British Artefacts. Vol. 1. Early Anglo Saxon (AD 400-650) 1897738358, 9781897738351

Citation preview

British

Artefacts AD 450-650

By the same author Wayland's Work - Anglo-Saxon Art and Material Culture from the 4th to the 7th century (in collaboration with Lindsay Kerr and Stephen Pollington)

Dedication For Tanja

Acknowledgements In researching and writing this book I have called upon the goodwill and expertise of many contacts, colleagues and friends too numerous to mention individually. I would like first of all to record my thanks to Alan and Dan Golbourn of Greenlight Publishing for supporting this project through its long gestation. Special thanks are due to Damir Radic and Stephen Pollington for their assistance with preparing the text and images, and to Lindsay Kerr for his line drawings. I would also like to express my gratitude to Laird Landmann, Dirk Kennis, Simon Ashford, David Button, Mark Duell, Martin Grist and Nick Hobbs for their continued interest and support.

B R IT IS H A R T E F A C T S Volume 1 - Early Anglo-Saxon (AD 400 - 650) The early Anglo-Saxon period is of immense importance to the later history of Britain but the range of artefacts and art styles has never been summarized in a single volume before. In this important new book, Brett Hammond has drawn together images, distribution maps and descriptions of some important pieces of jewellery, war gear and feasting equipment from the period alongside representative examples of objects which were in daily use. The book covers a vast range of object types - from the rare and the exotic to the everyday - offering a thorough coverage of the fascinating material which survives from this period. It features detailed descriptions of many important new finds which shed light into the gloomier corners of the period: the links between the Roman, Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian worlds. The author is a respected researcher in the field of Anglo-Saxon and Viking material culture, with more than a decade at the forefront of object identification and classification. His fascination with and passion for the subject comes through on every page. This title is the first in a series of books to cover finds made in the British Isles and their contexts. Each title will cover a specific period or date-range. The objects described and illustrated (in photographs and museum-quality artwork) will represent the range of items in use, from the lowly pin or knifeblade to the finest quality jewellery.

Single items or entire collections for sale? Our friendly, professional team can provide free, confidential appraisals without obligation. We are pleased to offer for sale a wide range of good quality antiquities, coins, collecting accessories and books. All items offered are fully researched and guaranteed. Our team of experienced researchers and numismatists ensure all items are accurately described and illustrated. TimeLine Originals is one of the world's leading web-based coin and antiquity galleries. Visit our website to discover what we have to offer: WWW.TIME-LINES.CO.UK Our clientele includes many leading collectors, museums, numismatists and researchers who have purchased from us with confidence. We are a member of the leading trade associations in the fields of coins and antiquities.

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01708 222384

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Contents Foreword

6

Introduction to the Series

7

Introduction to the Early Anglo-Saxon Period

8

Advice for Collectors

9

Valuations

9

Runes

10

Advice for Finders

11

Outline of the Early Anglo-Saxon Period

12

Artefact Production & Distribution

14

Metalwork Production

14

Ceramic Production

15

Maps Index

16

Art Styles

17

Metal Artefacts

23

Non-Metallic Artefacts

109

Table of Image Sizes

117

Glossary

120

Bibliography

124

Index

128

Published by Greenlight Publishing, The Publishing House, 119 Newland Street, Witham, Essex CM8 1WF Tel: 01376 521900 Fax: 01376 521901 [email protected] www.greenlightpublishing.co.uk

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of Greenlight Publishing.

Editor Greg Payne

Printed in Great Britain

Origination Christine Jennett

© 2009 Brett Hammond, TimeLine Originals

ISBN 978 1 897738 351

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Foreword by Stephen Pollington

other craftsman until after the Industrial Revo­ lution; but we should bear in mind that items of comparable quality (if not necessarily closely similar in design) were probably displayed at many royal courts in early England. These were exciting times in which to live, and the artefacts described in this book have a vitality which would not be attempted in the plastic arts for a millennium. The value of this new collection lies partly in the wider appreciation of the objects' background, and their cultural and historical significance. But more immediate than this academic use is the opportunity for readers to enjoy the many fresh images of early Anglo-Saxon craftsmanship presented in these pages.

he world of Anglo-Saxon studies is a dynamic environment in which new data is constantly being brought to light, new evaluations of existing data made, and new ways of looking at the past are brought to bear on the subject. The recent find of the Staffordshire Hoard shows this clearly. What this means for those of us who study this period of history is that interpretations change constantly: no sooner has a "new corpus" of an artefact type been issued then fresh examples are found, or the assumptions on which the typology is based are challenged. This is to be expected in a discipline that takes itself seri­ ously, and which attracts talented scholars. In this book, Brett Hammond has brought together a collection of artefacts from the "Early Anglo-Saxon" period - meaning the time from the first identifiable Germanic settlements through to the formation of discrete autono­ mous states with defined borders and a broadly monarchical structure - "kingdoms" in the medieval sense. The earlier Anglo-Saxon period has tended to be dismissed as an unfortunate, illiterate interlude between the Roman imperial period of British history and the Roman Christian period of Middle-Saxon England. For dec­ ades in the later 20th century it was usual to study these social, artistic and cultural trends largely within the confines of Anglo-Saxon England - perhaps only recently have the wider links, contacts and networks of exchange been explored adequately. I am sure that this work will add to the interest in and enjoyment of the early AngloSaxon material that is often technically far ahead of anything the Romans were capable of producing. The treasures found at Sutton Hoo (Suffolk) are often acknowledged as the pinnacle of early medieval jewellery. The work­ manship was beyond the competence of any

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Stephen Pollington has been active in the field of Anglo-Saxon studies for more than two dec­ ades. His many published books include studies of Anglo-Saxon medicine, warfare, runic writ­ ing, feasting, burial mounds and a beginner's course in the Old English language including a dictionary and double CD of readings. He is a contributor to the prestigious Oxford Companion to Military History and to the forthcoming Encyclopaedia of Medi­ eval Warfare. He has appeared on radio and television, both in front of the camera and as script advisor. A list of Stephen's books appears at the end of this work. His most recent research project in col­ laboration with the present author, Brett Hammond, and the graphic artist Lindsay Kerr, is the art and material culture of pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon England in its European and Scandinavian context, published in 2009 under the title Wayland's Work - Anglo-Saxon Art, Myth and Material Culture from the 4th to the 7th Century by Anglo-Saxon Books.

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Introduction to the Series

B

their various endeavours. Without the tanner, the leatherworker would have no materials; without the herdsman and the slaughterman, the tanner would also be idle. All of these crafts­ men were fed by the work of ploughmen and hunters, shepherds and fishermen, millers and bakers. For every item we now have to admire, the work of perhaps dozens of unknown men, women and children was needed. The Anglo-Saxon period of English history is of immense importance in the story of the nation. From small beginnings on the eastern seaboard of Britain, the English came over several centuries to dominate lowland Britain, and latterly large parts of the globe. During the Anglo-Saxon period the framework of Eng­ lish political systems, law, economic systems, language, literature, social custom, traditions, music and the arts was created.

ritish A rtefacts is a new series of books covering finds made in the British Isles and their contexts, some­ times drawing on parallel Continental examples. Each title will cover a specific period or date-range. The objects described and illus­ trated (by photographs or by museum-quality artwork) will represent the range of items in use, ranging from the lowly pin or knife-blade to the finest quality jewellery. The books will show the developing "mate­ rial culture" of England viewed through the artefacts which remain to us. Material culture is an academic term meaning the physical output of blacksmiths, glassmakers, potters, stone­ masons, scribes, bone workers, illuminators, goldsmiths, leatherworkers, woodworkers and all the thousands upon thousands of individuals who supported these specialist craft workers in

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Introduction to the Early Anglo-Saxon Period as modern ones do, but most kings reigned for quite a short time by modern standards (seldom more than 25 years) and the coin-issues were re-designed periodically so the presence of a coin from the mint of a specific king and of a specific design can often narrow the start-date for the find down to just a few years. In England, there are occasional finds of Continental coins - both late Roman and Ger­ manic - but the distance from the place of manufacture makes them hard to interpret. Did the coin arrive in the pouch of a trader, freshly minted? Or was it already an old design that was out-of-fashion on the Continent, but which could still be used in England because the type was familiar and therefore more trusted? Or perhaps the coin came in among the posses­ sions of a bride, travelling to her new homeland, and was already an heirloom which her mother gave her for luck and to remind her of home? Writing at this time took the form of runes (see page 10), an angular series of characters probably based on some form of Italic or early Roman script. It was not used for long docu­ ments and most texts contain just one or two words, usually interpreted as the name of the maker or owner of the piece - but the grounds for this are based on assumptions about what might be written down in a society that used writing sparingly. By the end of the period, the mid-7th cen­ tury, the creation of manuscripts was already an established part of government, both reli­ gious and secular. Although the evidence for literacy in Roman script is almost absent from the metalwork, the early coin issues suggest that competence in Roman and runic literacy was already achievable for some members of society.

he early Anglo-Saxon period is one of immense importance to the later history of Britain. It saw the change­ over from British-speaking provinces dominated by Roman power and culture to English-speaking kingdoms interacting within a European network of kings, nobles and chiefs in which no single power was dominant for long. The decrease in overall stability which this change entailed has to be matched against the increase in locally developed forms of gov­ ernment, with greater accountability. The 250 years from AD 400 onwards in lowland Britain was witness to huge changes in social structure, settlement pattern, political ideology, language and religion. The greater part of all our evidence for the material culture of the early Anglo-Saxon period comes from finds of metalwork and to a lesser extent ceramics. Consequently, typo­ logical studies have focussed on the general shape of object classes (e.g. bow brooches, disc brooches, knife-blades) and on refining the internal divisions and subdivisions (e.g. radiate­ headed bow brooches, square-headed bow brooches, equal-arm bow brooches, etc.). From these studies it has been possible to draw up a general sedation or chart showing the develop­ ment of artefact-types over time. Matching such a chart to a timeline with dates is very difficult for the English material because of the general absence of reliable dat­ ing information - there was no proper coinage and the survival of datable wooden remains (i.e. by dendrochronology) is rare. On the Continent, coinage remained in use in one form or another, from Roman times through to medieval in a more-or-less unbroken sequence. Coins did not show the date of manufacture,

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The challenges of the following MiddleSaxon period (c. AD 650-900) were different in kind from those of the Early Saxon: long-lasting processes of consolidation within England and the threat of Scandinavian invasion were con­ stant themes.

concerning treasure trove changed in 1997, and this may have a bearing on the legal title issue (see (i)). Dealers often buy whole collections (for example, on the death of the owner, as part of the disposal of his estate) and will be able to advise about this. (iv) Has the find been reported? Apart from the various legal issues, there is also the consideration that a properly reported find is a "known quantity" and therefore has greater monetary value. Finds from older collections may not have been formally reported. If the col­ lector did not keep records of his purchases, it may not be possible to establish the provenance for items in the collection; this will affect the market value. (v) Is the find genuine? While the humbler types of brooch and buckle seldom sell for sums that would make forgery attractive, it is always a possibility. There is also the constant prob­ lem of mis-identification: some lower-status or fragmentary Anglo-Saxon finds are similar to Roman and Viking objects. Again, a reputable and experienced dealer should be willing to provide an outline description of the piece, its likely date of manufacture and a written guar­ antee of authenticity. While informal transactions may seem attractive to the collector with a limited budget, the risk of fraudulent mis-representation or simple ignorance on the part of the seller makes it unwise to make such purchases.

Advice for Collectors Metal and ceramic artefacts from the early Anglo-Saxon period are not as common as Roman coins or clay-pipe stems. They therefore have a monetary value based in part on their rarity as well as their historical interest and their intrinsic beauty or workmanship. Some classes of Anglo-Saxon artefact are nevertheless quite plentiful and the inter­ ested student can build a respectable collection including examples of the commoner kinds of buckle and brooch without spending a fortune. Most finds are fragmentary, either having been broken in antiquity and lost by the original owner, or due to many centuries in the plough-soil. Intact examples of the larger types of brooch therefore attract a great deal of attention and can be very valuable. A col­ lector who is prepared to accept damaged or less well-made pieces will find examples of the major types of artefact available for modest sums of money. It is certainly possible to create the basis of an early Anglo-Saxon collection from your own finds, but it is time-consuming, hard work and frustrating. More likely, you will want to supplement your finds and complete your col­ lection by buying objects to fill in the gaps. In this case, you should approach a reputable and established antiquities dealer who will be able to offer you advice on the likely cost and avail­ ability. You may have objects which you are prepared to sell or exchange, so an element of negotiation will be present. Before agreeing to buy an object, you should satisfy yourself about the following points: (i) Does the seller have legal title to the object? Any reputable dealer will be happy to provide a written declaration to this effect. (ii) Where was the object found? While the dealer may be unable to give you the Ordnance Survey grid reference for the find-spot, he should be able to identify the nearest town or village, and be willing to commit this to writing. The law in Scotland is different from England and Wales, and finds made there have stricter reporting requirements. Some Anglo-Saxon artefacts can be found in Scotland, since the south and south-east was historically part of Bernicia, a division of early Anglo-Saxon North­ umbria. Also, there was considerable activity on the border between Bernicia and the Pictish lands to the north, which doubtless involved an amount of raiding and warfare, which has also left its mark in the archaeology. (iii) When was the object found? The law

Valuations On the British Artefacts website I offer valua­ tion scales for the various classes of object, which are included for indicative purposes only. Gen­ erally I provide two valuations, corresponding to 'Fine' and "Very Fine" grades, which relates to the overall condition of the objects as a whole. The finest pieces of Anglo-Saxon metalwork were normally either made from gold or were gilded. This coating preserves the surface of the piece and retains even the finest detail­ ing. Where the gilding has subsequently worn away, the surface is often either pitted and cor­ roded, or worn smooth and featureless. There can therefore be a large difference between the appearance of a gilded object which retains its gilding and that of one which has lost it. This difference in appearance is also reflected in the market price achievable for such objects, with gold or heavily gilded objects usually attracting a substantial premium due to their condition. I also offer valuations for some of the items illustrated in the listings here. These again are indicative only, and refer in many cases to the specific piece, the value of which may be affected also by its rarity and historical interest. The antiquities market is driven by many fac­ tors beyond mere supply and demand, and the valuations shown on the website are revised periodically and reflect current trends.

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period, and are not found in the later history of Anglo-Saxon England. Runology, as this study is called, is a vast subject and it requires a considerable knowledge of linguistics and epig­ raphy as well as archaeology to master it. It is unfortunate that runes are composed from straight-lines marked at 45 degree and 90 degree angles to each other, mostly formed around a single straight line or "stave". The consequence is that it is very difficult to tell the difference between a short runic text and random surface scratches; and given that some geometric decoration is also made up from straight lines, it is easy to mistake a series of decorative lines and zigzags for a runic inscrip­ tion. This is not entirely an accident - there are examples of sequences of lines on cremation urns and elsewhere which look at first glance like runic writing, but which do not appear to make sense as written language. Some scholars believe that these are "pseudo-runes" - orna­ mental features which have the appearance of writing but are not actually meant to say any­ thing. It is of course possible that the person who made the pot was asked to add a runic text and, knowing that the client could not read, just added something sufficiently rune-like to pass muster. We will never know for sure. The occurrence of genuine runic texts on early artefacts (with one exception, which we will come to below) is very rare indeed in the early Anglo-Saxon period, and most examples of this writing system come from just a handful of object types: cremation urns, sword fittings, foil pendants (bracteates, see 1.6.1). Therefore, if an object is offered for sale which appears

How to Use the Valuation Scales The objects and object-types shown in these pages are set out in series, with a decimal clas­ sification number (e.g. 1.1 metal brooches, 1.1.1 metal animal brooches, 1.2 buckles and belt fittings, and so on). A series of current market valuations for each of these types can be found on the British Artefacts website:- www.britishartefacts.co.uk The artefacts are classified according to the system employed throughout this book. In order to maintain current, market-related infor­ mation on the website, the valuations for each class and object will be re-assessed periodically.

Runes There are many books on the runic alpha­ bets (there were at least four versions), but they are not always helpful to the non-specialist in interpreting the script. Books which set out an idealized set of 24 characters give the impres­ sion that the script was neat and regular, when it was in reality anything but. Even the number of "letters" is not fixed, as the original series of 24 was increased to 28 among the AngloSaxons and Frisians; later, in Northumbria, five more were added bringing the total to 33. (Conversely, in Scandinavia, the number was reduced to 16 runes.) Some runes are never (or almost never) found in England; others are only found here. Some shapes are characteristic of the early

Anglo-Saxon Runes based on the Old English Rune Poem

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to bear a runic text, it should be treated with extreme caution. It might be a genuine find of immense significance for the history of the English language, but it is more probably not. It might be a case of Anglo-Saxon pseudo-runes, but it is more probably a modern fake from the Victorian period or of more recent workman­ ship. In any event, professional help should be sought if such an object is met with, and no responsible seller will object to this - after all, if it is found to be genuine, the market value will be substantially increased. The main exception to this is the series of coins which began to appear at the end of the period covered in this book, that is to say around the middle of the 7th century. These routinely do show runic texts, but of a very repetitive nature: usually the name of the moneyer, such as lul or eapa and seldom more than three or four characters in length.

through your local museum, library or the PAS website. Other material is not "treasure" as defined by the act, and recording is voluntary (in England and Wales; in Scotland, it is com­ pulsory). Finds from the beach or sea are not technically "treasure" and have to be reported to the "Receiver of Wreck" which is part of the Coastguard. Reporting your finds is useful, since the FLO will help you to identify them and may be able to suggest further research to help you under­ stand the subject in more detail. In isolation, a single find may mean very little but as part of the larger picture, local or regional, it can show where settlements and markets were situated, which will allow the local archaeologists to make sure that proper investigations are made when building work and other soil disturbance is scheduled to take place in that area. Your find may be of an unusual type, or one not normally associated with your area: in such cases, it will have a statistical importance to the history of the subject - both the typology of the objectclass and potentially the history of your area - beyond what is immediately apparent. Until the object is reported, it will be very difficult to find this out. Conservation is a difficult business, and it is all too easy to destroy the value of an item by overzealous cleaning. Loose soil should be removed to determine what the object is, but any pieces which are more firmly attached should be left in place. Your museum or FLO will be able to advise you on the appropriate method, and if you are intending to sell it or have it valued by a dealer he may be prepared to take this task on for you. You may have to pay a nominal sum for this service, but since the alternative is to risk damage or destruction of the item it is normally worthwhile.

Advice for Finders Finds of early Anglo-Saxon material are not uncommon in southern and eastern Eng­ land, although the majority of individual pieces are fragments of bow brooches and the vari­ ous types of buckles and fittings. If you are lucky enough to find Anglo-Saxon objects, you should be aware of the legal requirements con­ cerning reporting to the authorities and the best way to conserve and present your finds. Under the Treasure Act 1996, finders of gold and silver objects, and groups of coins from the same find-spot, over 300 years old, have a legal obligation to report them. This provision obvi­ ously covers all Anglo-Saxon material made in precious metal. The body to contact is the local Finds Liaison Officer (FLO) of the Portable Antiquities Scheme (PAS) whom you can find

The Anglo-Saxon Runes from the Old English Rune Poem Word divisions were not always marked on short runic inscriptions. The text was prob­ ably the personal name of the owner and his

Each rune is followed by its sound value, its Old English name and the modern translation. Some of the sounds are no longer used in stand­ ard English. The Rune Poem provides three or four lines of verse describing the name's mean­ ing. On the right is a fragment from an AngloSaxon runic mount, possibly a finger ring or a scabbard fitting in copper-alloy. The runes are clearly and heavily incised, carefully spaced and still easily legible. The layout has probably been influenced by manuscript design. The text reads ..lctdrigtæl... with some additional runes missing from both ends. There is a partial rune before the c which is too fragmentary to be identified. The last two runes are cut together on the same upright, a feature known as a "bind-rune". This is indicated by the underscore in the transliteration tæ.

title, such as Herebrict drictæn "Lord Herebrict (Herbert)". The forms of the runes for "d" and "g" are unmistakeably Anglo-Saxon rather than Scandinavian.

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Outline of the Early Anglo-Saxon Period he Early Anglo-Saxon period is the Cinderella of English history, partly because of the general lack of reliable documentation and partly because it is sandwiched between two more glamorous periods: the late Roman, with its increasingly militarised displays of wealth and power, and the Middle Saxon with its dazzling manuscript art, its literate civilization and its dramatic architecture. Even the onset of the period is debatable: the earliest Germanic settlers in Britain were brought in by the Roman army and were either prisoners of war (læti) used to bolster the civic defences of lowland Britain, or settlers recruited under a contract (federati) whose role was to revive the rural economy and to supply defen­ sive forces where needed. The process began in the late 4th century. The end of Roman Britain took place around AD 410 - the date from which legionary troops were officially withdrawn and British authori­ ties were told to defend themselves - but many Britons felt themselves to be part of the Empire for a while longer, hoping for Roman rule to return. With the last legions went the local troops who had been recruited into the army Britain had been left without effective defences. The events which made Roman military withdrawal necessary were the displacements of peoples taking place across eastern and central Europe. Mobile horse-warriors from the fringe of Asia - the Huns - were pressing westwards into Europe; peoples who found themselves in their path had two choices: submit and become part of the westward movement, or move out of their way. This period of history - from about 350 to about 500 - has been called the Migration Period (or the German word Volkerwanderungzeit may be preferred), although the term is no longer fashionable. Displaced peoples fleeing the Huns and their allies put pressure on their neighbours, and the ripples were felt across Europe. Germanic groups from Poland and the Ukraine ended up in Greece,

Italy, Spain, and North Africa. Where so many peoples were unsettled, opportunities existed for shrewd leaders to establish authority. The Saxon, Pictish and Irish seaborne raids on coastal areas of Britain, which had been a nuisance from as far back as the 2nd century, suddenly intensified. Plunder and capturing slaves seem to have been the motivating fac­ tors, but with fewer reliable defences, greater areas of lowland Britain were becoming vul­ nerable. Britain had devolved into four or five states based on the former Roman provinces, plus a number of outlying tribal territories. Each sub-Roman state had to devise its own policy regarding defence. Many chose to employ one group of pirates to keep others out, while a few chose to re-build their defences (hillforts) and re-arm themselves. The point at which Germanic mercenar­ ies in the pay of the Romano-Britons became settlers, with or without the permission of the Romano-Britons, is hard to determine; probably events took a different turn in different areas of the country, so that East Anglia and the eastern seaboard, which were sparsely populated in the 5th century, quickly became dominated by the newcomers. Many of these were Angles from Jutland (Denmark), who maintained links with their homelands. In the south, recruits were drawn from among the Saxons and Frisians, and these eventually became masters of most of the lowlands. Pockets of British control remained - in the Chilterns, in the area round Leeds and probably in other places. The southeast corner of Britain was espe­ cially vulnerable to seafarers coming down the coast of the Netherlands and able to land on either the left shore (northern France) or the right (Kent, Sussex, the Thames estuary). By the mid-5th century most of eastern lowland Britain was in Germanic hands. Social developments both within Britain and on the Continent were encouraging the development of more centralised forms of political author­ ity, based round rulers with a role as priests in

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various religious cults. These Germanic rulers styled themselves by new titles, one of which is cyning- the ancestor of our word "king". These new political structures were built round the dominance of a single family (kindred) over a group of sworn followers who could number from a few hundred families to a few thousand. Each "kingdom" extended only as far as the king could exert his authority; borders were defined by the allegiance of farmers rather than by geographical features. In time, with alliances, intermarriage and military competition, the number of kingdoms in lowland Britain was stabilised at around 10: smaller, wealthier ones such as Essex, Kent and Sussex in the south-east bounded by larger ones such as Mercia (the Midlands), Wessex (the West Country) and Northumbria (north­ ern England and lowland Scotland). The later history of England is dominated by the AngloSaxon kingdoms on the northern and western edges - those who could supplement their own wealth by taking tribute from the zvealas, the English name for the Romano-Britons, now our word "Wales". These border kingdoms had opportunities for dominance and expansion which were no longer open to the smaller states of the south-east. Northumbria maintained political alliances with the kingdom of Dal Riada (now western Scotland) where Irish migrants (the Scots) were already settling. With these contacts came exposure to the Irish form of Christianity, with its emphasis on monasteries and the ascetic life. St. Columba was one of the dominant per­ sonalities in this movement. In the year of his death (AD 597), Roman Christianity arrived in southern England with St. Augustine's mission to Kent. The Kentish court already had Chris­ tian members - the king's wife was Frankish and a Catholic Christian - and was aware of the benefits of strengthening its Frankish alliance. The church gained a foothold in the south­ east in territory dominated by Kentish wealth and power, but the transition to a Christian country with an organised ecclesiastical frame­ work took more than a century. Christianity brought with it centralised power structures, written records and access to the circle of pow­ erful European states - all these benefits were of use to kings wishing to gain or hold onto power, and the new faith gained ground only at royal courts in the first instance. The introduction of literacy based on Roman letters was to have profound effects in centuries to come, but initially Roman script co-existed with the native English writing called "runes". (Properly, "writing" describes the act of scratch­ ing or carving runes; other European languages use words based on Latin scribere for the proc­ ess of writing with a pen, e.g. German schreiben, French écrire, etc.) Literary evidence for the historical frame­ work of the period AD 400 to 650 comes from

a few sources, whose importance therefore cannot be overstated. The only contemporary record is Gildas' De Excidio et Conquestu Britan­ niae ("On the Ruin and Conquest of Britain") which dates from the end of the 6th century and is a series of complaints about the inef­ fectual and morally bankrupt leadership of the British tribes. Gildas's work was used by Bede, whose Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum ("Ecclesiastical History of the English Peo­ ple") forms the main narrative for this period, although it was written in the first third of the 8th century Bede was a careful scholar and used his many sources to paint a vivid picture of life in early England. Bede's work was used in turn in the creation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ASC), although this is a much later series of documents. Few scholars rely on the dates and places mentioned in the early annals of the ASC because they seem impossibly precise for events which took place centuries before the texts were written - most manuscripts of the ASC are copies of an original compiled during the reign of King Alfred who died in AD 899. Anglo-Saxon verse preserves many of the old legends from the time of the settlement, but having been converted into "heroic" tales they cannot be relied upon to give a purely factual account of events; Widsiþ and Beowulf are the best known examples of poems with roots in the 6th century despite having been written down centuries later. Likewise the Old Welsh poem Y Gododdin deals with a cavalry raid mounted against an enemy hillfort called Catraeth, but the poem does not actually specify who the enemy was (Anglo-Saxon, British, Pictish or Irish). At the close of the early Anglo-Saxon period, Christianity was being promoted in most of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. In northern Britain, including Northumbria, Irish Christianity’ was spreading from the island of Iona. In the south, Roman Christianity was brought by the mis­ sion of St. Augustine, who preached in Kent from AD 597 and who converted many of the southern kingdoms - or rather, he converted the kings. Christianity brought with it not only a new religion, but also new methods of governance based on written records, especially regarding ownership of property, codification of the law, assessments for taxes and religious texts. The benefits of such literature were immediately obvious to rulers trying to maintain power, and conversion of royal courts proceeded quickly. The result was a sudden spread of Roman, book-based literacy in the 7th century which soon spilt over into Anglo-Saxon mate­ rial culture. Christianity promoted a pyramidal hierarchy with a single figure (God) at the summit; a similar structure was being installed within secular society as chiefdoms and king­ doms became effective monarchies.

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Artefact Production & Distribution removed from the ground in order to save the labour and transport costs of moving anything but the valuable metal around. Smelters were a skilled class of craftsmen without whom the smiths would have had to rely solely on recy­ cled scrap as a source of their raw materials. There is evidence for small-scale metalwork­ ing activity in some Anglo-Saxon settlements - Mucking (Essex) and West Stow (Suffolk) are the two best known cases - which might mean that low-status smiths were not permanently based at one site but travelled from farm to farm, village to village offering to make and repair items as "tinkers" did in the English rural countryside into the early 20th century. If so, they may have brought items with them for sale, and have copied examples from else­ where, as well as offering to buy broken objects for scrap. A good many early Anglo-Saxon artefacts appear to be poor-quality copies of high-status originals and it may be that farmers' wives and daughters ordered the latest fashions but made in more affordable materials by work­ men who were not skilled enough to create objects from scratch but could make a fair copy of an original. Such itinerant smiths might have used their skills only at certain times of year when they had no other employment. Their ability to move from one commu­ nity to another would contribute to regional similarities in metalworking, and to the close correspondences between the traditions of, for example, eastern England and southern Scandinavia, or Kent and Francia. The common patterns of metalwork among communities liv­ ing hundreds of miles apart strongly suggests that a common ideology was in place among them all, and that they all knew which styles were "fashionable" and "aspirational" at any one time. Not all smiths led such a rootless existence, however. There is good evidence from the Middle Saxon period for some classes of smith having been tied to a particular estate or impor-

Metalwork Production Whole books have been written on AngloSaxon metalwork, how it was made, who made it, what purposes it served, what the different decorations mean and who used it. Typological studies have often proceeded from the evidence for various metal artefact types because other materials (e.g. bone or antler) simply do not survive well enough for the corpus of finds to have statistical significance. Ceramic studies offer a different range of opportunities and challenges to the student. Metalworkers in early Anglo-Saxon England included smiths (working iron, so the equiva­ lent of our "blacksmiths", as well as copper, bronze, brass, tin and lead), jewellers working in gold or silver, and a separate group of spe­ cialist casters who perhaps were responsible for taking the original wax designs and creating the moulds and initial metal castings which were then tidied, polished and further worked by the smiths. Iron workers were responsible in the main for the production of tools - everything from soft iron knives, through more complicated pieces such as hinges, chains, chisels and ringmail to the finest craftsmen who made the complex sword blades by the technique called pattern welding. Iron workers must handle the metal while it is red-hot and malleable, whereas craftsmen working with gold, silver, tin and other metals have greater flexibility in the processes used - once a copper bar has been annealed to soften it, it remains workable until it has been work-hardened through repeated hammer blows. Iron was not always plentiful, and some finds show clearly that the smith has either used sub-standard materials or tried to make a tool with the minimum metal necessary for the task. Smelting - heating the ore to release the metal content - was probably carried out as close as possible to the place where it was

14

industrial areas, but permanent workshops are also evidenced, for example the metalworking debris found next to the cremation cemetery at Spong Hill (Norfolk). Early Anglo-Saxon workshops appear to have been new establishments, mostly based on the economic power and needs of a royal court or trading centre. There is no evidence for continuity in production from the late Roman period into the early Anglo-Saxon period across southern and eastern England. Items made in the quoit brooch style are understood to be the products of late Roman workshops but they appear to be the last of these. No certain workshop sites outside settle­ ments are known to survive, and the only literary references are difficult to interpret: monastic records of St. Gall (Switzerland) describe how a smithy should be set out, and a poem in the Anglo-Saxon Lacnunga medical manuscript describes "six smiths" sitting mak­ ing "spears of slaughter". It is likely enough that the majority of met­ alworking took place outside and away from other buildings due to the risk of fire - perhaps under an awning or open structure that would also give the maximum amount of daylight and ventilation. If the forge was just a hearth in the beaten-earth floor of a booth, that would explain why the poem's smiths were sitting at their work. Early Anglo-Saxon trading posts were tem­ porary gatherings at customary locations: a ship drawn up on a strand or beach from which cargoes were exchanged by barter. A wellorganized system of long-distance trade was already operating by the early 7th century when royal licences to trade at specific port areas were first granted. The port area was known as a wic and several are known: Ipswich (Gippeswic); Aldwych, London (Lundenwic); York (Eofonuic); and Southampton (Hamwic). In exchange for payment of tolls, royal protection was offered to foreign merchants Pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society was not a money economy but coins were known and used by traders dealing with Continental suppliers and purchasers; probably they were exchanged at face value on the Continent, but were regarded as bullion in Britain. Copies of Roman coins were made as prestige items, and there were also late Roman coins in circulation. The design was applied using a pair of large dies, top and bottom. The blank disc was placed on the lower die (pile), the upper one (trussle) was placed over it and the whole assembly was secured with a metal collar, then the coin was struck with a single blow.

tant person, so that if the landowner decided to move then his smith was obliged to go with him. This suggests that the smith was not in fact a "free man" in the Anglo-Saxon legal sense but rather an economic dependant of his "lord" and therefore of lower status. Given that the alternative might be a life on the road as a trader and jobbing repairer, such a close asso­ ciation with an important person might have seemed preferable for the stability it offered. Jewellers, including goldsmiths and silversmiths, were seemingly high-status pro­ fessionals who could move around from estate to estate, but this may be because each jeweller was attached to the court of a king and there­ fore had to move with it. In order to keep the craftsman, his materials and his output safe, it would have been desirable to set up dedicated production centres and there is some evidence for this by the end of the early Anglo-Saxon period. Some high-ranking and wealthy smiths probably owned land of their own and drew an income from that as well as their craftwork. The only certain example of a 7th cen­ tury smith's grave in Anglo-Saxon England was found at Tattershall Thorpe (Lincolnshire) where the man was buried with his tools and some of his other possessions such as pieces of garnet. It has been suggested that he was a wandering smith or tinker who had no heir in the community where he died, and therefore his tools and working materials were buried with him. Evidence for repair of an item was found on a composite brooch at Harford Farm, Caistor St. Edmund (Norfolk) which has a short runic text on the reverse reading luda : gibœtidæsigil "Luda made-better (the) brooch." Luda is the earliest named smith in the Anglo-Saxon records; the brooch dates from the later 6th century. Workshop-based production, whereby a team of individual specialists could pool their skills, is likely from the earliest Anglo-Saxon times because it would allow complex objects to be produced at a single site. In order to make mail, for example, the iron ore has to be smelted; the slag must be drawn off and the resultant iron blooms purified by heating and hammering; the metal then has to be heated and drawn through smaller and smaller swages into wire; the wire is coiled round a circular former and cut into individual links; the ends of each link are hammered flat and punched; each link is passed through four others and a rivet is hammered into the punched hole, and closed. None of these tasks is especially arduous, but they have to be performed over and over to cre­ ate a mail coat which contains many thousands of links. The excavation of the settlement at Muck­ ing (Essex) yielded a mould for making a great square-headed brooch, which shows that production could take place outside dedicated

Ceramic Production Anglo-Saxon pottery is not considered a high-quality product although there was cer­ tainly a great deal of time and trouble devoted

15

to the cremation urns. This was presumably because the urn was meant to hold the remains of a human being, a member of the burying community, and therefore the making and decoration of the pot was part of the elaborate rituals which allowed the expression of grief. Cooking-pots and similar utilitarian wares are known from the early period, but they are not common. Most people ate and drank from vessels made of wood, and indeed wooden products were the foundation of Anglo-Saxon life - ships, houses, weapons and furniture all relied on wood for their creation. Even pottery would not have been possible without wood to fuel the kilns and clamps in which the vessels were made. Pottery production requires usable deposits of clay, as well as "grog" - a filler such as sand, shell or grass which makes the clay easier to work with and reduces the amount by which the pot shrinks on firing. Potters must have had reserves of grog in the form of broken (Roman?) ceramics, pieces of chalk, crushed limestone, flakes of granite and the like. The early Anglo-Saxon potter did not use a wheel, but either pressed the pot out carefully from a block of clay or built it up using the coil method. Stamping was carried out when the pot had begun to air-dry. Once the pot was stable and could withstand gentle handling, it was fired at a low temperature of up to 850 degrees. The resultant vessel was waterproof and tough enough for use. Due to the oxidation process in firing, the finished pots were usu­ ally grey, buff or yellow but with uneven firing they may be in a combination of these colours as well as black, blue and red. After firing, the surface of the pots was burnished with a hard tool to give a dense, shiny effect, or even coated with beeswax. A minor type of pottery found in AngloSaxon graves is wheel-thrown and was probably imported. It is commonest in Kent and Essex, but also occurs in East Anglia, and dates from the 5th-7th centuries. Some of these unusual pots and other vessels were maintained in use for as long as possible and show signs of hav­ ing been repaired. The vessels found in Kent resemble the corresponding types produced in the Pas de Calais area of northern France, while the East Anglian ones seem to have been brought from the Rhineland. Bowls of various kinds are the commonest type of wheel-thrown ceramic, but bottles also occur. Having identified some shared stamps, it has been possible to detect the output of a sin­ gle "potter" across a number of cemeteries, but it should be borne in mind that all we can detect is the impression of the stamp and this might have been lost, stolen, sold, loaned or inherited. Most stamps have a very restricted distribution pattern, while a few are very widespread. As the clays used for Anglo-Saxon pots of all kinds tend to be sourced locally, logically the stamps

and the potters who used them would have travelled around from site to site. Important groups such as Sancton-Baston and IllingtonLackford have been used to identify regional markets and tastes. There have been some studies relating pot­ tery stamps on cremation urns to the social identity of the person whose remains were buried inside the pot - gender, age, wealth and status are the areas which have been identified for research, and no doubt these studies will be refined in future to show how the use of these stamps developed.

Maps Map description

Pa8 e

Annular brooches...............................................25 Quoit brooches................................................... 26 Penannular brooches......................................... 27 Cruciform brooches........................................... 29 Great square-headed brooches.......................42 Keystone disc brooches.....................................49 Safety-pin brooches........................................... 57 Belt buckles (from graves)................................ 59 Wrist clasps..........................................................66 Spearheads (from graves).................................69 Swords & fittings (from graves)......................71 Shield bosses (from graves)............................. 76 Beaver-tooth pendants...................................... 88 Cloisonné disc pendants...................................89 Disc pendants..................................................... 89 Pierced coins

(Roman & Anglo-Saxon)..................93

Bullae.................................................................... 94 Beads - metal...................................................... 94 Chatelaines...........................................................96 Pyxides (from graves)......................................104 Spoons & strainers ......................................... 105 Beads - amber................................................... 109 Beads - glass..................................................... 113 Note: the maps in this book are intended to show typical distributions based on two principal sources of evidence: published excavations and reported finds (casual and detector-based). Therefore the maps are intended only as a guide to the general distribution patterns and do not reflect the occasional stray examples which may occur outside their normal zones of distribution, nor finds which have not been reported.

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Art Styles of a Roman object had been desired, it could have been made. The Saxon Relief Style should not be seen as the end of Roman ornament in northern Europe, but as the beginning of a new Germanic style of decoration that spread from the North Sea coastal region into the Nether­ lands and England. Cast brooches and buckles were the main use for Saxon Relief Style, all made in a copperalloy. Geometric decoration was placed on the main surface of the object, surrounded by high-relief animal figures on the borders. In the Saxon Style, the animal designs are on the outer, triangular ends of the buckle plate and counter-plate; this feature continues into the later Quoit Brooch Style. Border friezes includ­ ing animal forms are allowed. Saxon Style shares with Quoit Brooch Style certain restric­ tions on the use of animal heads, so that they follow rather than precede complete animals; they are shown in profile, and they have a long neck and gaping mouth. Saxon Relief Style took root in England and was applied to new designs. By the 6th cen­ tury the style was replaced by a new type of ornament, with a different ideological content: Salin's Style I.

ate Roman motifs and techniques domi­ nated the prestige art of Western Europe for centuries, each individual culture having adapted its own expressions from the original forms. Roman imports into Germania Libera (the Germanic lands beyond the Roman frontier) were a major source of new ideas, and the nature of the contacts is expressed in the designs borrowed from the classical world.

L

Saxon (Relief) Style

What to look for: geometric designs in the central field(s); animal forms in the outer field(s); high-relief casting.

Sösdala Style

Saxon Relief Style or Saxon Style is a deriva­ tive of Late Roman Military Style in which chip-carved copper-alloy artefacts such as equal-arm and saucer brooches were made. It arose in Germania Libera on the frontier with the Roman Empire in the 5th century. Objects made in this style are not just crude copies of Roman metalwork, because the skill of the Germanic smiths often exceeded that of the Romans at that time, so that if an exact copy

The Sösdala Style is a development from Late Roman stamped decoration. It uses plain, cast surfaces to which punch-marks are applied. The style is apparently contemporary with Nydam Style metalwork. The range of stamp or punch forms was confined to points, circles, lines, D-shapes, rectangles and trian­ gles; these were combined to create regular and symmetrical patterns, often floral and star

17

designs. Sösdala Style makes very limited use of chip-carving. Surface treatment was almost confined to mercury gilding. A common fea­ ture of the objects decorated in Sösdala Style is the motif of paired, drooping horse-heads in profile. The controlled use of plain fields is also found in the Anglo-Saxon Quoit Brooch Style, which derives from Late Roman punched mili­ tary belt fittings.

left silver and inset with black niello to give a very colourful and dramatic effect. The style seems not to have contributed directly to later Anglo-Saxon design in Eng­ land, but finds occur in English contexts, such as a late 5th century relief-decorated bow brooch possibly from Canterbury. What to look for: high-relief casting; chipcarved geometric designs; thin, flat section at the top of the cast ridge.

What to look for: plain fields with restrained use of punchmarks in geometric patterns.

Quoit Brooch Style Germanic art of recognisable and distinct styles appears first in Britain in the 4th century AD among the troops stationed on the frontiers of the Empire, which implies some continuity in the early Germanic communities from the 300s on into the post-Roman era. By the mid-5th century, a type of decorative metalwork was developed in eastern England based on the military belt sets of the later Roman period, and known as the Quoit Brooch Style. (The name is based on the decoration of a class of annular brooches from south-east England, but the style occurs also on belt fit­ tings and other items.) The artefacts with this style are confined to southern and eastern English regions, with a concentration in Kent, and the workshops making them may have been located in this region.

Nydam Style The Nydam Style is the early 5th century contemporary of the Sösdala Style, used in southern Scandinavia. In contrast to the flat effect of Sösdala Style, Nydam is heavily con­ toured and reflective. Nydam Style was still in use at the beginning of the Migration Period, but appears to have faded by about AD 475. It is a "cast" metalwork style, as distinct from the "punched" Sösdala Style, and is mainly geometric because the designs are executed in a very crisp chip-carving technique. However, human figures, birds and animals with coiling fish-tails are also used. Unlike most chip-carv­ ing, in Nydam Style the chip-carved surfaces have a thin, flat plateau at the apex of the relief, where a line of niello was inserted. Sometimes the sloping surfaces were gilded, the plateau

18

Objects decorated in Quoit Brooch Style fall into two main categories: (i) disc brooches and (ii) military accoutrements such as belt fittings (buckle plates, counter-plates, strap ends) and scabbard fittings (side-bars and chapes). The disc brooches are of a type not found outside England, which suggests that the wearers of these items were making a deliberate state­ ment about identity in their choice of design. The Quoit Brooch Style consists of strict zones containing geometric and zoomorphic decoration, mainly quadrupeds, marine creatures and human faces. The animals are usually drawn with a "double contour" and the inner line marks off compartments filled with various surface-working techniques (i.e. punch-marks). The geometric motifs are prin­ cipally tendril scrolls, palmettos, triangles, dots, circles, D-shapes and S-scrolls. The animals are displayed in a semi-naturalistic manner and are not rendered into exaggerated components as in later Germanic art. Unlike the Saxon Relief Style modelling on equal-arm brooches, Quoit Brooch Style animals are made up from incised lines, punched infill and very shallow carving. Objects decorated in this style are often orna­ mented with gilding, silver-plating or silver inlay, and occasionally with set stones or glass. The brooch, buckle or other item has its surface divided into "zones", at least three in number. The zones of the object's surface may be framed by a "boundary" with a decorative feature such as beading. The outer boundary may be enclosed by a further edge or rim. The use of the backward-looking animal in the standard Quoit Brooch Style, relates to its late Roman origins but looks forward to the development of new means of portraying

these motifs. The successor Style I zoomorphs face forwards, but Style II again makes use of a backward-looking zoomorph. Quoit Brooch Style proved an artistic dead­ end and was abandoned in the last years of the 5th century with the arrival of artefacts bearing Style I decoration. What to look for: geometric and animal designs in discrete fields (never combined); animal forms with double contour; punched and incised decoration of animals.

Style I The name "Style I", assigned by the 19th century Swedish scholar, Bernhard Salin, has remained in use despite attempts by other researchers to re-define it, for example as "Animal Style". Style I art developed ultimately from styles of late Roman military and provin­ cial art, found on belt-fittings and elsewhere. The style concentrates attention on the animal forms, and relegates other motifs such as spi­ rals to the edges of the field. Style I art is believed to have been intro­ duced in Scandinavia towards the end of the 5th century, but the earliest Anglo-Saxon material is probably from the early 6th cen­ tury. Western Denmark and Norway were the first regions to use this style of art, and both these areas had close connections with eastern England and with Kent. Some early features, such as the pear-shaped thigh, were dropped in Scandinavia but maintained elsewhere (i.e. Lombard Italy). The German scholar, Haseloff, called Style I a Tiersalat "animal-salad" - a multitude of

19

animal parts forming a patterned whole. Sig­ nificant features of objects decorated in this style are downward-hanging animal heads in profile with open mouths; animals in the mar­ gins of the main fields; animals with rounded snouts, pellet-and-bar nostrils, elliptical eyes, pear-shaped thighs, and feet with "collars" (transverse bars forming a cuff). Fields sepa­ rated by heavily moulded frames are typical of this Germanic metalwork, and these frames offer a visual key from which interpretation of the design was possible. It may be that the heavy frames were introduced as means of strengthening the castings. A characteristic Style I design is the animal body merging with the human head to produce a beast with a human face, the Tiermensch or "animal-man" of Germanic art. Whether these figures have any relevance to the later stories of werewolves and the like is still debated. Kend­ rick wanted to use the term "Hand and Helmet Style" for the English representations of the style, and the Anglo-Saxon material often does display these features prominently - among the jumble of three-strand bands, spirals, coils and sundry other shapes, a hand with extended thumb and an eye with its curved surround are often the only certainly human design ele­ ments. The long-term use of Style I as decoration on the face of cast saucer brooches meant that the animal imagery had genuine appeal to users of these objects. Style I's disjointed and heavily stylised shapes were ideally suited for the production process using chip-carving. The body disintegrated into a series of shapes which could be split and re-combined to fit the space available. Interlace is used in Style I, but it is asym­ metrical and irregular, unlike the Style II material. The bands in the interlace are often shown as three plain, parallel strands, which gives the design more reflective surfaces and thus more "glitter". These strand-based body profiles continue in Style II, and ultimately lead to the classic Viking forms where bodies are separated into a multitude of strands which overlap and join each other. In Anglo-Saxon Style I art, it is usual to display a series of features which appear to be identical, but on inspection are found not to be exactly so (i.e. on great square-headed brooches where very similar design elements are used, but exact copies are avoided). It is assumed that this is a deliberate policy, since it would not have been difficult to make identical designs using a master or matrix. Displaying Style I designs perhaps marked the wearer out as having access to privilege and power. When it began to fall from favour, this was with the rise of Christianity. The transition from Style I to Style II occurred at the same time as the conversion from the old tradition to the new religion, and with expansion from a

"tribal" state to a centralised kingdom. Style I was important in Scandinavia and spread from there to some areas of Central Europe and the Rhineland, but the transfer to Anglo-Saxon England proved most successful and it was in England that Style I flourished. This adoption of the style may have been encouraged by the lack of any single visual art tradition among the various Germanic settler groups, whose closest contacts were generally with Scandinavia. Style I art was adopted on the Continent but did not thrive, partly due to the clearly heathen associations of the style, with its dismembered animals and chaotic displays. Under Christianising influence, Con­ tinental Style I largely gave way to the more rational Late Classical styles adopted from Byzantine art. Style I art in England has seldom been studied in depth, often being regarded as a poor-quality and bungled reproduction of late Roman art. Admittedly Style I motifs are fre­ quently difficult to interpret, but this is seldom due to poor workmanship. More often, we simply lack the background knowledge which would allow us to understand what the designs are meant to show. It seems likely that the dif­ ficulty is not accidental - these images were made to confuse all but the handful who had the secrets of interpretation. What to look for: animal and human body parts (rarely whole bodies); three-strand band­ ing; eye-and-brow motif; hand with extended thumb and cuff.

Polychrome Style Polychrome Style is a developing taste among early medieval Germanic societies for showy jewellery with applied gemstones, cloisonné, coloured glass and other elements. From the later 2nd century onwards, an appetite arose in Europe for gold jewellery and adorn­ ments to which were affixed pieces of coloured glass or translucent stone. The richest pieces use red garnet, but glass was used in other colours including deep blue, dark green and matt white. Along with these stones, filigree decoration was used to complete the so-called "Polychrome Style". The polychrome style of jewellery became part of the Frankish expression of power, along with rites such as horse burial, chamber graves, etc. In the late 6th or early 7th century the supply of garnets appears to have been interrupted, so the use of coloured paste was adopted to maintain the taste for cell-based designs. What to look for: flat surfaces with cells soldered on, containing large cabochon gems and glass; geometric designs; granulation and filigree.

20

places can also lay claim to it: the lower Thames, the Thames valley, and the east Midlands. In outline Style II appears to be a devel­ opment of some aspects of Style I: the animal-shapes are shown with long, ribbon­ like bodies (the three-strand banding of Style I), which gradually evolves into orderly interlaced patterns. Style II animals are regularly formed and they extend into strands which form knots and loops across the object's surface. With­ out the chip-carving technique used on Style I, Style II designs appear less grotesque. The whole effect of Style II decoration is flatter, more carefully planned and more delicate. Ken­ drick called it the "Ribbon Style", an allusion to the serpentine motifs. Another common feature is a procession of animals, S-shaped in profile and interlocked, their legs looping around their neighbours and their jaws biting their own or their neighbours' body. The adoption of Style II coincides with the popularisation of filigree and granulation techniques in goldsmithing, mainly in Kent but also found in East Anglia and elsewhere. Fili­ gree, being based on the soldering of thin wire shapes onto a base-plate, lent itself readily to the production of snake-like forms which could slither over and under each other on the cen­ tral field of a triangular buckle or in the panels of a keystone garnet brooch. Over time these filigree animals degenerate into mere strings of parts, and it takes considerable patience to dis­ entangle the wire loop or coil which is supposed to represent jaws or an eye.

Style II English Style II ornament is associated par­ ticularly with the cultures of the south-east and eastern seaboard: these communities had the closest and firmest links with both Francia and Scandinavia. Scandinavian Style II apparently began in eastern Sweden, away from the centres of Style I in the west of Denmark and Norway. How­ ever, the earliest datable examples of the style are found in western Germany; this situation may change with better methods for dating artefacts. It is noticeable that both Styles I and II are only exceptionally found on the same object, implying either different workshop traditions or a sudden rejection of the earlier Style I in favour of the replacement Style II. Some scholars have seen this as the result of conversion to Christi­ anity, but since Style II is found at pre-Christian sites such as the Sutton Hoo barrow-ground, this cannot be the whole story. The date of the Sutton Hoo Mound I burial is usually put around AD 625, but there is nothing in the archaeology to put it outside a range starting around 580 extending to around 640; the best dating evidence is the Merovingian coins in the purse, and numismatic opinion on these var­ ies. (The large silver Byzantine dish bearing the stamp of Emperor Anastasius, datable to 491518, was an antique at the time of its burial.) Style II in England is linked to the Sutton Hoo site as the find-spot for the most magnificent examples of the artwork, although many other

21

There are characteristic forms for Style II animals which include a predatory bird's head with an angled eye-surround, a curved beak and a pointed "chin"; a beast biting its own body; pairs of animals with overlapping or interlaced jaws, trunks and limbs. The vari­ ous animal forms are frequently portrayed but human figures are almost absent. Treatment of the animal motifs differs. In Scandinavia, the animals are whole, but twisted and interlaced; in England, they are whole but shown less elaborately contorted; on the Con­ tinent, whole animal motifs are rare but heads are quite common. Style II decoration, such as filigree panels, is combined with Polychrome Style (i.e. cabochon garnets in gold mounts) in both Francia and England. This combination is mainly applied to sword fittings and horse harnesses. One common form of Style II design is a serpent displayed as three parallel lines, but (unlike Style I) with the middle strand deco­ rated differently from the outer two. On the Sutton Hoo buckle and elsewhere, the middle strand has a pelletted or billeted surface which sets it off from the plain borders. This effect also makes it easier for the viewer to see where the plaited bands pass over and under each other. More adventurous decorative effects include zigzags and rope-work. East Anglian Style II serpents often have a slit in their bodies to

allow another serpent to pass through, a fea­ ture which it shares only with eastern Sweden (and not with Kent, for example). This fact may strengthen the case for the East Anglian royal family, the Wuffingas, having arrived from the area of modern Sweden in the 6th century and maintained ties with their homeland. Design elements in Style II are more clearly executed, generally larger and better defined, than the cramped fragments of Style I. As a method of artistic display, Style II is therefore much easier to appreciate than Style I - even if we are still a long way from understanding it. Weapons with Style I decoration are rare the apex-discs of a few shields are the main English exception - but when Style II arrives it is very quickly applied to weapons, and from there it spreads to drinking horn fittings, horseharness, belt plaques, musical instruments and many other high-status objects. Probably, Style II was the badge of an elite which liked to present itself in terms of both warfare and feast­ ing. Style II ideas of layout and elements of design fed into the earliest Anglo-Saxon manu­ script art which falls outside the scope of this book. What to look for: regularly spaced and laid out animal/snake bodies; interlace and knotwork in filigree.

Example of the Combination of Styles & Techniques

Enlargement of the brooch headplate (item 1.1.4.7-b) showing the detail of the decorative scheme: ring-chain across the top; reversed s-scrolls along the sides; raised borders with crescent and roundel punchmarks; elliptical

panels in the upper corners; a triangular gar­ net set centrally (Polychrome Style) flanked by animal heads in three-band (Style I); a quad­ rangular panel above the bow with opposed animal heads as a human face.

22

1. Metal Artefacts tems made from metal are among the most durable and important evidence for AngloSaxon contacts in Britain. With the poor preservation of wood and organic matter, metal is the single most informative medium for the expression of identity, status, culture and ethnicity. It is hardly surprising that metal goods of various kinds have been studied so carefully: the story they can reveal shows the links between the Germanic states of Britain and the corresponding areas of northern and western Europe.

I

of brooch began with production of a master in bone, wood or wax. It is likely that the master for disc brooches was made from a blank turned on a lathe, with its central setting placed where the securing point rested. Uniformity of design, size and layout across numerous examples sug­ gests that templates must have been used, but even matched pairs are never exact copies so it is likely that the details of decorative motifs were added freehand by the jeweller - using varying degrees of care in execution. From the master, a two-piece mould was created in clay, probably by the lost-wax method. Slots were cut into the back mould to produce lugs on the casting, which would form the catch-plate and pin-holder. Usually the orientation of the design to the pin is the same on both mem­ bers of a pair, but not invariably so. The mould was broken to extract the casting, which was cleaned up and prepared for incising, punching, gilding and other surface treatments. It is unlikely that all the many early brooch forms could have been produced in central workshops employing permanent specialist craftsmen, although this does seem to be the case for specialised cloisonné items which were cut and mounted at Trier (France). Early AngloSaxon economic activity makes small-scale, localised production more likely for most object types, and the wide distribution of related designs indicates that cross-fertilisation and tradition played a large part in the process. Modern distribution maps show find-spots (casual finds, detector finds and graves) which at best indicate where the brooch was last worn, but not necessarily where it was made or used for most of its existence. The spread of brooches from the lower Thames to the upper Thames might be related to the Anglo-Saxon custom whereby a newly-wed bride transferred to her husband's home with her personal belongings. No specialist workshops from the early Anglo-Saxon period are known so far, and the distribution patterns for surviving artefacts do

1.1 BROOCHES Early Anglo-Saxon burials and chance finds have yielded many brooches of various forms, which have been initially classified according to their overall shape and proportions. The brooches of females are the most common metal finds of all. Illustrations show men wear­ ing brooches, but they were not buried with them. Brooches can be broadly divided into round shapes, long shapes and animal or geometric shapes. The word "brooch" is used for a fas­ tening which covers its pin and pin-holder, while other types where the spring, pin and clasp are visible are known by the Latin name fibula. Brooches are usually attached by means of a sprung pin which locks into a catch-plate; however, there are examples of brooches which have been fastened in place and clenched shut, and even of openwork brooches sewn to the fabric beneath. Anglo-Saxon female dress often features matching pairs of small brooches - for example, quoit and square-headed brooches but there are exceptions in the grave records to show that many individuals did not adopt this fashion. The larger, showier types of brooch, like the great square-headed brooch, were worn singly on an outer garment such as a cloak or shawl. The manufacturing process for most types

23

forms in the previous example) which empha­ sizes aspects of the creature's appearance: the eye and wing are prominent while the claw is reduced to a single line with a kink at the end. Six garnets are included in the composition: the eye, wing and chest are each decorated with a single cloison, while the tail comprises a row of three.

not usually indicate the presence of specific centres of production.

1.1.1 Animal Brooches Animal-shaped brooches are not common among the Anglo-Saxons but some finds have been made in Kent and the south-east. They are usually 2-5cm long and made in copperalloy. The animal represented is not always clear - dog, wolf or horse seems most likely. The brooches are cast and then further worked by engraving and punching to add detail. Items of similar appearance but larger (9-15cm) and with a spike or rivet attachment are sometimes found, believed to be shield decorations. Horse-shaped brooches were worn by the Franks and the Lombards, as well as brooches in the shape of fish and even horse-flies (the so-called cicadas brooches).

1.1.2 Bird Brooches Small, cast brooches 2-5cm long, in the shape of a stylised bird, usually with the head facing to the right, were used as a fastener on women's outer garments. Some have a cabochon for the eye, and/or meerschaum panels on the body. Some have panels of linear orna­ ment on the body. Similar forms of decoration appear on the heads of clothes-pins and hair­ pins. Most appear to be birds of prey, but some are closer to a duck or goose in form. They are mostly bronze, and sometimes tinned. They are found mainly in Kent and the Isle of Wight, with outliers in Essex and Cambridge­ shire. Most date 5th and early 6th century. The type apparently originated among the Salian Franks and is also common in north-eastern France. There are also examples of larger (6-10cm) gilded bird-shaped brooches decorated with cloisonné garnets and coloured glass. These are associated with the Goths and Lombards of northern Italy. The significance of the bird-motif probably lies in the aristocratic cult of the god Woden, who, like his Scandinavian counterpart Oðinn, was able to transform himself into a bird and did so in many stories; a pictorial reference to this can be found on the shield from Sutton Hoo Mound 1, where the eagle plaque has a small human face on the hip. A further associa­ tion lies in the Germanic raven-cult, which was connected with the "beasts of battle" - eagle, raven, wolf and boar - all known as scavengers which would feed on dead warriors. Possibly these animals were thought to represent the spirits of the otherworld claiming the dead for their own.

Fig.l.l.2-b. is a more heavily stylised bird (findspot unknown). The hooked beak and gar­ net eye are still present but the wing and claw are shown in a more rudimentary fashion. The tail is emphasised with beaded radiate lines; similar features are added at the outside of the wing and around the neck, it is made from silver and gilded; the surface is heavily worn in places.

Fig-l-l-2-a. is a Frankish silver gilt bird (findspot unknown), executed in a very "rectan­ gular" style (rather than the rounded, curvilinear

24

1.1.3 Annular Brooches

Fig.l.l.3-a & b. This pair of annular brooches from Suffolk shows many of the typical features. They are cast in copper-alloy, but others can be found in iron, silver, lead and even bone. The decoration is mainly in the form of incised lines and punch marks. Here both are present as the inner and outer edges of the rings have been punched using a circular point; there are seg­ mentation lines across the band of the brooch composed from marks from the same punch; and the top example shows a ring-and-dot above the pin-slot. Commonly, the segmenta­ tion is achieved with incised lines rather than punches, and the lines are positioned across the band of the brooch in groups of two or three this can be seen on the bottom example, at the bottom where two rows of points diverge from adjacent dots on the inner row. The copper-alloy pin of the top brooch is still intact while the iron pin of the bottom brooch has corroded and is only detectable where it has mineralised onto the copper-alloy band.

Annular brooches consist of a ring and securing pin, and they occur in several forms in Anglo-Saxon graves. Quoit brooches and penannular brooches are subdivisions which are dealt with separately below. They are mainly a 6th century fashion, but early examples appear in the late 5th century and others continue into the 7th century. They appear most often in Anglian areas (east coast and Midlands) often in conjunction with great square-headed brooches as dress accessories. The chronology of the annular brooch has not been worked out entirely, and it is one of the few Anglo-Saxon artefacts that continues throughout the Migra­ tion Period and into later times. The narrow-banded type occurs in the north and east, while the south and south-east favour broader stripes. There are flat-section, circularsection and D-section forms. A rare Kentish and Northumbrian variant combines bead-andreel moulding on the ring with confronted bird heads of Style II form in pairs across the waist where the pin is attached and at the secur­ ing notch. The distribution in Kent and the north-east is consistent with the political and commercial links between the two kingdoms in the late 6th to early 7th centuries.

25

The manufacture of quoit brooches occupies the transition from Late Roman to Germanic culture in Britain, and arguments have been advanced for both Romano-British and AngloSaxon manufacture. They are best viewed as Anglo-Saxon copies of Late Roman designs, modified and adapted to their own tastes and needs, and the notch-and-stops fastening is probably derived from a late 3rd century Ger­ manic form of ring-brooch. Aside from the true quoit brooches, deco­ ration in the so-called "Quoit Brooch Style" is also featured on some disc and penannular brooches, belt plates and other items. Penan­ nular and disc brooches decorated in Quoit Brooch Style are always much larger than those in other styles, and so a bold display of wealth and power was being made by the wearer.

1.1.3.1 Quoit Brooches A quoit brooch is an annular brooch with a broad band and some form of fastening based on a notch in the band with "stops" either side. To fasten the brooch, the pin had to be pushed through the fabric of the clothing, then through the notch and pushed past one of the stops, where the weight of the fabric held it in place. They are associated mainly with female graves, and there are a few subdivisions based on the details of their manufacture.

Type A B

C D E F G

Description A broad, flat penannular brooch with an inner rail of wire A quoit with three long slots around the inner edge of the band, often with a collar on the penannular ring within the slots; the pin hinges on central slot A quoit with only one slot to which the pin is attached A smaller variant of C A broad-banded annular brooch without notch or stops A narrow-banded annular A flat, narrow-banded annular

Fig-1.1.3.1 -a. is a Kentish quoit brooch of Type C with a square pin-slot, a V-shaped notch opposite and two circular stops at the inner ends. The decoration is characteristic of the Quoit Brooch Style which includes rigid rules for the placement of the decorative features animal faces or "masks" viewed straight-on, crouching animals viewed in profile and scrolls. The outer band features masks and hippocampi - a combination of a horse's front-end with a scrolled tail, perhaps imitating a seahorse. Inside this is a plain band, and within this a band of animals with gaping mouths placed opposing each other.

26

1.1.3.2 Penannular Brooches

Fig.l.l.3.2-a. shows a copper-alloy penan­ nular brooch from Cleveland. The copper-alloy pin is not attached to the "ring" but is allowed to run freely while held on the ring by the loosely scrolled end. The ring's terminals are likewise coiled to prevent the pin from falling off; the weight of the woollen or leather gar­ ment would hold the pin firmly in place against one of the stops.

Penannular brooches are similar to annu­ lar brooches, but the "ring" is broken and the two ends bent back or clubbed to prevent the pin from slipping off. Penannular brooches continue from the Late Roman period into the Post-Roman in Britain. The standard form is where the terminals are bent back in the same plane as the penannular hoop; this is found in the late Iron Age in Britain, Gaul and Germania. None of the types is large or showy, and the decoration is usually small and neat. Penannu­ lar brooches have the pin pushed through the cloth to be secured, then the hoop is turned to lock the pin against the wider terminal. These types of brooch are found on AngloSaxon burial sites, but they are not common as clothing fasteners. They tend to occur as part of the contents of a bag or pouch rather than an item of dress, as if they had been collected for use as amulets or were no longer fashionable enough to wear prominently but had sentimen­ tal value. The penannular brooch in Iron Age and Romano-British tradition was a male costume fastening, but among the Anglo-Saxons it appears to have been restricted to females.

27

Bow Brooch Nomenclature

28

1.1.4 Bow Brooches

Germanic rather than Anglo-Saxon, has only a top-knob and vestigial side-wings.) Sometimes the foot developed into a stylised animal head (seen from above) which resem­ bles a horse. The early Scandinavian brooches of this type have a rectangular headplate and a lozenge-shaped footplate, and this is true of Scandinavian-derived forms in Anglo-Saxon England and elsewhere. Most types of cruci­ form usually occur singly, and in female graves. The cruciform brooch type is generally asso­ ciated with Anglian areas and with Kent. They are split into five groups, proceeding from sim­ ple to complex: A minor series of these brooches have splayed, triangular or shovel-shaped feet. The decoration of cruciform brooches is confined to Salin's Style I, and the class seems to have gone out of use before Style II was established in England. Stamped decoration of the common geometric types (triangle, semi-circle, point, etc.) is often found on the edges of the head­ plate and bow.

The term "bow brooch" is used for vari­ ous types of long brooch where the fastening is covered by a plate, of which the central part is raised in a semi-circle to make room for the folds of the garment to be pinned. Com­ mon types are the cruciform, radiate-headed, square-headed, etc. which are dealt with sepa­ rately here.

Fig.l.l.4.1-a. shows a middle-range brooch from Easington (County Durham). As with Fig.l.l.4.1-b. on page 30, it has cast knobs on the headplate, but the top one has been given additional decoration in the form of a pair of stylised birds' heads. The headplate is otherwise plain, although traces remain of punched trian­ gular decoration on the upper left; presumably the outer edges all bore similar decoration which has been worn away. The bow shows traces of a central field of beading, also worn away except at the top and bottom. The upper footplate has lappets in the form of scrolls, which have not yet developed into beaks, and zones of mould­ ings, some with incised decoration. The horse's head is still quite recognisable but the nostrils have become large, comma-shaped features surmounting a splayed base plate. Fig.l.l.4.1-b. is an example of a much more decorative form of brooch of Group V from Sleaford (Lincolnshire). The headplate top- and side-knobs have grown into flat plates with scrolled decoration. The headplate is divided into panels and the central field is decorated with an incised fylfot or swastika, the legs of which terminate in punched points, a feature also found on bracteates. The bow has an inner raised field, with what may be an attach­ ment point for a separate cast decoration. The upper footplate sports the side-extensions of "lappets" decorated with the same scrollwork as on the headplate knobs, and below this a segmented field. The horse-head feature has transformed: the two "eyes" are still present on the outer edges but the nostrils have become florid coils which are themselves profile animalheads. The whole brooch has been fire-gilded, and this surface treatment has worn off the raised areas exposing the copper-alloy beneath.

1.1.4.1 Cruciform Brooches The term "cruciform brooch" designates a wide range of long and (usually) narrow brooch forms featuring a long "foot" (some­ times with projecting "lappets") beneath a slender bow and a wider headplate (sometimes with projecting "wings") edged on the three remaining sides by "knobs" which may be cast fully-round or only half-round. The cruciform shape is based on the knobs extending from the headplate; these knobs became more ornate and florid as the type developed. (The very earliest form, which is considered Continental

29

Fig-1-1-4.1 -c. shows a good example of a Group I brooch from Lincolnshire. The knobs on the headplate are cast fully in the round, and the central field shows triangular punch marks in opposing lines. The bow is plain, and decoration on the upper part of the footplate is confined to moulded bands and faceting. The lower footplate is a long horse-head with two projecting "eyes" at the top and bulbous pro­ jecting nostrils at the base.

lateral wings emerge. The bow is quite deep in relation to the length of the brooch and the footplate has a clear animal-head terminal. Fig-1-1-4-1 -e. is slightly more ornate than the previous example. The top-knob is present with its collar and facetted base. The headplate's wings are small and trapezoidal, a feature which is retained in many later brooches. The ends of the bow are faceted but the bow itself is plain. The footplate has three zones: in the upper, there are flanches and a transverse band; below this is a facetted section above a ribbed collar; the finial is a finely-moulded beast's head.

Fig.l.l.4.1-d. shows a classic early form of cruciform brooch. The peg for the attachment of the top-knob is visible above a plain rectangu­ lar headplate from which two small rectangular

30

Fig.l.l.4.1-f. shows a slightly developed form in which the lateral wings have expanded to surround the headplate on three sides. The bow is less pronounced and the footplate has almost lost its animal characteristics - the brow is represented by the transverse rectangular band and the muzzle has become a simple, flat trapezoid.

31

the appearance of being an attempt to add addi­ tional glitter to the piece (when newly cut, these lines would have provided reflective surfaces).

Fig.l.l.4.1-g. although a relatively modest piece, shows the development of some common cruciform brooch characteristics. The headplate has three knobs, cast on but with a decorative collar moulded into the design. The side-knobs spring from flat plates, which developed from the lateral wings seen on some typologically earlier examples. The central headplate now forms a rectangular panel and the wings have merged with it to enlarge the headplate area. There is punched pellet decoration on the "panel" and the headplate's borders. The bow is unadorned and the footplate shows its ani­ mal-head origins only in the waisted central section with transverse ribbed banding. Two small lappets are placed below the junction with the bow.

Fig.l.l.4.1-i. shows a well-developed cru­ ciform brooch, of which the lower part of the footplate is now missing. Developed from the simple trefoil (see above) this brooch has side-plates developed into double-arcs and a rectangular top-plate. There is a rectangu­ lar central raised panel. Lunate punch marks are placed around the edges of the side- and top-plates and the sides of the panel. The bow has facetted ornamentation at each end and a medial groove. The footplate has vestigial lap­ pets, decorated with the same scheme as the headplate, and a rectangular "collar" which should have formed part of the decoration of the animal-head terminal (now missing).

Fig.l.l.4.1-h. is an interesting example: the headplate has developed into the "trefoil" pat­ tern in which the knobs have become waisted plates. There are traces of punched pellet deco­ ration on the outer edges. The bow is facetted at each end. The footplate (of which the lower portion is missing) has a panel of transverse bands below the junction with the bow, and a saltire incised below this. The bow originally had similar panels of incised transverse bands, but the wearer has decided to improve this by adding more incised lines on the left side of the bow. Centrally on the headplate he has inscribed a sub-rectangular panel, with a fill of vertical lines to the left and horizontal to the right of a dividing line which runs through the panel and extends almost to the bow. This has

32

Cruciform Brooch Type Characteristics Group 1

Group IV

•

Knobs cast fully in the round.

•

Derived forms with more elaborate knobs and lappets on the foot.

•

Headplate a little wider than the bow.

•

Animal heads and scroll-shaped nostrils common.

Animal head on foot is not obvious, with half-round nostrils bisected by the nose or merging at the tip.

•

Lappets develop beneath the bow.

•

Early examples are plain, later ones are ornate and developing zoomorphic traits.

•

Prominent brow sometimes bisected by a vertical score.

•

Noses flatter and wider.

•

Early 6th century, eastern distribu­ tion.

•

•

Catch-plate for the pin extends the full length of the foot.

•

Variants feature either a broader headplate or wings on the headplate.

•

5th century, south-eastern distribu­ tion.

Group II •

•

•

Group V

Cast half-round knobs, sometimes extended into a bracket. Headplate has "wings", either par­ allel-sided or wider at the top, often with semi-circular notches on the top or bottom edge. Foot is an animal head with pro­ nounced nostrils (separate or joined).

•

No lappets on the foot.

•

5th century, eastern and Midlands distribution.

•

Further varied and derived forms with ornate zoomorphic decoration.

•

Knobs, lappets and nose details as for Group IV but exaggerated knobs wider, plates decorated with animal heads.

•

Some inlaid with cloisonné garnet or glass details.

•

Lappets may be upward - or downward-turned animal heads.

•

Animal head on the foot elaborated into a triangular plate, nostrils become outward-facing profile animal heads.

•

Eye-section of the animal head loses its association with the triangular nose and becomes a separate animal or human mask above the triangular terminal.

•

Early to mid 6th century, eastern and Midlands distribution.

Group III •

As Group II but nostril is scroll­ shaped and the nose is sub-triangular extending below the nostrils.

•

The eyes are prominent, sometimes framed by a brow-ridge.

•

5th-6th century, eastern distribution.

33

Fig.l.l.4.1-k. is an evolved form of copperalloy cruciform brooch with heavy gilding and incised decoration. The rectangular headplate is surrounded by pierced openwork extensions (derived from the top- and side-knobs of the normal cruciform brooch types) and rectan­ gular silver-plate panels. The bow is ribbed and surmounted by a truncated pyramid. The quadrilateral footplate is flanked by trapezoidal lappets with more silver-plate panels, and the finial features openwork detailing and more sil­ ver panels. The brooch is barely recognisable as a cruciform type, with so much heavy detailing on the surface and elements borrowed from the designs of great square-headed brooches.

Fig.l.l.4.1-j. is an example of the larger form of cruciform brooch cast in copper-alloy. The rectangular headplate is decorated with punched ornament in the form of a triangle with a roundel at the apex. The top-knob consists of a short shank surmounted by a col­ lar and upturned animal face with prominent brow and eyes. Two trapezoidal expanding wings flank the headplate which extends to a deep, carinated bow with facetted ends. The footplate is flanked by two spiral lappets and evolves from a transverse banded collar to a stylised horse-head with flared nostrils and pelta-shaped finial.

34

Fig.1.1.4.1-1. is a florid cruciform brooch showing quite clearly how the form devel­ oped over time. The headplate is still present as a rectangle above the bow, and the wings are visible to either side. The top- and sideknobs have become stylized human faces with prominent eyes flanked by bird-head detailing. The headplate also bears a square stud and punched decoration on the borders. The carinated bow is facetted at each end, extending to the trapezoidal footplate. On this example the lappets have fused with the florid edges of the finial to produce a seamless band of Style I decoration. The finial also has the prominent eyes found on the headplate surrounds, with the nose formed by an extension of the foot­ plate and a curly moustache formed as part of the flanking animals.

rectangular panel on the headplate betrays an origin in the cruciform type.

Fig.l.l.4.1-m. is a developed form of cru­ ciform brooch with a winged rectangular headplate but lacking top- and side-knobs, with crescent punched decoration on the central panel as well as the deep bow and expanding footplate. The evolved forms of cruciform brooch began to resemble the con­ temporary forms of square-headed brooch in their design and decoration, but the central

35

ration. No two brooches have exactly the same ornamental scheme, due to the manufacturing process of lost-wax casting which destroys both the wax master and the mould.

1.1.4.2 Equal-Arm Brooches The equal-arm brooch is an extreme form of bow brooch, brought to Britain with the Germanic migration. In Scandinavia, the term "Equal-Arm Brooch" is applied to a class of brooches with a central "bridge" linking two pear-shaped decorative panels; these are nor­ mally known as caterpillar brooches in England. In Italy and Central Europe the equivalent types, often called Gleicharmige Fibeln, are con­ structed as a small bridge linking panels shaped like keystones or peltas. The Germanic equal-arm brooch is derived from the Roman supporting-arm brooch with trapezoidal footplate of the 4th century, which has been identified as the earliest ethnic badge of the Saxones. It is a female dress item, worn singly and prominently on the upper chest. It is decorated in Saxon Relief Style and could be worn pointing in any direction. Generally, the pin of the brooch is held pointing upwards when piercing cloth and doing the brooch up. The finds occur in northern Germany and central England, mostly from north of the Thames. Brooches excavated from cremations have often suffered extreme heat damage to the edges where the delicate mouldings are usually found, so that detail is lost. The brooches are cast and then chip-carved to sharpen the deco­

Fig.l.l.4.2-a. shows a find from Haslingfield (Cambridgeshire) in exceptionally good condition. The decoration consists of geometric ornamentation on the plates - running spi­ rals - and a palmette on the bow. Moulded rope-work is present on the outer edges of the plates. A cast animal frieze appears along the inner edges in the form of a pair of animals where one looks backwards while fleeing from the one behind, which has an open mouth. In contrast with the silver example from Mildenhall (Fig.l.l.4.2-b.), this brooch features heavily decorated surfaces and very detailed moulding. The casting and preservation are of an excep­ tionally high standard. Fig.l.l.4.2-b. shows a restored brooch from Mildenhall (Suffolk) cast in silver. The geomet­ ric double-scroll design on the wings or outer panels extends into a series of parallel lines. The series to the left is joined at the lower edge, and that on the right at the upper. The design is reminiscent of opposed pairs of zoomorphs. The bow also bears geometric designs and is pierced in two places. The decoration is sim­ ple but elegant and the overall effect is quite restrained.

36

onto the lozenge-shaped zone of the footplate. Lunate punched decoration follows the outer edges with lobed extensions. A further ringand-dot motif has been incised on the terminal.

1.1.4.3 Disc-on-Bow Brooches This term refers to a rare kind of square­ headed brooch with a circular disc mounted on the bow. This form is found in Scandinavia in the mid-6th century, and occurs occasionally in southern England and Frisia at around the same time. The most famous and lavish exam­ ple is from Wijnaldum (Netherlands); here the disc had been removed, possibly for re-use as a pendant. The surface of the brooch and its disc was covered in garnet and glass cloisonne decoration in a very complex scheme. Some smaller square-headed brooches from Kent feature a human face on the upper part of the bow, which may be a less labour-intensive and expensive method of displaying the same status.

1.1.4.4 Radiate-Headed Bow Brooches Radiate-headed bow brooches are found in the south-east of England, mainly in Kent; they were originally a Gothic fashion copied by the Lombards and Franks, and then transferred to the court at Canterbury. In England, the brooches appear to date from c.525 to c.600. They occur with high-status female burials. There are occasional finds in England of Gothic bow brooches with lozenge-shaped feet, a type which springs from the same background design tradition but this does not appear to have been a common English design, and the finds were probably imported. Radiate-headed bow brooches are similar to cruciform brooches, having a well-defined headplate, bow and foot, and the bow and foot are usually of the same width and display the same decorative scheme. The headplate is semi-circular and ornamented with a series of knobs, usually five or seven. Additional ornamentation takes the form of garnets or glass cloisons set into cells on the knobs; a projection on the tip of each knob is sometimes hooked to form a bird's beak, with the stone as the eye. The decorative scheme of the bow and foot is typically parallel vertical fields containing zigzag lines, or stamped ring-anddot marks. A rare variant has an animal-head as the terminal of the foot. The headplate may be divided into zones, or feature running spirals in a symmetrically opposed arrangement.

Fig-1-1-4.4 -b. shows a fine example from Finglesham (Kent). The semicircular headplate has deeply moulded and chip-carved running scroll decoration within a border showing punched detailing. The five knobs show facet­ ted detailing, again with fine punching. The bow displays a central field with opposed trian­ gular punch marks flanked by fields of moulded guilloches and outside these a moulded border with punching. The central and outer fields continue onto the footplate, but the guilloche motif is there replaced by a series of chip-carved facets, the lower ones with punched detailing. The side-view shows the relative thickness of the bow and the raised central field on the foot­ plate, as well as the cast-in lugs and catch plate.

Fig-1.1.4.4 -a. is an example of a less common form almost confined to east Kent; this example is from Bifrons, near Dover. The D-shaped headplate has three semicircular extensions each with a central moulded pellet. The lower two are joined to the moulding around the central field. A central ring-and-dot mirrors a smaller version on the upper "knob". The moulded decoration continues over the bow

37

The classes are defined by the shape of the headplate, except the "lozenge" which describes the footplate:

Fig.l.l.4.4-c. is a crisply-cast radiate-headed bow brooch from Melton Mowbray (Lincoln­ shire), far from the area normally associated with this class of finds. The headplate features strong zoning, with two series of triangular mouldings inside a row of pellets. Seven knobs radiate from the outer edge, each set with a cabochon garnet. The bow shows a central zone with ring-and-dot decoration flanked by zones of moulded ladder-motif. The central zone of the footplate continues the ring-anddot theme; outside this are zones of triangular mouldings, with further bands of pellets out­ side. The base consists of a transverse band of triangular mouldings surmounted by two fea­ tures which may be stylised birds' heads.

Type trefoil

cross pattée

cross potent

square

lozenge

Description Three half-round lobes emerging on the three sides of the head Three parallel-sided projec­ tions emerging from the three sides of the head Three funnel-shaped projec­ tions emerging from the three sides of the head Plain square head, sometimes with horned projections from the sides With a lozenge-shaped foot.

The common trefoil form developed from the cruciform brooch in Scandinavia sometime after AD 475; the cross potent and cross pattée forms are possibly both forms of a common original type. Small-long brooches were worn in pairs at the shoulders, probably fastening a peplos dress, in conjunction with a larger brooch placed centrally to secure a cloak or shawl. They are generally found in East Anglia and the East Midlands, especially in Cambridgeshire, and in the Trent valley and the Lark valley in Suffolk. Fig-1-1.4. 5-a. is a good example of the square-head type from Dover Buckland (Kent). The only decorative features are ring-and-dot motifs on the head- and footplates and a zone of transverse banding at the waist of the foot­ plate. The side view shows the remains of the cast lugs and the catch plate.

1.1.4.5 Small-Long Brooches The small-long is a short bow brooch cast in copper-alloy, relatively plain and undecorated, probably used as a cheaper alternative to the large cruciform and square-headed brooches. Unlike other bow brooches, small-longs usu­ ally occur in pairs, and they are generally not of fine workmanship, with decoration confined to hatching, ring-and-dot and punched annulets, with surface tinning in some cases but only rarely gilding. The earliest examples appear in the early 5th century and the types continue until the mid 6th century.

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Fig.l.l.4.5-b. shows a cast copper-alloy small-long brooch from Worcestershire. The headplate features a raised border enclosing a field decorated with stamped decoration in the form of a series of semicircles with their open ends facing inwards. The bow is plain apart from facetted corners, the upper, plain part of the footplate is separated from the lower by a zone of prominent transverse ribbed mould­ ing. The lower section features a sub-triangular inner field decorated with punch marks of the same kind as on the headplate. Although this brooch is not an impressive piece of jewellery, some care has been taken with the application of the punching and the effect is very pleasing.

zones separated by ribbed collars, the lower one expanding to a broad inverted T-shaped foot bearing triangular punched decoration on the outer edges.

Fig.l.l.4.5-c. is a small-long brooch with a rectangular headplate and lozengiform footplate, similar in outline to the small square­ headed brooch type but lacking its zoned decoration. The punched dot decoration around the edges and vague animal-head finial are the main ornamental features. Fig.l.l.4.5-d. is an example of a small-long brooch. The rectangular headplate bears two circular piercings close to the outer corners, mirrored by semicircular indentations on the lower edge. The outer edges are decorated with a line of small triangular punchmarks. The bow is facetted at the ends. The footplate is in three

Fig.l.l.4.5-e. is a typical example of a smalllong brooch in copper-alloy. The rectangular headplate features crescentic punchmarks in series around the edge, and there are two curved indents in the lower edge. The bow is carinated and the footplate is of the expanding type with further punched decoration.

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1.1.4.6 Square-headed Brooches As the name suggests, these are bow brooches with a square or rectangular headplate, and a sub-triangular footplate often augmented with projections. Usually worn in pairs, they are among the most decorative of all female dress items of the pre-Christian period, representing a considerable investment of time and craftsmanship. They also appear in Scandinavia and Lom­ bard Italy. The English finds are split into a Kentish series, an Anglian (eastern) and a Saxon (southern), but often regarded as vari­ ants of a single Anglo-Saxon series. Their date range is approximately AD 500 to 570. They were eclipsed in England by the more orna­ mental Great Square-Headed Brooch. Fig.l.l.4.6-a. shows a small example of a square-headed brooch in copper-alloy (unprovenanced). The headplate features an outer border and a central design of a narrow rec­ tangular panel within a border which extends in three parallel lines over the bow and into the footplate where it divides into two lateral birds' heads, the outer edges of which define the central zone - a transverse band with a cen­ tral roundel. The lower edges of this band are formed by the curving beaks of two more birds' heads, which emerge from the base, contain­ ing a narrow rectangular panel. The footplate, viewed as a whole, shows a bovine head with a broad snout, prominent eyes and curved horns. The gilding has worn off all but the deepest recesses, which serves to accentuate the design. Although a small piece and not especially well executed, the layout of the design elements is very well handled, with the rectangular panels balancing each other at top and bottom, while the four birds' heads neatly form the outlines of the cross-shaped central motif. Fig.l.l.4.6-b. shows a rather humble version from Duston (Northamptonshire), its square headplate divided by series of two parallel incised lines and the upper edge decorated with bead-and-reel cast mouldings, now almost entirely worn away. The plain bow joins a trian­ gular footplate with two side-extensions; at the widest part a central rectangular field is marked out with a series of two parallel lines echo­ ing the theme of the headplate; this tradition of a common design on head- and footplates is also found among the great square-headed brooches (1.1.4.7.). Thickened edges on the base and extensions imitate the cast knobs of the cruciform brooch series. Fig-1.1.4.6-c. is the headplate and upper bow from a cast copper-alloy square-headed brooch. Despite having lost a large part of the

40

gilding, the design on the headplate is still very clear: a rectangular border encloses a rectan­ gular smaller panel in which is placed a Style I motif. Outside the panel is a zone of punched pellets. The bow features seven longitudinal ribs, the central one broader than its neigh­ bours. This piece shows a very clear example of the Tiemiensch or "beastman" motif: the right-most element is the thigh and hind leg, with the in-turned foot looped up behind; next is sub-rectangular body (trunk) element; to its left is the foreleg, with the claws pointing to the right; the remaining elements to the left constitute the face in profile, its small, central eye being easily discerned and the rectangular nose to its left.

on the chest or even at the throat fastening a cloak, shawl or cape of some kind worn over the dress. The southern or Saxon traditional square­ headed brooch format spread into the Anglian Midlands and influenced brooch design there. The two major proposed typologies of Hines and Shepherd are still under discussion and no consensus seems likely for the immediate future. In common with the previous type, the brooch comprises a lozenge-shaped footplate joined by a bow to a rectangular headplate. Decoration is usually complex and deeply moulded. The bow typically has three parallel ridges, one central and another on each edge, confining fields, while within the head- and footplate, there are internal fields marked out by ridges carrying specific types of ornament, but not every brooch marks out every zone. The footplate is often split by a vertical ridge. The production process is understood in quite some detail. A solid model was used to create the original mould, which was further worked after removing the model, then closed and covered with clay to seal it. There have been finds of these "solid models" - items in the shape of the brooch but made from cop-

Fig.l.l.4.6-d. is a pair of copper-alloy square-headed bow brooches with openwork detailing around the headplates, incised ringand-dot decoration on the head- and footplates, and heavily ridged bows. The forms of these brooches are not typical of the square-headed brooches and they lack the Style I animal deco­ ration which is normally found on them.

1.1.4.7 Great SquareHeaded Brooches The great square-headed brooch is one of the distinctive Anglo-Saxon dress fasteners, a large bow brooch with a highly worked surface which must have been a very impressive dress item in use. Some were found in grave contexts, worn at the shoulder as if to fasten a peplos, but the majority appear to have been worn high

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time (c.570) but it remained in use on the edges of the Anglian cultural area. Fig-1.1.4.7-a. shows in detail the complex decorative scheme present on a brooch from Chessel Down (Isle of Wight). The headplate has an outer zone with triangular punch marks, which extends into the interior to mark off a rectangular inner zone from the [-shaped outer. The latter bears scroll decoration on the sides and Style I animals on the top edge. Two appar­ ently mirror-image fields (which actually differ in the details of their execution) are set within the inner zone, each containing Style I heads and limbs, separated by a field containing a male human face with a prominent moustache joined to a stylised bird's head; this combination of motifs suggests that the maker was recalling a story about the Anglo-Saxon god Woden (coun­ terpart of the Scandinavian Oðinn or Odin)

per or lead and without the piercings needed for attachment of the sprung pin. After casting, the sprung pin was inserted through a flange cast on the reverse, and a catch plate soldered onto the reverse of the footplate. The decora­ tion on the face of the brooch was cleaned up and sharpened; further stamping was carried out, and usually the surface was gilded using the mercury gilding process. A small number of brooches also had glass or garnet inlays set into prepared cells in the head- or footplate. Occa­ sionally, a separately cast decorated disc was attached to the bow of the brooch, or masks and animals to the headplate corners. Flat plates of sheet silver were applied to the lobes of some brooches, usually attached by soldering. (Silver­ ing and tinning were sometimes used as surface treatments on the whole brooch.) The final phase of production (Ffines's Group XXIÍI) is confined to the area of North­ umbria and Lincolnshire, the brooch style having passed out of fashion elsewhere by this

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who transformed himself into a bird in several stories, and who had birds as spirit-helpers. Two small bulbous projections on the lower edge bear rudimentary cast decoration which recalls the beaks of birds. The bow is comparatively plain, with two fields with facetted corners and three ridges bearing more triangular punch marks. The footplate is again divided by bound­ aries of triangular punch marks. At the junction of the bow and footplate, a male (?) human face is placed centrally between the necks of two ani­ mals which emerge from the central ridge. The animals' snouts split to form two more heads each, this time of birds. The outer extremities of the footplate feature almost-circular plates which contain stylised human faces very remi­ niscent of the designs found on button brooches. Outer zones of Style I ornament lead down to the base plate, a geometric design based on basketwork with a central cross motif, surrounded by a band of triangular punch marks. (At this time, the principal symbol for Christianity was the fish; various cross designs were used among heathens as a convenient geometric motif.) The central field of the footplate comprises another male human face flanked by two birds' heads all executed in Style I. The high number of human faces on this brooch (five full-face and at least four more in profile) makes it a very important and unusual piece. Fig-1.1.4. 7-b. shows a fine example of a gilded copper-alloy great square-headed brooch from Ludford (Lincolnshire). The headplate is divided into inner and outer zones by a beaded moulding. On the sides of the outer zone are scroll motifs; the corners feature leaf­ shaped designs again with beaded moulding. Across the upper edge is a band of three-band interlace. The inner field is edged with punched pellet designs, and a central triangular setting holds an impressive garnet cloison. Loops of beaded mouldings in Style I suggest a pair of animal shapes. The lower field above the bow contains a suggested face. On the upper bow another sub-triangular garnet is set, and below this there is an empty socket, perhaps for another garnet or more probably an organic fill such as bone or ivory. (Alternatively, this may have been the attachment point for a separate casting, but if so this would be unique on such a brooch.) A mirror-image sub-triangular field is marked out below the socket with beading. From the junction of the bow and footplate spring two necks with animal heads which extend to meet the circular side projections, containing roundels with an outer border of beading. Fields of Style I zoomorphic decora­ tion flank the central field, a panel of three-band interlace. The base is a larger circular panel with a beaded roundel. This brooch illustrates well how certain themes of decoration (in this case beading, three-band interlace, roundels) are continued throughout the design of the piece.

Fig.1.1.4. 7-c. is a further example of this artefact type, from Linton (Cambridgeshire). The rectangular headplate is divided into inner and outer zones by a plain, cast border. The outer zone features Style 1 zoomorphic decoration, surrounded by a border of punched moulding. A series of 12 radiating lobes executed in fine pierced-work show a curious three-lobed design on their tops, each lobe with an inset pellet. The inner field of the headplate features more Style I motifs and a cast human head which extends onto the bow. The bow consists of a plain cen­ tral and two outer ridges, containing cast Style I zoomorphic decoration. Another human head, mirroring the first, is placed at the junction of the bow and footplate, between the two arch­ ing necks of animals which curve to the outer extensions in the form of pelletted roundels;

43

more pierced details are included on the mouths of these animals. A longitudinally ribbed cen­ tral ridge divides the two footplate fields which contain Style I zoomorphs. The base comprises a further circular plate with another three-lobed design placed centrally. Much of the gilding has worn away, leaving the copper-alloy exposed. The remarkable thing about this brooch is that the pierced decoration is complete, if slightly damaged in some areas: normally, such fragile components have broken off in antiquity or dur­ ing subsequent handling. Again, the three-lobed design is continued around the headplate and at the base of the footplate.

each surrounded by a thick, plain border. The outer field features a pair of opposed beasts executed in Salin's Style I with three-band body elements. The inner field is divided into three rectan­ gular designs: the central one is a square with an incised saltire, flanked by two hooked-cross designs with spiral finials. The outer edges of the headplate have narrow extension strips, that on the upper edge decorated with a row of crescentic punchmarks. At each upper corner is a stylised bird-head with pelleted brow-band, pellet eye and coiled beak below. The shallow bow features median and lateral ribs, extending to an elaborate footplate with curved animal-head extensions above a cruciform footplate with a thick border showing signs of the same crescentic punchmarks as on the headplate.

Fig.1.1.4.7-d. is a finely made copper-alloy great square-headed brooch of Hines's Group XV with some unusual features. The slightly trapezoidal headplate is divided into two fields,

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45

The lateral "wings" terminate in stylised animal-heads with transverse bars bearing coiled hooked-crosses on the headplate. The terminal is an evolved human face extending to the finial: a transverse bar with opposed rows of crescentic punchmarks. The surface of the brooch has been gilded, of which a significant amount remains. The catchplate is in place on the reverse. The spring mechanism is combined with an iron plate riveted to the obverse behind the lower headplate and the bow; the rivet-heads can be seen on the obverse - one above the left side of the bow, two on the left side of the bow and one more either side of the bow on the footplate.

Mosel area in the late 7th century. The English examples appear to be of 6th century date. A similar form is the "hooked cross" or "swastika" brooch, used by the Roman army, of 3rd-4th century date.

1.1.6 Disc Brooches There are two basic forms of the disc brooch, (i) The earlier type consists of a backplate into which slots were cut for two prongs, onto which the pin and catch plate were fixed; a repoussé decorated foil faceplate forms the outer, visible side of the piece and a separate rim is added to form the "lip" of the saucer. This is the "applied disc brooch" of the archaeological literature, (ii) The later derivative called a "saucer brooch" is cast in one piece, with a flat front surface decorated in relief and one or two cast-in lugs on the back for the attachment of the pin. The latter type survives better in the soil, and has therefore been studied in more detail.

Fig.1.1.4. 7-e. is an elaborate great square­ headed brooch of Hines's Group XIII. The trapezoidal headplate is divided into three fields. At the centre above the bow is a plain rectangular raised panel with bevelled edges surrounded by a narrow border with punched pellet decoration. Outside this is a field of sinuous mean­ der patterning within a simple raised border. Around this is a field of billeted bands with rectangles in the upper corners, decorated with punched pellets; this field is pierced by a series of round apertures in imitation of the openwork type of headplate. The outer border is decorated with punched pellets along the lower, lateral and upper edges; around the rectangular corner panels the punchmarks are formed as roundels with a bifurcated extension. The shallow bow features substantial median and lateral ribs extending to two curved animal-head upper extensions above a cruciform footplate. The median rib bears punched pellet detailing, separating two symmetrical sub-triangular elements with Style I animal decoration, outside which are plain pear-shaped panels. There are four circular piercings in the animal-head details. A pelleted frame extends from the lower jaw of the animal heads to surround the sub-triangular and pear-shaped panels and the discoid finial lobe. A broad transverse bar separates the lower lobe from the rest of the footplate. The heavy gilding is substantially present across a large part of the surface. The catchplate is fixed to a strengthen­ ing rib on the reverse, and the spring-lugs are present with the partial remains of the iron pin still in place.

1.1.6.1 Disc Brooches (Cast) Cast disc brooches are a common form of flat, copper-alloy fastener from the mid-5th to mid-6th centuries. Less ornate than the related lipped form (the saucer brooch), cast disc brooches usually feature geometric inci­ sions and punch marks. They are found mainly in the Upper Thames region, where they were for a while the commonest form of brooch, but they can be found throughout southern Eng­ land. There is no obvious typological develop­ ment, and since they are only ever decorated with geometric motifs the transition from Style I to Style II has no effect on them. They are often tinned to give a brilliant, shiny surface, and are small (26mm to 45mm in diameter) and feature a few standard designs: a quincunx of ring-and-dots and concentric grooves are the most common. They are not a high-status item but there are some very fine examples from Kent. Some scholars see the simple disc brooch as part of the Romano-British tradition which was adopted in Saxon areas of Britain, while simple annular forms were adopted in Anglian areas. Others tend to view these forms as cheap and simplified versions of the cast sau­ cer brooches. Fig.l.1.6.1 -a. shows a typical cast copperalloy example (findspot unknown). The disc is not perfectly circular and the rim has begun to degenerate through the damaged areas. The decoration takes the form of ring-and-dot motifs. The layout appears irregular and poorly executed, but seems to have been set out as a central ring-and-dot with a cluster of eight

1.1.5 Cross Brooches This style of brooch is uncommon in Eng­ land, being made up from four "feet" in a Maltese cross arrangement, often with ani­ mal decoration like the terminals of cruciform brooches. The shape is a Byzantine fashion, but was adopted in western Europe in the Rhein-

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similar motifs around it. Due to imprecision in setting out the points at which the central dots should be placed, the effect is of two parallel lines of roundels above and below the central one. The situation was made worse by the addition of two more motifs to close the ends of the lines: the one on the right is quite wellsituated in the overall scheme, but the one on the left is too far to the left and too high. This has disturbed what might otherwise have been an acceptably rhythmic pattern. While not an exceptional piece, this brooch is a fair example of the kind of medium- to low-grade metalwork used in the early Anglo-Saxon period.

instead (i.e. interlaced loops). Occasional devia­ tions in the design of the face include what appears to be a protruding tongue - a feature found on human masks on some Scandinavian finds - and half-masks, where just the top part of the design down to the nasal is used. The distribution is southern (the furthest north is Bedfordshire) and eastern. Button brooches were made to be worn in pairs, but almost half the known examples were found as singles (either as lone examples in the grave, or not worn as a pair with another brooch of any type). Some graves yielded multi­ ple examples of a single class of button brooch. From grave finds it seems they were mainly worn at the shoulders, or on the chest or neck, but some were positioned at the waist and may have been part of the contents of a purse. One means of assigning a sequence to these brooches lies in the nature of the broochpin: Roman brooch-pins were generally bronze and Anglo-Saxon ones iron, so the handful of button brooches with a bronze pin may be assigned to a Late Roman or immediately postRoman context, perhaps the mid 5th century. Fig.1.1.6.2 -a. shows a cast copper-alloy button brooch from Cambridgeshire. The gild­ ing on the central raised areas has begun to degrade through abrasion, which obscures the design to some extent. An outer rim contains the central field: a prominent brow extends to a narrow nose which meets the mouth just below the centre. The mouth is cast as two opposed elliptical shapes, the upper and lower lips. The eyes are positioned to either side of the nose, but one has been poorly aligned and appears to have been turned through 90 degrees: perhaps this is evidence for the use of a pre-formed tool with which the details could be moulded on the wax master? The cheeks are characteristically "inflated". The misplaced eye gives the face a grim appearance. The high-relief moulding makes the face come to life despite its small size.

1.1.6.2 Button Brooches Button brooches are constructed as a kind of miniature saucer brooch type but they are treated as a separate artefact group due to both their small size and distinctive design. The com­ mon feature is the presence of a central design on the field consisting of a stylised human face in a helmet. These brooches are almost all cast in bronze and then gilded, and they have the catch plate and the lug for the hinge cast inte­ grally on the reverse. They are divided into 12 typological classes, according to the decorative scheme. It is likely that the mask-motif, in its AngloSaxon form, originated in southern Scandinavia. The applied-disc brooch, from which it appears to derive, was an innovation from the Elbe val­ ley, the boundary of the Anglian and Saxon homelands. A very few button brooches do not feature the human mask, but have geometric designs

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Fig.l.l.6.2-b. by contrast shows a much cruder example from Norfolk, in which the face is the central design element in a series of concentric circles incised into the flat face of a disc brooch. The circular "mask" is divided by a central ellipse which leaves upper and lower zones representing the brow and mouth. One circular and one elliptical eye are placed within the ellipse, but there is no indication of a nose or cheeks. This piece gives every indication of being a cheaper copy of a button brooch, made by a smith who knew what such a brooch should look like but was not willing or able to create the wax model and make the casting in the normal manner.

Fig.1.1.6.2 -d. is a cast copper-alloy button brooch with excellent moulded detail including the lips, nasal and helmet detail. Notable too is the misaligned eye, as seen on Fig.l.l.6.2-a. The moustache is carefully moulded with curly, upturned ends.

1.1.6.3 Composite Disc Brooches (Keystone Brooches) Keystone brooches are a class of disc brooch found in rich graves in the south-east of Eng­ land, mainly Kent and neighbouring areas. Whether the Kentish brooches are a direct copy of Frankish examples, or a combination of Frankish cloisonné and English disc brooch forms is not clear. There are also examples of cast and applied keystone disc brooches, all with a Kentish or south-eastern distribution. Keystone brooches consist of a disc of metal with cast-in lugs for the pin and catch plate at the rear; they feature a number of "stones" set regularly around the outer edge of the face, and often a cabochon central stone. The main outer "stones" are cut in a quadrilateral shape, with two opposing sides of equal length and two of different lengths so that they look like the keystone of a bridge or arch. The "stones" are often garnets in the very best brooches, com­ plemented with blue or green glass, polished ivory or bone. The materials appear to have been chosen for their smooth, reflective sur­ faces and strong colours. On some brooches, circular bosses are inserted between the key­ stones. The areas between the stones' settings are decorated with filigree in animal shapes, in either Style I or more usually Style II. In time, the animals' bodies shrank to a " 2 " -shaped outline behind the head. The workmanship varies in quality, and some of the creatures are difficult to discern.

Fig.l.l.6.2-c. is a cast copper-alloy but­ ton brooch. The central face design has been reduced to an incised panel with a broad brow and nasal, two elliptical eyes, two cheeks and the suggestion of a reserved crown to the head. Traces of the original gilding can still be seen on the degraded surface.

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The first systematic classification of the brooches was by E.T. Leeds in the 1930s; his scheme has been refined by later scholars. Leeds' "Kentish Circular Jewelled Brooches" were divided into three types or classes:

Class I

Description 1(a) Three or four wedge-shaped garnets with panels of Style I animal ornament between; the border features offset triangular punch marks filled with niello, leaving a zigzag in relief; the rim is usually plain or beaded, and raised proud of the field. 1(b) As type (a) but generally larger, the panels filled with a stylised pair of heads; smaller additional stones often occur between the main keystones. 1(c) As type (a) but four key­ stones with "stepped" profiles; small circular stones between the keystones; no zoomorphic orna­ ment rim features hatched zones; border may contain triangles or rings. 1(d) As type (c) with circular stones and four stepped garnets; panels contain filigree knot work.

Class II 11(a) & (b) As Class 1(a) & (b) but the middle section stands proud of the surround and a thin gold plate with filigree and cloisonné decoration surrounds the boss; the border is in hatched zones; the main stones are equilateral trian­ gles, often subdivided into cells. 11(c) As 11(b) but the round­ els consist of two segments: a stepped inner and a curved sur­ round; palmette-shaped filigree on the panels; border may have niello rings or a second circle of hatched zones. 11(d) As 11(c) but the stepped cloisons are joined by straight, curved or offset transverse bars. Class III III As Class II but with cloisons in a honeycomb pattern; filigree in the panels may be in a simple double-loop (8) figure.

Fig-1.1.6.3-a. shows a fine example of a composite disc brooch from Faversham (Kent). The surface is divided into five zones, each of which is based on a different proportion of eight elements. The outer zone forms the rim and has eight ribbed fields alternating with eight plain ones; the ribbed fields are formed with 11 or 3 ribs, and are paired (diametrically opposed) so that the rim is divided into larger and smaller ribbed segments, divided by plain segments of the same size. Within this is a narrow zone of eight rectangular garnets, with plain silver (?) fields between. The third zone

Small disc brooches with garnet cloisonné inlay were worn in pairs high on the chest in the Merovingian period, with a pair of bowbrooches lower down. It is assumed that one pair fastened the dress, and the other the outer garment. Leeds identified Faversham (Kent) as the centre of distribution for the keystone brooches, and there are reasons to believe that this town may have been the place of manufacture.

49

comprises a broad band of gold on which are placed circular cells for cabochon gems or, more likely, discs of an organic material such as ivory which has decayed; regularly between these cells are Latin crosses formed by square garnets set in cloisons. On the base are rows of filigree in alternating rope-work and palmette designs. The next zone features a hoop of garnet cloisonne based around four darker T-shaped stones with paler ones in stepped and semi-circular patterns between. The fifth, central zone is now empty, but a large cabo­ chon or plate of ivory must be presumed to have filled this void originally. The placement of the elements is such that the outer two zones do not align with the inner two - the tops of the crosses in the third zone are slightly offset from the garnets in the second, as are the ribbed fields in the first. The overall effect of this design is of a display of affluence through very rich and detailed gold-work and jewellery.

an organic material (ivory or bone?) surround­ ing a central cabochon garnet with a gold filigree collar. These cells intrude into the second zone, which comprises four fields of alternating ropework and s-scroll filigree. Below each circular cell a single, square garnet cloison joins it to the third zone, comprising a ring of garnet and blue-glass cloisonne in a curved pattern. The fourth zone originally held more organic mate­ rial, and the fifth zone is a final, larger cabochon with a double gold filigree collar.

1.1.6.4 Composite (Applied) Disc Brooches The applied (or "composite") disc brooch resembles the cast saucer brooch in appearance but is constructed in a different manner: it has a flat or concave bronze back-plate to which are attached the spring and catch-plate (often sepa­ rate pieces fixed through slots in the disc). The face-plate is a sheet of repoussé bronze, usually gilded and attached with solder; a further circu­ lar bronze band forms a rim. These brooches are usually found in wealthy female graves, worn singly at the throat. The English finds are concentrated in Kent and the south-east. There are three series of brooches, based on their form and construction, of which only one is found in England: Series I has a riveted

Fig.l.l.6.3-b. is perhaps a little less "fussy" than the previous example, but still splendidly ornamental. It is a gold brooch from Dover (Kent). The surface is divided into five zones. The outer zone includes a rim of beaded wire and a series of garnet and blue glass plates set into cells in a step pattern. These are interrupted at the four quadrants by circular cells containing

50

plate and Series II (the Anglo-Saxon type) a soldered plate. The designs on the plate differ in detail but are mainly "star"-shapes, zigzags, concentric circles and glass cabochons set in a quincunx. Among the earlier, geometric types are simple concentric circles and rings of beaded lines surrounding a central boss. Another early design features a central boss, six radiating beaded lines and six V-shaped lines in the inter­

vals, forming a star. Variants may have as few as five radiating lines, or as many as 11. The star design is very long-lived and commonly found, and is associated with the Saxons, both in Eng­ land and on the Continent. A six-pointed star (two interlaced equilateral triangles) appears on some Continental disc brooches but is found in England only on cast saucer brooches. A cross with scrolled ends (a "floriate" cross) occurs on some brooches, as also a cross of ellip-

51

tical motifs, and another type has small bosses between the arms and a beaded border. A scroll design (a common pattern for saucer brooches) is occasionally found on disc brooches. Animal decoration on disc brooches is almost confined to Style I - usually a central human face, surrounded by three Style I animals in proces­ sion. This is commonest in the Anglian culture of the Midlands, and may have supplanted the traditional Saxon geometric designs there. Composite disc brooches are not as durable as cast brooches, and are usually found in a broken condition. Gilded Roman disc brooches occur in a few Anglo-Saxon graves. One was worn at the shoulder of a late 5th or early 6th century male at Collingbourne Ducis (Wiltshire); it had a Saxon iron pin replacing the Roman bronze original, indicating that it had been repaired. It may have been a treasured heirloom. It is very rare to find an Anglo-Saxon male burial with a brooch of any kind.

alloy disc with four cut-out sections forming the cranked spokes of a swastika or sun-wheel. Decorative punch marks in the shape of half­ moons form a border on the inner and outer faces of the wheel itself.

Fig.1.1.6.4-a. is a composite disc brooch of an unusual type. The brooch consists of a silvered copper-alloy backplate with catchplate and lug for the missing iron pin, to which is soldered the repousse silver faceplate. The design is a Style II composition of four animals with three-strand bodies (a Style I feature), ring-and-dot eyes, quadrangular jaws, pelletted hips and three­ toed feet with recurved hind claw, all drawn together in a four-way knot. A raised pelletted border completes the design. It is likely that the faceplate was originally a silver D-bracteate from Kent, although the brooch was discovered in the Wansdyke area of Wiltshire and the plate is rather large for a standard form of AngloSaxon bracteate; Style II animals are otherwise unknown on composite disc brooches.

1.1.6.6 Saucer Brooches The saucer brooch is one of the commonest types of artefact from early Anglo-Saxon times, usually occurring in matched pairs on the chest. They are similar to button brooches in their construction - cast in copper-alloy - but are generally larger, i.e. around 2cm diameter for button brooches versus 4cm for saucer brooches (the range is 2.4cm to 8.2cm). They are part of the same cultural tradition of relief decoration as the equal-arm brooches, which occur in the Elbe-Weser range on the Continent and have been identified as part of the Saxon cultural assemblage. Saucer brooches extend in time from the 5th to the later 6th centuries and occur south of the Humber and east of the Severn, with a concentration in the south Midlands and Upper Thames Valley. Variation in manufacturing details occurs in the curvature of the backplate, the width of the rim and the number of attach­ ment lugs. Being created from a new model each time, they are all unique but the faceplates feature various arrays of standard ornamental elements, so groupings by design do occur. The designs evolve from well-executed, distinctive motifs into more random assemblages of elements, which may be due to the copying of high-status original objects by less careful craftsmen. The design of the brooch is highly stand­ ardised, consisting of a central zone, the main

1.1.6.5 Disc Brooches (Openwork) A separate class of disc brooches features a cast copper-alloy disc, 5 to 7cm in diameter, with pierced or cut-out patterns. The com­ monest form is four T-shaped slots forming a swastika, which is found in the East Midlands, especially the Nene Valley (where cruciform brooches were more usually worn). One variant has four slots forming a cross potent, and another has heart-shaped slots. Punched dots are a common form of additional decoration. Openwork or pierced brooches usually appear in the graves of adult females, and are worn in pairs at the shoulders to fasten a peplos type dress, but unlike annular forms, they are rarely found worn in conjunction with cruciform brooches. Fig.l.l.6.5-a. shows a common type from Sleaford (Lincolnshire) - a plain cast copper-

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decorative fields and the rim. The central element is usually a boss, domed rivet or occa­ sionally a hollow, sometimes covered with a glass or garnet disc, while some brooches feature a human mask at the centre. The maxi­ mum number of design fields is five, each with a boundary "ring". There may be a flat flange between the outer field and the true rim. Two basic types of motif have been identi­ fied: the geometric ones, starting around AD 400, and the zoomorphic ones from around AD 500. Both types tail off around AD 575. The series appears to end with some very large examples (more than 6cm) which display lay­ out elements in common with keystone disc brooches. The sources for the design elements are probably - as with the equal-arm brooches - the decoration of late Roman military belt sets worn by Germanic mercenaries working for Roman authorities. Indeed, post-Roman Kentish garnet-inlaid belt sets may have been the source of Style I motifs added to 6th cen­ tury saucer brooches. Running-spiral decorated saucer brooches are also found in the Hanover region of Germany. The brooches occur in pairs at the shoulders of adult or adolescent female burials, to fasten an overdress or peplos dress. Swags of beads were often suspended between the brooches on threads. Occasional finds of single brooches below the waist may reflect the Merovingian fashion for an open-fronted overdress, or per­ haps these show a brooch put away in a fabric or leather purse which has decayed beyond the point where it can be detected. As saucer brooches were usually gilded, and as they occur with other grave-goods of above average status, it is likely that they were a badge of status or rank for 6th and early 7th century women in areas where the peplos dress was worn. The metallic compounds from which the brooches are made are all in the "copper-alloy" range, consisting of copper with a quantity of tin and often some zinc. The source appears to have been recycled scrap metal. As a general rule, later brooches are associated with higher levels of zinc and lower levels of tin. Pairs of brooches are normally found to be of closely similar com­ position, indicating that they were probably made from a single batch of molten metal and so were probably cast at the same time. Mercury gilding was a prized finishing tech­ nique. A few brooches had a central gemstone inset at the centre, often a cabochon garnet. Damage to the lugs is quite common, resulting in the original cast pieces being removed and replacements soldered on.

of three lines, each with points set between them. Similar curved bands emerge from the outer boundary, and overlap in series around the edge. A zone of basketwork forms the outer edge of the central roundel, with points set emerging from the outer edges, and more points set within the V-shaped insertions. The workman presumably had a tool with three parallel teeth, with which he was able to create the central roundel, the basketwork and the three-band curved designs.

Fig.l.l.6.6-b & c. consists of a matching pair of gilded copper-alloy saucer brooches from Gloucestershire, each with a plain central boss. The rim is bordered by a cast rope-work design. The decorative field carries five comma-shaped bulbs around which are placed curved bands carrying four ribs. The design is very reminis­ cent of the eye-and brow motif found in Style I metalwork, although it is executed in such a way as also to suggest the more common run­ ning spiral motif.

Fig-1.1.6.6 -a. shows a saucer brooch from Puddlehill (Bedfordshire) with an unusual com­ bination of motifs. Four V-shaped insertions emerge from the outer border towards the central three-banded roundel, which is deco­ rated with three curved, semicircular bands

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Fig.l.l.6.6-d & e. is a matching pair of saucer brooches, in gilded copper-alloy, from Gloucestershire. The beaded border encloses a basketwork design in two zones with a plain boss at the centre. The thin outer rims have degraded and begun to break. Fig.l.l.6.6-f & g. shows a matched pair of gilded copper-alloy saucer brooches, also from Gloucestershire, with a comparatively flat and shallow rim. The small central roundel sits within a pentagon formed by the inner edges of five running spirals which form the main design. Fig.l.l.6.6-h & i. shows a matched pair of saucer brooches from Winchester with an enamelled central boss. The plain border ridge encloses an ornamented zone in four segments, separated by a beaded moulding, each of which contains a Style I zoomorph. Fig.l.l.6.6-j. is a cast copper-alloy saucer brooch with a heavily gilded surface. Within an outer border there is a fine example of Style I decoration: a beastman. The body is displayed in sections comprising three parallel "bars" to each. The foreleg can be seen looping round immediately below the central roundel running down to the 6 o'clock position; the hind leg is at 10 o'clock; the head is formed from a V-shape enclosing a triangular eye with a double-bar beneath - the apex of the V-shape is at 1 o'clock.

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foot, and an expanding headplate with lugs on the upper edge. There are three types: the Mahndorf (with the headplate 25-30mm wide); the Perlberg (with headplate 12-22mm wide); and the trapezoidal foot type. They appear to have fallen out of use by the mid 5th century.

1.1.7 S-Brooches Related to the standard form of bird brooch is the S-brooch with birds' heads emerging from both ends of a common neck - a type which occurs only occasionally in England. All the English examples are eastern, and many of the brooches may have been made on the Con­ tinent, being associated with the earlier phases of the Germanic settlement of Britain. They are 4 to 6cm long, usually cast in copper-alloy, but further worked by chip-carving, punching, incising, tinning and gilding. The eye at each end is often a glass or garnet inset, set off from the gilded surrounding surface; on lower-grade examples the eye may be tinned. The S-curves over time become constricted into an oval, the body becomes more serpentine and the head more like that of a bird of prey. Interestingly, the "S" shape is always of the same profile, with the top head facing to the right, on English brooches; the reverse does occur on a few Scandinavian pieces.

Fig.l.l.8-a. is a fine copper-alloy example from Germany with gilt panels bearing geometric decoration, and punched decoration on the outer edges of the bow. The three lugs on the headplate appear to be rudimentary animal-heads.

Fig.l.l.7-a. shows a silver example from Howletts (Kent) with a central scroll motif set in a field bounded with beading, and further beading forming the outline of the body and beaks. The eyes are garnet cloisons. The beaks are openwork castings.

1.1.9 Tutulus Brooches Another rare, early type in English contexts, the tutulus brooch has a face-plate shaped like a small, conical shield-boss. Decoration is confined to concentric zones containing, for example, scrolls. They date from the 4th century at the latest, and many were probably heir­ looms when buried in Anglo-Saxon graves; for example, the brooch from grave 106 at Abing­ don (Berkshire) had already lost the knob from its top before it was placed in the ground. Tutulus brooches show a Germanic pres­ ence in Britain in the 4th century, which may be evidence of military participation in Late Roman society.

1.1.8 Supporting Arm Brooches This is an early type of bow brooch occa­ sionally found in early Germanic contexts in eastern England, consisting of a bow and flat

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1.1.10 Other Brooch Types There are a few finds in Anglo-Saxon con­ texts of brooches or fasteners of rare or unusual types. There are occasional examples of Con­ tinental "small-brooches" (kleinfibeln) in the south-east, and other intrusive forms, perhaps lost by merchants or visitors while in England.

1.2 BUCKLES & BELT FITTINGS Buckles are an important item in early medi­ eval costume. Military-style belt sets are one of the few male dress artefacts that regularly sur­ vive in the archaeological record, being made with metal components. Belt sets for women including girdle-hangers, ring-necked pouches, crystal balls and wine - or beer-strainers - are equally prominent in female graves, but few traces of metal front-closures or clasps for women seem to survive, so women's garments may have been tied at the waist or have hung loose. There are a few finds of buckles made from organic materials - bone or ivory - in styles also known for metal ones, and the pos­ sibility of leather loops or wooden tie-rings cannot be discounted. There are also finds of plain metal belt-rings, usually identified as incomplete annular brooches, which may have been intended as tie-rings for a sash or waistcord. One unusual find from Dover Buckland (Kent) is a belt made from two lengths of very thin willow, laced together, with a white bead as a toggle to close the belt. Buckle fashions vary through time and space, so that a specific type can often be assigned to a region and a relative date-range; this is of some importance in the early periods, before coinbased evidence becomes available. In later Roman times in the western Empire, military and civilian authorities wore a broad leather belt (cingulum) decorated with metal fittings. Even when wearing his civilian clothes, the military man wore his standard belt, and

1.1 .1 0 Safety pin brooches.

Fig.l.l.lO-a. shows the small "safety pin" brooch from Uncleby (Yorkshire) of less than 2.6cm length with stamped pellet ornament and a coiled spring to secure the pin; similar examples were found in the barrow at Swallowcliffe Down (Wiltshire) all made in silver. This type of fastening may have been a short-lived Anglo-Saxon fashion of the 7th century.

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Buckle Nomenclature

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care was taken over the maintenance of the components. This fashion persisted into the post-Roman period, where the symbolic qual­ ity of the ornament on the belt set (balteus) was emphasised. Production of some "Roman" equipment was handled by smiths in Germanic areas outside the Empire, and the transfer of designs from heavy belt sets to equal-arm bow brooches was a natural consequence of the blurring of the dividing line between military and civil authority at this time.

examples of early mediaeval "belt-reliquaries", which are hollow buckles in which relics of some saint or holy man could be stored; again, it seems unsafe to see every hollow buckle as necessarily Christian in nature. However, saints' belts were prized for their healing prop­ erties in medieval times and this may be due to the ritual importance of donning the belt of office in ecclesiastical tradition.

1.2.1 Buckles Buckles fall into three main groups: those with just a pin and loop, those with an addi­ tional buckle-plate to which the loop is attached, and those with a counter-plate oppo­ site the buckle-plate. The shape of the loop and the decoration of the plate are used to create a typology which shades from late Roman forms, through the Germanic into the early Anglo-Saxon types. The three-piece sets (loop, plate and counter-plate) are usually large and showy, with developments in the decoration of the loop: earliest is the buckle-loop formed as a disc between two dolphins (Group A l) from around AD 350; Group A2 is a Romano-British type, with outward-facing horse-heads on the loop, associated with female costume. Groups A2b and A2c are variants of the dolphin from after AD 390. Group A3 features a large oval loop and a lion's head on the hinge-bar (this form does not occur in Anglo-Saxon contexts). Group A4 features inward-facing tails from the dolphins of Group Al with animal terminals. The two-piece sets have the same develop­ ment as the three-piece. Group B1 is a rare form with cast loop and openwork plate. Group B2 resembles A3 but with the plate cast in one piece with the loop, as Group B3 is likewise related to A4. In Anglo-Saxon cemetery con­ texts, buckles and fittings belong in the late 5th and early 6th centuries, and are mainly female. The buckles may have been heirloom objects, as they continue in use even when needing repair. Belt sets decorated in Quoit Brooch Style have Roman features but are not of Roman manufacture, being cast in one piece. They are subdivided into broad and narrow series, the latter associated with females. Generally buckles have the plate attached to the loop, but sometimes they are separate pieces attached to the belt material. The loop may be attached directly to the plate by prongs bent round it, or there may be a third piece (carrier plate) to which the loop is attached, and this is then attached to the main buckle plate. (True hinges on buckle plates occur on Roman finds and probably indicate re-used Roman equipment in Anglo-Saxon contexts.) There are a few "fixed" buckles with the plate and loop cast in one piece, as well as deviant forms, such as buckles with two tongues, a simple variant found only in southern England. Some buckles had a cast, perforated lug on

Roman belt sets often carried inscriptions for good luck, and there are some early Germanic belt buckles which likewise bear secret texts. In Roman Christian contexts, the belt might also sport a decorative plate on which a symbolic figure was depicted, such as the prophet Daniel (whom God protected in the lion's den, a highly relevant image for military men of the power of the Almighty to overcome dangerous and apparently hopeless situations). Similar motifs occur among the Germanic peoples, though not necessarily in Christian contexts. There are also

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plate is divided into three fields. The outer fields hold opposed pairs of animals with their feet placed in towards the central field where four roundels are found. The top and two bottom roundels consist of a beaded outer border, a plain zone, a segmented zone and a central pel­ let; the second from top has five radiating lines in the plain zone which extends from the pellet to the border. This arrangement is mirrored in the counter-plate. The set would have formed a splendid opportunity for displaying wealth, status and imperial ties in 5th century Britain.

the reverse which passed through the belt's thickness and was secured with a pin, but most were riveted in place. The simpler types of buckle are present in the archaeological record for three or more centuries, while the grander and more distinctive pieces are shorter-lived. The simple, rounded iron loop and tongue is found throughout the pre-Christian period, and may never have gone out of use because it is the records of grave-goods which cease in the late 7th century. Some high-status buckles had a decorated plate on the inside of the belt, to trap the leather or textile between two sheets of metal. The smaller types of buckle may not have survived cremation or inhumation in aggres­ sive soil conditions, but that may not be the only explanation for their rarity. By the later pre-Christian period belts and buckles were becoming narrower, but large ostentatious buckles never disappeared entirely Buckles made from precious metals are commonest in Kent and the surrounding areas (south Essex, coastal Sussex, Isle of Wight) reflecting the greater access to Continental trade that this area enjoyed in the late 5th to 7th centuries. Some of the very wealthiest graves, meas­ ured according to the number, range and costliness of the artefacts, often still have rela­ tively humble buckles. The high-status burial at Prittlewell (Essex) contained a hollow gold triangular belt-buckle (Type group 11.23), with a plain surface.

Fig.l.2.1-b. is part of the loop from a highstatus belt. The loop's pin is visible on the right, which was attached to the plate, and the couch for the tongue is marked on the left as a reserved plain panel. The decoration consists

Fig.l.2.1-a. is a classic example of the more complex style of buckle from Howletts (Kent) with a decorated loop, plate and counter-plate, all in Quoit Brooch Style. The loop bears inlaid bands of silver with incised decoration. The

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of " ‘T-shaped filigree wire soldered to the loop within a raised border. Detailed decoration on the buckle loop is normally confined to high quality pieces, e.g. the buckles from the mounds at Sutton Hoo and Taplow. Fig.l.2.1-c. is a more complex piece from Melton Mowbray (Lincolnshire) with a deep loop and badly corroded tongue. The plate bears rectilinear decoration in a fretwork or interlace pattern. It is made from copper-alloy and has been silvered to add sparkle to the wearer's belt.

Fig.l.2.1-f. is an extreme example of the sub-triangular profile from France (exact loca­ tion unrecorded); the narrow, elongated silver plate is pierced by the customary three holes for attachment to the belt: one at the outer end (rivet missing) and two at the shoulders by the buckle-loop. On this example, the plate and loop are cast in one piece and the tongue is attached to a bar which pierces the back of the plate just above the rivets. The tongue imitates the form of the shield-on-tongue buckle but is rather small and understated for this class of fastener. The buckle appears to belong to the late 6th-early 7th century south-eastern tradi­ tion.

Fig.l.2.1-d. shows a simple, elliptical buckle loop and riveted plate. The loop is cast in copper-alloy. While not the most exciting Anglo-Saxon buckle ever found, this is a good example of the kind of fastener a moderately wealthy woman would have worn.

Fig.l.2.1-e. is a good example of the early zoomorphic style of copper-alloy buckle in which the loop ends in two animal-heads (findspot unknown). The loop is further deco­ rated with a series of triangular stamps on the inner edge, each terminating in a pellet at the apex: this arrangement of triangle and pellet recurs in later Anglo-Saxon metalwork. A further series of triangular indentations on the outer edges of the buckle-plate carries this theme through. The narrow, slightly clubbed tongue bears a zone of ribbing at the base.

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Figl.2.1 -g. is a good example of a beltbuckle tongue in the Merovingian Frankish style, a precursor to the "shield on tongue" for­ mat adopted in the 5th century. The piece was heavily gilded, which remains in some areas. The "shield" of the tongue has two adjacent rectangular panels to accept garnet slabs, and three more such panels are placed down the length of the tongue, one with the garnet still in place. The chequered effect is due to small gold foils having been placed in the cells behind the garnets to make them sparkle. These gold foils mark out the highest quality pieces.

Fig-1-2.1 -h. shows the world-famous find from Mound 1 at Sutton Hoo (Suffolk) the great gold buckle from the belt which also suspended the purse. Formally the layout is similar to many other late 6th century buckles, with a triangu­ lar plate, three domed rivets and an elliptical loop. But as with everything else at Sutton Hoo Mound 1, the workmanship is of such exquisite quality that no other example comes close to matching it. The outer edges below the rivets are formed by a border of coiled dragons or serpents, each with a billeted infill. Above the upper rivets are two birds' heads and below

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the bottom rivet is a tiny four-legged animal crouching between the jaws of the serpents. The central panel shows two serpents biting each other; although the shape into which they fit is symmetrical, the serpents are laid out asymmetrically. The tongue springs from a roundel with a beaded border, in which two more billeted serpents bite each other. The loop is decorated with coiled interlace. The buckle is cast in gold in 17 separate components, and weighs about 11 ounces. It is hollow, and the back can be unfastened by sliders to accom­ modate a thin belt, perhaps made from textile or thin leather. The hollow chamber within has suggested that the buckle might be a reliquary, but this seems to be a misunderstanding of the way the buckle is attached to its belt.

the cast lug was pierced; the lug was pushed through a slit in the belt and held in place with a wire inserted into the hole.

1.2.2 Other Belt Fittings Aside from the buckle, an Anglo-Saxon belt could display several other fittings, although few English finds can match the arrays found in Scandinavia. Belts with many loose, hanging straps ending in decorated tags were an Avar fashion adopted by Central European Germanic groups such as the Thuringians.

1.2.2.2 Plates and Sliders

1.2.2.1 Studs

Belts could be decorated with several kinds of fittings although most of these are rare in English contexts. Counter-plates, strap ends and other decorative metal pieces occur, and they are generally more common in female graves. Strap-sliders are known from south-east England, consisting of a flattened copper-alloy tube (l-2cm across) decorated in Quoit Brooch Style. They were used to trap the loose end of the belt. The Sutton Hoo Mound 1 belt had a series of rectangular gold plates with cloisonné deco­ ration and a T-shaped strap-distributor, with an ingenious mechanism allowing the strap to move in two planes at once. While this level of craftsmanship is unusual, there have been sev­ eral finds of fine decorative metal plates which may have come from belts. Metal plates bearing Style I ornament occurred on one belt at Morn­ ing Thorpe (Norfolk) and another with complex hooked cross designs was found in the same cemetery. A further group of fittings are iron diamond-shaped plates (2-3cm long) which may have served as attachment points for belt accessories such as firesteels. Stiffeners based on Roman "propeller" fittings occur, usually a circular plate with elongated triangular extensions. Rectangular versions are also known. Small metal attach­ ment points, consisting of a metal plate pierced to allow a strap to pass through, are also found - the belt behind was pierced and a strap would run from the pouch to the reverse of the belt, through the slot and back down at the front.

The commonest belt fittings were simple studs, metal pins with decorative heads in one of a range of shapes: shoe, teardrop, bell and rosette are frequently found, but there are also plain discs, domes and even swastika-shaped studs. They acted as fasteners for the folded end of the belt. Some had a cast-in stem which was pierced to take a securing pin, others a short shank hammered over a cleat or washer on the back of the belt. Belt-studs were a fashion brought over from the Continent and adopted in Kent, also in East Anglia and Wessex. Disc studs occur with the simpler buckle types, sug­ gesting lower-status belts. Shoe-shaped copper-alloy studs, 1 to 1.5cm long, are found with shield-on-tongue buckles, singly or in multiples, usually plain but some­ times with ring-and-dot patterns. They date from the mid-6th century, and their sizes increase over time. They replace the drop-shaped studs of the earlier 6th century. In England shoe-shaped studs are found with both sexes, but on the Continent they are associated more with male grave-goods. However, some of the high-status females beneath St. Denis cathedral (Paris) had shoe-studs on their belts. Belt studs went into decline towards the end of the 6th century and became rare in 7th century graves. Fig.l.2.2.1-a. shows two forms of the shoe­ shaped stud, from different graves at Bifrons (Kent). The one on the left was tinned to give it a shiny, silvery surface; the other bears ringand-dot decoration. The side views show how

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where traces of the attachments can be seen. The central field is contained within a thick border and shows a typical Style I animal in profile. The original gilding has worn off from the raised moulded surfaces.

The function was to stiffen and protect the belt at this point of friction. These items are quite common in 7th century Continental graves, less so in England. Other objects attached to belts will be dis­ cussed separately, e.g. knives, iron rings to suspend other items, ivory or bone rings, beads, tools, workboxes, firesteels and so on.

Fig.l.2.2.2-c. is a part of the belt furni­ ture from Mucking (Essex) one of the earliest Germanic cemeteries in England. It is a coun­ ter-plate, which forms part of the impressive metal decoration at the front and back of the wearer's midriff. The layout is divided into three zones, each roughly symmetrical about the vertical axis. The inner field bears a graceful scroll-and-dot design. The middle field con­ tains offset triangles leaving a zigzag through the centre. The outer field shows two running quadrupeds with their heads towards the lower end, surmounted by a round plate bearing a human face. The decoration is executed in shal­ low carving and inlaid wire and is in the Quoit Brooch Style, with double outlines to the beasts and a suggestion of fur on the flanks.

Fig.l.2.2.2-a. is a rectangular mount from Melton Mowbray (Lincolnshire). It is made from copper-alloy and gilded. An interesting aspect of the design is the two intertwined "serpents" on the main field; their three-band structure is derived from standard Style I motifs (compare the figures on the headplate of the great square-headed brooch in Fig.l.l.4.7-b.) but the interlacing is quite tame compared to the extravagances of Style II (compare the beasts on the Sutton Hoo buckle, Fig.l.2.1-h.). Fig.l.2.2.2-b. shows a rectangular mount from Cambridgeshire, with spatulate ends

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1.2.2.3 Strap ends

1.2.3 Other Buckles

Strap ends in the early Anglo-Saxon period are quite simple compared to later Anglo-Saxon and Viking dress. They are often made from copper-alloy, but bone may also have been common; a few high-status examples of silver and gold are known. They usually consist of nothing more than two flat, tapering copperalloy plates secured with a single rivet. A variant is a single piece, split to enclose the belt or strap at back and front. Most are plain, but hatching and variants of an 'TXT' motif, incised lines, ring-and-dot and punch-marks are also found. A range of forms is found from short, waisted arrowheads to long, thin profiles. Early types may be pointed, waisted and with a central ridge. Some strap ends were decora­ tive and perhaps symbolic, for example the example from Ipswich in the shape of a boar's head. In England, strap ends are more common in female graves, where several may be found associated with chatelaines and pouches. Laces also featured decorative metal cone-shaped ends.

There is a series of small (1cm) buckles found in graves of the 7th century which, from their position on the lower legs, led to their being regarded as shoe-buckles in matched pairs. They are found with both male and female grave-goods. Shoe buckles were origi­ nally a Frankish fashion which later spread to the Kentish cultural area. There are also occa­ sional finds of small buckles in the waist area which are presumed to have closed pouches, bags and other containers. Fig.l.2.3-a. is a good example of a shoebuckle from Lincolnshire, its sub-triangular shape imitating that of the large buckles of the 6th and 7th centuries such as that from Sutton Hoo Mound 1 (Fig.l.2.1-h.).

Fig.l.2.2.3-a. is an unusual example from Cambridgeshire of a cast copper-alloy strap end with traces of the gilding still in place. Three rivet holes were pierced through the thick casting to secure it to the belt or strap; the uppermost is incomplete and shows where the metal broke away. The decorative field shows a Style I animal contorted within the heavy inner border, with traces of transverse band decora­ tion on the main body. Fig.l.2.2.3-b. is a fine silver-gilt strap end from an unknown findspot in France. The lower zone consists of an elongated u-shaped mould­ ing; the inner reserve field preserves traces of the gilding. Two fields of transverse bands enclose the upper plain field; the rivet pierces the upper of these bands. A decorative "milled" edge completes the piece.

1.3 CLASPS Other than the loop-and-pin closure of buckles, there are other fittings which appear to be fastenings for clothing.

1.3.1 High-Status Clasps There are two famous examples of high-sta­ tus clasps from the early Anglo-Saxon period. In the Taplow mound were found two matching sets of gilt copper-alloy fittings (Figs.l.3.1-a & b.) which at first glance appeared to be triangular belt buckles. It was soon realised that the fittings are not identi­ cal: in each pair, one has the standard belt loop, and the other has a corresponding hook which passes beneath the loop to secure itself. There are three cells which originally con­ tained organic material, which correspond to the placement of the rivets on most triangular buckles, and to the large domed bosses on the Sutton Hoo buckle; the filling was probably ivory. The decoration in the main field is gold filigree in Style II ribbon work. The design shows serpents biting each other, as also seen on the Sutton Hoo belt buckle (Fig.l.2.1-h.) but

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They were introduced to Anglian areas of England in the late 5th century, beginning with Humberside and Norfolk, but had been in use in Scandinavia since the 3rd century. In Scandinavia, they sometimes close the lower leg of male trousers, but in England the grave finds are only ever on the sleeves of females. Whether this was true of the ones found as casual losses or not is not known.

the less substantial nature of the filigree masks the animal forms - a head with gaping jaws biting at a body can be seen in the open "loop" placed just below the empty cloison cells. On the buckle loops are placed pairs of birds also executed in filigree, their beaks almost touch­ ing at the centra] part of the loop.

It seems likely that these clasps secured some kind of waistband or perhaps even leather armour; their curvature is too shallow for them to have been used anywhere but at the front of the body in the chest or waist area. Just as famous are the hinged "shoulderclasps" at Sutton Hoo Mound 1, which are two sets of matched, deeply curved plates which appear to fit over the shoulder area. They are made from gold with cloisonne decoration on the main rectangular panel (garnet and millefiori) and sculpted outer edges featuring crossed boar designs with filigree decoration. Although the clasp halves appear at first glance identical, each is unique in some way and elements from either set could not be interchanged due to the complex construction of the hinges. Both these sets of clasps are so far unpar­ alleled in England, continental Europe and Scandinavia. The clasps do not appear to have been restricted to any one social group or class, and they occur in both richly- and poorly-furnished graves, but it is unlikely that the poorest mem­ bers of society had access to them, because they are a luxury and could have been substituted by organic closures such as toggles or laces. The three principal types are: coiled wire forms; repoussé plates in copper-alloy, pierced for attachment to clothing; and castings with added lugs for attachment. There are often very close similarities between specific finds in England and especially Norway, which indicate

1.3.2 Wrist Clasps Wrist- or sleeve-clasps are two-part metal fittings used as fasteners for split cuffs of outer garments. They are usually cast or fabricated from sheet metal, but wire loops are also used. They are made as mirror-image pairs, one with a broad, projecting hook (hook-piece) and the other with a rectangular plate slotted to accept the hook (catch-piece). Some sets have a third, sub-triangular gusset-plate which is fitted above the two locking plates, which reinforces the top of the slit in the sleeve.

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either copying or importation of Scandinavian objects. They were probably used as a badge of Scandinavian identity which became part of the Anglian tradition. Wrist clasps were abandoned as a dress-fitting along with other traditional accessories as the fashion for Mediterraneanstyle dress was accepted in the mid-7th century. Fig.l.3.2-a. is a pair of cast copper-alloy clasps from Mildenhall (Suffolk). The outer lugs were not merely decorative but allowed the clasp to be sewn onto the garment. The deco­ ration consists of a pair of heavy semi-circular borders containing two fields: the outer one contains a running scroll design and the inner one a simple coil which joins a stylised human head in profile (the dot and brow are the only recognisable features). Punched decoration is visible on the heavy moulded borders.

Fig.l.3.2-b. is a good example of a cast gusset-plate from Suffolk in gilt copper-alloy. The sub-triangular central field shows standard Style I zoomorphic designs, enclosed by a heavy border. The outer zone consists of a thick spiral which extends along the outer edge to a small projection, then on to the upper area where it is interrupted by the brow-ridge of a human face (inverted). Above this is a stubby ridged extension forming the end. The side projections and end were used for sewing the plate to the garment. Fig.l.3.2-c. is a pair of small cast copperalloy clasps from Suffolk with a heavy ridged design on the inner bar and a series of pellets on the main field. Pierced lugs on the outer face were used for sewing the plate to the garment.

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the loop. The outer bar is formed from animal forms in three-strand profile which echoes the animal ornament in Fig.l.2.2.2-a. and Fig.1.4.5-1. The animal heads likewise resemble those on some great square-headed brooches such as in Fig.1.1.4.7-a.

Fig.l.3.2-d & e. is a full set of four match­ ing copper-alloy plates from Melton Mowbray (Lincolnshire). Decoration is confined to an incised linear boundary containing an outer line of punch-marks, with further lines of punchmarks across the central field. The punch was circular with a central inverted dome to leave a pellet design; some of the striking was slightly displaced leaving a mark close to a horse-shoe shape.

1.4 WEAPONS & FITTINGS Anglo-Saxon weapon types have been stud­ ied for over a century and the general trends are well documented, even though the detailed chronologies are mainly based on Continental and Scandinavian research and are still only useful at the level of the half-century for the English material. The trends in the designs of sword hilts, spearheads, shield bosses, seax blades and axe-heads are known in outline. Most of the existing finds are made of iron, and are heavily corroded so that any decoration originally present has long since disappeared but it can often be recovered by X-ray. As more articles are studied using these methods, it is becoming clear that the blades of swords (and to a lesser extent spears) were often complex pieces of metalwork in which pattern-welding was used to produce a highly distinctive and impressive surface. Spears, arrows, knives, javelins, axes and so on were all tools for hunting as much as weap­ ons of warfare, and therefore the inclusion of a spear and knife in a grave should not be taken as an indication of a warrior identity. However, shields, swords and helmets do not seem to have been used in hunting and therefore may belong with high-status individuals with mili­ tary rank (i.e. thanes).

Fig.l.3.2-f. from East Anglia is similar to the catch-plate in Fig.l.3.2-a. It is cast in silver, and decorated with niello to bring out the details of the ornament. The two semi-circular fields bear a guilloche design and terminate in clear ani­ mal heads with lower jaws curling down inside

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1.4.1 Spears & Angons

Examples occur at Vimose and Illerup in Denmark, as well as Dover Buckland (Kent) and Great Chesterford (Essex) (see Fig.l.4.1-b.). The spears and angons found in the Illerup bog deposit share certain decorative features, which are related in part to the forms of the weapons. Closely related to the inlaid roundels are examples of geometric designs, among which the circle is common, and the swastika, crescent and a design like the character "2". Another decorative device is a copper-alloy or silver tubular fitting which was closed round the spear shaft.

Spears are metal tipped lengths of wood. The iron tip may have one or two flat blades attached, in which case it is called a "spear", or it may have a long, thin neck and a short barbed head if it is an "angon". English spearheads show their Scandinavian and northern German origins. (There are other forms with one side bladed and the other hooked, but these have not so far been found in England.) Spearheads in Anglo-Saxon England have been classified by Swanton, whose typology is now firmly estab­ lished.

Fig.l.4.1-a. is a mounting-ring from a spear­ head. The decoration is executed in Style I and consists of a procession of contorted beasts - the lower limbs can be seen below and to the right of the circular feature. Two small extensions on the lower edge provided additional fixing points. The original gilding has been worn off the raised areas. These rings were used to individualize weapons and to give them a "personality" based on the symbolic imagery used.

Fig.l.4.1-b. is the spearhead from Great Chesterford (Essex) from a cemetery which ranged from the late Roman through to the early Saxon periods. This is a particularly impres­ sive piece. A chip-carved ring with decoration in Style I was attached to the socket of the spearhead; the design is shown enlarged in full below: it appears to be three animals in proces­ sion, their bodies executed in triple-bands. The first and last have a hooked snout while the middle one has a curved "beak". At the junction of the spearhead and its socket a small inlaid metal band was placed. On the face of the spearhead, at the lower end are three roundels inlaid in silver. When the spear was new, the shiny white of the inlay would have contrasted beautifully with the dark iron background.

Spearheads decorated with inlaid designs may once have been common but the original surface rarely survives, so that there is now little obvious evidence for this. Anglo-Saxon spear­ heads are almost invariably of the split-socket type (the socket is forged into a circle which does not quite join up round the shaft) and have no discernable socket decoration. While this form of closure is almost absent elsewhere, it is very common in pre-Christian England. The natural spring of the iron in a split socket ensures a firm grip on the spear shaft, and the split enables the spear-maker to ensure that the shaft penetrates the socket fully, giving greater contact between wood and metal. The split-socket was therefore a successful technical innovation which lasted for centuries. Decoration of the blade is almost confined to the addition of roundels. A "roundel" is a ring-and-dot in inlaid metal, which is not uncommon on spears and may have had some symbolic meaning.

Fig.l.4.1-c. is a leaf-shaped blade from Cadbourne (Lincolnshire). Its gracefully curved profile is typical of the better class of weapon from the 6th century. Its socket is split, as is typical of Eng­ lish examples. Although heavily corroded, the weapon's lentoid section can be seen - the mid­ dle portion is notably thicker than the edges but the transition is handled as a smooth curve rather than a pronounced "step" or ridge.

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Sword Hilt Nomenclature

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1.4.2 Swords & Fittings Swords from Anglo-Saxon times are usually severely corroded, remaining as just an iron bar with heavy rusting; hilt fittings, where they are present at all, are of iron or copper-alloy, and the "missing pieces" of the hilt must have been made from organic material (wood, bone, antler or ivory). The blade of the sword when new was often magnificent, with rose-bud, swirl or her­ ringbone chevron patterns created in the metal by pattern-welding, onto which a hard steel outer shoe was added. One 5th-6th century sword from West Heslerton (Yorkshire) was made with the

surface pattern of a writhing, zigzag serpent running the length of the blade. This pattern is unique in England, and only two other examples are known from this period: one from Vehmaa (Finland) and another from Nijmegen (Nether­ lands). The effect was achieved by twisting the central bar in one direction then the other, and the blade was etched and polished to reveal the

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work border. In the inner zone, traces of several fields can be detected. The left field, limited by a vertical rope-work filigree border, features s-scrolls and plain circles of filigree. Next is a field of c-scrolls with the open end to the right; the filigree border to this field has come loose but can be seen bent round on itself. Next is a field of circles or hoops; the filigree border is missing but the upper few twists can just be seen where they abut the outer zone. Next is a further zone of c-scrolls, this time with their open ends facing to the left, confined by a ropework filigree border. The final zone imitates the first but the placement of the hoops and volutes is more random, perhaps due to considerations of space. The gold foil backing plate is very thin and delicate, and the filigree is likewise fine and attached insecurely. Such decorative fittings would have simply enhanced the status of its owner, mainly because it is far too delicate to have survived long in the harsh conditions of a battlefield.

pattern. The contrast between the low-carbon grey iron and the high-phosphorous silvery iron produced the dazzling visual effect The central section of the Anglo-Saxon blade was usually made from three main com­ ponents (each from several grades of iron forged together) and the steel edges were added after, the whole collection fire-welded into a single blade. The typical early Anglo-Saxon sword hilt consisted of metal and organic elements sand­ wiched to form a resilient grip. Among the metal fittings which do routinely survive, only the pommel has a surface suitable for display; where the original surface survives there is often some form of incised or inlaid decoration. The standard form of early Anglo-Saxon pommel is the "cocked hat", a rounded sub-triangular shape which often bears incised decoration on the broader flat surfaces. There are many examples of such pommels with zones of trian­ gular punch marks. Triangular and herringbone decoration and ring-and-dot decoration are also found on some early examples. Sword pommels were cast from lead mod­ els, as shown by the example in the British Museum bearing complex Style I decoration. It is almost pure lead and is therefore quite soft, leading to some distortion, but the scrollwork on the base and the crouching zoomorphs are still quite clear. Some high-status Germanic sword hilts feature small gold and filigree "clips" which are pinned into the organic grip, where it joins the pommel and guard. The clips are sub-triangular and curved in three planes to fit around the grip. The sword from Sutton Hoo Mound 1 fea­ tured two such clips on the outer faces. Fig.l.4.2-a. is a reconstruction of the pom­ mel of a sword from Finglesham (Kent). The shape of the pommel is clear, as well as the decoration consisting of three roundels joined by a continuous incised looped line; similar designs occur occasionally on brooches and other dress items. Above is shown the design from the other side of the pommel, a roundel with four hooks or legs. A notable feature of this sword is the large staple-ring attached to one side, with another ring passing through it. Both are decorated with punched designs. This feature is discussed below (1.4.2.1.). Fig-1.4. 2-b. shows the filigree panel from the pommel of a sword. The panel, although damaged, clearly shows the "cocked-hat" pro­ file of the 6th and 7th century pommel form. This gold piece would have been soldered to a cast fitting of copper-alloy. The surface is divided into inner and outer zones. The outer zone follows the corresponding contour of the panel, and encloses a series of filigree volutes or c-scrolls placed with the open end to the outer edge; it is confined by a filigree rope-

1.4.2.1 Sword Rings & Beads The use of symbolic rings to attach to sword hilts (see Fig.l.4.2-a.) is evidenced from the 5th century onwards across northern

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Europe. English sword hilts may feature a verti­ cal mounting ring attached to the hilt's upper edge, with a loose ring hanging from the hoop. (Scandinavian, Alemannic and Lombard fash­ ion extended to a large cast "knob" with the shape of the two rings indicated by details in the casting.) The purpose of these rings is not known for certain, but they have been plausibly linked to the oaths of loyalty sworn by a war­ rior to his leader: these oaths were among the strongest bonds in Anglo-Saxon society and the display of an outward symbol on the warrior's weapons would be in keeping with this. Another significant sword fitting is the sword-bead, introduced to Germanic Europe in the 5th century along with garnet and glass geometric inlay. Amber and glass are common substances for the bead, but bone, crystal and meerschaum also occur. Sword-beads were no longer used once the sword pyramids (see 1.4.2.2) began to appear.

appear to have been casual losses. Aside from the standard truncated pyramid design, there are variants such as the circular "pepperpot" style. Fig.l.4.2.2-a. is a good example of a highstatus pyramid from Norfolk, cast in silver and with a garnet cloison in the top. Beneath the garnet, the grid pattern of the reflective foil is clearly visible. The faces are divided by V-shaped borders in relief, leaving triangular chip-carved recesses which have been gilded. The length of the bases' sides is 13.44mm. Triangular-based motifs are a common decora­ tion on sword pyramids.

Fig.l.4.2.1-a. shows a high-quality pommelcap (un-provenanced) cast in copper-alloy and gilded, and with details picked out in red enamel. (Enamel is a rarity on Anglo-Saxon objects.) The outer ends of the piece are deco­ rated with fierce animal-heads in Style I while the central zone is ridged.

Fig-1.4.2.2-b. shows a more humble speci­ men of the type, cast in copper-alloy, of unknown provenance, measuring 12.24mm at the base. One face has a stepped-pvramid design, which is evidently designed to imitate the stepped outline of the garnet cloisonné on high-status metalwork such as the examples from Sutton Hoo. The other face has an equi­ lateral triangle in each corner and a lozenge placed centrally. A cross is punched into the top. While this is not an impressive piece set alongside the other two examples here, when new and polished it would have added lustre to the scabbard of a low-ranking warrior who nevertheless wished to show off his weapon.

1.4.2.2 Sword Pyramids Decorative, pre-Christian period sword fit­ tings are the so-called "pyramids" which are small, hollow castings with a bar across the gap in the bottom, as if for sliding along a strap. They formed part of a splendid if short-lived fashion in fastening high-status 7th century swords into their scabbards. They range from less than 1cm along each side of the base up to 2cm, and are usually slightly less tall than their base-length. The decoration on the high-status examples is garnet cloisonné set in gold with filigree detailing; sometimes enamel appears on the less splendid silver types and copper-alloy is used for the commoner types, which often bear only incised decoration. The pyramids probably held in place a pair of straps which secured the sword in its scab­ bard. Some have been found in collections of small items which were kept in a pouch, and may have been keepsakes or personal treasures. Many have been found by metal-detecting and

Fig.l.4.2.2-c. is a beautifully made copperalloy sword pyramid in the polychrome style. Each face is divided into cells: triangles in the lower corners and two squares between them, two trapezoids above these and a pentagon at the top. The triangles and pentagons contain quartz crystal panels, the others contain garnets of varying colours. The rectangular top panel probably housed a garnet, now missing. In the empty cells the foil backing plates can be seen.

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with ribbing to give added sparkle and the heavy’ gilding is still present on most of the surfaces.

1.4.3 Scabbard Fittings Anglo-Saxon scabbards were sometimes strengthened with external metal fittings. The belt or baldric was attached to the scabbard by passing through a "slider" fitting attached to the outer face, usually of copper-alloy, but sometimes bone or even wood. Some were elaborately decorated, with interlace panels, human masks and zoomorphic heads in profile, but most seem to have been given merely geo­ metric, ridged designs. Another unusual feature of early Anglo-Saxon sword furniture is the small "false buckle" from a lower strap, which kept the sword's pointed end in position. Chapes are metal fittings for the lower end of the scabbard, usually copper-alloy and U-shaped. They are quite rare in Anglo-Saxon contexts, where they appear only with the larger swords. Another rare fitting is the pair of U-channelled side-bars which protected the upper faces of the scabbard.

Fig.l.4.2.2-d. is a low-grade copper-alloy pyramid, its sides decorated with a lozengiform network motif. The flat top is slightly dished but does not appear to have held any decora­ tive inserts.

Fig.l.4.3-a. is a cast copper-alloy strapslider. The decorative scheme comprises a central series of roundels surrounded by a guilloche pattern, with arrow-shaped punch marks in the notches of the guilloche - all executed by punching with a narrow, rectangular-sectioned stamp to give a rope-work effect. The small scale of the piece and the neatness of its execu­ tion suggest that it came from a high-status sword scabbard.

Fig.l.4.2.2-e. shows a particularly fine exam­ ple of the type from Maidstone (Kent), cast in silver and gold and with a single sub-triangular garnet on each face. A small, square garnet is placed on the upper surface. Behind the garnets can be seen a corrugated pattern; this is caused by the insertion of a thin gold foil into the set­ ting before the garnet was fixed in place; these foils served to reflect light and give the stone additional glitter.

Fig.l.4.2.2-f. is a developed form of sword pyramid in copper-alloy with a curved octago­ nal base rising to four plain gilded faces topped with a garnet cloison. The edges are all detailed

1.4.4 Seaxes & Knives The Old English term seax is used for any kind of large knife, although modern research­ ers distinguish between the "seax" as a weapon and the "knife" as a tool. The word scramasax is sometimes used for the weapon, based on a reference by Gregory of Tours in the History of the Franks. The term is never met with in Old English. The iron blades vary greatly in length and width, and the bigger examples sometimes have fully-fitted hilts with pommels and other metal fittings. The smallest blades are about

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7cm in length, with a tang of 2cm, while the largest can be nearly half a metre long. Because such small items could be made by blacksmiths from a few small pieces of iron and antler, the various typologies are not very secure: the large numbers of makers increases the scope for diversity. Some had an iron core and a steel edge forged on, but this does not always seem to have been the case. A common feature on 7th century examples is a distinct angle in the back (the non-cutting, thick edge of the blade) and a parallel groove on either side; earlier blades tend to be parallel-sided with a rounded end and a shallow-pointed tip. Rich sheath-fittings were part of the dis­ play for the seax, which was worn horizontally across the midriff. A diagnostic feature is the use of a cast end-piece for the sheath, usually decorated in Style II, with a U-channelled bar along the upper edge of the sheath. Fig.l.4.4-a. shows a typical example of an Anglo-Saxon seax or single-edged knife, found in Cambridgeshire. The blade is 65.96mm long, and the tang (the spike which fits into the handle) is 45.05mm long. The blade is wedgeshaped in section, so that the back of the blade is sturdier than the cutting edge. In this example, which is typical of the mid- to late7th century, the back features a pronounced turn towards the edge. On later weapons, this feature was exaggerated so that the blade wid­ ened towards a point about two-thirds along its length, then turned sharply inwards. This form is known as the "broken-back" seax. Although these knives are seldom very impressive today, they were once a common tool used in hunting, woodworking, warfare, and at the dinner-table; they were marks of status for different grades of society.

1.4.5 Shield Fittings & Mounts Shields are evidenced in Anglo-Saxon graves, represented by the surviving metal fittings - the conical iron boss and the iron attachment plate behind. Decorative silver­ faced rivets are sometimes found around the base of the boss. Shields are most common in the male graves of eastern England, and usually show middle or high-status. The wooden board and its leather covering do not survive well in English soil conditions. The fittings for the shield, when made of metal, are quite sturdy and have a good sur­ vival rate. The various decorative schemes have been interpreted as military insignia, badges of kin-membership, religious icons or merely an opportunity for display by the wealthy. There are also un-associated finds which may be casual losses, battle damage or ploughed-up grave goods. Shield fittings of metal, other than

75

the boss, studs and grip, are not common in Anglo-Saxon graves and only the Sutton Hoo Mound 1 burial has produced a really splendid set of such fittings, influenced by contemporary Swedish practice. They only occur in the east and south-east. A short-lived fashion at the end of the 6th century was to have the shield boss topped by a short (1cm) iron rod to which a disc of 2-3cm in diameter was attached, sometimes silvered or decorated with a cast copper-alloy circular fitting (see Fig.l.4.5-m). Shield bosses developed over time from low, wide carinated forms of about 10cm height to the extravagance of the "sugar-loaf" type which could be up to 30cm tall and shaped like a bullet. In all probability some of the items included here are not from shields but from book-covers, belts or horse-harness; for convenience they have been incorporated into a single group.

Fig.l.4.5-a. represents the design of a roundel from Mote of Mark (Scotland) of Anglo-Saxon origin. The outer border of pel­ lets contains fields of complex interlace, its animal origins only detectable by the "eye" and "snout" features at the outer ends. Between these are fields containing decorative roundels, bars and pellets within an incised border. The central field contains a rope-work border to the central boss. Fig.l.4.5-b. is of an unprovenanced deco­ rative roundel, probably a shield fitting or perhaps originally a pendant (the suspension mount having broken away?). The superficial regularity of the interlace is broken by the ser­ pent in the top-left quadrant.

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Fig-1-4. 5-c. is one of the plates from the large shield from Sutton Hoo Mound 1. The highly complex interlace masks the animal nature of the individual elements, which can be seen in the legs placed at the corners and the eye-and-brow motifs. A billeted border surrounds the design. These plates are made in tinned copper-alloy foil, formed over a cast original in the Pressblech technique (see 1.4.6).

Fig.l.4.5-d. is a shield-mount from the ear­ lier cemetery at Sutton Hoo (Suffolk). It is gilded copper-alloy and probably represents a fish. The central spine is left plain but the outer edges are decorated with pellets. Fig-1-4.5 -e. shows a fish-shaped mount from Mildenhall (Suffolk) with its scales care­ fully marked in and some decorative punch marks at the junctions of the head and tail with the body. Cast in copper-alloy, the mount was tinned to give a reflective surface. The rivets were very short, so this mount probably did not come from a shield. Fig.l.4.5-f. is an unusual mount in that it shows an animal, perhaps a bear. This example is one of a pair from Bergh Apton (Norfolk) cast in copper-alloy. Fig.l-4.5-g. is another shield boss apex-disc, from Empingham. The design is unusual in featuring a Style I human with his hand raised in front of his face and his leg thrust out behind him. The face is formed from the hair (four par­ allel bands running from the top of the disc to the centre), the nose (a bar running to the left), the eye (a pellet between the nose and hair), the cheek-bone (two parallel bars running from the hair to the nose, beneath the eye), the cheek (a globular shape below the cheek-bone) and the mouth (a spiral beneath the nose, next to the cheek). At the wrist and ankle, two parallel

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transverse bars indicate where the cuffs occur. At the back of the head is a strange open trian­ gular shape which might be a cap or hat. Fig.1.4.5 -h. shows a copper-alloy sub-trian­ gular mount from East Anglia, pierced near the apex for attachment to a shield, a leather strap or other surface. The design is placed in a cen­ tral field and is gilded. The details of the animal are not easy to determine, but the pear-shaped hip in the centre of the lower edge, the tight interlaced arrangement and the three-band composition with decorative outer band for the animal's main components all point to zoomorphic decoration in Style II.

Fig.l.4.5-i. shows an unusually large mount which probably came from a shield. It was found at Melton Mowbray (Lincolnshire) and is cast in copper-alloy and gilded. In form it consists of two plain half-moon plates attached to a decorative central feature. The plates form the lower parts of two human faces with promi­ nent eyes and brow-ridge (or hair?); two similar faces, without plates, are placed on the upper and lower extremities of the piece. Between these faces in the outer zone is a border of scrolled designs. Within this is a thick cast two-line ridge surrounding the central field: a running spiral around a cell which once held the attachment pin. The piece is so far unique, although there are echoes of the face designs and running spirals in several other items from this period. Fig.l.4.5-j. shows another bar with birds' head terminals, on a gilded copper-alloy mount from Cambridgeshire. The plain bar is attached at its centre to a column which splits to form the birds' claws, with a central pelletted border, which also appears at the junction of the heads and the bar.

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Fig-1'4. 5-k. is another gilt copper-alloy mount of unknown provenance. The triangular feature at the centre-top contains a Style I triple­ band motif and the side projections are formed into birds' heads with coiled beaks. The body of the mount is roughly lozenge-shaped with a cen­ tral ridge running to a corrugated lower fitting. Fig-1-4.5-1. is a mount from the apex of a shield boss from Cranbourne Chase (Dorset). It is cast in copper-alloy and gilded. The pelletted outer border contains four serpents gripping each other in a complex knot, similar to the two serpents on the tongue disc of the Sutton Hoo buckle (see Fig.l.2.1.h.). Although no bigger than a medium-sized coin and therefore having little display value, the detail presented in this piece required great skill in design and execution. Fig.l.4.5-m. is a cast copper-alloy shield but­ ton. The central panel is gilded and bears a motif comprising five running spirals, reminiscent of a common form of decoration for saucer brooches. The outer zone is a flat plate of sheet silver. The effect of these two highly reflective elements on an iron shield-boss would have been dazzling. Fig.l.4.5-n. shows a high-status mount from Snape (Suffolk) cast in copper-alloy and gilded. The motif is a bird of prey holding a fish - the bird's beak can be seen on the upper right extremity. The wing is represented by the looped feature at the bottom of the piece, while the body has three-band interlace designs along most of its length. Fig-1-4. 5-0. is a cast copper-alloy mount with a partially gilded surface, its design symmetrical about the vertical and horizontal axes. The outer element is a bird's head with a pronounced brow-ridge (a classic Style II design feature) and curled beak. This joins onto two panels: the inner one is billeted, while the outer features a serpent with its body twisted about itself - the head and the tail can be seen together at the inner end. A similar serpent-design can be seen incised into wood on the arms of the harp found at Trossingen, Germany. These design-complexes are arranged around a reserved field consisting of a roundel and a transverse bar; this field is pres­ ently empty but traces of attachment points can be seen at the outer edges, suggesting a further decorative panel.

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Fig.l.4.5-p. is a gilt copper-alloy shield mount in the form of a bird of prey. The depic­ tion is unusual in that the bird's body is formed as a single lentoid eye with the characteristic Germanic brow-ridge forming the neck and tail, while the lower surround sweeps round to become the extended wing. The beak develops from the junction of the brow-ridge and lower surround. The grasping claw is placed beneath the eye. The Anglo-Saxon god, Woden, after whom Wednesday is named, was considered to be one-eyed and to be able to adopt the form of a bird - characteristics shared with the later Norse Óðinn. The mount shares its animal form with several others known from Anglo-Saxon England - Bergh Apton, Spong Hill and Sutton Hoo - and probably evokes the amuletic quali­ ties of the beasts portrayed. The two mounting lugs are present on the reverse.

Fig.l-4.5-q. is a lozengiform decorative cop­ per-alloy panel or mount with rounded lateral ends. The upper and lower edges bear plain borders, and there is a reserved central loz­ engiform panel. Two bands of gilt chip-carved decoration in Style I featuring opposed animals with their snouts touching at the apices of the lozenge. Fig.1.4.5-r. is an unusual form of decora­ tive gilded copper-alloy mount featuring a bearded male holding a spear in each hand and wearing a kaftan war-coat. The figure's head is surmounted by a flat loop composed of two opposed "horns" terminating in birds' heads. The symbolism of the piece echoes the "danc­ ing warriors" motif found on the frontal panels of the Sutton Hoo helmet and similar panels in England and Scandinavia.

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The face is distinctive - long and ellip­ tical with a heavy brow and sub-triangular nose above a three-strand moustache, arched mouth and vertically-stranded beard. Around the brow is a horizontal three-strand band met by a similar vertical element, forming the brow-band and crest-ridge of an elaborate headdress surmounted by two incurved ele­ ments which terminate in bird-heads, the beak features shown very clearly. Similar faces with horns terminating in bird-heads are found across northern Europe in the 6th-8th centuries from sites such as Sutton Hoo (Suffolk) and Finglesham (Kent) to Birka and Torslunda (Sweden). They evi­ dently represent an important figure from the mythology of the Germanic peoples, a god or folk-hero.

Fig.l.4.5-s. is a disc-mount, probably from a horse-harness. It is a flat cast plate with a raised external ridge containing a panel of Style II zoomorphic interlace decoration formed as four reptilian heads with prominent roundel eyes emerging from a central four-way knot motif. The bodies are formed as three-band ribbons. The gilding is still present across much of the surface and there are four attachment lugs on the reverse. Fig.l.4.5-t. is a mount in the form of a helmeted male head, found in Yorkshire. The casting is copper-alloy with heavy mercury gilding, and the eyes are chips of black glass set in cabochon rings. There are two attachment rivets on the reverse indicating that it was originally mounted rather than worn as a pendant.

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animals are bound together in a four-way knot motif. The heads and hind legs of the animals are clearly shown, and their bodies are likewise pelletted.

1.4.6 Pressbleche (repoussé plates) An unusual class of weapon fittings are the repoussé plates or Pressbleche attached to high-status helmets and weapons. This fash­ ion is common to both eastern England and southern Scandinavia in the later 6th century; repoussé plates are also found elsewhere in the Germanic world in different contexts such as on sword scabbards, grave-furniture and pro­ cessional crosses. The Scandinavian examples are concentrated on the Swedish high-status cemeteries of Vendel and Valsgärde in the AD 500 to 800 date-range, the so-called "Vendel" period. The helmets consist of a frame of iron bands, with highly decorative fittings for the brows, nose-guard and crest, usually terminat­ ing in animal heads. A series of metal foils was attached to the skulls. The Sutton Hoo helmet features at least four different panels of decoration including dancing warriors, a rider and attackers, a rectangular interlace panel and a narrower interlace panel. (A fifth design could not be reconstructed.) These motifs are quite common for this type of object, and there are fragmentary finds such as the tinned foil from Caenby (Lincolnshire) (Fig.l.4.6-b.), which are clearly in the same tradition. Shield mounts were sometimes made in the same fashion, for example on the Sutton Hoo Mound 1 shield boss which was almost com­ pletely covered with these plates (Fig.l.4.5-c. page 77). Fig.l.4.6-a. is a cast copper-alloy die from Lincolnshire; foils from this die were found on a bucket at Loveden Hill. The heavy border sur­ rounds a zone of simple guilloche patterning, enclosing a billeted border. The central figure is a male with a prominent moustache grappling three serpents (or four, as one has a head at both ends). Fig.l.4.6-b. is a fragment of a foil from Caenby (Lincolnshire). The figure wears a curi­ ous "helmet" from which sprout two birds' heads with billeted necks, and two drooping projections which may represent a neck-guard. The upper torso is also billeted, representing the style of kaftan war coat popular at this time. In his right hand, he grasps the hilt of a sword. The iconography of this piece strongly resem­ bles that of the Sutton Hoo helmet. Fig.l.4.6-c. is an incomplete die found near Chelmsford (Essex). The Style II design is typical of the period around the end of the 6th century, and therefore contemporary with Sutton Hoo Mound 1. A pelletted outer border encloses a zone of three-strand interlace. Within this is a pelletted border within which four serpentine

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Fig-1-4.6 -d. shows a classic fighting scene from one of the helmet foils from Sutton Hoo Mound 1. A rider with shield and spear is attacking a fallen warrior in a mail shirt, who is simultane­ ously grasping the reins and stabbing the horse in the chest with his sword. The rider wears the standard kaftan war coat from this period. Behind the rider, a smaller figure with only a shield for protection grips the shaft of the spear. The meaning of the scene has never been unlocked, but the existence of similar designs implies that the imagery had some symbolic meaning for the Anglo-Saxon military. The smaller figure on the horse's back has been interpreted as either a skir­ misher attacking the horseman, or a supernatural figure guiding the spear.

Arrowheads occur in some Anglo-Saxon graves; they are often 6-9cm long including the tang, which is usually spiked but sometimes has a split-socket like a spearhead. Fig-1-4 .7-a. shows one of the bull-head ter­ minals from the "standard" found in Sutton Hoo Mound 1. The purpose of the piece has never been identified, but the presence of twisted iron bars and the upper cage surrounded by bulls implies something impressive and prob­ ably associated with kingship or religious power (bulls were sacrificed in pre-Christian times, and their heads placed on poles while the flesh was used for thanksgiving feasts). Fig-1-4- 7-b. is a remarkable section of mail from an early medieval grave. While most Roman and medieval mail is made from wire, this mail is constructed from alternating rows of forge-welded (flat) and riveted (wire) links, providing a very strong yet flexible form of armour. The construc­ tion method is similar to that used on the mail coat found in Mound 1 at Sutton Hoo, Suffolk.

1.4.7 Other Weapons Axes and axe-like weapons occur in early Anglo-Saxon graves, but they are not very common. The majority are types of francisca, a throwing axe with a curved, iron head, typically 15-20cm long and 5-10cm high at the socket.

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1.5 BOWLS & VESSELS

1.5.2 Coptic Bowls

There is a variety of copper-alloy vessels found in Anglo-Saxon contexts; many are frag­ mentary and some are unique. Bowls, pots and skillets are the usual terms used to describe these vessels from high-status graves and burial mounds. Repair patches are not uncommon, indicating that the vessels were important enough to maintain once they began to wear out.

"Coptic" bowls occur mainly in 7th century high-status mound burials. They are made in copper-alloy, with a wide, shallow bowl and a pedestal foot. Despite the "Coptic" name, they were made in the eastern Mediterranean. They were originally Christian liturgical vessels, but appear in Anglo-Saxon graves when Christi­ anity was still new and aimed at high-status converts. Some bear a cross motif, although this was not widely used in Christian contexts at this time. They occur mainly with grave goods, in east and south-east England.

1.5.1 Hanging Bowls Hanging bowls are large, circular, copperalloy vessels fitted with escutcheons at three points where the suspension fixtures were attached. There are more finds of stray escutch­ eons than complete bowls, and they were probably common in 7th century Anglo-Saxon halls. Often they were suspended from an ornate chain in the hall, but others may have been used to serve food at table, to hold drinks, to hold water for washing the hands, or even for Christian liturgical purposes. Hanging bowls may have been made in Scotland; the only manufacturing debris known so far was found near Inverness but they are so common in graves of both sexes that they can­ not all have been produced in one location. The escutcheons are copper-alloy, cast and usually decorated with La Téne geomet­ ric designs: trumpets, commas, peltas, swirls and triskeles. Enamelling is common on these artefacts, but otherwise rare in Anglo-Saxon contexts.

Fig.l.5.2-a. shows (above) the Coptic bowl from Chilton Hall, Sudbury (Suffolk) and (below) the Coptic bowl from the Taplow mound burial with its pedestal foot. Both feature two prominent drop-handles on the upper edge and a zone of pierced decoration to form a running zigzag motif. The Taplow vessel also has lugged extensions around the rim.

1.5.3 Drinking Vessels The Anglo-Saxons used a variety of drinking vessels, including various kinds of glass items - mainly claw-beakers and cone-beakers, but also squat pouch vessels and palm cups - as well as goblets in copper-alloy, silver, wood, horn and other perishable materials. Small stave-built buckets of yew-wood mounted with copper-alloy fittings are another common find in high-status graves. Fig.l.5.3-a. is a cast copper-alloy bucketmount from Birstall (Leicestershire). The central column, which is pierced to take four rivets, is decorated with a series of triangular punchmarks on the outer edges. At its base it widens and divides into the necks of two animals whose heads curl back to meet the column; they are similarly punched. The eyes of the beasts are formed with rivet-holes.

Fig.l.5.1-a. is a gilded copper-alloy bowlmount or escutcheon from Kent showing a pair of birds of prey attacking a fish. This motif was widely used in 7th century metalwork; cast mounts of this type were among the treasures of the Staffordshire Hoard. The design incorpo­ rates the classic bird design which occurs with Style II.

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1.5.3.1 Drinking Horn Fittings The highest quality Anglo-Saxon drinking horns were taken from an aurochs, and each has a capacity of about 2 litres. The aurochs had been extinct in Britain for about a thousand years at the time of the Anglo-Saxon mound burials, so the horns must have been imported from Scan­ dinavia or the Baltic. The silver and copper-alloy gilt mounts may have been added in England, as they usually have Style II animal ornament, which was still relatively new when the burials took place in the early 7th century. Horn finials are occasionally found as casual losses. The Sutton Hoo Mound 1 examples are the finest. Each horn had an inverted U-shaped silver-gilt rim, fastened with four clips which expand into pilasters on the outer surface. The rim and clips held silver Pressblech panels, with the lower edge trapped by a further silver-gilt strip which also held the upper edges of 12 triangular plates (vandykes) which are also Pressbleche. The terminals of the horns were long, decorative slender mounts with five Vandykes, a series of collars, and a bird's-head finial. Metal horns are not known from England at this period, but two high-status late 4th or early 5th century horns were found at Gallehus (Denmark) and are unique in that they were made from gold, decorated with figural scenes drawn from mythology. They are presumed to have been sacred objects in themselves, prob­ ably used in drinking rituals, and to have been committed to the earth in an act of sacrifice. Fig.l.5.3.1-a. is a Vandyke from one of the smaller horns found in the Taplow (Buck­ inghamshire) mound burial. Made of gilt copper-alloy and silver, the foil mount was attached running down from the rim-edging towards the base. The pelletted border encloses the image of a moustached man with his hands upraised, and clearly bound with a cord or manacle. His lower body is represented by a bird-like shape. Fig.l.5.3.1 -b. is the detail of the clip hold­ ing the foil onto the rim of the same Taplow drinking horn. The face is shown with bulging, staring eyes, a triangular nose and drooping, curly moustache. The upper head covers the ridged (fluted) strip which holds the rim in place; a transverse band with zigzag detailing completes the piece. Fig.l.5.3.1-c. shows the rim assemblage from the larger drinking horns from Taplow. The upper section shows Style I zoomorphs in the normal three-band style. The triangular Vandykes each contain a human figure in Style I with clearly visible hands and arms in the upper part closest to the rim-mounts.

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must be reckoned among the most powerful in their communities. They bear runic characters in some cases, as well as scenes from mythology and inter­ laced animal designs. They can have served no utilitarian purpose, unlike brooches and clasps, because they were too delicate even for use as a form of symbolic money (i.e. to pay a bride's dowry). Lavish frames and suspension settings indicate that some of these gold "coins" were intended purely for display rather than as a means of hoarding bullion. The English material can be divided into two regional groupings: the "Kentish group" and the "Anglian group", the latter spread along the eastern seaboard from Essex to York­ shire and inland, but most common in western Norfolk on the edge of the Fens, where naviga­ ble rivers drain into the Wash. There are some technical distinctions between the two groups: for example, Kentish bracteates had Scandinavian-style loops and edge rims of beaded wire, while the corresponding Anglian ones lacked these features, and were always made from silver sheet. Runic texts, mostly relating to feasting (such as alu "ale" and laþu "invitation"), are com­ mon on Scandinavian bracteates but hardly ever appear on Anglo-Saxon examples.

1.6 PENDANTS A variety of objects were pierced and used as pendants in early Anglo-Saxon times, some­ times for superstitious reasons. Pendants could be worn suspended individually or as part of a necklace assemblage. They are usually man­ made items worn at the throat or on the chest, but some naturally-occurring objects such as shells were also used.

1.6.1 Bracteates Bracteates are thin metal foils, mostly gold but some silver, no more than 2-3cm across, into which a design has been impressed from a master or die. There are several hundred examples known from Scandinavia and the North Sea rim, from the 5th and 6th centuries. Bracteates were worn at the neck, hung on a chain or thong and some had been in use long enough to have worn away part of the suspen­ sion loop. They appear in the chest or throat area of females, sometimes accompanied by beads, but the suspension cords never survive, which suggests that they were made from an organic material. The Anglo-Saxon women who were buried with these items are all accompanied by other high-status objects and

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Fig-1-6-1 -a. is a bracteate of the Kentish group with a standard form of three-band inter­ lace design inside a rope-work border, with a billeted edge and suspension loop.

1.6.2 Animal-Tooth Pendants Parts of animals used as pendants include some spectacular finds, including the teeth of wolves and beavers, and boars' tusks. The mounts are usually copper-alloy: a circlet encloses the top of the tooth and a loop is mounted at right-angles to this. The loops may be l-2cm long; the teeth usually only survive in and near the mounts so that the original length cannot be known.

Fig.1.6.1 -b. is from Riseley (Kent) and fea­ tures a billeted edge and rope-work border enclosing a billeted zone. The central design is of a bearded male grappling with serpents, perhaps a scene from Anglo-Saxon mythology which recurs on the bucket-mount die from Lincolnshire (Fig.l.4.6-a.).

Fig.l.6.2-a & b. is a good example of such a pendant as it survives - the boar's tusk has been preserved by the copper-alloy strip which still partially encloses it. The front view clearly shows the greenish stain where the metal strip formerly lay against the tusk.

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1.6.3 Weapon Pendants Collections of miniature "toy" weap­ ons occur in Scandinavian contexts, usually attached to a loop of silver or bronze wire. There are a few examples of English ham­ mer pendants, associated with the god þunor (Norse þórr, Thor). Earlier versions of the stories called his weapon a club, examples of which also occur as pendants in the 5th and 6th centuries.

1.6.4 Disc Pendants Sheet bronze disc pendants (1.5 to 2.5cm in diameter) decorated in Sösdala style are found in Anglian graves. Plain discs of metal - made from iron, copper-alloy or silver are also occasional finds from pre-Christian graves. A special type is the flat disc with a domed centre, called a "scutiform" (i.e. shield-shaped) pendant. These silver scutiform pendants developed from 5th century Scan­ dinavian prototypes into a distinctive Anglian style; perforated disc pendants likewise form a series in Anglo-Saxon England. The English examples of disc pendants are usually silver and date from the early to mid6th century, but some may have been in use

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into the 7th century. As they are shield-shaped, these items perhaps belong with the miniature weapon pendants (1.6.3), but they usually occur alone. Pendants of gold (3 to 5cm in diameter) dis­ playing a central cabochon garnet or "stone" (coloured glass) are a sub-group of the disc pendant class. The stones are circular or oval, with a setting of beaded wire and/or filigree. They occur prominently on necklaces. The Kentish custom with disc pendants is that they have filigree decoration as well as cloisonné garnets and coloured glass. A central boss is surrounded by filigree with radiating geometric cells. The normal arrangements are triangular cells set in three equally-spaced positions, or round cells set in a cruciform display. There are also some unusual forms, such as three birds' heads executed in garnet cloisonné. Fig.l.6.4-a. is a sheet-silver pendant from Lechlade (Gloucestershire). Decoration is con­ fined to a central boss, three pierced holes with surrounding punched points; a group of triangular and point punch-marks in the lower quadrant; four lines of triangular punch-marks radiating from the centre and separating the quadrants. There are some more triangular punch-marks around the exterior, which seem to have been worn away on the lower edges. The original suspension hole wore through the sheet and had to be relocated. Fig.l.6.4-b. shows a more complex form of circular pendant or clasp fitting from Godmanchester (Huntingdonshire), cast in silver, gilded and stamped. The central field bears a lozenge, the apices of which are extended into spirals which spread anti-clockwise above the adja­ cent panel-edge. The outer field is cast plain, punched with a stamp made from opposed triangles to give a beaded effect. The outer edge of the pendant features a suspension loop at the top, much worn but with signs of further punched beading. Around the perimeter are locations for seven lugs (of which five remain) each of which was capped with a gold spherical decoration (of which three are still present). This must have been a high-status example of such decorations, due to the fineness of the work. Fig.l.6.4-c. shows a gold foil pendant from northeast England. It is similar to the standard scutiform design but has additional circles of repoussé points surrounding the boss. The sus­ pension loop is integral, formed from a tongue of the same sheet gold. Fig.l.6.4-d. shows a sub-triangular garnet cut and set as a cabochon; its surrounding cell is made from thin gold sheet, with a ribbed zone between the cell's wall and the outer edge.

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Fig.l.6.4-e. is a fine example of a high-status disc pendant. Its central field is a cabochon garnet within a gold cell, with a rope-work border. The gold disc's main zone is divided into eight fields: four plain ones interspersed with fields of granu­ lation (gold pellets with collars) set between expanding ribs which define the edges of a Greek cross. An outer rope-work border extends over the suspension loop to complete the piece.

shaped and with a grid incised into the striking surface. The whole piece imitates the shape and design of an early Anglo-Saxon shield.

Fig.l.6.4-f. shows another gold disc pendant. This one has lost its central stone, probably a garnet cabochon of slightly oval shape. The rope-work border is made from two bands, with the twist running in opposite directions to give a chevron pattern on the borders. This decorative feature is also applied to mark off four semicir­ cular fields which define the edges of a cross design, and to the outer rim of the pendant. A low suspension loop is placed centrally above one of the semicircular fields, showing that the cross should be viewed as a saltire (x).

Fig.l.6.4-h. is a gold disc pendant formed as a flat disc edged with a ribbed border and an inner circular rope-work band which develops into an equal-armed cross with a central rosette surrounding a cloison setting for a cabochon garnet. The junctions of the rope-work bands are covered with gold discs and the quarters are embellished with granulation. The loop is of the standard three-rib form for bracteates and other high-status gold jewellery of the period, influenced by both Scandinavian and Frankish design. The piece is in the same tradition as the highest-quality jewellery found in the Kentish and East Anglian barrowfields.

Fig. 1.6.4-g. is a sheet silver scutiform pen­ dant (now damaged). Its outer edge is decorated with punched pellets; around the central "boss" are placed five radiating punch-marks, leaf­

Fig.l.6.4-i. is a pendant of the standard Kentish type: a quadrilateral cage of gold bands decorated with filigree encloses a quartz crystal. The bands continue to form the suspension loop, bound with a length of reeded gold strip.

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Fig.l-6.4-j. is a disc-mount bearing Style II decoration in the form of panels of interlaced serpents: one is made as three strands and the other as two. The central circular cell probably housed a garnet cabochon or other colourful decorative

feature. The mount appears to have been re­ used as a pendant at some point, with a small hole pierced through to accept a suspension ring. The densely-placed animal forms may have encouraged the owner to use the mount as an amulet.

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has been pierced twice, and a suspension loop has been created by means of a saddle-shaped silver mount fixed across the thickness of the coin, with three looped bars allowing the piece to be mounted on a silver ring. Fig.l.6.5-b. shows the reverse, which displays a figure of Salus feeding a snake from a shallow dish.

Fig.l.6.5-c. shows a copper-alloy coin pierced with two holes for suspension. The reverse shows a Roman military standard sup­ ported by two armed figures; the obverse is badly degraded, but the shape of the bust is still visible and the remains of lettering can be detected round the edge.

1.6.6 Figurine Pendants There is a class of miniature figures of naked or semi-clothed men, 3-5cm long, pierced or looped for use as pendants. The details of their use are unknown but some form of fertility cult seems likely, based on Scandinavian parallels. Fig.l.6.6-a. is an example in copper-alloy from Breach Down (Kent). He wears no obvious clothing but is modelled without genitalia, and his arms are folded across his chest. A striking feature is the face with its large, staring eyes and prominent nose.

1.6.5 Coin Pendants Another tradition in Anglo-Saxon England up to the 6th century, was the use of Roman coins as pendants, pierced, threaded onto a wire loop and added to a necklace. Roman coins were often treated as symbolic items, and were mounted with the emperor's face on the outer surface with the suspension loop above his head so that normally his image hung the right way up. Fig.l.6.5-a. shows a well-moulded bust of the empress Faustina Augusta, the wife of Antoninus Pius who died in AD 161. The coin

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1.6.7 Bucket Pendants

1.6.9 Beads

Bucket pendants are small copper-alloy pendants made in the shape of a pot with a handle, found on necklaces among glass and amber beads; they are not common but occur in the southwest and in some Anglian areas.

Metal beads of l-2cm length occur in female graves. They can be biconical, spherical, or shaped like an almond or a cylinder. The bicon­ ical forms are often made from wire twisted into shape. They appear at the beginning of the 7th century and continue in use into the 9th or 10th centuries.

1.6.8 Bulla Pendants

Fig.l.6.9-a. shows two gold-wire beads made up as spacers for a pendant, from north­ east England. The outer edges are finished with filigree rims. The method of construction is quite clear in the right example, where the wire has started to deform.

Another rare group of pendants are called bullae (Fig.l.6.8-a.). They are spherical or hemi­ spherical metal balls attached to a wire or reeded strip suspension loop, and date from c.660 up to the end of the 7th century. They are associated with female graves, where they appear on necklaces, and may have had some religious significance.

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1.7 BELT RINGS These were apparently attached to the belt in female costume in the 5th to 7th centuries, often suspended from a chain or leather strap at the left hip, or placed in a pouch. They are usually cast in copper-alloy and decorated with simple geometric designs. They resemble small annular brooches in many respects. Fig-1-7-a. is an example of a standard form of belt ring, from a high-status female grave at Cadbourne (Lincolnshire).

1.9 CHATELAINES, LATCH-LIFTERS & GIRDLE-HANGERS Chatelaines are belt-mounts with a length of decorative chain, which could be formed as an interlocking iron S-twist, or an iron rod with a closed hook at each end, into which the closed hook of the adjacent rod was fitted. Decorative links of copper-alloy were sometimes used and sometimes the chain was made up from inter­ locking rings and rods, with items attached to it at various points along its length. The mount was worn at the waist and the longest examples of chain could be nearly 1 metre long so that the lowest object would have been close to the floor. They were attached to a belt or sash at the left hip, as with keys and latch-lifters, which often were attached to such chains, as also knives, miniature needlework boxes, rolled metal strip and other items. Latch-lifters are a common item, made from copper-alloy or iron: they are a simple L- or T-shaped bar, around 15cm long, perhaps used as a form of "key". Girdle-hangers are T-shaped iron or copperalloy bars, often with swept-back vertical wings

1.8 BRACELETS & ARMRINGS Bracelets occur in several forms. Copperalloy wire circlets with a slip-knot closure occur in 5th to 7th century Anglo-Saxon graves, associated with females and children. Bangles (continuous rings) are also found in Anglian areas; these may be bracelets or anklets. Spi­ ral-wound sheet-silver bracelets with stamped ornament also occur in East Anglia. See Figs.2.1.1-b & c. for examples of silver wire bracelets with beads attached. Fig.l.8-a. is a cast copper-alloy bangle from Kent with segmentation in the form of opposed animal heads.

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and openwork sections, found in matching pairs linked at the top by a rod or loop of wire. They can be up to 30cm long. Girdle-hangers are a common Anglian female dress item, and are found also in Jutland (Denmark). They often have stamped decoration in zones, ring-anddot motifs and IXI-motifs for decoration. Other chatelaine attachments include openwork metal discs, toilet sets, spoons and strainers, knives and shears, perforated discs of bone or antler, and bags with sundry small items (e.g. beads, coins, pebbles, etc.).

1.9. C hatelaines.

Fig-1-9 -c. shows a fine example of the more substantial type of paired girdle-hangers. The intact suspension piece is semicircular to allow both hangers to dangle and swivel in the vertical plane. The hangers themselves are copper-alloy, T-shaped with swept-back lateral wings on the flat heads. The shanks are flat at the head, swelling to an ovoid or sub-circular section at the upper end. Decoration includes ribbed transverse bands and collars on the sub-circular sections, with punched pellet deco­ ration on the heads and lower shanks.

Fig.l.9-a & b. is the top mount for a chatelaine, cast in copper-alloy and with two of the three attachment points still complete. The tubular section at the base is where the chain was attached. The plate bears an unusual design of two opposed zoomorphs (perhaps bears or wolves) whose hips form the eyes of a male face, and whose paws form a moustache; the nose is represented by the void between the upper limbs. It was found at Winchester (Hampshire).

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Figs.l.9-d-g. show two iron girdle-hangers from the barrow burial at Cadbourne (Lincoln­ shire). The larger of them displays swept-back wings parallel to the shaft, and appears to be bent up at the end. The smaller is more typical of the standard form of this class of metalwork. Adjacent are two latch-lifters, the larger one a standard L-shape with a slight upward exten­ sion at the tip; the other is simply curved round parallel to the shaft. (The ring in Fig.l.7-a. is part of the same belt-set.

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A loop of silver wire, either knotted or threaded with a glass bead, is a common form and lunulate forms in sheet silver are also known.

1.10 KEYS Iron keys, tubular and with a hole in the fur­ ther end, are a male dress item which was just beginning to appear in the later 7th century. They are typically 5 to 8cm long; most are heav­ ily corroded and can only be identified as keys after expert examination.

1.13 FINGER RINGS Finger rings are not common in AngloSaxon graves. Construction was usually from silver wire in a spiral round the finger, or from silver sheet decorated with punch-marks, or a simple hoop. Some wire rings have a bezel or knot worked into the design. Rings are associated with higher status female accessories. Some examples featured garnet cloisonné cells. There are also occa­ sional examples of re-used Roman rings, and of Roman intaglios re-set in Anglo-Saxon mounts. The distribution of early (Migration Period) rings in England is exclusively from the south­ ern area.

Fig.l.lO-a. is a cylindrical-shafted key with a pelletted loop, held on a ring of wire with a serpentine head closure, arranged so that the beast's jaws grip its tail. This example was found in Kent in the 18th century.

Fig.l.l3-a. shows two further finger rings. The example at the top is from Lechlade (Gloucestershire) and made from thin silver sheet decorated with a central band and punched design. The example at the bottom, from Guildown (Surrey) is more ornate with a decorative billeted band on the silver strip and a stylised animal head attached to complete the piece.

1.11 COMBS Copper-alloy openwork combs occur in early medieval contexts, although they are very rare in England. The only published English example was 148mm long (before the end was broken off), from the Whitby (Yorkshire) monastic site.

1.12 EARRINGS Polyhedral earrings (around 1cm across) were introduced to western Europe in the Later Roman period, based on a Hunnic fashion, and were adopted by the Merovingian Franks and others in the 6th century. Similar Anglo-Saxon earrings are found in 7th century Kent and elsewhere.

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Fig.l.l3-b. is a well-preserved example of a corrugated sheet silver finger ring from Melton Mowbray (Leicestershire). The ends of the strip have been tapered in order to bring the ring out at a common width on the finger. Fig.l.l3-c. shows a copper-alloy finger ring from northeast England in the form of a piled coil. The rich blue-green patination, which is typical of cuprous alloys, is very evident in this example. Fig.l.l3-d. shows a simple, decorative finger ring of unknown provenance. As the image clearly demonstrates, the ring is actually a coil of gold sheet, with the two ends cut down in order to present a consistent width without overlapping. Punched pellet decoration along the midway zone is the only ornament. Fig.l.l3-e. shows a well-made example of a gold bezel ring from East Anglia. The band is divided into two fields of embossed rope-work separated by a central border. This widens towards the bezel where the two bands diverge to enclose a field of embossed pellets. The bezel is circular with an embossed rope-work border similar to that on the band; within this there is a finely embossed interlace pattern lacking any zoomorphic elements, but forming four wheel­ headed crosses. The whole piece is delicate and highly detailed, and suggests a very high-status wearer such as a noble or high-ranking eccle­ siastic. Fig.l.l3-f. Anglo-Saxon goldsmiths were capable of very fine work and this is a virtuoso piece by a craftsman of the highest level of skill. It is a single-band finger ring made to look like a very tight plait of gold wire. The metal was first drawn into a wire of around 1.5 mm thick, then incised in two directions to produce a lozenge effect before carefully forming it into a hoop and closing it. The resultant design mim­ ics very effectively the fine filigree decoration typical of 7th century gold metalwork.

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Fig.l.l4-b. represents a common variant the pelta has two short extensions on the upper, outer edges, which curl back to form birds' heads. The central field shows a standard threeband interlace pattern. It is cast in copper-alloy and gilded, and was found in Norfolk.

1.14 HARNESS & BRIDLE MOUNTS Bridle and horse harness fittings are occa­ sionally found in high-status graves, and more commonly as stray finds from casual losses. They became more common towards the end of the heathen period, influenced by Meroving­ ian Frankish custom. Possession of such fittings showed membership of the horse-owning elite. Harness mounts are metal fittings for horseharness, which strengthen the joints where two straps meet or cross. Merovingian types are often decorated with filigree and cloisonné garnets in cruciform patterns similar to key­ stone disc brooches. Pelta-shaped plates in copper-alloy, around 3 to 6cm in length, are the commonest find, but other forms are known. Decoration is usually tight knot-work bands. East Anglia and the Thames valley are the major areas for such finds; in East Anglia and the south-east, burial of entire horses with their harness is known. Fig.l.l4-a. is a good example of a peltashaped copper-alloy mount with three-band interlace in Style II; its provenance is unknown. It appears to be missing the lower section as the design continues right up to the edge. The outer border is cast with two lines enclosing a zoomorphic design based around intertwined serpents whose necks and jaws meet rhythmi­ cally in the centre of the piece. The gilding has been worn off the higher surfaces.

Fig. 1.14-c. is a cast copper-alloy harness fit­ ting with remains of its gilded surface. A handful of finds of this type are known, called "bell-shaped

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pendants" in the archaeological literature. They are understood to have been used as decoration on high-status horse harness where they would swing freely jingling and catching the light. This example features two addorsed creatures with open jaws (drawn from Nydam Style, these beasts occur on the footplates of great square­ headed brooches), their upper lips forming the outer contour of the sides. Between these beasts' necks is an elliptical cabochon garnet. A plain expanding panel set between the beasts becomes the lower field of the pendant.

1.15 NECK RINGS In England, lunulate (crescent or moon­ shaped) neck rings are mostly associated with the graves of children. They are of sheet cop­ per-alloy, 2 to 4cm wide at the apex, and may be decorated with zones of cross-hatching and ring-and-dot, rows of stamped decoration or rows of circular punch-marks. They are not common and occur mainly in the east Midlands. Fig.l.l5-a. shows two examples, both from Empingham (Rutland). The upper one is rather narrow and is decorated only with triangu­ lar punch-marks around the inner and outer edges. It has a simple punched hole allowing the other end to pass through to fasten it. The lower example is more typical with an expanded central section. Punched points along both edges of the central section are one decorative feature, bounded by incised lines in crossed zigzag formats.

Fig.l.l4-d . shows a pelta mount with an unusual design. The outer edges are decorated with bird's head extensions. The upper field fea­ tures a procession of Style I beasts, their circular eyes and the toes of their lower legs being the only obvious zoomorphic features. The lateral fields are filled with similar creatures, extend­ ing to two more fully developed beasts on the lower ends, surrounding a ring-and-dot motif with an outer circle whose two ends loop back on themselves, perhaps representing addorsed birds' heads. The central field features a male figure with large, staring eyes and a long beard; upraised, crooked arms; and a small trunk and thin legs shown in an "advancing" posture. In his hands he clasps rods (or staves, or spears) which end in animal heads whose extended jaws reach across and lock above his head. It can hardly be doubted that this is a figure from Anglo-Saxon myth or legend, and he has features that occur elsewhere - the two staves, for example, appear as spears on the "dancing warrior" panel of the Sutton Hoo helmet.

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1.16 PADLOCKS Barrel padlocks made of iron occur in a few Anglo-Saxon period graves from the south­ east, mainly Kent. They are usually placed with other small items, either at the foot of the grave or at the hip, and may have been kept in a pouch or bag, or attached to separate lockable boxes. They are always corroded and are thus difficult to identify.

1.17 PINS Metal pins of copper-alloy, iron and sil­ ver - between 5 and 12cm long - are found in Anglo-Saxon graves; there were also types made from bone. They are associated with female costume and usually occur at the throat, chest or on the upper body. All pins, including the bone examples, were quite sturdy and capable of taking the strain of holding a gar­ ment closed. Straight pin shafts with milled heads occur in Anglo-Saxon contexts, perhaps the nonperishable portions of a pin topped with an ornate bone, wood or ivory feature; others may have had a metal head which has been lost through constant use or poor soldering. A special type of pin is the "spangle", in which a small triangle or lozenge of metal is attached to the head of the pin by a wire ring. It occurs in English contexts from the late-5th to mid-6th centuries and is developed from a Continental form. Some cheaper pins have heads formed as a loop, a tight spiral or a scroll. The "spatulateheaded pins" have a shovel-shaped head, either cast or hammered at the end of the shaft. A separate class of pins is the set of three linked by fine chains; they are usually made of precious metal (silver, silver-gilt) and some are set with garnet or glass cabochons.

1.18 PURSE MOUNTS & FIRE-STEELS

Figs.l.l7-a & b. shows two views of a high-status silver-gilt pin (findspot unknown). The side view shows the thickness of the pin's shaft and the defined hip or "step" towards the end which would have helped the pin to stay inserted into the hair or covering fabric. The thickness of the head, in the form of a circular plate, is also clear in this view. The top view shows the head's design - a field of gilded silver surrounded by a beaded filigree border, with beaded filigree trails spaced rhythmically around the field. The trails are two opposed u-shapes ending in coiled heads, with a further 6-shaped trail at the lower part and a s-shaped counterpart above. Pins of such richness are typical of early Christian religious sites, where the influence of royal ladies on clothing design was para­ mount.

A characteristic find in high-status Frank­ ish graves is a metal purse mount with garnet cloisonne finish. The iron surround is usu­ ally silvered, and terminates in animal heads, upturned and decorated; pieces of blue glass, bone, etc. add colour and variety to the tiny garnet border. The English finds are not so impressive, due to corrosion of the iron; usually a bar, 12 to 20cm long, with upturned ends and a central buckle loop and pin probably doubling as a fastening mechanism for a bag or pouch and a fire-steel. The ends of the bar may be decorated with simple birds' or horses' head shapes, curled over to form a hook or eyelet. Pouch frames made in U-section copperalloy are also sometimes found, especially in the south-east.

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Fig.l.l8-a. is a reconstruction of the gold foil decorative plaque found in the burial mound at Swallowcliffe Down (Wiltshire). This mound, of a wealthy female buried on an iron-bound wooden bed, was one of the last barrow-burials in Anglo-Saxon England. The mount shows an elegant knot-work design, retaining the pelletted surface detail which characterises the Style II metalwork (com­ pare the serpents on the Sutton Hoo buckle, Fig.l.2.1-h.). The plaque was attached to a leather "satchel", pouch or scrip. Fig.l.l8-b. is a decorative fire-steel from Herpes (France) with ornamental inset panels, point punch-marks along the edges of the cells and the border, and X-shaped punched deco­ rative details. The profile of the outer ends is of birds' heads, turned inwards. The buckle is of standard 6th century type.

1.19 PYXIDES Pyxides or "workboxes" are cylindrical cop­ per-alloy containers around 5 to 8cm long made as two lengths of tube; one fits tightly inside the other, and the two are linked by a chain. They occur in later 7th century female graves across England. Often the outer tube and the ends are decorated with embossed or punched geometric designs made up from points. From the lack of wear, they cannot have been opened often. They usually contain scraps of textiles, threads, plant remains, pins and other material. They may have been keepsakes or reliquaries rather than any kind of practical needle-case. Fig.l.l9-a. is a Kentish example with chains securing the case and lid separately to a suspen­ sion loop.

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1.20 SPOONS Small iron, copper-alloy or silver spoons occur on the chatelaines of 7th century females; they have sub-triangular bowls around 3cm long and a shaft of up to 10cm; some "bowls" are flat rather than dished. Magnificent silver spoons also formed part of the grave-goods at Sutton Hoo and Prittlewell, but these were Roman items with probably religious sig­ nificance for Anglo-Saxon chiefs during the Conversion Period. There is a second type of spoon, of similar size, classed as a "strainer"; it has regularlyplaced perforations in the bowl and often punched or engraved decorations in geometric patterns; some Kentish examples have garnet cloisons on the shaft. It seems likely that they formed part of the symbolic tool set for serving drink in the hall.

the handle and bowl on either side. The central strainer (Bifrons, Kent, grave 6) has incised decoration in the centre of the bowl and eight symmetrically placed holes. The handle is broad at the bowl end, and features incised bands which follow the outer contours of the handle, crossing towards the junction with the bowl. A twisted wire suspension ring completes the piece. The right example (Bifrons, Kent, assem­ blage 25) has nine holes in a cross in the centre of the bowl. There is a broad handle at the bowl with punched and incised decoration; this nar­ rows to a simple coiled loop at the top where a twisted wire ring is fitted.

Fig.l.20-a. shows three sorts of the more common format of strainer. The left example (Bifrons, Kent, assemblage 24) is plain copperalloy, with holes placed symmetrically across the surface of the bowl. A line of punched deco­ ration extends along both edges of the handle. A bird's head motif is placed at the junction of

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Fig.l.20-b. shows three high-status Kentish strainers. On the left (Chatham Lines, Kent) is one with a flat "bowl" and holes of different sizes placed regularly across the surface. The handle is decorated with punched roundels and cells of garnet cloisonné, rectangular on the shaft and triangular at the junction with the bowl. On the right (Bifrons, Kent, grave 42), the strainer has a very plain bowl with few holes and the handle is decorated with punched tri­ angles and a pyramid of garnet cloisonné. It has a twisted wire suspension loop. In the centre (Bifrons, Kent, grave 51) is a very fine example with incised arcs decorating the pierced bowl, stylised birds' heads at the junction of the bowl and handle, and a garnet cloisonné cell design on the sub-triangular panel. Triangular punchmarks decorate the shaft.

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1.21 SPURS There is only one published example of an Anglo-Saxon iron prick-spur, from Castledyke (Yorkshire). It is similar to types found in contemporary Alemannic graves in western Germany, and dates from AD 650-700.

1.22 TAGS The term "tag" is used for two separate types of artefact. Metal hooked "tags" occur in Anglo-Saxon graves - either a round or subtriangular plate (2-3cm long) with a short hook turned back parallel with the plate. Three holes indicate where the tags were sewn to the cloth­ ing. They are commonly associated with female dress, and were used to secure garments such as head-rails and leg-bindings, pouches and other fabric containers. They occur in no special position on the body and are not very strong. The other form of "tag" is a slender, coni­ cal (l-2cm) copper-alloy fitting used to protect the ends of laces. They occur near the ankle or foot in c.7th century Kentish female graves and probably fastened footwear.

a pronounced tang and shoulder, which may have been used either as a sharpening tool or as a fire-steel. The tang sometimes shows traces of a horn or bone handle. Spatulate tools often occur, wrapped in leather, beside a knife. The second type is the "pointed tool", which is not easy to classify as the finer iron remains tend to be disguised by corrosion. Typically they have a square-sectioned tang and a circularsectioned shaft tapering to a point. They may be awls or punches, or possible files. There are occasional finds of other tools, such as chisels, hammers and spoke shaves. Iron tools are not common as grave-goods in the Migration Period, but they are found on settlement sites (perhaps lost or discarded items). Complete sets of tools are very rare - the best English example is that from Tattershall Thorpe, which still lacked some types of imple­ ments which would have been expected in a working toolkit.

1.23 THREAD, METALLIC Gold threads are found in high-status Anglo-Saxon graves of the 6th and 7th cen­ turies such as the Taplow find, where they appear to have been embroidered or woven into the edge of fabric, possibly into a tabletbraid border. Unless excavated under controlled conditions, threads are usually too fragile to withstand handling.

1.24 TOILET SETS Manicure or toilet sets in copper-alloy con­ sisting of tweezers, brush, nail-cleaner and scoop can be found in Anglo-Saxon graves of both sexes. Tweezers were also hung round the neck in some cases, perhaps in a pouch. They are more often found in Anglian than Saxon areas. The finer examples are decorated with punch-marks in geometric arrangements. Occasional finds of toilet sets with glass beads, shells, pierced coins and similar small items at the waist, especially in female graves, are usually con­ sidered to have been carried in a pouch.

1.26 WEAVING EQUIPMENT Weaving equipment of various types occurs in Anglo-Saxon female graves, and had symbolic importance in demonstrating the importance of women as producers of textiles and clothing. The items most commonly found are spindle whorls of lead, bone, ceramic or other materi­ als; iron weaving battens; iron thread-pickers and heckles (metal-toothed combs for carding wool). Probably also to be considered in this con­ text are the many examples of shears in female graves, although some seem too small for the purpose and may have been general cutting and trimming tools. Later inhumation graves feature shears as part of the prominent set of tools hanging from the female belt.

Fig.l.24-a. shows a typical Anglo-Saxon copper-alloy tweezers format with a very wide spatulate end to the bar. The remains of two rivets can be seen towards the top.

1.25 TOOLS There are two varieties of iron remains found in grave assemblages which can probably be considered as tools. One, called a "spatu­ late tool", is an iron bar up to 10cm long with

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larger, with punched double-contour triangles across the finial bar. The headplate's borders bear similar punched decoration. The shallow bow has facetted ends, a medial carination and a central rectangular panel. The footplate develops from this into a plain panel with lateral lappets bearing involuted scroll deco­ ration forming a profile Style I eagle-head. Below this is a transverse collar which devel­ ops into a horse-head finial with pronounced lobed eyes and discoid nostril detail.

1.27 GRAVE GROUP This is an entire early Anglian female grave-group from County Durham (docu­ mented under Portable Antiquities Scheme reference NCL-4ABB77). The group com­ prises: Fig.l.27-a. a copper-alloy cruciform brooch with a trapezoidal headplate flanked by expanding wings with collared D-section lobes; the top-knob is similar in form but

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Fig.l.27-c. two matched pairs of copperalloy wrist clasps, these comprise a full set of wrist-clasps of Hines's Form B20 comprising transverse bars, with conjoined lugs behind and lobed back edges. Detailing takes the form of small concentric roundels on the bars and larger ones on the lugs.

Fig.l.27-b. a pair of copper-alloy annular brooches not matched in size or decoration. The larger has four bands of transverse multilinear ornament with the interstitial panels bordered with double rows of punched dot detailing; its pin-slot is filled with a ferrous concretion, the remains of the pin. The smaller has four transverse bands of bilinear decoration, with two central rows of punched dot ornament between; the brooch narrows to accommodate a ferrous pin (lost in antiquity) and is cracked across this point.

The grave-group is typical of those associ­ ated with good-quality Anglian female graves from the later 5th century and into the later 6th, with such emphatic markers of ethnicity as the cruciform brooch for the outer cloak or shawl, and the wrist clasps for the shift or under­ dress. A peplos overdress would have been gathered at the shoulders and secured by the pair of annular brooches. The cruciform brooch resembles that from grave 96 at Morningthorpe, Norfolk, found with wrist clasps of Form B19.

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2. Non-Metallic Artefacts on-metallic artefacts are often found in association with metal items - for instance, a necklace may comprise metal, glass and amber beads as well as metallic disc pendants. Swords sometimes have a small amber, jet, ceramic or glass bead associated with the hilt or upper scabbard, as well as wooden or bone components in the hilt. Survival of some materials is especially poor in certain soil conditions - this includes, wood, leather, textiles and other perishable materials. Only rarely do such items survive in a recognis­ able condition.

A detailed typology is not available, but discs and tubes are the dominant shapes for the worked pieces, usually from 1 to 3cm long and up to 1cm diameter.

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2.1 AMBER The use of amber by Germanic peoples is mentioned by Tacitus (Germania, 45.4, 5) where he correctly understood it to be derived from the sap of trees. Anglo-Saxon uses for amber were mostly as decorative beads, although it was also used as inlay for some magnificent items such as the Ripon Jewel. Most AngloSaxon amber probably came into England on the finery of immigrant women in the 5th and 6th centuries. Later it formed an object of trade with the Baltic, although small amounts could be collected on the eastern seaboard of Britain. Jet, a glassy black vegetable substance, was also collected along the east coast.

2.1.1 Beads Amber beads occur frequently in early to mid-6th century Anglo-Saxon female graves, especially in Anglian areas; there is also a strong link of amber beads with burials of chil­ dren. Numbers of beads in a string can vary from two or three to around 20 per grave, and very high counts are sometimes found, i.e. one grave at Long Wittenham (Oxfordshire) had 280 beads.

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Figs.2.1.1-b & c. are silver-wire circlets with beads still attached. One comprises five amber discs, while the other carries four amber discs and a tubular bead. The silver-wire has been partly restored. The small size of the beads and circumference of the circlet make these pieces unusual - perhaps intended for a child?

Fig-2.1.1 -a. shows a good example of an amber necklace bead from Leicestershire. The polished surface is now pitted, but the rich honey-coloured lustre of the bead can be seen where it is preserved. The form is roughly cylin­ drical, but the amber has been only minimally worked.

2.2 ANTLER Antler was plentiful in Anglo-Saxon Eng­ land, either as casual finds (shed antlers) or removed from animals killed for food. Shed antler is less useful than the material recovered from hunted animals, but most Anglo-Saxon worked antler seems to have been shed. Both roe and red deer were wild in England at that time, and they shed at different seasons, so supplies could be expected over several months. Antler has to have the tines removed before working, and these were used as toggles, but­ tons, pegs and so on. The end burrs were cut off with a saw and the stem was then quartered, and the spongy inner part removed. The outer, ridged surface may have been filed to a smooth finish and plates were cut at this stage. The plates were sorted for final use as combs, buck­ les, gaming pieces and the like. Antler was also turned on a lathe to produce spindle whorls and other hemispherical or disc-shaped items. There are examples of buckles carved from plates of antler.

2.2.1 Antler Combs Antler combs are a common Anglo-Saxon artefact, and many examples are known from both graveyards and settlement sites. They occur in 7th century graves of both sexes in southern and eastern England. Sometimes the comb is part of the female pouch contents, or even pierced for direct suspension from the belt: highly decorated combs were considered worthy of display and were evidently treated as a status symbol. Composite combs (made up from several plates riveted together) were the most complex items made from antler in AngloSaxon times. There are two main types of Anglo-Saxon comb: simple and composite, either of which may be single- or double-sided. Simple combs are cut from a single plate, while composite combs are made from separate pieces: several short plates are trapped between two longitudi­ nal ones, riveted at the junctions. Double-sided combs are typically around 15cm long, and 5cm wide, with short teeth; one side normally has a wide-spaced cut for the teeth and the other is more closely set. Decoration in the form of ring-and-dot and linear hatching motifs is very common on antler combs, but some were plain. Single-sided composite combs (so-called "triangular combs") are similarly made to

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the double-sided versions, but they feature a sharply angled profile to the upper edge, away from the teeth-plates. A feature of some cremation graves is the inclusion of miniature single-sided combs (1.5 to 2cm long) which may be amuletic or sym­ bolic, to substitute for the real item.

mammal bones, trimmed with a small knife and polished. A circular perforation may have been for the attachment of a cord. Bone was worked for use as an inlay mate­ rial on some high-status items: at least 55 fragments were found in the barrow at Asthall (Oxfordshire), cut from leg-bones of horses or cattle. They were treated with grooving and cross-hatching on the inner surfaces, but this may have been intended to provide a key for an adhesive rather than as a decorative scheme.

Fig-2.2.1 -a. shows a composite "Frisian barred comb", recognisable by its zoomorphic terminals, longitudinal plates, single toothed edge and handle in the middle of the back.

2.3.1 Gaming Pieces A high-status item which occasionally sur­ vives in recognisable form is the bone gaming piece, which may occur singly or in large (com­ plete?) sets (e.g. Sutton Hoo Mound 1, Taplow and Prittlewell). There is no consistency in the numbers of pieces in the surviving sets, but it is not clear whether this reflects different games to be played or different attitudes to burial. Apart from bone, such items may also be made from horses' teeth, glass and antler. They are typically flat on one side and domed on the other, 1.5 to 2.5cm in diameter. Decoration is minimal, just ring-and-dot designs, hatching or scoring; the glass examples were sometimes coloured differently from each other. At Caistor-by-Norwich (Norfolk) one urn had a full set of pieces: 22 white bone pieces and 11 darker ones, perhaps made from shale. In the same urn were 35 or more sheep's astra­ gali (knuckle-bones), plus a larger roe-deer astragalus with a short runic text.

2.3 BONE An Anglo-Saxon craftsman could easily obtain large quantities of bone, and pieces were therefore selected for specific purposes. Bonecarving techniques were very important for the production of small, hard-wearing items, and these techniques were transferable to antler, ivory and wood. Many kinds of small handtools, mounts and plates were produced from bone. The long bones were preferred for working because they provide greater lengths of usable material. Bone which has been boiled has dif­ ferent properties from the uncooked material, so it would have been necessary to select suit­ able bones before they went into the cooking pot. Dress accessories made from bone are not plentiful, and surviving objects give the impres­ sion of being trial pieces - items made to test a decorative design before committing to manu­ facture in metal - but some may have been dies for embossing Pressblech plates. Combs could be made from bone as well as antler. Danish bog deposits provide evidence for spearheads made from bone, which would have been a lighter and more readily available alternative to iron spearheads. Bone pins are not common, but there are some remarkable survivals, as at Castledyke, Barton on Humber. They are split from large

Fig.2.3.1-a. is a decorated bone gaming piece from Kent with concentric circle orna­ mentation.

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2.4 CERAMICS

ous processes of occasional craft activity were giving way to trade specialists in proto-urban environments. It is evident from the effort that went into production and decoration of the magnificent funerary urns that these were valuable, highstatus objects. The technical shortcomings of the production process were overcome by very careful application of pottery-making skills. Early forms of Anglo-Saxon pot include the carinated bowl, decorated with linear chevron and upright arch patterns, finger-tip rosettes and prominent bosses. Later, 6th century pottery is more often stamped, with bosses between vertical lines. The bosses could be made as separate pieces, but more usually they are pressed out from inside the pot's walls; this technique can affect the drying and firing of the clay. Vertical bosses segregate zones of decoration, and slashed lines on the boss may be continued onto the upper body of the pot. The bossed pots are sometimes known by the German name Buckelumen.

Anglo-Saxon ceramics are generally not of high-quality, and the earlier types were certainly made in small workshops for use in the immediate area. This makes it unlikely that Anglo-Saxon urns and cooking pots were centrally produced for a regional market in the pre-Christian period. The absence of wheelthrown pottery and other Roman products from Anglo-Saxon sites is clear evidence that the settlers did not have routine access to them, and they were costly enough to be used as grave-goods. This further demonstrates that the technological break between later Roman Brit­ ain and Anglo-Saxon England was near total. One great advantage of ceramics is that the area of production can often be identified with some precision: the different types of particles included in the clay can point to specific regions and even locations from which the material was sourced. On the basis that clay was not moved around in large quantities, but rather was worked close to where it was found, it seems reasonable to conclude that many small pro­ duction centres were operating in the 5th to 7th century period, and centralised production was exceptional. Plentiful evidence for industrial production at Ipswich (and the product, socalled "Ipswich ware") shows that towards the end of the pre-Christian period manufacture of pottery was gradually being centralised and the character of ceramics was changing - the previ­

Fig.2.4-a. shows a decorated Anglian biconical cremation urn from Caister-by-Norwich (Norfolk); the stamps used on it are shown separately. (The left side of the image shows the thickness and profile of the ceramic material, according to the conventions for showing these details.) The running s-curves are produced by carefully placing the stamp around the upper zone, which is marked off by a double-line

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border. Below is a zone of animals, probably bulls, in procession. The widest part of the urn features rounded "bosses" arranged symmetri­ cally; horseshoe and swastika stamps form a border between and around these. Typically there is no decoration below the widest part; this is because when the urn was placed in the ground nothing below this would have been visible. However, occasionally urns have a hole in the bottom, sometimes plugged with a piece of glass. There is a correlation between the shape and size of the urn and the age and sex of the occu­ pant: the taller the urn, the older the individual. There is also some correlation between potstamps and the occupant, although this study is still in its infancy.

the cemetery at Faversham. Outside Kent, no single burial is known to contain more than two such beads.

2.5.3 Rock Crystal Rock crystal occurs as two main artefact types - as beads, and as spherical crystal balls (see Fig.l.6.4-i.). The beads occur in 6th century Anglo-Saxon contexts, and are facetted, with a central longitudinal perforation. Some beads may have been made from English material, but the majority must have been imported. They occur along the eastern seaboard and in the East Midlands, but are rare in the south-east. Crystal balls are mainly confined to Kent with a few examples in the east Midlands. They are usually mounted in gold, silver or copperalloy quadrant bands, and the fashion lasts from the 5th to the 7th centuries. Rock crystal was also used to make buckleloops.

2.5 GEMSTONES Objects decorated with precious stones on the surface were highly-prized in the ancient world, and the use of such decoration contin­ ued in some parts of medieval Europe into the Middle Ages. Late Roman carved gemstones were also admired in the post-Roman world. Germanic artefacts occasionally bore garnets decorated with incised lines - mainly ray pat­ terns, rosettes and shells.

2.6 GLASSWARE Anglo-Saxon uses of glass are based on just a few products: beads, vessels, smoothing stones and the like, as well as small pieces for decorating polychrome jewellery.

2.5.1 Garnet In Anglo-Saxon decorative art in the preChristian period, the highest status was attached to garnet, a name applied to a range of miner­ als, all characterised by a reddish transparent quality. The raw garnets were carefully selected and initially cut into slabs along the natural parting planes in the mineral. The origin of Anglo-Saxon garnets has not been determined, but due to their structure sources in Scandina­ via, Central Europe or Sri Lanka are most likely. Garnets are normally cut as cabochons (hemispheres and rounded shapes) (see Fig.l.6.4-d, e & h.) and the trend for thin slabs was a short-lived phenomenon of the Migration Period. Garnets could be shaped in a variety of ways, but the cutting of thin slabs into detailed profiles was very specialized. Frankish diplomacy probably accounts for the distribution of the better-finished exam­ ples of garnet cloisonné and it is possible that cloisonne panels were assembled in Frankish-controlled workshops and distributed ready-made to client kings.

2.5.2 Amethyst Beads made from amethyst imported from the eastern Mediterranean occur in late 6th and 7th century south-eastern female graves. The earliest examples appear in Kent, which sup­ ports a Frankish connection, and about 60% of all known Anglo-Saxon amethyst comes from

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Enamel, which is a controlled addition of glass to a metal surface, was not widely used among the Anglo-Saxons. It is almost confined to the escutcheons on hanging-bowls, which are probably of British manufacture. There are a few items, such as spearheads, which have red enamel detailing. Glass is of little use once broken, so it is often recycled as cullet in the production of new articles. For this reason, very little glass occurs as discarded broken shards in the archaeo­ logical record. Ancient glass tends to be a pale green shade, due to the presence of iron; it was also coloured by the addition of small quanti­ ties of metal oxides (i.e. cupric oxide for blue). Occasional finds of broken glass in belt-pouch assemblages may be evidence that the AngloSaxons were accustomed to collecting glass fragments for recycling.

colourful sets of white, yellow, red and green, but others were formed in a chessboard pattern of alternating white and blue. The millefiori glass could be used to make decorative glass beads, as well as for high-status items such as the Sutton Hoo purse mounts and shoulder clasps. It is not likely that millefiori was made in England, and a source in the Rhineland was probably used.

2.6.3 Glass Vessels Glass vessels of various kinds are a com­ mon high-status addition to 5th to 7th century Anglo-Saxon graves, but even relatively ordinary cremations often have molten glass remains suggesting that access to the material was not confined to the very wealthy. The principal types of vessel are cone beakers (elongated hollow glass cones decorated with thin glass trails), claw beakers (similar to cone beakers but with a small foot and a series of glass bulbs on the sides); bell beakers (rounded like an inverted bell, with or without a foot); bag beakers (similar to cone beakers but widening near the base to the same width as the mouth); squat jars (low, wide-mouthed jars, often with trail decoration); glass drinking "horns"; bowls and palm cups. The glass used to produce the vessels was coloured to a pale blue, green or amber, but some deeper coloured examples do occur. Much of the glass was produced on the Continent mainly the Rhineland, where the late Roman glass industry survived - but some forms, such as the squat jars and bag-beakers, are rare enough on the Continent and common enough in England to be of Anglo-Saxon manufacture. If so, it is likely that the production centre was located within the orbit of the kingdom of Kent, perhaps at Faversham, and Kent was also the likely centre of importation for the Continental material. A major glass production centre is believed to have been sited in Hampshire, from which products are found at Southampton and Portsmouth, and as far away as Norway.

2.6.1 Beads Glass beads are a common find in AngloSaxon female graves of the pagan period, especially the late 5th and 6th centuries; amber was also regularly used for bead production. Beads of other materials - jet, crystal, antler, shell, ceramic, metal or bone - occur with glass types, so the choice of which items to include on a necklace was not determined by the material. The glass grades used in bead production range from a translucent, brittle material to an opaque, dense substance like modern enamel. Translucent beads are found in dark blue, yel­ low, green, amber, purple, black, all set out in simple rings but other forms are found such as the cylinder, ribbed sphere ("melon"), and facetted or hexagonal types. In opaque paste beads, which are usually larger, the colours are red, yellow, green, blue, purple, white, cream, grey and black. Opaque beads also feature a variety of designs in two to four colours, mainly dots, and single or opposed wavy lines. Beads were commonly worn as festoons ("swags") between two brooches fastened at the shoulders, but they may also occur at the wrist and thigh (probably a string suspended from a belt). There are occasional finds of beads at the waist of male burials, which can probably be interpreted as toggles or other forms of closure, or in some cases they were attached to a sword. These beads tend to be larger than average.

Fig.2.6.3-a. is a glass palm-cup from the barrow-burial at Cadbourne (Lincolnshire). The glass has the characteristic greenish tinge of most early medieval products. The cup is circu­ lar and with a thickened rim; its base is slightly deformed so that its rim sits at a shallow angle from the horizontal.

2.6.2 Millefiori

2.6.4 Other Glass Items

The most dramatic use of glass in AngloSaxon decoration is the material called millefiori (Italian "a thousand flowers") which consists of blocks of differently coloured glass made up into symmetrically arranged bundles and fused, then drawn out to produce rods. These rods were then cut into thin slices which, viewed from the end, form multi-coloured floral, speckled or check patterns. Some were made in

Aside from the use of glass for vessels, beads, and the like, there is also some evidence for glass bangles from pagan period burials. Gaming pieces in glass have been found. Also, glass smoothing stones were made for use in the production of fine linen textiles. These items are known from late Roman contexts and become more common among the later AngloSaxons.

114

2.7 HORN

examples had no surviving metal fittings, while the other burials had matched pairs of horns with pressed metal plates decorating the rims and Vandykes running down the sides (see Fig.l.5.3.1-a.).

Preservation of horn in England is sel­ dom good enough for objects made from it to be studied. Mineralised fragments attached to metal objects sometimes preserve the char­ acteristic structure of this material. Horn was routinely used for knife-handles, because the horn-tip was perfect for the small multi-pur­ pose knives of the Anglo-Saxons. A series of horn plates was used to cover the frame of the helmet found at Benty Grange (Derbyshire). Higher status items could be made from plates of horn, and the ship burial site at Snape (Suffolk) yielded a horn sword hilt. The grip was remarkably intact given that the sword's blade was just a bar of rust. It was made from cow-horn in three pieces. The pommel was a straight bar with rounded edges (62mm across edge-to-edge, 21mm front-to-back and 13mm thick), with a rectangular slot to accommodate the tang. The grip was 94mm long, oval in cross-section and tapering towards the top, with ridges around the circumference to form finger-grips. The lower guard was similar to the pommel but larger: 87mm x 25mm but also 13mm thick. The tang-slot was wider at the lower edge, to hold the broader part of the tang near the blade. These three pieces were slipped over the tang in sequence, and the end hammered into an iron cleat to hold the com­ ponents in place. The most prestigious items made from horn are the large drinking vessels which occur at high-status sites such as Sutton Hoo (Suf­ folk), Taplow (Buckinghamshire), Broomfield (Essex), and Prittlewell (Essex). The Broomfield

2.8 IVORY Ivory appears to have been rare in AngloSaxon England, and was used mainly for bangles and for the frames of purses. An ivory object found on the chest of a male at Nazeingbury (Essex) had been ground and pierced, perhaps for use as an amuletic pendant, but it is also possible that it had been made into a toggle to fasten a garment. A single small ivory gaming piece was found in Sutton Hoo Mound 1 where it appears to have formed part of a gaming set, although no dice were found. It may have been made from a sperm whale's tooth. There are examples from several other Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, e.g. Sancton (Yorkshire), Spong Hill (Norfolk), Lackford (Suffolk), Taplow (Buckinghamshire) and others.

2.8.1 Purse-Rings Rings of elephant ivory are found in 5th to 7th century female graves, usually framing the mouth of a bag or purse. There has been speculation that the ivory was traded from the Mediterranean into northern Europe, but the distribution along the eastern seaboard is similar to that for amber, and it is possible that the ivory is actually walrus tusk. The majority of grave finds were in the hip or thigh area of female inhumations, and usually on the left side.

115

2.9 STONE

Leather can survive extremely well in wet conditions, where the process of decomposition can be arrested due to lack of oxygen. Occasional finds of shoes and knife-sheaths at sites such as Coppergate, York and Queenhythe, London indicate how skilled the Anglo-Saxons were at working this material. Mineralised leather may also survive on the blades of knives and swords if soil conditions have been favourable. Wood was in many ways the foundation of Anglo-Saxon life since it provided housing, tools, furniture, weapons and fuel. Survival is quite rare, but there have been some spec­ tacular finds such as wooden harps (Sutton Hoo Mound 1) and tableware.

Stone carving does not figure greatly in Anglo-Saxon tradition until Christian religious statuary and crosses appear. The commonest forms of stone in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon finds - other than those in the backfill of the grave - are flints used as part of a fire-making kit, and hones.

2.9.1 Whetstones Anglo-Saxon whetstones or hones are of three types, according to the material from which they are made (e.g. local sandstones; greywacke from Scotland, Wales or Brittany; and Norwegian schist). Whetstones are some­ times found in Anglo-Saxon graves but are more common finds on settlement sites - often broken and discarded. They are also found in cremation urns. They are rare in Migration Period cemeteries, but increase in numbers towards the Conversion Period. Whetstones are normally short (less than 15cm long) and narrow, with one smooth sur­ face where the grinding action has eroded any grit, and with a groove worn into one face by the action of sharpening a point. Very rarely, a human face may be carved into one end. Fig.2.9.1-a. shows a whetstone from Uncleby (Yorkshire), of 46cm length. It was found, standing upright, at the foot of a grave in the Anglo-Saxon cemetery there as if it were a grave-marker. The surface is lightly abraded and bears some rectilinear marks which may be runes.

2.9.2 Spindle Whorls Spindle whorls are heavy, ring-shaped items which were attached to a short rod and used to weight the spindle when spinning yarn. They could be small (4 to 8cm in diameter) or quite large in the case of ceramics (more than 15cm). Common Anglo-Saxon materials for these items were chalk, shale and other stones, as well as rock crystal, lead, ceramic and bone. Any material with sufficient mass would work, but the love of decoration meant that unusual or shiny materials were preferred.

2.10 OTHER MATERIALS Organic materials were very important in Anglo-Saxon life, but the survival rates for such in English soil conditions are abysmal. Textiles occasionally can be detected where they have mineralised in the corrosion products of metal - for example on the corroded pin of a brooch, or on the reverse of a wrist clasp. Actual tex­ tiles only occasionally survive - for example in the tombs of saints where they have remained almost undisturbed for centuries.

116

Table of Image Sizes (in millimetres) Type.......R ef............... .. Length..... ..... W id th ......... .... Height...... .....D iam eter....... ......Captions......................................................................................................... . Scale % .....150

....37.24....

.... 150

....35.81......... ..... 55.32................ Line D.:.. 1.1.3.1-a....

.... 100

..... 56.15...............

.... 100

..... 57.5..................

..... 150 ..... 100

.... 44 6 7 ....... ..1 4 3 ....

..... 100

„ 1 3 1 ............ .... 59..................

..... 100

Image:.... 1.1.4.1-c.... ..94.85......... ......x.................... ....X ...................... X....................... ...... cruciform brooch; copper-alloy, Group I ............................................... ..... 100 „ 87.16.........

..... 100

„ 92.44.........

..... 100

„ 7 2 .2.....

..... 100

...71.87.........

..... 100

...52.46.........

..... 100

...55.9....

..... 100

...146............

..... 125

...181.52.......

..... 100

...129.16.......

..... 100 ..... 100

...63.75.... Line D.:.. 1.1.4.2-a...

......9 5 ..................

......100

.... 30.7.......

......200

...5 7 .....

......100

.7 2 ....

......100

...102.8.....

......100

...5 5 ...............

......150

...61.07.........

......150 ......100

...62.58.........

......100

„ 6 4 .3 9....

......100 ......150 ......150 ......200

.... 20.74............

......100 ...78.23.....

......100

...1 3 4 ............

......100

...137.29.......

......100 ......100

129.....

......125

.115.86.....

......125 ......36.45...............

......150

......16.82...............

......200

.....20.39..............

......200 ......200 ......200

.... 21.53...... ...... 5 7 ....................

......150

.... 5 5 ......

......150

.....3 5.9.....

...... 250

.....5 4 ....................

...... 100 ...... 100

Image:.... 1.1.6.6-b... ... X................ .......X.........................X................ ........ 4 9 .................................... pair of saucer brooches; gilt copper-alloy, ropework spirals ............... ...... 150 ........ 150 .... 4 9 ......................... ........

...... 40.4.................

...... 150

...... 28.69..............

...... 150

...... 28.69..............

...... 150

...... 47.3 ....................

........

150

48.41 .................

........

150

.......40.08 .................

........

150

.........

2 5 ......

Im age: .... 1.2.1-b

...... „ . . X .................... .........

19.12 ......................X

150

...... 40.4 .....................

.................... .........

x ........................... .......... buckle fragment...................................................................................................................

117

.........

200

.........

150

.........

250

.........

150

.........

200

Type.. .... R ef........... ... L ength.......... W id th ........ ...H eight........ .. D iam eter..... ......Captions.................................................................................................... .... 1 .2 .1 -c .... ..7 3 .1 .................

.... 100

Image .... 1.2.1 -d .... ..2 5 .7 7 ...............

.... 100

Image .... 1 .2 .1 -e.... ..54.54............... x................... ...x ................... ..X ..................... ......buckle with plate; copper-alloy, opposed heads on loop ............. ........100 .... 1.2.1 - f ...... ..48.01.............

....100

.... 1.2.1 g .... ..25.63.............

.... 200

.:.. 1.2.1 -h ....

131...............

.:.. 1.2.2.1-a.. ..24 (left).......... .... 1.2.2.2 - a .. ..5 3 .6................ .... 1.2.2.2-b.. ..5 7 ................... 1.2.2.2-c..

48.................

.... 1.2.2.3-a.. ...4 6 ................... .... 1.2.2.3-b.. ..21.57.............

.... 150

.... 1.2.3-a.... ...23.04.............

........150

.... 1.3.1- a .... ..6 0 ...................

29.................

100

.... 1.3.1 -b .... ..6 0 .5................ 29................. 1.3.2 -a ....

.... 100

35.................

.... 1.3.2-b....

...6 0 .1 5 ...........

.... 1 .3 .2 -c....

...3 9 .4 .............

.... 150

.... 1.3.2-d....

...3 8 .4 .............

.... 150

.... 1.3.2-e....

...3 8 .4 .............

.... 1.3.2-1"......

...4 1 .................

........150

Image .... 1.4.1 a .... ..18.76.............

........150

1.4.1 b .... ..2 1 4 .................

.

100

.... 1 .4 .1 -c..... ...3 6 0................. Line D.:.. 1.4.2 -a .... .... 1.4.2 b ....

........150 21.58...........

.... 1.4.2.1-a.. ..5 6 .................... .... 1.4.2.2 -a ..

13.44...........

Image .... 1.4.2.2-b..

12.24...........

v

.... 1.4.2.2-c..

15.3.............

Y

.... 1.4.2.2-cL.

13.99...........

.... 1.4.2.2-e..

15.................

.... 150 .... 150

.... 1.4.2.2-f... ..1 6 .4 1 .............. Image .... 1.4.3-a.... ..3 0 .1 9 .............. .... 1.4.4-a..... ..1 11.32............ Line D.:.. 1.4.5-a..... ..45.2................ Line D.:„ 1 .4 .5 -c..... ..5 7 .................... 4 1 ................. - X ...................

. . X ...........................

......mount; gilt copper-alloy, Sutton Hoo shield rectangle.................. ........100

1 ine D .:.. 1.4.5-d..... ..1 0 5 .................. Line D.:.. 1.4.5-e.... ..7 4 .................... Line D .:.. 1.4.5-f...... ..4 6 .................... Line D .:.. 1.4.5-e....

..5 6 ...................

Image .... 1.4.5-h.... Image .... 1.4.5-i......

77.59...........

Image .... 1 .4 .5 -j...... .. X ...................... 41................. Image .... 1.4.5-k....

41.5.............

Image .... 1.4.5-1......

..2 6 ...................

Image .... 1.4.5-m.... .. X ......................

„ 16.99.............

Image .... 1.4.5-n....

..3 6 .8 .............

Image .... 1.4.5-0.... ..6 7 .8................. 14.57........... Image .... 1.4.5-p.... ..39.37............... Image .... 1.4.5-q.... .. x ...................... 76.24........... ..X ................... .... 1.4.5-r...... ..25.49............... 14.47........... Image .... 1,4.5-s.......

..43.95.............

Image .... 1.4.5-t....... ..3 6 .5 2 .............. Line D .:.. 1.4.6-a...... Line D .:.. 1.4.6-b...... Line D :.. 1 .4 .6 -c......

..54.5................

v v

.4 2 .5 ................

:.. 1.4.6-d...... ..6 0 .................... 5 3 ................. Line D :.. 1.4.7-a...... Image .... 1.4.7 b ...... :.. 1.5.1- a ......

.2 9 ...................

Line D :.. 1.5.2-a...... Image .... 1.5.3-a...... ..72.05...............

.... 100

:.. 1.5.3.1-a ... Line D :.. 1.5.3.1 -b ...

3 1 .................

..X

................... . X ..................... ......drinking horn rim mount; gilt copper-alloy, Taplow rim-mount. ........250

118

Type. .... Ref........... ... L ength.......... W id th .......... .H eigh t..... .....D iam eter...... ......Captions..........................................................................................................Scale % .... 119..................

.... 1.5.3.1-c ..

.... 3 0 .................... Line D .:.. 1.6.l b ....

.... 4 0 ....................

.... 1.6.2-a.... ...4 6 .5................. Y Image .... 1 .6.2-b .... ...4 6 .5................. Y Y

.......150 ...... 150 ...... 150

Y

.... 3 1 ....................

.... 150

.... 1.6.4 b .... ...3 1 .3 ................. .... 1 .6 .4 -c....

.... 16.72...............

.... 1.6.4-d....

13.6...............

.... 200

Image .... 1.6.4-e.....

.... 40.01...............

.... 1.6.4-1"......

.... 37.5.................

.... 1.6.4-g....

.... 26.53...............

.... 150

Image .... 1.6.4-h.... ...31.25............... .... 1.6.4-i..... ...16.44............... Image .... 1.6.4 - j .....

.... 42.38...............

Image .... 1.6 .5 -a ..... ...28.89............... X.....................

....100

Image .... 1.6.5-b.... ...28.89............... Image .... 1 .6 .5 -c....

.... 16.59............... ...5 5 ....................

.... 1.6.8-a....

10.97............. .1 3 .4 1 ........

Image .... 1.6.9-a.... ...9 .8 4 ................. X..................... -X................ .... x ...................... ......beads; gold wire......................................................................................... .......200 Image .... 1 .7 -a ........ .... 74.52............... .... 9 8 .................... .... 1 .9 -a ........ ...4 6 .................... Image .... 1.9 b ........ ...4 6 ....................

....150

.... 1 .9 -c ........ ...143.24............ .... 1.9-d........ ...260.2............... .... 1 .9 -e ........ ...210.7............... .... 1.9-f......... ...267.1............... .... 1 .9 -e ........ ...218.8............... .......100 R: 19.3..........

...... 150

.... 1.13-b......

.... 20.48...............

.... 200

.... 1 .1 3 -c ......

.... 2 2 .7.................

.......200

.... 1.13-d......

.....2 2 .6.................

.......200

.... 1 .13-e......

.......200

.... 1.13-f.......

.... 18.23.............

.... 1.14-a......

.4 6 .............

.......150

.... 1.14-b......

.3 4 .............

.......150

.... 1 .1 4 -c ......

37.85............. .4 5 .8 4 ........

.......150

.... 1.14-d......

40.61............. .3 5 .3 8 ........

.... 150

.... 1.17-a......

.... 14.22..............

.... 1 17 b ...... ...4 3 .8 6..............

.... 200

Une D .:.. 1.18-a...... ...4 5 .................... 12.5............... .... 1.18-b....

...... 200 .......150

106.................

.......100 .......150

... L.T14 M:130 R: 118 all excl. loop ............

.......100 .......100

.... 1.2 4 -a ...... ...5 9 .4 7 ...............

........100

...136.37.............

. .150 .... 48.43.............

........100

.....42.21.............

...... 100

.... 1 .2 7 -c ...... ...3 3 .9 2..............

.......150

.... 1 .2 7 -c...... ...3 2 .9 9..............

...... 150

.... 1 .2 7 -c...... ...34.56...............

.... 150

....1 .2 7 -c ...... ...33.22...............

...... 150

Image .... 2 .1 .1 -a ..... ...x ...................... 26.1...............

. X ....................

.... X..................... ......bead; am ber.............................................................................................. .......100

.... 2.1.1 -b .... ...6 5 .1 5..............

...... 100

.... 2.1.1 - c ..... ...63.12............... Line D .:.. 2 .2 .1 -a .....

.......100 29.4................

Line D.:.. 2.3.1- a ..... ...x ...................... 60................... .X ............... .... 3 4 ................... ......gaming-piece; bone, disc type.............................................................. .......100 Y Line D .:.. 2 .4 -a ....... 188................. .... 2 .6 -a ....... Line D.:.. 2.9.1-a .... ...4 6 2.................. 51...................

....1 1 1 .... .X

............... .... X..................... ......whetstone; greywacke, Uncleby........................................................... ..not to scale

119

Glossary semi-circle to accommodate the bunching of the cloth beneath

Anglian Culture and language of the Angles, a people of southern Jutland and eastern England

Britons Inhabitants of Britain in the pre-Roman era; subsequently, inhabitants of lowland Britain under Roman rule are called Romano-Britons

Anglo-Saxon Shorthand term for the Germanic cultures of Britain A nglo-Saxon Chronicle (ASC) a series of documents, all based on a single original, relating the history of the English from the 5th century up to the Norman invasion

brooch Clothes fastener in which the pin and clasp are hidden behind a decorated face-plate bulla ITemi-spherical hollow gold pendant

angon Throwing-spear with a long metal neck annular Ring-shaped

cabochon (French) method of setting a hemispherical stone whereby it is gripped by a metal collar at the base leaving the top proud of its cell

annulet Decorative motif in the form of a punched circle

carinatiori Bevelled "waist" on a shield boss, bowl, pot, etc.

anthropom orphic Shaped like a human being

chape Metal fitting from the lower end of a sword's scabbard

astragalus Knuckle-bone, often used as a gaming piece beading Decoration in which a series of pellets is placed in a series like beads on a thread

chip-carving Style of metalwork in which high-relief details are produced by lost-wax casting, and then sharpened with chisels and files

Bede Anglo-Saxon cleric who wrote about the early history of the English and their church

cicadas Decoration in the shape of a horse-fly used by Frankish royalty

B e o w u lf Anglo-Saxon poem about a hero who overcomes three monsters; set in southern Scandinavia

cingulum (Latin) Roman military belt

biconical Shaped like two cones set mouth-to-mouth billetted Decorated with sub-rectangular blocks

cloisonné (French) method of setting a stone whereby a metal cell is built up around it leaving the top flush or slightly recessed

boss (i) Metal cup on a shield which protects the hand (ii) rounded projection on a cremation urn

Conversion Period Period during which Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were converted to Christianity; roughly the first half of the 7th century

bow Part of a long brooch which is bent round in a

copper-alloy Archaeological term describing any of the

cloison Decorative stone set into a metal cell

120

many alloys of copper used in Roman and Anglo-Saxon times, including bronze and brass

Franks Casket Whalebone casket, now in the British Museum, made in 8th century Northumbria, carved with religious and mythological scenes

counter-plate Part of a buckle-set which is fixed opposite the buckle plate to balance the design

futhorc (or fuþorc) Anglo-Saxon runic alphabet

crem ation Burial rite in which the body is burnt, the bones retrieved and placed in a container (usually a ceramic pot) and then buried

garnet Red gemstone used extensively in cloisonné decoration

cruciform Cross-shaped

Germ ania Libera Region of Germany which was not annexed by the Roman Empire

cullet Waste glass used in the production of new glass

Gildas British cleric who wrote about the conquest of Britain

Dal Riada Irish kingdom established on the west coast of northern Britain, which subsequently expanded into the area of modern Scotland

Goths Originally a northern European people who settled in the Ukraine by the 4th century and were caught up in the westward movement of peoples in the 5th century; allies of the Huns and eventual masters of Italy

dendrochronology Method of dating wood by matching the series of growth-rings to samples of known date

granulation Decoration consisting of tiny (less than 1mm diameter) balls of gold soldered to a metal surface; often accompanies filigree

enam el Decorative glass-based paste escutcheon Decorative roundel or plate, usually with a hook for attaching a chain

grog Filler material used in the production of pottery, often sand, grass or shell

E x e te r Book Book of English poems presented to Exeter cathedral in the 11th century, where it remains today

guilloche Decorative motif consisting of circles linked by s-shaped designs g u ld g u b b e r (Danish) Small (l-2cm longx 1cm wide) gold foils impressed with decoration, usually two humans embracing; found in Scandinavia at high-status and religious sites

fibula (Latin) Clothes fastener in which the spring and clasp are visible filigree Decoration consisting of twisted (usually gold) wire soldered to a metal surface

headplate Upper portion of a long brooch, above the bow

FLO Finds Liaison Officer under the P.A.S.

headrail Garment worn by married women, consisting of a long rectangle of cloth placed over the crown of the head, the ends draped over one or both shoulders, and secured by hairpins at the temples

fo ed e ra ti (Latin) settlers invited into a depopulated region to boost the economy footplate Lower portion of a long brooch, below the bow

hillfort Prominent hill, the top of which is surrounded by banks and ditches to form a stronghold; mainly associated with the Britons

Francia The Frankish state, corresponding to most of modern France, Netherlands, Belgium and Germany

hippocam pi Zoomorphs with a horse's front-end and a coiled tail

francisca Curved throwing-axe

Huns Asiatic people who came to dominate eastern and central Europe in the early 5th century.

Frankish Culture and language of the Franks, a Rhineland people who established themselves in eastern Gaul in late Roman times and subsequently spread across most of modern France

inhum ation Burial rite in which the body is laid in the ground, sometimes in a coffin, usually wearing clothes and accompanied by grave-goods such

121

by inward movements from the east; the consequent effects of population displacement in northern, western and southern Europe were profound. It begins in c.400 and extends to C.550, but different dates apply in different areas.

as weapons (male) and jewellery (female) interlace Decoration in which bands pass over and under each other Iona Island off the west coast of Scotland, the main seat of Irish Christianity in Britain

m illefiori (Italian) Slices of coloured glass rod, drawn and fused usually in a chequer pattern

Jutish Culture and language of the Jutes (Bede's luti) a people of the Rhine delta, and latterly Kent and the Isle of Wight

niello Silver-based paste which is applied to metalwork; it hardens to a glassy black surface

Kentish Culture and language of the people of eastern Kent, dominated by Frankish fashions and ideology

openw ork Decoration in which metal is removed to form a hole, either cast or by later piercing PAS Portable Antiquities Scheme

keystone Type of cloisonné stone-setting shaped like the keystone of a bridge

palm cup Anglo-Saxon glass drinking vessel in the form of a small shallow bowl

knotw ork Decorative motif in which bands loop over and under each other, similar to interlace but the bands are continuous

palm ette Fan-shaped motif made from curling lines pattern-w elding Technique for producing sword-blades in which bars of different grades of iron are twisted and forged together

Lacnunga Anglo-Saxon medical manuscript læ ti (Latin) prisoners of war and captives, used to supplement Roman military forces

pellet Decorative motif based on a flat disc

lappet Rounded projection from the side of a bow brooch, often shaped like a bird or a horse's head

pelta Shape like a fan or axe-blade with inwardcurving sides and an outward-curving outer-edge

Lom bards Germanic people who settled Italy from Pannonia (modern Hungary)

p enannular Shaped like an incomplete circle or horse-shoe p ep lo s (Greek) Dress woven as a tube and fastened at the shoulders, usually with small, matching brooches

loop Part of a buckle against which the tongue is held lost-w ax casting Production method in which a wax master is covered in clay to make a mould; the wax is melted out and the void is filled with molten metal. Normally the mould is broken to remove the product.

Picti (Latin) Piets, people of northern Britain (partly modern Scotland) plate Part of a buckle which attaches the loop to the belt or strap

lunulate Shaped like a half-moon or crescent

pommel Top part of a sword-hilt which acts as a counter-balance to the blade

m ailcoat Hauberk, an armoured garment made from ring mail

Pressblech (German) Metal foil embossed with a design

mask Decorative motif consisting of a face (human or animal) shown facing the viewer straight-on

propeller Roman belt stiffener made in the form of a roundel with two trapezoidal extensions

m eerschaum Ceramic decorative material made from fine white clay

punching Decoration of metalwork with repeated impressed patterns

M igration Period Time at the end of the Roman period in which central and eastern Europe was disrupted

quincunx An arrangement of five items set at the four

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corners and the centre of a square, like the spots on a 5 playing card

strand-m arket Informal market at which trading takes place out of a beached vessel

quoit brooch Brooch with a closure based on a notch and stops

sugar-loaf boss Extreme form of shield boss, up to 30cm tall

repoussé (French) Decoration of metalwork with the design pushed out from behind

sw astika Decorative motif consisting of four rightangled shapes, a "hooked cross"

ring-and-dot Motif consisting of a circle with a central dot

tang Part of a sword or knife-blade which is fitted inside the hilt

ringm ail Armour made from interlinked rings

Tauschierung (German) Decoration of metalwork by incising a design and inlaying contrasting coloured metal wire, usually copper-alloy or silver

Rom ano-British Culture of the lowland British tribes during Roman occupation; maintained into the postRoman era in some areas

þunor Anglo-Saxon counterpart (Thunor) to the Scandinavian þórr (Thor)

rope-work Design made of s-shaped elements in series like the bands of a rope

Thuringians Inhabitants of northwest Germany

roundel Decorative motif based on an open circle, or annulate

Tierm ensch Decorative motif consisting of animal and human parts

runes Germanic alphabet of 24 characters; the Anglo-Saxon version extended this to 28, and subsequently to 33 in Northumbria

tongue Part of a buckle which pierces the fabric of the belt or strap

Salian Franks Franks of the North Sea and Channel coast

triskele Decorative motif consisting of three legs set in a spiral procession

saltire Decorative motif of a cross (+) turned through 45 degrees (x)

typology Study of an artefact class to establish the main types, and the variants within these

Saxon Culture and language of the Saxons, a people of northern Germany and southern Britain

Vandyke Decorative plate in the form of an elongated triangle

Saxon Shore (Latin litus saxonicum) series of coastal defences around the southern and eastern shores of Britain

volute Shape consisting of two spirals joined by a c-shaped bridge

Scots People from northern Ireland who established a kingdom in north-western Britain (Dal Riada)

V olk erw a n d eru n g zeit German name for the Migration Period

scutiform Shaped like a shield, a flat disc with a domed centre

Widsiþ Anglo-Saxon poem in the Exeter Book relating tales of early Germanic heroes and kings

seax Anglo-Saxon knife or single-edged sword

Woden Anglo-Saxon god of war and magic, equivalent to the Scandinavian Óðinn (Odin)

segm ented Describes a surface divided into discrete sections

Y G od od din Old Welsh poem about a disastrous cavalry raid by this tribe (the Gododdin) against an unnamed enemy

seriation Development of an artefact-type over time, forming the basis of typology and relative dating

zoom orphic Shaped like an animal

spangle Small triangle of metal attached to the head of a hair-pin to catch the light

Note: runic texts are shown in lower-case bold type e.g. luda 'Luda' (a man's name). The letters þ and ð are used to spell Old English and Old Norse words; they are pronounced as "th".

spatulate Widening towards the outer edge, shaped like a shovel (opposite of tapering)

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Antiquaries Journal Anglo-Saxon Studies inArchaeology & History Journal of the British ArchaeologicalAssociation Medieval Archaeology

Ager, B. The Smaller Variants of the Anglo-Saxon Quoit Brooch in ASSAH, vol. 4, 1985 Ager, B. The Alternative Quoit Brooch: An Update in Southworth, 1990 Arnold, C.J. Roman Britain to Saxon England. An Archaeological Study, London, 1984 Arnold, C.J. An Archaeology of the Early Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms, London, 1997 Artelius, T. & Svanberg, F. (eds.), Dealing with the Dead. Archaeological Perspectives on Prehistoric Scandinavian Burial Ritual, Gävle, 2005 Avent, R. Anglo-Saxon Disc and Composite Brooches, B.A.R. 11 (i & ii), Oxford, 1975 Avent, R. Anglo-Saxon Button Brooches in Archaeologia, 107, London, 1982 Bassett, S. (ed.) The Origins of Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms, Leicester, 1989 Bork, R. (ed.) et al., De Re Metallica: The Uses of Metal in the Middle Ages, AVISTA Studies in the Histon/ o f Medieval Technology, Science and Art, vol. 4, Aldershot, 2005 Brenan, J. Hanging Bowls and their Contexts. An Archaeological Survey of Their Socio-Economic Significance from the Fifth to the Seventh Centuries A.D., B.A.R. British Series 220, Oxford, 1991 Bruce-Mitford, R. Aspects of Anglo-Saxon Archaeology. Sutton Hoo and Other Discoveries, London, 1974 Bruce-Mitford, R. The Sutton Hoo Ship-Burial. Volume 1. Excavations, Background, The Ship, Dating and Inventory, London, 1975 Bruce-Mitford, R. (ed) Recent Archaeological Excavations in Europe, London, 1975 Bruce-Mitford, R. The Sutton Hoo Ship-Burial. Volume 2. Arms, Armour and Regalia, London, 1978 Bruce-Mitford, R. The Sutton Hoo Ship-Burial. Volume 3. Late Roman and Byzantine Silver, Hanging Bowls, Drinking Vessels, Cauldrons and Other Containers, Textiles, The Lyre, Pottery Bottle and Other Items, London, 1983 Bruce-Mitford, R. The Corpus of Late Celtic Hanging Bowls, Oxford, 2005 Brugmann, B. Glass Beads from Early Anglo-Saxon Graves, Oxford, 2004

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Hines, J. Clasps - Hektespenner - Agraffen. Anglo-Scandinavian Clasps of Classes A-C of the 3rd to 6th centuries A.D. Typology, Diffusion and Function, Stockholm, 1993 Hines, J. A New Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Great Square-Headed Brooches, Woodbridge, 1997 Hines, J. (ed.) The Pace of Change: Studies in Early Medieval Chronology, Oxford, 1999 Hinton, D. Gold and Gilt, Pots and Pins: Possessions and People in Medieval Britain, Oxford, 2005 Hodges, R. Dark Age Economics. The Origins of Towns and Trade AD 600-1000, London, 1989 Inker, P. The Saxon Relief Style, B.A.R. British Series 410, Oxford, 2006 Jessup, R. Anglo-Saxon Jewellery, Aylesbury, 1974 Karkov, C.E. The Archaeology of Anglo-Saxon England: Basic Readings, London, 1999. Knight, J.K. The End of Antiquity. Archaeology, Society and Religion AD 235-700, Stroud, 1999 Krapp, G.P. & van Kirk Dobbie, E. (eds.) The Exeter Book, Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records, vol. 3, New York, 1936 Lakin, D. The Prittlewell Royal Anglo-Saxon Burial in Minerva, vol. 15, no. 3, 2004 Leahy, K. Anglo-Saxon Crafts, Stroud, 2003 Leeds, E.T. Early Anglo-Saxon Art & Archaeology, Oxford, 1936 Leeds, E.T. The Archaeology of the Anglo-Saxon Settlement, Oxford, 1913 (reprinted 1970) Leeds, E.T. A Corpus of Early Anglo-Saxon Great Square-Headed Brooches, Oxford, 1949 Leigh, D. Keystone Garnet Disc Brooches, in ASSAH, vol. 3, Oxford, 1984 Looijenga, T. Texts and Contexts of the Oldest Runic Inscriptions, Leiden, 2003 Lucy, S. The Anglo-Saxon Way of Death. Burial Rites in Early England, Stroud, 2000 MacGregor, A. Bone, Antler, Ivory and Horn. The Technology of Skeletal Materials Since the Roman Period, London, 1985 MacGregor, A. & Bolick, E. A Summary Catalogue of the Anglo-Saxon Collections (Non-Ferrous Metals), B.A.R. British Series 230, Oxford, 1993 Marzinzik, S. Early Anglo-Saxon Belt Buckles (late 5th to early 8th centuries AD) Their Classification and Context, B.A.R. British Series 357, Oxford, 2003 Meaney, A. Anglo-Saxon Amulets and Curing Stones, B.A.R. British Series, no.96, Oxford, 1981 Myres, J.N.L. The English Settlements, Oxford History of England, vol.lb, Oxford, 1989 Myres, J.N.L. Anglo-Saxon Pottery and the Settlement of England, Oxford, 1969 Myres, J.N.L. A Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Pottery of the Pagan Period (2 vols.), Cambridge, 1977 Owen Crocker, G.R. Dress in Anglo-Saxon England, Woodbridge, 2004 Page, R.I. An Introduction to English Runes, Woodbridge, 1999 Parker Pearson, M. The Archaeology of Death and Burial, Stroud, 1999 Pinder, M. Anglo-Saxon Garnet Cloisonné Composite Disc Brooches: Some Aspects of Their Construction in JBAA, vol. 148, 1995

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Finder, M. An Aspect of Seventh-Century Anglo-Saxon Goldsmithing in Redknap, Edwards, Youngs, Lane & Knight, (eds.), 2001 Pollington, S. Rudiments of Runelore, Hockwold-cum-Wilton, 1995 Pollington, S. Leechcraft - Early English Charms, Plantlore and Healing, Hockwold-cum-Wilton, 2000 Pollington, S. The English Warrior from Earliest Times till 1066, 2nd edition, Hockwold-cumWilton, 2002 Pollington, S. The Mead-Hall - Feasting in Anglo-Saxon England, Hockwold-cum-Wilton, 2003 Pollington, S. Wayland's Work - Anglo-Saxon Art and Material Culture from the Fourth to the Seventh Century (forthcoming) Redknap, M., Edwards, N., Youngs, S., Lane, A. & Knight, J. (eds.), Pattern and Purpose in Insular Art. Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Insular Art, Oxford, 2001 Ravn, M. Death Ritual and Germanic Social Structure (c. AD 200-600), B.A.R. International Series 1164, Oxford, 2003 Richards, J.D. The Significance of Form and Decoration of Anglo-Saxon Cremation Urns, B.A.R. British Series 166, Oxford, 1987 Roes, A. Continental Quoit Brooches in A], vol. XLV, part 1, 1965 Rutherford Davis, K. Britons and Saxons. The Chiltern Region 400-700, Chichester, 1982 Salin, B. Die Altgermanische Thierornamentik. Typologische Studie Úber Germanische Metallgegenstände aus dem IV bis IX Jahrhundert, Nebst Einer Studie iiber Irische Ornamentik, Stockholm, 1904 (reprinted 1935) Smedley, N. Some Anglo-Saxon 'Animal' Brooches' in Suffolk Archaeology no.30/2, 1965 Southworth, E. Anglo-Saxon Cemeteries: A Reappraisal, Stroud, 1990 Speake, G. Anglo-Saxon Animal Art and its Germanic Background, Oxford, 1980 Speake, G. A Saxon Bed Burial on Swallowcliffe Down. Excavations by F. de M. Vatcher, HBMCE Report no. 10, London, 1989 Stephenson, I.P. The Anglo-Saxon Shield, Stroud, 2002. Suzuki, S. The Quoit Brooch Style and Anglo-Saxon Settlement - A Casting and Recasting of Cultural Identity Symbols, Woodbridge, 2000. Swanton, M.J. The Spearheads of the Anglo-Saxon Settlements, London, 1973 Tipper, J. The Grubenhaus in Anglo-Saxon England. An analysis and interpretation of the evidence from a most distinctive building type, Yedingham, 2004 Walton Rogers, P. Cloth & Clothing in Early Anglo-Saxon England, AD 450-700, CBA Research Reports, London, 2006 Webster, L. & Backhouse, J. The Making of England. Anglo-Saxon Art and Culture AD 600-900, London, 1991 Webster, L. & Brown, M. (ed.), The Transformation of the Roman World AD 400-900, London, 1997 White, A.J. Copper-Alloy Combs from Britain and Frisia in Med. Arch., vol. XXXII, London, 1988 Wilson, D.M. (ed.) The Northern World. The History and Heritage of Northern Europe. AD 4001100, London, 1980

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Index combs..................................98, 106, 110, 111, 127 Conversion Period.................. 104,116,120, 125 Coptic bowl.......................................................... 84 Cranbourne Chase.............................................. 79 cremation.................. 10, 15,16, 36, 60, 111, 112, 114,116, 120,121,127 DalRiada......................................................121 dendrochronology.................................... 8,121 Dover Buckland.......................................38, 57, 69 Duston...................................................................40 Easington...............................................................29 East Anglia....................12,16, 21, 22, 38, 63, 68, 78, 91, 95, 99,100 Empingham..............................................77,101 enamel....................................55, 73, 84,114, 121 escutcheon........................................... 84,114, 121 Essex.......................................... 13,14,15,16, 24, 60, 64, 69, 82, 87 facetted ..30, 32, 34, 35, 37, 39, 43, 107,113,114 Faversham........................................... 49,113,114 fibula.....................................................................23,121 filigree......................20, 21, 22, 48, 49, 50, 61, 65 66,72, 73, 90, 91, 94, 99,100, 102 Finglesham...............................................37, 72, 81 firesteel...........................................................63, 64 Francia.............................................14, 21, 22,121 garnet 15, 20, 21, 22, 24, 33, 37, 38, 42, 43, 48, 49, 50, 53, 56, 62, 66, 73, 74, 90, 91, 98,101,102,104,105,113,121,126 Germania Libera................................................ 19,121 Gildas.............................................................13,121 girdle-hangers..................................57, 95, 96, 97 glass............... 7,19, 20, 24, 33, 37, 42, 48, 50, 51, 53, 56, 73, 81, 84, 90, 94, 109, 111, 113,114,121,122,124,125 Godmanchester....................................................90 Goths............................................................ 24,121 gold................ 9,11, 14, 20, 22, 49, 50, 60, 62, 63, 65, 66, 72, 73, 74, 86, 87, 90, 91, 94, 99, 103,106,113,120,121 granulation.....................................20, 21, 91,121 Great Chesterford............................................... 69 guilloche..............................................................121 Haslingfield.......................................................... 36 Herpes.................................................................103 hippocampi...................................................26,121

amber........................... 73, 94,109,110,114, 115 amethyst..............................................................113 Anglo-SaxonChronicle...............................13,120 angon............................................................ 69,120 antler.............. 14, 71, 75, 96,110, 111, 114, 126 Asthall.................................................................. I l l astragalus................................................... I l l , 1 2 0 balteus...................................................................59 barrow........................... 21, 57, 97, 103, 111, 114 basketwork..............................................43, 53, 55 beading.......................... 19, 29, 43, 56,90, 120 beads......................53, 64, 72, 7 3 ,8 7 , 94, 95, 96, 106, 109,110,113,114,120,124,125 beakers.......................................................... 84,114 Bede..................................................... 13, 120,122 Benty Grange.....................................................115 Beowulf......................................................... 13,120 Bergh Apton..................................................77, 80 Bifrons........................................... 37, 63,104,105 Birstall.................................................................... 84 bone........................... 7,14, 23, 25, 43, 48, 50, 57, 64, 65, 71, 72, 73, 74, 77, 96,102, 106,109, 111, 116,120,121, 126 boss.............. 49, 51, 52, 53, 55, 56, 65, 6 8 , 75, 76, 77, 79,82, 91,112,113,120, 123 Breach Down........................................................ 93 Broomfield.......................................................... 115 Byzantine........................................ 20, 21, 46,124 cabochon...........20, 22, 24, 38, 48, 50, 51, 53, 81, 90, 91, 92,101,102,113,120 Cadbourne......................................69, 95, 97, 114 Caenby...................................................................82 Caistor St. Edmund............................................ 15 Caistor-by-Norwich.......................................... 111 Castledyke.................................................I l l , 106 caterpillar brooches............................................ 36 ceramic........................... 8 , 9,14,1 5 ,1 6 ,1 0 6 ,1 0 9 , 112,114,116,121,122 Chatham Lines...................................................105 Chelmsford........................................................... 82 Chessel Down......................................................42 cicadas.......................................................... 24,120 cingulum....................................................... 27,120 Cleveland...............................................................27 cloisonné ....20, 23, 24,37, 38, 49, 50, 63, 6 6 , 73, 89, 90, 98,100,102,105, 113,120,122,126

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horn ..... 22, 38, 40, 80, 81, 84, 86,106,114,115, 116,126 Howletts........................................................ 56, 60 Illerup....................................................................69 Illington-Lackford pottters...............................16 inhumation................................ 60, 106, 115,121 interlace........................ 20, 21, 22, 43, 47, 51, 61, 63, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 81, 82, 87, 89, 92, 99, 100 Ipswich..................................................15, 65, 112 ivory............. 43, 48, 50, 57, 64, 65, 71, 102, 111, 115, 126 K ent......................... 12,13, 14, 16,18,19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 29, 37, 38, 46, 48, 49, 50, 52, 56, 57, 60, 63, 65, 69, 72, 74, 81, 84, 88, 93, 95, 98, 102, 104,105, 111, 113, 114, 122 keystone............21, 36, 48, 49, 53, 100,122, 126 Lackford..................................................... 115, 116 lappet......................... 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 107,122 latch-lifters.................................................... 95, 97 lead ......................................... 25, 52, 72,106,116 Lechlade........................................................90, 98 Linton.................................................................... 43 Lombards................................................24, 37,122 London......................15,116, 124, 125,126, 127 Long Wittenham............................................... 109 Loveden Hill......................................................... 82 Ludford..................................................................43 lunulate.................................................98, 101, 122 Maidstone..............................................................74 mailcoat..................................................15, 83,122 meerschaum.......................................... 24, 73,122 Melton Mowbray............... 38, 61, 64, 68, 78, 99 Mercia............................................................ 13, 25 Mildenhall............................................... 36, 67, 77 millefiori............................................... 66, 114, 122 moneyer..................................................................11 Morning Thorpe....................................................63 Mucking.....................................................14, 15, 64 Nazeingbury........................................................ 1 1 5 niello.................................................18, 49, 68, 122 Nijmegen................................................................71 Northumbria............... 9,10,13, 25, 42, 121,123 Nydam Style..........................................17, 18,101 palm cup............................................... 84, 114, 122 palmette.....................................19, 36, 49, 50, 122 pattern-welding........................... 68, 71,122, 125 pelta................................ 34, 36, 84,100,101,122 pentagon........................................................ 55, 73 peplos................................38, 41, 52, 53, 108, 122 Polychrome Style.................................... 20, 21, 22 pommel.............................. 70, 72, 73, 74,115, 122 Prittlewell........................... 60, 104, 111, 115, 126 quincunx................................................ 46, 51, 122 Quoit Brooch style............. 15, 17,18,19, 26, 59, 60, 63, 64,125, 127 repousse........................46, 50, 52, 66, 82, 90,123 Riseley.................................................................... 88 rock crystal................................................ 113, 116 Roman coins..............................................9, 15, 93 rope-work...................... 22, 36, 50, 53, 72, 74, 76, 88, 91, 99,123 runic.........6, 8, 10, 11, 15, 87, 111, 121,123,126 Salian Franks................................................24,123

saltire................................................32, 44, 91, 123 Sancton............................................................... 115 Sancton-Baston potters................................... 16 Saxon Style..................................................... 17, 20 Scandinavia............... 6 , 9,10,11, 14,18,19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 29, 36, 37, 38, 40, 42, 47, 56, 63, 6 6 , 67, 6 8 , 69, 73, 80, 82, 8 6 , 87, 89, 91, 93,113,120, 121, 123,124,125,126 Scotland.............. 9,11,13, 76, 84,116, 121, 122 scramasax.............................................................. 7 4 scroll. 1 9 ,2 2 ,2 6 ,2 9 ,3 3 ,3 6 ,3 7 , 42, 43, 50, 52, 56, 64, 67, 72, 78, 102,107 scutiform...........................................89, 90, 91,123 seax.......................................... 6 8 , 74, 75, 123,125 shale............................................................ H i, 116 silver................... 11, 14,18,19, 21, 24, 25, 34, 36, 42, 49, 52, 56, 57, 60, 61, 65, 6 8 , 69, 73, 74, 75, 79, 84, 8 6 , 87, 89, 90, 91, 93, 95, 98, 99,102,104, 110,113, 122,123 Sleaford..................................................................29,52 Snape.............................................................79, 115 Sösdala Style........................................... 17,18, 89 Southampton............................................... 15,114 spangle......................................................... 102,123 spindle whorls...................................106, 110,116 spirals............... 19, 20, 36, 37, 55, 78, 79, 90,123 Spong H ill............................................. 15, 80,115 St. Augustine....................................................... 13 St. Columba......................................................... 13 St. Denis cathedral..............................................63 Style 1.......................17,19, 20, 21, 22, 29, 35, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 48, 49, 52, 53, 55, 63, 64, 65, 67, 69, 72, 73, 75, 77, 79, 80, 86,101,107 Style II.................................... 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 29, 46, 48, 52, 64, 65, 75, 78, 79, 81, 82, 84, 8 6 , 92, 100,103 Sudbury................................................................ 84 Sussex.......................................................12,13, 60 Sutton Hoo......... 6 , 21, 22, 24, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 6 6 , 72, 73, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 86,101,103, 104, 111, 114, 115,116,124, 125 Swallowcliffe Down.......................... 57,103,127 tablet-braid......................................................... 106 Tacitus..................................................................109 Taplow......................61, 65, 84, 86,106, 111, 115 Tattershall Thorpe.......................................15,106 Tauschierung...................................................... 123 þunor............................................................ 89,123 Trier........................................................................ 23 triskele...................................................................84 tweezers...................................................... 106,123 Uncleby......................................................... 57,116 Valsgärde................................................................82 vandyke...............................................86,115,123 Vehmaa..................................................................71 Vendel....................................................................82 volute............................................................ 72,123 Wessex............................................................13, 63 West Heslerton.....................................................71 whetstone...................................................116,125 Wijnaldum............................................................ 37 Woden............................................. 24, 42, 80,123 York................................................................15,116

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About This Book The early Anglo-Saxon period is of immense importance to the later history of Britain. It saw the changeover from British-speaking provinces dominated by Roman power and culture to Englishspeaking kingdoms interacting within a European network of kings, nobles and chiefs. The two centuries from AD 400 onwards in lowland Britain were witness to huge changes in social structure, settlement pattern, political ideology, language and religion. In this important new book, Brett Hammond has drawn together images, distribution maps and descriptions of some important pieces of jewellery, wargear and feasting equipment from the period alongside representative examples of objects which were in daily use. The book covers a vast range of object types - from the rare and the exotic to the everyday - offering a thorough coverage of the fascinating material which survives from this period. In addition to the outline history, the book features detailed descriptions of many important new finds which shed light into the gloomier corners of the period: the links between the Roman, AngloSaxon and Scandinavian worlds. The author is a respected researcher in the field of Anglo-Saxon and Viking material culture, with more than a decade at the forefront of object identification and classification. His fascination with and passion for the subject comes through on every page. British Artefacts is a new series of books covering finds made in the British Isles and their contexts, sometimes drawing on parallel Continental examples. Each title will cover a specific period or date-range. The objects described and illustrated (in photographs and museum-quality artwork) will represent the range of items in use, from the lowly pin or knifeblade to the finest quality jewellery.