Buddhism and Medicine: An Anthology of Premodern Sources 9780231544269

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Buddhism and Medicine

Buddhism and Medicine

AN ANTHOLOGY OF PREMODERN SOURCES

C. Pierce Salguero

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS NEW YORK

Columbia University Press Publishers Since 1893 New York

Chichester, West Sussex cup.columbia.edu

Copyright© 2017 Columbia University Press All rights reserved

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Pubhcation Data

Names: Salguero, C. Pierce, editor. Title: Buddhism and medicine : an anthology of premodem sources / [edited by] C. Pierce Salguero. Description: New York : Columbia University Press, 2017.1 Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016030050 (print) I LCCN 2017013992 (ebook) I ISBN 9780231544269 (electronic) I ISBN 9780231179942 (cloth : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Healing-Religious aspects-Buddhism. I Suffering-Religious aspects-Buddhism. classification: LCC BQ4570.H43 (ebook) I LCCBQ4570.H43 B83 2017 (print) I DDC 294.3/3661-dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016030050

Columbia University Press books are printed on permanent and durable acid-free paper. Printed in the United States of America

Cover image: Mural painting of Bhai�ajyaguru, Shanxi province, China, 1476-1496. Courtesy of University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, object no. C688.

For Marcie

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments xvii Abbreviations xix

Introduction

xx1

DOCTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS 1 1. Illness, Cure, and Care: Selections from the Pali Canon

Dhivan Thomas]ones 3 2. The

Healing Potential of the Awakening Factors in Early Buddhist Discourse

Aniilayo 12

Vlll

CONTENTS 3. Curing/Curating Illness: Selections from the Chapter on the "Sufferings of Illness" from A Grove ofPearls from the Garden ofDharma

Alexander a. Hsu 20

4 . Understanding the Dow

A Summary of the Art of Medicine from the Siitra ofGolden Light

C. Pierce Salguero 30

5. Fetal Suffering in the Descent Into the Womb Siitra

Amy Paris Langenberg 41

6. Health and Sickness of Body and Mind: Selections from the Yogacara-bhiimi

Dan Lusthaus 49

7. Overcoming Illness with Insight: Kokan Shiren's Treatise on the Nature ofillness and Its Manifestations Edward R. Drott 61

8. Karma in the Bathhouse:

The Siitra on Bathing the Sangha in the Bathhouse C. Pierce Salguero 84 9. Liberating the Whole World:

Sudhana's Meeting with Samantanetra from the Siitra

of the Entry Into the Realm ofReality William]. Giddings 92 HEALING AND MONASTIC DISCIPLINE 103 10. Medical Practice as Wrong Livelihood: Selections from the Pali Discourses, Vinaya, and Commentaries

David Fiordalis 105

CONTENTS

11. Nuns, Laywomen, and Healing: Three Rules from a Sanskrit Nuns' Disciplinary Code

Amy Paris Langenberg 113

12. Stories of Healing from the Section on Medicines in the Pali Vinaya

David Fiordalis 118

13. Rules on Medicines from the Five-Part Vinaya ofthe Mahisasaka School

C. Pierce Salguero 125

14. Food and Medicine in the Chinese Vinayas: Daoxuan's Emended Commentary on Monastic Practices

from the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya ]. E. E. Pettit 130

15. Toilet Care in Buddhist Monasteries: Health, Decency, and Ritual

Ann Heirman and Mathieu Torck 137

16. Health Care in Indian Monasteries: Selections from Yijing's Record ofthe Inner Law

Sent Home from the Southern Seas Christoph Kleine 145 BUDDHIST HEALERS

161

17. Two Siitras on Healing and Healers from the Chinese Canon

Marcus Bingenheimer 163

18. The Buddha Heals: Past and Present Lives

Phyllis Granoff 170

lX

X

CONTENTS 19. The Buddha's Past Life as a Snakebite Doctor: The Visa-vanta]iitaka

Michael Slouber 180

20. The Training and Treatments of an Indian Doctor in a Buddhist Text: A Sanskrit Biography of]!vaka

Gregory Schopen 184

21. A Selection of Buddhist Healing Narratives from East Asia

C. Pierce Salguero 205

22. The Buddha and the Bath Water: How the Bodhisattva Gyoki Founded Koya Temple

D. MaxMoerman 219

23. Esoteric Ritual Remedies: Kukai's Cures for Emperor Konin

Pamela D. Winfield 222

24. "The Grief of Kings Is the Suffering of Their Subjects": A Cambodian King's Twelfth-Century Network of Hospitals

Peter D. Sharrock and Claude ]acques 226 HEALING RITES 233

25. Help for the Sick, the Dying, and the Misbegotten: A Sanskrit Version of the Siitra ofBhai�ajyaguru

Gregory Schopen 235

26. The Siitra on the Dhiirar;! ofthe Vast, Complete, and Unobstructed Great Compassion ofthe Bodhisattva Avalokite§vara with a Thousand Hands and a Thousand Eyes William]. Giddings 252

CONTENTS 27. Tantric Medicine in a Buddhist Proto-Tantra

Michael Slouber 286 28. Healing Dhiira l)is: A Collection of Medieval Spells from the Taisho Tripitaka

C. Pierce Salguero 292

29. Seals of the Bodhisattva: A Buddhist Talismanic Seal Manual from Dunhuang

Pau!Copp 304

30. "The Ritual Altar ofKui:J,c;lali Vajra for Treating Illnesses" from the Collected Dhiiral)i Siitras ]oshua Capitanio 314

31. Curing with Karma and Confession: Two Short Liturgies from Dunhuang

Stephen F. Teiser 322

32. Childbirth in Early Medieval]apan: Ritual Economies and Medical Emergencies in Procedures During

the Day ofthe Royal Consort's Labor Ann a Andreeva 336

33. The Ox-Bezoar Empowerment for Fertility and Safe Childbirth: Selected Readings from the Shingon Ritual Collections Benedetta Lomi

351

34. The Verses on the Victor's Annor: A Pali Text Used for Protection and Healing in Thailand

]ustin Thomas McDaniel 358

35. Selections from a Mongolian Manual of Buddhist Medicine

Vesna A. Wallace 363

xi

Xll

CONTENTS MEDITATION AS CURE AND ILLNESS 371

36. Healing Sicknesses Caused by Meditation: "The Enveloping Butter Contemplation" from the Secret Essential

Methods for Curing Meditation Sickness Eric M. Greene 373

37. Healing with Meditation: "Treating Illness" from Zhiyi's Shorter Treatise on Samatha and Vipa§yana

C. Pierce Salguero 382

38. Getting Sick Over Nothing: Hyesim and Hakuin on the Maladies of Meditation

]uhn Ahn 390

39. Buddhist Method as Medicine: The Chan Materia Medica and Its Ming Dynasty Elaboration

Robban Toleno 398

40. Tantric Meditations to Increase the Forces of Life:

Making Manifest the Three Deities ofLongevity Matthew T. Kapstein 405

41. Rangjung Dorje's Key to the Essential PointsofWind and Mind

Douglas Duckworth 413

42. Treating Disorders of the Subtle Winds in Tibetan Buddhism

Todd P. Marek and Charles]amyang Oliphant ofRossie 418

43. How to Deal with Wind Illnesses: Two Short Meditation Texts from Buddhist Southeast Asia

An drew Skilton and Phibul Choompolpaisal 425

CONTENTS HYBRIDITY IN BUDDHIST HEALING

431 44. Correlative Cosmology, Moral Rectitude, and Buddhist Notions of Health: Selections from the Siitra ofTrapu�a and Bhallika

Ori Tavor 433 45. Apotropaic Substances as Medicine in Buddhist Healing Methods:

Nagarjuna's Treatise on the Five Sciences Dominic Steavu 441

46. Dung, Hair, and Mungbeans: Household Remedies in the Longmen Recipes Michael Stanley-Baker and Dolly Yang

454 47. ''The Mysterious Names on the Hands and Fingers": Healing Hand Mnemonics in Medieval Chinese Buddhism Marta E. Hanson 478

48. Selections on Illness Divination from Bodhidharma's Treasure ofthe Palm Stephanie Homo la 486 49. Buddhist Health, Diet, and Sex Advice from Ancient Korea

Don Baker and Hyunsook Lee 494

50. Vessel Examination in the Medicine of the Moon King Williarn A. McGrath 501 51. Moxibustion for Demons: Oral Transmission on Corpse-Vector Disease

Andrew Macornber 514

xiii

XlV

CONTENTS BUDDHISM AND THE MEDICAL TRADITIONS

531 52. "Indian Massage" from Sun Simiao's

Prescriptions Worth a Thousand in Gold Michael Stanley-Baker 533 53. Sun Simiao on Medical Ethics: "The Perfect Integrity of the Great Physician" from Prescriptions Worth a Thousand in Gold

Nathan Sivin 538 54. Using the Golden Needle:

Niigiiljuna Bodhisattva's Ophthalmological Treatise and Other Sources in the Essentials ofMedical Treatment Katja Triplett 543 55. Buddhism in Choson Dynasty Medical Compilations

Taehyung Lee and Kang Yeonseok 549 56. Determining Karmic Illness: Kajiwara Shozen's Treatment of Rai/Leprosy in Book ofthe Simple Physician

Andrew Edmund Goble 553 57. Selections from Miraculous Drugs ofthe South, by the Vietnamese Buddhist Monk-Physician Tu� Tinh

C. Michele Thompson 561 58. The £J6 ng Nhan Pagoda and the Publication of Mister Lazy's Medical Encyclopedia

Leslie E. de Vries 569 59. An Abhidhamma Perspective: Causes of Illness in a Burmese Buddhist Medical System

Pyi Phyo Kyaw 575

CONTENTS

60.Jewels in Medicines: On the Processing and Efficacy of Precious Pills According to the Four Treatises Barbara Gerke and Florian Ploberger

583 61. The Final Doubt and the Entrustment of Tibetan Medical Knowledge Barbara Gerke and Florian Ploberger 593 62. Did the Buddha Really Author the Classic Tibetan Medical Text? A Critical Examination from The Lamp to Dispel Darkness ]anet Gyatso 602 Appendix: Geographical Table of Contents Glossary

615

References

629

List ofContributors Index

675

667

609

XV

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

he editor wishes to thank all of the contributors to this volume for their

T patience, diligence, and insights shared over the time it took to compile and edit this work. He especially wishes to thank Stephen Teiser, Nathan Sivin, and Dan Lusthaus, who read far beyond their own chapters and whose suggestions and comments greatly improved the quality of the work as a whole.

ABBREVIATIONS

AN BZA eh. Cv Dhp DN DZ HPC Jp. Kr. KS MKDI MKMsA MKMsB MN Mong. Mv

Ariguttara-Nikiiya Alternate Translation ofthe Grouped Agama Siitras Chinese

Cullavagga Dhammapada Dzgha-Nikaya Daozang (see Zhang, Shao, and Zhang 1974) Han'guk pulgyo chonso (see Han'guk pulgyo chonso p'yonch'an wiwonhoe 1979-2001) Japanese Korean

Kagaku Shoin Moon King Dege Input Moon King Manuscript A Moon King Manuscript B Majjhima-Nikaya Mongolian

Mahavagga

s

Pelliot chinois Dunhuang manuscript collection Stein Dunhuang manuscript collection

SA

Sarrtyukta-iiga ma

p

XX

SKQS Skt. SN T TBRC Tib. TZ

ABBREVIATIONS

Siku quanshu (see Shangwu yinshuguan Siku quanshu chuban gongzuo weiyuan hui 2005) Sanskrit Satilyutta-Nikiiya Taisho shinshii. daizokyo (see Takakusu and Watanabe 1924-1932)

X

Tibetan Buddhist Resource Center (www.tbrc.org) Tibetan Taisho shinshii. daizokyo zuzo (see Takakusu and Ono 1924-1935) Xu zangjing (see Nakano 1905-1912; Maeda and Nakano 1923)

ZA ZGR

Grouped Agama Sii.tras Zoku gunsho ruijii. (see Hanawa et al. 1928-1937)

Introduction C . PIERCE SALGUERO

exts from across the Buddhist world list illness along with birth, aging, and

T death as the four great torments that inevitably accompany life in a human

body. Since Buddhist doctrine at its very core is focused on the relief of all forms of suffering (Skt. duhkha), Buddhist writings and practices frequently address the question of how to cope with this particular tribulation. Mainstream Buddhist doctrine seeks to mitigate the suffering of illness by stressing the illusory nature of the physical body, the nonexistence of the separate self, and the possibility of radical transcendence through Buddhist practice. Contrary to popular belief, however, Buddhists have never limited themselves to passive or fatalistic ap­ proaches to dealing with corporeal disease. For well over two millennia, the sick and those who care for them have found practical, this-worldly advice for pre­ venting and curing maladies within the context ofthe religion. Like Buddhism itself, the repertoire of Buddhist approaches to disease, heal­ ing, and health maintenance began to coalesce in India in the second half of the first millennium B.C.E.1 Embedded in Buddhist writings, rituals, and material culture, these Indian ideas and practices were spread by merchants, missionar­ ies, and healer-monks along the Silk Roads and maritime routes to the rest of the Asian continent during the first millennium of the Common Era. Invariably, healing played a central role in Buddhist proselytism in new lands, and it was often among the chief benefits that was held out to new converts. Whether they were individual patients being treated by itinerant ascetics or kings organizing

xxii

INTRODUCTION

massive protection rituals, devotees across the Buddhist world were encouraged to turn to Buddhist tradition, institutions, and functionaries for methods to cure and prevent the suffering of illness. Buddhist ideas and practices related to healing eventually crossed significant cul­ tural and political boundaries, becoming influential across South, East, Central, and Southeast Asia. Today, many Buddhist healing doctrines and therapies continue to transcend association with any specific geographic region or culture. Certain Bud­ dhist frameworks became the basis of traditional medicine in Thailand, Burma, Sri Lanka, and Tibet, among other places, and continue to be practiced both locally and internationally today. Other facets of Buddhism have been studied within biomedi­ cal and scientific institutions in many parts of the world, and are now contributing to the latest global health fads under the rubric of"mindfulness." In the modern era, it has become common for devotees and scholars alike to refer to Buddhist approaches to health as "Buddhist medicine."2 This term is con­ venient shorthand and we will borrow it here, but the reader must bear in mind that this is not a unitary category. At the same time that Buddhists have returned again and again to a core set of ancient Indian medical ideas and practices, Bud­ dhist medicine is neither a timeless nor a static tradition. Wherever it has been adopted, Buddhism has been retranslated, reinterpreted, and reframed to suit local cultural and social expectations, and Buddhist medicine has undergone similar transformations. This volume makes available for the first time a wide range of translations of primary sources from across premodern Asia that exemplify this very multifac­ eted nature of the historical relationship between Buddhism and healing. (Mod­ ern and contemporary sources will be taken up in a future volume.) It includes full translations and excerpts from scores of Buddhist texts that provide a broad sample of sources and a wealth of different perspectives. The book includes such literary genres as monastic disciplinary texts, ritual manuals, meditation guides, popular narratives, inscriptions, commentaries, and other types of texts. We have also included writings from outside of the Buddhist canonical literature that dem­ onstrate Buddhism's relevance in medical traditions beyondthe specifically monas­ tic or religious context (hence, "Buddhism and medicine" in the title ofthe volume rather than "Buddhist medicine"). The topics covered range from nursing, hospice care, dietary regimen, and the compounding of medicines, to curative meditations, ritual healing, cultivation of magic powers, and the intervention of deities. The common thread revealed by these texts is the sustained engagement Bud­ dhists historically have had with a multiplicity of healing doctrines, practices, and orientations. Rather than present a unified grand narrative about Buddhist medicine, the purpose of the current volume is to showcase the diversity of Bud­ dhist engagement with healing across this spectrum of historical, geographic, and literary contexts. Collectively, the contributors focus on the richness and heterogeneity of the source base, the complexity of the interplay between the transregional tradition and its local reception, and the many colorful local manifestations of Buddhist medical thought and practice in premodern Asia.

INTRODUCTION

XXlll

CONTENTS OF THE VOLUME Whereas there are many ways that the contents of this book could have been ar­ ranged, its sixty-two chapters have been divided into thematic sections. These sec­ tions are not further arranged chronologically, but rather follow a sequence chosen by the editor to progressively lead the reader through the materiaL These decisions were made in consideration of the reader who wishes to work through the entire volume sequentially, such as one might do in a college course. Those who are inter­ ested in a specific historical context might find the separate table of contents in the appendix helpful, where the chapters are listed by geographic area and language. The contents of each thematic section are as follows: Doctrinal Considerations. Taken together, the chapters in this section introduce basic Buddhist doctrines concerning disease, healing, and the well-being of the physical body that inform all the other chapters in the book. We begin with two chapters about healing that are translated from early texts written in Pali, Chinese, and Tibetan, and a third containing excerpts of early Buddhist texts that were col­ lected in an eighth-century Chinese Buddhist encyclopedia. Together, these first three chapters introduce the causes of disease, the power of the Dharma as a com­ prehensive therapy for human suffering, the rationale for Buddhist healing and nursing activities, and some of the basic parameters of how that care should be given. They also introduce the reader to two model Buddhist healers, the Buddha himself and the physicianJ!vaka, who will be further developed in the third sec­ tion below. Building on the basic notions introduced in the first three chapters, chapters 4 and 5 present more detailed examinations of particular medical doc­ trines as they appear in Buddhist siitras (a Sanskrit term that can be loosely glossed as "scriptures"). These concepts include how to understand and manage the trido�a (i.e., the so-called "faults" or "peccant humors" of Wind, Bile, and Phlegm that are major causes of disease according to Indian medical thought); how the human bodyundergoes discrete stages ofgrowth and development while in utero; and the inherent misery of human embodiment, among other topics. Next come two chap­ ters (numbers 6 and 7) on the relationship between mind and body, and how this relates to the nature and experience of illness. Chapter 8 outlines how contribut­ ing to the health of members of the Sangha (i.e., the Buddhist monastic commu­ nity) earns a devotee untold measures ofkarmic merit, including good health. Fi­ nally, the text translated in chapter 9 argues that healing is an indispensable part ofthe individual aspirant's progress along the bodhisattva path. Healing and Monastic Discipline. Collectively, the texts in this section shed light on the disciplinary regulations of distinct monastic communities, with a specific focus on those related to medicine and bodily care. It begins with two chapters (10 and 11) translated from the Pali and Sanskrit vinayas (i.e., monastic disciplinary codes) that discourage members ofthe Sangha, particularly nuns, from practicing certain types of healing on the grounds that they are "worldly arts." While healing was usually frowned upon when practiced by monastics for personal gain or when done in ways that offended contemporary mores, we have already established in chapters 1 and 3

xxiv

INTRODUCTION

that providing care for one another within the monastic community was often encouraged, or even required. Chapters 12 through 16 present excerpts from a number of different disciplinary texts from various monastic traditions. These elaborate the rules, expectations, and norms concerning how monks and nuns were to go about nursing one another, administering and storing medicines, per­ forming other therapeutic interventions, and caring for their own bodies. Buddhist Healers. This section includes various accounts of notable Buddhist healers. Some enjoyed fame across Asia, others only in limited local settings, but all were held up by authors as models to be emulated and to inspire faith in the power of Buddhism. The section begins with a chapter (17) featuring two texts comparing the Buddha to a physician. Next come two chapters (18 and 19) pre­ senting legends about the Buddha's acts of healing over the course of his many lifetimes. Following this, two chapters present accounts of other model Buddhist healers. These include the lengthy Sanskrit biography of the aforementioned Jivaka (chapter 20) as well as a series of much shorter narratives about various healers and miraculous events from across East Asia (chapters 21 and 22). The final two chapters in this section present translations of documents concerning the patronage of Buddhist healing by historical rulers. These include a short but surprisingly rich letter (chapter 23) from the Buddhist monk Kukai (774-835) to his patron and patient, the Japanese emperor Konin (r. 810-823), and an inscrip­ tion (chapter 24) concerning the construction of Buddhist hospitals by King Jayavarman VII (ea. 1140-1218) of the Khmer Empire. Healing Rites. The fourth section explores ritual interventions intended to cure the sick, ranging from simple spells to complex multipart ceremonies. The section begins with translations of two important sutra texts (chapters 25 and 26), which are dedicated to the Buddhist deities Bhai�ajyaguru (the so-called Medicine Bud­ dha) and Avalokitdvara, respectively. The remainder ofthe chapters in this section are organized geographically and present a wide range of interventions calling on different deities for assistance in healing. Chapter 27 introduces a tantric healing rite from India that focuses on the bodhisattva Manjusri; chapters 28 through 30 discuss healing rites from China involving a host ofbuddhas, bodhisattvas, and minor deities; chapter 31 offers translations of two healing liturgies recovered from the Silk Road oasis of Dunhuang;3 and chapters 32 and 33 introduce rituals for safety in childbirth from medieval]apan. The last two chapters in this section (34 and 35) offer translations of Buddhist protection rituals from Southeast Asia and Mongolia. Meditation as Cure and Illness. The fifth section introduces both the healing possibilities afforded by Buddhist meditation practice and its potential dangers to one's health. The first two chapters (36 and 37), which concern China, and the next (38), which deal with Korea and Japan, share the concern that meditation done improperly may cause "meditation sickness." These three chapters offer both warn­ ings against improper meditation and a range of remedies, such as visualizations, breathing exercises, and so forth, in case one falls ill. Chapter 39 has a more san­ guine opinion, and an almost whimsical tone. Modeled after the Chinese materia

INTRODUCTION

XXV

medica genre, this text speaks of meditation and other Buddhist practices as if they were medicinal drugs, and outlines their curative properties, dosages, and contraindications. The remainder of the chapters in this section are concerned with therapeutic meditation outside of East Asia. Chapter 40 introduces a Ti­ betan deity visualization practice for health and longevity; chapters 41 and 42 are concerned with Tibetan meditations to cure illnesses of Wind; and chap­ ter 43 introduces a set of long-overlooked Southeast Asian meditations for the same purpose. Hybridity in Buddhist Healing. This section explores the complex intersections between transregional Buddhist traditions and local forms of popular healing in various recipient cultures. The healing knowledge presented in this section is nominally Buddhist-that is to say, it is found in Buddhist texts or at Buddhist sacred sites, or is ascribed to Buddhist deities. However, these chapters empha­ size the porous nature of the boundary between Buddhist and local practices. Chapter 44, an "apocryphal" sutra (i.e., one composed in China and falsely attrib­ uted to India) places native Chinese terminology such as qi, yin-yang, and so forth into the mouth of the Buddha. Chapter 45 describes a range of ritual techniques that share many distinctly Chinese features with contemporaneous Daoist prac­ tices. Chapter 46, on the other hand, translates a list of medical prescriptions inscribed in the Buddhist Longmen grottoes that also circulated widely in a variety of East Asian medical and religious contexts.4 Chapters 47 and 48, both also from China, present approaches to healing and medical divination that crossed over be­ tween Buddhist, Daoist, and medical circles. Stepping outside of China, chapter 49 contains several excerpts of Buddhist medical wisdom from Korea, which conspic­ uously feature native East Asian religious and medical concepts. The penultimate chapter in this section (50) represents a hybrid Sino-Tibetan system of pulse diag­ nosis, which the text characterizes as a teaching emanating from the bodhisattva Manjusri. Meanwhile, the final chapter (51) is a translation of a complex multi­ layeredJapanese text that integrates the Chinese medical practice of moxibustion into its repertoire of Buddhist and Daoist rituals to subdue illness-causing demons. Buddhism in the Medical Traditions. Although there are a few traces here and there, the impact of Buddhism on classical medical thought in India-that is, on the tradition known as Ayurveda-is difficult to see clearly in the extant texts. In other cultures, however, the case is much more clear-cut. The last section ofthis volume focuses on the influence of Buddhism on the predominant institutionalized medical traditions of premodern Asia. The translations provided in chapters 52 and 53, for example, highlight the Buddhist influences on a medical compendium by the renowned Chinese court physician Sun Simiao (581-682). Chapters 54 and 55 likewise discuss the appearance of Buddhist doctrines and therapies in important medical treatises from japan and Korea. Chapters 56 through 58 trans­ late sections of notable medical treatises written by monks from Japan and Viet­ nam. Chapter 59 is a text by a Burmese physician that bases its understanding of disease on the Pali Abidhamma literature. The remaining three chapters concern Tibetan medicine. Two of these (chapters 60 and 61) are translations of sections

xxvi

INTRODUCTION

of the seminal twelfth-century Tibetan medical treatise known as the Four Tan­ tras, while the final chapter in the book (62) presents a critical analysis by a sixteenth-century author disputing the claim that that text was spoken by the Buddha. In addition to these chapters, at the end of the book the reader will find the appendix with the alternative table of contents, a glossary with short definitions of common terms, and a comprehensive list of references for the entire volume.

S C O P E OF T H E V O L U M E It is anticipated that this collection will be of most immediate interest to schol­ ars in Buddhist studies and the history of medicine, who may find within these pages countless instances of overlap and intersections between their respective disciplines. In addition to these two fields, however, the chapters that comprise this volume were also contributed by specialists in Chinese religions, Asian lan­ guages and cultures, philosophy, and other academic fields. Some of them also have experience as practitioners ofAsian medicine. This group represents a range of interests, styles, and approaches to the materials, which I, as editor, have not attempted to reconcile or mold into conformity. During the editing process, I have encouraged authors to highlight unique or particularly interesting aspects ofthe texts they are translating, and to clarify their approaches for a wider audi­ ence. However, on the whole I have allowed the chapters to speak to not only the diversity ofthe Buddhist sources on healing, but also to the diversity in scholarly approaches to this material. By doing so, it is hoped that readers from multiple backgrounds will be able to connect these materials with their own disciplinary (or even clinical) concerns, and to utilize this volume in ways unforeseen by the editor or contributors. That such a large number of scholars with varied expertise were eager to par­ ticipate in this volume speaks to the fact that Buddhist medicine has recently become something of a fashionable topic in academic circles. Although scholars have been interested in examining Buddhist doctrines and practices concerning health, disease, and the makeup of the human body since at least the mid­ twentieth century, 5 interest in this subject has risen sharply in just the last few years.6 This trend no doubt is part of the more general turn toward analysis of cultural representations of the body in the humanities and social sciences over the last decades. However, one of the principal reasons this subfield is currently booming is almost certainly the emergence of Buddhism as a major factor in med­ ical and health-related discourse on a global scale in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Far from being relegated to the proverbial dustbin of his­ tory, certain Buddhist therapies-particularly meditation for reducing ailments associated with stress-are now being enthusiastically embraced by neuroscien­ tists, psychiatrists, public health officials, government bodies, and the general public across the world? On a more local scale, Buddhist rituals, meditations, and

INTRODUCTION

XXVll

other healing practices have continued to play a role in popular health care in many modern Asian societies. 8 While such developments have stimulated interest in the topic among schol­ ars of the humanities and social sciences, the scholarship produced to date has tended to cluster around particular geographic areas and time periods, resulting in notably uneven coverage. The vast majority of published research on premod­ ernAsian Buddhist healing has concerned China, withjapan and Tibet following closely behind. In contrast, very little attention has been paid to Korea, Mongo­ lia, or anywhere in Southeast Asia. Scholarship on India itself falls somewhere in the middle. The geographical and temporal coverage of the current volume re­ flects some of the limitations of the current state of the field. Despite my efforts as editor to ensure the broadest possible coverage, there are large and obvious gaps that were simply impossible to fill due to the unavailability of scholarly expertise. It is hoped that the topic of Buddhism and healing will continue to attract attention, and that future scholars will broaden our vistas and fill some of these lacunae. Another notable aspect of this volume's coverage is the wide variety of dif­ ferent types of sources it includes. A number of contributors have translated excavated manuscripts-long lost handwritten documents that have been redis­ covered by archaeologists in relatively recent times. More often, contributors have utilized "received texts," or versions of historical writings that have been passed down to the present through the processes of recopying and reprinting. Many of these derive from the so-called Buddhist canons (Skt. Tripitaka; literally meaning "Three Baskets") that were eventually compiled into printed editions, and which now are also increasingly available online in digitized form. It is important to re­ member that while devotees treat these texts as authoritative scriptures, histori­ ans recognize that received texts have undergone constant change and editing while being passed down over generations of copyists and editors to the present day. In certain cases, the contributors to this volume have taken a comparative approach to the sources, reconciling texts from different collections (sometimes written in different languages) against one another or against available manuscript copies. In all cases, the individual contributors have specified any peculiarities of their sources in the introduction to their chapter, and have provided references to the source texts used and to existing scholarship for those who are interested in learning more. Given all of these variations, the reader should keep in mind that while the authors in this volume are exploring various facets of Buddhist medicine, they are describing only the ideas or practices of particular historical groups as presented in specific texts; they are not making sweeping generalizations about "Buddhism" writ large. Given the heterogenous nature of the extant materials, written over many centuries by numerous people in multiple languages and now available in many different types of media, it should come as no surprise that the translations presented in this volume do not present a unitary perspective. Rather, these texts are best thought of as constituting a series of snapshots from various cultural and

xxviii

INTRODUCTION

historical contexts. Some contain fairly straightforward explanations of Buddhist medical thought that seem to share much common ground with Indian religious and medical culture. On the other hand, some draw most predominantly on local precedents, refracting Buddhist healing knowledge received from abroad through local cultural and social lenses. Still others are patchworks of cross-cultural syn­ cretism, amalgams oflocal and transregional perspectives. All of the above give us equally important insights into how Buddhist healing was practiced locally in di­ verse times and places, while also contributing to our overall understanding of its spread and development across premodern Asia.

A B O U T THE T R A N S L A T I O N S I n most cases, the contributions to this volume represent the first attempt to translate these texts into English-or, for that matter, into any European lan­ guage. The reader should bear in mind that the process of translating specialized Buddhist literature from one language to another and from one historical epoch to another is an enormously complex task, and that there are many ways to approach it. The contributors to this volume have collectively striven to provide translations that will be accessible to a wide audience that is not necessarily accustomed to reading either Buddhist scriptures or Asian medical treatises. This has meant that, wherever possible, we have opted to use common English vocabulary and to priori­ tize readability over the preservation ofthe original syntax. We have attempted to avoid what is sometimes called "Buddhist Hybrid English"-that is to say, transla­ tions laden with Sanskrit and other Buddhistjargon that is inscrutable to the non­ specialist.9 Authors translating texts from East Asia have also attempted to avoid what might similarly be called "Chinese Medical Hybrid English," an equally spe­ cialized dialect that is often used among sinologists and practitioners of East Asian medicine when writing for one another. That being said, we have chosen to keep a handful of key Buddhist doctrines as well as a few major Indian and Chinese medical terms in the original language. Sometimes we have even back-translated from Tibetan into Sanskrit, for exam­ ple, or from Korean into Chinese, to explicitly demonstrate connections between the various contributions in the volume, as well as between Buddhist texts and the secular Asian medical traditions. Recurrent foreign terms are defined in the glossary, but the reader should be aware that there are many variations in the local understandings ofthese words and should in all cases consult the explanatory notes provided by individual authors. One problematic question that arises in the translation of historical medicine is the issue of how to handle the premodern disease concepts found in our texts. Professional historians ofmedicine virtually never explain premodern ideas using contemporary biomedical language. Thus, for example, we do not approach a Chinese disease term such as shiqi (see chapter 28§1) by trying to determine whether it "really means" seasonal allergies, the common cold, or influenza.

INTRODUCTION

xxix

Rather, we recognize that historical disease concepts had different referents than modern ones, and were embedded in different epistemological contexts and conceptual systems. Consequently, in most cases, we have simply translated dis­ ease concepts literally (e.g., rendering shiqi as "Seasonal Qi"), and have allowed them to stand on their own.10 We have left such instances capitalized or in quotes to flag for the reader that these are translated terms with special culturally spe­ cific meanings, and to differentiate them from standard English words. The question of plant identification is also a potential quandary for medical translators. In a pre-Linnaean world, where classification by genus, species, and subspecies was unknown, plants that today we would perceive as belonging to different categories were often lumped together under the same name, and those that we would see as belonging to the same category were often perceived as ut­ terly unrelated. Also, names were often applied inconsistently, and exactly which plant was meant by a particular name often changed over the centuries or over geographic distance. The contributors to this volume have relied on historical dictionaries and other resources to identify the plants mentioned in our texts, and have provided whatever information has been possible to determine. In many cases, this information is fragmentary. In all cases, the translation of plant names in these chapters should be approached as tentative_ll Because we have tried to make this book accessible to the widest possible au­ dience, we have not taken up pages with laborious explanations about particu­ larities of translation problems such as these, or other considerations that will primarily interest specialists. Where further scholarship on a particular textual problem or historical episode exists, it has been cited. Readers should also be aware that many of the contributors to this volume currently have publications in various stages of preparation that will deal with the texts translated here in more detail, and that will no doubt engage at length with these very issues.

FURTHER READING

There are many scholarly articles that should be consulted for further reading on specific aspects of Buddhist medicine in various cultural and historical contexts. Each chapter of this book includes a brief selection of further readings compiled by the chapter author that will facilitate the reader's entry into that literature. Note that, while the most significant scholarship has often been published in other languages (Japanese, Chinese, and French are especially common), our lists of further readings include only English language publica­ tions. With few exceptions, we also have chosen to exclude unpublished theses, conference papers, and forthcoming works, though all of these, in addition to scholarship in foreign languages, are frequently cited in the endnotes.

XXX

INTRODUCTION

For general introductions to the topic of Buddhist medicine, the reader should consult the following basic overviews of history and doctrine: Kitagawa, Joseph Mitsuo.

1989. "Buddhist Medical History." In Healing and Restoring: Health and

Medicine in the Worlds Religious Traditions, ed. Lawrence E. Sulhvan, 9-32. New York: Macmillan. Salguero, C. Pierce.

2015. "Toward a Global History ofBuddhismand Medicine." Buddhist Studies

Review 32 (1): 35-61. Skorupski, Tadeusz.

1999. "Health and Suffering in Buddhism: Doctrinal and Existential Con­

siderations." In Religion, Health and Suffering, ed. John R. Hinnells and Roy Porter,

139-65.

London:Kegan Paul International.

A number of monographs and edited volumes have appeared in English that provide more in-depth book-length analyses of Buddhist medicine in various parts ofAsiaY Clifford, Terry.

1984. Tibetan Buddhist Medicine and Psychiatry: The Diamond Healing. York Beach,

Maine: Samuel Weiser. Cullen, Christopher, and Vivienne Lo, eds.

2005. Medieval Chinese Medicine: The Dunhuang Medical

Manuscripts. London: RoutledgeCurzon. Dash, Vaidya Bhagwan.

1985. Tibetan Medicine: With Special Reference to Yoga Sataka. Dharamsala:

Library of Tibet an Works and Archives. Davis, Edward L.

2001. Society and the Supernatural in Song China.Honolulu: University ofHawai' i

Press. Garrett, Frances.

2008. Religion, Medicine and the Human Embryo in Tibet. London: Routledge.

Gable, Andrew Edmund.

2011. Confluences ofMedicine in Medievaljapan: Buddhist Healing, Chinese

Knowledge, Islamic Formulas, and Wounds ofWar. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. Gyatso, Janet.

2015. Being Human in a Buddhist World: An Intellectual History of Medicine in Early

Modern Tibet. New York: Columbia University Press. Heirman, Ann, and Mathieu Torck.

2012. A Pure Mind in a Clean Body: Bodily Care in the Buddhist

Monasteries ofAncient India and China. Hofer, Theresia, ed.

Ghent, Belgium: Academia.

2014. Bodies in Balance: The Art of Tibetan Medicine. Seattle: University of

Washington Press. Kleine, Christoph, andKa1jaTriplett, eds.

2012. "Religion andHealing in Japan." Special Issue,

Japanese Religions 37 (1-2). Liyanaratne, Jindasa.

1999. Buddhism and Traditional Medicine in Sri Lanka. Kelaniya, Sri Lanka:

University ofKelaniya. Naqvi, Nasim H.

2011. A Study of Buddhist Medicine and Surgery in Gandhara. Delhi: Motilal

Banarsidass. Salguero, C. Pierce. 2014. Translating Buddhist Medicine in Medieval China. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Strickmann, Michel.

2002. Chinese Magical Medicine. Ed.Bernard Faure. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford

University Press. Suzuki, Yui. 2012. Medicine MasterBuddha: The Iconic Wo1Ship ofYakushi in Heian]apan. Leiden:Brill. Zysk, Kenneth.

1998 [1991]. Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India: Medicine in the Buddhist Monas­

tery. Corrected edition. Delhi: MotilalBanarsidass.

INTRODUCTION

xxxi

Although until now there has not been a systematic effort to translate a range of Buddhist texts concerning healing for English-language readers, several important sources have already been published individually and are therefore not included in this collection. Most significant among these are the sections of major scriptures that contain core Buddhist perspectives on disease, healing, and the body: Birnbaum, Raoul. 1989. The Healing Buddha.Rev. ed. Boulder, CO: Shambhala. Pp. 113-217. Emrnerick, R. E., trans. 2004 [1970]. The Si.ltra of Golden Light (Suvar�abhiisottama.sutra). 3rd ed. Oxford: Pali Text Society. Chaps. 7, 16. Horner, I. B., trans. 2000 [1951]. The Book ofthe Discipline (Vinaya-Pitaka). Vol. 4. Oxford: Pali Text Society. Pp. 269-350, 379-97, 431-34. Wallace, Vesna, trans. 2004. The Kalacakratantra: The Chapter on the Individual Together with the

Vimalaprabha. New York: Columbia University Press. Chaps. 3, 4, 6. Watson, Burton, trans. 1993. The Lotus Sutra. New York: Columbia University Press. Chaps. 5, 23. -. 1997. The Vimalakirti Sutra. New York: Columbia University Press. Chap. 5.

In addition to those major scriptures, a number of relatively minor Buddhist texts that deal with topics related to medicine are also currently available in En­ glish translation.l3 These include a variety ofwritings on dietary regimen, ritual healing, incantations, and medicinal preparations (texts that have been retrans­ lated in this volume are not listed): Bagchi, Prabodh Chandra. 1941. "New Materials for the Study of the Kumaratantra ofRavaJ;la."

Indian Culture 7: 269-86. -. 2011. "A Fragment of the Kasyapa-sarhhita in Chinese." In India and China: A Collection of

Essays by Professor Prabodh Chandra Bagchi, ed. Bangwei Wang and Tansen Sen. London: Anthem. Ohnuma, Reiko. 2004. "Why the Buddha Had Good Digestion." In Buddhi.st Scriptures, ed. Donald S. Lopez, Jr. London: Penguin Classics. Rambelli, Fabio. 2000. "Tantric Buddhism and Chinese Thought in East Asia." In Tantra in

Practice, ed. David G. White. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Sen, Satiranjan. 1945. "Two Medical Texts in Chinese Translation." Vi.sva-Bharati Annals 1: 70-95. Translations reproduced in Paul U. Unschuld, Medicine in China: A Hi.story ofidea.s. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010, appendix 6. Williams, Duncan Ryuken. 2005. The Other Side ofZen: A Social History ofSoto Zen Buddhi.sm in

Tokugawa]apan. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Chap. 5 and appendix B.

Several English translations of medical treatises with strong connections to Buddhism are also available:14 Clark, Bary. 1995. The Quintessence Tantra.s ofTibetan Medicine. Ithaca, N.Y.: Snow Lion. Deshpande, Vijaya, and Fan Ka-wai. 2012. Restoring the Dragon's Vi.sion: Nagarjuna and Medieval

Chinese Ophthalmology. Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong. Emmerick, R. E. 1980-1982. The Siddha.sara of Ravigupta. Weisbaden, Germany: Franz Steiner Verlag.

xxxii

INTRODUCTION

Gyatso, Desi Sangye. 2010. A Mirror ofBeryl: A Historical Introduction to Tibetan Medicine. Trans. Gavin Kilty. Boston: Wisdom. Hoernle, A. F.Rudolph. 1987. The Bower Manuse1ipt. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan. Liyanaratne, Jindasa, trans. 2002. The Casket ofMedicine (Bhesajjamaiij11sa). Vol. 1. Oxford: Pali Text Society. Parfionovitch, Yuri, Gyurme Dorje, and Femand Meyer. 1992. Tibetan Medical Paintings: Illustrations

to the Blue Beryl Treatise ofSangye Gyamtso (1653-1705). New York Harry N. Abrams.

Finally, for conducting research related to this topic, I recommend the following reference works in English:15 Annotated Bibliography of Indian Medicine. http://indianmedidne.eldoc.ub.rug.nl. Last ac­ cessed 4 Jan. 2016. Demieville, PauL 1985. Buddhism and Healing: Demiiville:S Article "Byo" from Hobogirin. Trans. Mark Tatz. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America. Mitra, Jyotir. 1985. A Critical Appraisal ofAyurvedic Material in Buddhist Literature with Special Refer­

ence to Tripitaka. Varanasi, India: Jyotiralok Prakashan. Salguero, C. Pierce. 2014. "Medicine." In Oxford Bibliographies Online: Buddhism, ed.Richard Payne. http://www. oxfordbibliographies .corn/view /d ocument/a bo -9780195 393521/o bo -9780195393521-0140.xml. Last updated 26 Oct. 2015; last accessed 21 Oct. 2016.

Many more recommended readings covering specific topics have been suggested throughout the book's chapters.

NOTES 1.

See further reading suggestions at the end of the chapter for more information on the

2.

See discussion of the emergence of this category in East Asia in Salguero 2015a.

3.

For general information on the Mogao caves at Dunhuang (40'02'32.8"N 94'48'32.9"E), see

topics introduced here.

the UNESCO website, http://whc. unesco.org/en/list/440. On the textual and artistic trea­ sures discovered there and in nearby sites, see the British Library's International Dun­ huang Project website, http://idp. bl.uk. Both last accessed 22 Jan. 2016.Recent scholarly work on these sites and artifacts includes Rong 2001; Hansen 2012: 167-97, 2016. 4.

For general information on the Longmen Grottoes (34'33'38.5"N 112'28'04.5"E), see the UNESCO website, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003, last accessed 22 Jan. 2016. Scholarly work includes Ch'en 1964: 170-77; ZhangRuixian 1999; Liu Shufen 2005; McNair 2007.

5.

Early studies include, inter alia, Demieville 1937; Bagchi 1941, 2011; Nobel 1951; Obinata 1965.

6.

This increased interest is indicated by a significant uptick in the number of scholarly publi­ cations on the topic, as well as a recent series ofhigh-profile international conferences. The latter include meetings held in 2009 in Tangshan, China (organized by the University of British Columbia and People's University of China); in 2012 at Berkeley (organized by the Center for Buddhist Studies at the University of California, Berkeley); in 2013 at the Dongh-

INTRODUCTION

XXXlll

was a Temple in Daegu, Korea (organized by Columbia University); in 2014 at the University of Leeds (organized by the United Kingdom Association of Buddhist Studies); and in 2015 at the University of British Columbia. 7.

For a study of the "mindfulness" phenomenon in the contemporary United States, see Wilson 2014. See recent summaries of the clinical research in de Vibe et al. 2012; Goyal et al. 2014.

8.

See, e.g., Gosling 1985; Dietrich 1996;Ratanakul 1999; Numrich 2005;Josephson 2010.

9.

Griffiths 1981.

10.

See further discussion in Cunningham 2002; see Smith 2008; Nappi 2010a.

11.

While we have tried to render our translations in ways that open up premodern texts to English-speaking practitioners of Asian medicine in addition to scholars, we in no way endorse the use of the therapies described herein.

12.

In French, see also Despeux 2010. In Chinese, see Chen Ming 2013; 2015b.

13.

In German, see also Huebotter 1932; Noble 1951.

14.

In French, see also Filliozat 1979.

15.

In French, see also Demieville 1937; Mazars 2008. In Chinese, seeFu and Ni 1996. In Japanese, see Obinata 1965; Michihata 1985; Fukunaga 1990; Nihonyanagi 1994.

Buddhism and Medicine

Doctrinal Considerations

1. Illness, Cure, and Care Selections from the Pali Canon

DHIVAN THOMAS ]ONES

his chapter presents translations of some discourses and discussions on the theme

T of medicine and healing from the Pali canon, the only complete collection ofearly Buddhist scriptures that survives in its original Indian language. A brief account ofPali

language and literature will help explain the historical significance ofthese discourses. The Buddha would have taught the Dharma in one or more ofthe dialects ofMiddle Indo­ Aryan, or Prakrit, spoken in northern India in the fifth century B.C.E. His followers then preserved these teachings orally, committing them to memory and passing them on in communities of reciters. They would have translated the teachings into the dialect ofPrakrit spoken in their own region, and then into the dialects ofthe regions to which they took the Dharma. These teachings were eventually written down in Sri Lanka in a language that we now call "Pali" (literally meaning something like "language of the texts"). Although some Buddhists believe that the Buddha spoke Pali, the linguistic evi­ dence suggests that it is essentially an artificial literary language based on a particular dialect of spoken Prakrit, considerably worked over by scribes familiar with Sanskrit, the great literary language of India.1 The Buddha's teachings were also preserved in other Indian dialects as well as in Sanskrit, and the Tibetan and Chinese translations were made from one or other ofthese versions. While the other Indian versions ofthe early Bud­ dhist scriptures survive only partially, the Pali canon uniquely survives complete. Like the other versions, the Pali version of the Buddhist canon is divided into three collections, the so-called Three Baskets (Pali Tipitaka; skt. Tripitaka). In Pali, these are called sutta (the discourses ofthe Buddha), vinaya (the rules of discipline for the monks),

4

DOCTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS

and abhidhamma (scholarly treatises that date from some centuries after the time ofthe Buddha). There is also an extensive commentarial tradition in Pali, much of it attrib­ uted to the great fifth-century scholar Buddhaghosa, a monk from South India who lived in Sri Lanka. This commentarial tradition reflects the views of the Theravada school of Buddhism, which was also taken to Burma and Thailand, where it continues to thrive, as it does in Sri Lanka.2 While the Pali abhidhamma and commentaries show a Theravadin sectarian affiliation, the Pali nikr1y:J: (sutta collections) have much in common with the

agamas (sutra collections) preserved in Chinese (see chapters 2 and 17), suggesting that the Buddhists of the Theravada school were concerned about preserving what they be­ lieved to be buddhavacana, that is, the words ofthe Buddha, as faithfully as they could. Nevertheless, the Pali versions of the discourses and discussion translated here reflect just one recitation tradition, with many differences in detail from versions preserved by other traditions. Our first text is a short discourse, the Discourse to 5\vaka, in which the Buddha explains to a religious wanderer named Sfvaka the eight causes ofillness. Contrary to the theoreti­ cal religious views espoused by ascetics and Brahmins, the Buddha appeals to empiricism based on personal experience and widely accepted common sense. The Buddha prefers to explain illness in terms of observable natural causes, but he does leave open the possibil­ ity of explaining some painful feelings in terms ofthe theory ofkarma, a doctrine that is prevalent in many Indian religious and medical traditions. The Buddha's explanation of illness in this text shows his evident familiarity with a medical tradition that was devel­ oping in the ascetic milieu, which contrasts with more religious or magical medical tra­ ditions such as those based in the Vedas. The historian of Indian medicine Kenneth Zysk has suggested that the later Indian medical tradition known as Ayurveda, despite its own quite different account of its origins, must also have its roots in the "empirico-rational" medicine practiced by wandering ascetics (and also by court physicians such as Jfvaka) who were contemporaneous with the Buddha.3 Our second text shows how the Buddha, while appreciative of physicians' expertise in prescribing purgatives and emetics for the treatment of illness, himself teaches an unfailing, and therefore superior, purgative-the Nable Eightfold Path. In this way, we see how the physical cure afforded by medical treatment becomes a metaphor for the spiri­ tual cure afforded by the practice ofthe Dharma. Elsewhere in the Pali canon, the Buddha is compared to a surgeon removing the arrow of suffering (cf. chapter 17§1).4 Just as an expert physician treats illness immediately, so the hearing of the Buddha's teaching immediately causes suffering to vanish.5 The Dharma is therefore, so to speak, the ulti­ mate cure. Nevertheless, human beings still get ill. Our third text shows the Buddha finding one of his monks suffering from untreated dysentery. Once the Buddha and his attendant, Ananda, have cleaned up the monk, he summons his monks and instructs them on how they-being renunciates without family members to look after them-should nurse one another when they fall ill. In this way, we see how the life of the early Buddhist monks involved mundane nursing care as well as spiritual striving. The final selection here recounts a time when the Buddha himself is said to have benefited from the expert prescription of a purgative from Jfvaka Komarabhacca, the

ILLNESS , CURE, AND CARE

5

famous court physician ofKing Bimbisara ofMagadha, who was also a devoted disciple of the Buddha.6 The full story, with variations, is extant in Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan (see chapter 20 for translation of the Sanskrit parallel). In this excerpt from the Pali version, the Buddha becomes ill due to his being "flooded with dosa." I have left the word dosa (skt. do�a) untranslated as it is a technical term from Indianmedicine; in a general sense, it means "fault" or "corruption" (see glossary and discussion in chapter 4 for more details). The purgative that Jfvaka gives the Buddha, which is taken nasally, is made from treated flowers and is followed by a hot bath.

F U R T H E R READING Analayo. 2012. "The Historical Value of the Pali Discourses." Indo-Iranianjaumal 55: 223-53. Analayo, Bhikkhu. 2015. "Agama/Nikaya." In Brills Encyclopedia ofBuddhism, ed. 0. von Hiniiber, 1: 50-59. Leiden: Brill. Zysk, Kenneth. 1998 [1991]. Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

1 . THE EIGHT CAUSES OF ILLNESS, F R O M T H E DISCO URSE T O SlVAKA7 At one time, the Blessed One was living in Rajagaha, at the Bamboo Grove, in Squir­ rel Sanctuary. Then "Topknot" Si:vaka the wanderer approached the Blessed One and exchanged friendly greetings with him.8 When this courteous, friendly talk had run its course, he sat to one side. Then, while sitting to one side, "Topknot" Si:vaka the wanderer said this to the Blessed One: "Mr. Gotama, there are some ascetics and Brahmanas who hold the following belief, who hold the following view: 'Whatever an individual person experiences,9 whether pleasant or painful or neither pleasant nor painful, all that is because of what was done in the past.' What does Mr. Gotama say about this?"10 "As to this, Si:vaka, certain experiences arise because of pitta.U One can know this for oneself, Si:vaka, that certain experiences arise because ofpitta; and indeed, Si:vaka, it is a universally accepted truth that certain experiences arise because of pitta. For this reason, Si:vaka, those ascetics and Brahmanas who hold the fol­ lowing belief, who hold the following view: 'Whatever an individual person expe­ riences, whether pleasant or painful, or neither pleasant nor painful, all that is because of what was done in the past'-they exceed what one knows for oneself, and they exceed what is universally accepted as the truth. Therefore, I say that those ascetics and Brahmanas are wrong.12 "As to this, Si:vaka, certain experiences arise because of semha . . . 13 certain ex­ periences arise because of vata . . . certain experiences arise because ofthe com­ bination [of the preceding three] . . . certain experiences arise because of the change ofthe season . . . certain experiences arise because of improper care14 . . . certain experiences arise because of assault . . . certain experiences arise because

6

DOCTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS

of what was done in the past.15 One can know this for oneself, Si:vaka-that cer­ tain experiences arise because ofwhat was done in the past-and indeed, Si:vaka, it is a universally accepted truth that certain experiences arise because of what was done in the past. For this reason, Si:vaka, those ascetics and Brahmanas who hold the following belief, who hold the following view: 'Whatever an individual person experiences, whether pleasant or painful, or neither pleasant nor pain­ ful, all that is because ofwhat was done in the past'-they exceed what one knows for oneself, and they exceed what is universally accepted as the truth. Therefore, I say that those ascetics and Brahmanas are wrong."16 When this had been said, the wanderer "Topknot" Si:vaka said this to the Blessed One: "Excellent, Mr. Gotama, wonderful, Mr. Gotama! May Mr. Gotama bear me in mind as a lay follower who has gone for refuge from today for life." Pitta and sem ha and vata, their combination and the seasons, Improper [care]17 and assault, the ripening of kamma as the eighth.

2 . THE NOBLE PURGATIVE , F R O M T H E DISCO URSE ON D O C TORS18 "Monks, doctors prescribe a purgative19 to counteract illnesses caused by pitta, to counteract illnesses caused by semha, to counteract illnesses caused by vata. Monks, this purgative does exist-! do not say that it does not exist-but it may succeed or it may fail. "But I, monks, will teach you a noble purgative that only succeeds and does not fail. Having taken this purgative, beings subject to birth are released from being born; beings subject to old age are released from old age; beings subject to death are released from death; and beings who are subject to grief, lamentation, pain, misery, and despair are released from grief, lamentation, pain, misery, and despair. Listen to this; pay excellent attention. I will speak." "Certainly, Lord," the monks replied to the Blessed One. The Blessed One said this: ''And what, monks, is that noble purgative that only succeeds and does not fail? Having taken that purgative, are beings subject to being born released from being born, are beings subject to old age released from old age, are beings subject to death released from death, and are beings who are subject to grief, lamentation, pain, misery, and despair released from grief, lamentation, pain, misery, and despair? "For one who has right view, monks, wrong view is purged, and the many bad unwholesome states that come into being because of wrong view are purged for that person, and the many wholesome states existing because of right view come to the fulfilment of their development. "For one having right intention, monks, wrong intention is purged. . . . For one having right speech, monks, wrong speech is purged. . . . For one having right ac-

ILLNES S , CURE, AND CARE

7

tion, monks, wrong action is purged. . . . For one having right livelihood, monks, wrong livelihood is purged. . . . For one having right effort, monks, wrong effort is purged . . . . For one having right mindfulness, monks, wrong mindfulness is purged . . . . For one having right concentration, monks, wrong concentration is purged . . . . For one having right knowledge, wrong knowledge is purged. . . . For one having right liberation, monks, wrong liberation is purged, and the many bad unwholesome states that come into being because of wrong liberation are purged for that person, and the many wholesome states existing because of right libera­ tion come to the fulfilment of their development. "This, monks, is that noble purgative that only succeeds and does not faiL Having taken that purgative, beings subject to being born are released from being born . . . and beings who are subject to grief, lamentation, pain, misery, and de­ spair are released from grief, lamentation, pain, misery, and des pair."

3 . T H E M O N K W I T H D Y SE N T E R Y , F R O M T H E P A L l VINAYA 2 0 At one time, a certain monk was ill with dysentery, and lay fallen in his own urine and excrement. Then the Blessed One, while walking about on a tour of the mo­ nastic lodgings with the Venerable Ananda as his attendant, came to that monk's hut. The Blessed One saw the monk lying fallen in his own urine and excrement, and went in and said to him: "Monk, are you ill?" "I have dysentery, Blessed One," he replied. "Monk, is there someone nursing you?" "There is not, Blessed One." "Why do the monks not nurse you?" "I am of no use to the monks, Lord, so they do not care for me." Then the Blessed One addressed Venerable Ananda: "Ananda, go and get some water. We shall clean up this monk." "Certainly, Lord," replied Venerable Ananda to the Blessed One, and brought some water. The Blessed One poured it on the monk, and Venerable Ananda thor­ oughly washed him. Then, the Blessed One taking him by the head, and Venerable Ananda raising him by the feet, they lowered him onto a bed. In connection with this event, the Blessed One hadthe monastic sangha assemble, and he asked the monks: "Is there, monks, in such and such hut a sick monk?" "There is, Blessed One." "What illness does that monk have, monks?" "The venerable has dysentery, Lord." "Monks, is there a nurse for that monk?" "There is not, Blessed One." "Why do you not nurse that monk?"

8

DO CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS

"That monk is ofno use to the monks, Lord, so we do not nurse him." "Monks, you do not have your mother or father to care for you. Ifyou do not nurse one another, then who will look after you? Monks, one who would serve me should nurse the sick. If you have a preceptor, then you should be nursed for life by your preceptor, who should stay until your recovery. Ifyou have a teacher, then you should be nursed for life by your teacher, who should stay until your recov­ ery. If you have a fellow monastic, then you should be nursed for life by your fellow monastic, who should stay until your recovery. Ifyou have a student, then you should be nursed for life by your student, who should stay until your recov­ ery. Ifyou have a companion with the same preceptor, then you should be nursed for life by your companion with the same preceptor, who should stay until your recovery. If you have a companion with the same teacher, then you should be nursed for life by your companion with the same teacher, who should stay until your recovery. Ifyou have neither preceptor, nor teacher, nor fellow monastic, nor pupil, nor companion with the same preceptor, nor companion with the same teacher, then you should be nursed by the sangha. Ifyou will not care for some­ one, that is an offense of wrongdoing. 21 "Monks, when a sick person has the following five qualities, they are hard to nurse: they do not do what is appropriate; they do not know moderation in what is appropriate; they do not take their medicine; they do not clearly communicate their illness as it really is to the nurse who desires their good, not saying it is worse if it has worsened, or it is improving ifit has improved, or it is still there ifit per­ sists; they find it impossible to endure arisen painful bodily feelings that are sharp, fierce, distressing, disagreeable, unpleasant, and life-threatening. Monks, when a sick person has these five qualities, they are hard to nurse. "Monks, when a sick person has the following five qualities, they are easy to nurse: they do what is appropriate; they know moderation in what is appropri­ ate; they take their medicine; they clearly communicate their illness as it really is to the nurse who desires their good, saying it is worse if it has worsened, or it is improving if it has improved, or it is still there if it persists; they find it possible to endure arisen painful bodily feelings that are sharp, fierce, distressing, dis­ agreeable, unpleasant, and life-threatening. Monks, when a sick person has these five qualities, they are easy to nurse. "Monks, when someone nursing the sick has the following five qualities, they are not fit to nurse a sick person: they are not competent to prescribe medicine; they do not know what is appropriate and what is not appropriate, so they dis­ pense inappropriate treatment and remove appropriate treatment; they nurse the sick person with their own advantage in mind, not at all with a loving heart;22 they are too disgusted to touch excrement or urine, saliva, or vomit; they are not com­ petent to explain, to rouse, to inspire, and to delight the sick person from time to time with talk connected with the Dharma. Monks, when someone nursing the sick has these five qualities, they are not fit to nurse a sick person. "Monks, when someone nursing the sick has the following five qualities, they are fit to nurse a sick person: they are competent to prescribe medicine; they know

ILLNES S , CURE, AND CARE

9

what is appropriate and what is not appropriate, so they dispense appropriate treatment and remove inappropriate treatment; they nurse the sick person with a loving heart, not at all with their own advantage in mind; they are not too dis­ gusted to touch excrement or urine, saliva, or vomit; they are competent to ex­ plain, to rouse, to inspire, and to delight the sick person from time to time with talk connected with the Dharma. Monks, when someone nursing the sick has these five qualities, they are fit to nurse a sick person."

4 . THE B U D D H A I s T R E A T E D B Y JIVAKA KO MARAB H A C C A , F R O M T H E P A L l VINA YA23 On one occasion, the Blessed One's body was flooded with dosa. Then the Blessed One addressed the Venerable Ji.nanda, saying, "The Realized One's body is flooded with do sa, Ji.nanda. The Realized One wishes to drink a purgative." Then the Venerable Ji.nanda approachedjivika Komarabhacca, and said to him, "Friendjivaka, the Realized One's body is flooded with dosa. The Realized One wishes to drink a purgative." "In that case, Ji.nanda, the Blessed One's body should be rubbed with oil for a few days." Then the Venerable Ji.nanda rubbed the Blessed One's body with oil for a few days, and then approachedjivaka Komarabhacca, saying to him, "Friend Jivaka, the Realized One's body has now been rubbed with oil. What do you think it is time to do now?" Thenjivaka Komarabhacca had this thought: "It would not be appropriate for me to give the Blessed One a coarse purgative." Having treated three bunches of blue lotuses with various medicines, he approached the Blessed One and offered the first bunch of blue lotuses to the Blessed One, saying, "Lord, the Blessed One must sniff this first bunch of blue lotuses. This will purge the Blessed One ten times." He offered the second bunch of blue lotuses to the Blessed One, saying, "Lord, the Blessed One must sniff this second bunch ofblue lotuses. This will purge the Blessed One ten times." He offered the third bunch ofblue lotuses to the Blessed One, saying, "Lord, the Blessed One must sniff this third bunch of blue lotuses. This will purge the Blessed One ten times." And he thought, "In this way, the Blessed One will have altogether thirty purges." Thenjivika Komarabhacca, having prescribed altogether thirty purges for the Blessed One, saluted him respectfully, circumambulated him, and left. Then, when he had left through the outside door,Jivika Komarabhacca had this thought: "I prescribed the Blessed One altogether thirty purges since the Real­ ized One's body was flooded with dosa. But the Blessed One will not be purged thirty times; the Blessed One will be purged twenty-nine times. Moreover, the Blessed One will bathe once purged. Once bathed, the Blessed One will be com­ pletely purged. This will be the Blessed One's thirtieth purge." Then the Blessed One, knowing the thought injivaka Komarabhacca's mind with his mind, addressed the Venerable Ji.nanda: "Now, Ji.nanda, when he had left

10

DO CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS

through the outside door,J!vaka Komarabhacca had this thought: 'I prescribed the Blessed One altogether thirty purges . . . . This will be the Blessed One's thirtieth purge.' Therefore, Ananda, prepare some hot water." "Certainly, Lord," replied the Venerable Ananda, and he prepared some hot water. Afterwards, J!vaka Komarabhacca approached the Blessed One, greeted him, and sat to one side. While sitting to one side, J!vaka Komarabhacca said this to the Blessed One: "Lord, is the Blessed One purged?" "I am purged,J!vaka.'' . . . ThenJ1vaka Komarabhacca said this to the Blessed One, "Until the Blessed One's body is back to normal, it will suffice to take soup during the alms round.''24

NOTES 1.

For more details, see Gombrich 2000.

2.

For more details, see Norman 1983.

3.

See Zysk 1998.

4.

In MN 105 (MN II 260), the Buddha compares himself to a surgeon removing a poisoned arrow, the arrow being the poisonous dosa of ignorance; also translated in N1it;1amoli and Bodhi 1995: 867.

5.

This is mentioned in AN 5.194 (AN III 238); also translated in Bodhi 2012: 811.

6.

Biographical details from Pali sources about Jivaka Komarabhacca can be found in Malalasekera's The Dictionary ofPiili Proper Names (1937-1938). Accounts of Jivaka's healing feats differ across Buddhist scriptural traditions and are compared in Zysk 1998 and sal­ guero 2009. See further references in chapter 20.

7.

SN 36.21 (sN IV 230); also translated inBodhi 2000: 1278-79. The eight causes of ill health are also listed at AN 4.87 (AN II 87), in the context of discussion of an ascetic such as the Buddha, who does not often suffer illness.

8.

The commentary explains that the wanderer's name was "Sivaka'' and that the sobriquet "Topknot" (mo/iya) was due to his wearing his hair up in a knot.

9.

"Experiences" (vedayitii.ni) imply the felt hedonic tone of what is experienced, so the word could also be translated as "feelings."

10.

The view that experience arises "because of what was done in the past" (pubbekatahetu) is also criticized at AN 3.61 (AN I 173) for undermining ethics and at MN 101 (MN II 214), where it is attributed to the Jains, for being misguided and unhelpful. In the present context, how­ ever, the Buddha does not criticize the view on religious or theoretical grounds, but fo­ cuses on its implication in the specific case of the painful experience of being ill.

11.

The first three causes of illness translate roughly as "bile," "phlegm," and "wind." See glos­ sary entry for tridCJ:ia.

12.

This raises the question of how one could know that a particular painful feeling is caused by vii.ta, pitta, or semha, and implies some widely accepted symptomatology not explained here.

ILLNE S S , CURE, AND CARE

11

13. The whole of the preceding paragraph is repeated for se mha instead of pitta. Repetition is common in oral literature but is somewhat numbing on the page. In what follows, ellipsis ( . . . ) denotes similarly elided repetitions. 14.

The expression visamaparihiira is difficult to translate. The commentary explains experi­ ences caused by visamaparihiira in terms of carrying a heavy burden or crushing mortar, or in terms of snakes, gadflies, falling in holes, etc., for one who walks around at the wrong time. The commentary on AN 4.87 (AN II 87) (which also lists the eight causes of illness) instead explains experiences caused by visamaparihiira in terms of too much sitting and standing, and so forth. Hence, Bodhi 2000: 1279 translates the phrase as "careless behav­ iour." Gombrich 2009: 20, however, points out that the context is medical and suggests "inappropriate or inadequate care or treatment." My translation-"improper care"-seeks to convey the idea of ill health caused by not looking after oneself due to carelessness or overdoing things.

15.

Note that the preceding passage was condensed to eliminate repetition of long phrases.

16.

Although the Buddha leaves open the possibility that some illness is caused by past ac­ tion, the later philosophical text Milindapaiiha minimizes this possibility: "small is what is born of the maturing of kamma, greater is the remainder" (Horner 1963: 189).

17.

The text simply has "improper" (visama), probably to fit the meter, so that presumably "im­ proper care" (visamaparihiira) is implied.

18.

AN 10.108 (AN V 218); also translated inBodhi 2012: 1489-90.

19.

While in this discourse it is said that doctors prescribe a "purgative" (virecana), in the follow­ ing discourse, which is otherwise identical, it is said that doctors prescribe an "emetic"

(vamana). The prescribing of purgative and emetic are two of the worldly modes of knowl­ edge from which virtuous monks abstain (see chapter 10). 20.

Mv 8.26 (V in I 301); also translated in Horner 1938-1966, 4: 431-34.

21.

An "offense of wrongdoing" (dukkapa) is a class of minor offense against the monastic code.

22.

"Their own advantage" (iimisa) refers to worldly or material gain of some kind, whereas a

23.

Mv 8.1.30-33 (V in I 278).

loving heart (mettacitta) is an attitude of disinterested benevolence. 24.

On another occasion, it is said that some monks were flooded with dosa from overeating jivaka recommends that they have somewhere to walk up and down, and have the use of a sauna (jantiighara), and the Buddha allows it (Cv 5.14.1-2, Vinii 119).

2. The Healing Potential of the Awakening Factors in Early Buddhist Discourse ANALAYO

n what follows, I translate three early Buddhist discourses that highlight the healing

I potential of mental qualities that in the Buddhist traditions are known as the awak­ ening factors. With the expression "early Buddhist discourse," I refer to the discourses

found in the Pali canon and their parallels. Comparative study of these discourses al­ lows us access to the earliest strata of Buddhist thought, inasmuch as this has been preserved in textual records, and thereby enables us to reconstruct the thought ofearly Buddhism.1 Parallels to Pali discourses are often found in collections called Agamas, which for the most part have been preserved in Chinese translation. At times, parallels are also extant in Sanskrit (as well as Gandhari) fragments, or in Tibetan translation, and on rare occasions even in Uighur, an ancient Turkish language. The three discourses translated in this chapter, presented in the sequence in which they are found in the Pali canon, reflect this language variety. The first discourse is based on a Tibetan text (which has a Pali parallel), the second on a Pali original (which has no known parallel), and the third on a Chinese text (which has Pali, Sanskrit and Uighur parallels). All of these discourses are concerned with the seven awakening factors, which are the mental qualities of

1. mindfulness, 2. investigation of phenomena, 3. energy,

THE HEALING POTENTIAL OF THE AWAKENING FACTORS

13

4. joy, tranquility, 6. concentration, 7. equanimity. 5.

According to early Buddhist meditation theory, these seven mental factors need to be cultivated to be able to awaken. The three discourses translated below present an­ other aspect ofthis set of seven awakening factors, namely, the healing potential of these mental qualities.2

In two

of the three discourses, monk disciples of the Buddha over­

come sickness on hearing the Buddha recite the list of the awakening factors for them. The third of the three discourses shows the same potential with regard to the Buddha himself, after one of his disciples has recited the awakening factors for him. In all of these cases, it seems that the recitation helps the diseased person to recollect the qual­ ities that led to his awakening. Such reliving of the condition of the mind at the time of awakening apparently has such a strong effect that the body emerges from its sick con­ dition. Whatever may be the last word on the psycho-physical dynamics involved, there can be little doubt that this is a depiction of employing purely mental means to affect a physical healing process. The first ofthe three discourses translated below reports the recovery of one of the Buddha's chief disciples by the name ofMahakassapa. My translation is based on a dis­ course preserved in Tibetan translation in the Derge edition ofthe Tibetan canon, where this discourse is the fortieth text.3 This Tibetan discourse has a parallel in a topically arranged collection of discourses preserved in the Indian language Pali, the Collection of Connected Discourses (sarryutta-nikiiya). In fact, the Collection ofConnected Discourses has three such discourses, and the sec­ ond discourse translated below is another one of these three. Here, a chief disciple of the Buddha by the name of Mahamoggallana recovers when the Buddha recites the awakening factors for him. This is the fifteenth discourse in the forty-sixth chapter of the Pali collection of Connected Discourses. No parallel to this discourse is known in any other language. According to the third discourse translated below, on one occasion the Buddha him­ self was sick. He asked one of his monk disciples to recite the awakening factors for him, which resulted in his recovery from the disease. My translation of this discourse is based on a Chinese text that is part of a version of the collection of Connected Discourses (Sarryukta-iigama) that is preserved in the Taisho Tripitaka. This is the seven hundred twenty-seventh discourse, and is the only discourse in this collection to take up the healing potential of the awakening factors. This discourse has parallels in Pali, San­ skrit, and Uighur.

F U R T H E R R E A D IN G Analayo. 2012. "The Historical Value of the Pali Discourses." Indo-Iranian]auma1 55: 223-53. . 2015. ''Agama/Nikaya." In Brills Encyclopedia of Buddhism, ed. 0. von Hiniiber. 1: 50-59.

-

Leiden: Brill.

14

DO CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS . 2016. Mindfully Facing Disease and Death: CompCLSSionate Advice from Early Buddhist Texts. Cam­

-

bridge: Windhorse.

THE HEALING POTENTIAL O F THE AWAKENING FACTORS

1 . Translation from the Tibetan4 Thus have I heard. At one time [the Blessed One] was dwelling at Rajagaha in the Bamboo Grove, the Squirrel's Feeding Place. On that occasion, at that time, the venerable Mahakassapa, who was dwelling in the Pipphali Cave, was suffering, be­ ing afflicted by a serious disease. Then the Blessed One, toward evening, had been seated [in meditation], con­ sidering it all.5 He approached the whereabouts of the venerable Mahakassapa. Having approached him, the Blessed One sat down on a prepared seat. Having sat down, he said to the venerable Mahakassapa: "Kassapa, how is your appetite for food and drink? Are you in pain or are you at ease?6 The means for alleviating [the disease] do not alleviate it, is it not so?''7 Then the venerable Mahakassapa said: "Venerable Sir, I have no appetite for food and drink, I am afflicted by a serious disease. The means for alleviating it do not alleviate it. Please provide me with a means to alleviate it." [The Buddha said]: "I expounded the seven awakening factors, which on being cultivated and made much oflead to direct knowledge, awakening, and NirvaJ;Ia. What are the seven? "The awakening factor of mindfulness, Kassapa, I expounded as an awakening factor, which on being cultivated and made much of leads to direct knowledge, awakening, and NirviiJ;Ia. "Kassapa, I expounded the awakening factor of investigation of phenomena, which on being cultivated and made much ofleads to direct knowledge, awakening, and NirviiJ;Ia. "Kassapa, I expounded the awakening factor of energy, which on being culti­ vated and made much of leads to direct knowledge, awakening, and NirviiJ;Ia. "Kassapa, I expounded the awakening factor ofjoy, which on being cultivated and made much of leads to direct knowledge, awakening, and NirviiJ;Ia. "Kassapa, I expounded the awakening factor of tranquility, which on be­ ing cultivated and made much of leads to direct knowledge, awakening, and NirvaJ;Ia. "Kassapa, I expounded the awakening factor of concentration, which on being cultivated and made much ofleads to direct knowledge, awakening, and NirvaJ;Ia. "Kassapa, I expounded the awakening factor of equanimity, which on being cultivated and made much of leads to direct knowledge, awakening, and NirvaJ;Ia.

THE HEALING POTENTIAL OF T H E AWAKENING FACTORS

15

"Kassapa, I expounded these seven awakening factors, which on being culti­ vated and made much of lead to direct knowledge, awakening, and NirvaJ;Ia." [Mahakassapa said]: "The Blessed One, the Well-gone One, has [indeed] ex­ pounded the awakening factors in which one should train."8 This is what the Blessed One said. The venerable Mahakassapa delighted in what the Blessed One had said. The venerable Mahakassapa right away recovered from the disease. Being recovered from the disease, the venerable Mahakassapa rose up.

2. Translation from the Pali9 [Thus have I heard]. At one time, the Blessed One was dwelling at Rajagaha in the Bamboo Grove, the Squirrel's Feeding Place. At that time, the venerable Mahamoggallana, who was dwelling on Mount Vulture Peak, was ill, afflicted, and seriously sick. Then the Blessed One, toward the evening, having emerged from seclusion, approached the venerable Mahamoggallana. Having approached him, he sat down on a prepared seat. Having sat down, the Blessed One said this to the venerable Mahamoggallana: "Moggallana, are you getting better, are you keeping well? Are the painful feelings decreasing and not increasing, is a decrease noticeable instead of an increase?" [Mahamoggallana said]: "Venerable sir, I am not getting better and not keeping welL Strong painful feelings are increasing and not decreasing, an increase is no­ ticeable instead of a decrease." [The Buddha said]: "Moggallana, I fully expounded these seven awakening factors, which on being cultivated and made much of lead to direct knowledge, awakening, and NirvaJ;Ia. What are the seven? "Moggallana, I fully expounded the awakening factor of mindfulness, which, on being cultivated and made much of, leads to direct knowledge, awakening, and NirvaJ;Ia. "Moggallana, I fully expounded the awakening factor of [investigation of phenomena . . . energy . . . joy . . . tranquility . . . concentration]10 equanimity, which, on being cultivated and made much of, leads to direct knowledge, awak­ ening, and NirvaJ;Ia. "Moggallana, I fully expounded these seven awakening factors, which on being cultivated and made much of lead to direct knowledge, awakening, and NirvaJ;Ia." [Mahamoggallana said]: "Blessed One, these are indeed the awakening factors, Well Gone One, these are indeed the awakening factors." This is what the Blessed One said. The venerable Mahamoggallana was glad and delighted in what the Blessed One had said. The venerable Mahamoggallana re­ covered from that illness. Thus, the venerable Mahamoggallana got rid of the illness. •

•

•

16

D O CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS 3.

Translation from the Chinese11

Thus have I heard. At one time, the Buddha, who was traveling among the villages of the Malla people, was staying between the city Kusinara and the river HlrannavatL12 By the side of a village, he said to the venerable Ananda: "Arrange the Blessed One's outer robe by folding it four times, I now have back pain and wish to lie down to rest a little."13 Having received the instruction and arranged the outer robe by folding it four times, the venerable Ananda said to the Buddha: "Blessed One, the outer robe has been arranged by being folded four times, may the Blessed One know the time [has come for him to lie down]." At that time, the Blessed One, using a thick fold of the outer robe as a pillow for the head, placing one foot on the other, with collected mindfulness and clar­ ity of perception lay down on the right side.14 With right mindfulness and right comprehension, he was aware of the idea of rising up again. He said to Ananda: "Proclaim the seven factors of awakening."15 Then the venerable Ananda said to the Buddha: "Blessed One, they are: the awakening factor of mindfulness, which the Blessed One realized himselfthrough full awakening and taught as being supported by seclusion, supported by dispas­ sion, and supported by cessation, leading to letting go. The awakening factor of investigation of phenomena . . . energy . . . joy . . . tranquility . . . concentration . . . equanimity, which the Blessed One realized himself through full awakening and taught as being supported by seclusion, supported by dispassion, and sup­ ported by cessation, leading to letting go." The Buddha said to Ananda: "Did you say: energy?" Ananda said to the Buddha: "I said energy, Blessed One, I said energy, Well-gone One." The Buddha said to Ananda: "Energy indeed, which I cultivated, cultivated much, to reach supreme and full awakening."16 Having said this, he sat up with a straight body and mindfulness establishedY Then another monk spoke these stanzas: Delighting in hearing the wonderful Dharma, Enduring a disease, [the Buddha] told someone to proclaim it. A monk proclaimed the Dharma, The unfolding of the seven awakening factors. Well done, venerable Ananda, Skillfully you proclaimed A teaching that is superbly pure, Stainless and sublime is what you proclaimed: Mindfulness, investigation ofphenomena, energy, Joy, tranquility, concentration, and the awakening [factor] of equanimity, These are indeed the seven awakening factors, They are sublime and well taught.

THE HEALING POTENTIAL OF T H E AWAKENING FACTORS

Hearing the seven awakening factors being proclaimed Thoroughly experiencing the flavor offull awakening, [Although] the body had been afllicted by great pain [The Buddha] endured the illness and sat up straight to listen.

See the master of the true Dharma,16 Who always teaches it widely to people, How [even] he delighted in hearingwhat was being proclaimed, How much more those who have not yet heard it. [Sariputta], the one foremost in great wisdom,19 Esteemed by the One With the Ten Powers,20 He, too, on being afflicted by disease, Came to hear the right Dharma being proclaimed. [Even] those who are well learned and ofclear understanding In the discourses and the higher teachings,21 Capable at reciting the teachings and the discipline should listen to it, let alone others. Hearing the Dharma being proclaimed, as it really is, Listening with a collected mind, intelligently and with wisdom, To the Dharma proclaimed by the Buddha One attains delight and joy removed from sensuality.

With delight andjoy, the body becomes tranquil, The mind also becomes happy by itself, The happy mind gains attainments, And proper insight into becoming, realms, and formations. Those who are disenchanted with the three destinations, Abandon desire and [attain] liberation of the mind, Being disenchanted with all becoming and destinations, They do not arise among humans or heavenly beings, Without remainder, like an extinguished lamp, They [enter] final Nirvfu:la.

It is very beneficial to hear the Dharma That has been proclaimed by the supreme victor. Therefore, one should, with unified attention, Listen to what the great teacher has proclaimed. Having spoken these stanzas, the other monk rose from his seat and left.

17

18

D O CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS

NOTES 1.

On the historical value of the Pali discourses, and implicitly their Agama parallels, see

2.

On this healing potential, see also, e.g., de Silva 1993; Suvimalee 2012; and Analayo 2015c.

Analayo 2012. 3.

According to Skilling 1993: 127, this Tibetan version was based on a Pali original. The Tibetan version exhibits differences compared with the Sarryutta-nikiiya discourse on Mahakassapa and thus seems to stem from a different transmission lineage, as can be seen in the endnotes to my translation of the Derge edition (below D), no. 40. Here and else­ where, for ease of comparison, I employ Pali for proper names.

4.

The translated text is D 40 ka 281b4-282a6, which has a parallel in Sarryutta-nikiiya discourse

5.

The parallel SN 46.14 (SN V 79,22) only indicates that the Buddha had been in seclusion,

SN 46.14. The translated part is preceded by the title "Discourse to Mahakassapa." presumably also meditating. SN 46.14 does not mention that the Buddha had been consid­ ering it all, which I take to refer in particular to considering all the circumstances of Mahakassapa's affliction. 6.

SN 46.14 (SN V 79,26) does not refer to appetite for food or drinks; hence, it later also has

7.

SN 46.14 has no counterpart to a reference to means for alleviating the pain. The same is

8.

In SN 46.14 (SN V 80,14), Mahakassapa does not refer to a need to train in the awakening

9.

The translated text is SN 46.15 (SNV 80,19 to 80,26), entitled The Second Discourse on Being

no such reference in Mahakassapa's reply. consequently also not found in Mahakassapa's reply according to SN 46.14. factors, but merely rep eats that they are indeed the awakening factors.

Sick. Parts of the original text are abbreviated and therefore need to be supplemented from the preceding discourse SN 46.14. No parallel to this discourse is known. 10.

The Pali text is abbreviated. For the sake of ease of understanding, I have added the awak­ ening factors that come between mindfulness and equanimity.

11.

The translated text is SA 727 (T no. 99, 2: 195b29-196all). The first part of SA 727 has a parallel in SN 46.16 (SN V 81,1 to 81,24). The stanzas in the latter part of SA 727 have parallels in fragments in Sanskrit and Uighur. These fragments have been edited by von Gabain 1954: 12-14 and Waldschmidt 1967: 243-46.

12. The Pali parallel SN 46.16 at SN V 81,1 has instead the Squirrels' Feeding Place in the Bam­ boo Grove by the city ofRajagaha as its venue. 13.

SN 46.16 (SN V 81,3) only briefly reports that the Buddha was sick and therefore has no counterpart to the narration in SA 727 that precedes the recitation of the awakening factors. This narration, together with the subsequent stanzas, are part of the Sanskrit frag­ ment version of the Mahiiparinirviil!a-sutra, Waldschmidt 1951: 286-92, and of the Chinese and Tibetan translations of the corresponding section in the Miilasarvastivada Vinaya, Waldschmidt 1951: 287-93 and T no. 1451, 24: 391c26 -392b9.

14.

The translation is based on a variant.

15.

In SN 46.16 (SN V 81, 8), the monk whom the Buddha requests to recite the awakening factors is Mahacunda instead of Ananda.

16.

SN 46.16 (SN V 81,21) does not single out energy in particular, but only reports that the Buddha confirmed that these are the factors of awakening.

THE HEALING POTENTIAL OF T H E AWAKENING FACTORS 17.

19

SN 46.16 (SN V 81,23) indicates that the Buddha recovered from the disease, after which the discourse ends.

18.

The translation is based on a variant.

19.

Accordingto the Sanskrit fragment parallel, this is a reference to Sariputta, another chief

20.

The "One With the Ten Powers" would be a reference to the Buddha, who, according to tra­

disciple of the Buddha.

dition, was endowed with special abilities known as the "ten powers of a Tathagata." 21.

SA 727 (T no. 99, 2: 195 c29) here speaks ofthe Abhidharma, which I have rendered as "higher teachings"; for a survey of references to the Abhidharma in the early discourses, see Analayo 2014: 69-79. The Sanskrit fragment parallel instead refers to the bearers of the summaries

(miitrka), Waldschmidt 1967:

245 [§7]; on the relationship between such sum­

maries and the development of the canonical Abhidharma, see Analayo 2014: 21-53.

3. Curing/Curating Illness Selections from the chapter on the "sufferings of Illness" from A Grave ofPearls from the Garden ofDharma

ALEXANDER 0 . HSU

he translations that follow are excerpts from a Chinese Buddhist anthology called A

T Grove ofPearlsfrom the Garden ofDharma,1 compiled by the Chinese monk Daoshi (?-683)

at Ximing Monastery in Chang'an in the mid-seventh century under the reign of Tang Gaozong. While Daoshi also propagated the Dharmaguptaka vinaya, translated scriptures

with Xuanzang, and wrote commentaries to Mahayana scriptures, he became most re­ nowned for his Chinese Buddhist anthologies, foremost among which was A Grove ofPearls.2 Daoshi's great effort in authoring this anthology is recounted in its foreword (writ­ ten by literatus Li Yan): having read all scriptures available to him, and having selected excerpts from these scriptures he considered central, Daoshi assembled one hundred fascicles worth of material, and sorted them under one hundred titled chapters, subdi­ vided further into sections and subsections. Excerpts from scriptures translated from Indic languages form the preponderance of the anthology's content, but scholars have been keen to highlight its more "Chinese" characteristics and framing. First, Daoshi wrote and adapted forewords and other previously authored works to serve as intro­ ductions to chapters and larger sections; wrote and adapted commentary that string scriptural excerpts together; and wrote and adapted lines of verse to conclude every chapter. Second, he appended over eight hundred Chinese-authored anomaly accounts at the ends of many chapters and some of the larger sections. Finally, he placed tables of contents at the beginnings of scrolls and other divisions in the work to allow readers to locate passages of interest more expediently. Although parallels may be drawn between A Grove of Pearls and early South Asian Buddhist classificatory works or between works found in the indigenous, imperial tradi-

CURING / CURATING ILLNESS

21

tion of Chinese anthology, Daoshi's work more closely followed in the tradition of Bud­ dhist anthologies compiled under the Southern Dynasties that immediately preceded the Tang.3 It was also of a piece with contemporary Buddhist compilations undertaken by Daoshi's more famous lineage brother, Daoxuan (596-667).4 Daoxuan's works in­ cluded vinaya digests (see chapter 14), a comprehensive bibliography of the Chinese Buddhist canon, a genealogy of the Buddha, a collection of monastic hagiographies, a compilation of Chinese-authored apologetic prose and poetry, and several treasuries of miracle tales.5 That A Grove ofPearls shares material and organizational principles with nearly every one of Daoxuan's compilations indicates the closeness of their relationship. Daoshi 's chapter on the "Sufferings of Illness" from A Garden ofPearls has been hugely influential in circumscribing the scope of Chinese and East Asian Buddhist medicine, in both their contemporary practice and academic study.6 The excerpts from this chapter translated here fulfill two criteria: they are not translated elsewhere in this volume, and they constitute passages that both Daoshi and this sourcebook's compilers believe best exemplify medieval Chinese Buddhist perspectives on illness. The translated ex­ cerpts have been doubly curated-once by Daoshi, and again by myself and the editor of this anthology-and readers should be mindful that these curators' selectivity both clarifies and obscures facets of the source material. "sufferings of Illness" is placed at the tail end of A Grove ofPearls, the ninety-fifth of one hundred chapters, nestled, logically perhaps, between chapters 93 and 94 on "Liquor and Meat" and "Impurities" and chapters 96 and 97 on "self-Immolation" and "Funerals."7 "sufferings of Illness" shares many of the same passages with other anthologies and earlier commentarial works by Daoshi and Daoxuan, found collated together in sections discussing monastic end-of-life matters, namely, care for the sick, the ailing, and the newly dead. It is likely that Daoshi consulted these works in assembling this chapter (and its neighbors), even copying sequences of passages from them. He supplemented this core of vinaya passages with excerpts from inside and outside the Buddhist canon. The chapter is typical ofmany chapters in A Grove ofPearls: it is well articulated, average in size, and diverse in its contents. The chapter's title, "sufferings of Illness," refers to Buddhism's fourfold classification of suffering: all beings necessarily undergo the sufferings of aging, illness, death, and birth.8 Many of the chapter's passages, then, reproduce texts wherein the Buddha or various Buddhists effectively respond to this suffering with theories, stories, instruc­ tions, and cures. The final section contains fourteen "Accounts ofResponse"-indigenous miracle tales originally recorded in independently circulating compilations, or person­ ally recounted by the monks at Ximing Monastery and their acquaintances (some of these are translated in chapter 21).9 In sum, forty-five discrete units of text can be identified-bolded sections are translated below or elsewhere in the collection.10 Section 1: Explaining the Meaning

1.1 Essay Section 2: Quoted Evidence

2.1 Passage from Siitra on the Buddha as Physidan, T no. 793 2.2 Passage from Great Treatise on the Perfection ofWisdom, T no. 1509

22

D O CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS

Section 3: Nursing the Sick 3.1 Essay (includes line from Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, T no. 1428) 3.2 Passage from MahiisiiJllghika Vinaya, T no. 1428 3.3 Passage from Ekottariigama, T no. 125-a similar passage is translated in chapter 1§3 3.4 Passage from]iitaka Siitra, T no. 154 3.5 Passage from Siitra ofthe Questions asked by Maitreya, T no. 349 3.6 Passage from Dharmapada, T no. 211 3.7 Passage from Siitra on Upasaka Precepts, T no. 1488 3.8 Passage from Five-Hundred Questions asked by Maudgalyayana, T no. 1483 3.9 Passage from Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, T no. 1428-a similar passage is translated in chapter 1§3 Section 4: Therapies 4.1 Essay11 4.2 Passage from Ekottariigama, T no. 125 4.3 Passage from Siitra of Golden Light, T no. 663-translated in chapter 4 4.4 Passage from Great Treatise on the Perfection ofWisdom, T no. 1509 Section 5: Hospice 5.1 Essay 5.2 Passage from Mahasarrghika Vinaya, T no. 1425 5.3 Passage from Illustrated Sutra on the ]etavana Monastery in the Western Lands, T no. 1899 Section 6: Collecting Thoughts 6.1 Essay 6.2 Passage from Sarvastivada Vinaya, T no. 1435 6.3 Passage from Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, T no. 1428 6.4 Passage from Mother ofthe Sarvastivada Vinaya, T no. 1441 6.5 Passage from Flower Adornment Siitra, T no. 278 6.6 Passage from Treatise on the Siitra ofLimitless Life, T no. 1524 6.7 Passage from Consecration Siitra, T no. 1331 6.8 Commentary 6.9 Passage from Great Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom, T no. 1509 6.10 Passage from Vimalaklrti-nirdesa Siitra, T no. 476 6.11 Passage from Siitra on True Dharma Mindfulness, T no. 721 6.12 Verse Miracle Tales-14 stories quoted from various medieval collections, three of which are translated in chapter 21§1-4 Certain ideas form threads between passages: concepts such as the Four Elements and trido�a recur in multiple passages, as does the injunction for monks to take proper care oftheir sick and dying. A few passages draw on the analogy or equivalence between Buddhist medical practices as cures for physical illness, and the practice of Buddhism itself as a fully comprehensive cure for existential suffering.U Nonetheless, the chapter is not systematically integrated-it neither represents a rigid doctrinal framework nor

CURING / CURATING ILLNESS

23

a liturgical sequence. Rather, readers were erYoined to bring into use those passages that spoke to their situations, to bring relief to the suffering ofillness through the study and application of vetted quotations. The value of these excerpts did not merely reside in their sacred provenance, but in their ability to be isolated and =played. A Grove of Pearls is most accessible in print and digital forms with Taishi5 Tripitaka text number 2122, and no full manuscript editions of it survive. A new critical edition was published in 2003 by the Zhonghua Book Company, and this edition of the text was consulted in preparing the following translation.13 While multiple studies concerning A Grove ofPearls have appeared in Chinese and Japanese since the 1970s, the best English­ language introduction to the work continues to be a summary by Stephen Teiser written in 1985.

FURTHER READING

Chen, Huaiyu. 2007. The Revival ofBuddhist Monasticism in Medieval China. New York: Peter Lang. Salguero, Pierce. 2014. Translating Buddhist Medicine in Medieval China. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Pp. 109-12. Teiser, Stephen F. 1985. "T'ang Buddhist Encyclopedias: An Introduction to Fa-yi.ian chu-lin and

Chu-ching yao-chi." T'ang Studies 3:

109-28.

E X C E R P T S F R O M "THE S U F F E R I N G S O F I L L N E S S ," C H A P T E R 9 5 O F A GROVE OF PEARLS

FROM THE GARDEN OF DHARMA 1 4 Section 2.1 As the Siitra on the Buddha as Physician15 says, "Human bodies originally contain the Four Illnesses: (1) Earth, (2) Water, (3) Fire, and (4) Wind.16 When Wind increases, then qi [here probably a translation forvii'ta] arises; when Fire increases, then Heat [pitta] arises; when Water increases, then Cold [sle?man] arises; when Earth increases, then strength flourishesY These Four Illnesses give rise to the 404 Illnesses. Earth includes the body, Water includes the mouth, Fire includes the eyes, and Wind includes the ears. When there is less Fire and more Cold, the eyes cloud up. During spring, the first through third months, there is much Cold. During sum­ mer, the fourth through sixth months, there is much Wind. Because summer in the Western Countries [i.e., India and Central Asia] has much Wind and Heat, they are slightly different from the lands of the Han.18 During autumn, the seventh through ninth

months, there is much Heat. In these Autumns of the Western Countries, the Heat is initially abundant, also different from the lands of the Han. During winter, the tenth

through twelfth months, there is both Wind and Cold. Why is there much Cold in the spring? It is because all living things19 are born from Cold. Why is there much Wind in the summer? It is because all living things are flourishing and

24

D O CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS

yin and yang have gathered together. Why is there much Heat in the autumn? It is because all living things have matured. Why is there Wind and Cold in winter? It is because all living things have died and the Heat has gone.20 "From the third through the seventh month, one should retire to bed on time. Why? Because there is much Wind, so the body expands. From the eighth through the second month, one may not rest.21 Why? Because there is much Cold, so the body contracts. "The three months of spring are Cold: one may not eat wheat and beans; it is appropriate to eat millet, ghee, and warm foods. This is because in the Western Coun­ tries, wheat is cold, but millet and the others are warm. The three months of summer are Windy: one may not eat taro, beans, or wheat; it is appropriate to eat millet and cheese. The three months of autumn are Hot: one may not eat millet and ghee; it is appropriate to eat small grains, grits, honey, young rice, and sorghum. The three months of winter are Windy and Cold: yang combines with yin; it is ap­ propriate to eat millet, kidney beans, stew, and ghee. When resting, sometimes Wind arises and sometimes it ceases; when resting, sometimes Fire arises and sometimes it ceases. Cold sometimes arises and sometimes it ceases. "There are ten causes for people getting sick: (1) sitting in meditation a long time without resting,22 (2) overeating, (3) worry, (4) extreme exhaustion, (5) de­ bauchery, (6) anger, (7) fecal retention, (8) urine retention, (9) stifling eructation, (10) stifling flatulence. From these ten causes, illness is born. "There are nine causes for why someone whose life-store has not yet expired may suddenly die."23

Section 2.2 Also, the Great Treatise on the Perfection ofWisdom24 says, "The 404 Illnesses are the form by which the Four Elements continually invade and harm the body. One hundred one illnesses arise from each Element. There are 202 Cold Illnesses from Water and Wind arising. There are 202 Heat Illnesses from Earth and Fire arising. Fire has the form of heat, and Earth has the form of solidity. Because there is solidity, they are difficult to dispel; because they are difficult to dispel, Heat Ill­ nesses are able to arise. Blood, flesh, tendon, bone, marrow, etc., are [related to the] Element of Earth."

Section 3.1 Now, the Four Elements are difficult to harmonize; the Six Fu Viscera shift and rebeL Because ofkarmic recompense, the body immediately contracts illness. Some people have abandoned the secular and have become monastics, traveling individually and dwelling alone. Some of these are poor or sick or old or weak, with nobody to take care of them. Ifthey do not look after one another, what would they leave their fates to? Thus, the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya25 [says]: "The Buddha

CURING / CURATING ILLNESS

25

said, 'from henceforth, you must look after the sick, you must serve as nurse to the sick. Ifyou wish to take care of me, you must first take care ofthe sick."'26 This includes coming across a sick member of the Five Orders of Practitioners on the road-the Buddha ordered that all Seven Orders of practitioners stop and look after him or herY If they abandon this duty and do not look after the patient, then they will all accrue fault. Therefore, many Buddha-hearted beings use great compassion as their bodies; whoever obeys my words will have the Buddha heart-mind.

Section 3.2 As the Mahiisiir,�ghika Vinaya28 says: "If a sick monastic of the Five Orders of Prac­ titioners is encountered on the road, then a vehicle must be sought to transport him or her [to safety]. According to protocol, [the monastic] must be taken care of, even up to death, cremation, and burial: the sick person may not be abandoned. [...] "There are nine ways that necessarily result in premature death:29 (1) knowing that there is no benefit to eating but craving food; (2) not apportioning food; (3) eating while food has not yet digested; (4) throwing up undigested food; (5) retaining digested food that ought to be expelled; (6) eating foods that do not match to an illness; (7) eating foods that suit the illness but not apportioning food; (8) laziness; (9) lack of wisdom."

Section 3.4 Also, the ]iitaka Siitra30 says, "the World Honored One praised [Indra] with the fol­ lowing verse: One must nurse the sick and inquire after their maladies; good and evil have their karmic responses just as planted seeds result in fruit. The World Honored One then is father, the Dharma is the mother, Fellow Students are brothers, And relying on them one gets saved."

Section 4.2 According to the Ekottariigama Siitra,31 "At that time, the World Honored One in­ structed the monks: 'There are Three Great Maladies [i.e., the trido�a]. What are the three? (1) Wind is a great malady; (2) Phlegm is a great malady; (3) Cold is a great

26

D O CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS

malady.32 Therefore, there are three good medicines to cure them. [If] there is Wind malady, ghee is a good medicine, and ghee may be eaten. If there is Phlegm mal­ ady, then honey is a good medicine, and honey may be eaten. If there is Cold malady, then oil is a good medicine, and oil may be eaten. These are the Three Great Maladies and they have these three medicines to cure them. Just like this, monks, there is another set of Three Great Maladies: (1) Desire, (2) Anger, and (3) Delusion. Then there are three good medicines to cure them: (1) when Desire arises, then use Loathsomeness to cure it, and reflect on the path of Loathsome­ ness; (2) if there is the Great Malady of Anger, then use Loving-kindness to cure it, and reflect on the path of Loving-kindness; (3) if there is the Great Malady of Delusion, then use Wisdom to cure it, and reflect on the path of Dependent Origination. These are, monks, the Three Great Maladies that have these three medicines to cure them.' "

Section 4.4 Also, the Great Treatise on the Perfection ofWisdom33 says: "The Perfection of Wisdom is able to wipe out the roots of the 84,000 Illnesses. These 84,000 Illnesses all arise from the Four Illnesses: (1) Desire, (2) Anger, (3) Delusion, (4) these Three Poisons in equal proportion. Each of these Four Illnesses numbers 21,000. Using the contem­ plation of Loathsomeness wipes out the 21,000 afflictions of Greed; using the contemplation of Loving-kindness wipes out the 21,000 afflictions of Hatred; us­ ing the contemplation of Dependent Origination wipes out the 21,000 afflictions of Delusion; employing together the above medicines wipes out the 21,000 afflic­ tions caused by the Three Poisons in equal proportion. To make an analogy, just as a jewel is able to eliminate darkness, the Perfection of Wisdom is also able to eliminate the afflictions and illnesses of the Three Poisons."

NOTES

1.

Fayuanzhulin, T no. 2122.

2.

Kawaguchi 1976 and Chen 1992 delineate the contours ofDaoshi's life and career based on evidence found in the Chinese Buddhist canon. Due to space limitations, we will not dis­ cuss here a second, related anthology attributed to Daoshi, A Collection ofEssentials from the

Scriptures (Zhujing yaoji; T no. 2123), in thirty chapters and twenty fascicles, except to note that it seems to be a greatly reduced version of A Grove ofPearls. 3.

Daoshi likely made use ofa few such anthologies inplanning and executing A Grove ofPearls. Only one other Southern Dynasties Buddhist anthology, Baochang's (502-557)

Various As­

pects in the Scriptures and Regulations Uingli.i yixiang; T no. 2121), has survived to the present day in full form, while traces of evidence of others-many imperially sponsored-abound. 4.

Koichi Shinohara has written many short studies ofDaoxuan's thought and activities, es­ pecially as illuminated through his and Daoshi's various collections of Chinese miracle

CURING / CURATING ILLNESS

27

tales (see, e.g., Shinohara 1990, 1991a, 1991b, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2004, and 2007). Huaiyu Chen (2007) has authored the first full-length monograph in English on Daoxuan and his work; Robin Wagner's 1995 dissertation also contains a useful biography of Daoxuan. 5.

Many of these compilations were envisioned as sequels to the work of Sengyou (445-518), who authored his genealogy of the Buddha, bibliography of the Chinese Buddhist canon, and compilation of Chinese-authored apologia under the Liang dynasty. Baochang (see note 3 above), who also compiled hagiographies of monks and nuns, was a student of Sengyou's.

6.

Salguero 2 015a examines the close relationship between Daoshi's chapter and French sinol­

7.

Berm 2007 offers readings of chapter 96's contents; Berm 2005 provides readings of a por­

8.

One is tempted to read the title also as a cross-reference to the seventy-seventh chapter

ogist Paul Demieville's influential encyclopedia article "Byo" (Illness) from 1937. tion of chapter 93's contents. in A Grove ofPearls on "Suffering'' (yuanku), likely to be of interest to both practitioners and scholars of the Buddhist arts of healing. 9.

Campany 2012 provides a study and translation of Wang Yan's (fifth-century) collection of Buddhist miracle tales, Signs from the Unseen Realm (Mingxiang ji), the miracle-tale col­ lection most commonly quoted by A Grove ofPearls. See excerpts in chapter 21§1-4.

10.

In addition to the miracle tales, twenty-three other passages constitute extracts from eighteen Buddhist scriptures of putative non-Chinese origin, five comprise Daoshi's intro­ ductory remarks, one copies from a scripture authored by Daoxuan, one adapts commen­ tary authored by Daoxuan, and one represents a pair of verses adapted from a poetry game that took place in the Liang dynasty. Readers of a Chinese version of the text would not have recognized "forty-five discrete units of text," but their reading experience would still be guided by section and paragraph breaks, headings, tables of contents, interlineal com­ mentary, and phrases indicating quotations. I have translated the titles of scriptures to facilitate cross-reference over the sourcebook and comparison with the Taishi5 editions. For a translation of passage 4.l in a later context, see Sivin 1968: 106-10. For an analysis of passages 6.2, 6.9, and 6.10 as quoted together in Daoxuan's Emended Commentary on Monastic

Practices from the Dharmagupta ka Vinaya (Xingshi Chao), see Shinohara 20 07: 116-22. Besides the narratives in chapter 21§1-4, for additional translations of miracle tales from this chapter, see Gjertson 1989: 161-62§3; Campany 2012: 128-130§30, 251-52§122, 258§126; and Campany 2015: 128-29§223. For a more comprehensive inventory of the chapter's contents and meanings, as well as a searching analysis of its afterlife as a source for knowledge about Buddhist ideas on healing, see Salguero 2015a, especially pp. 40-43. 11. Part of this essay is elsewhere attributed to Sun Simiao; see chapter 53. 12.

For a recent analysis of the metaphor "the Dharma is medicine" in early Chinese Buddhist translations, see Salguero 2014b: 78-82. See also chapters 1§2, 2, and 17.

13.

Motoi 2009 and 2012 constitute important studies of various manuscript fragments of Daoshi's anthologies found in collections at Dunhuang and in Japanese temples.

14.

Zhou and Su 2003: 2731-53; corresponding to T no. 2122, 53: 984a17-989c02.

15.

Foshuo Foyijing, T no. 793, was purportedly translated into Chinese during the Wu dynasty in the third century by two foreign monks, Zhu Liiyan and Zhi Yue. Referring to it as the

Sutra on Medicine or SU:tra on the Physician (Foshuoyijing), Daoshi excerpted approximately

28

D O CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS

the first third of the one-fascicle-long work. See Salguero 2014b: 81-82 for an analysis of the entire text, Huang Guoqing 2009 for an in-depth study of its contents, and Sen 1945; Unschuld 2010: 309-14 for an altemate translation. 16.

Daoshi's excerpt contains numbers, whereas T no. 793 does not have numbers. By and large, the two texts match up, and I will only indicate a few places where a difference might matter.

17.

See Salguero 2010-2011: 63-66 for an analysis of how trido�a were translated differ­ ently across various periods of composing Chinese Buddhist scriptures: the translation scheme of Buddha as Physician is consistent with other translations from the third and fourth century C.E. An alternate translation of the opening lines can be found in Salguero 2014b: 81.

18.

Smaller-size font in the translation indicates the use of a smaller-size font in the Chinese

19.

eh. wanwu.

20.

Compare this account of yin-yang cosmology and the four seasons in the Basic Questions

text, which is often Daoshi's personal commentary (as it is in this passage).

edition of the Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor (Unschuld, Tessenow, and Jinsheng 2011: 45-50). 21.

T no. 793 reads, "one should retire to bed off schedule [i.e., go to bed or get up early or late]."

22.

T no. 793 reads, "without eating."

23.

The excerpt breaks offhere, whereas T no. 793 lists the nine reasons for sudden death. See

24.

The [Da]zhidu lun (T no. 1509), a massive, influential commentary on the Great Perfection of

note 29 below on the fifth excerpt.

Wisdom Sutra attributed to Nagarjuna, was translated in the early fifth century by Kumarajiva and his amanuensis Sengrui. Here, the original text provides the parsing of phrases of a speech wherein the Buddha explains to King Indra the merits of receiving the Perfection of Wisdom, one of which includes, "the 404 Illnesses being unable to afflict [the body]." The phrases being parsed can be found at T no. 1509, 25: 46 8c16-c19, and the parsing of the phrases, borrowed by Daoshi, at 469c23-28. 25.

As mentioned in Salguero 2015a: 40-41, this is an abbreviated quote from Daoxuan's

Emended Commentary on Monastic Practices from the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya (Xingshi Chao), T no. 1804, 18: 143b02, which in turn is a summary of material from T no. 1428, 11: 861b28. 26.

See "The Monk with Dysentery" in chapter 1§3.

27.

The Five Orders refer to monks, nuns, probationaries, novice monks, and novice nuns; the Seven Orders add to the list of five both laymen and laywomen.

28. The first part of this passage summa rizes a long disquisition of the Buddha's from the twenty-seventh fascicle of the Mahasarrghika Vinaya ([Mohe] sengqi li.i), T no. 1425, 9: 456a15 -c04; and the second, longer part is a more direct copy from a passage further on in the same fascicle (457a15-a20). The Mahasarrghika Vinaya was translated by Faxian and Buddhabhadra near the end of the EasternJin dynasty. 29.

The "Nine Sudden Deaths" listed here bear closer (but hardly exact) resemblance to those enumerated and described in greater detail in the Sutra on the Nine Sudden Deaths Uiuheng

jing; T no. 150B), and replicated in the Sutm on the Buddha as Physician (see note 23 above; Huang 2009: 37-38). This list of nine untimely deaths by and large relating to diet is at

CURING/CURATING ILLNESS

29

even greater variance with those enumerated in the Medicine Buddha scriptural tradi­ tion. See, e.g., chapter 25§20. 30.

This excerpt seems to quote the final verse from the twenty-sixthjataka Sutra (T no. 154, 3: 90a08-12), purportedly translated by Dharmarak�a in 285. This section, "Foshuo biqiu jibingjing" (The Monk's Illness), recounts the story of how the Buddha nurses a sick monk back to health in both the present life and a previous one, even as the monk admits that he has not nursed any other sick people. For a French translation of the past-life story, see chavannes 1910-1911, 3: 177-78§429.

31.

This excerpt seems to quote from the twelfth fascicle of the Ekottaragama, T no. 125, 2: 604a28-b15. For alternate English translations, see Salguero 2010-2011: 67-70, and for a translation with corresponding discourses within the Chinese agamas and Pali nikayas by Bhikku Analayo, see http://suttacentral.net/ea21.7, last accessed 20 Oct. 2016. Daoshi's excerpt is further abridged with removal of a narrative frame that begins and ends the disquisition.

32.

On the trido-?a and their translations in Chinese and English, see note 17 above. The trans­ lation ofthe trido-?a in this passage as Wind, Phlegm, Cold (feng, tan, leng) differs from the passage from the Foyijing quoted earlier as well as from usual translation practice.

33.

T no. 1509, 25: 478b15-b21. The Great Treatise goes into far greater detail about the "afflic­ tions and illnesses ofthe Three Poisons," whereas this excerpt does not. For more on the Great Treatise, see note 24 above.

4. Understanding the Do$a A Summary of the Art of Medicine from the Sutra ofGolden Light

C . P I E R C E SALGUERO

mong the many Chinese Buddhist scriptures (and parts thereof) that discuss

A medicine, the Sutra ofGolden Light surely ranks among the most well-known.1 The

text contains a chapter that briefly summarizes the basic principles of Indian medicine,

concentrating on the do-?11. Literally meaning "defects" or "faults," the do-?11 are the principal causes of disease according to Indian medical thought. They are given as wta, pitta, and s1e-?man (Pali semha, or, in later Sanskrit texts, kapha), which are roughly translatable as Wind, Bile, and Phlegm. In Buddhist thinking, disease can be caused by individual do-?11 or their combination. There is also a frequent connection made between the physical do-?11 and the three mental and emotional poisons (wta being equated to greed, pitta to hatred, and s1e-?man to ignorance). Although the textual core of the Sutra of Golden Light is thought to have been com­ posed in Sanskrit in the first centuries C.E., the earliest received text that is extant in that language dates no earlier than the fifth century.2 Complete or fragmentary trans­ lations exist in Sogdian, Xixia, Mongolian, old Uighur, Khotanese, and Tibetan. Three Chinese versions of the text also are extant: o

Sutra of Golden Light: a version produced in 414-421 by the Indian monk Dharmak�ema (385-433) that predates the earliest extant Sanskrit version of the text;3

o

collated Sutra of Golden Light: a composite text created in 597 that collated to­ gether sections from several independent Chinese translations ofthe sutra that

UNDERSTANDING THE D O � A

31

were available at that time, which contains Dharmak�ema's chapter on medi­ cine;4 and •

The Sutra of Golden Light, Unparalleled King ofSutras: A full retranslation of the sutra completed in 703 by the renowned Chinese pilgrim Yijing (635-713).5

Dharmak�ema's and Yijing's translations both contain chapters titled "on Eliminating Disease" (chubing pin). These are translated below with correlating paragraphs placed side by side to facilitate comparison. Comparing the texts with one another as well as with the extant versions ofthe text in other languages reveals how Buddhist sutras can develop and expand over time.6 Dharmak�ema's translation is closer to the extant San­ skrit version, but diverges in the details of the medical doctrines it introduces. Yijing's translation appears to have been heavily influenced by Dharmak�ema's earlier efforts, as the two texts use similar language in many passages. It differs in many respects from the other versions, however. Most notably, it is much more detailed in its sum­ mary of Indian medical thought and contains a broader selection of medical ideas. It is important to note that Yijing was more familiar with the doctrines of Indian medicine than other Chinese translators, as he had studied medicine at the monastic university at Wilanda during his twenty-four-year-long pilgrimage to South and South­ east Asia. While still abroad, he sent reports of monastic life-including copious notes on Indian medical and hygienic practices-back to China (see chapter 16). Thus, his ver­ sion ofthe chapter represents one of only a small number of Chinese translations ofIndian medicine by an author intimately familiar with both its doctrines and its practice. Since the seventh century at least, Chinese Buddhist tradition has held this chapter of the Sutra ofGolden Light to be a foundational statement of Buddhist healing wisdom. Today, it continues to be widely cited in virtually all sectarian and scholarly works dis­ cussing Buddhist medicine. It is imperative to note, however, that the text at no point claims a Buddhist origin for any ofthe knowledge it presents. The protagonist is identified as the Buddha in a previous life, and he sets out to practice medicine based on a feeling of compassion for the suffering ofthe multitudes-a state ofmind that the text surely wants us to interpret as a Buddhist virtue. Nevertheless, the narrative never portrays him as anything other than a lay physician, and never attributes his knowledge to a Buddhist source. An unbiased judgment on the basis of the contents of the text suggests that the chapter should be read as a precis of the main ideas and practices of mainstream Indian medicine rather than as a testament to an independent Buddhist medical tradition. This reading of the text in no way diminishes its historical value. While it might not tell us much about the practice of healing among Buddhist monastics or devotees, the various extant versions of the medical chapter-edited and translated in different geo­ graphical contexts and historical periods-offer glimpses of the development of Indian medicine that merit further exploration. In contrast to the creative approaches taken by many Chinese translators to render their source texts in ways they thought would fit with native medical and cultural expectations, Dharmak�ema's and Yijing's trans­ lations of the medical content in the Sutra of Golden Light are devoid of interpolated references to indigenous Chinese medical and cosmological ideas, and afford us relatively unobstructed views "through the Chinese looking glass."7

32

DO CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS FURTHER R E A D I N G

The Sutra of Golden Light (SuvarJ;Jabhasottamasutra).

Emmerick, R. E . 2004 [1970].

3rd ed. Oxford:

Pall Text Society. Scharfe, Hartmut. 1999. "The Doctrine of the Three Humors in Traditional Indian Medicine and the Alleged Antiquity ofTamil Siddha Medicine." journal ofthe American

Oriental Soci­

ety 119 (4): 609-29. Skjaerv0, Prods Oktor. 2004.

This Most Excellent Shine ofGold, King ofKings ofSutras: The Khotanese

SuvarJ;Jabhasottamas1ltra.

Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Department of Near East­

ern Languages and Civilizations.

D H A R M A K � E M A' S V E R SI O N

YIJING'S VERSION OF

O F "ON E L I M I NA T I N G

"oN E L I M I NA T I N G D I S E A SE " 9

DI S E A S E " 8 The Buddha addressed the assembly and

The Buddha addressed the Goddess of

the Goddess of the Bodhi Tree thus:

the Bodhi Tree thus:

Noble goddess, listen well! Listen well!

Noble goddess, listen well! Listen well!

Pay attention as I relate to you this tale

Pay attention as I now tell you this tale

about vows taken long ago. Incalculable, inconceivable, infinite eons ago, a Buddha

about the former vows taken by the ten thousand divine sons.10 Noble goddess,

appeared in the world that was named

incalculable, inconceivable, infinite eons

Bejeweled Excellence Tathagata, Worthy

ago, a Buddha appeared in the world

of Respect, Perfectly Enlightened, Con­

who was named Bejeweled Topknot

summate in Wisdom and Actions, Well­

Tathagata, Worthy, Perfectly Enlightened,

Accomplished, Knower of the World,

Consummate in Wisdom andActions, Well­

Unsurpassed One, Tamer of Men, Teacher

Accomplished, Knower of the World,

of Gods and Humankind, World-Honored

Unsurpassed One, Tamer of Men, Teacher

Buddha.

of Gods and Humankind, World-Honored Buddha.

Noble goddess, when this Buddha had

Noble goddess, when this WorldHonored

passed into Nirvfu:la and the true Dharma

One had passed into Nirval}.a and the

had disappeared, during the period of

true Dharma had disappeared, during

Semblance Dharma,11 there was a king

the period of Semblance Dharma, there

named Suresvaraprabha (literally, "Heav­

was a king named Suresvaraprabha who

enly Omnipotent Radiance") who prac­

educated his people in the true Dharma

ticed the true Dharma and ruled accord­

and was just like a parent [to them]. In

ing to the Dharma, and his people were

this kingdom, there was a layman named

filial in caring for their parents.

this

Jat�dhara who was very knowledgeable

kingdom, there was a layman named

in the science of medicineY He thor­

Jat�dhara (literally, "Water-Bearer") who

oughly knew the Eight Arts,13 and could

In

was very knowledgeable in the practice of

cure the people's diseases and the im­

medicine. He could cure all ailments,

balances of the Four Elements. Noble

UNDERSTANDING THE DO� A

33

and could skillfully determine the fluc­

goddess, at that time, the layman

tuations of the Four Elements. Noble god­

Jatitpdhara only had one son named

dess, at that time, there was born into the

Jalavahana. He had handsome features,

laymanJatitrldhara's family a son named

was considered attractive by all, and was

Jalavahana (literally, "Flowing Water"). He

of intelligent character. He was learned

was of extraordinary appearance, exceed­

in all the texts, and among the arts and

ingly handsome, with exquisite features,

mathematics, there were none he did not

dignified, and of intelligent character. He

thoroughly understand.

understood all the texts well, and of all the various fine arts, literary pursuits, and mathematics, there were none he did not thoroughly understand. At that time, the heavens sent down an

At that time, there were incalculable

epidemic to that country, and incalcula­

hundreds of thousands of beings in the

ble hundreds of thousands of beings

kingdom that were afflicted by an epi­

were unable to escape it. Everyone was

demic. They were so plagued by their

plagued by all kinds of suffering.

many ailments that they no longer had a happy thought.

Noble goddess, when the layman's son

Noble goddess, when the layman's son

Jalavahana saw these incalculable hun­

Jalavahana saw these incalculable hun­

dreds of thousands ofbeings experiencing

dreds of thousands of beings experienc­

much suffering, he gave rise to a feeling

ing all kinds of afflictions, he gave rise

of great compassion for these beings, and

to a feeling of great compassion, and he

he had the following thought: "Now,

had the following thought: "Incalculable

incalculable hundreds of thousands of

numbers of beings are being plagued by

beings are afflicted with much suffering.

extreme suffering. Although my father

Although my father excels in the practice

excels in the practice of medicine, thor­

of medicine, can cure many ailments,

oughly knows the Eight Arts, can cure

and can skillfully determine the fluctua­

many diseases and the imbalances of the

tions of the Four Elements, he is already

Four Elements, he is already fraiL elderly,

frail, elderly, and withered. His skin and

and weak. He relies on a cane to walk,

face are wrinkled, and his body is weak

and is unable to repeatedly go out to the

and trembles. He relies on a cane to walk

cities, towns, and villages to seek out

around and gets exhausted. He is unable

the sick. Now that there are incalculable

to go to the cities, towns, and villages.

hundreds of thousands of beings that

Although there are incalculable hundreds

have come down with serious ailments,

of thousands of beings that have come

he will be unable to help them. I should

down with serious diseases, he will be

now go to my father, the great physician,

unable to help them. I should now go to

and ask him his disease-curing medical

my father, the great physician, and ask

secrets. Once I have understood these,

him his disease-curing medical se­

then I should go to the cities, towns,

crets. Once I have understood these,

and villages and seek out all the beings

then I should go to the cities, towns,

with whatever diseases in order that they

villages, and hamlets to cure any kind of

might be comforted in their time ofneed."

34

DO CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS

serious diseases the beings may have, and bring them relief from their inesti­ mable suffering." Once the layman's son had had this

Once the layman's son had had this

thought, he went to his father, paid horn­

thought, he went to his father, paid horn­

age by touching his head to the ground,

age by bowing his head to [the father's]

placed his hands together, and stood aside.

feet, placed his palms together in respect,

He then asked his father about the fluc­

and stood to one side. Then, he spoke in

tuations of the Four Elements, speaking

verse, asking his father:

this verse:14 "How should we understand the fluctu-

"Kind father, please take pity. I wish to

ation of the Four Elements and the

help all beings. Please will you now ex­

faculties, and how these lead to various

plain to me the practice ofmedicine? Why

illnesses? How should we understand the

does the body break down, and why do the

[proper] seasons for drink and food,

Elements fluctuate? And, in what seasons

so that while eating or after eating, the

can diseases arise? How can one take food

bodily fires15 will not be extinguished?

and drink and maintain well-being, en­

How shouldwe understand the treatment

suring that the power ofthe fire inside the

of vata, pitta, sle$man, and their combina­

body is not depleted? Beings have four ill­

tion? Which season arouses vata, which

nesses: \Uta, pitta, s1e?man, and the combi­

season arouses pitta, which season arouses

nation ofthese illnesses. How can these be

sle$man, thereby harming beings?"

treated? In what season does vata arise? In what season does pitta emerge? What season arouses sle$man? In what season does the combination occur?"

Then the father promptly replied in

Upon hearing his son's request, the lay­

verse, explaining the practice of medi-

man replie d with these verses:

cine in answer to his son: "Three months is the summer, three

"I now will explain to you step by step all

months is the autumn, three months is

the methods of treating illness accord­

the winter, andthree months is the spring.

ing to the ancient sages. Listen well, and

When counting these twelve months by

you will be able to help all beings. Three

threes, a year has four seasons. If count­

months are the season of spring. Three

ing by twos, that would make six seasons.16

months are called summer. Three months

On the basis of either three-[month peri­

are called autumn. Three months are said

ods] or two-[month periods], ingesting

to be the winter season. Aside from divid­

food and drink in accordance with the

ing the year by threes, there is another

seasons can benefit the body. This is what

teaching counting by twos in order to get

is explained by the practice of medicine.

six seasons. The firsttwo [months] are the Season of Flowers. The third and fourth are the Interval ofHeat. The fifth and sixth are the Interval of Rain. The seventh and eighth are called the Season of Autumn.

UNDERSTANDING THE DO� A

35

The ninth and tenth are the Season of Cold. The last two are called Icy Snow. When you know [how] to differentiate like this, you will not give medicines that cause [your patient's condition] to worsen. "In accordance with the seasons of the

"In accordance with these seasons, you

year, the faculties and the Four Elements

ought to regulate food and drink so that

fluctuate between excess and depletion,

whatever enters the belly will be properly

causing the body to become ill. A good

digested, and the various diseases will

doctor will nurture and balance the Six

therefore not arise. When the seasonal

Elements17 in accordance with the four

influences18 change and the Four Ele­

seasons of three months each, and [give]

ments fluctuate, if at that time medicines

drink, food, and medicines that are ap­

are not given, ailments will definitely

propriate for the illness.

arise. If a doctor understands the four seasons and knows the six periods, and has trained in the body's seven dhritus, then food and medicine will be employed without error. [The seven dhatus] are, namely, rasa-dhatu, blood, flesh, fat, bones, marrow, and brain.19 When an ill­ ness enters into these, he will know whether or not he can cure this.

"Illnesses of excessive vrita emerge in the

"There are four categories of illness,

summer. Illnesses of pitta emerge in the

namely, vata, pitta, sle�man, and the com­

fall. Illnesses ofthe combination emerge in the winter. Sle�man illnesses are more se­

bination of these illnesses-and one

vere in the spring. For illnesses of vrita,

emerge.

it is recommended to give Oily, Salty, Sour, and Hot foods in the summer. 20

the summer, vrita illnesses come; in the

For illnesses of pitta, it is recommended

winter season, the three arise together. In

to give Cold and Sweet in the autumn.

the spring, eat Astringent, Hot, and Pun­

For the combination, give Sweet, Sour,

gent. In the summer, Oily, Hot, Salty, and

ought to know the season in which they In

the spring, s1e�man arises; in

autumn season, pitta increases; and in the

and Oily in the winter. For illnesses of

Sour. In the autumn season, Cold, Sweet,

s1e�man, give Oily, Pungent, and Hot in

and Oily. In the winter, Sour, Astringent,

the spring. 21

Oily, and Sweet. 22 If in these four seasons, one administers medicines, drink, and food in accordance with the Flavors like this, illnesses will not have cause to emerge.

"Sie�man illnesses emerge immediately

"[Immediately] after eating, illness comes

after eating. During digestion, pitta ill-

from s1e�man. During digestion, it is from

nesses emerge. After digestion is finished,

pitta. After digestion, it arises from vata. If

36

DO CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS

vata illnesses emerge. This is how the

you ascertain the time [of onset], you will

Four Elements emerge at three different

be certain to understand the disease. Once

times.23

you understand the origin ofthe illnesses, then you can establish the medicine ap­ propriate for it.

"For the depletion that accompanies ill­

In cases where [the patient] is afflicted

nesses of vata, fortify [the patient] with

with various different conditions, you

ghee. For a purgative of pitta, give chebulic

must first treat the root. For vata ill­

myrobalan. For the combination of ill­

nesses, give oils and fats. For afflictions

nesses, you ought to give the three kinds

of pitta, purgatives are beneficial. For

of wondrous medicines-that is, Sweet

sle�man illnesses, you ought to induce

Flavor, Pungent Flavor, and ghee. For

vomiting. For the combination, you must

sle�man illnesses, you ought to give medi­

use all three medicines. If there are vata,

cines that induce vomiting. If vata, pitta,

pitta, andsle�man together, this is what is

sle�man, or combination illnesses emerge

meant by "combination." Although you

in contradiction to their [expected] time,

know the season in which this disease

one should trust the doctor to determine

arose, you ought to contemplate its root

the drink, food, and medicine that are

nature. Once you have contemplated thus,

suitable for the illness. 24

give medicines according to that season. 25 One who [administers] drink, food, and medicine without error is called a good doctor. "Moreover, you ought to know the Eight Arts, and fully absorb all of the practices of medicine. If you are trained in these, you can heal the diseases of all beings. [The Eight Arts are], namely, the use of needles, traumatology, bodily illnesses, demonology, toxicology, pediatrics, lon­ gevity, and increasing vitality. "First observe [your patients'] forms, speech, and habits. Then, ask them about their dreams to know their peculiarities of vata, pitto:, and s1e�man. If there is dry­ ness, emaciation, loss of hair, an unset­ tled mind, too much talking, or dreams of flying, then those people have a vata con­ stitution. 26 If they have hair that turned white while they were young, sweat too much, get angry often, are intelligent, and in their dreams see fire, those people are of the pitta constitution. If they have a stable mind and an even-keeled body,

UNDERSTANDING THE DO� A

37

are cautious, have heads that exude oil, and in their dreams see water and white things, you should know those people have a sle�man constitution. Although a combination constitution can include either two or all three [of the above], there will still be one that predominates, and this ought to be considered the [root] constitution. Once you know the root constitution, you can evaluate the illness and give medicines. "Check that [the patient] does not have the death signsY If all is right, that is a person that can be helped. If you do not properly perceive this situation or arro­ gantly pursue the admiration of others, the friends and family [of the patients you fail to cure] will become angry. These are the death signs you should know: the white of the left eye changes color, the tongue turns black, the bridge ofthe nose becomes crooked, the ears rotate abnor­ mally, and the lower lip droops down. "One chebulic myrobalan seed contains all the Six Flavors and can eliminate all dis­ eases. Among the medicines that are not prohibited, it is the best. 28 There are also the Three Fruits and the Three Spices. 29 Among all medicines, the easiest to obtain are granulated sugar, honey, and butter­ milk. These can cure all diseases. Using medicines other than these may result in the illness increasing. "The primary thing is to generate a compassionate and sympathetic heart, and not to be guided by profit. I have now told you the essentials of curing illness. With this, you can help all beings and ob­ tain limitless success." Noble goddess, because the layman's

Noble goddess, when the layman's son

son jalavahana asked his father the

jalavahana asked his father about the

38

DO CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS

physician about the fluctuation of the

essentials of the Eight Arts, the fluctua­

Four Elements, he then came to under­

tions of the Four Elements, the differences

stand the entirety of the practice of

in the seasons, and the methods of admin­

medicine. Once the layman's son under­

istering medicines, he understood well

stood the practice of medicine, he went

and became capable of curing myriad dis­

among the cities, towns, and villages all

eases himself. Then he went all over among

over the kingdom. Wherever the sick be­

the cities, towns, and villages. Wherever

ings were, he consoled them with gentle

the hundreds, thousands, tens of thou­

words, saying: "I am a doctor! I am a doc­

sands, millions of sick, suffering beings

tor! I excel at prescribing medicine. I

were, there he went. With well-spoken

now will come to your rescue and treat

words he consoled them, saying: "I am a

your diseases, and I will completely cure

doctor! I am a doctor! I excel at prescribing

you."

medicine. I now will treat your many dis­ eases, and I will completely cure you."

Noble goddess, when the beings heard the

Noble goddess, at that time, the people

layman's son's gentle words of consolation

heard the layman's son's well-spoken

promising to cure their diseases, their

words of consolation promising to cure

minds gave rise to boundless happiness

their diseases. When the incalculable

and elation. When the incalculable hun­

hundreds of thousands of beings experi­

dreds of thousands of beings who had

encing extreme and grave disease heard

contracted grave diseases truly heard

these words, their bodies and minds were

these words, because of the happiness in

elated as never before. Through this cause,

their hearts, all of their afflictions were

all of their ailments were destroyed,

immediately eliminated, and they re­ gained their full strength.30 And likewise,

and they regained their full strength. And likewise, noble goddess, when incalcula­

noble goddess, when incalculable hun­

ble hundreds of thousands of beings with

dreds of thousands of beings with ail­

ailments that were grave and difficult to

ments that were grave and difficult to

cure all rushed together to the layman's

cure all rushed together to the layman's

son seeking medical treatment, the lay­

son, the layman's son right away gave

man's son right away gave them a dose of

them a dose of his wondrous medicines.

his wondrous medicines and cured them

After taking this dose, they were cured

alL Noble goddess, that layman's son in

and back to normaL Noble goddess, that

that kingdom treated the ailments ofhun­

layman's son in that kingdom treated

dreds, thousands, tens of thousands, mil­

every ailment the beings had, completely

lions of beings, completely curing them.

curing them.

NOTES

1.

Skt.

Suvarl}a[pra]bhiisottama-sutra. Originally from Salguero 2013b, reproduced here with

permission from BrilL Some errors and minor matters of style have been edited. 2.

On the authorship, ideological context, and historical development ofthe sutra, see Nobel 1958; Gummer 2000; Zhou 2003; Emmerick 2004: xi-xiii; Skjaerv0 2004: xxxii-lix; Lud-

UNDERSTANDING THE DO� A

39

vik 2006. For a discussion of some of the terms in the sutra from a medieval dictionary, see http://asianmedicinezone.com/chinese-medicine/2 128/, last accessed 2 Dec. 2016. 3.

]in guangmingjing, T no. 663.

4.

Hebujinguangmingjing, T no. 664.

5.

]in guangming zuisheng wangjing, T no. 665.

6.

The broader implications ofthe medical chapter for the history of medicine in India, and point-by-point comparison with the Ayurvedic medical literature are available in German inNobel 1951.

7.

I borrow this tum of phrase from Schopen 2005: 3-23, which rightly points out some of

8.

T no. 663, 16: 351b23-352b09.

9.

T no. 665, 16: 447b21-448c21.

10.

This story is being told as part of a longer narrative sequence that spans several chapters

the flaws inherent in using Chinese texts to reconstruct Indian Buddhism

concerning the former lives of various characters, including the Buddha, the goddess whom he is addressing, and the ten thousand divine sons. 11.

eh. xiangfa, a period of decline in which the efficacy ofthe Dharma is compromised.

12.

Ch. Yiming (presumably, Skt. cikitsa-vidya).

13.

The eight branches

(rL?tilnga) of lndian medicine, which are listed by name in the verses in­

cluded here. The list given in this sutra closely resembles but does not exactly match the classical eightfold division of Ayurvedic medicine as they appear in the

5u$rutasarrhitil.

These Eight Arts are surgery (salya; lit., "the scalpel"), treatment ofthe head andneck (salakya;

lit., "use ofthe needle"), treatrrent ofthe body (kiiyacikitsa), demonology (bhutavidya), pediatrics (kaumarabh_rtya), toxicology (agadatantra), longevity (rasayanatantra; lit.,

"science of elixirs"),

and aphrodisiacs (vajfkaraJ!atantra). See Vogel 1965; Chen 2003; Emmerick 2004: 76n151; and chapter 16§2 7 of the current volume. 14.

Note that due to space limitations, I have not separated the verses line by line.

15.

Dharmak�ema's term "bodily fires" and Yijing's "power of the fire inside the body" refer to the process of digestion, which in Indian medicine is routinely spoken of using the meta­ phor offire (cf. Skt.jatharagni), and is considered to be a core function ofthe Fire Element.

16.

Cf. translation of this passage in Emmerick 2004: 78 and Skjaerv0 2004: 293. As Emmerick notes, the Sanskrit is "defective" and the Tibetan and Khotanese versions are oflittle as­ sistance in interpreting this passage. Dharmak�ema's Chinese is also rather opaque. My translation here is informed by a sidelong glance at Yijing's version of the sutra, which seems to me significantly clearer. The sixfold periodization ofthe year commonly used in Indian medicine (Skt. _rtu) includes 5i5im (late winter),

vasanta (spring), grf�ma (summer),

va�a (rainy season), 5arad (autumn), and hemanta (early winter). 17.

Note that the text mentions six Elements here, but four elsewhere (see glossary entry for Elements).

18.

Yijing uses the word qi here, but we should not read this as an interp alation of indigenous Chinese doctrine. He is using this common word to refer to the predominant climactic in­ fluences arising in different seasons and to suggest that these can affect the body's health detrimentally, a notion that is entirely consonant with Indian medical doctrine.

19.

Here, Yijing gives "brain" rather than the usual "semen" as the final dhi!tu.

20.

This list appears to contain a combination of boththe Six Flavors andthe gunas.

40

DO CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS

21. The Tai.sho Tripitaka editors note that one source lists Bitter here instead of Hot. 22. Two different characters are used for Sour in the passage above. It is possible that one of these is meant to be read as Bitter.

2 3. This final line implies a connection between the Four Elements on the one hand and the vata, pitta, and sle�man on the other. The standard formulation in Ayurvedic texts is that sle�man relates primarily to the Water Element, pitta relates primarily to Fire, and vata relates pri­ marily to Wind. What is meant in this particular passage is not entirely clear. (See discus­ sion of how other Buddhist texts deal with these correlations in Demieville 1985: 65 -76.)

24.

Curiously, this last sentence seems to be addressed to a hypothetical patient rather than to the physician-to-be listening to his father's instructions.

25. In other words, in cases involving a combination of illnesses, treat the root cause rather than the cause indicated by the time of onset.

2 6. Unlike the earlier translation by Dharmak�ema, Yijing's version of the chapter categorizes people according to their predominance of vata, pitta, or Slf?.?man. On the development of the idea of the da;; a as constitutions in Ayurvedic literature, see Scharfe 1999: 618.

27. While Yijing's list is quite short here, the topic of death signs (Skt. �ta) was of great con­ cern to early Indian doctors, and lengthy discussions of the visible omens of impending death are found in the major Ay urvedic treatises. In such texts, the reader is implored not to take up a case in which death signs are present, as the patient's inevitable death will only lead to the tarnishing of his own reputation. Cf. chapter 50§21 of the current volume.

28.

"Prohibited medicines" likely refers to monastic disciplinary regulations on allowable

29.

Skt. triphala and trikaf:Uka, respectively. Both of these are famous Indian panaceas that ap­

30.

Note that many of the patients are cured not by Jalavahana's medical ministrations, but

medications. pear frequently in Buddhist texts. by hearing his proclamations. On the power of his words as an allegory for the miracu­ lous potency of thesutmitself, see Gummer 2000: 258-62.

5. Fetal Suffering in the Descent Into the Womb Sutra A M Y P A R I S LANG E N B E R G

he Descent Into the Womb Sutra1 is an early-first-millennium Indian Buddhist sutra

T text written originally in Sanskrit that assembles in one place (and in some cases

may be the source of) various authoritative Buddhist statements about conception, gesta­

tion, and childbirth. These include the teaching that birth has the nature of suffering; a description of conception as the product of male seed, female blood, and transmigrat­ ing consciousness; statements about the important role of karma in shaping the physi­ cal characteristics ofthe fetus during gestation; and the notion that spiritually elevated beings can maintain awareness throughout the birth process. While consistent with and obviously influenced by teachings on birth found elsewhere in Buddhism, this sutra also contains embryological and anatomical details drawn from Indian medicine. Unlike ii.yurvedic embryologies that trace fetal development month by month, however, it describes the process of human gestation week by week. The Descent Into the Womb Sutra is framed as a teaching for the Buddha's handsome happily married halfbrother, Nanda, who is extremely reluctant to leave lay life and go forth into homelessness. In preaching the profound unsatisfactoriness ofthe birth expe­ rience, and the many sufferings ofthe fetus who dwells in the mother's womb, the Buddha hopes to stabilize Nanda's fragile commitment to monastic life. In this text, suffering is metaphorically identified with the human birth process, and release from suffering is equated with a permanent escape from the very disgusting and painful experience offetal gestation within the female womb. To this end, it is punctuated by vivid descrip­ tions of the female body's inner loathsomeness.

42

DO CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS Although it has not received much attention in modern scholarship, the fifth-century

Indian luminary Vasubandhu, the intrepid Chinese pilgrim and scholar Yijing, and an assortment of Tibetan greats such as Tsongkhapa, Gampopa, and Desi Sangye Gyatso all translated, studied, or made use of the Descent Into the Womb Sutra in their own works. The Tibetan medical tradition, in particular, valued this text and incorporated its teach­ ings into its understanding of embryology and birth. The Descent Into the Womb Sutra comes down to us in three Tibetan and three Chinese translations ofwhat were, accord­ ing to current philological research, most likely four original Sanskrit versions.2 No Sanskrit version has survived, but apparent quotations do occur in several extant Buddhist scholastic works in Sanskrit. Quotations from or references to the text also appear in Chinese translations ofyet other scholastic treatises. These various references and redactions suggest that the text was in circulation by the middle of the second century C.E.3 The translation of the Descent Into the Womb Sutra's famous week-by-week embryology provided below is based on one of the two Tibetan translations produced in Dunhuang during the early ninth century. It represents only a small portion of this rich text, which takes up approximately fifty typed pages when translated into English in its entirety.

FURTHER READING

Boisvert, Mathieu.

2000.

"Conception and Intrauterine Life in the Pali Canon."

Studies in

Religion/Sciences Religieuses 29 (3): 301-11. Choo, Jessey]. C. 2012. "That Fatty Lump: Discourses on the Fetus, Fetal Development, and Filial Piety in ChinaBeforethe Eleventh Century C. E. " Nan Nu 14:

177-221.

Garrett, Frances. 2008. Religion, Medicine and the Human Embryo in Tibet. London: Routledge. Kritzer, Robert.

2014. Garbhavakn1ntis1ltra: The S1ltra on Entry Into the Womb. Tokyo: International

Institute for Buddhist Studies. McDaniel, Justin Thomas.

2009.

"Philosophical Embryology: Buddhist Texts and the Ritual

Construction of a Fetus." In Imagining the Fetus: The Unborn in Myth, Religion, and Culture, ed. Vanessa R. Sasson andJane Marie Law, 91-105. New York: Oxford University Press.

THE DESCENT INTO THE WOMB 5 UTRA 4 Nanda, residence in the womb lasts thirty-eight weeks altogether. During the first week, consciousness, together with the faculty of touch, 5 lies in the mother's womb, [which is] an exceedingly filthy place, and experiences unbearable suffer­ ing similar to boiling and roasting in a red hot pan. We call this the kalala.6 It is similar in appearance to rice porridge or yogurt curds. After it matures in the womb for a week, the hardness of the Earth Element, the wetness of the Water Element, the heat of the Fire Element, and the motility of the Wind Element be­ gin to manifest.

FETAL SUFFERING IN THE DESCENT INTO THE WOME

5

UTRA

43

Nanda, during the second week, consciousness, together with the faculty of touch, experiences unbearable suffering in the unclean place of the mother's womb similar to boiling and roasting in a pan. Because of previous karma, a wind called Touches Everything7 manifests in the womb. It touches what is in the womb, now called the arbuda.8 [The arbuda] has a form similar to thick yogurt or con­ gealed butter. After it matures in the womb for a week, the Four Elements become manifest. Nanda, in the third week, it is as described in detail above.9 The wind known as Treasury arises because ofprevious karma and touches what is in the womb, now called the pefi}0 [The peS!] is shaped like an iron needle or a stomach worm. After maturing in the womb for a further week, the Four Elements become further established. Nanda, in the fourth week, it is as described in detail above. From inside the mother's womb, a wind called Well-separated arises from past karma. It fans the embryo,11 which is already ablaze [with pain]. We now call it the ghana, or "hard­ ened." [The ghana] is shaped like a sod divot or a millstone. During this week, the Four Elements become further established, as in the previous weeks. Nanda, in the fifth week, it is as described above. A wind called Collects Cor­ rectly arises in the womb. When that wind touches the embryo, it causes five signs to appear: two shoulder buds, two thigh buds, and the head bud. This is just like when the first summer rains fall, causing trees and forests to increase and branches and leaves to grow. Nanda, in the sixth week, a wind arises in the womb called Extensive. When this wind touches the embryo, four [new] signs manifest: two upper arms and two knees. This is just like when the summer rains fall, causing grass and plants to sprout . . . . Nanda, in the seventh week, a wind arises in the womb called Twister. When that wind touches the embryo, it causes four further signs to appear: two fore­ arms [including the hands] and two legs [including the feet]. The embryo acquires these four signs, coming to resemble a cluster of bubbles or pearls. Nanda, in the eighth week, a wind arises in the mother's womb called Reverses and Transforms. When that wind touches the embryo, twenty [new] signs appear, namely, the nubs of ten fingers and ten toes. This is just like when the summer rains fall and the tree roots first emerge. Nanda, in the ninth week, a wind called Separate arises in the womb. When that wind touches the embryo, nine further signs appear: two eyes, two ears, two nostrils, the mouth, the anus, and the urethra. Nanda, in the tenth week, a wind called Makes Hard, arises in the womb. That wind hardens and stabilizes the embryo. During this week also, a wind arises in the womb called Arising from Everywhere. That wind causes the embryo to grow by blowing inside it, similar to the way a skin bag expands when inflated. Nanda, in the eleventh week, a wind called Appearance of Orifices arises. When that wind touches the fetus, it makes the fetus hollow and the nine orifices appear.

44

DO CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS

When the mother moves or stands or sits or lies down or works, at that time, that wind, twisting itself, creates a cavity and gradually enlarges the orifices. If that wind goes up, it opens the upper orifices. If it goes down, it opens the lower orifices. This is just like a blacksmith or his apprentice who, working the bellows, causes the wind to go up or down. The wind having done its work [then] disappears. Nanda, in the twelfth week, a wind arises called Crooked Door. This wind, blow­ ing on the fetus, causes the small and large intestines to develop on both the left and right sides. As with lotus roots, they stay intertwined, resting on one another inside the body. During that same week, a wind called Braided Hair arises. It cre­ ates one hundred and thirty joint connections inside the fetus, no more, no less. It also causes one hundred and one vital points (marman) to develop. Nanda, in the thirteenth week, that same wind in the mother's womb gives rise to the awareness of hunger and thirst. All the nutrients eaten and drunk by the mother enter at the navel, nourishing the fetus's body. Nanda, in the fourteenth week, a wind arises in the womb called Thread Spout. That wind generates one thousand ligaments and tendons in the fetus. Two hundred and fifty are located in the front, back, left side and right side of the body, respectively. Nanda, in the fifteenth week, a wind called Lotus arises in the mother's womb. It generates twenty channels12 that absorb food essences [from the mother]. Five are located in the front, back, left and right sides of the body, respectively. These channels possess all sorts of names and colors. They are called Cornpanion, Might, Stability, and PowerfuL Some are blue, yellow, red, white, the color of lentils, of butter, of oil, or ofyogurt. Others are many colors mixed together. Nanda, because forty channels branch from each of the twenty [main] channels, altogether there are eight hundred channels for absorbing breath. . . . Nanda, for each of these eight hundred channels, there are one hundred mutually interconnected branch channels. Altogether that makes eighty thousand channels, with twenty thousand located in the front, back, left side, and side of the body, respectively. Nanda, these eighty thousand channels have many holes: one, two, up to seven holes each. These various holes and the hair pores of the skin connect to one another. They are just like the many holes of a lotus root. Nanda, in the sixteenth week, a wind called Nectar Flow arises. It establishes the fetus's eye, ear, and nose sense organs, the mouth, the hole for the throat, and the heart area. In this way, the facility for eating, drinking, swallowing, and tast­ ing are established, as well as the conditions for unobstructed inhalation and ex­ halation. This is similar to when a potter or his apprentice takes a lump of clay and throws it on the wheel, and then, according to his inclination, fashions dif­ ferent sorts of vessels. Similarly, the force of the karmic wind creates the sense organs including the eyes, etc., according to its dispositions, and also facilitates unobstructed inhalation and exhalation. Nanda, in the seventeenth week, a wind arises in the womb called Buffalo Face. That wind completely purifies the embryo's eyes, nose, ears, mouth, throat, heart area, and facility for eating, and also removes obstructions to inhalation and ex-

FETAL SUFFERING IN THE DESCENT INTO THE WOME

5

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45

halation. It is just like when a clever boy or girl cleans a dusty mirror with oil, ash, and fine sand, making it absolutely clear. Similarly, the force ofkarmic winds establishes the sense faculties and clears obstacles. Nanda, in the eighteenth week, a wind arises in the womb called Stainless. It completely purifies the six sense organsY For example, say a great cloud obscures the sun and moon. If a fierce wind rises up and blows, scattering the clouds to the four directions, the sun and moon will shine, having been cleared of obscurities. Similarly, Nanda, the force ofthe karmic wind purifies the six sense organs ofthe fetus. Nanda, in the nineteenth week, four faculties-that of the eye, ear, nose, and tongue-become fully established. Upon first entering the mother's womb, the em­ bryo had only received the three faculties of body, life, and mind.14 Nanda, in the twentieth week, a wind arises in the womb called Very Stable. That wind generates the twenty toe bones of the left and right feet. It generates the four bones of the heel, the two bones of the lower leg, the two bones of the knee, the two bones of the thigh, the three bones of the hip, the three bones of the ankle, the eighteen bones of the spine, and the twenty-four ribs. That wind also generates the twenty finger bones of the left and right hands, as well as the four bones of the forearm, the two bones of the upper arm, the seven bones ofthe chest, the seven bones of the shoulder, the four bones of the neck, the two bones of the jaw, the thirty-two teeth bones, and the four bones of the skull. Nanda, it is just like when a sculptor or a sculptor's apprentice first carves a shape from hard wood before binding it with string and smearing it with clay to create a likeness. Similarly, the force of the karmic wind generates the various bones . . . . Nanda, in the twenty-first week, a wind called Generates Completely arises in the womb. It fleshes out the fetus's body. It is just like when a plasterer or his ap­ prentice applies clay plaster to the surface of a walL In the same way, that karmic wind generates flesh. Nanda, in the twenty-second week, a wind called All Victorious arises in the womb. That wind generates the blood of that fetus. Nanda, in the twenty-third week, a wind called Grasping Completely and Purely arises in the womb. That wind generates the skin of that fetus. Nanda, in the twenty-fourth week, a wind called Floating All Around arises in the womb. That wind extends and pigments the skin ofthat fetus. Nanda, in the twenty-fifth week, a wind called Seizing the City arises in the mother's womb. That wind completely purifies the flesh and blood of that fetus. Nanda, in the twenty-sixth week, a wind called Birth is Completely Achieved, arises in the womb. That wind generates the head hair, body hair, and fingernails of the fetus's body. It should be known that these are all mutually interconnected with the body's channels. Nanda, in the twenty-seventh week, a wind called Physician's Fee arises in the mother's womb. That wind completes the fetus's hair and nails . . . . Nanda, if the fetus is a boy, he squats on the mother's right side. Covering his face with his two hands, he faces the mother's spine. Ifthe fetus is a girl, she squats

46

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on the mother's left side. Covering her face with her two hands, she faces the mother's belly. The fetus is located below the stomach and above the bowels. The fetus will be pressed down upon by the undigested matter and forced upward by the digested matter. It is like being bound in five places and then penetrated by the tip of a sharp wooden lance. If the mother eats a lot of food or too little food, the fetus suffers. Similarly, ifthe food is very oily, or very dry, or very cold, or very hot, or has a very salty flavor, or no flavor, or is bitter, or sour, or sweet-in all cases, if such food is eaten, the fetus will suffer. If the mother has sex, moves vio­ lently, runs, stays in a scary place, sits for a long time, sleeps for a long time, or jumps up and down-in all cases, the fetus will suffer. Nanda, you should under­ stand that while in the womb the body is oppressed by various sufferings of this sort that are beyond description. If humans experience such suffering, what need is there to catalogue the incomparable sufferings of [unfortunates like the] hell beings? After seeing the truth of this, Nanda, why would any wise person wish to stay in this limitless ocean of cyclic existence, only to experience such suffering? Nanda, in the twenty-eighth week, the fetus generates the eight mistaken no­ tions [about its current location in the womb]. What are the eight? They are: the notion of a house, the notion of a vehicle, the notion of a pleasure grove, the notion of a palace, the notion of a formal park, the notion of sitting on a throne, the notion of a river, and the notion of a pond. These do not actually exist but are fabricated.15 Nanda, in the twenty-ninth week, a wind arises in the womb called Flower Garland. That wind clarifie s, lightens, and completely cleanses the fetus's com­ plexion. The force ofkarma causes some to be black in calor, some blue, and others to possess any number of complexions . . . . Nanda, in the thirtieth week, a wind arises in the womb called Iron Door. That wind blows on the fetus, causing the head hair, body hair, and fingernails to grow longer. Dark, fair, any type of coloring . . . may result from past karma. Nanda, in the thirty-first week, the fetus grows bigger gradually. Similarly, dur­ ing the thirty-second, thirty-third, and thirty-fourth weeks, it grows bigger and develops. Nanda, in the thirty-fifth week, the fetus's primary and secondary limbs be­ come fully developed. Nanda, in the thirty-sixth week, the fetus no longer wishes to stay in the mother's womb. Nanda, in the thirty-seventh week, the following three correct notions arise [about its current location in the womb]: the notion of uncleanness, the notion of bad odors, and the notion of darkness . . . . Nanda, in the thirty-eighth week, a wind arises in the mother's womb called Gathering the Limbs. That wind rotates the body of the fetus, stretches its hands down, and faces it down toward the birth door. Also, at that time, a wind called Looking Downward, arises. That powerful karmic wind blows on the fetus, forc­ ing its head downward and its feet upward. Then, the fetus emerges from the birth door.

FETAL SUFFERING IN THE DESCENT INTO THE WO ME

5

UTRA

47

N OT E S

1.

This text is titled variously in its various redactions and translations. I follow Kritzer in using the Sanskrit Garbhavakranti-s11tra (Descent Into the Womb Siitra) as an identifier for the text in all of its manifestations. The Tog Palace edition of the Dunhuang text trans­ lated here is titled Gcung mo'u dga' bo zhes bya ba thegpa chen po\ mdo, which translates simply as the Mahayana51ltra Called Kanjur gives the title as

"The Younger Sibling Nanda."T heBeijing

edition of theTibetan

Phags ba dga bo mngal na gnas ba bstan ba zhes bya ba theg ba chen

bot mdo, or The Mahayana S1ltra Called Teaching on Entering the Womb for Arya Nanda. 2.

See Kritzer 2014 for details.

3.

See ibid., 3.

4.

The Tog Palace Manuscript ofthe Tibetan Kanjur, vol. 37, Ga 400a.1-404b.5, 406a4-407b.7.Kritzer 2014 contains an English translation of the

Garbhavakranti

text preserved in the

JC.?udmkavastu section of the M1llasarvastivada-vinaya, also found (like the one on which this translation is based) in theTibetan Kanjur. Kritzer omits the Nanda frame story. My very sincere thanks and gratitude are due to Kritzer, who meticulously read, corrected, and commented on the translation offered here, and who has always been the most generous of colleagues. 5.

Tib. Ius kyi dbang po; Skt.

kiiyendriya. According to Buddhist accounts

of the rebirth process,

at conception the embryo is endowed with the faculties of touch, mind, and vitality.This fact is confirmed in the section of this text describing the nineteenth week of gestation. Here, however, only consciousness and touch are specifically mentioned. 6.

In this version of the text, theTibetan term translated here using the Sanskrit for the first embryological stage (kalala) is mer mer po.Because of the Indic origins of the text, Sanskrit is used here for what are essentially untranslatable technical terms. The reader should note, however, that while all the various redactions of the

Garbha:vakranti-s1ltra translate

the IndicBuddhist embryological terms (kalala, arbuda, pes\, and ghana) intoTibetan, they are not consistentin matchingTibetan and Sanskrit terms (Kritzer 2014: 51n219). SeeBois­ vert 2000 on Pali sources for

kalala, etc. The Ayurvedic tradition employs

these embryo­

logical terms somewhat differently than doBuddhist sources. SeeKritzer 2009 for details. 7.

The names of the diverse karmic winds that bring about embryological changes throughout the thirty-eight weeks of gestation vary in the several redactions of the

Garbhavakranti-s1ltra. nur nurpo.

8.

Tib.

9.

In other words, the consciousness, together with the faculty of touch, suffers in the mother's womb, which is a filthy place, in a manner similar to boiling and roasting in a red hot pan.

10.

Tib. ltarltarpo.

11.

The Tibetan term used for embryo here is mngal na gnas pa'i zug rngu, a translation of the Sanskrit garbha5alya, literally, " embryo that is [embedded like] a barb." According toKritzer 2004: 1104n6, this term is used in Ayurvedic medical texts only in reference to an embryo or fetus that, because it is located in the wrong place or has died, acts like a foreign body within the mother's body, threatening her health. Here, the term is used for a normal fetus, perhaps implying that all pregnancies are, in a sense, pathological.

48 12.

DO CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS Tib. rtsar rgyu ba. This translates as "flowing in the channels." I have simplified this to "channels" here. Container and contained are probably identified here, similarly to the way that garbha in Sanskrit signifies both womb and fetus. Tohoku 6, the Mulasarviistiviida­

vinaya version of the Garbhiivakriinti-sutra that Kritzer believes is closest to an original Sanskrit text, readsjust rtsa (channel), which is perhaps a translation of the Skt. nii4f. It is not exactly dear whether here the termrefers only to the blood vessels ofthe circulatory system and other visible structures, or whether it also refers to the invisible structures of the subtle body. The text specifies that these channels absorb food essences and breath. 13.

See note 14.

14.

When the six human sense faculties (indriya) are mentioned in Buddhist sources, theygener­ ally include seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching, and perceiving with the mind. In Buddhist accounts of the rebirth process, life or vitality is also described as an indriya, but it probably cannot be described as sensory. At conception, the embryo is endowed with the indriyas of touch, mind, and vitality. It develops the other four only at a later stage, here in the nineteenth week. The text seems to be distinguishing between the physical sense organs, which it usually calls skye mched (the Tibetan translation of the Sanskrit

ayatana used inthe outer sense) andthe cognitive faculty for sensation and thought, which it usually calls dbang po (indriya). The text is not entirely consistent, however, in these us ages.In the final sentence ofweek eighteen, whichI have translated here as "Similarly,

Nanda, the force the karmic wind purifies the six sense organs ofthe fetus," the word used is dbang po, not skye mched as one would expect. 15.

This passage listing the fetus's fantasies about the womb occurs directly after the Bud­ dha's speech emphasizing the miseries of cyclic existence. This is significant because it indicates how deep and primordial our resistance to the reality of our situation really is.

6. Health and Sickness of Body and Mind Selections from the

Yogacara-bhumi

DAN L U S T H A U S

he passages translated in this chapter illustrate ways that Asanga incorporated

T medical knowledge into his largest work, the Yogacara-bhumi, a foundational scrip­

ture for the Yogacara school (pronounced "yoga-chara'').l Asanga and his half brother

Vasubandhu are credited with founding Yogacara in the fourth century. As one of the two forms of Mahayana that was practiced in India (the other is Madhyamaka), it fo­ cused on mental development and cleansing the mind of distorted understandings of reality. The Yogacara-b humi details seventeen contextual experiential domains called bhumis.2 The selections here draw from different bhumis, each showcasing distinctive ways that the Yogacara-bhumi applies medical knowledge. The first and longest passage is from the second bhumi, the "mentalizing domain" (mano-bhumi),3 and moves from psychosomatic interplay to the medical and hygienic activities affecting life and death. This excerpt uses medicine as a source of ethical guidelines.4 The second selection, a very short ex­ cerpt from the tenth bhumi on "ways ofacquiring and learning the teachings" (s11.1tamay\­ bhumi), provides a terse overview of the science of medicine. The third passage, found in the same bhumi but in the section on epistemology, occurs as part of the explanation of the definition ofperception.5 Intriguingly, it uses the example of an expert physician selecting appropriate medicine to explain the nonconceptualizing nature of a moment ofperception. The final selection from the thirteenth bhumi, the domain ofthe "Hearers"6 (i.e., theories and practices of non-Mahayana Buddhists), lists repulsive impurities

50

DO CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS

within the body. Offering an anatomical and medical overview of the components of the body, this list includes hair, internal organs, bodily fluids, and excreta, framed by a well-known disdain for the body by non-Mahayana Buddhists. Asanga assumes his audience is familiar with basic medical theory and terminology as understood in India at that time. Terms such as do�a and dhatu7 appear, and the reader is expected to know what they are, what they do, which other bodily components and operations are associated with them, and so on. Asanga's presentation of medical mate­ rial is similar but not identical to definitions and discussions in the extant early Indian medical literature, such as the Compendium ofCaraka, the Compendium ofSusruta, and Vagbhata's texts.8 Some recensions ofthe first two probably predate the Yogacara-b humi, whereas Vagbhata's texts-which largely superseded them in clinical practice if not hoary authority-came later.9 Just as a modern author might consult current medical, neurophysical, psychobio­ logical, anatomical, and other scientific fields to deepen or contextualize Buddhist ideas, Asanga draws on the medical understanding ofhis day to understand how the mind and body work, and what implications that holds for Buddhist practice. Far from r�ecting a scientific or even materialist approach, Asanga embraces these as essential elements for a Buddhist understanding of life and cultivation. Health is necessary for a productive life conducive to advancing on the Path. The first passage starts just as Asanga begins to expose the psychosomatic nature of the mentalizing domain. Asanga asks how "intoxication"10 occurs. He replies by list­ ing the sorts of things, such as ingestion of substances or disease, that can cause that sort of alteration of one's mental condition. Then, with a word seeming to derive from the word for "intoxication," he asks how "insanity"11 occurs. He then lists several causes for this more extreme type of mental alteration, causes that might be physical (e.g., an imbalance of one's dhatus, or a blow to the head), or mental (by-products of bad habits), or a mixture of physical and mental factors (e.g., emotional or physical trauma). The Yogacara-bhumi then proceeds through various types of alterations of consciousness, such as sleepiness, waking up, becoming light-headed, and so on, explaining each ac­ cording to the types of things that cause it, until reaching "dying." Most ofthose items are treated as significant symptomatic conditions in Indian medical treatises. For instance, texts such as the Compendium ofCaraka devote entire chapters to "insanity" and its causes and treatments. As mentioned above, Asanga's descriptions, while not identical to extant medical treatises, are very similarly arranged. We do not know which medical sources he specifically drew upon. The discussion in the Yogacara-bhumi on the process of dying greatly influenced later Buddhists, becoming, for instance, a foundational source for Tibetan understandings of death and dying. For example, the Yogacara-bhumi describes the retreat of conscious­ ness from the dying body as draining either from the head or feet toward the heart, from which it leaves the body. This forms the basis for the Tibetan practice of tukdam (thugs dam), which is still very much a part ofTibetan belief. This practice involves the notion that highly developed practitioners nearing death can enter a meditation that slows the dying process, so that the brink of death is extended for days and even weeks or more.

HEALTH AND SICKNESS OF BODY AND MIND

51

Meanwhile, the body is virtually devoid ofvital signs (no pulse, breath, etc.), heat in the heart region is supposedly maintained, and the body neither putrefies nor emits any unpleasant odors until death has fully occurred, and consciousness has exited from the heart.12 The second passage parses the science ofmedicine into four aspects that are implic­ itly aligned with the Four Noble Truths (see parallel in chapter 17). This passage comes from the contextual domain on ways to acquire and learn (s11.1tamay\·bhumi). This sec­ tion of the Yogaciira-bhumi deals with the five "sciences" (vidya) Buddhists were encour­ aged to study, one of which is medicine (cikitsii). Below is the first Western translation of this section, which is exceptionally short. The third passage, on perception, is significant for several reasons. The Yogiiciira· bhumi is one ofthe earliest Buddhist texts to propose a detailed theory ofthe instruments ofknowledge.13 The two most important Buddhist epistemological theorists, Dignaga and Dharmakirti, 14 were Yogacaras. This passage exhibits some aspects that might surprise scholars of Buddhist epistemology. The definition of perception is presented in negative, i.e., exclusionary language, an early if unnoticed example of apoha (liter­ ally "exclusion") theoryY Second, the extract here deals with how perception pertains only to what is grasped of an object by the senses, not to any conceptual frames one might interpose or superimpose. This exclusion of conceptualization was further de­ veloped by Dignaga 16 and subsequent Buddhist epist=ologists.17 Asanga's example of a physician putting aside considerations of prior learning and anticipations of outcome when immediately perceiving and identifying the proper medicine indicates that for him, perception is not devoid of discernment, but rather removes extraneous consider­ ations from clouding or influencing how and what one perceives. The final passage lists bodily components considered impure and thus repulsive. These body parts are key oJ:riects of contemplation in a set of practices known as "medi­ tations on impurity" (skt. asubha-bhavana), which are said to assist practitioners in overcoming attachment to the body's beauty and sensual pleasures. Similar lists are found in other Buddhist texts. There are major discrepancies between the Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan versions of this passage,18 which would require a monograph to sort out, so I have opted to translate only the Sanskrit, with occasional mention of the others in notes.

FURTHER READING Kragh, Ulrich Timm, ed. 2013. The Foundation for Yoga Practitioners: The Buddhist Yogadirabhiimi

Treatise and Its Adaptation in India, East Asia, and Tibet. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Lusthaus, Dan. 2011. "Philosophy, Medicine, Science and Boundaries." In After Appropriation:

Intercultural Explorations in Philosophy and Religion, ed. Morny Joy, 159-92. Calgary: University of Calgary Press. Sharma, P. V. 1993. ?o4asangahrdayam: Essentials ofAyurveda. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

52

DO CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS 1 . P S Y C H O S O M A T I C S , H Y G I E N E , L I F E AND D E A T H , F R O M T H E " M E N T A L I Z I N G D O MA I N " 1 9

What causes intoxication? Due to a weak constitution, or not being used to drink­ ing, or overly potent intoxicants, or consuming excessive amounts, one becomes drunken and confused. What causes insanity? It can be brought about due to prior activities, an im­ balance or disorientation of one's dhiitus, physical or emotional trauma, the strik­ ing of a vital point, or possession by spirits. What causes sleepiness? It may be based on a weak constitution, or due to fatigue and exhaustion because of do?aS, or due to heaviness from eating, or due to dullness in attention and mental focus, or due to taking respite from all sorts of activities [i.e., relaxing because one feels secure], or due to drowsiness from re­ peated meditative practice, or being overcome by something extraneous, such as seizures or tremors, or by spells, or by medicines, or by a daemonic power (prabhiive1.1a) that produces disorientation, dullness, sleepiness. What causes awakening? Having been invigorated by sleep, one is no longer overcome by fatigue. Or because of having something to do, one sets a time [to wake up]. Or being pulled away from a dream by something else [such as a loud noise], one wakes. What brings about light-headedness? An imbalance of viita and pitta, or being struck, or by purging, as in expelling blood due to dysentery, or due to overexer­ tion until one faints. What is emerging from light-headedness? Having been light-headed, one comes out of it. What brings about action (karma) of body and speech? Because of what one knows prior to acting, which gives rise to a desire [to do or say something], one produces the activities in accord with those prior activities [i.e., habits]. The aris­ ing of bodily and linguistic karma derives from this. How does one become detached from desire? By successfully detaching from the root of desire, by according with the [good] teachings acquired from others, by staying far away from obstacles, and by the application of correct practice, one is without errant thoughts, and so is able to detach from desire . . . . 20 What causes dying? Due to [reaching] the limit of one's life span, one arrives at death. Furthermore, there are three types of [dying]: (1) due to having ex­ hausted one's life span; (2) due to exhausting previous karma; (3) due to failing to avoid imbalances. Moreover, you should know that there are timely and un­ timely deaths, and there is dying with a wholesome mind, or an unwholesome mind, or a karmically neutral mind. What is "death due to having exhausted one's life span"? That is dying as soon as one has experienced the completion of the sum of one's life span. This is called a timely death. What is "death due to ex­ hausting previous karma"? That is when one's inherited [karma] runs out. What is death due to failing to avoid imbalances? As the World Honored One said:

HEALTH AND SICKNESS OF BODY AND MIND

53

"There are nine causes and conditions for dying even though one has not ex­ hausted one's [full] life span." What are these nine causes of premature death?21 They are 1. eating improper amounts, 2. eating improper foods, 3. eating before having digested the previous meal, 4. undigested food (ama) that one is unable to expel, 22 5. retention of fully digested food, 6. not being near a doctor or herbs [when ill], 7. not knowing what is harmful or beneficial for yourself, 8-9. overindulgence in unchaste activities at improper times and in improper amounts. These are called untimely deaths. What is "dying with a wholesome mind"? When about to die, one either recol­ lects on one's own prior wholesome deeds [i.e., karma] that one had previously practiced, or others remind him [by reciting, etc.]. The dying person remembers previous activities in which he engaged with wholesome [mental qualities] such as faith, and so on, 23 and sees those re enacted before him. At that time, whether a coarse or subtle thought should occur, the wholesome mind will neutralize it, and one remains in a mental condition that is only karmically neutral. Why? At the time of death, one is no longer able to remember those habitual wholesome [thoughts], nor can others cause one to remember them anymore. What is "dying with an unwholesome mind"? When one is about to die, one recollects on one's own the unwholesome things one has repeatedly done, or one is reminded of them by others. At that time, unwholesome thoughts of greed, ha­ tred, and delusion all present themselves, until the crude and subtle thoughts [dissipate], as was explained in the case of the wholesome mind. Moreover, when a wholesome mind dies, death is blissful. When that one is about to die, no extreme pain oppresses the body. When an unwholesome mind dies, death is painful and vexatious. When that one is about to die, serious pain oppresses the body. Again, when a wholesome mind dies, it does not see confus­ ing forms. When an unwholesome mind dies, it sees confusing, disorienting forms. What is "dying with a karmically neutral mind"? This refers [either] to some­ one whose actions [have been both] wholesome and unwholesome [so that they neutralize each other] or to someone who was inactive. When about to die, such a person is unable to remember [either type] and there are no other memories. The moment of death for one with "neither a wholesome mind nor an unwhole­ some mind" is neither blissful nor painful. Again, when a person who has acted in a wholesome or unwholesome way is about to die, he will naturally, on his own, remember prior repeated wholesome or unwholesome things he did, or others may remind him. At that time, his mind

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will tend to register those ofhis repeated habits that were most dominant, while the rest are entirely forgotten. If he had already repeatedly cultivated equanimity,24 then at the time [of dying], that will be the first thing he remembers, or he will be reminded by others. That [calmness] will not be cut off, so no other type of thoughts arise. There are those whose death is caused by two types of dominant forces, namely, the dominant force of attachment to pleasure and erroneous mental proliferation, 25 and the dominant force caused by pure and impure karma. Once the fruits ofprior karma have been exhausted, should one do something unwholesome, that will dominate at the time of death. One will experience un­ desirable effects from the prior unwholesome acts previously performed-such as seeing innumerable horrifically mutilated, monstrous images mutating,Z6 as if in a nightmare. The Bhagavan explained the basis of such images, saying: "If you previously engaged in bad, unwholesome activities, then once [your karma] has reached maturity, when you die, it will be like the shadows [descending] on the mountain peaks at the end of the day, [at first only] the cliffs are covered, then everywhere is covered, and [finally, everything is] utterly covered [with darkness]." You should know thatjust so does a person journey from light into darkness. If previous unwholesome karmic fruit is exhausted and one cultivates wholesome ways, contrary to the previous example, you should know that this is like a person journeying from darkness to light. The difference between these two is that when [a wholesome mind] is about to die, it is like in a dream seeing innumerable types of nonmonstrous images mu­ tating, so one can expect a corresponding [wholesome] birth. If, as in the earlier example, you are one who performs unwholesome actions, then because you see these images of monstrous mutations, sweat will flow, your hair will stand on end, your hands and feet will thrash uncontrollably, you will lose control ofyour bowels and bladder, you will flail wildly at the empty air, your eyes will roll upward, and you will froth at the mouth. Then you will have a birth corresponding to these monsters. For one who has performed [only] mediocre unwholesome karma, at the time of dying, images of monstrous mutations may or may not occur. When sentient beings are about to die, but before they have fallen into a coma, the self-love that they have cultivated for a long time appears. Because ofits power, one says [with alarm], "I will cease to exist!" This causes love for his body; from this one creates the recompense of a new life. At the moment of the passing of the previous fruit to the coming of the future fruit, self-love again reappears. At [this transition point . . . ], if, by repeatedly investigating and searching, and by the power of wisdom, one can control and not be attached [to the self and the body], just as a strong warrior is able to control and suppress a frail weakling in a wrestling match, [then the reappearance of self-love can be suppressed]. You should know that the principle of the Middle Way is like this. Should the fruit not return, at this time, self-love does not reappear.

HEALTH AND SICKNESS OF BODY AND MIND

55

Furthermore, the dissolution of limbs and joints occurs in all the realms in which sentient beings are born, except in the heavens and hells . . . . He who dies a pure and liberated death is called one who tamed death. He who dies an impure and unliberated death, is said to be one who has not tamed death. Furthermore, when one who has performed unwholesome karma is about to die, his consciousness withdraws from the upper portion [ofthe body]. A cold sen­ sation begins in the upper portion and gradually withdraws [downward] until reaching the heart. When those who have performed wholesome karma [are dying], their consciousness withdraws from the lower part [of the body]. A cold sensation begins in the lower portion and gradually withdraws [upward] until reaching the heart. You should knowthat it is only from the heart that conscious­ ness subsequently withdraws [from the body], which is followed by a cold sensa­ tion pervading [the entire body.]

2 . THE SCIENCE O F M E D I C I N E , FROM THE " D O M A I N O F WAYS T O A C Q U I R E A N D L E A R N " 2 7

Ofwhat does medical knowledge28 consist? You should know that generally there are four aspects, which are skill concerning symptoms of illness, skill concern­ ing the causes of illness, skill at eliminating an illness that has arisen, and skill at preventing an illness that has been eliminated from arising again.29 In this way, [these four] skills can be extensively analyzed, as should be known from the sutras.30 We have explained medical knowledge.

3 . PERCEPTION NEITHER REMINISCES N O R A N T I C I P A T E S , F R O M T H E " D O M A I N O F WAYS TO ACQUIRE AND LEARN"31

What is perception? It is what is not imperceptible, neither a prior nor a future consideration, and nonerroneous, undistorted. . . . 32 What is perception that is neither a prior nor a future consideration? It is twofold: (1) just grasping a sense­ object immediately apprehended as its basis; (2) apprehending a sense-field as a basis for establishing a sense-object. ''Just grasping a sense-object immediately apprehended as its basis" means when the sense-object that is the basis ofthe grasping causes [a perception] ofjust that to arise. This is like when a good doctor selecting a prescribed medicine, [per­ ceiving that] the herbs' color, fragrance, taste, and texture are all perfect, [thereby perceives that] it will be greatly effective.33 This is the virtuosity of [medical] skilL One should know that this medicine's color, fragrance, taste, and texture are the basis on which is brought about the apprehension ofjust that which is grasped. That the medicine has great efficacy and potency, while the sickness has not yet been cured, is called an expectant thought [i.e., an inference aimed at the future].

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Once the illness is cured, it is called "already thought about." It is the same with what is called the sense-object that is the basis for bringing about the apprehen­ sion ofjust that which is grasped [in perception).34

4 . REPULSIVE IMPURITIES O F THE BODY, F R O M T H E "HEARER' S D O M A I N " 3 5 What are the inner repulsive impurities?36 The impurities in the body are 1. head hair, 2 . body hair, 3. nails, 4. teeth, 5. specks of dirt, 6. stains (or taints), 7. skin, 8. flesh, 9. bones, 10. muscles/tendons, 11. blood vessels, 12. kidneys, 13. heart, 14. spleen,37 15. lungs, 16. large intestine, 17. small intestine, 18. undigested food in the upper torso,38 19. digested food in the lower torso, 39 20. liver, 21. excrement, 22. tears, 23. sweat, 24. nasal mucous, 25. greasy fat, 26. marrow/0 27. watery humor in the body, lymph,41 28. urinary, semen-producing system/2 29. bodily fat,43 30. pitta, 31. sle?mii,

32. pus, 33. blood, 34. brain,

HEALTH AND SICKNESS OF BODY AND MIND

57

35. membrane ofthe brain, 36. urine.

N OT E S

1.

The

Yogiiciira-bhumi,

written and compiled by Asailga, probably in the second half of the

fourth century, is a large text currently only available in full in Chinese andTibetan, with most of the first half available in Sanskrit. China reportedly possesses a full Sanskrit ver­ sion of the complete text, but so far, that has not been made available to scholars. The first half of the

Yogiiciira-bhumi elaborately details seventeen bhumis, the practices associated

with each, etc., and the second half consists of cormnents on and elaborations extrapolated from the first half. For a detailed summary of the seventeen

bhumis, see Kragh 2013. For

an overview of the various Sanskrit, Chinese, andTibetan editions, modem translations, and secondary studies, broken down section by section, see Delhey

2.

Bhumi, literally,

2013.

"ground, earth," is a field that circumscribes a range of attitudes, orien­

tations, activities, and ways of organizing and interacting with surroundings; it is the con­ text that shapes how a particular domain is experienced. The

Yogiiciira-bhumi describes

seventeen bhumis that progress from bodily sensation (first bhumi) to mental factors (second

bhumi), to methods, meditations, ethics, and so on, to increase knowledge and understand­ ing, and advance on the path to becoming a Buddha (fifteenth

bhumi) and,

ultimately,

two types of nirviil!a (bhumis sixteen and seventeen). While some translate it as " s tage" or " level," it means more than that in this text, where each bhumi is treated as an environ­ ment with its own structure, orientation, and raison d'etre, and the sequence of bhumis does not always follow a neat progression.

3.

On the transition from the " s ensory domain" to the " m entalizing domain," see Lusthaus

4.

Portions of this passage were translated previously in Lusthaus

5.

Perception (pratyak.?a-pramiil!a) is one of the means of knowledge accepted by Asailga. In

2013. 2013, but the translation

here has been revised.

the

Yogiiciira-bhumi, logical

inference

(anumiina) and authoritative

teachings

(iigama) are

the others. 6.

The sriivaka-bhumi (Hearer's Domain) is an elaborate, valuable compendium of the theo­ ries and practices of non-MahayanaBuddhists.

7.

In medical contexts, the term dhiitu refers to seven basic bodily constituents that are key factors of health or sickness. See the glossary.

8.

The

Caraka-sarrhitii

is considered the oldest complete surviving Indian medical text.

Possibly preserving material from the third century Carakain the first century

B.C.E., it was initially redacted by

C.E., and comes down to us in redactions compiled sometime

around the sixth century C. E.The Su5ruta-sarrhitii is the next oldest medical text (dating to perhaps the second or third century C. E.); it has a special focus on surgery.There are mul­ tiple English translations of both works (see, e.g., partial translations in Wujastyk 2003). 9.

Vagbhata, the author of foundational medical texts, is believed to have been aBuddhist. The two main works attributed to him are A?tiinga-sangraha and A�tiinga-h,rdaya-sarrhitii,

58

DO CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS though some scholars doubt both works were by the same author. On Vagbhata, with se­ lected translations, see Wujastyk 2003.

10.

Intoxication (Skt. mada).

11.

Insanity (Skt. unmada).

12.

On tukdam, see http://www.rigpawiki.org/index.php?title=Tukdam. On Chogye Trichen Rinpoche's passing, see also http://blazing-s plendor.blogspot.com/2007/02/chogye -trichen-rinpoches -passing.html. On Kyabje Tenga Rinpoche's tukdam, see http://www . benchen.org/en/tenga-rinpoche/parinirvana/239-simply-amazing.html; on Kyabj e Triil­ shik Rinpoche's tukdam, http://gentlevoice.org/content/2011/09/passing-kyabje-trulshig -rinpoche/. The Dalai Lam.a has had scientists monitoring vital signs, EKGs, and EEG s dur­ ing the tukdam of Tibetan luminaries, such as Ganden Tripa's tukdam, http://www.youtube .com/user/gyalwarinpoche?v=g07RQi55asY&lr=l. (All websites last accessed 29 Sept. 2016.)

13.

After Yogacara-bhumi, Buddhists increasingly devoted their efforts to epistemology (hetu­

vidya), and theories of the instruments of knowledge (prama"a). 14.

Dignaga (fifth century) and Dharm.aki:rti (seventh century) not only dramatically changed the trajectory ofBuddhist philosophy in India and Tibet but altered how non-Buddhist Indian philosophy developed as well. Scholars readily acknowledged Dignaga's indebtedness to Vasubandhu, Asailga's half brother, but most continue to overlook Asailga's influence on both of them.

15.

Apoha is a uniquely Buddhist approach to language, which, to avoidreifying metaphysical universal classes, purports that things are properly named by what they are not, i.e., what they exclude. Thus, instead of saying "X is a cow," one says "X is not not-a-cow," which signals that the term "cow" is a conventional designation for perceived similarities be­ tween discrete particulars (individual cows) based on conceptual distinctions rather than metaphysical essence (universal "cowness" pervading individual cows). Many interpreta­ tions and implications of apo ha theory have been proffered over the centuries, and schol­ ars are still disputing how best to understand it. See, for instance, Siderits, Tillem.ans, and chakrabarti 2011.

16.

This foreshadows Dignaga's famous notion that perception is devoid of any conceptual­ ization (ka1pana-apho4ha).

17.

Asanga also defines perception as nonerroneous (avibhranta), something omitted by Dignaga but reinserted into the definition of perception by Dharm.aki:rti, though in a very different manner than Asailga presents it. scholars have seen Dharm.aki:rti's move as a "de­ viation" from Dignaga rather than as a return to Asailga's roots (cf. Franco 1986).

18.

For instance, while the Chinese alone mentions gallbladder-an important organ in Chinese medicine-neither the Sanskrit nor Tibetan list it, possibly because apparently Indian medicine did not discuss gall bladders until centuries after the Yogacam-bhumi was written.

19.

Sanskrit: Bhattacharya 1957: 13, 15-18. Chinese: T no. 1579, 30: 280c28-282a12.

20. I omit the descriptions of backsliding from having detached from desire, cutting off ben­ eficial roots, and progressively developing beneficial roots, and move directly into the dis­ cussion of death and life. 21.

See also chapters 3§3.2 and 25§2 0.

22.

In Indian medical theory, ama, which means "raw," refers to food being processed in di­ gestioiL This occurs not only in what modern anatomy identifies as the digestive track but

HEALTH AND SICKNESS OF BODY AND MIND

59

also in various additional places in the upper body. Ama that accumulates or fails to pro­ cess fully can cause a variety of illnesses. Medical texts offer elaborate explanations of how all sorts ofillnesses ensue when the digestive process does not work properly, includ­ ing fatal outcomes. 23. 24.

"Faith" usually heads the list ofwholesome mental states in agamic and abhidharma lists. "Equanimity" (sama) is a calmness based on equalizing things. This equanimity is stressed in Yogadira practice, the point here beingthat one accustomed to this practice will be able to assume a calm, unperturbed demeanor even while dying since that mental frame will be familiar-like second nature-recognizing the "sameness" oflife and death.

25.

Buddhists identify "erroneous mental proliferation" (prapafica) as a core mental problem signifying not only the proliferation of ideas and mistaken notions but the anxieties and compulsions driving us to infuse our surroundings with unreal fictions that we take for reality.

26.

"Innumerable horrifically mutilated, monstrous images mutating" is an attempt to capture some ofthe range of anekavikrta (lit., "a multitude of mutilated and deformed" images), but implying a frightening array of nightmarish apparitions.

27.

Srutamiiyf-bhumi. Sanskrit: Sravakabhiimi Study Group 2007: 304-5. Chinese: T no. 1579,

30: 356a8-11. 28. The Sanskrit has ci kitsii, i.e., "medicine," whereas Xuanzang, for clarity, renders cikitsii here as yifang ming, lit., "field of knowledge of medical methods," the ming indicating that this is one ofthe five vidyii-s, or fields ofknowledge covered in this bhumi. 29. Note that these four aspects allude to the Four Noble Truths: suffering (symptom), cause of suffering (diagnosis), suffering can be eliminated (prognosis), and the way to eliminate suffering (treatment plan), though the fourth aspect is modified (cf. chapter 17§2). 30. The reference to sutra.s is unclear. If he is referring to standard Buddhist sutrrLS, perhaps he has in mind those sutrrLS which explicitly deal with medical knowledge, or perhaps he is being more allegorical and considering all sutrrLS to be expressions of the Buddha as doc­ tor and healer, offering cures through the Four Noble Truths. Sutm could also be an allu­ sion to the verses of medical texts, Buddhist and non-Buddhist alike. 31.

Srutamiiyf-bhumi. Sanskrit: Wayman 1999: 14-15; Yaita 1992: 517/3.26, 518-19/3.262-2621.

Chinese: T no. 1579, 30: 357a15-16, 357b12-19. 32. The Sanskrit terms are "not imperceptible" (aviparok?a), "not a priornor a future consid­ eration" (anabhyuhitam anabhyuhyam), and "nonerroneous, undistorted" (avibhriintarr). Each begins withthe negative prefix a-/an-, meaning "not." Perception is defined by what it is not. Xuanzang's Chinese translation literally reads: "Perception is threefold: (1) not seeing what is not present, (2) neither thought already nor expectant thought, (3) not de­ luded about the perceptual field." The example ofthe physician is part ofthe explanation for the middle two terms, "not a prior nor a future consideration." 33.

On Ayurveda, Dominik Wujastik (2009) writes: "Several thousand plants were known for their medicinal values, and described in terms of a pharmacological typology based on flavours (six types), potency (usually two: hot and cold), post-digestive flavourings (usu­ ally three), and pragmatic efficacy (used when the effect of a medicine is not adequately defined by the earlier categories). This typology formed a system of interlocking corre­ spondences and antipathies with the system of humours and other physiological catego­ ries as expressed through the vocabulary of pathology."

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34. The point is that when perceiving the herbs, the doctor only discems the colors, fragrances, etc., and even while recognizing that they are "perfect" and thus efficacious, he concerns himself not with what will be, nor what has been, nor will have been. Perception is seeing things as they actually are. 35. Srrivaka-bhumi. Sanskrit: Shukla 1973: 203; Sravakabhiimi Study Group 2007: 58. Chinese: T no. 1579, 30: 428c24-28. 36. The extant Sanskrit has pratyaiubhatridhyritmam upridriya, but Sakuma 1990, 2: 94n573 and Deleanu 2006, 1: 71n60 both correctly suggest that pratyaiubhatri should be emended to putyaiubhatri, which better fits the context and the Chinese and Tibetan versions. I thank

Robert Kritzer for bringing this to my attention. The .Srrivaka-bhumi follows the "inner" re­ pulsive impurities with a list of "extemal" repulsive impurities (types of corpses, etc.). Xuanzang glosses "inner" as "in the body," indicating that the difference is what is found within or on one's own body, as opposed to things outside one's body. 37.

"Spleen" (p1fhakam). The Tibetan doesn't mention spleen, and some versions ofthe Chinese list "spleen" as the twenty-second item, not the fourteenth (though some Chinese texts have a character similar in appearance to "spleen'' that means "buttocks or thighs").

38. AmriSayam. On rima, see note 22 above. See also the fourth and fifth items in the list of nine causes of premature death above. 39.

PakvriSayam. Once the digesting food is fully processed, it is pakva (lit., "matured") and is

expelled fromthe lower torso; should it fail to be expelled (constipation, etc.), illness can result. Xuanzang translates the rima and pakva terms as "raw storage" and "processed stor­ age." The Tibetan version uses terms meaning "stomach" and "ruminating stomach," as ifhumans had two stomachs, the second one with cuds. 40.

Vasri.

41. Lasfkri. 42. Majjri. The corresponding Chinese here is "kidneys." Chinese medicine sees kidneys, the urinary tract, and reproductive fluids as part of the same system Tibetan medicine has a similar view. 43. Medah.

7. Overcoming Illness with Insight

Treatise on the Nature ofillness and Its Manifestations

Kokan Shiren's

E D W ARD R . D R O T T

okan Shiren (1278-1346) i s best known t o Western readers a s the compiler of the

K first comprehensive history of Buddhism in Japan, the History of the Devotees of Sakyamuni Presented in the Genko Era [1331-1334).1 He is also remembered as an early rep­

resentative of the "Five Mountain"2 literary movement that emerged in and around a group ofelite government-sponsored Zen monasteries inthe imperial capital ofHeiankyo (modern-day Kyoto) and the city ofKamakura. Shiren's Treatise on the Nature ofiiiness and Its Manifestations (composed in 1320) was in­ tended as a practical manual for monastics, and possibly for literate laypeople interested in self-care, or for priests providing medical or palliative care to the laity. The text offers no concrete information on the diagnosis or treatment of specific ailments-topics Shiren assumes his readers can investigate elsewhere. Rather, it seeks to examine the root causes ofillness, emphasizing prevention both through the regulation ofone's daily habits and through training intended to cultivate mental stability and emotional equilibrium, noting that calming the mind is more effective than any kind of medical therapy. The treatise reiterates familiar Buddhist teachings that contemplation of (or insight into) the nature of reality-specifically Emptiness-can stop the patterns of delusion that give rise to suffering, offering three ways in which insight can overcome illness and suffering.3 First, insight can prevent illness, since ignorant action is responsible for improper practices ofbody, mouth and mind, which render a person vulnerable to disease. Second, for those afflicted with disease, Shiren claims that understanding the Emptiness of the karmic causes of their suffering will shorten or even cure their illness. Finally,

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Shiren stresses that insight can quell the negative =otions that accompany and com­ pound the suffering of illness and death. Death is, in fact, a central concern of the treatise-the topic of four of its ten sec­ tions. Contemporary readers might be perplexed to find a text purportedly about ill­ ness and medicine veering off into discussions of death and rebirth, but Shiren and others of his day were comfortable admitting that death was a part of life and that efforts to prolong life should not be allowed to interfere with the possibility of a good death. According to Shiren, it is the ability to sustain a proper mind-set on one's deathbed that can provide the ultimate r=edy for all future illnesses by allowing one to escape the cycle of death and rebirth entirely.4 It is interesting to note that Shiren also treats sickness as an opportunity for salvation, writing that although it is difficult to wrest the mind out ofa state ofpleasure, "in a state of suffering, the mind is easily quieted." Suf­ fering naturally draws and holds our attention, becoming an object of single-minded focus. Shiren writes, "For one in a state of suffering [to realize correct insight], the mind need only be redirected ever so slightly." Shiren's attention to the subjective state of the sick or dying person lends itself to certain modernist interpretations. The notion that the origin of all illness can be traced to improper mental dispositions might be read as an endorsement of a psychosomatic theory of pathogenesis-that all illnesses are in some way caused by negative thoughts or emotions. Other recommendations by Shiren could be interpreted as promoting vari­ ous psychological coping mechanisms. However, these readings overlook the fact that, for Shiren, insight provided more than mere psychological comfort; it was believed to have the power to undo the negative consequences ofkarma.5 Thus, while shiren would have acknowledged the deleterious health effects ofimproper mindsets and mental disquiet, he was equally convinced that mental clarity and insight possessed special ef­ ficacy that could cure any illness and ultimately provide complete liberation from sick­ ness and death. Shiren explains the title of the work (ByOgiron) in its tenth section. He states that the three characters byo (illness), gi (appearance), and ron (discourse) are meant to express the nondual relationship between illness as an ever-present, latent condition, and its vis­ ible, outward forms as symptoms.6 He se=s to have modeled this discussion on the Bud­ dhist analysis of the relationship between ri and ji. Ri (eh. li) refers to the fundamental principle (usually glossed as Emptiness) underlying allji (eh. shi), or phenomena, which take the appearance of discrete entities.7 Just as ri andji are properly understood as non­ dual, Shiren claims that despite the diverse ways in which illness manifests itself, all of these se=ingly discrete symptoms or manifestations are in fact expressions of a single, underlying nature, which is an essential feature of human =bodiment.8 Shiren uses the same framework to explain the relationship of illness and death, treating th= as two sides ofthe same coin. Illness is when the true, underlying nature ofreality-Impermanence-manifests itselfthroughthe body; death is when bodily form itself falls away to reveal the impermanent nature of all things. Rather than regarding th= as a failure of medical knowledge, Shiren sees sickness and death as the inevitable price of being born human.

OVERCOMING ILLNESS WITH INSIGHT

63

Such a stance might lead some to interpret this treatise as essentially fatalistic­ maintaining that since illness and death are unavoidable, all att=pts to alleviate suf­ fering or prolong life through medicine will be futile, and that the only thing to do is resign oneselfto the fact that life and health are no more than fleeting illusions. Shiren's assertion that illness is ultimately a product of the mind might also be seen to suggest that he would have eschewed traditional medical therapies. But such characterizations would not be accurate. Nowhere does Shiren show opposition to utilizing medicine, ex­ cept when providing temporary relief would cause more serious probl=s later. On the other hand, he also recognized that there is a limit to what medicine can achieve. He would be suspicious of"medical triumphalism"-daims that medicine will one day be able to cure all forms of disease. For Shiren, more important by far than medical knowledge is the ability to cultivate a state oftranquility that can withstand any afflic­ tion. In the end, he claims, it is a well-trained mind that will provide relief-both psy­ chologically and soteriologically.

FURTHER READING Bielefeldt, CarL 1998. "Kokan Shiren and the Sectarian Uses of History." In The Origins ofjapan's Medieval World: C011rtiers, Clerics, Warriors, and Peasants in the Fourteenth Century, ed. Jeffrey

Mass, 295-317. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. Collcutt, Martin. 1981. Five Mountains: The Rinzai Zen Monastic Institution in Medieval japan. Cam­ bridge, Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University. Stone, Jacqueline I. 2008. "With the Help of 'Good Friends': Deathbed Ritual Practices in Early Medieval Japan." In Death and the Afterlife in]apanese Buddhism, ed. Jacqueline I. Stone and Mariko Namba Walker, 61-101. Honolulu: University ofHawai'i Press.

TREATISE ON THE NA TURE OF ILLNESS AND ITS MANIFE STATIONS 9 1. Introduction From birth, I have been stricken by many illnesses. As a child, before my hair had even been tied up, I had begun to be afflicted.10 It is now three years since I passed the age of "not having doubts" [i.e., forty years old]_ll During that interval, al­ though some illnesses have been worse than others, there has not been a single year in which I was not ill. It is not that the wind or cold advanced against my body with particular force; it is more likely that this misfortune has been with me from the start.12 That is why when I have become ill, in addition to relying on doctors and medicine, I have also striven to examine my sins from previous lives and carefully contemplate them. The people of antiquity had a saying: "Those who are often ill become fully knowledgeable about the nature of medicine." I would

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also say, "Those who are often ill become fully knowledgeable about the nature of illness." In the second year of the Gena era [1320], while recovering from a bout of ill­ ness, I organized my detailed knowledge on the subject into the ten sections of this text. The first part is an introduction; the second is on "Being Circum­ spect with Regard to the Body"; the third is on "Guarding the Mouth"; the fourth is on "Containing the Mind";13 the fifth is on "Karma and Emptiness"; the sixth is on "Transforming Evil Omens and Obtaining Auspicious Omens"; the seventh is on "Obtaining Auspicious Omens and Advancing to a Higher Destiny"; the eighth is on "Advancing to a Higher Destiny and Attaining the Unobtainable"; the ninth is on "Mindfulness and Vows"; and the tenth is an "Exhortation to Disseminate This Text." These ten sections are thus organized into an introduction, a main text, and a dissemination section [i.e., the three sections of a sutra).14 This method of dividing the text was established by past buddhas. That is to say, this essay's beginning and end are themselves clearly an introduction and a dissemination section, and the middle eight sections correspond to the main body of a sutra. Among these eight sections, the first four [sections 2, 3, 4, and 5] are about life, and the following four [sections 6, 7, 8, and 9] are about death. Also, the first three [sections 2, 3, and 4] and the final one [section 9] are for the ignorant, but the middle four [sections 5, 6, 7, and 8] are for the wise. Moreover, the first six [sections 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7] and the final section [section 9] discuss the provisional aspects of illness, while section 8 discusses the reality ofillness.15 Now, there are many kinds of illnesses, and each has a distinct cause. However, the causes of illness can be classified as main, subordinate, or resident [see table 7.1).16 The main causes of illness are threefold; similarly, there are three types of subordinate and resident causes. First, the three main causes are greed, anger, and ignorance; the three subordinate causes are Cold, Heat, and Wind; and the three resident causes are physical karma, verbal karma, and mental karmaY Greed is the main cause corresponding to Cold, anger is the main cause corre­ sponding to Heat, and ignorance is the main cause corresponding to Wind.18 The resident causes of physical, verbal and mental karma correspond in the same or­ der to Cold, Heat and Wind. Moreover, each of these causes can interact freely with each other. The causes listed in these three sets of three can act individu­ ally or in combination to damage our bodies and darken our spirits. To make an analogy: Rebels and bandits use secret signals to carry out their crimes, and base themselves in remote areas such as mountains or swamps. Although there are constables who could arrest them, they cannot be dispatched to the place where the rebels are hiding [iftheir whereabouts remains unknown]. Thus, the people continue to be robbed and waylaid. Once one learns where the bandits are located, however, one can capture them, bind them, and destroy them completely. This is the method for curing illness. First, one must know the place where the illness dwells. Therefore, I will begin by discussing the [resident causes of illness] and the three types ofkarma [physical, verbal, and mental]. Ifone knows

OVERCOMING ILLNESS WITH INSIGHT

65

T AB L E 7 . 1 SHIREN ' S M A T RIX O F C A U S E S

Main Causes

Subordinate Causes

Resident Causes

Greed

Cold

Physical Karma

Anger

Heat

Verbal Karma

Ignorance

Wind

Mental Karma

Note: The table does not appear in the original text.

the main, secondary, and resident causes, how could they give rise to illness? And even if they did cause illness, how could that illness reach the point of being chronic or incurable? Now [in sections 2, 3, and 4] I will discuss the three karmic causes of illness.19 Before proceeding, however, I ask that readers first reflect on the structure of the entire work.

2. Being Circumspect with Regard to the Body The head, the eyes, the nose, the mouth, the four limbs-the hundredfold parts ofthe body-are all entrances for disease. Those whose rising and retiring are ir­ regular, who eat and drink without moderation, who fail to protect themselves from Cold and Heat, or whose morning and evening meals are too meager or too extravagant-all of these people open their upper gate [the mouth], leaving it vulnerable. Unless they stop living in such a manner, illness will enter into the hundredfold parts of their body. In these cases, many will simply attend to the parts of the body that are afflicted and apply medical treatment without under­ standing the root causes of the problem. In addition, one must examine the parts that are not suffering and provide preventative treatment such that the illness does not move to an unaffected area. As for methods ofexamining the qi channels20 associated with the Zang and Fu Viscera, and of administering moxibustion, acupuncture, and drugs-these topics are written about exhaustively in medical books that are widely available, so I will not provide them here. Generally, when there is an illness, one must not neglect the rest of the body [by focusing exclusively on relieving particular symptoms]. "To neglect is to in­ dulge."21 This is what I mean when I use the term "being circumspect" [in the title of this section]. For example, if a sick person is suffering from a fever, people often open the doors to let in a cool breeze, or bathe the patient's body in cool spring water to try to make them more comfortable. But if one provides an un­ reasonable degree of comfort [one might do the patient serious harm and] they will not be able to achieve a proper death.22 If, on the one hand, one is familiar with the proper use of drugs and acupuncture needles, but, on the other hand, takes care not to employ methods that might bring comfort but cause damage,

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then the patient's original health will be restored, sickness will disappear, their body will be well adjusted, and their life will be extended. These are the effects of being circumspect with regard to the body.

3. Guarding the Mouth Food and drink are the raw materials that make up the body. Among those who are sick, there are none that are not concerned about food and drink. It is often said that we must be cautious not to take raw or cold foods in excess, not to take food and drink immoderately, and not to eat or drink at irregular times. But es­ pecially for those who suffer from serious illnesses, having a taste for strange or exotic foods is the path by which they are most likely to encounter death. Strange foods include vegetables or fruits that are out of season, or extravagant delica­ cies that are difficult to procure. Moreover, shouting, laughing, crying, reciting laments, and generally speak­ ing in an excessive fashion all lead to exhaustion, can invite Wind and Cold, and can damage the qi channels. This damage is greater than that caused by the afore­ mentioned strange foods. Accordingly, one who has fallen sick must first guard their mouth. Then the hundredfold forms of sickness will naturally be dissipated, and one's life will be lengthened and preserved.

4. Containing the Mind Generally, when people live virtuous lives, they are flexible and accommodat­ ing. But once they are sick, they become angry, resentful, willful, or mentally deranged. This is because they can no longer control their mind and keep it con­ tained.23 The human heart is like water; properly governed, it can be made to flow and stop. When a river is just a small stream, it can be easily stopped by the bank. When the flow reaches flood-like proportions, however, even if one tries to stop it with rocks and boulders, they will crumble. Moreover, when torrents ofthoughts and emotions24 become expansive and violent, if one has not prepared strategies in advance to contain them, in the end, they will certainly carry one to the sea of death. It is said that to keep the mind contained, one must only take sweet foods in moderation; one should not allow the body to become cold or hot; and one should prevent it from coming into contact with stimuli25 that will give rise to joy, an­ ger, desire, or pleasure. If one regulates one's body, makes one's spirit tranquil,26 and ceases to concern oneself with the myriad considerations of daily life, then the mind will of its own accord return to its original purity. At this time, the hun­ dredfold afflictions will be dissipated and one will be able to fully and pleasantly live out one's allotted years. This is what is meant by the expression "it is a joyful thing to be without need of medicine."

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5. On Karma and Emptiness Throughout the world, it is said, "It is only from immoderation in food and drink and failure to respond appropriately to Cold and Heat that people become ill." However, I would say that this is not the case. From time immemorial, what we call illness has always been nothing more than the recompense for the Three Poi­ sons and for our deluded actions. Drink, food, Cold, and Heat are no more than the proximate causes by which illnesses arise. Since most people do not trace these matters to their origins, they only blame the final contributing factors. There­ fore, there are many who die young. Accordingly, in this section I wish to describe the fundamental causes of illness in detail. The Lailkiivatiira Siitra states: "The Great Element that the deluded mind con­ ceptualizes as fluidity generates the realm ofWater, internally and externally. The Great Element that the deluded mind conceptualizes as potency generates the realm of Fire, internally and externally. The Great Element that the deluded mind conceptualizes as mobility generates the realm of Wind, internally and exter­ nally."27 These three are the origins of illness. All things have their origins, and just as no one has ever been able to stop the flow of water without finding its source, no one has ever been able to stop the progress of an illness without know­ ing its origin. If we add to these three origins of illness the realm of Earth, we call these the Four Great Elements. The Four Great Elements combine to generate the five roots.28 This is called "body." When the breath comes into contact with and penetrates the seven parts of the body [the top of the head, gums, teeth, lips, tongue, throat, and chest], it issues forth as sound.29 This is called "speech." That which distin­ guishes between the six dusts is called "mind."30 These three seeds [body, speech, and mind] are called the three karmas.31 The deluded acts that cause these three forms of karma to arise are ten in number. Acts of physical karma are murder, theft, and sexual immorality; acts of verbal karma are abusiveness, duplicity, lying, and embellishment or sophistry;32 acts of mental karma are selfishness, anger, and wrong views. Taken together, these are the Three Poisons. The three karmas and Three Poisons differ only in the narrow sense; in the broad sense, they describe the same activities. Hence, of all the myriad human vices, there are none that fall outside ofthese ten kinds. Opposing these ten kinds of evil are ten kinds ofgood. From the begin­ ningless past, however, there has never been a time when the ten immoral deeds have not been committed. According to the conditions that humans themselves have created, various unfavorable circumstances emerge. This is what we call ill­ ness. And so today people encounter these unfavorable conditions. Wind and Cold attack them; Heat and humidity invade their bodies; a thousand forms ofbitterness and ten thousand forms of suffering afflict their bodies and minds. Illness, there­ fore, is the season of recompense for deluded actions and mental afflictions. Although the two Winds of suffering and pleasure both arouse the mind, in a state of suffering the mind is easily quieted. But in a state of pleasure the mind is

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difficult to calm. When an illness becomes grave and one's body and mind are pur­ sued by suffering, at just that moment, there is only one single pure thought­ that of suffering. One ceases to engage with any other distracting or entangling considerations. One abides in a subtle form of mindful awareness, focused exclu­ sively on one thing. At this time, the sick person repeatedly asks: "From what has this extreme suf­ fering arisen? If it is from a physical act, since the body is made by combining the Four Great Elements, how might I determine its true basis? If this suffering has arisen as a result of a verbal act, since speech requires the combination of the seven parts of the body, we can find no single established subject that produced this verbal karma. If this suffering has arisen as a result of a mental act, the ap­ pearances we register from the six dusts of sensory data can be compared to mere shadows. The three loci of karmic activity [body, speech, and mind] are all but temporary manifestations. This being the case, from what could illness arise? If it arises from my having engaged in one ofthe ten evil acts, the ten immoral deeds are all dependent on the three loci ofbody, voice, and mind. If the sources ofthe problem-the three loci-have already begun to collapse, how could their conse­ quences, the ten immoral deeds, still exist? If this illness is caused by the Four Great Elements, we have already noted that they are a product of deluded con­ ceptualization, and must accordingly disintegrate. Thinking it over again and again, one must conclude that all of our karma-producing acts in the past and the present are all Empty. So how could sickness truly be said to exist?" In this way, if one engages in correct contemplation,33 even if only for a mo­ ment, or for the amount of time it takes to consume a meal, or for an hour, or for a day, its meritorious effects will continue for the remainder of one's life and will be a hundred, a thousand, or ten thousand times [greater than the merit that could be gained without this insight]. Once this wisdom is able to purify a per­ son's heart, then for those whose karmic burden is light, their illnesses will be cured immediately; for those whose karmic burden is heavy, their illnesses will also heal, but more slowly.34 There are no drugs or acupuncture techniques that can compare with this method. QUESTION: How could someone suffering from illness bear to engage in this contemplation? ANSWER: I have already noted, "in a state of suffering, the mind is easily qui­ eted." For one in a state of suffering [to realize correct insight], the mind need only be redirected ever so slightly-not even as much as a hairsbreadth. However, in the introduction, I explained that I composed this treatise for both the wise and the ignorant, and my explanation here is for the sake of the wise. In general, the ignorant are without wisdom and lack the strength and endurance neces­ sary to take advantage ofthis opportunity. Nonetheless, the pure thought [directed toward] one's suffering during illness is not like [thought at] other times. Thus, if they possess pure roots of faith, even the ignorant or foolish may be able to accom­ plish correct insight.

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There is also a way to cure madness [through contemplation]. When the sick person encounters severe suffering, they will sometimes see demons or evil spirits. This is because the flow of blood within their vessels has become erratic or blocked. Their distress gradually builds up. At this time, the sick person should think the following: "My body has always been Empty. Thus, how could these evil spirits exist? What is there that could be transformed into these evil spirits? Who is there that could be bewitched by these evil spirits?" Ifthey hold this thought firmly for a period of time, the assembled evil spirits will vanish and, along with them, the sick person's illness will be eliminated and their body and mind will be at ease.

6. Transforming Evil Omens and Obtaining Auspicious Omens The above four sections had to do with life; the following four sections have to do with death. QUESTION: "Why do you say that the preceding has dealt with life?" ANSWER: "The previous four sections have dealt with methods for removing illness and maintaining life. Therefore, I have referred to that section as dealing with 'life.' " QUESTION: "What does it mean that the following will deal with death?" ANSWER: "It means that the sections that follow deal with preparation for death." Now, karma has two types: fixed and that which can be overturned or trans­ formed.35 Our destiny after death is the same. I will spend a few sections discussing that which can be transformed. Before that, it should be noted that if on the path to buddhahood one has attained the state of "the great mind of awakening and great perseverance" or the state of "utmost resolve and ardency," then one no longer establishes new fixed karma and can completely overturn existing karma.36 Those who have studied the Buddha's way must not belittle this. Must they not, rather, strive to achieve it? Generally, when medical treatment is not effective, as the days pass, the afflicted person will become weaker. As they approach the moment of their de­ mise, they will begin to have death-related dreams. On this topic, the Mahiiyiina Siitra on the Manifestations of Consciousnes�7 states: "Dying people will sometimes dream of things such as bees or woodpeckers stinging or pecking their brain, groups of people sleeping in the dirt, dead people carrying dead people on their shoulders, hemp oil soiling their feet or staining their body, falling into a net, walking over a road covered with toads, seeing a woman with disheveled hair, being covered in falling ashes, being terrorized by the sight of dogs and apes chasing each other, seeing their teeth fall out and hit the ground, wearing a dead person's clothing, seeing the gate to their house collapse and a broken cart rush in, walking around a graveyard, falling into a long river, dancing on an altar, enter­ ing a building and finding themselves in pitch-black darkness from which they

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cannot escape, standing atop a steep cliff and wailing mournfully, or having dust fall on their head." Moreover, when a person is nearing the time of death, signs of death will ap­ pear.38 It is said that when someone's body becomes the calor of earth, when it becomes heavy and the bones and joints do not move as desired, when the flesh becomes hard, when urination and bowel movements cease, when the pores be­ come red, when the pulse becomes indistinct, when hair falls out withoutthe person even being aware of it, when their ears cease to hear, their mouth grows dry, or when they drool, when their tongue becomes hard like a bone, when the bridge of their nose begins to collapse, when the pupils of their eyes stare fixedly, or when they begin to speak deliriously-these are all signs of impending death. Finally, when the dying person shuts their eyes, evil omens will at times appear before them. So-called evil omens include wicked demons escorting them into the sky, ferocious animals attacking them in their bed, being chased by someone wielding a glowing red iron rod, or a flaming carriage coming to carry them away. At these times, the sick person must not be allowed to remain in a state ofterror. Settle their Celestial Souls and quiet their heart. They should bear the following in mind: "Where have all these omens that now torment me come from? They have not been generated by anyone other than myself. They have been produced by my own deluded acts. They have all been created in the sea of my karmic ob­ structions.39 These deluded acts are all completely void [of self-nature]. And if all my deluded acts are Empty, how could these omens exist?" When one firmly main­ tains this thought without moving from it, in that instant one will achieve con­ templative awareness.40 If one achieves this awareness, one can transform what had previously been evil omens into auspicious omens. So-called auspicious omens are signs that one is destined for rebirth as a human or a god. The Vaisal'i Sramal)a Siitra41 states: "[A person in the process of being re­ born] will become conscious of a mental image. They will see a grand palace in a forest where one might enjoy all manner ofworldly pleasures. They will see a place in this human realm of]ambudvipa where there are many people they love, such as their father, mother, and siblings. Having visualized such scenes, powerful feel­ ings of love and attachment will be aroused in their heart."42 This is a sign of a human destiny. Moreover, the siitra states: "When a person [destined for a fortu­ nate rebirth] is on the point of death, their body will have a sweet scent. Or, looking up they will see a net of flowers hanging down."43 There are also "superior omens," such as seeing a pile of jewels on a hill, seeing oneself garlanded with flowers, or seeing one hundred thousand elegant celestial maidens circling a heavenly palace. From these signs, one receives the knowledge that they will be reborn as a garlanded divinity. Moreover, when a per­ son [destined for rebirth in a celestial realm] is on the verge of death, the color of their body will not change, their voice will not become hoarse, they will not lose their ability to urinate or defecate, and finally, at the time of abandoning the body, their heart and mind will be filled with joy. They might witness a scene in a forest where the Four Heavenly Kings indulge in pleasure and enjoyment. Once

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this person dies, their face will turn the color of a fresh lotus petal. Their mouth will emit a pleasant fragrance. This person will be reborn in the heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings. Or, if at the time of their death, gladness and joy arise in their heart, if their face glows like gold, if the bridge of their nose does not collapse, if their body has no fever, if their voice is not hoarse, if their conscious mind pro­ ceeds to witness the superior and subtle ornamentations44 of the Heaven of the Thirty Three Devas,45 or if they hear the beautiful and joyous tones of the songs of heavenly maidens, this person will certainly be reborn in a celestial realm. Various sutras provide explanations for various signs and omens. However, since it would be complicated to list them all, I have not recorded them here. Sim­ ply put, the form of existence into which the dying person will be reborn can be recognized according to what has been described above. Thus, the Mahiiyiina Siitra on the Manifestations ofConsciousness states: "The Bodhisattva Medicine King asked the Buddha: 'When sentient beings abandon their bodies, why is it said that some will be reborn in heavens while others will be reborn in hells?' The Buddha answered: 'At the time of their death, sentient beings lose their original way of seeing. If they see the six heavens of the realm of desire as well as all of the Six Destinies, they will certainly be reborn in a heavenly realm.46 Or, if they see a host of beautifully adorned heavenly beings, or if they witness the venerable form of the Buddha and rejoice with reverence, then in a state that is neither like sleeping nor not sleeping, they can peacefully abandon their body. On the other hand, if at the end of their life they experience great sorrow or extreme pain and see various forms of hell; if they see their body inverted with their feet above their head and their head pointed down; or if they see a spot on the ground that had been clean now stained with blood; and if even after having had these vi­ sions they still relish the attachments in their heart, on account of these attach­ ments, they will be reborn in a hell. Just as insects that live in vile-smelling ex­ crement will certainly once again be born in the midst [of such filth], those who are bound for hell and allow themselves to be guided by an attraction to a partic­ ular aroma will also be reborn in a similar fashion.' "47 Here, I will also provide the omens that one is destined for one of the three unfortunate forms of rebirth [animals, hungry ghosts, or hell-dwellers] to help the sick person determine their destiny and prepare for it. The Sutra on the Stages of the Path of Cultivation48 states: "When people are dying, before [they pass away completely], they receive an intermediate form of existence [and enter a transi­ tional state between death and rebirth]. After traveling [through this liminal zone] for one to seven days, they might see a grove oftrees in the distance. If their mind immediately enters this grove of trees, and they die while in the midst of this in­ termediary state, they will fall into the [hell-]realm of trees with bladed leaves. We call this 'being destined for rebirth in hell.' Or, if [as they are dying] they have visions of themselves being reborn in a well, on a hill, or by a sheer cliff, and they die while their mind is absorbed in such visions, when they receive their inter­ mediate existence, they will be destined to be reborn as an animal. Or if they see a great hole, and their mind arouses the thought of entering it during their

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intermediary state, they will fall into the destiny of being reborn as a hungry ghost."49 However, if one who is sick or on the point of death or in the interim state sees the above listed signs and scrutinizes them thoroughly with a resolute heart, and if they can moreover steadfastly maintain their contemplation, how could they fall into one of the evil destinies?

7. Obtaining Auspicious Omens and Advancing to a Higher Destiny Ifthe sick person has obtained omens of a fortunate rebirth, afterwardthey should try to return to a state of mindfulness50 ofthese positive visions. If, however, from the first, they see evil omens, they will be extremely terrified. Thus, they should contemplate the fact that their karma is Empty and thereby transform [these evil omens into] good omens. However, these good omens are still, in the end, a cause of suffering, since they show that the sick person will not yet depart the fetters of the three worlds of sarrzsiira [the worlds of desire, of form, and of formlessness]. Thus, the next time they contemplate these good omens, they should also con­ template the fact that these too are mere Empty appearances. As discussed pre­ viously, if the sick person abides peacefully and with strong perseverance [in the contemplation of Emptiness], they will gain the power of unwavering meditative discernment [or insight]. Moreover, in this way, the sick person will witness su­ perior omens. Superior omens are signs that one is destined to be reborn in a Pure Land. Omens of rebirth in a Pure Land include hearing delicate music; seeing pure light, a lotus dais, or ajeweled dwelling; witnessing various buddhas descending from the sky or various holy beings approaching the sickroom. When a sick per­ son has such visions, they can arouse pure faith in their heart and end their life in joy and bliss. These are the signs of "obtaining auspicious omens and advanc­ ing to a higher destiny." QUESTION: "It is common for the person approaching the end to be weakened by extreme suffering. Even one who has diligently practiced the Buddha Way in their everyday life might backslide when they reachthis point. How on earth could such [auspicious results] be possible for a person who has not already engaged in [meritorious] action?" ANSWER: The Buddha Explains the Consecration Rite Accompanying Vows to Be Rebom in the Pure Lands of the Ten Directions Siitra51 states: "Once, the Bodhisattva

Wide and Pervasive posed this question to the Buddha: 'If a person existing in this world does not take refuge in the Three Jewels, at the end of their life they will accordingly fall into the three unfortunate paths. But if this same person sin­ cerely repents when approaching their end, and if they obtain instruction from a good teacher and hear the sound ofthe True Dharma being preached, will they not by means of their reformed heart obtain release?' The Buddha said: 'There are none who would not gain salvation by such means. How is this so? It is like one who has borrowed money but who enjoys the protection of the king. The one who has loaned the money will immediately be in awe of the king and will

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not be able to seek repayment of the debt. As in this metaphor, [if a person sin­ cerely repents on their deathbed], Indra, [lord of the devas], will grant them a pardon. Once King Yama, [the king of the underworld], makes an exception, then the five divine officers of hell will also show due deference.' "Furthermore, the Siitra on UpO.saka Precepts52 states that bodhisattvas have four inconceivable powers.53 The fourth ofthese is that 'should someone nearing death witness evil omens, a bodhisattva's preaching of the Dharma can overturn those omens.'54 That is to say, when sentient beings are approaching death, even if evil omens appear, they can be transformed and the dying person can obtain a fortunate rebirth by the power of the bodhisattva's skillful exposition of the Dharma. However, one who depends on the power of the bodhisattva's preach­ ing of the Dharma simply borrows the power of another. Ifthe sentient being has established the power of insight on their own, no doubts will arise. Furthermore, one who has established this wisdom can draw protection through mindfulness of various buddhas and bodhisattvas.''

8. Advancing to a Higher Destiny and Attaining the Unobtainable When the dying person has obtained superior omens [of rebirth in a Pure Land] and is overjoyed and encouraged, they should then return to a state of mindful­ ness. Having redirected their contemplation, they have been able to witness su­ perior omens. However, in spite of the fact that these superior omens should be greatly respected, they are not the ultimate path for mental consideration. I have heard that when Zen master Huansheng of Qianguangwang Temple of Hangzhou Province in the Great Song [Empire] was on the verge of death, various omens of the Pure Land, such as jeweled trees and bathing ponds, all appeared be­ fore him. Huansheng said, ''All things that possess form are Empty illusions." In due course, the trees, ponds, and various other apparitions disappeared. Three days later, he passed from this world sitting peacefully [in meditation]. Hence, these supe­ rior omens are also just Empty illusions. When one contemplates this, these superior omens will suddenly vanish. At just that moment, however, there will not be one distracting thought. One will no longer engage in the conceptualiza­ tion of karma, nor will one engage in the conceptualization of Emptiness. 55 Body and mind will be peaceful and quiet, perfectly bright and pure. In an instant, one will attain a great awakening. Having reached the great bodhisattva's "realm of nothingness," they will attain the state of "patient awareness of the nonaris­ ing of phenomena" and abide in the status of"nonbacksliding." At this time, they can be reborn according to their wishes anywhere in the worlds of the ten direc­ tions. They will then reachthe state in which there is nothing more to attain. This is the moment of "advancing to a higher destiny and obtaining the unobtainable." QUESTION: "It is said that bodhisattvas use the merit gained from eons [of practice] to attain the state of 'patient awareness.' How can a sick person at the time they are facing crisis and loss gain this [merit] so quickly?"

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ANSWER: "It is because the power of the merit from correct practice at the time of death is superior [to that gained under normal circumstances]. It is also because [at death] there are no longer any entanglements with others, and because [the dying person] has set down strong roots that provide the opportunity for awakening."56 QUESTION: "You have said that acknowledging the Emptiness of karma can transform [evil omens] into good, and that hearing the preaching of the Dharma can result in a great awakening, but I would dearly like to have a clearer under­ standing of this." ANSWER: "The Siitra on Severing the Bonds ofAffliction ofthe Ten Abodes57 states: '[In the intermediate existence], hundreds of thousands of sentient beings, when they are first about to receive a form, come to the gate of birth for which they are destined. At this time, in the ten directions, countless buddhas will all assume Transformation Bodies and abide in the realm of space. Utilizing their four types of qi and divine consciousness, they will preach the Dharma ofEmptiness.'58 The sutra also states: 'Whether they are on the verge of receiving the Aggregates for rebirth as a god, human, or hungry ghost, those who encounter this divine con­ sciousness of Emptiness in their intermediate existence-even only for the amount of time it takes to finish half a meal, or snap one's fingers-at that moment, mahiisattva bodhisattvas will appear and provide reforming teachings to each and every one, preaching the subtle way. The hearts ofthose who receive these teach­ ings will be immediately awakened. They will not receive the form of a sentient being, but will at that time gain the path [to Nirva1;1a].' "59 QUESTION: "Can any sick person obtain [this awakening]?" ANSWER: "No, not all sick people can obtain this. Before, I wrote, 'if a dying person can attain "patient awareness of the nonarising of phenomena," it is because they have set down strong roots that provide the opportunity for awak­ ening.' In their daily lives, people should be mindful of this point. Those who see my essay should be diligent in training their minds.60 Ifthey do so, even when they encounter a great [challenge], among those who have cultivated firm and sincere faith in their heart, not one out of ten thousand will be lost. Nevertheless, when their spirit is weakened by illness, even those who have endeavored to train them­ selves in their daily lives cannot easily attain [this awakening]. When I say, 'one with strong roots,' I do not mean those who are considered intelligent or discern­ ing in the eyes of the world. I mean those with strong, sincere, and pure faith. On the other hand, when I write of those whose spirit is weak, I do not mean those regarded as foolish or ignorant in the eyes of the world. I just mean those who have been slack or erratic [in their practice]." QUESTION: "Are the 'realm of nothingness' and the state of 'patient aware­ ness' the beginning stages of the ten stages of awakening, or the eighth stage?" ANSWER: "All the stages are interpenetrating. How is this so? It is because awakening is one; only the roots of awakening differ." QUESTION: "If one thinks of it this way, how will the different stages not be­ come confused?"

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ANSWER: "They will not become confused because these are the stages estab­ lished by the buddhas." QUESTION: "Does being 'reborn according to one's wishes' mean that one can will oneself to be born as a particular type of body?" ANSWER: "Yes." QUESTION: "Of the three goals you have described [obtaining auspicious omens, advancing to a higher destiny, and attaining the unobtainable], which should we strive for?" ANSWER: "Once again, all three fundamentally interpenetrate."

9. Mindfulness and Vows QUESTION: "The above three sections were addressed to those with superior roots and intelligence.61 But how could the ignorant and those with shallow roots simply ignore them?" ANSWER: "At this time, I would like to offer two points. My first point is that in the western direction, there is a great holy one. His name is Amitabha. This World Honored One is endowed with unlimited buddha wisdom and vision. In addition, he has established [the practice of] calling his name, such that his presence per­ meates the worlds of the ten directions. This is one of the manifestations of his ultimate buddha compassion [directed toward] doubting and benighted sen­ tient beings. When sick people are confronted with extreme suffering, they may single-mindedly take refuge in this buddha by being mindful of him and calling his jeweled name. At just this moment of mindfulness, without conceptualizing Amitabha [descending] to rescue them, without conceptualizing a longing for sal­ vation,62 without conceptualizing a lotus dais, without conceptualizing [Amitabha's] light, they completely cut off entanglements with worldly affairs and unnecessary mental activities, and their heart becomes solely and sincerely mindful ofAmitabha. Regardless of whether they become mindful once, ten times, or as many as one hundred or one thousand times, if they cease to engage in the countless forms of conceptualization and firmly and sincerely become mindful, there will be no more intrusive ideas. At this time, this buddha will appear before them. In midair, a holy assembly will advance and greet the sick person. Flowers will rain down. [The assembled host], will play [beautiful] music. All will ascend into the sky and depart into the west. Orthe sick person may see Avalokitdvara, Mahasthamaprapta, a golden lotus dais, or a glowing cloud. The differences in the visions of the dying will accord with the refinement or coarseness of their conceptualizations." QUESTION: "Among the various Buddhist schools, all say, 'one must rely on the power ofAmitabha's original vow.' Among the sixteen prescribed meditations [on aspects of Amitabha and the Pure Land], there is the contemplation of [Amitabha's] light, other contemplations, and [injunctions to call Amitabha to mind] ten times or a hundred times. 63 The Siitra ofthe Meditation on the Buddha of Immeasurable Life clearly explains these; why do you deny them?"

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ANSWER: "Meditative contemplation of [Amitabha] Buddha64 is a singularly valuable practice that should be performed single-mindedly. What you speak of is just the process [leading up to this practice]. Especially at the time of death, when the danger of forgetfulness is suddenly extreme, ten thousand years of merit can be accrued in one moment of mindfulness. If the sick person's mind wanders into some different idea during that moment of mindfulness, there is the fear that they might fall into some other destiny. Therefore, I say that at this time they must completely abandon their worldly concerns and firmly and exclusively practice mindfulness. If the person in question is one who has engaged in the pure prac­ tice [ofmindfulness] in everyday life, it is permissible for them to simultaneously engage in the above-mentioned visualizations as well." QUESTION: "Sections 6, 7, and 8 all establish how to transform visions by re­ alizing their Emptiness.65 But now having arrived at this section, why is it only now that it is not permissible [to de construct these visions]?" ANSWER: "People have a character they receive [at birth], which is divided into wise and ignorant [parts]. If ignorance predominates, they will be rebellious. If wisdom is abundant, they will be able to enhance that which is good.66 On this matter, you should reexamine the previous sections and reflect on the fact that there are times when some things are permitted and other times when the same things are forbidden. "So, now my second point: the practice of chanting the name of Amitabha, discussed above, is still a method that depends solely on the power to quiet the mind.67 But once the sick person has reached the extremity of suffering, is weak and unable to bear it, and can foresee that the end of their life will not be long in coming, they will begin to have so-called death dreams and see omens of death. In the hours or days beforehand, set up a buddha image and prepare lighted incense. The sick person, whether sitting or lying down, should put their hands together in a gesture of prayer68 and with utmost sincerity, face the buddha image and chant the Four Bodhisattva Vows, saying: 'Sentient beings are limitless; I vow to deliver them. Ignorance is without measure; I vow to cut it off. Dharma gates are inex­ haustible; I vow to know them. Bodhi is unsurpassable; I vow to attain it.' Once they have finished chanting, have them chant the Transfer ofMerit, saying: 'By the power ofthis vow, may sentientbeings not fall into the four evil destinies, may they not proceed to one of the eight situations in which it is impossible to hear the preaching of the Dharma, may they be reborn within a Buddha land, accomplish the Four Great Bodhisattva Vows, and obtain the highest path.109 If, [having com­ pleted these acts], they can attain their dissolution with a steadfast heart, it is assured that they will not be lost or fall [into one ofthe unfortunate destinies]. Even if the sick person is exhausted and does not have the wherewithal to consider this one act, friends and relatives who are with the dying person, while offering en­ couragement, can carry out these practices [on the sick person's behalf]. Or they can engage in the practice of chanting the name of Amitabha, described above. "Generally, those attending the dying person will constantly seek to rouse them and make efforts to keep their mind clear. If, even then, the dying person becomes

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subdued or despondent, they may or may not be capable of attaining one of the [beneficial] states [described above]." QUESTION: "The latter four sections all explain death. Why is there no dis­ cussion of rebirth as well?" ANSWER: "I have already noted: 'if one [achieves] the state of"the great mind of awakening and great perseverance" or "utmost resolve and ardency," then new fixed karma will not be created.'70 The Lotus Siitra also states: 'the monk Never De­ spising, nearing death, heard the Lotus Siitra preached in open space and ob­ tained the purification of the six faculties of sense perception, extending his life span by [a vast number of] incalculable ages, [allowing him to] preach [the siitra] to people far and wide.'71 However, for [ordinary] sick people who cannot attain [such a transformation], they should put their heart into [the single-minded prac­ tice of chanting the name of Amitabha]. If they can practice this with utmost purity, then [Amitabha] will [unexpectedly] come to them."

10. Exhortation to Disseminate This Text QUESTION: "May I ask the meaning of the title of this essay: 'Discourse on Illness and Its Appearances'?"72 ANSWER: "Illness corresponds to nature/3 appearance corresponds to forms or manifestations/4 discourse corresponds to nonduality." QUE STION: "What do you mean when you say, 'illness corresponds to nature'?" ANSWER: "The heart is originally pure. When the heart is even just slightly stained, this produces illness. Broadly speaking, we can say that suffering and pleasure are both illnesses [because they disturb the original clarity ofthe mind]. The two destinies of humans and deities tend to be afflicted with 'the illness of pleasure';75 the four evil destinies [of asuras, animals, hungry ghosts, and hell­ dwellers] tend to be afflicted with 'the illness of suffering.'76 Furthermore, even those who have reached the two vehicles of the "voice hearers" (sravaka) and the pratyekabuddha, or have progressed as far as the seventh ofthe ten stages ofthe bo­ dhisattva path, are afflicted with these two illnesses. Why is this so? It is because they all still have tainted hearts. The heart's own nature is at once stained and pure. Since it is originally pure, there is [in reality] no pleasure and no suffering. [Nonetheless], I say that illness corresponds to nature [because, regardless of the original purity oftheir hearts, it is the nature of every sentient being in the realm of saf!)siira to be tainted by delusion and thus subject to illness]." QUESTION: "What do you mean when you say, 'appearance corresponds to forms or manifestations?' " ANSWER: "Phenomena become visible as a result of some activity. They emerge in response to our vocal, mental, and physical karma [which give rise to our deluded conceptualizations of the world as comprised of discrete entities].77 Therefore, they are collectively named 'forms' or 'manifestations.'" QUESTION: "What is the meaning of'nondual'?"

78

DO CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS

ANSWER: "Nature and its forms share the same true essence. When we see nature, it is [only] as its forms. That to which forms return we understand as na­ ture. It is this way with [latent] illness and [outward] affliction. How can an af­ fliction that has arisen be related to a latent condition that does not arise? It is because the nature of illness is none other than its forms as symptoms, and vice versa. To summarize, we can say that illness is a form expressing the nature [of existence] and death is the [fundamental] nature to which all [temporary] forms return. Since nature and form are originally nondual, [neither] sickness nor death has [an independent existence]." In this text, I wished to clearly express this principle [ofthe nonduality of the nature of illness and its manifestations, and the nonduality of illness and death]. Therefore, I stated that discourse was associated with nondualism. Moreover, this text has illuminated the original cause of all the multitude of sufferings endured by sentient beings; the original Emptiness of the various kinds ofkarma; the proper forms of practice for moral advancement and ascetic training; and the orthodox principles of perfect truth. It has been my wish to instruct both the ignorant and the wise, and provide a resource for understanding life and death. Accordingly, I wish to leave this for like-minded people in hopes that it will serve as a decisive factor in their attainment of NirvaJ;Ia. This text is not solely to prepare for sud­ den, unexpected death. One should study it and carefully consider its meaning in everyday life when one is in good health. Or when one is laid low by illness, one should consult this text to develop the mental skills [necessary to confront one's suffering]. One must be flexible and yielding; one must be disdainful of gluttony; one must be immersed in compassion and utter tranquility.78 If you can achieve this, even once you reach the end of life, you will naturally find open space.

NOTES

1.

Genkoshakusho.

2.

Jp. gozan.

3.

Contemplation/insight (Jp.

kan; Ch. guan) is a central theme of the Essentials o{Practicing

Samatha and Vipa.Syana. See chapter 37.

4.

Palliative care was a major concern for Buddhist doctors in premodernJapan (Stone 2008).

5.

See section 6.

6.

The choice ofthe character gi in the title is a bit perplexing. Although its primary mean­ ing is "outward appearance," it is commonly used in terms related to ceremony or ritual

(gishiki),

and carries connotations of splendid or dignified comportment. One might as­

sume, therefore, that the title has something to do with one of the main themes of the text: the importance of adopting the prop er attitude when confronted with illness. Shi­ ren's owngloss on his title, however, contradicts such a reading, indicating that gi is to be interpreted as the outward forms through which the nature ofillness is manifested. I have taken the liberty of following this sense rather than a literal one in translating the title of this work as Treatise

on the Nature ofIllness and Its Manifestations.

OVERCOMING ILLNESS WITH INSIGHT

79

7.

Poceski 2 004: 346.

8.

We might represent the analogy this way: illness (byo) : underlying nature (sei) : principle

(ii) :: appearances (symptoms, maladies) (gi) : forms (so) : discrete phenomena (s hi).

9.

Byogiron; Kamimura 1936: 277-86. Yamada Shiizen has translated the work into modern Japanese (Miki and Yamada 1989: 287-348). I would like to express my gratitude to Profes­ sors Jacqueline Stone and Thierry Robouamfor the extremely helpful feedback they pro­ vided on drafts of this translation.

10.

Literally, before his hair was gathered into "horns" (agemaki) since a common hairstyle for children involved two protruding knots.

11.

In the Analects, Confucius claims that at the age of forty he ceased to have doubts; thus, the termfUwaku (no doubts) is used to indicate that age.

12. The text gives shinjin (to advance toward), but this might be a copyist error forshinjoku (to assault). Shiren also commented on his frail constitution in a letter, confiding "It is my nature to be often ill. In the course of a single year, I suffer illness on more than half the days. Even when I am not ill I am short of breath and feeble, so that I lack the health and strength of ordinary people" (Ury 1970: 78).

13. I have rendered the title of Shiren's fourth section "Containing the Mind." The character for "containing" (Jp. fUsegu or bo; Ch. fang; Skt. anurak;;a) could be translated as "guarding" or "protecting," but also carries connotations of "sealing." Like water in motion, Shiren tells us, the mind has a tendency to get carried away until it reaches torrential proportions and overflows its boundaries, wreaking havoc. The controlling metaphor, therefore, is not one ofguardingthe mind from external threats but ofkeepingthe mind corralled, hemmed in, subdued, and contained.

14.

Yamada Shiizen provides a gloss on the Byogiron's organization, explaining that it repro­ duces the tripartite structure of certain Buddhist scriptures (most notably the Lotus Sutra), comprising an introduction (Jp. jobun; eh. xufen), a main text (Jp. shoshubun; Ch. zhengzong

fen), and a dissemination section (Jp. ruzilbun; Ch. liutong fen). The introduction describes the origins and karmic causes ofthe sutra, the main text presents the teachings, and the dissemination section describes the merits that will accrue from circulating the sutra (Miki and Yamada 1989: 346n1).

15. The provisional (Jp. gon; eh. quan) versus the real (Jp. jitsu; eh. shi) is a familiar distinction in Buddhist discourse.

16. Jp. shu, sa, and taku. 17.

Throughout his essay, Shiren seeks to direct attention away from the relatively straight­ forward "subordinate" diagnostic categories of Cold, Heat, and Wind to what he sees as the more fundamental bases of illness, i.e., its "main" and "resident" causes.

18. Literally, greed is the "master of" or "in charge of" (shu) Cold, anger is the "master of" Heat, and ignorance is the "master of" Wind. East Asian Buddhist texts often glossed the

trido�a, as Wind, Heat, and Cold, and connected them with the three mental poisons of greed, anger, and ignorance (Salguero 2014: 80). To these, Shiren adds the three "resident causes" but never develops these relationships systematically. In section 2, Cold andHeat are mentioned in connection with unskillful use ofthe body (presumably related to the resident cause of "physical karma"); in section 3, Wind and Cold are mentioned in connection with the mouth (presumably related to the resident cause of "verbal karma"). But it is unclear

80

DO CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS how any of this would relate to the matrix he describes in section 1, except insofar as he notes that all causes can operate independently or in any number of combinations.

19.

In sections 2, 3, and 4, he discusses proper practices relating to the body, mouth, and mind, respectively, corresponding to the resident causes ofphysical, verbal, and mental karma. In section 5, he embarks on a discus sion of the main causes of illness, the Three Poisons.

20. Jp. myaku; eh. mo/mai. 21.

The characters for "neglect" and "indulge" are homophones; both read itsu or issu. Shi­ ren's maxim is thus a kind ofpun.

22. The Byogiron was composed in classical Chinese, which lacks gender-specific pronouns. Since Shiren gives no indication as to whether he imagines his hypothetical patients to be male or female, I have opted to employ "they," "them," and "their" as gender-neutral singular pronouns throughout my translation. 23.

Throughout the Byogiron, Shiren discusses the proper and improper disposition of the mind. In most cases, he employs a Chinese character that could be read in Japanese as i (eh. yi), which Chinese Buddhists usually employed to translate the Sanskrit manas (dis­ cussed in Lusthaus 2004: 919 and in chapter 6 ofthe currentvolume). This is also the term that is utilized when referring to the three types of karmic action: physical, verbal, and mental (the latter being i). From time to time, however, Shiren also employs the character for "heart" (Jp. kokoro or shin; Ch. xin; Skt. citta) to designate the seat ofmental and emo­ tional faculties. Since Shiren seems reasonably consistent in his use ofthese terms, I have tried to maintain the distinction by translating the former (i) as "mind" and the latter

(kokoro/shin) as "heart." (The one exception is the compound termshinshin [eh. xinshen], which I render as "body and mind.") 24.

"The waters of the heart."

25.

"The hundred things that move the heart."

26. Jp. tentan; eh. tiandan. 27.

T no. 670, 16: 495c19-21. The 511tm on the Appearance ofthe Buddha in the Kingdom ofLanka

(Lankii.vatii.ra 511tra; T no. 670) was especially valued within the Zen school because of its apocryphal association with Bodhidharma, the semilegendary ancestor of the Chan/Zen lineage. The Lankii.vatii.ra 511tra reiterates many of the teachings of the Yogadira school, which maintained that contrary to our everyday understanding ofa realm ofconsciousness distinct from a realm of o�ects, in fact, all phenomenal reality consists of "modifications of consciousness" (Hattori 2005: 9900). The passage Shiren quotes explains that ignorance generates the Four Great Elements ofEarth, Water, Fire, and Wind, since it is our discrimi­ nating consciousness that reifies these categories and interprets the world using them. Shiren begins by singling out the three Elements ofWater, Fire, and Wind, since these three are most often associated with pathogenesis in Buddhist medicine. His broader point, how­ ever, is that since the Four Elements are the basic building blocks out of which the body is constructed, not only illness but our very physical existence is "produced" through igno­ rance. Shiren might also be understood as simply reminding the reader of a fundamental tenet of Buddhism: that ignorance generates karma, which leads to rebirth. In this sense, the human body is a product ofthe ignorant thought and action of previous lives. 28. The five roots (Jp. gokon; Ch. wugen; Skt. paiicii.nii.m indriyii.J;lii.m) are the five faculties of sen­ sation: sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch.

OVERCOMING ILLNESS WITH INSIGHT 29.

81

Ordinarily, the seven parts of the body, or "seven loci" (Jp. shichi.sho; Ch. qichu), would re­ fer to the "seven convex and concave areas ofthe body" (Skt. sapta-sthana), the two hands, two feet, two shoulders, and neck. But Shiren is apparently paraphrasing a section from the Treati.se on the Great Perfection ofWi.sdom (Maha-prajiiaparamita-sastm) that describes the anatomy and physiology ofthe voice. For the relevant passage, see T no. 15 09, 25: 103a15 -20 (translated in Lamotte 1944, 1: 368). For a related passage in the Greater [Treati.se on]

Samatha and Vipasyana (Jp. Maka.shikan; Ch. Mohe Zhiguan; T no. 1911), see Dormer and Stevenson 1993: 224 and note 27. 30.

The six dusts (Jp. rokujin; eh. liuchen) are the six types of sensory data: form, sound, smell, taste, touch, and mental phenomena or dharmas.

31.

The three types ofkarma (Jp. sangi5; eh. sanye; Skt. trfni-karmar;Ii) are physical, verbal, and mental karma, which Shiren labels the "resident" causes of illness.

32. Jp. kigo or kigyo; eh. qiyu. 33. Jp. shi5kan; eh. zhengguan; Skt. yoni-vicaya. Kan (eh. guan) could be translated as "seeing," "contemplating," or "obtaining insight." Thus, when appropriate, I translate the term as "insight."

34. The wisdom Shiren refers to here (kan'e) is an abbreviation for kanbi5 chie (eh. guanfa zhi­ hui): wisdom(Skt. prajiia) that derives from insight into the nature of dharmas. 35.

For "fixed karma," Shiren gives ji5/tei (an abbreviation forJp. ji5gi5 or teigyi5; eh. dingye; Skt.

niyata-vedanfya-karma); for karma that can be "transformed" or "overturned," he gives ten (eh. zhuan). 36.

Shiren's references to "the great mind of awakening and great perseverance" (Jp. dai.shin

dainin; eh. daxin daren) and the state of"utmost resolve and ardency" (Jp. shakenshi; eh. zhijian zhimeng) deserve comment. We can identify dai.shin as maha-citta, but the other three "stages" are unclear. "Great perseverance" possibly refers to the sixth of the ten paramita, or to "patient awareness of the nonarising of phenomena [dharmas]" (Jp. mushi5hi5nin; eh. wushengfa ren; Skt. anutpattika-dharma-k?anti), which Shiren discusses below. Similarly, the state of "utmost resolve and ardency" might refer to the eighth of the ten pammita. 37. Jp. Daiji5 kenjiki kyi5; eh. Dasheng xianshi jing; T no 347. This passage actually appears in the

Daodijing (T no. 607), An Shigao's translation of a portion of Sa:rpgharak�a's Yogacarubhumi. 38.

Much ofthe Byogiron is devoted to an exploration ofthe various "signs" or "omens" (Jp. si5; eh. xiang; Skt. lak?ar;Ia) that appear at the time of death. In this section, he discusses evil omens (Jp. akusi5; eh. exiang; Skt. dumimitta), auspicious omens (Jp. zensi5; eh. shanxiang), and "superior omens" (Jp. shi5si5, eh. shengxiang; Skt. viS�a-la k}ar;Ia). The termsi5 has a wide range of uses. It could be translated as "distinguishing marks," "characteristics," "perceptual forms," or "appearance." It could refer, for example, to the thirty-two physiognomic marks of buddhas, or to miraculous signs that accompany auspicious deaths, such as purple clouds or sweet smells, which assure the faithful that the departed has been reborn in aB uddhist paradise. In the Byi5giron, however, it is most often used to refer to mental phenomena, i.e., the specifickinds ofdreams and visions that occur when one is approaching the end ofone's hfe. That Shiren tends to use the term to refer to mental phenomena is underscored in his concluding section, at which point he begins to treat si5 as essentially interchangeable with a cognate term (Jp. si5; eh. xiang; Skt. sarrjiia) referring to concepts, ideas, or mental formations. On signs of impending death, cf. chapter 50§21 of the current volume.

82

DO CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS

39. Jp. gii5hii or go55hii; eh. yezhang; Skt. karma-iivaral!a. 40. Jp. kan5ii; eh. guanxiang. 41. Jp. Biya5hamon kyii; T no. 354. 42.

T no. 354, 12: 227bll-14.

43.

T no. 354, 12: 228a17-19.

44. Jp. 5hiigon; eh. zhuangyan; Skt. alamkiira. 45. Jp. Sanjiisan ten or Tiiriten; eh. San5hi5an tian; Skt. Triiya5trirr§a. 46.

The realm of desire (Jp. yokkai; eh. yujie; Skt. kiima-dhiitu) is one of the three worlds (Jp. sangai; eh. 5anjie; Skt. traidhiituka) of desire, form, and formlessness that make up

5a1f1.Siira. 47.

T no 347, 12: 184c06-185b17.

48.

T no. 607.

49.

T no. 607, 15: 233c13-23.

50. Jp. nen; eh. nian; skt. smrti. 51.

The Buddha Explain5 the Con5ecrationRite Accompanying Vows to Be Reborn in the Pure Lands of

the Ten Direction5 Sutra (]p. Busset5u kanjii zuigan iijii jippii jiido kyii; eh. Foshuo guanding sui yuan wang5heng 5hifangjingtujing) is section 11 of The Buddha Explain5 the Mantra5 ofthe Con5ecrationRites ofthe Seventy-Two Thousand Divine Kings Who Protect Bhilqus Sutm (Jp. B=etsu kanjii shichiman nisen5hinnii go bikuju kyii; eh. fo5huo guanding qiwanerjianshenwang hu biqiu zhoujing; T no. 1331, 21: 530a06-15). 52. Jp. Uba5oku kai kyii; T no. 1488. 53. Jp. fuka5higi; eh. bu ke5iyL 54. 55.

T no. 1488, 24: 1042b05. eonceptualization ofkarma (Jp. giisii; eh. yexiang); conceptualization ofEmptiness (Jp. kiisii; eh. kongxiang).

56.

At this point, it is unclear whether Shiren is saying that all people gain strong roots at the time of death. Later, it becomes apparent that he means that the kinds of deathbed salva­ tion he is discussing are only available to those who already have strong roots.

57. ]Uju danketsu kyii; T no. 309. 58.

ParaphrasingT no. 309, 10: 1014a15-18 (eh. Shizhu duanjiejing).

59.

ParaphrasingT no. 309, 10: 1033c21-1034a02.

60.

Technically, Shiren calls for training the "heart" (Jp. kokoro or shin; eh. xin; Skt. citta).

61.

In his introduction, Shiren states thatthe middle four sections (5, 6, 7, and 8) were geared toward the wise. It is unclear why here he refers to only the previous three sections.

62. Jp. katsugii; eh. keying. 63.

The sixteen visualizations are described in the Sutm ofthe Meditation on the Buddha ofimmea-

5urable Life (]p. Kan muryiiju kyii; eh. Guan wuliangshou jing [a.k.a. Jp. B=etsu kan muryoju butsu kyii; eh. Foshuo guan wuliangshou fojing]; T no. 365). 64. Jp. nenbutsu zanmai. 65.

Although the previous sections were about transforming signs or omens, here Shiren sub­ stitutes a cognate term, also pronounced 5o (Skt. sarrjna).

66.

Shiren seems to be implying thatthe question itself is facetious. Or he might simply mean that some have sufficient wisdom to be able to contemplate the Emptiness oftheir visions, while others do not.

OVERCOMING ILLNESS WITH INSIGHT 67.

83

Although he writes often ofmindfulness (Jp. nen; Ch. nian), this is one ofthe few instances in which Shiren uses the compound nenbutsu (also written nembutsu; Ch. nianfo; Skt. Buddha­

anusmrti), suggesting chanting the name ofAmitabha rather than the broader set ofprac­ tices related to mindfulness ofthe Buddha. 68. Jp. ga.ss ho. 69.

Yamada states that although dedications of merit are usually borrowed from the Lotus

Siltra, here Shiren is using the final verses of the Awakening ofFaith in the Mahayana (Jp. Daijo kishin ron; eh. Dasheng qixin lun; T no. 1666) (Miki and Yamada 1989: 384n24). However, I am unable to locate these verses anywhere in the Taisho Tripitaka. 70.

See section 6.

71.

Paraphrasing T no. 262, 9: 51a02-07.

72.

The interlocutor is asking how to interpret the three characters that make up the title of the work: Illness (byo), Appearances (gi), and Discourse (ron).

73. Jp. sei. 74.

Jp. so. Also sometimes translated as "characteristics."

75. Jp. rakubyo. 76. Jp. kubyo. 77.

Literally, phenomena are "drummed up" like waves when the surface of a calm body ofwater is agitated. Shiren likely borrows this imagery from the Lankiivatiira Siltra. See T no. 670, 16: 484c08.

78. Jp. kanshin wansha.

8. Karma in the Bathhouse

The Sutra on Bathing the Sangha in the Bathhouse C . P I E R C E SALGUERO

his chapter focuses on a Buddhist scripture called the Sutra on Ilathing the Sangha in the

T Ilathhouse, often referred to as the Ilathhouse Sutra. The main plotline ofthe text is the visit to the Buddha by one ofhis notable lay supporters, the physician]fvaka. The

latter is a figure who is celebrated across the Buddhist world as a model lay devotee and a wondrous healer (see chapters 1 and 20), and who in East Asia is regularly referred to as the "King of Physicians."1 The reason for Jfvaka's appearance before the Buddha on this particular occasion is his anxiety about not having cultivated enough karmic merit during his lifetime. Jfvaka consequently invites the Buddha and his assembly ofbo­ dhisattvas and monks to use his bathhouse to clean themselves and to cure any ill­ nesses they may have. The Buddha praises Jfvaka for his generosity and explains the "incalculable" merit the King of Physicians will earn from making this donation. He explains how each of the implements Jfvaka donates for the bathhouse have a thera­ peutic effect on the monks that use them, which each then correlate to karmic merits that Jfvaka stands to earn in the future. The discourse thus sheds light on the practices, social significance, and ideology of bathing in Buddhist communities. This particular text unfortunately does not include much practical detail about the specific steps involved in cleansing the body or the material culture involved in utilizing a bathhouse. Perhaps the author(s) assumed that the reader would be familiar with these activities from exposure to the disciplinary literature, monastic custom, oral knowl­ edge, or other Buddhist sources of practical information on bathing.2 Instead, the pri­ mary focus ofthe text is on thekarmic merits of]fvaka's donation. Indeed, this narrative

KARMA IN THE BATHHOUSE

85

about the donation of a bathhouse to the monastic order by a model layperson se=s primarily designed as an appeal for the lay patronage ofmonastic infrastructure. Histori­ cally, the message that donating to the Sangha resulted in health-related karmic merits was well received in East Asia, and the construction of monastic facilities-including bathhouses-was not uncommon. Once constructed, monastic bathhouses could be utilized both by monastics and the laity, and came to provide leisure spaces for the so­ cial interaction ofthe larger community ofwhich the monastery was a part.3 The Bathhouse Sutra, a short text combining prose and verse, appears in the Tcrisho Tripitaka in several editions. These include an independent sutra text titled the Sutra on Bathing the Sangha in the Bathhouse, which is translated in full here, as well as similar versions of the text =bedded in commentaries from the Sui and Tang periods.4 The orig­ inal translation of the sutra text into Chinese has traditionally been attributed to An Shigao (£1. 148-170 C.E.), the earliest named translator in Chinese history. However, schol­ ars have long known that many of the attributions to this particular translator were fabricated at a later date, and some have argued that the Bathhouse Sutra was likely pro­ duced by the later translator Dharmarak�a (265-313).5 If its authorship remains uncertain, it is also unknown whether this text is a trans­ lation from an Indic original or an apocryphon or pseudotranslation (i.e., a domestic Chinese composition that was passed off as a translation).6 If there was indeed an Indic original, certain liberties were taken in the rendering of the text in Chinese, as it con­ tains several indigenous Chinese medical terms. The translator of this text also chose to describe the karmic benefits earned by Jfvaka with Chinese words such as fu and bao, which are commonly found in indigenous Chinese religious discourses. The use of these terms in the sutra would have made clear the significance of Buddhist ideas to a lay audience that may not be intimately familiar with the particularities of Indian thinking on karma, and would have served to situate the Buddha's teachings within long-standing Chinese notions about divine retribution and recompense." The Buddha's use of the Chinese term fa in the sutra in reference to the practice of bathing also deserves comment, as understanding the full range of meanings of this word enhances our appreciation of the significance of the bathhouse. Fa, a common Chi­ nese word principally meaning "rule" or "law," is used in Buddhist texts as a translation for the Sanskrit term "Dharma." Though the term can be used to simply mean "method," it is laden with a complex bicultural web of connotations about virtue, truth, justice, and duty. Its use in the sutra to refer to the method of bathing taught by the Buddha signals to us that this is more than simply a practical way of going about the business of cleaning the body. Rather, the "fa of bathing" might be better understood as a ritual action with extensive moral and spiritual consequences. If bathing has such far-reaching signific ance, it is because of the equation made throughout the text between physical cleanliness and moral purity.8 The sutra constantly moves back and forth between both sides ofthis equation, using the Chinese term gou to refer both to physical dirtiness and moral defilement, and the termjing to refer both to physical cleanliness and moral purity. The final line of the verse sums up this rela­ tionship: "How one's inner virtue comes to manifest outwardly is a most marvelous truth about one's actions." It is also worth noting how physical benefits and karmic merits

86

DO CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS

are intertwined with social benefits in the sutra. The donation of the bathhouse en­ sures that Jivaka earns the karmic merit to become physically perfect in future lives. This physical perfection causes him to be respected socially in future lives, which propels his ability to earn meritorious karma even further. The text thus establishes a complex feedback loop between personal hygiene, cure of disease, merit making, bodily perfec­ tion, social influence, ritual purity, and auspicious rebirth.

FURTHER READING Heirman, Ann, and Mathieu Torck. 2012. A Pu re Mind in a Clean Body: Bodily Care in the Buddhist

Monasteries ofAncient India and China. Ghent: Academia Press. Kieschnick, John. 2013. "A History of the Bathhouse in Chinese Buddhist Monasteries." In Xin­

yang, shijian yu wenhua tiaoshi (Religion: Practice and Text Compared), Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Chinese Studies, ed. Kang Bao (Paul Katz) and Liu Shufen. Taipei: Zhongyangyanjiuyuan. Mrozik, Susanne. 2007. Virtuous Bodies: The Physical Dimension ofMorality in Buddhist Ethics. New York: Oxford University Press. Salguero, C. Pierce. 2013. "Fields of Merit, Harvests of Health: Some Notes on the Role of Medi­ cal Karma in the Popularization of Buddhism in Early Medieval China." Asian Philosophy 23 (4): 341-49. Schafer, Edward H. 1956. "The Development ofBathing Customs in Ancient and Medieval China and the History of the Floriate Clear Palace." journal of the American Oriental Society 76 (2): 57-82.

THE S U TRA ON BA THING THE SANGHA IN THE BA THHO USE 9 Ananda said: Thus have I heard from the Buddha . . . 10 At one time, the Buddha was at Vulture Peak in Rajagrha, Magadha. There, too, was the great householder, the son of Amrapali [i.e., the goddess of the mango grove], whose name wasJivaka, and who was the Great King of Physicians. He had learned to cure myriad diseases when still young, and had fully mastered the [medical] craft. He knew entirely the Five Classics, astrology, and geography. Of those that he treated, there were none he could not heaL Having brought the dead back to life and turned back the funeral hearse, his merits were so profound they cannot be described. He was renowned in the Eight Kingdoms, and all that saw him were gladdened. The previous night,Jivaka had had a sudden thought: "Tomorrow, I should go to the Buddha to ask about my doubts." Hence, early on that morning, he led an assembly of his kinsmen young and old to the place where the Buddha was. Arriving at the monastery gates, they saw the Buddha's radiance illuminating the heavens and the earth. [Around him] sat a crowd ofthe four types of disciples numbering into the tens of millions, all sitting still and listening as the Buddha

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was preaching. Ji:vaka and his kinsmen alighted from their vehicles and went straight to the Buddha. They each paid him respects, and sat to the side. The Buddha welcomed him saying, "Welcome, King of Physicians! Come now, and ask your question so that you will have no further doubts!" Kneeling, Ji:vaka addressed the Buddha: "Although I was born into this world as a human being, I have been negligent and dissolute, living a common, worldly life, and have yet to attain merit. Therefore, I wish to invite the Buddha and the assembled monastics and bodhisattvas to come to bathe in my bathhouse. I wish to cause those who are in the 'long night' [of suffering and nonenlightenment] to be purified, for their impurities to be cleansed, and to prevent their myriad af­ flictions. Only the Buddha's sacred decree can ensure that my wish is not in vain." The Buddha said to the King of Physicians: "Excellent! [This is a] wonderful in­ tention! This will cure everyone's diseases, and all will become healed. [People] near and far will appreciate this request, and there will be none who will not be happy. Now, you have asked the Buddha and all of the assembly to come to bathe in your bathhouse. And you also wish that they might cure their illnesses with all the medicines of the ten directions and wash away their filth. This is an incalculable merit! Listen attentively, as I will now explain to you the meritori­ ous karma that comes from bathing the Sangha." The Buddha said to Ji:vaka, "The method [literally, 'dharma'] ofbathing is that one should use seven things to drive out seven illnesses, and thus to achieve seven meritorious rewards. What are those seven things? 1. aroaringfire11 2. clean water 3. bathing beans12 4. ointment13 5. pure ash14 6. a willow branch15 7. the undergarment16 Such is the method of bathing. And what are the seven illnesses that are removed? 1. The Four Great Elements will be in equilibriumY 2. Wind Disease is removed. 3. Damp Paralysis is removed. 4. Piercing Cold is removed. 5. Feverish Qi is removed. 6. Impurities are removed. 7. The body [becomes] light and at ease, and the eyes sharp and bright. Such is the removal of the Sangha's seven illnesses. From making such a dona­ tion, you will accrue seven merits. What are these seven merits?

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will be peaceful. [You will be] brave and able-bodied, causing the multitudes to respect [you]. 2. The body into which are born will be pure. Your appearance will be upright, unbesmirched by dirt and water, causing people to respect [you]. 3. Your body will always be fragrant, and [your] clothing will be clean. Those who see you will be pleased, and there will be none who do not revere you. 4. Your skin will be lustrous, radiating your inner virtue. There will be none who do not admire [you]. You will be unequalled. 5. [You will have] attendants to sweep away your dust. Receiving such benefits naturally, you will always know [it is because of] your previous deeds.18 6. Your mouth and teeth will be fragrant, square, white, even, and straight. Therefore, when you teach and give orders, there will be none who do not re­ spect [what you say] and put it to use. 7. The circumstances into which you are born will be such that without effort you will have clothing, bright adornments, andjewels. Those who see you will be awed." The Buddha said to J!vaka, "The result of bathing the Sangha and bodhisattvas and accumulating the seven merits in this way is that [in future rebirths], one shall become a minister, or an emperor, or a Great King of the Sun, Moon, and the four regions. Or, one shall become Indra or a wheel-turning monarch, or will be reborn in the Brahma heaven and receive immeasurable good fortune. Or, one shall become a bodhisattva of [various levels of attainment], and then a buddha. Such are the results!l9 Giving such an offering to the Sangha is an immeasurable field of merit: drought and flood can do it no harm."20 Then, the World-Honored one repeated [the teaching] again for J!vaka in the following verse: Observing all the Three Worlds [i.e., all levels of sa7)1slira], [one sees] there are gods and men who receive luminous merit and unlimited virtues. Listen again while I explain: Reborn into this world, this person will be upright and respectable, with a body that is forever pure. This comes from bathing the Sangha. If he becomes a great minister, he will be wealthy, fortunate, and peaceful. Brave, strong, loyal, and able, he will come and go without hindrance. People will uphold and employ whatever he says. His body will always be fragrant, clean, elegant in form, and at ease. This comes from bathing the Sangha. If he is born among the deva-kings, right from that moment he will be spot­ lessly pure. Bathing with fragrant baths, fragrance will infuse his body. Whosoever sees his body, in whichever of its many different forms, cannot but be happy. Such are the meritorious results of building a bathhouse for bathing the Sangha.

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[Born among the deva-kings], in the first place [he may become] one of the Four Heavenly Kings who rule over the territories of the four directions. His radiant body will be elegant, and his inner virtue will protect the four do­ mains. The sun, moon, and the constellations will shine, eliminating all darkness. These meritorious rewards come from the influence of bathing the Sangha. [Born among the deva-kings], secondly [he may be reborn] as Sakra (also known as Indra) in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three De vas, within walls made ofthe six treasures, in a palace made of seven. Bold and fierce, revered among the gods, elegant and long-lived. Such an unparalleled reward as this comes from bathing the Sangha. [If he is reborn] in the world as a wheel-turning monarch, with the seven treasures laid out before him, he may rove beyond the four seas with his army of eighty-four thousand. His sparkling treasure will shine day and night, and fair maidens will be offered to him at every turn. Elegant in body, fragrant and clean, this comes from bathing the Sangha. In the sixth [type of possible] rebirth, he manifest as a deity, reverenced above all others in the Heavens of the Desire Realms. His heavenly appear­ ance will be dazzling to the utmost, and his awesome spiritual power will shake the six heavens. Food, ambrosia, and courtesans will spontaneously ap­ pear by his side. These many virtues, so difficult to describe adequately, all come from bathing the Sangha. [Next, he may be reborn as] Brahma, lord of the world, naturally pure in mind and practice. His actions [will be] pure without any defilement, he never again will have to [be reborn in] a female form. 21 Through Brahma's actions and practices, he purifies himself, and he [develops] a genuine desire for Nirvatfa. Accomplishing rebirth into this heaven, this comes from bathing the Sangha. [Finally, he may be reborn as] a Buddha, honored by the three worlds. He practices the Path most ardently. He accumulates good deeds over incal­ culable eons, until he attains true enlightenment. He has a golden body and a garland ofjade, his body is untouched by any impurity, and his halo is fulL This comes from bathing the Sangha. All the Buddhas attained [their buddhahood] through their countless and tireless actions. When they are given donations by people of the Three Worlds, there is no way that this can be ineffective. The reverencing of the Buddha and the four types of monas tics is an excellent field of merit. How one's inner virtue comes to manifest outwardly is a most marvelous truth about one's actions. Once the Buddha had spoken these verses, he again said to Jivaka, "Observe! In the three realms of sarrzsiira, there are men and gods, exalted and lowly, tall and short, with merits many or few. All of this comes from the differences in how they applied their minds in previous lifetimes. It is for that reason that the situations

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[they are born into] are so different from one another. And one will receive all of that merit merely from bathing the holy order!" After the Buddha had spoken these words, Ananda asked the Buddha, "What should we call this sii.tra? And how should we promote it?" The Buddha said to Ananda, "This sii.tra is called the the Sii.tra on Bathing the Sangha in the Bathhouse. It is taught by all the Buddhas. I did not make this up my­ self. Those who practice will attain salvation. It is not that the gods bestow it: the pursuit of pure merits must be ardently practiced by one's self." After the Buddha had spoken these words, Jivaka and his kinsmen who had heard the sii.tra werejoyful and attained the level of stream entry.22 They paid their respects and requested leave to prepare the bathing equipment. The seated crowds great and small [also] attained the Path. All together, they bowed their heads in reverence to the Buddha and then departed.

NOTES 1.

OnJivakain Chinese sources, see Chen Ming 2005a and Salguero 2009. For the Indian and Tibetan contexts, see Zysk 1998: 52-61. Schopen glosses the Sanskrit term vaidyanija as "royal physician'' in chapter 20, n. 36.

2.

See discussion in Heirman and Torck 2012. A similar plothne to the Bathhouse Sutra is found in some Vinaya sources (see p. 54, n. 26).

3.

See, e.g., Yang 1984: 177-78; cited in Schafer 1956: 69-70. Stories about monks building baths are also found in hagiographies from the Tang, suggesting that such donations became a laudable practice among the ordained as well (eh'en 1973: 301-2). On Buddhist bathing in Japan, see Miyazaki and Williams 2001; Williams 2004b; chapter 22 ofthe present volume.

4.

These are T nos. 1793 and 2780. The latter was recovered in manuscript formfrom the Mogao grottoes at Dunhuang.

5.

On the authorship of this text, see Heirman and Torck 2012: 56-57n39. On the many misattributions to An Shigao, see Ziircher 1992, 1996.

6.

On Chinese Buddhist apocrypha in general, see essays in Buswell 1990.

7.

See salguero 2013a, 2014b: 73-78.

8.

See extensive discussion of the physical dimension of moral virtue in Buddhism in

9.

Foshuowen.shi xiyu zongsengjing, T no. 701.

Mrozik 2007. 10.

This is an unusual opening for a sutra. This, as well as other irregularities in the text, is perhaps evidence ofits apocryphal nature.

11.

The Dunhuang commentary (T no. 2780, 85: 538b18-20) recommends that the fire have a strong flame and little soot or smoke, and that the water be able to remove dirt while still running clear.

12.

"Bathing beans" (zaodou) are the saponin-containing seeds or fruits of various plants com­ monly used in both India and China for cleansing the body and clothing. See discussion in Gode 1946; Needham2000: 86-90; Heirman and Torck 2012: 49-51.

KARMA IN THE BATHHOUSE 13.

What I have translated as " ointment"

91

(sugao; literally, " butter paste") is a moisturizer or

emollient that presumably was made from butter or ghee. The Dunhuang commentary (T no. 2780, 85: 539a02-04) specifies that this paste should be massaged into thejoints. 14.

This probably refers to ashes used to make alkalis for cleansing (see Heirman andTorck 2012: 57n41). The Dunhuang commentary (T no. 2780, 85: 538b21) specifies that the ash should be made from burning the wood of the mountain mulberry

(shansang).

15.

A willow branch (yangzhi) or other type of twig was a common implement used for clean­

16.

The undergarment (eh.

ing the teeth in Buddhist monastic practice. See Heirman andTorck 2012: 109-25.

neiyi;

Skt.

antaravasaka) is

the inner robe prescribed by the mo­

nastic disciplinary codes when bathing to preserve modesty. On monastic robes, see Kieschnick 1999, 2 003: 86-107. 17.

This list of illnesses includes three named diseases that are drawn from Chinese medi­ cine (shibi, cine

hanbing, reqi), and one that may

(fengbing). The Sui andTang

be drawn either from Chinese or Indian medi­

commentaries further interweave Indian and Chinese

knowledge in their interpretations of these passages.Their explanations for how bathing confers the above health benefits draw on Indian concepts linking the Winds with the sen­ sory organs, the Chinese medical doctrine of the interstices of the skin

(couli),

and the

Chinese concept of qi (seeT no. 1793, 39: 514c01-05;T no. 2780, 85: 538b29-c04). They also reorder the correlations between the list of bathing implements and their effects in their attempt to make sense of them. 18.

These benefits are reminiscent of a list of attributes of a righteous king appearing in T no. 293: 713b-c.

19.

The Sui commentary (T no. 1793, 39: 514c22 -2 3) explains that this passage lists ]lvaka's possi­ ble destinations beginning with re births in the worldly realm, followed by those beyond the worldly realm, then those within what the commentary calls the " Lesser Vehicle" (e.g., rebirth in the deva-worlds), and ultimately, those within the Mahayana path (i.e., bod­ hisattvahood and buddhahood).

20.

The metaphor of the " field of merit" is common in Buddhist discourses. The implication here is that Jivaka's merit is an investment that will redound to his benefit and will be im­ pervious to destruction.

21.

As in many Buddhist texts, a female birth is understood here as an unlucky break.

22.

Skt. srotapanna.

9. Liberating the Whole World Sudhana's Meeting with Samantanetra from the

Sutra ofthe Entry Into the Realm ofReality W I L L IAM ] . G I D D I N G S

he spiritual journey undertaken by bodhisattvas in fulfillment of their quests to

T become buddhas forms the central theme ofthe Sutra ofthe Entry Into the Realm of

Reality.1 Part of a larger composite text called the Flower Ornament Sutra/ this text's epic

quest is famously depicted on the temple murals ofBorobudur in Java. The main char­ acter of the text, its hero, is the youthful Sudhana. A persona with whom the reader is encouraged to identify, Sudhana embarks on an arduous yet revelatoryjourney that car­ ries him across many lands to meet a wide range ofthe so-called good-friends (kalyat�a­ mitras), or gurus, from each ofwhom he receives instruction. When requested, each guru shares with Sudhana details of diverse and individual means ofpractice, a pedagogy in which each of the encounters functions to unveil or communicate a facet ofthe nature ofthe Buddha Dharma. Yet, as diverse as these revelations are, they are unified by a com­ mon vision-the welfare of all others. These encounters often involve leading Sudhana into phantasmagorical environ­ ments in which a world beyond mundane appearances is displayed. The cumulative effect of each one of these is that Sudhana begins to mature. Rather than seeking out something self-rewarding or entertaining only to himself, his journeys and the liminal nature of the experiences he undergoes nurture within him an ever-broadening intuitive under­ standing of the deeper reality of the goal he seeks. The wisdom that he acquires, then, has little direct personal benefit. It does not miraculously elevate or transform him into something else. What he does come to see is the wondrous interrelationship between all living creatures, and that the pursuit he is engaged in is part ofa complete celebration

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of life with the sole purpose of benefiting all other living creatures without exception. Although the tale culminates with his encounter with Samantabhadra Bodhisattva Mahasattva, the translation below depicts his meeting with the less widely known Samantanetra. Ostensibly a market seller ofincense, there is much more to Samantanetra. He is a master of cures and a blender of medicinal gums and resins, the wholesome ef­ fects of which are not merely to make the world smell better, but to heal and transform negative perceptions of it. The particular text from whichthis translation was prepared is a Chinese recension, which appears under the title "Striving Toward the Incomprehensible [Task] ofLiberat­ ing the Whole World: The Section on Samantabhadra's Vow." It was produced by Praji'ia, a dharma preacher3 from Kashmir who was active in China during the Tang dynasty (circa 798). Two other earlier versions exist in Chinese produced by Buddhabhadra (circa 420 C.E.) and Sik�ananda (circa 699 C.E.).4 ofthese, the Sik�ananda text has been previously translated into English by Thomas Cleary. In addition to these, versions exist in Tibetan (translated by Surendra and Vairocana Rak�ita, ea. ninth century C.E.)5 and Sanskrit.6 The value of selecting the Praji'ia text for inclusion in this anthology is that in com­ parison with both the extant Sanskrit and the Sik�ananda text Cleary used, the Praji'ia recension clearly situates the understanding of illness and its causes within an Indic context, with little or no attempt to justify or explain it with prevailing Chinese con­ cepts. It is not possible to establish why the Praji'ia text contains such additional detail, although the notion that it is to ensure exegetical transmission cannot be r�ected. By drawing on narratives that are Indic but not uniquely Buddhist and by using a few lines alluding to well-chosen principles, Samantanetra explains to the youthful Sudhana how illnesses arise according to familiar Indian medical ideas. He explains how sickness hap­ pens through an imbalance of the three do$as, the impact of the seasonal changes and lifestyle, and how the life cycle of the cosmos is echoed in the five stages of human life. This text also affirms the connection between the mind and the body, and suggests that the health of the population is a concern worthy of the king's attention. In a vein characteristic of Mahayana thought, the SU:tra oft he Entry Into the Realm of Reality shows the mundane becoming the basis for the supramundane. Or rather, mun­ dane actions can conceal transcendent spiritual activities. As a market trader, Saman­ tanetra is placed in a potentially ambiguous role-is he a merchant trader, an incense blender, or a perfumer? Regardless of this, his capability in his craft produces trans­ formative results. His working knowledge ofthe effects ofblending and burning aromatic gums and resins-which, apart from curing, offer a sense of pleasure or purify bad smells-also has the potential to inspire visions of a noetic world of perfumed clouds that transcends the market square and its own attractions. A further characteristic of this text worthy of note is that it describes a list of ten Perfections rather than the more commonly mentioned six. This is not a completely dis­ tinct list but rather adds four further perfections that harmonize the differences be­ tween Sudhana as aspirant and as mentor. Sudhana is seeking out a path for himself and must first comprehend the path in terms of his own needs. To do so will require him to practice the usual six Perfections. But once he has become an accomplished bod­ hisattva (i.e., a mahasattw) the task of doctoring-of authentically working for the benefit

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of others-truly begins and his view of the path will broaden. The list therefore ex­ tends from the usual (1) generosity, (2) ethical behavior, (3) forbearance, (4) verve or determination, (5) meditation, and (6) insight or creative intelligence, to the application of this intelligence as (7) skillful means, (8) transference ofmerit or working for the com­ mon good, (9) power, capability, or effectiveness, and (10) deep understanding of the needs of others and the means of communication. Hence, this text narrates a progressive path by which Sudhana passes through ten grounds or lands (bhiimis; see chapter 6) on his journey from first aspiration to the ultimate and complete awakening of a buddha.

FURTHER READING Cleary, Thomas. 1993. The Flower Ornament Scripture. Boston: Shambhala. Fontein, Jan. 1967. The Pilgrimage ofSudhana: A Study ofGar;tgavyuha Illustrations in China, japan and

Java. The Hague: Walter de Gruyter. Uianemets, Mart. 2015. "On the Meaning of 'Good Friendship' in Buddhism" In When Gods

Spoke: Researches and Reflections on Religious Phenomena and Artefacts, ed. Peeter Espak, Mart Laanemets, and Vladimir Sazonov, 161-81. Tartu: University ofTartu Press. McHugh, James. 2012. Sandalwood and Carrion: Smell in Indian Religion and Culture. New York: Oxford University Press. Osto, Douglas. 2009. "The Supreme Array Scripture: A New Interpretation of the Title

'Gar;tgavyuha-sutra." 'journal ofIndian Philosophy 37: 273-90.

" ST R I V I N G T O W A R D T H E I N C O M P R E H E N S I B L E [TASK] O F L I B E R A T I N G THE WHOLE W O R L D : THE S E C T I O N O N S A M A N T A B HAD RA' S Vow"7

[The Meeting with Samantanetra] 8 Eventually, Sudhana reached the great gates of a city encircled by one hundred thousand villages. This city was vast and adorned in so many different ways. The ramparts were high and steep; the ditches and paths broad and flat. The market was laid out for one hundred traders, whose wares were many, beautiful, and pleasing. Porters came and went as all manner of people and things could be seen.

[Entering the Market Place] At that time, Sudhana asked in the city for the whereabouts ofthe market trader for whom he was searching. Someone answered, saying, "He is in the market quarter, the place selling incense and medicines." After hearing this, he went straight there. Sudhana saw Samantanetra seated on a platform filled with incense. Sudhana then prostrated at his feet, and bringing his palms together, stood up and said:

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"Sir! I have already raised my thoughts toward unexcelled perfect enlightenment, but as I still do not know how to become a bodhisattva, explain to me, how am I to train in the bodhisattva pursuit and progress upon the bodhisattva path?" The market trader said: "Excellent, excellent! Good son! You are already able to raise thoughts of unexcelled perfect enlightenment. Good son! Long ago in the past, I was at the side of Prince Mafijusri [Bodhisattva], with whom I practiced and trained in gaining an understanding of how illnesses arise from their roots, and the wonderful means of healing ailments using fragrant gums and resins as the essential method. Because I came to fully understand the cause of every sort of sickness for every living creature, I therefore knew how to heal those illnesses. That is to say: imbalances of the three do?aS, fevers, demonic seizures, bewitch­ ment, and injuries sustained by water and fire. That is, for every sort of internal and external illness-the list is endless! "As I now fully understand these within a single thought, I know how to use various sorts of herbal treatments as a means of healing and remedies for draw­ ing out sickness, [thus allowing one to] return to health, calm, and contentment. The same applies to entering the gateway of the Dharma. This is how you must train and progress."

[On Comparing the Bodhisattva Path to Curing the Ills of others] Sudhana then said: "Sir! I must ask about the bodhisattva's practice of the Noble Path. Explain, why is it like the practice of dispensing worldly medicines?" The market trader said: "Good Son! When a bodhisattva first begins to train in developing awakening, he must know that sickness is the biggest obstruction of all. If the body of any living creature suddenly becomes ill and unwell, then their thoughts and feelings will become unbalanced. So how will they be able to prac­ tice the Perfections? For this reason, when a bodhisattva develops awakening, he must first cure his body of all sickness! "By doing so, a bodhisattva will then see every living creature in the world and distinguish how they too strive to fulfill their desires for happiness. He will even go to the extent of leaving home to make the efforts of practicing and developing the fruits of the Noble Path, so that one day he might cause the complete trans­ formation of the rule of the realm, such that the basic condition of all its people is freedom from sickness. For what reason? Because for all his subjects, the king is the root of the peace and contentment of everyone. The bodhisattva will arise and first heal the king ofthe country, and then heal all the living creatures, caus­ ing them to be free of their ailments, after which he will speak of the means of regulating their minds. "Good Son! If he has the desire to cure all ills, the bodhisattva will first see the causes beneath the arising of all those illnesses, their types, and the build­ ing up of countless injuries without end. I now will explain to you how they are reduced."

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[The Four Types of Malady] "Good son! Just as the bodies of every living creature arise from the coming to­ gether of the Four Elements, so from the interplay of these Four Elements four sorts of malady can arise. That is to say, (1) sickness of the body, (2) sickness of the heart, (3) inflicted wounds and injuries, and (4) all other maladies: 1. Sicknesses ofthe body are said to be mainly imbalances of vata, pitta, slesma, and fever. 2. Sicknesses of the heart are said to be mainly turbulent, wild, and agitated thoughts and feelings. 3. Sickness such as inflicted wounds and injuries are said to be mainly wounds caused by weapons and other sharp things, as well as injuries caused by ex­ cessive labor. 4. All other sicknesses are said to be mainly caused by hunger and thirst, expo­ sure to cold and hot, excessive sensations of pain, pleasure, sorrow, andjoy. ''As these various types of sickness arise together, one will cause the occurrence of another, which can lead living creatures to experience both physical and emo­ tional suffering. "Good son! So it is that the mass of illnesses of the lower castes are many because of their toilsome labors, and those of wealthy people because of their many and excessive pleasures."

[The Physical Body Is Always Being Consumed] "Good son! The body of every living creature is formed by the coming together of an unfathomably vast number of small and great parts, just as the great ocean is a mass of minute water droplets. "The human body has many hairs and pores, each one ofus having some thirty million within which thirty million parasites9 are firmly set, places where on close examination, the covering of skin is seen to be pierced and to dribble with sweat. Inside both eyes and in the palms ofthe hands and feet, places where grease gath­ ers, neither hair nor parasite arise; however there are other body parts in which the spaces are not empty."

[The Five Great Elements and Their Properties] "Good son! It can also be seen that the body has five great properties arising from each of the Great Elements. What are these five? They are said to be (1) firmness, (2) wetness, (3) warmth, (4) motion, and (5) hollowness.

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"What is said of firmness? It is said that the three hundred sixty bones of the body are strong and hard; this is because they all have the Earth Great Element. "All that is wet and moist has the Water Great Element; everything that is warm to the touch has the Fire Great Element; whatever moves has the Wind Great Ele­ ment; and whatever is hollow or forms an opening has the Space Great Element. "Even though four of these Great Elements are extremely subtle, they are found in Space, upon which there is a mutual reliance. The extremely subtle and spon­ taneous origins ofthese Elements are so tenuous and difficult to understand that apart from a buddha or bodhisattva, no others are able to see this. "Good son! As these five Great Elements combine to form the body, so this life is like a heap of grain-in the end, it will tumble and scatter."

[Causation Conditions the Nature of Life] "As a vessel, the body arises from the sustaining power of karma and is not cre­ ated by the action of an all-powerful deity. Nor is it merely self-arising-it is like this at all times, everywhere. Just as a skilled potter mixes water and clay to craft an unglazed earthenware pot, which through use, eventually becomes foul and stinks on the inside, if it is brightly painted and decorated, then such deceptions will beguile a foolish man. And so for this reason, the four Great Elements com­ ing together in the body are likened to four snakes in a box.10 "As soon as any of these Great Elements are not in balance, then any one of one hundred sorts of illnesses will arise. Because of this, the wise must see the body as nurturing poisonous snakes, or keeping onto a tainted pot. "Good son! You must then understand that the inside of the body is like a pot formed by the Four Elements. From the beginning to the end, when these Five Ele­ ments flow and transform, what can be said of the flow and transformation of the 'outer vessel'?11 "It can be said that all in all, in the worlds throughout the ten directions of space, all living creatures have feelings and can become carried along by the effects of their own rash actions."

[Macrocosmic Change Mirrored in the Microcosmic Frame of the Body] "When the first kalpa came to an end, the life span of a being was measureless and creatures were born through transformation; they had no sense of me and mine, thirst and hunger, or food. But then a desire for other things suddenly arose, which drove them on. Coming from a sense of selfhood, a common urge arose for group ownership over the land, and to take control of it by force. Hence, arising from the three petty misfortunes caused by evil actions, life span is dwindling to the

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point where it will only be ten years during the fifth great period of cosmic time­ the kalpa during which the world becomes destroyed. In the end, the calamity of Fire will arise, rising up to the Brahma heavens and spreading throughout all Space, whereupon the Water calamity and Wind calamity will then follow one after the other. "Good son! The sequence of transformations affecting the outer vessel during these five periods is widely known, but what explanation is there for the five periods of change that occur within the body? This is what is said: " 'At first there is infancy, when the mind does not differentiate. This is like the start of the kalpa, when beings have no sense of selfhood. Next comes child­ hood, when there is the ability to distinguish between what is and what is not. As in the second period, this is the setting apart of self and others. Then comes adult­ hood in which greed, malice, and folly are let loose. This is the third period, [which is characterized by] ownership over the land. Then comes senility, and being beset with a host of illnesses. This is the fourth period, in which longevity diminishes. From then until death, the body becomes increasingly decrepit until life comes to an end. This is the fifth period: the burning out ofthe world. This is the descrip­ tion ofthe five kalpas, i.e., the periods of transformation, at work within oneself.'"

[How the Phenomenon of Time Occurs] Sudhana said: "Sir! These five time periods, what causes them to arise?" Samantanetra said: "Good son! At some point in time, when there is no sense of any embodied self, the stirrings ofthe urge to differentiate between things sets into motion the wheel of deluded activity, which then goes around and around in circles without end. Hence, people must wake up to their dreaming from the first instant, because from that first moment to the next, and so on, come what we call minutes, hours, days and nights, years, and kalpas. As time is split into many di­ visions, then one will divide a year into six seasons, that is to say, spring, sum­ mer, monsoon, autumn, winter, and snow."12

[Some External and Internal Causes of Illness] "It is due to this cycle of change that the wise understand how illness adds to injury, and how well-being changes with the passing of all the seasons. That is to say, during the seasons of spring and snow, slesf!)a illnesses stir; during the hot and monsoons, vata illnesses spring up; and during the autumn and winter, pitta increases. As the causes for illness arise and come together, illness increases in accord with the seasons. "Good son! I have spoken to you about illnesses that increase according to the season, but there are also illnesses of the body that spring from overeating. As all living creatures are born to drink and eat, they know their measure and know

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when they are full, but such measures for the elderly are low. Their strength be­ comes weak when seasons are hot or cold, windy or rainy, dry or wet, and their bodies become distressed and tired. When you closely examine yourself, there is no means ofbeing free of the causes of the bulk of these ailments, or to be rid of the causes of their arising."

[The Treatment of others] "Good son! I constantly have living creatures with all manner of illnesses and suf­ ferings coming to my home from all the ten directions, seeking to find a cure from me. I, by means of the power ofknowing, see the cause of the arising oftheir ailments and respond by dispensing appropriate remedies for those sicknesses. Handled with a sense of equality, each creature is treated, and all are led to recov­ ery. Moreover, they are bathed with various sorts of scented waters and are dressed in respectable clothes, adorned with garlands, and given all manner of drink, food, and riches such as jewel trinkets and ornaments. I bring the causes of all [these things] to come about, perfect and complete. After this, I then speak to each of them ofthe Dharma, causing any troubles in their hearts to break up forever. That is to say, on the matter of being greedy and having many desires, they are taught how to reflect on impurity; on feeling anger and bearing ill will, they are taught how to reflect on compassion; and on being confused, they are taught how to reflect on the appearances of various sorts of things. I reveal the nature of impurity equally to all those who have come with compassion, as someone standing in the gateway into the broad and vast Dharma. Hence, if they follow this, all vexations are certain to break apart as they begin to feel the desire to raise bodhicitta. "In praising every one of all the buddhas' merits comes the desire to raise a heart of great compassion. In revealing the nature of sarrzsiira and its unfathom­ able miseries comes the desire that leads to the accumulation of merit. In prais­ ing the cultivation and accumulation of the unfathomable blessings of wisdom comes the desire that leads to the raising of the great vow. In praising the bal­ anced conduct of every living creature comes the desire that leads to progress in the pursuit of all that is worthy."

[Relating This Practice to the Ten Perfections] "I tell this to bodhisattvas dwelling in every realm! In putting into use the 'net of instructions'13 comes the desire that leads to a body finely adorned with all the signs of a buddha. In praising the perfection of generosity comes the desire that leads to obtaining the body of a buddha, which is pure and untainted by anything. In praising the perfection of ethical behavior comes the desire that leads to obtain­ ing the body of a buddha with inconceivable merits. In praising the perfection of forbearance comes the desire that leads to obtaining the body of a tathiigata, which

100

D O CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS

is unsurpassable. In praising the perfection of determination comes the desire that leads to obtaining the body of a buddha, which has incomparable tranquility. In praising the perfection of meditation comes the desire that leads to obtaining the body ofbuddha in the ultimate state of equality. In praising the perfection of wisdom comes the desire that leads to obtaining the body of a buddha that mani­ fests all distinct appearances. In praising the perfection of skillful means comes the desire that leads to all living creatures dwelling throughout all time to have unwearied hearts. In praising working for the common good comes the desire that leads to the manifestation of those bodies that adorn every one of all the Buddha fields. In praising the perfection of effectiveness comes the desire that leads to the manifestation of a pure body, following which all the hearts of all living creatures become completelyjoyous. In praising the perfection of wisdom comes the desire that leads to obtaining a body that is the ultimate, supremely wondrous, and no lon­ ger touched by defilement. It is to praise the abandonment of each one of all the unwholesome paths forever, and the turning over of each one of all the buddhas' wholesome paths. And so it is that I impart lavishly to all living creatures using various sorts of gifts and the means of completely filling their hopes and wishes, so that each one of them undergoes change and feels joyous before they go."

[The Blending of Fragrant Gums and Resins)14 "Good son! I also well understand the blending of every sort of fragrance with an essential method. "That is to say: the fragrance of the unequaled-the very best of gums and resins, the fragrance of the beads of mindfulness-the very best of gums and resins, the fragrance of the unsurpassable-the very best ofgums and resins, the fragrance of continuous wakefulness-the very best of gums and resins, the fragrance of dwelling in peace-the very best of gums and resins, the fragrance of following life to the full15-the very best ofgums and resins, the fragrance of endurance, like the scent of sandal on Mount Kalena16-the very best of gums and resins, the fragrance that rules all nagas [and is as] steadfast as a sandal tree-the very best of gums and resins, the fragrance of strength, of the aloeswood tree-the very best ofgums and resins, the fragrance of the imperturbability of all the senses-the very best of gums and resins. "And so, [I] know the places where these gums and resins are produced, how they work, their power, and the theory and methods of their blending."

LIBERATING THE WHOLE WORLD

101

[Incense offerings as Samantanetra's Personal Expedient] "Good son! I use incense and perfumes made of these gums and resins as my way of giving offerings. When I do so, I see the buddhas everywhere, and so this is how I fulfill my aspiration. That is to say, the wish to rescue and protect every living creature, and to cleanse and purify every Buddha field, is the wish to make offer­ ings to every tathiigata. "Good son! When I choose to burn offerings of incense, from every one of the incenses comes an immeasurable fragrant cloud that perfumes every world throughout the ten directions. I see it passing into the oceanic enlightened realms of every tathiigata, transforming into various sorts of fragrant mansions with fragrant outer walls, fragrant towers, fragrant gateways, fragrant windows, fragrant doors, fragrant windows, fragrant half-moons, fragrant netting, fragrant sculptures, fragrant halos, fragrant ornaments, fragrant clear light, fragrant clouds and rain, fragrant banners, fragrant curtains, fragrant streamers, and fragrant umbrellas. Adorning the whole of the universe throughout the ten di­ rections, each place is fully filled because of making of this offering. "Good son! I say that to know this joyous offering is a gateway to the Dharma, as it leads each living creature, wherever they are, to see the buddhas going about their business. And so it is that a bodhisattva mahiisattva is like a great lord of med­ icine. Whether they see, hear, recall, or imagine, or ifthey dwell together or pursue together, or call out the name, or react with joy-whatever they do-it secures something beneficial to alL There is nothing done in vain. If any living creature suddenly happens to meet one, then it is certain that this will cause the purifica­ tion by extinguishing all of their troubles and vexations. Happening to meet one brings about entry into the Buddha Dharma, the turning away from the gathering of all vexations, and forever ending any fear of birth and death. It is to reach a place where fear does not exist, a place of complete wisdom. It is to smash down the great mountain of all ageing and death, and to dwell peacefully in the great citadel ofNirvaJ;J.a."

[The Next Stage of the Quest] "And so, what can I say, how is it possible to understand and to speak of the mer­ its of the pursuit? Good son! To the south of here, there is a great city; it is called Tala-dhvaja. That city has a king named Amrtagni. You are to go straight to him and ask the bodhisattva to explain how to train in the bodhisattva pursuit, and progress upon the bodhisattva path." Whereupon the youth Sudhana bowed at Samantanetra's feet, circled around him numberless times, looked up at him eagerly, and then with his whole heart still filled with fondness and admiration, withdrew and left.

102

D O CTRINAL CONSIDERATIONS NOTES

1.

Skt. Ga�4avyuha-sutra.

2.

Skt. AvataT(lSaka-sutra.

3.

The term (eh. sanzang) implies Prajna would have committed whole texts to memory rather

4.

T no. 278; T no. 279.

5.

Derge Kangyur, vols. 35-38.

than simply giving sermons.

6.

Vaidya 1960.

7.

T no. 293, 10: 709b12-712b06. The rendering ofthis text into English has presented its dif­ ficulties, especially in the area of reconstructing the names of the various ingredients named by S amantanetra in the preparation of his mixtures. It is hoped that future schol­ arship will lessen any inaccuracies in this area, although it must be emphasized that this is not a pharmacopeia in any sense of the term

8.

Headings have been added to divide the text into readable sections.

9.

K_rmi (lit., "worm'').

10.

This is a common metaphor for the body, likeningthe mutual conflict ofthe Four Elements

11.

The Four Elements form the pot, while the emptiness inside the pot represents the Fifth

12.

Indian medical texts typically divide the year into six seasons (rtu) for purposes of diag­

13.

Although devices such as the net or noose are more commonly associated with entrap­

to four angry vipers confined within the same space. Element, which is Space or Void. nosis and treatment. For an example of how this would work in practice, see chapter 4. ment and Mara narratives, they can also serve as a lifeline and rescue net in the hands of the mythic savior. The "net of instructions," therefore, can be read as the pursuer apply­ ing a range ofrelated instructions that exact a cumulative effect. The text is perhaps there­ fore encouraging the reader to accept the multiplicity of methods, not necessarily what they might first expect or imagine these to be. 14.

Although it is difficult to establish a one-to-one mapping, this list ofthe "ten best" gums and resins exhibits a potential numeric structural relationship to the list of Ten Perfec­ tions referred to above. A small number of named odors do make reference to actual in­ cense materials such as candana and kaliiguru, but these are used in the form of similes. It could be argued that the blending is completely allegorical, but the text still goes beyond this by suggesting that verbal language is only one of a range semiotic vehicles available for use in the expression of the sublime states of the Tathagata. One way of further inter­ preting this passage is that the effects ofthe methods are visceral rather than intellectual and that the power of scent is profoundly evocative to the point of generating a reaction from both the mind and body. There is no suggestion of any narcotic effect on the breathers of such fumes but rather that something more akin to the Proustian effect is at work, that is, a scent brings to the conscious mind a clear set of memories or evokes a set of ideas.

15.

Literally, "following desire oflife, birth."

16.

eh. Jianheichenshui; Skt. Kalanusari-candana.

Healing and Monastic Discipline

10. Medical Practice as Wrong Livelihood Selections from the Pali Discourses, Vinaya, and Commentaries DA V I D F I O R D A L l S

he practice of medicine by members of the Buddhist monastic community re­

T ceives a somewhat ambivalent treatment in the Pali literature of the South and Southeast Asian Buddhist traditions. While several passages depict the Buddha or one

of his followers offering medical treatment to another monk or layperson, and monks are allowed to keep medicines for themselves and use them to treat their fellow monks (see, e.g., chapters 1 and others in this section), medical practices are also associated with astrology, divination, and other types of worldly arts or mundane skills.1 Some canonical passages dissuade or prohibit Buddhist monastics from engaging in such practices. However, the reasons behind the prohibition and its intended scope remain unclear, even in the Pali commentaries. One reason seems to be an opinion that such practices should not be the focus of monastic life and practice, which ideally should be oriented toward the goal of liberation. Other reasons may exist, however, such as the concern to distinguish the activities of the Buddhist monk or nun from those of other people within the similarly regarded social group of "renouncers and Brahmins,"2 a group includingJains, Aj\vikas,3 Brahmins, random yogis, and others. It seems that some of them may have specialized or were regarded as experts in various types of worldly arts, including the healing arts. The selections for this chapter begin with a translation oftwo verses excerpted from the Discourse on the Quick Way, the fourteenth discourse ofthe chapter on the Goal in the collection ofDiscourses, a famous work that many scholars believe contains some of the

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HEALING AND MONASTIC DISCIPLINE

very oldest extant Buddhist literature.4 These verses appear as part of the Buddha's an­ swer to the following request: "Tell me, Venerable One, the path, the rules of restraint, and the practice ofmental concentration that should be practiced."5 The Buddha's full answer includes a variety of injunctions and prohibitions, which in twelve verses com­ prises a kernel ofthe monastic code in an early form. The two verses selected for translation here are accompanied by relevant excerpts from the Great Exegesis,6 a Pali commentary on older parts of the Collection ofDiscourses. This commentary became part of the Pali Canon itself and perhaps dates to the end of the second century B .C.E. The first verse prohibits the Buddhist ascetic from storing food or other material goods. This general prohibition became an important factor in the establishment ofvari­ ous rules concerning medicines, whether they can be stored, and for how long? However, the commentary on this verse in the Great Exegesis focuses instead on how the ascetic obtains such goods in the first place. It specifies in list form a number of ways in which the ascetic should not have obtained them. Included in this list is the practice of medi­ cine, listed alongside a variety of other types of so-called worldly arts. The second verse from the Chapter on the Goal lists a number of the same types of activities in which the Buddhist ascetic should not engage, explicitly including prescribing cures for infertil­ ity and medical practices alongside divination, astrology, and the use of spells from the At harva Veda (a vast collection ofprayers, spells, charms, and ritual formulas associated with the Vedic tradition). The commentary on this verse adds further detail to the de­ scription ofthese practices while at the same time outlining the nature and scope ofthe prohibition through a discussion of what it means to be a follower of the Buddha. The commentary quotes another canonical discourse in which the follower is defined in terms of virtue or moral quality, rather than practically or legally. Such a definition would seem to make it difficult to enforce the prohibition, but perhaps it also gestures toward the spirit behind the rule. These verses from the Quick Way, taken together with the canonical commentary, are echoed by a longer, formulaic passage that recurs throughout the first section of the Longer Discourses ofthe 13uddha.8 The second selection translated below is only the last of seven full paragraphs, which list a wide variety of worldly arts and describe them as wrong means oflivelihood. In the paragraph translated here, which is from the Discourse on 13rahma's Net, the first of the Longer Discourses, we find a list of various types of medi­ cal practices included alongside other types of ritual and mundane practices. Here we may discern first and foremost that this literature does not clearly distinguish between healing arts, religious rituals, and magical or divinatory practices, but classifies all of them under the single framework of worldly arts. However, the level of detail suggests some knowledge of or familiarity with a number of these practices. We may also sur­ mise that the problem addressed here has less to do with the practices themselves than it does with using them as a means oflivelihood, which is seen as improper for a Buddhist monastic. The Buddhist monastic code literature, or Vinaya, pertains to the various rules governing the monastic community, and displays a general concern with the way lay­ people and members of the general public perceive Buddhist monks and nuns. The third and fourth passages cited below are from the Vi naya. Here, monks and nuns are prohib-

MEDICAL PRACTICE AS WRONG LIVELIHOOD

107

itedfrom engaging with the so-called worldly arts, though neither passage offers a clear definition of the nature and scope of such practices; instead, both pivot toward more generalized prohibition. Are medical practices to be included or not? Neither passage mentions them explicitly, although they are likely implied. In both Vinaya passages, the concern se=s to arise from a perception that monks and nuns are acting too much like laypeople who have jobs, engage in labor, receive payments for services, and possess and store goods. Thus, in practice, the prohibition against engaging in worldly arts, including the healing arts, appears primarily to apply in instances in which such practices are rendered as services for a fee. More generally, the intent behind the practice is also important; such practices should not be under­ taken out of greed for or attachment to material possessions. Given the relative vagueness with which these practices are defined, the lack of clar­ ity concerning the reasons why they are prohibited, and the general way of defining the individuals to whom the prohibitions apply, the rule remains open to a degree of interpretation. The final passage translated below from Elucidating the Entirely Lovely,9 the influential fifth-century Pali commentary on the Vinaya attributed to Buddhaghosa, seems to demonstrate this ambiguity. The passage offers more detail, emphasizing that the practices at issue are those done to harm people, and it also refers to spells from the Atharva Veda. Signific antly, perhaps, Buddhaghosa does not specify medical practices in his explanation, and even se=s to exclude them insofar as such practices are intended to help, not to hurt. This very ambiguity may reflect, or may have even contributed to, monastic involv=ent in healing activities, as mentioned in many chapters throughout this volume.

FURTHER READING Fiordalis, David. 2014. "On Buddhism, Divination and the Worldly Arts: Textual Evidence from the Theravada Tradition." Indian Intemational]aumal o{Buddhist Studies 15: 79-108. Langenberg, Amy Paris. 2014. "Female Monastic Healing and Midwifery: A View from the

Vinaya Tradition." journal ofBuddhist Ethics 21: 152-87. Schmithausen, Lambert. 1997. Maitrf and Magic: Aspects ofthe Buddhist Attitude Toward the Danger­

ous in Nature. Vienna: Verlag der Osterreicheischen Akademie der Wissenshaften.

1 . E X C E R P T S F R O M T H E DISCOURSE ON THE Q UICK WA ¥ , 1 0 T O G E T H E R W I T H I T S C A N O N I C A L C O M M E NT A R Y , THE

GREAT EXEGESIS 1 1

The Quick Way: Having received solid or soft food, drink, or clothes to wear, the monastic would not store them, and he will not become anxious if he does not receive any of them. Great Exegesis: First, "having received" means having received, acquired, found, or obtained, but not through deceit, prattle, insinuation, disparagement, covetously

108

HEALING AND MONASTIC DISCIPLINE

pursuing gain upon gain; not though dealing in offerings ofwood, bamboo, leaves, flowers, fruits, baths, soft and course powders, toothbrushes, or mouthwash; not through bribery with bean soup, solid nourishment, or a soft seat; not through geomancy, divination,12 physiognomy, or astrology; not through running long er­ rands, being a messenger, or being a walking errand boy; not through practicing medicine;13 not through making repairs, serving out alms, or administering of­ ferings. Instead, "having received" means having received them through correct and proper means, that is, having received, acquired, found, or obtained them. That is the meaning of "having received" them. Second, "he would not store them" means he would not create stores of solid food, drink, clothes, vehicles, beds, scents, or meat and other material possessions. In other words, he would not cause the stores to be. He would not cause them to come into being. He would not bring them forth. He would not bring them forth into being. That is the meaning of the passage "having received, he would not store them." The Quick Way: He will not use the spells of the Atharva Veda, nor will he foretell things using dreams, omens, or even astrology. My follower14 will not spend time interpreting bird cries, curing infertility, or practicing the healing arts.15 Great Exegesis: . . . "Cures for infertility" help to create the proper conditions for a fetus. When one cannot become pregnant, there are two kinds of cause: a "tiny creature"16 or a disturbance to a person's viita. Thus, one would prescribe medicine to hinder the cause, whether it is by a tiny creature or disturbance in the person's viita. In this way, cures for infertility help to create the proper con­ ditions for a fetus. "Practicing the healing arts" means practicing the five types of healing arts: ophthalmology, surgery, healing arts related to the body, healing arts related to spirits,l? and pediatric medicine. "My follower" means a follower of the Buddha, a follower of the Dhamma, a follower of the Sangha, or alternatively, he is so called because he follows the Blessed One, or rather the Blessed One has taken responsibility for that person. As the Blessed One has said:18 "Monks, those monks who are deceitful, stubborn, boastful, fake, arrogant, and unfocused are not monks of mine.19 They have strayed from this teaching and dis­ cipline.20 They do not make progress, grow, or achieve success in this teaching and discipline. However, those monks who are honest, sincere, steadfast, flexible, and well-focused are indeed my monks. Monks, they have not strayed from this teach­ ing and discipline. They make progress, grow and achieve success in this teaching and discipline. "The deceitful, stubborn, boastful, fake, arrogant, and unfocused fail to make progress in the Dhamma. That is the teaching of the perfect and fully awakened Buddha. "The honest, sincere, steadfast, flexible, and well-focused make progress in the Dhamma. That is the teaching of the perfect and fully awakened Buddha." "My follower will not spend time interpreting bird cries, curing infertility, or practicing the healing arts" means that he will not spend time, devote time, ded­ icate time, pursue, practice, perform, take up or teach such practices, or else, it means that he will not take possession ofthem, learn them, study them, take them

MEDICAL PRACTICE AS WRONG LIVELIHOOD

109

to heart, pay attention to them, or put them into practice. This is the meaning of "My follower will not spend time interpreting bird cries, curing infertility, or prac­ ticing the healing arts."

2 . E X C E R P T F R O M T H E DISCO URSE ON BRAHMA ' S NE T21 Monks, a common person, when praising the Tathagata, might say, "Whereas some renouncers and Brahmins, while subsisting on food providedby the faithful, make a living through wrong means oflivelihood, through practicing worldly arts, such as the practice of rituals for propitiating and appeasing deities; the application and use of spells for controlling spirits; ritual practices for making a person impotent or virile; ritual practices for blessing a new home or consecrating a site; purifica­ tion rituals with water; assisting people to clean themselves; ritual practices involving offerings to fire; prescribing emetics, cleanses, purgatives, diarrhetics, and decongestants; prescribing ointments for treating the ears, eyes, and nose; prescribing other types of ointments and herbal concoctions; practicing ophthal­ mology, surgery, and pediatric medicine; preparing and prescribing medicines for treating the body and reducing side effects from other medicines-the ascetic Gotama refrains from practicing such worldly arts as these." In this way, monks, a common person praises the Tathagata.

3 . E X C E R P T F R O M T H E " M I N O R C HA P T E R " O F T H E PALl VINAYA 2 2 At one time, the group of six monks mastered the worldly arts. People complained, criticized, and denounced them, saying, "These monks are acting just like householders enjoying material goods." Now, some monks heard these people who were complaining, criticizing, and denouncing the group of six monks, and they went and told the Blessed One about it. "What do you think, monks?" he said. "Does one who perceives the essence of the worldly arts make progress, grow, and achieve success in this teaching and discipline?"23 "No, indeed, Venerable One," said the monks. The Buddha then said, "Monks, worldly arts should not be mastered; whoever does so commits a minor fault." At one time, the group of six monks taught the worldly arts. People complained, criticized, and denounced them, saying, "These monks are acting just like householders enjoying material goods." Now, some monks heard these people who were complaining, criticizing, and denouncing the group of six monks, and they went and told the Blessed One about it. "What do you think, monks?" he said. "Does one who perceives the essence of the worldly arts make progress, grow, and achieve success in this teaching and discipline?"

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HEALING AND MONASTIC DISCIPLINE

"No, indeed, Venerable One," said the monks. The Buddha then said, "Monks, worldly arts should not be taught; whoever does so commits a minor fault."

4 . E X C E R P T F R O M T H E " S E C T I O N O N N U N S " O F T H E PALl VINA YA, 24 T O G E T H E R W I T H A C O M M E NT A R I A L P A S SAGE F R O M EL UCIDATING THE ENTIRELY L O VEL Y 2 5 Section on Nuns: At one time, the Blessed One was staying in Savatthi26 in the ]eta Grove in the forest retreat of Anathapi.t:J.(,iikaY At the same time, the group of six nuns mastered and taught the worldly arts. People complained, criticized, and denounced them, saying, "Why, indeed, are nuns mastering and teaching the worldly arts, just as though they were householders enjoying material goods?" [...] Then the Blessed One rebuked them, "Why, indeed, monks, is the group of six nuns mastering and teaching worldly arts? Monks, it will not instill faith in those who lack faith, nor will it increase the faith of those who already possess it.28 Therefore, monks, I proclaim the following rule of training: Whichever nun mas­ ters or teaches worldly arts commits a minor fault requiring confession." "Whichever nun" means whichever nun is intended in the particular case. "Worldly arts" refers to whatever practice is external and does not pertain to the goal of liberation. . . . There is no fault if she masters or teaches writing or mnemonics. There is no fault if she masters or teaches protective spells29 for protection. There is no fault if she is insane, and no fault if she is a first-time offender. Elucidating the Entirely Lovely: The words "external" and "not pertaining to the goal of liberation" refer to arts used to harm others, such as training in elephants, horses, and chariots; training in swordsmanship and archery; and the use oftonics and mantras, such as those found in the Atharva Veda, in order to kill people, to gain mastery over them, and to mummify their bodies; and so on. The phrase "pro­ tective spells" covers all such spells, including those classified as protective spells for yakkhas, mandalas for niigas, and so on. The rest is clear.

NOTES 1.

Pall tiracchiina-vijjii; Skt. tiraicina*-vidyii. For more on this term, see Fiordalis 2014.

2.

Pall sama�a-brii hma�a; Skt. srama�a-briihma�a.

3.

The Ajfvikas were another prominent group ofnon-B uddhist ascetics in ancient India. They were also regarded as unorthodox by laterBrahmin-influenced traditions, buttheynone­ theless belonged to the general class of early Indian renouncers, saints, and yogis. The

Ajfvikas no longer exist as a self-conscious group in India. For more on the history of this group and their doctrines, see Basham 1951.

MEDICAL PRACTICE AS WRONG LIVELIHOOD 4.

111

That is, the Tuvataka-sutta, the fourteenth sutta of the Atthakavagga in the Sutta-nipiita (Anderson and Smith 1913). The tradition attests another interpretation of the title:

Atthakavagga: The Chapter ofEights. In fact, the first few discourses or poems of the section have eight verses apiece, though many have more than eight. The discourses are also or­ ganized in ascending order based on the number of verses in the discourse. For discus­ sion ofthe historical significance ofthe text and its placement within the earliest strata of Buddhist literature, see Vetter 1990: 36; Norman 1992: 511-20; and Shulman 2013: 363. 5.

The translation here closely follows G6mez 2015.

6.

Mahaniddesa (La Vallee Poussin and Thomas 1917).

7.

For more on this su�ect, see chapters 12 and 14 in the current volume.

8.

Dfgha-nika:ya (Rhys Davids and Carpenter 1890; translated in Walshe 1995).

9.

Samantapiisadikii (Takakusu and Nagai 1934).

10.

Anderson and Smith 1913: 177-81. Full translations of this discourse are found in Nor­ man, Horner, and Rahula 1984: 151-53; Saddhatissa 1985: 107-8; and most recently, Gomez 2015: 223-25. The verses translated here and in the quote above (see note 5) are numbered 921, 924, and 927, respectively, in both the Norman and Saddhatissa translations. They are unnumbered in G6mez 2015.

11.

La Vallee Poussin and Thomas 1917: 372ff. Part of the first excerpt from this text was pre­ viously translated in Fiordalis 2014.

12.

Tiracchana-v0jii. Here the term is used in a seemingly narrower sense than it appears to be in the other passages included in this chapter.

13.

Pali vejja-kamma; Skt. vaidya-karma.

14.

Miimako.

15. Pali tikicchii; Skt. cikitsii. 16.

Priil!aka.

17.

B hutiyal!l. This art has to do with healing people with psychosomatic problems tradition­ ally associated with being possessed by a spirit (bhuta). For an ethnographic description and short analysis of a modern Sri Lankan healing ritual for a person afflicted by bhutas, see Carbine 2 0 00: 161-76.

18.

The commentary here quotes a short passage found in the Ar\guttara-nika:ya and elsewhere. For a translation of this passage as it occurs in the Ar\guttara-nika:ya, see Bodhi 2012: 41314. This translation largely follows his.

19.

Mcimakci. This passage uses the same word as the verse, which perhaps indicates why the

20.

Dhamma-vinaya.

21.

Rhys Davids and Carpenter 1890: 12. My translation has benefited from those found in

commentator thought it relevant to quote the passage here.

Walshe 1995: 73 andRhys Davids 2002: 25-26. 22.

Cullavagga (Oldenberg 1879-1882, 2: 138). My translation has benefited fromHorner 19381966, 5: 195.

23.

The terminology here parallels that used in the canonical passage cited in the commen­ tary on the Longer Discourses translated above.

24.

Bhikkhuni-vibhariga (Oldenberg 1879-1882, 4: 304-6). My translation abridges the original Vinaya passage in several places. A more complete translation may be found in Horner 1938-1966, 3: 337-39. For a translation of a parallel passage from a different Buddhist Vinaya

112

HEALING AND MONASTIC DISCIPLINE and a detailed discussion of the possible gender implications of the rule, see Langenberg 2014 and chapter 11 of the present volume.

25.

Takakusu and Nagai 1934: 936. The translation modifies a partial one found in Fiordalis 2014. In that article, however, the source of the passage is identified as the Dvemiittikiipiili. Thanks to Petra Kieffer-Piilz for helpful comments on the source text and for a sugges­ tion on the translation.

2 6.

Pali Savatthi or Savatthi; Skt. Sravasti.

27.

Pali AnathapiJ.19ika; skt. AnathapiJ.l�ika or AnathapiJ.l�ada.

2 8.

In the Vinaya, the Buddha often gives this statement as a stock reason for many different rules, and thus it is often buried in the ellipses, as it is in this passage. My translation brings it to the surface.

29.

Paritta. For more on protective spells, see Schmithausen 1997 and chapter 34 of the present volume.

11. Nuns, Laywomen, and Healing Three Rules from a Sanskrit Nuns' Disciplinary Code A M Y P A R I S LANG E N B E R G

lthough the Buddha is praised as the great physician of human suffering, the mo­

A nastic life he is credited with chartering is ambivalent with respect to the medical

arts. Monks and nuns are explicitly required to nurse one another through illness, a di­

rective found in Vinaya texts (the disciplinary codes ofBuddhist monks and nuns) that reportedly came about when the Buddha happened upon a sick monk left lying in his own waste, abandoned by his fellow monks (see chapter 1§3).1 At the same time, scrip­ tures understood to record the Buddha's teachings (called suttas or agamas) and other Vinaya directives indicate that monks and nuns are to be discouraged from practicing any "worldly arts," including those we might call "magical," such as geomancy, charm work, and augury, and those we might call "medical," such as prescribing emetics and ointments or surgery (see previous chapter).2 A focus on Vinaya sources clearly shows that these ambivalences are gendered. Un­ like the monks' pratimok;;as (digests of disciplinary rules recited twice monthly by the community), all ofthe various sectarian nuns' pratimok$as contain rules forbidding nuns from practicing and teaching the "worldly arts" in the community.3 In certain Vinayas, these rules specifically focus on nuns practicing and teachingmedicine.4 Violating such proscriptions constitutes an offense requiring expiation, a level of transgression more serious than the minor fault earned by a monk who errs in this way. 5 Recent research on ancient female monasticism indicates that incentives to practice the healing arts may have been more powerful for nuns than for monks, providing an explanation for the disproportionate focus on nuns' healing activities in the Vinaya.6

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Female monasticism was not the mirror image of its male counterpart; it was respon­ sive to gendered social conditions. For example, Buddhist nuns did not, by all accounts, receive the same level of financial support as monks, so they were more likely to enter into beneficial if unorthodox relationships with laity. Also, nuns would have been par­ ticularly aware of (and themselves subject to) societal expectations regarding female virtue and propriety, making them likely to respect their female patrons' need for pri­ vacy and lowering a veil of discretion over nuns' handling of medical concerns in the female lay community. A greater need to secure patronage through creative means and a willingness to collude with laywomen couldhave contributed to nuns' greater involve­ ment in the so-called worldly arts. These dynamics of mutual need and confidentiality are reflected in the selections translated in this chapter. Our three texts derive from the Sanskrit disciplinary code for nuns belonging to the Indian Buddhist school known as the Great Assembly Professing World Transcendence? This text is unique among nuns' vinayas in that it app ears to have been edited to provide a comprehensive portable handbook of rules and procedures detachable from the monks' rules.8

In the first

of our three excerpts, the nun called "mother of chandaka," a skilled

herbalist, has set up women's hospices for aristocratic and wealthy laywomen. Informed of her activities, the Buddha scolds and censors her, establishing a rule that whichever nun earns her alms food through the practice ofmedicine commits a fault requiring expiation. This rule is paired with a second one forbidding nuns from teaching others to recite medi­ cal knowledge. The third text included below is from a section of the same nuns' vinaya devoted to "minor matters." It tells the story of a nun called Sthillananda (literally, "Fat and Happy") who is called upon one day by one ofher female lay patrons to conceal a dead fetus in her begging bowl? This story illustrates the element of collusion and discretion that can attend female lay-monastic interaction, especially those concerning women's so­ cial and physical vulnerabilities. The disciplinary rule connected with this narrative seems tangential to the story in that it forbids nuns from walking out for alms with an uncovered bowl and requires them to reveal the bowl's contents should a monk ask them to do so, but says nothing about disposing oflaywomen's stillborn or miscarried children. In considering these texts, it may be helpful for readers to note that while monks and

nuns practicing within various Buddhist monastic traditions generally regard the Vinaya as something handed down from the Buddha himself, academic scholars of Buddhism understand vinaya texts to be constructed documents that developed over centuries. As such, they reflect historical ideas about gender and attitudes toward women.

FURTHER READING Fiordalis, David. 2014. "On Buddhism, Divination and the Worldly Arts: Textual Evidence from the Theravada Tradition" Indian International journal ofBuddhi5t Studie5 15: 79-108. Jyvasjiirvi, Mari Johanna. 2011. "Fragile Virtue: Interpreting Women's Monastic Practice in Early Medieval India." PhD diss., Harvard University. Salgado, Nirmala S. 1997. "Sickness, Healing, and Religious Vocation: Alternative Choices at a TheravadaBuddhist Nunnery." Ethnology 36 (3) : 213-26.

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Schop en, Gregory. 2009. "The Urban Buddhist Nun and a Protective Right for Children in Early North India." In Pasadikadanam: Fe.stschrift fi.ir Bhikkhu Pasadika, ed. Martin Straube, 359-80. Marburg: Indica etTibetica Verlag.

1 . ON P R A C T I C I N G A N D T E A C H I N G M E D I C I N E ( I ) 1 0 The Bhagavan was staying at KausambL A nun, mother of Chandaka, was accepted in the inner household ofthe king. She was skillful with root medicines, leaf med­ icines, and fruit medicines. Among the king's families, the ministers' families, merchants' families, and [other] excellent families, she established a hospital for women. There she cured fainting fits and offered medical treatments such as eye washes, ointments, emetics, purgatives, sweat treatments, nasal treatments, and surgery. Before she left, she received both hard and soft food of various types. The nuns looked down on her. "This is not a renouncer," they said, "this is a doctor!" The nuns informed Mahaprajapati Gautami [who informed the Bhagavan]. The Bhagavan said, "Summon the mother of Chandaka." When she was sum­ moned, the Bhagavan said, "Is it true, mother of Chandaka, that you make a living by your knowledge of medicine?" "Yes, Bhagavan." "This is a wrongdoing, mother of Chandaka. It is not fitting to make a living by your knowledge of medicine." And so the Bhagavan [declared] . . . "Whichever nun makes a living by knowledge of medicine commits a fault requiring expiation." [Commentary:] "Knowledge of medicine" includes knowledge about snakebites and poison, as well as the movement ofthe planets. Making a living by these means is a fault requiring expiation. Such is the ruling. It is not fitting for nuns to prac­ tice medicine. Giving advice is permitted. A monk who makes a living by knowl­ edge of medicine also transgresses the discipline.

2 . ON PRACTICING AND TEACHING M E D I C I N E ( I I ) 1 1 The Bhagavan was at Kausambi. The rule that "it is not suitable to practice medi­ cine" had been ordained by the Bhagavan. The mother of Chandaka no longer practiced medicine. A person approached her, [saying], "Please, noble lady, heal me." She said: "The Bhagavan has ordained that it is not suitable to practice medi­ cine. Give me a little something and I will teachyou to recite something." She taught the person how to recite medical knowledge to householders and renouncers. The nuns looked down on her. "This is no renouncer!" they said. "This is a reciter of medical knowledge!" The Bhagavan said, "Whichever nun teaches how to recite medical knowledge to a householder or a renouncer commits a fault requiring expiation." [Commentary:] "Householder" means [the person] possesses a house. "Re­ nouncer" means [the person has] joined the Buddhist Sangha [literally, "the sect

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of Gautama'1 or become an ascetic with matted hair. "Knowledge of medicine" means knowledge about snakebites, poison, and the movement ofplanets. "Teaches how to recite medicine for the body" means "instructs." Such is the ruling. It is not suitable for nuns to teach a householder or a re­ nouncer how to recite medical knowledge. Giving advice is permitted. Monks who teach how to recite medical knowledge also transgress the discipline.

3 . RULE REGARDING COVERING THE ALMS BOWL 12 The Bhagavan was staying at Sravasti. The nun Sthulananda was on begging rounds. She approached a great and superior household for alms. There, a stillborn male child [had been born] to a woman, who said to [Sthulananda], "Noble lady! Throw this child away! Please throw it away, Noble lady! I will give you something." "I will not throw it away," said the nun. "I will give you anything and everything!" [the woman pleaded]. Greedy, [Sthulananda] replied, "Put it here in the bowl," covered it, and left. The elder Mahakasyapa had gone forth on his begging rounds, having made a commitment that "I will present the first alms obtained to a monk or nun." When he saw [Sthulananda], he said, "Give your bowl here." She pulled [the bowl] away and covered it so as not to show it to him. The elder said, "Give your bowl here." Rebuked by the eminent elder, resembling the Teacher [himself], she trembled and offered him the bowl. The elder spied [the child] and cried, "Alas! What a thing!" The Venerable Mahakasyapa reported this situation to the monks, who reported to the Bhagavan. The Bhagavan said, "Summon [Sthula]nanda." She was summoned and ques­ tioned. "Yes, it happened in that way, Bhagavan," [she confessed]. The Bhagavan said, "You have committed an infraction, [Sthula]nanda. This is not the law. This is not the discipline. It is like this: You covered your bowl, but it is not fitting to cover the bowl." This is the situation concerning covering the bowl. It is not appropriate for a nun to go for alms with an open bowl. She must cover it to go out. When she re­ ceives almsfood, uncovering it, she should cover it again. If she sees a monk in the road, she should uncover her bowl and reveal [its contents]. A nun who goes with a bowl uncovered transgresses the discipline. If, seeing a monk, she shows [her bowl] without uncovering it, she transgresses the discipline. This is said re­ garding covering the bowl.

NOT E S

1.

See Liyanaratne 1995-1996: 133; Paonil andLuechai 2002: 102-3; Schopen 2004: 8.

2.

See, for instance, Dfgha-ni kaya i.11-12. For an extensive discussion of canonical definitions of and prohibitions against the "worldly arts," see Fiordalis 2014 and chapter 10 in the

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117

present volume. On the other hand, according to the fine print, some such practices, such as the recitation ofprotective Buddhist verses andthe curing of stomach parasites, are to be exempted fromthe Vinaya prohibition (see Langenberg 2014: 168). 3. 4.

For discussion of relevant passages, see Langenberg 2014. See Schopen 2009b. The Mahisasaka the

Vinaya, accessible in Chinese translation, as well as

Mahiisarighika-lokottarvadin bhik?uJ!f-vinaya, specifically legislate the practice and

teaching of medicine by nuns. On the Mahisasaka

Vinaya, see chapter 13 of the present

volume; Demieville 1985: 37; Jaworski 1927. The relevant

Mahasarighika-lokottarvadin

bhik.?UJ!f-vinaya passages are translated below. 5.

It is interesting to note that the two nuns' pratimok?a rules given here include as an after­ thought the recommendation that monks also should not practice or teach medicine. The way this text tacks a recommendation for monks onto rules for nuns reinforces the impression that, while the principle applies to both genders, Buddhist lawmakers were especially concerned about nuns' involvement in the healing arts.

6.

Finnegan 2009;Jyvasjiirvi 2011; Langenberg 2013. In his classic article, "Byo" (Illness), Paul Demieville notes the gender asymmetry in Vinaya proscriptions against the worldly arts but does not offer an explanation (Demieville 1985: 36).

7.

Mahiisririghika-lokottaravadin bhik?ul!f-vinaya. Translations are based on Gustav Roth's edi­ tion (1970) and in consultation with Edith Nolot's (1991) fine French translation ofthe text and my own earlier published translations (Langenberg 2014). My previous translation of

pacattikas 82 and 83 (pp. 161-62 of the latter publication) contains errors that I have cor­ rected here. For discussion of the nuns-centered nature of this text, see Hiisken 1997 and Langenberg 2013. Hirakawa 1982 includes translation of the entire Chinese nuns'

Vinaya of

the Mahasanghika school into English. There are differences in detail between this text and that ofthe Mahasanghika-Lokottaravadin school, but structurally, the two are similar. 8.

For instance, its account of Mahaprajapati's appeal to the Buddha to establish afemale mo­ nastic community and the passing down of the infamous eight "rules to be respected"

(gurud harma) is placed atthe beginning as an introduction (indicating its importance for the target audience of this text), instead of in a later section as is usual in other

vi nayas.

According to the traditional narrative, the Buddha required Mahaprajapati to accept the eight "rules to be respected" as a precondition for allowing her to join his monastic order along with her female followers. The eight rules effectively subordinate the female com­ munity to the male community. 9.

Sthiilananda is obviously not portrayed in a flattering manner here. For a fuller discussion ofthis interesting figure than is possible here, see Ohnuma 2013.

10.

Skt. pacattika-dharma. See Roth 1970: 221.

11.

Skt. pacattika-dharma. See ibid., 221-22.

12.

Skt. bhik.?uJ!f-pmkfr1;1aka. See ibid., 316-18.

12. Stories of Healing from the Section on Medicines in the Pali Vinaya DAVID F I O RD A L I S

he Vinaya refers t o a large corpus of literature concerned primarily with explain­

T ing the formation ofthe Buddhist monastic order and the creation and implemen­

tation of the many rules governing the behavior of Buddhist monks and nuns. Each of

the various Buddhist monastic lineages kept its own Vinaya, which became a repository for narratives about monastic life and a focus for extensive commentarial and scholas­ tic exegesis. The Pali Vinaya was connected to the Mahavihara, or "Great Monastery," in Sri Lanka and became the Vinaya of what would subsequently become known as the Theravada tradition in South and Southeast Asia.1 As Rupert Gethin has written, one may discern several broad themes in the Vinaya literature, including general concerns with the nature of the monastic life, maintaining the unity and integrity of the monas­ tic community, and preserving the good reputation of monks and nuns among the laity.2 These broad concerns are evident in the passages translated here. The Pali Vinaya includes a long Section on Medicines in which monks are enjoined to treat their own illnesses.3 However, since a fuzzy boundary is thereby established between medicines and solid or liquid food and drink received as alms, many of the stories in the section work out the circumstances wherein monks and nuns may collect and use edible goods received as medicine. Thus, for instance, the first story in the sec­ tion allows monks to receive and use five substances as medicine: butter, clarified butter or ghee, oil, honey, and molasses. The second story allows monks to receive and use certain kinds ofanimal fat. The third and subsequent stories allow for use ofroots such as turmeric and ginger, certain leaves, and other botanical substances. Other stories dis-

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cuss more illnesses and suggest treatments, amounting to a virtual materia medica in the Buddhist monastic code literature. Another th=e of the Section on Medicines concerns storing and distributing medi­ cines. Once the Vinaya allows for storing medicines, other implications arise, such as the necessity for monks to possess containers to store them. As noted above, among the main concerns ofthe Vinaya is how laypeople and the general public perceive Buddhist monks and nuns. It is important for the continued good reputation of the monastic commu­ nity that Buddhist monks be perceived as mendicants, possessing nothing that might be considered luxurious. Thus, for instance, another story in this section prohibits monks from possessing boxes made of valuable substances, such as ivory, for storing medicines. Other rules discuss the circumstances under which monks may cook their own foods as medicines for treating themselves or fellow monks, and still others con­ cern circumstances when monks may pack their own food for a journey. The two stories translated in this chapter not only revolve around receiving, pos­ sessing, storing, and using food as medicine but also feature episodes of healing. The first relates a story about two of the Buddha's most eminent disciples, Sariputta and Moggallana.4 Sariputta comes down with a fever and Moggallana treats him by procur­ ing lotus stalks for Sariputta to eat with the help of his superhuman powers and some friendly elephants. The context, the plac=ent of the story in the section, and its end­ ing all suggest that the story is included not only because it features an instance of monks receiving and using medicines but also for the guidance it offers on what to do when food received and used as medicine r=ains left over after treatment. The story ends by suggesting that such goods may be redistributed and used by the whole monas­ tic community, evenby those who are not ill, though perhaps this rule is more restricted both to times offamine and to foods gathered from natural areas. The second story included below is extremely rich in th=atic content. For one thing, it features one of the rare instances in the Pali Canon in which the Buddha performs a miraculous act ofhealing. In this case, he heals a devout laywoman who has performed her own miraculous act of generosity by donating flesh from her body to help a sick monk.5 In Buddhist literature, such acts are most often performed by the Bodhisatta, that is, by the Buddha-to-be in a previous life, and they usually occur at times when no Buddha is present in the world, because this kind of extreme act can generate the great merit necessary to progress on the path to Buddhahood (see some examples in chapter 18). Thus, this story is noteworthy insofar as a laywoman performs such an extreme act of generosity during the time of the Buddha.6 In this case, however, the laywoman's act is soon mitigated or conditioned in the narrative by the Buddha's mi­ raculous healing. The laywoman gives her body, generating great merit, but then quickly is made whole again. It is almost as if the laywoman's initial act of healing through extreme piety creates a karmic resonance, initiating a series of acts that cul­ minates in the Buddha's own miraculous healing, an act that he can perform due to his enormous surplus of merit.7 The story is found in the Section on Medicines perhaps less on account of these epi­ sodes of self-sacrifice and miraculous healing than because it provides an opportunity for the Buddha to prohibit monks from eating human flesh. The context of the story is,

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again, monks receiving medicines from laypeople and using them to treat their own mal­ adies, and the various rules governing such situations. Some modern readers may find it surprising that the classical literature of Buddhism would countenance eating meat of any kind, but the Buddhist literature of South and Southeast Asia does not call for strict vegetarianism. Instead, here the Buddha simply enjoins monks to inquire about the source of any meat they might receive as medicine.

F U R T H E R R EAD I N G Holt, John 1981. Discipline: The Canonical Buddhism ofthe Vinayapitaka. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Homer, I. B., trans. 1938-1966. The Book ofthe Discipline (Vinaya-pitaka). London: Oxford University Press. Nyanaponika, Thera, and Hellmuth Hecker. 2003.

Great Disciples of the Buddha. Ed. Bhikkhu

Bodhi. Boston: Wisdom. Wijayaratna, Mohan. 1990.

Buddhist Monastic Life: According to the Texts ofthe Theraviida Tradition.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

EXCERPTS FROM THE

SECTION ON MEDICINES IN T H E PALl VINAYA

1. Sariputta Has a Fever8 Once, after he stayed in Rajagaha for as long as he wanted, the Blessed One set out for Savatthi. After walking for some time, he arrived in Savatthi, and there the Blessed One stayed in the ]eta Grove in the forest retreat of AnathapiJ;Ic;lika. Now at that time, the venerable Sariputta had a fever. The venerable Moggallana the Great went to see Sariputta and said to him, "Sariputta, my friend, when you had a fever in the past, with what did you successfully treat it?" Sariputta said, "My friend, I treated it with lotus roots and stalks." So venerable Moggallana the Great, as quickly as a strong man would extend his bent arm or bend his extended arm, vanished from the ]eta Grove and appeared on the bank ofMandakini Lake, which was teeming with lotuses. An elephant saw venerable Moggallana the Great approaching from a distance. When he saw him, he said, "Please come, revered sir, venerable Moggallana the Great! Welcome to you, revered sir, venerable Moggallana the Great! Why have you come here, re­ vered sir? What may I give you?" Moggallana the Great said, "My friend, I have come for lotus roots and stalks." So the elephant ordered another elephant, "Please, young one,9 provide our worthy guest with lotus roots and stalks, for which he has come." The young elephant then waded into Mandakini Lake, teeming with lotuses, and with his trunk, he picked lotus roots and stalks, washed them until they were

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perfectly clean, tied them into a bundle, and approached venerable Moggallana the Great. Then venerable Moggallana the Great, as quickly as a strong man would ex­ tend his bent arm or bend his extended arm, vanished from the bank ofMandakini Lake, teeming with lotuses, and appeared at]eta Grove. The elephant also van­ ished from the bank of Mandakini Lake, teeming with lotuses, and appeared at ]eta Grove. Then, after the elephant had offered the lotus roots and stalks to ven­ erable Moggallana the Great, it vanished fromjeta Grove and reappeared on the bank of the Mandakini Lake, teeming with lotuses. Venerable Moggallana the Great then brought the lotus roots and stalks to ven­ erable Sariputta. Once venerable Sariputta had eaten the lotus roots and stalks, his fever abated, but many lotus roots and stalks still remained. Now at that time, food was scarce, and the monks were offered only scant alms. The conscientious ones demurred, so that the whole monastic community could be satisfied. Even still, some monks remained scrupulous and did not partake. So the Blessed One said, "Partake, monks. Eat. I permityou, monks, even ifyou have eaten and been satisfied, to eat food, even if it is not left over, so long as it has come from the forest or a lotus pond."

2. A Monk Requests Meat Broth10 Once, after staying in Rajagaha for as long as he wanted, the Blessed One set out for Varanasi. After walking for some time, he arrived in Varanasi, and there the Blessed One stayed at the Sages' Rest House in Deer Park. Now, at that time, two lay followers of the Buddha lived in Varanasi, a man named Suppiya and a woman named Suppiya (both meaning "Well-Loved"). Both ofthem were faithful, devoted, and dedicated supporters of the monastic community. Now, the laywoman, Suppiya, went to the monastery and went from building to building and from room to room, approaching monks and asking them, "Who among you is sick? What can I send, and for whom?" Now at that time, a particular monk had taken a purgative, and he said to the laywoman Suppiya, "I have taken a purgative, sister, and I need meat broth." "Very well, noble sir, I will send it to you," she said. She went home, and requested a servant, "Go, my dear man,U and bring any meat on hand." "Yes, my lady," the man said. After receiving the laywoman's request, however, he walked the length and breadth ofVaranasi and still did not find any meat on hand. So he approached the laywoman Suppiya and said, "My lady, there is no meat on hand. No animals are being slaughtered today." Then the laywoman Suppiya thought, "If that sick monk does not obtain meat broth, then his illness will increase or he will die. It is not right for me to consent and not send him some."

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So she grabbed a butcher's knife, cut a piece of flesh from her thigh, and gave it to a serving woman, saying, "Prepare this meat, and give it to the sick monk in the monastery. And if someone asks for me, say that I am ilL" After saying this, she wrapped her thigh in her upper garments, went into her inner chambers, and lay down on a couch. Then the layman Suppiya came home and asked the serving woman, "Where is my wife, Suppiya?" She said, "My lord, she is lying down in her inner chambers." Then the layman Suppiya went to see the laywoman Suppiya, and approaching her, he said, "Why are you lying down?" "I am ill," she said. "What is wrong?" he asked. Then she told him what had happened, and the layman Suppiya thought, "It is truly amazing! It is truly unprecedented! The laywoman Suppiya's faith and de­ votion are so great that she has given up her own flesh! Is there anything she would not give?" Bristling with joy and jubilation, he went to see the Blessed One. After ap­ proaching him and offering a greeting, he sat to one side. Sitting there, he spoke to the Blessed One, saying, "Venerable sir, would the Blessed One please consent to come tomorrow for a meal, together with the community of monks?" The Blessed One consented with silence. After receiving the Blessed One's consent, the layman Suppiya then stood up and took his leave ofthe Blessed One, walking around him while keeping him on his right side in a gesture of respect. After the night had passed, the layman Suppiya had an excellent meal prepared with hard and soft foods, and had the Blessed One informed about the time, say­ ing, "It is time, Venerable sir. The meal is ready." Then the Blessed One dressed himselffor the morning, took his alms bowl and robes, and went to the layman Suppiya's house. Once he arrived, he sat down on the seat reserved for him. The community of monks came with him. Then the lay­ man Suppiya approached the Blessed One, offered a greeting, and sat to one side. As the layman Suppiya was sitting to one side, the Blessed One said, "Where is the laywoman Suppiya?" "She is ill," he said. The Blessed One said, "In that case, have her come." "She cannot," the layman said. The Blessed One said, "In that case, carry her to me." So the layman Suppiya carried the laywoman Suppiya to the Blessed One. When the Blessed One saw her, at that moment, the large wound was completely healed so that even the skin had little hairs growing on it. Then both the layman Suppiya and the laywoman Suppiya exclaimed: "It is truly amazing! It is truly unprece­ dented! The marvelous power and the wondrous presence ofthe Blessed One are so great that just the sight of him completely healed the large wound so that even the skin has little hairs growing on it." Bristling with joy and jubilation, the two served with their own hands the ex­ cellent meal of hard and soft foods to the community of monks with the Buddha

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at its head. Once the Blessed One had finished and cleaned his hands and bowl, they sat to one side. Then the Blessed One gave a talk on the Dhamma to the layman Suppiya and the laywoman Suppiya so that they were gladdened, delighted, moved, and inspired. Then he rose from his seat and left. Now, on this occasion and as a result of these circumstances, the Blessed One called an assembly ofthe monastic community and he asked the monks, "Monks, which one ofyou requested meat from the laywoman Suppiya?" After he had spoken, a particular monk said: "It was I. I requested meat from the laywoman Suppiya." "And, monk, did you receive it?" the Blessed One asked. "Yes, I received it," he said. "And, monk, did you eat it?" the Blessed One asked. "Yes, I ate it," he said. "And, monk, did you inquire about it?" the Blessed One asked. "No, Blessed One, I did not inquire about it," he said. Then the Blessed Buddha rebuked him, "How could you have eaten meat with­ out having first inquired about it? You are a fooL Fool, you have eaten human flesh! Foolish man, this will not instill faith in those who lack faith, nor will it increase the faith of those who already possess it." After he rebuked them, he gave them a talk on the Dhamma. Then the Blessed One addressed the monks: "Monks, some people are so faithful and devoted that they will give even their own flesh. Monks, human flesh should not be eaten. Whoever eats it commits a grave offense. And no flesh should be eaten, monks, without first inquiring about it. Whoever does so commits a minor offense."

NOTES 1.

For further discussion of the complex issue oflocating Theravada identity in history, see skilling et al. 2 012.

2. 3.

See Gethin 1998: 91-94.

Bhesajjavattu (oldenberg 1879-1882, 1: 199-252). Two complete translations ofthis section have been published in English. See Rhys Davids and Oldenberg 1965: 41-145; Horner 1938-1966, 4: 269-350.

4.

For longer biographical discussions of Sariputta, Moggallana, and other selected eminent disciples of the Buddha, based on stories about them in the Pali Buddhist literature, see Nyanaponika and Hecker 2003.

5.

For a book-length treatment ofgifts of the body in Indian Buddhist literature, see Ohnuma 2007.

6.

For this reason, perhaps, the Buddha declaresher foremost amonghis lay disciples in treat­

7.

The notion of resonance or stimulus-response has been said to characterize a distinctive

ingthe sick For a translation of this passage, see Bodhi 2012: 112. element of Chinese Buddhist miracle stories. See, for instance, Stevenson 1995: 427-430 and Campany 2 012: 49. By using similar terminology here, I mean to suggest that a comparable

124

HEALING AND MONASTIC DISCIPLINE conception may be discemable in South Asian Buddhist miracle narratives, even if it is not explicitly theorized in the same terms.

8.

Oldenberg 1879-1882, 1: 213-14. For alternative translations, see Rhys Davids and Olden­

9.

Bhal!e (friend) is a form of address commonly used to speak to people with whom the

berg 1965: 76-78 and Horner 1938-1966, 4: 292-93. speaker is familiar and who occupy a lower social position from the speaker. As such, it is difficult to translate into American English. The term is used again in the second story when the laywoman addresses her servant. 10.

Oldenberg 1879-1882, 1: 215-17. For alternative translations, see Rhys Davids and Olden­

11.

Bhal!e. See note 9 above.

berg 1965: 80-85 andHorner 1938-1966, 4: 295-98.

13. Rules on Medicines from the Five-Part Vinaya of the Mahisasaka School C . PIERCE SALGUERO

everal chapters i n this collection are devoted t o the topic of monastic disciplinary

S traditions and have included excerpts from various monastic codes, commentaries,

and related disciplinary texts. This chapter provides a translation ofthe entire section of rules concerning medicine from one monastic disciplinary code, the vinaya of the Mahisasaka school. Although there is little historical evidence that provides detail about the Mahisasakas,

this Buddhist sect likely existed in various parts of the Indian subcontinent, as well as abroad in Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka), Khotan, Indonesia, and southern China in the first millennium c .E. 1 Despite this widespread geographical spread, the only text from this group that is still extant today is their Vinaya, which is preserved in a Chinese transla­ tion completed in 423-424. This text was translated by a monk from Kashmir or Kabul named Buddhajiva and the Chinese monk Daosheng, who was a major figure in early fifth-century Buddhism. The Mahisasaka school is closely related to the Theravada, and the Vinayas of these two groups consequently share many similarities. 2 However, unlike the analogous sec­ tion ofthe Pali vinaya, which takes up dozens ofpages in English translation,3 the section on rules regarding medicine from the Mahisasaka vinaya is relatively short. When com­ pared with the Pali, the text seems to share a similar orientation, although in much abbreviated form and with many differences in specific detail about the rules and the origin stories.

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On the whole, there is little indication in this text that the Mahfsasaka school wished to restrict monastics from benefiting from the full range of medical procedures avail­ able at the time. Throughout the chapter, the Buddha is asked by m=bers ofthe Sangha whether or not they may use certain medicines or undergo certain procedures. From common foodstuffs to oils, salts, medicinal roots, and herbs, the Buddha allows a wide range of substances to be ingested for healing purposes. He similarly allows a number oftechniques such as sweating, massage, lancing ofminor infections, and eye medicines (although he draws a definitive line when it comes to a surgical procedure that is po­ tentially life-threatening). Monks, who are forbidden from cooking their own meals, are allowed to have a lay assistant prepare medicines from raw ingredients when necessary, and even to do so themselves on occasion. They are also allowed to take medicines that have been mixed with small amounts of food at times when eating food is prohibited, if such mixing is part of the method of preparing the medicine. (See chapter 14 for more information on the four types ofmedicine mentioned in the last paragraph of the trans­ lation: mealtime, non-mealtime, seven-day, and lifelong medicines.) Chinese Vinaya commentaries, such as the one by Daoxuan discussed in chapter 14, cited the Mahfsasaka Vinaya as an authoritative text when creating synthetic disci­ plinary guidelines for the Chinese Sangha. This fact notwithstanding, this particular monastic code was never as important in China as those belonging to the Sarvastivada and Dharmaguptaka schools. Consequently, the Mahfsasaka Vinaya had only a minor influence on Chinese monastic practice, and is thus most likely of greater significance for the history of Buddhism and of medicine in India than in East Asia.

FURTHER READING Bareau, Andre. 2013 [1955].

The Buddhi.st Schools of the Sma11 Vehicle. Honolulu: University of

Hawaii Press. Chapter 29. Frauwallner, Erich. 1956. The Earliest Vinaya and the Beginnings ofBuddhist Literature. Rome: Insti­ tuto italiano per il Media ed Estremo Oriente. Weinstein, Stanley, and William M. Bodiford, eds. 2005.

Going Forth: Visions ofBuddhi.st Vinaya:

Essays Presented in HonorofProfessor Staniey Weinstein. Honolulu: University ofHawai'i Press. Yifa. 2002.

The Origins ofBuddhi.st Monastic Codes in China. Honolulu: University ofHawai'i Press.

"RULES ON MEDICINES" FROM THE

fiVE-PART VINAYA O F T H E MAHISASAKA S C H O O L 4

One time, when the Buddha was at Rajagrha, the monks had contracted an illness ofthe autumn season. When the Buddha went to the monks' residence to see them, he had this thought: "Laypeople take butter, 5 oil, honey, and molasses as medi­ cines. I should allow the Sangha [also] to take these." So he gathered the monks together and told them: "From now on, all sick monks may take these four types ofmedicine: butter, oil, honey, and molasses." But the monks took butter and were

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aggrievedby its terrible smell. When they reported this to the Buddha, the Buddha said: "I allow you to cook it-whether you cook it yourself or have someone else do it. If you have no pure place, then I allow you to cook it in an impure place." The monks took the butter and [still] it made them vomit and gag. When they reported this to the Buddha, the Buddha said, "I allow you to season it with chebulic myrobalan, 6 emblic myrobalan/ honey, garlic, flour, and other allowable things." There was a monk who contracted a fever and should have taken butter. The other monks did not receive any when they went for alms, but they did receive some milk. When they reported this to the Buddha, the Buddha said, "You should have a lay assistant make butter; then heat it up until it no longer smells like food, and he may take it for seven days." There was a monk who contracted a Wind Illness and should have taken oil. The other monks did not receive any when they went for alms, but they did receive some oil seeds.8 When they reported this to the Buddha, the Buddha said, "You should have a lay assistant make oil; then when it no longer smells like food, he may take it for seven days." There was a monk who contracted a fever who should have taken molasses. The other monks did not receive any when they went for alms, but they did receive some sugar cane. When they reported this to the Buddha, the Buddha said, "You should have a lay assistant make molasses; then when it no longer smells like food, he may take it for seven days." But the monks did not know how long it should cook. When they reported this to the Buddha, the Buddha said, "Cook it long enough so that you can stretch an unbroken [strand] of syrup with a spoon." There were some monks who contracted a Wind Illness who should have taken the fat of a cow, donkey, camel, or fish.9 The other monks did not receive any when they went for alms, but they did receive four kinds of fatty meat. When they reported this to the Buddha, the Buddha said: "You should have a lay assis­ tant render the lard, and then heat it up further. If you render it, heat it up, and strain it at the appropriate time, but you attain [the medicine] at the improper time, he may not keep it overnight. But ifyou render it, heal it up, strain it, and attain [the medicine] at the appropriate time, he may take it for seven days." There were some monks who contracted an illness of the autumn season who should have taken a medicinal root. When they reported this to the Buddha, the Buddha said, "I allow all medicinal roots to be taken, as well as all medicinal fruits." There were some monks who contracted an illness of the autumn season who should have taken a medicinal herb. When they reported this to the Buddha, the Buddha said, "I allow all medicinal herbs to be taken." There was a monk with a Wind Illness who should have been sweated. When they reported this to the Buddha, the Buddha allowed it to be done. There was a monk with a Wind Illness who should have taken red and white salts. When they reported this to the Buddha, the Buddha allowed them to be taken. There was a monk with a Wind Illness who should have had his body massaged with a mixture of urine, oil, ashes, and a bitter tincture.10 When they reported this to the Buddha, the Buddha allowed him to be massaged with this mixture.

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There was a monk who was afflicted with skin sores who wanted this treat­ ment. When they reported this to the Buddha, the Buddha allowed him this treatment. There was a monk who was afflicted with abscesses who should have had them lanced and ointments applied. When they reported this to the Buddha, the Buddha allowed it. There was a monk who contracted a foot condition and needed to wear bear­ skin boots with a bear fat salve. He also needed to soak his feet in [a mixture of] flour, snake skin, bear grease, and butter inside of a bitter gourd. When they re­ ported this to the Buddha, the Buddha allowed it alL There was a monk who had an abscess in his private parts. As a physician was lancing it, the Buddha passed by. The physician said to the Buddha, "Look, Blessed One, the knife has already passed into his anal passage." The Buddha said: "That location is dangerous to treat. Supposing an unenlightened [monk] were to die, this would be a great loss. From now on, I do not allow surgery in the private parts. This is a grave11 offense." There was a monk who contracted an illness of intermittent fevers. The Buddha said: "He should take emetic and purgative medicines and rest. He should restrict his eating, and eat only foods that are suitable for that illness." There was a monkwho contracted eye problems. The Buddha said, "I allow the making of eye medicines." One time, Revata took molasses at a time when eating food was not allowed. Aniruddha said: "Don't violate the rule! I saw when they were making the molas­ ses that they put pounded rice in it." They had doubts [about whether this was allowable], and they immediately reported it to the Buddha. Because of this, the Buddha gathered the Sangha together. He asked Aniruddha: "You say you saw that when they were making the molasses, they put pounded rice in it. Why would they do that?" He answered, "That is their method of making it." After giving them all kinds of praise for being so free from self-indulgence, the Buddha then told the monks: "From now on, I allow mixed medicines such as this to be taken at times when food is not allowed." At that time, Venerable Upali asked the Buddha: "Blessed One, if a mealtime medicine is mixed with an non-mealtime medicine, then when can it be taken?" The Buddha said: "You ought to base this [decision] on the mealtime medicine and not take it when food is not allowed. It is the same ifyou mix [a mealtime medi­ cine] with a seven-day or a lifelong medicine." Then he asked, "If a non-mealtime medicine is mixed with a seven-days medicine, then for how long can it be taken?" The Buddha said, "You ought to base this on the non-mealtime medicine and not keep it overnight. It is the same ifyou mix [non-mealtime medicine] with a seven­ day or a lifelong medicine." Then he asked, "If a seven-days medicine is mixed with a lifelong medicine, then for how long can it be taken?" The Buddha said, "You ought to base this on the seven-days medicine and not treat it as a lifelong medicine."

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129

NOTES 1.

Bareau 2013: 241-42.

2.

Ibid., 242.

3.

See Horner 1938-1966, 4: 269-350.

4.

Mishasaibu hexi wufen 1U (T no. 1421, 22: 147b1-147c28).

5.

Ch. suyou. This term could also mean ghee or curds.

6.

eh. helile; Skt. harftakf. See glossary.

7.

eh. amole; skt. iimalaki.

8.

eh. youma. This term could be referring to hemp or sesame seeds.

9.

eh. zhan, literally meaning "sturgeon," could here possibly refer to alligator.

10.

Note that urine is commonly considered medicinal in Buddhism. See May 1967, and chapters 16§29 and 46 of the present volume.

11. eh. touluozhe; skt. sthuliityaya.

14. Food and Medicine in the Chinese Vinayas Daoxuan 's

Emended Commentary on Monastic Practices from the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya ]. E. E. PETTIT

0 f all the writings about historical Buddhist monasteries, few texts capture the everyday affairs of the institution like the vinayas (monastic disciplinary texts)

and their commentaries. These texts feature various rules and codes that help set par­ ameters on what is permissible and inadmissible for the monastic lifestyle. They are important sources to understand what issues were perceived as challenging to those trying to live an ascetic life. They also reflect what aspects ofmonastic life were deemed particularly threatening to the power structures (or else why would these rules need to exist in the first place?) .1 Judged by the monastic disciplinary literature extant in Pali, Sanskrit, and Chinese, one of most vexing parts of Buddhist monastic life was how to treat the body when ill­ ness prevented a monk or nun from carrying out day-to-day affairs. This problem was, of course, closely related to the dietary rules of early monasteries. Many of the medications that might heal a monk or nun (e.g., meat, alcohol, pungent roots) meant that to receive treatments, he or she would have to break the monastic precepts, and consequently would incur institutional punishments for seeking physical health. Writers of Chinese disciplinary texts were particularly concerned about people refraining from eating meat. Early Buddhists considered not eating meat to be a form of meritorious fasting, an idea that likely grew out ofBrahmanic laws mandating that, except for sacrifice, killing animals violated priestly laws.2 Whereas early Buddhists adopted carnivorous diets, supporters of vegetarianism gained traction in East Asian monasteries, both past and present.3

FOOD AND MEDICINE IN THE CHINESE VINAYAS

131

The Indian vinayas translated into Chinese in the medieval period recognized four kinds of medicinal foods (in Chinese, the "four medicines")4 that were defined by the frequency and circumstances by which one consumed them. They are as follows: 1. The first, "mealtime medicines,"5 were those medicines that monks and nuns were supposed to consume between dawn and midday, during the normal period of time for monastic meals. Typically, these refer to staple foods (e.g., flour, rice) and herbaceous foodstuffs (e.g., leaves, flowers). 2. The second category is "non-mealtime medicine," also known as "non-mealtime food."6 This category refers to any food or drink that is consumed because of one's poor health outside ofnormal mealtimes on a case-by-case basis. 3. The third category is called "seven-day medicines,"7 which were foodstuffs that were prescribed for seven days. Many texts specify that these regimens were to be used by people engaging in strenuous activity, such as traveling, fasting, or working over­ time. They could be kept by a monk in his personal quarters to be taken at any time of day, but only for a maximum period of seven days. 4. The final category, "lifelong medicine," was comprised of those foods that could be consumed at any point in the day and for any duration. There is a wide range offoods that writers attribute to this category, including black pepper, atractylis root, jujube, and sesame. The vinaya rules concerning these four categories ofmedicines are extremely complex. Narratives explaining their origins centered on figures living and events purportedly taking place in ancient India (see, e.g., chapter 13, which contains several such stories). Each ofthe extant vinayas attributes different ideas and practices to the historical Bud­ dha, and since these texts are at odds with one another, it is extremely difficult to study historical practices related to the use of food and medicine in Indian monasteries. Fur­ thermore, most of these texts were translated into Chinese during the medieval pe­ riod, which tends to obscure the original contexts and debates in which these texts emerged. While the vinayas themselves will tell us little about actual monastic practice in East Asia, commentaries on the vinaya texts that were composed in China do reflect the kinds of problems that monastic leaders deemed relevant to their own time and situation. The following is a translation of one such commentary: the Emended Commentary on Monastic Practices from the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya by Daoxuan (596-667).8 Daoxuan com­ piled this text in 626, and it represents one of the earliest treatises in China that was solely devoted to the classification and practices associated with the monastic use of food and medicine. Despite its name, this is not an account of one vinaya tradition, but rather a summary of different kinds of writings about food and medicine found across the vinaya literature. Daoxuan uses well over a dozen kinds of vinaya codes and com­ mentaries to compile his treatise, integrating the monastic disciplinary traditions of

132

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the Dharmaguptaka, Mahisasaka, Mahasa:q1ghika, and Sarvastivada schools of Indian Buddhism. The following excerpts, which come from chapter 18 ofDaoxuan's text, not only help us ascertain the range of medicines known and used by Buddhists in medieval China but also highlight how medieval writers attempted to synthesize this information. To determine what medicines should be used in monastic communities, Daoxuanrelies on many different sources rather than just one. This underscores the ecumenical ap­ proach that medieval exegetes took toward the various Buddhist traditions arriving in China. It also highlights how one writer attempted to rewrite and forge the different notions into an overarching guidebook for monastics in the greater East Asian sphere of influence.

FURTHER READING9 Chen, Huaiyu. 2009. "A Buddhist Classification of Plants and Animals in Early Tang China." journal ofAsian History 43 (1): 31-51.

Davids, T. W. Rhys, and Hermann Oldenberg. 2001. "Sixth Khandhaka: On Medicaments." In Vinaya Texts: Part II. Richmond: Curzon.

Hopkins, E. Washburn. 1906. "The Buddhistic Rule Against Eating Meat."journal ofthe American Oriental Society 27: 455-64.

Reinders, Eric. 2004. "Blessed Are the Meat Eaters: Christian Antivegetarianism and the Mis­ sionary Encounter with Chinese Buddhism." Positions 12 (2): 509-37.

E X C E R P T F R O M T H E EMENDED COMMENTARY ON MONASTIC

PRACTICES FROM THE DHARMAG UPTAKA VINA YA1 0 There is nothing better than medicine to support your life. With medicine, any­ thing is possible. We can separate them into four kinds. There are "mealtime medicines," which can be taken anytime between dawn and the morning lectures. These help to ensure that your body operates smoothly. You will not run the risk of wrongdoings if you consume these [medicines]. The second kind is "non­ mealtime medicine," which should be administered and consumed at certain in­ tervals. The user is not allowed to take more than the prescribed amount. The third kind is "seven-day medicine," which should be prescribed and taken only for a short interval oftime. It will only be effective if it is taken during this short period. The final kind is "lifelong medicine"; these are weak substances. If taken for a long time, medicines of this final category enable you to purge all that vexes you. There are three kinds: those taken until the prescription is over, those taken until the illness has been cured, and those taken until [one's own] karma has been exhausted [i.e., death]. The Treatise Elucidating [Twenty-Two Vinaya Stanzas] says, "Ifyou have a body, you inevitably become sick. Whenyou are young, these [illnesses] will harm you, and in the end, they will kill you." So take heed of

FOOD AND MEDICINE IN THE CHINESE VINAYAS

133

these different things [that the historical Buddha] preached so you can live life fully to the end. There are five things we must distinguish about all four types of medicine: 1. Understanding the qualities ofthe medicine, 2. Understanding the relative quality of the place where the medicine was grown, 3. Preserving the difference of quality, 4. Knowing the different ways to preserve its quality, 5. Knowing the differences among different techniques. There are four things that a novice must understand about medicine. The first thing is that you must know the four kinds of medicine. There are two kinds of "mealtime medicines." In the Four-Part [Vinaya], there are five kinds of foods that are permitted: wheat, rice, parched rice, fish, and meat. There are five kinds of foods that are not permitted: twigs, leaves, flowers, fruits, and other kinds of foods that are finely ground. The Mahasarrzghika [Vinaya] makes a distinction between "mealtime medicines" (rape, onion, lotus root, turnip, mallow root)11 and "mealtime brews" (the vari­ ous kinds of drinks made from rice and flour, as well as milk). All of the various vinaya rules consider both fish and meat to be "mealtime food." This must be an inherited notion from earlier traditions. Note, for instance, that the Nirval_la Siitra says: "From this day forward, I will no longer permit my disciples to eat meat. You should think about the reasons you crave meat, for a person who eats meat will be cut off from the seeds ofgreat mercy [they have sown]. All creatures that swim, run, or fly have a life that you terminate; it is for this reason that I do not permit you to eat [meat]." A commentary on this passage explains that originally disci­ ples were allowed to eat meat, but [later] these were understood as reincarnated beings, which should also be savedY The Larikavatara Siitra lists countless karmic reasons one should not eat meat. We can summarize them into ten types. 1. From the dawn of time, all sentient beings have always had six kinds of blood relations.13 Think about these relations, and you will know that you should not eat meat. 2. Foxes, dogs, men, and horses can all be killed and sold. 3. Impure qi can arise and multiply. 4. All sentient beings can be struck with fear after smelling [meat]. 5. [Meat] will prevent a practitioner from having a compassionate heart. 6. It will make one's name infamous because they will do what stupid people do and commit impure acts. 7. It will also cause incantations to be of no use. 8. When you eat meat, you will see the animal in your mind and this will taint your ability to taste.

134

HEALING AND MONASTIC DISCIPLINE 9. All of the tigers and wolves that are cast out by heaven and cause night­

mares will smell [the meat]. 10. After eating many different kinds of meats, you might be tempted to eat human fleshY The Scripture ofthe Stripe-Footed King states: "There are many fools in this world and all of them eat meat.15 Of all the transgressions, this is the most grave. Any person who eats meat is guilty of slaughtering and selling animals, whereas those who do not eat meat do not have [this transgression]. This is why those who eat meat should expect the same karmic repercussions as those who slaughter ani­ mals. Once you have been found guilty [of killing animals], what rule could pos­ sibly help you?" The Mahiisii1J1ghika [Vinaya] states: "If a monk slaughters [an animal], the 'seven groups' should eat it.16 In the same way, if a layperson slaughters it, the 'seven groups' should not eat it. Those people who now study the rules do not eat [meat], and thus are the same as the Great Vehicle [i.e., Mahayana] monks of China. Those who study the words of the Great Vehicle modify their behavior, yet still drink alcohol and eat meat, but the teachings of both the Great and Lesser Vehicle do not permit this, for it is on the same level as killing children. Even the heav­ enly Mara-demons of the outer teachings do not partake in alcohol and meat."17 The Four-Part Vinaya says: "If anyone kills a being while consciously engaging in one of the ten evil practices, he should not eat that meat after it is offered at a Grand Sacrifice.18 If he is arranging for the purchase [of food for the patron] who has come, then it will be permissible for him to kill the animaL According to the teachings, it is best ifyou do not eat any meat, so it will be best to completely elimi­ nate meat from [your diet]."19 [ . . . )20 The Larikiivatiira Siitra says: "You should never partake in things such as alco­ hol, meat, onions, garlic, chives, and shallots."21 The Treatise on the Profane says: "Even ifyou sell alcohol or meats, you should not partake in them. If an eminent monk makes decisions after drinking alcohol or eating meat, his real intentions will become very clear." A commentary says: "As long as it has been boiled, you can drink alcohol when taking mealtime, non-mealtime, and seven-day medication. It is fine to consume as long as it no longer contains alcohol."22 Mealtime medicines that are prepared with alcohol contain so much that it will make you intoxicated and desire to have more. You could add bittering agents to the tincture, but this is displeasing to the palette. From these two ways, we know that these two emotions are a far cry from enlightenment. As for non-mealtime medicinal brews, the Mahiisii1J1ghika says that all beans, grains, and wheat should be boiled until all the foam disappears from the sur­ face.23 If you have ghee, oil, honey, or sugar, you can make juice from any of the fourteen fruits. Be sure that the water you use is clean. If the bottom of the ves­ sel you are using is broken and the rainwater has seeped in, it's still considered clean.

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The Ten Recitations Vinaya states that grape [juice] should not be purified by add­ ing heat or diluted with water. Ifits [juice] is unclean, the individual should not drink it. Only drink it if it is pure merely [by pressing it]. This is the case for all four kinds of medicine. If it has a stench, this will help curb a person's desire [to drink more).24 The Altogether Pleasing [says] that the following can be consumed as a kind of non-mealtime medicine: juices made from boiled lotus roots, trees, fruits, leaves, flowers, and grasses. Melons and coconuts are, however, not permitted.25 The Mother of the Vinayas says that fruits may be planted and consumed in plenty. A person may extract the juice and drink it. But if the juice is left out at night and forms a bitter alcohol, he or she is not permitted to drink it.26 The Treatise Elucidating [Twenty-Two Vinaya Stanzas] also states that if you can stir-fry rice until it turns black and then add in any extra medicine, this counts as a non-mealtime medicinal brew. The Four-Part Vinaya lists eight kinds of brews that the holy people of antiquity drank, such as those made from pear, sour jujubes, sugar cane, malted barley, grapes, and lotus roots. If, however, they make a person inebriated, these brews should not be consumed. Drink them as detailed in the rulesP The Yogiiciirabhiimi-siistra says that all sediment should be removed [from brews] so that the liquid is as clear as water. If you have unclean brews, it will interfere with mealtime medicines. And if you gulp down [these brews], it will be treated as a minor offense requiring expiation. As for seven-day medicines, the Four-Part Vinaya lists five different kinds of foods such as ghee, oil, butter, honey, and sugar. You must consume all of the allotted medicine; do this just as you are supposed to eat all the rice in your bowl. Do not neglect to eat every bit of your prescription. 28 The MotherofVinayas ofthe Sarviistiviida School says thatjuices made from sugar also count as seven-day medicines; the Mahiisiil?lghika [Vinaya] even says that ani­ mal fat can be included. 29 The Four-Part Vinaya says that when the Buddha was ill, a doctor instructed him to consume five different kinds of animal fat, including bear, pig, donkey, and fish.30

NOTES

1.

Gregory Schopen's work on the rules and monastic codes of early Buddhist communities is extremely helpful to garner information about the hierarchies of power. See Schopen 1997, 2 004: 19-44.

2.

3.

Hopkins 1906. See Reinders 2004 for more about the later importance of a vegetarian diet for Chinese Buddhists.

4.

eh. siyao.

5.

eh. 5 hiyao or 5hishi.

136 6.

HEALING AND MONASTIC DISCIPLINE eh. feishi yao or feishi shi.

7.

eh. q(ri yao.

8.

Ch. Sifen lUshanfan buque xingshi chao.

9.

There is regrettably little written about the "four medicines" in English (most are in Chinese and Japanese; see especially Liu Shufen 2006 on tea and medicinal soup ceremonies).

10. T no. 1804, 40: 117c-119a. 11.

I amreading qi as a scribal error or medieval variant for q(ao (mallow root).

12. cf. T no. 1425, 22: 339a and 457b; T no. 374, 12: 386a. 13. "Six kinds of blood relations" (liuqin) refers to one's four generations of forefathers and two generations of descendants. 14. cf. T no. 670, 16: 513c. 15. The Stripe-Footed King (Banzu wang) is Kalma�apada, i.e., the king with the marks on his feet who was thought to be a previous incarnation of Sakyamuni's disciple Angulimala. He was an infamous figure who nearly killed one thousand kings after being put under the evil spell of a master. 16. The "seven groups" (qizhong) refers to the seven kinds of Buddhist disciples: monks, nuns, male lay practitioners, female lay practitioners, monks-in-training, nuns-in-training, and neophytes. 17.

This refers to generals and officers ofKingYama. Cf. T no. 1425, 22: 485c-86a.

18. eh. dasi. 19.

cf. T no. 1428, 22: 871b; T no. 1463: 817a.

2 0.

I have omitted an interjection by the compiler in which he notes that it is still unlawful to

21.

cf. T no. 670, 16: 514a.

eat meat if it has been given to you as a present. 22. cf. T no. 1441, 23: 578c. 23. cf. T no. 1425, 22: 360c. 24. Cf. T no. 1435, 23: 192c. 25. Samanta-pasadika; cf. T no. 1462, 24: 795b. 26.

Vinayamatrkii-sastra; cf. T no. 1463, 24: 817b.

27.

cf. T no. 1428, 22: 873c.

28.

cf. T no. 1428, 22: 866c, 869b.

29.

cf. T no. 1425, 22: 316c, 318a, 521a.

30. cf. T no. 1428, 22: 627b.

15. Toilet Care in Buddhist Monasteries Health, Decency, and Ritual A N N H E I RMAN A N D M A T H I E U T O R C K

s i s well known, Buddhist communities developed in India a few centuries before

A the start ofthe Common Era. During these early centuries, monastic leaders com­

piled large bodies of disciplinary texts, or guidelines, called vinaya. These texts consti­ tute a rich source ofhistorical information about material culture, practices, ideas, and attitudes that were essential in the functioning, and even survival, ofthe Buddhist com­ munities. They also provide detailed information on bodily care, including toilet prac­ tices. If followed closely, many of the detailed stipulations outlined in the texts would have helped monastics to maintain good health. Nevertheless, the principal concerns of the authors relate to decency, respect, cleanliness, and purity.1 In the course of the development of disciplinary texts, cleanliness ofthe body became linked to the concept of "purity of mind." Whereas cleanliness relates to being free from dirt in a context of respect and decorum, purity relates to freedom from both physical and moral pollution. When monks started to travel from India to other parts of the Asian continent, they carried with them a great deal of information in both oral and written forms. At first, disciplinary texts were not given a high priority, but this changed quite suddenly around the beginning ofthe fifth century C.E., when intense interest in the vinaya texts started to develop and when many of them were translated into Chinese. About three hundred years later, at the beginning of the eighth century, the Chinese monk Yijing translated large sections of another text, the Mulasarvastiwda Vinaya. As most ofthe original Indian texts have since been lost, these Chinese translations now provide some of the best sources ofinformation on early Buddhist practices and attitudes, and details ofmonas­ tic life.2

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Yijing's translation ofthe Mulasarvastivada Vinaya remains a most interesting source, especially on material culture. The first translation presented in this chapter is from this source. It relates how Sariputra, a most distinguished disciple of the Buddha, con­ vinces a Brahmin to become a Buddhist monk on account of his attention to purity. The Brahmin wants to be physically clean, but he links this to a desire to leave the worldly life and pursue a certain spiritual goal. Sariputra shows him how to lead a balanced life, free from pollution, but also without an exaggerated craving for extreme cleanliness. In this narrative, we read of a ritualized toilet process, involving the use of specific oJ:riects and a strict sequence of actions. Such ritual cleansing was quite common in the Indian religious landscape, especially among Brahmins. They are rather unusual in Indian Buddhist mo­ nastic texts, however. It is in China, and then especially in the Chan monasteries, that these practices receive renewed attention, as we will see in the following excerpts. The vinayas provided the Chinese communities with a large corpus of guidelines, many ofwhich were widely debated from the outset. Subsequent commentaries, as well as many new manuals written by Chinese monks, constitute another rich source of in­ formation on attitudes to toilet care in Buddhist communities, this time specifically in the Chinese context. From the eighth century onward, a new genre of rules started to develop in China-the so-called rules of purity-which were particularly popular among chan monks.3 These rules continue to rely on earlier vinaya texts, but their principal focus is on the practical organization of large public monasteries. They testify to the large Chinese monasteries' growing demand for a consistent set of regulations.4 The oldest extant code is the Pure Rules for the chan Monastery, compiled by Changlu Zongze in 1103.5 The second translation here is taken from this text. The Pure Rules for the Chan Monastery's toilet guidelines continue the tradition of focusing on cleanliness, respect, and decorum. However, some ofthe rules for toilet use are far more detailed than previ­ ously was the case. Special attention is paid to the robes, which the Pure Rules for the ehan Monastery insists have to be kept as clean as possible. The guidelines in the Pure Rules for the eh an Monastery have been updated regularly, and they are now the standard for the organization of all Chinese public monasteries, regardless ofschool affiliation. One ofthe most influential revisions is the Baizhang's Rules ofPurityRevised on Imperial Order, compiled by Dongyang Dehui between 1335 and 1343.6 The third excerpt here, which is taken from this text, reveals an increasing ritualiza­ tion, including detailed instructions on chanting a dharaJ:lf to ensure purity in the toilet. Due to the nature of the extant sources, our findings inevitably relate primarily to China's large monasteries. These comprised only a fraction of active medieval monas­ teries, but they did set a kind ofbenchmarkfor others to follow, so they allow us to identify those objects, practices, and attitudes that possessed the aura of a normative ideal. This ideal influenced certain aspects ofthe material culture of personal cleanliness in lay society as well. To demonstrate some examples of this influence, we conclude our selection of translations with two humorous short stories from a literary source, A New Account of the Tales of the World written by Liu Yiqing (403-444)." This work consists of a collection of anecdotes, observations, and conversations of a presumably fictional na­ ture, but concerning real historical characters.8 The stories throw a particularly inter­ esting light on prevailing toilet habits inlay society of early medieval China, and appear

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to confirm the existence of practices that in all probability originated in India. One of those practices pertains to the use of"bath beans" for cleaning the hands after a visit to the toilet.9 This term refers to a variety of products that were added to bathing water or simply smeared on the body while bathing (see also description of bathing in chapter 8) .10 Well-equipped family bathrooms and toilet rooms became popular among the elites in China, and such detergents came to be commonly used both in the bathroom and in the toilet room, as we will see in the two excerpts. Both anecdotes feature Shi Chong (d. 324), a wealthy favorite of the ]in emperor Wu (Sima Yan, r. 265-290) and Wang Dun (266-324), a famous governor and general.

FURTHER READING Heirman, Ann, and Mathieu Torck. 2012. A Pure Mind in a Clean Body: Bodily Care in the Buddhist Mona.steries ofAncient India and China. Gent: Academia Press.

Kieschnick, John. 2013. "A History of the Bathhouse in Chinese Buddhist Monasteries." In Xinyang, shijian yu wenhua tiaoshi (Religion: Practice and Text Compared), Proceedings ofthe Fourth International Conference on Chinese Studies, ed. Kang Bao (Paul Katz) and Liu Shufen

Taipei: Zhongyangyanjiuyuan. Schop en, Gregory. 20 08. "On Emptying Chamber Pots Without Looking and the Urban Location ofBuddhist Nunneries in Early India Again."journal Asiatique 296 (2): 229-56. Yifa. 2002. The Origins ofBuddhist Mona.stic Codes in China. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.

1 . S A R I P U T RA G O E S T O THE T O I L E T , F R O M T H E M ULASARVASTIVADA VINAYA 1 1 At that time, in that town, there was a Brahmin. He was always longing for purity and he hoped to go forth [i.e., to enter the ascetic life]. He thought to himself: "If there is someone who washes and purifies himself and thus pleases my heart, I will rely on his doctrine and go forth with him." The Brahmin then traveled around in search of such a person. He explored the communities ofnon-Buddhist ascetics and of Brahmins. He saw that after going to the toilet, some did not wash themselves, and others went into a pool and washed themselves with one hun­ dred lumps of earth. He saw that while some were dirty, among others the pro­ cess was far too complicated. He found both groups unsatisfactory, and he did not want to join them. Then the Brahmin thought: "I have looked around everywhere. There is no one I like. The only ones I have not yet observed are the sramm.zas, sons ofthe Sakyas."12 He then went to the Jetavana monastery and saw Sariputra, a person of great vir­ tue. He was carrying a bottle13 that could contain three sheng, and he went to the toilet. When [the Brahmin] saw this, he thought: "This is a sramm.za, a distinguished disciple of Gautama [the Buddha]. I will now observe how he washes himself." He then followed him.

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When an arhat [here, meaning Sariputra] is not in meditation, he is unable [im­ mediately] to understand other people's intentions. So when Sariputra noticed that this person was following him, he carefully investigated why this Brahmin was following him. Then he understood that deep in [the Brahmin's] heart he was looking for purity. "He wants to see whether [my behavior] is good or bad." He then observed that [the Brahmin] was a good person, and that he did not want to join just any [group]. And finally, he saw that the only way this [Brahmin] would join him would be if he were a good person [also]. After having these thoughts, he put away his Dharma robe14 so that the smell from the toilet could not reach it. He was wearing only a chest-cloth15 and an under-cloth. Then, on top of a tile, he made a row of seven lumps of earth. They each looked like half a peach. He then made another row of seven lumps, and one more lump, which he put aside. With a piece of wood and three clods of earth, he entered the toilet and did not close the door. He made sure that [the Brahmin] could see him from afar. Having relieved himself, he wiped his body with the wooden scraper, and with his left hand he took a clod of earth to wash his bottom. With another clod, he washed and cleaned his penis. With the final clod, he then washed his left hand. Taking the bottle in his right hand, he returned to where he had placed the lumps of earth.16 He put the bottle on his left thigh and let the water drip out (if there is a tripod, put the bottle on top; that is very convenient)Y First, he washed his left hand, using the seven lumps one by one. Then he cleaned both his hands with the next seven lumps, again one by one. He also washed both his arms to make sure they were clean. He then used the final lump to wash the bottle. Having finished, he slowly left, in a dignified and tranquil way. Having put on his Dharma robe, he washed his feet with water. He then returned to his room and took a clean bottle. He rinsed his mouth three times. After that, he could do whatever he wished to do. After the Brahmin had observed all of these procedures, he was full of confi­ dence and thought: "Very good! I want this Dharma. One need not add anything more. The non-Buddhist ascetics prepared one hundred lumps to clean them­ selves. This is not like the sons of the Sakyas. They need only two times seven lumps." After thinking this, he bowed to the feet ofSariputra. He said: "Wise man, I nowwant to stay with your Honored One. You expound the Dharma and the dis­ ciplinary rules in a good way, and I want to go forth on account of this." Then he received full ordination and became a monk.

2 . TOILET FACILITIES I N A CHAN MONASTERY ( I ) , F R O M T H E P URE R ULES FOR THE CHAN MONASTERY18 If a monk needs to go to the toilet, he should do so in good time, not wait until the last moment when internal pressure will compel him to act in haste. He should fold his ceremonial robe19 and place it on a desk or on a clean pole in his room. He should bow before leaving. He first puts on his work clothes20 and then places a

TOILET CARE IN BUDDHIST MONASTERIES

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clean towel over his left arm. He should not pass through the main hall [on his way to the toilet]. When he reaches the toilet, he hangs his work clothes and towel over the clean pole outside the latrine. He then rolls up his underskirt, folds his short gown, and places them on a pole in front of the latrine.21 He places his short gown on top of the underskirt and ties them together with his belt. On the one hand, this serves to identify his belongings; on the other hand, it prevents them from falling to the ground. He carries the water vessel in his right hand, and on entering the latrine, removes his shoes and lays them side by side. He closes the door softly, and puts down the vessel. Before relieving himself, he should snap his fingers three times to warn the ghosts who feed on excrement. He should not scat­ ter mucus or spit wildly and he should not make excessive noise when pushing. He should not use the wooden spatulas to draw on the floor, and he should not speak with or make fun of the people next door. When cleaning oneself, it is better to use cold water, because hot water can lead to intestinal wind. Holding the water vessel in the right hand, the monk uses the water with the left hand (protecting the thumb and the index finger).22 He should be careful not to splash the water and not to pollute the floor or soil the edges around the toilet. He should not use more than one section of the wooden spatula (some people, after using the wooden spatulas, will wash them before leaving). To wash his hands, he should use ashes first and then earth. He then goes to the washing stand behind the latrine and uses bath beans to wash up to his elbows. He also rinses his mouth (according to the Vinaya, he should chew a willow twig to clean his mouth). He then returns to retrieve his work clothes and clean towel. After bowing, he puts on his ceremonial robe. The Vinaya states that if a monk has not cleaned himself, he cannot sit on the beds ofthe Sangha, bow to the Three Jewels, or receive bows from others. If a monk arrives at the door of the toilet and notices that someone is inside, he should not cough, snap his fingers, or talk to make the person hurry. If he is in the latrine himself and realizes that someone is waiting outside, he should try to finish as soon as possible (at such times, washing the wooden spatula would be inappropriate). If a monk is going to the urinals, he should roll up his clothes and squat down close to the toilet. He should not spit, blow his nose, or talk. He should always yield to senior monks. (According to the Vinaya, the monk must also wash him­ self after urination; if not, he will be treated as an unclean person, as mentioned above.)

3 . T O I L E T F A C I L I T I E S I N A CHAN M O N A S T E R Y ( I I ) , F R O M BAIZHANG ' S R ULES O F PURITY REVISED ON IMPERIAL 0RDER23 [After relieving oneself], one should not pour water on both hands. One should use the left hand for cleaning, while protecting the thumb and the first and second fingers. One should not use too many spatulas. In the past, it was said: "Use warm

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water in moderation. Stop using spatulas." But ifthere are spatulas, then one should wash them after use and leave them in an empty space near to the latrine. If there are many people [waiting to go to the toilet], it is improper to hinder them by staying too long. One should place the water vessel where it was before, and use one's dry hand to put on one's underwear and robe. One opens the door with one's dry hand, and then leaves with the water vessel in the left hand. One should not touch the door panel or the side of the door with a wet hand. With the right hand, one takes some ashes and then some earth. One should not take ashes or earth with one's wet hand. One should not mix saliva with the earth. Then one should wash both hands and use bath beans. One should wash up to the elbows. One should recite a dharm.zz [literally, "ritual phrase"] at each act of cleaning. As the Mahayana Scripture ofthe Original Acts That Serve as Necklaces forthe Bodhisattvas says:24 "Whoever goes to the toilet and does not recite the dharm.zz will never be able to purify himself, even if he uses ten times the water of the Ganges River to wash himself, even up to the deepest depth.25 No matter how often he goes to the shrine hall to worship, it will be ofno use. Therefore, one must uphold [the dharaJ:J'i] and recite it seven times on every occasion. In this way, the ghosts and the spirits will always accompany and protect [the person who is reciting]." When going to the toilet, chant: AN HENLUTUOYE SUO HE .26

4 . T O I L E T H A B I T S I N EARLY M E D I EVAL C H I N A , F R O M A NEW ACCO UNT OF THE TALES O F THE WORLD27 Chapter 30: "Extravagance and Ostentation" In Shi Chong's privy, there were always ten or more female slaves lined up, all beau­ tifully dressed and ornamented, holding onycha paste, 2 8 aloeswood lotion, 29 and the like, with no amenity lacking. In addition, they would give each guest a new change of clothes and put it on him before letting him out. Most guests were too bashful to be able to use the privy, but when Generalissimo Wang Dun went, he removed his old clothes and put on the new, and his spirit and expression were completely self-assured. The slave girls said among themselves, "This guest is definitely capable of becoming a rebel!"30 [The Forest ofConversations adds]: While Liu Shi [219-309] was visiting Shi Chong, he went to the privy and saw there red silk curtains, a large bed, cushions, and rush mats, all very beautiful. Two female slaves were holding brocaded aromatic sachets. Shi turned around and retreated in haste, saying to Chong, ''Just now by mistake I entered your bedroom." Chong replied, "It's just the privy."31

Chapter 34: "Crudities and Slips of the Tongue" When Wang Dun had just married the princess [ofWuyang, Sima Xiuyi], once as he was going to the privy he observed a lacquered box filled with driedjujubes,32

TOILET CARE IN BUDDHIST MONASTERIES

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originally intended to be used as nose stoppers. Supposing that even in the privy they were also providing fruit, Wang proceeded to eat them all up. When he came back, the slave girls held out a golden washbasin filled with water and a colored glass bowl filled with bath beans. Dun proceeded to empty them into the water and drink them down, supposing them to be dried cooked rice. All the slave girls cupped their hands over their mouths and laughed at him.

NOTES

1.

See discussion in Heirman and Torck 2 012.

2.

For details, see Heirman 2007:

3.

eh. qing gui.

175-77.

4.

For a discussion, see, among others, Yifa 2002: 28-35 andJia 2005.

5.

eh. chanyuan qing gui.

6.

Ch.

7.

Ch. Shishuo xinyu.

Chixiu Baizhang qing gui.

8.

For a discussion, see Mather 1976: xiii-xxx.

9.

eh. zaodou.

10.

For details, see Heirman and Torck 2012: 49-51.

11.

Genbenshuoyiqieyou bu pinaiye zashi, T no. 1451, 24: 276c29-277b4.

12.

The Sakya clan is the clan of the Buddha. Therefore, monks are often called "sons of the Sa:kyas."

13.

skt. kuJ;J4ilca.

14.

When in residence, an Indian monk usually wears two robes: an "upper robe" (uttanisailga) and an "inner robe" or "under-cloth" (antarviisaka). A third "outer robe" (sal!lghatf) is added when the monk ventures outside the monastery. It is hard to determine what the term "Dharma robe" (eh. fafu) signifies precisely. However, it certainly does not refer to the chest-cloth (sal!lkak.?ika), an additional cloth that a monk is allowed to wear under the

uttariisanga to cover his chest. For more on robes, see Kieschnick 1999.

15.

skt. sal!lkak;;ika:.

16.

The right hand is the clean hand, and is used for eating.

17.

The note in parentheses was added by the translator, the monk Yijing.

18.

Chanyuan qing gui, X no. 111: 912 a3-b2. Translation reproduced (with minor changes) with permission fromYifa 2002: 205-6.

19.

skt.

20.

Ch. guazi, i.e., the clothing worn during communallabor (Yifa 2002:

21.

A Chinese monk has two items of underclothing: a short gown (pianshan) worn on top, and

kiJ.?aya.

65).

an underskirt (qun).

22.

Information in parentheses here and in the remainder of this excerpt appears in the

23.

Chixiu Baizhang qing gui, T no. 2025, 48: 1145b23-c6.

24.

eh. Yingluojing, the short title ofthe Pus a yingluo benyejing. This is a Mahayana set ofmoral

extant version of the Chanyuan qing gui.

guidelines that was probably compiled in China in the fifth century. However, the s urviv­ ing Yingluo jing text (T no.

1485, 24) does not contain the quotation cited here.

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25. Ch. jingangji; Skt. vajra-tala-5thiina. 26. Ichimura (2006: 313) reconstructs this as Orr krodhiiya 5viihii. Whereas the syllables are purely ritualistic in Chinese, in Sanskrit the krodhiiya standing between the ritual sylla­ bles orr and5viihii might have a meaning related to "anger" (krodha). 27.

Shi.shuo xinyu, 30.2, 34.1. Translation reproduced (with minor changes) with permission of

University of Minnesota Press. See Mather 1976: 459, 479. 28. eh. jiajian fen. 29. eh. chenxiangzhi. 30. Shi ehong (249-300) was a wealthy favorite of theJin emperor Wu (Sima Yan, r. 265-290) and Wang Dun (266-324), a famous general and governor ofJingProvince (modern Hunan­ Hubei). See Mather 1976: 563,596. 31. Liu Shi was a famous general and minister in ehangsha (Hunan Province). The Forest of Conver.sations (Yu1in) was compiled by Pei Qi (fl. second half, fourth century) in 362. Much

of the Shi.shuo xinyu is based on this earlier work containing anecdotes. See Mather 1976: 552, 559-60. 32. eh. gancao.

16. Health Care in Indian Monasteries Selections from Yijing's Record ofthe Inner Law Sent Home

from the Southem Seas C H R I S T O P H K L E I NE

ijing, whose family name was Zhang, was a native of Fanyang (now the Daxing

Y district ofBeijing). When he was only sevenyears old, he became the disciple ofthe Buddhist monks Shanyu and Huizhi at the Shentong Temple in present-day Shandong.

At the age of fourteen, he was ordained, and in his eighteenth year he first developed the wish to travel to the so-called Western Regions (meaning Central Asia and India). Inspired by his master Huizhi, Yijing became particularly interested in the monastic rules and regulations (vinaya), which he henceforth studied arduously. He realized his original dream oftraveling to the West when he was thirty-seven. In the year 671, he bid farewell to his teacher Huizhi and embarked from the coast of Guangzhou to sail for the Southern Seas aboard a merchant ship. He was accompanied by a young monk named Shanxing. His first station was Sri:vijaya (Sumatra), then under strong Buddhist influence, where he stayed for six months and studied Sanskrit gram­ mar. In the second month of the year 673 he arrived at Tamralipti, a seaport in the Bay of Bengal. In the fifth month, he set off for Nalanda, the famous "monastic university" located near Rajagrha in present-day Bihar. After many years of intense study, Yijing went on a pilgrimage to the holy sites of Buddhism before he =barked on a ship in the port of Tamralipti back to Sri:vijaya, where he arrived in 689. He stayed there for some more years during which he wrote his Record of the Inner Law Sent Home [to China] from the Southern Seas (below Record of the Inner Law)1 and his lliographies ofEminent Monks Who Went to the Western Regions in Search ofthe Dharma During the Tang Dynasty.2 Through a friend, he sent both texts to chang'an. In 695, Yijing finally

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returned to China, where he received official reception. He had brought with him a vast number of texts from India, which he translated under the patronage of Empress Wu Zetian (r. 690-705). Yijing had his own translation bureau in Luoyang from 700 to 713 and managed to translate fifty-six works in 230 scrolls; among these was an almost­ complete vinaya in the version of the Millasarvastivada school. In 713, he died in his seventy-ninth year. Doctrinally, Yijing was rather open-minded, but he had a special inclination to Tan­ tric or Esoteric teachings, and he strongly favored the vinaya of the Millasarvastivada school. Evidently, in late seventh-century Nalanda there was a strong affinity between Buddhist Tantrism and the monastic code of the Millasarvastvada tradition. Such an affinity is also suggested by the fact that in Tibetan mainstream Buddhism, the Mulasarvastivada-vinaya is still authoritative to the present day, and in the Esoteric Shin­ gon tradition ofJapanese Buddhism, this vinaya is held in high esteem as well. Yijing's Record ofthe Inner Law is a remarkable text in many respects. Unlike the Record ofBuddhist Countries by Faxian (ea. 337-ca. 413)3 and Xuanzang's (603-664) Record ofthe Western Regions from the Great Tang Dynasty,4 Yijing's text in four scrolls is no travel ac­ count or geographic treatise. Although it contains some valuable information on some of the thirty countries Yijing had visited, the major part of the text is concerned with the proper conduct of life in monasteries. Most of the forty chapters deal with every­ day problems such as the use of toothpicks, spoons, and chopsticks, bathing, using the toilet, and so forth (on such topics, see chapter 15 of the present volume). The main pur­ pose of the text was to correct a number of deviant practices that had become custom­ ary in Chinese monasteries. As Yijing suggests in the preface to the text, he intended to demonstrate how a monk should live by referring both to the actual monastic practice in the motherland ofBuddhism and the vinaya ofthe Millasarvastivada school. The text is therefore a hybrid combination of description and prescription. Physical well-being seems to be of particular concern to Yijing, as he devotes three chapters to health problems and how to cure them. This is not surprising since illness prevents practice and an early death interrupts spiritual development. Accordingly, early on, Buddhist monasteries seem to have been places where Indian medicine was developed and cultivated. 5 Yijing was obviously well versed in Indian as well as Chinese medicine, two systems based on quite different conceptions of the human body, which he nevertheless tried to harmonize to a certain degree. One problematic issue was the application of excrements and urine for medical pur­ poses. Yijing harshly criticizes the use of pig and cat excrement in China (known as "dragon decoction") as a vulgar and loathsome custom. (For some recipes from China using various types of dung, see chapter 47.) On the other hand, in India urine and ex­ crement were also used and are explicitly permitted in the monastic code. However, this so-called abandoned medicine (skt. putimukti-bhe;;ajya) consisted only of calf dung and cow urine, which Yijing obviously found less disgusting. Nine manuscripts of the Record of the Inner Law are extant, which suggests that the text was well known and held in high esteem.6 This may be partly due to the official recognition Yijing had received from both Empress Wu Zetian and Emperor Zhongzong (r. 705-710)." In terms of Yijing's original intention, however, the text seems to have

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failed its purpose. The monastic code ofthe Millasarvastivada school never gained the status of the most respected and authoritative vinaya in China, Korea, or Japan. It was superseded by the Four-Part Vinaya of the Dharmaguptakas,8 which became the stan­ dard monastic code in all East Asia. Nevertheless, within theJapanese Shingon tradition, the Mulasarviistiviida-vinaya has been treated as the special monastic code or additional vinaya for monks of this affilia­ tion. Accordingly, it was studied by monks of this tradition, and in this context, Japa­ nese Shingon monks have consulted Yijing's text. The prominent Shingon monk Ji'un Inko (1718-1804) even wrote a commentary to the text.9 It was this commentary on which Takakusu Junjir6 (1866-1945) based most of his interpretations ofYijing's text, which he translated into English in 1896. A more recent translation by Li Rongxi was published in 2000. Both translations differ in many respects, which may be partly due to the fact that the Record oft he Inner Law is written in a rather unorthodox Chinese and is there­ fore not always easy to understand. The text leaves room for interpretation, and it al­ most seems as ifYijing, having been away from home for so long, had become somewhat estranged from his mother tongue.

FURTHER READING Joshi, Lal Mani. 2002. Studies in the Buddhistic Culture ofindia (During the 7th and 8th Centuries A.D.). Reprint of the 2nd edition. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Lahiri, Latika, trans. 1995. Chinese Monks in India: Biography ofEminent Monks Who Went to the West­ ern World in Search ofthe Law During the Great T'ang Dynasty. Buddhist Tradition Series 3. Delhi:

Motilal Banarsidass. Li Rongxi, trans. 2000. Buddhist Monastic Traditions ofSouthern Asia: A Record ofthe Inner Law Sent

Home from the South Seas. Berkeley, Calif.: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and

Research. Takakusu Junjiro, trans. 1998 [1896]. A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago (AD 671-695). New Delhi: MunshiramManoharlal.

T H R E E C H A P T E R S F R O M T H E RECORD OF THE INNER LAW

SENT HOME FROM THE SO UTHERN SEA S 1 0 Chapter 27: "On the Causes of Physical Diseases" As I have said before, ifyou take a small meal in accordance with your body weight, this means [you must] observe the strength or weakness ofthe Four Great Elements. When you feel at ease, you should eat as usual. When you feel strange, however, you must examine the cause. After you have found out the cause of the ailment, you should take a rest. As soon as you feel at ease and strong again, a sharp hunger will burn inside. Nevertheless, you should wait until the proper time for a light meal has come before you eat something.

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Daybreak is commonly called the time of phlegm, when there are leftovers of the last meal and saliva accumulated beneath the diaphragm has not as yet been dispersed. Eating then is a fault. Consider the following example: If a fire is burn­ ing already and you throw firewood into it, the firewood will subsequently turn into flames itself. If, however, the fire has not yet been emblazed and you cover it with grass, the grass will remain as it is and not burn. Now, the Holy One [i.e., the Buddha] has distinguished light meals [from ordi­ nary meals]. These may be rice gruel or boiled rice, and they are eaten in accor­ dance with one's physical capacity. Ifyou are able to pursue the Path on the basis of rice gruel [alone],you should eat only this and nothing else. But ifyou need rice cakes to nourish your body, it does no harm ifyou eat these in the morning. As a rule, when eating causes your body to feel uneasy, the body becomes the basis of illness. It is not necessary to have a headache and lay in bed before you can speak of illness. Ifmedicine fails to cure [the disease] and the physician instructs you so, you may eat at improper timesY The Buddha said that this is to be done in a hidden place. Otherwise, this practice [of eating at improper times] is strictly forbidden. In the "medical science" [section]12 within the Treatises on the Five Sciences ofthe Western Regions [i.e., India], it says: "First [the physician] inspects the voice and complexion. After that, he goes through the eight therapies.13 If he does not un­ derstand their mysteries, he will make mistakes even though he tries to act appropriately." The so-called eight therapies are: 1. the first deals with all kinds of sores;14 2. the second deals with using a lancet for treating ailments above the neck;15 3. the third deals with illnesses of the body;16 4. the fourth deals with demonic infestations;17 5. the fifth deals with toxicology18 6. the sixth deals with childhood diseases;19 7. the seventh deals with life-extending techniques; 20 8. the eighth deals with the strength oflegs and body. 21 [1] Speaking of"sores," these are of two kinds: inward and outward. [2] As for "ailments above the neck," these are exclusively located at the head. [3] Everything that lies below the throat is called "body." [4] "Demonic infestations" refers to harmful demons. [s] "Toxicology"22 generally means to cure ingestion of poisons. [6] "Childhood" starts inside the womb and ends at age sixteen. [7] "Life exten­ sion" means to prolong the span ofone's physical existence. [8] "Leg power" means strength and health of the body. These eight skills were formerly divided into eight books, but recently there was a man who summarized them in one.23 In the five regions of India, everybody practices according [to this book]. Whoever has a good understanding of this never fails to draw government pay. For this reason, [people of] the Western Regions highly esteem physicians just as [they esteem] merchants because they do not kill

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or injure; [they] benefit themselves and aid others. I myself have studied this med­ ical science vigorously, but since this is not my proper profession, I eventually gave it up. Again, one should know that the medical herbs ofthe West are unlike those of the Eastern Xia [i.e., China]. Those existing here do not exist there and vice versa; there is no commonalty. For instance, ginseng,24 the fuling mushroom,25 Chinese angelica, 26 polygala senega, 27 wutou aconite,28 fuzi aconite, 29 Chinese ephedra,30 andwild ginger31 may circulate in the Divine Country [i.e., China] as superior med­ icine, but ifyou ask for it in the Western Regions, you will not find any of these. In the West, there is chebulic myrobalan in abundance. In the northern parts [of India], you sometimes find saffron.32 And in the western corners, asafetida33 grows fecundly. In the southern seas, they have some "dragon brain."34 All three kinds of cardamom35 are extant in Dvara[vati].36 Two variants of clove37 grow in the country of Con L6n.3 8 Only these ought to be known in the Tang [i.e., China]; all other materia medica are not worth gathering. Generally speaking, ailments that befall the body consisting of the Four Great Elements are the consequence of eating [too] much. Others, however, may be the outcome of hard labor. Yet others may result from eating again at daybreak be­ fore the evening meal has been defecated, or from eating at noon before the morn­ ing meal has been digested. If this is the cause, then the outcome will be acute abdominal distress. Flatulence will linger on all night incessantly and bloating will not end before ten days are over. And then one can only ask for the costly [medicine made of] kidney or seek the expensive glue from Qin.39 The rich may achieve this, but a poor man's life passes away like the morning dew. What can save you once the illness is firmly established? Even if the physician40 of Lu [i.e., Bian Que]41 arrives at dawn and gives you pills and powder, it will be useless. And even ifBian Que comes at dusk and gives you decoction and ointment to help you, or if they cauterize or acupuncture you, it is just the same as if applied to wood or stone. You kick your feet and shake your head, but [besides this], you resemble a stiff corpse42-what is the difference? Such is the result of ignorance concerning the origins of physical maladies and lack ofknowledge of how to control them. One might say that to hope for an end [of the disease] without knowing its cause is like trying to stop a stream without blocking the spring, or like cutting down trees without pulling out the roots, thus letting branches and twigs shoot and spread. This will cause those who study the sutras and commentaries, and admire the Tripitaka, to sigh constantly, and those who cultivate mental tranquility and reflect on the eight concentrations to moan for a long time. Worldly scholars devote themselves to the classics for their whole life, but they will have to cut the bridle at the Gate ofthe Golden HorseY And those who strive to pass the imperial examination will stop their walk toward inscrib­ ing their names at the Stone Canal.44 Is it not the case that [illness] hinders them from cultivating the Way and that they are rarely successful in their undertaking? To lose one's glory and favor is no minor matter! You must not suspect that I am telling all this so strenuously just to kill time. I hope that it helps to prevent

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future damage, that ample medicine will prevent chronic [diseases] and make it unnecessary to go to a physician's gate, and that new diseases will not occur. When the Four Great Elements are regulated and unrestrained, the hundred diseases do not arise. Is it not beneficial to benefit oneself and others?! Even if one swal­ lows poison, whether one lives or dies has its cause in one's former actions [i.e., karma]. It is not the case that one does not need to avoid [bad conditions] and move toward [good] conditions in the present.

Chapter 28: "On the Principles ofTaking Medicine" Now, all sentient beings are equally subject to disorders of the Four Great Ele­ ments, and the change of the eight seasons brings about impermanence. When­ ever illness occurs, one must rest to recuperate. Therefore, the World Honored One has kindly explained in the Scripture on Medical Methods: "Disorders of the Four Great Elements are: (1) guru, (2) sle$man,45 (3) pitta, and (4) viita."46 The first [i.e., guru] corresponds to the Earth Element, and an excess ofit causes heaviness ofthe body. The second [i.e., sle$man] corresponds to the Water Element, and an accumulation ofit causes a constant excess of nasal mucus and saliva. The third [i.e., pitta] corresponds to the Fire Element, and abundance of it causes a strong heat in the head and chest.47The fourth [i.e., vata] corresponds to the Wind Element, and its movement causes a striking and rushing breath.48 In the Divine Country, these are named differently: [1] shenzhong (literally, "sinking heaviness"), [2] tanyin (literally, "phlegm obstruction [in the chest]"), [3] rehuang (literally, "hot yellow"), and [4] qifa (literally, "breath emitting"). Ifwe follow the popular opinion on illness, [however], there are [only] three kinds, namely, [disease caused either by] wind, heat, or phlegm [i.e., the tridO $a?]. "Heavi­ ness" is essentially the same as "phlegm," and it is apparently not different from the Earth Element.49 Generally, to inquire into the cause of a disease, you inspect yourself in the early morning. 5° If you notice any disturbance in the Four [Elements], you begin by abstaining from taking food. Even ifyou are very thirsty, you must not drink any syrup or water. This is strictly prohibited. It will take a period of one or two days or four or five mornings until you recover. This is the norm but [the exact period] is not fixed. Ifyou suspect that there is remnant food in your stomach, press your [belly between your] navel and chest. You must drink as much hot water as you can and stick your finger into your throat in order to vomit until everything has come out. Drink again and be determined to repeat this in order to evacuate [your stomach] completely. Ifyou drink cold water, this will, in principle, have no nega­ tive effect either. And ifyou drink hot water with ginger, this is excellent. During that day, you should without fail abstain from food, and you should not take the first meal before the following morning. Ifyou are unable to do so, you may con­ sider [some other] temporary [measures].

HEALTH CARE IN INDIAN MONASTERIES

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In case ofstrong fever, taking a shower is specifically tabooed. Ifyou suffer from "sinking heaviness" or "shivering cold," it is good to be close to the fire. In the hot malarial regions south of the [Yangzi] river and the [five] ranges,51 however, you cannot comply with this [rule]. When fever arises, it is suitable in these areas to sprinkle water [on the body]. In case of "wind pressure,"52 it is good to apply grease, and you can use a heated ball of cloth and press it on the hurting spot. To apply it with hot oil yields the same benefit. Sometimes you notice that phlegm fills your chest, much saliva is in your mouth, and clear water oozes from your nose. Breath accumulates in the wind­ pipe and fills the throat. 53 The voice does not return and food has no taste for a period of ten days. In such a case, abstention from food is again conducive to re­ covery without taking the pains to cauterize the top ofyour head or to vacate and wrench your throat. This can expel illness without the use of decoction and com­ plies with the general rules of medical science! The idea is that when remnant food is eliminated, strong fever [i.e., pitta] will stop. When saliva is exhausted, phlegm [i.e., sle�man] will be healed. When the in­ ternal [organs] are calmed and [harmful] breath has disappeared, the violent winds [i.e., viita] are exterminated naturally. There will not be a single failure when you regulate and control [your body] like this. As you do not even have to trouble your­ self with feeling the pulse-how fallacious would it be to consult a diviner?! Every single person is his own King of Physicians and everyone can becomeJ1vaka.54 Dharma Master Luan,55 for instance, cured illness by regulating his breath; however, only those who live in seclusion can practice this. Meditation Master Si56 sat inside [in meditation] and pulled out disorders [literally, "evil'1; however, this is beyond the understanding of ordinary knowledge. Were it necessary to consult a famous physician in the Eastern Capital [Luoyang], then the poor would be cut off from this avenue [to health]. And if one has to search for superior medicine in the western outskirts, the helpless and lonely would lose their way. Abstention from food as discussed here [on the other hand] is cheap and wonderful. Poor and rich are [both] ready to do it. Is this not essential?! Moreover, if abscesses or acne bulge, hot blood suddenly rushes, hands and feet hurt, heavenly phenomena and seasonal epidemics [occur]; or if swords and ar­ rows injure the body; or if one falls and hurts oneself; [or] in case of Cold Dam­ age57 or sudden disorder8 followed by the half-day diarrhea; [or] headache or heart pain, eye pain, or toothache-as soon as the slightest ailment arises, you must stop eating. The "pill with three equal parts"59 can also cure various ailments and it is not difficult to obtain. You take the bark of chebulic myrobalan, dried ginger, and sugar. Take equal portions of these three things, and pound the first two. You may use some water to mix them with the sugar and knead this into pills. A dose of ten pills in the morning is the limit. There is nothing to be avoided [i.e., no con­ traindicated foods]. Those who suffer from diarrhea can take no more than two or three and will be cured. It is able to cure flatulence, remove cold, and help di­ gestion. The reason I mention it is that its benefits are so great. Ifyou do not have

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HEALING AND MONASTIC DISCIPLINE

sugar, you may take syrup or honey. Again, ifyou can manage to chew one piece of hantak! a day and swallow its juice, your body will not become ill until the end ofyour life. These medical sciences were passed on by Sakra Devanam Indra. The Five Sciences are each commonly followed in the five parts of India. Among these, ab­ stention from food is of utmost importance. The ancients used to say that if one is not cured after seven days of fasting, he should then ask [the bodhisattva] Avalokitdvara for help. In the Divine Country, many do not understand this at all and deal with it as a [religious] rule of abstention, and are thus not willing to practice and study it. The reason for this is that the translators [of old] did not understand the "way of medicine." Those who have swallowed the "cinnabar stone" and thus suffer from the chronic disease of a swollen stomach may also rely on this [method of abstention from food]. (I am afraid that there are some who take the "cinnabar stone" [as a remedy]. It helps to endure hunger, but it is not appropriate. In none ofthe other countries [except China] does the "flying cin­ nabar"60 exist. And only in the Divine Country are minerals taken [as a remedy]. However, there is a white stone made of crystal that produces fire, and those who take this have their bodies burnt and cracked. These days, people do not differ­ entiate, and those who die from this disorder are countless. This is why I speak of it. One should be well aware of this.) Poisoning by snakes, scorpions, and the like can by no means be cured by this [method of abstention from food]. While you are fasting, traveling and labor are to be strictly avoided. Someone who is on a long trip, however, may abstain from food and follow his way without harm, but he should rest after his recovery, and he should eat freshly cooked rice and drink some mung bean61 soup flavored with some spices. If he feels cold, he can add some hot pepper, ginger, or long pepper. If he knows that he has a caught a cold, he should apply Kashgar onion62 and Japanese catnip.63 The Treatise on Medical Methods says, "All acrid [food] moves the winds;64 only dried ginger does not."65 If added to [the above mentioned soup, for instance,] it is also good. On fasting days, regulate your breath and avoid drink­ ing cold water. The rest should comply with medical prohibitions. By eating rice gruel, for instance, one may fear that phlegm could increase once again. But when you are certain that you are suffering from a cold, eating does no harm. If you have a high temperature, it is good to drink a decoction of well-boiled bitter gin­ seng. Young tea leaves are also fine. I departed from my country more than twenty years ago. I have used only these [methods] to cure my body and I have hardly had any other disease. Moreover, in the Divine Country, there are more than four hundred herbs and minerals, roots, and stalks. Many of these are colorful, tasty, and have a marvel­ ously fragrant scent. They can abolish ailments and control the spirits. When it comes to the medical method of acupuncture and the art of feeling the pulse, no [other country] inJatribudv!pa has anything to add to this. Medicine for prolong­ ing life is only found in the Eastern Xia. Since its hills are connected with the snowy summits [of the Himalaya] and extend to the Fragrant Mountains [i.e.,

HEALTH CARE IN INDIAN MONASTERIES

153

Gandhamadana], strange things that are rare and precious are assembled here. Because of the character of its people and the shape of things, it is called the "Divine Country." Who within the five regions of India should fail to admire it? Who within the four seas should fail to revere it? They say that Mafijusri: presently dwells in this country. Wherever one goes, when people hear that you are a monk from Devaputra,66 there is no one who does not bring forth great respect. "Deva" means "heaven"; "putra" means "son." They say that [the monk] comes from Cina,67 the place where the gods dwell. When we think about the herbs and minerals [of China], these are truly mar­ velous, but recuperation measures and etiology are much neglected. For this rea­ son, I have roughly explained the main conditions to meet the needs of time. In cases where abstention from food does not do any harm, you should follow the prescribed healing methods afterward: Decoction made from bitter ginseng tends to do away with feverish diseases [i.e., excess of pitta?]; ghee, oil, honey, and syrup especially expel diseases caused by wind [i.e., excess of vii'ta?]. When people are ill in the country ofLata68 in western India, they generally abstain from food for half a month or a full month. It is essential [for them] to wait until the illness [is cured]. Thereafter, they may eat. In central India, the upper limit is seven days; in the Southern Seas, two or three days. This is because ofdifferences in climate and environment, as well as dis­ similarities in the physical conditions [literally, "in the Four Elements"]. Therefore, the number [of fasting days] is not unconditionally [fixed]. I am not yet certain whether or not abstention from food should be practiced in the Divine Country. If many people die after seven days of not eating, the reason is that they had not been ill. But if your body is inflicted with an illness, you do not die even after many days [of fasting]! Once I have seen an ill person who did not take food for thirty days. Afterward, he recovered again. Therefore, it is pointless to take offense at fasting for many days. How can it be tolerated to force someone who has a strong fever and high temperature to drink hot gruel only because we have seen that he is ill but with­ out having examined the cause of his disease? When someone strives for food in spite of his illness, this is dreadful! There may be one among ten thousand who finally recovers [despite eating], but this may by no means be taught to the laypeople. Within the medical sciences, this is the ultimate taboo. Furthermore, people in the Eastern Xia nowadays eat fish and vegetables mostly uncooked. In the western countries, no one would eat this. All vegetables must be well cooked and are combined with asafoetida, clarified butter, and oil, and are eaten only after all kinds of spices have been added. And people never eat any sort of pickles. I remember that I once ate them and this caused pain in the abdo­ men, resulting in suffering from a sore stomach and intestines; my eyesight was in disorder for a long time and my weakness was increased. This is why [the Indians do not eat pickles]. Wise men thoughtfully do what is useful and abandon what is objectionable.69 If you hear but do not carry out [this advice], how can you blame the physician?

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Ifyou practice accordingly, your body will be at ease and you will be prepared for the Path [to awakening]. The benefit for yourself and others will be perfect. If you neglect it, your body will be harmed and your knowledge will be diminished. Theirs as well as my achievements will all be lost.

Chapter 29: "Harmful Medicine I s to Be Avoided" There are places where something vulgar has been practiced for a long time. When people become ill, they take excrement and urine [as medicine]. When an illness arises, they rely on the use of the excrement of pigs and cats. Sometimes they fill it in an earthen jug or store it in an earthen jar. They call it "dragon decoction." Although it has a beautiful name, it is most filthy and loathsome. Although, for instance, onion and garlic are allowed to be taken, one never­ theless stays outside [or at one side of] the room [and thus distances himself from others to avoid bothering them with his smell], and cleans his body by bathing for seven days. [Before that time has passed], when one enters [a room], it is as if his body was not yet pure and he should not enter a crowd. One should not [in this state] circumambulate around stiipas, and it is not appropriate to worship. Because [onions and garlic] are fetid, they are not allowed except in case of illness.70 Regarding [the requirement for acquired items to be] "old and abandoned" [in order to be acceptable according to the vow of] Four Requisites,71 it is said that [dung] is old and therefore [that it is allowable since it is] medicine that has been abandoned. The idea behind [this ascetic vow] is to simplify things to such an extent that only those [things] are allowed that are [necessary] to sustain the body. It is allowed [by the monastic discipline, however,] to take valuable [i.e., nonabandoned medicines] of one's own accord, and so to take these is truly not [a disciplinary] failure. In Sanskrit, it is called putimukti-bhe?ajya. Puti means "old [or fetid]," mukti means "abandoned," and bhe?ajya is "medicine"-accordingly, it means "old and abandoned medicine." The vinaya permits excrement and urine, but this refers to calf dung and cow urine. In the western countries, [a type of legal penalty] next to capital punishment is to besmear the [convict's] body with excrement, drive him out to the open coun­ try, and exclude him from the company of human beings. [Also,] those [of the untouchable caste] who eliminate excrement and remove dirt [must] beat [the ground] with sticks when they walk to distance themselves [from others]. If some­ one touches them by mistake, he cleans his clothes right away and washes him­ self all over. The Great Teacher [i.e., the Buddha] handled the affairs [of the Sangha] fully in accordance with the circumstances [of Indian society] and first and foremost avoided slander and scandals. How could he have permitted such things [as using excrement as medicine] that contradicted the expectations of the well-mannered

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ofhis times? The reasons for not [using them] are fully given in the vinaya. To use these [filthy things allegedly] to benefit the people is truly debased. One must not cause this vulgar habit to spread and thereby become a regular custom. If[people from] foreign countries hear of this, it will truly damage [China's] cultural influence. Furthermore, there is a great many fragrant [medicinal] herbs-why should we not use these? How can we tolerate bestowing things [on others] that we hate our­ selves? And we have the minerals sulphur, realgar, and orpiment to get rid of the poison of snakes and scorpions. It is truly not hard to obtain a piece to carry on oneself. If you encounter feverish malaria, there is licorice, [the wild tea from] Hengshan,72 and a decoction of bitter ginseng. It is reasonable and convenient to store a certain amount [of these things], and they are easy to obtain. If taken at dawn, ginger, black pepper, and long pepper73 remove a cold completely. If taken at night,jaggery and sugar puts a stop to hunger and thirst entirely. Ifyou do not store decoctions and medicine over time, you will certainly be short of them in case of urgency. Do we not commit a sin when we violate the instructions [ofthe Buddha]? [People] use their wealth lavishly, and in urgent situations, there is nothing left. Had I not brought up this topic, who would have been able to understand this by himself? Alas! They would not be willing to apply good medicine, and would use "dragon decoction" instead to save money. Although their intention is to gain some small benefit therefrom, do they not understand that this is a major offense against the holy teachings? In the [vinaya] teachings of the Sal]lmitlya school, "old and abandoned [medicine)" is mentioned, but this school is different [from ours] and we must not comply with this. You can also see references in the Trea­ tise ofComplete Understanding [ofthe 1\venty-Two Teachings ofthe Vinaya]/4 but this is fundamentally not something to be learned in the Sarvastivada school75

NOTES 1.

Nanhcri jigui neifa zhuan; T no. 2125.

2.

Datang xiyu qiufa gaoseng zhuan; T no. 2066.

3.

Foguoji; T no. 2085. For a translation and more information, see Legge 1965 and Deeg 2005.

4.

Datang xiyuji; T no. 2087. For a translation and more information, see Beal 1884 and Li

Rongxi 1996. 5.

Zysk 1998.

6.

Wang 1995: 154-56.

7.

Takakusu 1998: xxxvii-xxxviii.

8.

Sifen lii; T no. 1428.

9.

Contained in volume 114 of the collection Dainihon bukkyo zensho. Cf. Bussho kankokai

10.

Nanhcrijigui neifa zhuan, T no. 2125, 54: 223b12-225b10.

1912-1922. 11. Fei.s hi, or "improper time," refers to eating after noon. Eating after 12:00 P. M. is categorized as an offense ofthe payattika (also piicattika, piiyantika, etc.) type, which requires confession.

156

HEALING AND MONASTIC DISCIPLINE In the Miilasarviistiviida-vinaya, this is number 37 of the payattika rules;

cf. T no. 1454, 24:

504c14-15. For an English translation of the Sanskrit version of the

Priitimolqa of the

Miilasarvastivada, see Prebish 1996: 80. In this version, the prohibition against "eating at the wrong time" is number 36 of the piicattika rules. A detailed explanation of this rule is given by the Buddha in T no. 1442, 23: 824b7-c19. See also further discussion in chapters 13 and 14. 12. 13.

Yiming; Skt. cikitsa-vidya. "Eight therapies" refers to the eight branches

(a�tiinga) of Ayurveda, which are listed

below. On Vagbhata (fl. around 600 C.E.) and his work, see Hilgenberg 1941; Vogel 1965; Wujastyk 1985, 2003; Vagbhata 1999. 14.

Skt. salya-cikitsii. Salya means "arrow" or "spear," andsalya-cikitsa refers to methods ofheal­ ing ailments caused by substances that have entered the body erroneously. In general, these methods deal with tumors, sores, and abscesses. cf. palhaJ;Ja's commentary to the

Su.Sruta-sarrhitii, where this therapeutical method is called salyatantra (Sharma 1999: 7). In Vagbhata's �tanga-sarrgraha, this section is the fifth of the eight branches of Ayurveda. 15.

skt. srilrikya-tantra (salakri, needle) oriirdhvringa-cikitsri (iirdhva, the parts above the larynx); i.e., the art of healing ailments of the eyes, ears, and nose, etc., by use of acute devices such as needles. In Vagbhata's compendium, this is the fourth ofthe eight branches.

16.

Skt.

kriya-cikitsri. This branch of Ayurveda roughly corresponds to internal medicine. In

Vagbhata's �tringa-sarrgraha, this is the first branch. 17.

Skt.

bhiita-vidya, i.e., the art of expelling demons, also called graha-cikitsri (the treatment

of obsession by demons). In Vagbhata's A�pringa-sarrgraha, this is number three. 18.

Skt. agada; also called da�prii-cikitsii. Note that Yijing does not translate the term agada but only transliterates it as

ejietuo. Agada roughly corresponds to "pharmacology" or

"toxicology," i.e., the administration of materia medica. In Vagbhata's �tringa-sarrgraha, this is number six. 19.

Skt.

kaumiira-bhrtya (Su.Sruta:S fifth branch), or brila-cikitsii (Vagbhata's second), i.e., pedi­

atrics, including such ailments that are caused by childbirth and the rearing of children from which mothers and wet nurses may suffer. 20.

Skt. rasayana-cikitsa, or rasayana-tantra (alchemy), also known asJara-cikitsa (geriatrics), i.e., the art of prolonging life by administering elixirs. In Vagbhata's text, this is also number seven.

21.

Skt. viijfkamr;Ia-tantra or v�a-cikitsri, i.e., the art ofinvigorating the human body, especially

22.

Here, Yijing uses the Sanskrit word agada.

23.

Yijing probably refers to Vagbhata and his �tanga-sarrgraha.

24.

Renshen, i.e., Panax ginseng.

arms and legs. Vagbhata lists this branch as number eight.

25.

Poria cocos.

26.

Danggui, i.e., Angelicasinensis.

27.

Yuanzhi, i.e., Polygala tenuifolia Polygalasibirica.

28.

Wutou, i.e., Aconitum.

29.

Fuzi, i.e.,

Aconitum carmichaelii. Note that wutou and fuzi are often used together, in which

case the four characters refer to Aconitum carmichaelii. It is not quite dear whether Yijing refers to two or only one plant.

HEALTH CARE IN INDIAN MONASTERIES

157

30. Mahuang, i.e., Ephedrasinica. 31. Xixin, i.e., Asarum heterotropaides. 32.

Yujinxiang: both Takakusu (1998: 128) and Wang (1995: 154) identify yujinxiang as Skt. kunkuma, i.e., saffron, or Crocus sativus. However, the Chinese equivalents are usually zang­ hong hua and xiang hang hua.

33.

Awei, i.e., Ferulae resina, Fernla sinkiangensis, or Fernla fukanensis. This refers to pungent dried

latex exuded fromthe rhizome or tap root of various species of ferula. According to Wang 1995: 154, awei is equivalent to skt. hingu. 34. Longnao. This probably refers to Cinnamomum camphora. 35.

Doukou, i.e., Amomum kravanh.

36. Duheluo, i.e., the mythical capital ofthe god Kr�J.la. Here the toponym probably refers to the Mon Kingdom that had its center in the region where Ayutthaya is located, the later capital of Siam. 37.

Dingxiang (skt. lavangam), i.e., Eugenia caryophy11ata.

38. Kulun, i.e., the largest island ofthe Con Dao archipelago, off the coast of southem Vietnam. 39.

In this case, Qin probably refers to Syria (Daqin) rather than to the Chinese Qin dynasty (225-205 B.C.E.); cf. Takakusu 1998: 129; Wang 1995: 156.

40. The Taisho Tripitaka version has the character wei here, meaning "powerful," "mighty." This does not make much sense and I follow the Song, Ming, and Yuan versions, which give the character yi (medicine, physician). 41. Bian Que is a legendary physician who is said to have lived in the fifth century B.C.E. Sima Qian transmitted Bian Que's works in his Shiji, elevating him to a status comparable to Hip­ pocrates in ancient Greece and ]lvaka in Buddhist India For further information on Bian Que, see Unschuld 1986: 32-40; Buck 2015: 72-74. 42. The literal meaning of the characters jiang pu is "to feel stiff and falL" I interpret this as "corpse," in accordance with Takakusu 1998: 129 and Li Rongxi 2000: 120. 43. This is a poetical reference to a palace complex built during the Han dynasty near Chang'an It was called Weiyang Gong and served as an administrative center and imperial residence. A bronze horse was placed in front of the gate to that palace. This is why the "Gate of the Golden Horse" represents the hall itself. Here, Yijing refers to the place a "Confucian gentle­ man"

longs to be but which he might never reach due to illness.

44. This refers to the famous imperial library ofthe Westem Han located inside the Weiyang palace. It is said that the books that had survived the book-burning campaign of the pre­ ceding Qin dynasty were stored in the Siqu Library. Therefore, this was again a "sacred place" for Chinese scholar officials. Yijing's phrase therefore means that people who long for a position as a scholar official may be hindered in their career by illness. 45. It is not quite dear whether Yijing's xiebo is a transliteration of sle.?man or kapha. Wang (1995: 158) opts for the latter. According to Vagbhata, an excess of kapha results in an ex­ cessive production of saliva and drowsiness. See Vagbhata 1999, 1: 274. 46.

Yifang jing. This is an unidentified sutra also mentioned in a vinaya text by an unknown

translator (T no. 1494, 24: 1097c18-1098, a5). The title could refer to the short Foyi ji ng (T no. 793) or anindic text on which Foyijing is based. The Foyijing was translated into English in Sen 1945 andUnschuld 2 010: 309-14, and see also a short excerpt in chapter 3§2 .1 of the present volume.

158 47.

HEALING AND MONASTIC DISCIPLINE According to Vagbhata, fever that is caused by an excess of pitta (pittaja-jvara) results in heat in all parts of the body at the same time

(cf. Vagbhata 1999, 2:

143). Vagbhata also

mentions a yellowish skin as one symptom indicating an excess ofpitta. 48.

According to Vagbhata, too much vata can cause a cough, in which case it is called vata­

49.

Here, Yijing is apparently distinguishing a Buddhist four-part nosology from the trido�a,

kasa. See Vagbhata 1999, 2: 319. which he calls the "popular opinion." 50.

cf. Vagbhata's instructions: "In order to protect his life, the healthy person should get up from his sleep in the Brahma muh11rta [i.e., between 3:00 and 6:00 A.M.], after considering whether the food [of the previous night] was properly digested or not" (Vagbhata 1999, 1: 25).

51.

This refers to the five mountain ranges that make up the "Southern Range" (Nanling) that

52.

Fengji, often translated as "rheumatism."

53.

This sentence is rather cryptic. In the Song dynasty version ofthe text, "breath" is replaced

separates Central China from South China.

by "gruel," which seems to make a little more sense. 54.

On Jivaka, see chapters 1, 8, and 20.

55.

This refers to Tanluan (476-542), who was a famous scholar monk and "patriarch" of the Pure Land tradition of East Asian Buddhism. For further information, see Corless 1987.

56.

This refers to Huisi (515-577), the so-called third patriarch ofthe Tiantai school and teacher

57.

Shanghan.

58.

Huoluan.

59.

Sandengwan.

of Zhiyi, the real founder of that tradition. For further information, see Magnin 1979.

60.

This name refers to the alleged quality of the drug that enables the adept to fly. Various kinds ofdrugs containing cinnabar were used in Daoist circles, for it was believed that they would allow one to gain longevity. The ability to fly was considered either a prerequisite, or at least a side effect, of immortality. For further information, see Akahori 1989.

61. 62.

Wdou, i.e., Vigna radiata. This refers to hucong. The Chinese characters could equally refer to onions or shallots. Wise­ man, however, interprets this as "Kashgar onion'' (2003: 68), i.e., Allium ascalonicum.

63.

This refers tojingjie, i.e.,

64.

The meaning of dongfeng (literally, "to move the winds") is not quite clear. Takakusu in­

Schizonepeta tenuifolia.

terprets this as "remove"; Li, as "promote." In Chinese medicine, the phrase dongfeng can also refer to convulsions, cramps, and spasms. 65.

The reference here is unknown. The title may refer to the section within the "five sciences" that deals with cikitsa-vidya, the science of medicine.

66.

TipofUdaluo (literally, "son ofthe gods" or "son of heaven").

67.

Yijing uses the Sanskrit name for his home country, which he simply transliterates as "Zhina," as many Buddhist authors used to do. The Sanskrit name Cina from which the English term "China'' is derived, in all likelihood originates fromthe name ofthe first Chi­ nese dynasty, the Qin (221-206 B.c.). For more information, see Kleine 2008.

68.

This country is hard to identify. The Italian Capuchin missionary Francesco Orazio Olivieri della Penna (1680-1745) identifies Lata as Ladakh (Della Penna and Klaproth 1834:

HEALTH CARE IN INDIAN MONASTERIES

159

294). Christian Lassen (1800-1876), on the other hand, proposes that lata is derived from

nL?tra, in which case it may refer to Mahara�tra (Bothlingk and Roth 1855-1875, 6: 529a). 69. The phrase I have translated here as "do what is useful and abandon what is objection­ able" can also be interpreted as "come forward if employed and stay out of sight if set aside," a Chinese proverb that refers to wise men who do not obtrude their knowledge on people but let them partake of it if asked. 70.

The K:?udraka-vastu ofthe Miilasarviistiviida-vinaya actually forbids the consumption ofgar­ lic (suan) and all sorts of onions (cong) or leek Uiu). The explanation for this prohibition is that consumption ofthese pungent vegetables obstructs the entering ofthe holy path. This is demonstrated by the example of a monk who, after the consumption of garlic, does not dare to approach the Buddha to listen to his preaching (T no. 1451, 24: 230a18-230a19;

cf. Cullavagga v, 34: 1-2). The Buddha, however, allows eating garlic in cases where a monkis ill and follows a physician's order. Thereupon, some laymen complain that monks who visit

their houses stink. In response, the Buddha establishes the rule that a sick monk who eats garlic following a physician's prescription should stay in cells at the margins of the mon­ astery and must not use the mats or toilets of other monks. He is prohibited to join the assembly, to preach to laymen, to circumambulate caityas, to offer incense, or to visit the homes of the laity. These restrictions are to be observed for seven days in the case ofgar­ lic, for three days in the case of onions, and for one day in the case ofleek. After that, the monk must wash himself and his clothes, and he may not get back to normal life until the smell is gone completely (T no. 1451, 24: 230a26-230b23). 71.

Skt. catviiro niSrayii /1, i.e., the four basic things a monastic should vow to rely upon, namely: (1) that his or her clothes should be made of rags, (2) that he or she should feed on alms, (3) that his or her abode (literally, "mats") should be beneath the trees, and (4) that he or she should rely on urine as medicine (cf. T no. 24, 1453: 458a22-458b27; i.e., the Karmaviicana of the Miilasarviistiviida-vinaya translated into Chinese by Yijingl. See also Hiirtel 1956: 87-88.

72.

This is rather cryptic. Hengshan is a mountain in Hebei and Shanxi, but the premodern Japanese commentator Ji'un Inko (1718-1804) interprets this as a kind of wild tea (cf. Takakusu 1998: 140). Anyway, Hengshan was famous for its medicinal herbs and teas (cf. Wang 1995: 165).

73.

skt. pippalf, i.e., Piper longum.

74.

W ershier ming liao

lun (T no. 1461); this is the Vinaya-sviivil"f!Sati-prasanniirtha-siistra of the

Sa:rpmitiya school. 75.

That is, the Sarviistiviida-nikaya, with which Yijing identifies.

B uddhist Healers

17. Two Sutras on Healing and Healers from the Chinese Canon MARC U S B I NG E N H E I M E R

he two short sutras below depict the Buddha as a "Supreme Physician" and relate

T the Four Noble Truths to four medical skills as defined in traditional Indian medi­

cine.1 A recurring metaphor in them is that through his teaching, the Buddha ends suf­

fering or unsatisfactoriness (dukkha),just as a physician pulls out a poisoned arrow.2 The first sutra translated below survives in two Chinese versions. Together, these two texts are somewhat mysterious. They are found in two Chinese collections of early sutri1S that were translated around 400

C.E.:

the Grouped Agama Sutras3 and the shorter

Alternate Translation of the Grouped Agama Sutras.4 The latter is translated here. In both collections, they are part ofthe Vangisa Collection, the group dedicated to sutras featuring the poet Vangisa.5 Their Indian (or Central Asian) origin is beyond doubt, and in form and content they are clearly part of early sutra literature. No other parallels in Chinese, Sanskrit, Pali, or other Prakrits have been identified so far, however. In all likelihood, the two are later additions to the canon. Very generally speaking­ and bearing in mind there are exceptions to this rule-the absence of close Pali paral­ lels for these types of sutras in Chinese is indicative of a later origin. If there is both a Pali and a Chinese version, we can strongly assume that the text did exist in some form before the first century B.C.E. (when the Pali canon was first committed to writing). An­ other reason to date the texts to a later period is that both versions ofthe sutra mention the names of four "good physicians," three of which do not appear elsewhere in the Buddhist scriptures. This is remarkable: exemplary persons tend to be repeatedly men­ tioned. Among the four, only Jfvaka frequently appears as a physicianinsutra literature (see, e.g., chapters 1§4, 8, and 20); the other three (so far) resist identification.

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BUDDHIST HEALERS

Vangfsa's verse in the Alternate Translation oft he Grouped Agama Siitras is longer than its counterpart in the Grouped AgamaSiitras, which is again probably due to later additions.6 Both texts, however, directly address the audience. This is especially obvious in an un­ usual line in the Grouped Agama Siitras: "To the physicians who have come to this assem­ bly, I now make known to you."7 In fact, this might be a r=nant ofthe actual context in which the verse was first preached. The verse could have originated with a monk ad­ dressing an ass=bly that included several physicians. In this case, the three names in the siitras that resist identification could have been the names of actual m=bers of the audience, whom the lecturer compared to the famous]fvaka. This would explain why these names do not appear elsewhere in the Buddhist canon as ex=plary physicians. The Alternate Translation ofthe Grouped Agama Siitras version translated below combines different sets of four. It mentions four physicians, the four skills of a physician, four branches of medicine, and the Four Noble Truths.8 The association of the four skills of a physician and the Four Noble Truths is well attested in other texts, such as in the "Dis­ course with the Parable About Physicians."9 This text also purports to be an early siitra, but like those with Vangfsa, probably be­ longs to a later stage. The Chinese version ofthe text used for the translation below was written by Danapala (£1. 980-1017), and therefore is relatively recent, but a version ofthe Indian text must have existed much earlier, as there is a parallel text in the Grouped Agama Siitras.10 The two Chinese translations are approximately six hundred years apart. A comparison shows how certain categories and details changed in the interim. Never­ theless, that Danapala around 1000 C.E. believed the siitra deserved to be retranslated attests to the motif that associating the four skills of a physician with the Four Noble Truths had remained popular within Buddhism from its inception throughout the first millennium.

FURTHER R E A DI N G Analayo. 2007. "Oral Dimensions ofPali Discourses: Pericopes, Other Mnemonic Techniques, and the Oral Performance Context." Canadianjournal ofBuddhist Studies 3: 5-33.

-. 2008. "Reflections on Comparative Agama Studies." Chung-Hwa Buddhist]ourna1 21: 3-21. -. 2009. "The Vicissitudes of Memory and Early Buddhist Oral Transmission." Canadianjournal o{Buddhist Studies 5: 5-19. Bingenheimer, Marcus, Analayo, andRoderickBucknelL 2013. The Madhyama Agama (Middle Length Discourses). Vol. 1. Berkeley, Calif.: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research.

1 . A V E R S E B Y VANGI S A 1 1 Thus have I heard. Once, the Buddha was staying at Savatthi: at the ]eta Grove in the Anathapi1;1c;lika Park. At that time, the Buddha told the monks: "In this world, a good physician, who can cure the four [aspects of an] illness, can be considered a royal master [of his

TWO 5 UTRAS ON HEALING AND HEALERS FRO M THE CHINESE CANON

165

art].12 What four? First, one has to know well what kind of illness it is. Second, one has to know whence the illness came. Third, one has to know well how to cure it. Fourth, once cured, one [has to know] how to prevent it from arising again. People call someone who can do this a good doctor. The Buddha too has realized a fourfold teaching. The Tathagata, the Arhat, the Fully-Awakened One, the Supreme Physician,13 is moreover able to relieve sentient beings from the fourfold poisoned arrow [of suffering]. What four? They are suf­ fering, the arising of suffering, the end of suffering, and the path to end suffering." The Buddha [further] told the monks: "Birth and old age, illness and death, grief and lamentation, [physical and mental] suffering, this is the [fourfold] poisoned arrow.14 A worldly doctor does not know the causes and conditions for the aris­ ing of suffering, or how its arising can be ended. He does not know the causes and conditions for old age, illness and death, grief and lamentation, physical and mental suffering, and how to end these. Only the Tatha:gata, the Arhat, the Fully­ Awakened One, the Supreme Physician knows the causes and conditions for the arising of suffering, and how to end suffering. Moreover, he knows the causes and conditions for old age, illness and death, grief and lamentation, physical and mental suffering, and how to end these. The Tathagata is skillful in pulling out the fourfold arrow of suffering; he is therefore called the Supreme Physician." At that time, the Venerable Vang!sa was in the assembly and thought, "I now shall eulogize the Tathagata's parable explaining the extraction of the fourfold poisoned arrow." With that, he rose from his seat, and addressing the Buddha with folded palms, he spoke this verse: I now bow to the Buddha, Compassionate with all living beings, The best and first among those to be honored, Who can extract the poisoned arrow.15 In the world, there are four types of physicians Who can heal four types of illnesses, To wit: curing illness of the body, [Illnesses] of children, [illnesses] of the eyes, and [illnesses caused by] poisoned arrows.16 The Tathagata cures illnesses of the eye Far better than worldly physicians. With the scalpeP7 of wisdom He removes the cataracts of ignorance [from our] eyes. The Tathagata cures the ailments of the body Better than worldly physicians. The therapies of worldly physicians Can only cure the four material Elements, But the Tathagatha well distinguishes [Between] the six elements [ofthe world], [and] the eighteen elements [of perception],18

166

BUDDHIST HEALERS

And by these teachings can cure The body so heavily afflicted by the Three Poisons. He can cure the illness of childlike ignorance19 Better than anybody else. Therefore, I praise Gotama the Great Teacher. A royal physician was Jialiu, 20 Who often offered medicine to people. other illustrious physicians Are called Pohulu, 21 ZhanpF 2 andjivaka. Royal physicians such as these Can heal various illnesses. These four physicians, Whomever they cure will get better, But although people do get better, illnesses will return, And in the end, death cannot be avoided. The Tathagata, [however], is the supreme physician. Those whom he cures Have their poisoned [arrow] pulled [and by that] exhaust the occasion for suffering, Forever abandoning birth and death, Never again [do] they suffer pain. Endless, innumerable, Billions of beings End their suffering, are cured by the Buddha [And this suffering] will never return. Today, I make known to this assembly, To all of you who have joined this meeting: The sweet nectar, the potion of deathlessness You should all strive to imbibe, All should receive it with faith, In the supreme healer of eyes! In curing the body, pulling out the poisoned arrow, No physician is his equal. Thus, let us sincerely Bow to the Venerable Gotama.

2 . THE DISCO URSE WITH THE PARABLE A B O U T PHYSICIANS23 Thus have I heard. Once, the Buddha was staying at Savatthi: with a great multi­ tude of monks. At that time, the World Honored One told the monks: "You should know that if a good worldly physician, in knowing about diseases and their cures, is fully en-

TWO 5 UTRAS ON HEALING AND HEALERS FRO M THE CHINESE CANON

167

dowed with four [skills], he can be called a king among the physicians. What four? First, he has to recognize which diseases there are and which medicines to use against them. Second, he has to know the reason why diseases arise, and use med­ icine accordingly [to prevent the arising]. Third, if diseases have arisen, he cures them by making them exit [the body]. Fourth, [he must know] to cut offthe source of the disease, and let it arise no more. These are the four [skills of the physician]. "What is the meaning of'he has to recognize which disease it is and which med­ icine to use for it'? It means he first has to identify that there are such and such symptoms, and then use such and such cures accordingly to heal them, and let [the patient] regain well-being. "What is the meaning of 'he has to know the reason why diseases arise, and use medicine accordingly [to preventthe arising]'? It means he must know whether a disease is caused by Wind, Bile, or Phlegm [i.e., the trido?a, and] whether it arises from the heart, the joints, or in the digestive tract. Knowing from whence these diseases arise, he uses cures accordingly and lets [the patient] regain well-being. "What is the meaning of'if diseases have arisen, he cures them by making them exit [the body]'? It means he must know whether a disease can be evacuated through the eyes, through the nose, etc., by various cures. Some [diseases] are evacuated by a nasal wash with fumigated water, some are evacuated by guiding breath through the nasal cavities, some are evacuated by vomiting or a laxative, some are evacuated by making the whole body sweat. Thus, wherever in the up­ per or lower body [diseases arise], they are evacuated accordingly.24 Knowing thus the various ways diseases can be evacuated, he uses the cures skillfully to let [the patient] regain well-being. "What is the meaning of'to cut off the source of the disease, and let it arise no more'? It means he has to know that the origins of a disease have such and such characteristics and accordingly are done away with. To enable [the patient] to al­ ways attend to their affairs with vigor, [the origins of the disease] are skillfully done away with, the disease is never allowed to arise again, and [the patient] gains well-being. These are the four ways in which to know about diseases and their cures. "The Tathagata, the Arhat, the Fully-Awakened One, is also like this. Having appeared in the world, he has proclaimed the four best Dharma medicines. What four? The noble truth of suffering, the noble truth of the origin of suffering, the noble truth of the ending of suffering, and the noble truth of the way. These four truths, truly understood by the Buddha, are a teaching he taught for the sake of all beings to make them cut off [further] arising. Once the causes for the arising of suffering are cut off, all of the sufferings of old age, illness, death, grief, lamen­ tation, and physical and mental suffering cease forever. The Tathagata, the Ar­ hat, the Fully-Awakened One, has proclaimed these best Dharma medicines, so that all sentient beings can abandon all suffering. 0, monks, like a wheel-turning, anointed king is endowed with four armies by which he obtains mastery, the Tathagata, the Arhat, the Fully-Awakened One, is just like this."25 After the Buddha had spoken this discourse, the monks were delighted and up­ held it faithfully.

168

BUDDHIST HEALERS NOTES

1.

I thank Venerable Analayo for reading through a draft of this paper.

2.

This metaphor is elaborated in a number of other early sutra.s (e.g., T no. 26 sutra 19, or MN

3.

Grouped Agama Sutra.s (ZA), T no. 99 sutra 1220.

4.

Alternate Translation ofthe Grouped Agama Sutra.s (BZA), T no. 100 sutra 254. See the contribu­

101 [MN II 214]).

tion of Venerable Analayo to this volume for another example from the Sarryukta collec­ tion. For an overview ofthe healing metaphor in early Buddhism, see Analayo 2015a. 5.

The ElderVaiJ.gisa (eh. Poqishe) is remembered as the earliest Buddhist poet. Sutras with his poems have been grouped early in their ownsarryukta. Some ofVaiJ.glsa's words (though not the ones translated here) are also found in the Theragiithii (verses 1209-79).

6.

The general pattern of differences between the BZA and the ZA is that the Indian original of the ZA found closure earlier than the original of the BZA, which continued to incorpo­ rate small quantities of new material (see Bingenheimer 2011: 45-50).

7. 8.

T no. 99, 2: 332c26. In fact, there are eight branches to traditional Indian medicine (see chapter 16§1); the text mentions four for the sake of creating sets of four.

9.

Yiyu jing, T no. 219. For other examples, see Granoff 2011: 7.

10.

T no. 219 has a parallel in ZAsutra 389. The Taisho edition does not group T no. 219 among the Agamasutra.s, but rather in vol. 4, together with other "simile" sutra.s. This is probably why it has escaped the attention of Akanuma 1929, who did not list it as a parallel to ZA

sutra 389. The latter is translated and discussed in Analayo 2015b: 20-23. See also similar passage in chapter 20. 11.

BZA sutra 254 (T no. 100, 2: 462c9-463a24).

12.

Wangshi. This is perhaps a mistake for wangyi, or "royal physician."

13.

Wushang liangyi. On the Buddha as the "Supreme Healer," see Granoff 2011, which shows how

14.

Whereas in the Pali traditionjiiti-jarii-byiidhi-mara"(!a alone are traditionally taken as four

the top os of casting the religious hero as physician also appears inJainismand Hinduism. separate entities (see, e.g., Sumangalaviliisinfiii 984), here the text, or perhaps the transla­ tor, seems to parse it in four parts: jiitijarii-byiidhimara"(!a-sokaparideva-dukkhadomana.ss a. This way the text can speak of a fourfold poisoned arrow or four poisoned arrows. The only comparable passage I found is in the Mahiiparinirvii"(!aSutra (T no. 374, 12: 428b21-23 and parallels), where hate, greed, ignorance, and arrogance are the four poisoned arrows that cause sickness. 15.

Suttanipiita verse 560 calls the Buddha the "unsurpassed remover of arrows" (sallakatto

16.

This enumerates four ofthe eight branches of traditional Indian medicine: general medi­

anuttaro). cine (kiiya-cikitsii), pediatrics and midwifery (kumiirabh_rtyii), ophthalmology (siiliikya), and toxicology (agada). A fifth branch, surgery, is alluded to below. 17.

Pi (lit., "arrowhead"; Skt. *saliikii) refers back to the poisoned arrow.

18.

The "six elements," or liujie (Skt. �a4-dhiitava(1): the world as a whole in the Indian cosmology made up of Earth, Water, Fire, Wind, Space, and mind. The "eighteen elements of percep-

TWO 5 UTRAS ON HEALING AND HEALERS FRO M THE CHINESE CANON

169

tion," or shibajie (Skt.