Bronze Age Anthropomorphic Figurines from Umm el-Marra, Syria: Chronology, visual analysis and function 9781841717890, 9781407330358

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BAR  S1575  2006   PETTY  

Bronze Age Anthropomorphic Figurines from Umm el-Marra, Syria

BRONZE AGE ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA

Chronology, visual analysis and function

Alice Petty

BAR International Series 1575 9 781841 717890

B A R

2006

Bronze Age Anthropomorphic Figurines from Umm el-Marra, Syria Chronology, visual analysis and function

Alice Petty

BAR International Series 1575 2006

ISBN 9781841717890 paperback ISBN 9781407330358 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841717890 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION Umm el-Marra, Syria ..................................................................................................................... 1 Scholarship Regarding Ancient Near Eastern Figurines: A Survey .............................................. 2 A Description of the Content, Goals and Contributions of this Volume ....................................... 4 . CHAPTER ONE: CHRONOLOGY The Organization of the Catalogue ................................................................................................ 6 Archaeological Sites and Sources of Comparanda......................................................................... 7 Sites with Comparative Materia ..................................................................................................... 7 Determining Chronological Relationships and the Interpretation of Context .............................. 10 The Umm el Marra Corpus: The Early Bronze Age .................................................................... 11 The Umm el-Marra Corpus: The Middle Bronze Age ................................................................. 16 The Umm el-Marra Corpus: The Late Bronze Age...................................................................... 18 Summary and Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 19 CHAPTER TWO: VISUAL ANALYSIS Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 21 Form ............................................................................................................................................. 21 Style ............................................................................................................................................ 23 Visual Analysis: Methodology. ................................................................................................... 24 The Umm el Marra Figurine Corpus: Visual Analysis................................................................. 24 The Early Bronze Age: Primary (Natural) Meaning. ..................................................... 25 The Early Bronze Age: Secondary (Conventional) Meaning......................................... 28 The Early Bronze Age: Intrinsic Meaning ..................................................................... 31 The Middle Bronze Age: Primary (Natural) Meaning ................................................... 32 The Middle Bronze Age: Secondary (Conventional) Meaning...................................... 33 The Middle Bronze Age : Intrinsic Meaning. ................................................................ 35 The Late Bronze Age: Primary (Natural) Meaning ....................................................... 36 The Late Bronze Age: Secondary (Conventional) Meaning .......................................... 37 The Late Bronze Age: Intrinsic Meaning....................................................................... 40 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 40 CHAPTER THREE: FUNCTION Introduction. ................................................................................................................................. 43 A survey and discussion of the proposed functions of Near Eastern Figurines............................ 43 Cult figures or representations of supernatural beings used as symbols or objects of worship.... 43 Vehicles of magic......................................................................................................................... 47 Initiation, teaching figurines.. ...................................................................................................... 48 Toys, dolls. ................................................................................................................................... 49 A Functional Analysis of the Umm el-Marra Corpus: Methodology4 ......................................................... 9 The Early Bronze Age ............................................................................................................................... .50 Archaeological context: spatial distribution and pattering............................................................ 50 Archaeological context: evidence for burning and recycling. ...................................................... 53 Associated Material Culture......................................................................................................... 53 Breakage....................................................................................................................................... 54 The Early bronze Age; Conclusion.. ............................................................................................ 55 The Middle Bronze Age. ............................................................................................................................ 55 Archaeological Context: Spatial Distribution and Patterning....................................................... 55 Archaeological Context: Evidence for Burning and Recycling.................................................... 56 Associated Material Culture. ........................................................................................................ 56 Breakage....................................................................................................................................... 56 The Middle Bronze Age: Conclusion........................................................................................... 57 The Late Bronze Age.................................................................................................................................. 57 Archaeolotical Context: Spatial Distribution and Patterning....................................................... 58 Archaeological Context Evidence for Burning and Recycling. .................................................. 58

Associated material Culture......................................................................................................... 58 Breakage. ..................................................................................................................................... 58 The Late Bronze Age: Conclusion............................................................................................... 59 Summary and Conclusion........................................................................................................................... 60 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND AVENUES OF FURTHER RESEARCH Identification, Meaning and Function......................................................................................................... 64 Change over Time.. .................................................................................................................................... 66 Further Avenues of Inquiry. ....................................................................................................................... 67 CATALOGUE Text............................................................................................................................................................. 68 Drawings. ................................................................................................................................................ .100 Photographs .............................................................................................................................................. 134 BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................................... .139

INTRODUCTION

Umm el-Marra is located on the Jabbul plain, between Aleppo and the Euphrates valley. Situated near the 250 mm. annual rainfall isohyet, it lies on the cusp of the area where farming is possible without irrigation and may have served as a “gateway city,” controlling access from the dry steppe and the Euphrates to the western Jabbul and Aleppo. Covering an area of approximately twentyfive hectares, it is the largest site in the region, containing a sequence of Early, Middle, and Late Bronze Age phases, as well as evidence of Roman and Hellenistic occupations.5

As a class of objects, anthropomorphic clay figurines are an important subject of study because they are very common in the archaeological record and yet they are poorly understood. Figurines appear to have been an integral part of daily life for the people of the ancient Near East as early as the Neolithic period1 and continued to be crafted and used for millennia. Despite this ubiquity, many crucial questions about the figurines have yet to be answered: Who or what is being represented? Why does their appearance change over time, and what is the relationship between their style and chronology? What were these figurines used for, and what can these enigmatic objects tell us about the lives and beliefs of ancient people?

The site was initially founded in the Early Bronze Age (Umm el-Marra period V), and appears to have rapidly expanded into a relatively large, fortified community. In the late third millennium, at the end of the Early Bronze Age (Umm el-Marra period IV), areas of the site seem to have been abandoned. While there is limited evidence for occupation during the Middle Bronze I period (Umm elMarra period IIId), the Middle Bronze II period (Umm elMarra periods IIIa-c) witnessed a significant reoccupation of the site accompanied by the construction of large-scale defensive architecture. In the early Late Bronze (Umm elMarra period II), there is evidence for site-wide destruction followed by extensive abandonment.6

Umm el-Marra, Syria The subject of this volume is the corpus of 203 Bronze Age anthropomorphic clay figurines and figurine fragments recovered from various archaeological contexts at Umm el-Marra, Syria, between 1994 and 2002. As of this writing there have been nine seasons of excavation,2 the results of which have been published in three preliminary site reports.3 The current project at Umm elMarra is a joint expedition by the University of Amsterdam and The Johns Hopkins University under the direction of Hans Curvers and Glenn M. Schwartz. The project, which has included a local and regional survey, has since its inception integrated both archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological analyses into the research design. Prior to this project, a Belgian expedition led by Roland Tefnin performed limited soundings at the site.4

The method of excavation at Umm el-Marra requires a few words of explanation. The tell has a number of excavation areas which are divided into trenches, each having a supervisor who oversees the excavation undertaken in that area. The trench is divided into squares measuring two by two meters. A site-wide grid provides numerical coordinates for the precise location of each area and the squares within that area. Trenches and twoby-two-meter squares are both identified by the coordinates of their northwest point. These individual squares are excavated in increments that are recorded and drawn as discrete units, or loci. Unique locus numbers are also given to any features recovered, such as a wall or hearth. The first season in which a trench is excavated, all locus numbers begin with a “0”; in the second season, all locus numbers begin with a “1” in the third season, with a “2,” and so on. Therefore, each locus number, when accompanied by the co-ordinates of the northwest corner of the square in which it is located, provides a unique signature identifying a single archaeological context, typically limited to either a two-meter-square area with a depth of twenty centimeters or a single feature of comparable volume. When artifacts such as figurines are recovered, they are given identification labels. These labels indicate the locus

1

Garfinckel and Miller 2002; Ucko 1968; Voigt 1983. In 1994-1997, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2004 and 2006. 3 Schwartz et al. 1997, 201-39; 2000, 419-62; 2003, 325-62. 4 Tefnin 1979, 1982, 1983. 2

5 6

1

Schwartz et al. 1997, 419-20. Schwartz et al. 1997, 430-1.

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA in which the figurine was found. Therefore, each figurine excavated from Umm el-Marra can be attributed to a specific archaeological context. This context can be assessed in detail by referring to the square supervisor’s original field notebook, which includes a drawing and notes. Furthermore, it is possible to ascertain whether any additional artifacts or ecofacts were recovered in association with the figurine by consulting the official object registry and identifying artifacts or ecofacts with either the same unique square and locus number or an associated square and locus number.7

figurines of the fourth millennium B.C. from different regions. Marie-Therese Barrelet’s Figurines et reliefs en terre cuite de la Mesopotamie antique, also published in 1968, combines a textual and art-historical perspective on clay objects including, but not limited to, anthropomorphic figurines. Her corpus consists of objects from various sites within Mesopotamia, dating from the fifth millennium B.C. until the Persian period. Barrelet is concerned with regional patterns of iconography and style, material, and manufacture. Although her study is confined to Mesopotamian material, it is not limited to a single archaeological site, and therefore the type and extent of information regarding context varies. As a result, she cannot incorporate data regarding archaeological context.

Scholarship Regarding Ancient Near Eastern Figurines: A Survey Since the early twentieth century, a number of significant publications have focused on the study of anthropomorphic terracotta figurines in the ancient Near East. These contributions to the field of figurine study reflect the development of archaeological and art historical theory and method over time. Similarly, these contributions reflect the increasing depth of understanding in the field of Near Eastern Studies in several fields of inquiry, including ceramic typology, household cult and religion, and ancient Near Eastern culture and political history.

Originally a doctoral thesis written under the direction of Barrelet, Leila Badre’s 1980 work Les figurines anthropomorphes en terre cuite a l’Age du Bronze in Syrie is an extensive study of a collection of provenanced Syrian Bronze Age figurines. Badre intended for her research to be used as a reference catalogue, a means of determining an approximate date and provenance for excavated anthropomorphic figurines, so that these objects can contribute to the archaeological record as chronological indicators. The author presents a catalogue of Bronze Age terracotta figurines excavated from sites throughout Syria. The broad geographic and temporal range of her corpus, as well as differences in the excavation and recording methods of various archaeological expeditions, requires an inclusive classification system independent of archaeological provenance. Badre bases her organization of Syrian terracotta figurines on observable features, and this system of classification is abbreviated using a code by which she distinguishes the individual style-types.

Van Buren (1930) is a general survey of Mesopotamian anthropomorphic figurines culled from various archaeological sites, museum collections, and historical periods. The author categorizes the figurines by their appearance, which varies significantly due to the breadth of the corpus. Even though this very breadth, together with the lack of data on the archaeological context of individual artifacts, limits the interpretations and analysis of van Buren’s study, the work is noteworthy because it is the earliest treatment of Near Eastern figurines as an artifact type and the first attempt to address the material in a methodical and constructive way.

Badre asserts that the clay used to manufacture Syrian Bronze Age figurines has regional properties of color and texture, and the primary criteria that she uses to distinguish the major types reflect this variety of fabric, which she identifies as “Orontes,” “Euphrates,” and “Littoral Mediterranean.” She then divides each of these major groups into two main classes, figurines that are hand-modeled (M) or mold-made (P). These classes are then broken down into categories determined by the posture of the figurine. Figurines are depicted as standing (MA), kneeling (MB), holding an animal (MC), or installed in a model chariot (MD). Finally, the categories are divided into types and sub-types that reflect details such as the form of the head, the hairstyle or headdress, facial traits that constitute distinctive elements, the form of the torso, the position of the arms, and the treatment of the torso.8

George Dales’ 1960 University of Pennsylvania doctoral dissertation “Mesopotamian and Related Female Figurines: Their Chronology, Diffusion and Cultural Functions” focuses on issues of cultural contact and diffusion, addressing material from the pre-Hassuna through the Isin-Larsa period with comparanda from Cyprus, Egypt, and the Indus Valley. Because of the broad geographic framework, this study is primarily a presentation of visually organized material. The author briefly addresses the matter of function in general terms based on ethnographic analogy and without analysis of archaeological context, which was unavailable for most, if not all, of his subject material. Similarly, Ucko (1968) is a broad, inter-regional comparative study that documents stylistic and iconographic similarities between

7 An example of the latter would be two figurines recovered from the stone foundations of two intersecting walls of the same structure.

8

2

Badre 1980, 39-43.

INTRODUCTION explicates the earlier work of Liebowitz and provides a synopsis of Liebowitz’s analysis of the figurines, including a consideration of their archaeological context. Particular emphasis is placed on the instances where figurines have been recovered in sub-floor pits, a phenomenon that also occurs at Umm el-Marra. Such deliberate deposition of figurines in sub-floor pits is discussed in the third chapter of this volume, as it relates to the possible function of these objects.

Even though the structure of Badre’s classification system is efficient and accessible to the reader, it does reflect the breadth of the regional corpus it presents. The style-types articulated in Badre’s monograph are ideal for identifying comparanda for an excavated artifact, but the system is problematic for working with a single-site corpus. Figurines are rarely recovered intact, and therefore it can be difficult to identify the style-type of a fragment, as defined by Badre. Furthermore, the material from a single-site corpus may predominantly reflect the conventions of a single region with only a few anomalous pieces, thereby providing an opportunity to make more subtle typological distinctions than are made in Badre’s catalogue.

Like Liebowitz’s work, Agnes Spycket’s 1992 Les figurines de Susa focuses on a geographically limited collection of fragmentary and intact anthropomorphic figurines. Excavated from Susa and Choga Zanbil and stored in the Louvre, Spycket’s corpus dates to the fourth through the second millennia B.C. Although Spycket discusses provenance and chronology in general terms based on Ghirshman’s excavation notes, these excavation records have limitations and so fail to provide sufficient data for her to incorporate specific archaeological contexts into her analysis of the corpus.

Nevertheless, because of its comprehensive temporal and geographic breadth, Les figurines anthropomorphes en terre cuite a l’Age du Bronze remains, nearly three decades after its initial publication, the standard reference used by archaeologists and art historians studying anthropomorphic terracotta figurines from ancient Syria. For this reason, references to comparanda derived from this volume are provided throughout the catalogue presented below, so that the reader’s understanding of the Umm el-Marra corpus can be grounded in this standard work.

The most recent significant study of Syrian figurines is Nicolo Marchetti’s La coroplastica Eblaita e Siriana nel Bronzo Medio (2001). Based on the author’s doctoral dissertation, this two-volume publication is an in-depth archaeological analysis and illustrated catalogue of the anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figurines excavated from the MB occupational levels of Ebla, Syria. Marchetti thoroughly examines the corpus in light of its regional context in terms of both material culture and political geography. His study succeeds in creating a detailed chronology of the figurines of the Middle Bronze Age, and this chronology is instrumental in understanding the MB figurines from Umm el-Marra. Additionally, noteworthy scholarship by Julia Assante (2002) proposes an interpretation of the meaning and function of the LB mold-made plaques based on a visual analysis with an emphasis on the meaning and implications of the use of mold technology.

Mary Voigt (1983) presents a paradigm for ascertaining the function of the figurines in her corpus of Iranian Neolithic figurines based on ethnoarchaeological analysis. By studying the use of figurines for different purposes in selected societies, Voigt considers how these purposes are reflected morphologically and spatially in terms of wear and patterns of breakage and deposition. She then assesses the figurines from Hajji Firuz Tepe in terms of this paradigm and draws conclusions about the meaning and function of the figurines in her corpus. Voigt’s approach to her material was unprecedented at the time, and her methodology remains provocative. This work is considered further in this volume’s third chapter, which addresses the ways in which figurines may have been used in antiquity.

The above survey of major works devoted exclusively to the study of terracotta figurines in the Bronze Age Near East9 demonstrates the different methodological and theoretical approaches that have been used to understand the identity, meaning, and function of these enigmatic objects. Earlier studies—those of van Buren in 1930, Dales in 1960, and Ucko and Barrelet in 1968—are concerned primarily with cataloging figurines from Mesopotamia or with issues of contact and diffusion between Mesopotamia and neighboring regions. It is not until Badre, in 1980, that a work devoted exclusively to Syrian material is produced. Badre’s predecessor and mentor, Barrelet, is the first scholar to do a formal analysis that considers the fabric and manufacture of the

Harold Liebowitz (1988) discusses the figurines retrieved from the excavations of Early Bronze Age occupation at Selenkahiye on the Euphrates. Liebowitz includes model chariots and zoomorphic figurines in his corpus, which is limited both geographically and temporally. However, even though these small finds are derived from a single site and period, the monograph provides no discussion of provenance. Rather, the author follows the standard set by Badre and classifies the objects in terms of types determined by the posture, position of arms, and depiction of the headdress or coiffure. In cases where only a small fragment is preserved, Liebowitz categorizes his corpus according to the breakage patterns. The Selenkahiye figurines are addressed more recently in van Loon (2001), where they are presented in the final report of the Selenkahiye excavations. The author refers to and

9 Ucko 1968 and Voigt (1983) are included despite the fact that they focus on fourth millennium and Neolithic material culture, respectively, because Voigt is discussed in depth in chapter III of this manuscript, and Ucko’s work provides the basis for Voigt’s methodology.

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA figurines, and to incorporate textual insights into the role of the potter and pottery in the manufacture of this artifact class. Thus, Barrelet’s remarks on the sociocultural meaning of clay in Mesopotamian literature marks the beginning of a methodological approach to figurine study that transcends the earlier culturalhistorical focus on the visual organization of collections of figurines. Mary Voigt’s methodology, which incorporates ethnographic analogy in conjunction with formal and archaeological analysis, is a further development along this trajectory, as is the provocative work of Assante. The distinction between these later approaches to visual analysis and earlier culturalhistorical works lies in the definition of “style.” In the earlier works, style is an inherent property manifested in individual artifacts and used as an organizing principle. In later studies, even though style is also used as a tool, its purpose is to distill identity, meaning, and function.10 It can therefore be asserted that, in general, the movement within the field of figurine study has been from culturalhistorical description, organization, and presentation toward more interpretive models, when the data permit.

corpus including hairstyle and headdress, jewelry, nudity and dress, and the presence or absence of (or emphasis on) physical and facial characteristics. The identity of whom or what the figurines are intended to represent is a subject of debate, and stylistic and iconographic analyses clarify the identity and meaning of what is being depicted. The third chapter, “Function: Discussion and Analysis,” is a functional analysis of the Umm el-Marra figurines. The issues of iconography and function are closely related. Whom or what is being depicted is presumably intrinsically related to why and to what ends these objects were created, used, and discarded. As an archaeological study devoted to the understanding of a class of material culture, this study aims to investigate the suggested functions of this class, as well as the methodology used to reach these conclusions. Also addressed in this section is a discussion of cuneiform sources that may shed light, either directly or indirectly, on the possible uses and meanings of the figurines. This chapter concludes with a functional interpretation of the Umm el-Marra figurine corpus over time.

In addition to studies devoted specifically to figurines, these objects are often discussed, or at least described, in preliminary and final site reports. These site reports, for example Klein and Hempelmann (1995), van Loon (2001) and Czichon and Werner (1998) provide a contextual analysis of this artifact type within the context of the specific site.

There are several reasons why the Umm el-Marra corpus presents an ideal opportunity to study the style, chronology, iconography and function of the anthropomorphic terracotta figurines of Bronze Age Syria. First, research on a body of material that has been recovered by one expedition at a single site benefits from a consistent system of excavation and recording. Also, Umm el-Marra has an occupational history that spans the Early, Middle, and Late Bronze Ages, from circa 2700– 1200 B.C., thus providing an opportunity to study continuity and change within this single-site corpus over time. While this opportunity is not unique, it is certainly significant in that it allows for this complete Bronze Age sequence to be compared to other Bronze Age sequences from sites elsewhere in Syria, such as Munbaqa, Tell Bi’a and Hama. Furthermore, the significant quantity of published information regarding figurines excavated from other Syrian Bronze Age sites supplies ample comparative data and allows the material to be addressed not only in terms of its immediate archaeological context but in a regional context as well. Finally, the Umm elMarra figurines date to an historical period, they may be considered in light of available contemporary cuneiform texts as well as textual references to the manufacture and use of figurines from later periods, which may provide insights into their possible meanings and functions.

A Description of the Content, Goals, and Contributions of this Publication The body of this volume is comprises three chapters, followed by conclusive summary, an illustrative catalogue and a bibliography. The first chapter, “Chronology,” begins with a description of the classification system used to organize the Umm el-Marra material into a coherent typology. It then presents an explanation of the features of the subsequent catalogue of the Umm el-Marra corpus. Following this explanation is a discussion of the chronology the Umm el-Marra figurines based on published comparanda and their archaeological contexts. The illustrated catalogue immediately follows this first chapter. The second chapter, “Style, Iconography, and Visual Analysis,” begins with a discussion of the meaning and use of style as it pertains to archaeology and the study of artifacts, and an explanation of the methodology used in this text. This discussion is followed by a chronologically organized description and analysis of the iconographic elements displayed by the figurines in the Umm el-Marra

This study offers a unique contribution to the field of Near Eastern archaeology. It presents the Umm el-Marra corpus of Bronze Age figurines in its entirety. More specifically, it subjects this corpus of provenanced figurines to visual and archaeological analyses as a means of considering the complete role of this genre of object in ancient society and suggesting further avenues of research. This analysis, by placing the Umm el-Marra

10 The meaning of “style” is addressed in the second chapter of this volume.

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INTRODUCTION figurines in a regional context, should prove a resource for archaeologists working with similar material. Second, the process of analysis provides a holistic methodology for addressing provenanced terracotta figurines. This methodology may then be used, challenged, and improved upon by other archaeologists interested in the study of these seemingly mundane, yet important, objects.

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CHAPTER ONE: CHRONOLOGY on their form,5 their preservation,6 and their observable characteristics.7 Forty-two mold-made figurines and figurine fragments8 depict a realistically rendered, albeit idealized, nude woman; including nine head fragments9 divided into six style-types based on hairstyle and headdress. Among these latter are four examples10 that are almost complete which are considered head fragments because the head is intact. There are also thirty moldmade body fragments,11 divided into two types based on the presence/preservation of the torso. Finally, there is a single example of a seated figure wearing a horned headdress.12

The Organization of the Catalogue It is the primary goal of this chapter to provide an explicit account of the relationship between the formal typology and the chronology of the anthropomorphic clay figurines from the Early (EB), Middle (MB), and Late Bronze (LB) Age periods at Umm el-Marra, Syria, and to place this corpus into a regional context. It is hoped that this account will provide a reference and research tool for those archaeologists and art historians whose inquiries address the material culture of Bronze Age Syria. Prior to addressing the relationship between the formal typology and the chronology of the Umm el-Marra figurine corpus, the corpus must first be organized so that the formal attributes may be identified and considered. This organization is reflected in the presentation of the catalogue of the Umm el-Marra corpus, which follows this chapter.

Each numbered catalogue entry includes the object number attributed to the artifact in the object registry at the time of its excavation. This number, which is preceded by the prefix “UMM” and followed by the last two digits of the year in which the object was excavated and recorded, is included in order to connect each catalogued artifact to the original field notebooks and object registry. Following the catalogue and object number is an identification of the artifact’s provenance (the square and locus from which the fragment derives). The individual figurine is then described, and information regarding the artifact’s immediate archaeological context is provided. The dimensions of each figurine are provided, and to facilitate the subsequent analysis of function, all associated artifacts and ecofacts that were collected are then listed. The drawings of individual figurines, identified by their catalogue numbers, are in the section following the catalogue text; however, not all figurines and figurine fragments have been illustrated, as indicated by an asterisk after the object number.

Traditionally, the study and comparison of individual types within a corpus of objects has been a visual exercise, and this study conforms to that practice. Following the system of organization used in the publication of the Munbaqa corpus,1 the Umm el-Marra catalogue is organized according to the formal properties of each fragment. “Form,” as it is defined and used in this study, comprises three components—manufacture, preservation (breakage), and observable characteristics.2 The primary classification criterion is the method of manufacture—whether the figure is hand-modeled (stalkshaped, in-the-round, or pressed flat with an hourglass silhouette) or mold-made. The second criterion, preservation, means that the artifacts are subdivided according to their breakage: head fragments, body fragments, or leg and base fragments. The third criterion, observable characteristics, refers specifically to the presence and/or number of neck ornaments and arms; but it should be noted that these characteristics, such as the depiction and position of arms, are more often a matter of preservation than the artisan’s conceptualization at the time of manufacture.

Most figurines excavated from Umm el-Marra since 1994 were illustrated in the field either by Dr. Sally Dunham or the present author.13 For the purposes of this study, field drawings originally done on graph paper or lined index cards have been traced onto vellum, allowing for reproduction free of the distraction and potential ambiguity of lines running through the image. Often, drawings have also been slightly modified following the convention used in Marchetti’s publication of the

Of the 203 figurine fragments in the Umm el-Marra Bronze Age corpus, 160 are hand-modeled. Of these, twenty-three are head fragments3 that are divided into twelve types based on the shape of the head, the form of the eyes, and the depiction of the hair or headdress. The remaining 138 hand-modeled examples are body fragments4 that are divided into twenty-two types based

5 Stalk-shaped body, modeled in the round, or with an hourglass silhouette. 6 Upper body fragments, torso fragments, and legs or bases. 7 The observable characteristics used to classify the hand-modeled body fragments are, subsequent to form, the number and position of the arms and the presence and/or number of neck ornaments. 8 Cat. nos. 162-204. 9 Cat. nos. 162-71. 10 Cat. nos. 167-70. 11 Cat. nos. 171-202. 12 Cat. no. 203. 13 The author also gratefully acknowledges that cat. no. 36 was drawn by Lance Allred in 2000, and no. 194 was drawn by Ron Winter in 1995.

1

Czichon and Werner 1998. Non-observable characteristics are those that are interpreted as the result of visual analysis. This issue is addressed in the following chapter. 3 Cat. nos. 1-23. 4 Cat. nos. 24-161. 2

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CHAPTER ONE: CHRONOLOGY figurines from Ebla,14 wherein diagonal lines were added to identify the visible cross-section of the breakage for the viewer. This modification required a familiarity with the corpus and with the hand of the original illustrator, and any misconceptions or misrepresentations resulting from these modifications are the sole responsibility of the present author. The photography of Barbara StuartCurvers is also gratefully acknowledged.

this standard reference. In the section below entitled “The Umm el-Marra Corpus”, references are made to the sites from which the comparanda are derived. For references to page, plate, figure, and/or illustration numbers relating to photographs, drawings, or discussions of specific examples from these publications, the reader should refer to the list of comparanda for each type presented in the catalogue itself.

Archaeological Sites and Sources of Comparanda

Sites with Comparative Material The celebrated Bronze Age site of Ugarit, modern-day Ras Shamra, is located on the Mediterranean coast north of Lattaqia. Measuring approximately thirty hectares in area, Ugarit has an occupational history beginning in the ceramic Neolithic and extending until the end of LB. Generally, the style of the Ugarit corpus is different from that of Umm el-Marra, exhibiting what Badre (1980) refers to as littoral Mediterranean style, with Egyptian influence clearly evident in the LB. Some of the MB and LB figurines from Ugarit are relevant to the Umm elMarra corpus, however, and will be cited below. Measuring some twenty hectares in area, Alalakh, modern-day Tell Atchana, is located on the plain of Antioch near the Orontes. Alalakh was founded in MB I at the beginning of the second millennium B.C. In MB II there is evidence for an extensive administrative bureaucracy witnessed by the presence of numerous cuneiform texts and it is during this period that Alalakh is incorporated into the Amorite kingdom of Yamhad.16 This phase of occupation ended when the site was attacked by the Hittites c. 1600 BC. The LB site is fortified, and although the archive contains texts associated with vassals of the Mittanian kings, the site was eventually incorporated into the Hittite empire. Alalakh was abandoned around 1200 B.C.17 Dated on the basis of their archaeological context and stylistic comparanda, the figurines from Alalakh used as comparanda in this study are from the MB and LB periods.

The cataloguing of the Umm el-Marra figurine corpus provides the foundation for assessing the relationship between their chronology and form, and subsequently their style. For this initial presentation, the material has been organized visually and categorized into types determined by means of manufacture, preservation, and observable characteristics. Determining the chronology of these types is a matter of interpretation based on an analysis of each fragment’s archaeological context and a consideration of comparanda from other excavated and published Bronze Age sites in Syria.

Occupation at the Orontes valley site of Hama18 is established in the ceramic Neolithic, in the late seventh/early sixth millennium. Hama features a complete Bronze Age sequence, and the figurines from these periods are stylistically similar to those of Umm elMarra. The figurines are dated on the basis of their archaeological context, the date of which is determined by the ceramics sequence. Hama levels J8-5 are contemporaneous with the EB IVA, and Hama levels J4-1 are contemporaneous with EB IVB. In Hama level J1 there is evidence of wide-scale burning and possibly a temporary abandonment of the site. Hama is reoccupied in period H, which is contemporaneous with MB I. The domestic architecture present in this period of

Thus, for each type listed in the Umm el-Marra catalogue, there is a compilation of references to published comparanda. The relevant sites— Ugarit, Alalakh, Hama, Tell Afis, Ebla, Ansari-Aleppo, Qara Quzaq, Tell Amarna, Sweyhat, Munbaqa, Halawa, Tell al’Abd Zrejehey, Selenkahiye, Tell Hadidi, Tell Bi’a, Tell Chuera and Hammam et-Turkmann— are described below and figure four. The examples drawn from these sites and used as comparanda in the subsequent analysis include only those not included in Badre.15 However, whenever possible, the Badre material is included in the summary of comparanda listed in this study’s catalogue of the Umm el-Marra corpus to aid readers familiar with

16

Schwartz and Akkermans 2003, 304. Schwartz and Akkermans 2003, 358 18 Fugman 1958.

14

Marchetti 2000, 2001; illustrations by S. Pellegrini. 15 Badre 1980.

17

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA ruins of the Archaic Palace26 and a large, stratified pit associated with MB II Monument P3 apparently used to dispose of votive objects.27 In his monograph on the MB Ebla figurines, Marchetti concentrates on the architectural history of each context to produce a chronological typology of figurines recovered in each excavation area.28 The period to which the figurines in each area are attributed is based on architectural phases, ceramic sequences, and fabric and style of figurines. While this presentation of the chronological and spatial organization of the Ebla figurine corpus is meticulous and convincing, the problem remains that most figurine fragments appear in secondary context; thus Marchetti’s chronology of deposition does not necessarily conform to the chronology of figurine manufacture and use. The provenance of the Ebla MB anthropomorphic figurines is typical of those at other Bronze Age Syrian sites— figurines are frequently reused as building materials or are recovered in fill.29

resettlement is differently oriented and less dense than that of the preceding EB occupation.19 The site was burned and destroyed toward the end of the LB period.20 Tell Afis, located in the Madekh plain south of Aleppo, is a large circular mound measuring 570 by 500 meters with an acropolis located in the north and a lower city occupying the extended southern part of the tell. There is evidence for EB, MB, and LB, as well as Chalcolithic and Iron Age, occupations. The Tell Afis figurines attributed to EB IV21 are comparable to those of Umm el-Marra, as are the MB II figurines which correspond to what Badre calls the “Orontes Type.”22 The attribution of groups of figurines to a particular period is based primarily on stylistic comparison to figurines of the same style-type excavated from other sites such as Hama, Qadesh and Qatna, Ebla, and Khan Sheikhoun, all of which are included in Badre and cited as comparanda.23 Ebla, modern-day Tell Mardikh, is a tell of about sixty hectares in area located approximately sixty kilometers south of Aleppo, not far from Tell Afis. The site has yielded a third millennium palace complex and an extensive archive of some 17,000 clay cuneiform tablets and fragments. Somewhat surprisingly, the EB figurines from Ebla do not provide good comparanda for the Umm el-Marra figurines. In particular the depiction of the hairstyle or headdress is markedly different, as are the forms of the body fragments with the possible exception of Umm el-Marra cat. nos. 101 and 102.

Excavated in 1973, Ansari-Aleppo, located on the southwest side of the present-day city of Aleppo, is a collective burial and a small settlement dating to EB and MB.30 The eight EB figurine fragments used as comparanda in this study were recovered from three excavation squares containing domestic architecture associated with the collective burials. These artifacts are dated to EB on the basis of the diagnostic pottery recovered from the architecture.31 The figurines and figurine fragments recovered from Munbaqa date to EB, MB, and LB. In the publication of the figurines excavated from Munbaqa, the authors have provided a code that clarifies precisely how each figurine was dated; for example, the abbreviation GD32 indicates secure dating based on a clear provenance and stylistic criteria. Similarly, SZ33 indicates that the figurine was dated based on the style of comparative pieces from either a secure provenance at Munbaqa or another site. The abbreviation WD34 indicates a probable date given based on associated finds or ceramics but still with an element of uncertainty. Finally, U35 indicates that the figurine could not be securely dated, either because there was no clear provenanced example of this style-type or this style-type was otherwise unknown.36 For the purposes of dating the individual figurine fragments excavated at Umm el-Marra, only those Munbaqa figurines or figurine fragments categorized as GD or SZ have been included in this study as comparanda.

In contrast, the MB figurines are very similar to those of MB Umm el-Marra. Nicolo Marchetti has published the MB corpus in detail and has established a chronology for the MB Ebla figurines based on fabric properties and observable attributes.24 According to Marchetti, in MB IA there is a standardization of the clay used to make figurines, possibly related to new developments in the firing process that required a more elastic fabric. Subsequently, in MB IB there is an increased standardization of fabric, accompanied by an increased variety of style-types, a trend that continued into the early phase of the MB IIA. During MB IIB, the mass production of figurines in fast-burning ovens leads to more cases of misfired figurines.25 This assessment of the chronological sequence of MB figurines from Ebla is supported by the archaeological contexts from which many of the Ebla figurines were recovered; for example, an MB IIB oven over the leveled

26

Marchetti 2000, 840. Matthiae in Weiss 1994, 127-9. 28 Marchetti 2001. 29 Marchetti 2001, 10-6. 30 Suleiman 1984, 1. 31 Suleiman 1984, 8. 32 Gesicherte Datierung. 33 Stilistische Datierung. 34 Wahrscheinliche Datierung. 35 Unbestimmbar. 36 Czichon and Werner 1998, 28. 27

19

Schwartz and Akkermans 2003, 294 Schwartz and Akkermans 2003, 359 21 Based on stylistic comparison with the figurines excavated from Level J at Hama. For Tell Afis, refer to Matthiae 1998, 386; for Hama, refer to Fugman 1958 and/or Badre 1980. 22 Badre 1980 23 Scandone-Matthiae 1998, 388-9. 24 Marchetti 2000, 2001. 25 Marchetti 2000, 840. 20

8

CHAPTER ONE: CHRONOLOGY throughout, well fired, and, if incompletely fired, is ash colored on the outside. The second type is yellow-gray throughout and, if incompletely fired, has a reddish stain on the surface or through the cross section. If over-fired, this second fabric type has a greenish color. Both fabric types resemble that of the pottery recovered in the second and third levels of the site, which date from the second half of the third millennium to the beginning of the second millennium B.C. Furthermore, these figurines and figurine fragments share formal and stylistic properties with figurines assigned to EB IV at other Tabqa Dam salvage sites. Therefore, the EB IV date for the Tell al’Abd Zrejehey figurines is established via archaeological context, formal properties (fabric), and visual comparanda.45

Halawa, located on the east bank of the Euphrates and comprised of several tells in a cluster, has Roman and Byzantine as well as EB and MB occupational levels. Tell A occupational levels date to the second half of the third millennium, while tell B dates to the first half. The anthropomorphic figurines and figurine fragments— recovered primarily from domestic areas of both tells A and B—reflect the internal chronology of the site as attested by the ceramics37 and these figurines are attributed to EB IV and earlier. There appears to be a break in occupation in early MB I followed by a reestablishment of the settlement in later MB I and MB II. Tell al’Abd Zrejehey, Tell Hadidi, Sweyhat and Selenkahiye are all Tabqa Dam salvage sites38. The earliest period of occupation at Selenkahiye (Early Selenkahiye) is EB IVA. At this time, the central area of the site measures ten hectares and was enclosed by a fortification wall with a rock-cut moat. There is a destruction at the end of this period followed by resettlement in EB IVB (Late Selenkahiye), or Umm elMarra period IV. This period is characterized by a broad exposure of domestic architecture with associated graves accompanied by a network of streets. The Late Selenkahiye occupation ends with another destruction c. 2000 B.C., and a subsequent limited reoccupation was soon followed by the abandonment of the site. Due to Selenkahiye’s limited occupational history, figurines excavated from this site can be securely attributed to EB IV.39

Occupation of Tell Hadidi began in EB, after which the site contracted in MB then expanded again in LB.46 The EB levels reveal disturbed and disrupted domestic architecture as well as burials and a possible shrine. It is uncertain whether the EB figurines from Tell Hadidi come from mortuary, domestic, or possibly the cultic contexts. The assertion that the Tell Hadidi figurines cited in this study date to the EB is supported by visual comparanda from other Tabqa Dam salvage sites.47 Tell Bi’a is a mound of about thirty-five to forty hectares located near modern Raqqa on the Euphrates near its confluence with the Balikh. The largest site in the southern Balikh drainage, Tell Bi’a probably dominated the region both economically and politically. Identified by second millennium texts as Tuttul, a city sacred to the god Dagan, it may also have played an important role as a religious center. In the Early Bronze Age, the site featured an enclosure wall with a tower, a temple in antis adjacent to residential architecture, and a set of six aboveground, elite mudbrick tombs found underneath a sprawling palace. There is evidence of a destruction toward the end of the third millennium, followed by the establishment of an administrative center under the direction of the Mari authorities.48 The figurines from Tell Bi’a which are cited in this study date to the EB, MB and LB periods and are dated on the basis of stylistic comparanda and, when the evidence permits, archaeological context.

In the early to middle third millennium, Sweyhat was a small center of approximately four to six hectares, but c. 2200 B.C. the site expanded to thirty-five hectares with mud brick walls enclosing both its central high tell and newly occupied lower town.40 The site later exhibits signs of burning c. 2000 coinciding with the EB-MB transition. After this, the occupation is limited and the site was deserted soon after.41 Like Selenkahiye, the Sweyhat figurines can be securely attributed to EB IV due to the limited occupational history of the site.42 Tell al’Abd Zrejehey, located on the east bank of the Euphrates River, was also excavated as part of the effort to salvage archaeological sites threatened by the Tabqa dam construction.43 Eleven figurine fragments were recovered from occupational levels dating to the beginning of the second millennium B.C., and two were recovered from a deep sounding, the lower strata of which can be attributed to the second half of the third millennium B.C.44 These figurines are made of two kinds of fabric. The first fabric type is reddish-orange

Tell Amarna and Qara Quzaq are both Tishrin Dam salvage sites. Tell Amarna, located near Carchemish at the north end of the salvage region, is an oval-shaped tell about twenty meters high. Figurines recovered from this site, which contained evidence for Roman, Seleucid, LB, and late EB through MB occupational levels, are surface finds dated to EB IV based on visual comparison to the Selenkahiye corpus.49

37

Orthmann 1981, 3. Schwartz and Akkermans 2003, 11. Liebowitz 1988; van Loon 2001. 40 Schwartz and Akkermans 2003, 251. 41 Schwarts and Akkermans 2003, 283. 42 Liebowitz 1988; van Loon 2001. 43 Toueir 1978, 2. 44 Toueir 1978, 61-3. 38 39

45

Toueir 1978, 63. Dornemann 1979, 115. Dornemann 1979, 117, 140-1. 48 Schwartz and Akkermans 2003, 278 and 313. 49 Tunca 1992, 33-5. 46 47

9

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA Occupation at Qara Quzaq, also a Tishrin Dam salvage site, is attested as early as the Chalcolithic period, followed by EB. After EB IV, the site experiences an apparent period of abandonment which coincides with MB I. In the MB II, there is extensive reoccupation of the site accompanied by intense construction activity. Qara Quzaq is abandoned at the end of MB II, and subsequent occupations are attributed to the Roman and Byzantine periods. The very few anthropomorphic figurines recovered from Qara Quzaq are dated on the basis of stylistic comparison to the EB figurines from Selenkahiye and the MB figurines from Hama.50

Alalakh are dated to the MB and LB periods, or Umm elMarra periods IIId-II. Finally, Munbaqa, Hama and Tell Bi’a provide a complete sequence of EB, MB, and LB figurines. Determining Chronological Interpretation of Context

Relationships

and

the

The formal types presented in the catalogue and described below are created for the purpose of organizing the material. A consideration of some of the more wellpreserved examples56 reveals that some of the formal types presented in the catalogue correspond to one another. For example, the well-preserved example of cat. no. 25 demonstrates that hand-modeled, stalk-shaped torso fragments, Types Fourteen through Twenty-five, are associated with Type Thirty-three column-shaped bases. This assertion is supported when one considers the comparanda, provided in the discussion below, from other Bronze Age sites within the region. Catalogue nos. 78 and 84 demonstrate that Type Twenty-six handmodeled torso fragments are associated with the Type Twenty-seven hand-modeled body fragments, which depict legs of this kind of figurine. Furthermore, cat. nos. 20 and 21 indicate that the Type Ten hand-modeled head fragments correspond with the Type Twenty-six and Type Twenty-seven body fragments. This assertion is also supported by a consideration of the comparanda from other Bronze Age sites in the region. In addition, the regional comparanda suggest that the Type Eleven and Twelve hand-modeled head fragments also correspond with the Type Twenty-six and Type Twenty-seven handmodeled body fragments. Finally, cat. no. 169 indicates that the Type Thirty-six mold-made head fragments, and the Type Forty-two and Forty-three body fragments all correspond to one another, and this assertion is also supported by the regional comparanda cited below.

With evidence for settlement as early as the Ubaid period, Hammam et-Turkman, in the Balikh drainage, has a sequence of EB through LB occupation. Almost without exception,51 the figurines excavated from Hammam etTurkman, which are hand modeled and stalk shaped, are recorded as stray finds.52 These hand-modeled, stalkshaped figurines are dated to the EB on the basis of stylistic comparison to figurines recovered from Selenkahiye and Tell Chuera.53 Tell Chuera, located between the Balikh and Habur rivers, is relatively large, being approximately sixty-five hectares in its entirety, and was occupied in three Bronze Age phases. The first EB occupation is followed by a break in occupation, followed by an LB level with some Mitannian material. There is also a Middle Assyrian occupation, which is late LB. The EB site includes a ringshaped mound, a citadel with terraces, a palace and monumental stone buildings that the excavators refer to as Steinbau I through V. The lower city is comprised, for the most part, of domestic architecture.54 The EB figurines from Tell Chuera are dated primarily on stylistic grounds; and the typology is based on manufacture, fabric, and preservation. When availability of data permits, however, archaeological context and association with the fabric of diagnostic ceramics is incorporated into the analysis.55

A chronological typology that assumes a one-to-one correlation between the period of manufacture and use and the period of the depositional context would be misleading. Assuming the period of deposition to be identical with the period of manufacture and use is unwarranted because figurines from an earlier period may be reused or recycled in later periods, or the figurines may have been in use for a long time. Therefore, while archaeological context is a significant consideration in the construction of a chronology of the Umm el-Marra formal types, it cannot be the main factor in making this determination. The extent to which the provenance of individual examples within a type plays a role in determining the period to which the figurines of that type may be assigned varies according to the nature of the archaeological context. Not all contexts provide an equal degree of information.

The sites described above provide the sources of visual comparanda used to ascertain the chronology of the Umm el-Marra figurine corpus. Tell Chuera, Ansari-Aleppo, Tell Hadidi, Hammam et-Turkaman, Halawa, Selenkahiye, Tell Sweyhat, Tell al-Abd Zrejehey and Tell Amarna feature comparanda attributed to the EB, or Umm el-Marra periods VI-IV. The Tell Afis and Qara Quzaq figurines date to EB IV and MB II, which correspond to Umm el-Marra periods V-IV and IIIa-c and the Ebla comparanda is attributed to the MB, or Umm elMarra periods IIId-a. The figurines from Ugarit and 50

del Olmo Lete 1993, 17, 199-200. The exceptions to this rule are the hand-modeled figurines ritually deposited beneath the floor of the LB palace. Refer to the discussion of cat. no. 19 below for further information. 52 Rossmeisl and Venema in van Loon 1988, 565, 53 van Loon 1987, 52. 54 Klein and Hempelmann in Orthmann 1995, 287. 55 Klein and Hempelmann in Orthmann 1995, 227. 51

56

10

For example, refer to cat. nos. 25, 78, 84, 20, 21, 169.

CHAPTER ONE: CHRONOLOGY A number of figurines57 within the Umm el-Marra corpus are from debris that contains no diagnostic pottery sherds and in which there is no associated architecture or debris that can be dated with any degree of certainty. This context provides no chronological information regarding the disposal of the artifact apart from data provided by strata deposited above or below the relevant context.

more detail below, include Type Three and Four handmodeled head fragments; Type Fourteen, Fifteen, Seventeen, Twenty-four, Twenty-eight and Thirty-one hand-modeled, stalk-shaped torso fragments; and Type Thirty-three column-shaped base fragments. Based on visual comparanda from Umm el-Marra and other Bronze Age sites in the region, these are clearly EB types. This raises several important questions of interpretation, of the feature as well as the dating of the figurines. The interpretation of this feature, and the figurines incorporated into it, is taken up in chapter III of this manuscript.

The debris from which a figurine has been recovered can be attributed to a chronological period based on the presence of diagnostic potsherds in the same depositional layer and on ceramically dated occupations above and below that layer,58 thus providing relatively secure information regarding the depositional context. It is important to note however, that this depositional context reflects only the final stage of the use-life of the object. This is especially evident in those cases of the apparent reuse or recycling of figurine fragments;59 the possible reasons for and meaning of this reuse are addressed in chapter III.

In the section below, the Umm el-Marra figurine types, as defined and described in the accompanying catalogue, are assessed in depth. The construction of a chronology of these figurine types requires a synthesis of the information conveyed by the archaeological context of their recovery and the visual comparanda, from within Umm el-Marra as well as from other Bronze Age Syrian sites. Because of the inherent difficulties in determining the period of manufacture and use of these objects60 the primary means of determining the period to which the figurines can be attributed is via the comparanda. This synthesis permits an attribution of the chronological period(s) for that type. For the reader’s convenience, and for the sake of clarity, the corpus is presented chronologically.

Some individual fragments are recovered from more revealing archaeological contexts, such as cat. nos. 1, 17, 32 and 66, which were all recovered from sub-floor pits in an EB IVB domestic structure, thus providing a terminus ante quem for the disposal of these artifacts. Similarly, figurines recovered from beneath the floor of an MB II domicile, such as cat. nos. 57 and 77, can be said to pre-date MB II because the floor surface provides a terminus ante quem for the matrix in which the artifact was deposited. A comparable example is cat. no. 168, which was recovered in situ in an LB domicile. The context of cat. no. 168 is unique within the Umm elMarra corpus, since it clearly indicates the period and place of use. Due to the possibility that these objects were used for long periods of time, however, it should be noted that even figurines such as cat. no. 168, which are recovered from what appears to be a secure archaeological context, might have been manufactured long before the period indicated by the context of their recovery.

The Umm el-Marra Corpus: The Early Bronze Age The Umm el-Marra formal types whose manufacture may be attributed to EB, or Umm el-Marra periods VI-IV, include the Type One, Three, Four, Five, Six and Seven hand-modeled head fragments and the Type Thirteen through Twenty-five, Twenty-eight, Twenty-nine and the Type Thirty and Thirty-one hand-modeled body fragments as well as the Type Thirty-three hand-made, column-shaped base fragments. The Type One61 hand-modeled head fragment features applied clay disks impressed with a single point in the center representing the eyes, and clay pinched vertically in the middle of the face indicating the nose. The hairstyle is rendered with small, thin coils of applied clay that fan outward from the face, indicating small plaits of hair similar to those found on cat. nos. 5, 9, 10, 13, 16, and 17. There is no depiction of either ears or a mouth. Catalogue no. 1, the sole example of this type, is accompanied by a torso fragment that clearly joins with the break at the middle of the neck of the head fragment. This torso fragment is broken at the midriff and at the shoulders of both arms, and the figure wears two neck ornaments of applied clay, one of which is marked with

Sometimes, a consideration of the chronological relationship between the recovered figurines and their archaeological context raises questions about the context itself. The most striking example of this situation is a layer of cobbles and sherds tentatively dated to late MB I/early MB II from Acropolis North. Nineteen of the Umm el-Marra figurines were embedded in this feature; that is, they were used as material in its construction along with EB IV pottery sherds, small cobbles, and animal bones. These fragments, which are discussed in For example, refer to cat. nos. 127, 157, 161. For example, refer to cat. nos. 10, 40, 104, 176. 59 Examples of the reuse of figurines includes cat. no. 7, a Type Three hand-modeled head fragment that was recovered from an outdoor LB cobble surface, and no. 38, a Type Seventeen hand-modeled, stalkshaped torso fragment was recovered from the stone foundation of an LB wall. 57 58

60 It is difficult to determine the period of manufacture and use of the figurines because their style remains consistent for long periods of time, and they are so often recovered from what appears to be secondary, or even tertiary, contexts. 61 Cat. no. 1.

11

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA short, incised lines. These two fragments, part of the same figurine, were recovered from a lime-plaster lined sub-floor pit in an EB IVB domestic structure.62 The pit appears to have been deliberately created, apparently for the purpose of depositing these objects, a phenomenon that is also attested at the nearby site of Selenkahiye.63 The visual comparanda derives from Tell Chuera,64 Tell Hadidi,65 and Munbaqa,66 Tell al’Abd Zrejehey,67 and Selenkahiye, where it has been attributed to the EB.68 This attribution is supported by the provenance of cat. no. 1.

the Acropolis Center, thus providing a terminus ante quem of EB IVB for this fragment. Catalogue no. 9 is from the late MB I/early MB II layer of cobbles and sherds described in detail in chapter III . The visual comparanda for this type are derived from Tell Chuera,74 Tell Hadidi,75 Hammam et-Turkman,76 Munbaqa77 and Selenkahiye,78 where it is attributed to the EB. The characteristic features of the Type Five handmodeled head fragments include a pointed, cone-shaped head and applied coffee bean-shaped pellets of clay representing the eyes. The clay is pinched vertically in the middle of the face to indicate the nose, and small pieces of clay protrude from the sides of the face most probably to indicate the ears. If these protrusions do, in fact, represent the ears, then this is one of only two examples of a hand-modeled head fragment with the ears depicted, the other being cat. no. 15, described below. The mouth is absent.

The Type Three hand-modeled head fragments69 feature applied clay disks impressed with a single point in the center representing the eyes, and clay pinched vertically in the middle of the face indicating the nose. The back of the head is modeled into a square-shaped bun, and there is no depiction of a mouth. Catalogue no. 4 was recovered from debris inside an EB IVB domicile.70 Catalogue nos. 5 and 8 are from the late MB I/early MB II layer of cobbles and sherds. Catalogue no.6 is from MB I (?) ashy debris with no associated architecture, but an MB I diagnostic sherd was recovered in association with the fragment. Catalogue no. 7 is from an outdoor LB cobble surface. Comparanda for this type are derived from Tell Chuera71 and Selenkahiye where it has been attributed to the EB.72

Catalogue no. 14, the only example of this type, was recovered from debris just outside the MB II acropolis enclosure wall. The context in insecure, and there are no clear comparanda available to facilitate dating the fragment. However, cat. no. 15, which is the sole example of a Type Six hand-modeled head fragment, also features a pointed head, and there is some protrusion alongside the face that may be intended to indicate the ears. There are some noteworthy differences between nos. 14 and 15. The pointed head of cat. 15 is incised with short, vertical lines, whereas the pointed head of cat. no. 14 is smooth. The crafting of the eyes is also different in that cat. no. 15 features applied clay pellets impressed with a single dot surrounded by an incised ring in the center as opposed to the coffee bean-shaped eyes displayed on cat. no. 14. Furthermore, on cat. 15, the eyebrows are indicated with short, incised lines over the eyes.

The Type Four hand-modeled head fragments73 are characterized by the relatively high placement of the eyes and nose on the face. The eyes are represented by applied clay disks impressed with a single point in the center, and the clay is pinched vertically in the middle of the face to indicate the nose. The mouth and ears are not depicted, and there are thick, incised coils of applied clay hanging alongside the face. As indicated on cat. nos. 10 and 13, figurines of this type characteristically feature applied clay neck ornaments— crafted from thick, incised coils like those applied to the face—and examples of body fragments featuring similar neck ornaments include cat. nos. 25, 40, 42, 44-47, and 64-67. This group is discussed as a style type in chapter II of this volume.

Catalogue no. 15, the Type Six hand-modeled head fragment, was recovered from the upper fill of the EB IVB domestic/craft production complex in the Acropolis Center. Visual comparanda for this Type Six handmodeled head fragment derive from Tell Chuera,79 Selenkahiye80 and Hammam et-Turkman,81 Munbaqa82 and Halawa,83 where it is attributed to the EB, an attribution that is supported by the provenance of cat. no. 15. Drawing on these comparanda, on the formal resemblance to cat. no. 15, and on the late EB IVB

Catalogue no. 10 was recovered in EB IVA debris, and no. 11 was discovered in debris inside an EB IVA/B structure featuring an apsidal room. Catalogue no. 13 was recovered from inside a mud-brick, plaster-lined bench inside the EB IVB domestic/craft production complex in 62

Schwartz et al. 2000, 424-5. van Loon 1973, 148; 1979, 99-103. Klien and Hemplemann 1995. 65 Dorneman 1979. 66 Czichon and Werner 1998. 67 Toueir 1978. 68 van Loon 2001. 69 Cat. nos. 4-8. 70 Schwartz et al. 2000, 424-5. 71 Klein and Hempelman in Orthmann 1995. 72 van Loon 2001. 73 Cat. nos. 9-13. 63 64

74

Klein and Hempelman 1995. Dornemann 1979. 76 Rossmeisl and Venema in van Loon 1988. 77 Czichon and Werner 1998. 78 van Loon 2001. 79 Klein and Hempelman 1995. 80 van Loon 2001. 81 Rossmeisl and Venema in van Loon 1988. 82 Czichon and Werner 1998. 83 Orthmann 1981. 75

12

CHAPTER ONE: CHRONOLOGY Type Thirty-one. Furthermore, based on comparison with cat. no. 25 and on the broken but complete examples from Selenkahiye91 and other Syrian sites yielding EB figurine assemblages, it is clear that the stalk-shaped body fragments correspond to the Type Thirty-three column-shaped base fragments. These types are all attributed to the EB period, primarily on the basis of the comparanda listed below.

provenance of cat. no. 15, it is proposed that cat. no. 14 is an EB type as well. The characteristic features of the Type Seven84 handmodeled head fragments are applied, coffee bean-shaped pellets of clay representing the eyes, vertically pinched clay in the middle of the face indicating the nose, and an elaborate hairstyle modeled with applied, meticulously incised clay. The mouth and ears are not depicted. Visual comparanda for this type are derived from Selenkahiye,85 Halawa86 and Tell al’Abd Zrejehey87, where they are attributed to the EB.

The Type Fourteen92 hand-modeled, stalk-shaped body fragments are depicted wearing a single neck ornament of applied clay. The arms and hands are either not depicted or not preserved due to breakage. Comparanda for this type are derived from Munbaqa,93 Tell Chuera,94 Selenkahiye95 and Tell al’Abd Zrejehey,96 where it is attributed to the EB. Catalogue no. 25 is from ashy fill inside an EB IVB domicile. Catalogue no. 26 is from a cobble packing outside of an MB I domicile. This packing, which runs beneath the structure, may be either a foundation or an outdoor space; in either case, it is MB I. Similarly, cat. no. 29 is from the late MB I/early MB II layer of cobbles and sherds, and no. 27 is from debris beneath the floor of an MB II domicile and its disposal therefore predates MB II. Catalogue no 28 is from an ashy MB II pit that also contained animal bones.

Catalogue no. 17 was recovered from a sub-floor pit in an EB IVB domicile,88 the same structure that also yielded cat. nos. 1, 32, and 66 from sub-floor pits.89 Catalogue no. 16 was recovered from an ashy pocket on the floor of an MB II domicile in association with an EB diagnostic pottery sherd and cat. no. 120, a Type Thirty-three column-shaped base fragment. Catalogue no. 16 is therefore attributed to the EB and assumed to be out of context, an assertion reinforced by the comparanda from the sites listed above and by comparison with cat. no. 17. Overall, a synthesis of the available data—including archaeological context, associated artifacts, and visual comparanda—indicates that the Type Seven handmodeled head fragments are attributable to EB.

The Type Fifteen97 hand-modeled, stalk-shaped body fragments do not feature arms, either because they are not depicted or due to breakage. These figures wear multiple neck ornaments of applied clay and feature incised lines running vertically down the back. Comparanda for this type are derived from Munbaqa98 and Selenkahiye99 where this type is attributed to the EB. Both cat. nos. 30 and 31 are from the late MB I/early MB II layer of cobbles and sherds, which is discussed in chapter III of this manuscript.

The Type Thirteen hand-modeled body fragments have neither arms nor a neck ornament, either because they are not depicted or are not preserved due to breakage. Comparanda for this type are found at Tell al’Abd Zrejehey90 where it is attributed to the EB. Catalogue no. 24, the sole example of this type, is from debris beneath the floor of an EB IVB domicile in association with an EB diagnostic pottery sherd. A consideration of the comparanda for this type and the archaeological context of cat. no. 24 indicates that this is an EB type.

The Type Sixteen100 hand-modeled, stalk-shaped body fragments have only one arm, either because they are not depicted or because they are not preserved due to breakage, and they have no neck ornaments.101 Comparanda for this type are from Halawa,102 Tell

The distinctions used to define the types of handmodeled, stalk-shaped body fragments are, to some extent, arbitrary. As previously stated, these types are defined on the basis of the presence and number of arms and/or hands and neck ornaments, and these characteristics are often a matter of preservation and may not reflect the form of the figurine had it been recovered intact. It is therefore not surprising that they are all attributed to EB; although they are categorized as different “types,” they share enough formal attributes that they may be considered a relatively homogeneous group. These types include the hand-modeled, stalk-shaped body fragments Types Fourteen through Twenty-five, and

91

van Loon 1973. Cat. nos. 25-9. 93 Czichon and Werner 1998. 94 Klein and Hempelmann in Orthmann 1995. 95 Liebowitz 1998; van Loon 2001. 96 Toueir 1978. 97 Cat. nos. 30, 31. 98 Czichon and Werner 1998. 99 Liebowitz 1988; van Loon 2001. 100 Cat. nos. 32-7. 101 Catalogue no. 37 is included in this type because it shares the characteristics that define the type, although it has several other significant characteristics that set it apart. That the torso is stalk-shaped is evident from the drawing of the fragment from the side, although the torso tapers in at the waist. Furthermore, this figure is marked with three incised lines at the hips, with some cross-hatching in front and a circle incised in the back. It is an EB/MB I (?) type, and is discussed further in chapter II. 102 Orthmann 1981. 92

84

Cat. nos. 16 and 17. van Loon 1973, 2001. Orthmann 1980-1986. 87 Toueir 1978. 88 Schwartz et al. 2000, 424-5. 89 This structure is discussed in further detail in chapter III of this manuscript. 90 Toueir 1978. 85 86

13

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA al’Abd Zrejehey,103 and Munbaqa104 where it is attributed to the EB. Catalogue no. 32 is from the floor of an EB IV domicile. Catalogue no. 34 is from inside massif A, which is late EB-MB I (?), and no. 35 is from the late MB I/early MB II layer of cobbles and sherds. Catalogue no. 33 is from debris above an MB II stone wall foundation.

The Type Twenty115 figurines feature two arms and wear no neck ornaments. Figurines of this type have been recovered from Tell Chuera,116 Munbaqa117 and Tell al’Abd Zrejehey118 where they have been attributed to the EB. The Umm el-Marra examples derive from various contexts. Catalogue no. 50 is from EB IV outdoor debris, no. 53 is from EB IVB debris inside the apsidal room, and nos. 55 and 56 are from EB IVB debris inside the domestic/craft production complex, discussed in chapter III of this manuscript. Catalogue no. 52 is from MB debris, no. 49 is from MB II debris, and no. 51 is from MB IIc-a outdoor debris. Catalogue no. 54 is from LB debris, and no. 48 is from Hellenistic debris. The comparanda from other Bronze Age sites in the region suggest that this is an EB type, and the recovery of cat. nos. 52, 49, 51, 54 and 48 from later-period debris is probably due to turbation and other site formation processes.

The Type Seventeen105 hand-modeled, stalk-shaped body fragments feature only one arm and/or hand, and the figures are depicted wearing a single neck ornament. Comparanda for this type are found from Tell al’Abd Zrejehey106 and Munbaqa107 where it is attributed to the EB. Catalogue no. 39 is from the late MB I/early MB II layer of cobbles and sherds, no. 40 is from EB IVB debris outside of the apsidal building, and no. 41 is from EB IVB debris inside the domestic/craft production complex. Catalogue no. 38 is from a stone wall foundation of an LB domicile, although considering this context in light of other provenanced examples from Umm el-Marra and elsewhere, this deposition is most likely an example of reuse/recycling.

The Type Twenty-one119 hand-modeled, stalk-shaped figurine fragments feature both arms bent at the elbows with the hands resting on the chest, and these figures are depicted wearing a single neck ornament. Comparanda for this type are found at Ansari-Aleppo,120 Tell Hadidi,121 and Munbaqa,122 Tell al’Abd Zrejehey,123 and Selenkahiye124 where they are attributed to the EB. Catalogue no. 58 is from inside a late EB IV cobble surface, and no. 62 is from EB IVB debris. Catalogue no. 61 is from the late MB I/early MB II layer of cobbles and sherds, and no. 59 is from debris outside an MB I domicile. Catalogue no. 57 is from beneath the floor of an MB II domicile; therefore, the floor provides a terminus ante quem of MB II for this fragment.

The Type Eighteen108 hand-modeled body fragments are stalk-shaped torso fragments, and they have one arm and/or hand depicted or preserved. These fragments also display two neck ornaments. Catalogue no. 43 is from MB II debris outside a domicile. Catalogue no. 44 is from EB IV debris beneath the massif, which provides a terminus ante quem of EB IVB for the debris underneath. Visual comparanda for this type derive from Tell al’Abd Zrejehey109 and Selenkahiye110 where it is attributed to the EB. The Type Nineteen111 stalk-shaped, hand-modeled body fragments are depicted wearing one or more neck ornaments, and one arm/hand is modeled so that an object can be inserted and the figure will appear to be holding this object. Catalogue no. 45 was recovered from beneath the floor of an EB IVB domicile, and no. 47 is from debris outside of an MB II domicile. The comparanda for this type are derived from Tell Hadidi,112 Munbaqa113 Selenkahiye114 where it is attributed to the EB. Furthermore, although the examples from Umm el-Marra are all broken across the neck, the comparanda indicates that the Type Nineteen torso fragments correspond with heads such as cat. no. 15.

The Type Twenty-two125 hand-modeled, stalk-shaped figurine fragments feature both arms bent at the elbows with the hands resting on the chest, and the figures wear two neck ornaments. Visual comparanda for this type derive from Munbaqa,126 Halawa127 Tell al’Abd Zrejehey,128 and Selenkahiye129 where it is attributed to the EB. Catalogue no. 65 is from debris beneath an early EB IVB wall west of the domestic/craft production complex in the Acropolis Center. The Type Twenty-three130 hand-modeled, stalk-shaped 115

Cat. nos. 48-56 Klein and Hempelman in Orthmann 1995. 117 Czichon and Werner 1998. 118 Toueir 1978. 119 Cat. nos. 57-62. 120 Suleiman 1984. 121 Dorneman 1978. 122 Czichon and Werner 1998. 123 Toueir 1978. 124 Liebowitz 1998; van Loon 2001. 125 Cat. nos. 63-5. 126 Czichon and Werner 1998. 127 Orthmann 1981. 128 Toueir 1978. 129 Liebowitz 1988; van Loon 2001. 130 Cat. nos. 66, 67. 116

103

Toueir 1978. Czichon and Werner 1998. 105 Cat. nos. 38-41. 106 Toueir 1978. 107 Czichon and Werner 1998. 108 Cat. nos. 42-4. 109 Toueir 1978. 110 Liebowitz 1988; van Loon 2001. 111 Cat. nos. 45-7. 112 Dorneman 1979. 113 Czichon and Werner 1998. 114 Liebowitz 1988; van Loon 2001. Refer also to Badre 1980 as cited in the catalogue. 104

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CHAPTER ONE: CHRONOLOGY neck. If preserved, the thin, cylinder-shaped arms extend outward perpendicular to the body. Comparanda for this type are derived from Tell Chuera142 where it is identified as an EB type. Catalogue no. 100 is from EB IVA debris. Catalogue no. 97 is from late EB IVB-early MB I debris, and no. 99 is from MB II domestic debris. Like the Type Twenty-eight hand-modeled body fragments described above, the dearth of provenanced examples of this type from other Bronze Age Syrian sites makes it difficult to conclusively determine the period to which this type may be attributed, and it is tentatively proposed that it is an EB type.

figurine fragments feature both arms bent at the elbows with the hands resting on the chest, and these figures wear three neck ornaments. Sources of visual comparanda for this type include Tell Hadidi131 and Munbaqa,132 Tell al’Abd Zrejehey,133 and Selenkahiye134 where it is attributed to the EB. Catalogue no. 66 is from a sub-floor pit in an EB IV domicile, and no. 67 is from early MB I debris. Catalogue no. 68, the sole example of the Type Twentyfour hand-modeled, stalk-shaped figurine fragment, features both arms bent at the elbows with the hands resting on the chest. A thin band of applied, incised clay runs horizontally across the chest beneath a row of six (preserved) applied clay pellets, also incised. There is a partially preserved, thin coil of applied, incised clay at the base of the neck. Catalogue no. 68 was recovered from the late MB I/early MB II layer of cobbles and sherds. Visual comparada for this fragment are derived from Tell Hadidi135 and Tell al’Abd Zrejehey136 where it is attributed to the EB.

The characteristic features of the Type Thirty143 handmodeled, stalk-shaped figurine fragments are semicircular protrusions modeled along the sides of the body to indicate the arms. The archaeological contexts of examples of this type excavated at Umm el-Marra are not revealing—both cat. nos. 101 and 102 are from debris with no associated architecture or diagnostic pottery sherds. However, visual comparanda for this type derived from Tell Amarna144 and Ebla suggest that this is an EB type.

Catalogue no. 69, the sole example of a Type Twentyfive hand-modeled, stalk-shaped body fragment, was recovered from late EB IVB-early MB debris. The arms extend outward perpendicular to the torso, similar to the Type Twenty-six hand-modeled body fragments.137 Comparanda for this fragment are derived from Tell Chuera138 where it is identified as an EB type.

The Type Thirty-one145 hand-modeled figurine fragments are defined by their lack of characteristics. They are body fragments, broken above the base, that have no discernable features, no depiction of arms or neck ornaments, and no incised markings on the body. These body fragments are clearly comparable to the other handmodeled, stalk-shaped Types Fourteen through Twentythree, which are all attributed to the EB. This interpretation is supported by the contexts from which the Type Thirty-one fragments have been recovered. Catalogue no 104 is from EB IVB room debris, nos. 108 and 109 are from early EB IVB outdoor debris in the vicinity of the apsidal building in the Acropolis North, and no. 110 is from outdoor EB IVB debris. Catalogue no. 103 is from an EB IVB-MB I pit, and no. 106 is from the late MB I/early MB II layer of cobbles and sherds. Catalogue no. 105 was recovered from ashy, early MB II debris.

The Type Twenty-eight139 hand-modeled figurine fragments are broken above the base, and the pubic triangle is indicated on the stalk-shaped body of the figure. Figurines of this type have been recovered from EB Tell Chuera.140 Catalogue no. 94 was recovered from beneath the floor of an EB IVB domicile, providing a terminus ante quem of EB IVB for this fragment. Catalogue no. 96 was recovered from the late MB I/early MB II layer of cobbles and sherds. Catalogue no. 95 was recovered from MB II outdoor debris. That there are relatively few provenanced examples of this figurine type makes it difficult to ascertain the significance of the provenance of no. 95; therefore, it is proposed that this is an EB, possibly an EB-MB, type.

The Type Thirty-three146 hand-modeled body fragments have flared bases so that these figures can stand independently. This type of base corresponds to the Type Thirteen through Twenty-four hand-modeled body fragments, which have all been attributed to the EB. Catalogue nos. 115, 116, 119, 126, and 149 were recovered from EB domestic debris, and no. 125 is from an EB kiln. Catalogue no. 145 is from a late EB IV pit, and nos. 140 and 141 are from EB IV debris outside and inside, respectively, the apsidal room. Catalogue nos. 151, 152, and 154 are from EB IV outdoor debris, and no.

The Type Twenty-nine141 hand-modeled figurine fragments are partially preserved, cylinder-shaped body fragments, broken above the base. The neck is elongated, and the figures wear a collar of incised clay around the 131

Dorneman 1979. Czichon and Werner 1998. 133 Toueir 1978. 134 Liebowitz 1988; van Loon 2001. 135 Dorneman 1979. 136 Toueir 1978. 137 See, for example, cat. nos. 78, 81, 82, 84. 138 Klein and Hempelmann in Orthmann 1995. 139 Cat. nos. 94-6. 140 Klein and Hempelmann in Orthmann 1995. 141 Cat. nos. 97-100. 132

142

Klein and Hempelmann in Orthmann 1995. Cat. nos. 101, 102. Tunca 1992. 145 Cat. nos. 103-11. 146 Cat. nos. 115-56. 143 144

15

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA 138 is from inside massif A. Catalogue no. 153 is from early EB IVB debris near the domestic/craft production complex, and no. 156 is from upper fill of this EB IVB domestic/craft production complex. Catalogue nos. 124, 139, 144, 150, and 155 were recovered from MB debris, and nos. 123 and 130 are from MB I outdoor debris. Catalogue nos. 133 through 137 and nos. 142, 143, and 148 are all from the late MB I/early MB II layer of cobbles and sherds. Catalogue no. 117 is from inside a MB II mud-brick oven, no. 120 is from an MB II wall foundation, and nos. 122, 128, 131, and 132 are from MB II debris. Two examples have been recovered from LB contexts. Catalogue no. 118 is from LB street debris, and no. 129 is from LB debris. Catalogue no. 117 is not intact, and the excavator’s notes do not indicate that it was placed in the oven; it is therefore possible that the fragment was incorporated into the mud brick. Catalogue no. 120 may be an example of reuse/recycling.

acropolis gate, and comparanda for this type are derived from Tell Chuera,151 where it is attributed to the late EB, and Tell Afis and Ebla, where it is attributed to the MB. However, the examples from Afis and Ebla differ slightly from the Umm el-Marra specimen in the execution of the hair/headdress.152 First, the fan-shaped hairstyle/headdress of the Umm el-Marra example is not pierced, whereas the MB IA figurines from Ebla have one perforation, and the MB IB-II figurines feature two. Second, the clay of the Umm el-Marra example is not pressed into pierced protrusions alongside the face as is the case in the Ebla examples.153 Furthermore, the clay modeled into plaits that fan outward alongside the face is an element of the EB feminine hairstyle/headdress, as is seen on Umm el-Marra cat. nos. 1, 5, 10, 13 and 16, although this element appears on a few MB IA figurines from Ebla. It is proposed that this fragment be dated to late EB/early MB I because of (1) the Tell Chuera comparanda, (2) the presence of the EB/MB IA element of the hairstyle/headdress, and (3) the lack of clear comparanda from MB Ebla.

The Umm el-Marra Corpus: Middle Bronze Age The Umm el-Marra formal types that may be attributed to MB include the Type Two, Ten, Eleven, and Twelve hand-modeled head fragments and the Type Twenty-six, Twenty-seven, Thirty-two and Thirty-four hand-modeled body fragments. This period corresponds to Umm elMarra periods IIIa-d.

Catalogue no. 23, the sole example of a Type Twelve hand-modeled head fragment, features applied clay disks impressed with a single point in the center representing the eyes and clay pinched vertically in the middle of the face indicating the nose. The mouth appears to be represented as a short, horizontal, incised line, although this may be damage or wear. The head is modeled so that it fans outward on each side of the face, and these protrusions are pierced with two round holes on either side. Catalogue no. 23 is from MB debris outside of the MB massif in the Acropolis Center, and comparanda for this type are derived from Tell Afis154 where it is attributed to MB II.

The Type Ten147 hand-modeled head and upper body fragments feature applied clay disks punctured in the center representing the eyes. The clay is pinched vertically in the middle of the face indicating the nose. No mouth or ears are represented. The head fans outward on each side of the face and is pierced with two round holes on either side. When preserved, the arms are disproportionately short and extend straight outward perpendicular to the body. Sources of comparanda for this type include Halawa,148 where it is attributed to EB IV, Tell Afis,149 and Ebla,150 where it is identified as an MB type. Catalogue no. 20 is from MB debris, and no. 21 is from MB II debris.

The Type Twenty-six155 hand-modeled body fragments are pressed flat, and the torso has an hourglass-shaped silhouette. The arms are short and extend perpendicular to the torso. Most, but not all, of these fragments feature an X-shaped set of bands that cross at the midriff, depicted with short, vertical, incised lines. The pubic triangle is depicted with rows of similar short, vertical, incised lines. The navel is indicated with a single impressed point, sometimes pressed into an applied clay pellet. Catalogue no. 80 differs somewhat from the other figurines in this group in that the arms are modeled so they appear to be cupping the breasts, the navel is not depicted, and the breasts are explicitly depicted with applied clay pellets.156 Catalogue no. 85 is from MB outdoor debris, and no. 76 is from beneath the floor of an MB II domicile, providing a terminus ante quem for this fragment. Catalogue nos. 72, 75, 79, and 82 are from MB II domestic debris.

Catalogue no. 22 is the sole example of the Type Eleven hand-modeled head fragment excavated at Umm elMarra. It features applied clay disks impressed with a single point in the center representing the eyes, and clay pinched vertically in the middle of the face indicating the nose. The mouth and ears are not depicted. There is a tall, fan-shaped form on the top of the head that may represent an elaborate hairstyle or headdress, and behind this are plaits of hair fanning outward alongside the face. Catalogue no. 22 is from MB II debris outside of the 147

Cat. nos. 20, 21. Orthmann 1981. 149 Matthiae 1998. 150 Marchetti 2001, for cat. no. 21 only. Note that cat. no. 21 has two holes piercing the clay protrusions alongside the head, and does not resemble one of the Ebla “types” so much as it features individual elements from several MB IB and MB IIA types. 148

151

Klein and Hempelmann in Orthmann 1995. Matthiae 1998. 153 See also a similar effect in Umm el-Marra cat. nos. 20, 21 and 23. 154 Matthiae 1998. 155 Cat. nos. 70-85. 156 Marchetti (2001) identifies this as an MB II type. 152

16

CHAPTER ONE: CHRONOLOGY five body fragments described below.

Catalogue nos. 74 and 80 are from MB II outdoor debris, and no. 78 is from in or above an MB II wall. Catalogue no. 81 is from late MB II/early LB debris, and no.72 is from LB debris. Sources of comparanda for the Type Twenty-six hand-modeled body fragments include Halawa,157 where this form is attributed to EB IV, and Munbaqa,158 Tell Afis159 and Ebla,160 where it is attributed to MB.

The Type Thirty-two167 hand-modeled body fragments are all partially preserved tripod bases. Catalogue no. 112 was recovered from debris above LB architecture, no.113168 from debris near the MB II gate, and no. 114 from the stone foundation of an LB domestic mud-brick wall. Comparanda for this type are derived from Tell Afis169 and Ebla170 where it is attributed to the MB.

That the Type Twenty-seven161 hand-modeled leg fragments correspond to the Type Twenty-six body fragments is evidenced by comparison to Umm el-Marra cat. nos. 78, 79, 80, 82, 84, and 85—all of which are examples of Type Twenty-six body fragments in which the legs are partially or nearly intact—and also by the comparanda from Ebla and Tell Afis. These Type Twenty-seven leg fragments are distinguished by a vertical groove impressed into the clay, and the feet are small and, when preserved, pinched so that they extend forward slightly. Of the Type Twenty-seven leg fragments, cat. no. 88 is from MB II domestic debris, no. 89 is from beneath the floor of an MB II domicile, and no. 92 is from outdoor MB II debris. Catalogue no. 97 is from late MB II-early LB domestic debris, and no. 86 is from an LB wall foundation.

The Type Thirty-four171 hand-modeled body fragments depict a figure seated on an animal. All the Umm elMarra examples of this type derive from topsoil or debris of an unknown period, with no associated architecture. Sources of comparanda for this type include AnsariAleppo,172 where it is attributed to the late EB and Tell Afis173 and Ebla,174 where it is identified as an MB type. A consideration of the MB figurines in light of the comparanda and the archaeological context of their recoveries suggests that there is a continuity of the EB formal types between the EB IVB and MB I. It appears that rather than an abrupt break in the manufacture, use and disposal of the EB types and the sudden emergence of those types characteristic of the MB, there is a gradual transition that becomes fully realized in the early MB II. This proposal is supported by several observations.

The comparanda from Ebla and Tell Afis, in addition to some of the more complete examples from the Umm elMarra corpus such as cat. nos. 21, 78 and 84, indicate that the Type Twenty-six and Twenty-seven body fragments correspond to the Types Ten, Eleven, and Twelve head fragments described above.

At Umm el-Marra, figurine fragments are sometimes recovered from contexts that are of the same period to which their manufacture is attributed, but more often from contexts post-dating the period to which their production is attributed. For example, thirty-six out of 121 EB figurines were recovered from EB debris.175 This is true of the LB types as well, fifteen out of forty-five of which were recovered from LB debris.176 Of the thirtyseven figurine fragments that comprise the MB corpus, not one is from an archaeological context that can be

The Type Two162 hand-modeled head fragments feature applied clay disks impressed with a single point in the center representing the eyes. The clay is pinched vertically in the middle of the face indicating the nose. There is a thin band of clay across the forehead and, when preserved, the top of the head is pointed, possibly suggesting that the figure is wearing a hat with a brim. There is no depiction of a mouth, ears, or hair. Catalogue no. 2 was recovered from early MB II domestic debris in association with an MB I (?) diagnostic pottery sherd, and no. 3 was recovered from mid-MB II domestic debris. Sources of comparanda for this type include AnsariAleppo163 and Selenkahiye,164 where it is attributed to the late EB, and Tell Afis165 and Ebla,166 where it is attributed to the MB. Furthermore, the comparanda indicates that the Type Two hand-modeled head fragments may correspond to some of the Type Thirty-two and Thirty-

167

Cat. nos. 112-4. Catalogue no. 113, which is the most intact example of this form, is an anthropomorphic torso, broken at both arms and at the neck, which features a partially preserved neck ornament. The bottom of this fragment breaks into three “legs,” possibly depicting a figure seated on an animal. The form of the animal is abbreviated and may be compared to the Type Thirty-five “rider” figurines, specifically cat. no. 159. Handmodeled body fragments Types Thirty-two and Thirty five may, in fact, be the same “kind” of figurine, in that they appear to depict a figure seated on an animal. That they are not the same type may be, to a small extent, a consequence of their breakage, although as the modeling of cat. no. 160 clearly demonstrates, the depiction of the seated figure and the animal varies significantly. 169 Matthiae 1998. 170 Marchetti 2001. 171 Cat. nos. 158-161. 172 Suleiman 1984. 173 Matthiae 1998. 174 Marchetti 2001. 168

157

Orthmann 1981. Czichon and Werner 1998. 159 Matthiae 1998. 160 Marchetti 2001. 161 Cat. nos. 86-93. 162 Cat. nos. 2, 3. 163 Suleiman 1984. 164 Liebowitz 1988; van Loon 2001. 165 Matthiae 1998. 166 Marchetti 2001. 158

175

Catalogue nos. 4, 10, 11, 13, 24, 25, 40, 41, 44, 45, 50, 53, 55, 56, 58, 62, 65, 103, 104, 108-110,115, 116, 119, 125, 126, 140, 141, 145, 149, 151, 152, 153, 154 and 156.

176 Catalogue nos. 162, 163, 166, 167, 169, 170, 171, 174, 178, 179,180, 182, 184, 187 and 191.

17

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA clearly identified as MB I. Therefore, at Umm el-Marra, the figurines characteristic of MB are archaeologically unattested prior to MB II. Furthermore, Marchetti (2001) has composed a chronology of the MB Ebla figurine in which he divides the Ebla corpus into MB IA, MB IB, MB IIA and MB IIB.177 The MB figurines from Ebla are similar to those of Umm el-Marra, with one startling exception. There are no examples178 from within the Umm el-Marra corpus of the types that Marchetti identifies as either MB IA or MB IB. The figurines that Marchetti identifies as MB II however, are virtually identical to the Umm el-Marra MB corpus.

increases in size, is the exception to this pattern. In the MB II, there is a regeneration of urban centers which coincides with the rise of the Amorites and the kingdom of Yamhad 182 The Umm el-Marra Corpus: The Late Bronze Age The anthropomorphic terracotta figurines undergo a dramatic transformation at the beginning of the LB. No longer hand-modeled, the figurines are made in a mold and are thus relatively standardized. These figurines depict a realistically represented—albeit idealized—nude female figure. The figure stands in relief against the background of a plaque; the back is without decoration or markings of any kind, with the exception of the occasional fingerprint.183 Mold-made figurine Types Thirty-five through Forty-three can be attributed to LB or Umm el-Marra period II.

That the figurine types characteristic of the MB are not archaeologically attested prior to MB II at Umm elMarra, and the MB figurine types that Marchetti identifies as being characteristic of MB I at Ebla are not attested at Umm el-Marra, reveals an interesting issue regarding the identification of those figurines that may be attributed to the EB IVB- MB I transition. All of the figurine fragments recovered from MB I debris were EB types.179 Similarly, the twenty-one figurine fragments incorporated into the feature described in the accompanying catalogue as, “the layer of cobbles and sherds,” which is attributed to later MB I or earlier MB II, 180 are all EB types. Interestingly, catalogue no. 69, which was recovered from late EB/early MB debris, features formal elements characteristic of both the EB and MB figurines and may be a formally, as well as archaeologically, transitional type. It therefore appears that the change in the form, subject and style of the anthropomorphic figurines does not coincide directly with the transition from EB IVB to MB I. Rather, this transition may occur gradually or, if it happens more quickly, it occurs later and may take place in late MB I or the beginning of MB II.

The Type Thirty-five184 mold-made head fragments feature coffee bean-shaped eyes, and the nose and mouth are naturalistically depicted. The hair is gathered alongside the face on both sides, and each side is bound, falling into three plaits. Catalogue no. 161 is from an LB pit, and no. 162 is from LB debris. Sources of comparanda for this type include LB Munbaqa,185 Hama, Tell Chuera, and Alalakh, where this form is attributed to LB. The Type Thirty-six186 mold-made head fragments depict a woman with a smooth head, possibly indicating a hat or headdress of some kind. All of the facial features are shown, and the eyes are shaped like coffee beans. Both catalogue nos. 164 and 165 are from debris of an unknown period near a Roman cobble surface, and comparanda for this type are derived from Munbaqa187 and Emar, where it is attributed to the LB.

The transition between the EB and MB periods in Bronze Age Syria is a complex and widely discussed issue, and thus the nature of the transition of the figurines between the EB and MB periods is of interest and importance. Generally, a clear break between the material culture of the EB and MB has been recognized. Archaeological evidence from Tell Hadidi and Sweyhat however, indicates that this change may have been more gradual at some sites. Following the emergence of cities in the EB, the region witnesses widespread collapse in the late third millennium. This collapse is followed by a period of instability in the MB I, characterized by a process of deurbanization in which many sites are abandoned or display evidence for reduced occupations.181 Ebla, which

Catalogue no. 165 is the sole example of a Type Thirtyseven mold-made head fragment recovered at Umm elMarra. It depicts a woman with a short, elaborate hairstyle. Her forehead is ribbed, the eyes are coffee bean-shaped, and there is no mouth. Catalogue no. 166 was found in ashy LB debris above an MB II domicile, and comparanda for this type derives from Munbaqa188 and Emar. Catalogue no. 166, the sole example of a Type Thirtyeight mold-made head fragment, was recovered from an LB street. This fragment is broken at the top of the head abandonment. Smaller sites in the region, such as Habuba Kabira North and Tell Kabir also have small settlements followed by abandonment. Tell Hadidi has reduced occupation and Halawa is abandoned. 182 Schwartz and Akkermans 2003, 291 ff. 183 For example, refer to cat. nos. 172, 192. 184 Cat. nos. 161, 162. 185 Czichon and Werner 1998. 186 Cat. nos. 163, 164. 187 Czichon and Werner 1998. 188 Czichon and Werner 1998; see also Machule and Wafler 1983.

177

Marchetti 2001, see tav. CCCIX. 178 With the possible exception of cat. no. 21. This fragment is broken, and may be comparable to a type that Marchetti identifies as MB IB, although the preserved fragment from Umm el-Marra is equally comparable to the types Marchetti identifies as MB IIA. 179 Cat. nos. 6, 26, 67, 97, 123 and 130. 180 This feature is discussed in detail in chapter III of this manuscript. 181 Selenkahiye, Hama and Sweyhat, for example, have reduced occupations above their extensive urban EB occupations, followed by

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CHAPTER ONE: CHRONOLOGY surface that was cut by a Hellenistic pit; cat. no. 180 is from the stone foundation of a Hellenistic wall; cat. no. 171 is from an ashy, Roman pit; cat. nos. 173 and 174 are from debris, near topsoil, and nos. 176, 182 and 187 are from topsoil.

and at the bottom of the neck. All the facial features are represented, and the figure is depicted wearing a headband and earrings. Catalogue no. 167 is the sole example of a Type Thirtynine mold-made figurine recovered at Umm el-Marra. Broken only at the very bottom, it is nearly intact. The figure depicted is a nude female whose arms lie alongside the body, hands resting on the thighs. All of the facial features are rendered, and, although the figure wears no necklaces, bracelets or anklets, she appears to be wearing earrings. The figure wears a “polos” style headdress, which is discussed in further detail in chapter II. The provenance of this figurine is noteworthy—it was recovered in situ, adjacent to a basalt mortar and door socket, on the floor of an LB domicile. Sources of comparanda for this type include LB Munbaqa189 and Hammam et- Turkman.190

The comparanda from Umm el-Marra200 and other LB sites in Syria including LB Tall Bi’a,201 Tell Hadidi,202 Tell el-Hajj,203 Hammam et-Turkman,204 and Munbaqa,205 indicate that the Type Forty-one and Type Forty-two206 body fragments correspond to one another. The Type Forty-two body fragments are mold made and depict the legs and sometimes the lower body of a nude female. Catalogue no. 196 is from late MB II/early LB debris, and no. 193 is from LB debris. Catalogue no. 191 was recovered near an LB wall foundation, and nos. 192 and 198 are from LB domestic debris. Catalogue nos. 194, 197, and 200 are from an LB pit; no. 199 is from an LB outdoor cobble surface; and no. 201 is from an early LB debris near several kilns. Catalogue nos. 195 and 202 are from topsoil.

The Type Forty191 mold-made figurines are nearly intact and feature a nude woman wearing bracelets. The arms are bent, the hands are cupping the breasts, and all of the facial features are represented. Catalogue no. 168 was recovered from ashy LB domestic debris, and nos. 169 and 170 from an ashy LB pit. Sources of comparanda for this type include LB Tall Bi’a,192 Tell el-Hajj,193 Hammam et-Turkman,194 and Munbaqa.195

Catalogue no. 203, the sole example of a Type Fortythree mold-made figurine, depicts a seated, bearded figure wearing a horned headdress. This figurine, recovered from debris near an LB wall, is discussed in depth in chapter II.

The Type Forty-one196 mold-made body fragments all feature a nude female torso with the arms bent and the hands cupping the breasts. Some of these fragments feature necklaces with a disk-shaped pendant,197 while others feature a simple band at the neck.198 Some fragments also feature bracelets on one or both wrists.199

The exception to the rule that LB figurines are mold made is hand-modeled head fragment no. 19, which is the sole example of the Type Nine hand-modeled head fragment. This fragment was recovered from a stone slab pavement south of room 1 in an LB domicile in the Acropolis West.207 The comparanda for this figurine are derived from Alalakh208 and Munbaqa, where it is attributed to the LB.209 Moreover, it resembles figures recovered from a ritual pit beneath the floor of the LB palace at Hammam et-Turkman.210

Catalogue no. 184 is from upper debris inside an MB II domicile, close to topsoil; cat. no. 177 is from ashy, LB debris above MB II domestic architecture; cat. no. 178 is from LB debris, with no associated architecture; cat. nos. 175 and 181 are from fill within an LB domestic structure, and no. 189 is from debris below LB stone wall foundation; cat. no. 183 is from outdoor LB debris, in the vicinity of domestic architecture; cat. no. 190 is from outdoor debris in the vicinity of an LB complex of rooms with floors paved with stone, and no. 179 is from debris outside of LB domestic architecture; cat. nos. 172 and 188 are from LB pits; cat. no. 185 was recovered from a mud brick and stone lined Hellenistic pit; cat. no. 186 was recovered from debris above a white, lime plaster

Similarly, the Type Eight hand-modeled head fragment, catalogue no. 18, is also crudely modeled, lightly fired, and bare headed. There are no clear comparanda for this piece; however, it was recovered from late LB debris. It may therefore be tentatively asserted that it is an unusual LB type.

189

200

190

201

Summary and Conclusion The Type(s) One, Three through Seven, Thirteen through

Czichon and Werner 1998. Rossmeisl and Venema in van Loon 1988. 191 Cat. nos. 168-170. 192 Strommenger 1983. 193 von Stucky 1975. 194 Rossmeisl and Venema in van Loon 1988. 195 Czichon and Werner 1998. 196 Cat. nos. 171-190. 197 Refer to cat. nos. 181, 183, 184. 198 Refer to cat. nos. 188, 189, 190. 199 Refer to cat. nos.171, 174,178, 179, 180, 181 183, 184, 186 and 189.

Refer to cat. nos. 169-171. Strommenger 1983. 202 Dorneman 1979. 203 von Stucky 1975. 204 Rossmeisl and Venema in van Loon 1998. 205 Czichon and Werner 1998. 206 Cat. nos. 191-202. 207 Refer to Curvers and Schwartz 1997, 209, fig. 5. 208 Woolley 1955. 209 Czichon and Werner 1998. 210 Rossmeisl and Venema 1988.

19

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA made as opposed to hand-modeled. Figurines of this period are for the most part homogenous in form and motif. They depict a nude female, sometimes wearing jewelry. Usually, the arms are bent and the hands are cupping the breasts, although there is one example, cat. no. 167, where the arms lie alongside the body, and this figure also wears a hat that is unique in the Umm elMarra corpus.211 There are, however, one or possibly two examples of hand-modeled figurines that date to LB at Umm el-Marra, and their significance is discussed in further detail in chapter III.

Twenty-five, Twenty-eight through Thirty-one and Thirty-three hand-modeled figurines are attributed to the EB. The Type(s) Two, Ten through Twelve, Twenty-six and Twenty-seven, Thirty-two and Thirty-four are attributed to the MB. The figurines attributed to the LB are Types Eight, Nine and Thirty-five through Fortythree. The forms of the anthropomorphic clay figurines attributed to the EB are hand-modeled, with stalk-shaped bodies and column-shaped bases that flare at the bottom so the figures can stand independently. There is considerable variation in the depiction of the head, and there is significant variation in posture and the depiction of the neck ornament as well, although these aspects are often determined by their preservation. As discussed above, there is no evidence for an abrupt transition between the types characteristic of the EB and those of the MB. The archaeological evidence from Umm el-Marra suggests that the figurine forms of the late EB may continue to be used through MB I. There are several Umm el-Marra figurines that display formal characteristics that indicate they may be transitional types. Catalogue no. 22, a head-fragment, features the fan-shaped protrusion above the head that is characteristic of some of the MB female forms, but it is not pierced. Similarly, there are no pierced, pressed clay protrusions alongside the face, but small, applied-clay coil plaits fanning outward alongside the face such as those found on many EB figurines. Another potential transitional type is cat. no. 69 which appears to be a formal precursor to the MB figurines depicting a nude female with an hourglass silhouette. Like the EB figurines, cat.no. 69 is stalk-shaped but also features abbreviated arms extending away from the body in perpendicular fashion and has applied clay pellets indicating breasts, indicating that the depicted figure is female. Also, cat. nos. 94, 95 and 96 are stalk-shaped body fragments featuring a depiction of the pubic triangle, perhaps a precursor to the motif of female nudity displayed by the MB female figurines. The figurines of the MB period can be divided into two groups, male and female. The Type Ten, Eleven, and Twelve head fragments and the Type Twenty-six and Twenty-seven body fragments depict a nude female with an hourglass-shaped silhouette and short arms that extend perpendicular to the body. The forms of the head vary slightly and feature variations in the depiction of the facial features and hair or headdress. The Type Two head fragments and the Type Thirty-two and Thirty-five body fragments depict a male figure, wearing a hat with a brim, seated on an animal. While it is possible that these types are manufactured and used in the early MB, they do not appear in the archaeological record at Umm el-Marra prior to MB II. The figurines of the LB are considerably different from the figurines of the preceding periods. They are mold-

211

20

This figurine is discussed in further detail in chapter II.

CHAPTER TWO: STYLE, ICONOGRAPHY, AND VISUAL ANALYSIS described in the section titled, “Visual Analysis: Methodology.” Following this definition is the visual analysis of the Umm el-Marra figurine corpus. The results are summarized briefly at the conclusion of this chapter and considered in more depth in the dissertation’s conclusion, which integrates the conclusions presented in all three chapters.

Introduction In his seminal work Studies in Iconology: Humanistic Themes in the Art of the Renaissance, Erwin Panofsky writes, “Iconography…concerns itself with the subject matter or meaning of works of art, as opposed to their form.”1 Conversely, Irene Winter has commented on this dynamic by asserting: “If the division of style and iconography as discrete analytical tools in art history initially [have become] equated with a comparable division between form and meaning, suggesting that meaning [is] to be revealed through the iconographic enterprise and not through an analysis of style, it is now time to reconsider that division.”2 These comments raise several fundamental issues related to visual analysis that must be addressed; specifically, the definition of “form,” as opposed to or in relation to “style,” and the assumption that meaning is associated with, or embedded within, the subject matter. A consideration of these terms reveals a complex dialogue within art historical and archaeological discourses regarding the relationship between “form” and, or as opposed to, “style” and “iconography” as these terms relate to the theory and methodology used to ascertain the meaning of ancient artifacts. Consequently, explication of the critical terms “form,” “style,” and “iconography” is a precondition for the visual analysis and interpretation of the Umm el-Marra figurine corpus.

Form Commenting on the ambiguous relationship between form and style, Irene Winter writes: “Once there is anything in the work we can call form, then there is also style, but it is also important to keep what is intrinsic to the work distinct from what is extrinsic to it, by constantly referring to post-hoc determinations as the products of stylistic analysis.”4 Too often, this distinction between form, style, and stylistic analysis is not made, leading to confusion between what is observed and what is interpreted. “Form,” the most fundamental aspect of style, includes the shape and material of an object upon which character can be established and the object placed in a typological sequence.5 One such typological sequence, presented in the previous chapter, is based on three formal aspects: the method of manufacture,6 preservation,7 and observable characteristics.8 For the purpose of ascertaining the meaning of the Umm el-Marra figurines via an analysis of their form, style, and iconography, “form” is to be understood as the basic, inherent qualities of the object(s) in question. This designation refers exclusively to their material, observable characteristics9 and their shape. These qualities comprise the formal aspects of style. Congruent with these formal aspects of style is the technological aspect. These “techno-visual factors”10 include the choice of material and techniques of production. The relationship of these choices to the appearance and function of the object(s)11 is not a quality of form but of style and of the result of stylistic analysis, respectively.

The isolation of style from iconography—each comprising a discrete tool of analysis, with style being related to form, and iconography to content and thus meaning—has served as a viable framework for the analysis of material culture. Nonetheless, it is the whole work, integrated and entire, which may prove to be a more fruitful subject of scholarly attention. Within the whole that the work constitutes (and subsequently the entirety of each object type), style and iconography are analytical subsets. Therefore, in any individual undertaking, isolated stylistic or iconographical analyses can provide only a partial avenue to understanding or interpretation.3

Style This chapter is concerned with the meaning of the Umm el-Marra figurines as ascertainable through the analysis of the form, style, and iconography manifested within the corpus. The chapter begins with a definition and description of these critical terms. The definition of iconography is based on that proposed by Panofsky, which is the standard definition in art historical discourse. Although Panofsky’s work concentrates on Renaissance painting and sculpture, the paradigm he presents provides a viable methodological framework for the visual analysis of the Umm el-Marra corpus. This methodology is

The most frequently cited definition of style is that of Meyer Shapiro, who describes style as “the constant form—and sometimes the constant elements, qualities, and expression in the art of an individual or group.”12 It 4

Winter 1998, 56. Fernie 1995, 339. 6 Hand modeled or mold made. 7 Breakage. 8 These include neck ornaments and presence and position of the arms. 9 For example, preserved/present arms and/or neck ornaments, incised markings and the modeling of individual fragments. 10 Reedy and Reedy 1994, 304-305. 11 For a further discussion, see Hegmon 1998, 264. 12 Shapiro 1953, 137. 5

1

Panofsky 1939, 3. Winter 1998, 71. 3 Winter 1998, 71. 2

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA based on the presence or absence of defining variables.23 In this way, a single work may exemplify characteristics of a style in the way that a single person may represent a society. Style, when used to define relationships, enables the viewer to create order and understanding out of otherwise self-sufficient objects.24 These resulting “styletypes” may then be used to establish not only authenticity but also geographic, temporal, or cultural context.25 It is important to note, however, that although these styletypes are based on the observation of form, they are a construction. Indeed, the construction of a style typology includes “the element of agency in the manipulation and organization of form,”26 wherein “agency” refers to the exerting of power, will, or choice on the part of the organizer. Specifically, during the organization of a corpus into style-types, the extent to which the proposed style inheres in a work or is made to adhere to the work as a product of description, comparison, and classification undertaken by the external analyst must be articulated.27

has since been described as “the happy convergence of forms to …a sort of harmonic center”13 and the “nondurational, synchronous situations composed of related events.”14 In this respect, style is inseparable from content,15 which is intrinsically related to form.16 Indeed, a description of the style of an artifact, or group of artifacts, includes a list of qualities that any artifact possesses that characterize the style in question. These qualities include, but are not limited to, aspects of form as defined above. In addition to these formal aspects, a description of style includes “an all-over quality which we may call ‘expression’.”17 This quality refers not to what is being depicted but how this depiction is executed. In this respect, style is a kind of narrative—it is not only the story but also how the story is told. Expanding on the metaphor of narrative, it includes not only the stated facts of the message, which is the form of the object(s), but the means of communicating that message and the intention of the narrator, or artisan. Style is, among other things, an active device of communication and serves as a means to negotiate identity via comparison.18 In this respect, style can be assertive or emblematic. Emblematic style “has a distinct referent and transmits a clear message to a defined target population about conscious affiliation or identity,”19 whereas assertive style has no distinct referent and “is personally based and…carries information supporting individual identity.”20 This communicative function of style occurs when an object is manufactured within what was consciously or unconsciously understood as a particular style, or when an object is perceived by the individual(s) viewing, using, and/or discarding the object.21

The nature of style is therefore manifold. It is embedded, or manifested, in the form of the object(s); it is understood, whether consciously or unconsciously, by the individual artisan who manufactured the object(s) and by the individual(s) who used and/or discarded the object(s) in antiquity; and it is perceived, or interpreted, by the modern viewer. In this respect, style encompasses both tangible (formal) attributes and intangible (conceptual) attributes. It is this juxtaposition of the tangible and intangible that makes a definition of style so elusive. In her 1966 essay “On Style,” Susan Sontag writes: “To speak of style is one way of speaking about the totality of a work of art. Like all discourse about totalities, talk of style must rely on metaphors. And metaphors mislead…practically all metaphors for style amount to placing matter on the inside, and style on the outside…but maybe it should be the other way around…Style is the soul, and unfortunately…the soul assumes the form of the body.”28

The perception of style also occurs in the mind of the modern viewer. This perception incorporates the cultural context of the viewer, which is the framework within which the message is perceived and interpreted. In short, “style both inheres in a work and lives in the eye of the beholder.”22 This aspect is true regardless of whether the beholder in question is the individual who manufactured, viewed, used, and/or discarded the object in antiquity; or the modern viewer or scholar who perceives or interprets the object as being of a certain style. In the latter case, it is presumed that individual objects have observable and decipherable visual properties that are applicable to other objects, thus enabling generalization and the establishment of groups or clusters, as well as boundaries

It has been asserted that, “much of what one can do with style depends upon how one defines style…there is no absolute definition of style but rather a range of operative definitions varying with user and analytical task to be performed.”29 The visual analysis presented in this chapter aims to identify who, or what, is being depicted. It also considers why the figurines look the way they do, what factors account for the variation of forms within a chronological period, and why their appearance changes over time. Thus, for the purposes of the discussion below, the following delineation of what style encompasses is

13

Bazin 1976, 9. Kubler 1979, 127. 15 Content includes the motif, or motifs, depicted. 16 Sontag 1966, 15, 19-21. 17 Shapiro 1953, 145. 18 Wiessner 1989, 57; see also Conkey et al. 1990, 3. 19 Wiessner 1983, 257. 20 Wiessner 1983, 258. 21 The function of style as a means of communicating identity is taken up below. 22 Winter 1998, 72. 14

23

Winter 1998, 56. Ackerman et al. 1963, 166. Fernie 1995, 361, 363-4. 26 Winter 1998, 56, referring to Shapiro’s (1953) ideas about style and typology, states that Shapiro fails to take this “agency” into account. 27 Winter 1998, 56. 28 Sontag 1966, 17-8. 29 Winter 1998, 56; see also Ackerman and Carpenter 1963, 165. 24 25

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CHAPTER TWO: STYLE, ICONOGRAPHY, AND VISUAL ANALYSIS proposed. Style includes elements of form such as shape30 and the presence of a set of motifs appearing in concert to the exclusion of others.31 It also includes formal technovisual factors such as material32 and means of production.33 In addition, style includes a quality of expression, a way these formal factors are manifested,34 and a consideration of what qualities are exaggerated or omitted.

As mentioned above, Erwin Panofsky was responsible for generating the classic definition of iconography. Panofsky asserts that works of art have three levels, or strata, of meaning—(a) primary or natural meaning, (b) secondary or conventional meaning, and (c) intrinsic meaning or content—each of which supersedes the former to create a stratigraphy of meaning. Primary or natural meaning is comprised of two aspects, the factual and the expressional meaning. For instance, when, based on the practical experience of the viewer, an individual artifact is identified as an anthropomorphic figure, this identification transcends formal analysis and moves into subject matter, or factual meaning. In addition, natural meaning is closely related to, but should not be confused with, form. The viewer identifies the form as a representation of something and perceives expressional qualities such as pose or gesture. Forms that carry primary or natural meaning are motifs, and an enumeration of such motifs constitutes a preiconographical description of a work of art or artifact. In contrast, the expressional meaning, the attitude of the artifact, is more difficult to determine, particularly as it is based on the empathy of the viewer.38

In addition to these tangible aspects of style, conceptual aspects must be considered. These latter aspects include the assertive or emblematic nature of the style in question, which may be used to negotiate personal or communal identity. Ascertaining the communicative nature of style is a matter of stylistic analysis achieved through the use of style as a tool for style-typology construction. These style-types, and the iconographic attributes manifested in these style-types, may then be considered in relation to their temporal context; that is, by taking into account the cultural and sociopolitical fabric of the period in which these figurines were manufactured, used, and/or discarded. Iconography

The secondary or conventional meaning is determined within the framework of cultural context. To identify cultural context, one must look at “not only the practical world of objects and events, but also [at] the more-thanpractical world of customs and cultural traditions peculiar to a certain civilization.”39 At this stage, or stratum, of iconographical analysis, motif becomes connected to themes or concepts, which connection then identifies an image. Combinations of images form stories or allegories.40 Not surprisingly, at this stage of the analysis, an accurate identification of the connection between motif and concept is critical but may be difficult to attain.

The visual analysis of the Umm el-Marra figurine corpus is intended to ascertain the meaning of these objects. Fundamentally, they are artifacts, individual examples of material culture that may be used to interpret the human past. Nonetheless, each artifact may also be understood as a work of art that is “a thing in the world, not just a text or commentary on the world.”35 Thus, their meaning is pervasive—it both transects and is embedded in their form and style. Traditionally, art historical analysis has tended to emphasize subject matter as the vehicle by which meaning is communicated to the viewer, and iconography,36 which deals with subject matter, as one analytical procedure for reaching an understanding of meaning.37

The third level of meaning as described by Panofksy is the intrinsic meaning, or content, ascertained via the synthesis and interpretation of observations in light of period, cultural identity, class, and intellectual traditions. In contrast to the natural and/or conventional meaning that is phenomenal, intrinsic meaning is specific and essential, “a unifying principle,” Panofsky asserts, “which underlies and explains both the visible event and its intelligible significance, and which determines even the form in which the visible event takes shape.” This principle allows the viewer, or scholar, to grasp the intrinsic meaning, or content, of an object by identifying the underlying principles that reveal the basic attitude of group of people—unconsciously qualified by one personality and realized in an individual object.41 This level of analysis and understanding addresses a work of art, or the genre of an object, as a symptom of an intangible and elusive cultural spirit or theme, which

30 For example, modeled in-the-round, pressed flat with an hourglassshaped silhouette, or in relief en face. 31 For example, motifs such as nudity, crossing bands, or jewelry. 32 Clay. 33 Hand-modeled or mold-made. 34 For example, the personal adornment depicted in applied clay or with incised lines. 35 Sontag 1966, 21. 36 As opposed to “iconology,” a term that is sometimes encountered in the literature. Although the terms “iconography” and “iconology” are often used interchangeably, they are distinct in terms of level of analysis. Iconography involves the collection, classification, and analysis of data from which the theme or subject of a work of art is deduced, whereas iconology is an extension of the results of iconography and attempts to explain the entirety of meaning for an individual piece within its cultural, geographic, temporal, or sociopolitical context. With reference to this broader background, iconology pinpoints those features of a work of art that can be seen as symptomatic of a specific culture, time, or place (Turner 1996). Nonetheless, this distinction is not universally accepted because this definition of iconology corresponds to what Erwin Panofsky would define as the third level of meaning determined by iconographic analysis. 37 Winter 1998, 57.

38

Panofsky 1939, 3-4. Panofsky 1939, 4. 40 Panofsky 1939, 6-7. 41 Panofsky 1939, 4-5. 39

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA expresses itself in a countless variety of other symptoms. The viewer can then interpret the compositional and iconographic features of this object, or class of object, as a particular example of this intangible and elusive something. The subsequent discovery and interpretation of these symbolic values, which, Panofsky notes, are generally unknown to the artist and may in fact differ from what (s)he consciously intended to express, is the object of what we may call iconography. It is a method of interpretation arising as a synthesis rather than as an analysis.42

consolidation of formal types, as well as the extrapolation of individual examples within a formal type, is a result of visual analysis—it is not a manifestation of form. The product of this visual analysis is an identification of the style-type(s). The second stage of the visual analysis of style-types corresponds to what Panofsky calls the secondary or conventional meaning. This step addresses the connection between motifs characterizing the style-type and related concepts, which leads to the identification of the image. Although these connections are elusive, they are presented here when evidence permits to advance the dialogue on the meaning of the corpus.

This methodology, as well as the level of analysis and synthesis that Panofsky proposes, is necessary for ascertaining the intrinsic meaning or content of a work of art but poses significant challenges to the archaeologist. Our understanding of the ancient Near East in general and Bronze Age Syria in particular is meticulously constructed from the collection, organization, study, and analysis of archaeological and philological data. It is from this construction that access to the intangible and elusive spirit or theme—the “something” to which Panofsky refers—must be obtained.43

In the third stage of the visual analysis, the results of the first two stages are synthesized and considered in light of the temporal and sociocultural context of those objects that comprise the style-type. The result of this synthesis and consideration results in what Panofsky calls the intrinsic meaning of the artifacts in question. The Umm el-Marra Figurine Corpus: A Visual Analysis Douglass Bailey (1996) 46 refers to a “critical, analytical moment of definition” as being the foundation of visual analysis. This defining moment is an articulation of the basic, formal qualities of the object(s), including the durability and tactile properties of material, scale, and subject. An examination of these formal properties reveals qualities of meaning and, to some degree, function. In similar manner, a description and visual analysis of the Umm el-Marra figurines must first address these qualities. The Umm el-Marra figurine corpus includes a variety of style types, displaying a range of forms, techno-visual factors, motifs, and iconographic elements. Despite such variations, the artifacts that are the subject of this study are considered a corpus, a group of objects determined and defined by set parameters including subject,47 scale, and medium.48

Visual Analysis: Methodology As already pointed out, for its intrinsic meaning to be understood, style must be considered in light of the cultural and sociopolitical fabric of the period in which the objects being analyzed were manufactured, used, and/or discarded. For this reason, the Umm el-Marra corpus is considered within its chronological framework. The methodology used in this chapter to identify and analyze style-types is based on the Panofsky paradigm described above and occurs in three stages corresponding to the organization of that paradigm. The first stage concerns the identification of the factual44 and expressive elements45 that comprise the style type(s) and correspond to what Panofsky refers to as primary or natural meaning. By identifying shared and contrasting motifs and the expressive aspect of those motifs within the formal types of the given period, some of these formal types may be consolidated and addressed as a group despite those differences that are a manifestation of their breakage. Conversely, some individual examples may be extrapolated and addressed individually. The

With regard to the medium in question, clay was readily available and easily manipulated by the people of the Bronze Age Near East. Both Badre (1980) and Barrelet (1968) discuss the symbolic significance of clay in the ancient Near East, a significance reflected in ancient Near Eastern historical, literary, and ritual texts that refer to the creation of anthropomorphic images in clay. Citing Kramer’s Sumerian Mythology,49 Badre (1980) notes that fashioning a figure in clay was perceived as comparable to the creation of humanity by the goddess Nammu at the behest of her son, Enki. Similar creation motifs are found

42

Panofsky 1939, 7-8. Panofsky provides no blueprint for how this might be achieved; rather, what he is describing is an archaeology of thought. The values and goals of humanist art history are not far removed from those of the cognitive school of archaeology. These values and goals include the study of the forms of intellectual and symbolic behavior preserved in the archaeological record including cosmology, religion, ideology, and iconography. This avenue of inquiry requires a sufficiently rich body of supporting data; otherwise, it degenerates into little more than speculation, “a kind of bungee jump into the Land of Fantasy” (Flannery and Marcus 1998, 37). 44 Including the material, motifs, and techno-visual factors. 45 Including the relationship between the means of manufacture, the appearance of the artifact, and how the motifs are executed. 43

46

Bailey 1996, 291-2. Subject, meaning that these are all anthropomorphic forms, because the corpus that is the subject of this manuscript excludes the zoomorphic figurines that are prevalent throughout the occupational levels of the tell. Subject, in this case, does not imply that the identity of whom or what is depicted is consistent throughout the corpus. 48 Clay. 49 Kramer 1961, 70 47

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CHAPTER TWO: STYLE, ICONOGRAPHY, AND VISUAL ANALYSIS Second, the techniques used to indicate detail include applying clay onto the hand-modeled figure and/or incising the clay with lines or impressed points. This technique indicates attention and effort, which implies emphasis. This emphasis is placed primarily on the depiction of the hair, the eyes, and when present, the neck ornaments. It is therefore asserted that the EB figurines display a level of detail that diminishes from top to bottom, suggesting that there is more information communicated to the viewer above the neck of the figure than below. Finally, despite this emphasis of characteristics above the neck, none of the EB head fragments feature mouths. Considering the attention otherwise paid to the rendering of the head and neck, which includes the application and incising of the clay, this omission is conspicuous.

in Genesis (the creation of Adam out of earth) and the Ugaritic story of Keret (the creation of man out of clay by the god El).50 Because anthropomorphic figurines are representations of people and other beings, it is not surprising that the Umm el-Marra figurines are made of fired clay, whose durability, Bailey (1996) suggests, provides longevity and gives both the material and the object authority. Such durability is illustrated by the ubiquitous sherds of broken pottery found throughout the depositional levels of the tell. Potsherds are reused in the stone foundation of walls, are often embedded in mudbricks, and are incorporated into pavements and floor surfaces. Another formal aspect of the figurines is scale. The small stature of the figurines makes them portable—they can be held, carried, and/or manipulated. Their diminutive stature also suggests either that their function does not require that they be fixed spatially or does require that they be portable or easily manipulated.

Because of the absence of explicitly rendered genitalia and legs on the overwhelming majority of the EB fragments, the EB figurines appear to be depicted clothed in long robes.64 Additionally, some of the base fragments display a faceted, vertical modeling of the surface that is suggestive of drapery.65 The fact that a few examples of the late EB body fragments feature incised markings indicating the pubic triangle66 suggests that nudity as a motif is conspicuously depicted in marked contrast to the plain modeling of the body that is otherwise standard during this period.67

The Early Bronze Age: Primary (Natural) Meaning The formal types of figurines whose period of manufacture and use has been attributed to the EB include the Type One,51 Three,52 Four,53 Five,54 Six,55 and Seven56 hand-modeled head fragments, the Type Thirteen,57 Fourteen through Twenty-five,58 Twentyeight,59 Twenty-nine,60 Thirty,61 and Thirty-one62 handmodeled body fragments, and the Type Thirty-three63 hand-modeled base fragments.

Three expressive qualities that distinguish these motifs contribute to the identification of style: conspicuous omission, emphasis, and variation. These qualities are both a manifestation of the choices made by the individual who crafted the object as to how these motifs would be rendered and a reflection of the relationship between the means of manufacture and the appearance of the object. Of these qualities, emphasis and variation are not mutually exclusive but rather qualities that often work in concert, whereas—for obvious reasons—conspicuous omission stands in marked contrast to the other two. Within the EB figurine corpus, the emphasized motifs are the eyes, the hairstyle or modeling of the head, and the crafting of the neck ornaments. Motifs that are characterized by their variation are the depiction of the eyes, the position of the arms, and the number and execution of the neck ornaments. The motif that is identified by its consistent and conspicuous omission is the mouth.

Based on the descriptions of these formal types in the preceding chapter, several observations can be made regarding the factual aspect of their style. First, the EB figurines are all hand-modeled, with stalk-shaped bodies and bases that flare at the bottom so that the figure can stand independently. There is a degree of variation in the depiction of the body in terms of the pose and the presence, number, and execution of the neck ornaments. 50

Badre 1980, 13; Barrelet 1968, 7. Cat. no. 1. Cat. nos. 4-8. 53 Cat. nos. 9-13. 54 Cat. no. 14. 55 Cat. no. 15. 56 Cat. nos. 16 and 17. 57 Cat. no. 24. 58 The Type Fourteen through Twenty-five fragments are all handmodeled, stalk-shaped body fragments, organized into formal types based on the presence/number of neck ornaments and arms. The catalogue numbers of these formal types are as follows: Type Fourteen (cat. nos. 25-9); Fifteen (cat. nos. 30 and 31); Sixteen (cat. nos. 32-7); Seventeen (cat. nos. 38-40); Eighteen (cat. nos. 42-4); Nineteen (cat. nos. 45- 7); Twenty (cat. nos. 48-56); Twenty-one (cat. nos. 57-62); Twenty-two (cat. nos. 63-5); Twenty-three (cat. nos. 66 and 67); Twenty-four (cat. no. 68) and Twenty-five (cat. no. 69). 59 Cat. nos. 94-6. 60 Cat. nos. 97-100. 61 Cat. nos. 101 and 102. 62 Cat. nos. 103-11. 63 Cat. nos. 115-56. 51 52

The depiction of the eyes is characterized by the emphasis placed on their manufacture and the variation of their form. The eyes of the EB figurines are often depicted by small, applied clay disks impressed with a 64

Although Liebowitz (1988, 4) suggests that “the plain treatment may represent a reduction of detail and not necessarily figures in long robes.” 65 Refer to cat. nos. 115, 116, 119, and 120, in particular. 66 Cat. nos. 94, 95, and 96. 67 The motif of nudity is discussed in further detail in reference to the female figurines of the MB and LB periods.

25

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA single point in the center.68 This single, impressed point is sometimes surrounded by an incised ring, suggestive of the iris.69 Although the faces of these examples are not realistically rendered, the eyes are disproportionately large, and their scale and detailed rendering stands in marked contrast to the cursory depiction of the nose— indicated by a pinched modeling of the clay pulled away from the face to leave a wider field for the depiction of the eyes—and the conspicuously omitted mouth. Less frequently, the eyes are coffee bean shaped and rendered with a piece of applied clay impressed with a horizontal incision.70 Although the coffee bean-shaped eyes are proportionately slightly smaller than the disk-shaped eyes, they are still the most emphasized and explicitly rendered facial feature.

and impressed with a single point in the center surrounded by an incised ring. Consequently, despite the attributes shared by these two fragments, cat. nos. 14 and 15 are, like cat. no. 1, unique compositions. In the previous chapter, the Type Three hand-modeled head fragments were identified as a formal type based on the presence of a square-shaped bun at the back of the head and disk-shaped eyes. Yet, despite this common element, there is considerable variation in the execution of the bun. On cat. no. 4, the bun is rounded and extends above the head; the bun on cat. no. 5 is squared at the edges and extends behind the head at a right angle, and this fragment also features plaits fanning outward alongside the face; the buns on cat. nos. 6 and 8 are similar to that of number 5, although they are smaller and incised and there are no plaits incorporated into the composition of the hairstyle; the bun on cat. no. 7 extends behind the head at an angle, so that the top of the bun is at the same height as the top of the head, and the side of the bun is impressed with a deep groove.

The modeling of the head/hairstyle of the EB figurines falls into one of two categories. The first includes those fragments whose heads are modeled into a point at the top.71 The second includes those fragments with elaborately modeled hairstyles, which incorporate applied pieces of clay that are often incised. These meticulously crafted hairstyles include several components. The first is the application of small pieces of clay fashioned into plaits fanning out on either side of the head;72 the second is the modeling of the back of the head into a squareshaped bun,73 which is sometimes incised;74 the third is the application of rounded, incised coils that frame the face.75 These components appear in combination; with such examples as plaits that fan outward alongside the face and a square-shaped bun;76 plaits that fan outward alongside the face with rounded, incised coils framing the face;77 plaits that fan outward alongside the face and rounded, incised coils framing the face as well as a square-shaped bun;78 and rounded, incised coils framing the face together with a square-shaped bun.79

Two groups share a set of factual and expressive elements that are indicative of a common style. The first group is comprised of catalogue nos. 9, 10, 12, and 13, which all have elaborate hairstyles that include rounded coils of applied, incised clay framing the face. Besides these distinctive coils, the hairstyles incorporate one or more of the components described above,80 and each is a unique combination of these elements and therefore a unique rendering of the motif. In addition to the rounded, incised coils, these fragments all have disk-shaped eyes impressed with a point in the center placed toward the top of the bird-like head that juts outward slightly at the top of the elongated neck. The eyes often, but not always, have an incised ring around the single, impressed point in the center.81 Furthermore, even though cat.nos. 10 and 13 each features two neck ornaments depicted with the distinctive rounded, incised coils, it should be noted that cat. no. 9 wears a neck ornament indicated by incised lines running horizontally across the bottom of the neck. The second group is comprised of cat. nos. 16 and 17, which both feature coffee bean-shaped eyes; short, rounded faces; and meticulously crafted, elaborate hairstyles that share the components of incised applied coils and plaits fanning outward alongside the face. However, cat. no. 16 has an incised ponytail in the back, while the hairstyle of no. 17 is virtually identical to that of cat. no. 13 in terms of the hairstyle components but not the execution of these components. The incised coils incorporated into the hairstyles of cat. nos. 16 and 17 are smaller and thinner than those of the first group described above, and the incised markings are also proportionately smaller. In short, each of these groups exhibits a distinct style—even though they share factual and expressive elements, there is a degree of variation in the composition of these elements that results in a unique rendering of each individual example.

Within the dichotomy of these factual elements, there is a significant degree of variation in their expressive elements, specifically in terms of how these motifs are presented. For example, cat. no. 1 features the plaits alongside the face, but the execution of the hairstyle is a unique composition because of the small, squared peak in the back, and because the rendering of the hairstyle does not include incised markings. Additionally, cat. nos. 14 and 15 both have pointed heads, but no. 14 is smooth and the eyes are coffee bean shaped, whereas the pointed head of cat. no. 15 is incised and the eyes are disk shaped 68

Refer to cat. nos. 1, 4 through 10, 12, 13, and 15. Refer to cat. nos. 5, 6, 10, 12, 13, and 15. Cat. nos. 14, 16, and 17. 71 Cat. nos. 14 and 15. 72 Cat nos. 1, 5, 9, 10, 13, 16, and 17. 73 Cat. nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, and 17. 74 Cat. nos. 5, 6, and 8. 75 Cat. nos. 9, 10, 12, 13, and 17. 76 Cat. nos. 5, 10, 13, and 17. 77 Cat. no. 9. 78 Cat. nos. 10, 13, and 17. 79 Cat. no. 12. 69 70

80 81

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Plaits alongside the face; a square bun. Cat. no. 9 is the exception.

CHAPTER TWO: STYLE, ICONOGRAPHY, AND VISUAL ANALYSIS and the degree of manipulation and marking of the coil. The coil may be thin, simple, and unmarked;93 segmented with vertical incisions;94 incised with vertical lines that do not segment the coil;95 incised with a herringbone pattern;96 incised with an alternating pattern of two vertical and four horizontal lines;97 or marked with a series of impressed points.98

In the preceding chapter, the Type Fourteen through Twenty-five hand-modeled body fragments were organized into formal types determined by the number and/or presence of arms and neck ornaments. Although it is not always possible to draw conclusive distinctions due to breakage, there are five poses depicted within this group and a variation in the number and execution of the neck ornaments.

It has been asserted above that the Type Four head fragments99 are a distinct style-type, albeit one that displays variation in the composition of the factual elements. As evidenced by cat. nos. 10 and 13, these head fragments often feature applied clay neck ornaments crafted from thick, rounded, incised coils like those incorporated into the hairstyle. Among the Type Fourteen through Twenty-five hand-modeled body fragments, a number of examples feature one or more neck ornaments crafted of these thick, rounded clay coils.100 Within this group, individual examples are depicted wearing one,101 two,102 or three103 neck ornaments. These body fragments are depicted in a variety of poses indicated by the position of the arms. These figures may have both arms extended away from the body,104 both arms bent with the hands resting on the chest,105 or they may be depicted holding an object.106

The most common pose depicts both arms bent, with both hands resting on the chest.82 The body may also be posed so that one arm is bent with the hand resting on the chest, while the other arm extends away from the body,83 or so that both arms extend away from the body.84 The arms and hands of the Type Thirty body fragments85 are not explicitly rendered, although the clay is manipulated so that it extends outward in roughly semicircular protrusions from the torso. The Type Nineteen body fragments86 are crafted in such a way that an object can be inserted into one of the hands, making it appear that the figure is holding the object. The holes in the hand of the Type Nineteen figures are circular, and they penetrate the clay for the depth of the modeled appendage, indicating that the object was a thin, cylindrical object of sufficient length to stay in the figurine once inserted and stick out enough so that it could be seen.87 Whatever material the object was made of is not preserved. Since this object is distinguished from the figurine by virtue of its being inserted, and since it is not preserved, it does not appear to have been made of clay. The material used may have been something equally accessible, such as a small piece of bone or something not preserved in the archaeological record like a splinter of wood or metal that was recycled or reused.

Catalogue no. 44, which also features these distinctive neck ornaments, warrants particular attention. The two neck ornaments on this fragment, although comparable to the others of this type, are placed in a unique configuration on the chest of the figure. Rather than lying together, the upper neck ornament is wrapped around the base of the neck, while the lower one lies diagonally across the chest, lying over the right shoulder and extending downward to the bottom of the unusual break along the left shoulder. This break suggests that the chest of the figure extends much farther out on the left side than on the right, so that the preserved stump of the neck is not centered. Comparanda for this fragment, which derive from Halawa and Sweyhat, not only explain the peculiar breakage but both strongly suggest that this is a two-headed figure—an unusual, but not unheard of, formal type. At Umm el-Marra it is, to date, an anomaly.

In addition to this variety of poses, there is significant variation in the number and execution of the neck ornaments. The fragments are depicted either without neck ornaments88 or wearing one,89 two,90 three,91 or four neck ornaments.92 These neck ornaments are always indicated with applied clay coils, although there is significant variation in the way these coils are executed

Aside from the posture and presence, number, and execution of the neck ornaments, there is the matter of incised or applied marking or modeling of the body. This

82 Catalogue nos. 32, 35, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, and 43 were, in all probability, posed this way, although due to the breakage of the torso, this pose cannot be definitively ascertained. Catalogue nos. 48 through 68 are sufficiently preserved that this pose can be clearly identified. 83 The chest areas of catalogue nos. 33, 36, and 38 are sufficiently preserved that this pose can be discerned. 84 Refer to cat. nos. 1 and 24 through 31. Catalogue nos. 44 and 69 may also be included in this group, although they are discussed in more detail below. 85 Cat. nos. 101 and 102. 86 Cat. nos. 45, 46, and 47. 87 Liebowitz (1988, 29) compares this gesture, wherein an object is held, to metal statues recovered from Tell Judeideh, Tell Simiryan, Ugarit and Byblos depicted holding weapons and believed to depict warrior gods. 88 Cat. nos. 24, 36, 53, and 54. 89 Cat. nos. 25 through 29, 40, 46, 58, 60, and 62. 90 Cat. nos. 42, 44, 45, 47, and 63 through 65. 91 Cat. nos. 30, 66, and 67. 92 Cat. no. 31.

93

Cat. nos. 1 (top) and 61. Cat nos. 1 (bottom), 14 (both), and 26. 95 Cat. nos. 29, 58, 62, and 63. 96 Cat. no. 16. 97 Cat. no. 31. 98 Cat. nos. 16 (bottom) and 60. 99 Cat. nos. 9-13. 100 These body fragments are cat. nos. 25, 27, 28, 40, 42, 44-7, and 64-7. 101 Cat. nos. 25, 27, 28, and 46. 102 Cat. nos. 42, 45, 47, 64, and 65. 103 Cat. nos. 66 and 67. 104 Cat. nos. 25, 27, and 28. 105 Cat nos. 42, 43, 64, 65, 66, and 67. 106 Cat nos. 45, 46, and 47. 94

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA modeling or marking indicates emphasis as well as variation because the body of EB figurines is ordinarily sparse in attention and detail. The following EB fragments from Umm el-Marra all exhibit markings on and/or a modeling of the body that distinguishes them from the fragments discussed above.

is also a garland of incised applied clay pellets draping across the midriff and two similar pellets on the chest indicating breasts.111 The Early Bronze Age: Secondary (Conventional) Meaning

Catalogue nos. 30, 31, and 66 all feature multiple incised neck ornaments and bear the distinguishing characteristic of wavy, vertical, incised lines running along the back of the figure.107 These wavy, vertical, incised lines are comparable to those found on cat. no. 52, although no. 52 has these incised markings on the front as well as the back of the figure. These wavy lines may indicate hair, since incising is sometimes used to depict hair,108 or the counterweight, which is a regular feature of necklaces in the second millennium.109 However, it is also possible that the markings represent draped clothing.

The connection between motif and concept results in the identification of the image depicted by the EB figurines. From the variation of forms manifested within this group, three avenues of investigation emerge. The first is the consistent and conspicuous omission of the mouth. The second concerns the contrast of the mutually exclusive motifs of the cone-shaped head and the elaborate hairstyle, and the ascertainment of the sexual identity of the depicted image. The third is the variation in the motifs and the resulting diversity of the EB figurine corpus. The absence of the mouth is a characteristic of all of the figurines attributed to the EB period. Conceptually, the most obvious meaning associated with the mouth is that it is used to consume food and to produce speech.

Catalogue no. 37 has incised markings running horizontally across the hips, with cross-hatching in the front beneath the preserved hand and a circle in the back. The torso of this fragment tapers in slightly at the waist. Although this fragment conforms to the parameters of the Type Sixteen body fragments, the modeling of the torso and these incised markings across the hips render it a unique example in the corpus.

It is possible that the omission of the mouth ensures ritual silence.112 The rituals presented in Scurlock (1988) often include the swearing of oaths, either the ghost is commanded to swear113 or the patient swears an oath.114

Catalogue no. 68, a hand-modeled, stalk-shaped torso fragment, is also a unique example. Aside from the relatively large size of the fragment, the breadth of the torso, and the exaggerated shoulders that point upward; this fragment is exceptional because of the decorative element running horizontally across the chest. This element is crafted with a thin strip of clay incised with short, vertical lines running between the underarms and across the chest. Above this strip is a row of six applied clay pellets with incised markings, and above the row of pellets is a second strip of incised clay, only partially preserved on the top of the right shoulder. The effect achieved is that the neck ornament depicted is not a garland or stole draped over the shoulders and hanging down on the chest but rather something stretched across the chest—possibly, an ornament affixed to the implied clothing.110

One other avenue of investigation related to the mouth deserves further attention. That the motif of the mouth has particular connotations in the ancient Near East is evidenced by ritual texts dating to the eighth through the fifth centuries B.C.115 These rituals116 refer to the acts of KA.LUH.U2.DA or mīs pī, meaning ‘mouth-washing,’ and KAH.DUH.U2.DA or pīt pī meaning ‘mouth-opening.’ These rites are best attested in association with the manufacture of the cult statue in the first millennium, although there is evidence for their use in other temporal, ritual, and geographic contexts within the ancient Near East.117 In general, the mouth-washing rite is used to purify a person or object.118 It is attested in relation to the king or his royal insignia, animals, or individuals when certain 111 Breasts are rarely depicted on the stalk-shaped, hand-modeled fragments and appear also on cat. nos. 33, 60, and 62. The depiction of breasts and the attribution of sexual identity are further discussed below. 112 For example, from the Aramaic inscriptions of Sefire there is an oath, “and just as a man of wax is blinded, so may Mati[el] be blinded!” Perhaps the omission of the mouth visually communicates the idea that, “just as the figurine of clay is mute, may I be struck dumb if I break this vow.” 113 Scurlock 1988, 298. 114 Scurlock 1988, 313. 115 Walker and Dick 2001, 27-8. 116 Reconstructed using sources dating to the neo-Assyrian and late Babylonian periods from Nineveh, Assur, Sippar, Nippur, Babylon, and Nimrud in Iraq; Sultantepe in Turkey; and Hama in Syria. 117 A Mari letter dating to MB Syria, which reports that the statue of Belet-biri is complete and asks whether the mouth-opening should be performed and the statue presented to the people (AEM I/2 no. 294). For more information on the mouth-opening rite during the reign of Zimri Lim of Mari, c.f. ARMT XXIII, 335, n. 7. 118 Walker and Dick 2001, 14.

Catalogue no. 69 has some attributes in common with no. 68—the incised neck ornament around the bottom of the neck and a second strip extending across the arms. There 107 Note that the incised lines on the back of cat. no. 66 converge into an approximate V-shape. 108 Refer to cat. nos. 6 and 8. 109 Liebowitz 1988, 11, citing a written communication from Maurits van Loon dated July 20, 1974. Cf. Klengel-Brandt 1978, 21. 110 Although clothing is not explicitly rendered, the hand-modeled, stalk-shaped body fragments of the EB-MB do not feature the motif of nudity. Whereas breasts are sometimes depicted (for example, on cat. nos. 60 and 62), breasts are visible on a clothed figure. What are not depicted are genitalia, suggesting that these figures are depicted as clothed.

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CHAPTER TWO: STYLE, ICONOGRAPHY, AND VISUAL ANALYSIS magical-medicinal rituals are performed and on priests.119 The mouth-opening is always preceded by the mouthwashing, and its performance is textually attested in relation to objects such as a leather bag used as a divinatory medium and jewels intended to protect the king’s chariot.120 When performed on a newly crafted cult statue, the mouth-opening transferred the deity from the spiritual world to the physical world, thus enabling the god to be manifested in the statue,121 because a cult statue that has not had its mouth opened “does not smell incense, does not eat food, does not drink water.”122

If the opening and/or washing of the mouth serve(s) to remove the element of human agency, then the omission of the mouth may indicate that these objects were intended to remain understood by their users and viewers as made objects. The fact that these objects were perceived as products of human agency may indeed be intrinsic to their meaning. In short, what they “mean” is that they are “objects” or “products” and, more specifically, they are to be understood as “representations of beings” and not actual “beings.” In his study of the figurines from Selenkahiye, Liebowitz asserts that since iconographic elements like beards or the explicit rendering of genitalia are not depicted, the sex of the depicted figures may be determined secondarily on the basis of the treatment of the arms and hair or headdress. As a general principle, Liebowitz argues that those figures whose hands are placed on their chests or who wear elaborate hairstyles may be identified as female, and those whose arms or arm stumps extend outward from the body or who wear a conical headdress are male.126 This assertion is not fully supported by the evidence from Umm el-Marra, where there appears to be no correlation between the hairstyle or headdress and the position of the arms.127 However, this contrast between the plaited hairstyle and the cone-shaped head is, in all likelihood, a reflection of the sexual identity of the depicted figure. Figurines featuring the elaborate hairstyle may be contrasted with those featuring the cone-shaped heads, since there are no examples with both of these iconographic elements depicted.

Although these rites are not explicitly associated with the manufacture of anthropomorphic clay figurines in third millennium Syria, they may provide several productive avenues of inquiry. Using the first millennium rituals as an analogy, it may be proposed that the omission of the mouth motif may signify that the image is not animated or activated, perhaps because the creation of a living or activated image is the prerogative of ritually qualified priests.123 Berlejung (1998) cites an example from first millennium BC Mesopotamia where the mouth of an apotropaic figurine is opened so that the threatening evil could be transferred. In this case, the purpose of the rite is to activate the figure so that it could function as a substitute that could then be manipulated and, if deemed necessary, destroyed.124 The use of figurines as vehicles of sympathetic magic, which is discussed in chapter III, is documented in numerous magical-medicinal texts dating to the first millennium. Typically, the mouth opening is not included in these prescriptions, and the figurine appears to be activated by other means. Perhaps the mouth opening rite required the presence of a practitioner with specific qualifications, such as an ašipu or kalû priest, and otherwise this degree of magical practice was inappropriate, feared, or forbidden, so the issue was safely skirted by the omission of the mouth. In those cases where the figurine was used as a substitute in a ritual requiring sympathetic, magical manipulation, the activation may have been understood as being of a different kind, or degree. Specifically, the figurine may have been activated- either by means of the offerings given to the clay pit from which it was derived or offerings to the figure itself- but it may not have been fully activated because to do so would have granted the figurine a degree of enlivenment that would have been perceived as dangerous. Indeed, many of the magical/medicinal prescriptions requiring the manipulation of activated figurine “substitutes” also incorporate acts designed to bind, restrict and confine the figure, which was often eventually buried ritually.125

Despite the ambiguous relationship between the terracotta figurines and objets d’art crafted of stone or metal, there is some correspondence in terms of these motifs. For example, cat. no. 16, with a braid across the forehead and a modeled, incised ponytail in the back, is also attested in stone. A stone hairpiece, part of a composite statue from palace G at Ebla (c. 2400-2300 B.C.), reveals that this depiction of the hair is not exclusive to clay figurines but was also implemented in stone. Unfortunately, the entirety of this statue is not preserved.128 Another example of the elaborate hairstyle crafted in stone is a well-known statue recovered from the palace at Mari of a goddess holding a flowing vase.129 The statue was recovered from the early second millennium palace at Mari (c. 1850-1780 B.C.). Despite differences in the images depicted,130 not to mention the chronological disparity, the hairstyle is nearly identical to that of the Type Four EB figurines. The Mari statue features a 126

Liebowitz 1988, 4-5. Refer to cat. nos. 1 and 25, for example. 128 Matthiae et al. 1995 300 no. 66. 129 Parrot 1959, 5-11. 130 The goddess with a flowing vase wears a horned crown and holds a vase associated with a channel running through the statue. It appears that water could move through the figure, and incised marks in the surface of the figure indicate that the motif of flowing water was an intrinsic aspect of the image. 127

119

Walker and Dick 2001, 10-11. Refer also to Berlejung 1998, 182-5. Walker and Dick 2001, 13. 121 Boden 1998, 95. 122 Walker and Dick 2001, 19. 123 Refer to Walker and Dick 2001, 15, or the as(h)ipu or kalu priests. 124 Berlejung 1998, 188 n. 1001. 125 Scurlock 1988, 60. 120

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA hairstyle with plaits fanning out alongside the face, and the hair is parted in the center, falling in two parts behind these plaits. In the back, the hair is bound into a squareshaped bun held in place with a band. This square shaped bun also appears to be featured on female figures depicted in the Akkadian period glyptic from Tell Mozan.131 Therefore, although the square-shaped bun is also attested on images in stone and metal depicting male figures,132 the integration of the square-shaped bun into an elaborate hairstyle is a feminine characteristic.

Although a number of factual elements can be identified, numerous combinations of these elements are displayed by individual examples within the corpus, and these elements often differ in their execution or expressive quality. Furthermore, while groups may be identified that share expressive elements—such as the distinct modeling of the rounded, incised coils used to depict the hair or neck ornaments—individual examples sharing expressive elements display various combinations of the factual elements characteristic of the period.

When intact, figurines with pointed heads are often modeled so that the arms extend away from the body or so that an object can be inserted.133 This form, always male, is a common motif in the small metal statuary of the third millennium, most notably from Alalakh, Hama, Qatna and Tell Judeidah.134 It is on the basis of comparison with these objects that the cone-headed figures are identified as male,135 although a clay modelin-the-round from Byblos,136 which depicts two standing figures with cone-shaped heads, coffee bean-shaped eyes, arms extended outward, and explicitly rendered male genitalia, also supports this assertion.

Therefore, although it is possible to group the EB fragments into clusters on the basis of shared factual or expressive elements, an interesting scenario emerges. For the head fragments, certain attributes—either disk-shaped or coffee bean-shaped eyes and either a pointed head or an elaborate hairstyle139—may be used for classification, but the choice of one of these elements within each set does not correspond to the selection of another element within the other set. For example, disk-shaped eyes are found both on head fragments with a cone-shaped head and on head fragments with an elaborate hairstyle. Furthermore, among head fragments featuring elaborate hairstyles, individual components of that hairstyle—for example, a square-shaped bun, plaits alongside the face, or incised coils—may be mixed and matched. The result is that despite common factual elements and shared motifs, each individual head fragment is a unique composition.

The sexual identity depicted within the EB figurine corpus is therefore communicated to the viewer primarily through the crafting of the hairstyle or headdress, and these motifs may be compared to those depicted in stone and metal statuary. Only in rare instances is sexual identity—always female—communicated to the viewer via the explicit rendering of sexual characteristics such as breasts137 or the pubic triangle.138 The motif of nudity does not appear en masse in the Umm el-Marra corpus until the MB period, and then it is only the female form that is depicted nude in the MB and LB periods.

The same is true of the body fragments; a number of set attributes may be used: figures may be depicted without neck ornaments or wearing one or multiple neck ornaments; these neck ornaments may be crafted of applied coils draped over the shoulders, an applied band or row of pellets running across the chest, or a garland of applied pellets; the figure may be posed with both arms bent with the hands resting on the chest, one arm bent and one arm extended away from the body, or both arms extended away from the body; and the arms may be modeled so that an object can be inserted or the arms may be indicated by semicircular protrusions modeled alongside the torso. Moreover, these elements appear in numerous combinations. Furthermore, distinctions may be made on the basis of the expressive quality exhibited by individual examples, such as those fragments that incorporate the distinct rounded, incised coils into their form. In short, each fragment is a unique composition of factual and expressive elements. Therefore, it may be asserted that the EB figures are do not depict a single identity.

131

Buccellati (1995-6) AfO XLII and XLIII fig. 6 bottom row and fig 8. Refer to Moortgat 1969, pl. 84 and pl. 86, which show the squareshaped bun on the votive statue of Lamgi-Mari (from Mari) and the gold helmet from the tomb of Mes.Kalam.Dug (from Ur), both late third millennium in date. 133 Dorneman 1989, 62-3; van Loon 2001, pl. 6.4, figs. a, b; pl. 6.6, fig. d; pl. 6.7 fig. b. 134 Woolley 1955, 276, and pl. LXX. Note that the Alalakh example is second millennium; Ingolt 1934,14; Braidwood 1960, 56 135 Charvat (2000) discusses the cone-headed figurines that appear in the Samarran material culture assemblage at Tell es Sawwan, Tell Songor, and level 4 at Ur and suggests that the pointed head depicted on these figures may be associated with the “haube” headdress or the TUG. U.GUR.RA, a headdress worn by women that is mentioned in a NeoSumerian divorce clause (he refers the reader to Waetzoldt 1980-1983, 200-1). This headdress is also mentioned in the literary text Inanna’s Descent to the Underworld, in which Inanna’s TUG. U.GUR.RA is surrendered at the gate to the land of the dead. However, there is no basis for a comparison of this Samarran characteristic with that being discussed. First, there is a considerable stylistic and temporal difference between the types. More important, the Samarran figurines in question are clearly female, as evidenced by the explicit depiction of the pubic triangle, whereas none of the EB figurines with cone-shaped heads display the motif of nudity. 136 Refer to Badre 1980, pl. LII , no. 24; see also Dunand 1954, 429. 137 Cat. nos. 60 and 62. 138 Cat nos. 94-6. 132

The Early Bronze Age: Intrinsic Meaning Style is active and—it has been proposed—adaptive. Style may be considered a class of related solutions to a 139

Hairstyles may include one or more of the following components: plaits, coils, a square-shaped bun, and/or a ponytail; and these components may be plain or incised.

30

CHAPTER TWO: STYLE, ICONOGRAPHY, AND VISUAL ANALYSIS manifested in the Near East alongside, and possibly in response to, the consolidation of power and authority and the emergence of social stratification identified with the process of urbanization.147 This identity is subjective and fluid but rooted in the pre-existing forms of identity creation and maintenance—for example, kinship—that are being destroyed or changed.148 The assertion of this identity occurs as conceptions of personal identity shift in response to the new modes of domination being implemented, and this shift may be reflected in the material culture. If this dynamic is reflected in the EB figurines discussed in this section, then the variation in the images depicted and the presence of identifiable style types within that variation may be related to the nature of the identity being asserted. It is proposed that this identity is that which pre-dates the emerging ethnic identity. In this case, the emerging ethnic identity may be that of the Amorites who emerge in concert with the reestablishment of the urban centers in the MB II. If this is the case, then the variation displayed in the styles of EB figurines is reflective of the variation of local groups, perhaps kinship groups, comprising the social fabric of EB urban society.

problem or responses to a challenge engendered when the person or persons making an object or class of objects must address a problem or react to a challenge that differs from those previously posed. Therefore, although style can be used to construct a chronology, it is also a reflection of chronology.140 Shapiro describes this process of construction as follows: “By considering the succession of works in time and space and by matching the variations of style with historical events and with the varying features of other fields of culture, the historian of art attempts…to account for the changes of style or specific traits. The historical study of individual and group styles also discloses typical stages and processes in the development of forms.”141 A holistic interpretation of the intrinsic meaning of the EB figurines via visual analysis requires that they be considered in light of their cultural context. The EB (c. 3000-2000 B.C) in western Syria is characterized by the appearance of the first cities in the region, including ancient Umm el-Marra.142 This earliest period at Umm elMarra features an earthen enclosure wall around the settlement, sequences of domestic architecture, and a complex of elite tombs dating to the end of the period or EB IV. Recovered from the best-preserved tomb, Tomb 1, were the skeletal remains of five adults and several infants, accompanied by lavish grave goods including gold, silver, and lapis lazuli ornaments—all acquired through long-distance exchange. The tombs appear to have been free standing and conspicuously located on the acropolis of the tell. The phenomenon of visible funerary monuments of this kind, which is limited to western Syria and the Euphrates valley c. 2500-2000 B.C., may indicate that ancestor veneration was a device employed to legitimize and reinforce the social authority associated with the emerging urban center.143 It has been suggested that the phenomenon of conspicuous funerary monuments may be a characteristic of the tribal character of Syrian society of the period, in which lineage was a factor supporting legitimatization144 and/or to the fact that the economic basis of power at this time was based on access to, and distribution of, exotic prestige goods as opposed to food staples, a finance system that is typically weaker than other systems and requires ideological support.145

This circumstance is similar to that addressed by Susan Pollock (2001) who examines anthropomorphic terracotta figurines from the Susiana Plain in southwestern Iran during the Akkadian period as a means of accessing ideology.149 In this work, Pollock addresses the material culture assemblage of Susa following the Akkadian conquest. She notes that after this conquest the size of the city of Susa increased, and Susa became overwhelmingly dominated by Mesopotamian material culture: ceramics, seals, votive sculptures, wall plaques, texts written predominantly in the Akkadian as opposed to the Elamite language, and the use of Akkadian personal names. During this period, only one class of artifact was not conspicuously Mesopotamian in style—anthropomorphic figurines. To address the issue of ideology, Pollock uses the concepts of “public transcripts” and “hidden transcripts” as defined by James Scott.150 Public transcripts are selfportraiture of socially dominant elites. These portraits

The diversity of forms displayed in the Umm el-Marra figurine corpus and the meaning of the figurines may be related to this process of consolidation of power and authority. Indeed, anthropomorphic clay figurines are extremely rare in Syria prior to the third millennium. It has been suggested that the concept of communal and/or individual self-conscious “ethnic”146 identity is

archaeological literature as the “pots equal people” equation. The ramifications of the terminology, and the concept it describes, is beyond the scope of this publication. Therefore, although the authors cited in this section use a definition of ethnicity that is particular to the sociological and historiographic discourse—that is, “self-conscious identity groups”—from an archaeological perspective, this is a term with unintended implications. Thus, the identity in question here is not considered “ethnic” but rather individual or particular to those individuals making and using the figurines. 147 Smith 1986, 45. 148 Bentley 1987, 45; Shennan 1989: 16; Pohl 1998, 5 ff. 149 Ideology may be defined here as “the body of doctrine, myth and symbolism of a social movement, institution, class, or group of individuals, often with reference to some political or cultural plan, along with the strategies for putting the doctrine into operation The point at which symbolism is used serves as an interface with iconography” (Flannery and Marcus 1998, 36). 150 Scott 1990.

140

Ackerman and Carpenter 1963, 183. Shapiro 1953, 143. Schwartz 2003, 325. 143 Schwartz 2003, 340. 144 Peltenburg 1999 145 Schwartz et al. 2003, 340; Emberling 1997. 146 In archaeology, ethnicity, or ethnic identity, is often associated with an archaeological culture, an association referred to in the 141 142

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA create the appearance of unanimity among the elite and the appearance of consent to their elevated status on the part of the subjugated. These elites are therefore the consumers, as well as producers, of these public transcripts that display, reinforce, and enhance the status quo. Hidden transcripts are the discourse(s) outside the surveillance of these dominant elites. These transcripts present an opportunity for subordinate groups and/or private individuals to articulate their opposition or possibly their resistance to this status quo. Pollock argues that the indigenous stylistic attributes of the figurines provide a hidden transcript of behavioral practices and that, although the meaning and content of these practices are uncertain, they most likely concerned the lives and interests of the women who crafted them.151 She further suggests that the overall homogeneity of their style implies that these transcripts were restricted in scope and representative of specific ideological interests. Any similarities to Mesopotamian figurines suggest either that these figurines were used by Mesopotamian women living at Susa or that they served as “covers” used by local women when the practices involving figurines were subject to outside scrutiny.152

transcript reflecting a landscape of heterogeneity in terms of individual identity or the identities of individual families during a period when the community is experiencing a consolidation of power and authority. If this is the case, it is interesting that this assertion of individual, or kinship, identity occurs during this critical period of urbanization and state formation. Although figurines emerge in the archaeological record as early as the Neolithic period, in Syria they reappear in the EB after a hiatus of several thousand years.155 It is proposed that their appearance in the archaeological record during the EB is due in part to the emerging consolidation of power and authority that characterizes this period. Specifically, their proliferation may serve as a means of asserting individuality, or the identities of individual families or kinship groups, in contrast or response to the uniformity enforced by the emerging elite. The Middle Bronze Age: Primary (Natural) Meaning The figurines do not appear to exhibit a sharp break in form or style between EB IV and MB I, although as asserted in the previous chapter this lack of observable alteration is due in large part to the limited occupation at the site during the MB I period and the paucity and/or ambiguity of the evidence.156 The Umm el-Marra formal types that may be attributed exclusively to the MB include the Type Two,157 Ten,158 Eleven,159 and Twelve160 hand-modeled head fragments and the Type Twentysix,161 Twenty-seven,162 Thirty-two,163 and Thirty-four164 hand-modeled body fragments. On the basis of comparanda,165 it can be asserted that these formal types can be divided into two groups, one depicting a male figure and the other depicting a female. On both the male and female figures, the mouth continues to be conspicuously omitted.166

Regardless of whether or not one accepts Pollock’s interpretation of this particular hidden transcript, she touches on an important idea—namely, that the identification of the hidden transcript lies in its contrast to the public one. Figurines are singled out in her study because they display stylistic characteristics that are distinctly local and are in juxtaposition with the otherwise overwhelming body of imported, or intrusive, material culture. Furthermore, she juxtaposes “local” style figurines with “foreign” ones and interprets their meaning in light of this contrast. The EB figurines at Umm el-Marra feature no such contrast of local and foreign material culture assemblages. Rather, there are parameters—sets of attributes and expressive and factual elements—from which choices are made and executed in unique combinations. The ideological implications of these choices relate to the use of style as an active device of communication that serves as a means to negotiate identity via comparison.153 If the variation of style within the EB period is a reflection of multiple individual identities, then the role of style in this period is assertive. Besides having no distinct referent, assertive style “is personally based and…carries information supporting individual identity.”154 In this respect, this wholesale manifestation of assertive style may therefore be a private

The male figurines167 have applied clay pellets impressed with a single point in the center representing the eyes. 155 Anthropomorphic figurines are documented from the Halaf period, after which they are extremely rare, and even absent, until they reappear in the EB. 156 In particular, those EB figurines recovered from within what has been identified as an MB I layer of cobbles and sherds. The dating of this feature with regards to the figurines incorporated into its structure is problematic: the presence of the EB figurines may indicate that the feature may be more accurately dated to EB, that the figurines were recycled and used in its construction, or that these figurine types were used and discarded in the MB I. 157 Cat. nos. 2 and 3. 158 Cat. nos. 20 and 21. 159 Cat. no. 22. 160 Cat. no. 23. 161 Cat. nos. 70-85. 162 Cat. nos. 86-93. 163 Cat. nos. 112-4. 164 Cat. nos. 157-160. 165 Cf. Nicholo Marchetti (2001) 166 With the possible exception of cat. no. 23. 167 The Type Two head fragments and the Type Thirty-two and Thirtyfour body fragments.

151 Pollock argues that these figurines were made by women because in some ancient Near Eastern literary traditions figurines are crafted by goddesses at the request of male deities (see above) and also because most of the figurines depict female forms. The question of whether women crafted the Bronze Age anthropomorphic figurines from Umm el-Marra is addressed in the conclusion of this manuscript. 152 Pollock 2001, 6-7. 153 Wiessner 1983, 57; see also Conkey and Hastorf 1990, 3. 154 Wiessner 1983, 258.

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CHAPTER TWO: STYLE, ICONOGRAPHY, AND VISUAL ANALYSIS the emphasis is on the front of the figure as indicated by the application and incising of the clay. This emphasis suggests that these figurines were intended to be viewed en face but may have been visible from the back, possibly indicating that they were handled, manipulated, or carried.

The nose is indicated by the modeling of the clay, which is pinched vertically in the middle of the face. The mouth and ears are not depicted. The figure wears a pointed hat with a brim,168 and an ornament at the base of the neck is indicated with a thin coil of applied clay.169 The figure is sometimes depicted holding an object that lies over one shoulder.170 This “rider” figure is depicted seated on the back of an animal, which is often indicated in the abbreviated form of a tripod base171 or, less frequently, more fully modeled.172 In either case, the figure is modeled in-the-round and stands independently. The form of these figures is a reflection of their subject matter. Equids are a common motif of the zoomorphic figurines that are an omnipresent genre of terracotta objects at Syrian Bronze Age sites. These zoomorphic figurines are modeled in-the-round, and the rider figurines conform to that convention. Furthermore, the rider is seated on the animal, and therefore the act of sitting or riding may be an inextricable part of the concept associated with this motif. This rider motif is well known from mold-made plaques from Iraq that date to the MB period, raising the possibility that this motif may have been imported into Syria.173

The MB period witnesses a dramatic change in the factual and expressive elements of style. First, the emphasized elements of the EB figurines—the elaborate hairstyles and the neck ornaments of incised, applied clay—are absent in the MB. On the male figurines, there is very little incising,184 and applied clay is only used to indicate the eyes, the hat brim, or a single neck ornament.185 Conversely, the female forms feature applied clay pellets to indicate the eyes186 and sometimes the navel187 or, rarely, the breasts,188 and applied clay is also used to depict neck ornaments.189 Incising is also more common on the female figurines. It is used on some of the neck ornaments,190 and the pubic triangle is indicated with meticulous rows of short, incised lines191 or, more rarely, with impressed points.192 In addition, rows of short, incised lines193 or straight, solid incised lines194 are used to depict the crossing bands. Impressed points are also sometimes used to indicate dimples on the buttocks.195

The female figurines174 wear an elaborate hairstyle or headdress that is indicated by modeling of the clay that extends outward alongside the face. These protrusions are often punctured with two vertically stacked holes on each side.175 Sometimes, the figure wears a fan-shaped crown that extends above the head,176 although conversely there may be a fifth hole above and between the eyes.177 The eyes are rendered with applied clay pellets impressed with a single point in the center, and the nose is indicated with vertically pinched clay in the center of the face. The body of these figurines is pressed flat, and the torso is hourglass shaped.178 The figure often wears two bands that cross at the midriff,179 and the pubic triangle is always indicated. The breasts are rarely depicted,180 but the navel is rarely omitted.181 Although these figures sometimes feature visual elements on the back such as dimples on the buttocks182 and/or the crossed bands,183

The Middle Bronze Age: Secondary (Conventional) Meaning Within the MB corpus, three avenues of investigation emerge as means of identifying the images depicted. The first is the “rider” motif; the second is the motif of female nudity and the congruent motif of the crossed bands that typically appear on the female figures; and the third concerns standardization of style. The hand-modeled rider figurines are a distinct styletype. These figurines depict a figure typically wearing a pointed cap and carrying an object that lies over the shoulder, seated on an equid. Identified by George Hanfmann with the realm of death and burial, 196 equids are sometimes slain and placed in or near the tomb, possibly as possessions of the deceased but perhaps also to provide transportation to the Netherworld. The EB

168

Note that the hat is not preserved on cat. no. 3. These MB rider figurines wear a single neck ornament almost without exception; however, note that cat. no. 2 is broken at the top of the neck, so the presumed neck ornament is not preserved. 170 Refer to cat. nos. 157 and 158. 171 Type Thirty-two body fragments, but see also cat. nos. 158 and 160. 172 Cat. no. 159. 173 Moorey 1970, 36-7. 174 Type Ten, Eleven, and Twelve head fragments and the Type Twentysix and Twenty-seven body fragments. 175 See cat. nos. 20, 21, and 23. Note that no. 22 features the plaits fanning outward alongside the face, which is one of the components of the EB feminine coiffure. 176 See cat. nos. 21, 22, and 23. 177 Cat. no. 20. 178 Cat. nos. 70, 78, 80, 81, 82, and 84. 179 Cat. nos. 70, 71, 73, 78, 81, 82, and 84. 180 Cat. no. 80. 181 Cat. no. 80, the only example with the breasts depicted, does not have the navel represented. 182 Cat. no. 84. 169

183

Cat. no. 82. Cat. no. 3 has some abbreviated, incised markings on the brim of the hat and the applied clay neck ornament. 185 Cat. nos. 3, 113, 114, 157, 158, and 160. 186 Cat. nos. 20, 21, 22, and 23. 187 Cat. nos. 71, 74, 77, 778, 79, 82, 84, and 85. 188 Cat. no. 80. 189 Cat. no. 20, 70, 78, 81, 82, and 84. 190 Cat. nos. 70, 78, 81, 82, and 84. 191 Cat. nos. 70, 71, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 81, 84, and 85. 192 Cat. nos. 80 and 82. Note that on two examples, cat. nos. 73 and 89, the pubic triangle is indicated with an outline of an incised triangle that is not filled in with either short incised lines or impressed points. 193 Cat. nos. 70, 71, 72, 77, 78, 81, 84, and 85. 194 Cat. no. 82. 195 Cat. nos. 82 and 84. 196 Hanfmann 1961, 250. 184

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA mortuary complex at Umm el-Marra features several mud brick chambers in which pairs of equids are interred. In addition to these equid installations is a larger structure in which a number of equids were interred. The mud brick structures and the distribution of these equid burial installations incorporated into the mortuary complex are unique, but equids are present in mortuary contexts at other sites as well. 197

of equids in the MB. It may also be related to the emergence of riding equids as an activity. On a fundamental level, however, the conventional meaning of the motif may be understood as “male” because it stands in marked contrast to the depiction of the female. In the MB corpus, the female figure is associated with the motif of nudity. It is striking that in the Umm el-Marra corpus there is not a single example of a nude male figure. Indeed, throughout Bronze Age Syria, anthropomorphic figurines depicting nude males are relatively rare, a curious fact given that depictions of male nudity are present in other mediums such as limestone plaques, stone steles, cylinder seals, and clay seal impressions, on which nude males are depicted as priests pouring libations or as prisoners or defeated enemies.

Equids are also referred to in texts describing funerary provisions. An ED III text from Adab describes a sale transaction that included a record of the burial provisions for a Kish temple official named Bilalla, which transaction includes four equids and a chariot.198 Another ED III text from Girsu describes the burial provisions for a woman named Lugalanda, the daughter-in-law of Urtarsirsira, governor of Lagash, which include four female equids and a sledge.199 In the literary text, The Death of Ur-Nammu, a line is translated as “by his side, asses were buried with him.”200

In his analysis of the MB female figurines from Ebla, Marchetti engages the motif of nudity. He notes that in the contemporaneous Old Syrian period glyptic, the nude female motif is clearly associated with, but distinct from, the character of Ishtar.205 He also notes that a fragment of a basin recovered from temple P2 at Ebla, which is dedicated to Ishtar, features this motif. This association between Ishtar and the motif of the nude female is further supported by the presence of many complete examples of the MB female figurines in the MB IB-IIA favissae of Ishtar at Ebla.206 Although these figurines do not represent the goddess herself, they evoke her through the motif of nudity and may be associated with the idea of the temple hierodules. Marchetti concludes that the motif of nudity manifested in the terracotta figurines is related to fertility and the cult of a goddess, although not necessarily always Ishtar.207

While the association between the depictions of equids in one class of MB figurines and the presence of equids in some EB and MB burials is interesting, the connection between the motif (equids) and the concept (death and burial) is tenuous at best, if not purely coincidental. The recovery of MB figurines in burial contexts is relatively rare. Of those figurines recovered from MBA burials at Alalakh,201 Hama,202 and Ebla203 none are rider figurines. It is a fundamental principle in archaeology that the patterning of material culture reflects patterns of human behavior; however, no association exists between excavated rider figurines and burial contexts to support a behavioral association between the two. The identification of the image of the MB rider figurines is therefore uncertain, although it may be proposed that the motif is imported from Mesopotamia204 and/or it may be associated with the mortuary, ritual, or economic role

Regarding the crossed bands that are prevalent in the group of MB female figurines, Dales points out that this motif has an exceedingly long history and wide distribution, and the bands’ importance is suggested by their use as early as the Ubaid period and continued use until the Roman period.208 In an attempt to better understand the meaning of this motif of crossed bands worn by the nude female figure, Dales associates this ornament with the term AD.TAB, which appears in Mesopotamian literary texts and refers to bridles made of goat hair, although variations such as AD.TAB GUSHKIN, NA4 ZA.GIN.E.GA, and NA4 AD.TAB ZA.GIN2 suggest it could also have been made of braided gold wire and inlaid with stone. This possible identification of the AD.TAB ornament is limited by the fact that there is no textual description of the meaning or significance of the ornament that sheds any light on why it is emphasized as an iconographic element.

197 Equids are well attested in third millennium burial contexts throughout the ancient Near East. At Umm el-Marra, numerous equid burial installations have been excavated near the EB tombs on the acropolis (Schwartz et al. 2003, 330-41 for a preliminary report on Tomb 1; Publication of the chamber with equids and other equid installations in the mortuary complex forthcoming). Equid burials in association with human interments have also been recovered in two tombs at Tell Madhhur; in two burials, Y.529 and Y.406, at Kish,; in burial 12 at Tell Razuk; in PG 1232 at Ur; at Abu Salabikh; and at Al Hibah. This phenomenon is also attested in the MB, e.g. grave A/II l/12 no. 5 from Tell el-Dab’a in the Egyptian delta features multiple equids in a pit adjacent to a mud-brick tomb chamber, and multiple equids were also present in the early second millennium grave 9 at Tell el-Seib near Halawa. Further examples have been recovered in Palestine (Philip 1995, 144-8; Zarins 1986, 171-5). 198 Foxvog 1980, 67-77. 199 Steinkeller 1980; see also Zarins 1986, 183. 200 Zarins 1986, 181, citing Kramer 1967 as emended by Civil. 201 Woolley 1955, 219-20. 202 Fugman 1958, pl. 10. 203 Marchetti 2000, 847; refer to n. 28 for comments regarding the MB figurines published in Badre 1980 assumed to come from burial contexts at Murek and Selima. 204 Moorey 1970, 30 ff. Cf. Littauer and Crouwel 1979.

205 Marchetti 2000, 849. For the motif of the nude female in Old Syrian glyptic, cf. Blocher 1987, 17-138, 211-13. 206 Marchetti 2000, 849. 207 Marchetti 2000, 849-50. 208 Dales 1963, 34-8.

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CHAPTER TWO: STYLE, ICONOGRAPHY, AND VISUAL ANALYSIS miscommunication; this miscommunication has significant ramifications due to the durability of the fired clay, which lasts far longer than a gesture or spoken word and which may therefore ensure the fixation of that particular (mis)representation.212 Due to this fluidity of meaning, the artisan(s) who craft the figurines and those individuals whose behavior or practices are associated with them may be compelled to conform to an established or recognizable form and image in order to assure the efficacy of this communicative process.213

The variation that is such an intrinsic aspect of the EB corpus is absent in the MB. The MB figurines display a considerable degree of homogeneity in terms of both the factual elements and the expressive execution of these motifs. The standardization of the male and female forms is notable in the depiction of the rider motif juxtaposed with the motif of the nude female. In short, the figures depicted are no longer individual compositions but standardized representations of one of two canonical images. This standardization may reflect a cognizance of the techno-visual innovation of the use of a mold in Mesopotamia. While molds are used as early as the end of the third millennium in Mesopotamian terracotta production, standardization precedes mold technology in Syria by several centuries. This use of a mold and/or the standardization of the depicted images may serve as a means of preserving the integrity of the image from misconception, misrepresentation and miscommunication over time and space.

It is therefore proposed that the increasing homogeneity of style exhibited in the MB figurine corpus reflects a choice to conform to an established or recognizable image and consequently an adherence to an ideologically established message. Style may be used emblematically to communicate messages that facilitate social interaction, especially those interactions that occur at intermediate social distances such as between cities or settlements within a geographic region. This emblematic style has a clear referent, usually a social group, and transmits a clear message to a defined target population about conscious affiliation or identity.214

The Middle Bronze Age: Intrinsic Meaning In order to ascertain the intrinsic meaning of the MB figurines, their sociocultural context must be considered. The process of the consolidation of power and authority that characterized the EB period is punctuated by the partial abandonment of Umm el-Marra in the MB I. This is a regional phenomenon, characterized by the diminishing or desertion other middle Euphrates sites.209 Conversely, the evidence suggests that MB I Ebla witnesses the construction of a monumental earthen rampart surrounding the city and the monumental southwest gate.210 As previously stated, the figurines do not seem to exhibit any sharp break in form or style between EB IV and MB I, although this observation may reflect the limited site occupation during the period and the paucity and/or ambiguity of the evidence.

It has been asserted that the concept of ethnicity or ethnic identity—meaning self-aware identification—is a product of early state formation.215 This identification concerned those groups that regularly encountered one another, and it functioned as a means of distinguishing exclusion or belonging.216 Hence, the choice to conform to the standardized and recognizable images may be indicative of a choice to identify with the shared referent—identity. What is therefore demonstrated is a transition from the individuality and localized identity expressed in the EB corpus to conformity to an established regional identity, possibly Amorite, expressed in the MB. Interestingly, early second millennium, western Syrian ceramics exhibit this trait as well. There are a diminished number of shape types, minimal decoration and increasing uniformity, suggesting an increased emphasis on standardization and mass manufacture than in the EB.217

Following this collapse, the MB II witnesses an extensive reoccupation at Umm el-Marra. This resurgence is evidenced by the construction of new buildings and the refortification of the outer edge of the site. Regionally, this period of resurgence coincides with the emergence of the Amorite kingdom of Yamhad, which is centered in Aleppo.211 It is to this period of extensive reoccupation and reconstruction at ancient Umm el-Marra in MB II that the overwhelming majority of the figurines described in this section may be attributed—and what is evidenced within this group is an increased homogeneity of style.

This choice may be a product of, and/or a contributing factor to, the consolidation of power and authority that 212

Pollock 2001, 5; see also Bailey 1996. Pollock 2001, 5-6. 214 Weissner 1983, 257. 215 Pohl 1998, 4-5. 216 It must be pointed out, however, that Pohl’s writings concern ethnic identity during the Roman period. Pohl concedes that, “distinguish(ing) groups of people by their ethnic names was a common practice in ancient ethnography, it was part of the biblical world-view…it is quite likely that such views corresponded to widespread feelings of identity among barbarians” (italics mine). That Pohl does not include the ancient Near East in his construct is related to his perception that “ethnic groups” prior to the Roman period were, “small face-to-face groups.” Despite this assumption, if one accepts that it is self-aware identification and not conformity to an imperial Roman template of statehood that determines ethnic identity, then his ideas about ethnicity and its relationship to style are viable in this context. 217 Akkermans and Schwartz, 2003, 291. 213

Each figurine is originally a mental image that is transformed (or translated) into a public representation when the figurine is created, and this public representation is then re-transformed by the viewer back into a mental image. Each stage of this dialogue is an opportunity for a change and therefore for 209

Sweyhat, Selenkahiye, Tell Hadidi and Halawa, for example. Akkermans and Schwartz 2003, 295. 211 Schwartz 2003, 326. 210

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA must have been a factor in the inauguration of a new phase of public building and the refortification of Umm el-Marra218 in the MB II. It may also be a reaction to, or a reflection of, the emergence of the Amorite kingdom of Yamhad. If this is the case, it raises provocative questions concerning use and audience. If the style of the figurines serves a communicative purpose, then who is the recipient of this communication? How does the identity of the creator, user, and/or viewer of the artifact in antiquity relate to the process of communicating identity, be it individual or ethnic? These questions are taken up in the next chapter, which addresses the function of the figurines.

mouth are depicted realistically and are proportionate to the size and shape of the face. The most common hairstyle229 shows the hair hanging alongside the face, pulled into two parts, bound with a band, and then falling into plaits. Figures with this hairstyle also wear a crown or ornamental band above the forehead. Conversely, several of the head fragments feature a simple hairstyle or smooth headdress.230 One example, cat. no. 167, wears a polos style hat, which appears on votive sculpture and inlay relief from Mari. Many of these figures wear jewelry, including earrings,231 a necklace,232 a crown or ornamental headband,233 and most often bracelets.234 It is interesting to note that necklaces are attested on only two fragments, whereas neck ornaments were very prevalent and emphasized in the EB. In addition, only one fragment features anklets and an ornamental band at the waist.235

The Late Bronze Age: Primary (Natural) Meaning Mold-made figurines depicting a nude female en face first appear in the archaeological record of Mesopotamia in the third millennium BC. In Syria, this form emerges in late MB II and by the LB becomes the dominant form, to the near exclusion of all others.219 The mold-made plaques of the LB are a radical departure both formally and stylistically from the figurines of the earlier Bronze Age periods. First, these figures naturalistically depict a human form—all the facial features are present, and the arms and legs are fully modeled and proportional. Second, the method of manufacture changes from hand modeling to the use of a mold, and this techno-visual element results in figures that display a consistent expression of style. Their rounded bases, when present, do not permit them to stand independently, and there is no indication that they could have been worn or suspended. The figures stand in relief against the background of a plaque. That their backs are without decoration or markings suggests that they were intended to be viewed en face.

Perhaps the most revealing aspects of the LB figurine corpus are those related to the use of a mold. It is a noteworthy coincidence that the figurines of the MB and LB periods, both of which feature the motif of female nudity, also exhibit a departure from convention in terms of their respective forms. The MB female figurines, unlike the figurines of the preceding EB period, cannot stand independently, a formal innovation that may indicate a corresponding change in meaning and/or function. The LB female figurines, unlike the female figurines of the preceding MB period, are made in a mold. This techno-visual innovation may be a further progression in the trajectory of standardization that is evident in the MB period, and/or a manifestation of their meaning and function of which duplication and standardization of authorless-ness may be intrinsic components. Similarly, in the MB period, the nude female is juxtaposed with the male figure of the rider. The LB nude female figurines continue to be used, albeit with some change over time, into the Persian period wherein the nude female is once again juxtaposed with a male rider236— the “Persian rider.” Despite the use of a mold, there is some variation within the techno-visual aspects of the style exhibited by this figurine type. For example, cat. no. 173, which appears to have a greenish craized glaze, is actually faience and not terracotta.237 There is a profound change in range and

These mold-made LB female figurines include the Type Thirty-five,220 Thirty-six,221 Thirty-seven,222 Thirtyeight,223 and Thirty-nine224 mold-made head fragments and the Type Forty225 body fragments—which are nearly intact,226 and the Type Forty-one227 and Type Fortytwo228 headless body fragments. On these fragments, where the head is preserved, the face of the figure is depicted naturalistically and in its entirety. The eyes are all coffee bean-shaped, as opposed to the eyes featured on the MB figurines, which are all disk-shaped pellets impressed with a single point in the center. The nose and

229

Cat. nos. 161, 162, 168, 169, and 170. Cat. nos. 163 and 164. Cat. nos. 166 and 167. 232 Cat. nos. 189 and 190. 233 Cat. nos. 161, 162, 165, 168, 169, and 170. 234 Cat. nos. 171, 174, 178, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, and 186. 235 Cat. no. 189. 236 A number of these so-called Persian rider figurines were recovered at Umm el-Marra, all dating either insecure or inconclusive archaeological contexts or clearly post-dating the Bronze Age. Similarly, a number of Persian period “Astarte” figurines, those figurines of the Persian period depicting a nude woman, were also found in post-Bronze Age contexts. 237 It must be noted here that “the ancient material known as faience has no relationship to objects of earthenware decorated with glaze and enamels, such as the faience of Faenza in Italy from which the term was originally derived. It is a long-standing misnomer for a composite material consisting of a sintered quartz body and a glaze…The body of ancient faience is of ‘finely powdered quartz grains cemented together 230 231

218

Schwartz et al. 2003, 341. Dornemann 1989, 70-1. Cat. nos. 161 and 162. 221 Cat. nos. 163 and 164. 222 Cat. no. 165. 223 Cat. no. 166. 224 Cat. no. 167. 225 Cat. nos. 168, 169, and 170. 226 The heads of the Type Forty body fragments are the same as those of the Type Thirty-five mold-made head fragments. 227 Cat. nos. 171 through 190. 228 Cat. nos. 191 through 202. 219 220

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CHAPTER TWO: STYLE, ICONOGRAPHY, AND VISUAL ANALYSIS intensity of faience production in the Near East in the middle of the second millennium. The first phase of this expanded production has been attributed to the Mittanian empire, partly because Mittani is credited with stimulating and facilitating the production and diffusion of such luxury objects.238 The faience products of this period include imported vessels and art objects as well as locally produced objects,239 of which this fragment is probably an example.240

floor of the LB palace at Hammam et-Turkman.245 Catalogue no. 18, which is also crudely modeled, lightly fired and bare headed, has no known comparanda, although it was recovered from late LB debris and may therefore be tentatively asserted to be an unusual LB type. These two fragments indicate that although the predominant form of anthropomorphic terracotta in the LB is the mold-made female figurine, the tradition of hand-modeling does continue to a limited extent.

Catalogue no. 201, a rectangular shaped plaque, although not unique in a techno-visual sense but in terms of subject. The legs of this figure do not have the soft, rounded, feminine shape of the other examples. Rather, the legs are straight and skeletal, and the feet, with individually indicated toes extending straight out from the lower leg, resemble those of a bird. This fragment displays motival similarity to a large, well-known plaque recently purchased by the British Museum probably depicting lillitu, a nighttime demon, which measures 49.5 (h) x 37 (w) x 4.8 cm (th) and is made of baked strawtempered clay modeled in high relief. This plaque, initially published in the Illustrated London News in 1936 as the Burney Relief and now referred to as the “Queen of the Night,” features a nude female, originally painted red and wearing a horned headdress. Her arms are bent and held away from the body, and she holds a ring and rod in each hand. Her long multicolored wings hang downwards, and her legs end in the talons of a bird of prey, similar to those of the two owls that flank her.241 The background was originally painted black, and she stands on the backs of two lions and a platform with a pattern suggesting mountains. Thermoluminescence tests attribute this plaque to c. 1800~1750 B.C., which is contemporaneous with MB II at Umm el-Marra.

Finally, catalogue no. 203246 warrants individual attention. This figurine is exceptional not only in terms of the figure depicted, but because it is one of only a very few examples from Umm el-Marra recovered virtually intact. Like several other LB plaques, cat. no. 203 is broken only across the very bottom. That the figure is male is evidenced by the presence of a beard, a characteristic known from stone sculpture, inlay, and relief, but a motif that is unique in the Umm el-Marra figurine corpus. The figure is seated, with his arms straight and both hands resting on his lap, unclasped. The eyes are coffee bean shaped, and the figure wears a multihorned crown capped with a disk cradled in an inverted crescent. The crown worn by this figure resembles that featured on the “Jabbul head,” a stone sculpture now in the Louvre,247 and the multi-horned crown suggests that the figure is more likely a depiction of a high-ranking god than a deified king.248 Although the horned crown first appears in Mesopotamia in the late third millennium and is generally more prevalent in Mesopotamia then Syria, by the LB this motif appears in Syrian and Anatolian art as well. Representations of enthroned male deities of this kind are known from LB stone sculpture and monuments, and examples include a stele and small composite statue from Ugarit. The stele features a seated god in profile wearing a multi-horned crown.249 The small, incompletely preserved composite statue is of basalt and the arms, which are not preserved, are evidenced by the holes indicating where they were fitted into the shoulders. The figure is of a seated god wearing a high oval crown with an enveloping mantel with a thick border. The throne upon which the figure is seated has a high back, although the positioning of the body is similar to that of the Umm el-Marra figurine.250 In clay however, comparanda for cat. no. 203 are rare,251 although there are a few known examples from Emar and Munbaqa, as cited in the catalogue.

There are three examples from the LB Umm el-Marra corpus that are not mold-made figurines depicting a nude female. The first is hand-modeled head fragment no. 19, recovered from a stone slab pavement in the vicinity of an LB domicile.242 Comparanda for this figurine derive primarily from LB Alalakh243 and Munbaqa244 but also include figurines recovered from a ritual pit beneath the by fusion with small amounts of alkali or lime or both…’” It is distinguished from glass, because in a true glass, “the various ingredients must become completely fused together in a liquid melt, which is then cooled and acts as glass. The synthetic material known as faience has only been sintered” (Moorey 1985, 133). 238 Moorey 1985, 150-1. 239 Moorey 1985, 152. 240 There is an example of a nude, female mold made figurine from Hammam et-Turkman that is faince, and also several glass examples from Munbaqa, cf. Czichon and Werner 1998, 176 ff. 241 It must be noted here that despite the fact that this piece has been known to the art world since its initial publication in 1936, this plaque is unprovenanced. It resembles another unprovenanced example published in Badre (1980) fig. 793, pl. LXXVIII, which features a similar figure with talons standing on the backs of two addorsed caprids. Cf. Barrelet 1968 pl. LXXVIII, 793 and p. 398. 242 Cf. Curvers and Schwartz 1997, 209, fig. 5. 243 Woolley, 1955. 244 Czichon and Werner, 1998.

The Late Bronze Age: Secondary (Conventional) Meaning Within the LB corpus, several avenues of investigation 245

Rossmeisl and Venema, 1988. Cf. Schwartz et al. 2000, 433. 247 Pritchard 1951, no 433 p. 30 248 Dussaud 1926, 341 cf. Schwartz et al. 2003, 430. 249 Weiss 1986, 298-9. 250 Yon 1997, 140-1, no. 13. 251 Schwartz et al. 2003, 430. 246

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA emerge as means of identifying the image of the nude female depicted on the mold-made plaques. The first is the techno-visual element of the use of a mold and concurrently the dramatic standardization and duplication of the image. The second is the motif of frontalism; specifically, the transformation from figurines that feature factual elements on both the front and the back of the object to the depiction of the image en face. The third concerns the motif of female nudity.

iconic image, negates the need to omit the mouth. If the image is authorless, then there may be no danger of creating and activating the image, since the agency of “creation” is omitted. Both the plaque-figurines and seal impressions rely on negative molds and clay impressions, yet there are significant differences in the form of the image created. The roll-out of a cylinder seal includes the use of horizontally bordered registers with no vertical break, allowing for the presentation of a continuous scene. Conversely, figurines feature a single image framed on all sides. For millennia, little information was presented on the back, and therefore these elements may have been considered nonessential or obsolete. In the previous periods, figurines featured very few factual elements on the back, and those that existed were limited to such features as elements of the coiffure,255 incised markings on the body,256 or impressed marks indicating dimples.257 Overall, the image was, for the most part, frontal, as demonstrated by the depiction of the neck ornaments258 that lie across the shoulders but discontinue in the back. That the LB plaque figurines are completely bare in the back may reflect a continued progression along a trajectory of increasing standardization of the image that would facilitate the reliable transfer of meaning, geographically and temporally. In this case, the frontalism of the image may be indicative of a distillation of the image to its essential elements. Assante suggests that the bordered field of the plaque presents the image for reception by the viewer in a manner similar to the way an altar marks off and consecrates space. The scale of the objects however, makes this bordered space portable. This framing also provides a visual quality of iconicity to its enclosed subject, because iconicity is typically rendered by the selection and truncation of a singular moment wherein just enough remains of the scene to securely identify the players. Truncation thus eliminates the figure from the narrative—which is depicted to a greater extent in glyptic art—so rendering the singular image iconic and endowing it with more meaning and power than a simple narrative scene.

The use of a mold marks a dramatic innovation in figurine manufacture. Its use permits the creation of an image of complexity and detail without requiring a great deal of skill or time. Reusable molds facilitated mass production and ensured that the resulting objects were inexpensive and abundantly available. Because molds, as well as the objects they generated, were portable, these images—from which new copies could be made—could circulate over broad regions. In addition to such wide distribution, their durability allowed continual production of the image over long periods of time, ensuring a long duration for the image.252 Julia Assante (2002) considers this techno-visual element of style and the connotations of the choice to use a mold. She argues that standardization, a product of the process of duplication that is inherent in the use of a mold, grants and preserves the authority and legitimacy of the image. This legitimacy is not measured by the image’s faithfulness to a visual prototype from another genre such as glyptic art or sculpture in-the-round but by its clear conformity and belonging to this discrete class of authorless icons.253 The image of the nude female is known from glyptic art, where it appears as an isolated motif, but it is unknown in metal or stone sculpture. Therefore, in terracotta, these images are duplicates without a known original, or without an original at all. Assante argues that this process of duplication is a crucial aspect of their meaning and/or function. Replication suppresses the element of human authorship. In this respect, it is similar to the crafting of the cult statue for which the mouth-washing and mouthopening are rites intended to eliminate or erase the human agency in the crafting of the image.254 It is therefore interesting to note that the appearance of mold-made plaques coincides with the appearance of the motif of the mouth on the figures depicted. It has already been suggested, using the mouth-washing and mouth-opening ritual as an analogy, that one possible explanation for the conspicuous omission of the mouth in the figurines of the EB and MB periods may be that the mouth is associated with the activation or animation of the figure. Therefore, the omission of the mouth suggests that the figure is not a being but rather a depiction of a being. It is proposed then, that the process of replication, which creates the

It has been proposed that the motif of female nudity as depicted by the LB figurines is—as has been similarly suggested for the female figurines of the MB period— associated with the goddess Ishtar, Astarte or Anat. Several artifacts which support this association are a limestone plaque from New Kingdom Egypt, the sealing of the ruling dynasty of Emar, in Syria and small gold personal ornaments from Lachish, in Palestine and Menet el-Beida in the vicinity of Ugarit. The limestone stele with two registers depicting Canaanite goddesses

255

For example, cat. no. 16. For example, cat. nos. 30, 37, 66, and 82. 257 For example, cat. no. 84. 258 For example, cat. nos. 25 and 46.

252

256

Assante 2002, 3. 253 Assante 2002, 6. 254 Assante 2002, 18.

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CHAPTER TWO: STYLE, ICONOGRAPHY, AND VISUAL ANALYSIS recovered from Deir el-Medina.259 In the upper register, a nude female stands atop a lion260, with bent, outstretched arms clutching lotus blossoms and serpents. This goddess is unidentified, but the clothed, seated goddess in the lower register holding a mace-ax in one hand and a shield and spear in the other is identified as Anat. The sealing of the ruling dynasty of Emar depicts three male figures facing a winged, nude female with her hands clasped at her midriff, or possibly holding her breasts. It has been proposed that these figures may represent the gods of the royal house of Emar, in shich case the nude female would represent Ashtarte, a manifestation of Ishtar.261 A small gold ornament from Lachish features a depiction of a nude female standing on the back of an equid, holding stalks of flowering papyrus. A second small gold pendant from Menet el-Beida depicts a nude female on the back of a lion, grasping small caprids in her bent, outstretched hands with crossed serpents behind her. Both of these ornaments have been identified as depictions of the goddess Anat.262 In short, this association between nudity and the identification of a goddess is presumptive.

cult.267 However, there is no clear link between this motif and the concepts of pregnancy, childbirth, and motherhood, and the motif appears to be associated with female sexuality more than fertility. That is, the female figure does not appear to be pregnant, and there are no children depicted.268 For any consideration of the relationship between the motif of the nude woman as it appears in scenes depicted on cylinder seals and as it is manifested in the terracotta figurines, several factors need to be addressed. First, the motif of the nude female in the Old Syrian glyptic is typically an isolated element in the scene, and so the association with Ishtar/Inanna is of an uncertain nature.269 In addition, visually there are significant differences between the nude female depicted in the glyptic and terracottas. In the glyptic, the figure is posed with her hands clasped in front of her body, whereas the Syrian LB figurines typically feature bent arms with the hands cupping the breasts or, less frequently, arms positioned alongside the body.270 Furthermore, the LB figures often wear a headband with a pendant,271 a feature not present on the seals.

To an extent, this association is based on depictions of the nude female in Old Syrian glyptic art.263 In his classic study of cylinder seals, Henri Frankfort proposed that the motif of the nude female appearing on cylinder seals and clay plaques represents either a priestess or a female worshipper who had honored the deity by once serving as a hierodule in the temple.264 Similarly, Wiggerman writes, “The evidence, as far as it goes, does not allow us to identify the typical nude goddess (frontal, without attributes) with one of the (major) goddesses of the Mesopotamian and Syro-Palestinian pantheon…the positive evidence points to a close relation with personality (soul), good luck prosperity and (sexual) emotions, and as such she is linked to Inanna/Ishtar whose domain is private life.”265

Because of differences in the iconographic elements such as posture and ornament and the isolation of the motif in glyptic scenes, attempts to draw conclusions regarding the meaning of the nude female on the basis of comparison to the appearance of this motif in glyptic art are unproductive. In fact, the use of this image in both media may relate to the invocation of a self-referential, iconic image. The association of the nude female with aspects of the goddess Ishtar or with her hierodules is tenable, but this association alone does not explain the meaning of the motif or the reasons for its widespread use and appeal. Indeed, the association of this motif with fertility is a projection that may derive from modern stylistic analysis that associates the motif as manifested in LB plaque art with those prehistoric, so-called, “mother goddess,” figurines that have been associated with fertility.272 The frontal presentation of an idealized, exposed, and realistically rendered female body suggests that the association of the nude female with sexuality is the most obvious and perhaps accurate interpretation of the motif.

Frankfort’s proposed association with temple hierodules is echoed sixty-one years later in the writings of Nicolo Marchetti who states, “Female figurines seem thus directly related to fertility and the cult of a goddess (not necessarily always Ishtar), although they do not represent the goddess herself but evoke her through the representation of a nude female’s body and possibly the idea of the temple hierodules.”266 That Marchetti suggests that fertility is conceptually related to the motif of nudity present in these LB figurines is reminiscent of Badre, who argues that the function of some of the figurines concerns magical practices associated with a fertility

267

Badre 1980, 157. Bahrani 2000, 44-5, 85-8. Bahrani 2001, 54-5; Blocher 1987. 270 In the mold-made plaques of Mesopotamia, however, the figure sometimes appears with clasped hands. For example, refer to Barrelet 1968, pl. XXXVIII, figs. 395, 399, and 400 from Girsu. 271 Cat. nos. 168, 169, and 179-81. 272 C.f. Wiggerman (1998, 46) who writes, “the Mesopotamian naked woman and goddess stand at the end of a long line of varying images that starts in the paleolithic , and winds over the whole of Eurasia;” V. Gordon Childe also states that the Neolithic societies throughout the Near East and the southern parts of Europe all model statuettes representing the “mother goddess.” For further comments on the modern scholarly association of the nude female with the mother goddesses, c.f. Bahrani 2000, 48-51. 268 269

259 The stele dates to the XIXth dynasty, c. 1307-1196, which coincides with the LB in Syria. It is currently in the collection of the British Museum. Westenholz, 81. 260 The lion is an iconographic element associated with Ishtar. 261 Westenholz 1998, 81. 262 Van der Toorn 1998, 86-7. 263 Uelinger 1998, 58; see also Blocher 1987. 264 Frankfort 1939, 160. 265 Wiggerman 1998, 52-3. 266 Marchetti 2000, 849.

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA The Late Bronze Age: Intrinsic Meaning

may be vestiges of a local tradition, or at least of a tradition that is separate and distinct from that of the plaques. This suggests that one possible reason for the appropriation of the use of molds is that the mold-made, LB figurines are a new and perhaps distinct class of artifact or, as discussed below, because of the introduction of a new character represented.

In the LB (c. 1600-1200 B.C.), western Syria is absorbed into the Mitannian and Hittite empires. Regionally, there are fewer settlements at this time.273 The administration of these empires required the consolidation of an unprecedented degree of power and authority. Mitannian presence at Umm el-Marra is attested by the recovery of a cuneiform tablet dating to the early fourteenth century that confers Mitannian citizenship on several individuals. This document also features an impression of the Saushtatar seal, the dynastic seal of the Mitannian royal family.274

Assante suggests that the widespread appearance of the nude female figure occurs at the same time that ancient goddesses are diminished—either vanishing abruptly and completely or having been usurped by male deities—in institutionally sanctioned pantheons.279 As individual cities and territories became absorbed or integrated into empires, smaller collectives within the imperial population may have been attracted to a common image, perhaps because it transcended competing cultures and loyalties. That the nude female has no iconographic attributes to clearly identify her as a major goddess may have facilitated this process. In fact, the identity of this nude female is uncertain. There are no clear indicators that she is a goddess at all. The Mesopotamian plaques, which include the nude female figure within the repertoire of depicted subjects, include a cast of supernatural and divine characters.

There is an absence of defensive architecture at LB Umm el-Marra, and the site is characterized by small-scale domestic architecture that is sometimes burned and contains materials in primary context.275 Such findings may indicate that the absence of defensive architecture is less a matter of peace and security in the region than an indication that defense and control of the site was an imperial matter, not a local one. The predominant figurine type during the LB is the moldmade plaque featuring the image of a nude female. Moldmade figurines first appear in Babylonia toward the end of the Akkadian period or in early Ur III (c. 2334-2154 B.C.).276 These Mesopotamian figurines/plaques display a wider cast of characters than are seen at Umm el-Marra and elsewhere in Syria.277 Why this techno-visual innovation appears later in Syria and why, of the numerous characters depicted in the Mesopotamian figurines, it is predominantly the nude female that appears are important and possibly related issues.

Conclusion The figurines of the EB are hand modeled and individualized representations composed within the parameters of an established visual paradigm. Able to stand independently, these figurines feature more iconographic information on the front than the back, and the amount of detail diminishes from top to bottom. Both male and female characters are depicted, although due to the absence of explicitly rendered genitalia, information about the sexual identity of the depicted figure is conveyed to the viewer via the hairstyle or headdress. The styles of EB figurines from sites throughout Syria display significant variation, and there is variation within the EB corpus from Umm el-Marra as well.

Mold technology appears to be a Mesopotamian innovation introduced into Syria during the LB.278 It may be that during this period of large imperial dominions in Syria there was a need for the objects, or the behavior associated with them, to be less local. If this is so, then a wide distribution of a standardized image may have been desirable. One must consider then, what is achieved via the use of a mold that is not achieved via the use of standardized forms, subjects, iconography and style, which are characteristic of the preceding period. The use of a mold may be a continuation along the trajectory of increased standardization, but that in and of itself does not explain why, and why at this point in time, the use of mold technology was appropriated.

There appears to be no abrupt alteration in the style of anthropomorphic figurines at Umm el-Marra between the EB and early MB periods, although this may be a result of the paucity of evidence derived from this transitional period. By MB II, there are several radical innovations. The first is the introduction of the motif of female nudity, a motif that continues to be associated with the female form into the LB. The second is the change in the form of the figurines, which transects and corresponds to the expression of the male/female dichotomy. The female figurines are pressed flat, they wear elaborate coiffures that are punctured on the side, and the torso has an hourglass-shaped silhouette. The size of the female figures diminishes from the shoulders to the feet, and these figures cannot stand independently. The male

Interestingly, the few examples of hand-modeled figures of the LB period—cat. nos. 18 and 19 in this corpus— 273

Schwartz et al. 2003, 348. Schwartz et al. 2003, 350-1. Schwartz et al. 2003, 348. 276 Barrelet 1968, 86-90. 277 In Mesopotamia, minor deities, heroes, human-animal hybrids, and animals are depicted, most virtually unknown from the so-called major arts, and only a few known from textual sources. 278 Barrelet 1968, 89. 274 275

279

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Citing Westenholz 1998, 76.

CHAPTER TWO: STYLE, ICONOGRAPHY, AND VISUAL ANALYSIS figurine prior to its manipulation. It is proposed that this may be due to the element of human agency involved in the manufacture of the figurine. The EB and MB figurines are crafted by hand, a process wherein the will of the artisan is intimately, immediately and physically connected to the creation of the image. This relationship, between artisan, clay and product, is very much like that of the creation myths cited by Badre (1980), and it is perhaps due to the nature of this relationship that the mouth is omitted.

figures are depicted seated on an animal, and the form of these rider figurines corresponds to that of the zoomorphic figurines that are an omnipresent genre of artifacts throughout the Bronze Age occupational levels of the site. Congruent with the emergence of these new forms is a marked increase in the homogeneity of their style. No longer individualized and localized compositions, these figurines conform to a regionalized visual paradigm. Continuing along a trajectory of increasing standardization, the figurines of the LB are overwhelmingly homogeneous. The overwhelming majority of the mold-made LB plaques depict a nude female, typically with bent arms and hands cupping her breasts although there is some variation in the rendering of the hairstyle, jewelry and rarely, the position of the arms. Additionally, there are a few rare examples of crudely hand-modeled figures, and one example of a mold-made figurine of a seated deity. The techno-visual innovation of the use of a mold results in wide distribution of a standardized image. Furthermore, the use of a mold provides the image with an iconic, authorless quality that maybe intrinsic to their meaning, as discussed below, and their function, which functional connotations are taken up in the following chapter.

The iconographic element of the mouth appears at the same time that the figurines become manufactured using a mold. The mold determines the form, the size, the iconography and the style (the way these elements are expressed) of the figurine. The use of a mold allows for the production and wide distribution of multiple iconic and seemingly authorless images, no longer the products of hands on clay. It is irrelevant that the mold itself is made by an artisan, because it is the mold, and not human hands, that serves as the source of the image. It is proposed that it is for this reason that there is no need to remove the element of human agency via the omission of the mouth. Concurrent with the use of the mold and the depiction of the mouth is the naturalistic rendering of the human form. In contrast to the LB mold-made figurines, the figurines of the preceding EB and MB periods are non-naturalistic representations of anthropomorphic figures. To some extent, the appearance of the EB and MB figurines reflect their being hand-modeled, but this alone does not explain the transition from non-naturalistic, hand-modeled to naturalistic, mold-made figurines. It is proposed that the non-naturalistic rendering of the human form during the EB and MB was intentional. Perhaps it was important that a hand-modeled figure not be made to look realistic, so that it would be recognized as a “depiction of a being” and not an attempt to create an actual being or an enlivened image, something that may have been the prerogative of qualified practitioners.

It is suggested in this chapter that the trajectory of increased homogeneity and standardization may reflect the incorporation of communities into larger polities, such as the kingdom of Yamhad and the Mitannian empire. This is not to suggest a dramatic alteration in the ethnic identity of the population ancient Umm el-Marra; rather, the self-aware identity group may have incorporated a sense of belonging to and participation in a larger whole. This trajectory of increased homogeneity and standardization may also be indicative of a desire to create a seemingly authorless image, an effect ultimately achieved by the use of a mold. These two explanations are not mutually exclusive, and may have worked in concert with one another.

It is proposed that the Bronze Age anthropomorphic figurines that are the subject of this study were intended to be perceived as depictions of magical, divine or supernatural beings. The identification of the exact identity of the depicted figure is difficult, for the reasons described below. The iconography, specifically the omission of the mouth which is characteristic of the handmodeled figurines of the EB and MB and the naturalistic rendering of the mold-made figurines of the LB period indicates that the figures were understood as magical, or supernatural figures. That the mouth is cursorily indicated on the hand-modeled examples from the LB period suggests that there is some change in their meaning that coincides with the introduction of the mold, but in these cases the figure is much more crudely modeled than the hand-modeled figures of the previous periods. If these objects depict divine figures, it is not made apparent by

First millennium Mesopotamian sources concerning the mouth washing and opening rites associated with the manufacture of the cult statue suggest a connection between the motif of the mouth and the activation, or enlivenment, of the cult image and the elimination of the human agency inherent in its creation. On the basis of analogy, it is proposed that the omission of the mouth on the EB and MB figurines communicates to the viewer that the mouth has not been, and cannot be, opened or washed and that these figures are intended to be perceived as made objects, as representations. Although there is evidence for the use of the mouth washing and opening rites on objects other than the cult statue, the first millennium Mesopotamian texts concerning the use of figurines as vehicles of magic do not include these rites as a means of activating the

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA conspicuous divine iconography. With the sole exception of cat. no. 203, there are no examples of the use of any symbolic divine emblems such as horned crowns. This may be related to their function, which is taken up in the following chapter. If these objects are manipulated, or ritually broken during the course of their use-life, it may have been inappropriate for them to depict, or symbolize, the major gods of the pantheon. It is more likely that they can be identified as depictions of supernatural, or magical beings.

discussing, or textual description of their actions, from the private lives and households of ordinary, and often illiterate, individuals who wrote no personal letters on the subject and whose associated behaviors rated no mention in legal or commercial records. From the founding of urban centers through the establishment of the Amorite kingdom of Yamhad to the emergence of the Mittanian and Hittite empires, changes in the sociopolitical landscape coincide with changes in form and style displayed within the corpus of anthropomorphic figurines recovered from Bronze Age occupational levels at Umm el-Marra, Syria. Admittedly, these changes in the material culture may simply be a reflection of such sociopolitical transformations as they are manifested in the lives of individuals and their households. Nonetheless, whether this class of artifacts may have played an active role in the establishment and maintenance of private or public ideologies is a possible avenue of further investigation that will be taken up in the subsequent chapter, which addresses their use and function over time.

The use of visual analysis as a device for understanding the meaning of these objects is challenged by the difficulties encountered in any attempt to identify the concepts associated with the depicted motifs. The problem is not a lack of motifs but the ambiguous nature of the proposed concepts, and this ambiguity begs the question of how to securely ascertain this connection. One trait common to all the Bronze Age figurines that are the subject of this study is the lack of a known visual referent. The characters depicted are unknown in the major arts, and attempts to associate individual iconographic elements and characters—such as the hairstyle of the EB female figurines, the crossed bands depicted on the MB female figurines, the identity of the male rider figure of the MB period, and the identity of the LB nude female—with comparanda from Old Syrian glyptic art or sculpture in metal or stone are overwhelmingly inconclusive. An appeal to the textual evidence is equally problematic. Panofsky addresses this issue of textual evidence when he writes: “Iconographic analysis, dealing with images, stories and allegories instead of motifs, presupposes, of course, much more than that familiarity with objects and events which we acquire by practical experience. It presupposes a familiarity with specific themes or concepts as transmitted through literary sources.”280 This viewpoint suggests that the challenge faced in attempting an iconographic analysis of any Bronze Age figurines is an absence not of textual references but of an authoritative text. For an art historian like Panofsky, whose research centers on Renaissance painting and sculpture, an abundance of authoritative literary texts provides an embarrassment of riches compared to the relative silence in the cuneiform record concerning this enigmatic class of artifact. At present, there is no single ancient literary source featuring characters that correspond to these beings depicted in clay, even though it is possible that such a text exists but has not yet been recovered or translated. It is perhaps more likely that these characters are so well embedded in the cultural consciousness of the Bronze Age people of the ancient Near East that they required no explanation or discussion. It is certainly also possible that these characters, and the figurines themselves, issue from a sphere of social or cultural life that would give no cause for the recording, 280

Panofsky 1939, 11.

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CHAPTER THREE: FUNCTION, DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS and damage, and disposition6 that are characteristic of the figurines of that function-class category. Voigt then considers the correspondence between those characteristics present in the Hajji Firuz Tepe figurine corpus with the qualities described by Ucko in order to suggest functional interpretations.7 Voigt (1983) relies on Ucko for ethnographic and ethnohistorical sources from which to derive her function-class profiles, which consist of ethnographies of African cultures8 written in the midtwentieth century. Ucko does not explain why he chose to focus on Africa in general, or these cultures in particular, as a source of ethnographic insight. Voigt also supplements Ucko’s sources with historical material ostensibly gleaned from Nickerson (1979), an undergraduate thesis, but the precise nature of this historical material is not specified. As a result, the putative cross-cultural nature of Voigt’s data may be questioned.

Introduction This chapter concerns the identification of the behaviors and/or activities requiring or associated with the manufacture, manipulation and disposal of the Bronze Age anthropomorphic figurines from Umm el-Marra. It is argued that the archaeological evidence- including the contexts, associated material culture and breakage of these figurines- supports the interpretation that they are related to the realm of household cult and magic. It is also argued that the identity of the represented figures and the activities and behaviors associated with their use changes over time, and that it is probable that those activities and behaviors vary within any given period as well. A Survey and Discussion of the Proposed Functions of Near Eastern Figurines In her analysis of the Neolithic figurines from Hajji Firuz Tepe, Iran, Voigt1 presents a paradigm of qualities that are characteristic of the range of functions that have been proposed for anthropomorphic figurines, including form, wear, breakage and deposition.2 This model of figurine function has been much-cited and is of potentially great use, although there are some problematic aspects to it, as will be explored below. Voigt’s paradigm is derived from the earlier work of Ucko (1962),3 whose means of identifying the use of anthropomorphic figurines in antiquity is based on the application of generalized principles regarding figurine manufacture, use and disposal derived from ethnographic sources. Initially, he divides these ethnographically documented objects into a set of functional categories. According to Voigt and Ucko, most ethnographically and/or historically documented figurines fall into one or more of the following categories: cult figures, representations of supernatural beings used primarily as symbols or objects of worship; vehicles of magic, or figurines that are manipulated and in many cases disposed of as a key element in rituals intended to produce, prevent or reverse a specific situation or state; didactic or teaching figures, including those used during initiation ceremonies; toys, and/or objects used for entertainment or decoration; representations of deceased persons, or people/animals associated with the deceased.4

Furthermore, the description of Voigt’s and Ucko’s function class profiles is divorced from any discussion of the cultural context in which the figurine-related activities take place, so there is no discussion concerning why the activity or behavior results in the morphological and depositional properties described. The result is that Voigt’s function class profiles are uneven, wherein some are explicit and coherent while others are vague and exceedingly broad, and the degree to which the coherence or breadth of the function-class description is related to the source material is ambiguous.

For each of these categories, a profile is constructed based on ethnographic or ethnohistoric analogy that describes the material, morphology, use, disposal,5 wear

It has been suggested that the Syrian Bronze Age anthropomorphic terracotta figurines may be depictions

Despite the inconsistent quality of the function class profiles, the paradigm they comprise provides a scaffold to support further investigation. In the section below, these proposed function types are evaluated in light of what is known about each type via the archaeological and textual evidence from the ancient Near East. This consideration of these function-class profiles as they pertain to the interpretation of Bronze Age Syrian figurines highlights those factors that may prove to be fruitful avenues of further investigation and permits the rejection of those interpretations that are incompatible with the ethnographic record.9 Cult Figures or Representations of Supernatural Beings Used as Symbols or Objects of Worship

6

Meaning the circumstances of the object’s recovery. Cf. Voigt (2000) for a similar study focusing on the figurines from Catal Hoyuk. 8 Cory 1947, 1948, 1951 and 1961; Morton-Williams 1960; Culwick 1935; Richards 1956. 9 Voigt offers the following example: “the presence of exaggerated or realistically depicted sexual characteristics cannot be the basis for an interpretation of figures as either fertility deities or vehicles of magic intended to insure fertility. 7

1

Voigt (1983). This paradigm is based on ethnographic research summarized and presented in Ucko 1962 and 1968. 3 Ucko 1962 and 1968 and to a lesser extent, the Ohio State undergraduate thesis of Nickerson, 1979. 4 Voigt 1983, 186 and Ucko 1968, 420-7. 5 Meaning how the object was destroyed and/or discarded. 2

43

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA of household gods,10 divine images, depictions of a goddess,11 or replicas of a cult image12 used as symbols or objects of worship. According to Voigt’s functionclass profile, figurines depicting divine or supernatural figures used as symbols or objects of worship or veneration are usually anthropomorphic in form, may be accompanied by iconic elements and may be made of either precious or common material.13 They may be technologically superior to other types of figures and their size varies. These figures may be used either individually or in groups, and are often used over an extended period of time. Their use may involve some careful handling, they may be dressed or carried about, and therefore they display little wear or damage. They may be stored or used in a ritual or domestic context. As for their deposition, they may exhibit signs of burning or fresh breaks, signifying their destruction at the time of disposal. Figures of divine images may be deposited in inaccessible places such as caves or bodies of water, and they are unlikely to be associated with ordinary refuse.14

Similar evidence for household cult is found in an examination of anomalistic use of the Hebrew word elohim, which has sometimes been translated as “judges” but is otherwise generally read as “God”, “gods” or “idols”. In her often cited 1957 article, “Ilani/Elohim,” Anne Draffkorn examines the unusual “judges” reading of the word elohim as it appears in the Exodus 21:6 and Genesis 31:30 and compares these examples to the use of ilani in parallel legal texts from Nuzi. She argues that both are to be understood as house gods. Regarding their function, Draffkorn is concerned with the role of the elohim or ilani in family law. She concludes that these house gods represented the family stake as a whole and this representation served in several legal and ritual capacities. The house gods served as a means of settling legal disputes; for example, in legal cases where there was no compelling evidence, claimants would swear an oath before the house gods, and a verdict was reached by supernatural means. House gods could also witness the incorporation of the slave into the family structure. Finally, the possession of the house gods served as a means of legitimizing the legal rights of the primary heir.17

Much of the textual evidence for Syrian household cult is derived from the LB inheritance texts from Nuzi and Emar, and these texts are organized according to a predictable convention. Toward the end of these documents there is a listing of property to be divided among the heirs that is followed by a variation of the Akkadian expression “ilî bît rabû” meaning, “the gods of the main house.” These gods of the main house are bequeathed, along with the main house itself, to the primary heir who is usually the eldest son.15 With this inheritance came the responsibility for maintaining the domestic cult. The primary heir was expected to invoke or mourn, honor and take care of what the author of the testament referred to as “ilia u mittia,” or “my gods and my dead.” The philological evidence suggests that “my gods and my dead” are to be understood as deified ancestors, since the verbs nubbû (to invoke) or nabû (to mourn), palhu (to honor) or kunnû (to take care of) appear in conjunction with this formulaic expression are usually seen in relation to burial rites as opposed to a cult of the gods.16

According to van der Toorn, the fact that the responsibility for maintaining the domestic cult goes hand in hand with inheritance of the main house implies that the gods are understood to be dwelling within the residence. This connection between family gods and the main house may explain the presence of clay model houses and towers in archaeological contexts such as at the site of Emar. As family members were forced to move from the main house, they may have maintained the traditions associated with the household cult by directing their attention and rituals toward a model of their former residences.18 These model houses are therefore more than miniature replicas or dollhouses, but rather emblems of ancestry and a sense of legitimate belonging.19 Several authors have argued that there is a connection between these venerated ancestors and figurines.20 Both van Loon,21 and later Liebowitz,22 have proposed that the EB figurines recovered from Selenkahiye, and other EB Syrian sites, are depictions of household gods and are indicative of an ancestor-oriented domestic cult. Their argument is based on the recovery of these examples from sub-floor pits, which has been interpreted as exemplifying pious burial. During the 1972 excavation of Selenkahiye, three broken but complete figurines were recovered from beneath the floor of a domestic structure, between the hearth and the wall. A fourth figurine was found in an adjacent room, also beneath the floor.23

10

Van Loon 1973, Liebowitz 1988. Mellaart 1989; Forest 1994. The interpretation of Bronze Age figurines as depictions of a goddess focuses on the LB mold-made plaques featuring a nude female. Additionally, there is a tremendous amount of scholarship concerned with the identification and interpretation of figurines identified as depictions of a Mother Goddess and her role and significance in prehistoric periods. Similarly, there is an abundance of material that deals with the history of this scholarship, specifically the cultural and academic context in which much of the Goddess discourse is rooted. For the most part, this material addresses Neolithic society and material culture. These issues are beyond the scope of the present study. A history of the scholarship concerning the “Mother Goddess” interpretation with appropriate citations is provided in Ucko 1968, 409-19. 12 Van der Toorn 1998, 91-96; Voigt 1983, 186. 13 Iconographic elements such as plants, animals, held objects or elements of dress and/or personal ornament. 14 Voigt 1983, 190 and 192. 15 Van der Toorn 1995, 36; Grosz 1986. 16 Van der Toorn 1995, 36-8. 11

17

Draffkorn 1957, 220-2. van der Toorn 1995, 37; Margueron 1976, 193-232. Muller 1997, 60. 20 Van Loon 1979; Liebowitz 1988; Draffkorn 1957 and Parker-Pearson 1999. 21 Van Loon 1978, 143. 22 Liebowitz 1988, 30. 23 Van Loon 1973, 97-111. 18 19

44

CHAPTER THREE: FUNCTION, DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS During the 1974/1975 seasons, excavators at Selenkahiye uncovered two additional baked clay figurines beneath a doorsill seemingly deposited when the walls and doorways were altered and the floors were repaved.24 Van Loon (1973, 1979) argues that the relatively large figurines with their arms extended at the elbow represented a major deity, while the smaller figurines with their arms on their chests were protective, or interceding deities, that they were all household gods and that all similar figurines must have served the same purpose.25

accordance with the Jericho skull cult, they are similarly not depicted as figurines. This is significant because children and infants are not considered to be ancestors, as they have not had the opportunity to procreate and are not a part of the “unbroken chain of being” that extends between the living and the dead. Second, like the modeled skulls the figurines are made of clay. Third, the iconography is similar, in particular the emphasis on the eyes, which are often modeled in the shape of coffee beans or cowry shells, while the mouth is often omitted or only minimally depicted. Fourth, Pearson also makes the provocative observation that most figurines are broken at the neck, which may echo the practice of separating the skull after death. Finally, the customary spatial context is also similar. Figurines are only rarely found in burial contexts, but are typically recovered from house floors, walls, domestic debris and trash pits, and between houses- domestic areas. Their tendency to be recovered from domestic contexts may signify ancestral relationships between households.28

Draffkorn (1957) considers comparable passages in selected Nuzi texts and in the Hebrew bible and argues that there is an associated usage of the Akkadian term etemmu, most often understood as meaning “ghost” and less often as “the spirit of the dead, ancestral spirit or image”, with the Hebrew noun elohim or teraphim. She relates the Biblical example from Genesis 31 in which Rachel steals the elohim of her father when she flees his house with her husband, Jacob. Laban, Rachel’s father, pursues them and the theft is clearly a grave matter, as Jacob says, “any one with whom you find your gods shall not live” Laban searches their tents but finds nothing because Rachel has hidden the elohim in her camel bag, on which she sits. According to Draffkorn, two critical points are revealed in this passage. First, Rachel’s theft of the house gods, or elohim, is significant because of their social and ritual importance. Possession of the house gods indicates that it is her husband’s family and not her father’s who will maintain the ancestral cult, and therefore they are the legitimate heirs to the cultic authority of the elohim. Secondly, it is a physical object that Rachel has stolen and it is a physical object for which Laban searches. The elohim are tangible, they are portable, and they are small enough to be concealed in a camel bag.26

Overall, the evidence suggests that the ancestral household gods were the focus of the domestic cult. They were understood to be attached, either physically, conceptually or both, to the main family residence. Possession of the gods was accompanied by the responsibility to perform and maintain the necessary rituals. Furthermore, the gods of the house were an intrinsic part of the social, economic and legal life of the family. The association between these ancestral household gods and figurines, as argued by Liebowitz, van Loon, Draffkorn and Parker Pearson is certainly a possibility. It has also been proposed that Bronze Age Syrian figurines may have been used as symbols or icons of a widely acknowledged divine figure, known within the general populace and not particular to a single extended family or household. Much of the discussion in the literature of figurine scholarship regarding the possible divine nature of the figures depicted by clay figurines concerns the mold-made plaques of the LB period, which are often (perhaps misleadingly) referred to as “Astarte figurines.” The motif of the nude female combined with the use of a one-piece mold appeared in Babylonia in the late third millennium and migrated into Syria in the second quarter of the second millennium. The motif is attested in Palestine and Egypt in the LB, albeit with local stylistic variations, and continues into the Persian period.29

Parker Pearson’s (1999) comparison between Neolithic figurines of Syria-Palestine and the Jericho skull cult of the Neolithic period27 suggests the possibility that the association between figurines and an ancestor-oriented household cult has its origins in the Neolithic period. The Jericho skull cult is evidenced by the presence of decapitated human skeletons buried beneath the floor of PPNB domestic structures at Jericho in modern-day Palestine. The corresponding skulls, often without the lower mandible, were modeled with mud plaster and the eye sockets were set with cowry shells. These skulls were recovered from the floor surfaces of the domestic structures. Although Parker Pearson’s ideas concern Neolithic figurines in particular, his observations are applicable to Bronze Age figurines as well. Included in his argument are five critical points. First, just as the remains of children and infants are not manipulated in

Van der Toorn (1998) argues that the plaques depicting a nude female are inexpensive accessible replicas of a cult image, and that their wide distribution confirms that the role of the cult image was central in private worship as well as the official cult.30 Along those lines, van der

24

Van Loon 1979, 99-103. Van Loon 1973, 148-9. 26 Draffkorn 1957, 222-3. 27 PPNB, i.e.: Jericho. 25

28

Parker Pearson 1999, 163. Badre 1980. 30 Van der Toorn 1998, 94-5. 29

45

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA Toorn also suggests that the form of the plaque itself may be indicative of a contextualized image, specifically that the background and frame of the plaque may be a schematic representation of a shrine.31 This argument is disconcertingly circular and relies on the acceptance of the presumed fact that the figurines are replicas of the cult image, a presumption that is impossible to confirm since the cult images, made of wood and precious metal, are not preserved in the archaeological record.

dedicated to Ishtar, features the motif of a nude female, and that many complete examples of the MB female figurines were recovered from the MB IB-IIA favissae of Ishtar at Ebla. He proposes that these complete figurines from the favissae were deposited as votive offerings. Similarly, Moorey (2002) notes that the Syrian MB female figurines featuring the motif of nudity are juxtaposed with rider figures, which is also the case with the figurines of the LB and Persian periods. Based on first millennium iconographic evidence from throughout the Near East,36 Moorey suggests a link between the image of the nude female and that of an equestrian goddess, a manifestation of Ishtar-Astarte. Regarding the LB figurines, Moorey proposes that the nude female, or her clothed Persian-period counterpart, depicts not the goddess but the worshippers who are the intended audience of the object. Moorey does not explicitly express a position regarding the function of these objects, but he does cite without contradiction the position of Franken (1995) who proposes that the Iron Age Judean Pillar figurines from Palestine were used as fetishes. Belonging to the private or domestic realm, Franken asserts that fetishes were ephemeral images. Their identity, whatever its nature, was magically bestowed for a short time and then annihilated when the magical act was performed, most likely when the figurine was ritually destroyed.37

In some respects, van der Toorn’s ideas about the moldmade figurines depicting a nude female that were manufactured and used in the LB through the Persian period are comparable to those of Assante (2002). As discussed in the previous chapter, Assante argues that the use of mold technology allowed for the manufacture of a class of authorless icons, the legitimacy of which was derived not from fidelity to a visual prototype such as a cult statue but rather to conformity, standardization and to the process of duplication itself. Assante proposes that these icons were utilized in the practice of domestic religion, ostensibly as objects of veneration. Van der Toorn argues that the plaques served as icons, keeping the “real” image in mind and memory, then further proposes that in various circumstances these icons may have been used as vehicles of apotropaic or sympathetic magic, which would account for the diverse archaeological contexts of their recovery.32

The evidence and scholarship concerning Near Eastern figurines indicates that there are several issues that must be considered regarding both Voigt’s function-type profile, and the interpretation of any individual or group of Bronze Age Syrian figurines as divine images used as objects of worship or veneration. Obviously, the functiontype profile described above refers to cult images; however, it can be asserted with near certainty that the clay figurines that typically appear in the archaeological record broken, recycled or discarded in trash or debris are not an official cult image which, once activated by the washing and opening of the mouth, was considered a living manifestation of the god.38 However, the category of “divine image(s)” can include other kinds of divine images aside from the cult figure however, including replicas, icons and household gods. The identification of an individual or group of figurines as “divine images” does not necessarily indicate that they functioned exclusively as objects of worship or veneration. An iconic

Several authors assert that the image of the nude female, which is present in both the MB and LB, is not an image of a goddess per se, but rather an image intended to invoke the idea of her by depicting a representation of her attributes, her worshippers or her hierodules. In his discussion of the MB figurines from Ebla, Marchetti (2000) addresses the motif of nudity as manifested by the MB female figurines.33 Marchetti believes that the figurines indirectly refer to Ishtar via the motif of nudity, which he associates with fertility and the cult of the goddess and thus to her hierodules. Marchetti’s position, that the nude female is associated with, but distinct from the character of Ishtar, echoes that of Frankfort (1939) who suggested that she represented a priestess or female worshipper who had once served as a temple hierodule.34 It also corresponds to the ideas of Wiggerman (1998) who proposes that the motif of the nude female is a depiction of the baštu, and that, “the evidence points to a close relation with personality (soul), good luck, prosperity and sexual emotions and that she is therefore linked to Inanna/Ishtar, whose domain is private life.”35 Marchetti supports his position by noting that a fragment of a basin recovered from temple P2 at Ebla, which is

36 Horses, when they appear in the iconography of New Kingdom Egyptian art, are associated with the Western Asiatic goddess Astarte, who is shown riding. In LB Palestine, representations of a “nude goddess” depict her standing on a horses’ back as well, and this figure has been associated with Astarte or a cognate goddess. In eighth century Syria, the nude female motif is featured on detached blinkers and frontlets for horses either rendered in hammered sheet metal or carved in ivory for attachment to leather harness-fittings; and the image is also shown on a stone three dimensional horse’s head from Sinjirli in Anatolia. Moorey 2002, 212; cf. Leclant (1960); Clamer (1980); Keel and Uehlinger (1998, 66-8, figs. 71-2; Hadley 2002, 163 and Kantor (1962). 37 Franken 1995, 239. 38 Cf. Berlejung 1996.

31

Van der Toorn 1998, 95. Van der Toorn, 1998, 94. 33 To refer to the MB female figurines from Umm el-Marra refer to the Type Ten through Twelve hand modeled head fragments and the Type Twenty-six and Twenty-seven hand modeled body fragments. 34 Frankfort 1939, 160. 35 Wiggerman 1998, 52-3. 32

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CHAPTER THREE: FUNCTION, DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS image of a divine figure, whether it is a replica of a cult image or an intentionally authorless, self-authorizing image, may function as an object of veneration or contemplation. However, this does not preclude the possibility that it was manipulated or used in other ways as well. The limitation of this function-type description is therefore twofold: first, it equates a direct correspondence between what the figure represents or means, and how it was used; and second, it does not allow for the possibility that an individual or group of figurines may have had more than one function during its, or their, use-life. For example, even though the nude female figures of the MB and LB periods may depict a goddess and may have been perceived as an icon, this does not preclude their use as a vehicle of magic or, in the case of the MB female figurines recovered from the favissae at Ebla, a votive deposit.

figurines may indicate the repetition of a ritual in a single locale, or by the use of several figurines in a single ritual.46 Textual evidence from the ancient Near East regarding the use of figurines as vehicles of apotropaic magic is derived from first millennium texts from Assyria and Babylonia. From the early first millennium occupation of the Assyrian site of Nimrud, there is a magical text47 documenting a ritual associated with the official religion of the Assyrian state, the purpose of which is to avert evil from the palace. This ritual prescribes the manufacture of figurines made of clay and sometimes wood, the recitation of an incantation, and the ritual burial of the figurines in groups of seven beneath the floors of the palace at specified locations.48 There is a considerable degree of correlation between the figures described in this text and clay figurines recovered from various locations at Nimrud. Over thirty figurines were recovered from Fort Shalmaneser. Some display the faces and wings of birds and others are depicted wearing fish-cloaks: both are described in and prescribed by this magical text. While the winged, bird-faced figures were found in a late seventh century context49 there were over thirty figurines found in the debris of the so-called barrack rooms, which are of an earlier date. Those figurines from the barrack rooms depicting the fishcloaked figure display a variation of style, suggesting the examples from this context may have been made at different times and then reused.50 Another group of clay figurines, probably dating to the late ninth century, was recovered from the Southeast palace,51 and still another group was recovered from the burnt palace.52 The ritual text mentioned above also describes the creation of clay figurines depicting three characters that are depicted in the doorway reliefs at Nimrud. These characters are the ugallu, the lahmu and the house god, who makes a gesture with his right hand and carries a weapon in his left.53

Vehicles of Magic As known from textual sources, Near Eastern figurines used as vehicles of apotropaic or sympathetic magic were used in rituals intended to produce, prevent or reverse a specific situation or state.39 Apotropaic magic refers to those rites wherein the figurine is used as a means of protection, such as a talisman intended to ensure or protect fertility, health or security, or to ward off evil. Sympathetic magic is based on the belief that an affinity can be created between the subject of the rite and the figurine, wherein the manipulation of the figurine is understood to have a direct effect on the subject of the rite. An example of sympathetic magic are the magicalmedicinal rites to address illness or distress caused by ghosts or enemies. According to Voigt’s function-class profile, figurines that are manipulated as vehicles of magic are usually small, portable and made of clay, wax or other organic substances.40 They may depict humans or animals and may appear male, female or sexless. These figurines may be used individually or in groups and, although they may be used over an extended period,41 they are usually made and disposed of as part of a single behavioral sequence. Figurines used as vehicles of magic may be deposited within and recovered from the fabric of domestic structures;42 in pits in open areas; in bodies of water;43 or in domestic debris.44 Sometimes they display no wear,45 but they often display signs of burning or ruinous damage that occurred as part of the magical rite and/or deposition process. Figurines of this function-class are characterized by fresh breaks in a consistent location, for example at the neck and/or waist, and parts of broken figures are frequently separated at the time of deposition. Groups of

Textual sources regarding the use of figurines as vehicles of sympathetic magic are also from the first millennium, and derive from Mesopotamia as well. Scurlock (1988) addresses a group of Babylonian and Assyrian first millennium texts from Assur, Nineveh, Sippar, Babylon and Uruk, which record the magical-medicinal rituals54 and incantations used by exorcists to interact with the dead. The texts are concerned with expelling ghosts, which were perceived to be the cause of illness or 46

Voigt 1983, 192. Gurney (1935). 48 The text is published as Gurney (1935); Green (1983) concerns the figurines themselves. 49 D. Oates in Iraq 23 (1961) 8 f. pl. III no 6. 50 D. Oates in Iraq 21 (1959); cf. Green 1983, 89. 51 M. Mallowan in Iraq 16 (1954); cf. George Smith Assyrian Discoveries London (1875) p. 78 and Green 1983, 88-89. 52 M. Mallowan in Iraq 16, 1954, 80, 87 and 93 and pl. XIX. 53 Green 1983, 92. 54 Scurlock 1988, 8. 47

39

Voigt 1983, 186 and 195; Green 1983, 87-96. They are rarely made of precious materials. 41 For example, when worn as an amulet. 42 Within walls, floors, or beneath floors especially at thresholds. 43 Streams, pools, wells. 44 Voigt 1983, 190 cf. Ucko 1962, 47-8. 45 Unless that resulting from contact if worn as an amulet. 40

47

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA affliction, and often include the manufacture and manipulation of a figurine as a central aspect of the ritual55.

order to inflict harm. The ritual determined that “machinations have been practiced against him in front of Ishtar and Tammuz; the figurines representing him have been laid in a grave.”65 In this case, figurines appear to have been used by the witch or sorcerer who has caused the affliction.

According to these texts, before clay could be used to make the figurine, the source pit had to be purified. Offerings of precious metals, stones and/or flour were put into the pit, and these offerings were considered the purchase price for the clay.56 The clay was sometimes mixed with other ingredients such as tallow, wax, ox blood, flour, or straw mixed with excrement and urine.57 The figurine might then have been dressed, anointed with oil, and outfitted with necklaces of carnelian or red wool. An accessory might be added, such as a spindle, reed, staff, ax, water pipe (such as was used to make libations to the dead) or ox horn.58

Since the textual evidence providing insight into the use of anthropomorphic figurines as vehicles of apotropaic or sympathetic magic is derived from first millennium Mesopotamia, it can not provide a documentation of the practices of the inhabitants of Bronze Age Umm elMarra. At best, the later textual evidence provides an ethnohistorical analogy that should be used conservatively, always considering the geographic and temporal distance between these two cultures. However, this analogy does provide a model of how figurines used as vehicles of magic may have been manufactured, used and disposed of. A consideration of the first millennium Mesopotamian sources reveals that the magical uses of figurines includes a range of behaviors and activities that may be reflected in the archaeological record, including both pious burial and the ritual destruction of the artifact. Conversely, some associated behaviors and practices such as the recitation of formulaic incantations and the symbolic feeding and clothing of the figurine, are not reflected archaeologically. This ambiguity is reflected in Voigt’s description of this function class wherein many of the properties described, including elements of their form, style, wear, disposal and disposition, create seemingly contradictory possibilities. Therefore, even within this single function-class, the objects within it may have been used differently from one another.

The figurine served as a substitute for either the afflicted patient, the ghost, the witch believed to have caused the illness, or a manifestation of the illness itself.59 The subject, be it the patient, ghost, witch or affliction, could then be manipulated via the manipulation of the figurine. In those cases where it was determined that the cause of the patient’s suffering was a ghost, the destruction of the figurine was not required. Ghosts were believed to torment their victims because of an improper burial or inadequate funerary offerings, and were therefore pitied as much as feared. Thus the solution was to bury them magically, and this is what most of these magicalmedicinal texts prescribe.60 Prior to their magical burial, the figurine may be given food, offerings, provisions or libations. To ensure that the figure remained buried it might be magically maltreated or bound or it might have something stuck in its mouth.61 The buried figurine was sometimes placed in a model coffin, jar, bowl or gazelle horn facing the setting sun. Finally, the figurine could be placed in a tomb or family burial place, on a canal bank or in a small boat to be sent downstream. In other cases, the figurine might be burned, bound or destroyed.62

Initiation, Teaching Figurines Figurines used to teach behaviors, values, sexual facts and sexual mores during initiation ceremonies are known ethnographically,66 but this function is not attested in ethno-historical sources from ancient Syria or Mesopotamia. The function-class profile provided by Voigt provides a general analogy that, due to the nature of her source material, is extremely ambiguous. This profile describes teaching or initiation figurines as composed of either rare and costly or common organic materials; they vary widely in style, technical competence, size and subject. After use, these figures may be stored, disposed of in a body of water, domestic trash or debris, or burned.67 The most consistent characteristic of this function-class is that these figures

First millennium Babylonian magical-medicinal texts also mention the use of figurines.63 Stol (1999) discusses several texts describing rites used to treat sexual impotence in which the figurine was used to determine whether the cause of the affliction was divine or the result of sorcery.64 Another text refers to the use of figurines in 55

Scurlock 1988, 50. Scurlock 1988, 49-50. 57 Scurlock 1988, 52-53. 58 Scurlock 1988 55-6; cf. van Loon 1973 and 1979 for an EB clay figurine recovered from a sub-floor pit at Selenkahiye modeled so that it appears to be holding an ox horn (?) against its chest. 59 Scurlock 1988, 50, 53-4. 60 Scurlock 1988, 56-7. 61 Scurlock 1988, 58. 62 Scurlock 1988, 61-4. 63 Stol 1999, 58. 64 “You mix together dough made of emmer-wheat and potter’s clay; you make figurines of a man and a woman, put them one upon the other and place them at the (sick) man’s head, then recite [the incantation] seven times. You remove them and [put them n]ear a pig. If the pig approaches, (it means) Hand of Ishtar; (if) the pig does not approach 56

[the figurines], (it means) that Sorcery has seized that man.” [KAR 70:6-10; SBTU I 9:5-7). 65 Stol 1999, 59 citing BAM 3 319 or Farber in BID 227 (1977) 236hauptritual B 1-14. 66 Examples of didactic figurines are known from African sources where they are associated with ceremonies held at puberty for girls and boys, and also other rites of passage including marriage, ceremonies after the birth of a child and ceremonies marking the entry into secret societies. Cf. Voigt 1983, 186-7; Ucko 1968, 429-30 both Ucko and Voigt cite Cory (1951). 67 Voigt 1983, 190 and 192.

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CHAPTER THREE: FUNCTION, DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS were often used for a brief time where they were handled carefully, resulting in minor wear only.

below. The Umm el-Marra figurines are all broken, typically across the body and neck. One would expect that toys would display a less consistent breakage pattern. Finally, considering the duration of the Bronze Age occupation at Umm el-Marra, the site has yielded surprisingly few anthropomorphic figurines, and their styles remain nearly unchanged for hundreds of years at a time. Their rarity, combined with the continuity of their style indicates that although they were used infrequently their visual attributes were fixed in the cultural consciousness and executed faithfully. The use of a standardized style implies the existence of a set of rules, formal or informal, consciously or unconsciously acknowledged, governing the manufacture of these objects. The acceptance of this standardized style via the adherence to these rules over the course of multiple generations suggests a degree of thought and intent regarding their manufacture that is more formal and codified than one would expect were they intended for use as a toy or plaything.

This proposed educational or instructional function can be rejected as highly unlikely. First, there is no supporting evidence either textual or contextual indicating that Bronze Age Syrian figurines were used in initiation or teaching rituals. Second, the least ambiguous attribute of this function class - that they are used for a brief time, handled carefully and exhibit only minor wear - is thoroughly contradicted by the Umm el-Marra corpus, which exhibits considerable stylistic continuity and wherein breakage is the norm. Toys, Dolls Several authors suggest the possibility that figurines may have been used as objects of play, entertainment or decoration.68 Voigt (1983) describes the function type profile for figurines used as toys as being made of common substances including clay, wood or other organic materials. They may be crudely or skillfully manufactured, are usually small and portable, and their subjects include animals, humans69 and imaginary beings. They may be used in groups, although larger figures tend to be used alone. Figures made of less durable materials tend to be used for brief periods of time, while more durable figures may be used for years because figures used for play tend to be handled roughly or carelessly.70 These objects are used in domestic contexts, both inside domiciles and in open areas. Morphologically, figurines used in this way that are recovered archaeologically may display chipped or scratched surfaces, especially at the base of standing figures and their appendages may be broken. The broken or chipped areas may be worn due to continued use after breakage. Therefore, one would expect to find no systematic pattern of ruinous damage, except at points of structural weakness. When discarded, they are never disposed of in ritual contexts, but are treated like any other kind of domestic trash and would be associated with ordinary refuse such as bones, sherds or other kinds of broken artifacts.71

Certainly it is a possibility that even if this were not the purpose for which the Umm el-Marra figurines were created, some figurines may have been used as toys . However, while the creation and manipulation of figurines by children for amusement has been observed in contemporary Iran and Iraq,72 to suggest that this was the exclusive purpose of the entirety of the Umm el-Marra corpus, or of a selected group of a single formal or chronological type or even an individual artifact, is to draw conclusions that are unsubstantiated by the archaeological and visual analyses of the corpus. In short, there is no ethnohistorical data from ancient Syria or Mesopotamia that either supports or refutes the possibility that the Bronze Age figurines were manufactured for the express purpose of children’s play. Furthermore, the archaeological and stylistic evidence indicates that this is not the case. A Functional Analysis of the Umm el-Marra Corpus: Methodology Although the meaning of individual or groups of figurines may be determined to an extent by morphological aspects, their function may intersect classes based on visual attributes. To a degree, these differences in function may be discerned archaeologically. The methodology used in this chapter is based on the function-type profiles constructed by Voigt, focusing on those factors visible in the archaeological record that reflect the behavior and/or practice associated with the use and disposal of the figurines.73 These factors include breakage and breakage patterns, associated artifacts and ecofacts, and the nature of the matrices from

There are several contextual and morphological issues that weigh against the interpretation of any or all of the Umm el-Marra figurines as toys or dolls as defined by Voigt. The first is the recovery of EB figurine fragments from sub-floor pits and from the late MB I/early MB II layer of cobbles and sherds. Both of these contexts, it is argued below, indicate ritualistic behavior associated with their disposal. The second is their consistent and seemingly systematic breakage, also described further 68 Ucko 1968, 421-3; van der Toorn 1998, 92-93; Voigt 1983, 186. See also Pumpelly 1980, 172 and Kenyon 1956, 186 and 1957, 59-60 as cited in Ucko 1968, 421. 69 Of either sex, and sexual characteristics may be either absent or explicit. 70 Although Earthy 1933, 87 notes that Valenge girls who both model and manipulate figures of clay take great care of them. 71 Voigt 1983, 190 and 192 cf. Ucko 1962, 47-8 for further detail regarding the ethnographic source material.

72

Ochsenschlager 1974 and Watson 1979, based on ethnographic observation done at al-Hiba (Iraq) and western Iran, respectively cf. Voigt 1983, 187. 73 This classification system is therefore different from that of the previous chapter, which concerned those attributes related to meaning that might be discerned via an analysis of their style.

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA which the object is recovered. It also includes the distribution of figurines recovered from various excavation areas throughout the tell and the features or structures from which figurines are recovered, including those cases where their presence is indicative of recycling or reuse.

The Early Bronze Age The formal types of figurines whose period of manufacture and use has been attributed to the EB include the Type One,81 Three,82 Four,83 Five,84 Six,85 and Seven86 hand-modeled head fragments, the Type Thirteen,87 Fourteen through Twenty-five,88 Twentyeight,89 Twenty-nine,90 Thirty,91 and Thirty-one92 handmodeled body fragments, and the Type Thirty-three93 hand-modeled base fragments.

In the previous chapter, it was noted that the style74 of the Bronze Age figurines from Umm el-Marra changes over time and it was suggested that this change in morphology might be indicative of a change in the behaviors and/or activities associated with these objects. Generally, one might assume that within a given corpus those artifacts that look alike probably served a similar purpose, i.e. the similarity of appearance ostensibly reflects a congruent similarity in meaning.75 It is important to note that this is not always the case. Although there is a relationship between style (or aspects of style) and meaning - and meaning and function are clearly related - the relationship between morphology and function does not often have a direct and exclusive one-to-one correspondence.76 A modern-day example that illustrates this point would be a figure of an infant, which may be a child’s toy or, if placed in a model crèche, may be a symbol of a divine figure displayed as part of an annual religious observance. In this case, the interpretation of the object in question requires a consideration of other factors, including wear and breakage,77 associated objects,78 context79 and a familiarity with an authoritative text.80 For this reason observations and insights derived from the visual analysis of the Umm el-Marra corpus are incorporated into the functional analysis presented in this chapter in concert with those factors, described above, which contribute to the identification of the behaviors and activities requiring and/or associated with their use.

Archaeological Patterning

Context:

Spatial

Distribution

and

The overwhelming majority of the EB figurines, 92%, were recovered from the acropolis. This is no doubt largely due to the fact that excavation of EB occupational levels has focused on the acropolis, whereas EB levels have only been exposed outside of the acropolis in West Area A. Of the 121 EB figurine fragments in the Umm el-Marra Bronze Age corpus, twenty-one are from Acropolis East,94 sixteen are from Acropolis Center,95 forty-eight are from Acropolis North,96 and twenty-six are from Acropolis West.97 The remaining ten EB fragments were recovered from the periphery of the tell. Of these remaining ten fragments, three are from the North Area,98 one is from the Northwest Area,99 two are from West Area C,100 three are from West Area A101 and one is from the Southwest Area.102 Although it cannot be asserted that figurine disposal and possibly figurine related activity in the EB period was largely limited to the 81

Cat. no. 1. Cat. nos. 4-8. 83 Cat. nos. 9-13. 84 Cat. no. 14. 85 Cat. no. 15. 86 Cat. nos. 16 and 17. 87 Cat. no. 24. 88 The Type Fourteen through Twenty-five fragments are all handmodeled, stalk-shaped body fragments, organized into formal types based on the presence/number of neck ornaments and arms. The catalogue numbers of these formal types are as follows: Type Fourteen (cat. nos. 25-9); Fifteen (cat. nos. 30 and 31); Sixteen (cat. nos. 32-7); Seventeen (cat. nos. 38-41); Eighteen (cat. nos. 42-4); Nineteen (cat. nos. 45- 7); Twenty (cat. nos. 48-56); Twenty-one (cat. nos. 57-62); Twenty-two (cat. nos. 63-5); Twenty-three (cat. nos. 66 and 67); Twenty-four (cat. no. 68) and Twenty-five (cat. no. 69). 89 Cat. nos. 94-6. 90 Cat. nos. 97-100. 91 Cat. nos. 101 and 102. 92 Cat. nos. 103-11. 93 Cat. nos. 115-56. 94 Cat. nos. 1, 4, 16, 17, 24, 25, 32, 45, 49-51, 66, 69, 94, 97, 103, 115117, 120 and 126. 95 Cat. nos. 12, 36, 37, 44, 52, 65, 110, 111, 131, 138, 139 and 150-152, 154 and 155. 96 Cat. nos. 5, 8, 9-11, 14, 28-31, 33-35, 38-40, 53, 61-63, 67, 68, 95, 96, 99, 100, 104, 106-109, 128-130, 133-136, 140-143 and 145-149. 97 Cat. nos. 6, 13, 15, 26, 27, 41, 42, 43, 46, 47, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 102, 105, 119, 122-124, 127, 132, 144, 153 and 156. 98 Cat. nos. 54, 60 and 64. 99 Cat. no. 48. 100 Cat. nos. 7 and 98. 101 Cat. nos. 101, 118 and 125. 102 Cat. no. 121. 82

In the sections below, each of these groups - EB, MB and LB - will be addressed in turn. The following factors will then be considered: their depositional patterns throughout the tell, their matrices, the structures and features with which they are associated, evidence of re-use or recycling, their associated artifacts and ecofacts, and their breakage patterns. The implications of these factors will then be addressed with an emphasis on continuity and/or change over time.

74

Form, subject, motif(s) and techno-visual factors. Voigt 1983, 191. Voigt 1983, 188-9. 77 One might expect a toy to display significant wear, breakage or signs of repair whereas a valued object intended for viewing would not. 78 A toy might be found with other playthings or objects associated with children whereas an image of the infant Jesus might be accompanied by depictions of the characters and setting associated with the nativity scene. 79 A child’s toy might be found in an area associated with children or play such as a nursery whereas a nativity scene might be displayed in a common area of a domicile or community. 80 The nativity scene may be differentiated from the toy via an analysis of the factors listed, but a complete identification of the image requires a familiarity with the New Testament narrative. 75 76

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CHAPTER THREE: FUNCTION, DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS acropolis areas, it is clear that a relatively large amount of figurines were disposed there. It is therefore curious that none of the EB figurines from Umm el-Marra were recovered from the mortuary complex, which is a significant installation of considerable size and importance on the acropolis. The conspicuous omission of figurines from these EB burials strongly suggests that whatever their intended purpose(s) may have been, it apparently did not concern their known dead103 or the acts of their burials.

This feature is the most substantial example of the clustering114 of figurine fragments at Umm el-Marra, and its elucidation as both an architectural feature and a depositional context bears upon the functional interpretation of the artifacts incorporated into its structure. Situated above EB IV and beneath MB II, this feature has been tentatively attributed to the early MB II on the basis of stratigraphy and the identification of two, and a possible third, MB sherds among the preponderance of EB material comprising the feature. If this is the case, then the period of manufacture of the figurine fragments is considerably earlier than that of their dispositional context. This suggests that the figurine fragments incorporated into the layer were recovered from the tell115 and reused as building material. It seems likely that figurine fragments may have been deliberately sought out for inclusion is supported by the fact that the number of figurine fragments incorporated into this feature is a substantial portion, 17%, of the entirety of the EB corpus, more so than one would expect if their inclusion were incidental.

Upon inspection of the concentration of EB figurines recovered from excavation areas on the acropolis, a pattern of spatial distribution emerges. Forty-seven of the 121 EB figurine fragments are clustered in one of four locales. This includes twenty-one EB figurine fragments recovered from a late EB I/Early MB II layer of cobbles and sherds, (Acropolis North); twelve EB figurine fragments recovered from the EB IVB domestic structure (Acropolis East); seven EB figurine fragments recovered from an EB IV domestic/craft production space (Acropolis West) and the seven EB figurine fragments recovered from the building with an apsidal room (Acropolis North).

There are two potential explanations for the inclusion of recovered figurine fragments into this layer: either they were included incidentally or intentionally. Certainly the feature is built of durable things that accumulate over time in, and would be recovered from, the ground as it is cleared for the construction of this or nearby projects. In this case, the anthropomorphic figurine fragments may have been culled incidentally from the earth along with the other materials in order to provide the texture and substance of the feature.116 That their use as recovered building material was the sole reason for the inclusion of these twenty-one figurine fragments seems unlikely, due to the paucity of examples of figurines reused as building material elsewhere at Umm el-Marra. The second possibility is that the figurine fragments were sought out, or intentionally included. In this case, if these objects were understood as activated or enlivened as part of their manufacture and use, then it is possible that their inclusion may have served an apotropaic or other magical or religious purpose. Conversely, if these objects were understood as activated or enlivened as part of their manufacture and use, and if their inclusion is incidental,

The most striking instance of the clustering of EB figurines are the twenty-one fragments104 from what is referred to in the catalogue as “the late MB I/early MB II layer of cobbles and sherds.” Although this layer of cobbles and sherds is tentatively dated to the late early MB II, the anthropomorphic figurine fragments and the diagnostic potsherds are EB and EB IV types, respectively. The layer seems to have formed an outdoor surface or area,105 which may have been a public space.106 It is comprised of cobbles,107 potsherds,108 anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figurine fragments,109 and animal bones.110 Other artifacts incorporated into this feature include a bronze pin,111 model chariot fragments,112 and a clay spindle whorl.113 103 The first millennium magical texts, which describe the use of figurines as a means of dealing with ghosts, are concerned with unknown, and presumably unburied dead who are assumed to be the cause of affliction or distress due to their unburied state. 104 Cat. nos. 5, 8, 9, 29- 31, 35, 39, 61, 68, 96*, 106, 107, 133-137, 142, 143 and 148. 105 It is not a pit. Furthermore, the sherds are all worn and degraded, as if due to exposure or subjected to the elements. 106 There is no indication that it was enclosed by a mud brick wall. 107 Including recycled pestles or grinding stones specifically stone pestle (UMM.00.S.027) and basalt grinding stone (UMM.00.S.111). 108 The diagnostic potsherds recovered from this feature were EB IV types. 109 Object nos. UMM.00.A.031; UMM.00.A.013. 110 Of those that could be identified by species: 49 sheep/goat; 15 gazelle; 21 sheep/goat/gazelle; 35 bovid; 21 equid; 2 pig and 1 dog. Although this assemblage appears to be noteworthy due to the fact that there are more individual examples of bovid than equid, according to zooarchaeologist Jill Weber this is not unusual when the context is a surface or feature (personal communication). For more information on the zooarchaeolgical remains recovered from Umm el-Marra, refer to Schwartz et al. 2000, 43-5 111 Object no. UMM.00.M.042. 112 Object nos. UMM.00.C.003 and UMM.00.C.006.

113

Object no. UMM.00.W.001. The description of this pattern as “clustering” does not imply that these fragments were found in immediate physical proximity to one another but rather that the disposition of a number of EB fragments in the same feature or structure suggests a disposal pattern which warrants further investigation. 115 possibly from the area where the feature was constructed which was, in the EB IV, a locale where a significant number of figurine fragments were clustered 116 The inclusion of the bronze pin is exceptional due to the value of the material, although its inclusion may have been accidental. One possible explanation for its inclusion is that the bronze pin may have been inserted into a Type Nineteen figurine although this is speculative. None of these fragments, cat. nos. 45-47, were recovered from this feature. Another possible explanation is that the bronze pin was used as an axel, and was incorporated into the structure of a model chariot, and that the spindle whorl served as a wheel. For an example of an EB figurine seated in a model chariot, c.f. Badre (1980) pl. V, no. 109 from Hama. 114

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA then this suggests that their power was dissipated when they were (intentionally or unintentionally) destroyed, since they are treated in the same manner as other recycled materials such as potsherds.

the late EB or early MB, numerous figurine fragments were disposed of in this area. It is therefore possible that when the layer of cobbles and sherds was constructed a number of these EB fragments were encountered and became the source of its structure. Perhaps an even more provocative possibility is that this area continued to be associated with the disposal of figurines and that this association has some bearing on the composition of the later feature.

The deliberate incorporation of EB figurine fragments, whether they were recovered and included at a later time or deliberately deposited into this feature at the time of its construction, raises interesting possibilities for interpretation. There are only a few Umm el-Marra figurines recovered in situ. The presence of four fragmentary EB figurines buried in plaster lined, subfloor pits117 at Umm el-Marra is comparable to the EB figurines buried in sub-floor pits at the nearby site of Selenkahiye.118 Catalogue no. 167, a nearly intact LB plaque of a nude female, was also recovered in situ, on the floor of an LB domestic structure near a door socket, and this context is comparable to that of an LB figurine recovered in situ at Tell el-Hajj.119 The few examples from Umm el-Marra that were recovered in situ are derived from domestic contexts, which strongly suggests that the realm of their use is domestic. In light of this, it is interesting to contemplate the possible motivation behind the inclusion of twenty-one EB, anthropomorphic figurine fragments into the layer of cobbles and sherds. In the previous chapter, it was argued that the diversity of forms present in the EB corpus may have reflected the landscape of heterogeneity in terms of individual identity or the identities of individual families during a period when the community was experiencing a consolidation of power and authority. Perhaps the manufacture of the layer was an opportunity for individuals or individual households to contribute a symbolic element to a communal feature, or for a number of individuals to participate in a single, symbolic act. It is also possible that the manufacture of the layer, and the incorporation of the figurine fragments was the act of a single person or household, although this seems less likely due to the number of fragments included in the feature, and the fact that the largest number of figurine fragments recovered from a single domestic structure at Umm el-Marra is seven.

A third cluster is comprised of the twelve EB figurines120 recovered from an EB IVB domestic structure on Acropolis East. In EB IVA this structure is characterized by at least seven residential rooms containing pottery vessels, grinding stones and spindle whorls in situ. In EB IVB this structure features lime-plastered floors, sometimes above a layer of cobbles and several small, circular sub-floor pits measuring 26-60 cm. in diameter. Two of these sub-floor pits, each associated with a different construction episode, contained fragments of anthropomorphic figurines.121 Of the three lime-plaster lined, sub-floor pits in room II, it was the pit in the northwest corner of the room that contained the matching head and torso fragments of catalogue no.1. In room IV, there was one lime-plaster lined, sub-floor pit containing catalogue nos. 17, 32 and 66.122 The seemingly pious burial of these artifacts beneath the floor is comparable to the two groups of figurines discussed above that were recovered from Selenkahiye.123 However, it is important to note that the Selenkahiye figurines were found broken but complete, whereas the Umm el-Marra fragments cannot be joined to form a complete figurine. Aside from the four fragments recovered from sub-floor pits, an additional eight fragments were recovered throughout this structure. Catalogue nos. 24 and 45 were found in debris beneath the floor, cat. 4 is from the stone foundation of an EB IVB wall, and cat. nos. 25, 94, 115, 116 and 126 were all from EB IVB debris inside the structure. EB figurines were recovered from various contexts within this EB domestic structure, including those from in subfloor pits, domestic debris, and incorporated into the stone foundation of a wall. This indicates that even within a single period and locale at least one aspect of their use, their disposal, varies. For example, if all of these figurines had been deposited in sub-floor pits, then surely the majority would not have been recovered from domestic debris. This variation in the disposition of the recovered EB figurines is reminiscent of the first millennium Mesopotamian sources regarding the use of figurines as vehicles of apotropaic and sympathetic magic. As mentioned above, figurines used in this way may be buried beneath floors,124 or disposed of in any

A second cluster of EB figurine fragments warranting further attention are those seven EB figurines that were recovered in and around an EB IVB structure featuring an apsidal room, located beneath the later late MB I/early MB II layer of cobbles and sherds. Two fragments, cat. nos. 11 and 141 are from inside this building: catalogue no. 11 is from debris just above the white plastered sloping floor feature beside the apsidal room; cat. no. 141 is from debris inside the apsidal room itself. The other five fragments, cat. nos. 40, 53, 108, 109 and 140 are from EB IVB debris immediately outside of this structure. It is noteworthy that prior to the construction of the layer of cobbles and sherds, whether it was built in

120

Cat. nos. 1, 4, 17, 24, 25, 32, 45, 66, 94, 115, 116 and 126. Schwartz et al. 2000, 423-425. 122 A fragment of a model chariot and a quadruped zoomorphic figurine were also found in this sub-floor pit. 123 Van Loon 1979, 102-3 124 Gurney 1935 and Oates 1961. 121

117

Cat. nos. 1, 17, 32 and 66. Van Loon 1973, 148-9, 1979, 102-3. 119 Stucky 1975, 166. 118

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CHAPTER THREE: FUNCTION, DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS bones,131 suggesting that their contexts were likely to have been in places where food refuse was disposed of and/or where trash was burned. The fact that cat. no. 97 is from beneath an oven obviously suggests that the ash and animal bones are associated with cooking activity.

number of ways including burial, burning, binding, set into a boat and sent downstream or casting into water.125 Finally, a cluster of seven EB fragments was recovered from the EB IVB domestic/craft production space. This structure features a set of rooms with plaster bins and other plaster features. The entrance is flanked by two plaster-lined, mud brick benches, one of which contained cat. no. 13 along with numerous potsherds. Catalogue no. 153 was from just above the cobble surface, near a plaster bin at the entrance and cat. nos. 15, 41, 55, 56, 15 and 156 were all from debris inside these rooms.

In addition to evidence of burning, there is a second issue regarding the archaeological context from which the EB figurine fragments have been recovered that warrants further attention. A number of EB figurine fragments appear to have been re-used, or recycled in features dating to later periods. The recovery of fragments from bricky matrices132 may be the result of the fragment’s inclusion into the mud brick. Additionally, some EB figurine fragments have been recovered from contexts where they were clearly re-used or recycled and used as building material where they were used in MB II floor surfaces,133 incorporated into MB II walls,134 an LB outdoor surface,135 and LB street,136 or the floor surface or wall foundation of an LB domicile.137 Examples of reuse or recycling do not include the twenty-two EB figurine fragments recovered from debris attributed to a later period.138 The presence of these EB figurine fragments in debris attributed to later periods may be explained as the result of turbation and other site formation processes.

In all, forty-seven of the 121 EB figurine fragments were recovered in one of the four clusters described above. In addition to these, several other EB figurines were found in the same structure or feature as other EB figurines, or in immediate association with a figurine fragment attributed to a later period. Unlike the more central areas of the tell, none of the EB figurine fragments recovered from excavation areas along the periphery of the tell were found in association with other EB figurines, with only one exception: cat. no. 125, which was found inside the lower chamber of a kiln filled with EB ceramics, located in West Area A126- these examples derive from LB127 or Hellenistic/Achaemenid128 contexts or from topsoil.129

Associated Material Culture

When considering the archaeological contexts of the Umm el-Marra figurines, it is important to keep in mind the meaning of that context. Although the disposal of individual figurines is a part of the use life of the artifact, it is difficult to discern the difference between the manner in which the object was discarded by the individual who manufactured and/or used the figurine and the circumstances of its recovery. The recovery of a significant portion of the EB corpus from four clusters in three locales on the acropolis however, suggests that their disposal was patterned. It may be asserted that the disposal of figurines, or figurine fragments, tended to focus on the acropolis and that some areas of the acropolis appear to have been favored. It is noteworthy that to date, no EB figurine fragments have been recovered from inside or in the immediate vicinity of the EB mortuary structures located on the acropolis.

Aside from the omnipresent potsherds, the most common class of material associated with EB figurine fragments is animal bone. Excluding the seventeen EB fragments that were recovered during the 2002 excavation season139 for which zooarchaeological data is currently unavailable, sixty-one of the 121EB fragments were recovered in association with animal bones.140 Of the animal bones associated with the EB figurines, 390 individual examples could be identified by species141 and of these: 175 are sheep/goat, twenty-three are gazelle, and thirtyfour are sheep/goat/gazelle.142 The thirty-four examples 131

Cat. nos. 16, 25, 28, 42, 47, 97, 101, 105, 109, 115, 116, 118, 122124, 132 and 144. 132 For example, cat. nos. 43, 59, 64, 97 and 117. 133 Cat. no. 57. 134 Cat. no. 128. 135 Cat. no. 7. 136 Cat. no. 118. 137 Cat. nos. 54 and 38, respectively. 138 Cat. nos. 14, 52, 119 and 150 are from MB debris; cat. nos. 123, 124 and 132 are from ashy MB debris; cat. no. 28 is from an ashy MB II pit; cat. nos. 33, 49, 51, 99, 130 are from MB II debris; cat. nos. 42, 47, 105 and 122 are from ashy MB II debris; cat. no. 43 is from bricky, MB II debris; cat. nos. 97 and 117 are from bricky, ashy MB II debris; cat. no. 129 is from LB debris; cat. no. 48 is from Hellenistic debris; cat. no. 60 is from Hellenistic/Achaemenid debris. 139 Cat. nos. 12, 13, 15, 40, 41, 44, 55, 56, 65, 110, 111 and 150-156. 140 Cat. nos. 3, 5-9, 11, 16, 25, 26, 29- 31, 34, 35, 39, 42- 44, 47, 51, 52, 54, 58, 60, 64, 67- 69, 77, 96, 97, 99- 101, 103, 104, 109, 115- 118, 120, 122- 124, 128- 130, 133- 136, 140- 142, 144, 146 and 105. 141 Excluding those identified only as small/medium/large bone fragments of a species that could not be determined. 142 Sheep and goat cannot be distinguished osteologically, and in some cases the specimens cannot be that specifically identified as either sheep

Archaeological Context: Evidence for Burning and Recycling Twenty EB figurine fragments were recovered from an ashy matrices,130 indicating that their depositions, or their depositional contexts, were accompanied by burning. Of these, seventeen were also accompanied by animal 125

Scurlock 1988, 61-4. Schwartz et al. 2000, 427-9. 127 Cat. nos. 7 and 54. 128 Cat. nos. 48, 60 and 64. 129 Cat. no. 98. 130 Cat. nos. 16, 25, 28, 42, 45, 47, 59, 97, 101, 102, 105, 109, 115, 116, 118, 122- 124, 132 and 144. 126

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA that are identified as sheep/goat/gazelle introduce a variable in the identification of the categories of sheep/goat and gazelle and it is proposed that the identifiable animal bones of these categories may be 175209 sheep/goat and twenty-three to fifty-seven gazelle. Additionally, there are seventy-eight equid, fifty-three bovid, fifteen dog, nine pig, two deer and one bird.143

Taking into account these fifty-two examples there are sixty-four fragments that are decapitated. Of all the EB upper body fragments, there is only one example, catalogue no. 10, where the head is not separated from the shoulders. Of the 121 EB fragments, forty-seven are broken across the body. This includes forty-one base fragments that are broken across the body158 and six fragments of stalk shaped bodies that are broken above the base and then a second time across the body.159 Taking into account the fifty-two examples described above where there is a break at the neck and a second break across the body at the chest,160 midriff161 or below the midriff,162 there are a total of ninety-nine fragments featuring breaks across the body.

In addition to animal bones the EB figurine fragments were recovered in association with various types of artifacts. Thirteen EB anthropomorphic figurine fragments were recovered in association with zoomorphic figurines or figurine fragments;144 eleven with fragments of terracotta model chariots;145 four with clay spindle whorls146 and one with a bronze pin.147 Three EB fragments were recovered in association with bone objects consisting of awls148 and a bone spatula.149 Additionally, fifteen EB figurines were recovered in association with stone objects including two figurines recovered along with a basalt ring;150 ten with stone pestles;151 and three with grinding stones.152

As stated above, none of the 121 EB figurines are intact. Furthermore, no single figurine may be reconstructed in its entirety from the recovered fragments. This suggests two things: first, that the figurines are either broken during their use or at the time of their disposal, and second, that once broken, fragments were either intentionally disposed of separately or one part was destroyed. Due to the fact that no single figurine may be wholly reconstructed, it is not possible to draw definitive conclusions regarding the breakage pattern of the corpus in its entirety, although it may be asserted that appendages extending away from the body are typically broken off. The decapitation of the figure also appears to be typical, because there is only one example, cat. no. 10, of an upper body fragment where the head has not been separated from the shoulders. The figure is also usually broken across the body at least once, and sometimes twice.

Breakage All of the 121 EB examples are fragmentary and therefore each displays at least one, and often multiple break(s). With the exception of cat. no. 97, all of the torso fragments that appear to have had appendages extending away from the body are broken so that the extending appendages are not preserved.153 Twelve examples are head fragments that are broken at the neck.154 In addition to these, there are fifty-two examples where there is a break at the neck and then again across the body either across the chest,155 midriff156 or below the midriff.157

broken so the left arm is not preserved); 45 (also the left arm is broken off at the shoulder). Cf. cat. nos. 46, 54, 56, 58-64, 66, 97-100 and 105. 157 Cat. nos. 24 (also, both arms are broken off at the shoulders); 25 (also both arms are broken off at the shoulders); 26 (also both arms are broken off at the shoulders); 35 (also broken down the middle vertically, the right side is not preserved); 38 (also the left arm is broken off),; 39; 40 (also the left arm is broken off at the shoulder, and the front is chipped). Cf. cat. nos. 48-53, 55, 57, 65, 67-69, 101 and 102. 158 Cat. nos. 115-156. 159 Cat. nos. 32, 94, 95, 96, 103 and 106. 160 Cat. nos. 27 (also broken on both sides, so that the arms are broken off above the shoulders); 30 (above shoulders); 30 also broken on both sides so the arms are broken off at the shoulders), 41 (also broken vertically so the right side is not preserved); 42 (also broken down the middle so the right side is not preserved); 44 (also broken on the left side, and the right arm is broken- may have been a two headed figurine) and 47 (broken vertically so the right arm is not preserved). 161 Cat. nos. 1 (also both arms are broken off at the shoulders); 28 (also both arms are broken off, the left at the shoulder, and the right extends in a short stump); 29 (also both arms are broken off at the shoulders); 33 (also the left arm is broken off below the shoulder); 43 (also the side is broken so the left arm is not preserved); 45 (also the left arm is broken off at the shoulder). Cf. cat. nos. 46, 54, 56, 58-64, 66, 97-100 and 105 (also the left arm is broken off at the shoulder and the right arm appears non-existent). 162 Cat. nos. 24 (also, both arms are broken off at the shoulders); 25 (also both arms are broken off at the shoulders); 26 (also both arms are broken off at the shoulders); 35 (also broken down the middle vertically, the right side is not preserved); 38 (also the left arm is broken off); 39 and 40 (also the left arm is broken off at the shoulder, and the front is chipped). Cf. cat. nos. 48- 53, 55, 57, 65, 67-69, 101 and 102.

or goat, or gazelle. In these cases, the specimen is identified as sheep/goat or gazelle. 143 Obviously, the bones of birds are very small and more difficult to recover than larger specimens. 144 Cat. nos. 17, 29- 32, 35, 64, 66, 125, 130, 133, 136 and 137. 145 Cat. nos. 17, 32, 35, 39, 66, 96, 109, 133, 134, 136, 137. 146 Cat. nos. 3, 39, 54 and 96. 147 Cat no. 68. 148 Cat. nos. 100 and 102. 149 Cat. no. 102. 150 Cat. nos. 39 and 96. 151 Cat. no. 60 was found with 6 individual pestles, and cat. nos. 26, 35, 39, 96, 109, 133, 134 and 136 were each found with a single example. Also note that cat. no. 1 was recovered from a sub-floor pit beneath an EB IVB room containing a stone pestle. 152 Cat. nos. 3, 77 and 148. 153 Cf. cat. nos. 1, 24-29, 33, 36, 38, 44, and 45. 154 Cat. nos. 4-9 and 12-17. 155 Cat. nos. 27 (also broken on both sides so that the arms are broken off above the shoulders; 30 (also broken on both sides so the arms are broken off at the shoulders); 41 (also broken vertically so the right side is not preserved); 42 (also broken down the middle so the right side is not preserved); 44 (also broken on the left side, and the right arm is broken- note that this example may have been a two headed figurine) and 47 (broken vertically so the right arm is not preserved). 156 Cat. nos. 1 (also both arms are broken off at the shoulders); 28 (also both arms are broken off, the left at the shoulder, and the right extends in a short stump); 29 (also both arms are broken off at the shoulders); 33 (also the left arm is broken off below the shoulder); 43 (also the side is

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CHAPTER THREE: FUNCTION, DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS The Early Bronze Age: Conclusion

omission may be related to the mouth washing and opening rituals performed on cult statues and ritual objects as a means of activating them, and thereby removing the element of human agency inherent in their creation. The omission of the mouth may therefore have indicated that these objects were intended to be understood by their users and viewers as human-made objects. This aspect of their being, that they are products of human agency, may have been intrinsic to their meaning, specifically that they were understood as “representations of beings” and not as “beings.” It is therefore possible that the EB figurines may be representations of household gods or deified ancestors that were intrinsically understood as images, or representations, that could be manipulated, used, broken and discarded.

A consideration of those factors that may be discerned archaeologically and which reflect the behavior and/or practice associated with the use and disposal of the figurines reveals a number of insights thanks to the spatial distribution of their contexts of recovery and/or disposal, their associated material culture and their breakage patterns. That the overwhelming majority of the EB figurines were recovered from the acropolis is probably in large part due to the fact that the excavation of EB occupational levels has focused on the acropolis area as opposed to the periphery of the tell.163 Because of the limited exposure of EB occupational levels outside of the acropolis it is not possible to draw any conclusions as to whether there is a spatial pattern of distribution between the acropolis and the periphery in the EB period. The relative overrepresentation of EB figurines in the archaeological record at Umm el-Marra however, cannot be explained as merely an accident of recovery, considering that the EB occupational levels are deeper than those of the succeeding periods. Rather, it suggests that the manufacture, use and deposition of anthropomorphic, terracotta figurines may have been more common in the EB than in later periods. The phenomenon of clustering also contributes to the preponderance of EB figurines, although it by no means entirely accounts for it. These clusters do, however, indicate that the deposition of the EB figurines was spatially patterned behavior in that some structures, features or locales were clearly favored.

That the EB figurines may have been vehicles of apotropaic or sympathetic magic does not exclude the possibility that they were also connected to the realm of domestic religion and family identity. In fact, it appears that the activities and behaviors associated with domestic use may have varied widely. As described in the first section of this chapter, figurines classified as the vehicles of magic function-type may be used in various ways to serve a variety of purposes. The breadth of activity and behavior associated with figurines used in this way may, to an extent, account for the various archaeological contexts from which the EB figurines are recovered. The Middle Bronze Age Of the two 203 Umm el-Marra figurines, thirty-seven have been attributed to the MB. The Umm el-Marra formal types that may be attributed to the MB include the Type Two,164 Ten,165 Eleven,166 and Twelve167 handmodeled head fragments and the Type Twenty-six,168 Twenty-seven,169 Thirty-two,170 and Thirty-four171 handmodeled body fragments.

EB figurines were sometimes disposed of in contexts that feature signs of burning activity and trash deposits, including food refuse. They are often recovered in association with other small terracotta objects such as zoomorphic figurines or fragments of model chariots as well as the accoutrements of household craft production such as spindle whorls, bone tools, pestles and grinding stones. The presence of EB figurine fragments in domestic trash deposits, and in association with objects used to prepare food or make cloth in addition to their recovery in situ in sub-floor pits beneath the floor of a domestic structure together indicates that their use occurs within the domestic realm.

Archaeological Patterning

Context:

Spatial

Distribution

and

Although the majority of the MB figurines were recovered from acropolis contexts, a significant proportion was recovered from the peripheral areas as well. From the acropolis, ten are from Acropolis West,172 six from Acropolis Center,173 five from Acropolis East174

None of the EB figurine fragments are intact. They are consistently broken across the neck and once, occasionally twice, across the body. This consistent breakage pattern displayed by the EB corpus strongly suggests that the figurines were deliberately broken prior to their disposal.

164

Cat. nos. 2 and 3. Cat. nos. 20 and 21. 166 Cat. no. 22. 167 Cat. no. 23. 168 Cat. nos. 70-85. 169 Cat. nos. 86-93. 170 Cat. nos. 112-4. 171 Cat. nos. 157-160. 172 Cat. nos. 2, 3, 70, 74, 75, 77 and 88- 91. 173 Cat. nos. 23, 80, 81, 83, 85 and 114. 174 Cat. nos. 21, 79, 82, 84 and 92. 165

In the previous chapter it was noted that the EB figurines do not feature mouths, and it was proposed that this 163

Less than 5% of the excavated EB occupational levels are from the periphery of the tell, and only 8.26% of the EB figurines were recovered from these peripheral areas.

55

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA and five from Acropolis North.175 From the peripheral areas of the tell, six are from the Northwest Area,176 three are from the Southeast Area,177 one is from West Area A178 and one is from West Area B.179 Within this MB corpus there are a number of examples where two or three MB figurine fragments were recovered from the same structure; for example, from Acropolis West, cat. nos. 88,180 2181 and 75;182 and also cat. nos. 90183 and 3.184 Additionally, from Acropolis East there is a small group of MB figurine fragments from the vicinity of an MB domestic structure including: cat. nos. 84,185 no. 82,186 21187 and 79.188

context was likely to have been a place where food refuse was disposed of and/or where trash was burned. Two MB figurine fragments have been recovered from contexts where they were clearly re-used or recycled and used as building material in the stone foundations of LB walls.190 Although several MB fragments were recovered from debris attributed to a later period,191 which may be explained as the result of turbation and other site formation processes, the overwhelming majority of MB figurine fragments were recovered from MB debris.192 Associated Material Culture

There are several noteworthy differences between the distribution pattern of the MB figurine fragments and that of the preceding period. First, although the majority of the MB figurines are still recovered from the acropolis, the distribution seems to be more evenly spread out over the tell. Of the thirty-seven figurine fragments attributed to the MB period, twenty-six, 70%, were recovered from the acropolis areas and eleven, 30%, from the periphery of the tell. This is roughly comparable to the estimate of the exposure of MB occupational levels, which is approximately twice the area on the acropolis as around the periphery of the tell. However, this still suggests that the disposal and possibly the use of figurines may have been slightly more common on the acropolis. Second, there are no large clusters of figurines recovered from a single structure or feature. The largest grouping of MB figurine fragments from the same locale is four. Also, the contexts of these small groups of MB figurines is domestic. This contrasts with the possibly public late MB I/early MB II layer of cobbles and sherds, where the largest cluster (21) of EB figurine fragments was recovered. This cluster may be a public feature.

Aside from potsherds, the most common class of material culture found in association with the MB figurine fragments is animal bone. Of the thirty-seven MB figurine fragments, twenty193 were found with animal bones. Of those bones which could be identified by species, they break down as follows: forty-six sheep/goat; six sheep/goat/gazelle; eight gazelle; twenty-eight equid; ten bovid; one bovid/cervid; six dog; three pig and three bird. In addition to animal bone, the MB figurine fragments were recovered with other kinds of material. Catalogue no. 2 was recovered with three thin bronze rod fragments; cat. no. 70 was recovered with a basalt pestle fragment; and no. 77 was found with a basalt grinding stone. Breakage None of the MB figurine fragments are complete and, like the figurines of the EB period, the fragments typically display breaks across the neck and at least one, sometimes two, across the body. Of the thirty-seven MB figurines, depicting both male and female figures, thirteen are broken at the neck.194 This includes two head fragments of male rider figurines,195 two head fragments of female figurines,196 three decapitated body fragments of male rider figurines,197 and six decapitated body fragments of female figurines.198 Additionally, twentyfour MB fragments are broken at least once, and sometimes twice across the body. These include three female figurines that are broken across the neck and

Archaeological Context: Evidence for Burning and Recycling Only five MB figurine fragments189 were recovered from an ashy matrix, indicating that their deposition, or their depositional context, was accompanied by or associated with burning activity. Of these, only cat. no. 81 was not associated with animal bones, which suggests that this

190

Cat. nos. 86 and 114 Cat. nos. 71, 72 and 112. Cat. nos. 2, 3, 20, 21, 22, 23, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 84, 85, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93 (?) and 113, as well as cat. nos. 81 and 87 (early LB?). 193 Cat. nos. 2, 3, 21, 22, 23, 71, 73, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 82, 86, 88, 92, 93, 112, 113, and 114. 194 Two MB figurine fragments that have the heads still attached to their necks are cat. nos. 20 and 21, both of which are broken across the upper midriff, below the arms. 195 Cat. nos. 2 and 3. 196 Cat. nos. 22 and 23. 197 Cat. nos. 157, 158 and 160. 198 Cat. nos. 70, which is broken across the neck, at the top of the pubic triangle and at both arms; nos. 78 and 80, which are broken at the neck and chipped at the feet; nos. 81 and 82, which are female figures broken across the neck, across the thighs, and at both arms and 84, which is broken across the neck and legs.

175

191

Cat. nos. 22, 76, 78, 157 and 159. 176 Cat. nos. 72, 73, 86, 87, 93 and 158. 177 Cat. nos. 112, 113 and 160. 178 Cat. no. 20. 179 Cat. no. 71. 180 From ashy debris inside an MB II domestic structure. 181 From ashy early-MB II debris between architectural phases within this structure. 182 From ashy MB II debris outside of the structure. 183 From an early-MB floor surface. 184 From the later mid-MB II debris above. 185 From debris just above an MB II red and white plaster floor. 186 From mid-MB II debris in an open area near domestic architecture 187 From late MB II debris inside a room beneath a stepped mud platform. 188 From late-MB II domestic debris. 189 Cat. nos. 2, 75, 81, 88 and 113.

192

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CHAPTER THREE: FUNCTION, DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS across the body,199 ten female figurines broken across the waist and then a second time at or below the pubic triangle,200 three male rider figurines broken at or around the waist and across the neck,201 and one lower body fragment of a male rider figurine broken across the waist.202

explain their paucity, but it does not account for it. That more MB fragments were recovered from the periphery of the tell than EB fragments may be partially explained by the fact that more MB occupational levels were exposed in these peripheral areas than EB occupational levels. The locations of the recovered MB fragments, 70% from the acropolis as opposed to 30% from the periphery, is reflective of the estimate of exposed MB occupational levels throughout the tell. Nevertheless it still indicates that the disposal and possibly the use of figurines may have been slightly more common on the acropolis. This, combined with the recovery of several small clusters of three or four fragments in two structures on Acropolis West and one on Acropolis East suggests that there is some spatial patterning to their disposal. It is possible that as their use becomes less frequent the nature of that use, as reflected by the spatial distribution of their disposition, became less patterned, or standardized.

The Middle Bronze Age: Conclusion A consideration of archaeologically discernible factors which reflect the behavior and/or practice associated with the use and disposal of the figurines reveals a number of insights regarding the MB figurines themselves, and the MB figurines as compared to the figurines of the EB period. MB figurines are sometimes disposed of in contexts that feature signs of burning activity and trash deposits, and for the most part these contexts include food refuse as well. Associated artifacts include three small bronze rods, a pestle and a grinding stone, the latter two of which are domestic artifacts indicative of food production. Overall, however, the figurines are so rarely recovered in association with other classes of material culture that any conclusions regarding the meaning of these associations is speculative.

In the previous chapter it was noted that the increased stylistic homogeneity displayed by the MB figurines, as opposed to those of the EB, indicates that those individuals who manufactured and/or used the figurines may have adhered to standardized and recognizable images as a means of evoking a shared referent- identity. Despite the changes congruent with this increase in stylistic homogeneity, the MB figurines, like the figurines of the preceding period, are not depicted with mouths. This continuation of the conspicuous omission of the mouth suggests a continuity of meaning, and therefore perhaps a continuity of purpose. If, like the figurines of the preceding period, the MB figurines and the figures they depict operate within the realm of household magic and cult, then the MB figurines also imply an overt attempt to identify with this shared referent within the arena of domestic practice. This transition, from an expression of individuality and localized identity in the EB corpus, toward a use of a more standardized style expressing a sense of belonging and shared identity in the MB corpus, may have been a product of, and/or a contributing factor to, the consolidation of power and authority in MB II. Furthermore, this increase in the homogeneity of the style of the figurines may have served as a means of standardizing, and thereby maintaining, the meaning of this class of object between the EB and MB period, when the manufacture and use of anthropomorphic figurines became both less common and standardized.

The breakage pattern displayed by the MB corpus strongly suggests deliberate breakage prior to the disposal of the artifact. Like the EB corpus, all of the MB figurines are fragmentary, and they are consistently broken across the neck and once, occasionally twice, across the body. It is curious that there are far fewer MB fragments than EB fragments in the Umm el-Marra corpus, partially because the MB occupational layers lay above those of the EB and so cannot be explained as an accident of recovery. Rather, it suggests a decrease in the manufacture, use and deposition of anthropomorphic terracotta figurines, or a decrease in the size of the population in the MB. That there are no “clusters” of MB figurines, like the large number embedded in the late MB I/early MB II layer of cobbles and sherds, may partially 199 Cat. no. 70 is broken across neck, top of pubic triangle and both arms; nos. 81 and 82 are broken across the neck at thighs, and the arms are chipped as well; no. 84 is broken across the neck and legs. 200 Cat. no. 71 is broken at the waist and at the bottom of the pubic triangle, also chipped on the right side; no. 72 is broken at the waist and at the bottom of the pubic triangle, and only the left side is preserved; nos. 73 and 75 are broken at the waist and at the bottom of the pubic triangle and are also chipped on both sides; nos. 76 and 77 are broken at the waist and at the bottom of the pubic triangle, and the pelvic area is broken in half; nos. 79 and 85 are broken across the waist and thighs and cat. nos. 86 through 93 are broken across the thighs and at, or just above, the feet. 201 Cat. nos. 157, 158 and 160 are tripod based rider figurines broken at or around the waist and across the neck. 202 Cat. no. 159 is broken at the waist. It is seated on a quadruped, as opposed to having a tripod base and interestingly, the animal upon which the figure is seated is decapitated.

The Late Bronze Age Of the 203 Bronze Age figurines in the Umm el-Marra corpus, forty-five have been attributed to the LB. The LB figurines include the Types Eight203 and Nine204 hand203 204

57

Cat. no. 18. Cat. no. 19.

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA modeled head fragments. It also includes the Types Thirty-five,205 Thirty-six,206 Thirty-seven,207 Thirtyeight,208 and Thirty-nine209 mold-made head fragments, the Type Forty210 mold-made body fragments (all of which are nearly intact),211 the Types Forty-one212 and Type Forty-two213 headless, mold-made body fragments and catalogue no. 203. Archaeological Patterning

Context:

Spatial

Distribution

recycling of LB figurine fragments is most likely due to the limited occupation of the site after the LB period. The LB figurine fragments are typically recovered from LB debris,227 LB pits,228 or Roman, Hellenistic or Achaemenid pits.229 There are no large clusters of LB figurine fragments in a single structure or feature. The context of cat. no. 167 is noteworthy. Recovered from an LB domestic structure, this nearly intact figurine was found in situ, resting on the floor at the base of a basalt mortar and door socket, a comparable context to that of an LB figurine from Tell el-Hajj. The mold-made figurine of a nude woman from Tell el-Hajj, excavated in 1972, was recovered from a mud-brick bench located in close proximity to a stone door socket associated with the old fortification wall of the city.230

and

Of the forty-five figurine fragments attributed to the LB period, 44% were recovered from the acropolis areas and 56% from the periphery of the tell. This corresponds to the proportion of the estimate of exposed LB occupation, which is approximately 1,660 square meters on the acropolis and 1,730 square meters on the periphery of the tell. This indicates that in the LB the acropolis is no longer favored for figurine disposal, and that this practice occurs almost uniformly throughout the tell. Of those recovered from the acropolis, ten are from Acropolis West,214 nine are from the Acropolis Center,215 and one from Acropolis North.216 Of those recovered from the periphery, six are from the North Area,217 four are from the Southeast area,218 four are from West Area B,219 three are from West Area C,220 three are from West Area A,221 three are from the Northwest Area,222 and one example each is from the Northeast Area,223 and the Southwest Area.224

Associated Material Culture Aside from potsherds, the most common class of material culture recovered in association with the LB figurines is animal bone. Ten of the forty-five LB figurines were recovered in association with animal bone.231 Of those species that could be identified, the number of specimens per species breaks down as follows: twenty-three sheep/goat; six sheep/goat/gazelle; three gazelle; one pig; two bovid and twelve equid. Other objects recovered in association with the LB figurines include a cylinder seal of dark red stone;232 a basalt mortar and door socket;233 a broken egg-shaped bead;234 two broken basalt grinding stones and a complete basalt pestle;235 a single basalt pestle;236 and a smooth stone pestle.237

Eight LB figurine fragments were recovered from a ashy matrices,225 indicating that their depositions, or their depositional contexts, were accompanied by burning. Of these, two were also accompanied by animal bones226 suggesting that these contexts were likely to have been a place where food refuse was disposed of and/or where trash was burned. In addition to evidence of burning, there is one LB fragment, cat. no. 180, that appears to have been reused in the stone foundation of a Hellenistic wall. The relative dearth of evidence for the reuse or

Breakage Of the forty-five LB figurine fragments, twenty-six are broken across the neck. These include seven head fragments,238 one example that is intact except for the break across the neck;239 five fragments that are broken across the neck and across the body;240 and thirteen fragments that are broken across the neck and across the legs.241 There are two LB fragments broken only across the legs.242 Additionally, there are eleven fragments that

205

Cat. nos. 161 and 162. Cat. nos. 163 and 164. 207 Cat. no. 165. 208 Cat. no. 166. 209 Cat. no. 167. 210 Cat. nos. 168-170. 211 The heads of the Type Forty body fragments are the same as those of the Type Thirty-five mold-made head fragments. 212 Cat. nos. 171-190. 213 Cat. nos. 191- 202. 214 Cat. nos. 19, 161, 164, 165, 171, 177, 191, 193, 194 and 196. 215 Cat. nos. 167, 168, 170, 179, 183, 187, 188, 192 and 201. 216 Cat. no. 178. 217 Cat. nos. 161, 181, 185, 186, 198 and 200. 218 Cat. nos. 189, 190, 202 and 203. 219 Cat. nos. 163, 172, 173 and 174. 220 Cat. nos. 180, 182 and 199. 221 Cat. nos. 18, 175 and 195. 222 Cat. nos. 166, 184 and 197. 223 Cat. no. 169. 224 Cat. no. 176. 225 Cat. nos. 164, 165, 170, 171, 175, 177, 194 and 201. 226 Cat. nos. 170 and 171. 206

227 Cat. nos. 18,165, 175, 177, 178, 179, 181, 183, 189, 190, 194, 201 and 203. 228 Cat. nos. 161, 170, 172, 174, 188, 194, 197 and 200. 229 Cat. nos. 164, 171, 185 and 186. 230 Stucky 1975, 166. 231 Cat. nos. 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 179, 184, 197, 198 and199. 232 Cat. no. 164. 233 Cat. no. 167. 234 Cat. no. 172. 235 Cat. no. 174. 236 Cat. no. 181. 237 Cat. no. 196. 238 Cat. nos. 18, 19, 161, 162, 164, 165 and 166. 239 Cat. no. 189. 240 Cat. nos. 172, 176, 177, 178 and 183. 241 Cat. nos. 171, 173, 174, 179, 180, 181, 182, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188 and 190 242 Cat. no. 191 and 201.

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CHAPTER THREE: FUNCTION, DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS are broken twice across the body.243 Of the five examples that are nearly, but not completely, intact, it is curious that the breakage that is present occurs across the knees or ankles.244 In fact, the feet are often broken off of the LB plaques245 when the lower body is preserved below the knees.

broken across the lower legs at or around the ankles.248 This subtle change in the breakage pattern may reflect a change in the behavior associated with the disposal of the LB figurines. Catalogue no. 167, which was recovered in situ on the floor of an LB domicile, is broken across the ankles. If, as the evidence suggests,249 the LB figurines were often placed in a visible location in domestic spaces then perhaps the breakage at or around the ankles is accidental and related to their use. For example, if the LB mold made figurines, which are frontal in design, were placed on a wall or shelf, or were propped against something like a wall or door socket, then perhaps the breakage across the ankles or lower legs would occur if the figurine fell from the place where it was displayed. Then, prior to disposal it might be broken in the usual way, across the neck and body. However, ritual breakage prior to disposal does not seem to be required, since two of the nearly intact examples250 were recovered from ashy trash pits. It is also possible, however, that the small feet of the LB mold-made plaques which, when intact, protrude slightly from the body are points of structural weakness.

The Late Bronze Age: Conclusion There is an increase in the number of recovered anthropomorphic figurine fragments attributed to the LB as opposed to the MB, although the number of LB fragments is still less than half of the number of fragments attributed to the EB period. This may be due to an increase in the manufacture and use of LB figurines over that of the preceding period, or possibly to an increase in the local population. The recovery of more LB figurine fragments from excavation areas around the periphery of the tell as opposed to the acropolis areas reflects the proportion of the exposed LB occupational levels in each of these areas, indicating that the disposal of the LB figurines occurred uniformly throughout the tell and that no single area was disproportionately favored. Furthermore, there are no clusters of three or more LB figurines recovered from the same feature or structure. These observations suggest that in the LB period figurine disposal, and possibly use, became less spatially patterned.

In the LB, the trend of increased standardization continues with the introduction of the use of a mold, and this technology also enables the wide distribution of a standardized image. Congruent with the use of a mold, the facial features of the anthropomorphic figurines are depicted naturalistically, including the mouth. Previously, it was proposed that the depiction of the mouth is associated with rituals performed on cult statues and ritual objects as a means of activating them, and thereby removing the element of human agency inherent in their creation. In the case of the LB mold-made plaques, however, the human agency is seemingly removed by the use of the mold. Furthermore, there is no need for the artisan to indicate the unactivated inanimate nature of the figure via the omission of the mouth because these qualities are already indicated by the iconic, anonymous quality also provided by the use of the mold.

There is little evidence for recycling, which is to be expected due to the limited occupation of the tell following the LB. There is also little evidence of burning in association with the figurines. The sparse evidence for objects recovered in association with the LB figurines indicates that the pattern is similar to that of the MB. There are some personal items of value, including a cylinder seal and a broken egg-shaped bead, as well as mortars, pestles and grinding stones, all of which are domestic artifacts indicative of food production. The LB figurines often display breakage consistent with the pattern evident in the preceding periods where the figure is broken across the neck246 and body.247 Conversely, there are six nearly intact examples that are

It is curious then, that the two examples of hand-modeled LB figurine fragments from Umm el-Marra, cat. nos. 18 and 19, appear to feature slightly indicated mouths. Both cat. nos. 18 and 19 are head fragments broken across the neck, and although they differ from one another in shape and size, they are alike in that both are very crudely modeled, with no applied or incised features or markings indicating the eyes, hair or headdress. In this respect, they are similar to the hand-modeled LB fragments from Hammam et-Turkman, which were recovered from beneath the palace floor.251 The provenance of the Hammam et-Turkman figurines, which is similar to those

243 Cat. no. 194 is broken at the midriff and across the legs; cat. nos. 163, 175, 192 and 199 are broken across the midriff and also across the ankles and cat. nos. 193, 195, 196, 197, 198 and 202 are broken at the top of the legs and across the calves. 244 Cat. nos. 167, 168, 169, 170 and 203. Cat. no. 169 is broken across the knees, the other three nearly intact examples are broken across the ankles. 245 cat. nos. 175, 192, 194, 197, 198 and 199. However, refer also to cat. nos. 189 and 201, both of which are unusual forms, which feature intact feet. 246 Cat. nos. 18, 19, 161, 162, 164, 165, 166, 171, 172, 173, 174, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189 and 190 247 Cat. nos. 163, 172, 175, 176, 177, 178, 183, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199 and 202.

248

Cat. nos. 167, 168, 169, 170 and 203. Cat. no. 169 is broken across the knees, the other three nearly intact examples are broken across the ankles. 249 The LB figurine, discussed above, recovered in situ at Tell el-Hajj. 250 Cat. nos. 169 and 170. 251 Van Loon 1988, 564 ff.

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA of the EB figurines from Umm el-Marra and Selenkahiye recovered from sub-floor pits, indicates that like the figurines recovered from beneath the palace floors at Nimrud, they were used as vehicles of apotropaic magic. This, combined with the fact that both hand-modeled LB figurine fragments are broken across the neck, suggests the possibility that the tradition of hand-modeled figurines co-exists with the emerging tradition of the mold-made figurines, although the archaeological record strongly indicates that the mold made figurines were far more commonly used.

Of the 203 Bronze Age figurines in the Umm el-Marra corpus, 60% are EB,256 18% are MB;257 and 22% are LB.258 An estimate of the areas of the EB, MB and LB occupations excavated at Umm el-Marra reveals that approximately 928 square meters of EB, 2,164 square meters of MB and 3,390 square meters of LB occupation have been exposed. Therefore, although the amount of the exposed EB occupation is less than one-third of the amount of exposed LB occupation, more than half of the Umm el-Marra figurine corpus is comprised of EB figurines. This cannot be explained as merely an accident of recovery. Rather, it suggests either that the manufacture, use and deposition of anthropomorphic terracotta figurines, or that the size of the population, decreased over time. Furthermore, 39% of the EB figurine fragments were found in clusters, wherein seven or more fragments were recovered in a single structure or feature. This is not the case with the MB or LB figurines, although in a few cases, three or four of the MB figurines were recovered from a single structure. This suggests that the disposal of the EB figurines was more spatially patterned than the disposal of the figurines of the later periods. As the manufacture, use and disposal of anthropomorphic figurines became less common, and as their disposal became less spatially patterned, their style became increasingly standardized.

Like the anthropomorphic figurines of earlier periods, the LB plaques depicting a nude female seem to be associated with the domestic realm, as is indicated by the recovery of cat. no. 167 from the floor of an LB domestic structure.252 These figures are also found attached to model houses made of clay dating to the LB period, further supporting this connection.253 If the image of the nude female is interpreted as a goddess, either a selfreferential icon254 or an image derived from a cult statue,255 then this indicates the widespread appropriation of a recognizable, standardized image into the domestic realm. The interpretation of this image as an icon of a goddess does not eliminate the possibility that they may have been used as apotropaic objects, or that they may have served as vehicles for sympathetic magic. Finally, it is possible that the gradual transition from individualized, private domestic worship toward a regional, more visible practice may be reflected in the contrast between those EB figurines that were concealed in sub-floor pits and the LB mold-made plaque recovered from the floor of a domestic structure near the door, where it would have been highly visible.

The recovery of Bronze Age figurines from ashy contexts appears to be the due to their presence in debris or fill containing animal bones, indicating a context associated with the burning of food refuse. Of the EB fragments, 17% were from an ashy matrix and of these 85% were also accompanied by animal bone; of the MB fragments, 14% were from ashy matrices and of these 80% were also accompanied by animal bone; of the LB fragments, 18% were from ashy matrices and of these, 25% were also accompanied by animal bone. In no single period are the figurine fragments recovered from an ashy matrix often enough to suggest their deposition was habitually accompanied by burning. Rather, it appears that these fragments were recovered from burned trash debris that may or may not have included food refuse. As for the issue of reuse, excluding the late MB I/early MB II layer

Summary and Conclusion In the previous chapter, it was proposed that the Bronze Age figurines from Umm el-Marra feature images that were intended to be perceived by their viewer(s) as representations of the depicted figures. Specifically, these images were meant to be viewed and understood as symbols, as constructed objects, as ephemeral products of human agency that can be manipulated, destroyed and discarded. The sections above have addressed those factors which reflect the behavior and activities associated with figurine use and disposal. A consideration of these factors indicates that the identity of the represented figures, and the activities and behaviors associated with their use, change over time and that the ways in which the figurines were used may vary within any given period as well.

256 Type One (cat. no. 1); Three (cat. nos. 4-8); Four (cat. nos. 9-13); Five (cat. no. 14); Six (cat. no. 15); Seven (cat. nos. 16, 17); Thirteen (cat. no. 24); Fourteen (cat. nos. 25-29); Fifteen (cat. nos. 30, 31); Sixteen (cat. nos. 32-37); Seventeen (cat. nos. 38-41); Eighteen (cat. nos. 42-44); Nineteen (cat. nos. 45-47); Twenty (cat. nos. 48-56); Twenty-one (cat. nos. 57-62); Twenty-two (cat. nos. 63-65); Twentythree (cat. nos. 66, 67); Twenty-four (cat. no. 68); Twenty-five (cat. no. 69); Twenty-eight (cat. nos. 94-96); Twenty-nine (cat. nos. 97-100); Thirty (cat. nos. 101, 102); Thirty-one (cat. nos. 103-111) and Thirtythree (cat. nos. 115-156). 257 Type Two ( cat. nos. 2,3); Ten (cat. nos. 20, 21); Eleven (cat. no. 22); Twelve (cat. no. 23); Twenty-six (cat. nos. 70-85); Twenty-seven (cat. nos. 86-93); Thirty-two (cat. nos. 112-114) and Thirty-four (cat. nos. 157-160). 258 Type Eight (cat. no. 18); Nine (cat. no. 19); Thirty-five (cat. nos. 161-162); Thirty-six (cat. nos. 163, 164); Thirty-seven (cat. no. 165); Thirty-eight (cat. no. 166); Thirty-nine (cat. no. 167); Forty (cat. nos. 168-170); Forty-one (cat. nos. 171-190) Forty-two (cat. nos. 191-202) and Forty-three (cat. no. 203).

252 Dr. Sally Dunham has suggested that R. Biggs publication of a TCS II, KAR 61: 70 may inform our understanding of this context. The text is an incantation used in a šà zi.ga ritual for attracting a sexually desired woman, which involves burying a figurine. 253 From Emar, see Muller 1997. 254 Assante, 2002. 255 Van der Toorn 1998.

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CHAPTER THREE: FUNCTION, DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS of cobbles and sherds, the recycling of figurines as building material is relatively rare259 and decreases over time.

that do not join together to form complete figurines, conclusions regarding the breakage pattern are based only on the available evidence. For example, of the 121 EB figurine fragments, sixty-four, or 53%, are decapitated. However, of all of the EB upper body fragments, there is only one where the head is still attached to the neck and this fragment, catalogue no. 10, is broken across the top of the head. Thus, of all the EB upper body fragments, 98% are broken across the neck. Furthermore, thirteen of the thirty-seven MB figurines are decapitated, or 35% of the MB corpus. Of those MB fragments where the upper body is preserved, however, there are only two examples279 that are not broken across the neck. Therefore, of the MB upper body fragments, 87% are decapitated. Finally, twenty-six of the forty-five LB figurines are decapitated, or 58%. Of those LB fragments where the upper body is preserved, there are five examples280 that are not broken across the neck. Therefore of the LB upper body fragments, 84% are decapitated. That significant percentages of figurines from each period are broken across the neck is particularly interesting in light of Parker Pearson’s (1999) ideas concerning the relationship between the archaeological evidence for an ancestor-oriented household cult in Neolithic Jericho and anthropomorphic figurines.

Because they are so often recovered from debris, the most common class of material culture recovered in association with the Bronze Age figurines is potsherds and, following this, animal bone.260 In the EB, in addition to animal bone, fifteen fragments were recovered in association with stone objects, including: two figurines recovered along with a basalt ring;261 ten with stone pestles;262 and three with grinding stones.263 Thirteen EB anthropomorphic figurine fragments were recovered in association with zoomorphic figurines or figurine fragments,264 eleven with fragments of terracotta model chariots,265 and four with clay spindle whorls.266 Three with bone objects including awls,267 a bone spatula,268 a bronze pin.269 In the MB, in addition to animal bone, one fragment was recovered with a basalt pestle fragment,270 one with a basalt grinding stone,271 and one with three thin bronze rod fragments.272 In the LB, in addition to animal bone, one figurine was found with a basalt mortar and door socket,273 and individual fragments were found with two broken basalt grinding stones and a complete basalt pestle,274 a single basalt pestle,275 a smooth stone pestle,276 a cylinder seal of dark red stone,277 and a broken, egg-shaped bead.278

In addition to being broken across the neck, the EB figurines are typically broken across the body. Ninetynine, or 82% of the EB figurines are broken across the body and six of these fragments are broken across the body twice. Twenty-four, or 65%, of the MB figurines are broken across the body and ten of these are broken twice. Of the LB figurines, thirty-one, or 69%, are broken across the body and eleven of these are broken twice. Interestingly, the five LB figurines that are nearly intact281 are all broken across the lower legs or ankles, and all of the lower body fragments except for cat. nos. 189, 191 and 201 are missing their feet.

It is interesting to note that cat. no. 167, the LB figurine recovered in situ on the floor of a domestic structure, was found alongside a stone mortar. Mortars, like grinding stones and pestles, are used in food preparation and these latter two types of objects, grinding stones and pestles, are those consistently found in association with figurines from each Bronze Age period. None of the Bronze Age figurines from Umm el-Marra are intact. Because the corpus is comprised of fragments 259 There are six EB figurines, two MB figurines and one LB figurine recycled in features dating to later periods. 260 50.41% of the EB, 50.05% of the MB figurines and 22.22% of the LB figurines were recovered with animal bone. 261 Cat. nos. 39 and 96. 262 Cat. no. 60 was found with 6 individual pestles, and cat. nos. 26, 35, 39, 96, 109, 133, 134 and 136 were each found with a single example. Also note that cat. no. 1 was recovered from a sub-floor pit beneath an EB IVB room containing a stone pestle. 263 Cat. nos. 3, 77 and 148. 264 Cat. nos. 17, 29- 32, 35, 64, 66, 125, 130, 133, 136 and 137. 265 Cat. nos. 17, 32, 35, 39, 66, 96, 109, 133, 134, 136, 137. 266 Cat. nos. 3, 39, 54 and 96. 267 Cat. nos. 100 and 102. 268 Cat. no. 102. 269 Cat no. 68. 270 Cat. no. 70. 271 Cat. no. 77. 272 Cat. no. 2. 273 Cat. no. 167. 274 Cat. no. 174. 275 Cat. no. 181. 276 Cat. no. 196. 277 Cat. no. 164. 278 Cat. no. 172.

With the exception of the MB figurines depicting a female with an hourglass silhouette, the neck does not appear to be an obvious point of structural weakness for any of the Bronze Age figurine forms. That the LB plaques depicting the nude female are of a relatively consistent width and thickness makes the continuation of the pattern of decapitation into the LB especially provocative. The consistent width and thickness of the plaques may account for the examples that are not decapitated, if their girth makes it difficult for the individual manipulating the figurine to control where the break occurs. Similarly, the breakage across the body does not appear to be at an obvious point of structural weakness for any of the Bronze Age figurine forms. This consistent breakage pattern in conjunction with the fact that there is not a single example within the entire Umm 279

Cat. nos. 20 and 21. Cat. nos. 167, 168, 169, 170 and 203. 281 Cat. nos. 167 through 170 and 203. 280

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA el-Marra corpus of Bronze Age figurines that is intact, strongly suggests that the breakage of the figurines is intentional and probably associated with either their use or disposal. This corresponds to the description provided by Voigt (1983) and in the first millennium Mesopotamian sources which indicate that figurines used as vehicles of magic often feature ruinous damage in a consistent location that occurred as part of the magical rite and/or their depositional process.282

individual examples were in use for an extended duration. In the previous chapter it was argued that this escalation of stylistic homogeneity is related to the degree to which the local populace was integrated into larger polities extending over increasingly broad geographic areas. These possibilities are not mutually exclusive. Rather, in both cases the increase in stylistic homogeneity is linked to the question of audience, more specifically to the standardization of the image to facilitate recognition on the part of the viewer. In the EB period, when figurine fragments are recovered in situ buried in sub-floor pits in domestic structures at Umm el-Marra and Selenkahiye, there is less conformity to a visual norm. Perhaps this is because the behaviors and activities associated with the manufacture, use and disposal of figurines during this period were relatively private and occurred within the parameters of individual families or households. As the local populace became integrated into larger polities at the end of the third millennium, these household practices may have focused less on the household per se, and more on the role of the household as part of the greater polity. It is during this period that figurine use and/or disposal may have become more visible.287 In this case, recognition of the image and its implications, the effective communication of shared beliefs, behaviors and identity, may have been facilitated by the standardization of the image. The interpretation of the female MB figurines as depictions of Ishtar-Astarte, a cognate goddess, or her hierodules288 and of the male riders as a character associated with an equid-oriented incarnation of Astarte,289 is possible. It is also possible however, that this widely known goddess/associated character was appropriated by the people and incorporated into a preexisting tradition. The same can be said for the image of the nude female circulating in the LB, although evidence for the continuation of the tradition of hand-modeled figurines290 suggests that there is an earlier tradition coexisting with that of the LB plaques.

Several factors indicate that the figurines are related to the domestic realm. The first is that when recovered in situ, figurines have been found in domestic contexts, although the precise nature of this context varies. For example, a number of EB fragments were recovered from sub-floor pits, whereas an LB example was found lying on the floor. In fact, nearly a third of the Bronze Age figurines from Umm el-Marra were recovered from domestic features such as wall foundations, floors, or domestic debris.283 Furthermore, some of the kinds of material culture often recovered along with the figurines, such as grinding stones, pestles, spindle whorls and bone tools suggest an association with domestic activities such as food preparation, and textile/craft production. The relationship between the figurines and household cult is suggested via their association with the domestic realm and the insights gleaned via their visual analysis. One important aspect of the function type description for divine images that warrants further consideration is the proposition that they remain in use for extended periods of time. Considering the size of Umm el-Marra284 and the duration of its Bronze Age occupation,285 relatively few anthropomorphic figurines have been recovered, suggesting that their manufacture and use was a rare occurrence.286 Furthermore, the overall character of the figurine-types characteristic of a given period remains unchanged for hundreds of years. This continuity of style may indicate either that their visual conformity is linked to the rarity of their manufacture and use, or that

The use of figurines as vehicles of apotropaic or sympathetic magic is indicated by the recovery of the same kind of figurine in diverse contexts; for example, the recovery of EB fragments from sub-floor pits, domestic debris and trash, or embedded in a stone wall foundation. This inconsistent dispositional pattern may be explained if they are used as vehicles of magic, but the specific behavior or activity associated with their use differs depending on the individual or the particular circumstance. The consistent, ritual breakage across the neck and body and the fact that, without exception, they are all broken further supports this interpretation.

282

Voigt 1983, 192. This includes thirty-six of the EB figurine fragments: cat. nos. 1, 17, 32 and 66 (from sub-floor pits in EB IVB domestic structure); cat. nos. 4, 15, 25, 41, 45, 55, 56, 94, 104 and 126 (from interior, EB domestic debris); cat. no. 16 (from inside an EB domestic feature); cat. nos. 12 and 149 (from exterior, EB domestic debris); cat. nos. 27, 43, 49, 59, 67, 97, 117, 119, 122 and 128 (from interior MB domestic debris); cat. nos. 57 and 120 (from inside an MB domestic feature); cat. nos. 42, 47 and 99 (from exterior, MB debris) and cat. no. 38 (from inside an LB domestic feature). Of the MB figurines, this includes fifteen examples: cat. nos. 2, 3, 21, 74, 77, 79, 81, 84, 88, 89, 90 (interior, MB domestic debris); cat. nos. 76, 82, 93 (exterior, MB domestic debris); cat. no. 114 (from inside an LB feature). Of the LB figurines, this includes twelve examples: cat. no. 19 (from exterior, LB debris); cat. nos. 165, 177 (debris above MB II domestic architecture); cat. nos. 167, 175, 181, 184 (interior, LB domestic debris); cat. nos. 168, 192, 198 (from inside an LB feature) and cat. nos. 179, 183 (exterior, LB debris). These sixtythree fragments comprise 31% of the total Bronze Age corpus. 284 C. twenty-five hectares. 285 Exceeding one thousand years. 286 Although it is also possible that this is an accident of archaeological recovery. 283

A consideration of the archaeological data that reflects 287

For example, the MB figurines recovered en masse from the favissae at Ebla or the single example recovered from the temple in antis at Qara Quzaq. 288 Marchetti 2001; Moorey 2002. 289 Moorey 2002. 290 Refer to cat. nos. 18 and 19.

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CHAPTER THREE: FUNCTION, DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS the behavior and/or practices associated with figurine use and disposal indicates that the Umm el-Marra corpus corresponds with the function-type profile of, and the ethno-historical evidence for, figurines used as vehicles of magic. The use of figurines as vehicles of magic includes a range of activity that may be reflected in the archaeological record, including both pious burial and the ritual destruction of the artifact, as well as some associated practices that are not reflected archaeologically. It is a limitation of Voigt’s functiontype paradigm that the category descriptions do not allow for the possibility of objects within a function-type being used for the same purpose in different ways, or for the possibility that a single object may have been used in more than one way during its use-life. There is no reason to expect that magical practice was isolated from other realms of life, specifically the realm of domestic religion. If, as it is argued in the previous chapter, the depicted figures are divine or supernatural in nature, then this does not necessitate their being used exclusively as objects of worship. It is therefore proposed that the Bronze Age anthropomorphic figurines from Umm el-Marra are related to the domestic realm of household cult and magic.

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SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND AVENUES OF FURTHER RESEARCH functional analyses. It is not possible to distinguish clearly between the figurines’ identification and their use. Rather, these issues intersect at an inescapably central theme: meaning. In short, what the figurines mean is comprised of what they are, and how they were used. Furthermore, a holistic assessment of their meaning must take into account the socio-political context in which the figurines were manufactured, used and discarded.

Although they are not as ubiquitous as potsherds, anthropomorphic figurines and figurine fragments are a common class of artifact recovered during the course of excavation at Umm el-Marra and other Bronze Age sites in Syria. Despite their frequent recovery, their meaning and use in antiquity is not fully understood. At the outset of this manuscript, several questions concerning the Umm el-Marra Bronze Age figurine corpus were posed: Who or what is being represented? Why does their appearance change over time? What is the relationship between their style and chronology? What were the figurines used for? What can the figurines tell us about the lives and beliefs of the ancient people who produced and used them? As the preceding chapters demonstrate, the answers to these questions require a synthesis of the hypotheses and conclusions derived from multiple analyses: chronological, visual and functional. During the course of this study of the Umm el-Marra corpus, several potential avenues of further inquiry emerged. Although these avenues have not been incorporated into this study, they are integrated into the proceeding discussion.

The EB figurines are hand-modeled, and depict both male and female figures. The head is non-naturalistically rendered; the eyes are disproportionately large, the mouth is consistently omitted, and the shape of the face is often exaggerated to the point of being misshapen. Sexual characteristics, such as breasts or explicitly indicated genitalia, are rarely, if ever, depicted. To the extent that it can be determined, the sex of the depicted figure is communicated to the viewer via the hairstyle or headdress. The identification of the sex of the figure is complicated by the non-naturalistic rendering of the body - neither the stalk-shaped torso nor the column-shaped base reflects the natural contours of the human form. Although they share many iconographic and formal elements in common, the EB figurines display significant variation and each figurine is a unique composition, thus emphasizing their individuality.

Identification, Meaning and Function In this volume, visual analysis is used as a means of identifying who, or what, the figurines represent. A critical component of this visual analysis concerns the matter of style. Style is defined as comprising elements of form such as shape, the presence of a set of motifs appearing in concert to the exclusion of others, and techno-visual factors such as material and means of production. In addition, style encompasses a quality of expression including omitted and exaggerated motifs and/or qualities. Thus, style is a methodological tool, but it is also an inherent property of the artifacts that are the subject of this study.

All of the 121 figurines attributed to the EB period are broken, and this breakage is patterned. Of the upper body fragments, 98% are broken across the neck; additionally, ninety-nine, 82%, are broken across the body and of these, six are broken twice. It is proposed that the quality of variation, which is characteristic of the style of the EB figurines, reflects a landscape of heterogeneity in terms of individuals, the identities of families or kinship groups. The re-appearance of figurines in the archaeological record at this time may be in reaction to, or reflective of, the increasing consolidation of power and authority which characterizes the emergence of urban civilization.

To an extent, the identification of the function of the Bronze Age figurines is entwined with the identification of the depicted figures. One might assume that within a given corpus objects that look alike probably served a similar purpose, because the similarity of appearance ostensibly reflects a congruent similarity in meaning. However, this is not necessarily the case. The methodology used in this study to address the issue of the function of the figurines incorporates the insights gleaned via their visual analysis, but focuses primarily on those archaeological factors that reflect the behaviors and activities associated with their use and/or deposition. These factors include: their depositional patterns throughout the tell, their matrices, the structures and features associated with their use or deposition, their associated artifacts and ecofacts, and their breakage patterns.

Like the figurines of the preceding period, the MB figurines depict both male and female figures. Also similar to the EB figurines, the figurines of the MB period are hand-modeled, the mouth is consistently omitted, and the rendering of the face and body is nonnaturalistic. The female figurines are depicted nude, with exaggerated pubic triangles and hourglass-shaped silhouettes. In contrast, the male figurines are modeled in-the-round and seated on the back of an equid. Unlike the EB figurines, however, those of the MB are no longer unique compositions, but standardized male and female types, which suggests that they represent one of two characters. Each of the thirty-seven MB figurine fragments is broken, and their breakage is patterned. Of the MB upper body

Identifying the meaning of the Umm el-Marra figurines is thus achieved via a synthesis of their stylistic and

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SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND AVENUES OF FURTHER RESEARCH

be, enlivened and that they were explicitly intended to be understood as products of the artisan’s hand. This assertion is further supported by the non-naturalistic rendering of the figures. The stalk-shaped bodies and column-shaped bases of the EB figurines, the flat shape of the MB figurines depicting the female form, and the minimalist modeling of the male figures of the MB period, are all qualities that emphasize that these figures were not intended to look “real.” Rather, they were meant to be suggestive, or symbolic, of a character or concept that would have been recognizable to their ancient viewers. Conversely, the mold-made figurines of the LB period were naturalistically rendered, and the facial features, including the mouth, were realistically depicted. It is proposed that this visual transition is intrinsically bound to the use of a mold. The use of a mold removes the hand of the artisan from the clay, thereby creating an anonymously crafted, standardized image. Furthermore, it permits the wide distribution of identical, or at least standardized, images, none of which is original or unique. For this reason, the mouth may be depicted, since the authorless quality of the mold-made figurine explicitly communicates the manufactured, inanimate character of the object. In spite of changes in the appearance and manufacture of figurines during the course of the Bronze Age, these analyses reveal that one essential meaning conveyed by them remained intact.

fragments, 87% are broken across the neck; twenty-four are broken across the body and of these, ten are broken twice. There appears to be no abrupt change in the style of the figurines between the EB and MB I periods, although this may be due to the paucity of evidence at Umm el-Marra during this transition. The end of the EB period in Syria is marked by urban collapse, with a reduction in the scale, or abandonment of, many sites. This collapse is then followed by a re-emergence of urban society that coincides with the emergence of the Amorite kingdom of Yamhad. Of the LB figurine corpus, the overwhelming majority are mold-made and depict a nude female. The face and body of the figure is naturalistically rendered and the figure is often depicted wearing personal ornaments, such as a headpiece, bracelets and/or necklace. Her arms are typically bent, with her hands cupping her breasts. Although the image of the nude female is known from other media, the identification of the figure is speculative. She is presumptively held to be a goddess, or an image associated with a goddess, but she displays no divine iconography and nudity alone is not a definitive indicator of divine status. In contrast, cat. no. 203 is a mold-made LB figurine which depicts bearded figure wearing a multi-horned crown, which is an iconographic element characteristic of deities. These mold-made figurines are juxtaposed with a few examples of crudely hand-modeled head fragments which are also attributed to the LB. The LB innovation of the use of a mold occurs during the period of the rise of the Mittannian empire, a time when a large geographical area was established as a single political unit. With this consolidation of authority and identity, it may have been desirable to embrace a standardized, easily recognizable image. The massproduced sameness that results from mold-made figurines may well reflect that socio-political situation on a local scale.

That they are ritually destroyed as part of their use-life is indicated by the fact that not a single example within the entirety of the Umm el-Marra corpus is intact. This consistent breakage suggests that the figurines of the Bronze Age periods may have been used as vehicles of magic, a category that includes a range of activities and behaviors which may be revealed in the archaeological record, including: pious burial in sub-floor pits, the destruction of the artifact, disposal in trash, or being embedded within wall foundations or other features. This superficially inconsistent dispositional pattern may be explained if the figurines were used as vehicles of magic, a function-type category that boasts a wide range of activity and behavior.

Like the figurines of the preceding periods, each of the LB figurines is broken. Of the forty-five LB fragments where the upper body is preserved, 84% are broken across the neck. Thirty-one, or 69%, are broken across the body and of these, eleven are broken twice. However, five of the LB figurine fragments are nearly intact, and display only cursory breakage across the lower legs or ankles.

As symbols, the figurines served as ephemeral products of human agency to be manipulated, destroyed and discarded. These symbols appear to have operated within the realm of the household. The identification of the figurines as a class of domestic artifact is indicated by their archaeological contexts and associated material culture. When recovered in situ, they are found in domiciles; for example, a number of EB fragments are recovered from sub-floor pits in an EB IVB house, and one LB figurine was recovered on the floor of an LB house. Additionally, nearly a third of the Umm el-Marra Bronze Age corpus derive from domestic features such as wall foundations, floors, or domestic trash and/or debris. Finally, much of the material culture recovered in association with the figurines, such as grinding stones, pestles, spindle whorls and bone tools, suggest an

It is proposed that the identification of the depicted figures via their visual analysis lies in the omission of the mouth in the EB and MB periods, in concert with the non-naturalistic rendering of the figure. If, as is proposed in this manuscript, the mouth is associated with the enlivenment of the figurine and the removal of the element of human agency inherent in its creation, then the omission of that motif in the figurines of the EB and MB periods implies that these objects were not, and could not

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA distinctly different from that of the fine or major arts.

association with domestic activities such as food and/or craft/textile production.

Change Over Time It is therefore posited that the Bronze Age figurines from Umm el-Marra are depictions of magical or supernatural beings, intended to be perceived as symbols used as vehicles of magic, within the realm of household life. The proposal that these figurines were magical in nature is based mainly on archaeological evidence, discussed above, i.e. their varied find-spots within the relatively constricted sphere of domestic life. However, there are ethnohistoric parallels which also support this hypothesis. For example, the Mesopotamian apotropaic figurines known from Nimrud, and the corresponding magical texts which identify them, define magical beings such as ugullu or lahmu, both of which are beneficial, apotropaic creatures. Other textual evidence from first millennium Mesopotamia, however, indicates that figurines could also be used to represent sorcerers, displaced ghosts, or concepts such as illness and disease.

The Umm el-Marra figurines display a trajectory of increased standardization over the course of the Bronze Age. There are several possible reasons for this trend. These explanations are not necessarily exclusive of one another, but each may have contributed to this trend in isolation, or in concert with one another. Increased standardization over time may be linked to the process of urbanization, the emergence of the kingdom of Yamhad, and eventually, the rise of the Mittannian empire. Since standardization is a means of facilitating the recognition of an image, the figurines’ increasingly standardized appearance may be related to the degree to which the local populace was integrated into larger polities extending over increasingly broad geographic areas. Widespread recognition of the image may not have been relevant if the figurines were used in private. The EB figurines recovered in situ at Umm el-Marra were found buried in sub-floor pits, (a phenomenon evidenced at Selenkahiye as well) and also EB figurines are characterized by their stylistic variation. If the behaviors and activities associated with their use in the EB were concealed from public view, then broad recognition may not have been a primary consideration in their manufacture. Perhaps as the population became integrated into larger polities, these activities focused less on the activities of individuals, individual families, and households, and became more visible. The LB figurine recovered in situ at Umm el-Marra was recovered from the floor of an LB domicile, indicating that it was visibly displayed within the house.

The question remains: who, or what do these figurines represent? The third level of meaning as described by Panofksy is intrinsic meaning, or content, which is ascertained via the synthesis and interpretation of observations in light of period, cultural identity, class, and intellectual traditions. In this vein, careful consideration of the socio-cultural context of the figurines, the process of urbanization and the associated consolidation of power and authority in the EB, the appearance of ethnic identity in the MB, and the emergence of Mittannian imperial identity in the LB has been a productive line of inquiry. However, this paradigm overlooks one potentially fruitful line of further research: the training of artists or craftsmen according to the traditions and techniques prevalent in the period. Another potential avenue of further inquiry would be an extensive examination of the figurines in relation to the images presented in other media, such as glyptics and statuary. Although there are iconographic elements of the figurines that appear in other media, the entirety of the figures and their styles do not mirror images featured in the so-called major arts. Nevertheless, a continued exploration of art in other media may yet yield further insight into a definitive identification of the figures depicted.

As proposed above, this increased standardization may also have been associated with the meaning of the figurines. Conformity to a visual type contributes to the impression of authorlessness. In addition to enhancing recognition, standardization also conceals the individuality of the image, and the hand of the human artisan who crafted it. Concurrent with the trend of increasing standardization is the archaeological evidence from Umm el-Marra which suggests that the disposal, and possibly the use, of the figurines became less spatially patterned over time. Although the amount of the exposed EB occupation is less than one-third of the amount of the exposed LB occupation, more than half of the Umm el-Marra figurine corpus is comprised of EB figurines. Furthermore, 39% of the EB figurines were found in clusters, (seven or more fragments recovered in a single structure or feature) which are not present in the distribution patterns of the MB or LB periods. This suggests that as the figurines became more visually standardized, their manufacture

Conversely, an equally provocative avenue of inquiry might be an investigation into the why the images the figurines depict do not correspond to images appearing in other media. This lack of a clear correspondence between the styles and subjects displayed within this class of domestic artifact and other media, such as relief, inlay, sculpture, and glyptic art may imply that they are crafted by private individuals rather than professional artisans. Similarly, these classes of media may have been created for different audiences. It may also show that the figurines’ form and style reflect their function, which is

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SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND AVENUES OF FURTHER RESEARCH

and use became less frequent, and their deposition, and possibly their use, became less spatially patterned. Other Avenues of Inquiry The largest cluster of figurine fragments within the Umm el-Marra corpus was recovered from the late MB I/early MB II layer of cobbles and sherds. This feature is mostly comprised of EB figurines, potsherds, (as well as mortars, pestles and grinding stones), although a very few fragments of diagnostic potsherds identified as MB I types were also included. The large concentration of figurine fragments recovered from this feature makes it a subject of interest, and the possible role of the feature and its construction may shed some light on the EB-MB transition at Umm el-Marra. A further question about this feature involves the relationship between the breakage and disposal of the figurines within it. It is unknown at this time whether any of the twenty-one fragments recovered from this layer join together. They include three head fragments, eight body fragments and ten base fragments. The presence or absence of joins could raise several possibilities. First, if a number of these fragments join to make complete figurines, then this may suggest that they were broken and deposited at the same time, and at the same location. If none of these fragments joins with any of the others to complete a single figurine, this may support the argument that no fragment is ever disposed of in the same manner as the main body to which it once belonged. Another inquiry regarding this feature is the dating of its construction. At this time, it is tentatively dated to the late MB I, or possibly the early MB II. This question may require further excavation in the vicinity of the feature to investigate its relationship to the nearby acropolis architecture. Further data about this feature may suggest whether it was an outdoor surface, public, or concealed from view. With such contextualization, a more in-depth study could be made into the role, if any, that the inclusion of the figurines may have played.

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CATALOGUE

face, indicating the nose. There is no mouth, ears or hair depicted. There is a thin band of clay across the forehead and the top of the head is pointed. Fabric: baked clay, even tan color throughout Dimensions: 2.6 (th) x 2.1 (w) x 4.1 (h) cm Context: ashy, early MB II debris between architectural phases Associated Artifacts/Ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurines cat. nos. 75, 88; animal bones 11 sheep/goat, 2 pig, 1 equid, 3 dog, 2 bird, 8 medium, 7 small; diagnostic pottery sherd MB I (?); metal objects Three thin bronze rod fragments, two long and one short (UMM.97.M.3)

Hand-Modeled Head Fragments Type One 1. Object number: UMM.96.H.009, UMM.96.H.013 Square, Excavation area: 1314/3866, Acropolis East Archon: 005 (head), 002 (torso)/ Room II Period: EB Description: This incomplete figurine was recovered in two parts. The head fragment is broken across the bottom of the neck. Applied clay disks, impressed with a single point in the center, represent the eyes. The clay is pinched vertically in the middle of the face, indicating the nose. There is no depiction of a mouth or ears. The hairstyle is rendered with three thin bands of clay applied horizontally on the left side, two thin bands of clay applied horizontally on the right side, and one thin band hanging vertically alongside the right side of the face (there is evidence for a counterpart to this thin band alongside the left side of the face, now broken off). The back of the head is pinched into a small, high, squarecornered peak. The body fragment is broken at the neck, waist and both shoulders. The figure wears two thin clay neck ornaments. Fabric: buff orange with a cream surface, well-fired, no visible temper (head fragment); buff-yellow core, same color surface (body fragment) Dimensions: 2 (th) x 2.2 (w) x 2.8 (h) cm (head); .9 (th) x 3.5 (w) x 4 (h) cm (body) Context: sub-floor pit in Room II of an EB IVB domestic structure Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 3 sheep/goat, 1 sheep/goat/gazelle, 18 medium, 4 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragments refer to cat. nos. 4, 17, 32,45, 66, 115, 116 and 126; stone object stone pestle (UMM.96.S046)

3. Object number: UMM.99.H.013 Square, Excavation area: 1228/3870, Acropolis West Archon: 105 Period: MB Description: This fragment is broken at the neck. Applied clay disks, impressed with a single point in the center, represent the eyes. The clay is pinched vertically in the middle of the face, indicating the nose. There is no mouth or hair depicted. There is a thin band of clay applied across the forehead, and there is a similar band applied at the top of the neck. Both bands are incised. The top of the head is broken above the applied clay band. Fabric: tan, well-fired, baked clay with lime and grit temper Dimensions: 3.2 (th) x 2.3 (w) x 3.5 (h) cm Context: mid-MB II debris above early MB II architecture Associated Artifacts/Ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine cat. no. 90; animal bones 2 equid, 5 medium, 2 small Type Two Comparanda: (a) Tell Afis (Matthiae, 1998) fig. 6 no. 4 (b) Ansari-Aleppo (Suleiman, 1984) p. 56, pl. V fig.52 (c) Selenkahiye (van Loon, 2001) pl. 6.4 fig. a, p. 6.394- SLK 74 H12 (d) Hama (Fugman, 1958) p. 69 fig. 85, p. 98 fig.120 (e) Ebla (Marchetti, 2001) tav. XLVII (f) From Badre (1980), refer to: Hama pl. I nos. 5, 8, Ebla pl. XII no. 3, Tell Judaidah pl. XXII no. 1, Chatal Hoyuk pl. XXIV nos. 2 and 3, Qatna pl. IX no. and 11 and Ugarit pl. LIX no 7

Type One Comparanda: (a) Tell Chuera (Klein and Hempelmann in Orthmann, ed., 1995) p. 255, type 2.1 (b) Tell Hadidi (Dorneman, 1979) p. 119, fig. 6 (c) Selenkahiye (van Loon, 2001) pl. 6.1, fig. a- SLK 72H235 (d) Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) p. 43, no. 174, taf. 59; p. 45 nos. 193 and 194, taf. 61 (e) Tell al’Abd Zrejehey (Toueir, 1978) pl. III nos. 301, 312, 313

Type Three Type Two 4. Object number: UMM 96.H.010 Square, Excavation area: 1314/3866, Acropolis East Archon:002 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken at the neck. Applied clay disks, impressed with a single point in the center, represent the eyes. The clay is pinched vertically in the middle of the face, indicating the nose. There is no mouth. There are protrusions on the sides of the face at

2. Object number: UMM.97.H.004 Square, Excavation area: 1242/3856, Acropolis West Archon: 103 Period: MB Description: This fragment is broken at the neck, and the left side of the face is chipped. Applied clay disks, impressed with a single point in the center, represent the eyes. The clay is pinched vertically in the middle of the

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CATALOGUE Description: This fragment is broken at the neck. The applied pellet eyes have been broken off, leaving diskshaped impressions in the facial surface. The clay is pinched vertically in the middle of the face, indicating the nose. There is a groove incised along the side of the square-shaped bun at the back of the head. Fabric: tan clay, well-fired (even color throughout) Dimensions: 3.6 (th) x 3.1 (w) x 3.8 (h) cm Context: a large, outdoor, LBA cobble surface

eye-level and the bun at the back of the head has rounded corners, and extends above the top of the head. Fabric: buff fabric with a greenish-buff surface, wellfired with a fine sand temper Dimensions: 3 (th) x 3.2 (w) x 3.6 (h) cm Context: an EB IVB domicile Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments refer to cat. nos. 1, 17, 32,45, 66, 115, 116 and 126; model chariot fragment (UMM.96.C001); zoomorphic figurine fragment (UMM.96.A.007). From Room II in this domicile: basalt pestles (UMM.96.S.047, UMM.96.S.043); beads two complete, black stone beads (UMM.96.B002, UMM.96.B.003)

8. Object number: UMM.00.H.064 Square, Excavation area: 1266/3932, Acropolis North Archon: 112 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken at the neck. Applied clay disks, impressed with a single point in the center, represent the eyes. The clay is pinched vertically in the middle of the face, indicating the nose. There is no mouth. The top of the head is marked with three incised lines and the bun is loaf-shaped. Fabric: light brown, baked clay with medium-fine texture Dimensions: 2.5 (th) x 2.1 (w) x 2.8 (h) cm Context: MB I (?) layer of cobbles and sherds Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments: cat. nos. 5, 9, 29, 30, 31, 35, 39, 61, 68, 96, 106, 107, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 142, 143, 148

5. Object number: UMM 00.H.010 Square, Excavation area: 1264/3936, Acropolis North Archon: 101 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken at the neck, and on the left side of the face. Applied clay disks, impressed with a single point in the center, represent the eyes. The clay is pinched vertically in the middle of the face, indicating the nose. There is no mouth, or ears. There are some incised markings on the left side of the face. The hair is modeled into a square-shaped bun in the back, with some small pieces of clay applied to the right side of the face, depicting plaits of hair. Fabric: pale brown, baked clay with medium-fine texture Dimensions: 3.4 (th) x 2.7 (w) x 3.3 (3) cm Context: MB I, MB II (?) layer of cobbles and sherds Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments: 8, 9, 29, 30, 31, 35, 39, 61, 68, 96, 106, 107, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 142, 143, 148

Type Three Comparanda: (a) Tell Chuera (Klein and Hempelmann in Orthmann, ed., 1995) p. 255 type 2.3 (b) Selenkahiye (van Loon, 2001) pl. 6.1, fig b- SLK 72-235, pl 6.3, fig a- SLK 74-H2 (c) From Badre (1980) Euphrates type, refer to: Selenkahiye pl. XLII nos. 61, 69, 70 and pl. XLIII no. 76, Habuba pl. XLVIII nos. 7 and 9 Type Four

6. Object number: UMM.00.H.018 Square, Excavation area: 1234/3868, Acropolis West Archon: 409 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken at the neck. Applied clay disks, impressed with a single point in the center, represent the eyes. The clay is pinched vertically in the middle of the face, indicating the nose. There is no mouth. There are incised zig-zag lines at the top of the head, and incised lines on the rectangular-shaped bun at the back of the head, indicating hair. Fabric: buff-colored, well-baked clay with a smooth surface Dimensions: 3.5 (th) x 2.9 (w) x 3.8 (h) cm Context: MB I (?) ashy debris with no associated architecture Associated artifacts/ecofacts: diagnostic pottery sherd MB I

9. Object number: UMM.00.H.025 Square, Excavation area: 1262/3936, Acropolis North Archon: 104 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken at the bottom of the neck. Applied clay disks, impressed with a single point in the center, represent the eyes. The clay is pinched vertically in the middle of the face, indicating the nose. There is no mouth, or ears. The plaited hair across the forehead is represented with incised, applied clay. Coils of incised clay hang alongside the face, with plaits fanning outward behind them. At the back of the head, the clay is modeled into a long, rounded shape. Fabric: pale brown color, medium-fine texture, baked Dimensions: 3 (th) x 3.2 (w) 4.1 (h) cm Context: MB I (?) layer of cobbles and sherds Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 9 sheep/goat, 1 sheep/goat/gazelle, 1 bovid, 11 medium, 12 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragments: cat. nos. 5, 8, 29, 30, 31, 35, 39, 61, 68, 96, 106, 107, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 142, 143, 148

7. Object number: UMM.00.H.019 Square, Excavation area: 1016/3930, West Area C Archon: 011 Period: EB

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA Archon: 114 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken below the neck. The hair is represented with applied, incised clay coils that frame the face. The eyes are depicted as applied diskshaped pellets, impressed with a single point in the center. The clay is pinched vertically in the middle of the face, indicating the nose. There is no mouth, or ears. The figure wears two neck ornaments of applied, incised clay. Fabric: not recorded. Dimensions: 4.4 (th) x 4.4 (w) x 7 (h) cm Context: inside a plaster-lined, EB IVB mud brick bench filled with pottery sherds and this figurine fragment- the bench is one of a pair flanking the doorway Associated artifacts/eccofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments refer to cat. nos. 15, 41, 55, 56 and 156

10. Object number: UMM.00.H.055 Square, Excavation area: 1260/3930, Acropolis North Archon: 103 Period: EB Description: This head and upper body fragment is broken at the midriff and across the top of the head. Applied clay disks, impressed with a single point in the center, represent the eyes. The clay is pinched vertically in the middle of the face, indicating the nose. There is no mouth. The hair is depicted by two long, incised coils hanging alongside the face, behind which are four plaits fanning outward on each side, and a square-shaped bun at the back of the head. The figure wears two thick, incised coiled-clay neck ornaments. The shoulders are broad, and the hands rest on the lower chest. There are two incised lines on the right wrist. There are no similar markings on the left wrist, which is slightly cracked. Fabric: light brown, baked clay with medium-fine texture Dimensions: 2.3 (th) x 5.5 (w) x 6 (h) cm Context: early EB IV debris, no associated architecture

Type Four Comparanda: (a) Tell Chuera (Klein and Hempelmann in Orthmann, ed., 1995) p. 255, type 2.3 (b) Tell Hadidi (Dornemann, 1979) p. 119, fig. 6 (c) Hammam et-Turkman (Rossmeisl and Venema in van Loon, ed., 1988) p. 565, no. 37 and nos. 38-40 (d) Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) p. 40, no.146, 147 and 149, taf. 56, and also p. 43, no. 178, taf. 59 (e) Selenkahiye (van Loon, 2001) pl. 6.2, figs. a, b (f) From Badre (1980) Euphrates, refer to: Euphrates type MAI 2a: Selenkahiye pl. XL 33, 27, 34, pl. XLII nos. 61, 63, 69 and Habuba pl. XLVIII no 4, pl. XLIX no. 11a

11. Object number: UMM.00.H.062* Square, Excavation area: 1262/3930, Acropolis North Archon: 102 Period: EB Description: The description in object registry reads, “Only the neck is preserved: a collar with oblique carved lines and part of the hair (still with oblique carved lines) are visible.” Fabric: light brown baked clay with medium-fine texture Context: EB IV (at the latest) debris just above a whiteplastered, sloping floor feature beside apsidal room Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 sheep/goat, 1 sheep/goat/gazelle, 2 equid, 5 medium, 2 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. no. 141, refer also to cat. nos. 40, 53, 108, 109 and 140

Type Five 14. Object number: UMM.99.H.047 Square, Excavation area: 1266/3934, Acropolis North Archon: 041 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken at the top of the chest. The head is pointed and cone-shaped. Applied, coffee bean-shaped pellets of clay represent the eyes. The clay is pinched vertically in the middle of the face, indicating the nose, and the mouth is not depicted. There are small protrusions modeled on the side of the face, at the level of the eyes, which extend perpendicular to the head, representing the ears. The neck is long, and there is a thin, applied piece of clay with deep vertical incisions applied across the front of the neck. There is some evidence of a second necklace, draped over what is preserved of the left shoulder. Fabric: light green, well-fired clay with a fine white and yellow grit (sand?) temper Dimensions: 1.7 (th) x 2 (w) x 4.4 (h) cm Context: debris just outside MB II enclosure wall around the acropolis

12. Object number: UMM.02.H.023 Square, Excavation area: 1268/3890, Acropolis Center Archon: 107 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken at the neck. Applied clay disks, impressed with a single point in the center, represent the eyes. The clay is pinched vertically in the middle of the face, indicating the nose. There is no mouth, or ears. There are small pieces of applied clay on the right side of the face depicting plaits of hair, and on the left side and along the forehead there are applied, incised coils of clay also indicating the hair. There is a square bun protruding from the back of the head. Fabric: light brown clay, well-baked (even color throughout), fine grit (?) and vegetable (?) temper with a light yellow-green slip Dimensions: 3.3 (th) x 3.5 (w) x 3.8 (h) cm Context: debris just above an ash pit

Type Six 15.Object number: UMM.02.H.024 Square, Excavation area: 1268/3896, Acropolis West Archon: 106

13. Object number: UMM.02. H.026 Square, Excavation area: 1266/3894, Acropolis West

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CATALOGUE 17. Object number: UMM.96.H.011 Square, Excavation area: 1314/3866, Acropolis East Archon: 002/Room IV Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken across the neck. The eyes are made of applied clay, and are coffee beanshaped. The clay is pinched vertically in the center of the face, indicating the nose. There is no mouth or ears. The hair is represented by three applied coils of incised clay, framing the face. Behind these coils there are three pieces of clay applied on each side, depicting plaits of hair. There is a square bun at the back of the head. Fabric: brown buff clay, well-fired (even color throughout) with a cream-buff surface and a fine sand temper. Dimensions: 2.4 (th) x 2.5 (w) x 2.9 (h) cm Context: a sub-floor pit in Room IV of an EB IVB structure Associated artifacts/ecofacts: Associated diagnostic pottery EB Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments: cat. no. 66 refer also to cat. nos. 1, 4, 24, 25, 32, 45, 94, 115, 116, 126

Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken at the neck. The head is pointed, cone-shaped and the top is incised with short, vertical lines. Above the eyes are two semi-circular incisions, representing the hairline or possibly eyebrows. The eyes are made of applied, disk-shaped pellets of clay impressed with a single point in the center. The clay is pinched vertically in the middle of the face, indicating the nose. There is no mouth, or ears. Fabric: light brown, well-baked clay with a vegetable or fine grit (?) temper Dimensions: 1.8 (th) x 2.1 (w) x 3.5 (h) cm Context: upper fill of an EB IVB industrial (?) complex Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 41, 55, 56, 156 refer also to cat. no 13 Type Six Comparanda: (a) Tell Chuera (MoortgatCorrens, 1977/78) pp. 47-48, Abb. 11, fig. e, also (Klein and Hempelmann in Orthmann, ed., 1995) p. 255, type 2.6 (b) Hama (Fugman, 1958) p. 69 fig. 85; (c) Halawa (Orthmann, 1981) p. 33 taf. 51, nos. 2, 4 (d) Hammam etTurkman (Rossmeisl and Venema in van Loon, ed., 1988) p. 565, no. 37 and p. 565, no. 37 (e) Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) p. 40, taf. 57, no. 150, also p. 43, taf. 59, no 176 (f) Selenkahiye (van Loon, 2001) pl 6.4, figs a, b and 6.6, fig d; (g) Badre (1980) Euphrates type, refer to Tell Chuera pl. XXXII, no. 2, Habuba pl. XLVIII, no. 2, Selenkahiye pl. XLVII, no. 200

Type Seven Comparanda: (a) Selenkahiye (van Loon, 2001) p. 6.391, pl. 6.1 fig. c- SLK 72-H233; (b) for the neck ornament depicted on Umm el-Marra catalogue no. 16, see Tell al’Abd Zrejehey (Toueir, 1978) pl. III no 315, cf. Halawa (Pruss 1994, Abb. 3, no. 12; Orthmann 19801986, p. 51 Abb. 26 no 2 for the back hair piece)

Type Seven Type Eight 16. Object number: UMM.97.H.002 Square, Excavation area: 1320/3876, Acropolis East Archon: 101 Period: Early MB II Description: This fragment is broken at the base of the neck. The coffee bean-shaped eyes are made of applied clay. The clay is pinched vertically in the center of the face, indicating the nose. There is no mouth, or ears. The top of the head has incised lines, indicating hair. There is a thin, incised strip of clay across the top of the forehead and along the sides of the face. Additionally, the clay is modeled into three plaits alongside the face behind the coils, and there is an incised ponytail at the back of the head. There is also a circular decoration at the top of the hair, which hangs down the back. The figure wears a thin, applied incised coil of clay around the neck, with a small, incised piece applied just above it, possibly depicting a medallion. There appears to be part of a second neck ornament visible just above the break. Fabric: greenish, well-fired baked clay with either very fine sand (?) or no visible temper Dimensions: 2.5 (th) x 2.5 (w) x 4 (h) cm Context: a pocket of black ash on the floor of an MB II domicile, which bore traces of white plaster Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 5 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragment cat.no. 120; diagnostic pottery sherd EB (?)

18. Object number: UMM.95.H.007 Square, Excavation area: 1070/3868, West Area A Archon: 007 Period: LB Description: This fragment is broken at the neck. There are disk-shaped impressions depicting the eyes. The clay is pinched in the center of the face, indicating the nose, and the mouth is suggested by an impression pressed into the clay. There are no ears, there is no hair or headdress, and there are no ornaments on the neck. Fabric: very hard, tan, baked clay with no visible temper Dimensions: 1.6 (th) x 2.1 (w) x 2.8 (h) cm Context: debris in the uppermost LB or lowermost Hellenistic/Achaemenid levels, no associated architecture Type Eight Comparanda: (a) Tell Chuera (Klein and Hempelmann in Orthmann, ed., 1995) p. 255 type 7.3 Type Nine 19. Object number: UMM.94.H.014 Square, Excavation area: 1246/3864, Acropolis West Archon: 006 Period: LB Description: This fragment is broken at the neck. The head is dome-shaped, with disk-shaped impressions

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA Dimensions: 2.4 (th) x 5.3 (w) x 6.4 (h) cm Context: late-MB II debris inside a room beneath a stepped mud brick platform Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 2 gazelle, 1 sheep/goat/gazelle, 1 bovid, 1 equid, 10 medium, 2 small

indicating the eyes, and a rough modeling of the facial features. There are no ears. Fabric: light buff clay with sand temper, even color throughout, hardened or lightly fired. Dimensions: 4.4 (th) x 5.3 (w) x 6.9 (h) cm Context: from a stone slab pavement south of LB room

Type Ten Comparanda: (a) Halawa (Orthmann, 1981) p. 31-32, taf. 51 no. 4 (b) Hama (Fugman, 1958) p. 90 fig. 110, p. 95 fig. 117, p. 108 fig. 132 (c) for Umm elMarra catalogue no. 21, see Tell Afis (Matthiae, 1998) fig 2 nos. 3,4 (d) Ebla (Marchetti, 2001) tav. XIV, XV, XVIII and XIX (e) Badre (1980) Orontes type, refer to Tell Mardikh/Ebla pl. XII nos. 15, 17, Alalakh pl. XVII no. 8, pl. XVIII no. 29, Hama pl. II no. 43

Type Nine Comparanda: (a) Tell Chuera (Klein and Hempelmann in Orthmann, ed., 1995) p. 255, type 6.1 (b) Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) pl. 64 no 240 (c) Alalakh (Woolley, 1955) p. 246, pl. LV (d) Hammam etTurkman (Rossmeisl and Venema, 1988) p. 571 f., pl 184-186 (e) Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) pl. 64 and 193, no. 240, cf. p. 48 (f) Badre (1980) Littoral Mediterranean type, refer to Alalakh pl. XVII, no. 7 and pl. XIX, no. 36, Qatna pl. IX, no. 4 and Ugarit pl. LIX, no 2

Type Eleven 22. Object number: UMM.99.H.015 Square, Excavation area: 1270/3936, Acropolis North Archon: 103 Period: MB Description: This fragment is broken at the top of the neck. The eyes are applied clay disks, punctured in the center. The clay is pinched in the center of the face, indicating the nose. There is no mouth, or ears. There are three pellets of applied clay on the right side of the face, and two on the left, suggesting plaits of hair. On the top of the head is a tall, fan-shaped form indicating an elaborate hairstyle or headdress. Fabric: light brown, well-baked clay with a medium grit temper Dimensions: 2.3 (th) x 3 (w) x 4.8 (h) cm Context: MB II debris from the area north of the acropolis gate Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 equid, 2 medium, 1 small

Type Ten 20. Object number: UMM.95.H.009 Square, Excavation area: 1028/3852, West Area A Archon: 004 Period: MB Description: This fragment is broken just below the arms and the top/back of the head. Applied clay disks, punctured in the center, represent the eyes. The clay is pinched vertically in the middle of the face, indicating the nose. The fragment has a circular protrusion at the top of the nose, between and slightly above the eyes, which is pierced. The shape of the head fans outward on each side of the face and is pierced with two round holes on either side. The figure wears a neck ornament of applied clay. The disproportionately short arms extend perpendicular to the body. Fabric: not recorded. Dimensions: 2 (th) x 4.7 (w) x 5.6 (h) cm Context: MB debris near a wall of an uncertain architectural context

Type Eleven Comparanda: (a) Tell Chuera (Klein and Hempelmann in Orthmann, ed., 1995) p. 255 type 3.3 (b) Tell Afis (Matthiae, 1998) fig. 2 nos. 3,4 (c) Ebla (Marchetti, 2000) p. 841 fig. 1; (d) Badre (1980) refer to Alalakh pl. XVII nos. 8, 9 and 11 and pl. XVIII no. 21, Tell Mardikh/Ebla pl. XII nos. 15- 17 and 20

21. Object number: UMM.99.H.040 Square, Excavation area: 1308/3858, Acropolis East Archon: 002 Period: late MB II Description: This fragment is broken at the top, just above the base of the tall, fan shaped headdress or hairstyle, (see catalogue no. 22 for comparison). Applied clay disks, impressed with a single point in the center, represent the eyes. The clay is pinched vertically in the middle of the face, indicating the nose. There is no applied neck ornament, but there is a small fragment of an applied disk at the bottom of the neck. The disproportionately short arms extend outward, perpendicular to the body. The breasts are represented with applied clay pellets. There is an indentation, suggesting the navel. The fragment is broken just above the pubic triangle, and a few incised lines are visible just above the break. Fabric: not recorded.

Type Twelve 23. Object number: UMM.00.H.039 Square, Excavation area: 1296/3892, Acropolis Center Archon: 115 Period: MB Description: This hand-modeled head fragment is broken at the top of the neck. Applied clay disks, punctured in the center represent the eyes. The clay is pinched in the center, indicating the nose. The mouth is depicted with a short, straight incision. There are no ears. The shape of the head fans outward on each side of the face, and is pierced with two round holes on either side. On the top of the head is a partially preserved tall, fan-shaped form

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CATALOGUE anthropomorphic figurine fragments refer to cat. nos. 1, 4, 17, 24, 32, 45, 66, 94, 115, 116, and 126

suggesting an elaborate hairstyle or headdress (see catalogue no. 22 for comparison). Fabric: green-yellow, well-fired clay with black and white grit temper Dimensions: 2.6 (th) x 3 (w) x 3.7 (h) cm Context: MB debris just outside of massif A Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 2 sheep/goat, 2 equid

26. Object number: UMM.97.H.022 Square, Excavation area: 1236/3856, Acropolis West Archon: 108 Period: EB Description: This is a hand-modeled body fragment of a stalk-shaped figurine, broken at the neck and at both shoulders. The figure wears a single thin, niched, applied clay neck ornament. Fabric: baked greenish-cream clay, even color throughout with fine sand temper Dimensions: 1.2 (th) x 4.1 (w) x 6.9 (h) cm Context: cobble packing (an outdoor space or a foundation that runs beneath the structure) against the north wall of MB I domicile. Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 2 sheep/goat, 9 medium; stone object complete gray stone pestle (UMM.97.S.42).

Type Twelve Comparanda: (a) Tell Afis (Matthiae, 1998) fig. 3 no.1; (b) Badre (1980) Orontes type Hand-Modeled Body Fragments Type Thirteen 24. Object number: UMM.97.H.027 Square, Excavation area: 1316/3870, Acropolis East Archon: 106 Period: EB IV A Description: This small body fragment is broken at the bottom of the neck, at both shoulders and across the bottom above the base. Fabric: dark brown, baked clay with a brown surface (slip?) and medium black and white sand temper. Dimensions: 2.3 (w) x 3.3 (h) cm Context: debris beneath EB IVB domicile Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments 45 and 94, refer also to cat. nos. 1, 4, 17, 25, 32, 66, 115, 116 and 126; diagnostic pottery sherds: EB

27. Object number: UMM.99.H.005 Square, Excavation area: 1232/3868, Acropolis West Archon: 100 Period: EB Description: This hand-modeled chest fragment of a stalk-shaped figurine is broken at the bottom of the neck, at both shoulders and above the midriff. The figure wears a single, incised neck ornament. Fabric: light brown, well-baked clay with no visible temper Dimensions: .7 (th) x 3 (w) x 3.5 (h) cm Context: debris beneath the floor of the southwest corner of an MB II domestic structure Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 57, 77 and 89

Type Thirteen Comparanda: (a) Tell al’Abd Zrejehey (Toueir, 1978) pl. I no. 51, pl. II nos. 305, 319 Type Fourteen 25.Object number: UMM.96.H.005 Square, Excavation area: 1318/3864, Acropolis East Archon: 113 Period: EB Description: This is a nearly intact body fragment of a hand-modeled, stalk-shaped figurine, broken at the neck and at the top of each of the arms. The figure wears a single neck ornament of applied, incised clay. There is a partially preserved incised clay coil hanging straight down the back of the neck. The front of the figure is marked with vertical facets, possibly indicating the presence of a garment. The base of the figurine is rounded, and it is able to stand independently. The bottom of the base is concave, with an “X” incised in the concavity. The figurine is broken below the mid-point, but the join is clear. Fabric: orange core with coarse grit and lime temper, the outer surface is light green buff, well-fired Dimensions: 1.2 (th) x 5.6 (w) x 13 (h) cm Context: ashy, fill in EB IVB domicile Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones: 2 sheep/goat, 1 sheep/goat/gazelle, 3 medium, 1 small;

28. Object number: UMM.99.H.043A Square, Excavation area: 1266/3934, Acropolis North Archon:038 Period: EB Description: This hand-modeled chest fragment of a stalk-shaped figurine is broken at the neck, at the waist and at both shoulders. The figure wears an incised neck ornament of applied clay, which is only present on the front of the figure. There is evidence of a second neck ornament. Fabric: brown, baked clay, even color throughout, with black and white medium grit temper Dimensions: 1.8 (th) x 5 (w) x 4.5 (h) cm Context: a large, ashy MB II pit Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 sheep/goat/gazelle, 4 medium; 2 small 29. Object number: UMM.00.H.050 Square, Excavation area: 1266/3932, Acropolis North Archon: 107 Period: EB

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 5, 8, 9, 29, 30, 35, 39, 61, 68, 96, 106, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 142, 143, and 148; zoommorphic figurine/figurine fragment (UMM.00.A.031)

Description: This hand-modeled chest fragment of a stalk-shaped figurine is broken at the waist, across the neck and at both shoulders. The figure wears a single incised, applied clay coil neck ornament. The body looks like it was scraped with a flat tool. Fabric: light brown baked clay, medium-fine texture with light yellow-green slip Dimensions: 3.5 (w) x 4.2 (h) cm Context: MB I (?) layer of cobbles and sherds Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 13 sheep/goat, 12 gazelle, 1 sheep/goat/gazelle, 7 bovid, 4 equid, 28 medium, 26 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 5, 8, 9, 30, 31, 35, 39, 61, 68, 96, 106, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 142, 143, and 148; zoomorphic figurines (UMM.00.A.023 UMM.00.A.33)

Type Fifteen Comparanda: (a) Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) p. 44 taf. 60 no. 191; (b) Badre (1980) Euphrates type MA, refer to Selenkahiye pl. XLV no. 135 Type Sixteen 32. Object number: UMM.96.H.012 Square, Excavation area: 1314/3866, Acropolis East Archon: 001/ Room IV Period: EB Description: This hand-modeled body fragment of a stalk-shaped figurine is broken across the lower chest and just above the base. Part of the right hand is preserved, with one visible, incised line indicating the fingers. Fabric: yellow-buff, well-fired clay, even color throughout, with fine sand temper Dimensions: 1.1 (th) x 3.6 (w) x 5 (h) cm Context: a sub-floor pit beneath Room IV of an EB IVB domestic architecture Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments refer to cat. nos. 1, 4, 17, 24, 25,45, 66, 94, 115, 116, and 126; zoomorphic figurine fragment: (UMM.96.A.008)

Type Fourteen Comparanda: (a) Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) pp. 44-45, also taf. 60 nos. 187, 192 and p. 45 taf. 61 nos. 199 and 200 (b) Tell Chuera (Klein and Hempelmann in Orthmann, ed., 1995) p. 256 types 4.6, 4.7 (c) Tell al’Abd Zrejehey (Toueir, 1978) pl. II nos. 220, 318 (d) Badre (1980) Euphrates type MA, refer to Selenkahiye pl. XLIV no. 111, pl. XLV no. 112 Type Fifteen 30. Object Number: UMM.00.H.044 Square, Excavation area: 1266/3932, Acropolis North Archon: 107 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken at the middle of the neck, just below both shoulders and across the chest. The figure wears three neck ornaments of applied clay. There are two semi-circular thin strands of applied clay visible on the chest, which may indicate the horns of an animal being carried. Fabric: Light brown baked clay, medium-fine texture. Dimensions: 5.7 (w) x 3.8 (h) cm Context: MB I (?) layer of cobbles and sherds Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 13 sheep/goat, 2 gazelle, 1 sheep/goat/gazelle, 4 equid, 7 bovid; anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 5, 8, 9, 29, 31, 35, 39, 61, 68, 96, 106, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 142, 143, and 148

33. Object number: UMM.99.H.034 Square, Excavation area: 1264/3936, Acropolis North Archon: 009 Period: EB Description: This hand-modeled, upper body fragment of a stalk-shaped figurine is broken at the neck, the waist and just below the left shoulder. The right arm is bent, and the right hand rests on the midriff. Above the right hand is an applied clay pellet, indented in the center. Fabric: Light brown baked clay with a light greenyellow slip and sand (?) temper. Dimensions: 2.6 (th) x 6.5 (w) x 4.8 (h) cm Context: debris above the stone foundation of a late MB II wall Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 3 sheep/goat, 2 equid, 6 medium, 5 small; grinding stone (UMM.99.S.086); clay spindle whorl, fragment (UMM.99.W.035)

31. Object number: UMM.00.H.056 Square, Excavation area: 1264/3936, Acropolis North Archon: 105 Description: This figure wears four applied neck ornaments, all incised with a pattern of short, horizontally stacked lines alternating with two short vertical lines framing a series of small dots. The back of the fragment features a series of wavy, vertical incised lines. Period: EB Fabric: light brown, baked clay with a medium-fine texture Dimensions: 6.7 (w) x 4.5 (h) cm Context: MB I (?) layer of cobbles and sherds

34. Object number: UMM.00.H.008* Square, Excavation area: 1282/3898, Acropolis North Archon: 200 Period: EB Description: According to the description in the object registry, this is a hand-modeled torso fragment of a stalkshaped figurine. It is broken at the neck, on the right side, and at the bottom of the neck. The left hand lies flat against the midriff and is broken off at the wrist. Fabric: Not recorded.

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CATALOGUE 38. Object number: UMM.99.H.019 Square, Excavation area: 1260/3930, Acropolis North Archon: 005 Period: EB Description: This is a hand-modeled torso fragment of a stalk-shaped figurine. The right arm is broken at the elbow, and the left arm is broken at the shoulder and the figure is broken above the base. There is a partially preserved neck ornament, and the neck is broken above the base. Fabric: well-fired tan clay with no visible temper Dimensions: 1.9 (th) x 3.8 (w) x 5.3 (h) cm Context: inside the stone foundation of an LBA wall of a domicile

Dimensions: 1.1 (th) x 2.6 (w) x 3.6 (h) cm Context: inside massif A, late EB/MB I (?) Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 2 sheep/goat, 1 gazelle, 3 medium, 4 small; diagnostic pottery sherd EB (?). 35. Object number: UMM.00.H.012 Square, Excavation area: 1266/3936, Acropolis North Archon: 101 Period: EB Description: This hand-modeled torso fragment is broken down the middle, at the waist and above the hand. The left side of the midriff is preserved, with one hand resting against the body, on which four fingers are individually depicted. Fabric: pale brown baked clay, medium-fine texture Dimensions: 1.4 (th) x 2 (w) x 4 (h) cm Context: MB I (?) layer of cobbles and sherds Associated artifacts/ ecofacts: animal bones 18 sheep/goat, 2 gazelle, 2 pig, 10 bovid, 9 equid, 41 medium and 55 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 5, 8, 9, 29, 30, 31, 39, 61, 68, 96, 106, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 142, 143 and 148; model chariot fragments (UMM.00.C.002, UMM.00.C.003); stone pestle (UMM.00.S.033); zoomorphic figurine fragments (UMM.00.A.002; UMM.00.A.003)

39. Object number: UMM.00.H.011 Square, Excavation area: 1266/3934, Acropolis North Archon: 101 Period: EB Description: This hand modeled torso fragment of a stalk-shaped figurine is broken at the neck and above the base. There is a partially preserved neck ornament, which wraps around the neck on the left side and lies over the shoulder. The left arm is present, bent and lying against the chest. Fabric: pale brown baked clay with a medium-fine texture Dimensions: 1.4 (th) x 4.4 (w) x 5.2 (h) cm Context: MB I (?) layer of cobbles and sherds Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 5 sheep/goat, 1 sheep/goat/gazelle, 5 bovid, 1 equid, 18 medium, 36 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 5, 8, 9, 29, 30, 31, 35, 61, 68, 96, 106, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 142, 143 and 148; model chariot fragments (UMM.00.C.004); stone pestle (UMM.00.S.027); spindle whorl, clay (UMM.00.W.001)

36. Object number: UMM.00.H.060 Square, Excavation area: 1264/3896, Acropolis Center Archon: 018 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken at the top of the neck, at the left shoulder and along the left side, and just above the base. Fabric: not recorded. Dimensions: 4 (w) x 5.4 (h) cm Context: MB I debris, with no associated architecture Associated artifacts/ecofacts: diagnostic pottery sherds MB

40. Object number: UMM.00.H.046 Square, Excavation area: 1266/3928, Acropolis North Archon: 108 Period: EB Description: This hand-modeled upper body fragment of a stalk-shaped figurine is broken at the neck, at the top of the right shoulder, down the left side and across the lower body. Fabric: Pale brown, baked clay with a medium fine texture. Dimensions: 4.5 (w) x 5.8 (h) cm Context: EB IVB debris outside of the apsidal building Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 3 sheep/goat, 1 bovid, 5 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 108, 109 and 140, refer also to cat. nos. 11, 53 and 141; diagnostic pottery sherd (late) EB (?)

37. Object number: UMM.02.H.020 Square, Excavation area: 1269/3894, Acropolis Center Archon: 106 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken at the chest, across the midriff and along the left side. The right hand is preserved resting against the chest. There is an incised decoration around the bottom of the fragment. Fabric: not recorded. Dimensions: 1.6 (th) x 3.5 (w) x 4.8 (h) cm Context: debris Type Sixteen Comparanda: (a) Halawa (Orthmann, 1981) taf. 51 no. 5 (b) Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) p. 44 taf. 60 no 189 (c) Tell al’Abd Zrejehey (Toueir, 1978) pl. II no. 306 (d) Badre (1980) Euphrates type MA

41. Object number: UMM.02.H.014 Square, Excavation area: 1264/3900, Acropolis West Archon: 002, Room III Period: EB

Type Seventeen

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA Square, Excavation area: 1266/3894, Acropolis Center Archon: 106 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken at the bottom of the neck, along the left side, and at the midriff. The right arm is broken above the elbow. Neither hand is preserved on the chest. The figure wears two neck ornaments of incised, applied clay, the lower one draped on a diagonal, from the upper right shoulder to the mid-point of the chest on the left side. The left side of the chest extends outward at a steep angle. Fabric: well-baked (hard) pinkish clay with a gray core, and a light yellow-green slip Dimensions: 4.4 (w) x 4.5 (h) cm Context: debris in layer preceding massif A, EB IVB (?) Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 151 and 152

Description: This fragment is broken at the neck, the waist and along the right side. The arm is bent and the hand rests on the chest. The fingers are indicated with incised lines. The figure wears a single neck ornament. Fabric: gray-brown clay, well-baked (even color throughout) with a light yellow-green slip and fine black grit temper Dimensions: 1.5 (th) x 4 (w) x 3 (h) cm Context: early EB IVB bricky debris inside large room of industrial (?) complex Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments 15, 55, 56 and 156, refer also to cat. no 13 Type Seventeen Comparanda: (a) Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) p. 47 taf. 62 no. 229 (b) Tell al’Abd Zrejehey (Toueir, 1978) pl. I no. 36 (c) Badre (1980) Euphrates type, MA

Type Eighteen Comparanda: (a) Tell al’Abd Zrejehey (Toueir, 1978) pl. I no. 62 (c) Badre (1980) Euphrates type MA, refer to Selenkahiye pl. XLV no. 141

Type Eighteen 42. Object number: UMM.99.H.021 Square, Excavation area: 1230/3872, Acropolis West Archon: 113 Period: EB Description: This is the left side of a hand-modeled chest fragment of a stalk-shaped figurine, broken at the neck, down the center of the chest, and at the waist. It wears two partially preserved, incised clay coils around the neck and there is a similar, partially preserved, coil hanging along the left side of the neck, also incised. The left arm and left hand are preserved, and the hand rests on the chest. Fabric: gray, well-baked clay with a fine grit temper Dimensions: 1.1 (th) x 3.2 (w) x 4.2 (h) cm Context: a pocket of ashy debris outside/in the vicinity of middle MB II domestic architecture Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 3 sheep/goat, 1 sheep/goat/gazelle, 1 bovid, 1 equid, 2 dog, 21 medium and 4 small

Type Nineteen 45. Object number: UMM.97.H.026 Square, Excavation area: 1314/3870, Acropolis East Archon: 104 Period: EB Description: This upper body fragment is broken at the base of the neck and slightly below the waist. Both arms extend outward from the body, and the right arm is modeled so that it would appear to be holding an inserted object. The figure wears two neck ornaments made of applied coils of incised clay. Fabric: dark red-brown baked clay with a light brown surface and medium sand temper Dimensions: 2.3 (th) x 5.5 (w) x 5.5 (h) cm Context: ashy, dark brown fill beneath a plaster floor of EB IVB domicile Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragment cat. no. 94, refer also to cat. nos. 1, 4, 17, 24, 25, 32, 66, 115, 116 and 126

43. Object number: UMM.99.H.024 Square, Excavation area: 1236/3870, Acropolis West Archon: 103 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken at the top of the right shoulder and along the left shoulder, at the neck and across the waist. There appears to be a second neck ornament, which is only partially preserved. The fingers of the right hand are distinguished with incised lines. Fabric: well-baked gray clay with sand (?) temper Dimensions: 2.1 (th) x 5.1 (w) x 4.5 (h) cm Context: a matrix of reddish brown bricky room debris near fragmentary MB II domestic architecture, into which was cut a dark ashy pit Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 4 equid, 2 medium and 2 small

46. Object number: UMM.97.H.029 Square, Excavation area: 1234/3936, Acropolis West Archon: 110 Period: EB Description: Broken at the neck and across the waist, the left arm of this figure is bent at the elbow, and the hand is crudely modeled. The figure is holding a long object, modeled in clay, which lies against the left side of the chest and extends over the left shoulder and onto the back. The right arm is fashioned into an abbreviated stump that protrudes only slightly from the body, and is punctured through to accommodate the insertion of an object. Fabric: light yellow baked clay with a gray core and a light yellow surface Dimensions: 1.4 (th) x 7 (w) x 5.2 (h) cm

44.Object number: UMM.02.H.008

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CATALOGUE Description: This fragment is broken across the chest and below the waist, with both arms present but poorly preserved Fabric: light brown, well-fired clay with cream slip and fine grit temper Dimensions: 1.5 (th) x 3.7 (w) x 4.4 (h) cm Context: EB IVA (?) outdoor domestic debris

Context: debris with no associated architecture 47. Object number: UMM.99.H.046 Square, Excavation area: 1238/3868, Acropolis West Archon: 119 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken at the middle of the neck, and across the chest on a diagonal from the right shoulder to the left side of the waist. The left arm is fashioned into an abbreviated stump that protrudes only slightly from the body, and is punctured through to accommodate the insertion of an object. Fabric: orange, well-fired clay with fine black and white grit temper Dimensions: 1.2 (th) x 4.5 (w) x 3.6 (h) cm Context: ashy debris near mid-MB II domestic architecture Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 2 sheep/goat, 2 bovid, 5 equid, 1 dog, 21 medium and 8 small

51. Object number: UMM.99.H.033 Square, Excavation area: 1310/3854, Acropolis East Archon: 011 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken above the shoulders, and on a diagonal close to the bottom. The arms are modeled by pressing and extending the clay along the sides of the torso, creating wing-shaped flaps. These flaps are then folded over, and pressed against the midriff. Fabric: baked gray clay, with no visible temper Dimensions: 2.4 (th) x 3.6 (w) x 7.2 (h) cm Context: late-MB II outdoor debris Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 sheep/goat, 1 equid, 10 medium and 8 small

Type Nineteen Comparanda: (a) Tell Hadidi (Dornemann, 1979) p. 119 fig. 6 (b) Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) p. 49 taf. 65 no. 253 (c) Badre (1980) Euphrates type MA, refer to Selenkahiye pl. XLIV nos. 100, 106 and 107

52. Object number: UMM.00.H.006 Square, Excavation area: 1280/3896, Acropolis Center Archon: 203 Period: EB Description: This hand-modeled body fragment of a stalk-shaped figurine is broken at the neck, and tapers in at the waist. The right arm is bent at a right angle, with the hand lying resting on the midriff. The left arm is also bent, with the left hand above the right, resting on the chest. The front of the figurine is covered with wavy, vertical incised lines. Fabric: red-gray clay with no visible temper Dimensions: 1.4 (th) x 3.5 (w) x 5.4 (h) cm Context: From MB debris to the south of stone massif or platform Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 medium, 3 small

Type Twenty 48. Object number: UMM.94.H.008 Square, Excavation area: 1032/3996, Northwest Area Archon:002 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken across the chest and above the base. There are incised lines across the wrists of both hands, and the fingers are indicated. Fabric: buff-yellow, baked clay Dimensions: 1 (th) x 3.2 (w) x 4.2 (h) cm Context: debris near/north of large Hellenistic room 49. Object number: UMM.95.H.005 Square, Excavation area: 1320/3866, Acropolis East Archon:008 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken across the chest and below the waist. The fingers are distinguished with incised lines and the body of the figure is hollow, reflecting the means of manufacture. Fabric: tan-buff, well-fired clay with a light greenish buff surface and fine lime and dark grit temper Dimensions: 1.5 (th) x 4.5 (w) x 5 (h) cm Context: debris above a room of mid-MB II domicile

53. Object number: UMM.00.H.031 Square, Excavation area: 1262/3930, Acropolis North Archon: 100 Description: This fragment is broken across the neck, at the right shoulder and at the waist. The fingers are distinguished with incised lines, and the left wrist has an incised line, possibly indicating a bracelet or the sleeve of a garment. Fabric: light brown, baked clay with a medium-fine texture Dimensions: 1.5 (th) x 4.6 (w) x 5.3 (h) cm Context: late-EB debris underneath the MB enclosure wall, outside a structure with an apsidal room Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 equid, 1 medium and 1 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragments refer to cat. nos. 11, 40, 108, 109, 140, 141

50. Object number: UMM.99.H.012 Square, Excavation area: 1320/3864, Acropolis East Archon: 302 Period: EB

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA 54. Object number: UMM.00.H.034 Square, Excavation area: 1212/4086, North Area Archon: 007 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken across the neck and at the waist. Fabric: pale brown baked clay Dimensions: .7 (th) x 4.3 (w) x 3.5 (h) cm Context: in the vicinity of a floor surface of the earliest LBA phase of/near domestic architecture and near intrusive Hellenistic/Achaemenid grave Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragment cat. no. 162; spindle whorl, clay (UMM.00.W.019)

Square, Excavation area: 1232/3870, Acropolis West Archon: 100 Period: EB Description: Broken diagonally from the bottom of the neck on the left side to the middle of the right arm, this fragment is also broken below the waist. The fingers are indicated with incised lines. The applied clay neck ornament is only partially preserved. Fabric: well-baked tan clay with fine vegetable temper Dimensions: 1 (th) x 4 (w) x 5.5 (h) cm Context: inside an MB II domicile floor surface Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 27, 77 and 89 58. Object number: UMM.99.H.032 Square, Excavation area: 1224/3856, Acropolis West Archon: 102 Period: EB Description: The figure is broken at the bottom of the neck and across the chest, just below the hands. The fingers are indicated with incised lines. The neck ornament is also incised. Fabric: not recorded. Dimensions: 1 (th) x 3.8 (w) x 2 (h) cm Context: EB IVB cobble pavement or surface, near fire pits and burned brick feature of possible metallurgical function Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 equid, 1 bird, 1 medium, 2 small

55. Object number: UMM.02.H.016 Square, Excavation area: 1264/3900, Acropolis West Archon: 004, Room III Period: EB Description: Broken across the shoulders and above the base, this figure has two arms that are modeled so that the hands rest on the chest. Fabric: light greenish-gray, well-fired clay with a light green slip and fine black grit and vegetable temper Dimensions: 2.1 (th) x 2.5 (w) x 3.7 (h) cm Context: bricky debris of large room in EB IVB industrial (?) complex Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments 15, 41 and 56 and 156 refer also to cat. no. 13

59. Object number: UMM.99.H.052 Square, Excavation area: 1232/3856, Acropolis West Archon: 206 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken at the bottom of the neck and at the waist. The hands are resting on the chest, and the fingers are indicated with incised lines. The applied clay neck ornament is only partially preserved. Fabric: light green, well-fired clay with a fine black grit temper Dimensions: 1.3 (th) x 4.5 (w) x 3.6 (h) cm Context: orange, bricky wall collapse interspersed with a dark ash outside of an MB I domicile

56. Object number: UMM.02.H.021 Square, Excavation area: 1264/3900, Acropolis West Archon: 003, Room III Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken across the shoulders and at the waist. The arms are bent and the hands are resting on the chest. The fingers are indicated with incised lines, and there are incised lines across the wrists. Fabric: light green-yellow clay and slip, well-fired Dimensions: 1.1 (th) x 2.5 (w) x 3.5 (h) cm Context: bricky debris of a large room in EB IVB industrial (?) complex Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 15, 41, and 55 and 156 refer also to cat. no. 13

60. Object number: UMM.00.H.001 Square, Excavation area: 1216/4086, North Area Archon: 004 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken at the bottom of the neck, and at the midriff. The hands are resting below the breasts, which are represented by two applied circular pellets of clay. The fingers are indicated with incised lines. The neck ornament is a thin, applied band of clay wrapped around the wide neck. Fabric: reddish clay Dimensions: 2 (th) x 4.6 (w) x 2.4 (h) cm Context: debris on or above a stone pavement associated with a Hellenistic/Achaemenid room

Type Twenty Comparanda: (a) Tell Chuera (Klein and Hempelmann in Orthmann, ed., 1995) compare p. 256 type 5.4 with Umm el-Marra catalogue no. 52, see also p. 256 type 1.1, 1.2 (b) Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) taf. 62 nos. 204, 205 and 206 (c) Tell al’Abd Zrejehey (Toueir, 1978) pl. II no. 208 (d) Badre (1980) Euphrates type MA Type Twenty-one 57. Object number: UMM.99.H.004

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CATALOGUE made of thin, incised bands of clay wrapped around the front of the neck. Fabric: light green, well-baked clay with fine black grit temper Dimensions: 1.9 (th) x 4.6 (w) x 4.2 (h) cm Context: a pit in bricky fill Associated artifacts/ecofacts:animal bones 1 sheep, 3 sheep/goat, 1 gazelle, 1 sheep/goat/gazelle, 2 bovid, 2 equid, 16 medium, 10 small

Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 sheep/goat, 1 deer, 1 equid, 5 dog, 14 medium; basalt pestles UMM.00.S.005, UMM.00.S.006, UMM.00.S.017, UMM.00.S.020, UMM.00.S.021, UMM.00.S.023 61. Object number: UMM.00.H.007 Square, Excavation area: 1264/3936, Acropolis North Archon: 101 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken at the bottom of the neck and at the waist. The hands rest on the chest, and the fingers are indicated with incised lines. The neck ornament wraps around the neck one and a half times, giving it the appearance of a scarf. The shoulders are exaggerated. Fabric: pale brown, baked clay with a medium fine texture Dimensions: 1.8 (th) x 6.4 (w) x 4 (h) cm Context: MB I (?) layer of cobbles and sherds Associated artifacts/ ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments: 5, 8, 9, 29, 30, 31, 35, 39, 68, 96, 106, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 142, 143 and 148

64. Object number: UMM.00.H.004 Square, Excavation area: 1210/4080, North Area Archon: 002 Period: EB Description: This chest fragment of a hand-modeled, stalk-shaped figurine is broken at the top of the neck, and at the midriff. The arms are bent and the hands are resting on the chest and the fingers are indicated. The figure wears two applied clay, incised coil neck ornaments, and there is a similar incised coil lying alongside the neck. Fabric: pale brown, baked clay Dimensions: 3 (th) x 4.8 (w) x 4.3 (h) cm Context: a mud brick, stone-lined pit dating to the Hellenistic period, the same context as no. 186. Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 sheep/goat, 11 medium, 15 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragment cat. no. 186; zoomorphic figurine fragment (UMM.00.A.005)

62. Object number: UMM.00.H.052 Square, Excavation area: 1262/3930, Acropolis North Archon: 106 Period: EB Description: Broken at the bottom of the neck and at the waist, the figure wears a single, incised neck ornament made of applied clay. The hands rest on the chest, just beneath the breasts that are made of applied clay pellets. The fingers are depicted individually, and there are seven on the left hand and six on the right. Fabric: light brown, baked clay with a medium-fine texture Dimensions: 4 (w) x 4.4 (h) cm Context: EB debris (prior to the latest EB IV level) w/ no associated architecture

65. Object number: UMM.02.H.028 Square, Excavation area: 1266/3894, Acropolis Center Archon: 112 Period: EB Description: This fragment is broken at the neck and across the lower body. The arms are bent and the hands are resting on the chest. There are incised lines around the arms, and incised lines suggest the fingers on each hand. There are remnants of two incised, applied clay neck ornaments. Fabric: highly degraded, color and texture are difficult to discern except for the light green slip on the surface Dimensions: 1.5 (th) x 7.5 (w) x 8.5 (h) cm Context: debris beneath wall in the early-EB IVB phase in the area west of industrial (?) complex

Type Twenty-one Comparanda: (a) Ansari-Aleppo (Suleiman, 1984) pl. V no. 50, 51 (b) Tell Hadidi (Dorneman, 1979) p. 119 fig. 6 (c) Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) p. 45 taf. 61 no. 195, 196 (d) Tell al’Abd Zrejehey (Toueir, 1978) pl. I no. 179 (e) Badre (1980) Euphrates type MA, refer to Selenkahiye pl. XLV nos. 138, 139 and 153, pl. XLVI nos. 178, 179, 181-183

Type Twenty-two Comparanda: (a) Halawa (Orthmann, 1981) p. 31 taf. 51 no. 9 (b) Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) p. 44 taf. 60 (c) Selenkahiye (van Loon, 2001) pl. 6.1 figs a, b, c and pl. 6.2 fig a (d) Tell al’Abd Zrejehey (Toueir, 1978) pl. I no. 45; (e) Badre (1980) Euphrates type MA, refer to Selenkahiye XLVI nos. 157, 169 and 181

Type Twenty-two 63. Object number: UMM.99.H.041 Square, Excavation area: 1264/3932, Acropolis North Archon: 019 Period: EB Description: This upper body fragment is broken at the middle of the neck and at the waist. The arms are bent and the hands rest on the chest. The fingers are indicated with incised lines. The figure wears two neck ornaments

Type Twenty-three 66. Object number: UMM.96.H.007 Square, Excavation area: 1314/3866, Acropolis East Archon: 001 and 002 (Room IV) Period: EB

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA rest on the upper midriff. Incised lines distinguish the fingers, and there are three on the left hand and five on the right. There is a thin band of incised clay applied horizontally across the chest, and above this band is a row of incised clay pellets. There is a second thin, incised band applied above the row of pellets, which is incomplete due to breakage. Fabric: light brown, baked clay with a medium fine texture Dimensions: 10 (w) x 10.4 (h) cm Context: MB I (?) layer of cobbles and sherds Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 7 sheep/goat, 1 gazelle, 6 bovid, 2 equid, 1 dog, 17 medium, 49 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 5, 8, 9, 29, 30, 31, 35, 39, 61, 96, 106, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 142, 143 and 148; bronze pin (UMM.00.M.042)

Description: Broken at the top of the neck and at the waist, this figure wears three incised neck ornaments that are wrapped around the front of the neck. The arms are bent, and both hands are resting flat on the midriff. Incised lines indicate the fingers, and there are two lines around each wrist. Two coils of clay, modeled identically to the neck ornaments, lie alongside the neck and rest on the shoulders. There are incised lines on the back of the fragment, in the form of three nested v-shapes. The fragment is reconstructed from three separate pieces. Fabric: buff-green, well-fired clay with no visible temper Dimensions: 1.8 (th) x 7.7 (w) x 8.1 (h) cm Context: a plaster-lined pit beneath the floor of Room IV, in EB IVB domestic architecture Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 3 sheep/goat, 1 bovid, 9 medium and 11 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragment cat. no 17, refer also to cat. nos. 1, 4, 24, 25, 32, 45, 66, 94, 115, 116, 126; basalt pestle (UMM.96.S.047); zoomorphic figurine fragment (UMM.96.A.007); model chariot, fragment (UMM.96.C.001)

Type Twenty-four Comparanda: (a) Tell Hadidi (Dornemann, 1979) p. 119 fig. 6 (b) Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) p. 44 taf. 60 no. 190 (c) Tell al’Abd Zrejehey (Toueir, 1978) pl. II no. 203

67. Object number: UMM.99.H.030 Square, Excavation area: 1276/3930, Acropolis North Archon: 103 Period: EB Description: This hand-modeled upper body fragment of a stalk-shaped figurine is broken at the middle of the neck and below the waist. The arms are bent, and the hands are resting on the chest. Incised lines distinguish the fingers. The figure wears three incised neck ornaments, which wrap around the front of the neck and there are two more of these incised coils hanging on either side of the neck. Fabric: light green, well-baked clay with no visible temper Dimensions: 1.3 (th) x 4.1 (w) x 5.4 (h) cm Context: soft, medium red-brown MB or MB I room fill, not far above the EB architecture Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 2 sheep/goat, 1 dog, 1 medium and 2 small

Type Twenty-five 69. Object number: UMM.97.H.007 Square, Excavation area: 1318/3878, Acropolis East Archon: 107 Period: EB Description: Broken at the neck and below the waist this figure wears a collar of applied, incised clay around the bottom of the neck. The arms are disproportionately short, and extend perpendicular to the body. Across the arms and chest there is an applied band of clay with numerous vertical incisions. Below this band are two applied pellets of clay, punctured in the center, possibly indicating the breasts. Below the breasts, is a garland of twenty-two similar disks of applied clay punctured in the center. Fabric: tan, well-fired clay with fine sand temper Dimensions: 1.8 (th) x 6.9 (w) x 7.8 (h) cm Context: late EB/early MB debris Associated artifacts, ecofacts: animal bones 1 sheep/goat, 1 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragment cat. no. 97

Type Twenty-three Comparanda: (a) Tell Hadidi (Dornemann, 1979) p. 119 fig. 6 (b) Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) p. 50 taf. 66 no. 264; taf. 60 no. 190 (c) Tell al’Abd Zrejehey (Toueir, 1978) pl. II no. 203 (d) Selenkahiye (van Loon, 2001) pl. 6.2 figs. a, b (e) Badre (1980) Euphrates type MA; Halawa (Orthmann 1981, pl. 51, no. 9)

Type Twenty-five Comparanda: Tell Chuera (Klein and Hempelmann in Orthmann, ed., 1995) p. 256 type 6.2

Type Twenty-four

Type Twenty-six

68. Object number: UMM.00.H.042 Square, Excavation area: 1266/3932, Acropolis North Archon: 109 Period: EB Description: This hand-modeled, stalk-shaped torso fragment is broken at the bottom of the neck and below the waist. The shoulders are broad, exaggerated and point upward. The arms are bent at the elbows, and both hands

70. Object number: UMM.94.H.001 Square, Excavation area: 1250/3866, Acropolis West Archon: 001 Period: MB Description: This figure is broken at the middle of the neck, at both shoulders, along the right side and across the pubic triangle. There is an applied clay neck ornament featuring two rows of small, vertical incisions. The figure

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CATALOGUE Context: topsoil

wears bands, indicated by small, vertical incised lines, crossing above the navel. The lower midriff is impressed with a deep puncture, representing the navel. The pubic triangle is depicted with multiple horizontal lines of small, vertical incisions. Fabric: buff, baked clay with no visible temper Dimensions: 1.2 (th) x 2.8 (w) x 4.5 (h) cm Context: topsoil Associated artifacts/ecofacts: basalt pestle fragment (UMM.94.S 001)

74. Object number: UMM.95.H.012 Square, Excavation area: 1228/3860, Acropolis West Archon: Room II Period: MB Description: This pelvic fragment is broken above the navel, and at the tops of both thighs and on both sides. The navel is indicated with a deep, circular impression, and the pubic triangle is represented by multiple rows of horizontal lines comprised of short, vertical incisions. Fabric: tan clay with no visible temper Dimensions: 1 (th) x 4.5 (w) x 4.2 (h) cm Context: debris in MB II domicile Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 7 sheep/goat, 3 gazelle, 7 bovid, 1 bovid/cervid, 12 equid, 1 dog, 50 medium, 15 small

71. Object number: UMM.94.H.010 Square, Excavation area: 1140/3884, West Area B Archon: 004 Period: MB Description: Broken at the midriff, across the pubic triangle and chipped on the right side, this figure is wearing bands that cross above the navel, indicated by a series of small, vertical incised lines. The lower midriff is impressed with a deep puncture, representing the navel. The pubic triangle is depicted with multiple, horizontal rows incised vertical lines. Fabric: Buff, well-fired clay with lime and sand temper. Dimensions: 1 (th) x 3 (w) x 3.2 (h) cm Context: debris beneath a Roman layer of cobbles, in the vicinity of a large LBA pit Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 sheep/goat, 7 medium, 15 small

75. Object number: UMM.97.H.001 Square, Excavation area: 1244/3854, Acropolis West Archon: 101 Period: MB Description: This partially preserved fragment of a pubic triangle is broken on all sides. The pubic triangle is indicated by six horizontal rows comprised of short, vertical incised lines. Fabric: greenish, well-fired clay with fine temper Dimensions: 1.4 (th) x 2.7 (w) x 3.2 (h) cm Context: ashy, MB II outdoor debris Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 4 sheep/goat, 1 gazelle, 2 equid, 2 dog, 17 medium, 4 small; anthropomorphic figurines cat. nos. 2, 88

72. Object number: UMM.94.H.016 Square, Excavation area: 1036/3994, Northwest Area Archon: 006 Period: MB Description: Broken at the waist, at the bottom of the pubic triangle and down the center this figure wears bands that extend from the left corner of the pubic triangle (the left hip) to the break and is depicted with a series of short, vertical incised lines. The navel, which is depicted with a small circular puncture, is only partially preserved. The pubic triangle, which is also only partially preserved, is represented by multiple horizontal rows of short, vertical incised lines. Fabric: buff, medium-fired clay with a gray core and fine sand temper Dimensions: 1 (th) x 2.1 (w) x 3.8 (h) cm Context: debris near LBA (?) stone wall foundations

76. Object number: UMM.99.H.022 Square, Excavation area: 1266/3934, Acropolis North Archon: 009 Period: MB Description: This pelvic fragment is broken just below the waist and across the tops of the thighs. The crossing bands are partially preserved, and are indicated by a row of short, vertical incised lines. The pubic triangle is represented by three horizontal rows of short, vertical incised lines. Fabric: not recorded. Dimensions: 1.2 (th) x 4.2 (w) x 4 (h) cm Context: late MB II debris outside of a domicile Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 4 sheep/goat, 3 equid, 6 medium, 1 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragment cat. no. 78

73. Object number: UMM.95.H.001 Square, Excavation area: 1028/3982, Northwest Area Archon: 001 Period: MB Description: The navel on this pelvic fragment is indicated with a circular puncture, just above the pubic triangle. The figure is wearing bands, crossing just above the navel and is a single, deep groove impressed into the clay. The pubic triangle is also outlined with a similar groove impressed into the clay. Fabric: not recorded. Dimensions: .9 (th) x 3.1 (w) x 2.1 (h) cm

77. Object number: UMM.99.H.025 Square, Excavation area: 1232/3870, Acropolis West Archon: 106 Period: MB Description: This pelvic fragment is broken down the center and preserved on the left side. The partially preserved navel is indicated with a circular impression. There is evidence for the crossed bands, indicated by

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA Description: This crudely hand-modeled body fragment of a figurine with a female silhouette is broken at the neck, and the end of the feet. The arms are disproportionately short, and are modeled so that the hands, also crudely modeled, are cupping the breasts. The breasts are depicted with applied clay disks. The pubic triangle is outlined with three, straight grooves impressed into the clay and a fourth line distinguishes the legs. The pubic triangle is filled in with multiple deep, circular punctures. The feet are flat on the bottom, and extend forward. The figure cannot stand independently. Fabric: greenish-yellow, well-fired clay with medium black and white grit temper, and impressions of chaff on the back Dimensions: 1.4 (th) x 5.5 (w) x 10.8 (h) cm Context: debris above MB massif A and underneath LB domestic architecture Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 bovid, 7 medium, 5 small

short, vertical incised lines. The pubic triangle is depicted with three horizontal rows of short, vertical, incised lines Fabric: light green, baked clay, slightly pink in the center with black grit and lime (?) temper Dimensions: .9 (th) x 2 (w) x 3.3 (h) cm Context: beneath a packed earth floor surface of early MB II domicile Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 2 sheep/goat, 4 medium, 2 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 27, 57 and 89; basalt grinding stone (UMM.99.S.52) 78. Object number: UMM.99.H.050 Square, Excavation area: 1260/3934, Acropolis North Archon: 024 Period: MB Description: This nearly intact body fragment of a handmodeled female silhouette figurine is broken at the middle of the neck. The figure wears an applied clay neck ornament, incised on the left side with a series of short, vertical lines. The arms are disproportionately short, and extend outward, perpendicular to the body. The figure wears bands comprised of short, incised lines, crossing above the navel. The navel is an applied clay disk punctured in the center. The pubic triangle is comprised of three rows of short, vertical incised lines. The legs are distinguished by a groove impressed into the clay and the feet are small, and point outward. The figure cannot stand independently. Fabric: not recorded. Dimensions: 1.4 (th) x 5.8 (w) x 12.4 (h) cm Context: in or above the mud bricks of an MB II wall, outside of the acropolis enclosure wall Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragment cat. no. 76; diagnostic pottery sherd MB (?)

81. Object number: UMM.00.H.041 Square, Excavation area: 1266/3892, Acropolis Center Archon: 013 Period: MB Description: Broken at the bottom of the neck, at both arms below the shoulder and across the upper thighs, this figure wears an incised neck ornament of applied clay. The navel is represented by a circular impression. The figure wears crossed bands, depicted by short, incised lines. The pubic triangle is indicated by six horizontal rows comprised of short, vertical, incised lines and is outlined with two diagonal rows of short, incised lines. There is a single groove impressed into the clay which distinguishing the legs. Fabric: not recorded. Dimensions: 3.6 (w) x 5 (h) cm Context: ashy MB II or early LB debris below LB domestic architecture Associated artifacts/ecofacts: diagnostic pottery sherd MB

79. Object number: UMM.00.H.028 Square, Excavation area: 1304/3866, Acropolis East Archon: 108 Period: late MB II Description: This fragment is broken at the waist, just above the navel and across the upper thighs. The navel is indicated with a circular applied disk punctured in the center at the lower midriff. The pubic triangle is depicted by a three roughly horizontal rows of short, incised lines. The legs are distinguished by a groove impressed into the clay. Fabric: not recorded. Dimensions: 1 (th) x 3.5 (w) x 4.5 (h) cm Context: late MB II debris in domestic structure Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 2 sheep/goat, 1 bovid, 1 equid, 1 bird, 6 medium, 1 small; diagnostic pottery sherd MB II (?)

82. Object number: UMM.00.H.057 Square: 1306/3864, Acropolis East Archon: 107 Period: MB Description: Broken at the middle of the neck, this fragment is also broken below the left shoulder, and across the upper thighs. The arms are disproportionately short, and extend outward perpendicular to the body. The figure wears a girdle depicted by two straight grooves impressed into the clay intersecting exactly at the navel. The navel is represented with an applied clay disk punctured in the center. Two straight grooves impressed into the clay outline the pubic triangle, which is filled in with eleven small circular impressions. A single straight groove impressed into the clay, which extends up to the navel, distinguishes the legs. Fabric: pale brown clay with a smooth texture Dimensions: 3.9 (w) x 5 (h) cm

80. Object number: UMM.00.H.036 Square, Excavation area: 1294/3894, Acropolis Center Archon: 113 Period: MB

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CATALOGUE Hama (Fugman, 1958) p. 90 fig. 110, p. 95 fig. 117, p. 101 fig. 124, p. 108 fig. 132 (d) Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) p. 47 taf. 62 nos. 227 and 228 (e) Ebla (Marchetti, 2001) tav. XV, XVI, XVII, XX and XXVII (f) See Badre (1980) Orontes type MAI 2, and refer to Alalakh pl. XVII nos. 8,9 and pl. XVIII no. 22; Chatal Huyuk pl. XXIV nos. 6,7 and 8; Hama pl. I numbers 12, 14, 20, 22, 23 and 27, and Hama pl. II numbers 33, 39 and 40; Tell Judaidah pl. XXII no 12, 13; Tell Nebi Mend pl. IX no. 2; Neirab pl. XI nos. 1, 2; Tell Mardikh/Ebla pl. XIII nos. 37-57, pl. XIV no 75, and Meskeneh/Emar pl. XXXVI no 2

Context: mid-MBII debris in open area near domestic architecture Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 2 sheep/goat, 1 gazelle, 3 medium, 2 small; diagnostic pottery sherd MB II (?) 83. Object number: UMM.00.H.065* Square, Excavation area: 1290/3894 Archon: 007 Period: MB Description: Fabric: orange clay, with black grit and gold mica inclusions Dimensions: 4.2 (w) x 2.3 (c) x .8 (th) cm Context: not available

Type Twenty-seven 86. Object number: UMM.95.H.004 Square, Excavation area: 1046/3986, Northwest Area Archon: 006 Period: MB Description: This is a fragment depicting the lower legs, which are distinguished by a vertical groove impressed in the clay. The fragment is broken below the knees and across the ankles. Fabric: light greenish-yellow, well-fired clay with fine sand and lime temper Dimensions: .8 (th) x 2.7 (w) x 2 (h) cm Context: inside the stone foundation of an LB wall Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 equid, 4 medium

84. Object number: UMM.00.H.068 Square, Excavation area: 1306/3862, Acropolis East Archon: 112 Period: MB Description: Broken at the neck and across the middle of the legs, this figure wears two neck ornaments of incised, applied clay. The arms are disproportionately short, and extend outward, perpendicular to the body. The left arm is chipped at the very end. The figure wears bands, indicated with short, incised lines crossing above the navel. The navel is an applied clay disk, punctured in the center. The pubic triangle is outlined with short, incised lines, and is filled in with four horizontal rows comprised of short, vertical, incised lines. There is a groove impressed into the clay which distinguishing the legs. On the back, there are two circular impressions indicating dimples, on the buttocks. Fabric: pale brown clay, smooth texture Dimensions: 4.1 (w) x 7.2 (h) cm Context: debris just above MB II red/white plaster floor Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 21 and 79

87. Object number: UMM.95.H.010 Square, Excavation area: 1048/3980, Northwest Area Archon: 009 Period: MB Description: This fragment, depicting the lower legs, is broken across the lower thighs and below the ankles, just above the feet. Fabric: light yellow, well-fired clay with no visible temper Dimensions: 1 (th) x 1.9 (w) x 3.9 (h) cm Context: late MB or early LB debris above a white, plaster floor in a test trench, near a stone wall foundation that is visible in the baulk

85. Object number: UMM.02.H.003 Square, Excavation area: 1270/3892, Acropolis Center Archon: 103 Period: MB Description: This fragment is broken at the waist, along the left hip, and across the upper thighs. Short, incised lines indicate the presence of bands crossing at the midriff, above the navel. The navel is represented by an applied disk-shaped pellet of clay impressed with a point in the center. The pubic triangle is illustrated with a multiple rows of short, vertical, incised lines. There is a groove impressed in the clay that distinguishes the legs. Fabric: light, greenish gray, well-fired clay with a fine sand (?) temper Dimensions: 1 (th) x 3.2 (w) x 4 (h) cm Context: MB debris outside MB stone cobble surface

88. Object number: UMM.97.H.003 Square: 1240/3858, Acropolis West Archon: 100 Period: MB Description: This leg fragment is broken above the ankle and across the middle of the thighs. A vertical groove impressed in the clay distinguishes the legs. Fabric: Light green-yellow, well-fired clay with fine sand temper. Dimensions: 1.3 (th) x 1.8 (w) x 2.9 (h) cm Context: ashy debris inside an MB II domicile Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 7 sheep/goat, 1 gazelle, 1 sheep/goat/gazelle, 1 pig, 25 medium, 3 small; anthropomorphic figurines cat. nos. 2, 75

Type Twenty-six Comparanda: (a) Tell Afis (Matthiae, 1998) fig. 3 nos. 1-3, fig. 4 nos. 1-3, fig. 5 nos. 1-4 (b) Halawa (Orthmann, 1981) p. 31-31 and taf. 51 no. 4 (c)

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA 89. Object number: UMM.99.H.006 Square, Excavation area: 1238/3868, Acropolis West Archon: 102 Period: MB Description: This leg fragment is broken across the top of the thighs and just above the ankles. The legs are distinguished by a vertical groove impressed in the clay, which becomes Y-shaped at the mid-thigh point, indicating the pubic triangle. Fabric: tan, baked clay with a red core and medium grit temper Dimensions: .6 (th) x 2.6 (w) x 4.1 (h) cm Context: beneath MB II stone wall foundation from a domestic structure Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 27, 57 and 77

Period: MB Description: Broken across the pubic triangle and above the knees, this fragment features incised lines indicating the pubic triangle. The excavator notes that the fragment appears to be of a Badre (1980) Orontes Type. Fabric: yellow-tan, well-fired clay with no visible temper Dimensions: .7 (th) x 3.5 (w) x 3.5 (h) cm Context: an open area between MB II domicile and an LB room Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 3 sheep/goat/gazelle, 3 sheep/goat, 1 equid, 6 medium, 3 small Twenty-seven Comparanda: Refer to the comparanda for the Type Sixteen hand-modeled body fragments and see also Badre (1980) Orontes type MAI 1 and MAI 2

90. Object number: UMM.99.H.010* Square, Excavation area: 1228/3874 Archon: 104 Period: MB Description: torso and foot end fragment of breast holding clay figurine; stalk-type Dimensions: 2.9 x 1.5 x .7 cm Context: a floor surface

Type Twenty-eight 94. Object number: UMM.97.H.023 Square, Excavation area: 1314/3870, Acropolis East Archon: 102 Period: EB Description: This pelvic fragment of a hand-modeled, stalk-shaped figurine has a Y-shaped incision indicating the pubic triangle. Fabric: greenish-cream, baked clay with fine sand temper Dimensions: 5.5 (w) x 4.6 (h) cm Context: debris from above the floor of EB IV B domestic structure Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 45 and 24 refer also to 1, 4, 17, 25, 45, 66, 115, 116 and 126

91. Object number: UMM.99.H.014 Square, Excavation area: 1218/3860 Room IV, Acropolis West Archon: 100 Period: MB Description: This leg fragment is broken on a diagonal at and just below the knees. A straight line is impressed into the clay, distinguishing the legs. The clay is pinched forward at the bottom, indicating the feet, which are broken at the ends. Fabric: light brown, baked clay with no visible temper Dimensions: .8 (th) x 2.4 (w) x 4 (h) cm Context: fill Associated artifacts/ecofacts: diagnostic pottery sherd MB II (?)

95. Object number: UMM.99.H.026 Square, Excavation area: 1266/3928, Acropolis North Archon:006 Period: EB Description: This lower body fragment of a handmodeled, stalk-shaped figurine is broken above the base and at the waist. There is an incised triangle with six short, horizontal, incised lines inside of it indicating the pubic triangle. Fabric: pink-brown baked clay with white grit temper Dimensions: 2.1 (th) x 4 (w) x 4.5 (h) cm Context: late MB II debris from an outside area, below an LBA cobble pavement Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 sheep/goat, 1 equid, 9 medium and 4 small

92. Object number: UMM.99.H.039* Square, Excavation area: 1310/3854, Acropolis East Archon: 013 Period: MB Description: This fragment is broken at the very bottom of the pubic triangle, which is indicated by rows of short, vertical incised lines Fabric: Light brown, baked clay with no visible temper. Dimensions: n/a Context: debris above late MBII outdoor, cobble surface Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 sheep/goat, 1 equid, 14 medium and 7 small

96. Object number: UMM.00.H.014* Square, Excavation area: 1266/3934, Acropolis North Archon: 101 Period: EB Description: This fragment is described in the object registry as being a body fragment with two incised triangles, one inside the other.

93. Object number: UMM.00.H.017* Square, Excavation area: 1002/3986, Northwest Area Archon: 004

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CATALOGUE Fabric: light brown, well-fired clay with cream slip and fine grit and lime temper Dimensions: 1 (diam.) x 2.7 (h) cm Context: debris inside MB II room Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 gazelle, 1 equid, 5 medium and 4 small

Fabric: pale brown, baked clay with a medium fine texture Dimensions: n/a Context: MB I (?) layer of cobbles and sherds Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 5 sheep/goat, 1 sheep/goat/gazelle, 5 bovid, 1 equid, 18 medium and 36 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 5, 8, 9, 29, 30, 31, 35, 39, 61, 68, 106, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 142, 143 and 148 model chariot fragment (UMM.00.C.004); stone pestle (UMM.00.S.027); spindle whorl, clay (UMM.00.W.001)

100. Object number: UMM.00.H.040 Square, Excavation area: 1264/3930, Acropolis North Archon: 113 Period: EB Description: This hand-modeled torso fragment of a cylindrical figurine is broken at the bottom of the neck, just beneath both shoulders and at the top of the hips. The waist is tapered, the arms are extending outward and there is a thin collar at the bottom of the neck. Fabric: Light brown, medium-fine texture, baked clay. Dimensions: 3.1 (w) x 5.6 (h) cm Context: ashy EB IVA or EB IVB debris beneath the (domestic?) structure with an apsidal room- no associated architecture Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 equid, 4 sheep/goat, 15 medium and 8 small; bone awl fragment (UMM.00.I.023)

Type Twenty-eight Comparanda: (a) Tell Chuera (Klein and Hempelmann in Orthmann, ed., 1995) p. 257 type 3.C (b) Hama (Fugman, 1958) p. 89 fig. 109 Type Twenty-nine 97. Object Number: UMM.97.H.008 Square, Excavation area: 1318/3880, Acropolis East Archon: 102 Period: EB Description: This cylinder-shaped, body fragment is broken at the top of the neck, the waist and along the right side. There is a small cylinder extending perpendicular to the body from the left side, which appears to be an arm. Above this perpendicular extension is a thin, incised collar of applied clay. Fabric: not recorded. Dimensions: 1.2 (th) x 2.6 (w) x 3.7 (h) cm Context: bricky, dark and ashy late EB or early MB debris with patches of charred wood, beneath MB II oven Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 3 sheep/goat, 1 sheep/goat gazelle, 1 bovid, 1 equid, 4 medium and 11 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragment cat. no. 69, refer also to cat. no. 117 which was found in this oven; zoomorphic figurine fragment (UMM.97.A.005)

Type Twenty-nine Comparanda: (a) Tell Chuera (Klein and Hempelmann in Orthmann, ed., 1995) p. 256 type 8.2 and also p. 258 type 1.1 Type Thirty 101. Object number: UMM.96.H.008 Square, Excavation area: 1016/3852, West Area A Archon: 101 Period: EB Description: This hand-modeled body fragment of a stalk-shaped figurine is broken at the neck and just above the base. There is a preserved fragment of the claymodeled hair remaining on the right shoulder, and several small, vertical incised lines at the neck. The arms are modeled in the form of semi-circular protrusions from the side of the body. Fabric: light yellow buff, well-fired clay with fine lime (?) and grit temper Dimensions: 1.4 (th) x 4.8 (w) x 6.1 (h) cm Context: ashy fill against the glacis Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 4 sheep/goat, 3 sheep/goat/gazelle, 16 medium, 1 small

98. Object number: UMM.99.H.003 Square, Excavation area: 1000/3930, West Area C Archon: 001 Period: EB Description: This cylinder-shaped body fragment is broken at the top of the neck, at the waist and at both arms. The neck is elongated, and wears a thin, incised collar of applied clay. Fabric: brown, baked clay with a light green slip and no visible temper Dimensions: 1 (th) x 2.4 (w) x 3.5 (h) cm Context: topsoil

102. Object number: UMM.00.H.020 Square, Excavation area: 1238/3866, Acropolis West Archon: 118 Period: EB Description: This hand-modeled body fragment of a stalk shaped figurine is broken at the neck and across the bottom. The arms are depicted as semi-circular protrusions on the sides of the upper body, ending in blunt points. Fabric: light yellow-green, well-fired clay

99. Object number: UMM.99.H.011 Square, Excavation area: 1270/3928, Acropolis North Archon: 102 Period: EB Description: This is a hand-modeled, elongated, cylindrical neck fragment with a thin, incised collar.

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA Context: MB I (?) layer of cobbles and sherds Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 5, 8, 9, 29, 30, 31,35, 39, 61, 68, 96, 134, 135, 136, 137, 142, 143 and 148; diagnostic pottery sherd EB IV

Dimensions: 1.5 (th) x 3.8 (w) x 7.5 (h) cm Context: ashy debris, no associated architecture Associated artifacts/ ecofacts: bone spatula, broken (I.006) and bone awl, nearly complete (I.009) Type Thirty Comparanda: (a) Tell Amarna (Tunca, 1992) p. 21 pl. VIII nos. 1,2 (b) Tell Afis (Matthiae, 1998) fig. 1 no.2 (c) Hama (Fugman, 1958) p. 58 fig. 64, p. 64 fig. 74 (d) Badre (1980) refer to Hama pl. IV no. 82

107. Object number: UMM.00.H.029* Square, Excavation area: 1276/3928, Acropolis North Archon: 108 Period: EB Dimensions: 1.2 (th) x 2.3 (w) x 6.2 (h) cm Description: A column-shaped body fragment. The base is missing, but is indicated by the concave apex. Fabric: ‘simple ware’ clay with black grit inclusions and lime Context: debris, no associated architecture

Type Thirty-one 103. Object number: UMM.97.H.012 Square, Excavation area: 1314/3880, Acropolis East Archon: 107 Period: EB Dimensions: 1.2 (th) x 2.3 (w) x 3.2 (h) cm Description: A body fragment of a stalk-shaped figurine. Fabric: not recorded. Context: late EB or early MB pit beneath MB II debris Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 bovid, 3 small; diagnostic pottery sherd EB (?)

108. Object number: UMM.00.H.047* Square, Excavation area: 1266/3928, Acropolis North Archon: 108 Period: EB Description: The torso of stalk-shaped figurine. There are no arms, the figurine is broken at the neck and there is no decoration. Fabric: pale brown, medium-fine texture, baked clay Context: early EB IVB debris outside of the (domestic?) structure with an apsidal room Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 40, 109 and 140, refer also to cat. nos. 11, 53 and 141; diagnostic pottery sherd EB IV (?)

104. Object number: UMM.99.H.029 Square, Excavation area: 1276/3932, Acropolis North Archon: 108 Period: EB Dimensions: 1.3 (th) x 4.2 (w) x 4.1 (h) cm Description: This column shaped body of an anthropomorphic figurine is broken at the neck, waist and top of the left arm. There is no indication of a right arm. Fabric: light green, well-fired clay with sand (?) temper Context: debris just above EB IVB floor, in association with a large quantity of pot sherds including one bearing a seal impression Associated artifacts/ ecofacts: animal bones 1 sheep/goat, 4 medium, 7 small

109. Object number: UMM.00.H.048* Square, Excavation area: 1266/3930, Acropolis North Archon: 105 Period: EB Description: A torso fragment of an anthropomorphic figurine Fabric: light brown, medium-fine texture, baked clay Context: ashy EB IV (at the latest) trash pit outside (domestic?) structure with an apsidal room, filled with cobbles and animal bones Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 sheep/goat, 1 equid, 13 medium, 10 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 40, 108 and 140, refer also to cat. nos. 11, 53 and 141; model chariot fragment (UMM.00.C.011); diagnostic pottery sherds EB IV (?); stone pestle fragment (UMM.00.S.106)

105. Object number: UMM.00.H.015* Square, Excavation area: 1236/3866, Acropolis West Archon: 402 Period: EB Dimensions: 2 (th) x 2.5 (w) x 6 cm Description: A torso fragment of a stalk-shaped figurine Fabric: buff, baked clay Context: ashy, early MB II debris with no associated architecture Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 7 sheep/goat, 2 pig, 2 bovid, 3 equid, 8 medium, 3 small; diagnostic pottery sherd MB I

110. Object number: UMM.02.H.022* Square, Excavation area: 1266/3892, Acropolis Center Archon: 107 Period: EB Dimensions: 1.1 (th) x 3 (w) x 6.4 (h) cm Description: Part of the straight midsection, beginning to flare toward the bottom of the fragment. Fabric: light green, well-fired clay with green slip and no visible temper

106. Object number: UMM.00.H.026 Square, Excavation area: 1266/3934, Acropolis North Archon: 103 Period: EB Dimensions: 1.2 (th) x 3.3(w) x 5.4 (h) cm Description: A torso fragment of a stalk-shaped figurine Fabric: grayish/light-brown, baked clay with medium texture

86

CATALOGUE Dimensions: 2.4 (th) x 2.6 (w) x 5.1(h) cm Context: LB stone wall foundation from domestic structure Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 sheep/goat gazelle, 4 medium, 2 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragments, refer to cat. nos. 180, 184

Context: late EB IV debris from an outside area 111. Object number: UMM.02.H.027* Square: 1260/3896, Acropolis Center Archon: 110 Period: EB Dimensions: 4.4 (w) x 5.5 (h) cm Description: This fragment is described in the object registry as the, “base of a stalk-shaped figurine” although the sketch provided indicates that the fragment is broken above the base. Fabric: light brown, well-fired clay with a light green slip and fine vegetable (?) temper Context: debris above a stone pavement

Type Thirty-two Comparanda: (a) Tell Afis (Matthiae, 1998) fig. 6 nos. 3,4 (b) Hama (Fugman, 1958) p. 89 fig. 109 (c) Ebla (Marchetti, 2001) tav. XLIII, XLIV, LI and LIII (d) Badre (1980) Orontes type, refer to Chatal Huyuk pl. XXV no. 16 Type Thirty-three

Type Thirty-two 115. Object number: UMM.96.H.003 Square: 1316/3862, Acropolis East Archon: 111 Period: EB Description: This is a column-shaped base of a figurine. The surface is faceted, and the base is roughly triangular, with the clay modeled so that it points outward in a roughly triangular shape. Fabric: light greenish buff, well-fired clay with sand (?) temper Dimensions: 1.9 (th) x 2.4 (w) x 6.3 (h) cm Context: ashy EB IV domestic debris Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 3 sheep/goat, 1 deer, 10 medium, 1 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragments, refer to cat. nos. 1, 4, 17, 32, 45, 66, 116, and 126

112. Object number: UMM.97.H.009 Square, Excavation area: 1366/3936, Southeast Area Archon: 005 Period: MB Description: A hand-modeled tripod base of a figurine. One of the three legs is broken off at the top, and the cylindrical body of the figurine is broken just above the remaining two legs. Fabric: tan, well-fired clay Dimensions: 2.3 (th) x 4.1 (w) x 4.6 (h) cm Context: debris above LBA architecture Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 2 medium 113. Object number: UMM.97.H.028 Square, Excavation area: 1362/3936, Southeast Area Archon: 010 Period: MB Description: A hand-modeled torso fragment of a tripod base figurine. All three of the legs, two in front and one in the back, are broken close to the hips. The body is cylindrical, and the waist is tapered. Both arms are broken below the shoulder, and extend outward, almost perpendicular to the body. The figurine is broken at the base of the neck, and there appears to be the partial remains of a collar. Fabric: light brown, baked clay with a red-brown surface and medium sand temper Dimensions: 2.7 (th) x 3.9 (w) x 3.9 (h) cm Context: small MB II pit filled with light gray ash and delicate, tiny bone fragments Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 small

116. Object number: UMM.96.H.004 Square, Excavation area: 1316/3862, Acropolis East Archon: 111 Period: EB Description: This is a column-shaped figurine base. The base is circular, and concave. The sides are faceted and fall into partitions, resembling pleats revealing a shape underneath. There is a small fluted trim and the effect is that of a draping gown falling above the foot. Fabric: pink-buff, well-fired clay with fine lime (?) temper Dimensions: .9 (diam.) x 1.7 (w) x 3.7 (h) cm Context: ashy EB domestic debris Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 3 sheep/goat, 1 deer, 10 medium, 1 small anthropomorphic figurine fragments, refer to cat. nos. 1, 4, 17, 32, 45, 66, 115, and 126

114. Object number: UMM.99.H.045 Square, Excavation area: 1284/3892, Acropolis Center Archon: 005 Period: MB Description: This fragment is the broken base of a handmodeled tripod base figurine, with only one preserved leg. Just above the legs is a thin band of applied clay, possibly a belt. The figurine is broken at the waist. Fabric: light brown, baked clay with fine black and white grit temper

117. Object number: UMM.97.H.006 Square, Excavation area: 1316/3880, Acropolis East Archon: 100 Period: EB Description: A stalk-shaped figurine base. There is clay applied at the bottom to make the base flared. Fabric: tan/light green, well-fired clay with sand temper Dimensions: 3 (th) x 4.2 (w) x 5.8 (h) cm

87

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA Square, Excavation area: 1240/3856, Acropolis West Archon: 102 Period: EB Description: The base of a stalk-shaped figurine. Clay has been applied to the bottom, and modeled so that the base flares outward. The bottom is concave. Fabric: tan clay with a cream surface and medium sand temper Dimensions: 1.5 (th) x 3.2 (w) x 6 (h) cm Context: early MB II gray colored ash debris, between MB II and MB I architecture Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 6 sheep/goat, 1 gazelle, 1 bovid, 3 equid, 1 dog, 16 medium and 2 small

Context: lower level of MB II mud brick oven Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 2 sheep/goat, 1 bovid, 1 equid, 3 small; diagnostic pottery sherds EB (?) 118. Object number: UMM.97.H.010 Square, Excavation area: 1072/3864, West Area A Archon: 104 Period: EB Description: This is a stalk-shaped figurine base. There is clay applied to the bottom, so that the base is flared. There are traces of red paint or slip. Fabric: not recorded. Dimensions: 3 (th) x 2.8 (w) x 3.3 (h) cm Context: ashy, LB ‘street’ debris Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 31 sheep/goat, 5 gazelle, 3 sheep/goat gazelle, 2 pig, 5 bovid, 14 equid, 4 dog, 124 medium and 43 small

123. Object number: UMM.97.H.020 Square, Excavation area: 1240/3856, Acropolis West Archon: 107 Period: EB Description: A stalk-shaped figurine base, broken below the waist. The bottom is ovular and concave. Fabric: light green, baked clay with a fine sand temper Dimensions: 1.5 (th) x 2.6 (w) x 4.4 (h) cm Context: outdoor, ashy MB I debris Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 6 sheep/goat, 1 pig, 1 equid, 17 medium, 4 small; diagnostic pottery sherd MB I

119. Object number: UMM.97.H.011 Square, Excavation area: 1218/3860, Acropolis West Archon: 023 Period: EB Description: This cylinder-shaped figurine base is broken across the hips, and the surface is faceted. Fabric: light green, well-baked clay with a fine sand temper Dimensions: 2.2 (w) x 5.5 (h) cm Context: MB room fill

124. Object number: UMM.97.H.021 Square, Excavation area: 1236/3854, Acropolis West Archon: 106 Period: EB Description: A column-shaped figurine base with a circular, and concave bottom and a faceted surface. The figure is broken at or just below the waist. Fabric: baked clay with grit and sand temper Dimensions: 2.4 (w) x 7.6 (h) cm Context: ashy MB debris Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 7 sheep/goat, 2 sheep/goat/gazelle, 2 equid, 4 medium, 21 small; diagnostic pottery sherd MB I

120. Object number: UMM.97.H.013 Square, Excavation area: 1320/3882, Acropolis East Archon: 104 Period: EB Description: A stalk-shaped figurine base, with a flared, circular bottom that is concave underneath. The fragment is broken below the waist. Fabric: light green, well-fired clay with a fine sand temper Dimensions: 1.3 (th) x 2.3 (w) x 6.5 (h) cm Context: stone foundation of early MB II wall Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 3 equid; 3 medium; anthropomorphic figurine fragment cat. no. 16

125. Object number: UMM.97.H.024 Square, Excavation area: 1020/3850, West Area A Archon: 015 Period: EB Description: A column-shaped figurine base, flared at the bottom and broken below the waist. The surface appears to be textured with many lightly incised lines. Fabric: light yellowish, baked clay with a medium-fine sand temper Dimensions: 1.1 (th) x 3.3 (w) x 6.6 (h) cm Context: inside the lower chamber of the kiln, along with EBA pottery Associated artifacts/ecofacts: EB kiln; zoomorphic figurine fragment (UMM.97.A.018)

121. Object number: UMM.97.H.018 Square, Excavation area: 1185/3760, Southwest Area Archon: 002 Period: EB Description: The stalk-shaped base of a figurine. The bottom is flared, and the fragment is broken below the waist. Fabric: light yellow-green, well-fired clay with a fine sand temper Dimensions: 1.1 (th) x 2.6 (w) x 4.6 (h) cm Context: fill between two walls of successive phases, just below the topsoil

126. Object number: UMM.97.H.025 Square, Excavation area: 1314/3868, Acropolis East

122. Object number: UMM.97.H.019

88

CATALOGUE Context: debris from outside of late MB/early LB room Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 sheep/goat, 3 medium, 2 small; zoomorphic figurine fragment (UMM.99.A.021)

Archon: 103 Period: EB Description: A column-shaped figurine base with a circular and concave bottom. Fabric: light yellow-brown, baked clay with fine sand temper Dimensions: 1.1 (th) x 1.9 (w) x 3.3 (h) cm Context: debris of EB IVB domestic architecture Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments, refer to cat. nos. 1, 4, 17, 32, 45, 66, 115 and 116; diagnostic pottery sherd EB (?)

131. Object number: UMM.00.H.005* Square, Excavation area: 1282/3900, Acropolis Center Archon: 200 Period: EB Description: A roughly stalk-shaped figurine base. The bottom is circular and concave. The surface has longitudinal faceting. Fabric: dark yellow-gray clay with fine sand (?) temper Dimensions: 1.5 (th) x 2.5 (w) x 4.8 (h) cm Context: fill between a single row of stones and massif A Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 sheep/goat, 1 sheep/goat/gazelle, 1 bovid, 7 medium, 1 small; diagnostic pottery sherd EB (?)

127. Object number: UMM.99.H.002* Square, Excavation area: 1234/3858, Acropolis West Archon: 109 Period: EB Description: Lower torso and base of a stalk-shaped figurine with a splayed, concave base. The edge of the base is chipped. Fabric: yellow, well-baked clay. Dimensions: 5.5 x 2.2 x .8 cm Context: not available

132. Object number: UMM.00.H.009* Square, Excavation area: 1236/3868, Acropolis West Archon: 400 Period: EB Description: The base of a hand-modeled, stalk-shaped figurine Fabric: buff colored baked clay with smooth surface. Dimensions: 1 (th) x 2.1 (w) x 5 (h) cm Context: ashy, early MB II debris with no associated architecture Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 2 sheep/goat, 1 gazelle, 3 bovid, 3 equid. diagnostic pottery sherds early MB II

128. Object number: UMM.99.H.009* Square, Excavation area: 1270/3936, Acropolis North Archon: 100 Period: EB Description: Torso and base of a stalk-shaped figurine. Fabric: tan-pink, well-baked clay with a light green slip and lime temper Dimensions: 4.9 x 4.8 x 2.7 x 1.2 cm Context: fill between two MB II walls of domestic structure Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 sheep/goat, 4 equid, 2 small; diagnostic pottery sherd MB 129. Object number: UMM.99.H.016* Square, Excavation area: 1276/3942, Acropolis North Archon:016 Period: EB Description: The base and torso of a stalk-shaped figurine. The bottom is concave. Fabric: gray, well-baked clay with light gray slip and no visible temper Dimensions: 1.8 (th) x 2.9 (w) x 3.4 (h) cm Context: debris in a largely open LB area Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 4 medium, 2 small; complete stone pestle (UMM.99.S.94)

133. Object number: UMM.00.H.016* Square, Excavation area: 1266/3936, Acropolis North Archon: 101 Period: EB Description: This fragment is described in the object registry as a “hand-modeled figurine base” Fabric: Pale brown, baked, medium-fine texture. Context: MB I (?) layer of cobbles and sherds Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 18 sheep/goat, 2 gazelle, 2 pig, 10 bovid, 9 equid, 41 medium, 55 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragments 5, 8, 9, 29, 30, 31, 35, 39, 61, 68, 96, 106, 134, 135, 136, 137, 142, 143, and 148; model chariot fragments (UMM.00.C.002, UMM.00.C.003); basalt grinding stone (UMM.00.S.003); zoomorphic figurine fragments (UMM.00.A.002, UMM.00.A.003)

130. Object number: UMM.99.H.018* Square, Excavation area: 1276/3946, Acropolis North Archon:015 Period: EB Description: The lower body and concave base of a stalk-shaped figurine. Fabric: dark gray, well-baked clay with no visible temper Dimensions: 1.8 (th) x 3.3 (w) x 3.9 (h) cm

134. Object number: UMM.00.H.021* Square, Excavation area: 1266/3934, Acropolis North Archon: 101 Period: EB Description: A hand-modeled figurine base Fabric: pale brown, baked, medium-fine texture Dimensions: 3.7 (th) x 3.8 (w) x 6.8 (h) cm Context: late EB/early MB I (?) layer of cobbles and sherds

89

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA Period: EB Description: A stalk-shaped figurine base. The bottom is splayed and concave. Fabric: ‘simple-ware’ clay with black grit and lime inclusions Dimensions: 1.2 (th) x 2.3 (w) x 6.2 (h) cm Context: inside the MB massif A Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 sheep/goat, 2 equid, 2 medium, 1 small; diagnostic pottery sherd EB (?)

Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 5 sheep/goat, 1 sheep/goat/gazelle, 5 bovid, 1 equid, 18 medium, 36 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragments 5, 8, 9, 29, 30, 31, 35, 39, 61, 68, 96, 106, 133, 135, 136, 137, 142, 143, and 148 model chariot fragment (UMM.00.C.004); basalt ring (UMM.00.S.027); spindle whorl (UMM.00.W.001) 135. Object number: UMM.00.H.023 Square, Excavation area: 1266/3936, Acropolis North Archon: 102 Period: EB Description: A stalk-shaped figurine base Fabric: light brown baked clay, medium-texture Dimensions: 1.4 (th) x 2.3 (w) x 5.3 (h) cm Context: MB I (?) layer of cobbles and sherds Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 15 sheep/goat, 7 bovid, 6 equid, 31 medium, 21 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragments 5, 8, 9, 29, 30, 31, 35, 39, 61, 68, 96, 106, 133, 134, 136, 137, 142, 143, and 148

139. Object number: UMM.00.H.037* Square, Excavation area: 1294/3898, Acropolis Center Archon: 109 Period: EB Description: A stalk-shaped figurine base. The bottom is splayed and concave. Fabric: tan, well-baked clay with fine, dark, grit temper Dimensions: 1.9 (th) x 3 (w) x 3.8 (h) cm Context: MB debris to the east of massif A Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 2 sheep/goat, 1 gazelle, 1 equid, 4 medium, 4 small

136. Object number: UMM.00.H.022* Square, Excavation area: 1266/3936, Acropolis North Archon: 101 Period: EB Description: A hand-modeled figurine base Fabric: pale brown, baked clay with medium-fine texture Dimensions: 1.9 (th) x 5 (w) x 5 (h) cm Context: MB I (?) layer of cobbles and sherds Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 18 sheep/goat, 2 gazelle, 2 pig, 10 bovid, 9 equid, 41 medium and 55 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragments anthropomorphic figurine fragments 5, 8, 9, 29, 30, 31, 35, 39, 61, 68, 96, 106, 133, 134, 135, 137, 142, 143, and 148; model chariot fragment (UMM.00.C.002); basalt grinding stone (UMM.00.S.033); zoomorphic figurine fragments (UMM.00.A.002, UMM.00.A.003);

140. Object number: UMM.00.H.043* Square, Excavation area: 1266/3930, Acropolis North Archon: 106 Period: EB Description: A hand modeled figurine base Fabric: light-brown, medium-fine texture, baked Context: EB IVB debris from outside the apsidal building Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 medium; 6 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 40, 108 and 109, refer also to cat. nos. 11, 53 and 141; diagnostic pottery sherd EB(?) 141. Object number: UMM.00.H.045* Square, Excavation area: 1264/3928, Acropolis North Archon: 106 Period: EB Description: A stalk-shaped figurine base with a splayed, concave base. Fabric: pale-brown baked clay, medium-fine texture Context: EB IVB (at the latest) debris inside apsidal room Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 sheep/goat, 2 medium, 3 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragment cat. no. 11, refer also to cat. nos. 40, 53, 108, 109 and 140

137. Object number: UMM.00.H.024* Square, Excavation area: 1266/3934, Acropolis North Archon: 103 Period: EB Description: A hand-modeled, stalk -shaped figurine base. Fabric: brown, medium-fine texture, baked Dimensions: 1.5 (th) x 2.3 (w) x 3.5 (h) cm Context: MB I (?) layer of cobbles and sherds Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments 5, 8, 9, 29, 30, 31, 35, 39, 61, 68, 96, 106, 133, 134, 135, 136, 142, 143, and 148; diagnostic pottery sherd (late) EB; model chariot fragment (UMM.00.C.006); zoomorphic figurine fragment (UMM.00.A.013)

142. Object number: UMM.00.H.049* Square, Excavation area: 1264/3932, Acropolis North Archon: 106 Period: EB Description: A figurine base. Fabric: light-brown baked clay, medium-fine textured Context: outdoor debris, probably part of the MBI (?) layer of cobbles and sherds

138. Object number: UMM.00.H.030* Square, Excavation area: 1282/3900, Acropolis Center Archon: 202

90

CATALOGUE Description: Base of a stalk-shaped figurine. Fabric: light brown, baked clay with a medium-fine texture Dimensions: 5.9 (l) x 3.4-2.1 (w) x 3.1 (base)-1 (torso) (h) Context: debris

Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 5 sheep/goat, 1 sheep/goat/gazelle, 4 bovid, 8 medium, 10 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragments 5, 8, 9, 29, 30, 31, 35, 39, 61, 68, 96, 106, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 143, and 148 143. Object number: UMM.00.H050A* Square: 1266/3932, Acropolis North Archon: 110 Period: EB Description: A hand-modeled figurine base. The bottom is concave. Fabric: Light-brown, medium-fine textured, baked clay. Context: layer of cobbles and sherds Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments 5, 8, 9, 29, 30, 31, 35, 39, 61, 68, 96, 106, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 142, and 148

148. Object number: UMM.00.H.066* Square, Excavation area: 1262/3936, Acropolis North Archon: 110 Period: EB Description: A stalk-shaped figurine base with concave bottom. Fabric: light brown, baked clay with a medium-fine texture Context: possibly EB IVA or early EB IVB debris inside a fragmentarily preserved room, but more likely from MB I (?) layer of cobbles and sherds. Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments refer to cat. nos. 5, 8, 9, 29, 30, 31, 35, 39, 61, 68, 96, 106, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 142 and 143; basalt grinding stone (UMM.00.S.111)

144. Object number: UMM.00.H.051* Square, Excavation area: 1232/3870, Acropolis West Archon: 410 Period: EB Description: A hand-modeled figurine base, the sides are faceted and the bottom is concave. Fabric: buff colored baked clay Context: MB I (?) ashy debris with no associated architecture Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 5 sheep/goat, 1 pig, 1 equid, 23 medium and 4 small

149. Object number: UMM.00.H.067* Square, Excavation area: 1260/3930, Acropolis North Archon: 109 Period: EB Description: A stalk-shaped figurine base with concave bottom. Fabric: light-brown, baked clay with a medium-fine texture Context: EB IVA debris outside of a fragmentary domestic (?) room- presumably domestic Associated artifacts/ecofacts: diagnostic pottery sherd EB

145. Object number: UMM.00.H.053* Square, Excavation area: 1266/3928, Acropolis North Archon: 110 Period: EB Description: A hand-modeled figurine base. The bottom is concave. Fabric: light brown baked clay with a medium-fine texture Context: from a late EB IVB large pit, beneath/earlier than the MB acropolis enclosure wall Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 8 small

150. Object number: UMM.02.H.004* Square, Excavation area: 1270/3892, Acropolis Center Archon: 103 Period: EB Description: A column-shaped figurine base. The bottom is circular and concave. Fabric: not recorded. Dimensions: 1.5 (th) x 2 (w) x 6 (h) cm Context: MB debris in the vicinity of MB cobble surface

146. Object number: UMM.00.H.054 Square, Excavation area: 1264/3930, Acropolis North Archon: 113 Period: EB Description: Lower torso and concave base of a stalkshaped figurine. Fabric: brown, baked clay with a medium-fine texture Dimensions: 3.8 (d) x 4.7 (l) Context: From a pit Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 equid, 4 sheep/goat, 15 medium, 8 small; diagnostic pottery sherd EB IV

151. Object number: UMM.02.H.006* Square, Excavation area: 1278/3904, Acropolis Center Archon: 015 Period: EB Description: A column-shaped figurine base. The bottom is circular and concave. Fabric: light pink, fine-grained, baked clay Dimensions: 2.3 (diam.) x 5 (h) cm Context: EB IVB debris in layer preceding massif A

147. Object number: UMM.00.H.058* Square, Excavation area: 1262/3932, Acropolis North Archon: 108 Period: EB

152. Object number: UMM.02.H.009* Square, Excavation area: 1266/3894, Acropolis Center Archon: 106

91

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA Period: EB Description: A column-shaped figurine base. The bottom is circular and concave. Fabric: pink clay with a light, yellow-green slip and fine, black, grit temper Dimensions: 2.75 (diam.) x 2.5 (h) cm Context: EB IVB (?) debris in layer preceding massif A Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 44 and 151

Type Thirty-three Comparanda: (a) Tell Chuera (Klein and Hempelmann in Orthmann, ed., 1995) p. 257 type 1.1 (b) Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) p. 46 taf. 62 no. 212 (c) Selenkahiye (van Loon, 2001) pl. 6.1 figs. 1-3, pl. 6.2 figs. a-b, pl. 6.4 figs a,b (d) Tell al’Abd Zrejehey (Toueir, 1978) pl. IV nos. 208, 216, 219, 25, pl. V nos. 330, 333, 337, 338 (e) Badre (1980) Euphrates type MA

153. Object number: UMM.02.H.010* Square, Excavation area: 1266/3894, Acropolis West Archon: 109 Period: EB Description: A column-shaped figurine base. The bottom is circular and concave. Fabric: gray clay with a brown slip and a fine grit (?) temper Dimensions: 2.5 (diam.) x 3 (h) cm Context: early EB IVB debris, above cobble surface and near plaster basin at entrance to industrial (?) complex

157. Object number: UMM.99.H.027 Square, Excavation area: 1258/3952, Acropolis North Archon: n/a Period: MB Description: This figurine is broken at the neck, down the center, and at the rider’s seat. At the bottom of the fragment, the left leg of the rider is partially preserved. Also partially preserved is the neck of the animal the figure is seated upon. The left arm is bent, and the hand is on the chest, holding an object that drapes over the left shoulder. The fingers of the left hand are indicated with incised lines. Fabric: light brown, well-baked clay with a medium white, grit temper Dimensions: 2.6 (th) x 3.9 (w) x 5.6 (h) cm Context: topsoil

Type Thirty-four

154. Object number: UMM.02.H.011* Square, Excavation area: 1266/3894, Acropolis Center Archon: 106 Period: EB Description: A column-shaped figurine base. The bottom is circular and concave. Fabric: baked clay. Dimensions: 3.5 (diam.) x 5 (h) cm Context: late EB IVB debris from outside area between stone ‘conglomerations’

158. Object number: UMM.00.H.063 Square, Excavation area: 996/3996, Northwest Area Archon: n/a Period: MB Description: Broken at the neck, and at the rider’s seat, the neck of the animal the figure is seated upon is also broken at the base of the neck. Both arms are bent, and the figure is holding an object that drapes over the left shoulder. The fingers of both hands are indicated with incised lines, and there is an applied clay neck ornament or scarf at the bottom of the neck, just below the break. Fabric: yellowish, well-fired clay Dimensions: 3.6 (w) x 4.7 (h) cm Context: topsoil

155. Object number: UMM.02.H.017* Square, Excavation area: 1266/3898, Acropolis Center Archon: 103 Period: EB Description: A column-shaped figurine base, flared at the bottom and faceted along the surface. Fabric: greenish-gray, well-fired clay with a light green slip Dimensions: 2.9 (th) x 3.2 (w) x 8.6 (h) cm Context: MB debris directly above large MB cobble surface

159. Object number: UMM.02.H.019 Square, Excavation area: 1268/3893, Acropolis North Archon: 107 Period: MB Description: This figure is broken across the seat of the rider, and at the top of the four legs of the quadruped. The neck of the quadruped is also broken. The rider is sitting side-saddle on the quadruped, and both legs are resting against the right side of the body of the quadruped. The feet of the rider are claw-like, each toe is individually depicted, and extend directly from the bottom of the leg. Fabric: light-brown, well-fired clay with a light yellowgreen slip and a very fine vegetable temper Dimensions: 7.2 (w) x 4 (h) cm Context: debris, no associated architecture

156. Object number: UMM.02.H.018* Square, Excavation area: 1268/3896, Acropolis West Archon: 106 Period: EB Description: An ovular-shaped figurine base. Fabric: light green-yellow, well-fired clay with a slip of the same color and no visible temper Dimensions: 3.7 (diam.) x 3.2 (h) cm Context: early EB IVB fill of EB IVB industrial (?) complex, in level preceding the stone ‘conglomerations’ Associated artifacts/ ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 15, 41, 55, 56 refer also to cat. no. 13

160. Object number: UMM.02.H.025

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CATALOGUE 4012; pp. 313-314 taf. 156 nos. 4030, 4031, 4034, 4035, 4045-4047; pp. 314-315 taf. 157 nos. 4050-4054; pp. 316-317 taf. 158 nos. 4055; p. 317 taf. 159 no. 4082; pp. 318-319 taf. 160 nos. 4088, 4090-4092 (b) Badre (1980) Orontes type PI refer to: Alalakh pl. XX no. 49; Emar pl. XXXVI nos. 9, 10, 11, 12; Chatal Hoyuk pl XXV no. 20

Square, Excavation area: 1386/3956, Southeast Area Archon: 014 Period: MB Description: This figure is broken at the neck, at the left shoulder, at the lower right arm and at the seat. Part of the quadruped that the figure is seated upon is preserved. The figure wears a single neck ornament of applied clay. Fabric: light-brown, well-fired clay with a light brown slip Dimensions: 4.5 (w) x 7 (h) 4.5 cm Context: fill beside a stone wall foundation

Type Thirty-six 163. Object number: UMM.94.H.005 Square, Excavation area: 1144/3896, West Area B Archon:003 Period: LB Description: Broken across the upper midriff, the head of this figure is smooth, the eyes are coffee bean shaped and all of the facial features are depicted. The figure wears no necklace or bracelets. The arms are bent, and the hands cup the breasts. Fabric: not recorded. Dimensions: 2.6 (th) x 3.4 (w) x 5 (h) cm Context: debris in the vicinity of a (Roman) cobble layer

Type Thirty-four Comparanda: (a) Tell Afis (Matthiae, 1998) fig. 6 nos. 3-4 (b) Ansari-Aleppo (Suleiman, 1984) pl. V no. 52 (c) Hama (Fugman, 1958) p. 104 fig. 127 (d) Ebla (Marchetti, 2001) tav. XLV, XLVI and LIV (e) From Badre (1980) refer to Hama pl. VI no. 13, Tell Mardikh/Ebla pl. XV no. 257 Mold-Made Head Fragments Type Thirty-five

164. Object number: UMM.94.H.007 Square, Excavation area: 1269/3872, Acropolis West Archon:004 Period: LB Description: Broken across the neck, the top of the head of this figure is smooth, the eyes are coffee bean shaped and all of the facial features are depicted. Fabric: buff-orange, baked clay with lime and sand temper Dimensions: 2 (th) x 3.8 (w) x 3.6 (h) cm Context: ashy Roman (?) pit

161. Object number: UMM.94.H.020 Square, Excavation area: 1269/3886, Acropolis West Archon:011 Period: LB Description: This is a mold-made head fragment. Across the forehead, the figure appears to be wearing a simple, unadorned band or headdress. The hair is gathered on both sides of the face into three bands, and the hair falls into three plaits. The eyes are almond shaped, and the nose and mouth are both depicted realistically, although the ears are not indicated. Fabric: tan-pink baked clay with sand temper Dimensions: 1.8 (th) x 3.2 (w) x 3.2 (h) cm Context: LB pit

Type Thirty-six Comparanda: Munbaqa (Machule and Wafler, 1983) p. 126 Abb. 4 see MNQ 28/30-68 also Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) p. 315 taf. 157 no. 4054 (b) Badre (1980) Euphrates, Orontes and Littoral Mediterranean types PI, refer to Meskene/Emar pl. XXXVII no 22

162. Object number: UMM.00.H.032 Square, Excavation area: 1212/4086, North Area Archon: 006 Period: LB Description: This is a mold-made head fragment. Across the forehead, the figure wears a hair ornament represented by two rows of small round ‘beads,’ with a bottom third row of three ‘beads’ at the center of the forehead. The hair is gathered on both sides of the face into a band, and the hair falls into three plaits. The eyes are coffee bean shaped, and the nose and mouth are both depicted realistically, although the ears are not indicated. Fabric: Light-brown, baked clay with a smooth surface. Dimensions: 2.6 (th) x 3.4 (w) x 3.5 (h) cm Context: bricky debris in the vicinity of disturbed LB architecture, adjacent to a Hellenistic/Achaemenid grave Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragment cat. no 54

Type Thirty-seven 165. Object number: UMM 99.H.008 Square, Excavation area: 1230/3872, Acropolis West Archon: 105 Period: LB Description: This fragment is broken at the bottom of the neck. The short hairstyle is indicated by two rows of short, vertical pleats, and falling into plaits alongside the face. The forehead is ribbed, the eyes are coffee beanshaped and the nose is depicted. There is no mouth. Fabric: not recorded. Dimensions: 2 (th) x 3 (w) x 3.5 (h) cm Context: ashy debris above MBII domestic architecture Type Thirty-seven Comparanda: (a) Munbaqa (Machule and Wafler, 1983) p. 126 Abb. 4 see MNQ

Type Thirty-five Comparanda: (a) Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) pp. 312-313 taf. 155 nos. 4005, 4010-

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA Fabric: Red, medium-fired (?) clay, slightly darker inside than on the surface with lime and sand temper. Dimensions: 2.5 (th) x 3.7 (w) x 11.4 (h) cm Context: LB stone wall foundation Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurines cat.no.192

28/30-68 (b) Badre (1980) refer to Meskene/Emar pl. XXXVII no. 22 Type Thirty-eight 166. Object number: UMM.94.H.018 Square, Excavation area: 1046/4000, Northwest Area Archon: 008 Period: LB Description: This is a mold-made head fragment features an ornamental band across the forehead, and short plaits of hair alongside the face. The eyes are coffee bean shaped, and all of the facial features are depicted. There is some damage and/or wear to the nose, mouth and the top of the head. Fabric: yellow-tan, medium-fired clay with a pink-tan core and sand temper Dimensions: 1.7 (th) x 3.1 (w) x 4.6 (h) cm Context: hard packed, gray LB street, outside domestic architecture

169. Object number: UMM.97.H.016 Square, Excavation area: 1311/4086, Northeast Area Archon: 014 Period: LB Description: This nearly intact mold-made body fragment is broken across the knees. The head is a Type Thirty-six mold-made head (refer to catalogue nos. 162 and 163). The figure is nude, with bent arms and hands cupping the breasts. The figure wears bracelets on the right wrist. Fabric: reddish, well-fired clay with medium-coarse grit temper Dimensions: 1.6 (th) x 3.7 (w) x 10.6 (h) cm Context: ashy, LB pit Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 2 sheep/goat, 1 gazelle, 4 equid, 6 medium, 7 small; diagnostic pottery sherds LB

Type Thirty-nine 167. Object number: UMM.02.H.001 Square, Excavation area: 1282/3874, Acropolis Center Archon: 005 Period: LB Description: Broken across the ankles, and chipped on the tip of the nose, this otherwise intact figure wears a “polos” style headdress. The hair falls along both sides of the face, the arms rest alongside the body and there is no jewelry depicted. The figurine is very worn. Fabric: light green, well-baked clay with a fine grit temper Dimensions: 2.6 (th) x 3.1 (w) x 10.3 (h) cm Context: recovered in situ, with the head facing north at the base of a basalt mortar and a door socket in LB domestic structure

170. Object number: UMM.00.H.027 Square, Excavation area: 1264/3894, Acropolis Center Archon: 010 Period: LB Description: This nearly intact mold-made figurine is broken across the ankles. The figure wears a crown or headdress, and the hair falls in plaits alongside the face. A necklace with a round pendant hangs closely around the neck, and bracelets on the right wrist. The figure is nude, with bent arms and the hands are cupping the breasts. Fabric: Light red, baked clay. Dimensions: 3.7 (w) x 10.4 (h) cm Context: ashy LB pit cut into a room of a LB structure Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 sheep/goat, 2 sheep/goat/gazelle, 1 equid

Type Thirty-nine Comparanda: (a) Hammam etTurkman (Rossmeisl and Venema in van Loon, ed., 1988) p. 566 pl. VII and VIII no 47 (b) Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) p. 318 taf. 160 no. 4089

Type Forty Comparanda: (a) Tall Bi’a (Strommenger, 1983) p. 28 Abb. 7 (b) Tell el Hajj (von Stucky, 1975) p. 166 taf. IX.c, note that this virtually intact figurine was found above a stone door socket (c) Hammam etTurkman (Rossmeisl and Venema in van Loon, ed., 1988) Hammam VII and VIII nos. 47-54; (d) Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) pp. 312-313 taf. 155 nos. 4005, 4010 and 4011; pp. 314-318 taf. 156. nos. 4030, 4034, 4035, 4037 and 4043; p. 319. taf. 159 no. 4082 (e) Badre (1980) Orontes type P1

Type Forty 168. Object number: UMM.94.H.013 Square, Excavation area: 1296/3894, Acropolis Center Archon: 010 Period: LB Description: There is a triangular wedge-shaped chip across the upper thighs of this otherwise intact moldmade figurine, and the figurine is broken across the ankles. The head is a Type One mold-made head (refer to catalogue nos. 168 and 169). The figure is nude, with the arms bent and the hands cupping the breasts. The figure is depicted wearing a necklace with a pendant, hanging closely around the neck and bracelets on each wrist.

Mold-Made Body Fragments Type Forty-one 171. Object number: UMM.94.H.002 Square, Excavation area: 1250/3868, Acropolis West

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CATALOGUE Archon: 003 Period: LB Description: This mold-made body fragment is broken across the bottom of the neck and across the shins. The figure is a nude woman, the arms are bent and the hands are cupping the breasts. There are bracelets on both wrists. There are fingerprints impressed into the clay on the back of the figurine. Fabric: yellow-green, well-fired clay with sand and lime temper Dimensions: 1.9 (th) x 3.7 (w) x 7.3 (h) cm Context: ashy, Roman pit Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 bovid, 1 equid

a basalt grinding stone, broken (UMM.94.S.142) and a basalt pestle, complete (UMM.94.S.147)

172. Object number: UMM.94.H.011 Square, Excavation area: 1142/3882, West Area B Archon: 009 Period: LB Description: This upper torso fragment is broken at the bottom of the neck and across the waist. The arms are bent, however the hands and chest of the figure are badly worn. Fabric: light green, well-fired clay with lime temper Dimensions: 2.2 (th) x 3.8 (w) x 3.3 (h) cm Context: debris from a large LB pit Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 10 sheep/goat, 4 sheep/goat/gazelle, 1 pig, 1 bovid, 4 equid, 22 medium, 19 small; bead, broken, egg-shaped (UMM.94.B.006)

176. Object number: UMM.97.H.014 Square, Excavation area: 1185/3762, Southwest Area Archon: 001 Period: LB Description: This torso fragment is broken at the bottom of the neck and across the pubic triangle. The arms are bent and the hands are cupping the breasts. Fabric: light brown, well-fired clay with fine sand temper Dimensions: 1.8 (th) x 3.5 (w) x 3.6 (h) cm Context: topsoil

175. Object number: UMM.95.H.006 Square, Excavation area: 1042/3856, West Area A Archon: 002 Period: LB Description: This body fragment is broken across the midriff just above the navel, and at the very bottom of the plaque. The arms are bent, and the navel is prominently depicted. The figure wears ornaments around both ankles. Fabric: dark tan clay with no visible temper Dimensions: 1.8 (th) x 2.6 (w) x 6 (h) cm Context: fill of an LB burned house

177. Object number: UMM.99.H.007 Square, Excavation area: 1228/3872, Acropolis West Archon: 104 Period: LB Description: This partial torso fragment is broken at the neck, across the waist, and down the middle. The left arm is preserved, and it is bent at the elbow with the hand resting on the chest. Fabric: pinkish-tan clay with fine lime (?) temper Dimensions: 1.5 (th) x 2.5 (w) x 4.2 (h) cm Context: LB (?) ashy room debris above MB II domestic architecture

173. Object number: UMM.94.H.015 Square, Excavation area: 1148/3876, West Area B Archon: 012 Period: LB Description: This torso fragment is broken across the chest and the tops of the thighs. The arms are bent and only partially preserved. There is a trace of glaze on the surface. Fabric: dark tan, baked clay with sand temper and dark greenish glaze with small cracks (faince) Dimensions: 1.3 (th) x 2.7 (w) x 3.6 (h) cm Context: debris, near topsoil Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 4 medium

178. Object number: UMM.99.H.020 Square, Excavation area: 1276/3942, Acropolis North Archon: 002 Period: LB Description: This torso fragment is broken across the shoulders and at the hips. Both arms are bent, and the hands are cupping the breasts. There are bracelets on each wrist. Fabric: tan, well-fired clay with grit (sand?) temper. Dimensions: 2.1 (th) x 3.9 (w) x 3.3 (h) cm Context: LB debris, no associated architecture

174. Object number: UMM.94.H.019 Square, Excavation area: 1148/3878, West Area B Archon: 013 Period: LB Description: This upper body fragment is broken at the neck and across the upper thighs. The arms are bent and the hands are cupping the breasts. There are bracelets on both wrists. Fabric: greenish-cream, baked clay with lime and fine sand temper Dimensions: 2 (th) x 3.7 (w) x 4.5 (h) cm Context: debris, near topsoil in the vicinity of a LB pit Associated artifacts/ecofacts: basalt grinding stone, fragment (UMM.94.S.138) From the archon just above,

179. Object number: UMM.99.H.031 Square, Excavation area: 1282/3892, Acropolis Center Archon: 004 Period: LB Description: This upper body fragment is broken at the neck and across the thighs. The arms are bent, and the

95

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA Period: LB Description: This torso fragment is broken at the neck and above the waist. The arms are bent, and the hands are cupping the breasts. The figure wears a necklace with a disk shaped pendant, and bracelets on each wrist. Fabric: green clay, well-fired with brown grit (sand?) temper Dimensions: 2.6 (th) x 4.1 (w) x 3.2 (h) cm Context: outdoor LB debris, in the vicinity of domestic architecture Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 179, refer also to no. 114

hands are cupping the breasts. The navel is indicated. The figure wears a bracelet on the right wrist. Fabric: light brown, baked clay Dimensions: 1.8 (th) x 3.3 (w) x 5.9 (h) cm Context: From debris outside of LB domestic architecture Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 2 small; anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. nos. 183, refer also to no. 114 180. Object number: UMM.99.H.035 Square, Excavation area: 1012/3930, West Area C Archon: 003 Period: LB Description: This torso fragment is broken at the neck and across the pubic triangle. The arms are bent, and the hands are cupping the breasts. Fabric: light brown, well-baked clay with no slip and fine sand (?) temper Dimensions: 2.1 (th) x 3.5 (w) x 3.6 (h) cm Context: the stone foundation of a Hellenistic wall

184. Object number: UMM.00.H.002 Square, Excavation area: 1000/3988, Northwest Area Archon: 002 Period: LB Description: This body fragment is broken at the neck and across the lower thighs. The arms are bent, and the hands are cupping the breasts. The figure wears a necklace with a circular pendant and bracelets on both wrists. Fabric: smooth, baked clay Dimensions: 1.6 (th) x 2.5 (w) x 4.5 (h) cm Context: upper debris inside a MB II domicile (?) close to topsoil Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 1 sheep/goat, 2 medium, 2 small

181. Object number: UMM.99.H.036 Square, Excavation area: 1214/4082, North Area Archon: 022 Period: LB Description: This upper body fragment is broken at the neck and across the upper thighs. The arms are bent, and the hands are cupping the breasts. There is a circular pendant at the neck, and the figure wears bracelets on both wrists. The pubic triangle is indicated with horizontal rows of short, vertical lines. There is a fan shaped feature or ornament at the waist, just above the pubic triangle, possibly a fan or plant. The navel is indicated. Fabric: light brown clay with fine black and white grit temper Dimensions: 2.1 (th) x 3.6 (w) x 4.7 (h) cm Context: LB debris in a domicile, above a floor dating to the earliest LB phase Associated artifacts/ecofacts: basalt pestle (UMM.99.S.059), note also that this fragment was recovered in the vicinity of a LB cuneiform tablet

185. Object number: UMM.00.H.038 Square, Excavation area: 1210/4080, North Area Archon: 008 Period: LB Description: Broken at the neck and across the top of the thighs, the arms of this figure are bent, and the hands are cupping the breasts. Fabric: pale brown color Dimensions: .75 (th) x 2.5 (w) x 3 (h) cm Context: recovered from a mud brick and stone-lined Hellenistic pit, the same context as no. 64 Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragment cat. no. 64; diagnostic pottery sherd Hellenistic/Achaemenid

182. Object number: UMM.99.H.037 Square, Excavation area: 1012/3930, West Area C Archon: 001 Period: LB Description: This body fragment is broken at the neck and across the shins, just below the knees. The arms are bent and the hands are cupping the breasts. Fabric: dark gray clay, no slip, with grit temper and some mica inclusions Dimensions: 1.6 (th) x 2.8 (w) x 4.9 (h) cm Context: topsoil

186. Object number: UMM.00.H.059 Square: 1212/4080, North Area Archon: 003 Period: LB Description: Broken at the bottom of the neck and across the knees, the arms of this figure are bent and the hands are cupping the breasts. The figure wears bracelets on both wrists. The navel is indicated, and the pubic triangle is elaborated with a cluster of indentations. Fabric: Pale brown color, smooth surface. Dimensions: 3.8 (w) x 6 (h) cm Context: Was recovered from debris above a white, lime plaster surface that was cut by a Hellenistic pit. The lime plaster surface could date to the LBA, or to the Hellenistic/Achaemenid period.

183. Object number: UMM.99.H.048 Square, Excavation area: 1282/3892, Acropolis Center Archon: 009

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CATALOGUE Description: This lower leg fragment is broken across the knees. There is a fingerprint impressed into the clay on the back of the figurine fragment. Fabric: light buff, well-fired clay with sand and lime temper Dimensions: 1.5 (th) x 2.7 (w) x 4.7 (h) cm Context: near LB stone wall foundation

187. Object number: UMM.02.H.002* Square, Excavation area: 1272/3888, Acropolis Center Archon: 001 Period: LB Description: Broken across the bottom of the neck and across the lower legs, the arms of this figure are bent and the hands are cupping the breasts. Fabric: gray, well-baked clay with light yellow-cream slip and medium black grit temper Dimensions: 2.6 (th) x 3.4 (w) x 6.1 (h) cm Context: topsoil

192. Object number: UMM.94.H.006 Square, Excavation area: 1298/3900, Acropolis Center Archon: 002 Period: LB Description: This lower leg fragment is broken across the top of the thighs and across the ankles. Fabric: buff, baked clay with lime and sand temper Dimensions: 1.5 (th) x 3.2 (w) x 4.9 (h) cm Context: From a degraded, partially collapsed mud brick wall of a LBA domestic building. Associated artifacts/ecofacts: anthropomorphic figurine fragments cat. no. 168

188. Object number: UMM.02.H.007 Square, Excavation area: 1276/3900, Acropolis Center Archon:008 Period: LB Description: Broken at the neck and just above the knees, the arms of this figure are bent, and the hands are cupping the breasts. The figure is depicted wearing neck ornaments. Fabric: pink clay with a gray core and black and white grit temper Dimensions: 1.5 (th) x 3 (w) x 5 (h) cm Context: LB pit

193. Object number: UMM.94.H.017 Square, Excavation area: 1269/3868, Acropolis West Archon: 013 Period: LB Description: This lower body fragment is broken across the top of the thighs and just below the knees. Fabric: greenish-buff, medium-fired, baked clay with fine sand temper Dimensions: 1.7 (th) x 3.1 (w) x 3.9 (h) cm Context: LB IIA debris

189. Object number: UMM.02.H.013 Square, Excavation area: 1359/3752, Southeast Area Archon: 012 Period: LB Description: Broken across the neck, the arms of this figure are bent and the hands are cupping the breasts. The figure is depicted with ornaments around each ankle. Fabric: light yellow, well-baked clay with a light yellow slip and no visible temper Dimensions: 1.8 (th) x 1.9 (w) x 7.5 (h) cm Context: debris below LB stone wall foundation

194. Object number: UMM.95.H.003 Square, Excavation area: 1228/3872, Acropolis West Archon: 004 Period: LB Description: This lower body fragment is broken across the waist and the shins. The pubic mound is explicitly depicted as a triangle with a vertical line through the center. Fabric: orange-buff, well-fired clay with a cream slip on the front (not the back) of the plaque and a fine grit/sand temper Dimensions: 1.4 (th) x 3.2 (w) x 5.2 (h) cm Context: ashy LB pit with a lot of sherds

190. Object number: UMM.02.H.015 Square, Excavation area: 1351/3744, Southeast Area Archon: 003 Period: LB Description: Broken at the neck and across the upper thighs, this figure wears a neck ornament, and the pubic triangle is indicated with multiple small, circular impressions in the clay. The arms are bent and the hands are cupping the breasts. Fabric: red, well-fired clay with fine chaff and black grit temper Dimensions: 1.9 (th) x 3.3 (w) x 4.1 (h) cm Context: outdoor debris in the vicinity of an LB complex of rooms with floors paved with stone

195. Object number: UMM 96 H.001 Square, Excavation area: 1030/3866, West Area A Archon: 001 Period: LB Description: This lower body fragment is broken below the knees and across the ankles. Fabric: buff, baked clay with fine sand (?) and black grit temper Dimensions: 1.4 (th) x 2.8 (w) x 2.9 (h) cm Context: topsoil

Type Forty-two 191. Object number: UMM.94.H.003 Square, Excavation area: 1247/3858, Acropolis West Archon: 003

196. Object number: UMM 96.H.014 Square, Excavation area: 1222/3856, Acropolis West

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA Archon: 009 Period: LB Description: This lower body fragment is broken below the knees and above the ankles. Fabric: tan, baked clay with chaff and sand temper Dimensions: 1.3 (th) x 2.3 (w) x 3.4 (h) cm Context: late MB II, early LB debris near a stone foundation of a wall Associated artifacts/ecofacts: stone pestle made of a smooth, dark stone (UMM.96.S.055)

201. Object number: UMM.02.H.005 Square, Excavation area: 1280/3884, Acropolis Center Archon: 006 Period: LB Description: Broken just below the knees and at the base, this figure is depicted with rings around the ankles. Fabric: pink, well-baked clay with a light yellow slip and no visible temper Dimensions: 1.7 (th) x 3.1 (w) x 4.4 (h) cm Context: LB debris outside of early LB kilns, area featured lots of burning, but no slag or objects

197. Object number: UMM.99.H.038 Square, Excavation area: 1014/4006, Northwest Area Archon: 003 Period: LB Description: This lower body fragment is broken across the pubic triangle and the shins. Fabric: light brown, well-baked clay with fine chaff (?) temper Dimensions: 1.7 (th) x 3.6 (w) x 5.5 (h) cm Context: large, intrusive LB (?) pit Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones: 4 sheep/goat, 1 equid, 6 medium, 2 small

202. Object number: UMM.02.H.012* Square, Excavation area: 1351/3750, Southeast Area Archon: 001 Period: LB Description: This fragment is broken across the upper thighs and at the ankles. Fabric: gray, well-baked clay with no visible temper Dimensions: 1.5 (th) x 3 (w) x 5.8 (h) cm Context: topsoil Type Forty-one and Forty- two Comparanda: (a) Tall Bi’a (Strommenger, 1983) p. 28 Abb. 7 (b) Tell Hadidi (Dornemann, 1979) p. 140 fig. 28 (c) Tell el Hajj (von Stucky, 1975) p. 166 taf. IX.c p. 166 (d) Hammam etTurkman (Rossmeisl and Venema in van Loon, ed., 1998) Hammam VII and VIII nos. 47-54 (e) Munbaqa (Czichon and Werner, 1998) pp. 312-314 taf. 155 nos. 4005, 40084011, 4014, 4015, 4020 and 4021; pp. 314-315 taf. 156 nos. 4030, 4031, 4034, 4035, 4037 and 4042-4044; pp. 317-318 taf. 158 nos. 4057, 4059, 4060, 4062 and 40644070; pp. 318-319 taf. 159 nos. 4074-4079; pp. 322-323 taf. 162 nos. 4119, 4123-4129, 4131, 4133-4136,4139 and 4140; p. 324 taf. 163 nos. 4147,4148, 4150, 4153 and 4154 (f) Badre (1980) Orontes type P1, also Euphrates type PI; refer to Khan Sheikhoun pl. XI nos. 8, 9, 10. For catalogue no. 174 see esp. Hammam et Turkman (van Loon 1998) vol. II pl. 177:55 tp. 567. For cat. no. 174, see Hammam et-Turkaman (Rossmeisl and Venema, 1988) pl. 177: 55

198. Object number: UMM.99.H.044 Square, Excavation area: 1218/4084, North Area Archon: 043 Period: LB Description: This lower body fragment is broken across the pubic triangle and the shins. Fabric: not recorded Dimensions: 1 (th) x 3.1 (w) x 4.7 (h) cm Context: in the vicinity of early LB floor surface of a domicile Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 2 sheep/goat, 2 gazelle, 1 equid, 4 small 199. Object number: UMM.99.H.049 Square, Excavation area: 1000/3930, West Area C Archon: 025 Period: LB Description: This lower body fragment is broken just below the knees and at the bottom of the plaque. Fabric: Very hard, green clay with black and white grit (sand?) temper. Dimensions: 4 (th) x 4.9 (w) x 2.9 (h) cm Context: large, outdoor LB cobble surface Associated artifacts/ecofacts: animal bones 3 sheep/goat, 3 medium

Type Forty-three, Seated Deity 203. Object number: UMM.97.H.015 Square, Excavation area: 1377/3760, Southeast Area Archon: 007 Period: LB Description: This nearly intact mold-made figurine of a seated deity wears a horned headdress with five horns on each side, topped with a crescent cradling a disk. The eyes are coffee-bean shaped, and all of the facial features are depicted. The figure is bearded. There is a flat, rectangular object resting on the lap with markings impressed into the surface, possibly depicting a tablet, or this may be the depiction of his garment. The arms lie alongside the body, with the hands resting on the edge of

200. Object number: UMM.00.H.061* Square, Excavation area: 1212/4082, North Area Archon: 012 Period: LB Description: This figure is broken at the hips and across the knees. Fabric: pale brown color, smooth surface Dimensions: n/a Context: large LB pit

98

CATALOGUE the object held on the lap. The legs are broken beneath the lap. Fabric: light yellow, well-fired clay with medium sand temper Dimensions: 2 (th) x 2 (w) x 6 (h) cm Context: baulk debris near an LB wall Type Forty-three comparanda: Munbaqa (MDOG 2000 p. 129, Abb. 5)

99

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA

Hand-modeled Head Fragments

Type Two

Type One

2. front, side

1. front

3. front, side Type Three

1. side 4. front, side

1. top

5. side

100

ILLUSTRATIONS

8. front 8. front

8. side

8. side

8. back Type Four

8. back

9. front

7.

101

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA

9. side

10. back

12. front 10. front

12. side

10. side 12. back

102

ILLUSTRATIONS

Type Five

14. front 13. front

14. side Type Six 13. side

15. front

13. back

103

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA

17. front 15. side Type Seven

17. side

16. front

17. back Type Eight

16. side

18. front

16. back 18. side

104

ILLUSTRATIONS

Type Ten

Type Nine

20. front 19. front

20. side

19. side

21. front

105

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA

Type Twelve

23. front 21. side Type Eleven

23. side Hand-modeled Body Fragments Type Thirteen 22. front

24. front

22. side

106

ILLUSTRATIONS

Type Fourteen

25. back 25. front

26. front

107

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA

Type Fifteen

27. front 30. front

30. back 28. front

31. front 29. front

31. back

108

ILLUSTRATIONS

Type Sixteen

36. front 32. front

, 37. front, side 33. front

37. back 35. front

109

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA

Type Seventeen

41. front Type Eighteen

38. front

42. front

39. front

43. front

40. front

110

ILLUSTRATIONS

44. front 46. front Type Nineteen

46. top

45. front 47. Type Twenty

45. side 48. front

111

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA

52. front

49. front

50. front 53. front

54. front

51. front 112

ILLUSTRATIONS

55. front

59. front

60. front 56. front Type Twenty-one

61. front

57. front

62. front

58. front 113

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA

Type Twenty-two

Type Twenty-three

63. front

66. front

64. front

66. back

65. front

114

ILLUSTRATIONS

Type Twenty-five

67. front Type Twenty-four

69.front

Type Twenty-six

70. front 68. front

71. front

115

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA

76. front

72. front

73. front

77. front

74. front

75. front

78. front

116

ILLUSTRATIONS

79. front

81. front

82. front

80. front

82. back

117

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA

84. front

84. back

85. front Type Twenty-seven

84. side 86. front

87. front

118

ILLUSTRATIONS

88. front

95. front Type Twenty-nine

89.front

97. front

91. front Type Twenty-eight

98. front

94. front

99. front

119

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA

100. front Type Thirty 102. front Type Thirty-one

103. front

101. front

105. front

120

ILLUSTRATIONS

113. side 106. front Type Thirty-two

114. front

112. front

114. side

113.front

121

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA

Type Thirty-three

117. front 115. side A

118. front

115. side B

119. front

116. front

122

ILLUSTRATIONS

123. front

120. front

121. front 124. front

122. front 125. front

123

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA

126. front 158. front

159. side A 135. front Type thirty-four

159. side B

157.front

124

ILLUSTRATIONS

Type Thirty-six

163. front, side 160. front Mold-made Head Fragments Type Thirty-five

164. front, side Ttpe Thirty-seven 161. front, side

165. front, side 162.

125

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA

Type Thirty-eight

166. front, side Type thirty-nine

167. side

167. front

126

ILLUSTRATIONS

Type Forty

168. front, side

169. front, side

127

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA

171. back

170. front, side Mold-made body fragments 172. front

173. front

171. front, side

128

ILLUSTRATIONS

174. front 175. side

174. side 176. front

176. side

175. front

129

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA

178.

181. front

179. front, side 182.front

180. front 183. front

130

ILLUSTRATIONS

184. front 189. front, side

185. front

190. Type Forty-two

186. front 188. 191. front, side

131

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA

196. front

191. back

196. side

192. front

199. front

193. front

195. front

132

ILLUSTRATIONS

Type Forty-three

203. front, side

133

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA

Catalogue Number 1

Catalogue Number 9

Catalogue Number 2

Catalogue Number 10

Catalogue Number 6 Catalogue Number 13

134

ILLUSTRATIONS

Catalogue Number 16, front

Catalogue Numbers 22, 21, 14 and 3 (upper left hand corner, clockwise)

Catalogue Number 16, side

Catalogue Number 23

135

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA

Catalogue Number 43 Catalogue Number 63, 28 and 33 (top to bottom)

Catalogue Number 77 and 76 (left to right)

Catalogue Number 52

Catalogue Numbers 57, 47 and 67 (left to right) Catalogue Number 80

136

ILLUSTRATIONS

Catalogue Numbers 82 and 84 (front, left to right)

Catalogue Number 165

Catalogue Numbers 82 and 84 (back, left to right)

Catalogue Number 170

Catalogue Number 95

Catalogue Numbers 180, 178 and 183 (top to bottom)

137

ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM UMM EL-MARRA, SYRIA

Catalogue Numbers 182, 179 and 181

Catalogue Number 203

Catalogue Number 186

Catalogue Number 198

138

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