sxd dx − lim1 tla

y

t

b

f sxd dx

if this limit exists (as a finite number). The improper integral ya f sxd dx is called convergent if the corresponding limit exists and divergent if the limit does not exist. b

FIGURE 8 y

c

(c) If f has a discontinuity at c, where a , c , b, and both ya f sxd dx and ycb f sxd dx are convergent, then we define

y

b

a

0

a

FIGURE 9

c

b x

f sxd dx − y f sxd dx 1 y f sxd dx c

a

b

c

1 dx. 2 sx 2 2 SoLUtion We note first that the given integral is improper because f sxd − 1ysx 2 2 has the vertical asymptote x − 2. Since the infinite discontinuity occurs at the left

EXAMPLE 5 Find y

5

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532

Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

y

y=

endpoint of f2, 5g, we use part (b) of Definition 3:

1 œ„„„„ x-2

y

5 dx 5 dx − lim1 y − lim1 2sx 2 2 g t t l 2 t l 2 t sx 2 2 sx 2 2

5

2

− lim1 2(s3 2 st 2 2 ) − 2s3

area=2œ„ 3 0

1

FIGURE 10

2

3

4

5

x

t l2

Thus the given improper integral is convergent and, since the integrand is positive, we can interpret the value of the integral as the area of the shaded region in Figure 10. ■

EXAMPLE 6 Determine whether y

y2

0

sec x dx converges or diverges.

SoLUtion Note that the given integral is improper because lim x lsy2d2 sec x − `.

Using part (a) of Definition 3 and Formula 14 from the Table of Integrals, we have

y

y2

0

sec x dx − −

lim

y

lim

flnssec t 1 tan td 2 ln 1g − `

t

t l sy2d2 0

t l sy2d2

t

sec x dx −

lim

t l sy2d

ln | sec x 1 tan x |g 0 2

because sec t l ` and tan t l ` as t l sy2d2. Thus the given improper integral is divergent. ■ dx if possible. 0 x 2 1 SoLUtion Observe that the line x − 1 is a vertical asymptote of the integrand. Since it occurs in the middle of the interval f0, 3g, we must use part (c) of Definition 3 with c − 1: 3 dx 1 dx 3 dx y0 x 2 1 − y0 x 2 1 1 y1 x 2 1

EXAMPLE 7 Evaluate y

where

y

3

t dx t dx − lim2 y − lim2 ln | x 2 1 |g 0 t l1 t l1 0 x 2 1 x21

1

0

− lim2 (ln | t 2 1 | 2 ln | 21 |) − lim2 lns1 2 td − 2` t l1

t l1

because 1 2 t l 0 as t l 1 . Thus y dxysx 2 1d is divergent. This implies that y03 dxysx 2 1d is divergent. [We do not need to evaluate y13 dxysx 2 1d.] 1

2

1 0

■

WARNING If we had not noticed the asymptote x − 1 in Example 7 and had instead confused the integral with an ordinary integral, then we might have made the following erroneous calculation:

y

3

0

3 dx − ln | x 2 1 |g 0 − ln 2 2 ln 1 − ln 2 x21

This is wrong because the integral is improper and must be calculated in terms of limits. From now on, whenever you meet the symbol yab f sxd dx you must decide, by looking at the function f on fa, bg, whether it is an ordinary definite integral or an improper integral.

EXAMPLE 8

y

1

0

ln x dx.

SoLUtion We know that the function f sxd − ln x has a vertical asymptote at 0 since

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

533

SeCtion 7.8 Improper Integrals

lim x l 01 ln x − 2`. Thus the given integral is improper and we have

y

ln x dx − lim1 y ln x dx

1

1

t l0

0

t

Now we integrate by parts with u − ln x, dv − dx, du − dxyx, and v − x:

y

1

1

1

t

t

y

ln x dx − x ln xg t 2 y dx − 1 ln 1 2 t ln t 2 s1 2 td − 2t ln t 2 1 1 t

To find the limit of the first term we use l’Hospital’s Rule: 0

x

1

lim t ln t − lim1

area=1

t l 01

Therefore y=ln x

y

1

0

t l0

1yt ln t − lim1 − lim1 s2td − 0 t l 0 t l0 21yt 2 1yt

ln x dx − lim1 s2t ln t 2 1 1 td − 20 2 1 1 0 − 21 t l0

Figure 11 shows the geometric interpretation of this result. The area of the shaded region above y − ln x and below the x-axis is 1.

FIGURE 11

■

a Comparison test for improper integrals Sometimes it is impossible to find the exact value of an improper integral and yet it is important to know whether it is convergent or divergent. In such cases the following theorem is useful. Although we state it for Type 1 integrals, a similar theorem is true for Type 2 integrals. y

Comparison Theorem Suppose that f and t are continuous functions with f sxd > tsxd > 0 for x > a. (a) If ya` f sxd dx is convergent, then ya` tsxd dx is convergent.

f g

(b) If ya` tsxd dx is divergent, then ya` f sxd dx is divergent. 0

x

a

We omit the proof of the Comparison Theorem, but Figure 12 makes it seem plausible. If the area under the top curve y − f sxd is finite, then so is the area under the bottom curve y − tsxd. And if the area under y − tsxd is infinite, then so is the area under y − f sxd. [Note that the reverse is not necessarily true: If ya` tsxd dx is convergent, ` ya` f sxd dx may or may not be convergent, and if ya f sxd dx is divergent, ya` tsxd dx may or may not be divergent.]

FIGURE 12

EXAMPLE 9 Show that y e2x dx is convergent. `

2

0

2

SoLUtion We can’t evaluate the integral directly because the antiderivative of e2x is

y

y=e _x

not an elementary function (as explained in Section 7.5). We write

2

y

0

y=e _x

0

FIGURE 13

`

1

x

e2x dx − y e2x dx 1 y e2x dx 1

2

`

2

2

1

0

and observe that the first integral on the right-hand side is just an ordinary definite integral. In the second integral we use the fact that for x > 1 we have x 2 > x, so 2x 2 < 2x 2 and therefore e2x < e2x. (See Figure 13.) The integral of e2x is easy to evaluate:

y

`

1

e2x dx − lim

y

t

tl` 1

e2x dx − lim se21 2 e2t d − e21 tl`

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534

Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

Therefore, taking f sxd − e2x and tsxd − e2x in the Comparison Theorem, we see that 2 2 ` ` y1 e2x dx is convergent. It follows that y 0 e2x dx is convergent. ■ 2

Table 1 t

y0 e2x dx

1 2 3 4 5 6

0.7468241328 0.8820813908 0.8862073483 0.8862269118 0.8862269255 0.8862269255

t

2

In Example 9 we showed that y 0 e2x dx is convergent without computing its value. In Exercise 72 we indicate how to show that its value is approximately 0.8862. In probability theory it is important to know the exact value of this improper integral, as we will see in Section 8.5; using the methods of multivariable calculus it can be shown that the exact value is s y2. Table 1 illustrates the definition of an improper integral by showing how 2 the (computer-generated) values of y0t e2x dx approach s y2 as t becomes large. In fact, 2 these values converge quite quickly because e2x l 0 very rapidly as x l `. `

EXAMPLE 10 The integral y

Table 2 t

y1t fs1 1 e2x dyxg dx

2 5 10 100 1000 10000

0.8636306042 1.8276735512 2.5219648704 4.8245541204 7.1271392134 9.4297243064

1

because

(c)

y

2`

2 2x 2

x e

dx

and y1` s1yxd dx is divergent by Example 1 [or by (2) with p − 1].

(c)

y

y4

0

y

1

21

tan x dx dx 2 x 2x22

(d)

y

y4

0

(b) (d)

y



0

y

`

0

9. 11.

cot x dx

tan x dx

13.

1 dx sx 2 2d3y2 0 1 dx 7. y 2` 3 2 4x

6.

y

`

y

`

0

8.

1

`

y

`

y

`

y

`

y

`

y

`

y

0

y

` 2sy

y

1

y

1

y

3

10.

s1 1 x

y

0

y

`

y

`

y

`

y

`

y

`

y

`

y

`

2`

x2

dx

12.

2`

3

2

0

xe2x dx

14.

sin 2  d

16.

x11 dx x 2 1 2x

18.

1 dx xsln xd3

20.

s y 3 2 3y 2 d dy e21yx dx x2

1

0

2 r dr

sin  e cos d

3

e2x dx 17.

5–40 Determine whether each integral is convergent or divergent. Evaluate those that are convergent. `

y

e 25p dp

2`

15.

1.1 0.9 ; 4. (a) Graph the functions f sxd − 1yx and tsxd − 1yx in the viewing rectangles f0, 10g by f0, 1g and f0, 100g by f0, 1g. (b) Find the areas under the graphs of f and t from x − 1 to x − t and evaluate for t − 10, 100, 10 4, 10 6, 10 10, and 10 20. (c) Find the total area under each curve for x > 1, if it exists.

3

`

0

3. Find the area under the curve y − 1yx from x − 1 to x − t and evaluate it for t − 10, 100, and 1000. Then find the total area under this curve for x > 1.

y

y

2

1

3

5.

■

Table 2 illustrates the divergence of the integral in Example 10. It appears that the values are not approaching any fixed number.

2. Which of the following integrals are improper? Why? (a)

1 1 e2x dx is divergent by the Comparison Theorem x 1 1 e2x 1 . x x

1. Explain why each of the following integrals is improper. 2 x ` 1 dx (b) y (a) y 3 dx 1 x 2 1 0 1 1 x `

`

2

1

dx

s1 1 x 1 dx s2x 1 1d3 4

19.

e

21.

2`

23.

2`

25.

0

27.

e

0

29.

0

31.

22

x2 dx 9 1 x6 z dz z4 1 4 dy

1 dx x 3 dx x5 1 dx x4

dz z 2 1 3z 1 2

0

4

2`

22.

1

24.

e

x 3e 2x dx ln x dx x2 1 dx xsln xd2

dx sx 1 x sx 5 1 dx 28. y 0 3 5 2 x s ` x arctan x 30. y 2 2 dx 0 s1 1 x d

26.

y

`

y

1

1

32.

0

dx s1 2 x 2

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SeCtion 7.8 Improper Integrals

33.

dx x 2 2 6x 1 5

y

3

y

y2

y

1

y

0

0

35.

0

37.

y

36.

is improper for two reasons: The interval f0, `d is infinite and the integrand has an infinite discontinuity at 0. Evaluate it by expressing it as a sum of improper integrals of Type 2 and Type 1 as follows:

csc x dx

dx x2 2 x 2 2 y2 cos  38. y d 0 ssin 

tan 2  d

4

0

r ln r dr

21



y2

0

39.

y

34.

e 1yx dx x3

y

40.

1

0

e 1yx dx x3

y

`

0

1 1 1 ` 1 dx − y dx 1 y dx 0 sx s1 1 xd 1 sx s1 1 xd sx s1 1 xd

56. Evaluate

y

`

2

| S − hsx, yd | x < 0, 0 < y < e j S − hsx, yd | x > 1, 0 < y < 1ysx 1 xdj S − hsx, yd | x > 0, 0 < y < xe j S − hsx, yd | 0 < x , y2, 0 < y < sec xj S − hsx, yd | 22 , x < 0, 0 < y < 1ysx 1 2 j

42. ; 43. ; 44. ; 45. ; 46.

x

3

2x

; 48. (a) If tsxd − 1yssx 2 1d, use your calculator or computer to make a table of approximate values of t y2 tsxd dx for t − 5, 10, 100, 1000, and 10,000. Does it ` appear that y2 tsxd dx is convergent or divergent? (b) Use the Comparison Theorem with f sxd − 1ysx to ` show that y2 tsxd dx is divergent. (c) Illustrate part (b) by graphing f and t on the same screen for 2 < x < 20. Use your graph to explain ` intuitively why y2 tsxd dx is divergent. 49–54 Use the Comparison Theorem to determine whether the integral is convergent or divergent. 2 ` x ` 1 1 sin x 49. y 3 dx dx 50. y 0 x 1 1 1 sx x11

y

`

y

1

sec 2x

0

x sx

1

53.

57–59 Find the values of p for which the integral converges and evaluate the integral for those values of p. 1 1 ` 1 57. y p dx 58. y p dx 0 x e x sln xd 59.

y

1

0

x p ln x dx

2

2 2 ; 47. (a) If tsxd − ssin xdyx , use your calculator or computer t to make a table of approximate values of y1 tsxd dx for t − 2, 5, 10, 100, 1000, and 10,000. Does it appear ` that y1 tsxd dx is convergent? (b) Use the Comparison Theorem with f sxd − 1yx 2 to show that y1` tsxd dx is convergent. (c) Illustrate part (b) by graphing f and t on the same screen for 1 < x < 10. Use your graph to explain intuitively why y1` tsxd dx is convergent.

51.

1 dx x sx 2 2 4

by the same method as in Exercise 55.

41–46 Sketch the region and find its area (if the area is finite). 41. S − hsx, yd x > 1, 0 < y < e 2x j

535

sx 4 2 x

52.

dx

y

`

y



0

54.

dx

0

55. The integral

y

`

0

1 dx sx s1 1 xd

arctan x dx 2 1 ex sin 2x sx

dx

60. (a) Evaluate the integral y0` x ne2x dx for n − 0, 1, 2, and 3. (b) Guess the value of y0` x ne2x dx when n is an arbitrary positive integer. (c) Prove your guess using mathematical induction. ` 61. (a) Show that y2` x dx is divergent. (b) Show that

lim

tl`

y

t

2t

x dx − 0

This shows that we can’t define

y

`

2`

y

f sxd dx − lim

t

t l ` 2t

f sxd dx

62. The average speed of molecules in an ideal gas is v−

4 s

S D M 2RT

3y2

y

`

0

2

v 3e2Mv ys2RT d d v

where M is the molecular weight of the gas, R is the gas constant, T is the gas temperature, and v is the molecular speed. Show that v−

Î

8RT M

63. We know from Example 1 that the region 5 − hsx, yd x > 1, 0 < y < 1yxj has infinite area. Show that by rotating 5 about the x-axis we obtain a solid with finite volume.

|

64. Use the information and data in Exercise 6.4.33 to find the work required to propel a 1000-kg space vehicle out of the earth’s gravitational field. 65. Find the escape velocity v0 that is needed to propel a rocket of mass m out of the gravitational field of a planet with mass M and radius R. Use Newton’s Law of Gravitation (see Exercise 6.4.33) and the fact that the initial kinetic energy of 12 mv 20 supplies the needed work.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

536

Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

66. Astronomers use a technique called stellar stereography to determine the density of stars in a star cluster from the observed (two-dimensional) density that can be analyzed from a photograph. Suppose that in a spherical cluster of radius R the density of stars depends only on the distance r from the center of the cluster. If the perceived star density is given by yssd, where s is the observed planar distance from the center of the cluster, and x srd is the actual density, it can be shown that yssd − y

R

s

2r sr 2 s 2 2

x srd dr

If the actual density of stars in a cluster is x srd − find the perceived density yssd.

1 2 sR

2

2 rd ,

67. A manufacturer of lightbulbs wants to produce bulbs that last about 700 hours but, of course, some bulbs burn out faster than others. Let Fstd be the fraction of the company’s bulbs that burn out before t hours, so Fstd always lies between 0 and 1. (a) Make a rough sketch of what you think the graph of F might look like. (b) What is the meaning of the derivative rstd − F9std? ` (c) What is the value of y0 rstd dt? Why? 68. As we saw in Section 3.8, a radioactive substance decays exponentially: The mass at time t is mstd − ms0de kt, where ms0d is the initial mass and k is a negative constant. The mean life M of an atom in the substance is M − 2k y te kt dt

71. Determine how large the number a has to be so that

y

`

a

1 dx , 0.001 x2 1 1

72. Estimate the numerical value of y0` e2x dx by writing it as the 2 2 sum of y04 e2x dx and y4` e2x dx. Approximate the first integral by using Simpson’s Rule with n − 8 and show that the second integral is smaller than y `4 e24x dx, which is less than 0.0000001. 2

73. If f std is continuous for t > 0, the Laplace transform of f is the function F defined by Fssd − y f stde2st dt `

0

and the domain of F is the set consisting of all numbers s for which the integral converges. Find the Laplace transforms of the following functions. (a) f std − 1 (b) f std − e t (c) f std − t 74. Show that if 0 < f std < Me at for t > 0, where M and a are constants, then the Laplace transform Fssd exists for s . a. 75. Suppose that 0 < f std < Me at and 0 < f 9std < Ke at for t > 0, where f 9 is continuous. If the Laplace transform of f std is Fssd and the Laplace transform of f 9std is Gssd, show that Gssd − sFssd 2 f s0d

s.a

`

0

For the radioactive carbon isotope, 14 C, used in radiocarbon dating, the value of k is 20.000121. Find the mean life of a 14 C atom. 69. In a study of the spread of illicit drug use from an enthusiastic user to a population of N users, the authors model the number of expected new users by the equation −y

`

0

cNs1 2 e2kt d 2t e dt k

where c, k and  are positive constants. Evaluate this integral to express  in terms of c, N, k, and . Source: F. Hoppensteadt et al., “Threshold Analysis of a Drug Use Epidemic Model,” Mathematical Biosciences 53 (1981): 79–87.

70. Dialysis treatment removes urea and other waste products from a patient’s blood by diverting some of the bloodflow externally through a machine called a dialyzer. The rate at which urea is removed from the blood (in mgymin) is often well described by the equation r ustd − C 0 e2rtyV V where r is the rate of flow of blood through the dialyzer (in mLymin), V is the volume of the patient’s blood (in mL), and C 0 is the amount of urea in the blood (in mg) at time t − 0. Evaluate the integral y0` ustd and interpret it.

` f sxd dx is convergent and a and b are real numbers, 76. If y2` show that

y

a

2`

f sxd dx 1 y f sxd dx − y `

f sxd dx 1 y f sxd dx `

b

2`

a

b

77. Show that y0` x 2e2x dx − 12 y0` e2x dx. 2

2

78. Show that y0` e2x dx − y10 s2ln y dy by interpreting the integrals as areas. 2

79. Find the value of the constant C for which the integral

y

`

0

S

1 sx 1 4 2

2

C x12

D

dx

converges. Evaluate the integral for this value of C. 80. Find the value of the constant C for which the integral

y

`

0

S

x C 2 x 11 3x 1 1 2

D

dx

converges. Evaluate the integral for this value of C. 81. Suppose f is continuous on f0, `d and lim x l ` f sxd − 1. Is it ` possible that y0 f sxd dx is convergent? 82. Show that if a . 21 and b . a 1 1, then the following integral is convergent.

y

`

0

xa dx 1 1 xb

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Chapter 7 Review

7

537

REvIEw

ConCEpT ChECk

Answers to the Concept Check can be found on the back endpapers.

1. State the rule for integration by parts. In practice, how do you use it? 2. How do you evaluate y sin mx cos nx dx if m is odd? What if n is odd? What if m and n are both even? 3. If the expression sa 2 2 x 2 occurs in an integral, what substitution might you try? What if sa 2 1 x 2 occurs? What if sx 2 2 a 2 occurs? 4. What is the form of the partial fraction decomposition of a rational function PsxdyQsxd if the degree of P is less than the degree of Q and Qsxd has only distinct linear factors? What if a linear factor is repeated? What if Qsxd has an irreducible quadratic factor (not repeated)? What if the quadratic factor is repeated?

5. State the rules for approximating the definite integral yab f sxd dx with the Midpoint Rule, the Trapezoidal Rule, and Simpson’s Rule. Which would you expect to give the best estimate? How do you approximate the error for each rule? 6. Define the following improper integrals.

y

(a)

`

a

f sxd dx

(b)

y

b

2`

f sxd dx

(c)

y

`

2`

f sxd dx

7. Define the improper integral yab f sxd dx for each of the following cases. (a) f has an infinite discontinuity at a. (b) f has an infinite discontinuity at b. (c) f has an infinite discontinuity at c, where a , c , b. 8. State the Comparison Theorem for improper integrals.

TRUE-FALSE QUIz Determine whether the statement is true or false. If it is true, explain why. If it is false, explain why or give an example that disproves the statement.

t 7. If f is continuous, then y2` f sxd dx − lim t l ` y2t f sxd dx. `

8. The Midpoint Rule is always more accurate than the Trapezoidal Rule.

1.

x sx 2 1 4d A B can be put in the form 1 . x2 2 4 x12 x22

2.

x2 1 4 A B C can be put in the form 1 1 . x sx 2 2 4d x x12 x22

10. If f is continuous on f0, `d and y1` f sxd dx is convergent, then y0` f sxd dx is convergent.

3.

x2 1 4 A B can be put in the form 2 1 . x sx 2 4d x x24

11. If f is a continuous, decreasing function on f1, `d and ` lim x l ` f sxd − 0, then y1 f sxd dx is convergent.

2

9. (a) Every elementary function has an elementary derivative. (b) Every elementary function has an elementary antiderivative.

12. If ya` f sxd dx and ya tsxd dx are both convergent, then `

x2 2 4 A B can be put in the form 1 2 . 4. 2 x sx 1 4d x x 14

ya` f f sxd 1 tsxdg dx is convergent. 13. If ya f sxd dx and ya tsxd dx are both divergent, then `

5.

y

4

y

`

0

x dx − 21 ln 15 x2 2 1

`

ya f f sxd 1 tsxdg dx is divergent. `

14. If f sxd < tsxd and y0 tsxd dx diverges, then y0 f sxd dx also diverges. `

6.

1

1 dx is convergent. x s2

`

EXERCISES Note: Additional practice in techniques of integration is provided in Exercises 7.5.

3.

1–40 Evaluate the integral.

5.

1.

y

2

1

y

y2

y

y2

0

2

sx 1 1d dx x

e sin x dx sec x

y

2.

y

2

1

x dx sx 1 1d2

7.

0

4.

y

y6

y

2

0

sin  e cos  d

6.

sin3 cos2  d

8.

1

y

t sin 2t dt

x 5 ln x dx dx se x 2 1

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

538

9. 11.

Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

y

sinsln td dt t

y

sx 2 1 dx x

2

ye

3 x s

y

sarctan x dx 1 1 x2

1

0

2

1

13.

10. 12.

x21 dx x 2 1 2x

e dx 1 1 e 4x

y

2

x 12 dx x12

16.

y

sec 6  d tan 2  x 2 1 8x 2 3 dx x 3 1 3x 2

y

17.

y x cosh x dx

18.

y

19.

y x sec x tan x dx

20.

y tan  sec  d

21.

y

23.

y

25.

y

27.

y

y2

y

3

y

ln 10

24.

y te

26.

y x sin x cos x dx

cos 3x sin 2x dx

28.

y

x dx 11 x

30.

y

| |

23

31.

0

e xse x 2 1 dx ex 1 8

32.

x dx s4 2 x 2 d3y2

33.

y

35.

y

37.

y scos x 1 sin xd

39.

y

1 sx 1 x 3y2

0

dx 2

xe 2x dx s1 1 2xd 2

cos 2x dx

y

st

dt

3 x 11 s dx 3 x 21 s

dx e s1 2 e x

22x

y4

x sin x dx cos 3 x

0

2

1y2

3

y cos st dt

0

29.

5

22.

3x 3 2 x 2 1 6x 2 4 dx sx 2 1 1dsx 2 1 2d

34.

y sarcsin xd dx

36.

y

1 2 tan  d 1 1 tan 

y

2sx

38.

2

dx sx y3 stan  40. y d y4 sin 2

41–50 Evaluate the integral or show that it is divergent. 41.

y

`

1

1 dx s2x 1 1d3

42.

y

`

1

ln x dx x4

y lnsx

43.

y y

4

y

1

2

45.

0

47.

0

dx x ln x ln x

dx sx x21 dx sx

44.

y

6

y

1

y

1

2

46.

0

48.

50.

y

`

1

tan21x dx x2

21

y dy 2 sy 2

2

1 2x 1 2d dx

52.

x3

y

sx 2 1 1

dx

2 3 ; 53. Graph the function f sxd − cos x sin x and use the graph to guess the value of the integral y02 f sxd dx. Then evaluate the integral to confirm your guess.

54. (a) How would you evaluate y x 5e22x dx by hand? (Don’t actually carry out the integration.) (b) How would you evaluate y x 5e22x dx using tables? (Don’t actually do it.) (c) Use a CAS to evaluate y x 5e22x dx. (d) Graph the integrand and the indefinite integral on the same screen. 55–58 Use the Table of Integrals on the Reference Pages to evaluate the integral. 55.

y s4x

57.

y cos x s4 1 sin x dx

2

2 4x 2 3 dx 2

56.

y csc t dt

58.

y

5

cot x s1 1 2 sin x

dx

59. Verify Formula 33 in the Table of Integrals (a) by differentiation and (b) by using a trigonometric substitution. 60. Verify Formula 62 in the Table of Integrals. 61. Is it possible to find a number n such that y0 x n dx is convergent? `

62. For what values of a is y0 e ax cos x dx convergent? Evaluate the integral for those values of a. `

63–64 Use (a) the Trapezoidal Rule, (b) the Midpoint Rule, and (c) Simpson’s Rule with n − 10 to approximate the given integral. Round your answers to six decimal places. 63.

y

4

2

`

dx 4x 1 4x 1 5 2

; 51–52 Evaluate the indefinite integral. Illustrate and check that your answer is reasonable by graphing both the function and its antiderivative (take C − 0).

CAS

sx 2 2 4x dx x sx 2 1 1

`

2`

51.

15.

dx

y

2x

y

14.

dx

49.

1 dx ln x

64.

y

4

1

sx cos x dx

1 dx 2 2 3x

65. Estimate the errors involved in Exercise 63, parts (a) and (b). How large should n be in each case to guarantee an error of less than 0.00001?

dx x 2 2 2x

66. Use Simpson’s Rule with n − 6 to estimate the area under the curve y − e xyx from x − 1 to x − 4.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

539

Chapter 7 Review

67. The speedometer reading (v) on a car was observed at 1-minute intervals and recorded in the chart. Use Simpson’s Rule to estimate the distance traveled by the car.

71. Use the Comparison Theorem to determine whether the integral is convergent or divergent. (a)

t (min)

v (kmyh)

t (min)

v (kmyh)

0 1 2 3 4 5

64 67 72 78 83 86

6 7 8 9 10

90 91 91 88 90

68. A population of honeybees increased at a rate of rstd bees per week, where the graph of r is as shown. Use Simpson’s Rule with six subintervals to estimate the increase in the bee population during the first 24 weeks.

y

`

1

2 1 sin x sx

(b)

dx

y

`

1

1 s1 1 x 4

dx

72. Find the area of the region bounded by the hyperbola y 2 2 x 2 − 1 and the line y − 3. 73. Find the area bounded by the curves y − cos x and y − cos 2x between x − 0 and x − . 74. Find the area of the region bounded by the curves y − 1ys2 1 sx d, y − 1ys2 2 sx d, and x − 1. 75. The region under the curve y − cos 2x, 0 < x < y2, is rotated about the x-axis. Find the volume of the resulting solid. 76. The region in Exercise 75 is rotated about the y-axis. Find the volume of the resulting solid. 77. If f 9 is continuous on f0, `d and lim x l ` f sxd − 0, show that

r 12000

y

`

0

f 9sxd dx − 2f s0d

8000

78. We can extend our definition of average value of a continuous function to an infinite interval by defining the average value of f on the interval fa, `d to be

4000

0

CAS

4

8

12

16

20

24

t (weeks)

69. (a) If f sxd − sinssin xd, use a graph to find an upper bound for f s4dsxd . (b) Use Simpson’s Rule with n − 10 to approximate  y0 f sxd dx and use part (a) to estimate the error. (c) How large should n be to guarantee that the size of the error in using Sn is less than 0.00001?

|

|

70. Suppose you are asked to estimate the volume of a football. You measure and find that a football is 28 cm long. You use a piece of string and measure the circumference at its widest point to be 53 cm. The circumference 7 cm from each end is 45 cm. Use Simpson’s Rule to make your estimate.

28 cm

lim

tl`

1 t2a

y

t

a

f sxd dx

(a) Find the average value of y − tan21x on the interval f0, `d. (b) If f sxd > 0 and ya` f sxd dx is divergent, show that the average value of f on the interval fa, `d is lim x l ` f sxd, if this limit exists. ` (c) If ya f sxd dx is convergent, what is the average value of f on the interval fa, `d? (d) Find the average value of y − sin x on the interval f0, `d. 79. Use the substitution u − 1yx to show that

y

`

0

ln x dx − 0 1 1 x2

80. The magnitude of the repulsive force between two point charges with the same sign, one of size 1 and the other of size q, is q F− 4«0 r 2 where r is the distance between the charges and «0 is a constant. The potential V at a point P due to the charge q is defined to be the work expended in bringing a unit charge to P from infinity along the straight line that joins q and P. Find a formula for V.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Problems Plus Cover up the solution to the example and try it yourself first.

EXAMPLE (a) Prove that if f is a continuous function, then

y

a

y

y2

0

f sxd dx − y f sa 2 xd dx a

0

(b) Use part (a) to show that

0

sin n x  dx − n n sin x 1 cos x 4

for all positive numbers n. SoLUtion

PS The principles of problem solving are discussed on page 71.

(a) At first sight, the given equation may appear somewhat baffling. How is it possible to connect the left side to the right side? Connections can often be made through one of the principles of problem solving: introduce something extra. Here the extra ingredient is a new variable. We often think of introducing a new variable when we use the Substitution Rule to integrate a specific function. But that technique is still useful in the present circumstance in which we have a general function f. Once we think of making a substitution, the form of the right side suggests that it should be u − a 2 x. Then du − 2dx. When x − 0, u − a; when x − a, u − 0. So

y

a

0

f sa 2 xd dx − 2y f sud du − y f sud du 0

a

a

0

But this integral on the right side is just another way of writing y0 f sxd dx. So the given equation is proved. (b) If we let the given integral be I and apply part (a) with a − y2, we get a

I−y

y2

0

The computer graphs in Figure 1 make it seem plausible that all of the integrals in the example have the same value. The graph of each integrand is labeled with the corresponding value of n. 1

2

A well-known trigonometric identity tells us that sinsy2 2 xd − cos x and cossy2 2 xd − sin x, so we get I−y

0

1

2I − y

y2

0

π 2

0

FIGURE 1

y2

cos n x dx cos n x 1 sin n x

Notice that the two expressions for I are very similar. In fact, the integrands have the same denominator. This suggests that we should add the two expressions. If we do so, we get

3 4

sin n x y2 sin nsy2 2 xd dx n dx − y n 0 sin x 1 cos x sin sy2 2 xd 1 cos nsy2 2 xd n

Therefore I − y4.

sin n x 1 cos n x y2  dx − y 1 dx − 0 sin n x 1 cos n x 2

■

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;

problems

1. Three mathematics students have ordered a 14-inch pizza. Instead of slicing it in the traditional way, they decide to slice it by parallel cuts, as shown in the figure. Being mathematics majors, they are able to determine where to slice so that each gets the same amount of pizza. Where are the cuts made? 2. Evaluate

y

1 dx x7 2 x

The straightforward approach would be to start with partial fractions, but that would be brutal. Try a substitution. 3 7 1 2 x7 2 s 1 2 x 3 ) dx. 3. Evaluate y (s

14 in

1

0

FIGURE FoR pRobLEm 1

4. The centers of two disks with radius 1 are one unit apart. Find the area of the union of the two disks. 5. An ellipse is cut out of a circle with radius a. The major axis of the ellipse coincides with a diameter of the circle and the minor axis has length 2b. Prove that the area of the remaining part of the circle is the same as the area of an ellipse with semiaxes a and a 2 b. 6. A man initially standing at the point O walks along a pier pulling a rowboat by a rope of length L. The man keeps the rope straight and taut. The path followed by the boat is a curve called a tractrix and it has the property that the rope is always tangent to the curve (see the figure). (a) Show that if the path followed by the boat is the graph of the function y − f sxd, then

pier

y

L

(x, y)

f 9sxd − (L, 0) O

FIGURE FoR pRobLEm 6

x

dy 2sL 2 2 x 2 − dx x

(b) Determine the function y − f sxd. 7. A function f is defined by f sxd − y cos t cossx 2 td dt 

0

0 < x < 2

Find the minimum value of f. 8. If n is a positive integer, prove that

y

1

0

sln xdn dx − s21dn n!

9. Show that

y

1

0

s1 2 x 2 d n dx −

2 2n sn!d2 s2n 1 1d!

Hint: Start by showing that if In denotes the integral, then Ik11 −

2k 1 2 Ik 2k 1 3

; 10. Suppose that f is a positive function such that f 9 is continuous. (a) How is the graph of y − f sxd sin nx related to the graph of y − f sxd? What happens as n l `?

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(b) Make a guess as to the value of the limit lim

y

1

nl` 0

f sxd sin nx dx

based on graphs of the integrand. (c) Using integration by parts, confirm the guess that you made in part (b). [Use the fact that, since f 9 is continuous, there is a constant M such that f 9sxd < M for 0 < x < 1.]

|

|

11. If 0 , a , b, find lim

tl0

Hy

1

0

J

1yt

fbx 1 as1 2 xdg t dx

t11 x ; 12. Graph f sxd − sinse d and use the graph to estimate the value of t such that yt f sxd dx is a maximum. Then find the exact value of t that maximizes this integral.

13. Evaluate y

`

S D

21

x4 1 1 x6

2

dx.

14. Evaluate y stan x dx. y

| |

15. The circle with radius 1 shown in the figure touches the curve y − 2x twice. Find the area of the region that lies between the two curves. 16. A rocket is fired straight up, burning fuel at the constant rate of b kilograms per second. Let v − vstd be the velocity of the rocket at time t and suppose that the velocity u of the exhaust gas is constant. Let M − Mstd be the mass of the rocket at time t and note that M decreases as the fuel burns. If we neglect air resistance, it follows from Newton’s Second Law that

y=| 2x | 0

x

F−M

FIGURE FoR pRobLEm 15

dv 2 ub dt

where the force F − 2Mt. Thus

1

M

dv 2 ub − 2Mt dt

Let M1 be the mass of the rocket without fuel, M2 the initial mass of the fuel, and M0 − M1 1 M2. Then, until the fuel runs out at time t − M2 yb, the mass is M − M0 2 bt. (a) Substitute M − M0 2 bt into Equation 1 and solve the resulting equation for v. Use the initial condition v s0d − 0 to evaluate the constant. (b) Determine the velocity of the rocket at time t − M2 yb. This is called the burnout velocity. (c) Determine the height of the rocket y − ystd at the burnout time. (d) Find the height of the rocket at any time t.

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8

Further Applications of Integration

The Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri, stands 192 meters high and was completed in 1965. The arch was designed by Eero Saarinen using an equation involving the hyperbolic cosine function. In Exercise 8.1.42 you are asked to compute the length of the curve that he used. © planet5D LLC / Shutterstock.com

WE LOOKED AT SOME APPLICATIONS of integrals in Chapter 6: areas, volumes, work, and average values. Here we explore some of the many other geometric applications of integration — the length of a curve, the area of a surface—as well as quantities of interest in physics, engineering, biology, economics, and statistics. For instance, we will investigate the center of gravity of a plate, the force exerted by water pressure on a dam, the flow of blood from the human heart, and the average time spent on hold during a customer support telephone call.

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544

CHAPTER 8

Further Applications of Integration

FIGURE 1 TEC Visual 8.1 shows an animation of Figure 2.

What do we mean by the length of a curve? We might think of fitting a piece of string to the curve in Figure 1 and then measuring the string against a ruler. But that might be difficult to do with much accuracy if we have a complicated curve. We need a precise definition for the length of an arc of a curve, in the same spirit as the definitions we developed for the concepts of area and volume. If the curve is a polygon, we can easily find its length; we just add the lengths of the line segments that form the polygon. (We can use the distance formula to find the distance between the endpoints of each segment.) We are going to define the length of a general curve by first approximating it by a polygon and then taking a limit as the number of segments of the polygon is increased. This process is familiar for the case of a circle, where the circumference is the limit of lengths of inscribed polygons (see Figure 2). Now suppose that a curve C is defined by the equation y − f sxd, where f is continuous and a < x < b. We obtain a polygonal approximation to C by dividing the interval fa, bg into n subintervals with endpoints x 0 , x 1, . . . , x n and equal width Dx. If yi − f sx i d, then the point Pi sx i , yi d lies on C and the polygon with vertices P0, P1, . . . , Pn, illustrated in Figure 3, is an approximation to C. y

P™

y=ƒ

P¡ Pi-1

FIGURE 2

Pi

Pn

P¸

0

a

x¡

x i-1 x i

¤

b

x

FIGURE 3

Pi

Pi

Pi-1

The length L of C is approximately the length of this polygon and the approximation gets better as we let n increase. (See Figure 4, where the arc of the curve between Pi21 and Pi has been magnified and approximations with successively smaller values of Dx are shown.) Therefore we define the length L of the curve C with equation y − f sxd, a < x < b, as the limit of the lengths of these inscribed polygons (if the limit exists): n

Pi

L − lim

1 Pi-1

o | Pi21Pi |

n l ` i−1

Pi

Pi-1

Pi-1

FIGURE 4

Notice that the procedure for defining arc length is very similar to the procedure we used for defining area and volume: We divided the curve into a large number of small parts. We then found the approximate lengths of the small parts and added them. Finally, we took the limit as n l `. The definition of arc length given by Equation 1 is not very convenient for computational purposes, but we can derive an integral formula for L in the case where f has a continuous derivative. [Such a function f is called smooth because a small change in x produces a small change in f 9sxd.] If we let Dyi − yi 2 yi21, then

|P

i21

Pi | − ssxi 2 xi21 d2 1 syi 2 yi21 d2 − ssDxd2 1 sDyi d2

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SECTION 8.1

Arc Length

545

By applying the Mean Value Theorem to f on the interval fx i21, x i g, we find that there is a number xi* between x i21 and x i such that f sx i d 2 f sx i21 d − f 9sxi*dsx i 2 x i21 d Dyi − f 9sxi*d Dx

that is, Thus we have

|P

i21

Pi | − ssDxd2 1 sDyi d2 − ssDxd2 1 f f 9sxi*d Dxg 2 − s1 1 [ f 9sxi*dg 2 ssDxd2 − s1 1 f f 9sxi*dg 2 Dx

(since Dx . 0)

Therefore, by Definition 1, n

n

o s1 1 f f 9sxi*dg 2 Dx

o | Pi21 Pi | − lim

L − lim

nl ` i−1

nl ` i−1

We recognize this expression as being equal to

y

b

a

s1 1 f f 9sxdg 2 dx

by the definition of a definite integral. We know that this integral exists because the function tsxd − s1 1 f f 9sxdg 2 is continuous. Thus we have proved the following theorem: 2 The Arc Length Formula If f 9 is continuous on fa, bg, then the length of the curve y − f sxd, a < x < b, is L − y s1 1 f f 9sxdg 2 dx b

a

If we use Leibniz notation for derivatives, we can write the arc length formula as follows:

yÎ S D dy dx

b

L−

3

11

a

y

2

dx

EXAMPLE 1 Find the length of the arc of the semicubical parabola y 2 − x 3 between the points s1, 1d and s4, 8d. (See Figure 5.)

(4, 8)

SOLUTION For the top half of the curve we have ¥=˛

and so the arc length formula gives

(1, 1) 0

x

L− FIGURE 5

dy − 32 x 1y2 dx

y − x 3y2

y

4

1

Î S D 11

dy dx

2

dx − y s1 1 94 x dx 4

1

If we substitute u − 1 1 94 x, then du − 94 dx. When x − 1, u − 13 4 ; when x − 4, u − 10. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

546

CHAPTER 8

Further Applications of Integration

As a check on our answer to Example 1, Therefore notice from Figure 5 that the arc length ought to be slightly larger than the distance from s1, 1d to s4, 8d, which is s58 < 7.615773 According to our calculation in Example 1, we have L−

1 27

(80 s10 2 13 s13 )

< 7.633705 Sure enough, this is a bit greater than the length of the line segment.

L − 49 y

10

13y4

10

4 2 3y2 su du − 9 ? 3 u g13y4

8 − 27 f10 3y2 2 ( 134 )

3y2

g − 271 (80s10 2 13s13 )

■

If a curve has the equation x − tsyd, c < y < d, and t9syd is continuous, then by interchanging the roles of x and y in Formula 2 or Equation 3, we obtain the following formula for its length:

L − y s1 1 ft9sydg 2 dy − d

4

c

yÎ S D d

11

c

dx dy

2

dy

EXAMPLE 2 Find the length of the arc of the parabola y 2 − x from s0, 0d to s1, 1d. SOLUTION Since x − y 2, we have dxydy − 2y, and Formula 4 gives

yÎ S D 1

L−

11

0

dx dy

2

dy − y s1 1 4y 2 dy 1

0

We make the trigonometric substitution y − 12 tan , which gives dy − 12 sec 2 d and s1 1 4y 2 − s1 1 tan 2  − sec . When y − 0, tan  − 0, so  − 0; when y − 1, tan  − 2, so  − tan21 2 − , say. Thus L − y sec  ? 12 sec 2 d − 12 y sec 3 d 



0

0



− 12 ? 12 fsec  tan  1 ln | sec  1 tan  |g 0

(from Example 7.2.8)

− 14 ssec  tan  1 ln | sec  1 tan  |d (We could have used Formula 21 in the Table of Integrals.) Since tan  − 2, we have sec 2 − 1 1 tan 2 − 5, so sec  − s5 and Figure 6 shows the arc of the parabola whose length is computed in Example 2, together with polygonal approximations having n − 1 and n − 2 line segments, respectively. For n − 1 the approximate length is L 1 − s2 , the diagonal of a square. The table shows the approximations L n that we get by dividing f0, 1g into n equal subintervals. Notice that each time we double the number of sides of the polygon, we get closer to the exact length, which is L−

s5 2

1

ln(s5 1 2) < 1.478943 4

L−

lnss5 1 2d s5 1 2 4

■

y 1

x=¥

0

1

x

n

Ln

1 2 4 8 16 32 64

1.414 1.445 1.464 1.472 1.476 1.478 1.479

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SECTION 8.1

Arc Length

547

Because of the presence of the square root sign in Formulas 2 and 4, the calculation of an arc length often leads to an integral that is very difficult or even impossible to evaluate explicitly. Thus we sometimes have to be content with finding an approximation to the length of a curve, as in the following example.

EXAMPLE 3 (a) Set up an integral for the length of the arc of the hyperbola xy − 1 from the point s1, 1d to the point s2, 12 d. (b) Use Simpson’s Rule with n − 10 to estimate the arc length. SOLUTION

(a) We have y−

1 x

dy 1 −2 2 dx x

and so the arc length is

yÎ S D 2

L−

11

1

2

dy dx

dx −

y

2

1

Î

1 dx − x4

11

y

2

1

sx 4 1 1 dx x2

(b) Using Simpson’s Rule (see Section 7.7) with a − 1, b − 2, n − 10, Dx − 0.1, and f sxd − s1 1 1yx 4 , we have

Checking the value of the definite integral with a more accurate approximation produced by a computing device, we see that the approximation using Simpson’s Rule is accurate to four decimal places.

L−

y

2

1


0

3

x 1 11. y − 1 , 3 4x

1 1; see (11.2.4)4

`

ExamplE 1 Determine whether the series

5

o 2 n−1 2n 1 4n 1 3

converges or diverges.

SOLUTION For large n the dominant term in the denominator is 2n2, so we compare the

given series with the series o 5ys2n2d. Observe that 5 5 , 2 2n2 1 4n 1 3 2n because the left side has a bigger denominator. (In the notation of the Comparison Test, an is the left side and bn is the right side.) We know that `

5

o 2 n−1 2n

−

5 2

`

1

o 2 n−1 n

is convergent because it’s a constant times a p-series with p − 2 . 1. Therefore `

5

o 2 n−1 2n 1 4n 1 3 is convergent by part (i) of the Comparison Test.

■

NOTE 1 Although the condition an < bn or an > bn in the Comparison Test is given for all n, we need verify only that it holds for n > N, where N is some fixed integer, because the convergence of a series is not affected by a finite number of terms. This is illustrated in the next example. `

ExamplE 2 Test the series

o k−1

ln k for convergence or divergence. k

SOLUTION We used the Integral Test to test this series in Example 11.3.4, but we can also test it by comparing it with the harmonic series. Observe that ln k . 1 for k > 3 and so ln k 1 . k >3 k k

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SECTION 11.4 The Comparison Tests

729

We know that o 1yk is divergent (p-series with p − 1). Thus the given series is divergent by the Comparison Test. ■ NOTE 2 The terms of the series being tested must be smaller than those of a convergent series or larger than those of a divergent series. If the terms are larger than the terms of a convergent series or smaller than those of a divergent series, then the Comparison Test doesn’t apply. Consider, for instance, the series `

1

o n n−1 2 2 1 The inequality 1 1 . n 2 21 2 n

n

is useless as far as the Comparison Test is concerned because o bn − o ( 12 ) is convergent and an . bn. Nonetheless, we have the feeling that o 1ys2n 2 1d ought to be convergent n because it is very similar to the convergent geometric series o ( 12 ) . In such cases the following test can be used.

Exercises 40 and 41 deal with the cases c − 0 and c − `.

The Limit Comparison Test Suppose that o an and o bn are series with positive terms. If an lim −c n l ` bn where c is a finite number and c . 0, then either both series converge or both diverge. PROOF Let m and M be positive numbers such that m , c , M. Because a n ybn is close to c for large n, there is an integer N such that

m,

an ,M bn

mbn , a n , Mbn

and so

when n . N when n . N

If o bn converges, so does o Mbn. Thus o an converges by part (i) of the Comparison Test. If o bn diverges, so does o mbn and part (ii) of the Comparison Test shows that o an diverges. ■ `

ExamplE 3 Test the series

1

for convergence or divergence. o n n−1 2 2 1

SOLUTION We use the Limit Comparison Test with

an −

1 2 21 n

bn −

1 2n

and obtain lim

nl`

an 1ys2n 2 1d 2n 1 − lim − lim n −1.0 − lim n nl` nl` 2 2 1 n l ` 1 2 1y2 n bn 1y2

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

730

CHAPTER 11

Infinite Sequences and Series

Since this limit exists and o 1y2 n is a convergent geometric series, the given series converges by the Limit Comparison Test. `

ExamplE 4 Determine whether the series

o n−1

■

2n 2 1 3n converges or diverges. s5 1 n 5

SOLUTION The dominant part of the numerator is 2n 2 and the dominant part of the

denominator is sn 5 − n 5y2. This suggests taking an −

lim

nl`

2n 2 1 3n s5 1 n 5

bn −

2n 2 2 − 1y2 n 5y2 n

an 2n2 1 3n n1y2 2n5y2 1 3n3y2 − lim ? − lim 5 n l ` s5 1 n n l ` 2s5 1 n 5 bn 2 3 n

21 − lim

nl`

Î

2

5 11 n5

−

210 −1 2 s0 1 1

Since o bn − 2 o 1yn1y2 is divergent ( p-series with p − 12 , 1), the given series diverges by the Limit Comparison Test.

■

Notice that in testing many series we find a suitable comparison series o bn by keeping only the highest powers in the numerator and denominator.

Estimating Sums If we have used the Comparison Test to show that a series o a n converges by comparison with a series o bn , then we may be able to estimate the sum o a n by comparing remainders. As in Section 11.3, we consider the remainder Rn − s 2 sn − a n11 1 a n12 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ For the comparison series o bn we consider the corresponding remainder Tn − t 2 tn − bn11 1 bn12 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ Since a n < bn for all n, we have Rn < Tn. If o bn is a p-series, we can estimate its remainder Tn as in Section 11.3. If o bn is a geometric series, then Tn is the sum of a geometric series and we can sum it exactly (see Exercises 35 and 36). In either case we know that Rn is smaller than Tn.

ExamplE 5 Use the sum of the first 100 terms to approximate the sum of the series o 1ysn 3 1 1d. Estimate the error involved in this approximation. SOLUTION Since

1 1 , 3 n3 1 1 n the given series is convergent by the Comparison Test. The remainder Tn for the comparison series o 1yn 3 was estimated in Example 11.3.5 using the Remainder Estimate for the Integral Test. There we found that Tn < y

`

n

1 1 3 dx − x 2n2

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SECTION 11.4 The Comparison Tests

731

Therefore the remainder Rn for the given series satisfies Rn < Tn
0

since b 2 < b1

s4 − s2 1 sb3 2 b4 d > s2

since b4 < b3

s2n − s2n22 1 sb2n21 2 b2n d > s2n22

since b 2n < b 2n21

0 < s2 < s4 < s6 < ∙ ∙ ∙ < s2n < ∙ ∙ ∙

Thus But we can also write

s2n − b1 2 sb2 2 b3 d 2 sb4 2 b5 d 2 ∙ ∙ ∙ 2 sb2n22 2 b2n21 d 2 b2n Every term in parentheses is positive, so s2n < b1 for all n. Therefore the sequence hs2n j of even partial sums is increasing and bounded above. It is therefore convergent by the Monotonic Sequence Theorem. Let’s call its limit s, that is, lim s2n − s

nl`

Now we compute the limit of the odd partial sums: lim s2n11 − lim ss2n 1 b2n11 d

nl`

nl`

− lim s2n 1 lim b2n11 nl`

−s10

nl`

[by condition (ii)]

−s Since both the even and odd partial sums converge to s, we have lim n l ` sn − s [see Exercise 11.1.92(a)] and so the series is convergent. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

■

734

CHAPTER 11

Infinite Sequences and Series

Figure 2 illustrates Example 1 by showing the graphs of the terms a n − s21d n21yn and the partial sums sn. Notice how the values of sn zigzag across the limiting value, which appears to be about 0.7. In fact, it can be proved that the exact sum of the series is ln 2 < 0.693 (see Exercise 36). 1

ExamplE 1 The alternating harmonic series 12

1 1 1 1 2 1∙∙∙− 2 3 4

s21d n21 n

satisfies (i) bn11 , bn

nl`

1 1 , n11 n

because

(ii) lim bn − lim

sn 

`

o n−1

nl`

1 −0 n

so the series is convergent by the Alternating Series Test. `

a n  0

ExamplE 2 The series

o n−1

n

s21d n 3n is alternating, but 4n 2 1

lim bn − lim

nl`

FIGURE 2

■

nl`

3n − lim nl` 4n 2 1

3 42

1 n

−

3 4

so condition (ii) is not satisfied. Instead, we look at the limit of the nth term of the series: lim a n − lim

nl`

nl`

s21d n 3n 4n 2 1

This limit does not exist, so the series diverges by the Test for Divergence. `

ExamplE 3 Test the series

■

n2

o s21d n11 n 3 1 1 for convergence or divergence. n−1

SOLUTION The given series is alternating so we try to verify conditions (i) and (ii) of the Alternating Series Test. Unlike the situation in Example 1, it is not obvious that the sequence given by bn − n 2ysn 3 1 1d is decreasing. However, if we consider the related function f sxd − x 2ysx 3 1 1d, we find that

f 9sxd −

xs2 2 x 3 d sx 3 1 1d2

Since we are considering only positive x, we see that f 9sxd , 0 if 2 2 x 3 , 0, that is, 3 3 x.s 2 . Thus f is decreasing on the interval ss 2 , `d. This means that f sn 1 1d , f snd and therefore bn11 , bn when n > 2. (The inequality b2 , b1 can be verified directly Instead of verifying condition (i) of the Alternating Series Test by combut all that really matters is that the sequence hbn j is eventually decreasing.) puting a derivative, we could verify that Condition (ii) is readily verified: bn11 , bn directly by using the technique of Solution 1 of Example 11.1.13. 2

lim bn − lim

nl`

nl`

n − lim n3 1 1 n l `

1 n 1 11 3 n

−0

Thus the given series is convergent by the Alternating Series Test.

■

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SECTION 11.5 Alternating Series

735

Estimating Sums A partial sum sn of any convergent series can be used as an approximation to the total sum s, but this is not of much use unless we can estimate the accuracy of the approximation. The error involved in using s < sn is the remainder Rn − s 2 sn. The next theorem says that for series that satisfy the conditions of the Alternating Series Test, the size of the error is smaller than bn11, which is the absolute value of the first neglected term. You can see geometrically why the Alternating Series Estimation Theorem is true by looking at Figure 1 (on page 733). Notice that s 2 s4 , b5 , s 2 s5 , b6 , and so on. Notice also that s lies between any two consecutive partial sums.

|

Alternating Series Estimation Theorem If s − o s21dn21bn, where bn . 0, is the sum of an alternating series that satisfies (i) bn11 < bn

|

and

(ii) lim bn − 0 nl`

|R | − |s 2 s | < b

then

n

n

n11

PROOF We know from the proof of the Alternating Series Test that s lies between any two consecutive partial sums sn and sn11. (There we showed that s is larger than all the even partial sums. A similar argument shows that s is smaller than all the odd sums.) It follows that

|s 2 s | < |s n

n11

2 sn | − bn11

■

s21dn correct to three decimal places. n! SOLUTION We first observe that the series is convergent by the Alternating Series Test because 1 1 1 (i) − , sn 1 1d! n! sn 1 1d n! `

By definition, 0! − 1.

ExamplE 4 Find the sum of the series

(ii)

0,

o n−0

1 1 1 , l 0 so l 0 as n l ` n! n n!

To get a feel for how many terms we need to use in our approximation, let’s write out the first few terms of the series: s−

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1∙∙∙ 0! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!

1 1 1 1 − 1 2 1 1 12 2 16 1 24 2 120 1 720 2 5040 1 ∙∙∙

Notice that and

1 1 b 7 − 5040 , 5000 − 0.0002 1 1 1 s6 − 1 2 1 1 12 2 16 1 24 2 120 1 720 < 0.368056

By the Alternating Series Estimation Theorem we know that In Section 11.10 we will prove that e x − o `n−0 x nyn! for all x, so what we have obtained in Example 4 is actually an approximation to the number e 21.

|s 2 s | < b 6

7

, 0.0002

This error of less than 0.0002 does not affect the third decimal place, so we have s < 0.368 correct to three decimal places.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

■

736

CHAPTER 11

Infinite Sequences and Series

NOTE The rule that the error (in using sn to approximate s) is smaller than the first neglected term is, in general, valid only for alternating series that satisfy the conditions of the Alternating Series Estimation Theorem. The rule does not apply to other types of series.

1. (a) What is an alternating series? (b) Under what conditions does an alternating series converge? (c) If these conditions are satisfied, what can you say about the remainder after n terms? 2–20 Test the series for convergence or divergence. 2.

2 3

Series Estimation Theorem to estimate the sum correct to four decimal places. `

21.

`

s21d n21 3 1 5n

`

6.

`

3n 2 1 7. o s21d n 2n 11 n−1

n2 8. o s21d n 2 n 1n11 n−1 `

o s21d n e2n

10.

n−1

`

`

`

13.

o n−0

sinsn 1 12 d 1 1 sn

SD

`

17.

o s21d n sin n−1

 n

nn 19. o s21d n! n−1

o s21d n21 n−1 o n−1

18.

o s21d n cos n−1

SD  n

26.

o n−1

`

S D 2

1 n

n

s | error | , 0.00005d

( | error | , 0.0005) ( | error | , 0.00005)

27–30 Approximate the sum of the series correct to four decimal places. `

s21d n s2nd!

27.

o n−1

29.

o s21d n ne 22n n−1

`

s21d n 3n n!

`

s21d n21 n 4n

28.

o n−1

30.

o n−1

`

31. Is the 50th partial sum s50 of the alternating series o `n−1 s21d n21yn an overestimate or an underestimate of the total sum? Explain. 32–34 For what values of p is each series convergent?

`

20.

s21d n21 n2 2n

o n−1

e 1yn n

n cos n 2n

`

`

n

o s21d n11 n e2n

`

16.

`

25.

n−1

14.

(213 ) n ( error , 0.0005) | | n

o n−1

n

`

n

o s21d n 10 n n−1 `

15.

12.

n

o s21d n21 8 n n−1

o s21d n sn 3 1 2

n−1

n2 11. o s21d n11 3 n 14 n−1

`

24. s21d n11 sn 1 1

s21d n11 n6

o n−1

`

`

9.

o n−0

`

22.

`

23.

1 1 1 1 1 2 ∙∙∙ 4. 2 1 2 1 ln 3 ln 4 ln 5 ln 6 ln 7

o n−1

s20.8d n n!

23–26 Show that the series is convergent. How many terms of the series do we need to add in order to find the sum to the indicated accuracy?

2 2 25 1 27 2 29 1 11 2 ∙∙∙

3. 252 1 46 2 67 1 88 2 10 9 1 ∙∙∙

5.

o n−1

o s21d (sn 1 1 2 sn ) n

n−1

; 21–22 Graph both the sequence of terms and the sequence of partial sums on the same screen. Use the graph to make a rough estimate of the sum of the series. Then use the Alternating

`

s21d n21 np

`

s21d n

32.

o n−1

33.

o n−1 n 1 p

`

34.

o s21d n21 n−2

sln nd p n

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SECTION 11.6 Absolute Convergence and the Ratio and Root Tests

35. Show that the series o s21d n21bn, where bn − 1yn if n is odd and bn − 1yn 2 if n is even, is divergent. Why does the Alternating Series Test not apply?

(b) From Exercise 11.3.44 we have h n 2 ln n l 

36. Use the following steps to show that `

o

n−1

737

as n l `

and therefore

s21d n21 − ln 2 n

h 2n 2 lns2nd l 

Let h n and sn be the partial sums of the harmonic and alternating harmonic series. (a) Show that s2n − h 2n 2 h n.

as n l `

Use these facts together with part (a) to show that s2n l ln 2 as n l `.

Given any series o a n, we can consider the corresponding series `

o | an | − | a1 | 1 | a2 | 1 | a3 | 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ n−1 whose terms are the absolute values of the terms of the original series. We have convergence tests for series 1 Definition A series o a n is called absolutely convergent if the series of with positive terms and for alternating absolute values o a n is convergent. series. But what if the signs of the terms switch back and forth irregularly? We will see in Example 3 that the idea Notice that if o a n is a series with positive terms, then a n − a n and so absolute conof absolute convergence sometimes vergence is the same as convergence in this case. helps in such cases.

| |

| |

ExamplE 1 The series `

o n−1

s21dn21 1 1 1 −12 2 1 2 2 2 1∙∙∙ n2 2 3 4

is absolutely convergent because `

o

n−1

Z

Z

` s21dn21 1 1 1 1 − 1∙∙∙ o 2 2 − 1 1 2 1 2 1 n 2 3 42 n−1 n

is a convergent p-series (p − 2).

■

ExamplE 2 We know that the alternating harmonic series `

o n−1

s21dn21 1 1 1 −12 1 2 1∙∙∙ n 2 3 4

is convergent (see Example 11.5.1), but it is not absolutely convergent because the corresponding series of absolute values is `

o n−1

Z

Z

s21dn21 − n

`

1

o n−1 n

−11

1 1 1 1 1 1∙∙∙ 2 3 4

which is the harmonic series (p-series with p − 1) and is therefore divergent. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

■

738

CHAPTER 11

Infinite Sequences and Series

2 Definition A series o a n is called conditionally convergent if it is convergent but not absolutely convergent.

Example 2 shows that the alternating harmonic series is conditionally convergent. Thus it is possible for a series to be convergent but not absolutely convergent. However, the next theorem shows that absolute convergence implies convergence. 3 Theorem If a series o a n is absolutely convergent, then it is convergent.

PROOF Observe that the inequality

0 < an 1 | an | < 2 | an | is true because | a n | is either a n or 2a n. If o a n is absolutely convergent, then o | a n | is convergent, so o 2 | a n | is convergent. Therefore, by the Comparison Test, o (a n 1 | a n |) is convergent. Then

o a n − o (a n 1 | a n |) 2 o | a n | is the difference of two convergent series and is therefore convergent.

■

ExamplE 3 Determine whether the series `

o n−1

cos n cos 1 cos 2 cos 3 − 1 1 1 ∙∙∙ n2 12 22 32

is convergent or divergent. Figure 1 shows the graphs of the terms a n and partial sums sn of the series in Example 3. Notice that the series is not alternating but has positive and negative terms.

SOLUTION This series has both positive and negative terms, but it is not alternating. (The first term is positive, the next three are negative, and the following three are positive: the signs change irregularly.) We can apply the Comparison Test to the series of absolute values `

o n−1

0.5

sn 

cos n − n2

` | cos2 n | o n n−1

Since | cos n | < 1 for all n, we have

| cos n |
N

or, equivalently,

|a | , |a |r

4

n11

whenever n > N

n

Putting n successively equal to N, N 1 1, N 1 2, . . . in (4), we obtain

|a | , |a |r |a | , |a |r , |a |r |a | , |a |r , |a |r N11

N

N12

N11

N

N13

N12

N

2

3

and, in general,

|a | , |a |r

5

N1k

N

k

for all k > 1

Now the series `

o | aN | r k − | aN | r 1 | aN | r 2 1 | aN | r 3 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ k−1 is convergent because it is a geometric series with 0 , r , 1. So the inequality (5), together with the Comparison Test, shows that the series `

`

o | a n | − k−1 o | a N1k | − | a N11 | 1 | a N12 | 1 | a N13 | 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ n−N11 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

740

CHAPTER 11

Infinite Sequences and Series

is also convergent. It follows that the series o `n−1 | a n | is convergent. (Recall that a finite number of terms doesn’t affect convergence.) Therefore o a n is absolutely convergent. (ii) If | a n11ya n | l L . 1 or | a n11ya n | l `, then the ratio | a n11ya n | will eventually be greater than 1; that is, there exists an integer N such that

Z Z a n11 an

.1

whenever n > N

This means that | a n11 | . | a n | whenever n > N and so lim a n ± 0

nl`

Therefore o an diverges by the Test for Divergence.

■

NOTE Part (iii) of the Ratio Test says that if lim n l ` | a n11ya n | − 1, the test gives no information. For instance, for the convergent series o 1yn 2 we have

Z Z an11 an

1 sn 1 1d2 n2 − − − 1 sn 1 1d2 n2

1

S D 11

1 n

2

as n l `

l1

whereas for the divergent series o 1yn we have

Z Z a n11 an

The Ratio Test is usually conclusive if the nth term of the series contains an exponential or a factorial, as we will see in Examples 4 and 5.

1 n11 n 1 − − − l1 1 n11 1 11 n n

Therefore, if lim n l ` | a n11ya n | − 1, the series o a n might converge or it might diverge. In this case the Ratio Test fails and we must use some other test. `

ExamplE 4 Test the series Estimating Sums In the last three sections we used various methods for estimating the sum of a series—the method depended on which test was used to prove convergence. What about series for which the Ratio Test works? There are two possibilities: If the series happens to be an alternating series, as in Example 4, then it is best to use the methods of Section 11.5. If the terms are all positive, then use the special methods explained in Exercise 46.

as n l `

n3

o s21dn 3 n for absolute convergence. n−1

SOLUTION We use the Ratio Test with a n − s21dn n 3y3 n :

Z Z a n11 an

s21dn11sn 1 1d3 3 n11 sn 1 1d3 3 n − − ? 3 s21dn n 3 3 n11 n 3n

−

1 3

S D S D n11 n

3

−

1 3

11

1 n

3

l

1 ,1 3

Thus, by the Ratio Test, the given series is absolutely convergent.

■

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 11.6 Absolute Convergence and the Ratio and Root Tests `

o n−1

ExamplE 5 Test the convergence of the series

741

nn . n!

SOLUTION Since the terms a n − n nyn! are positive, we don’t need the absolute value

signs. a n11 sn 1 1dn11 n! sn 1 1dsn 1 1dn n! − ? n − ? n an sn 1 1d! n sn 1 1dn! n −

S D S D n11 n

n

1 n

− 11

n

le

as n l `

(see Equation 3.6.6). Since e . 1, the given series is divergent by the Ratio Test.

■

NOTE Although the Ratio Test works in Example 5, an easier method is to use the Test for Divergence. Since nn n?n?n? ∙∙∙ ?n an − − >n n! 1?2?3? ∙∙∙ ?n

it follows that a n does not approach 0 as n l `. Therefore the given series is divergent by the Test for Divergence. The following test is convenient to apply when nth powers occur. Its proof is similar to the proof of the Ratio Test and is left as Exercise 49. The Root Test n (i) If lim s | an | − L , 1, then the series nl `

`

o a n is absolutely convergent n−1

(and therefore convergent). n (ii) If lim s | a n | − L . 1 or lim sn | a n | − `, then the series nl`

nl`

`

o a n is n−1

divergent. n (iii) If lim s | a n | − 1, the Root Test is inconclusive. nl`

n If lim n l ` s | a n | − 1, then part (iii) of the Root Test says that the test gives no information. The series o a n could converge or diverge. (If L − 1 in the Ratio Test, don’t try the Root Test because L will again be 1. And if L − 1 in the Root Test, don’t try the Ratio Test because it will fail too.) `

ExamplE 6 Test the convergence of the series SOLUTION

an −

n s | an |

S

2n 1 3 3n 1 2

D

2n 1 3 − − 3n 1 2

o n−1

S

2n 1 3 3n 1 2

D

n

.

n

3 n 2 l ,1 3 2 31 n

21

Thus the given series is absolutely convergent (and therefore convergent) by the Root ■ Test. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

742

CHAPTER 11

Infinite Sequences and Series

Rearrangements The question of whether a given convergent series is absolutely convergent or conditionally convergent has a bearing on the question of whether infinite sums behave like finite sums. If we rearrange the order of the terms in a finite sum, then of course the value of the sum remains unchanged. But this is not always the case for an infinite series. By a rearrangement of an infinite series o a n we mean a series obtained by simply changing the order of the terms. For instance, a rearrangement of o a n could start as follows: a 1 1 a 2 1 a 5 1 a 3 1 a 4 1 a 15 1 a 6 1 a 7 1 a 20 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ It turns out that if o a n is an absolutely convergent series with sum s, then any rearrangement of o a n has the same sum s. However, any conditionally convergent series can be rearranged to give a different sum. To illustrate this fact let’s consider the alternating harmonic series 1 2 12 1 13 2 14 1 15 2 16 1 17 2 18 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ − ln 2

6

(See Exercise 11.5.36.) If we multiply this series by 12, we get 1 2

Adding these zeros does not affect the sum of the series; each term in the sequence of partial sums is repeated, but the limit is the same.

2 14 1 16 2 18 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ − 12 ln 2

Inserting zeros between the terms of this series, we have 0 1 12 1 0 2 14 1 0 1 16 1 0 2 18 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ − 12 ln 2

7

Now we add the series in Equations 6 and 7 using Theorem 11.2.8: 1 1 13 2 12 1 15 1 17 2 14 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ − 32 ln 2

8

Notice that the series in (8) contains the same terms as in (6) but rearranged so that one negative term occurs after each pair of positive terms. The sums of these series, however, are different. In fact, Riemann proved that if o a n is a conditionally convergent series and r is any real number whatsoever, then there is a rearrangement of o a n that has a sum equal to r. A proof of this fact is outlined in Exercise 52.

1. What can you say about the series o a n in each of the following cases? (a) lim

nl`

(c) lim

nl`

Z Z Z Z a n11 an

−8

a n11 an

−1

(b) lim

nl`

Z Z a n11 an

− 0.8

2–6 Determine whether the series is absolutely convergent or conditionally convergent. `

2.

o n−1

s21d n21 sn

`

3.

o n−0 5n 1 1

s21d n

`

4.

s21d n

o 3 n−1 n 1 1

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 11.6 Absolute Convergence and the Ratio and Root Tests `

5.

o n−1

s23dn

`

sin n 2n

6.

`

o n−0 s2n 1 1d!

o n11 n−1 n10

35.

o n−2

37.

o n−1

`

7–24 Use the Ratio Test to determine whether the series is convergent or divergent. `

`

n

7.

o n n−1 5

9.

o s21d n21 n−1

8.

`

`

11.

o

k−1 `

13.

o

n−1 `

15.

o

n−1

`

17.

o n−1 `

19.

o

3n 2nn3

o ke `

n−1 `

16.

cossny3d n!

18.

100

100 n!

o

14.

o

n−1 `

`

o

20.

n−1

s21d n e 1yn n3

o

n−1

38.

o n−2 n ln n

`

sinsny6d 1 1 n sn

`

s21dn

a n11 −

5n 1 1 an 4n 1 3

40. A series o a n is defined by the equations a1 − 1

n 10 s210d n11

a n11 −

2 1 cos n an sn

Determine whether o a n converges or diverges.

n!

41–42 Let hbnj be a sequence of positive numbers that converges to 12 . Determine whether the given series is absolutely convergent.

n2

2 n!

`

41.

2! 3! 4! 1 2 1 ∙∙∙ 1?3 1?3?5 1?3?5?7 n! 1 ∙∙∙ 1 s21d n21 1 ? 3 ? 5 ? ∙ ∙ ∙ ? s2n 2 1d

o n−1

s21d n n!

`

bnn cos n n

o n n−1 n b1 b 2 b 3 ∙ ∙ ∙ bn

42.

43. For which of the following series is the Ratio Test inconclusive (that is, it fails to give a definite answer)? `

23.

o n−1

Determine whether o a n converges or diverges.

n! 100 n

2 2?5 2?5?8 2 ? 5 ? 8 ? 11 22. 1 1 1 1 ∙∙∙ 3 3?5 3?5?7 3?5?7?9 `

36.

n

a1 − 2

o n n−1 n

n

o n11 n−1 10

2k

k−1

n n s23d n21

21. 1 2

`

n ln n

n 5 2n

34.

39. The terms of a series are defined recursively by the equations

o n−0 s2n 1 1d!

12.

10 n sn 1 1d4 2n11

n

s23d n

`

10.

n 2 n!

n

`

S D

`

1 k!

n−1

o s21dn11 n−1

2

s29d n

33.

`

1

(a)

o 3 n−1 n

(c)

o n−1

`

2 ? 4 ? 6 ? ∙ ∙ ∙ ? s2nd n!

s23d n21 sn

n

(b)

o n n−1 2

(d)

o 2 n−1 1 1 n

`

sn

2 n n! 24. o s21d 5 ? 8 ? 11 ? ∙ ∙ ∙ ? s3n 1 2d n−1

44. For which positive integers k is the following series convergent? ` sn!d2 o n−1 sknd!

25–30 Use the Root Test to determine whether the series is convergent or divergent.

45. (a) Show that o `n−0 x nyn! converges for all x. (b) Deduce that lim n l ` x nyn! − 0 for all x.

`

n

`

25.

o n−1

27.

o n−2

29.

o n−1

`

`

S

n2 1 1 2n 2 1 1

D

S D 1 n

`

s22d n nn

26.

o n−1

28.

o n−1

30.

o sarctan nd n n−0

`

s21d n21 sln nd n 11

n

n2

S D 22n n11

5n

`

31.

o

n−2

s21d n ln n

`

32.

o

n−1

S

12n 2 1 3n

46. Let o a n be a series with positive terms and let rn − a n11 ya n . Suppose that lim n l ` rn − L , 1, so o a n converges by the Ratio Test. As usual, we let Rn be the remainder after n terms, that is, Rn − a n11 1 a n12 1 a n13 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ (a) If hrn j is a decreasing sequence and rn11 , 1, show, by summing a geometric series, that

31–38 Use any test to determine whether the series is absolutely convergent, conditionally convergent, or divergent. `

743

D

Rn
1. Some preliminary algebraic manipulation may be required to bring the series into this form. 3. If the series has a form that is similar to a p-series or a geometric series, then one of the comparison tests should be considered. In particular, if a n is a rational function or an algebraic function of n (involving roots of polynomials), then the series should be compared with a p-series. Notice that most of the series in Exercises 11.4 have this form. (The value of p should be chosen as in Section 11.4 by keeping only the highest powers of n in the numerator and denominator.) The comparison tests apply only to series with positive terms, but if o a n has some negative terms, then we can apply the Comparison Test to o | a n | and test for absolute convergence. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 11.7 Strategy for Testing Series

745

4. I f you can see at a glance that lim n l ` a n ± 0, then the Test for Divergence should be used. 5. If the series is of the form o s21d n21 bn or o s21d n bn, then the Alternating Series Test is an obvious possibility. 6. S eries that involve factorials or other products (including a constant raised to the nth power) are often conveniently tested using the Ratio Test. Bear in mind that | a n11ya n | l 1 as n l ` for all p-series and therefore all rational or algebraic functions of n. Thus the Ratio Test should not be used for such series. 7. If a n is of the form sbn dn, then the Root Test may be useful. 8. If a n − f snd, where y1` f sxd dx is easily evaluated, then the Integral Test is effective (assuming the hypotheses of this test are satisfied). In the following examples we don’t work out all the details but simply indicate which tests should be used. `

ExamplE 1

n21

o n−1 2n 1 1

Since a n l 12 ± 0 as n l `, we should use the Test for Divergence. sn 3 1 1

`

ExamplE 2

■

o 3 2 n−1 3n 1 4n 1 2

Since a n is an algebraic function of n, we compare the given series with a p-series. The comparison series for the Limit Comparison Test is o bn, where bn − `

ExamplE 3

o ne2n n−1

n 3y2 1 sn 3 − − 3y2 3n 3 3n 3 3n

■

2

Since the integral y1` xe2x dx is easily evaluated, we use the Integral Test. The Ratio Test also works. 2

`

ExamplE 4

n3

o s21dn n 4 1 1 n−1

Since the series is alternating, we use the Alternating Series Test. `

ExamplE 5

o k−1

`

■

2k k!

Since the series involves k!, we use the Ratio Test.

ExamplE 6

■

■

1

o n n−1 2 1 3

Since the series is closely related to the geometric series o 1y3 n, we use the Comparison Test. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

■

746

Chapter 11

Infinite Sequences and Series

1–38 Test the series for convergence or divergence. `

1.

o

n−1

n2 2 1 3. o s21d 3 n 11 n−1 `

5.

o

n−1

n2 2 1 4. o s21d 2 n 11 n−1

21.

o s21d n coss1yn 2 d n−1

23.

o tans1ynd n−1

25.

o n n−1 e

27.

o 3 k−1 sk 1 1d

29.

o n−1 cosh n

31.

o k k k−1 3 1 4

n

`

n

e n2

6.

o k 2 e 2k

8.

n−1

`

`

o

n−1 `

13.

o

n−1 `

15.

o

S

1 1 1 n n3 3 n

3 n n! 2

`

o

n−1 `

18.

D

10.

3 kk

o

n−1 `

12.

o

k−1 `

2

k21

k−1

17.

o s21d n21

k−1

`

n s1 1 nd 3n

14.

o

n−1 `

k11

16.

o

n−1

`

n4 4n

`

s2n 1 1dn n 2n

`

k

2 k! sk 1 2d! sin 2n 1 1 2n

`

sn 1 1 n3 1 n 4

2

k ln k

35.

o 111yn n−1 n

37.

o ssn 2 n−1

`

1 ? 3 ? 5 ? ∙ ∙ ∙ ? s2n 2 1d 2 ? 5 ? 8 ? ∙ ∙ ∙ ? s3n 2 1d

S D

o n−1

o 3 2 n−1 n 1 2n 1 5

24.

o n sins1ynd n−1

26.

o n−1

28.

o n−1

30.

o s21d j j 1 5 j−1

32.

o n−1

34.

o 2 n−1 n 1 n cos n

36.

o ln n n−2 sln nd

38.

o ssn 2 n−1

n 11

o 3 n−1 n 1 1

n2

`

n2 1 1 5n

`

e 1yn n2 sj

2 1d

n

sn!d n n 4n

`

`

1

`

2

sn 2 2 1

22.

`

5k

n n11

k (sk 1 1)

`

s21d n

33.

3 k 21 s

`

n!

`

o k−1 `

`

2n

`

 2n 9. o s21d n s2nd! n−0 11.

o

n−1

sn

`

20.

`

`

`

7.

o

n−1

n

ln n

19.

2.

`

`

o s21d n n−1

n21 n3 1 1

`

n2 2 1 n3 1 1

`

1

1

2 1d

A power series is a series of the form `

1

trigonometric Series A power series is a series in which each term is a power function. A trigonometric series

where x is a variable and the cn’s are constants called the coefficients of the series. For each fixed x, the series (1) is a series of constants that we can test for convergence or divergence. A power series may converge for some values of x and diverge for other values of x. The sum of the series is a function f sxd − c0 1 c1 x 1 c2 x 2 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 cn x n 1 ∙ ∙ ∙

`

o

sa n cos nx 1 bn sin nxd

n−0

is a series whose terms are trigonometric functions. This type of series is discussed on the website www.stewartcalculus.com Click on Additional Topics and then on Fourier Series.

o cn x n − c0 1 c1 x 1 c2 x 2 1 c3 x 3 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ n−0

whose domain is the set of all x for which the series converges. Notice that f resembles a polynomial. The only difference is that f has infinitely many terms. For instance, if we take cn − 1 for all n, the power series becomes the geometric series `

2

o xn − 1 1 x 1 x2 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 xn 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ n−0

which converges when 21 , x , 1 and diverges when | x | > 1. (See Equation 11.2.5.) Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SeCtion 11.8 Power Series

747

In fact if we put x − 12 in the geometric series (2) we get the convergent series `

o n−0

SD 1 2

n

−11

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ∙∙∙ 2 4 8 16

but if we put x − 2 in (2) we get the divergent series `

o 2 n − 1 1 2 1 4 1 8 1 16 1 ∙ ∙ ∙

n−0

More generally, a series of the form `

o cnsx 2 adn − c0 1 c1sx 2 ad 1 c2sx 2 ad2 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ n−0

3

is called a power series in sx 2 ad or a power series centered at a or a power series about a. Notice that in writing out the term corresponding to n − 0 in Equations 1 and 3 we have adopted the convention that sx 2 ad0 − 1 even when x − a. Notice also that when x − a, all of the terms are 0 for n > 1 and so the power series (3) always converges when x − a. `

EXAMPLE 1 For what values of x is the series

o n!x n convergent? n−0

SoLUtion We use the Ratio Test. If we let a n, as usual, denote the nth term of the series, then a n − n! x n. If x ± 0, we have Notice that sn 1 1d! − sn 1 1dnsn 2 1d ? . . . ? 3 ? 2 ? 1 − sn 1 1dn!

lim

nl`

Z Z a n11 an

− lim

nl`

Z

sn 1 1d! x n11 n! x n

Z

− lim sn 1 1d | x | − ` nl`

By the Ratio Test, the series diverges when x ± 0. Thus the given series converges only when x − 0. ■ `

EXAMPLE 2 For what values of x does the series

o n−1

sx 2 3dn converge? n

SoLUtion Let a n − sx 2 3dnyn. Then

Z Z Z a n11 an

−

−

sx 2 3d n11 n ? n11 sx 2 3d n 1

1 11 n

|x 2 3|

Z

l |x 2 3|

as n l `

By the Ratio Test, the given series is absolutely convergent, and therefore convergent, when | x 2 3 | , 1 and divergent when | x 2 3 | . 1. Now

|x 2 3| , 1

&? 21 , x 2 3 , 1 &? 2 , x , 4

so the series converges when 2 , x , 4 and diverges when x , 2 or x . 4. The Ratio Test gives no information when | x 2 3 | − 1 so we must consider x − 2 and x − 4 separately. If we put x − 4 in the series, it becomes o 1yn, the harmonic series, which is divergent. If x − 2, the series is o s21d nyn, which converges by the ■ Alternating Series Test. Thus the given power series converges for 2 < x , 4. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

748

Chapter 11

Infinite Sequences and Series

Membrane courtesy of National Film Board of Canada

We will see that the main use of a power series is that it provides a way to represent some of the most important functions that arise in mathematics, physics, and chemistry. In particular, the sum of the power series in the next example is called a Bessel function, after the German astronomer Friedrich Bessel (1784–1846), and the function given in Exercise 35 is another example of a Bessel function. In fact, these functions first arose when Bessel solved Kepler’s equation for describing planetary motion. Since that time, these functions have been applied in many different physical situations, including the temperature distribution in a circular plate and the shape of a vibrating drumhead.

EXAMPLE 3 Find the domain of the Bessel function of order 0 defined by `

J0 sxd −

o

n−0

s21d n x 2n 2 2nsn!d2

SoLUtion Let a n − s21d n x 2nyf2 2nsn!d2 g. Then

Notice how closely the computergenerated model (which involves Bessel functions and cosine functions) matches the photograph of a vibrating rubber membrane.

Z Z Z a n11 an

−

−

−

2

s21d n11x 2sn11d 2 2nsn!d2 ? 2 2sn11dfsn 1 1d!g 2 s21d nx 2n

2n12

Z

x 2n12 2 2nsn!d2 2 2 ? sn 1 1d sn!d x 2n

x2 l 0,1 4sn 1 1d2

for all x

Thus, by the Ratio Test, the given series converges for all values of x. In other words, the domain of the Bessel function J0 is s2`, `d − R. ■ Recall that the sum of a series is equal to the limit of the sequence of partial sums. So when we define the Bessel function in Example 3 as the sum of a series we mean that, for every real number x, n

J0sxd − lim snsxd

where

nl`

snsxd −

o i−0

s21dix 2i 2 2i si!d2

The first few partial sums are s0sxd − 1 s1sxd − 1 2

x2 4

s2sxd − 1 2

x2 x4 1 4 64

s3sxd − 1 2

x2 x4 x6 1 2 4 64 2304

s4sxd − 1 2

x2 x4 x6 x8 1 2 1 4 64 2304 147,456

y

s™ s¸

1

s¢ 0

x

1

s¡ s£

J¸

FIGURE 1 Partial sums of the Bessel function J0

Figure 1 shows the graphs of these partial sums, which are polynomials. They are all approximations to the function J0 , but notice that the approximations become better when more terms are included. Figure 2 shows a more complete graph of the Bessel function.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SeCtion 11.8 Power Series

For the power series that we have looked at so far, the set of values of x for which the series is convergent has always turned out to be an interval [a finite interval for the geometric series and the series in Example 2, the infinite interval s2`, `d in Example 3, and a collapsed interval f0, 0g − h0j in Example 1]. The following theorem, proved in Appendix F, says that this is true in general.

y 1

y=J¸(x)

_10

749

10 0

x

`

4 Theorem For a given power series o cnsx 2 ad n, there are only three n−0 possibilities: (i) The series converges only when x − a.

FIGURE 2

(ii) The series converges for all x. (iii) There is a positive number R such that the series converges if | x 2 a | , R and diverges if | x 2 a | . R. The number R in case (iii) is called the radius of convergence of the power series. By convention, the radius of convergence is R − 0 in case (i) and R − ` in case (ii). The interval of convergence of a power series is the interval that consists of all values of x for which the series converges. In case (i) the interval consists of just a single point a. In case (ii) the interval is s2`, `d. In case (iii) note that the inequality | x 2 a | , R can be rewritten as a 2 R , x , a 1 R. When x is an endpoint of the interval, that is, x − a 6 R, anything can happen—the series might converge at one or both endpoints or it might diverge at both endpoints. Thus in case (iii) there are four possibilities for the interval of convergence: sa 2 R, a 1 Rd

sa 2 R, a 1 Rg

fa 2 R, a 1 Rd

fa 2 R, a 1 Rg

The situation is illustrated in Figure 3. convergence for |x-a|R

FIGURE 3

We summarize here the radius and interval of convergence for each of the examples already considered in this section. Series

Radius of convergence

Interval of convergence

R−1

s21, 1d

R−0

h0j

sx 2 3dn n

R−1

f2, 4d

s21dn x 2n 2 2nsn!d2

R−`

s2`, `d

`

Geometric series

o xn n−0

Example 1

o n! x n n−0

Example 2

o n−1

Example 3

o n−0

`

`

`

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

750

Chapter 11

Infinite Sequences and Series

In general, the Ratio Test (or sometimes the Root Test) should be used to determine the radius of convergence R. The Ratio and Root Tests always fail when x is an endpoint of the interval of convergence, so the endpoints must be checked with some other test.

EXAMPLE 4 Find the radius of convergence and interval of convergence of the series `

o

n−0

s23d n x n sn 1 1

SoLUtion Let a n − s23d n x nysn 1 1. Then

Z Z Z a n11 an

s23d n11x n11 sn 1 1 ? s23d nx n sn 1 2

−

Î

−3

Z Z Î −

23x

1 1 s1ynd x l 3|x| 1 1 s2ynd | |

n11 n12

Z

as n l `

By the Ratio Test, the given series converges if 3 | x | , 1 and diverges if 3 | x | . 1. Thus it converges if | x | , 13 and diverges if | x | . 13. This means that the radius of convergence is R − 13 . We know the series converges in the interval s2 31 , 13 d, but we must now test for convergence at the endpoints of this interval. If x − 2 31, the series becomes `

o n−0

n

s23dn (213) − sn 1 1

`

1

o n−0 sn 1 1

−

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1∙∙∙ s1 s2 s3 s4

which diverges. (Use the Integral Test or simply observe that it is a p-series with p − 12 , 1.) If x − 13, the series is `

o n−0

n

s23dn ( 13) − sn 1 1

`

s21dn

o n−0 sn 1 1

which converges by the Alternating Series Test. Therefore the given power series converges when 213 , x < 13, so the interval of convergence is s213 , 13 g. ■

EXAMPLE 5 Find the radius of convergence and interval of convergence of the series `

o n−0

nsx 1 2d n 3 n11

SoLUtion If a n − nsx 1 2d ny3 n11, then

Z Z Z S D| a n11 an

−

sn 1 1dsx 1 2d n11 3 n11 ? n12 3 nsx 1 2d n

− 11

1 n

x 1 2| x 1 2| l| 3 3

Z as n l `

Using the Ratio Test, we see that the series converges if | x 1 2 | y3 , 1 and it diverges if | x 1 2 | y3 . 1. So it converges if | x 1 2 | , 3 and diverges if | x 1 2 | . 3. Thus the radius of convergence is R − 3. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SeCtion 11.8 Power Series

751

The inequality | x 1 2 | , 3 can be written as 25 , x , 1, so we test the series at the endpoints 25 and 1. When x − 25, the series is `

o n−0

` ns23d n − 13 o s21d n n n11 3 n−0

which diverges by the Test for Divergence [s21d n n doesn’t converge to 0]. When x − 1, the series is `

o n−0

` ns3d n 1 − n o 3 3 n11 n−0

which also diverges by the Test for Divergence. Thus the series converges only when 25 , x , 1, so the interval of convergence is s25, 1d. ■

`

1. What is a power series? 2. (a) What is the radius of convergence of a power series? How do you find it? (b) What is the interval of convergence of a power series? How do you find it? 3–28 Find the radius of convergence and interval of convergence of the series. `

3.

`

o s21d n nx n

4.

n−1 `

5.

o n−0 `

9.

`

xn

o n−1 2n 2 1 `

7.

o

n−1

o

n−1

6.

o n−0 `

xn n!

8.

o n−1

n n

s21d x 3 s n

s21d n x n n11 10 n x n n3

10.

o n sx 2 ad n, n−1 b

22.

sx 2 ad n, o n−2 ln n

23.

o n!s2x 2 1d n n−1

25.

o n−1

27.

o n−1 1 ? 3 ? 5 ? ∙ ∙ ∙ ? s2n 2 1d

28.

o n−1 1 ? 3 ? 5 ? ∙ ∙ ∙ ? s2n 2 1d

`

`

o n−1

`

o 2n n2 x n

`

13.

n

xn o n 2 n−1 2 sn 1 1d `

15.

sn

`

xn

o n−0 `

17.

o n−2

19.

o n−1

`

sx 2 2d n2 1 1

3nsx 1 4dn

o n−1 `

14.

o n−1 `

n

sx 1 2d n 2 n ln n

sn

12.

16.

x 2n n!

sn sx 1 6d n 8n

18.

o n−1

20.

o s21dn s2n 1 1d! n−0

`

o n−1 2 ? 4 ? 6 ? ∙ ∙ ∙ ? s2nd

26.

o 2 n−2 nsln nd

`

s5x 2 4d n n3 xn

`

n! x n

o cn s22d n n−0

x 2n

`

(b)

x 2n11

o cn s24d n n−0

30. Suppose that o `n−0 cn x n converges when x − 24 and diverges when x − 6. What can be said about the convergence or divergence of the following series? `

n

n o n sx 2 1d n−1 s2n 2 1d2 `

n2xn

24.

`

s21d n21 n x n 5n

s21d

b.0 `

`

n−1

s21d n 4 n

bn

`

(a) 11.

b.0

29. If o `n−0 cn 4 n is convergent, can we conclude that each of the following series is convergent?

`

xn n4 4 n

n

21.

(a)

o cn n−0

(c)

o cns23d n n−0

`

(b)

o cn 8 n n−0

(d)

o s21d ncn 9 n n−0

`

`

31. If k is a positive integer, find the radius of convergence of the series ` sn!d k n x o n−0 sknd!

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

752

Chapter 11

Infinite Sequences and Series

32. Let p and q be real numbers with p , q. Find a power series whose interval of convergence is (a) s p, qd (b) s p, qg (c) f p, qd (d) f p, qg 33. Is it possible to find a power series whose interval of convergence is f0, `d? Explain. ; 34. Graph the first several partial sums snsxd of the series o `n−0 x n, together with the sum function f sxd − 1ys1 2 xd, on a common screen. On what interval do these partial sums appear to be converging to f sxd? 35. The function J1 defined by `

J1sxd −

o

n−0

; CAS

(c) If your CAS has built-in Airy functions, graph A on the same screen as the partial sums in part (b) and observe how the partial sums approximate A. 37. A function f is defined by f sxd − 1 1 2x 1 x 2 1 2x 3 1 x 4 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ that is, its coefficients are c2n − 1 and c2n11 − 2 for all n > 0. Find the interval of convergence of the series and find an explicit formula for f sxd. ` 38. If f sxd − o n−0 cn x n, where cn14 − cn for all n > 0, find the interval of convergence of the series and a formula for f sxd.

s21d n x 2n11 n!sn 1 1d! 2 2n11

is called the Bessel function of order 1. (a) Find its domain. (b) Graph the first several partial sums on a common screen. (c) If your CAS has built-in Bessel functions, graph J1 on the same screen as the partial sums in part (b) and observe how the partial sums approximate J1. 36. The function A defined by x3 x6 x9 1 1 1∙∙∙ Asxd − 1 1 2∙3 2∙3∙5∙6 2∙3∙5∙6∙8∙9

;

CAS

is called an Airy function after the English mathematician and astronomer Sir George Airy (1801–1892). (a) Find the domain of the Airy function. (b) Graph the first several partial sums on a common screen.

n 39. Show that if lim n l ` s cn − c, where c ± 0, then the radius of convergence of the power series o cn x n is R − 1yc.

| |

40. Suppose that the power series o cn s x 2 ad n satisfies c n ± 0 for all n. Show that if lim n l ` cn ycn11 exists, then it is equal to the radius of convergence of the power series.

|

|

41. Suppose the series o cn x n has radius of convergence 2 and the series o dn x n has radius of convergence 3. What is the radius of convergence of the series o scn 1 dndx n? 42. Suppose that the radius of convergence of the power series o cn x n is R. What is the radius of convergence of the power series o cn x 2n?

In this section we learn how to represent certain types of functions as sums of power series by manipulating geometric series or by differentiating or integrating such a series. You might wonder why we would ever want to express a known function as a sum of infinitely many terms. We will see later that this strategy is useful for integrating functions that don’t have elementary antiderivatives, for solving differential equations, and for approximating functions by polynomials. (Scientists do this to simplify the expressions they deal with; computer scientists do this to represent functions on calculators and computers.) We start with an equation that we have seen before:

1

1 − 1 1 x 1 x2 1 x3 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ − 12x

`

o xn

n−0

|x| , 1

We first encountered this equation in Example 11.2.7, where we obtained it by observing that the series is a geometric series with a − 1 and r − x. But here our point of view is different. We now regard Equation 1 as expressing the function f sxd − 1ys1 2 xd as a sum of a power series. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SeCtion 11.9

Representations of Functions as Power Series

A geometric illustration of Equation 1 is shown in Figure 1. Because the sum of a series is the limit of the sequence of partial sums, we have 1 − lim snsxd nl` 12x where 2

snsxd − 1 1 x 1 x 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 x

753

s¡¡

y

sˆ s∞ f

s™

n

is the nth partial sum. Notice that as n increases, snsxd becomes a better approximation to f sxd for 21 , x , 1.

0

_1

FIGURE 1 f sxd −

x

1

1 and some partial sums 12x

EXAMPLE 1 Express 1ys1 1 x 2 d as the sum of a power series and find the interval of convergence. SoLUtion Replacing x by 2x 2 in Equation 1, we have

1 1 − 2 − 11x 1 2 s2x 2 d

`

o s2x 2 d n

n−0

`

−

o s21d n x 2n − 1 2 x 2 1 x 4 2 x 6 1 x 8 2 ∙ ∙ ∙ n−0

Because this is a geometric series, it converges when | 2x 2 | , 1, that is, x 2 , 1, or | x | , 1. Therefore the interval of convergence is s21, 1d. (Of course, we could have determined the radius of convergence by applying the Ratio Test, but that much work is unnecessary here.) ■

EXAMPLE 2 Find a power series representation for 1ysx 1 2d. SoLUtion In order to put this function in the form of the left side of Equation 1, we first factor a 2 from the denominator:

1 − 21x

−

1

1

−

S D F S DG oS D o

x 2 11 2 1 2

`

2

n−0

2 12 2

x 2

n

`

−

n−0

x 2

s21d n n x 2 n11

This series converges when | 2xy2 | , 1, that is, | x | , 2. So the interval of convergence is s22, 2d. ■

EXAMPLE 3 Find a power series representation of x 3ysx 1 2d. SoLUtion Since this function is just x 3 times the function in Example 2, all we have to

do is to multiply that series by x 3: It’s legitimate to move x 3 across the sigma sign because it doesn’t depend on n. [Use Theorem 11.2.8(i) with c − x 3.]

` x3 1 s21d n − x3 ? − x 3 o n11 x n − x12 x12 n−0 2

`

o n−0

s21d n n13 x 2 n11

1 6 − 12 x 3 2 14 x 4 1 18 x 5 2 16 x 1∙∙∙

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

754

Chapter 11

Infinite Sequences and Series

Another way of writing this series is as follows: x3 − x12

`

o n−3

s21d n21 n x 2 n22

As in Example 2, the interval of convergence is s22, 2d.

■

Differentiation and integration of power Series The sum of a power series is a function f sxd − o `n−0 cnsx 2 ad n whose domain is the interval of convergence of the series. We would like to be able to differentiate and integrate such functions, and the following theorem (which we won’t prove) says that we can do so by differentiating or integrating each individual term in the series, just as we would for a polynomial. This is called term-by-term differentiation and integration. 2 Theorem If the power series o cnsx 2 ad n has radius of convergence R . 0, then the function f defined by `

f sxd − c0 1 c1sx 2 ad 1 c2sx 2 ad2 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ −

o cnsx 2 ad n n−0

is differentiable (and therefore continuous) on the interval sa 2 R, a 1 Rd and `

(i) f 9sxd − c1 1 2c2sx 2 ad 1 3c3sx 2 ad2 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ −

o ncnsx 2 ad n21

n−1

In part (ii), y c0 dx − c0 x 1 C1 is written as c0sx 2 ad 1 C, where C − C1 1 ac0, so all the terms of the series have the same form.

(ii)

y f sxd dx − C 1 c sx 2 ad 1 c 0

1

`

−C1

o

cn

n−0

sx 2 ad2 sx 2 ad3 1 c2 1∙∙∙ 2 3

sx 2 ad n11 n11

The radii of convergence of the power series in Equations (i) and (ii) are both R.

NOTE 1 Equations (i) and (ii) in Theorem 2 can be rewritten in the form

(iii)

Fo y Fo d dx

`

n−0

`

(iv)

G G

cnsx 2 ad n −

cnsx 2 ad n dx −

n−0

`

d

o n−0 dx

fcnsx 2 ad n g

`

o y cnsx 2 ad n dx

n−0

We know that, for finite sums, the derivative of a sum is the sum of the derivatives and the integral of a sum is the sum of the integrals. Equations (iii) and (iv) assert that the same is true for infinite sums, provided we are dealing with power series. (For other types of series of functions the situation is not as simple; see Exercise 38.) NOTE 2 Although Theorem 2 says that the radius of convergence remains the same when a power series is differentiated or integrated, this does not mean that the interval of convergence remains the same. It may happen that the original series converges at an endpoint, whereas the differentiated series diverges there. (See Exercise 39.) Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SeCtion 11.9

Representations of Functions as Power Series

755

NOTE 3 The idea of differentiating a power series term by term is the basis for a powerful method for solving differential equations. We will discuss this method in Chapter 17.

EXAMPLE 4 In Example 11.8.3 we saw that the Bessel function `

J0sxd −

o n−0

s21d n x 2n 2 2nsn!d2

is defined for all x. Thus, by Theorem 2, J0 is differentiable for all x and its derivative is found by term-by-term differentiation as follows: `

d s21d n x 2n − 2 2nsn!d2

o n−0 dx

J09sxd −

`

o n−1

s21d n 2nx 2n21 2 2nsn!d2

■

EXAMPLE 5 Express 1ys1 2 xd2 as a power series by differentiating Equation 1. What is the radius of convergence? SoLUtion Differentiating each side of the equation

1 − 1 1 x 1 x2 1 x3 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ − 12x we get

1 − 1 1 2x 1 3x 2 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ − s1 2 xd2

`

o xn n−0

`

o nx n21 n−1

If we wish, we can replace n by n 1 1 and write the answer as 1 − s1 2 xd2

`

o sn 1 1dx n n−0

According to Theorem 2, the radius of convergence of the differentiated series is the same as the radius of convergence of the original series, namely, R − 1. ■

EXAMPLE 6 Find a power series representation for lns1 1 xd and its radius of convergence. SoLUtion We notice that the derivative of this function is 1ys1 1 xd. From Equation 1

we have 1 1 − − 1 2 x 1 x2 2 x3 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ . 11x 1 2 s2xd

|x| , 1

Integrating both sides of this equation, we get lns1 1 xd − y

1 dx − y s1 2 x 1 x 2 2 x 3 1 ∙ ∙ ∙d dx 11x

−x2 `

−

x2 x3 x4 1 2 1∙∙∙1C 2 3 4

o s21d n21 n−1

xn 1C n

|x| , 1

To determine the value of C we put x − 0 in this equation and obtain lns1 1 0d − C. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

756

Chapter 11

Infinite Sequences and Series

Thus C − 0 and x2 x3 x4 1 2 1∙∙∙− 2 3 4

lns1 1 xd − x 2

`

o s21d n21 n−1

xn n

|x| , 1

The radius of convergence is the same as for the original series: R − 1.

■

EXAMPLE 7 Find a power series representation for f sxd − tan21x. SoLUtion We observe that f 9sxd − 1ys1 1 x 2 d and find the required series by inte-

grating the power series for 1ys1 1 x 2 d found in Example 1. tan21x − y The power series for tan21x obtained in Example 7 is called Gregory’s series after the Scottish mathematician James Gregory (1638–1675), who had anticipated some of Newton’s discoveries. We have shown that Gregory’s series is valid when 21 , x , 1, but it turns out (although it isn’t easy to prove) that it is also valid when x − 61. Notice that when x − 1 the series becomes

1 dx − y s1 2 x 2 1 x 4 2 x 6 1 ∙ ∙ ∙d dx 1 1 x2

−C1x2

To find C we put x − 0 and obtain C − tan21 0 − 0. Therefore tan21x − x 2

x3 x5 x7 1 2 1∙∙∙ 3 5 7

`

−

 1 1 1 − 1 2 1 2 1 ∙∙∙ 4 3 5 7 This beautiful result is known as the Leibniz formula for .

x3 x5 x7 1 2 1∙∙∙ 3 5 7

x 2n11

o s21d n 2n 1 1 n−0

Since the radius of convergence of the series for 1ys1 1 x 2 d is 1, the radius of convergence of this series for tan21x is also 1. ■

EXAMPLE 8 (a) Evaluate y f1ys1 1 x 7 dg dx as a power series. 0.5 (b) Use part (a) to approximate y0 f1ys1 1 x 7 d g dx correct to within 1027. SoLUtion

(a) The first step is to express the integrand, 1ys1 1 x 7 d, as the sum of a power series. As in Example 1, we start with Equation 1 and replace x by 2x 7: 1 1 − 7 − 11x 1 2 s2x 7 d

`

o s2x 7 d n

n−0

`

This example demonstrates one way in which power series representations are useful. Integrating 1ys1 1 x 7 d by hand is incredibly difficult. Different computer algebra systems return different forms of the answer, but they are all extremely complicated. (If you have a CAS, try it yourself.) The infinite series answer that we obtain in Example 8(a) is actually much easier to deal with than the finite answer provided by a CAS.

−

o s21d n x 7n − 1 2 x 7 1 x 14 2 ∙ ∙ ∙ n−0

Now we integrate term by term:

y

1 dx − y 1 1 x7

`

`

x 7n11

o s21d n x 7n dx − C 1 n−0 o s21d n 7n 1 1 n−0

−C1x2

x8 x 15 x 22 1 2 1 ∙∙∙ 8 15 22

This series converges for | 2x 7 | , 1, that is, for | x | , 1.

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SeCtion 11.9

757

Representations of Functions as Power Series

(b) In applying the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, it doesn’t matter which antiderivative we use, so let’s use the antiderivative from part (a) with C − 0:

y

0.5

0

F

G

1 x8 x 15 x 22 dx − x 2 1 2 1∙∙∙ 7 11x 8 15 22 −

1y2

0

1 1 1 1 s21d n 2 1 2 1∙ ∙ ∙1 1∙ ∙ ∙ 8 15 22 2 8∙2 15 ∙ 2 22 ∙ 2 s7n 1 1d2 7n11

This infinite series is the exact value of the definite integral, but since it is an alternating series, we can approximate the sum using the Alternating Series Estimation Theorem. If we stop adding after the term with n − 3, the error is smaller than the term with n − 4: 1 < 6.4 3 10211 29 ∙ 2 29 So we have

y

0.5

0

1 1 1 1 1 2 < 0.49951374 7 dx < 8 1 15 2 11x 2 8?2 15 ? 2 22 ? 2 22

1. If the radius of convergence of the power series o `n−0 cn x n is 10, what is the radius of convergence of the series o `n−1 ncn x n21? Why? 2. Suppose you know that the series o `n−0 bn x n converges for x , 2. What can you say about the following series? Why?

| |

`

13. (a) Use differentiation to find a power series representation for f sxd −

3. f sxd −

1 x 1 10

bn

2 5. f sxd − 32x 7. f sxd −

x2 x 1 16 4

x21 9. f sxd − x12

4. f sxd −

f sxd −

5 1 2 4x 2

4 6. f sxd − 2x 1 3 8. f sxd −

x 2x 2 1 1

x1a 10. f sxd − 2 , a.0 x 1 a2

11–12 Express the function as the sum of a power series by first using partial fractions. Find the interval of convergence. 11. f sxd −

2x 2 4 x 2 4x 1 3 2

12. f sxd −

2x 1 3 x 1 3x 1 2 2

1 s1 1 xd2

What is the radius of convergence? (b) Use part (a) to find a power series for

x n11 o n−0 n 1 1 3–10 Find a power series representation for the function and determine the interval of convergence.

■

1 s1 1 xd3

(c) Use part (b) to find a power series for f sxd −

x2 s1 1 xd3

14. (a) Use Equation 1 to find a power series representation for f sxd − lns1 2 xd. What is the radius of convergence? (b) Use part (a) to find a power series for f sxd − x lns1 2 xd. (c) By putting x − 12 in your result from part (a), express ln 2 as the sum of an infinite series. 15–20 Find a power series representation for the function and determine the radius of convergence. 15. f sxd − lns5 2 xd

16. f sxd − x 2 tan21 sx 3 d

17. f sxd −

x s1 1 4xd 2

18. f sxd −

S D

19. f sxd −

x3 sx 2 2d 2

20. f sxd −

x2 1 x s1 2 xd 3

x 22x

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3

758

Chapter 11

Infinite Sequences and Series

; 21–24 Find a power series representation for f , and graph f and several partial sums snsxd on the same screen. What happens as n increases? 21. f sxd −

x2 x 11

S D 11x 12x

24. f sxd −

x x 1 16 2

25–28 Evaluate the indefinite integral as a power series. What is the radius of convergence? 25.

y

27.

y

`

f sxd −

22. f sxd − lns1 1 x 4 d

2

23. f sxd − ln

37. (a) Show that the function

t dt 1 2 t8

26.

2

x lns1 1 xd dx

28.

y

t dt 1 1 t3

y

tan21 x dx x

o n−0

xn n!

is a solution of the differential equation f 9sxd − f sxd (b) Show that f sxd − e x. 38. Let fn sxd − ssin nxdyn 2. Show that the series o fnsxd converges for all values of x but the series of derivatives o fn9sxd diverges when x − 2n, n an integer. For what values of x does the series o f n0sxd converge? 39. Let

`

f sxd −

o n−1

xn n2

Find the intervals of convergence for f , f 9, and f 0. 29–32 Use a power series to approximate the definite integral to six decimal places. 29.

y

0.3

y

0.2

0

31.

0

x dx 1 1 x3

30.

x lns1 1 x 2 d dx

32.

y

1y2

y

0.4

0

0

40. (a) Starting with the geometric series o `n−0 x n, find the sum of the series

arctansxy2d dx lns1 1 x 4d dx

`

|x| , 1

o n x n21 n−1

(b) Find the sum of each of the following series. `

(i) 33. Use the result of Example 7 to compute arctan 0.2 correct to five decimal places.

`

o n x n, | x | , 1 n−1

(ii)

n

o n n−1 2

(c) Find the sum of each of the following series. `

34. Show that the function `

f sxd −

o n−0

s21d n x 2n s2nd!

is a solution of the differential equation f 0sxd 1 f sxd − 0

(i)

o nsn 2 1dx n, | x | , 1 n−2

(ii)

o n−2

`

`

n2 2 n 2n

(iii)

n2

o n n−1 2

41. Use the power series for tan 21 x to prove the following expression for  as the sum of an infinite series:

35. (a) Show that J0 (the Bessel function of order 0 given in Example 4) satisfies the differential equation

`

 − 2s3

s21d n

o n n−0 s2n 1 1d 3

x 2 J00sxd 1 x J09sxd 1 x 2 J0 sxd − 0 (b) Evaluate y01 J0 sxd dx correct to three decimal places.

42. (a) By completing the square, show that

y

36. The Bessel function of order 1 is defined by `

J1sxd −

s21d n x 2n11

o 2n11 n−0 n! sn 1 1d! 2

(a) Show that J1 satisfies the differential equation

dx  − x2 2 x 1 1 3 s3

(b) By factoring x 3 1 1 as a sum of cubes, rewrite the integral in part (a). Then express 1ysx 3 1 1d as the sum of a power series and use it to prove the following formula for :

x 2J10sxd 1 x J19sxd 1 sx 2 2 1dJ1sxd − 0 − (b) Show that J09sxd − 2J1sxd.

1y2

0

3s3 4

`

o n−0

s21d n 8n

S

2 1 1 3n 1 1 3n 1 2

D

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SeCtion 11.10 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

759

In the preceding section we were able to find power series representations for a certain restricted class of functions. Here we investigate more general problems: Which functions have power series representations? How can we find such representations? We start by supposing that f is any function that can be represented by a power series 1

f sxd − c0 1 c1sx 2 ad 1 c2sx 2 ad2 1 c3sx 2 ad3 1 c4sx 2 ad4 1 ∙ ∙ ∙

|x 2 a| , R

Let’s try to determine what the coefficients cn must be in terms of f. To begin, notice that if we put x − a in Equation 1, then all terms after the first one are 0 and we get f sad − c0 By Theorem 11.9.2, we can differentiate the series in Equation 1 term by term: 2

f 9sxd − c1 1 2c2sx 2 ad 1 3c3sx 2 ad2 1 4c4sx 2 ad3 1 ∙ ∙ ∙

|x 2 a| , R

and substitution of x − a in Equation 2 gives f 9sad − c1 Now we differentiate both sides of Equation 2 and obtain 3

f 0sxd − 2c2 1 2 ? 3c3sx 2 ad 1 3 ? 4c4sx 2 ad2 1 ∙ ∙ ∙

|x 2 a| , R

Again we put x − a in Equation 3. The result is f 0sad − 2c2 Let’s apply the procedure one more time. Differentiation of the series in Equation 3 gives 4

f -sxd − 2 ? 3c3 1 2 ? 3 ? 4c4sx 2 ad 1 3 ? 4 ? 5c5sx 2 ad2 1 ∙ ∙ ∙

|x 2 a| , R

and substitution of x − a in Equation 4 gives f -sad − 2 ? 3c3 − 3!c3 By now you can see the pattern. If we continue to differentiate and substitute x − a, we obtain f sndsad − 2 ? 3 ? 4 ? ∙ ∙ ∙ ? ncn − n!cn Solving this equation for the nth coefficient cn , we get cn −

f sndsad n!

This formula remains valid even for n − 0 if we adopt the conventions that 0! − 1 and f s0d − f. Thus we have proved the following theorem. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

760

Chapter 11

Infinite Sequences and Series

5 Theorem If f has a power series representation (expansion) at a, that is, if `

f sxd −

|x 2 a| , R

o cnsx 2 adn n−0

then its coefficients are given by the formula cn −

f sndsad n!

Substituting this formula for cn back into the series, we see that if f has a power series expansion at a, then it must be of the following form. `

6

f sxd −

o n−0

f sndsad sx 2 adn n!

− f sad 1

Taylor and Maclaurin The Taylor series is named after the English mathematician Brook Taylor (1685–1731) and the Maclaurin series is named in honor of the Scottish mathematician Colin Maclaurin (1698–1746) despite the fact that the Maclaurin series is really just a special case of the Taylor series. But the idea of representing particular functions as sums of power series goes back to Newton, and the general Taylor series was known to the Scottish mathematician James Gregory in 1668 and to the Swiss mathematician John Bernoulli in the 1690s. Taylor was apparently unaware of the work of Gregory and Bernoulli when he published his discoveries on series in 1715 in his book Methodus incrementorum directa et inversa. Maclaurin series are named after Colin Maclaurin because he popularized them in his calculus textbook Treatise of Fluxions published in 1742.

f 9sad f 0sad f -sad sx 2 ad 1 sx 2 ad2 1 sx 2 ad3 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1! 2! 3!

The series in Equation 6 is called the Taylor series of the function f at a (or about a or centered at a). For the special case a − 0 the Taylor series becomes `

7

f sxd −

o n−0

f snds0d n f 9s0d f 0s0d 2 x − f s0d 1 x1 x 1∙∙∙ n! 1! 2!

This case arises frequently enough that it is given the special name Maclaurin series. NOTE We have shown that if f can be represented as a power series about a, then f is equal to the sum of its Taylor series. But there exist functions that are not equal to the sum of their Taylor series. An example of such a function is given in Exercise 84.

EXAMPLE 1 Find the Maclaurin series of the function f sxd − e x and its radius of convergence. SoLUtion If f sxd − e x, then f sndsxd − e x, so f snds0d − e 0 − 1 for all n. Therefore the

Taylor series for f at 0 (that is, the Maclaurin series) is `

o n−0

f snds0d n x − n!

`

o n−0

xn x x2 x3 −11 1 1 1∙∙∙ n! 1! 2! 3!

To find the radius of convergence we let a n − x nyn!. Then

Z Z Z

Z

a n11 x n11 x n! − ? n − | | l 0,1 an sn 1 1d! x n11

so, by the Ratio Test, the series converges for all x and the radius of convergence is R − `.

■

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SeCtion 11.10 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

761

The conclusion we can draw from Theorem 5 and Example 1 is that if e x has a power series expansion at 0, then ` xn ex − o n−0 n! So how can we determine whether e x does have a power series representation? Let’s investigate the more general question: under what circumstances is a function equal to the sum of its Taylor series? In other words, if f has derivatives of all orders, when is it true that ` f sndsad f sxd − o sx 2 adn n! n−0 As with any convergent series, this means that f sxd is the limit of the sequence of partial sums. In the case of the Taylor series, the partial sums are n

Tnsxd −

o i−0

f sidsad sx 2 adi i!

− f sad 1 y

Notice that Tn is a polynomial of degree n called the nth-degree Taylor polynomial of f at a. For instance, for the exponential function f sxd − e x, the result of Example 1 shows that the Taylor polynomials at 0 (or Maclaurin polynomials) with n − 1, 2, and 3 are

y=´ y=T£(x)

y=T™(x)

T1sxd − 1 1 x

y=T™(x) (0, 1) 0

f 9sad f 0sad f sndsad sx 2 ad 1 sx 2 ad2 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 sx 2 adn 1! 2! n!

y=T¡(x) x

T2sxd − 1 1 x 1

x2 2!

T3sxd − 1 1 x 1

x2 x3 1 2! 3!

The graphs of the exponential function and these three Taylor polynomials are drawn in Figure 1. In general, f sxd is the sum of its Taylor series if

y=T£(x)

f sxd − lim Tnsxd FIGURE 1 As n increases, Tn sxd appears to approach e x in Figure 1. This suggests that e x is equal to the sum of its Taylor series.

nl`

If we let Rnsxd − f sxd 2 Tnsxd

so that

f sxd − Tnsxd 1 Rnsxd

then Rnsxd is called the remainder of the Taylor series. If we can somehow show that lim n l ` Rnsxd − 0, then it follows that lim Tnsxd − lim f f sxd 2 Rnsxdg − f sxd 2 lim Rnsxd − f sxd

nl`

nl`

nl`

We have therefore proved the following theorem. 8 Theorem If f sxd − Tnsxd 1 Rnsxd, where Tn is the nth-degree Taylor polynomial of f at a and lim Rnsxd − 0 nl`

for | x 2 a | , R, then f is equal to the sum of its Taylor series on the interval | x 2 a | , R.

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762

Chapter 11

Infinite Sequences and Series

In trying to show that lim n l ` Rnsxd − 0 for a specific function f, we usually use the following theorem. 9 Taylor’s Inequality If | f sn11dsxd | < M for | x 2 a | < d, then the remainder Rnsxd of the Taylor series satisfies the inequality M

| R sxd | < sn 1 1d! | x 2 a | n

for | x 2 a | < d

n11

To see why this is true for n − 1, we assume that | f 0sxd | < M. In particular, we have f 0sxd < M, so for a < x < a 1 d we have

y

x

a

Formulas for the taylor remainder term As alternatives to Taylor’s Inequality, we have the following formulas for the remainder term. If f sn11d is continuous on an interval I and x [ I, then 1 R nsxd − n!

y

x

a

n sn11d

sx 2 td f

f sn11dszd sx 2 ad n11 R nsxd − sn 1 1d! This version is an extension of the Mean Value Theorem (which is the case n − 0). Proofs of these formulas, together with discussions of how to use them to solve the examples of Sections 11.10 and 11.11, are given on the website www.stewartcalculus.com Click on Additional Topics and then on Formulas for the Remainder Term in Taylor series.

x

a

An antiderivative of f 0 is f 9, so by Part 2 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we have f 9sxd 2 f 9sad < Msx 2 ad

y

Thus

x

a

std dt

This is called the integral form of the remainder term. Another formula, called Lagrange’s form of the remainder term, states that there is a number z between x and a such that

f 0std dt < y M dt

f 9sxd < f 9sad 1 Msx 2 ad

or

f 9std dt < y f f 9sad 1 Mst 2 adg dt x

a

f sxd 2 f sad < f 9sadsx 2 ad 1 M f sxd 2 f sad 2 f 9sadsx 2 ad
2

| R sxd |
7, we have x 8y3 > 7 8y3 and so f -sxd −

10 1 10 1 ? 8y3 < ? 8y3 , 0.0021 27 x 27 7

Therefore we can take M − 0.0021. Also 7 < x < 9, so 21 < x 2 8 < 1 and | x 2 8 | < 1. Then Taylor’s Inequality gives

| R sxd | < 2

0.0021 0.0021 ? 13 − , 0.0004 3! 6

Thus, if 7 < x < 9, the approximation in part (a) is accurate to within 0.0004. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

■

776

CHAPTER 11

Infinite Sequences and Series

2.5

Let’s use a graphing device to check the calculation in Example 1. Figure 2 shows 3 x and y − T2sxd are very close to each other when x is near 8. that the graphs of y − s Figure 3 shows the graph of | R2sxd | computed from the expression

T™

| R sxd | − | sx 2 T sxd | 15

0

3

2

#x „ y= œ

2

We see from the graph that

| R sxd | , 0.0003 2

FigurE 2

when 7 < x < 9. Thus the error estimate from graphical methods is slightly better than the error estimate from Taylor’s Inequality in this case.

0.0003

ExamplE 2 (a) What is the maximum error possible in using the approximation y=|R™(x)|

x3 x5 1 3! 5!

sin x < x 2 7

9 0

FigurE 3

when 20.3 < x < 0.3? Use this approximation to find sin 12° correct to six decimal places. (b) For what values of x is this approximation accurate to within 0.00005? SOLUTION

(a) Notice that the Maclaurin series sin x − x 2

x5 x7 x3 1 2 1∙∙∙ 3! 5! 7!

is alternating for all nonzero values of x, and the successive terms decrease in size because | x | , 1, so we can use the Alternating Series Estimation Theorem. The error in approximating sin x by the first three terms of its Maclaurin series is at most

Z Z

x7 x 7 − | | 7! 5040

If 20.3 < x < 0.3, then | x | < 0.3, so the error is smaller than s0.3d7 < 4.3 3 1028 5040 To find sin 12° we first convert to radian measure:

S D S D S D S D

sin 12° − sin


s constant − 1.3807 3 10223 JyK 1. Use l’Hospital’s Rule to show that lim f sd − 0

 l 01

and

lim f sd − 0

l`

for Planck’s Law. So this law models blackbody radiation better than the Rayleigh-Jeans Law for short wavelengths. 2. Use a Taylor polynomial to show that, for large wavelengths, Planck’s Law gives approximately the same values as the Rayleigh-Jeans Law. ; 3. Graph f as given by both laws on the same screen and comment on the similarities and differences. Use T − 5700 K (the temperature of the sun). (You may want to change from meters to the more convenient unit of micrometers: 1 mm − 1026 m.) 4. Use your graph in Problem 3 to estimate the value of  for which f sd is a maximum under Planck’s Law. ; 5. Investigate how the graph of f changes as T varies. (Use Planck’s Law.) In particular, graph f for the stars Betelgeuse (T − 3400 K), Procyon (T − 6400 K), and Sirius (T − 9200 K), as well as the sun. How does the total radiation emitted (the area under the curve) vary with T? Use the graph to comment on why Sirius is known as a blue star and Betelgeuse as a red star.

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784

CHAPTER 11

11

Infinite Sequences and Series

rEviEw

ConCEPT ChECK 1. (a) (b) (c) (d)

Answers to the Concept Check can be found on the back endpapers.

(b) If a series is convergent by the Comparison Test, how do you estimate its sum? (c) If a series is convergent by the Alternating Series Test, how do you estimate its sum?

What is a convergent sequence? What is a convergent series? What does lim n l ` an − 3 mean? What does o `n−1 an − 3 mean?

2. (a) What is a bounded sequence? (b) What is a monotonic sequence? (c) What can you say about a bounded monotonic sequence?

8. (a) Write the general form of a power series. (b) What is the radius of convergence of a power series? (c) What is the interval of convergence of a power series?

3. (a) What is a geometric series? Under what circumstances is it convergent? What is its sum? (b) What is a p-series? Under what circumstances is it convergent?

9. Suppose f sxd is the sum of a power series with radius of convergence R. (a) How do you differentiate f ? What is the radius of convergence of the series for f 9? (b) How do you integrate f ? What is the radius of convergence of the series for y f sxd dx?

4. Suppose o a n − 3 and s n is the nth partial sum of the series. What is lim n l ` a n? What is lim n l ` sn?

10. (a) Write an expression for the nth-degree Taylor polynomial of f centered at a. (b) Write an expression for the Taylor series of f centered at a. (c) Write an expression for the Maclaurin series of f . (d) How do you show that f sxd is equal to the sum of its Taylor series? (e) State Taylor’s Inequality.

5. State the following. (a) The Test for Divergence (b) The Integral Test (c) The Comparison Test (d) The Limit Comparison Test (e) The Alternating Series Test (f) The Ratio Test (g) The Root Test 6. (a) What is an absolutely convergent series? (b) What can you say about such a series? (c) What is a conditionally convergent series?

11. Write the Maclaurin series and the interval of convergence for each of the following functions. (a) 1ys1 2 xd (b) e x (c) sin x (d) cos x (e) tan21x (f) lns1 1 xd

7. (a) If a series is convergent by the Integral Test, how do you estimate its sum?

12. Write the binomial series expansion of s1 1 xd k. What is the radius of convergence of this series?

TruE-FalSE QuiZ Determine whether the statement is true or false. If it is true, explain why. If it is false, explain why or give an example that disproves the statement. 1. If lim n l ` a n − 0, then o a n is convergent.

o n−0

s21d n 1 − n! e

11. If 21 ,  , 1, then lim n l `  n − 0.

| |

2. The series o `n−1 n 2sin 1 is convergent.

12. If o a n is divergent, then o a n is divergent.

3. If lim n l ` a n − L, then lim n l ` a 2n11 − L. n

`

10.

n

4. If o cn 6 is convergent, then o cns22d is convergent. 5. If o cn 6 n is convergent, then o cns26dn is convergent. 6. If o cn x n diverges when x − 6, then it diverges when x − 10. 7. The Ratio Test can be used to determine whether o 1yn 3 converges. 8. The Ratio Test can be used to determine whether o 1yn! converges. 9. If 0 < a n < bn and o bn diverges, then o a n diverges.

13. If f sxd − 2x 2 x 2 1 13 x 3 2 ∙ ∙ ∙ converges for all x, then f -s0d − 2. 14. If ha n j and hbn j are divergent, then ha n 1 bn j is divergent. 15. If ha n j and hbn j are divergent, then ha n bn j is divergent. 16. If ha n j is decreasing and a n . 0 for all n, then ha n j is convergent. 17. If a n . 0 and o a n converges, then o s21d n a n converges.

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CHAPTER 11

18. If a n . 0 and lim n l ` sa n11ya n d , 1, then lim n l ` a n − 0. 19. 0.99999 . . . − 1 nl`

22. If

nl`

785

21. If a finite number of terms are added to a convergent series, then the new series is still convergent. `

20. If lim an − 2, then lim sa n13 2 a nd − 0.

Review

`

`

o a n − A and n−1 o bn − B, then n−1 o a n bn − AB. n−1

EXErCiSES 1–8 Determine whether the sequence is convergent or divergent. If it is convergent, find its limit.

23–26 Determine whether the series is conditionally convergent, absolutely convergent, or divergent. `

1. a n −

2 1 n3 1 1 2n 3

2. a n −

9 n11 10 n

3. a n −

n3 1 1 n2

4. a n − cossny2d

5. a n −

n sin n n2 1 1

6. a n −

o s21dn21n 21y3 n−1

25.

o n−1

`

24.

o s21dn21n 23 n−1

26.

o n−2

28.

o n−1 nsn 1 3d

30.

o n−0

`

s21dnsn 1 1d3 n 2 2n11

sn

27–31 Find the sum of the series.

8. hs210d nyn!j

`

s23d n21 2 3n

27.

o n−1

29.

o ftan21sn 1 1d 2 tan21ng n−1

`

9. A sequence is defined recursively by the equations a 1 − 1, a n11 − 13 sa n 1 4d. Show that ha n j is increasing and a n , 2 for all n. Deduce that ha n j is convergent and find its limit. 4 2n ; 10. Show that lim n l ` n e − 0 and use a graph to find the smallest value of N that corresponds to « − 0.1 in the precise definition of a limit.

11–22 Determine whether the series is convergent or divergent. `

11.

`

13.

`

n

o 3 n−1 n 1 1 n

12.

o n n−1 5 `

14.

o n−2 n

17.

o n n−1 1 1 s1.2d

19.

o n−1

20.

o n−1

`

`

`

sln n cos 3n

1 ? 3 ? 5 ? ∙ ∙ ∙ ? s2n 2 1d 5 n n! s25d 2n n2 9n

`

21.

o

n−1

s21dn21

s21d

S

n 3n 1 1

o ln n−1

18.

o 2 n n−1 s1 1 2n d

`

n 2n

32. Express the repeating decimal 4.17326326326 . . . as a fraction. 33. Show that cosh x > 1 1 12 x 2 for all x. `

D

37. Use the sum of the first eight terms to approximate the sum of the series o `n−1 s2 1 5 n d21. Estimate the error involved in this approximation. `

38. (a) Show that the series

nl`

22.

o

n−1

sn 1 1 2 sn 2 1 n

nn

o n−1 s2nd!

is convergent.

nn − 0. s2nd!

39. Prove that if the series o `n−1 an is absolutely convergent, then the series `

`

s21d n11 correct to four decimal n5

36. (a) Find the partial sum s5 of the series o `n−1 1yn 6 and estimate the error in using it as an approximation to the sum of the series. (b) Find the sum of this series correct to five decimal places.

(b) Deduce that lim sn n11

s21d n  n 3 2n s2nd!

e2 e3 e4 2 1 2 ∙∙∙ 2! 3! 4!

35. Find the sum of the series o n−1 places.

n

16.

31. 1 2 e 1

`

1

34. For what values of x does the series o `n−1 sln xd n converge?

o n−1 sn 1 1 `

1

15.

n2 1 1

o 3 n−1 n 1 1 `

3

s21dnsn ln n

ln n `

7. hs1 1 3ynd4n j

`

23.

o n−1

S D

n11 an n

is also absolutely convergent.

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786

CHAPTER 11

Infinite Sequences and Series

40–43 Find the radius of convergence and interval of convergence of the series. `

o s21d n n 2 5 n n−1

42.

o n−1

`

`

xn

40.

41.

o n−1

43.

o n−0

`

2 nsx 2 2d n sn 1 2d!

sx 1 2d n n 4n 2 n sx 2 3d n sn 1 3

57–58 (a) Approximate f by a Taylor polynomial with degree n at the number a. ; (b) Graph f and Tn on a common screen. (c) Use Taylor’s Inequality to estimate the accuracy of the approximation f sxd < Tnsxd when x lies in the given interval. ; (d) Check your result in part (c) by graphing Rn sxd .

|

|

57. f sxd − sx , a − 1, n − 3, 0.9 < x < 1.1 58. f sxd − sec x, a − 0,

n − 2, 0 < x < y6

44. Find the radius of convergence of the series `

o n−1

59. Use series to evaluate the following limit.

s2nd! n x sn!d2

lim

xl 0

45. Find the Taylor series of f sxd − sin x at a − y6.

60. The force due to gravity on an object with mass m at a height h above the surface of the earth is

46. Find the Taylor series of f sxd − cos x at a − y3. 47–54 Find the Maclaurin series for f and its radius of convergence. You may use either the direct method (definition of a Maclaurin series) or known series such as geometric series, binomial series, or the Maclaurin series for e x, sin x, tan21x, and lns1 1 xd. x2 47. f sxd − 11x

48. f sxd − tan21sx 2 d

49. f sxd − lns4 2 xd

50. f sxd − xe 2x

51. f sxd − sinsx 4 d

52. f sxd − 10 x

4 53. f sxd − 1ys 16 2 x

54. f sxd − s1 2 3xd25

sin x 2 x x3

F−

;

mtR 2 sR 1 hd2

where R is the radius of the earth and t is the acceleration due to gravity for an object on the surface of the earth. (a) Express F as a series in powers of hyR. (b) Observe that if we approximate F by the first term in the series, we get the expression F < mt that is usually used when h is much smaller than R. Use the Alternating Series Estimation Theorem to estimate the range of values of h for which the approximation F < mt is accurate to within one percent. (Use R − 6400 km.) 61. Suppose that f sxd − o `n−0 cn x n for all x. (a) If f is an odd function, show that c0 − c2 − c4 − ∙ ∙ ∙ − 0

55. Evaluate y

ex dx as an infinite series. x

56. Use series to approximate y01 s1 1 x 4 dx correct to two decimal places.

(b) If f is an even function, show that c1 − c3 − c5 − ∙ ∙ ∙ − 0 2

62. If f sxd − e x , show that f s2nds0d −

s2nd! . n!

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problems plus `

Before you look at the solution of the example, cover it up and first try to solve the problem yourself.

ExamplE Find the sum of the series

sx 1 2dn

. o n−0 sn 1 3d!

SOLUTION The problem-solving principle that is relevant here is recognizing something familiar. Does the given series look anything like a series that we already know? Well, it does have some ingredients in common with the Maclaurin series for the exponential function: `

ex −

o n−0

xn x2 x3 −11x1 1 1 ∙∙∙ n! 2! 3!

We can make this series look more like our given series by replacing x by x 1 2: `

e x12 −

o

n−0

sx 1 2dn sx 1 2d2 sx 1 2d3 − 1 1 sx 1 2d 1 1 1 ∙∙∙ n! 2! 3!

But here the exponent in the numerator matches the number in the denominator whose factorial is taken. To make that happen in the given series, let’s multiply and divide by sx 1 2d3 : `

sx 1 2dn

o n−0 sn 1 3d!

−

1 sx 1 2d3

− sx 1 2d23

`

o n−0

F

sx 1 2dn13 sn 1 3d!

G

sx 1 2d3 sx 1 2d4 1 1 ∙∙∙ 3! 4!

We see that the series between brackets is just the series for e x12 with the first three terms missing. So `

sx 1 2dn

o n−0 sn 1 3d!

Problems

F

sx 1 2d2 2!

− sx 1 2d23 e x12 2 1 2 sx 1 2d 2

G

■

1. If f sxd − sinsx 3 d, find f s15ds0d. 2. A function f is defined by f sxd − lim P¢

nl`

4

P£ 2

8

x 2n 2 1 x 2n 1 1

P™ 1 A 1 P¡

Where is f continuous? 3. (a) Show that tan 12 x − cot 12 x 2 2 cot x. (b) Find the sum of the series `

1

o n tan n−1 2 P∞

FigurE For ProBlEm 4

x 2n

|

|

4. Let hPn j be a sequence of points determined as in the figure. Thus AP1 − 1, Pn Pn11 − 2 n21, and angle APn Pn11 is a right angle. Find lim n l ` /Pn APn11.

|

|

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5. To construct the snowflake curve, start with an equilateral triangle with sides of length 1. Step 1 in the construction is to divide each side into three equal parts, construct an equilateral triangle on the middle part, and then delete the middle part (see the figure). Step 2 is to repeat step 1 for each side of the resulting polygon. This process is repeated at each succeeding step. The snowflake curve is the curve that results from repeating this process indefinitely. (a) Let sn, ln, and pn represent the number of sides, the length of a side, and the total length of the nth approximating curve (the curve obtained after step n of the construction), respectively. Find formulas for sn, ln, and pn. (b) Show that pn l ` as n l `. (c) Sum an infinite series to find the area enclosed by the snowflake curve. 1

Note: Parts (b) and (c) show that the snowflake curve is infinitely long but encloses only a finite area. 6. Find the sum of the series 11

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ∙∙∙ 2 3 4 6 8 9 12

where the terms are the reciprocals of the positive integers whose only prime factors are 2s and 3s. 2

7. (a) Show that for xy ± 21, arctan x 2 arctan y − arctan

x2y 1 1 xy

if the left side lies between 2y2 and y2. 1 (b) Show that arctan 120 119 2 arctan 239 − y4.

(c) Deduce the following formula of John Machin (1680 –1751): 1 − 4 arctan 51 2 arctan 239

3

 4

(d) Use the Maclaurin series for arctan to show that 0.1973955597 , arctan 15 , 0.1973955616 (e) Show that 1 , 0.004184077 0.004184075 , arctan 239

FigurE For ProBlEm 5

(f ) Deduce that, correct to seven decimal places,  < 3.1415927. Machin used this method in 1706 to find  correct to 100 decimal places. Recently, with the aid of computers, the value of  has been computed to increasingly greater accuracy. In 2013 Shigeru Kondo and Alexander Yee computed the value of  to more than 12 trillion decimal places! 8. (a) Prove a formula similar to the one in Problem 7(a) but involving arccot instead of arctan. (b) Find the sum of the series o `n−0 arccotsn 2 1 n 1 1d. 9. Use the result of Problem 7(a) to find the sum of the series g `n−1 arctans2yn 2 d. 10. If a 0 1 a 1 1 a 2 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 a k − 0, show that lim sa0 sn 1 a1 sn 1 1 1 a2 sn 1 2 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 ak sn 1 k d − 0

nl`

788

If you don’t see how to prove this, try the problem-solving strategy of using analogy (see page 71). Try the special cases k − 1 and k − 2 first. If you can see how to prove the assertion for these cases, then you will probably see how to prove it in general.

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11. Find the interval of convergence of o `n−1 n 3x n and find its sum.

1 1 6 8

1 2

1 4

FigurE For ProBlEm 12

12. Suppose you have a large supply of books, all the same size, and you stack them at the edge of a table, with each book extending farther beyond the edge of the table than the one beneath it. Show that it is possible to do this so that the top book extends entirely beyond the table. In fact, show that the top book can extend any distance at all beyond the edge of the table if the stack is high enough. Use the following method of stacking: The top book extends half its length beyond the second book. The second book extends a quarter of its length beyond the third. The third extends one-sixth of its length beyond the fourth, and so on. (Try it yourself with a deck of cards.) Consider centers of mass. `

13. Find the sum of the series

S

o ln n−2

12

D

1 . n2

14. If p . 1, evaluate the expression 1 1 1 1 p 1 p 1 ∙∙∙ 2p 3 4 1 1 1 1 2 p 1 p 2 p 1 ∙∙∙ 2 3 4

11

15. Suppose that circles of equal diameter are packed tightly in n rows inside an equilateral triangle. (The figure illustrates the case n − 4.) If A is the area of the triangle and An is the total area occupied by the n rows of circles, show that lim

nl`

An  − A 2 s3

16. A sequence ha n j is defined recursively by the equations nsn 2 1da n − sn 2 1dsn 2 2da n21 2 sn 2 3da n22

a0 − a1 − 1

FigurE For ProBlEm 15

Find the sum of the series o `n−0 an. 17. If the curve y − e 2xy10 sin x, x > 0, is rotated about the x-axis, the resulting solid looks like an infinite decreasing string of beads. (a) Find the exact volume of the nth bead. (Use either a table of integrals or a computer algebra system.) (b) Find the total volume of the beads.

P¡

P∞

P™ P˜

Pˆ Pß

`

P¡¸ P¢

P¶

18. Starting with the vertices P1s0, 1d, P2s1, 1d, P3s1, 0d, P4s0, 0d of a square, we construct further points as shown in the figure: P5 is the midpoint of P1 P2, P6 is the midpoint of P2 P3, P7 is the midpoint of P3 P4, and so on. The polygonal spiral path P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 . . . approaches a point P inside the square. (a) If the coordinates of Pn are sx n, yn d, show that 12 x n 1 x n11 1 x n12 1 x n13 − 2 and find a similar equation for the y-coordinates. (b) Find the coordinates of P. 19. Find the sum of the series

P£

FigurE For ProBlEm 18

s21d n

o n. n−1 s2n 1 1d3

20. Carry out the following steps to show that 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ − ln 2 1?2 3?4 5?6 7?8 (a) Use the formula for the sum of a finite geometric series (11.2.3) to get an expression for 1 2 x 1 x 2 2 x 3 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 x 2n22 2 x 2n21

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(b) Integrate the result of part (a) from 0 to 1 to get an expression for 12

1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1∙∙∙1 2 2 3 4 2n 2 1 2n

as an integral. (c) Deduce from part (b) that

Z

1 1 dx 1 1 1 1 1 1∙∙∙1 2y 0 1 1 x 1?2 3?4 5?6 s2n 2 1ds2nd

Z

, y x 2 n dx 1

0

(d) Use part (c) to show that the sum of the given series is ln 2. 21. Find all the solutions of the equation 11

x x2 x3 x4 1 1 1 1 ∙∙∙ − 0 2! 4! 6! 8!

[Hint: Consider the cases x > 0 and x , 0 separately.] 1

22. Right-angled triangles are constructed as in the figure. Each triangle has height 1 and its base is the hypotenuse of the preceding triangle. Show that this sequence of triangles makes indefinitely many turns around P by showing that g n is a divergent series.

1 1

1

¨£

P

¨™ ¨¡

1 1

23. Consider the series whose terms are the reciprocals of the positive integers that can be written in base 10 notation without using the digit 0. Show that this series is convergent and the sum is less than 90. 24. (a) Show that the Maclaurin series of the function

FigurE For ProBlEm 22

f sxd −

x 1 2 x 2 x2

`

is

o fn x n n−1

where fn is the nth Fibonacci number, that is, f1 − 1, f2 − 1, and fn − fn21 1 fn22 for n > 3. [Hint: Write xys1 2 x 2 x 2d − c0 1 c1 x 1 c2 x 2 1 . . . and multiply both sides of this equation by 1 2 x 2 x 2.] (b) By writing f sxd as a sum of partial fractions and thereby obtaining the Maclaurin series in a different way, find an explicit formula for the nth Fibonacci number. 25. Let

u−11

x3 x6 x9 1 1 1∙∙∙ 3! 6! 9!

v−x1

x4 x7 x 10 1 1 1∙∙∙ 4! 7! 10!

w−

x2 x5 x8 1 1 1∙∙∙ 2! 5! 8!

Show that u 3 1 v 3 1 w 3 2 3u v w − 1. 26. Prove that if n . 1, the nth partial sum of the harmonic series is not an integer. Hint: Let 2 k be the largest power of 2 that is less than or equal to n and let M be the product of all odd integers that are less than or equal to n. Suppose that sn − m, an integer. Then M2 ksn − M2 km. The right side of this equation is even. Prove that the left side is odd by showing that each of its terms is an even integer, except for the last one.

790 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

12

Vectors and the Geometry of Space

Each of these gears has the shape of a hyperboloid, a type of surface we will study in Section 12.6. The shape allows the gears to transmit motion between skew (neither parallel nor intersecting) axes.

In thIs chapter we Introduce vectors and coordinate systems for three-dimensional space. This will be the setting for our study of the calculus of functions of two variables in Chapter 14 because the graph of such a function is a surface in space. In this chapter we will see that vectors provide particularly simple descriptions of lines and planes in space.

791 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

792

CHAPTER 12 Vectors and the Geometry of Space

3D Space To locate a point in a plane, we need two numbers. We know that any point in the plane can be represented as an ordered pair sa, bd of real numbers, where a is the x-coordinate and b is the y-coordinate. For this reason, a plane is called two-dimensional. To locate a point in space, three numbers are required. We represent any point in space by an ordered triple sa, b, cd of real numbers. In order to represent points in space, we first choose a fixed point O (the origin) and three directed lines through O that are perpendicular to each other, called the coordinate axes and labeled the x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis. Usually we think of the x- and y-axes as being horizontal and the z-axis as being vertical, and we draw the orientation of the axes as in Figure 1. The direction of the z-axis is determined by the right-hand rule as illustrated in Figure 2: If you curl the fingers of your right hand around the z-axis in the direction of a 90° counterclockwise rotation from the positive x-axis to the positive y-axis, then your thumb points in the positive direction of the z-axis. The three coordinate axes determine the three coordinate planes illustrated in Figure 3(a). The xy-plane is the plane that contains the x- and y-axes; the yz-plane contains the y- and z-axes; the xz-plane contains the x- and z-axes. These three coordinate planes divide space into eight parts, called octants. The first octant, in the foreground, is determined by the positive axes.

z

O y x

FIGURE 1 Coordinate axes z

y x

z

FIGURE 2

z

Right-hand rule y z-plan

lane

xz-p

x

FIGURE 3

z P(a, b, c)

a

O

c y

x

b

FIGURE 4

e

O

xy-plane (a) Coordinate planes

right w

l wal O left y

x

floor

all y

(b)

Because many people have some difficulty visualizing diagrams of three-dimensional figures, you may find it helpful to do the following [see Figure 3(b)]. Look at any bottom corner of a room and call the corner the origin. The wall on your left is in the xz-plane, the wall on your right is in the yz-plane, and the floor is in the xy-plane. The x-axis runs along the intersection of the floor and the left wall. The y-axis runs along the intersection of the floor and the right wall. The z-axis runs up from the floor toward the ceiling along the intersection of the two walls. You are situated in the first octant, and you can now imagine seven other rooms situated in the other seven octants (three on the same floor and four on the floor below), all connected by the common corner point O. Now if P is any point in space, let a be the (directed) distance from the yz-plane to P, let b be the distance from the xz-plane to P, and let c be the distance from the xy-plane to P. We represent the point P by the ordered triple sa, b, cd of real numbers and we call a, b, and c the coordinates of P; a is the x-coordinate, b is the y-coordinate, and c is the z-coordinate. Thus, to locate the point sa, b, cd, we can start at the origin O and move a units along the x-axis, then b units parallel to the y-axis, and then c units parallel to the z-axis as in Figure 4.

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793

SECTION 12.1 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Systems

The point Psa, b, cd determines a rectangular box as in Figure 5. If we drop a perpendicular from P to the xy-plane, we get a point Q with coordinates sa, b, 0d called the projection of P onto the xy-plane. Similarly, Rs0, b, cd and Ssa, 0, cd are the projections of P onto the yz-plane and xz-plane, respectively. As numerical illustrations, the points s24, 3, 25d and s3, 22, 26d are plotted in Figure 6. z

z

z

3

(0, 0, c) R(0, b, c) S(a, 0, c)

0

_4 0

P(a, b, c)

y

x 0

(_4, 3, _5)

(0, b, 0) (a, 0, 0)

_2

_5

y

3

x

_6

y

x

(3, _2, _6)

Q(a, b, 0)

FIGURE 5

FIGURE 6 The Cartesian product R 3 R 3 R − hsx, y, zd | x, y, z [ Rj is the set of all ordered triples of real numbers and is denoted by R 3. We have given a one-to-one correspondence between points P in space and ordered triples sa, b, cd in R 3. It is called a threedimensional rectangular coordinate system. Notice that, in terms of coordinates, the first octant can be described as the set of points whose coordinates are all positive.

Surfaces In two-dimensional analytic geometry, the graph of an equation involving x and y is a curve in R 2. In three-dimensional analytic geometry, an equation in x, y, and z represents a surface in R 3.

example 1 What surfaces in R 3 are represented by the following equations? (a) z − 3

(b) y − 5

SOLUTION

(a) The equation z − 3 represents the set hsx, y, zd | z − 3j, which is the set of all points in R 3 whose z-coordinate is 3 (x and y can each be any value). This is the horizontal plane that is parallel to the xy-plane and three units above it as in Figure 7(a). z

z

y 5

3 0 x

0

(a) z=3, a plane in R#

FIGURE 7

y

x

5

(b) y=5, a plane in R#

0

x

y

(c) y=5, a line in R@

(b) The equation y − 5 represents the set of all points in R 3 whose y-coordinate is 5. This is the vertical plane that is parallel to the xz-plane and five units to the right of it as in Figure 7(b). ■

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794

CHAPTER 12 Vectors and the Geometry of Space

NOTE When an equation is given, we must understand from the context whether it represents a curve in R 2 or a surface in R 3. In Example 1, y − 5 represents a plane in R 3, but of course y − 5 can also represent a line in R 2 if we are dealing with two-dimensional analytic geometry. See Figure 7(b) and (c). In general, if k is a constant, then x − k represents a plane parallel to the yz-plane, y − k is a plane parallel to the xz-plane, and z − k is a plane parallel to the xy-plane. In Figure 5, the faces of the rectangular box are formed by the three coordinate planes x − 0 (the yz-plane), y − 0 (the xz-plane), and z − 0 (the xy-plane), and the planes x − a, y − b, and z − c.

example 2 (a) Which points sx, y, zd satisfy the equations x2 1 y2 − 1

and

z−3

(b) What does the equation x 2 1 y 2 − 1 represent as a surface in R 3 ? SOLUTION

(a) Because z − 3, the points lie in the horizontal plane z − 3 from Example 1(a). Because x 2 1 y 2 − 1, the points lie on the circle with radius 1 and center on the z-axis. See Figure 8. (b) Given that x 2 1 y 2 − 1, with no restrictions on z, we see that the point sx, y, zd could lie on a circle in any horizontal plane z − k. So the surface x 2 1 y 2 − 1 in R 3 consists of all possible horizontal circles x 2 1 y 2 − 1, z − k, and is therefore the circular cylinder with radius 1 whose axis is the z-axis. See Figure 9. z

z

3

0 y

x

z

0 x

FIGURE 8

FIGURE 9

The circle x 2 1 y 2 − 1, z − 3

The cylinder x 2 1 y 2 − 1

y

■

example 3 Describe and sketch the surface in R 3 represented by the equation y − x. SOLUTION The equation represents the set of all points in R 3 whose x- and y-coordi-

y 0

x

FIGURE 10 The plane y − x

nates are equal, that is, hsx, x, zd | x [ R, z [ Rj. This is a vertical plane that intersects the xy-plane in the line y − x, z − 0. The portion of this plane that lies in the first octant is sketched in Figure 10. ■

Distance and Spheres The familiar formula for the distance between two points in a plane is easily extended to the following three-dimensional formula.

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SECTION 12.1 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Systems

795

Distance Formula in Three Dimensions The distance | P1 P2 | between the points P1sx 1, y1, z1 d and P2sx 2 , y2 , z2 d is

| P P | − ssx 1

z P¡(⁄, ›, z¡)

P™(¤, fi, z™)

1

x

2

2 x 1 d2 1 sy2 2 y1 d2 1 sz2 2 z1 d2

To see why this formula is true, we construct a rectangular box as in Figure 11, where P1 and P2 are opposite vertices and the faces of the box are parallel to the coordinate planes. If Asx 2 , y1, z1d and Bsx 2 , y2 , z1d are the vertices of the box indicated in the figure, then

|P A| − |x 0

2

2

2 x1 |

| AB | − | y

2

2 y1 |

| BP | − | z 2

2

2 z1 |

Because triangles P1 BP2 and P1 AB are both right-angled, two applications of the Pythagorean Theorem give

B(¤, fi, z¡) A(¤, ›, z¡) y

|P P |

2

− | P1 B | 2 1 | BP2 | 2

|P B|

2

− | P1 A | 2 1 | AB | 2

1

FIGURE 11

and

2

1

Combining these equations, we get

|P P | 1

2

2

− | P1 A | 2 1 | AB | 2 1 | BP2 | 2 − | x 2 2 x 1 | 2 1 | y2 2 y1 | 2 1 | z2 2 z1 | 2 − sx 2 2 x 1 d2 1 sy2 2 y1 d2 1 sz2 2 z1 d2

Therefore

| P P | − ssx 1

2

2

2 x 1 d2 1 s y2 2 y1 d2 1 sz2 2 z1 d2

example 4 The distance from the point Ps2, 21, 7d to the point Qs1, 23, 5d is

| PQ | − ss1 2 2d

2

1 s23 1 1d2 1 s5 2 7d2 − s1 1 4 1 4 − 3

example 5 Find an equation of a sphere with radius r and center Csh, k, ld.

z

SOLUTION By definition, a sphere is the set of all points Psx, y, zd whose distance from C is r. (See Figure 12.) Thus P is on the sphere if and only if | PC | − r. Squaring both sides, we have | PC |2 − r 2 or

P (x, y, z) r

sx 2 hd2 1 sy 2 kd2 1 sz 2 ld2 − r 2

C (h, k, l )

The result of Example 5 is worth remembering. 0 x y

FIGURE 12

■

Equation of a Sphere An equation of a sphere with center Csh, k, ld and radius r is sx 2 hd2 1 sy 2 kd2 1 sz 2 ld2 − r 2 In particular, if the center is the origin O, then an equation of the sphere is x 2 1 y 2 1 z2 − r 2

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■

796

CHAPTER 12 Vectors and the Geometry of Space

example 6 Show that x 2 1 y 2 1 z 2 1 4x 2 6y 1 2z 1 6 − 0 is the equation of a sphere, and find its center and radius. SOLUTION We can rewrite the given equation in the form of an equation of a sphere if we complete squares:

sx 2 1 4x 1 4d 1 s y 2 2 6y 1 9d 1 sz 2 1 2z 1 1d − 26 1 4 1 9 1 1 sx 1 2d2 1 sy 2 3d2 1 sz 1 1d2 − 8 Comparing this equation with the standard form, we see that it is the equation of a sphere with center s22, 3, 21d and radius s8 − 2s2 .

■

example 7 What region in R 3 is represented by the following inequalities? 1 < x 2 1 y 2 1 z2 < 4

z 23

45. Find an equation of the set of all points equidistant from the points As21, 5, 3d and Bs6, 2, 22d. Describe the set.

27. z , 8

28. z > 21

46. Find the volume of the solid that lies inside both of the spheres

2

29. 0 < z < 6 2

2

2

2

30. y − 4

31. x 1 y − 4,

z − 21

2

33. x 1 y 1 z − 4 2

2

2

x 2 1 y 2 1 z 2 1 4x 2 2y 1 4z 1 5 − 0

2

2

2

2

32. x 1 y − 4

and

x 2 1 y 2 1 z2 − 4

2

34. x 1 y 1 z < 4

35. 1 < x 1 y 1 z < 5

36. y 2 1 z 2 − 16

37. x 2 1 z 2 < 9

38. x 2 1 y 2 1 z 2 . 2z

39–42 Write inequalities to describe the region. 39. The region between the yz-plane and the vertical plane x − 5

47. Find the distance between the spheres x 2 1 y 2 1 z 2 − 4 and x 2 1 y 2 1 z 2 − 4x 1 4y 1 4z 2 11. 48. Describe and sketch a solid with the following properties. When illuminated by rays parallel to the z-axis, its shadow is a circular disk. If the rays are parallel to the y-axis, its shadow is a square. If the rays are parallel to the x-axis, its shadow is an isosceles triangle.

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798

CHAPTER 12 Vectors and the Geometry of Space

D B

u v C A

FIGURE 1 Equivalent vectors

The term vector is used by scientists to indicate a quantity (such as displacement or velocity or force) that has both magnitude and direction. A vector is often represented by an arrow or a directed line segment. The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector and the arrow points in the direction of the vector. We denote a vector by printing a letter in boldface svd or by putting an arrow above the letter svld. For instance, suppose a particle moves along a line segment from point A to point B. The corresponding displacement vector v, shown in Figure 1, has initial point A (the tail) l and terminal point B (the tip) and we indicate this by writing v − AB. Notice that the l vector u − CD has the same length and the same direction as v even though it is in a different position. We say that u and v are equivalent (or equal) and we write u − v. The zero vector, denoted by 0, has length 0. It is the only vector with no specific direction.

Combining Vectors l

C B

Suppose a particle moves from A to B, so its displacement vector is AB. Then the particle l changes direction and moves from B to C, with displacement vector BC as in Figure 2. The combined effect of these displacements is that the particle has moved from A to C. l l l The resulting displacement vector AC is called the sum of AB and BC and we write l

l

l

AC − AB 1 BC

A

In general, if we start with vectors u and v, we first move v so that its tail coincides with the tip of u and define the sum of u and v as follows.

FIGURE 2

Definition of Vector Addition If u and v are vectors positioned so the initial point of v is at the terminal point of u, then the sum u 1 v is the vector from the initial point of u to the terminal point of v. The definition of vector addition is illustrated in Figure 3. You can see why this definition is sometimes called the Triangle Law. u u+v

u

v

v+ v u

v

v u+

u

FIGURE 3

FIGURE 4

The Triangle Law

The Parallelogram Law

In Figure 4 we start with the same vectors u and v as in Figure 3 and draw another copy of v with the same initial point as u. Completing the parallelogram, we see that u 1 v − v 1 u. This also gives another way to construct the sum: if we place u and v so they start at the same point, then u 1 v lies along the diagonal of the parallelogram with u and v as sides. (This is called the Parallelogram Law.) a

b

example 1 Draw the sum of the vectors a and b shown in Figure 5. FIGURE 5

SOLUTION First we move b and place its tail at the tip of a, being careful to draw a copy of b that has the same length and direction. Then we draw the vector a 1 b [see

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SECTION 12.2 Vectors

799

Figure 6(a)] starting at the initial point of a and ending at the terminal point of the copy of b. Alternatively, we could place b so it starts where a starts and construct a 1 b by the Parallelogram Law as in Figure 6(b). a

TEC Visual 12.2 shows how the Triangle and Parallelogram Laws work for various vectors a and b.

a

b a+b

a+b b

FIGURE 6

(a)

■

(b)

It is possible to multiply a vector by a real number c. (In this context we call the real number c a scalar to distinguish it from a vector.) For instance, we want 2v to be the same vector as v 1 v, which has the same direction as v but is twice as long. In general, we multiply a vector by a scalar as follows. Definition of Scalar Multiplication If c is a scalar and v is a vector, then the scalar multiple cv is the vector whose length is | c | times the length of v and whose direction is the same as v if c . 0 and is opposite to v if c , 0. If c − 0 or v − 0, then cv − 0. This definition is illustrated in Figure 7. We see that real numbers work like scaling factors here; that’s why we call them scalars. Notice that two nonzero vectors are parallel if they are scalar multiples of one another. In particular, the vector 2v − s21dv has the same length as v but points in the opposite direction. We call it the negative of v.

FIGURE 7

2v

v

1 2v

_v

_1.5v

Scalar multiples of v

By the difference u 2 v of two vectors we mean u 2 v − u 1 s2vd So we can construct u 2 v by first drawing the negative of v, 2v, and then adding it to  u by the Parallelogram Law as in Figure 8(a). Alternatively, since v 1 su 2 vd − u, the vector u 2 v, when added to v, gives u. So we could construct u 2 v as in Figure 8(b) by means of the Triangle Law. Notice that if u and v both start from the same initial point, then u 2 v connects the tip of v to the tip of u.

v u u-v _v

u-v v u

FIGURE 8 Drawing u 2 v

(a)

(b)

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800

CHAPTER 12 Vectors and the Geometry of Space

example 2 If a and b are the vectors shown in Figure 9, draw a 2 2b.

a b

SOLUTION We first draw the vector 22b pointing in the direction opposite to b and twice as long. We place it with its tail at the tip of a and then use the Triangle Law to draw a 1 s22bd as in Figure 10. ■

FIGURE 9 a

_2b

Components For some purposes it’s best to introduce a coordinate system and treat vectors algebraically. If we place the initial point of a vector a at the origin of a rectangular coordinate system, then the terminal point of a has coordinates of the form sa1, a2 d or sa1, a2, a3d, depending on whether our coordinate system is two- or three-dimensional (see Figure 11). These coordinates are called the components of a and we write

a-2b

FIGURE 10

a − ka 1, a 2 l

a − ka 1, a 2 , a 3 l

or

We use the notation ka1, a2l for the ordered pair that refers to a vector so as not to confuse it with the ordered pair sa1, a2 d that refers to a point in the plane. z (a¡, a™, a£)

y

(a¡, a™)

a O

a O

FIGURE 11 y

a=ka¡, a™, a£l

l

P(3, 2)

0

a=ka¡, a™l

y

x

For instance, the vectors shown in Figure 12 are all equivalent to the vector OP − k3, 2l whose terminal point is Ps3, 2d. What they have in common is that the terminal point is reached from the initial point by a displacement of three units to the right and two upward. We can think of all these geometric vectors as representations of the algebraic l vector a − k3, 2l. The particular representation OP from the origin to the point Ps3, 2d is called the position vector of the point P. l of the In three dimensions, the vector a − OP − ka1, a 2, a 3l is the position vector l point Psa1, a2, a3d. (See Figure 13.) Let’s consider any other representation AB of a, where the initial point is Asx 1, y1, z1 d and the terminal point is Bsx 2 , y2 , z2 d. Then we must have x 1 1 a 1 − x 2, y1 1 a 2 − y2, and z1 1 a 3 − z2 and so a 1 − x 2 2 x 1, a 2 − y2 2 y1, and a 3 − z2 2 z1. Thus we have the following result.

(4, 5) (1, 3)

x

x

FIGURE 12 Representations of a − k 3, 2l z

1 Given the points Asx 1, y1, z1 d and Bsx 2 , y2 , z2 d, the vector a with represenl

position vector of P

tation AB is P(a¡, a™, a£)

a − kx 2 2 x 1, y2 2 y1, z2 2 z1l

O y x

A(x, y, z)

B(x+a¡, y+a™, z+a£)

FIGURE 13 Representations of a − ka1, a 2, a 3l

example 3 Find the vector represented by the directed line segment with initial point As2, 23, 4) and terminal point Bs22, 1, 1d. l SOLUTION By (1), the vector corresponding to AB is

a − k22 2 2, 1 2 s23d, 1 2 4l − k24, 4, 23l

■

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SECTION 12.2 Vectors

801

The magnitude or length of the vector v is the length of any of its representations and is denoted by the symbol | v | or i v i. By using the distance formula to compute the length of a segment OP, we obtain the following formulas. The length of the two-dimensional vector a − k a 1, a 2 l is

| a | − sa

2 1

y

(a¡+b¡, a™+b™)

2 1

b¡ a a™ a¡

1 a22 1 a32

b™

b

0

The length of the three-dimensional vector a − ka 1, a 2 , a 3l is

| a | − sa

a+b

1 a22

a™ x

b¡

FIGURE 14

How do we add vectors algebraically? Figure 14 shows that if a − ka 1, a 2l and b − kb 1, b 2l, then the sum is a 1 b − ka1 1 b1, a2 1 b2l, at least for the case where the components are positive. In other words, to add algebraic vectors we add corresponding components. Similarly, to subtract vectors we subtract corresponding components. From the similar triangles in Figure 15 we see that the components of ca are ca1 and ca2. So to multiply a vector by a scalar we multiply each component by that scalar. If a − ka 1, a 2 l and b − kb1, b2 l, then

ca a

ca™

a 1 b − ka 1 1 b1, a 2 1 b2 l

a 2 b − ka 1 2 b1, a 2 2 b2 l

ca − kca1, ca2 l

a™

Similarly, for three-dimensional vectors, a¡

ca¡

k a 1, a 2 , a 3 l 1 k b1, b2 , b3 l − k a 1 1 b1, a 2 1 b2 , a 3 1 b3 l

FIGURE 15

k a 1, a 2 , a 3 l 2 k b1, b2 , b3 l − k a 1 2 b1, a 2 2 b2 , a 3 2 b3 l ck a 1, a 2 , a 3 l − k ca1, ca2 , ca3 l

example 4 If a − k 4, 0, 3 l and b − k 22, 1, 5 l, find | a | and the vectors a 1 b, a 2 b, 3b, and 2a 1 5b. SOLUTION

| a | − s4

2

1 0 2 1 3 2 − s25 − 5

a 1 b − k4, 0, 3l 1 k22, 1, 5l − k4 1 s22d, 0 1 1, 3 1 5l − k2, 1, 8l a 2 b − k4, 0, 3l 2 k22, 1, 5l − k4 2 s22d, 0 2 1, 3 2 5l − k6, 21, 22l 3b − 3k22, 1, 5l − k3s22d, 3s1d, 3s5dl − k26, 3, 15l 2a 1 5b − 2k4, 0, 3l 1 5k22, 1, 5l − k8, 0, 6l 1 k210, 5, 25l − k22, 5, 31l

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■

802

CHAPTER 12 Vectors and the Geometry of Space

Vectors in n dimensions are used to list various quantities in an organized way. For instance, the components of a sixdimensional vector

We denote by V2 the set of all two-dimensional vectors and by V3 the set of all threedimensional vectors. More generally, we will later need to consider the set Vn of all n-dimensional vectors. An n-dimensional vector is an ordered n-tuple: a − k a1, a 2, . . . , a n l

p − k p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 , p5 , p6 l

might represent the prices of six different ingredients required to make a particular product. Four-dimensional vectors k x, y, z, t l are used in relativity theory, where the first three components specify a position in space and the fourth represents time.

where a1, a 2, . . . , a n are real numbers that are called the components of a. Addition and scalar multiplication are defined in terms of components just as for the cases n − 2 and n − 3. Properties of Vectors If a, b, and c are vectors in Vn and c and d are scalars, then 2. a 1 sb 1 cd − sa 1 bd 1 c 1. a 1 b − b 1 a 3. a 1 0 − a

4. a 1 s2ad − 0

5. csa 1 bd − ca 1 cb

6. sc 1 dda − ca 1 da

7. scdda − csdad

8. 1a − a

These eight properties of vectors can be readily verified either geometrically or algebraically. For instance, Property 1 can be seen from Figure 4 (it’s equivalent to the Parallelogram Law) or as follows for the case n − 2: a 1 b − ka 1, a 2 l 1 k b1, b2 l − ka 1 1 b1, a 2 1 b2 l − k b1 1 a 1, b2 1 a 2 l − k b1, b2 l 1 k a 1, a 2 l Q

−b1a

c (a+b)+c =a+(b+c)

b

a+b b+c

We can see why Property 2 (the associative law) is true by looking at Figure 16 and l applying the Triangle Law several times: the vector PQ is obtained either by first constructing a 1 b and then adding c or by adding a to the vector b 1 c. Three vectors in V3 play a special role. Let

a P

i − k 1, 0, 0l

FIGURE 16

j − k 0, 1, 0l

k − k 0, 0, 1l

These vectors i, j, and k are called the standard basis vectors. They have length 1 and point in the directions of the positive x-, y-, and z-axes. Similarly, in two dimensions we define i − k1, 0l and j − k 0, 1l. (See Figure 17.) y

z

(0, 1)

j 0

i

y

x

(a)

j

i

(1, 0)

FIGURE 17 Standard basis vectors in V2 and V3

k x

(b)

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SECTION 12.2 Vectors

803

If a − k a 1, a 2 , a 3 l, then we can write

y (a¡, a™)

a

a™ j

a¡i

0

a − k a 1, a 2 , a 3 l − ka 1, 0, 0 l 1 k 0, a 2 , 0 l 1 k0, 0, a 3 l − a 1 k1, 0, 0 l 1 a 2 k0, 1, 0 l 1 a 3 k 0, 0, 1 l x

2

a − a1 i 1 a2 j 1 a3 k

Thus any vector in V3 can be expressed in terms of i, j, and k. For instance,

(a) a=a¡i+a™ j

k1, 22, 6l − i 2 2j 1 6k

z

Similarly, in two dimensions, we can write (a¡, a™, a£)

a£k

a¡i

y

x

a − k a1, a2 l − a1 i 1 a2 j

3

a

a™ j (b) a=a¡i+a™ j+a£k

FIGURE 18

See Figure 18 for the geometric interpretation of Equations 3 and 2 and compare with Figure 17.

ExamplE 5 If a − i 1 2j 2 3k and b − 4i 1 7 k, express the vector 2a 1 3b in terms of i, j, and k. SOLUTION Using Properties 1, 2, 5, 6, and 7 of vectors, we have

2a 1 3b − 2si 1 2j 2 3kd 1 3s4i 1 7kd − 2i 1 4j 2 6k 1 12i 1 21k − 14i 1 4j 1 15k

Gibbs Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839–1903), a professor of mathematical physics at Yale College, published the first book on vectors, Vector Analysis, in 1881. More complicated objects, called quaternions, had earlier been invented by Hamilton as mathematical tools for describing space, but they weren’t easy for scientists to use. Quaternions have a scalar part and a vector part. Gibb’s idea was to use the vector part separately. Maxwell and Heaviside had similar ideas, but Gibb’s approach has proved to be the most convenient way to study space.

■

A unit vector is a vector whose length is 1. For instance, i, j, and k are all unit vectors. In general, if a ± 0, then the unit vector that has the same direction as a is 4

1 a a− a | | |a|

u−

In order to verify this, we let c − 1y| a |. Then u − ca and c is a positive scalar, so u has the same direction as a. Also 1

| u | − | ca | − | c || a | − | a | | a | − 1 ExamplE 6 Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector 2i 2 j 2 2k. SOLUTION The given vector has length

| 2i 2 j 2 2k | − s2

2

1 s21d2 1 s22d2 − s9 − 3

so, by Equation 4, the unit vector with the same direction is 1 3 s2i

2 j 2 2kd − 23 i 2 13 j 2 23 k

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Applications Vectors are useful in many aspects of physics and engineering. In Chapter 13 we will see how they describe the velocity and acceleration of objects moving in space. Here we look at forces. A force is represented by a vector because it has both a magnitude (measured in pounds or newtons) and a direction. If several forces are acting on an object, the resultant force experienced by the object is the vector sum of these forces. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

804

CHAPTER 12 Vectors and the Geometry of Space

ExamplE 7 A load with mass 100 kg hangs from two wires as shown in Figure 19. Find the tensions (forces) T1 and T2 in both wires and the magnitudes of the tensions. 50°

32°

T¡

100

FIGURE 19

50° T¡

T™

50°

32°

32°

SOLUTION We first express T1 and T2 in terms of their horizontal and vertical components. From Figure 20 we see that

F

FIGURE 20

T™

5

T1 − 2| T1 | cos 50° i 1 | T1 | sin 50° j

6

T2 − | T2 | cos 32° i 1 | T2 | sin 32° j

The force of gravity acting on the load is F − 2100s9.8d j − 2980 j. The resultant T1 1 T2 of the tensions counterbalances F and so we must have T1 1 T2 − 2F − 980 j Thus

(2| T1 | cos 50° 1 | T2 | cos 32°) i 1 (| T1 | sin 50° 1 | T2 | sin 32°) j − 980 j Equating components, we get 2| T1 | cos 50° 1 | T2 | cos 32° − 0

| T | sin 50° 1 | T | sin 32° − 980 Solving the first of these equations for | T | and substituting into the second, we get 1

2

2

T | cos 50° sin 32° − 980 | T | sin 50° 1 | cos 32° 1

1

So the magnitudes of the tensions are

|T | − 1

and

980 < 839 N sin 50° 1 tan 32° cos 50°

T cos 50° | T | − | cos| 32° < 636 N 1

2

Substituting these values in (5) and (6), we obtain the tension vectors T1 < 2539 i 1 643 j T2 < 539 i 1 337 j

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SECTION 12.2 Vectors

| | | |

1. Are the following quantities vectors or scalars? Explain. (a) The cost of a theater ticket (b) The current in a river (c) The initial flight path from Houston to Dallas (d) The population of the world

8. If the vectors in the figure satisfy u − v − 1 and u 1 v 1 w − 0, what is w ?

2. What is the relationship between the point (4, 7) and the vector k 4, 7 l? Illustrate with a sketch.

v

3. Name all the equal vectors in the parallelogram shown. A

B

| |

u w

9–14 Find a vector a with representation given by the directed line l l segment AB. Draw AB and the equivalent representation starting at the origin. 10. As25, 21d, Bs23, 3d

9. As22, 1d, Bs1, 2d

E

11. As3, 21d, Bs2, 3d 13. As0, 3, 1d, D

l

(a) PQ 1 QR l

12. As3, 2d, Bs1, 0d

Bs2, 3, 21d

14. As0, 6, 21d, Bs3, 4, 4d

C

4. Write each combination of vectors as a single vector. l

805

l

l

l

l

(b) RP 1 PS

l

(c) QS 2 PS

l

(d) RS 1 SP 1 PQ

15–18 Find the sum of the given vectors and illustrate geometrically. 15. k21, 5l, k6, 21l

16. k3, 23l, k1, 6l

17. k3, 0, 1l, k0, 8, 0l

18. k1, 3, 22l, k0, 0, 6l

Q

| |

P

|

|

19–22 Find a 1 b, 4a 1 2b, a , and a 2 b . 19. a − k23, 4l, b − k9, 21l 20. a − 5 i 1 3 j, b − 2i 2 2 j

S

R

21. a − 4 i 2 3 j 1 2 k, b − 2 i 2 4 k

5. Copy the vectors in the figure and use them to draw the following vectors. (a) u 1 v (b) u 1 w (c) v 1 w (d) u 2 v (e) v 1 u 1 w (f) u 2 w 2 v

22. a − k8, 1, 24l, b − k5, 22, 1l 23–25 Find a unit vector that has the same direction as the given vector. 23. k6, 22l

u

25. 8 i 2 j 1 4 k

w

v

24. 25 i 1 3 j 2 k

6. Copy the vectors in the figure and use them to draw the following vectors. (a) a 1 b (b) a 2 b (c) 12 a (d) 23b (e) a 1 2b (f) 2b 2 a

26. Find the vector that has the same direction as k6, 2, 23l but has length 4. 27–28 What is the angle between the given vector and the positive direction of the x-axis? 27. i 1 s3 j

b

a

7. In the figure, the tip of c and the tail of d are both the midpoint of QR. Express c and d in terms of a and b. P

b a

c R

d Q

28. 8 i 1 6 j

29. If v lies in the first quadrant and makes an angle y3 with the positive x-axis and v − 4, find v in component form.

| |

30. If a child pulls a sled through the snow on a level path with a force of 50 N exerted at an angle of 388 above the horizontal, find the horizontal and vertical components of the force. 31. A quarterback throws a football with angle of elevation 40° and speed 60 ftys. Find the horizontal and vertical components of the velocity vector.

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806

CHAPTER 12 Vectors and the Geometry of Space

32–33 Find the magnitude of the resultant force and the angle it makes with the positive x-axis. 32.

33.

y

0

y

20 N

200 N 300 N

45° 30°

38. The tension T at each end of a chain has magnitude 25 N (see the figure). What is the weight of the chain?

37°

60° 0

x

37°

x

16 N

34. The magnitude of a velocity vector is called speed. Suppose that a wind is blowing from the direction N45°W at a speed of 50 kmyh. (This means that the direction from which the wind blows is 45° west of the northerly direction.) A pilot is steering a plane in the direction N60°E at an airspeed (speed in still air) of 250 kmyh. The true course, or track, of the plane is the direction of the resultant of the velocity vectors of the plane and the wind. The ground speed of the plane is the magnitude of the resultant. Find the true course and the ground speed of the plane. 35. A woman walks due west on the deck of a ship at 5 kmyh. The ship is moving north at a speed of 35 kmyh. Find the speed and direction of the woman relative to the surface of the water. 36. Ropes 3 m and 5 m in length are fastened to a holiday decoration that is suspended over a town square. The decoration has a mass of 5 kg. The ropes, fastened at different heights, make angles of 52° and 40° with the horizontal. Find the tension in each wire and the magnitude of each tension.

39. A boatman wants to cross a canal that is 3 km wide and wants to land at a point 2 km upstream from his starting point. The current in the canal flows at 3.5 kmyh and the speed of his boat is 13 kmyh. (a) In what direction should he steer? (b) How long will the trip take? 40. Three forces act on an object. Two of the forces are at an angle of 100° to each other and have magnitudes 25 N and 12 N. The third is perpendicular to the plane of these two forces and has magnitude 4 N. Calculate the magnitude of the force that would exactly counterbalance these three forces. 41. Find the unit vectors that are parallel to the tangent line to the parabola y − x 2 at the point s2, 4d. 42. (a) Find the unit vectors that are parallel to the tangent line to the curve y − 2 sin x at the point sy6, 1d. (b) Find the unit vectors that are perpendicular to the tangent line. (c) Sketch the curve y − 2 sin x and the vectors in parts (a) and (b), all starting at sy6, 1d. 43. If A, B, and C are the vertices of a triangle, find l

l

l

AB 1 BC 1 CA 40° 52° 3m

5m

44. Let C be the point on the line segment AB that is twice as far l l l from B as it is from A. If a − OA, b − OB, and c − OC, show 1 2 that c − 3 a 1 3 b. 45. (a) Draw the vectors a − k3, 2l, b − k2, 21l, and c − k7, 1l. (b) Show, by means of a sketch, that there are scalars s and t such that c − sa 1 t b. (c) Use the sketch to estimate the values of s and t. (d) Find the exact values of s and t.

37. A block-and-tackle pulley hoist is suspended in a warehouse by ropes of lengths 2 m and 3 m. The hoist weighs 350 N. The ropes, fastened at different heights, make angles of 50° and 38° with the horizontal. Find the tension in each rope and the magnitude of each tension.

38° 50° 2m

3m

46. Suppose that a and b are nonzero vectors that are not parallel and c is any vector in the plane determined by a and b. Give a geometric argument to show that c can be written as c − sa 1 t b for suitable scalars s and t. Then give an argument using components. 47. If r − kx, y, zl and r0 − kx 0 , y0 , z0l, describe the set of all points sx, y, zd such that r 2 r0 − 1.

|

|

48. If r − kx, yl, r1 − kx 1, y1l, and r2 − kx 2 , y2l, describe the set of all points sx, yd such that r 2 r1 1 r 2 r2 − k, where k . r1 2 r2 .

|

|

|

| |

|

49. Figure 16 gives a geometric demonstration of Property 2 of vectors. Use components to give an algebraic proof of this fact for the case n − 2. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

807

SECTION 12.3 The Dot Product

50. Prove Property 5 of vectors algebraically for the case n − 3. Then use similar triangles to give a geometric proof.

and an array of corner mirrors on the moon, to calculate very precisely the distance from the earth to the moon.)

51. Use vectors to prove that the line joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side and half its length. 52. Suppose the three coordinate planes are all mirrored and a light ray given by the vector a − ka 1, a 2 , a 3l first strikes the xz-plane, as shown in the figure. Use the fact that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection to show that the direction of the reflected ray is given by b − ka 1, 2a 2 , a 3l. Deduce that, after being reflected by all three mutually perpendicular mirrors, the resulting ray is parallel to the initial ray. (American space scientists used this principle, together with laser beams

z

b a y x

So far we have added two vectors and multiplied a vector by a scalar. The question arises: is it possible to multiply two vectors so that their product is a useful quantity? One such product is the dot product, whose definition follows. Another is the cross product, which is discussed in the next section. 1 Definition If a − ka 1, a 2 , a 3 l and b − kb1, b2 , b3 l, then the dot product of a and b is the number a ? b given by a ? b − a 1 b1 1 a 2 b2 1 a 3 b3 Thus, to find the dot product of a and b, we multiply corresponding components and add. The result is not a vector. It is a real number, that is, a scalar. For this reason, the dot product is sometimes called the scalar product (or inner product). Although Definition 1 is given for three-dimensional vectors, the dot product of two-dimensional vectors is defined in a similar fashion: ka 1, a 2 l ? kb1, b2 l − a 1 b1 1 a 2 b2

ExamplE 1 k2, 4l ? k3, 21l − 2s3d 1 4s21d − 2 k21, 7, 4l ? k 6, 2, 212 l − s21ds6d 1 7s2d 1 4(212 ) − 6 si 1 2j 2 3kd ? s2j 2 kd − 1s0d 1 2s2d 1 s23ds21d − 7

■

The dot product obeys many of the laws that hold for ordinary products of real numbers. These are stated in the following theorem. 2 Properties of the Dot Product If a, b, and c are vectors in V3 and c is a scalar, then 2. a ? b − b ? a 1. a ? a − | a |2 3. a ? sb 1 cd − a ? b 1 a ? c 4. scad ? b − csa ? bd − a ? scbd 5. 0 ? a − 0

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808

CHAPTER 12 Vectors and the Geometry of Space

These properties are easily proved using Definition 1. For instance, here are the proofs of Properties 1 and 3: 1. a ? a − a12 1 a22 1 a32 − | a |2 3. a ? sb 1 cd − ka1, a2, a3l ? kb1 1 c1, b2 1 c2 , b3 1 c3l − a 1sb1 1 c1d 1 a 2sb2 1 c2d 1 a 3sb3 1 c3d − a 1 b1 1 a 1 c1 1 a 2 b2 1 a 2 c2 1 a 3 b3 1 a 3 c3 − sa 1 b1 1 a 2 b2 1 a 3 b3d 1 sa 1 c1 1 a 2 c2 1 a 3 c3 d −a?b1a?c The proofs of the remaining properties are left as exercises. z

B a-b

b ¨ O x

a

A

■

The dot product a ? b can be given a geometric interpretation in terms of the angle  between a and b, which is defined to be the angle between the representations of a and b that start at the origin, where 0 <  < . In other words,  is the angle between the l l line segments OA and OB in Figure 1. Note that if a and b are parallel vectors, then  − 0 or  − . The formula in the following theorem is used by physicists as the definition of the dot product.

y

3 Theorem If  is the angle between the vectors a and b, then

FIGURE 1

a ? b − | a || b | cos  PROOF If we apply the Law of Cosines to triangle OAB in Figure 1, we get

| AB |

2

4

− | OA |2 1 | OB |2 2 2 | OA || OB | cos 

(Observe that the Law of Cosines still applies in the limiting cases when  − 0 or , or a − 0 or b − 0.) But | OA | − | a |, | OB | − | b |, and | AB | − | a 2 b |, so Equation 4 becomes

|a 2 b|

2

5

− | a |2 1 | b |2 2 2 | a || b | cos 

Using Properties 1, 2, and 3 of the dot product, we can rewrite the left side of this equation as follows:

|a 2 b|

2

− sa 2 bd ? sa 2 bd −a?a2a?b2b?a1b?b − | a |2 2 2a ? b 1 | b |2

Therefore Equation 5 gives

|a|

2

Thus or

2 2a ? b 1 | b |2 − | a |2 1 | b |2 2 2 | a || b | cos  22a ? b − 22 | a || b | cos  a ? b − | a || b | cos 

■

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SECTION 12.3 The Dot Product

809

ExamplE 2 If the vectors a and b have lengths 4 and 6, and the angle between them is y3, find a ? b. SOLUTION Using Theorem 3, we have

a ? b − | a || b | cossy3d − 4 ? 6 ? 12 − 12

■

The formula in Theorem 3 also enables us to find the angle between two vectors. 6 Corollary If  is the angle between the nonzero vectors a and b, then cos  −

a?b | a || b |

ExamplE 3 Find the angle between the vectors a − k 2, 2, 21l and b − k 5, 23, 2 l. SOLUTION Since

| a | − s2

2

1 2 2 1 s21d2 − 3

and

| b | − s5

2

1 s23d2 1 2 2 − s38

and since a ? b − 2s5d 1 2s23d 1 s21ds2d − 2 we have, from Corollary 6, cos  −

a?b 2 − a b 3s38 | || |

So the angle between a and b is  − cos21

S D 2 3s38

< 1.46 sor 84°d

■

Two nonzero vectors a and b are called perpendicular or orthogonal if the angle between them is  − y2. Then Theorem 3 gives a ? b − | a || b | cossy2d − 0 and conversely if a ? b − 0, then cos  − 0, so  − y2. The zero vector 0 is considered to be perpendicular to all vectors. Therefore we have the following method for determining whether two vectors are orthogonal. 7

Two vectors a and b are orthogonal if and only if a ? b − 0.

ExamplE 4 Show that 2i 1 2j 2 k is perpendicular to 5i 2 4j 1 2k. SOLUTION Since

s2i 1 2j 2 kd ? s5i 2 4j 1 2kd − 2s5d 1 2s24d 1 s21ds2d − 0 these vectors are perpendicular by (7).

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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810

CHAPTER 12 Vectors and the Geometry of Space

a

¨

a

¨

b

a · b> 0 ¨ acute

b

a · b=0 ¨=π/2

b

a · b 0 when 0 <  < , we have

| a 3 b | − | a || b | sin  Geometric characterization of a 3 b

■

Since a vector is completely determined by its magnitude and direction, we can now say that a 3 b is the vector that is perpendicular to both a and b, whose orientation is determined by the right-hand rule, and whose length is | a || b | sin . In fact, that is exactly how physicists define a 3 b. 10 Corollary Two nonzero vectors a and b are parallel if and only if a3b−0 PROOF Two nonzero vectors a and b are parallel if and only if  − 0 or . In either case sin  − 0, so | a 3 b | − 0 and therefore a 3 b − 0. ■

b

b  sin ¨

¨

FIGURE 2

a

The geometric interpretation of Theorem 9 can be seen by looking at Figure 2. If a and b are represented by directed line segments with the same initial point, then they determine a parallelogram with base | a |, altitude | b | sin , and area A − | a | ( | b | sin ) − | a 3 b | Thus we have the following way of interpreting the magnitude of a cross product.

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818

CHAPTER 12 Vectors and the Geometry of Space

The length of the cross product a 3 b is equal to the area of the parallelogram determined by a and b.

ExamplE 3 Find a vector perpendicular to the plane that passes through the points Ps1, 4, 6d, Qs22, 5, 21d, and Rs1, 21, 1d. l l l l SOLUTION The vector PQ 3 PR is perpendicular to both PQ and PR and is therefore

perpendicular to the plane through P, Q, and R. We know from (12.2.1) that l

PQ − s22 2 1d i 1 s5 2 4d j 1 s21 2 6d k − 23i 1 j 2 7k l

PR − s1 2 1d i 1 s21 2 4d j 1 s1 2 6dk − 25 j 2 5k We compute the cross product of these vectors:

Z

i PQ 3 PR − 23 0 l

l

j 1 25

k 27 25

Z

− s25 2 35d i 2 s15 2 0d j 1 s15 2 0d k − 240 i 2 15 j 1 15k So the vector k240, 215, 15 l is perpendicular to the given plane. Any nonzero scalar multiple of this vector, such as k28, 23, 3 l, is also perpendicular to the plane. ■

ExamplE 4 Find the area of the triangle with vertices Ps1, 4, 6d, Qs22, 5, 21d, and Rs1, 21, 1d. l l SOLUTION In Example 3 we computed that PQ 3 PR − k240, 215, 15 l. The area of

the parallelogram with adjacent sides PQ and PR is the length of this cross product: l l 3 PR | − ss240d | PQ

2

1 s215d2 1 15 2 − 5s82

The area A of the triangle PQR is half the area of this parallelogram, that is, 52 s82 .

■

If we apply Theorems 8 and 9 to the standard basis vectors i, j, and k using  − y2, we obtain i3j−k

j3k−i

k3i−j

j 3 i − 2k

k 3 j − 2i

i 3 k − 2j

Observe that i3j±j3i Thus the cross product is not commutative. Also i 3 si 3 jd − i 3 k − 2j whereas si 3 id 3 j − 0 3 j − 0

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SECTION 12.4 The Cross Product

819

So the associative law for multiplication does not usually hold; that is, in general, sa 3 bd 3 c ± a 3 sb 3 cd However, some of the usual laws of algebra do hold for cross products. The following theorem summarizes the properties of vector products.

11 Properties of the Cross Product If a, b, and c are vectors and c is a scalar, then 1. a 3 b − 2b 3 a 2. scad 3 b − csa 3 bd − a 3 scbd 3. a 3 sb 1 cd − a 3 b 1 a 3 c 4. sa 1 bd 3 c − a 3 c 1 b 3 c 5. a ? sb 3 cd − sa 3 bd ? c 6. a 3 sb 3 cd − sa ? cdb 2 sa ? bdc These properties can be proved by writing the vectors in terms of their components and using the definition of a cross product. We give the proof of Property 5 and leave the remaining proofs as exercises. PROOF OF PROPERTY 5 If a − k a 1, a 2 , a 3 l, b − kb1, b2 , b3 l, and c − k c1, c2 , c3 l, then

12

a ? sb 3 cd − a 1sb2 c3 2 b3 c2d 1 a 2sb3 c1 2 b1 c3d 1 a 3sb1 c2 2 b2 c1d − a 1 b2 c3 2 a 1 b3 c2 1 a 2 b3 c1 2 a 2 b1 c3 1 a 3 b1 c2 2 a 3 b2 c1 − sa 2 b3 2 a 3 b2 dc1 1 sa 3 b1 2 a 1 b3 dc2 1 sa 1 b2 2 a 2 b1 dc3 − sa 3 bd ? c

■

Triple Products The product a ? sb 3 cd that occurs in Property 5 is called the scalar triple product of the vectors a, b, and c. Notice from Equation 12 that we can write the scalar triple product as a determinant: 13

a2 b2 c2

a3 b3 c3

Z

The geometric significance of the scalar triple product can be seen by considering the parallelepiped determined by the vectors a, b, and c. (See Figure 3.) The area of the base parallelogram is A − | b 3 c |. If  is the angle between a and b 3 c, then the height h of the parallelepiped is h − | a || cos  |. (We must use | cos  | instead of cos  in case  . y2.) Therefore the volume of the parallelepiped is

bxc h ¨ a c b

FIGURE 3

Z

a1 a ? sb 3 cd − b1 c1

V − Ah − | b 3 c || a || cos  | − | a ? sb 3 cd | Thus we have proved the following formula.

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820

CHAPTER 12 Vectors and the Geometry of Space

14 The volume of the parallelepiped determined by the vectors a, b, and c is the magnitude of their scalar triple product: V − | a ? sb 3 cd | If we use the formula in (14) and discover that the volume of the parallelepiped determined by a, b, and c is 0, then the vectors must lie in the same plane; that is, they are coplanar.

ExamplE 5 Use the scalar triple product to show that the vectors a − k 1, 4, 27 l, b − k 2, 21, 4l, and c − k 0, 29, 18l are coplanar. SOLUTION We use Equation 13 to compute their scalar triple product:

Z

1 4 27 a ? sb 3 cd − 2 21 4 0 29 18 −1

Z

Z

Z Z Z Z

21 4 2 4 2 21 24 27 29 18 0 18 0 29

Z

− 1s18d 2 4s36d 2 7s218d − 0 Therefore, by (14), the volume of the parallelepiped determined by a, b, and c is 0. This means that a, b, and c are coplanar.

■

The product a 3 sb 3 cd that occurs in Property 6 is called the vector triple product of a, b, and c. Property 6 will be used to derive Kepler’s First Law of planetary motion in Chapter 13. Its proof is left as Exercise 50. 

Torque r ¨ F

The idea of a cross product occurs often in physics. In particular, we consider a force F acting on a rigid body at a point given by a position vector r. (For instance, if we tighten a bolt by applying a force to a wrench as in Figure 4, we produce a turning effect.) The torque t (relative to the origin) is defined to be the cross product of the position and force vectors t−r3F

FIGURE 4

and measures the tendency of the body to rotate about the origin. The direction of the torque vector indicates the axis of rotation. According to Theorem 9, the magnitude of the torque vector is 75° 0.25 m

FIGURE 5

40 N

| t | − | r 3 F | − | r || F | sin  where  is the angle between the position and force vectors. Observe that the only component of F that can cause a rotation is the one perpendicular to r, that is, | F | sin . The magnitude of the torque is equal to the area of the parallelogram determined by r and F.

ExamplE 6 A bolt is tightened by applying a 40-N force to a 0.25-m wrench as shown in Figure 5. Find the magnitude of the torque about the center of the bolt.

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SECTION 12.4 The Cross Product

821

SOLUTION The magnitude of the torque vector is

| t | − | r 3 F | − | r || F | sin 75° − s0.25ds40d sin 75° − 10 sin 75° < 9.66 N ∙ m If the bolt is right-threaded, then the torque vector itself is t − | t | n < 9.66 n where n is a unit vector directed down into the page (by the right-hand rule).

1–7 Find the cross product a 3 b and verify that it is orthogonal to both a and b.

■

(b) Use the right-hand rule to decide whether the components of a 3 b are positive, negative, or 0.

1. a − k2, 3, 0l, b − k1, 0, 5l

z

2. a − k4, 3, 22l, b − k2, 21, 1l 3. a − 2 j 2 4 k, b − 2i 1 3 j 1 k

b

4. a − 3 i 1 3 j 2 3 k, b − 3 i 2 3 j 1 3 k a

5. a − 12 i 1 13 j 1 14 k, b − i 1 2 j 2 3 k 6. a − t i 1 cos t j 1 sin t k, 2

y x

b − i 2 sin t j 1 cos t k 17. If a − k 2, 21, 3 l and b − k 4, 2, 1 l, find a 3 b and b 3 a.

2

7. a − k t, 1, 1yt l, b − k t , t , 1 l 8. If a − i 2 2 k and b − j 1 k, find a 3 b. Sketch a, b, and a 3 b as vectors starting at the origin. 9–12 Find the vector, not with determinants, but by using properties of cross products. 9. si 3 jd 3 k 11. s j 2 id 3 sk 2 id

18. If a − k 1, 0, 1l, b − k 2, 1, 21 l , and c − k 0, 1, 3 l, show that a 3 sb 3 cd ± sa 3 bd 3 c. 19. Find two unit vectors orthogonal to both k 3, 2, 1 l and k 21, 1, 0 l. 20. Find two unit vectors orthogonal to both j 2 k and i 1 j.

10. i 3 si 3 kd

21. Show that 0 3 a − 0 − a 3 0 for any vector a in V3.

12. si 1 kd 3 si 2 kd

22. Show that sa 3 bd ? b − 0 for all vectors a and b in V3. 23–26 Prove the property of cross products (Theorem 11).

13. State whether each expression is meaningful. If not, explain why. If so, state whether it is a vector or a scalar. (a) a ? sb 3 cd (b) a 3 sb ? cd (c) a 3 sb 3 cd (d) a ? sb ? cd (e) sa ? bd 3 sc ? dd (f) sa 3 bd ? sc 3 dd

|

|

14–15 Find u 3 v and determine whether u 3 v is directed into the page or out of the page. |v |=6

14.

15.

|u |=5

24. Property 2: scad 3 b − csa 3 bd − a 3 scbd 25. Property 3: a 3 sb 1 cd − a 3 b 1 a 3 c 26. Property 4: sa 1 bd 3 c − a 3 c 1 b 3 c 27. Find the area of the parallelogram with vertices As23, 0d, Bs21, 3d, Cs5, 2d, and Ds3, 21d. 28. Find the area of the parallelogram with vertices Ps1, 0, 2d, Qs3, 3, 3d, Rs7, 5, 8d, and Ss5, 2, 7d.

60° |u |=7

23. Property 1: a 3 b − 2b 3 a

150° | v |=10

29–32 (a) Find a nonzero vector orthogonal to the plane through the points P, Q, and R, and (b) find the area of triangle PQR. 29. Ps1, 0, 1d, 16. The figure shows a vector a in the xy-plane and a vector b in the direction of k. Their lengths are a − 3 and b − 2. (a) Find a 3 b .

|

|

| |

| |

Qs22, 1, 3d,

30. Ps21, 3, 1d,

Qs0, 5, 2d,

31. Ps0, 22, 0d,

Qs4, 1, 22d,

Rs4, 2, 5d Rs4, 3, 21d Rs5, 3, 1d

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

822

CHAPTER 12 Vectors and the Geometry of Space

minimum values of the length of the vector u 3 v. In what direction does u 3 v point?

32. Ps2, 23, 4d, Qs21, 22, 2d, Rs3, 1, 23d

33–34 Find the volume of the parallelepiped determined by the vectors a, b, and c. 33. a − k6, 3, 21 l, b − k0, 1, 2 l, 34. a − i 1 j 2 k ,

c − k4, 22, 5 l

b − i 2 j 1 k,

43. If a ? b − s3 and a 3 b − k1, 2, 2 l, find the angle between a and b. 44. (a) Find all vectors v such that k1, 2, 1 l 3 v − k 3, 1, 25 l

c − 2i 1 j 1 k

(b) Explain why there is no vector v such that 35–36 Find the volume of the parallelepiped with adjacent edges PQ, PR, and PS. 35. Ps22, 1, 0d, Qs2, 3, 2d,

Rs1, 4, 21d, Ss3, 6, 1d

36. Ps3, 0, 1d,

Rs5, 1, 21d, Ss0, 4, 2d

Qs21, 2, 5d,

k1, 2, 1 l 3 v − k3, 1, 5 l 45. (a) Let P be a point not on the line L that passes through the points Q and R. Show that the distance d from the point P to the line L is

|a 3 b| |a|

d− 37. Use the scalar triple product to verify that the vectors u − i 1 5 j 2 2 k, v − 3 i 2 j, and w − 5 i 1 9 j 2 4 k are coplanar. 38. Use the scalar triple product to determine whether the points As1, 3, 2d, Bs3, 21, 6d, Cs5, 2, 0d, and Ds3, 6, 24d lie in the same plane. 39. A bicycle pedal is pushed by a foot with a 60-N force as shown. The shaft of the pedal is 18 cm long. Find the magnitude of the torque about P.

l

l

where a − QR and b − QP. (b) Use the formula in part (a) to find the distance from the point Ps1, 1, 1d to the line through Qs0, 6, 8d and Rs21, 4, 7d. 46. (a) Let P be a point not on the plane that passes through the points Q, R, and S. Show that the distance d from P to the plane is a ? sb 3 cd d− a3b

|

l

|

|

l

|

l

where a − QR, b − QS, and c − QP. (b) Use the formula in part (a) to find the distance from the point Ps2, 1, 4d to the plane through the points Qs1, 0, 0d, Rs0, 2, 0d, and Ss0, 0, 3d.

60 N 70° 10°

P

|

47. Show that a 3 b

|

2

| | |b|

− a

2

2

2 sa ? bd2.

48. If a 1 b 1 c − 0, show that 40. Find the magnitude of the torque about P if a 240-N force is applied as shown.

a3b−b3c−c3a 49. Prove that sa 2 bd 3 sa 1 bd − 2sa 3 bd.

2m

50. Prove Property 6 of cross products, that is,

P

a 3 sb 3 cd − sa ? cdb 2 sa ? bdc 2m

51. Use Exercise 50 to prove that a 3 sb 3 cd 1 b 3 sc 3 ad 1 c 3 sa 3 bd − 0

30° 240 N

52. Prove that sa 3 bd ? sc 3 dd −

41. A wrench 30 cm long lies along the positive y-axis and grips a bolt at the origin. A force is applied in the direction k0, 3, 24 l at the end of the wrench. Find the magnitude of the force needed to supply 100 N ∙ m of torque to the bolt. 42. Let v − 5 j and let u be a vector with length 3 that starts at the origin and rotates in the xy -plane. Find the maximum and

Z

a? c b?c a?d b?d

Z

53. Suppose that a ± 0. (a) If a ? b − a ? c, does it follow that b − c? (b) If a 3 b − a 3 c, does it follow that b − c? (c) If a ? b − a ? c and a 3 b − a 3 c, does it follow that b − c?

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 12.5 Equations of Lines and Planes

54. If v1, v2, and v3 are noncoplanar vectors, let k1 −

v2 3 v3 v1 ? sv2 3 v3 d

k2 −

v3 3 v1 v1 ? sv2 3 v3 d

k3 −

v1 3 v2 v1 ? sv2 3 v3 d

DISCOVERY PROJECT

823

(These vectors occur in the study of crystallography. Vectors of the form n1 v1 1 n 2 v2 1 n3 v3 , where each n i is an integer, form a lattice for a crystal. Vectors written similarly in terms of k1, k 2, and k 3 form the reciprocal lattice.) (a) Show that k i is perpendicular to vj if i ± j. (b) Show that k i ? vi − 1 for i − 1, 2, 3. (c) Show that k1 ? sk 2 3 k 3 d −

1 . v1 ? sv2 3 v3 d

THE GEOMETRY OF A TETRAHEDRON A tetrahedron is a solid with four vertices, P, Q, R, and S, and four triangular faces, as shown in the figure.

P

1. Let v1, v2, v3, and v4 be vectors with lengths equal to the areas of the faces opposite the vertices P, Q, R, and S, respectively, and directions perpendicular to the respective faces and pointing outward. Show that S

v1 1 v2 1 v3 1 v4 − 0

R

Q

2. The volume V of a tetrahedron is one-third the distance from a vertex to the opposite face, times the area of that face. (a) Find a formula for the volume of a tetrahedron in terms of the coordinates of its vertices P, Q, R, and S. (b) Find the volume of the tetrahedron whose vertices are Ps1, 1, 1d, Qs1, 2, 3d, Rs1, 1, 2d, and Ss3, 21, 2d. 3. Suppose the tetrahedron in the figure has a trirectangular vertex S. (This means that the three angles at S are all right angles.) Let A, B, and C be the areas of the three faces that meet at S, and let D be the area of the opposite face PQR. Using the result of Problem 1, or otherwise, show that D 2 − A2 1 B 2 1 C 2 (This is a three-dimensional version of the Pythagorean Theorem.)

Lines z

P¸(x¸, y¸, z¸) a P(x, y, z)

L O

r¸ r v

x y

FIGURE 1

A line in the xy-plane is determined when a point on the line and the direction of the line (its slope or angle of inclination) are given. The equation of the line can then be written using the point-slope form. Likewise, a line L in three-dimensional space is determined when we know a point P0sx 0 , y0 , z0d on L and the direction of L. In three dimensions the direction of a line is conveniently described by a vector, so we let v be a vector parallel to L. Let Psx, y, zd be an arbitrary point on L and let r0 and r be the position vectors of P0 and P (that is, they l A and OP). If a is the vector with representation P¸P A, as in Fighave representations OP¸ ure 1, then the Triangle Law for vector addition gives r − r0 1 a. But, since a and v are parallel vectors, there is a scalar t such that a − tv. Thus

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

824

CHAPTER 12 Vectors and the Geometry of Space

1

z

r − r0 1 tv

t>0

t=0

L

t 0, note that r l 0 1 as sx, yd l s0, 0d.] 39.

lim

x3 1 y3 x2 1 y2

lim

sx 2 1 y 2 d lnsx 2 1 y 2 d

lim

e 2x 2y 2 1 x2 1 y2

sx, yd l s0, 0d

40.

sx, yd l s0, 0d

25–26 Find hsx, yd − ts f sx, ydd and the set of points at which h is continuous. 25. tstd − t 2 1 st , 26. tstd − t 1 ln t,

2

41.

sx, yd l s0, 0d

2

f sx, yd − 2 x 1 3y 2 6 f sx, yd −

1 2 xy 1 1 x2y2

; 42. At the beginning of this section we considered the function f sx, yd −

; 27–28 Graph the function and observe where it is discontinuous. Then use the formula to explain what you have observed. 1 27. f sx, yd − e 1ysx2yd 28. f sx, yd − 1 2 x2 2 y2

sinsx 2 1 y 2 d x2 1 y2

and guessed on the basis of numerical evidence that f sx, yd l 1 as sx, yd l s0, 0d. Use polar coordinates to confirm the value of the limit. Then graph the function. ; 43. Graph and discuss the continuity of the function

29–38 Determine the set of points at which the function is continuous. xy 29. Fsx, yd − 30. Fsx, yd − cos s1 1 x 2 y 1 1 e x2y 31. Fsx, yd −

1 1 x2 1 y2 1 2 x2 2 y2

32. Hsx, yd −

33. Gsx, yd − sx 1 s1 2 x 2 2 y 2

35. Gsx, yd − lnsx 2 1 y 2 2 4d 36. Gsx, yd − tan21(sx 1 yd22)

37. f sx, yd −

H

H

sin xy xy 1

if xy ± 0 if xy − 0

44. Let f sx, yd −

H

0 if y < 0 or y > x 4 1 if 0 , y , x 4

(a) Show that f sx, yd l 0 as sx, yd l s0, 0d along any path through s0, 0d of the form y − mx a with 0 , a , 4. (b) Despite part (a), show that f is discontinuous at s0, 0d. (c) Show that f is discontinuous on two entire curves.

34. Gsx, yd − lns1 1 x 2 yd

x2y3 2x2 1 y2 1

ex 1 ey e xy 2 1

f sx, yd −

if sx, yd ± s0, 0d if sx, yd − s0, 0d

| |

45. Show that the function f given by f sxd − x is continuous on R n. [Hint: Consider x 2 a 2 − sx 2 ad ? sx 2 ad.]

|

|

46. If c [ Vn , show that the function f given by f sxd − c ? x is continuous on R n.

On a hot day, extreme humidity makes us think the temperature is higher than it really is, whereas in very dry air we perceive the temperature to be lower than the thermometer indicates. The Meteorological Service of Canada has devised the humidex (or temperaturehumidity index) to describe the combined effects of temperature and humidity. The

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

912

Chapter 14

Partial Derivatives

humidex I is the perceived air temperature when the actual temperature is T and the relative humidity is H. So I is a function of T and H and we can write I − f sT, H d. The following table of values of I is an excerpt from a table compiled by the Meteorological Service. Table 1 Heat index I as a function of temperature and humidity Relative humidity (%) H

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

26

28

28

29

31

31

32

33

34

35

28

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

30

34

35

36

37

38

40

41

42

43

32

37

38

39

41

42

43

45

46

47

34

41

42

43

45

47

48

49

51

52

36

43

45

47

48

50

51

53

54

56

T

Actual temperature (°C)

If we concentrate on the highlighted column of the table, which corresponds to a relative humidity of H − 60%, we are considering the humidex as a function of the single variable T for a fixed value of H. Let’s write tsT d − f sT, 60d. Then tsT d describes how the heat index I increases as the actual temperature T increases when the relative humidity is 60%. The derivative of t when T − 30°C is the rate of change of I with respect to T when T − 30°C: t9s30d − lim

hl0

ts30 1 hd 2 ts30d f s30 1 h, 60d 2 f s30, 60d − lim h l 0 h h

We can approximate t9s30d using the values in Table 1 by taking h − 2 and 22: t9s30d
tsx, yd for all sx, yd in D, then

yy f sx, yd dA > yy tsx, yd dA

8

D

y

The next property of double integrals is similar to the property of single integrals given by the equation yab f sxd dx − yac f sxd dx 1 ycb f sxd dx. If D − D1 ø D2, where D1 and D2 don’t overlap except perhaps on their boundaries (see Figure 17), then

D D¡

D™

x

0

D

9

yy D

f sx, yd dA −

yy D1

f sx, yd dA 1

yy

f sx, yd dA

D2

FIGURE 17

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 15.2

1007

Double Integrals over General Regions

Property 9 can be used to evaluate double integrals over regions D that are neither type I nor type II but can be expressed as a union of regions of type I or type II. Figure 18 illustrates this procedure. (See Exercises 57 and 58.) y

y

D™ D

D¡

0

FIGURE 18

x

(a) D is neither type I nor type II.

0

x

(b) D=D¡  D™, D¡ is type I, D™ is type II.

The next property of integrals says that if we integrate the constant function f sx, yd − 1 over a region D, we get the area of D:

10

yy 1 dA − AsDd D

z

Figure 19 illustrates why Equation 10 is true: A solid cylinder whose base is D and whose height is 1 has volume AsDd  1 − AsDd, but we know that we can also write its volume as yyD 1 dA. Finally, we can combine Properties 7, 8, and 10 to prove the following property. (See Exercise 63.)

z=1

0

D x

FIGURE 19 Cylinder with base D and height 1

y

11 If m < f sx, yd < M for all sx, yd in D, then mAsDd < yy f sx, yd dA < MAsDd D

ExamplE 6 Use Property 11 to estimate the integral yyD e sin x cos y dA, where D is the disk with center the origin and radius 2. SOLUTION Since 21 < sin x < 1 and 21 < cos y < 1, we have 21 < sin x cos y < 1 and therefore

e21 < e sin x cos y < e 1 − e Thus, using m − e 21 − 1ye, M − e, and AsDd − s2d2 in Property 11, we obtain 4 < yy e sin x cos y dA < 4e e D

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

■

1008

CHAPTER 15

Multiple Integrals

1–6 Evaluate the iterated integral. 1.

yy 5

x

1

0

17–22 Evaluate the double integral.

s8x 2 2yd dy dx

2.

yy 2

y2

0

0

x 2 y dx dy

17.

yy x cos y dA,

D is bounded by y − 0, y − x 2, x − 1

D

3.

5.

yy 1

y

0

0

yy

s2

1

0

3

xe y dx dy

0

4.

3

cosss d dt ds

6.

y y y2

x

0

0

yy 1

0

18.

x sin y dy dx

0

s1 2 v du dv 2

D

8.

y dA, D − hsx, yd x 11 2

D − hsx, yd

0 < x < 4, 0 < y < sx

| |

yy e

dA, D − hsx, yd

|

0 < y < 3, 0 < x < yj

D

10.

yy y sx

2

2 y 2 dA, D − hsx, yd

|

0 < x < 2, 0 < y < xj

D

D is bounded by the circle with center the origin and radius 2

yy x dA,

D is enclosed by the lines y − x, y − 0, x − 1

yy xy dA,

D is enclosed by the curves y − x 2, y − 3x

D

D is the triangular region with vertices s0, 0d,

D

s1, 1d, and s4, 0d 23–32 Find the volume of the given solid.

27. The tetrahedron enclosed by the coordinate planes and the plane 2x 1 y 1 z − 4 28. Enclosed by the paraboloid z − x 2 1 3y 2 and the planes x − 0, y − 1, y − x, z − 0 29. Bounded by the coordinate planes and the plane 3x 1 2y 1 z − 6 30. Bounded by the cylinder y 2 1 z 2 − 4 and the planes x − 2y, x − 0, z − 0 in the first octant

15–16 Set up iterated integrals for both orders of integration. Then evaluate the double integral using the easier order and explain why it’s easier.

yy y dA,

D is bounded by y − x 2 2, x − y

yy y e

2 xy

dA,

31. Bounded by the cylinder x 2 1 y 2 − 1 and the planes y − z, x − 0, z − 0 in the first octant 32. Bounded by the cylinders x 2 1 y 2 − r 2 and y 2 1 z 2 − r 2

2

D

D

yy y dA,

26. Enclosed by the paraboloid z − x 2 1 y 2 1 1 and the planes x − 0, y − 0, z − 0, and x 1 y − 2

D

16.

yy s2x 2 yd dA,

25. Under the surface z − xy and above the triangle with vertices s1, 1d, s4, 1d, and s1, 2d

13–14 Express D as a region of type I and also as a region of type II. Then evaluate the double integral in two ways.

15.

D is enclosed by the quarter-circle

24. Under the surface z − 2x 1 y 2 and above the region bounded by x − y 2 and x − y 3

12. Draw an example of a region that is (a) both type I and type II (b) neither type I nor type II

14.

yy xy dA,

23. Under the plane 3x 1 2y 2 z − 0 and above the region enclosed by the parabolas y − x 2 and x − y 2

11. Draw an example of a region that is (a) type I but not type II (b) type II but not type I

13.

dA,

D

1 < y < 2, y 2 1 < x < 1j 22.

9.

2

y − s1 2 x 2 , x > 0, and the axes

j

D

2y 2

yy y

D

21.

yy s2x 1 yd dA,

D is enclosed by x − 0 and x − s1 2 y 2

D is the triangular region with vertices (0, 1), (1, 2), s4, 1d 20.

yy

dA,

D

7–10 Evaluate the double integral. 7.

2

D

19. v

yy xy

D is bounded by y − x, y − 4, x − 0

; 33. Use a graphing calculator or computer to estimate the x-coordinates of the points of intersection of the curves y − x 4 and y − 3x 2 x 2. If D is the region bounded by these curves, estimate yyD x dA.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 15.2

; 34. Find the approximate volume of the solid in the first octant that is bounded by the planes y − x, z − 0, and z − x and the cylinder y − cos x. (Use a graphing device to estimate the points of intersection.)

53.

yy 1

0

54.

35. The solid enclosed by the parabolic cylinders y − 1 2 x 2, y − x 2 2 1 and the planes x 1 y 1 z − 2, 2x 1 2y 2 z 1 10 − 0

55.

56.

sy 3 1 1 dy dx

sx

yy

1

yy 4

2

0

sx

yy

1

2

0

35–38 Find the volume of the solid by subtracting two volumes.

1

yy2

1

0

x

1009

Double Integrals over General Regions

y cossx 3 2 1d dx dy 1 dy dx y3 1 1 e xyy dy dx

36. The solid enclosed by the parabolic cylinder y − x 2 and the planes z − 3y, z − 2 1 y 37. The solid under the plane z − 3, above the plane z − y, and between the parabolic cylinders y − x 2 and y − 1 2 x 2

57–58 Express D as a union of regions of type I or type II and evaluate the integral. 57.

38. The solid in the first octant under the plane z − x 1 y, above the surface z − xy, and enclosed by the surfaces x − 0, y − 0, and x 2 1 y 2 − 4

yy x

2

dA

58.

D

D

y y

1

1

39.

yy

12x

0

0

s1 2 x 2 yd dy dx

40.

yy 1

0

12x 2

0

_1 _1

0

1

0

x

x

s1 2 xd dy dx _1

CAS

x=y-Á

y=(x+1)@

(1, 1)

D

39–40 Sketch the solid whose volume is given by the iterated integral. 1

yy y dA

_1

41–44 Use a computer algebra system to find the exact volume of the solid. 41. Under the surface z − x 3 y 4 1 xy 2 and above the region bounded by the curves y − x 3 2 x and y − x 2 1 x for x > 0

59–60 Use Property 11 to estimate the value of the integral. 59.

yy s4 2 x

2

|

y 2 dA, S − hsx, yd x 2 1 y 2 < 1, x > 0j

S

42. Between the paraboloids z − 2x 2 1 y 2 and z − 8 2 x 2 2 2y 2 and inside the cylinder x 2 1 y 2 − 1

60.

yy e

2sx 21y 2 d2

dA, Q is the quarter-circle with center the orgin

Q

and radius 12 in the first quadrant

43. Enclosed by z − 1 2 x 2 2 y 2 and z − 0 44. Enclosed by z − x 2 1 y 2 and z − 2y

61–62 Find the averge value of f over the region D. 45–50 Sketch the region of integration and change the order of integration. 45.

yy 1

0

47.

y

0

y y y2

0

49.

f sx, yd dx dy

0

yy 2

1

cos x

ln x

0

f sx, yd dy dx

f sx, yd dy dx

46.

48.

yy 2

4

0

x2

y y 2

yy 1

0

s42y 2

0

22

50.

f sx, yd dy dx

y4

arctan x

f sx, yd dx dy

f sx, yd dy dx

51–56 Evaluate the integral by reversing the order of integration. 51.

yy 1

3

0

3y

2

e x dx dy

52.

yy 1

1

0

x2

sy sin y dy dx

61. f sx, yd − xy, and s1, 3d

D is the triangle with vertices s0, 0d, s1, 0d,

62. f sx, yd − x sin y, D is enclosed by the curves y − 0, y − x 2, and x − 1 63. Prove Property 11. 64. In evaluating a double integral over a region D, a sum of iterated integrals was obtained as follows:

yy f sx, yd dA − y y 1

2y

0

0

f sx, yd dx dy 1 y

3

1

y

32y

0

f sx, yd dx dy

D

Sketch the region D and express the double integral as an iterated integral with reversed order of integration.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

1010

CHAPTER 15

Multiple Integrals

65–69 Use geometry or symmetry, or both, to evaluate the double integral. 65.

68.

66.

yy sR

y 3 2 y 2 sin xd dA,

D

D

|

2

D − hsx, yd

yy sx 1 2d dA, D − hsx, yd

yy s2 1 x

69.

0 < y < s9 2 x 2 j

yy sax

3

| | x | 1 | y | < 1j

1 by 3 1 sa 2 2 x 2 d dA,

D

D − f2a, ag 3 f2b, bg 2

2 x 2 2 y 2 dA,

D

D is the disk with center the origin and radius R 67.

CAS

yy s2x 1 3yd dA, D

D is the rectangle 0 < x < a, 0 < y < b

70. Graph the solid bounded by the plane x 1 y 1 z − 1 and the paraboloid z − 4 2 x 2 2 y 2 and find its exact volume. (Use your CAS to do the graphing, to find the equations of the boundary curves of the region of integration, and to evaluate the double integral.)

Suppose that we want to evaluate a double integral yyR f sx, yd dA, where R is one of the regions shown in Figure 1. In either case the description of R in terms of rectangular coordinates is rather complicated, but R is easily described using polar coordinates. y

y

≈+¥=4

≈+¥=1 R

R 0

x 0

FIGURE 1

y

P (r, ¨) =P (x, y) r

(a) R=s(r, ¨) | 0¯r¯1, 0¯¨¯2πd

x

(b) R=s(r, ¨) | 1¯r¯2, 0¯¨¯πd

Recall from Figure 2 that the polar coordinates sr, d of a point are related to the rectangular coordinates sx, yd by the equations

r2 − x2 1 y2

y

≈+¥=1

x − r cos 

y − r sin 

¨ O

x

FIGURE 2

x

(See Section 10.3.) The regions in Figure 1 are special cases of a polar rectangle R − hsr, d

|

a < r < b,  <  <  j

which is shown in Figure 3. In order to compute the double integral yyR f sx, yd dA, where  R is a polar rectangle, we divide the interval fa, bg into m subintervals fri21, ri g of equal width Dr − sb 2 adym and we divide the interval f, g into n subintervals fj21, j g of equal width D − s 2 dyn. Then the circles r − ri and the rays  −  j divide the polar rectangle R into the small polar rectangles Rij shown in Figure 4. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 15.3

Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates

1011

¨=¨ j ¨=¨ j-1 r=b

R ij

¨=∫

(ri*, ¨j*)

R Ψ r=a

r=ri

¨=å

r=ri-1

∫ å O

O

FIGURE 3 Polar rectangle

FIGURE 4 Dividing R into polar subrectangles

The “center” of the polar subrectangle Rij − hsr, d

i21

< r < ri ,  j21 <  <  j j

ri* − 12 sri21 1 ri d

 j* − 12 sj21 1 j d

|r

has polar coordinates We compute the area of Rij using the fact that the area of a sector of a circle with radius r and central angle  is 12 r 2. Subtracting the areas of two such sectors, each of which has central angle D −  j 2  j21, we find that the area of Rij is 2 2 DAi − 12 ri2 D 2 12 ri21 D − 12 sri2 2 ri21 d D

− 12 sri 1 ri21 dsri 2 ri21 d D − ri* Dr D Although we have defined the double integral yyR f sx, yd dA in terms of ordinary rectangles, it can be shown that, for continuous functions f, we always obtain the same answer using polar rectangles. The rectangular coordinates of the center of Rij are sri* cos  j*, ri* sin  j* d, so a typical Riemann sum is m

1

n

m

n

o o f sri* cos  j*, ri* sin  j*d DAi − i−1 o j−1 o f sri* cos  j*, ri* sin  j* d ri* Dr D i−1 j−1

If we write tsr, d − r f sr cos , r sin d, then the Riemann sum in Equation 1 can be written as m n o o tsri*,  j* d Dr D i−1 j−1

which is a Riemann sum for the double integral

y y 

b

a



tsr, d dr d

Therefore we have m

n

yy f sx, yd dA − m,lim o o f sr* cos  *, r* sin  * d DA nl ` i

j

i

j

i

i−1 j−1

R

m

n

o o tsri*,  j* d Dr D − y ya tsr, d dr d m, nl ` i−1 j−1

− lim −y





y

b

a

 b

f sr cos , r sin d r dr d

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1012

CHAPTER 15

Multiple Integrals

2 Change to Polar Coodinates in a Double Integral If f is continuous on a polar rectangle R given by 0 < a < r < b,  <  < , where 0 <  2  < 2, then

yy f sx, yd dA − y y 



R

dA

b

a

f sr cos , r sin d r dr d

The formula in (2) says that we convert from rectangular to polar coordinates in a double integral by writing x − r cos  and y − r sin , using the appropriate limits of integration for r and , and replacing dA by r dr d. Be careful not to forget the additional factor r on the right side of Formula 2. A classical method for remembering this is shown in Figure 5, where the “infinitesimal” polar rectangle can be thought of as an ordinary rectangle with dimensions r d and dr and therefore has “area” dA − r dr d.

d¨ dr

bounded by the circles x 2 1 y 2 − 1 and x 2 1 y 2 − 4.

r d¨

r

ExamplE 1 Evaluate yyR s3x 1 4y 2 d dA, where R is the region in the upper half-plane SOLUTION The region R can be described as

O

R − hsx, yd

FIGURE 5

| y > 0,

1 < x 2 1 y 2 < 4j

It is the half-ring shown in Figure 1(b), and in polar coordinates it is given by 1 < r < 2, 0 <  < . Therefore, by Formula 2,

yy s3x 1 4y

2

d dA − y



y

2

0

−y



y

2

−y



−y



R

1

0

1

0

Here we use the trigonometric identity 2

sin  −

1 2 s1

2 cos 2d

See Section 7.2 for advice on integrating trigonometric functions.

0

fr

s3r cos  1 4r 2 sin 2d r dr d s3r 2 cos  1 4r 3 sin 2d dr d

3

cos  1 r 4 sin 2g r−1 d − y s7 cos  1 15 sin 2d d r−2



0

f7 cos  1 152 s1 2 cos 2dg d

G



15 15 − 7 sin  1 2 sin 2 2 4

− 0

15 2

■

ExamplE 2 Find the volume of the solid bounded by the plane z − 0 and the paraboloid z − 1 2 x 2 2 y 2. SOLUTION If we put z − 0 in the equation of the paraboloid, we get x 2 1 y 2 − 1. This

z (0, 0, 1)

means that the plane intersects the paraboloid in the circle x 2 1 y 2 − 1, so the solid lies under the paraboloid and above the circular disk D given by x 2 1 y 2 < 1 [see Figures 6 and 1(a)]. In polar coordinates D is given by 0 < r < 1, 0 <  < 2. Since 1 2 x 2 2 y 2 − 1 2 r 2, the volume is

0

D y

x

FIGURE 6

V − yy s1 2 x 2 2 y 2 d dA − y 2

0

F

d y sr 2 r 3 d dr − 2 1

0

y

1

0

0

D

−y

2

s1 2 r 2 d r dr d

r2 r4 2 2 4

G

1

− 0

 2

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SECTION 15.3

Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates

1013

If we had used rectangular coordinates instead of polar coordinates, then we would have obtained V − yy s1 2 x 2 2 y 2 d dA − y

1

21

D

y

s12x 2

2s12x 2

s1 2 x 2 2 y 2 d dy dx

which is not easy to evaluate because it involves finding y s1 2 x 2 d3y2 dx.

r=h™(¨)

¨=∫

■

What we have done so far can be extended to the more complicated type of region shown in Figure 7. It’s similar to the type II rectangular regions considered in Section 15.2. In fact, by combining Formula 2 in this section with Formula 15.2.5, we obtain the following formula.

D ¨=å

∫

3 If f is continuous on a polar region of the form

å O

D − hsr, d |  <  < , h1sd < r < h2sdj

r=h¡(¨)

then

FIGURE 7

yy f sx, yd dA − y y 

D

D=s(r, ¨) | å¯¨¯∫, h¡(¨)¯r¯h™(¨)d

h2 sd

h1sd



f sr cos , r sin d r dr d

In particular, taking f sx, yd − 1, h1sd − 0, and h2sd − hsd in this formula, we see that the area of the region D bounded by  − ,  − , and r − hsd is AsDd − yy 1 dA − y D

yF G 

−





r2 2

y

hsd

0



r dr d

hsd

0

d − y

 1



2 fhsdg

2

d

and this agrees with Formula 10.4.3.

ExamplE 3 Use a double integral to find the area enclosed by one loop of the fourleaved rose r − cos 2. SOLUTION From the sketch of the curve in Figure 8, we see that a loop is given by the π ¨= 4

region D − h s r, d

| 2y4 <  < y4, 0 < r < cos 2j

So the area is AsDd − yy dA − y π ¨=_ 4

FIGURE 8

2y4

D

−y

y4

y4

2y4

− 14 y

f 21 r g

y4

2y4

2

cos 2 0

y

cos 2

0

r dr d

d − 12 y

y4

2y4

cos 2 2 d y4

s1 1 cos 4d d − 14 f 1 14 sin 4g2y4 −

 8

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■

1014

CHAPTER 15

Multiple Integrals

ExamplE 4 Find the volume of the solid that lies under the paraboloid z − x 2 1 y 2,

y

above the xy-plane, and inside the cylinder x 2 1 y 2 − 2x.

(x-1)@+¥=1 (or  r=2 cos ¨)

SOLUTION The solid lies above the disk D whose boundary circle has equation

x 2 1 y 2 − 2x or, after completing the square, D 0

sx 2 1d2 1 y 2 − 1

1

x

2

(See Figures 9 and 10.) In polar coordinates we have x 2 1 y 2 − r 2 and x − r cos , so the boundary circle becomes r 2 − 2r cos , or r − 2 cos . Thus the disk D is given by D − hs r, d | 2y2 <  < y2, 0 < r < 2 cos  j

FIGURE 9

and, by Formula 3, we have

z

V − yy sx 1 y d dA − y 2

2

2y2

D

−4y

y2

−2y

y2

2y2

x

y2

0

cos 4 d − 8 y

y

2 cos 

0

y2

0

2

r r dr d −

cos 4 d − 8

0

y2

1–4 A region R is shown. Decide whether to use polar coordinates or rectangular coordinates and write yyR f sx, yd dA as an iterated integral, where f is an arbitrary continuous function on R. y 4

5.

y

3y4

y4

d 0

1 1 cos 2 2

D

2

d

3 2

 2

−

3 2

■

y

2

1

r dr d

6.

y y 

2 sin 

y2

0

r dr d

1

7–14 Evaluate the given integral by changing to polar coordinates.

R 0

FG

5–6 Sketch the region whose area is given by the integral and evaluate the integral.

y

2.

S

S DS D

− 2 f 32  1 sin 2 1 18 sin 4g 0 − 2

1.

2y2

2 cos 

r4 4

f1 1 2 cos 2 1 12 s1 1 cos 4dg d

y

FIGURE 10

y

y2

y

y2

4

x

_1

0

1

x

7. yyD x 2 y dA, where D is the top half of the disk with center the origin and radius 5 8. yyR s2x 2 yd dA, where R is the region in the first quadrant enclosed by the circle x 2 1 y 2 − 4 and the lines x − 0 and y − x

3.

4.

y

y

9. yyR sinsx 2 1 y 2 d dA, where R is the region in the first quadrant between the circles with center the origin and radii 1 and 3 R

_1

1 0

10. x

0

R _3

3 x

y2 dA, where R is the region that lies between the x 1 y2 R circles x 2 1 y 2 − a 2 and x 2 1 y 2 − b 2 with 0 , a , b

yy

2

2

_1

2

11. yy D e2x 2y dA, where D is the region bounded by the semicircle x − s4 2 y 2 and the y-axis

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SECTION 15.3

12. yyD cos sx 2 1 y 2 dA, where D is the disk with center the origin and radius 2

31.

13. yyR arctans yyxd dA, where R − hsx, yd 1 < x 2 1 y 2 < 4, 0 < y < xj

32.

|

14. yyD x dA, where D is the region in the first quadrant that lies between the circles x 2 1 y 2 − 4 and x 2 1 y 2 − 2x 15–18 Use a double integral to find the area of the region. 15. One loop of the rose r − cos 3 16. The region enclosed by both of the cardioids r − 1 1 cos  and r − 1 2 cos  2

1y2

s12y 2

s3 y

0

yy

a 0

0 2sa 22y 2

xy 2 dx dy x 2 y dx dy

33–34 Express the double integral in terms of a single integral with respect to r. Then use your calculator to evaluate the integral correct to four decimal places. 33. yyD e sx 1 y radius 1 2

2d2

dA, where D is the disk with center the origin and

34. yy D xy s1 1 x 2 1 y 2 dA, where D is the portion of the disk x 2 1 y 2 < 1 that lies in the first quadrant

2

17. The region inside the circle sx 2 1d 1 y − 1 and outside the circle x 2 1 y 2 − 1 18. The region inside the cardioid r − 1 1 cos  and outside the circle r − 3 cos  19–27 Use polar coordinates to find the volume of the given solid. 2

y y

1015

Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates

2

19. Under the paraboloid z − x 1 y and above the disk x 2 1 y 2 < 25 20. Below the cone z − sx 2 1 y 2 and above the ring 1 < x2 1 y2 < 4 21. Below the plane 2x 1 y 1 z − 4 and above the disk x2 1 y2 < 1 22. Below the paraboloid z − 18 2 2x 2 2 2y 2 and above the xy-plane 23. A sphere of radius a

35. A swimming pool is circular with a 10-meter diameter. The depth is constant along east-west lines and increases linearly from 1 m at the south end to 2 m at the north end. Find the volume of water in the pool. 36. An agricultural sprinkler distributes water in a circular pattern of radius 50 m. It supplies water to a depth of e2r meters per hour at a distance of r meters from the sprinkler. (a) If 0 , R < 50, what is the total amount of water supplied per hour to the region inside the circle of radius R centered at the sprinkler? (b) Determine an expression for the average amount of water per hour per square meter supplied to the region inside the circle of radius R. 37. Find the average value of the function f sx, yd − 1ysx 2 1 y 2 on the annular region a 2 < x 2 1 y 2 < b 2, where 0 , a , b. 38. Let D be the disk with center the origin and radius a. What is the average distance from points in D to the origin?

24. Bounded by the paraboloids z − 3x 2 1 3y 2 and z − 4 2 x2 2 y2

39. Use polar coordinates to combine the sum

25. Above the cone z − sx 2 1 y 2 and below the sphere x 2 1 y 2 1 z2 − 1

y

1

1ys2

2

y

x

s12x 2

xy dy dx 1 y

s2

1

y

x

0

xy dy dx 1 y

2

s2

y

s42x 2

0

xy dy dx

2

26. Bounded by the paraboloids z − 6 2 x 2 y and z − 2x 2 1 2y 2 27. Inside both the cylinder x 2 1 y 2 − 4 and the ellipsoid 4x 2 1 4y 2 1 z 2 − 64

into one double integral. Then evaluate the double integral. 40. (a) We define the improper integral (over the entire plane R 2 d I − yy e2sx

21y 2 d

dA

R2

28. (a) A cylindrical drill with radius r 1 is used to bore a hole through the center of a sphere of radius r 2 . Find the volume of the ring-shaped solid that remains. (b) Express the volume in part (a) in terms of the height h of the ring. Notice that the volume depends only on h, not on r 1 or r 2. 29–32 Evaluate the iterated integral by converting to polar coordinates. 29.

yy 2

0

s42x 2

0

e2x

2 2y 2

dy dx

30.

yy a

sa 22y 2

0

2sa 22y 2

s2x 1 yd dx dy

−y

`

2`

y

`

2`

e2sx

2 1y 2 d

dy dx

− lim yy e2sx 1y d dA 2

2

al`

Da

where Da is the disk with radius a and center the origin. Show that

y y `

`

2`

2`

2

2

e2sx 1y d dA − 

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

1016

CHAPTER 15 Multiple Integrals

(b) An equivalent definition of the improper integral in part (a) is

yy e

2sx 21y 2 d

dA − lim

al `

R2

yy e

2sx 21y 2 d

(c) Deduce that

y

`

y

Sa

where Sa is the square with vertices s6a, 6ad. Use this to show that `

e2x dx y 2

2`

`

`

2

e2x y2 dx − s2

(This is a fundamental result for probability and statistics.) 41. Use the result of Exercise 40 part (c) to evaluate the following integrals.

2

2`

e2x dx − s

(d) By making the change of variable t − s2 x, show that

dA

2`

y

2

2`

e2y dy − 

(a)

y

`

0

2

x 2e2x dx

(b)

y

`

0

sx e2x dx

We have already seen one application of double integrals: computing volumes. Another geometric application is finding areas of surfaces and this will be done in the next section. In this section we explore physical applications such as computing mass, electric charge, center of mass, and moment of inertia. We will see that these physical ideas are also important when applied to probability density functions of two random variables.

Density and Mass In Section 8.3 we were able to use single integrals to compute moments and the center of mass of a thin plate or lamina with constant density. But now, equipped with the double integral, we can consider a lamina with variable density. Suppose the lamina occupies a region D of the xy-plane and its density (in units of mass per unit area) at a point sx, yd in D is given by sx, yd, where  is a continuous function on D. This means that

y (x, y)

D

sx, yd − lim

0

x

FIGURE 1 y

(xij* , yij* )

R ij

Dm DA

where Dm and DA are the mass and area of a small rectangle that contains sx, yd and the limit is taken as the dimensions of the rectangle approach 0. (See Figure 1.) To find the total mass m of the lamina we divide a rectangle R containing D into subrectangles Rij of the same size (as in Figure 2) and consider sx, yd to be 0 outside D. If we choose a point sx ij*, yij* d in Rij , then the mass of the part of the lamina that occupies Rij is approximately sx ij*, yij* d DA, where DA is the area of Rij. If we add all such masses, we get an approximation to the total mass: k

m
0 for all x, y2` f sxd dx − 1, and the probability that X lies between a and b is found by integrating f from a to b: Psa < X < bd − y f sxd dx b

a

Now we consider a pair of continuous random variables X and Y, such as the lifetimes of two components of a machine or the height and weight of an adult female chosen at random. The joint density function of X and Y is a function f of two variables such that the probability that sX, Y d lies in a region D is PssX, Y d [ Dd − yy f sx, yd dA D

In particular, if the region is a rectangle, the probability that X lies between a and b and Y lies between c and d is Psa < X < b, c < Y < dd − y

b

a

y

d

c

f sx, yd dy dx

(See Figure 7.) z

z=f(x, y)

a

c

d b

FIGURE 7 The probability that X lies between a and b and Y lies between c and d is the volume that lies above the rectangle D=[a, b]x[c, d ] and below the graph of the joint density function.

x

D

y

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

1022

CHAPTER 15

Multiple Integrals

Because probabilities aren’t negative and are measured on a scale from 0 to 1, the joint density function has the following properties:

yy f sx, yd dA − 1

f sx, yd > 0

R2

As in Exercise 15.3.40, the double integral over R2 is an improper integral defined as the limit of double integrals over expanding circles or squares, and we can write

yy f sx, yd dA − y y R2

`

`

2`

2`

f sx, yd dx dy − 1

ExamplE 6 If the joint density function for X and Y is given by f sx, yd −

H

Csx 1 2yd if 0 < x < 10, 0 < y < 10 0 otherwise

find the value of the constant C. Then find PsX < 7, Y > 2d. SOLUTION We find the value of C by ensuring that the double integral of f is equal to 1. Because f sx, yd − 0 outside the rectangle f0, 10g 3 f0, 10g, we have

y y `

`

2`

2`

f sx, yd dy dx − y

10

0

y

10

0

Csx 1 2yd dy dx − C y

10

0

f xy 1 y g 2

y−10 y−0

dx

− C y s10x 1100d dx − 1500C 10

0

1 Therefore 1500C − 1 and so C − 1500 . Now we can compute the probability that X is at most 7 and Y is at least 2:

PsX < 7, Y > 2d − y

7

2`

y

`

2

f sx, yd dy dx − y

7

0

y

10

2

y−10

1 1500 sx

1 2yd dy dx

1 1 − 1500 y f xy 1 y 2g y−2 dx − 1500 y s8x 1 96d dx 7

0

7

0

868 − 1500 < 0.5787

■

Suppose X is a random variable with probability density function f1sxd and Y is a random variable with density function f2s yd. Then X and Y are called independent random variables if their joint density function is the product of their individual density functions: f sx, yd − f1sxd f2syd In Section 8.5 we modeled waiting times by using exponential density functions f std −

H

0 21e2ty

if t , 0 if t > 0

where  is the mean waiting time. In the next example we consider a situation with two independent waiting times.

ExamplE 7 The manager of a movie theater determines that the average time moviegoers wait in line to buy a ticket for this week’s film is 10 minutes and the average time they wait to buy popcorn is 5 minutes. Assuming that the waiting times are independent, Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 15.4 Applications of Double Integrals

1023

find the probability that a moviegoer waits a total of less than 20 minutes before taking his or her seat. SOLUTION Assuming that both the waiting time X for the ticket purchase and the waiting time Y in the refreshment line are modeled by exponential probability density functions, we can write the individual density functions as

f1sxd −

H

0 1 2xy10 10 e

if x , 0 if x > 0

f2s yd −

H

if y , 0 if y > 0

0 1 2yy5 5e

Since X and Y are independent, the joint density function is the product: f sx, yd − f1sxd f2syd −

H

1 2xy10 2yy5 e 50 e

if x > 0, y > 0 otherwise

0

We are asked for the probability that X 1 Y , 20: PsX 1 Y , 20d − PssX, Yd [ Dd where D is the triangular region shown in Figure 8. Thus

y 20

PsX 1 Y , 20d − yy f sx, yd dA − y D

x+y=20

1 − 50 y

D

20

0

20

0

fe

2xy10

y

202x 1

2xy10 2yy5

50 e

0

e

dy dx

y−202x

s25de2yy5g y−0

dx

1 − 10 y e2xy10s1 2 e sx220dy5 d dx 20

0

20 x

0

1 − 10 y se2xy10 2 e24e xy10 d dx 20

FIGURE 8

0

− 1 1 e24 2 2e22 < 0.7476 This means that about 75% of the moviegoers wait less than 20 minutes before taking their seats.

■

Expected Values Recall from Section 8.5 that if X is a random variable with probability density function f, then its mean is `  − y x f sxd dx 2`

Now if X and Y are random variables with joint density function f , we define the X-mean and Y-mean, also called the expected values of X and Y, to be 11

1 − yy x f sx, yd dA R2

 2 − yy y f sx, yd dA R2

Notice how closely the expressions for 1 and  2 in (11) resemble the moments Mx and My of a lamina with density function  in Equations 3 and 4. In fact, we can think of probability as being like continuously distributed mass. We calculate probability the way we calculate mass—by integrating a density function. And because the total “probability mass” is 1, the expressions for x and y in (5) show that we can think of the expected values of X and Y, 1 and  2, as the coordinates of the “center of mass” of the probability distribution. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

1024

CHAPTER 15

Multiple Integrals

In the next example we deal with normal distributions. As in Section 8.5, a single random variable is normally distributed if its probability density function is of the form f sxd −

1

2

s2

e2sx2d ys2

2d

where  is the mean and  is the standard deviation.

ExamplE 8 A factory produces (cylindrically shaped) roller bearings that are sold as having diameter 4.0 cm and length 6.0 cm. In fact, the diameters X are normally distributed with mean 4.0 cm and standard deviation 0.01 cm while the lengths Y are normally distributed with mean 6.0 cm and standard deviation 0.01 cm. Assuming that X and Y are independent, write the joint density function and graph it. Find the probability that a bearing randomly chosen from the production line has either length or diameter that differs from the mean by more than 0.02 cm. SOLUTION We are given that X and Y are normally distributed with 1 − 4.0,  2 − 6.0, and 1 −  2 − 0.01. So the individual density functions for X and Y are

f1sxd −

1 2 e2sx24d y0.0002 0.01s2

1 2 e2s y26d y0.0002 0.01s2

f2s yd −

Since X and Y are independent, the joint density function is the product: 1500

f sx, yd − f1sxd f2s yd

1000 z

500 0 5.95

3.95 y

4

6 6.05

−

1 2 2 e2sx24d y0.0002e2sy26d y0.0002 0.0002

−

5000 25000fsx24d 21s y26d 2g e 

x

4.05

FIGURE 9 Graph of the bivariate normal joint density function in Example 8

A graph of this function is shown in Figure 9. Let’s first calculate the probability that both X and Y differ from their means by less than 0.02 cm. Using a calculator or computer to estimate the integral, we have Ps3.98 , X , 4.02, 5.98 , Y , 6.02d − y

4.02

3.98

−

y

5000 

6.02

5.98

f sx, yd dy dx

y y 4.02

3.98

6.02

5.98

2

2

e25000fsx24d 1s y26d g dy dx

< 0.91 Then the probability that either X or Y differs from its mean by more than 0.02 cm is approximately 1 2 0.91 − 0.09 ■

1. Electric charge is distributed over the rectangle 0 < x < 5, 2 < y < 5 so that the charge density at sx, yd is  sx, yd − 2x 1 4y (measured in coulombs per square meter). Find the total charge on the rectangle. 2. Electric charge is distributed over the disk x 2 1 y 2 < 1 so that the charge density at sx, yd is  sx, yd − sx 2 1 y 2

(measured in coulombs per square meter). Find the total charge on the disk. 3–10 Find the mass and center of mass of the lamina that occupies the region D and has the given density function . 3. D − hsx, yd

| 1 < x < 3, 1 < y < 4j;

sx, yd − ky 2

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 15.4 Applications of Double Integrals

4. D is the triangular region enclosed by the lines x − 0, y − x, and 2x 1 y − 6; sx, yd − x 2

21–24 A lamina with constant density sx, yd −  occupies the given region. Find the moments of inertia I x and I y and the radii of gyration x and y.

5. D is the triangular region with vertices s0, 0d, s2, 1d, s0, 3d; sx, yd − x 1 y

21. The rectangle 0 < x < b, 0 < y < h 22. The triangle with vertices s0, 0d, sb, 0d, and s0, hd

6. D is the triangular region enclosed by the lines y − 0, y − 2x, and x 1 2y − 1; sx, yd − x

23. The part of the disk x 2 1 y 2 < a 2 in the first quadrant

7. D is bounded by y − 1 2 x 2 and y − 0; sx, yd − ky 2

8. D is bounded by y − x 1 2 and y − x ; sx, yd − kx

1025

24. The region under the curve y − sin x from x − 0 to x −  2

9. D is bounded by the curves y − e 2x, y − 0, x − 0, x − 1; sx, yd − xy 10. D is enclosed by the curves y − 0 and y − cos x, 2y2 < x < y2; sx, yd − y 11. A lamina occupies the part of the disk x 2 1 y 2 < 1 in the first quadrant. Find its center of mass if the density at any point is proportional to its distance from the x-axis. 12. Find the center of mass of the lamina in Exercise 11 if the density at any point is proportional to the square of its distance from the origin. 13. The boundary of a lamina consists of the semicircles y − s1 2 x 2 and y − s4 2 x 2 together with the portions of the x-axis that join them. Find the center of mass of the lamina if the density at any point is proportional to its distance from the origin. 14. Find the center of mass of the lamina in Exercise 13 if the density at any point is inversely proportional to its distance from the origin. 15. Find the center of mass of a lamina in the shape of an isosceles right triangle with equal sides of length a if the density at any point is proportional to the square of the distance from the vertex opposite the hypotenuse. 16. A lamina occupies the region inside the circle x 2 1 y 2 − 2y but outside the circle x 2 1 y 2 − 1. Find the center of mass if the density at any point is inversely proportional to its distance from the origin. 17. Find the moments of inertia Ix , Iy , I0 for the lamina of Exercise 3. 18. Find the moments of inertia I x , I y , I 0 for the lamina of Exercise 6. 19. Find the moments of inertia I x , I y , I 0 for the lamina of Exercise 15. 20. Consider a square fan blade with sides of length 2 and the lower left corner placed at the origin. If the density of the blade is sx, yd − 1 1 0.1x, is it more difficult to rotate the blade about the x-axis or the y-axis?

CAS

25–26 Use a computer algebra system to find the mass, center of mass, and moments of inertia of the lamina that occupies the region D and has the given density function. 25. D is enclosed by the right loop of the four-leaved rose r − cos 2; sx, yd − x 2 1 y 2 26. D − hsx, yd

| 0 < y < xe

2x

, 0 < x < 2 j;

sx, yd − x 2 y 2

27. The joint density function for a pair of random variables X and Y is f sx, yd −

H

Cxs1 1 yd 0

if 0 < x < 1, 0 < y < 2 otherwise

(a) Find the value of the constant C. (b) Find PsX < 1, Y < 1d. (c) Find PsX 1 Y < 1d. 28. (a) Verify that f sx, yd −

H

4xy if 0 < x < 1, 0 < y < 1 0 otherwise

is a joint density function. (b) If X and Y are random variables whose joint density function is the function f in part (a), find (i) P sX > 21 d (ii) P sX > 12 , Y < 21 d (c) Find the expected values of X and Y. 29. Suppose X and Y are random variables with joint density function f sx, yd −

H

0.1e2s0.5x10.2yd if x > 0, y > 0 0 otherwise

(a) Verify that f is indeed a joint density function. (b) Find the following probabilities. (i) PsY > 1d (ii) PsX < 2, Y < 4d (c) Find the expected values of X and Y. 30. (a) A lamp has two bulbs, each of a type with average lifetime 1000 hours. Assuming that we can model the probability of failure of a bulb by an exponential density function with mean  − 1000, find the probability that both of the lamp’s bulbs fail within 1000 hours. (b) Another lamp has just one bulb of the same type as in part (a). If one bulb burns out and is replaced by a bulb of the same type, find the probability that the two bulbs fail within a total of 1000 hours.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

1026 CAS

CHAPTER 15 Multiple Integrals

31. Suppose that X and Y are independent random variables, where X is normally distributed with mean 45 and standard deviation 0.5 and Y is normally distributed with mean 20 and standard deviation 0.1. (a) Find Ps40 < X < 50, 20 < Y < 25d. (b) Find Ps4sX 2 45d2 1 100sY 2 20d2 < 2d. 32. Xavier and Yolanda both have classes that end at noon and they agree to meet every day after class. They arrive at the coffee shop independently. Xavier’s arrival time is X and Yolanda’s arrival time is Y, where X and Y are measured in minutes after noon. The individual density functions are

H

f1sxd −

e2x if x > 0 0 if x , 0

f2s yd −

H

1 50 y

0

if 0 < y < 10 otherwise

(Xavier arrives sometime after noon and is more likely to arrive promptly than late. Yolanda always arrives by 12:10 pm and is more likely to arrive late than promptly.) After Yolanda arrives, she’ll wait for up to half an hour for Xavier, but he won’t wait for her. Find the probability that they meet.

In Section 16.6 we will deal with areas of more general surfaces, called parametric surfaces, and so this section need not be covered if that later section will be covered. z

ÎTij

Pij ÎS ij S

Îy

0

x

y

(x i ,  yj )

Îx

D

R ij

33. When studying the spread of an epidemic, we assume that the probability that an infected individual will spread the disease to an uninfected individual is a function of the distance between them. Consider a circular city of radius 10 km in which the population is uniformly distributed. For an uninfected individual at a fixed point Asx 0 , y0 d, assume that the probability function is given by 1 f sPd − 20 f20 2 dsP, Adg

where dsP, Ad denotes the distance between points P and A. (a) Suppose the exposure of a person to the disease is the sum of the probabilities of catching the disease from all members of the population. Assume that the infected people are uniformly distributed throughout the city, with k infected individuals per square kilometer. Find a double integral that represents the exposure of a person residing at A. (b) Evaluate the integral for the case in which A is the center of the city and for the case in which A is located on the edge of the city. Where would you prefer to live?

In this section we apply double integrals to the problem of computing the area of a surface. In Section 8.2 we found the area of a very special type of surface––a surface of revolution––by the methods of single-variable calculus. Here we compute the area of a surface with equation z − f sx, yd, the graph of a function of two variables. Let S be a surface with equation z − f sx, yd, where f has continuous partial derivatives. For simplicity in deriving the surface area formula, we assume that f sx, yd > 0 and the domain D of f is a rectangle. We divide D into small rectangles Rij with area DA − Dx Dy. If sx i, yj d is the corner of Rij closest to the origin, let Pij sx i , yj, f sx i , yjdd be the point on S directly above it (see Figure 1). The tangent plane to S at Pij is an approximation to S near Pij . So the area DTij of the part of this tangent plane (a parallelogram) that lies directly above Rij is an approximation to the area DSij of the part of S that lies directly above Rij . Thus the sum o o DTij is an approximation to the total area of S, and this approximation appears to improve as the number of rectangles increases. Therefore we define the surface area of S to be

ÎA

m

1

AsSd − lim

n

o o DTij

m, nl` i−1 j−1

FIGURE 1

To find a formula that is more convenient than Equation 1 for computational purposes, we let a and b be the vectors that start at Pij and lie along the sides of the parallelogram with area DTij . (See Figure 2.) Then DTij − | a 3 b |. Recall from Section 14.3 that fx sx i , yj d and fy sx i , yj d are the slopes of the tangent lines through Pij in the directions of a and b. Therefore a − Dx i 1 fx sx i , yj d Dx k b − Dy j 1 fy sx i , yj d Dy k Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

SECTION 15.5 Surface Area z

and

Pij

Z

i j k a 3 b − Dx 0 fx sxi , yj d Dx 0 Dy fy sxi , yj d Dy

b a

ÎTij

Îx

− f2fx sx i , yj d i 2 fy sx i , yj d j 1 kg DA

y

x

Z

− 2fx sx i , yj d Dx Dy i 2 fy sx i , yj d Dx Dy j 1 Dx Dy k

Îy

0

1027

Thus

DTij − | a 3 b | − sf fx sx i , yj dg 2 1 f fy sx i , yj dg 2 1 1 DA

FIGURE 2

From Definition 1 we then have m

n

o o DTij m, nl ` i−1 j−1

AsSd − lim

m

− lim

n

o o sf fx sxi , yj dg 2 1 f fy sxi , yj dg 2 1 1 DA

m, nl ` i−1 j−1

and by the definition of a double integral we get the following formula.

2 The area of the surface with equation z − f sx, yd, sx, yd [ D, where fx and fy are continuous, is AsSd − yy sf fxsx, ydg 2 1 f fysx, ydg 2 1 1 dA D

We will verify in Section 16.6 that this formula is consistent with our previous formula for the area of a surface of revolution. If we use the alternative notation for partial derivatives, we can rewrite Formula 2 as follows:

3

AsSd −

Î S D S D

yy D

11

−z −x

2

−z −y

1

2

dA

Notice the similarity between the surface area formula in Equation 3 and the arc length formula from Section 8.1: y

yÎ S D b

(1, 1)

L−

11

a

dy dx

2

dx

y=x

ExamplE 1 Find the surface area of the part of the surface z − x 2 1 2y that lies above

T (0, 0)

FIGURE 3

the triangular region T in the xy-plane with vertices s0, 0d, s1, 0d, and s1, 1d. (1, 0)

x

SOLUTION The region T is shown in Figure 3 and is described by

T − hsx, yd

| 0 < x < 1,

0 < y < xj

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

1028

CHAPTER 15

Multiple Integrals

Using Formula 2 with f sx, yd − x 2 1 2y, we get

z

A − yy ss2xd2 1 s2d2 1 1 dA − y T

− y xs4x 2 1 5 dx − 1

0

y

T

x

1

0

1 8

y

x

0

s4x 2 1 5 dy dx 1

1 ? 23 s4x 2 1 5d3y2g 0 − 12 (27 2 5s5 )

Figure 4 shows the portion of the surface whose area we have just computed.

■

ExamplE 2 Find the area of the part of the paraboloid z − x 2 1 y 2 that lies under the

FIGURE 4

plane z − 9. z

SOLUTION The plane intersects the paraboloid in the circle x 2 1 y 2 − 9, z − 9. There-

9

fore the given surface lies above the disk D with center the origin and radius 3. (See Figure 5.) Using Formula 3, we have A−

yy D

11

2

−z −y

1

2

dA − yy s1 1 s2xd2 1 s2yd2 dA D

− yy s1 1 4sx 2 1 y 2 d dA

D x

Î S D S D −z −x

D

y

3

Converting to polar coordinates, we obtain

FIGURE 5

A−y

2

0

y

3

0

s1 1 4r 2 r dr d − y 3

− 2 (18) 23 s1 1 4r 2 d3y2g 0 −

1–12 Find the area of the surface. 1. The part of the plane 5x 1 3y 2 z 1 6 − 0 that lies above the rectangle f1, 4g 3 f2, 6g 2. The part of the plane 6x 1 4y 1 2z − 1 that lies inside the cylinder x 2 1 y 2 − 25 3. The part of the plane 3x 1 2y 1 z − 6 that lies in the first octant 4. The part of the surface 2y 1 4z 2 x 2 − 5 that lies above the triangle with vertices s0, 0d, s2, 0d, and s2, 4d 5. The part of the paraboloid z − 1 2 x 2 2 y 2 that lies above the plane z − 22 6. The part of the cylinder x 2 1 z 2 − 4 that lies above the square with vertices s0, 0d, s1, 0d, s0, 1d, and s1, 1d 2

2

7. The part of the cylinder y 1 z − 9 that lies above the rectangle with vertices s0, 0d, s4, 0d, s0, 2d, and s4, 2d 2

8. The part of the surface z − 1 1 3x 1 2y that lies above the triangle with vertices s0, 0d, s0, 1d, and s2, 1d

2

0

d y

3 1

0

8 s1

1 4r 2 s8rd dr

 (37s37 2 1) 6

■

9. The part of the surface z − xy that lies within the cylinder x2 1 y2 − 1 10. The part of the paraboloid z − 4 2 x 2 2 y 2 that lies above the xy-plane 11. The part of the sphere x 2 1 y 2 1 z 2 − a 2 that lies within the cylinder x 2 1 y 2 − ax and above the xy-plane 12. The part of the sphere x 2 1 y 2 1 z 2 − 4z that lies inside the paraboloid z − x 2 1 y 2 13–14 Find the area of the surface correct to four decimal places by expressing the area in terms of a single integral and using your calculator to estimate the integral. 13. The part of the surface z − 1ys1 1 x 2 1 y 2 d that lies above the disk x 2 1 y 2 < 1 14. The part of the surface z − cossx 2 1 y 2 d that lies inside the cylinder x 2 1 y 2 − 1

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1029

SECTION 15.6 Triple Integrals

CAS

CAS

15. (a) Use the Midpoint Rule for double integrals (see Section 15.1) with four squares to estimate the surface area of the portion of the paraboloid z − x 2 1 y 2 that lies above the square f0, 1g 3 f0, 1g. (b) Use a computer algebra system to approximate the surface area in part (a) to four decimal places. Compare with the answer to part (a). 16. (a) Use the Midpoint Rule for double integrals with m − n − 2 to estimate the area of the surface z − xy 1 x 2 1 y 2, 0 < x < 2, 0 < y < 2. (b) Use a computer algebra system to approximate the surface area in part (a) to four decimal places. Compare with the answer to part (a).

CAS

17. Find the exact area of the surface z − 1 1 2x 1 3y 1 4y 2, 1 < x < 4, 0 < y < 1.

CAS

18. Find the exact area of the surface z − 1 1 x 1 y 1 x2

22 < x < 1 21 < y < 1

21. Show that the area of the part of the plane z − ax 1 by 1 c that projects onto a region D in the xy-plane with area AsDd is sa 2 1 b 2 1 1 AsDd. 22. If you attempt to use Formula 2 to find the area of the top half of the sphere x 2 1 y 2 1 z 2 − a 2, you have a slight problem because the double integral is improper. In fact, the integrand has an infinite discontinuity at every point of the boundary circle x 2 1 y 2 − a 2. However, the integral can be computed as the limit of the integral over the disk x 2 1 y 2 < t 2 as t l a 2. Use this method to show that the area of a sphere of radius a is 4a 2. 23. Find the area of the finite part of the paraboloid y − x 2 1 z 2 cut off by the plane y − 25. [Hint: Project the surface onto the xz-plane.] 24. The figure shows the surface created when the cylinder y 2 1 z 2 − 1 intersects the cylinder x 2 1 z 2 − 1. Find the area of this surface.

Illustrate by graphing the surface.

z

CAS

19. Find, to four decimal places, the area of the part of the surface z − 1 1 x 2 y 2 that lies above the disk x 2 1 y 2 < 1.

CAS

20. Find, to four decimal places, the area of the part of the surface z − s1 1 x 2 dys1 1 y 2 d that lies above the square x 1 y < 1. Illustrate by graphing this part of the surface.

x

| | | |

y

Just as we defined single integrals for functions of one variable and double integrals for functions of two variables, so we can define triple integrals for functions of three variables. Let’s first deal with the simplest case where f is defined on a rectangular box:

z

B

1 x

y

Bijk

Îx

which are shown in Figure 1. Each sub-box has volume DV − Dx Dy Dz. Then we form the triple Riemann sum l

2

FIGURE 1

a < x < b, c < y < d, r < z < s j

Bi jk − fx i21, x i g 3 f yj21, yj g 3 fzk21, zk g

z

x

|

The first step is to divide B into sub-boxes. We do this by dividing the interval fa, bg into l subintervals fx i21, x i g of equal width Dx, dividing fc, dg into m subintervals of width Dy, and dividing fr, sg into n subintervals of width Dz. The planes through the endpoints of these subintervals parallel to the coordinate planes divide the box B into lmn sub-boxes

Îz Îy

B − h sx, y, zd

y

m

n

o o o f sxij*k , y ij*k , zij*k d DV i−1 j−1 k−1

where the sample point sxi*jk , yi*jk , zi*jk d is in Bi jk . By analogy with the definition of a double integral (15.1.5), we define the triple integral as the limit of the triple Riemann sums in (2).

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

1030

CHAPTER 15

Multiple Integrals

3 Definition The triple integral of f over the box B is l

m

n

yyy f sx, y, zd dV − l, m,limn l ` o o o f sx * , y * , z * d DV i jk

i jk

i jk

i−1 j−1 k−1

B

if this limit exists. Again, the triple integral always exists if f is continuous. We can choose the sample point to be any point in the sub-box, but if we choose it to be the point sx i, yj, zk d we get a simpler-looking expression for the triple integral: l

m

n

yyy f sx, y, zd dV − l, m,limn l ` o o o f sx , y , z d DV i

j

k

i−1 j−1 k−1

B

Just as for double integrals, the practical method for evaluating triple integrals is to express them as iterated integrals as follows. 4 Fubini’s Theorem for Triple Integrals If f is continuous on the rectangular box B − fa, bg 3 fc, dg 3 fr, sg, then

yyy f sx, y, zd dV − y y y s

d

r

B

c

b

a

f sx, y, zd dx dy dz

The iterated integral on the right side of Fubini’s Theorem means that we integrate first with respect to x (keeping y and z fixed), then we integrate with respect to y (keeping z fixed), and finally we integrate with respect to z. There are five other possible orders in which we can integrate, all of which give the same value. For instance, if we integrate with respect to y, then z, and then x, we have

yyy f sx, y, zd dV − y y y b

s

a

B

r

d

c

f sx, y, zd dy dz dx

ExamplE 1 Evaluate the triple integral yyyB xyz 2 dV, where B is the rectangular box given by

|

B − h sx, y, zd

0 < x < 1, 21 < y < 2, 0 < z < 3 j

SOLUTION We could use any of the six possible orders of integration. If we choose to integrate with respect to x, then y, and then z, we obtain

yyy B

xyz 2 dV − y

3

−y

3

−y

3

0

0

0

y y 2

21

y

2

21

1

0

xyz 2 dx dy dz −

yz 2 dy dz − 2

3z 2 z3 dz − 4 4

G

y

3

− 0

3

0

3

2

0

21

yy

F G

27 4

y 2z 2 4

F G x 2 yz 2 2

x−1

dy dz x−0

y−2

dz y−21

■

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SECTION 15.6 Triple Integrals

1031

Now we define the triple integral over a general bounded region E in threedimensional space (a solid) by much the same procedure that we used for double integrals (15.2.2). We enclose E in a box B of the type given by Equation 1. Then we define F so that it agrees with f on E but is 0 for points in B that are outside E. By definition,

yyy f sx, y, zd dV − yyy Fsx, y, zd dV E

z

B

This integral exists if f is continuous and the boundary of E is “reasonably smooth.” The triple integral has essentially the same properties as the double integral (Properties 6–9 in Section 15.2). We restrict our attention to continuous functions f and to certain simple types of regions. A solid region E is said to be of type 1 if it lies between the graphs of two continuous functions of x and y, that is,

z=u™(x, y) E z=u¡(x, y)

5

E − h sx, y, zd

| s x, yd [ D,

u 1sx, yd < z < u 2sx, yd j

0 y

D

x

FIGURE 2 A type 1 solid region

z

z=u™(x, y)

where D is the projection of E onto the xy-plane as shown in Figure 2. Notice that the upper boundary of the solid E is the surface with equation z − u 2sx, yd, while the lower boundary is the surface z − u1sx, yd. By the same sort of argument that led to (15.2.3), it can be shown that if E is a type 1 region given by Equation 5, then

6

F

yyy f sx, y, zd dV − yy y D

E

u2sx, yd

u1sx, yd

G

f sx, y, zd dz dA

E z=u¡(x, y) a x

b

0

y=g¡(x)

D

y

y=g™(x)

The meaning of the inner integral on the right side of Equation 6 is that x and y are held fixed, and therefore u1sx, yd and u 2sx, yd are regarded as constants, while f sx, y, zd is integrated with respect to z. In particular, if the projection D of E onto the xy-plane is a type I plane region (as in Figure 3), then

FIGURE 3

E − h sx, y, zd

A type 1 solid region where the projection D is a type I plane region

z

| a < x < b,

and Equation 6 becomes

7

z=u™(x, y)

t2sxd u2sx, yd

yyy f sx, y, zd dV − y y y b

a

E

E

t1sxd < y < t2sxd, u1sx, yd < z < u 2sx, yd j

t1sxd u1sx, yd

f sx, y, zd dz dy dx

z=u¡(x, y)

If, on the other hand, D is a type II plane region (as in Figure 4), then x=h¡(y) 0 x

c

E − h sx, y, zd

d y

D

| c < y < d,

h1s yd < x < h2s yd, u1sx, yd < z < u 2sx, yd j

and Equation 6 becomes

x=h™(y)

FIGURE 4 A type 1 solid region with a type II projection

8

yyy f sx, y, zd dV − y y y d

E

c

h2syd u2sx, yd

h1syd u1sx, yd

f sx, y, zd dz dx dy

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1032

CHAPTER 15

Multiple Integrals

ExamplE 2 Evaluate yyyE z dV, where E is the solid tetrahedron bounded by the four planes x − 0, y − 0, z − 0, and x 1 y 1 z − 1.

z (0, 0, 1)

z=1-x-y

SOLUTION When we set up a triple integral it’s wise to draw two diagrams: one of the solid region E (see Figure 5) and one of its projection D onto the xy-plane (see Figure 6). The lower boundary of the tetrahedron is the plane z − 0 and the upper boundary is the plane x 1 y 1 z − 1 (or z − 1 2 x 2 y), so we use u1sx, yd − 0 and u 2sx, yd − 1 2 x 2 y in Formula 7. Notice that the planes x 1 y 1 z − 1 and z − 0 intersect in the line x 1 y − 1 (or y − 1 2 x) in the xy-plane. So the projection of E is the triangular region shown in Figure 6, and we have

E (0, 1, 0)

0

y

(1, 0, 0) x

z=0

FIGURE 5

E − h sx, y, zd

9

y

| 0 < x < 1,

0 < y < 1 2 x, 0 < z < 1 2 x 2 y j

This description of E as a type 1 region enables us to evaluate the integral as follows:

1

y=1-x

yyy

D

0

z dV − y

0

E

y=0

x

1

1

−

y y 12x

0

y y

12x2y

0

1 1 12x 2 0 0

z dz dy dx −

12x

0

0

yy

2

s1 2 x 2 yd dy dx −

FIGURE 6

− 16 y s1 2 xd3 dx − 1

0

1 6

F

2

FG yF G

1

1 2

z2 2

dy dx z−0

s1 2 x 2 yd3 2 3

1

0

s1 2 xd4 4

z−12x2y

1

−

0

1 24

G

y−12x

dx y−0

■

A solid region E is of type 2 if it is of the form

z

E − h sx, y, zd D

0

| s y, zd [ D,

u1s y, zd < x < u 2s y, zd j

where, this time, D is the projection of E onto the yz-plane (see Figure 7). The back surface is x − u1s y, zd, the front surface is x − u 2s y, zd, and we have y

E

x

x=u¡(y, z)

10

F

yyy f sx, y, zd dV − yy y E

D

u2sy, zd

u1sy, zd

G

f sx, y, zd dx dA

x=u™(y, z)

Finally, a type 3 region is of the form

FIGURE 7 A type 2 region

E − h sx, y, zd | sx, zd [ D, u1sx, zd < y < u 2sx, zd j

z

where D is the projection of E onto the xz-plane, y − u1sx, zd is the left surface, and y − u 2sx, zd is the right surface (see Figure 8). For this type of region we have

y=u™(x, z)

11

D E

E

0

y=u¡(x, z) x

FIGURE 8 A type 3 region

y

F

yyy f sx, y, zd dV − yy y D

u2sx, zd

u1sx, zd

G

f sx, y, zd dy dA

In each of Equations 10 and 11 there may be two possible expressions for the integral depending on whether D is a type I or type II plane region (and corresponding to Equations 7 and 8).

ExamplE 3 Evaluate yyyE sx 2 1 z 2 dV, where E is the region bounded by the paraboloid y − x 2 1 z 2 and the plane y − 4.

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1033

SECTION 15.6 Triple Integrals

SOLUTION The solid E is shown in Figure 9. If we regard it as a type 1 region, then we need to consider its projection D1 onto the xy-plane, which is the parabolic region in Figure 10. (The trace of y − x 2 1 z 2 in the plane z − 0 is the parabola y − x 2.) z

y

y=≈+z@

TEC Visual 15.6 illustrates how solid regions (including the one in Figure 9) project onto coordinate planes.

y=4 D¡

E

0

y=≈

4

y 0

x

x

FIGURE 9

FIGURE 10

Region of integration

Projection onto xy-plane

From y − x 2 1 z 2 we obtain z − 6sy 2 x 2 , so the lower boundary surface of E is z − 2sy 2 x 2 and the upper surface is z − sy 2 x 2 . Therefore the description of E as a type 1 region is E − h sx, y, zd

| 22 < x < 2,

x 2 < y < 4, 2sy 2 x 2 < z < sy 2 x 2

j

and so we obtain

yyy sx

2

1 z 2 dV −

2

22

E

z

≈+z@=4 D£ _2

0

2

x

2

Fy

1 z 2 dV − yy

sx 2 1 z 2 dz dy dx

G

sx 2 1 z 2 dy dA − yy s4 2 x 2 2 z 2 d sx 2 1 z 2 dA D3

Although this integral could be written as 2

s42x 2

22

2s42x 2

y y The most difficult step in evaluating a triple integral is setting up an expression for the region of integration (such as Equation 9 in Example 2). Remember that the limits of integration in the inner integral contain at most two variables, the limits of integration in the middle integral contain at most one variable, and the limits of integration in the outer integral must be constants.

4

x 21z 2

D3

E

Projection onto xz-plane

4

x 2 2sy2x 2

Although this expression is correct, it is extremely difficult to evaluate. So let’s instead consider E as a type 3 region. As such, its projection D3 onto the xz-plane is the disk x 2 1 z 2 < 4 shown in Figure 11. Then the left boundary of E is the paraboloid y − x 2 1 z 2 and the right boundary is the plane y − 4, so taking u1sx, zd − x 2 1 z 2 and u 2sx, zd − 4 in Equation 11, we have

yyy sx FIGURE 11

sy2x 2

y y y

s4 2 x 2 2 z 2d sx 2 1 z 2 dz dx

it’s easier to convert to polar coordinates in the xz-plane: x − r cos , z − r sin . This gives

yyy sx E

2

1 z 2 dV − yy s4 2 x 2 2 z 2 dsx 2 1 z 2 dA D3

−y

2

0

y

2

0

F

s4 2 r 2 dr r dr d − y

4r 3 r5 − 2 2 3 5

2

0

G

2

− 0

d y s4r 2 2 r 4 d dr 2

0

128 15

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■

1034

CHAPTER 15

Multiple Integrals 2

y

ExamplE 4 Express the iterated integral y10 y0x y0y f sx, y, zd dz dy dx as a triple integral

1

and then rewrite it as an iterated integral in a different order, integrating first with respect to x, then z, and then y.

y=≈

SOLUTION We can write

D¡ 0

1

y y y 1

x

0

z

x2 y

0

0

f sx, y, zd dz dy dx − yyy f sx, y, zd dV E

where E − hsx, y, zd | 0 < x < 1, 0 < y < x , 0 < z < yj. This description of E enables us to write projections onto the three coordinate planes as follows: 2

1

z=y D™ 0

1

z

z=≈ D£ 0

1

D1 − hsx, yd

on the yz-plane:

D2

on the xz-plane:

D3

y

1

| 0 < x < 1, 0 < y < x j − 5sx, yd | 0 < y < 1, sy < x < 16 − hsy, zd | 0 < y < 1, 0 < z < yj − hsx, zd | 0 < x < 1, 0 < z < x j

on the xy-plane:

2

From the resulting sketches of the projections in Figure 12 we sketch the solid E in Figure 13. We see that it is the solid enclosed by the planes z − 0, x − 1, y − z and the parabolic cylinder y − x 2 sor x − sy d. If we integrate first with respect to x, then z, and then y, we use an alternate description of E: E − 5 sx, y, zd | 0 < y < 1, 0 < z < y, sy < x < 1 6 Thus

x

FIGURE 12 Projections of E z

yyy f sx, y, zd dV − y y y 1

z=y

0

y=≈

x

x=1

FIGURE 13 The solid E

0

E

1

1

2

y

y

1

0

sy

f sx, y, zd dx dz dy

■

Applications of Triple Integrals Recall that if f sxd > 0, then the single integral yab f sxd dx represents the area under the curve y − f sxd from a to b, and if f sx, yd > 0, then the double integral yyD f sx, yd dA represents the volume under the surface z − f sx, yd and above D. The corresponding interpretation of a triple integral yyyE f sx, y, zd dV, where f sx, y, zd > 0, is not very useful because it would be the “hypervolume” of a four-dimensional object and, of course, that is very difficult to visualize. (Remember that E is just the domain of the function f ; the graph of f lies in four-dimensional space.) Nonetheless, the triple integral yyyE f sx, y, zd dV can be interpreted in different ways in different physical situations, depending on the physical interpretations of x, y, z, and f sx, y, zd. Let’s begin with the special case where f sx, y, zd − 1 for all points in E. Then the triple integral does represent the volume of E: VsEd − yyy dV

12

E

For example, you can see this in the case of a type 1 region by putting f sx, y, zd − 1 in Formula 6:

F

yyy 1 dV − yy y E

D

u2sx, yd

u1sx, yd

G

dz dA − yy fu 2sx, yd 2 u1sx, ydg dA D

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1035

SECTION 15.6 Triple Integrals

and from Section 15.2 we know this represents the volume that lies between the surfaces z − u1sx, yd and z − u 2sx, yd.

ExamplE 5 Use a triple integral to find the volume of the tetrahedron T bounded by the planes x 1 2y 1 z − 2, x − 2y, x − 0, and z − 0. SOLUTION The tetrahedron T and its projection D onto the xy-plane are shown in Figures 14 and 15. The lower boundary of T is the plane z − 0 and the upper boundary is the plane x 1 2y 1 z − 2, that is, z − 2 2 x 2 2y. z (0, 0, 2)

y

x+2y+z=2

x=2y T

y

(0, 1, 0)

0

x+2y=2 (or y=1- x/2)  

1

”1,  21 ’

D y=x/2

1

”1,  2 , 0’

0

x

1

x

FIGURE 15

FIGURE 14

Therefore we have VsT d − yyy dV − y T

−y

1

0

1

0

y

12xy2

xy2

y

12xy2

xy2

y

22x22y

0

dz dy dx

s2 2 x 2 2yd dy dx − 13

by the same calculation as in Example 15.2.4. (Notice that it is not necessary to use triple integrals to compute volumes. They simply give an alternative method for setting up the calculation.)

■

All the applications of double integrals in Section 15.4 can be immediately extended to triple integrals. For example, if the density function of a solid object that occupies the region E is sx, y, zd, in units of mass per unit volume, at any given point sx, y, zd, then its mass is m − yyy sx, y, zd dV

13

E

and its moments about the three coordinate planes are 14

Myz − yyy x sx, y, zd dV Mxz − yyy y sx, y, zd dV E

E

Mx y − yyy z sx, y, zd dV E

The center of mass is located at the point sx, y, z d, where 15

x−

Myz Mxz Mxy y − z − m m m

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1036

CHAPTER 15

Multiple Integrals

If the density is constant, the center of mass of the solid is called the centroid of E. The moments of inertia about the three coordinate axes are 16 Ix − yyy sy 2 1 z 2 d sx, y, zd dV Iy − yyy sx 2 1 z 2 d sx, y, zd dV E

E

Iz − yyy sx 2 1 y 2 d sx, y, zd dV E

As in Section 15.4, the total electric charge on a solid object occupying a region E and having charge density sx, y, zd is Q − yyy sx, y, zd dV E

If we have three continuous random variables X, Y, and Z, their joint density function is a function of three variables such that the probability that sX, Y, Z d lies in E is PssX, Y, Z d [ Ed − yyy f sx, y, zd dV E

In particular, Psa < X < b, c < Y < d, r < Z < sd − y

b

a

y y d

c

s

r

f sx, y, zd dz dy dx

The joint density function satisfies f sx, y, zd > 0 y

`

2`

y y `

`

2`

2`

f sx, y, zd dz dy dx − 1

ExamplE 6 Find the center of mass of a solid of constant density that is bounded by the parabolic cylinder x − y 2 and the planes x − z, z − 0, and x − 1. z

SOLUTION The solid E and its projection onto the xy-plane are shown in Figure 16. The lower and upper surfaces of E are the planes z − 0 and z − x, so we describe E as a type 1 region:

z=x E

E − h sx, y, zd

0 y

1

x

| 21 < y < 1,

Then, if the density is sx, y, zd − , the mass is m − yyy  dV − y

y

D

−y x

0

−

FIGURE 16

1

21

x=1

 2

1

21

E

x=¥

y 2 < x < 1, 0 < z < x j

y

y

1

21

1

y2

y y 1

x

y2 0

x dx dy − 

 dz dx dy

y

1

21

FG x2 2

x−1

dy x−y 2

s1 2 y 4 d dy −  y s1 2 y 4 d dy 1

0

F G

y5 − y2 5

1

− 0

4 5

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SECTION 15.6 Triple Integrals

1037

Because of the symmetry of E and  about the xz-plane, we can immediately say that Mxz − 0 and therefore y − 0. The other moments are Myz − yyy x dV − y

21

E

−y

y

1

2 − 3

y

1

y2

21

1

0

−

 3

1

0

x

0

x dz dx dy

y

1

2 s1 2 y d dy − 3 6

y y y

y

2

21

E

1

FG

y y 1

x

y2 0

FG F G x−1

x3 3

dy

x−y 2

1

y7 y2 7

− 0

4 7

z dz dx dy

z−x

1

y2

21

1

x dx dy − 

21

1

y y

2

Mxy − yyy z dV − y

−

1

z2 2

dx dy − z−0

s1 2 y 6 d dy −

 2

y y 1

1

21

y2

x 2 dx dy

2 7

Therefore the center of mass is sx, y, z d −

1. Evaluate the integral in Example 1, integrating first with respect to y, then z, and then x. 2. Evaluate the integral yyy E sxz 2 y 3 d dV, where

|

E − 5sx, y, zd 21 < x < 1, 0 < y < 2, 0 < z < 16 using three different orders of integration. 3–8 Evaluate the iterated integral. 3.

yy y 0

4. 5.

z2

y2z

0

0

2

yy y 1

2y

x1y

0

y

0

y yy

6.

s

x

0

1

0

yyy

6xy dz dx dy cossx 1 y 1 zd dz dx dy

xz

0

yyy 

0

8.

x

0

y yy 0

7.

y

0

y2

0

s2x 2 yd dx dy dz

x 2 sin y dy dz dx

s12z 2

0

z sin x dy dz dx

1 1 22x 22 y 2

0 0 0

xye z dz dy dx

S

Myz Mxz Mxy , , m m m

D

5 − ( 75 , 0, 14 )

■

9–18 Evaluate the triple integral. 9. yyy E y dV, where E − h sx, y, zd

| 0 < x < 3, 0 < y < x, x 2 y < z < x 1 y j

10. yyy E e zyy dV, where E − 5sx, y, zd

| 0 < y < 1, y < x < 1, 0 < z < xy6

11. yyy E 2x dV, where E−

5 sx, y, zd

| 0 < y < 2, 0 < x < s4 2 y

2

, 0 < z < y6

12. yyy E xy dV, where E is bounded by the parabolic cylinders y − x 2 and x − y 2 and the planes z − 0 and z − x 1 y 13. yyy E 6xy dV, where E lies under the plane z − 1 1 x 1 y and above the region in the xy-plane bounded by the curves y − sx , y − 0, and x − 1 14. yyy E s x 2 yd dV, where E is enclosed by the surfaces z − x 2 2 1, z − 1 2 x 2, y − 0, and y − 2 15. yyy T y 2 dV, where T is the solid tetrahedron with vertices s0, 0, 0d, s2, 0, 0d, s0, 2, 0d, and s0, 0, 2d

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1038

CHAPTER 15 Multiple Integrals

16. yyyT xz dV, where T is the solid tetrahedron with vertices s0, 0, 0d, s1, 0, 1d, s0, 1, 1d, and s0, 0, 1d 17. yyyE x dV, where E is bounded by the paraboloid x − 4y 2 1 4z 2 and the plane x − 4

29–32 Express the integral yyyE f sx, y, zd dV as an iterated integral in six different ways, where E is the solid bounded by the given surfaces. 29. y − 4 2 x 2 2 4z 2,

18. yyyE z dV, where E is bounded by the cylinder y 2 1 z 2 − 9 and the planes x − 0, y − 3x, and z − 0 in the first octant

2

2

30. y 1 z − 9, 2

31. y − x , 32. x − 2,

y−0

x − 22,

z − 0,

x−2

y 1 2z − 4

y − 2,

z − 0,

x 1 y 2 2z − 2

19–22 Use a triple integral to find the volume of the given solid. 19. The tetrahedron enclosed by the coordinate planes and the plane 2x 1 y 1 z − 4

33. The figure shows the region of integration for the integral

yy y 1

20. The solid enclosed by the paraboloids y − x 2 1 z 2 and y − 8 2 x2 2 z2

1

sx

0

12y

0

Rewrite this integral as an equivalent iterated integral in the five other orders.

21. The solid enclosed by the cylinder y − x 2 and the planes z − 0 and y 1 z − 1

z

22. The solid enclosed by the cylinder x 2 1 z 2 − 4 and the planes y − 21 and y 1 z − 4

CAS

CAS

1

z=1-y

23. (a) Express the volume of the wedge in the first octant that is cut from the cylinder y 2 1 z 2 − 1 by the planes y − x and x − 1 as a triple integral. (b) Use either the Table of Integrals (on Reference Pages 6–10) or a computer algebra system to find the exact value of the triple integral in part (a). 24. (a) In the Midpoint Rule for triple integrals we use a triple Riemann sum to approximate a triple integral over a box B, where f sx, y, zd is evaluated at the center sx i , yj , zk d of the box Bijk. Use the Midpoint Rule to estimate yyyB sx 2 1 y 2 1 z 2 dV, where B is the cube defined by 0 < x < 4, 0 < y < 4, 0 < z < 4. Divide B into eight cubes of equal size. (b) Use a computer algebra system to approximate the integral in part (a) correct to the nearest integer. Compare with the answer to part (a).

y=œ„ x 0 1

34. The figure shows the region of integration for the integral

yy 1

12x 2

0

0

y

z 1

z=1-≈

0 1 x

26. yyyB sx e xyz dV, where

27–28 Sketch the solid whose volume is given by the iterated integral. 27.

yy y 1

12x

0

0

222z

0

dy dz dx

28.

yy y 2

22y

0

0

42y 2

0

dx dz dy

f sx, y, zd dy dz dx

Rewrite this integral as an equivalent iterated integral in the five other orders.

|

0 < y < 1, 0 < z < 2j

12x

0

25. yyyB cossxyzd dV, where B − hsx, y, zd 0 < x < 1, 0 < y < 1, 0 < z < 1j

| 0 < x < 4,

y

x

25–26 Use the Midpoint Rule for triple integrals (Exercise 24) to estimate the value of the integral. Divide B into eight subboxes of equal size.

B − hsx, y, zd

f sx, y, zd dz dy dx

1

y

y=1-x

35–36 Write five other iterated integrals that are equal to the given iterated integral. 35.

yyy 1

0

36.

1

y

yyy 1

0

1

y

y

0 z

0

f sx, y, zd dz dx dy f sx, y, zd dx dz dy

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SECTION 15.6 Triple Integrals

37–38 Evaluate the triple integral using only geometric interpretation and symmetry.

1039

CAS

49. Let E be the solid in the first octant bounded by the cylinder x 2 1 y 2 − 1 and the planes y − z, x − 0, and z − 0 with the density function  sx, y, zd − 1 1 x 1 y 1 z. Use a computer algebra system to find the exact values of the following quantities for E. (a) The mass (b) The center of mass (c) The moment of inertia about the z-axis

CAS

50. If E is the solid of Exercise 18 with density function  sx, y, zd − x 2 1 y 2, find the following quantities, correct to three decimal places. (a) The mass (b) The center of mass (c) The moment of inertia about the z-axis

37. yyyC s4 1 5x 2 yz 2 d dV, where C is the cylindrical region x 2 1 y 2 < 4, 22 < z < 2 38. yyyB sz 3 1 sin y 1 3d dV, where B is the unit ball x2 1 y2 1 z2 < 1

39–42 Find the mass and center of mass of the solid E with the given density function . 39. E lies above the xy-plane and below the paraboloid z − 1 2 x 2 2 y 2 ;  sx, y, zd − 3

51. The joint density function for random variables X, Y, and Z is f sx, y, zd − Cxyz if 0 < x < 2, 0 < y < 2, 0 < z < 2, and f sx, y, zd − 0 otherwise. (a) Find the value of the constant C. (b) Find PsX < 1, Y < 1, Z < 1d. (c) Find PsX 1 Y 1 Z < 1d.

40. E is bounded by the parabolic cylinder z − 1 2 y 2 and the planes x 1 z − 1, x − 0, and z − 0;  sx, y, zd − 4 41. E is the cube given by 0 < x < a, 0 < y < a, 0 < z < a;  sx, y, zd − x 2 1 y 2 1 z 2 42. E is the tetrahedron bounded by the planes x − 0, y − 0, z − 0, x 1 y 1 z − 1;  sx, y, zd − y

52. Suppose X, Y, and Z are random variables with joint density function f sx, y, zd − Ce2s0.5x10.2y10.1zd if x > 0, y > 0, z > 0, and f sx, y, zd − 0 otherwise. (a) Find the value of the constant C. (b) Find PsX < 1, Y < 1d. (c) Find PsX < 1, Y < 1, Z < 1d.

43–46 Assume that the solid has constant density k. 43. Find the moments of inertia for a cube with side length L if one vertex is located at the origin and three edges lie along the coordinate axes.

53–54 The average value of a function f sx, y, zd over a solid region E is defined to be

44. Find the moments of inertia for a rectangular brick with dimensions a, b, and c and mass M if the center of the brick is situated at the origin and the edges are parallel to the coordinate axes.

fave −

1 VsE d

yyy f sx, y, zd dV E

where VsE d is the volume of E. For instance, if  is a density function, then  ave is the average density of E.

45. Find the moment of inertia about the z-axis of the solid cylinder x 2 1 y 2 < a 2, 0 < z < h.

53. Find the average value of the function f sx, y, zd − xyz over the cube with side length L that lies in the first octant with one vertex at the origin and edges parallel to the coordinate axes.

46. Find the moment of inertia about the z-axis of the solid cone sx 2 1 y 2 < z < h.

54. Find the average height of the points in the solid hemisphere x 2 1 y 2 1 z 2 < 1, z > 0. 47–48 Set up, but do not evaluate, integral expressions for (a) the mass, (b) the center of mass, and (c) the moment of inertia about the z-axis. 47. The solid of Exercise 21;

55. (a) Find the region E for which the triple integral

yyy s1 2 x

 sx, y, zd − sx 2 1 y 2

2

2 2y 2 2 3z 2 d dV

E

48. The hemisphere x 2 1 y 2 1 z 2 < 1, z > 0;  sx, y, zd − sx 2 1 y 2 1 z 2

CAS

is a maximum. (b) Use a computer algebra system to calculate the exact maximum value of the triple integral in part (a).

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1040

CHAPTER 15

Multiple Integrals

DISCOVERY PROJECT

VOLUMES OF HYPERSPHERES In this project we find formulas for the volume enclosed by a hypersphere in n-dimensional space. 1. Use a double integral and trigonometric substitution, together with Formula 64 in the Table of Integrals, to find the area of a circle with radius r. 2. Use a triple integral and trigonometric substitution to find the volume of a sphere with radius r. 3. Use a quadruple integral to find the (4-dimensional) volume enclosed by the hypersphere x 2 1 y 2 1 z 2 1 w 2 − r 2 in R 4. (Use only trigonometric substitution and the reduction formulas for y sin n x dx or y cos n x dx.) 4. Use an n-tuple integral to find the volume enclosed by a hypersphere of radius r in n-dimensional space R n. [Hint: The formulas are different for n even and n odd.]

y P (r, ¨)=P (x, y)

r

In plane geometry the polar coordinate system is used to give a convenient description of certain curves and regions. (See Section 10.3.) Figure 1 enables us to recall the connection between polar and Cartesian coordinates. If the point P has Cartesian coordinates sx, yd and polar coordinates sr, d, then, from the figure,

y

x − r cos 

y − r sin 

r2 − x2 1 y2

tan  −

¨ O

x

x

FIGURE 1

y x

In three dimensions there is a coordinate system, called cylindrical coordinates, that is similar to polar coordinates and gives convenient descriptions of some commonly occurring surfaces and solids. As we will see, some triple integrals are much easier to evaluate in cylindrical coordinates.

Cylindrical Coordinates In the cylindrical coordinate system, a point P in three-dimensional space is represented by the ordered triple sr, , zd, where r and  are polar coordinates of the projection of P onto the xy-plane and z is the directed distance from the xy-plane to P. (See Figure 2.) To convert from cylindrical to rectangular coordinates, we use the equations

z P (r, ¨, z)

z

O

¨ x

1

r

y

x − r cos 

y − r sin 

z−z

(r, ¨, 0)

FIGURE 2

whereas to convert from rectangular to cylindrical coordinates, we use

The cylindrical coordinates of a point

2

r2 − x2 1 y2

tan  −

y x

z−z

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SECTION 15.7 Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates

1041

ExamplE 1 (a) Plot the point with cylindrical coordinates s2, 2y3, 1d and find its rectangular coordinates. (b) Find cylindrical coordinates of the point with rectangular coordinates s3, 23, 27d. SOLUTION z

(a) The point with cylindrical coordinates s2, 2y3, 1d is plotted in Figure 3. From Equations 1, its rectangular coordinates are 2π

”2,       , 1’ 3 1

2π 3

x

2 1 −2 2 3 2

− 21

y − 2 sin

2 s3 −2 3 2

− s3

2

0

y

S D S D

x − 2 cos

z−1

FIGURE 3

So the point is s21, s3 , 1d in rectangular coordinates. (b) From Equations 2 we have r − s3 2 1 s23d2 − 3s2 tan  − z

23 − 21 3

so

−

7 1 2n 4

z − 27

0

(0, c, 0)

Therefore one set of cylindrical coordinates is s3s2 , 7y4, 27d. Another is s3s2 , 2y4, 27d. As with polar coordinates, there are infinitely many choices.

■

y

(c, 0, 0)

Cylindrical coordinates are useful in problems that involve symmetry about an axis, and the z-axis is chosen to coincide with this axis of symmetry. For instance, the axis of the circular cylinder with Cartesian equation x 2 1 y 2 − c 2 is the z-axis. In cylindrical coordinates this cylinder has the very simple equation r − c. (See Figure 4.) This is the reason for the name “cylindrical” coordinates.

x

FIGURE 4 r=c, a cylinder

ExamplE 2 Describe the surface whose equation in cylindrical coordinates is z − r.

z

0

y x

FIGURE 5 z=r, a cone

SOLUTION The equation says that the z-value, or height, of each point on the surface is the same as r, the distance from the point to the z-axis. Because  doesn’t appear, it can vary. So any horizontal trace in the plane z − k sk . 0d is a circle of radius k. These traces suggest that the surface is a cone. This prediction can be confirmed by converting the equation into rectangular coordinates. From the first equation in (2) we have

z2 − r 2 − x 2 1 y 2 We recognize the equation z 2 − x 2 1 y 2 (by comparison with Table 1 in Section 12.6) as being a circular cone whose axis is the z-axis (see Figure 5). ■

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1042

CHAPTER 15

Multiple Integrals

Evaluating Triple Integrals with Cylindrical Coordinates z

Suppose that E is a type 1 region whose projection D onto the xy-plane is conveniently described in polar coordinates (see Figure 6). In particular, suppose that f is continuous and

z=u™(x, y)

E − 5sx, y, zd | sx, yd [ D, u1sx, yd < z < u 2sx, yd6 where D is given in polar coordinates by D − 5sr, d |  <  < , h1sd < r < h 2sd6

z=u¡(x, y)

r=h¡(¨) 0

We know from Equation 15.6.6 that

¨=b D

¨=a

x

y

F

yyy f sx, y, zd dV − yy y

3

r=h™(¨ )

E

D

G

u2sx, yd

f sx, y, zd dz dA

u1sx, yd

FIGURE 6

But we also know how to evaluate double integrals in polar coordinates. In fact, combining Equation 3 with Equation 15.3.3, we obtain

4

yyy f sx, y, zd dV − y y y E

dz

r r d¨

h2sd

h1sd

u2sr cos , r sin d

u1sr cos , r sin d

f sr cos , r sin , zd r dz dr d

Formula 4 is the formula for triple integration in cylindrical coordinates. It says that we convert a triple integral from rectangular to cylindrical coordinates by writing x − r cos , y − r sin , leaving z as it is, using the appropriate limits of integration for z, r, and , and replacing dV by r dz dr d. (Figure 7 shows how to remember this.) It is worthwhile to use this formula when E is a solid region easily described in cylindrical coordinates, and especially when the function f sx, y, zd involves the expression x 2 1 y 2.

z

d¨





dr

ExamplE 3 A solid E lies within the cylinder x 2 1 y 2 − 1, below the plane z − 4, and

FIGURE 7

above the paraboloid z − 1 2 x 2 2 y 2. (See Figure 8.) The density at any point is proportional to its distance from the axis of the cylinder. Find the mass of E.

Volume element in cylindrical coordinates: dV=r dz dr d¨

SOLUTION In cylindrical coordinates the cylinder is r − 1 and the paraboloid is z − 1 2 r 2, so we can write

E − 5sr, , zd | 0 <  < 2, 0 < r < 1, 1 2 r 2 < z < 4 6

z

z=4

Since the density at sx, y, zd is proportional to the distance from the z-axis, the density function is f sx, y, zd − Ksx 2 1 y 2 − Kr

(0, 0, 4)

where K is the proportionality constant. Therefore, from Formula 15.6.13, the mass of E is m − yyy Ksx 2 1 y 2 dV − y

(0, 0, 1)

z=1-r @

x

FIGURE 8

2

0

0

(1, 0, 0)

y

0

E

−y

2

y

1

0

F

y y 1

0

4

12r 2

sKrd r dz dr d

Kr 2 f4 2 s1 2 r 2 dg dr d − K y

− 2K r 3 1

2

0

r5 5

G

1

− 0

12K 5

d y s3r 2 1 r 4 d dr 1

0

■

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SECTION 15.7 Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates

ExamplE 4 Evaluate y

2

22

y

s42x 2

2s42x 2

y

2

sx 21y 2

1043

sx 2 1 y 2d dz dy dx.

SOLUTION This iterated integral is a triple integral over the solid region

E − h sx, y, zd | 22 < x < 2, 2s4 2 x 2 < y < s4 2 x 2 , sx 2 1 y 2 < z < 2 j and the projection of E onto the xy-plane is the disk x 2 1 y 2 < 4. The lower surface of E is the cone z − sx 2 1 y 2 and its upper surface is the plane z − 2. (See Figure 9.) This region has a much simpler description in cylindrical coordinates: E − h sr, , zd | 0 <  < 2, 0 < r < 2, r < z < 2 j

z

Therefore we have

z=2

y y

2

2

s42x 2

22

2s42x 2

y

2

sx 21y 2

sx 2 1 y 2d dz dy dx − yyy sx 2 1 y 2d dV E

z=œ„„„„„ ≈+¥

−y

2

y

2

0

x

2

2

−

y

0

y y 2

0

2

r

r 2 r dz dr d

d y r 3s2 2 rd dr 2

0

2

− 2 f 12 r 4 2 15 r 5 g 0 − 16 5 

FIGURE 9

1–2 Plot the point whose cylindrical coordinates are given. Then find the rectangular coordinates of the point. 1. (a) s4, y3, 22d

(b) s2, 2y2, 1d

2. (a) ss2 , 3y4, 2d

(b) s1, 1, 1d

3–4 Change from rectangular to cylindrical coordinates. 3. (a) (1, s3 , 21)

(b) (3, 23, 2)

4. (a) (2s2 , s2 , 1)

(b) s2, 2, 2d

11–12 Sketch the solid described by the given inequalities. 11. r 2 < z < 8 2 r 2 12. 0 <  < y2, r < z < 2 13. A cylindrical shell is 20 cm long, with inner radius 6 cm and outer radius 7 cm. Write inequalities that describe the shell in an appropriate coordinate system. Explain how you have positioned the coordinate system with respect to the shell. ; 14. Use a graphing device to draw the solid enclosed by the paraboloids z − x 2 1 y 2 and z − 5 2 x 2 2 y 2.

5–6 Describe in words the surface whose equation is given. 5. r − 2

6.  − y6

15–16 Sketch the solid whose volume is given by the integral and evaluate the integral. 15.

7–8 Identify the surface whose equation is given. 7. r 2 1 z 2 − 4

8. r − 2 sin 

9–10 Write the equations in cylindrical coordinates. 9. (a) x 2 2 x 1 y 2 1 z 2 − 1 10. (a) 2x 2 1 2y 2 2 z 2 − 4

(b) z − x 2 2 y 2 (b) 2x 2 y 1 z − 1

■

y

y2

2y2

yy 2

r2

0

0

r dz dr d

16.

yy y 2

2

r

0

0

0

r dz d dr

17–28 Use cylindrical coordinates. 17. Evaluate yyyE sx 2 1 y 2 dV, where E is the region that lies inside the cylinder x 2 1 y 2 − 16 and between the planes z − 25 and z − 4. 18. Evaluate yyyE z dV, where E is enclosed by the paraboloid z − x 2 1 y 2 and the plane z − 4.

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1044

CHAPTER 15 Multiple Integrals

19. Evaluate yyyE sx 1 y 1 zd dV, where E is the solid in the first octant that lies under the paraboloid z − 4 2 x 2 2 y 2. 20. Evaluate yyyE sx 2 yd dV, where E is the solid that lies between the cylinders x 2 1 y 2 − 1 and x 2 1 y 2 − 16, above the xy-plane, and below the plane z − y 1 4. 21. Evaluate yyyE x dV, where E is the solid that lies within the cylinder x 2 1 y 2 − 1, above the plane z − 0, and below the cone z 2 − 4x 2 1 4y 2.

29–30 Evaluate the integral by changing to cylindrical coordinates. 29. 30.

2

23. Find the volume of the solid that is enclosed by the cone z − sx 2 1 y 2 and the sphere x 2 1 y 2 1 z 2 − 2. 24. Find the volume of the solid that lies between the paraboloid z − x 2 1 y 2 and the sphere x 2 1 y 2 1 z 2 − 2. 25. (a) Find the volume of the region E that lies between the paraboloid z − 24 2 x 2 2 y 2 and the cone z − 2 sx 2 1 y 2 . (b) Find the centroid of E (the center of mass in the case where the density is constant). 26. (a) Find the volume of the solid that the cylinder r − a cos  cuts out of the sphere of radius a centered at the origin. (b) Illustrate the solid of part (a) by graphing the sphere ; and the cylinder on the same screen. 27. Find the mass and center of mass of the solid S bounded by the paraboloid z − 4x 2 1 4y 2 and the plane z − a sa . 0d if S has constant density K. 28. Find the mass of a ball B given by x 2 1 y 2 1 z 2 < a 2 if the density at any point is proportional to its distance from the z-axis.

discovery Project

2

s42y 2

22

2s42y 2

y y 3

s92x 2

23

0

y

2

sx 2 1y 2

y

92x 2 2y 2

0

xz dz dx dy sx 2 1 y 2 dz dy dx

31. When studying the formation of mountain ranges, geologists estimate the amount of work required to lift a mountain from sea level. Consider a mountain that is essentially in the shape of a right circular cone. Suppose that the weight density of the material in the vicinity of a point P is tsPd and the height is hsPd. (a) Find a definite integral that represents the total work done in forming the mountain. (b) Assume that Mount Fuji in Japan is in the shape of a right circular cone with radius 19,000 m, height 3800 m, and density a constant 3200 kgym 3. How much work was done in forming Mount Fuji if the land was initially at sea level?

© S.R. Lee Photo Traveller / Shutterstock.ocm

22. Evaluate yyyE x dV, where E is enclosed by the planes z − 0 and z − x 1 y 1 5 and by the cylinders x 2 1 y 2 − 4 and x 2 1 y 2 − 9.

y y

the intersection of three cylinders The figure shows the solid enclosed by three circular cylinders with the same diameter that intersect at right angles. In this project we compute its volume and determine how its shape changes if the cylinders have different diameters.

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1045

SECTION 15.8 Triple Integrals in Spherical Coordinates

1. Sketch carefully the solid enclosed by the three cylinders x 2 1 y 2 − 1, x 2 1 z 2 − 1, and y 2 1 z 2 − 1. Indicate the positions of the coordinate axes and label the faces with the equations of the corresponding cylinders. 2. Find the volume of the solid in Problem 1. CAS

3. Use a computer algebra system to draw the edges of the solid. 4. What happens to the solid in Problem 1 if the radius of the first cylinder is different from 1? Illustrate with a hand-drawn sketch or a computer graph. 5. If the first cylinder is x 2 1 y 2 − a 2, where a , 1, set up, but do not evaluate, a double integral for the volume of the solid. What if a . 1?

Another useful coordinate system in three dimensions is the spherical coordinate system. It simplifies the evaluation of triple integrals over regions bounded by spheres or cones.

Spherical Coordinates

z

The spherical coordinates s, , d of a point P in space are shown in Figure 1, where  − | OP | is the distance from the origin to P,  is the same angle as in cylindrical coordinates, and  is the angle between the positive z-axis and the line segment OP. Note that

P ( ∏, ¨, ˙)

∏ ˙

>0

O

¨

y

x

fiGUre 1 The spherical coordinates of a point

00)

Shifted Conics Recall that an equation of the circle with center the origin and radius r is x 2 1 y 2 − r 2, but if the center is the point sh, kd, then the equation of the circle becomes sx 2 hd2 1 sy 2 kd2 − r 2 Similarly, if we take the ellipse with equation

4

x2 y2 1 −1 a2 b2

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A22

APPENDIX C

Graphs of Second-Degree Equations

and translate it (shift it) so that its center is the point sh, kd, then its equation becomes sx 2 hd2 s y 2 kd2 1 −1 a2 b2

5

(See Figure 14.) y

b ≈ ¥ + b@ a@

(x-h)@ (y-k)@ + b@ a@

=1

(h, k)

a

=1

(x, y)

k

b (0, 0)

x

a (x-h, y-k)

h

FIGURE 14

Notice that in shifting the ellipse, we replaced x by x 2 h and y by y 2 k in Equation 4 to obtain Equation 5. We use the same procedure to shift the parabola y − ax 2 so that its vertex (the origin) becomes the point sh, kd as in Figure 15. Replacing x by x 2 h and y by y 2 k, we see that the new equation is y 2 k − asx 2 hd2

y − asx 2 hd2 1 k

or

y

y=a(x-h)@+k y=a≈ (h, k)

FIGURE 15

0

x

EXAMPLE 7 Sketch the graph of the equation y − 2x 2 2 4x 1 1. SOLUTION First we complete the square:

y − 2sx 2 2 2xd 1 1 − 2sx 2 1d2 2 1 In this form we see that the equation represents the parabola obtained by shifting y − 2x 2 so that its vertex is at the point s1, 21d. The graph is sketched in Figure 16. y

1

0

1

2

3

x

FIGURE 16 y − 2x 2 2 4x 1 1

(1, _1)

■

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APPENDIX C

A23

Graphs of Second-Degree Equations

EXAMPLE 8 Sketch the curve x − 1 2 y 2. SOLUTION This time we start with the parabola x − 2y 2 (as in Figure 6 with a − 21)

and shift one unit to the right to get the graph of x − 1 2 y 2. (See Figure 17.) y

y

0

FIGURE 17

x

0

(a) x=_¥

x

1

(b) x=1-¥

■

EXERCISES 1–4 Find an equation of a circle that satisfies the given conditions. 1. Center s3, 21d, radius 5 2. Center s22, 28d, radius 10 3. Center at the origin, passes through s4, 7d 4. Center s21, 5d, passes through s24, 26d

5–9 Show that the equation represents a circle and find the center and radius.

15. 16x 2 2 25y 2 − 400

16. 25x 2 1 4y 2 − 100

17. 4x 2 1 y 2 − 1

18. y − x 2 1 2

19. x − y 2 2 1

20. 9x 2 2 25y 2 − 225

21. 9y 2 2 x 2 − 9

22. 2x 2 1 5y 2 − 10

23. x y − 4

24. y − x 2 1 2x

25. 9sx 2 1d2 1 4s y 2 2d2 − 36 26. 16x 2 1 9y 2 2 36y − 108 27. y − x 2 2 6x 1 13

28. x 2 2 y 2 2 4x 1 3 − 0

5. x 2 1 y 2 2 4x 1 10y 1 13 − 0

29. x − 4 2 y 2

30. y 2 2 2x 1 6y 1 5 − 0

6. x 2 1 y 2 1 6y 1 2 − 0

31. x 2 1 4y 2 2 6x 1 5 − 0

7. x 2 1 y 2 1 x − 0

32. 4x 2 1 9y 2 2 16x 1 54y 1 61 − 0

8. 16x 2 1 16y 2 1 8x 1 32y 1 1 − 0 33–34 Sketch the region bounded by the curves.

9. 2x 2 1 2y 2 2 x 1 y − 1

33. y − 3x,

10. Under what condition on the coefficients a, b, and c does the equation x 2 1 y 2 1 ax 1 by 1 c − 0 represent a circle? When that condition is satisfied, find the center and radius of the circle. 11–32 Identify the type of curve and sketch the graph. Do not plot points. Just use the standard graphs given in Figures 5, 6, 8, 10, and 11 and shift if necessary. 11. y − 2x 2

12. y 2 2 x 2 − 1

13. x 2 1 4y 2 − 16

14. x − 22y 2

y − x2

34. y − 4 2 x 2,

x 2 2y − 2

35. Find an equation of the parabola with vertex s1, 21d that passes through the points s21, 3d and s3, 3d. 36. Find an equation of the ellipse with center at the origin that passes through the points s1, 210 s2 y3d and s22, 5 s5 y3d. 37–40 Sketch the graph of the set.

| x 1 y < 1j hsx, yd | y > x 2 1j

37. hsx, yd 39.

2

2

2

|x hsx, yd | x

38. hsx, yd

2

1 y 2 . 4j

40.

2

1 4y 2 < 4j

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A24

APPENDIX D Trigonometry

Angles Angles can be measured in degrees or in radians (abbreviated as rad). The angle given by a complete revolution contains 3608, which is the same as 2 rad. Therefore 1

 rad − 1808

and 2

1 rad −

S D

180 8 < 57.38 

18 −

 rad < 0.017 rad 180

EXAMPLE 1 (a) Find the radian measure of 608.

(b) Express 5y4 rad in degrees.

SOLUTION

(a) From Equation 1 or 2 we see that to convert from degrees to radians we multiply by y180. Therefore

S D

608 − 60

 180

−

 rad 3

(b) To convert from radians to degrees we multiply by 180y. Thus

S D

5 5 180 rad − 4 4 

− 2258

■

In calculus we use radians to measure angles except when otherwise indicated. The  following table gives the correspondence between degree and radian measures of some common angles.

a r ¨

Degrees

0°

30°

45°

60°

90°

120°

135°

150°

180°

270°

360°

Radians

0

 6

 4

 3

 2

2 3

3 4

5 6



3 2

2

Figure 1 shows a sector of a circle with central angle  and radius r subtending an arc with length a. Since the length of the arc is proportional to the size of the angle, and since the entire circle has circumference 2r and central angle 2, we have

r

 a − 2 2r Solving this equation for  and for a, we obtain FIGURE 1

3

−

a r

a − r

Remember that Equations 3 are valid only when  is measured in radians.

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A25

APPENDIX D Trigonometry

In particular, putting a − r in Equation 3, we see that an angle of 1 rad is the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius of the circle (see Figure 2).

r r 1 rad

EXAMPLE 2

r

(a) If the radius of a circle is 5 cm, what angle is subtended by an arc of 6 cm? (b) If a circle has radius 3 cm, what is the length of an arc subtended by a central angle of 3y8 rad?

FIGURE 2

SOLUTION

(a) Using Equation 3 with a − 6 and r − 5, we see that the angle is  − 65 − 1.2 rad (b) With r − 3 cm and  − 3y8 rad, the arc length is

a − r − 3

S D 3 8

−

9 cm 8

■

The standard position of an angle occurs when we place its vertex at the origin of a coordinate system and its initial side on the positive x-axis as in Figure 3. A positive angle is obtained by rotating the initial side counterclockwise until it coincides with the terminal side.  Likewise, negative angles are obtained by clockwise rotation as in Figure 4. y

y

initial side 0

terminal side ¨

x

¨

initial side

terminal side x

0

FIGURE 3  > 0

FIGURE 4  , 0

Figure 5 shows several examples of angles in standard position. Notice that different angles can have the same terminal side. For instance, the angles 3y4, 25y4, and 11y4 have the same initial and terminal sides because 3 5 2 2 − 2 4 4

3 11 1 2 − 4 4

and 2 rad represents a complete revolution. y

y

y

¨=1 0

FIGURE 5 Angles in standard position

y 3π ¨= 4

x

0

x

¨=_

π 2

0

y

¨=11π 4 0

x

x

¨=_

0

5π 4

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x

A26

APPENDIX D Trigonometry

The Trigonometric Functions hypotenuse

For an acute angle  the six trigonometric functions are defined as ratios of lengths of sides of a right triangle as follows (see Figure 6).

opposite

¨

4

adjacent

sin  −

opp hyp

csc  −

hyp opp

cos  −

adj hyp

sec  −

hyp adj

tan  −

opp adj

cot  −

adj opp

FIGURE 6

y

This definition doesn’t apply to obtuse or negative angles, so for a general angle  in standard position we let Psx, yd be any point on the terminal side of  and we let r be the distance | OP | as in Figure 7. Then we define

P (x, y)

r

¨ O

5

x

FIGURE 7

If we put r − 1 in Definition 5 and draw a unit circle with center the origin and label  as in Figure 8, then the coordinates of P are scos , sin d. y P(cos ¨ , sin ¨ )

sin  −

y r

csc  −

r y

cos  −

x r

sec  −

r x

tan  −

y x

cot  −

x y

Since division by 0 is not defined, tan  and sec  are undefined when x − 0 and csc  and cot  are undefined when y − 0. Notice that the definitions in (4) and (5) are consistent when  is an acute angle. If  is a number, the convention is that sin  means the sine of the angle whose radian measure is . For example, the expression sin 3 implies that we are dealing with an angle of 3 rad. When finding a calculator approximation to this number, we must remember to set our calculator in radian mode, and then we obtain

¨

1

sin 3 < 0.14112 O

1

x

If we want to know the sine of the angle 38 we would write sin 38 and, with our calculator in degree mode, we find that sin 38 < 0.05234 The exact trigonometric ratios for certain angles can be read from the triangles in Figure 9. For instance,

FIGURE 8

π 4

œ„ 2 π 4

1

π 3

2 π 6

1

sin

 1 − 4 s2

sin

 1 − 6 2

sin

 s3 − 3 2

cos

 1 − 4 s2

cos

 s3 − 6 2

cos

 1 − 3 2

tan

 −1 4

tan

 1 − 6 s3

tan

 − s3 3

œ„ 3

1

FIGURE 9

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A27

APPENDIX D Trigonometry y

sin ¨>0

all ratios>0

0

x

tan ¨>0

cos ¨>0

The signs of the trigonometric functions for angles in each of the four quadrants can be remembered by means of the rule “All Students Take Calculus” shown in Figure 10.

EXAMPLE 3 Find the exact trigonometric ratios for  − 2y3. SOLUTION From Figure 11 we see that a point on the terminal line for  − 2y3 is Ps21, s3 d. Therefore, taking

y − s3

x − 21

FIGURE 10

r−2

in the definitions of the trigonometric ratios, we have y

sin

2 s3 − 3 2

cos

2 1 −2 3 2

tan

2 − 2s3 3

csc

2 2 − 3 s3

sec

2 − 22 3

cot

2 1 −2 3 s3

P {_1, œ„ 3}

2

3 œ„

2π 3

π 3

1

0

x

■

The following table gives some values of sin  and cos  found by the method of Example 3.

FIGURE 11 

0

 6

 4

 3

 2

2 3

3 4

5 6



3 2

2

sin 

0

1 2

1 s2

s3 2

1

s3 2

1 s2

1 2

0

21

0

cos 

1

s3 2

1 s2

1 2

0

2

21

0

1

1 2

2

1 s2

2

s3 2

EXAMPLE 4 If cos  − 25 and 0 ,  , y2, find the other five trigonometric functions of . SOLUTION Since cos  − 25, we can label the hypotenuse as having length 5 and the

5

x=œ„„ 21

adjacent side as having length 2 in Figure 12. If the opposite side has length x, then the Pythagorean Theorem gives x 2 1 4 − 25 and so x 2 − 21, x − s21. We can now use the diagram to write the other five trigonometric functions: sin  −

¨ 2

csc  −

FIGURE 12

s21 5

5 s21

sec  −

tan  −

s21 2

5 2

cot  −

2 s21

■

16

EXAMPLE 5 Use a calculator to approximate the value of x in Figure 13. SOLUTION From the diagram we see that

x

tan 408 −

40°

FIGURE 13

Therefore

x−

16 x

16 < 19.07 tan 408

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■

A28

APPENDIX D Trigonometry

Trigonometric Identities A trigonometric identity is a relationship among the trigonometric functions. The most  elementary are the following, which are immediate consequences of the definitions of the trigonometric functions.

6

csc  −

1 sin 

sec  −

tan  −

sin  cos 

1 cos  cot  −

cot  −

1 tan 

cos  sin 

For the next identity we refer back to Figure 7. The distance formula (or, equivalently, the Pythagorean Theorem) tells us that x 2 1 y 2 − r 2. Therefore sin 2 1 cos 2 −

y2 x2 x2 1 y2 r2 1 − − −1 r2 r2 r2 r2

We have therefore proved one of the most useful of all trigonometric identities: 7

sin 2 1 cos 2 − 1

If we now divide both sides of Equation 7 by cos 2 and use Equations 6, we get 8

tan 2 1 1 − sec 2

Similarly, if we divide both sides of Equation 7 by sin 2, we get 9

1 1 cot 2 − csc 2

The identities

Odd functions and even functions are discussed in Section 1.1.

10a

sins2d − 2sin 

10b

coss2d − cos 

show that sine is an odd function and cosine is an even function. They are easily proved by drawing a diagram showing  and 2 in standard position (see Exercise 39). Since the angles  and  1 2 have the same terminal side, we have 11

sins 1 2d − sin 

coss 1 2d − cos 

These identities show that the sine and cosine functions are periodic with period 2. The remaining trigonometric identities are all consequences of two basic identities called the addition formulas:

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APPENDIX D Trigonometry

12a

sinsx 1 yd − sin x cos y 1 cos x sin y

12b

cossx 1 yd − cos x cos y 2 sin x sin y

A29

The proofs of these addition formulas are outlined in Exercises 85, 86, and 87. By substituting 2y for y in Equations 12a and 12b and using Equations 10a and 10b, we obtain the following subtraction formulas: 13a

sinsx 2 yd − sin x cos y 2 cos x sin y

13b

cossx 2 yd − cos x cos y 1 sin x sin y

Then, by dividing the formulas in Equations 12 or Equations 13, we obtain the corresponding formulas for tansx 6 yd:

14a

tansx 1 yd −

tan x 1 tan y 1 2 tan x tan y

14b

tansx 2 yd −

tan x 2 tan y 1 1 tan x tan y

If we put y − x in the addition formulas (12), we get the double-angle formulas: 15a

sin 2x − 2 sin x cos x

15b

cos 2x − cos 2 x 2 sin 2 x

Then, by using the identity sin 2x 1 cos 2x − 1, we obtain the following alternate forms of the double-angle formulas for cos 2x: 16a

cos 2x − 2 cos 2x 2 1

16b

cos 2x − 1 2 2 sin 2 x

If we now solve these equations for cos 2x and sin 2x, we get the following half-angle formulas, which are useful in integral calculus:

17a

cos 2x −

1 1 cos 2x 2

17b

sin 2x −

1 2 cos 2x 2

Finally, we state the product formulas, which can be deduced from Equations 12 and 13:

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A30

APPENDIX D Trigonometry

18a

sin x cos y − 12 fsinsx 1 yd 1 sinsx 2 ydg

18b

cos x cos y − 12 fcossx 1 yd 1 cossx 2 ydg

18c

sin x sin y − 12 fcossx 2 yd 2 cossx 1 ydg

There are many other trigonometric identities, but those we have stated are the ones used most often in calculus. If you forget any of the identities 13–18, remember that they can all be deduced from Equations 12a and 12b.

EXAMPLE 6 Find all values of x in the interval f0, 2g such that sin x − sin 2x. SOLUTION Using the double-angle formula (15a), we rewrite the given equation as

sin x − 2 sin x cos x

or

sin x s1 2 2 cos xd − 0

Therefore there are two possibilities: sin x − 0

1 2 2 cos x − 0

or

cos x − 12

x − 0, , 2 x−

x−

 5 , 3 3

The given equation has five solutions: 0, y3, , 5y3, and 2.

■

Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions The graph of the function f sxd − sin x, shown in Figure 14(a), is obtained by plotting points for 0 < x < 2 and then using the periodic nature of the function (from Equation 11) to complete the graph. Notice that the zeros of the sine function occur at the y _

π 2

3π 2

1 0

_π _1

π 2

π

2π

5π 2

3π

x

(a) ƒ=sin x y 1 _π

π _

FIGURE 14

π 2 _1

0

π 2

3π 3π 2

2π

5π 2

x

(b) ©=cos x

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A31

APPENDIX D Trigonometry

integer multiples of , that is, sin x − 0

whenever x − n,

n an integer

Because of the identity

S D

cos x − sin x 1

 2

(which can be verified using Equation 12a), the graph of cosine is obtained by shifting the graph of sine by an amount y2 to the left [see Figure 14(b)]. Note that for both the sine and cosine functions the domain is s2`, `d and the range is the closed interval f21, 1g. Thus, for all values of x, we have

21 < sin x < 1 21 < cos x < 1

The graphs of the remaining four trigonometric functions are shown in Figure 15 and their domains are indicated there. Notice that tangent and cotangent have range s2`, `d, whereas cosecant and secant have range s2`, 21g ø f1, `d. All four functions are periodic: tangent and cotangent have period , whereas cosecant and secant have period 2. y

y

1 0

_π _

π 2

π 2

_1

π

x

3π 2

_π

_

(a) y=tan x

π 2

0

π 2

(b) y=cot x

y

y

y=cos x

y=sin x _

π 2

1

1 0

3π 2

_1

FIGURE 15

3π x 2

π

π 2

π

(c) y=csc x

π _π _ 2

3π 2

0

x _1

π 2

π

(d) y=sec x

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x

A32

APPENDIX D Trigonometry

EXERCISES 1–6 Convert from degrees to radians. 1. 2108

2. 3008

3. 98

4. 23158

5. 9008

6. 368

35–38 Find, correct to five decimal places, the length of the side labeled x. 36.

35.

x 40°

10 cm x

25 cm

7–12 Convert from radians to degrees. 7 2 3 11. 2 8 8. 2

7. 4 8 10. 3

35°

9.

5 12

37.

38. 22 cm

12. 5 x

13. Find the length of a circular arc subtended by an angle of y12 rad if the radius of the circle is 36 cm.

2π 5

8 cm

14. If a circle has radius 10 cm, find the length of the arc subtended by a central angle of 728. 15. A circle has radius 1.5 m. What angle is subtended at the center of the circle by an arc 1 m long? 16. Find the radius of a circular sector with angle 3y4 and arc length 6 cm. 17–22 Draw, in standard position, the angle whose measure is given. 3 17. 3158 18. 21508 19. 2 rad 4 7 20. rad 21. 2 rad 22. 23 rad 3 23–28 Find the exact trigonometric ratios for the angle whose radian measure is given. 23.

3 4

4 3 5 27. 6

24.

26. 25

29–34 Find the remaining trigonometric ratios. 3  , 0,, 5 2  30. tan  − 2, 0 ,  , 2  31. sec  − 21.5, , , 2 1 3 32. cos x − 2 ,  , x , 3 2 29. sin  −

33. cot  − 3,

 ,  , 2

4 34. csc  − 2 , 3

3 ,  , 2 2

9 2 11 28. 4 25.

x 3π 8

39–41 Prove each equation. 39. (a) Equation 10a

(b) Equation 10b

40. (a) Equation 14a

(b) Equation 14b

41. (a) Equation 18a (c) Equation 18c

(b) Equation 18b

42–58 Prove the identity.

S D S D

42. cos

 2 x − sin x 2

43. sin

 1 x − cos x 2

45. sin  cot  − cos 

44. sins 2 xd − sin x 46. ssin x 1 cos xd2 − 1 1 sin 2x

47. sec y 2 cos y − tan y sin y 48. tan 2 2 sin 2 − tan 2 sin 2 49. cot 2 1 sec 2 − tan 2 1 csc 2 50. 2 csc 2t − sec t csc t 51. tan 2 − 52.

2 tan  1 2 tan 2

1 1 1 − 2 sec 2 1 2 sin  1 1 sin 

53. sin x sin 2x 1 cos x cos 2x − cos x 54. sin 2x 2 sin 2 y − sinsx 1 yd sinsx 2 yd 55.

sin  − csc  1 cot  1 2 cos 

56. tan x 1 tan y −

sinsx 1 yd cos x cos y

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APPENDIX D Trigonometry

position, as in the figure. Express x and y in terms of  and then use the distance formula to compute c.]

57. sin 3 1 sin  − 2 sin 2 cos  58. cos 3 − 4 cos 3 2 3 cos 

| |

5 4,

1 3

A33

59–64 If sin x − and sec y − where x and y lie between 0 and y2, evaluate the expression. 59. sinsx 1 yd

60. cossx 1 yd

61. cossx 2 yd

62. sinsx 2 yd

63. sin 2y

64. cos 2y

84. In order to find the distance AB across a small inlet, a point C was located as in the figure and the following measurements were recorded:

| AC | − 820 m

/C − 1038

| BC | − 910 m

Use the Law of Cosines from Exercise 83 to find the required distance. A

65–72 Find all values of x in the interval f0, 2g that satisfy the equation. 65. 2 cos x 2 1 − 0

66. 3 cot 2x − 1

67. 2 sin 2x − 1

68. tan x − 1

69. sin 2x − cos x

70. 2 cos x 1 sin 2x − 0

71. sin x − tan x

72. 2 1 cos 2x − 3 cos x

|

|

C

73–76 Find all values of x in the interval f0, 2g that satisfy the inequality. 73. sin x < 12

74. 2 cos x 1 1 . 0

75. 21 , tan x , 1

76. sin x . cos x

B

85. Use the figure to prove the subtraction formula coss 2 d − cos  cos  1 sin  sin  [Hint: Compute c 2 in two ways (using the Law of Cosines from Exercise 83 and also using the distance formula) and compare the two expressions.]

77–82 Graph the function by starting with the graphs in Figures 14 and 15 and applying the transformations of Section 1.3 where appropriate.

S D S D

77. y − cos x 2

79. y −

 3

1

80. y − 1 1 sec x

|

82. y − 2 1 sin x 1

å

 4

83. Prove the Law of Cosines: If a triangle has sides with lengths a, b, and c, and  is the angle between the sides with lengths a and b, then c 2 − a 2 1 b 2 2 2ab cos  y

∫

0

S D

|

A (cos å, sin å) c B (cos ∫, sin ∫ )

1

78. y − tan 2x

1  tan x 2 3 2

81. y − sin x

y

x

86. Use the formula in Exercise 85 to prove the addition formula for cosine (12b). 87. Use the addition formula for cosine and the identities cos

S D

 2  − sin  2

S D

sin

 2  − cos  2

to prove the subtraction formula (13a) for the sine function.

P (x, y)

88. Show that the area of a triangle with sides of lengths a and b and with included angle  is b

c

A − 12 ab sin  ¨ 0

(a, 0)

x

[Hint: Introduce a coordinate system so that  is in standard

89. Find the area of triangle ABC, correct to five decimal places, if

| AB | − 10 cm

| BC | − 3 cm

/ABC − 1078

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A34

APPENDIX E

Sigma Notation

A convenient way of writing sums uses the Greek letter o (capital sigma, corresponding to our letter S) and is called sigma notation. This tells us to end with i=n. This tells us to add.

1 Definition If a m , a m11, . . . , a n are real numbers and m and n are integers such that m < n, then

n

µ ai

n

im

o a i − a m 1 a m11 1 a m12 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 a n21 1 a n i−m

This tells us to start with i=m.

With function notation, Definition 1 can be written as n

o f sid − f smd 1 f sm 1 1d 1 f sm 1 2d 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 f sn 2 1d 1 f snd i−m Thus the symbol o ni−m indicates a summation in which the letter i (called the index of summation) takes on consecutive integer values beginning with m and ending with n, that is, m, m 1 1, . . . , n. Other letters can also be used as the index of summation.

EXAMPLE 1 4

(a)

o i 2 − 12 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 42 − 30 i−1

(b)

o i − 3 1 4 1 5 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 sn 2 1d 1 n i−3

(c)

o 2 j − 2 0 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 4 1 2 5 − 63 j−0

(d)

o k−1

(e)

o i−1

(f)

o2−2121212−8 i−1

n

5

n

3

1 1 1 1 − 1 1 1 1 ∙∙∙ 1 k 2 3 n i21 121 221 321 1 1 13 − 2 1 2 1 2 −01 1 − i2 1 3 1 13 2 13 3 13 7 6 42

4

■

EXAMPLE 2 Write the sum 2 3 1 3 3 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 n 3 in sigma notation. SOLUTION There is no unique way of writing a sum in sigma notation. We could write n

23 1 33 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 n 3 −

o i3 i−2 n21

or

23 1 33 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 n 3 −

o s j 1 1d3

j−1

n22

or

23 1 33 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 n 3 −

o sk 1 2d3

■

k−0

The following theorem gives three simple rules for working with sigma notation.

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APPENDIX E

Sigma Notation

A35

2 Theorem If c is any constant (that is, it does not depend on i), then n

(a)

o

n

ca i − c

i−m

n

o

ai

i−m

n

(c)

(b)

o

n

sa i 1 bid −

i−m n

o

n

ai 1

i−m

o bi

i−m

n

o sa i 2 bid − i−m o a i 2 i−m o bi i−m

PROOF To see why these rules are true, all we have to do is write both sides in expanded form. Rule (a) is just the distributive property of real numbers:

ca m 1 ca m11 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 ca n − csa m 1 a m11 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 a n d Rule (b) follows from the associative and commutative properties: sa m 1 bm d 1 sa m11 1 bm11 d 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 sa n 1 bn d − sam 1 am11 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 an d 1 sbm 1 bm11 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 bn d Rule (c) is proved similarly.

■

n

EXAMPLE 3 Find

o 1.

i−1

n

o 1 − 1 1 1 1 ∙∙∙ 1 1 − n

SOLUTION

■

i−1

n terms

EXAMPLE 4 Prove the formula for the sum of the first n positive integers: n

o i − 1 1 2 1 3 1 ∙∙∙ 1 n − i−1

nsn 1 1d 2

SOLUTION This formula can be proved by mathematical induction (see page 72) or by the following method used by the German mathematician Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) when he was ten years old. Write the sum S twice, once in the usual order and once in reverse order:

S−11

2

1

3

1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 sn 2 1d 1 n

S − n 1 sn 2 1d 1 sn 2 2d 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1

2

11

Adding all columns vertically, we get 2S − sn 1 1d 1 sn 1 1d 1 sn 1 1d 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 sn 1 1d 1 sn 1 1d On the right side there are n terms, each of which is n 1 1, so 2S − nsn 1 1d

or

S−

nsn 1 1d 2

EXAMPLE 5 Prove the formula for the sum of the squares of the first n positive integers: n

o i 2 − 12 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 n 2 − i−1

nsn 1 1ds2n 1 1d 6

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■

A36

APPENDIX E

Sigma Notation

SOLUTION 1 Let S be the desired sum. We start with the telescoping sum (or collapsing

sum): n

Most terms cancel in pairs.

o fs1 1 id3 2 i 3 g − s2 3 2 13 d 1 s3 3 2 2 3 d 1 s4 3 2 3 3 d 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 fsn 1 1d3 2 n 3 g

i−1

− sn 1 1d3 2 13 − n 3 1 3n 2 1 3n On the other hand, using Theorem 2 and Examples 3 and 4, we have n

o

n

fs1 1 i d3 2 i 3 g −

i−1

o

n

f3i 2 1 3i 1 1g − 3

i−1

− 3S 1 3

o

n

i2 1 3

i−1

o

n

i1

i−1

o1

i−1

nsn 1 1d 1 n − 3S 1 32 n 2 1 52 n 2

Thus we have n 3 1 3n 2 1 3n − 3S 1 32 n 2 1 52 n Solving this equation for S, we obtain 3S − n 3 1 32 n 2 1 12 n or Principle of Mathematical Induction Let Sn be a statement involving the positive integer n. Suppose that 1. S1 is true. 2. If Sk is true, then Sk11 is true. Then Sn is true for all positive integers n.

S−

2n 3 1 3n 2 1 n nsn 1 1ds2n 1 1d − 6 6

SOLUTION 2 Let Sn be the given formula.

1. S1 is true because

12 −

1s1 1 1ds2 ? 1 1 1d 6

2. Assume that Sk is true; that is, 12 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 k 2 −

See pages 72 and 74 for a more thorough discussion of mathematical induction.

ksk 1 1ds2k 1 1d 6

Then 12 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 sk 1 1d2 − s12 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 k 2 d 1 sk 1 1d2 −

ksk 1 1ds2k 1 1d 1 sk 1 1d2 6

− sk 1 1d

ks2k 1 1d 1 6sk 1 1d 6

− sk 1 1d

2k 2 1 7k 1 6 6

−

sk 1 1dsk 1 2ds2k 1 3d 6

−

sk 1 1dfsk 1 1d 1 1gf2sk 1 1d 1 1g 6

So Sk11 is true. By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, Sn is true for all n.

■

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APPENDIX E

Sigma Notation

A37

We list the results of Examples 3, 4, and 5 together with a similar result for cubes (see Exercises 37–40) as Theorem 3. These formulas are needed for finding areas and evaluating integrals in Chapter 5. 3 Theorem Let c be a constant and n a positive integer. Then n

(a)

n

o1−n i−1 n

(c)

o i−1

i−

o

i3 −

i−1

F

o c − nc i−1 n

nsn 1 1d 2

n

(e)

(b) (d)

nsn 1 1d 2

G

nsn 1 1ds2n 1 1d 6

o i2 − i−1

2

n

EXAMPLE 6 Evaluate o is4i 2 2 3d. i−1

SOLUTION Using Theorems 2 and 3, we have n

n

n

n

o is4i 2 2 3d − i−1 o s4i 3 2 3id − 4 i−1 o i 3 2 3 i−1 oi i−1

F

nsn 1 1d −4 2

n

EXAMPLE 7 Find lim

o

n l ` i−1

The type of calculation in Example 7 arises in Chapter 5 when we compute areas.

SOLUTION n

lim

nl`

o i−1

3 n

3 n

23

nsn 1 1d 2

−

nsn 1 1df2nsn 1 1d 2 3g 2

−

nsn 1 1ds2n 2 1 2n 2 3d 2

■

FS D G

FS D G i n

G

2

i n

2

11 .

2

n

o n l ` i−1

1 1 − lim

− lim

nl`

− lim

nl`

− lim

nl`

− lim

nl`

F

3 2 3 i 1 n3 n

G

F o oG F G F S DS D G F S DS D G 3 n3

n

i2 1

i−1

3 n

n

1

i−1

3 nsn 1 1ds2n 1 1d 3 1 ?n n3 6 n 1 n ? ? 2 n

n11 n

1 1 ?1 11 2 n

2n 1 1 n

21

1 n

13

13

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■

A38

APPENDIX E

Sigma Notation

EXERCISES n

1–10 Write the sum in expanded form. 5

1.

6

o si i−1

o i−1

2.

6

3.

o

5.

o

k−0

n

i−4

o

6.

xk

38. Prove formula (e) of Theorem 3 using mathematical induction.

k−5 n13

o i 10 i−1

o j2

8.

39. Prove formula (e) of Theorem 3 using a method similar to that of Example 5, Solution 1 [start with s1 1 i d4 2 i 4 g.

j−n n

o s21d j j−0

o f sx i d Dx i i−1

10.

11–20 Write the sum in sigma notation. 11. 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 10 12. s3 1 s4 1 s5 1 s6 1 s7 13.

1 2

1 23 1 34 1 45 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 19 20

14.

3 7

6 1 48 1 59 1 10 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 23 27

40. Prove formula (e) of Theorem 3 using the following method published by Abu Bekr Mohammed ibn Alhusain Alkarchi in about ad 1010. The figure shows a square ABCD in which sides AB and AD have been divided into segments of lengths 1, 2, 3, . . . , n. Thus the side of the square has length nsn 1 1dy2 so the area is fnsn 1 1dy2g 2. But the area is also the sum of the areas of the n “gnomons” G1, G2, . . . , Gn shown in the figure. Show that the area of Gi is i 3 and conclude that formula (e) is true. D

16. 1 1 3 1 5 1 7 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 s2n 2 1d

1 1 1 1 14 1 19 1 16 1 25 1 36 2

3

19. x 1 x 1 x 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 x 2

..

4 n

20. 1 2 x 1 x 2 x 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 s21d x

G¢

3 G£ 2 G™ 1 A1 2 3 4

n

.

G∞

5

n

3

Gn

.. .

17. 1 1 2 1 4 1 8 1 16 1 32 1 1

C

n

15. 2 1 4 1 6 1 8 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 2n

18.

o i − 78. i−1

37. Prove formula (b) of Theorem 3.

8

2k 2 1 2k 1 1

n21

9.

o si 3 2 i 2 2d i−1

36. Find the number n such that

o i3

4.

n

7.

1 i11

6

3i

i−4 4

35.

5

...

n

B

21–35 Find the value of the sum. 8

21.

22.

6

23.

24. 26.

o cos k k−0

(c)

o i−3

99

o4 i−1

100

o fi 4 2 si 2 1d4 g i−1

S

1 1 2 i i11

o s2 i 1 i 2 d i−0

28.

D

(b)

o s5 i 2 5 i21 d i−1

(d)

o sa i 2 a i21 d i−1

n

42. Prove the generalized triangle inequality:

Zo Z

4

n

29.

n

(a)

100

o s21d n n−1 4

27.

o isi 1 2d i−3 8

o 3 j11 j−1 20

25.

41. Evaluate each telescoping sum.

6

o s3i 2 2d i−4

n

o 2 32i i−22

ai
N. Thus, for n > N, we have

| cn x n | −

Z

Z

ZZ ZZ

cn b nx n x − | cn b n | bn b

n

,

x b

n

If | x | , | b |, then | xyb | , 1, so o | xyb | n is a convergent geometric series. Therefore, by the Comparison Test, the series o `n−N | c n x n | is convergent. Thus the series o c n x n is absolutely convergent and therefore convergent. ■

| | | |

prooF oF 2 Suppose that o c n d n diverges. If x is any number such that x . d ,

then o c n x n cannot converge because, by part 1, the convergence of o c n x n would imply the convergence of o c n d n. Therefore o c n x n diverges whenever | x | . | d |.

■

Theorem For a power series o c n x n there are only three possibilities: 1. The series converges only when x − 0. 2. The series converges for all x. 3. There is a positive number R such that the series converges if | x | , R and diverges if | x | . R. prooF Suppose that neither case 1 nor case 2 is true. Then there are nonzero numbers b and d such that o c n x n converges for x − b and diverges for x − d. Therefore the set S − hx | o c n x n convergesj is not empty. By the preceding theorem, the series diverges if | x | . | d |, so | x | < | d | for all x [ S. This says that | d | is an upper bound for the set S. Thus, by the Completeness Axiom (see Section 11.1), S has a least upper bound R. If | x | . R, then x Ó S, so o c n x n diverges. If | x | , R, then | x | is not an upper bound for S and so there exists b [ S such that b . | x |. Since b [ S, o c n x n converges, so by the preceding theorem o c n x n converges. ■

4 Theorem For a power series o cnsx 2 adn there are only three possibilities: 1. The series converges only when x − a. 2. The series converges for all x. 3. There is a positive number R such that the series converges if | x 2 a | , R and diverges if | x 2 a | . R. prooF If we make the change of variable u − x 2 a, then the power series becomes

o c n u n and we can apply the preceding theorem to this series. In case 3 we have convergence for | u | , R and divergence for | u | . R. Thus we have convergence for ■ | x 2 a | , R and divergence for | x 2 a | . R.

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A48

Appendix F

Proofs of Theorems

Section 14.3

Clairaut’s Theorem Suppose f is defined on a disk D that contains the point sa, bd. If the functions fxy and fyx are both continuous on D, then fxysa, bd − fyxsa, bd. prooF For small values of h, h ± 0, consider the difference

Dshd − f f sa 1 h, b 1 hd 2 f sa 1 h, bdg 2 f f sa, b 1 hd 2 f sa, bdg Notice that if we let tsxd − f sx, b 1 hd 2 f sx, bd, then Dshd − tsa 1 hd 2 tsad By the Mean Value Theorem, there is a number c between a and a 1 h such that tsa 1 hd 2 tsad − t9scdh − hf fxsc, b 1 hd 2 fxsc, bdg Applying the Mean Value Theorem again, this time to fx , we get a number d between b and b 1 h such that fxsc, b 1 hd 2 fxsc, bd − fxysc, ddh Combining these equations, we obtain Dshd − h 2 fxysc, dd If h l 0, then sc, dd l sa, bd, so the continuity of fxy at sa, bd gives lim

hl0

Dshd − lim fxysc, dd − fxysa, bd sc, dd l sa, bd h2

Similarly, by writing Dshd − f f sa 1 h, b 1 hd 2 f sa, b 1 hdg 2 f f sa 1 h, bd 2 f sa, bdg and using the Mean Value Theorem twice and the continuity of fyx at sa, bd, we obtain lim

hl0

Dshd − fyxsa, bd h2

It follows that fxysa, bd − fyxsa, bd.

Section 14.4

■

8 Theorem If the partial derivatives fx and fy exist near sa, bd and are continuous at sa, bd, then f is differentiable at sa, bd.

prooF Let

Dz − f sa 1 Dx, b 1 Dyd 2 f sa, bd According to (14.4.7), to prove that f is differentiable at sa, bd we have to show that we can write Dz in the form Dz − fxsa, bd Dx 1 fysa, bd Dy 1 «1 Dx 1 «2 Dy where «1 and «2 l 0 as sDx, Dyd l s0, 0d.

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Appendix F

Proofs of Theorems

A49

Referring to Figure 4, we write 1 Dz − f f sa 1 Dx, b 1 Dyd 2 f sa, b 1 Dydg 1 f f sa, b 1 Dyd 2 f sa, bdg y (a+Îx, b+Îy) (u, b+Îy) (a, b+Îy)

(a, √)

R

(a, b) 0

FIGURE 4

x

Observe that the function of a single variable tsxd − f sx, b 1 Dyd is defined on the interval fa, a 1 Dxg and t9sxd − fxsx, b 1 Dyd. If we apply the Mean Value Theorem to t, we get tsa 1 Dxd 2 tsad − t9sud Dx where u is some number between a and a 1 Dx. In terms of f, this equation becomes f sa 1 Dx, b 1 Dyd 2 f sa, b 1 Dyd − fxsu, b 1 Dyd Dx This gives us an expression for the first part of the right side of Equation 1. For the second part we let hs yd − f sa, yd. Then h is a function of a single variable defined on the interval fb, b 1 Dyg and h9s yd − fysa, yd. A second application of the Mean Value Theorem then gives hsb 1 Dyd 2 hsbd − h9svd Dy where v is some number between b and b 1 Dy. In terms of f, this becomes f sa, b 1 Dyd 2 f sa, bd − fysa, vd Dy We now substitute these expressions into Equation 1 and obtain Dz − fxsu, b 1 Dyd Dx 1 fysa, vd Dy − fxsa, bd Dx 1 f fxsu, b 1 Dyd 2 fxsa, bdg Dx 1 fysa, bd Dy −

1 f fysa, vd 2 fysa, bdg Dy

− fxsa, bd Dx 1 fysa, bd Dy 1 «1 Dx 1 «2 Dy where

«1 − fxsu, b 1 Dyd 2 fxsa, bd «2 − fysa, vd 2 fysa, bd

Since su, b 1 Dyd l sa, bd and sa, vd l sa, bd as sDx, Dyd l s0, 0d and since fx and fy are continuous at sa, bd, we see that «1 l 0 and «2 l 0 as sDx, Dyd l s0, 0d. Therefore f is differentiable at sa, bd. ■

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A50

APPENDIX G The Logarithm Defined as an Integral

Our treatment of exponential and logarithmic functions until now has relied on our intuition, which is based on numerical and visual evidence. (See Sections 1.4, 1.5, and 3.1.) Here we use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to give an alternative treatment that provides a surer footing for these functions. Instead of starting with b x and defining log b x as its inverse, this time we start by defining ln x as an integral and then define the exponential function as its inverse. You should bear in mind that we do not use any of our previous definitions and results concerning exponential and logarithmic functions.

The Natural Logarithm We first define ln x as an integral. 1 Definition The natural logarithmic function is the function defined by ln x − y

x

1

1 dt t

x.0

y

The existence of this function depends on the fact that the integral of a continuous function always exists. If x . 1, then ln x can be interpreted geometrically as the area under the hyperbola y − 1yt from t − 1 to t − x. (See Figure 1.) For x − 1, we have

y= 1t area=ln x

ln 1 − y

1

1

0

1

x

t

ln x − y

For 0 , x , 1,

FIGURE 1

x

1

1 dt − 0 t

1 1 1 dt − 2y dt , 0 x t t

and so ln x is the negative of the area shown in Figure 2. y

EXAMPLE 1 area=_ln x

(a) By comparing areas, show that 12 , ln 2 , 34. (b) Use the Midpoint Rule with n − 10 to estimate the value of ln 2.

y= 1t

SOLUTION 0

x

t

1

FIGURE 2

(a) We can interpret ln 2 as the area under the curve y − 1yt from 1 to 2. From Figure 3 we see that this area is larger than the area of rectangle BCDE and smaller than the area of trapezoid ABCD. Thus we have 1 2

y

y= 1t

1 2

FIGURE 3

ln 2 − y

D

E B 2

2

1

C 1

1 2

s1 1 12 d

, ln 2 , 34

(b) If we use the Midpoint Rule with f std − 1yt, n − 10, and Dt − 0.1, we get

A

0

? 1 , ln 2 , 1 ?

t

1 dt < s0.1df f s1.05d 1 f s1.15d 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 f s1.95dg t

S

− s0.1d

1 1 1 1 1∙∙∙1 1.05 1.15 1.95

D

< 0.693

■

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APPENDIX G The Logarithm Defined as an Integral

A51

Notice that the integral that defines ln x is exactly the type of integral discussed in Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (see Section 5.3). In fact, using that theorem, we have d x 1 1 dt − dx 1 t x

y

and so d 1 sln xd − dx x

2

We now use this differentiation rule to prove the following properties of the logarithm function. 3 Laws of Logarithms If x and y are positive numbers and r is a rational number, then 1. lnsxyd − ln x 1 ln y

SD

2. ln

x y

− ln x 2 ln y

3. lnsx r d − r ln x

PROOF

1. Let f sxd − lnsaxd, where a is a positive constant. Then, using Equation 2 and the Chain Rule, we have 1 d 1 1 saxd − ?a− ax dx ax x

f 9sxd −

Therefore f sxd and ln x have the same derivative and so they must differ by a constant: lnsaxd − ln x 1 C Putting x − 1 in this equation, we get ln a − ln 1 1 C − 0 1 C − C. Thus lnsaxd − ln x 1 ln a If we now replace the constant a by any number y, we have lnsxyd − ln x 1 ln y 2. Using Law 1 with x − 1yy, we have ln

S D

1 1 1 ln y − ln ? y − ln 1 − 0 y y

and so

ln

1 − 2ln y y

Using Law 1 again, we have

SD S D

ln

x y

− ln x ?

1 y

− ln x 1 ln

1 − ln x 2 ln y y

The proof of Law 3 is left as an exercise.

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■

A52

APPENDIX G The Logarithm Defined as an Integral

In order to graph y − ln x, we first determine its limits: 4

(a) lim ln x − `

(b) lim1 ln x − 2`

xl`

xl 0

PROOF

(a) Using Law 3 with x − 2 and r − n (where n is any positive integer), we have lns2 n d − n ln 2. Now ln 2 . 0, so this shows that lns2 n d l ` as n l `. But ln x is an increasing function since its derivative 1yx . 0. Therefore ln x l ` as x l `. (b) If we let t − 1yx, then t l ` as x l 0 1. Thus, using (a), we have

SD

lim1 ln x − lim ln

y

x l0

tl`

1 t

− lim s2ln td − 2`

■

tl`

y=ln x

If y − ln x, x . 0, then 0

x

1

and

d2y 1 −2 2 ,0 dx 2 x

which shows that ln x is increasing and concave downward on s0, `d. Putting this information together with (4), we draw the graph of y − ln x in Figure 4. Since ln 1 − 0 and ln x is an increasing continuous function that takes on arbitrarily large values, the Intermediate Value Theorem shows that there is a number where ln x takes on the value 1. (See Figure 5.) This important number is denoted by e.

FIGURE 4 y 1

0

dy 1 − .0 dx x

1

e

x

5 Definition e is the number such that ln e − 1.

y=ln x

We will show (in Theorem 19) that this definition is consistent with our previous definition of e.

FIGURE 5

The Natural Exponential Function Since ln is an increasing function, it is one-to-one and therefore has an inverse function, which we denote by exp. Thus, according to the definition of an inverse function, f 21sxd − y &? f s yd − x

6

expsxd − y &? ln y − x

and the cancellation equations are f 21s f sxdd − x

7

expsln xd − x

and

lnsexp xd − x

f s f 21sxdd − x

In particular, we have exps0d − 1 since ln 1 − 0 exps1d − e

since

ln e − 1

We obtain the graph of y − exp x by reflecting the graph of y − ln x about the line

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APPENDIX G The Logarithm Defined as an Integral

A53

y − x. (See Figure 6.) The domain of exp is the range of ln, that is, s2`, `d; the range of exp is the domain of ln, that is, s0, `d. If r is any rational number, then the third law of logarithms gives

y

y=exp x y=x

lnse r d − r ln e − r 1

y=ln x 0

expsrd − e r

Therefore, by (6), x

1

Thus expsxd − e x whenever x is a rational number. This leads us to define e x, even for irrational values of x, by the equation

FIGURE 6

e x − expsxd In other words, for the reasons given, we define e x to be the inverse of the function ln x. In this notation (6) becomes 8

e x − y &? ln y − x

and the cancellation equations (7) become

y=´

1

1

e ln x − x

10

lnse x d − x

for all x

x

Properties of the Exponential Function The exponential function f sxd − e x is an increasing continuous function with domain R and range s0, `d. Thus e x . 0 for all x. Also lim e x − 0 lim e x − ` xl`

x l2`

FIGURE 7

x.0

The natural exponential function f sxd − e x is one of the most frequently occurring functions in calculus and its applications, so it is important to be familiar with its graph (Figure 7) and its properties (which follow from the fact that it is the inverse of the natural logarithmic function).

y

0

9

So the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote of f sxd − e x.

The natural exponential function

We now verify that f has the other properties expected of an exponential function. 11 Laws of Exponents If x and y are real numbers and r is rational, then 1. e x1y − e xe y

2. e x2y −

ex ey

3. se x dr − e rx

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A54

APPENDIX G The Logarithm Defined as an Integral

PROOF OF LAW 1 Using the first law of logarithms and Equation 10, we have

lnse xe y d − lnse x d 1 lnse y d − x 1 y − lnse x1y d Since ln is a one-to-one function, it follows that e xe y − e x1y. Laws 2 and 3 are proved similarly (see Exercises 6 and 7). As we will soon see, Law 3 actually holds when r is any real number.

■

We now prove the differentiation formula for e x. d se x d − e x dx

12

PROOF The function y − e x is differentiable because it is the inverse function of

y − ln x, which we know is differentiable with nonzero derivative. To find its derivative, we use the inverse function method. Let y − e x. Then ln y − x and, differentiating this latter equation implicitly with respect to x, we get 1 dy −1 y dx dy − y − ex dx

■

General Exponential Functions If b . 0 and r is any rational number, then by (9) and (11), b r − se ln b dr − e r ln b Therefore, even for irrational numbers x, we define

b x − e x ln b

13

Thus, for instance, 2 s3 − e s3 ln 2 < e1.20 < 3.32 The function f sxd − b x is called the exponential function with base b. Notice that b x is positive for all x because e x is positive for all x. Definition 13 allows us to extend one of the laws of logarithms. We already know that lnsb r d − r ln b when r is rational. But if we now let r be any real number we have, from Definition 13, ln b r − lnse r ln b d − r ln b Thus 14

ln b r − r ln b

for any real number r

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APPENDIX G The Logarithm Defined as an Integral

A55

The general laws of exponents follow from Definition 13 together with the laws of exponents for e x.

15 Laws of Exponents If x and y are real numbers and a, b . 0, then 1. b x1y − b xb y

2. b x2y − b xyb y

3. sb x d y − b xy

4. sabdx − a xb x

PROOF

1. Using Definition 13 and the laws of exponents for e x, we have b x1y − e sx1yd ln b − e x ln b 1 y ln b − e x ln be y ln b − b xb y 3. Using Equation 14 we obtain x

sb x d y − e y lnsb d − e yx ln b − e xy ln b − b xy The remaining proofs are left as exercises.

■

The differentiation formula for exponential functions is also a consequence of Definition 13: y

d sb x d − b x ln b dx

16

1

PROOF

0 x

lim b ®=0, lim b ®=` _`

d d d sb x d − se x ln b d − e x ln b sx ln bd − b x ln b dx dx dx

x x

`

■

If b . 1, then ln b . 0, so sdydxd b x − b x ln b . 0, which shows that y − b x is increasing (see Figure 8). If 0 , b , 1, then ln b , 0 and so y − b x is decreasing (see Figure 9).

FIGURE 8 y − b x, b . 1 y

General Logarithmic Functions If b . 0 and b ± 1, then f sxd − b x is a one-to-one function. Its inverse function is called the logarithmic function with base b and is denoted by log b. Thus 1

17 0 x

x

lim b ®=`, lim b ®=0 _`

log b x − y &? b y − x

x `

FIGURE 9 y − b x, 0 , b , 1

In particular, we see that log e x − ln x

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A56

APPENDIX G The Logarithm Defined as an Integral

The laws of logarithms are similar to those for the natural logarithm and can be deduced from the laws of exponents (see Exercise 10). To differentiate y − log b x, we write the equation as b y − x. From Equation 14 we have y ln b − ln x, so ln x log b x − y − ln b Since ln b is a constant, we can differentiate as follows: d d ln x 1 d 1 slog b xd − − sln xd − dx dx ln b ln b dx x ln b d 1 slog b xd − dx x ln b

18

The Number e Expressed as a Limit In this section we defined e as the number such that ln e − 1. The next theorem shows that this is the same as the number e defined in Section 3.1 (see Equation 3.6.5). e − lim s1 1 xd1yx

19

xl0

PROOF Let f sxd − ln x. Then f 9sxd − 1yx, so f 9s1d − 1. But, by the definition of derivative,

f 9s1d − lim

hl 0

− lim

xl 0

f s1 1 hd 2 f s1d f s1 1 xd 2 f s1d − lim xl 0 h x lns1 1 xd 2 ln 1 1 − lim lns1 1 xd − lim lns1 1 xd1yx xl 0 x xl 0 x

Because f 9s1d − 1, we have lim lns1 1 xd1yx − 1

xl0

Then, by Theorem 2.5.8 and the continuity of the exponential function, we have 1yx

1yx

e − e1 − elim x l 0 lns11xd − lim elns11xd − lim s1 1 xd1yx xl 0

■

xl 0

EXERCISES (b) Use part (a) to show that ln 2 . 0.66.

1. (a) By comparing areas, show that 1 3

, ln 1.5 ,

5 12

(b) Use the Midpoint Rule with n − 10 to estimate ln 1.5. 2. Refer to Example 1. (a) Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y − 1yt that is parallel to the secant line AD.

3. By comparing areas, show that 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 , ln n , 1 1 1 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 2 3 n 2 3 n21 4. (a) By comparing areas, show that ln 2 , 1 , ln 3. (b) Deduce that 2 , e , 3.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

APPENDIX H

5. Prove the third law of logarithms. [Hint: Start by showing that both sides of the equation have the same derivative.] 6. Prove the second law of exponents for e x [see (11)].

10. Deduce the following laws of logarithms from (15): (a) log bsxyd − log b x 1 log b y (b) log bsxyyd − log b x 2 log b y

8. Prove the second law of exponents [see (15)].

(c) log bsx y d − y log b x

2+3i _4+2i i 0 _i _2-2i

1

Re 3-2i

FIGURE 1 Complex numbers as points in the Argand plane

A57

9. Prove the fourth law of exponents [see (15)].

7. Prove the third law of exponents for e x [see (11)].

Im

Complex Numbers

A complex number can be represented by an expression of the form a 1 bi, where a and b are real numbers and i is a symbol with the property that i 2 − 21. The complex number a 1 bi can also be represented by the ordered pair sa, bd and plotted as a point in a plane (called the Argand plane) as in Figure 1. Thus the complex number i − 0 1 1 ? i is identified with the point s0, 1d. The real part of the complex number a 1 bi is the real number a and the imaginary part is the real number b. Thus the real part of 4 2 3i is 4 and the imaginary part is 23. Two complex numbers a 1 bi and c 1 di are equal if a − c and b − d, that is, their real parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal. In the Argand plane the horizontal axis is called the real axis and the vertical axis is called the imaginary axis. The sum and difference of two complex numbers are defined by adding or subtracting their real parts and their imaginary parts: sa 1 bid 1 sc 1 did − sa 1 cd 1 sb 1 ddi sa 1 bid 2 sc 1 did − sa 2 cd 1 sb 2 ddi For instance, s1 2 id 1 s4 1 7id − s1 1 4d 1 s21 1 7di − 5 1 6i The product of complex numbers is defined so that the usual commutative and distributive laws hold: sa 1 bidsc 1 did − asc 1 did 1 sbidsc 1 did − ac 1 adi 1 bci 1 bdi 2 Since i 2 − 21, this becomes sa 1 bidsc 1 did − sac 2 bdd 1 sad 1 bcdi

EXAMPLE 1 s21 1 3ids2 2 5id − s21ds2 2 5id 1 3is2 2 5id − 22 1 5i 1 6i 2 15s21d − 13 1 11i

■

Division of complex numbers is much like rationalizing the denominator of a rational expression. For the complex number z − a 1 bi, we define its complex conjugate to be z − a 2 bi. To find the quotient of two complex numbers we multiply numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of the denominator.

EXAMPLE 2 Express the number

21 1 3i in the form a 1 bi. 2 1 5i

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A58

APPENDIX H

Complex Numbers

SOLUTION We multiply numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of 2 1 5i, namely, 2 2 5i, and we take advantage of the result of Example 1:

21 1 3i 21 1 3i 2 2 5i 13 1 11i 13 11 − ? − 2 1 i 2 − 2 1 5i 2 1 5i 2 2 5i 2 15 29 29 Im

The geometric interpretation of the complex conjugate is shown in Figure 2: z is the reflection of z in the real axis. We list some of the properties of the complex conjugate in the following box. The proofs follow from the definition and are requested in Exercise 18.

z=a+bi

i 0

■

Re

_i

Properties of Conjugates z=a-bi –

z1w−z1w

zn − z n

zw − z w

FIGURE 2

The modulus, or absolute value, | z | of a complex number z − a 1 bi is its distance from the origin. From Figure 3 we see that if z − a 1 bi, then

Im

„@ z=a+bi „„b + „ @ „ „a

bi

=

|z| 0

œ

| z | − sa

b a

Re

2

1 b2

Notice that zz − sa 1 bidsa 2 bid − a 2 1 abi 2 abi 2 b 2i 2 − a 2 1 b 2

FIGURE 3

zz − | z |2

and so

This explains why the division procedure in Example 2 works in general: zw

z − w

zw −

ww

|w|

2

Since i 2 − 21, we can think of i as a square root of 21. But notice that we also have s2id2 − i 2 − 21 and so 2i is also a square root of 21. We say that i is the principal square root of 21 and write s21 − i. In general, if c is any positive number, we write s2c − sc i With this convention, the usual derivation and formula for the roots of the quadratic equation ax 2 1 bx 1 c − 0 are valid even when b 2 2 4ac , 0: x−

2b 6 sb 2 2 4ac 2a

EXAMPLE 3 Find the roots of the equation x 2 1 x 1 1 − 0. SOLUTION Using the quadratic formula, we have

x−

21 6 s1 2 2 4 ? 1 21 6 s23 21 6 s3 i − − 2 2 2

■

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APPENDIX H

Complex Numbers

A59

We observe that the solutions of the equation in Example 3 are complex conjugates of each other. In general, the solutions of any quadratic equation ax 2 1 bx 1 c − 0 with real coefficients a, b, and c are always complex conjugates. (If z is real, z − z, so z is its own conjugate.) We have seen that if we allow complex numbers as solutions, then every quadratic equation has a solution. More generally, it is true that every polynomial equation a n x n 1 a n21 x n21 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 1 a 1 x 1 a 0 − 0 of degree at least one has a solution among the complex numbers. This fact is known as the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra and was proved by Gauss.

Polar Form We know that any complex number z − a 1 bi can be considered as a point sa, bd and that any such point can be represented by polar coordinates sr, d with r > 0. In fact,

Im

a+bi r b

a − r cos 

b − r sin 

¨ 0

a

Re

as in Figure 4. Therefore we have z − a 1 bi − sr cos d 1 sr sin di

FIGURE 4

Thus we can write any complex number z in the form z − rscos  1 i sin d

where

r − | z | − sa 2 1 b 2

and

tan  −

b a

The angle  is called the argument of z and we write  − argszd. Note that argszd is not unique; any two arguments of z differ by an integer multiple of 2.

EXAMPLE 4 Write the following numbers in polar form. (b) w − s3 2 i

(a) z − 1 1 i SOLUTION

(a) We have r − | z | − s12 1 12 − s2 and tan  − 1, so we can take  − y4. Therefore the polar form is Im

z − s2

1+i

S

cos

  1 i sin 4 4

D

2 œ„ π 4

0

_

π 6

Re

2 œ„ 3-i

FIGURE 5

(b) Here we have r − | w | − s3 1 1 − 2 and tan  − 21ys3 . Since w lies in the fourth quadrant, we take  − 2y6 and

F S D S DG

w − 2 cos 2

 6

1 i sin 2

 6

The numbers z and w are shown in Figure 5.

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■

A60

APPENDIX H

Complex Numbers

The polar form of complex numbers gives insight into multiplication and division. Let z1 − r1scos 1 1 i sin 1 d

z2 − r2scos  2 1 i sin  2 d

be two complex numbers written in polar form. Then

Im

z™

z¡

z1 z2 − r1r2scos 1 1 i sin 1 dscos  2 1 i sin  2 d

¨™

− r1r2 fscos 1 cos  2 2 sin 1 sin  2 d 1 issin 1 cos  2 1 cos 1 sin  2 dg ¨¡ Re

Therefore, using the addition formulas for cosine and sine, we have

¨¡+¨™

z1z2 − r1r2 fcoss1 1  2 d 1 i sins1 1  2 dg

1 z¡z™

This formula says that to multiply two complex numbers we multiply the moduli and add the arguments. (See Figure 6.) A similar argument using the subtraction formulas for sine and cosine shows that to divide two complex numbers we divide the moduli and subtract the arguments.

FIGURE 6

Im

z1 r1 − fcoss1 2  2 d 1 i sins1 2  2 dg z2 ± 0 z2 r2

z r

In particular, taking z1 − 1 and z2 − z (and therefore 1 − 0 and  2 − ), we have the following, which is illustrated in Figure 7.

¨ 0

_¨

Re

1 r

1 z

If z − rscos  1 i sin d, then

1 1 − scos  2 i sin d. z r

FIGURE 7

EXAMPLE 5 Find the product of the complex numbers 1 1 i and s3 2 i in polar form. SOLUTION From Example 4 we have

1 1 i − s2

z=1+i 2 œ„

zw

2 œ„ 2

0

Re

2 3-i w=œ„

FIGURE 8

  1 i sin 4 4  6

1 i sin 2

 6

So, by Equation 1, s1 1 idss3 2 id − 2s2

π 12

cos

s3 2 i − 2 cos 2

and Im

S D F S D S DG

− 2s2 This is illustrated in Figure 8.

F S S cos

cos

  2 4 6

D S D 1 i sin

  2 4 6

DG

  1 i sin 12 12

■

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APPENDIX H

Complex Numbers

A61

Repeated use of Formula 1 shows how to compute powers of a complex number. If z − r scos  1 i sin d then

z 2 − r 2scos 2 1 i sin 2d

and

z 3 − zz 2 − r 3scos 3 1 i sin 3d

In general, we obtain the following result, which is named after the French mathematician Abraham De Moivre (1667–1754). 2 De Moivre’s Theorem If z − r scos  1 i sin d and n is a positive integer, then z n − fr scos  1 i sin dg n − r nscos n 1 i sin nd This says that to take the nth power of a complex number we take the nth power of the modulus and multiply the argument by n.

EXAMPLE 6 Find ( 21 1 12 i)10. SOLUTION Since 12 1 12 i − 12 s1 1 id, it follows from Example 4(a) that 12 1 12 i has the

polar form 1 1 s2 1 i− 2 2 2

S

cos

  1 i sin 4 4

D

So by De Moivre’s Theorem,

S

D S DS S

1 1 1 i 2 2

10

−

−

s2 2

10

25 2 10

cos

cos

10 10 1 i sin 4 4

5 5 1 i sin 2 2

D

−

D

1 i 32

■

De Moivre’s Theorem can also be used to find the nth roots of complex numbers. An nth root of the complex number z is a complex number w such that wn − z Writing these two numbers in trigonometric form as w − sscos  1 i sin d

and

z − r scos  1 i sin d

and using De Moivre’s Theorem, we get s nscos n 1 i sin nd − r scos  1 i sin d The equality of these two complex numbers shows that sn − r and

cos n − cos 

or and

s − r 1yn sin n − sin 

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A62

APPENDIX H

Complex Numbers

From the fact that sine and cosine have period 2, it follows that n −  1 2k Thus

F S

w − r 1yn cos

or

−

 1 2k n

 1 2k n

D S 1 i sin

 1 2k n

DG

Since this expression gives a different value of w for k − 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 2 1, we have the following. 3 Roots of a Complex Number Let z − r scos  1 i sin d and let n be a positive integer. Then z has the n distinct nth roots

F S

wk − r 1yn cos

 1 2k n

D S 1 i sin

 1 2k n

DG

where k − 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 2 1. Notice that each of the nth roots of z has modulus | wk | − r 1yn. Thus all the nth roots of z lie on the circle of radius r 1yn in the complex plane. Also, since the argument of each successive nth root exceeds the argument of the previous root by 2yn, we see that the nth roots of z are equally spaced on this circle.

EXAMPLE 7 Find the six sixth roots of z − 28 and graph these roots in the complex plane. SOLUTION In trigonometric form, z − 8scos  1 i sin d. Applying Equation 3 with n − 6, we get  1 2k  1 2k wk − 8 1y6 cos 1 i sin 6 6

S

D

We get the six sixth roots of 28 by taking k − 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in this formula:

Im œ„ 2 i w¡ w™

w¸

0

2 _ œ„

œ„ 2 Re

w£

w∞ _œ„2 i

w¢

S S S S S S

D S D D D S D D S D D D S D 1 s3 1 i 2 2

w0 − 8 1y6 cos

  1 i sin 6 6

w1 − 8 1y6 cos

  1 i sin 2 2

w2 − 8 1y6 cos

5 5 1 i sin 6 6

− s2

2

1 s3 1 i 2 2

w3 − 8 1y6 cos

7 7 1 i sin 6 6

− s2

2

1 s3 2 i 2 2

w4 − 8 1y6 cos

3 3 1 i sin 2 2

− 2s2 i

w5 − 8 1y6 cos

11 11 1 i sin 6 6

− s2

− s2 i

− s2

1 s3 2 i 2 2

FIGURE 9 The six sixth roots of z − 28

All these points lie on the circle of radius s2 as shown in Figure 9.

■

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APPENDIX H

A63

Complex Numbers

Complex Exponentials We also need to give a meaning to the expression e z when z − x 1 iy is a complex number.  The theory of infinite series as developed in Chapter 11 can be extended to the case where the terms are complex numbers. Using the Taylor series for e x (11.10.11) as our guide, we define `

4

ez −

zn

o n−0 n!

−11z1

z2 z3 1 1 ∙ ∙ ∙ 2! 3!

and it turns out that this complex exponential function has the same properties as the real exponential function. In particular, it is true that e z11z2 − e z1e z2

5

If we put z − iy, where y is a real number, in Equation 4, and use the facts that i 2 − 21, i 3 − i 2i − 2i, we get

e iy − 1 1 iy 1 − 1 1 iy 2

S

− 12

i 4 − 1, i 5 − i, . . .

siyd2 siyd3 siyd4 siyd5 1 1 1 1∙∙∙ 2! 3! 4! 5! y2 y3 y4 y5 2i 1 1i 1∙∙∙ 2! 3! 4! 5!

D S

D

y2 y4 y6 y3 y5 1 2 1∙∙∙ 1i y2 1 2∙∙∙ 2! 4! 6! 3! 5!

− cos y 1 i sin y Here we have used the Taylor series for cos y and sin y (Equations 11.10.16 and 11.10.15). The result is a famous formula called Euler’s formula: e iy − cos y 1 i sin y

6

Combining Euler’s formula with Equation 5, we get 7

e x1iy − e xe iy − e x scos y 1 i sin yd (b) e211iy2

EXAMPLE 8 Evaluate: (a) e i We could write the result of Example 8(a) as e i 1 1 − 0 This equation relates the five most famous numbers in all of mathematics: 0, 1, e, i, and .

SOLUTION

(a) From Euler’s equation (6) we have e i − cos  1 i sin  − 21 1 is0d − 21 (b) Using Equation 7 we get

S

e211iy2 − e21 cos

  1 i sin 2 2

D

−

1 i f0 1 is1dg − e e

■

Finally, we note that Euler’s equation provides us with an easier method of proving De Moivre’s Theorem: fr scos  1 i sin dg n − sre i dn − r ne in − r nscos n 1 i sin nd Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

A64

APPENDIX H

Complex Numbers

EXERCISES 1–14 Evaluate the expression and write your answer in the form a 1 bi.

32. z − 4ss3 1 i d,

w − 23 2 3i

1. s5 2 6i d 1 s3 1 2i d

2. s4 2 21 id 2 s9 1 52 id

33–36 Find the indicated power using De Moivre’s Theorem.

3. s2 1 5i ds4 2 id

4. s1 2 2i ds8 2 3i d

33. s1 1 i d20

5. 12 1 7i

6. 2i ( 12 2 i )

35. s2 s3 1 2i d

7.

1 1 4i 3 1 2i

8.

3 1 2i 1 2 4i

9.

1 11i

10.

3 4 2 3i

11. i

3

12. i

13. s225

100

34. s1 2 s3 i d 5

5

36. s1 2 i d8

37–40 Find the indicated roots. Sketch the roots in the complex plane. 37. The eighth roots of 1

38. The fifth roots of 32

39. The cube roots of i

40. The cube roots of 1 1 i

14. s23 s212 41–46 Write the number in the form a 1 bi.

15–17 Find the complex conjugate and the modulus of the number. 16. 21 1 2 s2 i

15. 12 2 5i

41. e iy2

42. e 2i

43. e iy3

44. e 2i

45. e 21i

46. e 1i

17. 24i 18. Prove the following properties of complex numbers. (a) z 1 w − z 1 w (b) zw − z w (c) z n − z n, where n is a positive integer [Hint: Write z − a 1 bi, w − c 1 di.]

47. Use De Moivre’s Theorem with n − 3 to express cos 3 and sin 3 in terms of cos  and sin . 48. Use Euler’s formula to prove the following formulas for cos x and sin x: cos x −

e ix 1 e2ix 2

sin x −

e ix 2 e2ix 2i

19–24 Find all solutions of the equation. 19. 4x 2 1 9 − 0

20. x 4 − 1

2

2

22. 2x 2 2x 1 1 − 0

2

24. z 2 1 12 z 1 14 − 0

21. x 1 2x 1 5 − 0 23. z 1 z 1 2 − 0

25–28 Write the number in polar form with argument between 0 and 2. 25. 23 1 3i

26. 1 2 s3 i

27. 3 1 4i

28. 8i

29–32 Find polar forms for zw, zyw, and 1yz by first putting z and  w into polar form. 29. z − s3 1 i,

w − 1 1 s3 i

30. z − 4 s3 2 4i,

w − 8i

31. z − 2 s3 2 2i,

w − 21 1 i

49. If usxd − f sxd 1 itsxd is a complex-valued function of a real variable x and the real and imaginary parts f sxd and tsxd are differentiable functions of x, then the derivative of u is defined to be u9sxd − f 9sxd 1 it9sxd. Use this together with Equation 7 to prove that if Fsxd − e rx, then F9sxd − re rx when r − a 1 bi is a complex number. 50. (a) If u is a complex-valued function of a real variable, its indefinite integral y usxd dx is an antiderivative of u. Evaluate

ye

s11i dx

dx

(b) By considering the real and imaginary parts of the integral in part (a), evaluate the real integrals

ye

x

cos x dx

and

ye

x

sin x dx

(c) Compare with the method used in Example 7.1.4.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

31. s2`, 23d ø s23, 3d ø s3, `d 33. s2`, `d 35. s2`, 0d ø s5, `d 37. f0, 4g 39. s2`, `d 41. 21, 1, 21

CHAPTER 1 EXERCISES 1.1



PAGE 19

1. Yes 3. (a) 3 (b) 20.2 (c) 0, 3 (d) 20.8 (e) f22, 4g, f21, 3g (f) f22, 1g 5. f285, 115g 7. No 9. Yes, f23, 2g, f23, 22d ø f21, 3g 11. (a) 13.8°C (b) 1990 (c) 1910, 2005 13. T

y

y

(0, 2) (0, 1) 0

_2 0

_2.4

x

1

x

1.5

(d) f13.5, 14.5g 43. 22, 0, 4

45. y

y 0

A65

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises

APPENDIX I

t 1

15. (a) 500 MW; 730 MW 17. T

(b) 4 am; noon; yes

1 0

x

2

0

47. midnight

19.

1

x

y

t

noon

amount

1

1 3

0

0

t

49.

price

y 1

21.

Height of grass

x

1

_1 _1

51. f sxd − 25 x 2 11 2,1 < x < 5 Wed.

23. (a)

26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19

Wed.

Wed.

Wed.

(b) 24°C

T (in °C)

0 3 midnight

H

2x 1 3 if 0 < x < 3 2 x 2 6 if 3 , x < 5 57. AsLd − 10L 2 L2, 0 , L , 10 59. Asxd − s3 x 2y4, x . 0 61. Ssxd − x 2 1 s8yxd, x . 0 3 2 63. Vsxd − 4x 2 64x 1 240x, 0 , x , 6 55. f sxd −

Wed. t

65. Fsxd −

6

9

12 noon

15 t

25. 12, 16, 3a 2 2 a 1 2, 3a 2 1 a 1 2, 3a 2 1 5a 1 4, 6a 2 2 2a 1 4, 12a 2 2 2a 1 2, 3a 4 2 a 2 1 2, 9a 4 2 6a 3 1 13a 2 2 4a 1 4, 3a 2 1 6ah 1 3h 2 2 a 2 h 1 2 27. 23 2 h 29. 21ysaxd

53. f sxd − 1 2 s2x

H

10s50 2 xd 0 10sx 2 100d

F 500

0

if 0 < x , 50 if 50 < x < 100 if x . 100

(150, 500)

50

100

150

x

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

A66

APPENDIX I

67. (a)

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises (b) $400, $1900

R (%)

11. f sxd − 23xsx 1 1dsx 2 2d 13. (a) 8.34, change in mg for every 1 year change

15

(b) 8.34 mg

10

15. (a)

F (100, 212)

0

(c)

20,000

10,000

I (in dollars)

F= 95 C+32

T (in dollars)

32

2500

C

(_40, _40)

1000 0

10,000 20,000 30,000 I (in dollars)

(b) 95, change in 8 F for every 18C change; 32, Fahrenheit temperature corresponding to 0 8C

69. f is odd, t is even 71. (a) s25, 3d (b) s25, 23d 73. Odd 75. Neither 77. Even 79. Even; odd; neither (unless f − 0 or t − 0) EXERCISES 1.2



9 1 88 (b) 68 , change in 8C for every chirp per 17 minute change (c) 25 8C 19. (a) P − 0.10d 1 1.05 (b) 59.5 m 21. (a) Cosine (b) Linear 23. (a) 15 A linear model is appropriate.

17. (a) T −

PAGE 33

1. (a) Logarithmic (b) Root (c) Rational (d) Polynomial, degree 2 (e) Exponential (f) Trigonometric 3. (a) h (b) f (c) t 5. h x x ± y2 1 2nj, n an integer

9 68 N

|

7. (a) y − 2x 1 b,

y b=3 b=0

where b is the y-intercept.

b=_1

61,000

0

(b) y − 20.000105x 1 14.521 y=2x+b 15

(b)

x

(c)

(b) y − mx 1 1 2 2m, where m is the slope.

m=_1 (2, 1)

m=0

x

y-1=m(x-2)

(c) y − 2x 2 3

61,000

0

m=1

y

(c) y − 20.00009979x 1 13.951 (d) About 11.5 per 100 population (e) About 6% (f) No 25. (a) See graph in part (b).

(b) y − 1.88074x 1 82.64974 180

Height (cm)

9. Their graphs have slope 21. y

c=_1 c=_2 0

x

c=2 c=1

150 35

55

Femur length (cm) c=0

(c) 182.3 cm

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises

APPENDIX I

Thousands of barrels per day

27. (a) A linear model is appropriate. See graph in part (b). (b) y − 1116.64x 1 60,188.33

13.

y 2

y=2 cos 3x

0

π

A67

90,000

15.

x

y 5

55,000 0

Years since 1985

25 1

(c) In thousands of barrels per day: 79,171 and 90,338 29. Four times as bright 31. (a) N − 3.1046 A0.308 (b) 18 

EXERCISES 1.3

y=(x-2)@+1 2

0

17.

y

y=2-œ„ x

PAGE 42

2

1. (a) y − f sxd 1 3

(b) y − f sxd 2 3 (c) y − f sx 2 3d (d) y − f sx 1 3d (e) y − 2f sxd (f) y − f s2xd (g) y − 3f sxd (h) y − 13 f sxd 3. (a) 3 (b) 1 (c) 4 (d) 5 (e) 2 5. (a)

(b)

y

0

19. 0

0

1

4 x

y 1

1

x

y

y=sin(x/2) 2

x

x

1

2π x

0

(c)

(d)

y

y 1

1 0

1 x

0

1 x

21.

y 1

π

0

y=21 (1-cos x)

7. y − 2s2x 2 2 5x 2 4 2 1 9.

23.

y

y=_≈

0

y

1

x

0

y=| œ„ x-1 |

1

x

F

25. Lstd − 12 1 2 sin 11.

G

y-axis is reflected about the y-axis. (b) (c)

y=˛+1

y 1 0

2 st 2 80d 365

27. Dstd − 5 cosfsy6dst 2 6.75dg 1 7 29. (a) The portion of the graph of y − f sxd to the right of the

y

1

x

x 0

y

y= sin  |x|

y=œ„„ |x| x 0

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

x

A68

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises

APPENDIX I

31. (a) s f 1 tdsxd − x 3 1 5x 2 2 1, s2`, `d

(d) s fytdsxd −

H|

x 3 1 2x 2 1 , x x±6 3x 2 2 1 s3

1. (a) 4 (b) x 3. (a) 16b12 (b) 648y 7 5. (a) f sxd − b x, b . 0 (b) R

J

(c) s0, `d (d) See Figures 4(c), 4(b), and 4(a), respectively. 7. All approach 0 as x l 2`, 5 y=20 ® y=5® y=´ all pass through s0, 1d, and y=2® all are increasing. The larger the base, the faster the rate of increase.

(b) st + f dsxd − 9x 2 1 33x 1 30, s2`, `d (c) s f + f dsxd − 9x 1 20, s2`, `d (d) st + tdsxd − x 4 1 2x 3 1 2x 2 1 x, s2`, `d

f 12, `)

_1

(b) st + f dsxd − 4 sx 1 1 2 3, f21, `d (c) s f + f dsxd − ssx 1 1 1 1 , f21, `d (d) st + tdsxd − 16x 2 15, s2`, `d 2x 2 1 6x 1 5

PAGE 53

24y3

33. (a) s f + tdsxd − 3x 2 1 3x 1 5, s2`, `d

35. (a) s f + tdsxd − s4x 2 2 ,



EXERCISES 1.4

(b) s f 2 tdsxd − x 3 2 x 2 1 1, s2`, `d (c) s ftdsxd − 3x 5 1 6x 4 2 x 3 2 2x 2, s2`, `d

9.

2 0

The functions with base greater than 1 are increasing and those with base less than 1 are decreasing. The latter are reflections of the former about the y-axis.

1 ®   ’ 5 y=10® y=3® y=” 13 ’® y=” 10

|

37. (a) s f 8 tdsxd − , h x x ± 22, 21j sx 1 2dsx 1 1d

x2 1 x 1 1 , {x x ± 21, 0j sx 1 1d2 x 4 1 3x 2 1 1 (c) s f 8 f dsxd − , {x x ± 0j xsx 2 1 1d 2x 1 3 (d) st 8 tdsxd − , h x x ± 22, 253 j 3x 1 5 39. s f 8 t 8 hdsxd − 3 sinsx 2 d 2 2

|

(b) st 8 f dsxd −

_2

|

2 0

11.

|

y=10 x+2

0

15.

49. hsxd − sx , tsxd − x 2 1, f sxd − sx 51. hstd − cos t, tstd − sin t, f std − t 2

(c) s f 8 tdstd − s900t 1 36; the distance between the lighthouse and the ship as a function of the time elapsed since noon V 120

1

0

t

0

Vstd − 120Hstd (c)

V 240

Vstd − 240Hst 2 5d 0

5

”0,  2 ’ 0

t

x

y=1- 2 e–® 1

17. (a) y − e x 2 2

(b) y − e x22 (c) y − 2e x (d) y − e2x (e) y − 2e2x 19. (a) s2`, 21d ø s21, 1d ø s1, `d (b) s2`, `d 21. f sxd − 3 ? 2 x 27. At x < 35.8 29. (a) See graph in part (c). (b) f std − 36.89301s1.06614d t (c) 190 About 10.87 h

t 0 t (hours)

61. Yes; m1 m 2 63. (a) f sxd − x 2 1 6 65. Yes

x

Bacteria count (CFU/ml)

(b) d − 30t 2

(b)

0

1

(d) Does not exist; f s6d − 6 is not (f) 22

H

_1

y

(b) sA 8 rdstd − 3600t 2; the area of the circle as a function of time

59. (a)

_2

y=1

55. (a) rstd − 60t

57. (a) s − sd 2 1 36

1

x

y=-1

47. tstd − t 2, f std − sec t tan t

(c) 0 (e) 4

y=4®-1 1

3 45. tsxd − s x , f sxd − xys1 1 xd

(b) 3 in the domain of t.

y

3

41. s f 8 t 8 hdsxd − sx 6 1 4x 3 1 1 43. tsxd − 2x 1 x 2, f sxd − x 4

53. (a) 4

13.

y

(b) tsxd − x 2 1 x 2 1

25

31. (a) 25 mg (b) 200 ? 2 2ty5 mg (c) 10.9 mg (d) 38.2 days

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

APPENDIX I 33. 3.5 days 35. P − 2614.086s1.01693dt; 5381 million; 8466 million EXERCISES 1.5



49. (a) s0, `d; s2`, `d (c) y

A69

(b) e 22

x=0

PAGE 66

ƒ=ln x+2

1. (a) See Definition 1. (b) It must pass the Horizontal Line Test. 3. No 5. No 7. Yes 9. Yes 15. (a) 4 (b) 8 17. 0

0

11. No

Celsius temperature; f2273.15, `d 21. f 21sxd − 13 sx 2 1d 2 2 23, x > 1 25. y − e x 2 3

51. 53. 55. 57. 59.

x

e–@

13. No

19. F − 95 C 1 32; the Fahrenheit temperature as a function of the

23. f 21sxd − 12 s1 1 ln xd

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises

(a) 14 s7 2 ln 6d (b) 13 se 2 1 10d (a) 5 1 log 2 3 or 5 1 sln 3dyln 2 (b) 12 (1 1 s1 1 4e (a) 0 , x , e (b) x > ln 3 (a) sln 3, `d (b) f 21sxd − lnse x 1 3d; R The graph passes the Horizontal Line Test.

)

5

27. f 21sxd − 14 sx 2 2 3d, x > 0

10

f –! f

4

_2

10

_1

_1

_1

29. y

f –! f 0

x

31. (a) f 21 sxd − s1 2 x 2 , 0 < x < 1; f 21 and f are the same

function. (b) Quarter-circle in the first quadrant 33. (a) It’s defined as the inverse of the exponential function with base b, that is, log b x − y &? b y − x. (b) s0, `d (c) R (d) See Figure 11. 35. (a) 5

(b)

1 3

37. (a) 2

(b)

3 3 3 3 f 21sxd − 261 s 4 (s D 2 27x 2 1 20 2 s D 1 27x 2 2 20 1 s 2 ), 4 2 where D − 3 s3 s27x 2 40x 1 16 ; two of the expressions are complex. 61. (a) f 21snd − s3yln 2d lnsny100d; the time elapsed when there are n bacteria (b) After about 26.9 hours 63. (a)  (b) y6 65. (a) y4 (b) y2 67. (a) 5y6 (b) y3 71. xys1 1 x 2 73. π   The second graph is

2

y=sin x

2 3

π

43.

y=log 1.5 x

3

y=ln x y=log 10 x 0

4

y=log 50 x

All graphs approach 2` as x l 01, all pass through s1, 0d, and all are increasing. The larger the base, the slower the rate of increase.

5

47. (a)

(b)

y

_4

0

f

g

75. 223, 0 , f2y2, y2g 77. (a) t21 sxd − f 21sxd 2 c CHAPTER 1 REVIEW



(b) h21sxd − s1ycd f 21sxd

PAGE 69 5. True

7. False

9. True

y

y=log 10 (x+5) _5

π

_2

True-False Quiz 1. False 3. False 11. False 13. False

45. About 1.27 3 10 25 km

the reflection of the first graph about the line y − x

π 2

_2

sx 41. ln x11

39. ln 5

y=sin– ! x

Exercises

y=-ln x x 0

1

(b) 2.3, 5.6 (c) f26, 6g (d) f24, 4g (e) f24, 4g (f) No; it fails the Horizontal Line Test. (g) Odd; its graph is symmetric about the origin. 3. 2a 1 h 2 2 5. s 2`, 31 d ø s 31 , `d, s2`, 0d ø s0, `d 7. s26, `d, R 1. (a) 2.7

x

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

A70

APPENDIX I

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises

9. (a) Shift the graph 8 units upward. (b) Shift the graph 8 units to the left. (c) Stretch the graph vertically by a factor of 2, then shift it 1 unit upward. (d) Shift the graph 2 units to the right and 2 units downward. (e) Reflect the graph about the x-axis. (f) Reflect the graph about the line y − x (assuming f is one-to-one). 11.

9. (a)

y

_1 x

1

ƒ=max{x, 1/x}

y

(b)

y=(x-2)# 0

y 1

x

2

_3π 4

ƒ=max{sin x, cos x} π 4

5π 4

0

_7π 4

x _œ„ 2/2

13.

y

(c) 1

y

4

y=(x-1)@+1

0

1

x

ƒ=max{≈, 2+x, 2-x}

15.

y 1

y=-cos 2x _2

0

π

(b) Odd

(c) Even

(d) Neither

19. (a) s f 8 tdsxd − lnsx 2 2 9d, s2`, 23d ø s3, `d

(b) st 8 f dsxd − sln xd2 2 9, s0, `d (c) s f 8 f dsxd − ln ln x, s1, `d (d) st 8 tdsxd − sx 2 2 9d2 2 9, s2`, `d 21. Exponential model; 270 million 23. 1

25. (a) 9

(b) 2

(d)

3 5

1 16



PAGE 76

1. a − 4 sh 2 16yh, where a is the length of the altitude and 2

h is the length of the hypotenuse 3. 2 37 , 9 7. y

y

0 1

x

19. fnsxd − x 2

g

n11

x



PAGE 82

1. (a) 244.4, 238.8, 227.8, 222.2, 216.6 (b) 233.3 (c) 233 13 3. (a) (i) 2 (ii) 1.111111 (iii) 1.010101 (iv) 1.001001 (v) 0.666667 (vi) 0.909091 (vii) 0.990099 (viii) 0.999001 (b) 1 (c) y − x 2 3 5. (a) (i) 27.15 mys (ii) 25.19 mys (iii) 24.945 mys (iv) 24.749 mys (b) 24.7 mys 7. (a) (i) 4.65 mys (ii) 5.6 mys (iii) 7.55 mys (iv) 7 mys (b) 6.3 mys 9. (a) 0, 1.7321, 21.0847, 22.7433, 4.3301, 22.8173, 0, 22.1651, 22.6061, 25, 3.4202; no (c) 231.4 EXERCISES 2.2

5.

f

13. x [ 21, 1 2 s3 d ø s1 1 s3, 3

15. 80 kmyh

EXERCISES 2.1

(c) 1ys3

PRINCIPLES OF PROBLEM SOLVING

x

CHAPTER 2

g (b) mstd − 2 2ty4 (c) tsmd − 24 log 2 m; the time elapsed when there are m grams of 100 Pd (d) About 26.6 days 27. (a)

2

x

11. 5 17. (a) Neither

0



PAGE 92

1. Yes 3. (a) lim x l25 f sxd − ` means that the values of f sxd can be made arbitrarily large (as large as we please) by taking x sufficiently close to 25 (but not equal to 25). (b) lim x l 31 f sxd − 2` means that the values of f sxd can be made arbitrarily large negative by taking x sufficiently close to 3 through values larger than 3.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

APPENDIX I 5. (a) 2 (b) 1 (c) 4 (d) Does not exist (e) 3 7. (a) 21 (b) 22 (c) Does not exist (d) 2 (e) 0 (f) Does not exist (g) 1 (h) 3 9. (a) 2` (b) ` (c) ` (d) 2` (e) ` (f) x − 27, x − 23, x − 0, x − 6 11. lim f sxd exists for all a except a − 21.

49. (a) (i) 5 (ii) 25 (c)

15.

(b) 0

(2, 5)

17.

_3

0

x

1

19. 12 21. 5 23. 0.25 25. 1.5 27. 1 29. (a) 21.5 31. ` 33. ` 35. 2` 37. 2` 39. 2` 41. ` 43. 2` 45. 2`; ` (b)

x (2, _5)

y

x

47. (a) 2.71828

0

_3

(c) Does not exist

y

(b) Does not exist

y

xla

13. (a) 1

A71

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises

6

_4

4

51. 53. (b) 59.

7 (a) (i) 22 (ii) Does not exist (iii) 23 (i) n 2 1 (ii) n (c) a is not an integer. 8 65. 15; 21

EXERCISES 2.4



PAGE 113

1. 0.1 (or any smaller positive number) 3. 1.44 (or any smaller positive number) 5. 0.0906 (or any smaller positive number) 7. 0.0219 (or any positive number); 0.011 (or any smaller positive number) 9. (a) 0.01 (or any smaller positive number) 1 (b) lim1 −` x l2 lnsx 2 1d

_2

49. (a) 0.998000, 0.638259, 0.358484, 0.158680, 0.038851, 0.008928, 0.001465; 0 (b) 0.000572, 20.000614, 20.000907, 20.000978, 20.000993, 20.001000; 20.001 51. No matter how many times we zoom in toward the origin, the graph appears to consist of almost-vertical lines. This indicates more and more frequent oscillations as x l 0. 53. x < 60.90, 62.24; x − 6sin21sy4d, 6s 2 sin21sy4dd 55. (a) 6 (b) Within 0.0649 of 1 EXERCISES 2.3



PAGE 102

1. (a) 26 (b) 28 (c) 2 (d) 26 (e) Does not exist (f) 0 3. 59 5. 78 7. 390 9. 32 11. 5 6 1 13. Does not exist 15. 5 17. 210 19. 27 1 1 1 1 21. 6 23. 29 25. 1 27. 128 29. 22 31. 3x 2 33. (a), (b) 23 37. 7 41. 6 43. 24 45. Does not exist 47. (a)

y 1

0

x

(b) (i) 1 (ii) 21 (iii) Does not exist (iv) 1

(b) Within approximately 0.0445 cm 11. (a) s1000y cm (c) Radius; area; s1000y ; 1000; 5; 15 75. (a) x > 100 EXERCISES 2.7



29. (a) 253 ; y − 253 x 1 16 5

(b)

4

PAGE 148

f sxd 2 f s3d f sxd 2 f s3d (b) lim xl3 x23 x23 3. (a) 2 (b) y − 2x 1 1 (c) 6

_1

1. (a)

_2

31. 6a 2 4

33.

5 sa 1 3d2

37. f sxd − sx , a − 9 _1

5 0

1 2x

1 2

5. y − 28x 1 12 7. y − 1 9. (a) 8a 2 6a 2 (b) y − 2x 1 3, y − 28x 1 19 (c) 10

6

35. 2

1 s1 2 2a

39. f sxd − x 6, a − 2

41. f sxd − cos x, a −  or f sxd − coss 1 xd, a − 0 43. 32 mys; 32 mys 45. 72

Greater (in magnitude)

Temperature (in °F)

38

_2

4 0

1

_3

11. (a) Right: 0 , t , 1 and 4 , t , 6; left: 2 , t , 3; standing still: 1 , t , 2 and 3 , t , 4 (b)

v (m/s)

13. 15. 17. 19. 21. 23.

47. (a) In smgymLdyh: (i) 20.15 (ii) 20.12 (iii) 20.12 (iv) 20.11 (b) 20.12 smgymLdyh; After 2 hours, the BAC is decreasing at a rate of 0.12 smgymLdyh. 49. (a) (i) 0.82 (ii) 1.07 (iii) 1.38 (b) 1.23 millions of passengers per year

1 0

Time 2 (in hours)

t (seconds)

1

29.6 mys 22ya 3 mys; 22 mys; 241 mys; 2272 mys t9s0d, 0, t9s4d, t9s2d, t9s22d (a) 26 (b) No (c) Yes f s2d − 3; f 9s2d − 4 y 1

1

x

51. (a) (i) $20.25yunit

(ii) $20.05yunit

(b) $20yunit

53. (a) The rate at which the cost is changing per kilogram of gold produced; dollars per kilogram (b) When the 50th kilogram of gold is produced, the cost of production is $36ykg (c) Decrease in the short term; increase in the long term 55. (a) H9s15d is the rate at which the daily heating costs changes with respect to temperature when the outside temperature is 8C. The units are dollarsy8C (b) If the outside temperature increases, the building should require less heating, so we would expect H9s15d to be negative. 57. (a) The rate at which the oxygen solubility changes with respect to the water temperature; smgyLdy°C (b) S9s16d < 20.25; as the temperature increases past 16°C, the oxygen solubility is decreasing at a rate of 0.25 smgyLdy°C. 59. Does not exist

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

A74

APPENDIX I

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises

4

61. (a)

Slope appears to be 1.

(b)

The rate of change of percentage of full capacity is decreasing and approaching 0.

y 40

2π

_2π

y=Cª(t)

20

_4

(b)

0

Yes

0.25

15.

2

4

6

8

10

12 t

1963 to 1971

y 0.1

y=Mª(t)

0.05 0.4

_0.4

t

_0.03

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

_0.25

17. (c)

f 9sxd − e x

y

Yes; 0

0.005

f, f ª 0.008

_0.008

1 0

x

1

_0.005

EXERCISES 2.8



19. (a) 0, 1, 2, 4 (b) 21, 22, 24 (c) f 9sxd − 2x 21. f 9sxd − 3 , R, R 23. f 9std − 5t 1 6, R, R 25. f 9sxd − 3x 2 2 3, R, R 1 27. t9sxd − 2 , s2`, 9g, s2`, 9d 2 s9 2 x 27 29. G9std − , s2`, 23d ø s23, `d, s2`, 23d ø s23, `d s3 1 td2 3 31. f 9sxd − 4x , R, R 33. (a) f 9sxd − 4x 3 1 2 35. (a) The rate at which the unemployment rate is changing, in percent unemployed per year (b)

PAGE 160

1. (a) 20.2 (b) 0 (c) 1 (e) 1 (f) 0 (g) 20.2

(d) 2

y 2

fª 1 3

_3 _2

0

_1

3. (a) II 5. y

1

(b) IV

2

(c) I

x

(d) III 7.

y

fª

fª 0

x 0

37.

x

t

U9std

t

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

20.10 0.05 20.05 20.75 20.85

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

t

14

21

28

H9std

13 7

23 14

9 7

U9std

0.10 0.15 20.35 20.45 20.60

35

42

49

1

11 14

5 7

y 2

9.

11.

y

y

fª 0

fª 1

x

y=Hª(t) 0

x

13. (a) The instantaneous rate of change of percentage of full capacity with respect to elapsed time in hours

0

7

14 21 28 35 42 49 t

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

APPENDIX I 39. (a) The rate at which the percentage of electrical power produced by solar panels is changing, in percentage points per year. (b) On January 1, 2002, the percentage of electrical power produced by solar panels was increasing at a rate of 3.5 percentage points per year. 41. 24 scornerd; 0 sdiscontinuityd 43. 1 snot definedd; 5 svertical tangentd 45. 2 Differentiable at 21; not differentiable at 0 _2

1

_1

47. f 99s1d 49. a − f, b − f 9, c − f 99 51. a − acceleration, b − velocity, c − position 53. 6x 1 2; 6

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW



A75

PAGE 166

True-False Quiz 1. False 3. True 5. True 7. False 9. True 11. True 13. True 15. False 17. True 19. True 21. False 23. False 25. True Exercises 1. (a) (i) 3 (ii) 0 (iii) Does not exist (iv) 2 (v) ` (vi) 2` (vii) 4 (viii) 21 (b) y − 4, y − 21 (c) x − 0, x − 2 (d) 23, 0, 2, 4 3. 1 5. 32 7. 3 9. ` 11. 47 13. 12 15. 2` 17. 2 19. y2 21. x − 0, y − 0 23. 1 29. (a) (i) 3 (ii) 0 (iii) Does not exist (iv) 0 (v) 0 (vi) 0 (b) At 0 and 3 (c) y 3

7 0

3

x

f· f

31. 37. (iv) 39. (c)

fª

_4

4 _1

55.

f 9sxd − 4x 2 3x 2,

3

f·

f

f 99sxd − 4 2 6x, f 999sxd − 26, f s4dsxd − 0

6

4

fª

R 35. (a) 28 (b) y − 28x 1 17 (a) (i) 3 mys (ii) 2.75 mys (iii) 2.625 mys 2.525 mys (b) 2.5 mys (a) 10 (b) y − 10x 2 16 12

–4

4

fªªª –12 7

57. (a) 13 a22y3 59. f 9sxd −

or f 9sxd −

H |

21 if x , 6 1 if x . 6

x26 x26

61. (a)

41. (a) The rate at which the cost changes with respect to the interest rate; dollarsy(percent per year) (b) As the interest rate increases past 10%, the cost is increasing at a rate of $1200y(percent per year). (c) Always positive y 43.

y

y = f ª(x) 1 0

|

6

x

_1

fª

(b) All x (c) f 9sxd − 2 x

y

0

| |

x

0

45. (a) f 9sxd − 2 25 s3 2 5xd21y2 6 (c)

x

g

(b) (2`, 53 , (2`, 53 )

f

65. (a)

(b)

s

_3

y

y=ds/dt

1

fª

_6

0

67. 63°

0 3

8 10

15

19 t

3

8 10

15

19 t

47. 24 (discontinuity), 21 (corner), 2 (discontinuity), 5 (vertical tangent)

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

A76

APPENDIX I

49.

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises 3 3 x 2 94 x 1 3 69. y − 16

y

71. No

y

y 2

(1, 2)

1

1

y=ƒ 0

1

x

0

51. The rate at which the number of US $20 bills in circulation is changing with respect to time; 0.156 billion bills per year 53. 0 PROBLEMS PLUS



3. 24 5. (a) Does not exist 1. 7. a − 12 6 12 s5 9. 34 11. (b) Yes 13. (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) f 9sxd − x 2 1 1

f 9sxd −

H

(b)

(b) 1 (c) Yes; no

1

x

73. (a) Not differentiable at 3 or 23

PAGE 169

2 3

0

y=fª(x)

x

| | | |

2x if x . 3 22x if x , 3 y

y

ƒ

9

ƒ 0 3

x

3

CHAPTER 3 3

EXERCISES 3.1



1. (a) e is the number such that lim

hl0

eh 2 1 − 1. h

(b) 0.99, 1.03; 2.7 , e , 2.8 3. f 9sxd − 0 5. f 9sxd − 5.2 7. f 9std − 6t 2 2 6t 2 4 2 9. t9sxd − 2x 2 6x 11. y9 − 225 x27y5 4 13. F9srd − 215yr 15. R9sad − 18a 1 6 17. S9s pd − 12 p21y2 2 1 19. y9 − 3e x 2 43 x 24y3 2 21. h9sud − 3Au 1 2Bu 1 C 2 3 23. y9 − 23 sx 1 2 25. j9sxd − 2.4 x 1.4 2xsx sx 27. G9sqd − 22q 22 2 2q23 29. f 9svd − 223 v 25y3 2 2e v 11 y 33. y − 4x 2 1 31. z9 − 210Ayy 1 Be 35. y − 12 x 1 2 37. Tangent: y − 22x 1 2; normal: y − 12 x 2 12 39. y − 3x 2 1 41. f 9sxd − 4 x 3 2 6x 2 1 2x 43. (a) (c) 4x 3 2 9x 2 2 12x 1 7 50

100

5

3 10

0

3

x

PAGE 180

5

3

40

45. f 9sxd − 0.005x 4 2 0.06x 2, f 99sxd − 0.02x 3 2 0.12x 21y4 25y4 47. f 9sxd − 2 2 15 , f 99sxd − 15 4 x 16 x 2 49. (a) vstd − 3t 2 3, astd − 6t (b) 12 mys2 (c) as1d − 6 mys2 51. 1.718; at 12 years, the length of the fish is increasing at a rate of 1.718 inyyear 53. (a) V − 5.3yP (b) 20.00212; instantaneous rate of change of the volume with respect to the pressure at 258C; m3y kPa 55. s22, 21d, s1, 26d 59. y − 3x 2 3, y − 3x 2 7 61. y − 22x 1 3 63. s62, 4d 67. Psxd − x 2 2 x 1 3

75. y − 2x 2 2 x 77. a − 212 , b − 2 79. 2 13 81. m − 4, b − 24 83. 1000 85. 3; 1 

EXERCISES 3.2

PAGE 188

2

1. 1 2 2x 1 6x 2 8x 3

3. f 9sxd − e x s3x 2 1 x 2 5d 7. t9sxd − 5ys2x 1 1d2

5. y9 − sx 2 2de xyx 3 9. H9sud − 2u 2 1 11. F9s yd − 5 1 15. y9 −

14 9 1 4 y2 y

13. y9 −

xs2x 3 2 3x 2 2d sx 3 2 1d 2

t 4 2 8t 3 1 6t 2 1 9 st 2 2 4t 1 3d 2

17. y9 − 2 v 2 1ysv

19. y9 −

21. f 9std −

22t 2 3 3t 2y3st 2 3d 2

25. f 9sxd −

2ACe x sB 1 Ce xd2

3 2 2ss 2s 5y2

23. f 9sxd −

xe x sx 3 1 2e xd sx 2 1 e x d 2

27. sx 3 1 3x 2 1 1de x; sx 3 1 6x 2 1 6x 1 1de x 29.

xs2 1 2e x 2 xe x d ; s1 1 e x d2

2 1 4e x 2 4xe x 2 x 2e x 1 2e 2x 2 4xe 2x 1 x 2e 2x s1 1 e xd3 31. y − 23 x 2 23 35. (a) y − 12 x 1 1

33. y − 2x; y − 221 x (b)

1.5

(_1, 0.5) 4

4 0.5

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

APPENDIX I 37. (a) e x sx 3 1 3x 2 2 x 2 1d (b) 2

(a) f 9sxd − s1 1 tan xdysec x (b) f 9sxd − cos x 1 sin x s2n 1 1d 6 13 , n an integer (a) vstd − 8 cos t, astd − 28 sin t 4 s3 , 24, 24 s3 ; to the left 3 myrad 39. 53 41. 3 43. 243 1 1 47. 24 49. 2s2 51. 2cos x 2 A − 2103 , B − 2101 1 sin x 55. (a) sec 2x − (b) sec x tan x − cos 2x cos 2x cot x 2 1 (c) cos x 2 sin x − csc x 57. 1

31. 33. 35. (b) 37. 45. 53.

fª 2

10 f _2

4x 4s1 2 3x 2 d ; f 99sxd − 39. (a) f 9sxd − 2 2 sx 1 1d sx 2 1 1d3 (b) 4 f·

EXERCISES 3.4

fª

f _6

6

1. 4 cos 4x

_2

2 20 9

1 4

41. 43. (a) 216 (b) 47. y − 22x 1 18 49. (a) 0

(c) 20 45. 7 (b) 223 tsxd 2 xt9sxd (b) y9 − ftsxdg 2

51. (a) y9 − xt9sxd 1 tsxd xt9sxd 2 tsxd (c) y9 − x2 53. Two, s22 6 s3, 21 s1 7 s3 dd 55. 1 57. $1.627 billionyyear 0.0021 ; 59. s0.015 1 [S]d2 The rate of change of the rate of an enzymatic reaction with respect to the concentration of a substrate S. 61. (c) 3e 3x 63. f 9sxd − sx 2 1 2xde x, f 99sxd − sx 2 1 4x 1 2de x, f -sxd − sx 2 1 6x 1 6de x, f s4dsxd − sx 2 1 8x 1 12de x, f s5dsxd − sx 2 1 10x 1 20de x; f sndsxd − fx 2 1 2nx 1 nsn 2 1dge x EXERCISES 3.3



A77

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises

PAGE 196

2

3. f 9sxd − e x scos x 2 sin xd 1. f 9sxd − x cos x 1 2x sin x 5. t9std − 3t 2 cos t 2 t 3 sin t 7. h9sd − 2csc  cot  1 e  scot  2 csc 2 d 2 2 tan x 1 x sec 2 x 1 9. y9 − 11. f 9sd − s2 2 tan xd 2 1 1 cos  st 2 1 td cos t 1 sin t 13. y9 − s1 1 td2 1 15. f 9sd − 2 sin 2 1  cos 2 21. y − x 1 1 23. y − x 2  2 1 25. (a) y − 2 x (b) 3π 2

π

” 2 , π’



PAGE 204

3. 220xs1 2 x 2 d9

e sx 2 sx

5.

7. F9sxd − 24 x 11s5x 3 1 2d3 s5x 3 1 1d 5 11. f 9sd − 22 sin s 2d 9. f 9sxd − 2s5x 1 1 13. y9 − xe23x s2 2 3xd 15. f 9std − e atsb cos bt 1 a sin btd 17. f 9sxd − s2x 2 3d 3 sx 2 1 x 1 1d 4 s28x 2 2 12x 2 7d 19. h9std − 23 st 1 1d21y3s2t 2 2 1d 2 s20t 2 1 18t 2 1d 1 21. y9 − 23. y9 − ssec2 d e tan  2 sx sx 1 1d3/2 sln 10d10 2 st 48u 2su 3 2 1d7 25. g9sud − 27. r9std − 3 9 su 1 1d st 2sr 2 2 1d2 sr 2 1 3r 1 5d 29. H9srd − s2r 1 1d6 t sin 2 t 31. F9std − e s2t cos 2t 1 sin 2td 4 C/x 33. G9sxd − 2C sln 4d 2 x 35. y9 − 2 cosstan 2xd sec 2s2xd 37. y9 − 22 cos  cotssin d csc 2 ssin d 39. f 9std − 2sec2 ssecscos tdd secscos td tanscos td sin t 41. f 9std − sec 2se t de t 1 e tan t sec 2t 43. t9sxd − 2r 2 psln ad s2ra rx 1 nd p21 a rx 2 cosstan  xd sec 2 s xd sinssin stan  xd 45. y9 − 2ssin stan  xd 47. y9 − 23 cos 3 sinssin 3d; y99 − 29 cos2s3d cosssin 3d 1 9ssin 3d sinssin 3d 2sec t tan t 49. y9 − ; 2 s1 2 sec t sec t s3 sec 3t 2 4 sec 2t 2 sec t 1 2d y0 − 4s1 2 sec td3/2 53. y − 2x 1  51. y − sln 2dx 1 1 55. (a) y − 12 x 1 1 (b) 3 (0, 1)

0

27. (a) sec x tan x 2 1 29.  cos  1 sin ; 2 cos  2  sin 

π

_3

3

_1.5

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

A78

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises

APPENDIX I

2 2 2x 2 s2 2 x 2 ssy2d 1 2n, 3d, ss3y2d 1 2n, 21d, n an integer 24 63. (a) 30 (b) 36 (a) 34 (b) Does not exist (c) 22 67. 261 s2 x x f sxd (a) F9sxd − e f 9se d (b) G9sxd − e f 9sxd 120 73. 96 2250 cos 2x 79. vstd − 25  coss10 td cmys dB 7 2t − cos (b) 0.16 (a) dt 54 5.4 21.5t v std − 2e s2 cos 2t 2 1.5 sin 2td

57. (a) f 9sxd − 59. 61. 65. 69. 71. 77. 81. 83.

41. (a)

_2

5

_3

(b) y − 2x 1 1, y − 13 x 1 2 43. (645 s3 , 645 )

15

2

49. y9 − √

s 0

2

2sx s1 1 xd 3

2

sx 6 2 1

57. y9 − sin21 x 7

1

85. (a) 0.0075 smgymLdymin (b) 0.0030 smgymLdymin 87. dvydt is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time; dvyds is the rate of change of velocity with respect to displacement 89. (a) Q − ab t where a < 100.01244 and b < 0.000045146 (b) 2670.63 mA 91. (b) The factored form 95. (b) 2n cos n21x sinfsn 1 1dxg EXERCISES 3.5



(b) y − (1 2 sx

3. (a) y9 − 2sy ysx

2

2y 2 x y 2 2x

9. y9 −

xsx 1 2yd 2x y 1 4xy 2 1 2y 3 1 x 2

7. y9 − 2

2

1 2 8x 3sx 1 y 8y 3sx 1 y 2 1

) 2, y9 − 1 2 1ysx 2

11. y9 −

15. y9 −

22xy 2 2 sin y 2x 2 y 1 x cos y

ys y 2 e xyy d y 2 2 xe xyy

1 1 x 4 y 2 1 y 2 1 x 4 y 4 2 2xy x 2 2 2xy 2 2x 5y 3 y cossxyd 1 sinsx 1 yd 16 21. 213 19. y9 − 2 x cossxyd 1 sinsx 1 yd 22x 4y 1 x 3 2 6xy 2 25. y − 12 x 23. x9 − 4x 3y 2 2 3x 2 y 1 2y 3 17. y9 −

33. (a) y −

9 2x

29. y − x 1 12 2

65.

59. y9 −

55. h9std − 0

sa 2 2 b 2 a 1 b cos x 67.

y

y

x x

5 2

(b)

V 3snb 2 V d (b) 24.04 Lyatm PV 2 n2aV 1 2n3ab 73. (6s3 , 0) 75. s21, 21d, s1, 1d 77. (b) 32 1 79. (a) 0 (b) 22

13. t9sxd −

5

19. 23. 25. 27.

39. 1ye 2

2x 2 1 xsx 2 2 1d

17. T9szd − 2 z

2

cos2 y cos x 1 sin2 x sin y cos3y

PAGE 223

2 sin t t

D

2

_2

37.



EXERCISES 3.6

1. The differentiation formula is simplest. cossln xd 1 5. f 9sxd − 3. f 9sxd − 5 x 5x ssln xd4 2sin x 1 7. f 9sxd − 9. t9sxd − 2 2 s1 1 cos xd ln 10 x

S

9 31. y − 213 x 1 40 13

_2

3

11. F9std − ln t ln t cos t 1

(1, 2)

35. 21ys4y 3d

1 s2x 2 2 x

1 sec21sx 3d

x arcsin x s1 2 x 2

71. (a)

2xs2x 1 y d ys2x 2 1 3yd

5. y9 −

27. y − 34 x 2 12

51. y9 −

PAGE 215

1. (a) y9 − 2sy 1 2 1 6xdyx (b) y − s4yxd 2 2 2 3x, y9 − 2s4yx 2 d 2 3

13. y9 −

61. 1 2

(c) 1 7 13 s3

45. sx 0 xya 2 d 2 s y 0 yyb 2 d − 1

1

53. F9sxd −

0

Eight; x < 0.42, 1.58

4

29.

S

15. F9ssd −

1 1 ln z z ln 2

D

1 s ln s

2x a y9 − 21. y9 − sec2 f lnsax 1 bdg 11x ax 1 b y9 − s2 1 ln xdy(2sx ); y0 − 2ln xy(4xsx ) y9 − tan x; y0 − sec2 x 2x 2 1 2 sx 2 1d lnsx 2 1d f 9sxd − ; sx 2 1df1 2 lnsx 2 1dg 2 s1, 1 1 ed ø s1 1 e, `d 2sx 2 1d f 9sxd − ; s2`, 0d ø s2, `d 31. 2 x s x 2 2d

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

APPENDIX I 33. y − 3x 2 9

39. y9 − s2x 1 1d5sx 4 2 3d6

Î

41. y9 −

37. 7

35. cos x 1 1yx

S

x21 x4 1 1

S

3

10 24x 1 4 2x 1 1 x 23

1 2x 3 2 4 2x 2 2 x 11

D

D

x

43. y9 − x s1 1 ln xd

S

D

sin x 1 cos x ln x x 47. y9 − scos xd x s2x tan x 1 ln cos xd 45. y9 − x sin x

49. y9 − stan xd1yx

S

sec2 x ln tan x 2 x tan x x2

2x x 1 y 2 2 2y

51. y9 −

2

EXERCISES 3.7



53. f sndsxd −

s21d n21sn 2 1d! sx 2 1d n

PAGE 233

2

1. (a) 3t 2 16t 1 24 (e) 72 m (f)

(b) 11 mys

(c) Never

(d) Always

(g) 6t 2 16; 210 mys2 t=6 s s=72

t=0 s=0

(h)

D

s √ 0

6

a _20

3. (a) (y2) cos(ty2) (b) 0 mys (c) t − 2n 1 1, t a nonnegative integer (d) 0 , t , 1, 3 , t , 5, 7 , t , 9, and so on (e) 6 m (f) (g) (2 2y4) sin( ty2); t=6 s=0 2 2y4 mys 2 t=5 s=1

t=3 s=_1

t=1 s=1

(b) Speeding up when 1 , t , 2 or 3 , t , 4; slowing down when 0 , t , 1 or 2 , t , 3 7. (a) 4.9 mys; 214.7 mys (b) After 2.5 s (c) 32 58 m (d)