Bridging Research and Library Practice: Global Perspectives on Education and Training 9783110772593, 9783110772524

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Edited by Janine Schmidt International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions Fédération Internationale des Associations de Bibliothécaires et des Bibliothèques Internationaler Verband der bibliothekarischen Vereine und Institutionen Международная Федерация Библиотечных Ассоциаций и Учреждений Federación Internacional de Asociaciones de Bibliotecarios y Bibliotecas

Volume 184

Bridging Research and Library Practice

Global Perspectives on Education and Training Edited by Krystyna K. Matusiak, Kawanna M. Bright, and Debbie Schachter

DE GRUYTER SAUR

ISBN 978-3-11-077252-4 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-077259-3 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-077260-9 ISSN 0344-6891 Library of Congress Control Number: 2023944442 Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2024 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston. Cover Image: © Edwin Tan / E+ / Getty Images Typesetting: Dr Rainer Ostermann, München Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck www.degruyter.com

Contents About IFLA

Contents

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Lynn Silipigni Connaway Preface 1 Krystyna K. Matusiak, Kawanna M. Bright, and Debbie Schachter Introduction: Bridging the Gap 3

Part I: Research Methods Education in LIS Programs Gaby Haddow 1 Information Theory and Research: An Australian Case

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Mónica Colón-Aguirre and Kawanna M. Bright 2 Demystifying Research Methods: A United States Perspective Patricia Hernández-Salazar 3 Ensuring Effective User Studies Research in México

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37

Zuza Wiorogórska 4 Introductory Research Methods for Students of Information Space Architecture in Poland 50 Albina Krymskaya and Victor Mutev 5 Teaching Research Methods in Library and Information Science Programmes: The Russian Perspective 62 Mitsuhiro Oda 6 With the Community in Mind: Teaching Research Methods at One University in Japan 78 Notice Pasipamire 7 Teaching Research Methods in Library and Information Science in Zimbabwe 92

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Ederina Demo 8 Between Practice and Research: The National School of Librarianship in Albania 105 Contents Contents

Part II: Training and Development in Research Methods for Library Practitioners Kristine R. Brancolini and Marie R. Kennedy 9 A Model Research Methods Training Program: Implications for the Curriculum 121 Emily Bongiovanni, Seth Vuletich, and Brianna Buljung 10 Lessons Learned from Incorporating Research Experience into a Graduate Internship 134 Maria Micle and Elena Tîrziman 11 Continuing Education in Research Methods for Library Professionals: The Romanian Experience 144 Kiran Kaur, Samsul Farid Samsuddin, and Diljit Singh 12 Nurturing Emerging Researchers in Malaysia

157

Annie Nickum and Kristyn Caragher 13 Learning As We Go: Junior Faculty Librarians’ Perspectives on Research 170 Jessica L. Serrao 14 The Personal Journey of an Early-Career Researcher in the United States 181

Part III: Studies in LIS Research Methods Practice and Teaching Kawanna M. Bright 15 Research Confidence of Liaison Librarians Providing Faculty Research Support 197 Anna Maria Tammaro, Mario Pèrez-Montoro, Simona Turbanti, and Elena Corradini 16 A Comparative Study of Italian and Spanish Research in Library and Information Science 211



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Sophia V. Adeyeye and Opeyemi R. Oboh 17 Research Competencies of Postgraduate Students at Lead City University, Nigeria 223 Danilo Madayag Baylen and Iyra S. Buenrostro-Cabbab 18 Developing Students’ Research Skills in the Philippines

236

Part IV: Voices from the Field of Practice Stacy Brody, Shaila Mensinkai, Caroline De Brún, Margaret Sampson, and Nicole Askin 19 Research and Practice: Developing Searching Guidelines during a Pandemic 255 Romy Hilbrich and Sina Menzel 20 Understanding User Needs and Research Methods through Diary Studies: A Comparative Perspective from Berlin 270 Kari D. Weaver and Kate Mercer 21 Navigating Multidisciplinary Research in STEM Information Literacy 289 Bronwen K. Maxson and Betsaida M. Reyes 22 Lessons from a Research Trip to Mexico

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Yun Dai, Xinyao Liu, and Fan Luo 23 Research and Practice in a Loop: A Case in and Beyond China Ophelia T. Morey 24 Integrating a Theoretical Framework into Research Proposal Design 323 Contributors

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About IFLA www.ifla.org IFLA (The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions) is the leading international body representing the interests of library and information services and their users. It is the global voice of the library and information profession. IFLA provides information specialists throughout the world with a forum for exchanging ideas and promoting international cooperation, research, and development in all fields of library activity and information service. IFLA is one of the means through which libraries, information centres, and information professionals worldwide can formulate their goals, exert their influence as a group, protect their interests, and find solutions to global problems. IFLA’s mission to inspire, engage, enable and connect the global library field can only be fulfilled with the co-operation and active involvement of its members and affiliates. Currently, approximately 1,600 associations, institutions and individuals, from widely divergent cultural backgrounds are working together to further this mission Through its formal membership, IFLA directly or indirectly represents some 500,000 library and information professionals worldwide. IFLA pursues its vision of a strong and united library field powering literate, informed and participatory societies through a variety of channels, including the publication of a major journal, as well as guidelines, reports and monographs on a wide range of topics. IFLA organizes webinars and workshops around the world to enhance professional practice and increase awareness of the growing importance of libraries in the digital age. All this is done in collaboration with a number of other non-governmental organizations, funding bodies and international agencies such as UNESCO and WIPO. The Federation’s website is the key source of information about IFLA, its policies and activities: www.ifla.org. Library and information professionals gather annually at the IFLA World Library and Information Congress, held in August each year in cities around the world. IFLA was founded in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1927 at an international conference of national library directors. IFLA was registered in the Netherlands in 1971. The National Library of the Netherlands (Koninklijke Bibliotheek) in The Hague, generously provides the facilities for our headquarters. Regional offices are located in Argentina, South Africa and Singapore.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-201

Preface

Preface

The discussion of library and information science education (LIS) and the focus on research and theory or practice has been occurring for more than two centuries. Library education was an apprenticeship prior to the opening of Melvil Dewey’s School of Library Economy in 1887 (Bohannan 1991). Dewey’s intention was to develop a library curriculum that combined the theoretical foundation of library science with practical experience. He stated that an ideal library school graduate could go into any library “hang up his hat and sit down to work just as fast and just as efficiently as any departmental veteran” (Butler 1953, 10). The statement implied that the library school curriculum included or was thought to include both education and training. While the blending of theory with practice may be somewhat true today with the inclusion of practicum experiences in LIS curricula, I believe that both educators and employers have shared responsibilities for preparing future information professionals: employers for orienting early-career professionals in the policies and practices of the library to meet the expectations and needs of the community; and educators for teaching the principles, ethics, theories, and foundations of LIS that prepare future information professionals for assessing programs, offerings, collections, and spaces and for identifying community needs and expectations. The educators’ responsibility is to provide opportunities for students to develop and hone their critical thinking skills so that they are able to identify what is working and what is not. Only careful analysis and creative inquiry will enable information professionals to adapt current practices and policies to changing requirements and to fashion new oferings that reflect the communities’ needs and expectations. To assess current practices and policies, one must be educated in research methods. Not every information professional will be an expert in both quantitative and qualitative research methods and nor should this be the expectation. But to make evidence-based decisions, information professionals must know how to articulate their questions and to be familiar with the different options for collecting and analyzing data about their communities, programs, offerings, collections, and spaces. Information professionals must be able to read and critically evaluate the research published in the LIS literature to determine if the research should be replicated and if so, how the research could be replicated to answer new questions. Having the confidence, knowledge, and skills to conduct research are critical for articulating and promoting the value of the library within the community and for making the case for library funding. As the co-author of the book, Research Methods in Library and Information Science (Connaway and Radford 2021), and for the reasons previously mentioned, I am honored to be asked to write the preface for this book, Bridging Research and https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-001

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 Preface

Library Practice: Global Perspectives on Education and Training. After reviewing the introduction and chapters of the book, I feel hopeful and enthusiastic about a future in LIS education and practice that includes research as a complementary component to both. I also am impressed by the LIS programs outside the US that require more research courses and are more diverse in their offerings than the US programs. The examples in this book provide an opportunity for educators and practicing professionals to learn from each other and to continue to adapt and revise their programs to provide more options for a rich and diverse research curriculum. Lynn Silipigni Connaway

References Bohannan, April. 1991. “Library Education: Struggling to Meet the Needs of the Profession.” Journal of Academic Librarianship 7, no. 4: 216–219. Butler, Pierce. 1953. “The Bibliographical Function of the Library.” Journal of Cataloging and Classification 9, no. 1: 3-11. Connaway, Lynn Silipigni, and Marie L Radford. 2021. Research Methods in Library and Information Science. 7th ed. Santa Barbara, CA.: Libraries Unlimited.

Krystyna K. Matusiak, Kawanna M. Bright, and Debbie Schachter

Introduction: Bridging the Gap The Gap

The research-practice gap characterized by the disconnect between research and practice communities is not unique to the library and information science (LIS) field. The relevance of academic research to practice, the value of researcher-practitioner scholarship, evidence-based practice, and the role of education in bridging the gap have been discussed in other professional and applied disciplines (Tkachenko, Hahn, and Peterson 2017). Abbas et al. (2016, 96) note that in LIS “the disconnect between research and practice is palpable”. The LIS discussion dates to the early 2000s when Turner (2002, 9) pointed out the lack of the “crossfertilisation of ideas” and “a communication chasm” between academic researchers and practitioners. Powell, Baker, and Mika (2002) noted the limited engagement of LIS practitioners in conducting original research. In the seminal paper about communicating LIS research to practice, Haddow and Klobas (2004) identified eleven gaps, ranging from knowledge and cultural gaps to insufficient education of library practitioners in research methods and the lack of time among librarians to read or conduct research. The ongoing debate has focused on the multiple barriers and causes creating the divide between LIS research and practice and potential solutions for bridging it. It brought voices of concerned researchers and practitioners from several countries demonstrating that the research-practice gap is not only multidimensional but also a global phenomenon (Abbas et al. 2016; Hazel, Cruickshank, and Ryan 2019; Nguyen and Hider 2018). A panel of LIS faculty and library administrators at the 2016 Association for Library and Information Science Education (ALISE) conference discussed the mismatch between LIS scholarly outputs and professional practice (Abbas et al. 2016). Researchers examining the gap point out its multifaceted nature. Academic researchers publish articles in journals that are not read by librarians. Practitioners do not apply research findings because research problems explored in scholarly papers do not originate in the world of practice. Practitioners are also not involved in designing and conducting empirical research. Nguyen and Hider (2018) identify several barriers to practitioner engagement with research, including a lack of institutional support, isolation from researchers, a lack of research expertise and confidence, and a lack of resources.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-002

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 Krystyna K. Matusiak, Kawanna M. Bright, and Debbie Schachter

The Bridge The potential solutions concentrate on more effective dissemination of research findings to library practitioners, increasing the relevance of research to practice, improving practitioners’ research skills, and engaging them in conducting research. LIS research could become more relevant with input from practitioners, developing research projects informed by issues in practice, and collaboration between librarians and researchers. The research literature includes examples of innovative partnership programs and collaborative networks in a few countries, such as Developing Research Excellence and Methods (DREaM) in the UK (Hazel, Cruickshank, and Ryan 2019) or the Research Assistance and Development for Australian Researchers (RADAR) program in Australia (Given, Partridge, and Howard 2022). Narrowing the divide requires the cooperation of all stakeholders and strategies on multiple levels, including strong LIS education in research methods, support in professional organizations, partnership programs, and institutional efforts in creating a sustainable research culture in libraries.

Developing Competency LIS education in research methods is the first step in developing the research competency of library practitioners. The coursework in research methods in LIS programs provides future library professionals with an introduction to basic concepts and methodologies used in the field. The panelists at the 2016 ALISE conference argued that courses in research methods should be required in the LIS curriculum (Abbas et al. 2016). In practice, however, education in research methods is inconsistent across LIS programs. In the United States, 58% of master’s-level LIS programs require students to take a research methods course as part of the core curriculum, while the other programs may provide it as an elective (Matusiak and Bright 2020). The programs usually offer a single course designed as an overview of research methods with limited opportunities for gaining practical skills in conducting research (Matusiak and Bright 2020). A small number of the US LIS master’s programs has a wider selection of research methods courses in addition to a general introductory course (Luo 2017). As demonstrated in several chapters in this book, the curricular models in LIS programs outside the US are more diverse and students may be expected and required to take more than one course in research methods. Professional qualifications for careers in librarianship vary from country to country, with preparation programs offered at the undergraduate bachelor’s and



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graduate master’s levels. The international study conducted by the IFLA Building Strong LIS Education (BSLISE), a special interest group of the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) Education and Training Section (SET), found that most countries require a bachelor’s degree as the first degree for professional practice (IFLA BSLISE 2018). In Canada, Puerto Rico, and the US, a master’s degree in LIS from a program accredited by the American Library Association (ALA) is required by many employers to enter the field and some states in the US require an ALA-accredited degree to work as a professional librarian in public or school libraries. The students enrolled in master’s LIS programs have diverse undergraduate backgrounds and typically do not hold a bachelor’s degree in LIS or information studies (Matusiak, Stansbury, and Barczyk 2014; Saunders 2019). In international contexts, different qualifications can be required for public, school, or academic libraries. The diversity in professional qualifications and educational models has implications for how future library and information professionals are introduced to research methodology and prepared for conducting research. The programs that offer bachelor’s and master’s degrees in LIS have the advantage of applying more diversified and modular approaches to teaching research methods. The value of LIS education in research methods and its relevance to practice have been highlighted in the context of growing demands for accountability and the movement toward evidence-based library practice. Luo (2011) points out the role of formal research education in equipping future practitioners with skills relevant to professional work, such as critical evaluation of scholarly literature and application of research findings to practice, designing and implementing studies, grant writing, and producing valid and reliable data to engage in evidence-based practice. Early-career academic librarians who had a course in research methods as part of their LIS education feel more confident starting a research project than those who had none (Crampsie, Neville, and Henry 2020).

Research in Practice Library practice is becoming more research-oriented with a growing number of librarians engaged in applied and empirical studies. Berg and Banks (2016) recognize the potential of librarian-researchers with interest and capacity for research. Increasingly, library professionals are active contributors to LIS scholarship by conducting research studies, presenting at conferences, and publishing scholarly papers (Chang 2021; Crampsie, Neville, and Henry 2020). Academic librarians contribute to the growth of scholarship in LIS as they are often expected to conduct research and publish for the purposes of gaining tenure or promotion. Their moti-

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vation, however, often goes beyond job requirements and includes intellectual curiosity and a desire to contribute to the field (Crampsie, Neville, and Henry 2020; Fennewald 2008). A recent study demonstrates that the academic impact of scholarly articles published by practitioner-researchers is close to those produced by research faculty in LIS programs and can be equally impactful if it is a result of collaboration (Chang 2021). However, research support and adequate preparation in research methodology remain challenges for many academic librarians (Ackerman, Hunter, and Wilkinson 2018; Kennedy and Brancolini 2018). The changing library environment and the development of new information systems and services require librarians to conduct research about user needs and information-seeking behaviors and use data to improve the design of systems or to develop new services. User Experience (UX) has emerged as an important new area in libraries, and practitioners increasingly apply the principles of user-centered design not only to information systems but also to library services and the organization of physical spaces (Gullikson 2020). UX librarians expand the repertoire of their research methods and adopt techniques from ethnography, usability, or other affiliated disciplines. The cases of applied research are not only methodologically diverse but also interdisciplinary and highly collaborative.

The Global Perspective This book examines the education and training of library professionals in research methods in a global context. The education gap, one of the dimensions of the research-practice disconnect, refers to the insufficient preparation in research methodology where practitioners may lack adequate skills, knowledge, or confidence to interpret and apply research findings into practice or conduct empirical research (Abbas et al. 2016; Haddow and Klobas 2004; Crampsie, Neville and Henry 2020). Strong LIS education in research methods, as well as professional development and continuing training in research, contribute to preparing competent researcher-practitioners and closing the gap. This volume presents case studies and examples of good practice from multiple countries and shares the experiences of LIS educators and researcher-practitioners. It includes the voices of instructors who teach research methods in LIS programs and library practitioners who engage in research. The volume contributes to the debate about the research-practice divide by providing an international perspective and by exploring multiple aspects of the educational gap. It includes chapters from LIS educators, academic researchers, and researcher-practitioners from eighteen countries. The book is addressed to the



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global audience of LIS educators and practitioners. The goal is to deepen the understanding of LIS education and training in research methods in the global context and to share experiences and approaches to teaching and conducting research in practice. The contributions collected in this volume highlight the wide spectrum of educational models worldwide and different strategies for providing training in research methods in LIS programs and through continuing education. LIS educators can learn about different curricular models and pedagogical approaches, while practitioners can seek new ideas about continuing education in research and explore methodological designs presented in the research case studies. The examples of the innovative research projects conducted by researcher-practitioners are not only inspiring but also demonstrate that the field has indeed changed since Powell, Baker and Mika (2002) commented on the lack of involvement of practitioners in research.

The Book The volume consists of twenty-four chapters organized into four sections. The first, Research Methods Education in LIS Programs, is devoted to highlighting global perspectives and approaches to research methods education in LIS program. The second section, Training and Development in Research Methods for Library Practitioners, explores approaches to continuing education and professional development in research. The third section, Studies in LIS Research Methods Practice and Teaching, presents a selection of research studies that examine topics related to researcher-practitioner scholarship, research methods used in the field, or teaching research methods in LIS. The last section, Voices from the Field of Practice, includes case studies from practice where researcher-practitioners share their experiences in conducting research.

Section 1: Research Methods Education in LIS Programs Section 1 presents perspectives from eight countries demonstrating the variety of educational models and approaches to teaching research methods in LIS programs worldwide. Readers can learn about professional qualifications and educational preparation for librarianship in different countries, including Albania, Australia, Japan, Mexico, Poland, Russia, the US, and Zimbabwe. The LIS programs are offered traditionally at universities except for Albania, described by Demo, where LIS education is affiliated with the National Library. The research methods courses are

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at the bachelor’s or master’s level, depending on the country’s educational model, the curriculum in the LIS program, and the author’s background. The Australian case by Haddow captures the transition from undergraduate to graduate education in LIS. Colón-Aguirre and Bright share their experience in teaching two graduate-level courses in research methods in an introductory course required for all students in an LIS master’s program in the US, and an advanced course intended for future academic librarians. Pasipamire describes a curricular model at a university in Zimbabwe where courses in research methods and statistics are required for both undergraduate and graduate students. At the master’s level, students take advanced research methods, work on a research proposal, conduct research, and write a thesis. The courses are either entirely dedicated to research methods or embedded in related content, such as the user studies course outlined by Hernández-Salazar from Mexico or the media communication course used by Krymskaya and Mutyev in Russia. Wiorogórska presents an introductory course in research methods for students of information space architecture in Poland. Oda outlines professional preparation requirements for public librarians in Japan and describes the coursework at the bachelor’s level in the community heritage resources program. The authors in this section, experienced LIS educators, share their teaching experience, describe course design and assignments, outline learning objectives and outcomes, and discuss strategies for student engagement. The contributions include unique perspectives on the role of research methods courses in professional LIS education and in preparing students to be not only supporters and consumers of research but also engaged researcher-practitioners.

Section 2: Training and Development in Research Methods for Library Practitioners Section 2 offers chapters that focus on a variety of approaches to training and development in research methods for library practitioners, ranging from structured programs to self-education. Brancolini and Kennedy describe the development, implementation, and impact of the Institute for Research Design in Librarianship (IRDL), a grant-funded, continuing education program created in response to a perceived lack of research methods training received by librarians in US master’s programs. Their chapter highlights not only the research methods topics required to be successful researcher-practitioners, but also the additional support provided by networking, mentoring, and peers. Kaur, Samsuddin, and Singh detail the Universiti Malaya’s initiation of a series of workshops to support and supplement the research needs of their graduate students. They highlight the difficulty of relying on a single



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course to prepare students to conduct the research necessary for dissertation and thesis requirements. Micle and Tîrziman share the results of a qualitative study highlighting the absence of post-degree training opportunities in Romania for library practitioners providing research support for others, and the potential negative impact of the lack of research knowledge and skills on practitioners’ contributions to LIS research through conducting their own research. Bongiovanni, Vuletich, and Buljung highlight the opportunity to provide additional research methods preparation to US graduate students through a project-based graduate internship. Finally, in two separate cases, Nickum and Caragher, and Serrao provide in-depth looks into the efforts new academic librarians in the US undertake to prepare themselves to conduct research. Nickum and Caragher share suggestions for juggling competing responsibilities with the requirement to research and submit papers for publication, focusing on efforts to develop research agendas that showcase their development into researcher-practitioners. Serrao offers a fascinating look at the development of an early-career researcher battling through the deep learning curve of a quantitative research project on equity, diversity, and inclusion. These chapters represent snapshots into the additional preparation needed by LIS researchers to become strong researcher-practitioners across a variety of contexts and offer suggestions for how to provide that preparation.

Section 3: Studies in LIS Research Methods Practice and Teaching The chapters in Section 3 provide an overview of studies undertaken by LIS practitioners and teachers to understand the experiences and implications of research methods teaching in LIS practice. Studies from Italy, Nigeria, the Philippines, Spain, and the US reveal challenges and implications of teaching models and research methods understanding by LIS practitioners across four continents. Bright shares the findings of a US study investigating the confidence levels of academic liaison librarians who provide support for faculty research. Tammaro et al. spotlight the characteristics of LIS research in Italy and Spain through a comparative study to determine why, despite the longstanding tradition of collaboration, there is a limited history of collaborative LIS research. Through a mixed methods study involving content analysis, focus group and interview, Adeyeye and Oboh investigate the competence of Nigerian master’s and PhD LIS students in research and scholarly writing. Their findings indicate a gap between knowledge and practice and conclude that students would benefit from mandatory research methodology coursework across an academic year. Baylen and Buenrostro come to similar conclusions in their study of two Philippine LIS programs, in which they identify

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the need to support students more formally in developing practical research skills through embedding skills development across the curriculum.

Section 4: Voices from the Field of Practice The final section of this volume introduces the voices of researcher-practitioners engaged in a multitude of research projects. With cases from Canada, China, Germany, Mexico, the UK and the US, these final chapters demonstrate how researcher-practitioners successfully applied a variety of research methods in their efforts to address LIS research questions. The international team represented by Brody et al. offers a timely investigation into the development of formal guidelines for searching during public health emergencies, providing twenty-three recommendations in support of the needs of medical providers, health care administrators, and public health experts. Hilbrich and Menzel introduce the diary method as a valuable approach used in two German libraries for user experience studies. Weaver and Mercer emphasize the importance of multidisciplinary research within LIS, especially as a way for research teams to capitalize on the knowledge from related fields for use in their own work. Dai, Liu, and Luo introduce the research and practice loop as they describe the development of a qualitative study on research data sharing in China. Maxson and Reyes, US-based researchers, offer their insights into the rewards of engaging with peers in Mexico, the challenges of conducting research internationally, and advice for researchers who plan to conduct similar work. And Morey details efforts to integrate a theoretical framework into a consumer health project, emphasizing the importance of having a theoretical framework to support aspects of the research process, including research question development, data collection, and data analysis. This introduction is by no means exhaustive but provides a framework and a sense of breadth for the material presented in this volume. We encourage our readers to explore the chapters and find the voices relevant to their teaching, research, or practice. We thank the authors for sharing their unique experiences and contributing to bridging the gap between research and practice in the LIS field.

References Abbas, June, Martin Garnar, Marie Kennedy, Brian Kenney, Lili Luo, and Michael Stephens. 2016. “Bridging the Divide: Exploring LIS Research and Practice in a Panel Discussion at the ALISE ’16 Conference.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 57, no. 2: 94–100. https://doi. org/10.3138/jelis.57.2.94.



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Ackerman, Erin, Jennifer Hunter, and Zara T. Wilkinson. 2018. “The Availability and Effectiveness of Research Supports for Early Career Academic Librarians.” Journal of Academic Librarianship 44, no. 5: 563–568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2018.06.001. Berg, Selinda A., and Michelle Banks. 2016. “Beyond Competencies: Naming Librarians’ Capacity for Research.” The Journal of Academic Librarianship 42, no. 4: 469–471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. acalib.2016.06.002. Chang, Yu-Wei. 2021. “Academic Impact of Articles by Practitioners in the Field of Library and Information Science.” College & Research Libraries 82, no. 1: 59–74. https://doi.org/10.5860/ crl.82.1.59. Crampsie, Camielle, Tina Neville, and Deborah Henry. 2020. “Academic Librarian Publishing Productivity: An Analysis of Skills and Behaviors Leading to Success.” College & Research Libraries 81, no. 2: 248–271. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl.81.2.248. Fennewald, Joseph. 2008. “Research Productivity among Librarians: Factors Leading to Publications at Penn State.” College & Research Libraries 69, no. 2: 104–116. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl.69.2.104. Given, Lisa M., Helen Partridge, and Katherine Howard. 2022. “Supporting Collaborative Research in Information Science: The RADAR Program as a Model for Academic-Practitioner Team Engagement.” Library & Information Science Research 44, no. 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. lisr.2022.101152. Gullikson, Shelley. 2020. “Structuring and Supporting UX Work in Academic Libraries.” Weave: Journal of Library User Experience 3, no. 2. https://doi.org/10.3998/weave.12535642.0003.202. Haddow, Gaby, and Jane E. Klobas. 2004. “Communication of Research to Practice in Library and Information Science: Closing the Gap.” Library & Information Science Research 26, no. 1: 29–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2003.11.010. Hall, Hazel, Peter Cruickshank, and Bruce Ryan. 2019. “Closing the Researcher-Practitioners Gap: An Exploration of the Impact of an AHRC Networking Grant.” Journal of Documentation 75, no. 5: 1056–1081. https://doi.org/10.1108/JD-12-2018-0212. IFLA BSLISE. 2018. Building Strong LIS Education: A Call to Global and Local Action – An IFLA BSLISE Working Group White Paper. An initiative of the IFLA Education and Training Section (SET), LIS Education in Developing Countries Special Interest Group (LISEDC SIG), and Library Theory and Research (LTR) Section. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Libraries. http://dx.doi.org/10.15641/0-79922542-6. Available at https://openbooks.uct.ac.za/uct/catalog/book/9. Kennedy, Marie R., and Kristine R. Brancolini. 2018. “Academic Librarian Research: An Update to a Survey of Attitudes, Involvement, and Perceived Capabilities.” College & Research Libraries 79, no. 6: 822–851. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl.79.6.822. Luo, Lili. 2011. “Fusing Research into Practice: The Role of Research Methods Education.” Library & Information Science Research 33, no. 3: 191–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2010.12.001. Luo, Lili. 2017. “Diversified Research Methods Education in LIS: Thinking Outside the Box.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 58, no. 2: 49–63. https://doi.org/10.3138/ jelis.58.2.49. Matusiak, Krystyna K., Mary Stansbury, and Ewa Barczyk. 2014. “Educating a New Generation of Library and Information Science Professionals: A United States Perspective.” Przegląd Biblioteczny/Library Review 82, no. 2: 189–206. Available at https://digitalcommons.du.edu/cgi/ viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=lis_facpub&httpsredir=1&referer= . Matusiak, Krystyna K., and Kawanna Bright. 2020. “Teaching Research Methods in Master’s-Level LIS Programs: The United States Perspective.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 61, no. 3: 357–382. https://doi.org/10.3138/jelis.61.3.2020-0001. Available at https://eric. ed.gov/?id=EJ1267897.

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Nguyen, Linh Cuong, and Philip Hider. 2018. “Narrowing the Gap Between LIS Research and Practice in Australia.” Journal of the Australian Library and Information Association 67, no. 1: 3–19. https:// doi.org/10.1080/24750158.2018.1430412. Powell, Ronald R., Lynda M. Baker, and Joseph J. Mika. 2002. “Library and Information Science Practitioners and Research.” Library & Information Science Research 24, no. 1: 49–72. https://doi. org/10.1016/S0740-8188(01)00104-9. Saunders, Laura. 2019. “Core and More: Examining Foundational and Specialized Content in Library and Information Science.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 60, no. 1: 3–34. https://doi.org/10.3138/jelis.60.1.2018-0034. Tkachenko, Oleksandr, Huh-Jung Hahn, and Shari L. Peterson. 2017. “Research-Practice Gap in Applied Fields: An Integrative Literature Review.” Human Resource Development Review 16, no. 3: 235–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484317707562. Turner, Kathlyn J. 2002. “Do Information Professionals Use Research Published in LIS Journals?” Paper presented at the 68th IFLA Council and General Conference, August 18–24, 2002, Glasgow. https:// archive.ifla.org/IV/ifla68/papers/009-118e.pdf.

Part I: Research Methods Education in LIS Programs

Gaby Haddow

1 I nformation Theory and Research: An Australian Case Abstract: Information Theory and Research (ITR) has been for a period of fifteen years the core research methods unit for library and information science (LIS) students in the Bachelor1 and Master’s programmes at Curtin University, an Australian public research university located in Perth. Since 2009 the approach to the unit has been revised from highly theoretical to applied. The unit includes topics on research design, research methods, ethics, research communication, and evidence-based practice. Assessment encourages students to examine a topic of personal interest and develop a research proposal that draws from their learning across the semester. Group work is used to enhance student engagement and interaction with important facets of research. This chapter provides an overview and explanation of the content and assessments of the unit. It considers the ethos that underlies the inclusion of research methods education in library and information science studies and discusses the value placed by employers on the skills gained through learning about research. Keywords: Library science – Australia; Library education – Research; Education – Study and teaching (Graduate); Research – Methodology

Introduction Undergraduate and graduate degrees are recognised qualifications to work as a librarian in Australian public, special and academic libraries. The Australian Library and Information Association (ALIA) accredits programmes available. Unlike librarians in some parts of the world, academic librarians in Australia are not classified as faculty and there are limited expectations for them to conduct research and publish. The last decade has seen the number of Australian universities offering qualifications in library and information science dropping from seven to three, and the Bachelor’s degree is now available at only one higher education institution. Curtin University is the most recent to phase out the undergraduate degree and focuses solely on graduate qualifications in the form of a twelve-month Graduate Diploma, an eighteen month Master’s programme and a two-year Master’s programme. However, for at least fifteen years, the research methods course, 1  From 2023, the Bachelor’s programme is no longer being offered. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-003

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Information Theory and Research (ITR), was a core unit for all student cohorts and remains so for Master’s students. Curtin University located in Perth, Western Australia, had its origins as an institute of technology, with a strong teaching and vocational focus. The transition to university status in 1987 meant the strategic importance of research increased and higher degrees by research were introduced. With over 50,000 students and 3,000 staff, the University now sits fifteenth in the Oceania region, according to the QS World University Rankings (QS Universities n.d.). Library and information science (LIS) has been taught at Curtin for nearly 50 years, with both coursework and research degrees available for much of that time. This chapter is based on the author’s fourteen-year experience and describes the only research methods unit, ITR, taught and provides an overview of the unit’s development from highly theoretical to applied; its content and assessment designs; and reflections on its role in an LIS degree. The ITR course provides students with a twelve-week sprint through research design, research methods, ethics, research communication, and evidence-based practice. It prepares students for the research they must complete and write up as a thesis in the Master’s course and introduces the cohort to research. While the unit has challenged some students, it receives excellent evaluations by most. Since 2008, the unit has undergone numerous revisions, both major and minor. The changes have been implemented based on four values relating to LIS research that have been discussed widely in the field with several recent studies (Alemanne and Mandel 2018; Ardanuy and Urbano 2019; Hall, Cruickshank, and Ryan 2019; Jamali 2018; Matusiak and Bright 2020; Nguyen and Hider 2018; and Partridge et al. 2019). The underpinning values are: –– Library professionals should have foundation knowledge of LIS research and researchers to appreciate key issues and methods in the field –– A good understanding of different research methods enables library professionals to conduct workplace research and evaluate research –– Library professionals who are aware of the evidence-based practice approach are more likely to apply it in their work, and –– Research education may contribute to narrowing the much-discussed gap between research and practice in LIS.



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Course Details Instructor’s Background and Credentials The author’s educational experience commenced with a Bachelor’s degree, progressing to a Bachelor with Honours degree and then a PhD. The communication of research to practice in LIS was the focus of the Honours and PhD dissertations (Genoni, Haddow, and Ritchie 2004; Haddow 1997; Haddow and Harvey 2003; and Haddow and Klobas 2004). With a Doctorate but little professional experience, the author found work as a research project officer at an evidence-based nursing centre. The role provided a broad perspective on research communication, and it was during this time that she joined the evidence summary team for Evidence Based Library and Information Practice (EBLIP). Studies and work experiences provided excellent preparation for teaching research methods. Four years later the author was appointed to a subject liaison position in the Curtin University Library. In this role, extensive one-on-one and group training activities developed the author’s teaching approaches and an appreciation of student needs. When she was appointed to a lecturer position in late 2008, the research methods unit ITR was assigned to her. The unit was overhauled for 2009 and its scope, content and assessments reflected the author’s experience and research ethos.

History of the Unit before 2009 Accreditation of the Curtin LIS degrees by the Australian Library and Information Association (ALIA 2020) requires the curriculum to meet foundation knowledge and skills outlined by the Association which include knowledge about research methods. In its original form, ITR was highly theoretical with very little applied research content. Students were introduced to the main information and communication theories and there was some discussion about key research in LIS and research design. The topics in the 2008 version were: –– Information theory –– Information needs and wants –– Information retrieval –– Research proposal planning –– Bibliometrics, and –– Social accountability.

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For many years, ITR was a core unit for the three LIS degrees offered by Curtin, a Bachelor’s degree, a Graduate Diploma, and a Master’s, and there were between 40–60 students enrolled in the unit. Following curriculum changes in 2015, the unit became core to the Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees only.

Redesign of the Unit The revisions implemented for 2009 were designed for students to gain foundation and practical knowledge about research and how research is conducted. Due to an Australian higher education requirement that all research involving human participants must be approved by an ethics committee, students are unable to carry out a research project within the semester timeframe. The twelve-month Master’s project involves a substantial piece of research and 15,000-word thesis. A critical consideration in developing the unit was how to provide students with a learning experience that was as close as possible to a real research experience, along with the foundation knowledge required to be a researcher. The foundation knowledge comprised details of the research process and some key LIS research and researchers. Information behaviour and information retrieval research topics were selected due to their importance and influence on research. Because a separate unit specifically focused on information literacy, it was excluded as a weekly topic. However, when further revisions were made in 2010, information literacy research formed a component of the Services and Collections Research topic that covered a broad range of LIS studies. To fit within the semester timeframe, only a handful of research methods could be included. Survey research methods, ubiquitous and often poorly executed, were an obvious choice. Bibliometrics was selected because knowledge about the principles and tools of bibliometric research methods is important as possibly the only unique method in LIS. Bibliometrics also develops valuable skills for students who go on to work in research support roles. The third method included in the unit was experimental and quasi-experimental approaches. Such approaches are primarily quantitative and provide an opportunity to discuss random sampling, controlled trials and variables in a context to which students are more likely to relate. For students intending to work in health sciences, it is core knowledge. For those destined to operate elsewhere, the elements of experimental and quasiexperimental research lead to questions about reliability and validity, which feed into evaluating the quality of research results and evidence-based practice. In the second half of the unit, students are introduced to the techniques involved in the nuts and bolts of a research project: recruitment and sampling, preparation of research instruments, data collection, and analysis. Research procedures are fol-



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lowed by research ethics, which encompasses ethical considerations generally and more particularly in relation to research involving human participants. An overview of evidence-based practice and research communication conclude the topics for the unit. As well as numerous research articles, two textbooks are referred to throughout the unit; these are Wildemuth’s (2017) Applications of Social Research Methods to Questions in Information and Library Science and Research Methods: Information, Systems and Contexts by Williamson and Johanson (2018). As Table 1.1 illustrates, the topics developed in 2009 have remained relatively stable. Minor changes were made after the first year when it was clear that students needed additional scaffolding for their assignments. In this context, scaffolding refers to providing content and/or supporting material that will assist students to prepare their assessments. For example, an early revision to include the topic of Services and Collections Research helped students select a research theme. Later, when the unit moved to online learning a more focussed approach to the research process was deemed necessary. Table 1.1: Weekly topics 2009–2022 2009 1

2010–2017



2

Introduction to information theory and research Information behaviour research

3

Information retrieval research

4 5

Survey research methods Group presentations

6 7

Bibliometric research methods Experimental and quasi-experimental research Research techniques: sampling, recruitment and preparation Research techniques: data collection and analysis Ethics and research Evidence based practice Research in practice

8 9 10 11 12



}

2018–2022

Replaced by: The research process Replaced by: From information use to information behaviour & information retrieval research Replaced by: Services and collections research

Replaced by: Information studies research

Replaced by: Communicating research

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Students are required in their first assessment to select a topic that they would like to explore, and it is carried through the unit’s assessments. A literature review or annotated bibliography of relevant research articles and a research proposal or outline have been in place throughout, concluding the unit’s assessments. The intention is that by reading about research on a specific topic, students will be better informed to design their own projects as research proposals or outlines. The final assessment challenges students to demonstrate their learning across the semester and the Master’s students can use both the literature review and research proposal as foundations for their twelve-month project. Table 1.2 outlines the changes to assessments between 2009 and 2022. The second assessment task has been revised several times and always includes a group work component. Group work is not popular with students if a single group submission forms the assessment. A conscious decision was made to assess students individually on their own submissions but to include a peer- and self-assessment mark, 20–25% of the total assessment mark, for group work. The peer- and self-assessment allows students to review their own and other group members’ performance in a team. Detailed instructions are provided about what the group should work on, such as evaluating the quality of research in a set of research articles or exploring different research methods. The group discussions and the exploration of the literature each student brings to the discussions can then be used to prepare individual submissions. From 2015 until the conclusion of the Bachelor programme, students worked on questionnaires for the second assessment. As noted above, survey research is one of the most common methods in LIS and questionnaires are frequently poorly constructed. Students were provided with access to survey software and instructed to create a questionnaire of no more than fifteen questions based on their research topics. Both quantitative and qualitative questions could be included. The questionnaires were shared with group members to gain constructive feedback. The individual submission was the questionnaire along with a short report describing the intentions for the questionnaire, for example, what data it aimed to gather; who would form the participant group; how the student responded to group members’ feedback; and a reflection on the learning. Table 1.2: Assessments: 2009–2022 2009 1 A research method (group presentation) 2 Literature review 3 Research proposal



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2010–2014 1 Literature review 2 Research methods evaluation (group work: individual submission + peer review of group) 3 Research outline (Undergraduate students)/Research proposal (Graduate students) 2015–2018 Undergraduate students 1 Annotated bibliography 2 Questionnaire creation (group work) 3 Research proposal outline 2019–2022 Undergraduate students 1 Research article summaries 2 Questionnaire creation (group work) 3

Research proposal

Graduate students Annotated bibliography Research articles evaluation (group work) Essay: research ethics and codes relating to project Graduate students Literature review Research methods evaluation and research proposal (group work)

Outcomes Students who pass the unit are expected to achieve the following learning outcomes: –– Demonstrate advanced understanding of research in LIS –– Communicate research outcomes effectively to an academic and professional audience –– Evaluate quantitative and qualitative research methods appropriate to LIS –– Analyse the ethical implications of research, and –– Design an appropriate research strategy. While the unit receives excellent evaluations, very little information is available to indicate whether graduates go on to apply their learning in practice. At the very least, graduating students should possess a grounding in several research methods and techniques, an understanding of evidence-based practice, and ethical research practice. It is hoped that an awareness, the first stage in Rogers’ (2003) phases of adoption, gained in the unit gives graduates a starting point to engage in future projects and research in practice.

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Discussion and Conclusion There are few things more rewarding to an educator and researcher than teaching research methods. However, it is also a challenge to hone years of experience into twelve weeks of content that inform and engage students in research. The learning journey begins for most students with a clear distinction between research as information seeking and research as a systematic process that involves a great deal more than keyword selection. When hands-on research is limited in a course of study, a quasi-authentic activity such as questionnaire design challenges students to focus on linking a research question with the data needed to answer that question. For many, the practical research activity is a critical step to make in their learning and perhaps more important than students appreciate during their studies. It feeds into professional work, like assessment and evaluation (Matusiak and Bright 2020) and should leave traces that remind graduates to consider research quality as they progress through their careers. The literature indicates that despite the inclusion of a research methods unit in many LIS programs, a substantial proportion of graduates do not use research in their professional lives. The absence of research use has been noted for over thirty years (Alemanne and Mandel 2018; Stephenson 1990). It begs the question: with so much content vying for a place in a LIS degree why teach research methods? If students are continuing in their studies to undertake a research project, then clearly a research methods unit is important. But what about students who are gaining a qualification for their professional career only? The answer lies in the skills gained from learning about research. Taking a broad perspective, an understanding of research provides new professionals with the complex problem solving and critical thinking skills that are increasingly valued by employers (Oxford University Press 2020). There are direct links between these skills, which include evaluating the quality of published research, reflective practices, using reliable evidence and applying logic, with research education. From an individual perspective, the skills and inclination to engage in projects in the workplace and the potential for presenting and/or publishing the outcomes are rewarding as a practitioner; they contribute to a professional profile and can lead to further career opportunities. Most LIS degrees in the United States include a single research unit (Matusiak and Bright 2020). There are constraints in any degree that aims to graduate students for a diverse field and LIS degrees include limited content about many aspects including information sources, collections and services. By their very nature, university degrees can only skim the surface of a field that includes specialist areas across various industries. The same can be said of numerous other degrees. Perhaps the LIS community could think differently about teaching research methods. Rather than fret over whether graduates engage in research in prac-



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tice, and this author has contributed to the discussion, the focus could instead be on the skills that students gain by studying research methods. While subsequent involvement in research may or may not occur, the profession is richer for a deeper understanding of the underlying principles taught in a research methods unit. The knowledge gained creates awareness of a range of research approaches that can contribute to assessment activities, an understanding of evidence-based practice, ethics, teaching information literacy activities effectively, and an open approach to innovation in practice. In a profession that encompasses work that spans the meticulously applied to the highly analytical, research principles can contribute in many and various forms.

References Alemanne, Nicole D., and Lauren H. Mandel. 2018. “Developing Research Practitioners: Exploring the Pedagogical Options for Teaching Research Methods in LIS.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 59, no. 3: 26–40. https://doi.org/10.3138/jelis.59.3.2018-0015.04. Available at https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/lsc_facpubs/18/. Ardanuy, Jordi, and Cristóbal Urbano. 2019. “The Academic-Practitioner Gap in Spanish Library and Information Science: An Analysis of Authorship and Collaboration in Two Leading National Publications.” Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 51, no. 2:317–330. https://doi.org/10.1177/0961000617726125. Available at http://diposit.ub.edu/dspace/ bitstream/2445/115324/1/673221.pdf. Australian Library and Information Association (ALIA). 2020. “Foundation Knowledge, Skills and Attributes for Information Professionals Working in Archives, Libraries and Records Management.” https://read.alia.org.au/foundation-knowledge-skills-and-attributes-relevantinformation-professionals-working-archives-0. Genoni, Paul, Gaby Haddow, and Ann Ritchie. 2004. “Why Don’t Librarians Use Research?” In Evidence Based Practice for Information Professionals: A Handbook, edited by Andrew Booth and Anne Brice, 49–60. London: Facet Publishing. Haddow, Gaby. 1997. “The Nature of Journals of Librarianship: A Review.” LIBRES: Library and Information Science Research 7, no. 1: 1–7. Available at https://cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/blogs.ntu. edu.sg/dist/8/644/files/2014/06/Vol07_I1_Haddow.pdf. Haddow, Gaby, and Ross Harvey. 2003. “How Much Professional Literature do Australian Librarians Read? Disseminating Information Retrieval Research Results to Australian LIS Professionals.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 44, no. 3–4: 246–257. Available at https:// www.jstor.org/stable/20764038. Haddow, Gaby, and Jane E. Klobas. 2004. “Communication of Research to Practice in Library and Information Science: Closing the Gap.” Library & Information Science Research 26, no. 1: 29–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2003.11.010. Hall, Hazel, Peter Cruickshank, and Bruce Ryan. 2019. “Closing the Researcher-Practitioners Gap: An Exploration of the Impact of an AHRC Networking Grant.” Journal of Documentation 75, no. 5: 1056–1081. https://doi.org/10.1108/JD-12-2018-0212.

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Jamali, Hamid. R. 2018. “Use of Research by Librarians and Information Professionals.” Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal) 1733. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/1733. Matusiak, Krystyna K., and Kawanna Bright. 2020. “Teaching Research Methods in Master’s-Level LIS Programs: The United States Perspective.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 61, no. 3: 357–382. https://doi.org/10.3138/jelis.61.3.2020-0001. Available at https://eric. ed.gov/?id=EJ1267897. Nguyen, Linh Cuong, and Philip Hider. 2018. “Narrowing the Gap Between LIS Research and Practice in Australia.” Journal of the Australian Library and Information Association 67, no. 1: 3–19. https:// doi.org/10.1080/24750158.2018.1430412. Oxford University Press. 2020. “The Australian Student Voice on the Soft Skills Needed for the Future: And How Universities Can Integrate These Skills into Their Teaching.” https://www.oup.com.au/ higher-education/whitepaper/soft-skills-for-graduate-employability. Partridge, Helen, Lisa M. Given, Elham Sayyad Abdi, George Buchanan, Kate Bunker, Edward Luca, Dana McKay, and Bhuva Narayan. 2019. “Bridging the Library and Information Science ResearchPractice Gap: A Panel Discussion.” Paper presented at the 82nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Information Science and Technology. Melbourne, Australia, October 19–23, 2019. Proceedings of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 56: 561–564. DOI: 10.1002/pra2. 92. Available at https://minerva-access.unimelb.edu.au/bitstream/handle/11343/285239/https%20 asistdl.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%20doi%20am-pdf%2010.1002%20pra2.92.pdf. QS Universities. n.d. “QS World University Rankings 2021.” https://www.topuniversities.com/ university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2021. Rogers, Everett M. 2003. Diffusion of Innovations. 5th ed. NY: Free Press. Stephenson, Mary Sue. 1990. “Teaching Research Methods in Library and Information Studies Programs.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 31, no. 1: 49–66. Available at https://www.jstor.org/stable/40323727. Wildemuth, Barbara M. 2017. Applications of Social Research Methods to Questions in Information and Library Science. 2nd ed. Santa Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited. Williamson, Kirsty, and Graeme Johanson. 2018. Research Methods: Information, Systems, and Contexts. 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Elsevier.

Mónica Colón-Aguirre and Kawanna M. Bright

2 D  emystifying Research Methods: A United States Perspective Abstract: This chapter focuses on teaching research methods from the perspective of a master’s degree fully online program, taught in an asynchronous mode in the United States. The program offers two research courses: an introductory course taken by all students enrolled, and an advanced course taken predominantly by those completing a concentration in academic librarianship. The structure of assessment is discussed. Larger projects in both courses are divided into manageable components with the goal of making the research process more accessible to students. The approach is intended to prepare students to move beyond the role of supporters of research for patrons to a focus on production and design of their own empirical research projects. Research is treated as a useful skill which will be valuable in other facets of professional life as librarians. The teaching program, and this chapter, highlight the potential value of presenting research methods as part of the normal work of librarians and an essential part of their preparation. Keywords: Library science – United States; Library science – Study and teaching; Research methods – Study and teaching

Education in Library and Information Science in the United States In the United States a Master of Library Science (MLS), known also as a Master of Library and Information Science (MLIS), Master of Science Information Science (MSIS) degree, among other similar designations, is required by most employers for professionals who expect to work as, and hold the title of, librarian. Preferably, the degree should be awarded by an American Library Association (ALA) accredited program, and some employing authorities refer to ALA accreditation in their employment conditions. As of April 2023, 67 programs in 63 institutions in the United States, Puerto Rico and Canada are accredited by ALA which maintains a full directory of programs. Not all states have institutions offering an accredited program, which means many students must go out of state to obtain their degrees. University tuition rates vary considerably based on whether the students are residents of the state or not, with out-of-state tuition being significantly more expensive. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-004

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The Master of Library Science Program at a Public University in the Southeastern United States The program described in this chapter is offered at a medium-sized, public university in the southeastern region of the United States. At the time of publication, the program offers only a Master in Library Science (MLS) and has around 250 students enrolled. In addition, the program’s courses are offered exclusively in a fully online, asynchronous format. The MLS program is designed so that it can be completed in two years. Courses commence three times each year: in the fall, spring, and summer sessions. Fall and spring sessions are considered part of the regular academic calendar, but students show an interest in taking summer courses. This interest can be attributed to the high number of school teachers undertaking studies in the program. School teachers, for the most part, have time off during the summer months and many take advantage during their downtime from work to take LIS courses. The program has approximately six full-time faculty members on staff, with several part-time adjunct faculty members added as needed. The program requirements include twenty-one credit hours of core courses, with each course equivalent to three credits. The core courses are taken by all students in the program. In addition, the program supports three concentrations focused on a specific library setting: academic, public, and school. Each concentration has its own requirements beyond the core courses with an additional eighteen credit hours. The total number of credits required for graduation is thirty-nine. An internship is required of all students in the program and the final program assessment is the completion of an online portfolio which includes designated assignments from each of the required courses. This chapter examines the teaching of two research methods courses within the MLS program. The courses are not offered during the summer session, although the first course, referred to as the introductory research methods course, is required of all students enrolled in the program regardless of the concentration. The second advanced research methods course is required only of those students completing a concentration in academic librarianship, but can be completed as an elective course by students in the public and school librarianship concentrations.

Teaching Research Methods in the United States In the US, production of original research and publishing are usually expected and required of librarians who work in academic libraries and are in tenure track



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positions (Perkins and Slowik 2013). Attainment of tenure and promotion to more senior ranks for librarians often depend on research output and publications (Kennedy and Brancolini 2018) in a similar fashion to the way in which teaching faculty gain tenure and promotion. The requirements and inclusions of activities deemed appropriate for progress towards tenure or promotion vary considerably from institution to institution and are usually formally, but not always, designated in employment contracts, conditions or agreements. However, research skills are seen as useful to any librarian who assists others in their research studies and any librarian who follows evidence-based practice to provide effective services to library clients (Luo 2011). Librarians working in all types of libraries use elements of research methods in their professional activities. Academic librarians assist students and faculty in undertaking research. The assistance provided ranges from information resource discovery and use through content evaluation to proposal guidance and sometimes project participation. The development of new service offerings by libraries, an effective assessment of users’ information needs and behavior, and the evaluation of existing performance with a view to improvement all require an understanding of research methods in all types of libraries. Despite this, research in the library and information science (LIS) field highlights LIS students’ anxiety about learning research methods (Dilevko 2000; Matusiak and Bright 2020) and some studies report that librarians who support and conduct research do not consider that their university educational programs prepared them well for the day-to-day professional tasks involved in either service delivery or research performance (Kennedy and Brancolini 2018). Studies of students enrolled in LIS programs indicate that students feel a certain level of discomfort when conducting empirical research. Areas causing concern include data collection, analysis of qualitative and quantitative data, and writing up research results (Alemanne and Mandel 2018). Unease is not exclusive to those completing their MLS degrees; studies of professional librarians report that librarians feel more at ease when searching the literature or writing manuscripts than when undertaking other parts of the research process (Crampsie, Neville, and Henry 2020). Librarians report finding sophisticated aspects of research such as components closely related to production of empirical research, as in the case of statistical analysis of data, to be more challenging.

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Teaching Research Methods This chapter presents the nuances in research methods education for a Master’s level program which focuses on the preparation of librarians for professional practice. The approach described is important as it reflects the potential value of presenting research methods as part of the normal work of librarians, removing it from the realm of the esoteric which applies only to researchers. Details are provided on how the course assessment and assignments have been designed to facilitate the clarification of the basic components of empirical research. The basic structure of the research courses offered is presented by two long-time researchers and instructors; one who was responsible for the creation and modification of the two courses, both the introductory and the more advanced, for a period of four years from 2017–2021, and one who has worked with the courses since 2021 and is the current instructor of record. The first author has been teaching research methods for most of her eleven-year academic career. When taking over the coordination and modification of the research courses in the program, the author had already been teaching research methods for four years and had assisted several graduate students in completing projects, including supervising independent studies and serving on dissertation committees. The second author has been teaching research methods for the entirety of her five-year academic career and took over coordination, modification, and teaching of the research courses in the program from the first author in 2021. On taking responsibility for the coordination of the courses, the first author was assigned to teach at least one research course every semester. The second author currently teaches two to three research courses every semester. As already indicated, the program involves two research courses, one introductory and one advanced. During any given semester there can be as many as three sections of the introductory research course scheduled, whereas only one section of the advanced research course is taught in the spring semester. The program does not require students to complete a thesis and completion of the course is intended to prepare students for their careers as professional librarians. During the completion of the courses, students engage with the research process from a social research perspective. At its core, LIS is a social science and shares a common epistemology and focus on human aspects of information creation, presentation, and storage (Buckland 2011; Budd 1995). The focus on socio-behavioral research within the curriculum reflects the program’s emphasis on librarian preparation. Socio-behavioral research encompasses a range of methodologies and tackles questions that seek to improve understanding of human behavior, attitudes, beliefs, and interactions as well as social and economic systems, organizations, and institutions. Social and behavioral research examines how people behave and why



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they do what they do. People’s behaviors in particular settings and situations are examined with the view of determining the role of information agencies and libraries in people’s lives. For the introductory research course, the required final assignment is a research proposal, and the final assignment for the advanced research course is a pilot study in which the students engage in original data collection and analysis. Details of each of the courses are provided in the following sections.

The Introductory Research Methods Course The introductory research methods course is intended to familiarize students with the process of research. In its original form, the course included four assignments with the initial one one focusing on assessing scholarly literature with students identifying the research questions in an existing article, followed by an assignment in which students chose a topic to explore and investigate through conducting a literature review, and culminating with a fourth assignment which involved the creation of a research proposal. The final assignment marked the first time students were required to create their own research questions along with hypotheses. This final assignment also included requirements for sections on the conceptual framework being applied and details of the research methodology being used. After reviewing the completed assignments and with the experience of teaching one semester following the sequence of the assignments, the first author determined that the assignments were not allowing the space for appropriate transition and evolution from the basics of research to the creation of a complex research proposal. In the original assignment schedule, students were moving from identifying and reflecting on research questions in an existing research article to writing their own for a final project. The instructors conferred and decided on a more suitable assignment progression which would facilitate a natural progression of research components leading to a research proposal. The course was modified to include eight different assignments, which would build on each other, and culminate in the creation of a final research proposal. In the research proposal, students do not have to collect or analyze data, nor present results. They are, however, required to identify research questions, complete a literature review on the topic, and propose methods of data collection along with methods of data analysis which will provide solutions to identified research questions. The introductory research methods course is the first experience most students in the program have with empirical research. The first assignment deals with the identification of a research question accompanied by its problem statement. The problem statement must be clearly formulated, defined and presented in such

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a way that the issues are identified. It is essential that the statement withstands a reviewer’s “so what?” question. The significance of any research study must survive the question “why?” as well as explore the reasons for undertaking the study (Hernon and Schwartz 2007). Examples of research questions explored by students include: –– How and to what extent is active music-making utilized with preschool children as an aid to literacy development in public library storytime programming? –– How can modern archivists ethically work with disenfranchised groups to maintain and preserve their history? and –– What financial and social impacts have Library of Things collections had on the library and community in which they have been implemented? Other assignments in the course include an exploration of research literature in which students identify peer reviewed journals in their selected areas of interest and explore their contents. Students are asked to select at least one journal from outside the LIS literature to encourage interdisciplinarity in their work, which is especially important for a field like LIS which gains input from so many other disciplines (Colón-Aguirre and Bright 2020). The course includes an assignment in which students identify the research components in a published, peer-reviewed article in the literature. The instructor changes the research article every semester to ensure currency and variety of topics related to the LIS field. There are two assignments that are closely related: the annotated bibliography and the literature review. It had been observed that many students struggled to differentiate what each entails and how the two might be distinguished. In the course, the ambiguity has been tackled by including lectures which point out the characteristics of each and provide examples of both annotated bibliographies and literature reviews. Students are asked to first complete an annotated bibliography, and then create a literature review based on the materials identified in the annotated bibliography. The literature review is expected to analyze and synthesize the arguments presented in the identified literature, comment on relevance and place the material in context in relation to the problem being investigated. The other assignments students complete in the course include one on research design, in which students identify hypothetical data collection and data analysis methods to be used in their research proposals. The reasons for the choice of one method over another are investigated and outlined. Considerations such as sampling and identification of the population are examined. Details of how and why the population has been chosen are provided. The various topics are presented in early



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course lectures and readings from the main textbook, Research Methods in Library and Information Science by Connaway and Radford (2016). Students are additionally required to complete the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) program certification. CITI is a program created to certify that those who undertake research with human subjects are aware of the ethical implications of research. Students are required to complete the Human Research curriculum and Group 2 Social/Behavioral Research Investigators modules of the CITI program. The modules provide mini presentations based on topics such as history of ethical principles in research, informed consent, and vulnerable subjects, followed by short assessments. Students who enroll must complete and pass the modules to receive their certificates. The certificate, or a similar ethical training certification, is required by Institutional Review Boards (IRB) which exist in many academic institutions in the US and elsewhere in the world to approve research projects involving human subjects. The CITI assignment gives students a closer look at ethical principles of research and allows them to complete training which is likely to be required in research projects beyond the course. The final assignment for the introductory course is a research proposal in which students bring together all the elements completed throughout the semester. Since the various components of the research proposal have been reviewed or completed for previous assignments, the final assignment is assessed according to improvements and progress from one assignment to another. It is important to note that since the course is part of the core curriculum completed by all students in the program regardless of area of concentration, the final research proposal is considered part of the student portfolio and students must upload a copy of it to a separate system. Students complete a reflection related to their experiences with the process of creating the proposal and make connections between what they have learned and the program objectives, as well as considering how the learning experience might apply to their future as professionals. A public library concentration student who created a proposal exploring barriers to using public libraries faced by unhoused community members noted the importance of being required to identify non-LIS resources, and commented: What I learned from the artifact and course experience that I will use in my professional work is the wealth and breadth of applicable knowledge available outside the library and information science industry. Some of my most valuable resources for this project were found in journals for social work and digital literacy.

A school library concentration student who investigated the impact of the school librarian on student success, reflected on the support the course had provided for showcasing the importance of librarians:

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We were working on learning about research methods and how to create meaningful research designs, questionnaires, interviews, etc., which will be important when defending the importance of our roles and responsibilities within the library setting.

And an academic concentration student who explored makerspaces in community college library settings reflected on the immediate impact and usefulness of the course, sharing: I feel that my research skills have improved tremendously since taking this course. I believe that I could develop research proposals for future studies in academic libraries. I would like to use the knowledge and skills to advance a formal makerspace at [redacted] Community College. During the research process for the artifact, I met with a faculty member at [redacted] to explore/investigate the potential of pairing a makerspace with course content. He immediately recognized the endless possibilities of making/makerspaces to the educational experience of students and faculty.

The Advanced Research Methods Course The advanced course is taken primarily by students who are completing an academic librarianship concentration in the master’s program, with a few students from other concentrations opting to complete the course as an elective. The course continues from the conclusion of the introductory course and focuses on completing various parts of the research process. The course has four learning objectives: –– Apply research designs including research instruments and data coding methods –– Discuss possible research methods to employ to assess various library services –– Assess the strengths and limitations of particular research tools and methodologies, and –– Connect evaluation of services with service improvement, best practices, and accountability of libraries. The culmination of the course is a pilot study report which serves as the course’s final assignment and a portfolio artifact. In contrast with the introductory research course’s final research proposal, the final pilot study in the advanced course requires students to design an empirical research project, collect and analyze original data, and provide results and a conclusion based on the data collected and analyzed. Completed studies have ranged from a quantitative study designed to investigate the impact of COVID-19 on teen program participation in a public library, to an investigation into an academic library’s support of student caregivers.



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Due to the focus on empirical research production, the course’s content and assessment are geared towards a hands-on approach to working with data. There are seven assignments with each focused on a different part of the research process. The first assignment is the identification of a research question and the development of an accompanying problem statement, similar to the first assignment for the introductory course. However, due to the existence of multiple offerings of the same course, some students take the introductory course from another instructor and might not have the same assignment. Although the same course learning outcomes are to be followed and throughout the years efforts have been made to make the assignments more uniform, there is still the potential for the creation of alternative assignments by particular instructors to meet the learning outcomes. The exception is the final assignment, which is part of the student’s graduation portfolio and is uniform throughout all sections. After the initial research question and problem statement identification, students complete a literature review assignment. The assignment gives students the flexibility of choosing a different topic from the one chosen in their introductory course. The advanced research course mandates that a larger number of peer reviewed sources must be included than in the literature review assignment in the introductory course. It is expected that the review process is rigorous and that comparisons are drawn between the various items cited in relation to the chosen topic. The literature review is followed by a research design assignment, in which students place their proposed research questions into one of the designs discussed in class. The research design assignment encourages students to think about the nature of the problem and the choice of the most appropriate design and methods to be used, providing the reasons, examining the setting, determining the population and sampling approach, and other considerations essential to the research process. The next phase involves students completing data collection according to the method chosen which matches the research design selected earlier. These assignments are followed by more specific ones that focus on data analysis, including an exercise in which students are provided with a quantitative data set to analyze using a combination of descriptive and inferential statistics and to come up with findings based on the data set provided. The data set is usually derived from a survey questionnaire, since students demonstrate a strong inclination towards working with survey research. The preference for surveys has been found in other work examining the use of research methods in LIS. Students are encouraged in their own research activities to choose alternative strategies. Similarly, a follow-up assignment presents students with an interview transcript along with the interview questionnaire used. Students are asked to analyze the interview transcript inductively and present the coding scheme produced for

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the transcript along with comments regarding the conclusions based on the coding of the data. These assignments replicate real-life research activities. Both courses present some data analysis, but all is conducted through commonly available tools, such as Excel for quantitative data analysis because many students will be unlikely to have access to more sophisticated tools for data analysis at work. The first author is currently working on incorporating freely available tools for data analysis, for example, PSPP which is free quantitative data analysis software which mimics the capabilities of the proprietary Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).

Successful Course Outcomes In both courses, students acquire the ability to explore, design and produce research on their own. The assignments have been designed to build progressively towards the end goal of producing a research proposal or a pilot study. By designing assignments which guide students through all basic components of research, one at a time, the intent is to demystify the research process. After four years teaching the course, the first author has observed that students feel much more comfortable conducting research on their own. As shared by one student from 2021, the introductory course led to the belief “that I could one day perform a research project and actually be successful.” The first author also knows of two anecdotal instances where students applied the lessons learned in the courses to their workplaces and conducted assessments of services and tools in their work settings. And both authors were recently contacted by a student with questions related to early planning for a research project about internal communication in an academic library. The instances mentioned here are known to the authors because the students sought advice from the instructors on focusing the research study, survey design, and data analysis and there may well be similar instances not known to the instructors. The courses are living up to their objectives which include the analysis and application of research to investigate professional problems, the design of a specific research project and the implementation of research designs, including research instruments and data coding methods. Students, almost without exception, have demonstrated growth in terms of being able to articulate a research question, distinguish production of empirical research from research related to reference work, helping others locate published research in the literature, and in their writing skills.



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Conclusion The chapter has explored an LIS program in the United States which offers two research methods courses. It has discussed the way in which assignments are designed to operate cumulatively to help students tackle different components of the research process. The approach renders the course content manageable and helps demystify the research process. By completing each part of the research proposal or the pilot study as a separate entity, students understand the individual components and are also able to bring them together in a cohesive whole. Research outcomes are attainable and fears regarding specific components of the research process along with concerns about individual personal abilities to conduct the research are dissipated. The fact that some students have returned after taking the course to request assistance from the instructor in implementing their projects serves as a testament to the value that research methods courses have in the preparation of librarians for professional practice involving research support, research projects and evidence-based practice. It is clear that the skills learned enable librarians to conduct their own research, assist others in conducting their research and fulfill institutional requirements, such as assessment, performance measurement, and evaluation, which are becoming more common in libraries (Applegate 2016). Students can and should engage in original research production as part of LIS education and training. The skills acquired in research methods courses are important for all librarians across different library settings. Research is an essential component of graduate education. It is of particular importance in North America as professional practice and employment as a librarian are dependent on the attainment of postgraduate qualifications which customarily take the form of the MLS, MLIS or MSIS degrees. LIS faculty must continue to demonstrate the broader applications of research skills in the professional field both to students and to library administrators and practitioners. LIS students are not alone in hesitating to conduct research and involve themselves in specific parts of the research process. Students in other practitioner-heavy fields, such as social work, also exhibit such hesitancy (Green et al. 2001). It is up to educators to highlight the importance, practical applications, and attainability of becoming effective researchers in library and information studies.

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References Alemanne, Nicole D., and Lauren H. Mandel. 2018. “Developing Research Practitioners: Exploring Pedagogical Options for Teaching Research Methods in LIS.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 59, no. 3: 26–40. https://utpjournals.press/doi/10.3138/jelis.59.3.20180015.04. Available at https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/lsc_facpubs/18/. Applegate, Rachel. 2016.”Educating Assessors: Preparing Librarians with Micro and Macro Skills.” Evidence Based Library and Information Practice 11, no. 2: 74–86. https://scholarworks.iupui. edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/471a7ed7-d6b6-4d67-a4e4-f400490d8a81/content. Buckland, Michael. 2011. “What Kind of Science Can Information Science Be?” Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 63, no. 1: 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.21656. Available at https://people.ischool.berkeley.edu/~buckland/whatsci.pdf Budd, John M. 1995. “An Epistemological Foundation for Library and Information Science.” The Library Quarterly: Information, Community, Policy 65, no. 3: 295–318. https://www.jstor.org/ stable/4309044. Colón-Aguirre, Mónica, and Kawanna Bright. 2020. “Interdisciplinarity in Students’ Research Papers: The Impact of Assignment Requirements on Students’ Use of Interdisciplinary Sources in an LIS Research Methods Course.” Association for Library and Information Science Education. ALISE 2020 Proceedings. ALISE Juried Papers 2020, 55–61. http://hdl.handle.net/2142/108833. Connaway, Lynn Silipigni, and Marie L. Radford. 2016. Research Methods in Library and Information Science. Santa Barbara, CA.: ABC-CLIO. Crampsie, Camielle, Tina Neville, and Deborah Henry. 2020. “Academic Librarian Publishing Productivity: An Analysis of Skills and Behaviors Leading to Success.” College & Research Libraries 81, no. 2: 248–271. https://crl.acrl.org/index.php/crl/article/view/24334. Dilevko, Juris. 2000. “A New Approach to Teaching Research Methods Courses in LIS Programs.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 41, no. 4: 307–329. https:// www.jstor.org/stable/40324048. Green, Robert G., Antoinette Bretzin, Christine Leininger, and Rose Stauffer. 2001. “Research Learning Attributes of Graduate Students in Social Work, Psychology, and Business.” Journal of Social Work Education 37, no. 2: 333–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2001.10779058. Hernon, Peter, and Candy Schwartz. 2007. “What is a Problem Statement?” Library and Information Science Research 3, no. 29: 307–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2007.06.001. Kennedy, Marie R., and Kristine R. Brancolini. 2018. “Academic Librarian Research: An Update to a Survey of Attitudes, Involvement, and Perceived Capabilities.” College & Research Libraries 79, no. 6: 822–851. https://crl.acrl.org/index.php/crl/article/view/16855. Luo, Lili. 2011. “Fusing Research into Practice: The Role of Research Methods Education.” Library & Information Science Research 33, no. 3: 191–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2010.12.001. Matusiak, Krystyna K., and Kawanna Bright. 2020. “Teaching Research Methods in Master’s-Level LIS Programs: The United States Perspective.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 61, no. 3: 357–382. https://doi.org/10.3138/jelis.61.3.2020-0001. Available at https://files.eric. ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1267897.pdf. Perkins, Gay Helen, and Amy J. W. Slowik. 2013. “The Value of Research in Academic Libraries.” College & Research Libraries 74, no. 2: 143–158. https://crl.acrl.org/index.php/crl/article/ viewFile/16291/17737.

Patricia Hernández-Salazar

3 E nsuring Effective User Studies Research in México Abstract: There is a lack of training in research methods in library and information science (LIS) nationally, regionally, and internationally. LIS students face various problems in developing research proposals and projects. The course described in this chapter is User Studies which is taught as part of the curriculum of the Maestría en Bibliotecología y Estudios de la Información/Master of Library Science and Information Studies at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM)/ National Autonomous University of Mexico. The User Studies course enables students to gain skills in designing and conducting research. It provides an overview of research theories and methods that are used to identify the characteristics of community members who are users and non-users of information. The course reviews the concepts, processes, methods, and techniques that shape the ways in which the experiences and behaviours of library and information users are analysed and understood. The goal of the course is to prepare information professionals to conduct research and solve problems related to the planning, development, and improvement of information services directed towards various communities. Keywords: Library science – Mexico; Vocational qualifications – Mexico; Library education – Research; Library education – Mexico; Library users – Research

Introduction In Mexico, the first professional preparation program in library and information science (LIS) was introduced in 1916 at the Escuela Nacional de Bibliotecarios y Archivistas, now known as the Escuela Nacional de Biblioteconomía y Archivonomía (ENBA)/National School of Library Science and Archives. Currently, there are nineteen LIS programs in Mexico with three levels of professional preparation for library work: thirteen at the bachelor level, five master programs, and one doctoral. The minimum level required to work as a professional librarian in any institution in Mexico is a bachelor’s degree; more senior and more highly remunerated positions are gained by obtaining a master’s or PhD degree. This chapter focuses on programs taught at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM)/ National Autonomous University of Mexico which provides a variety of LIS programs including graduate programs. The course described in this chapter, User Studies, is taught as an optional part of the curriculum of the master’s program https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-005

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Maestría en Bibliotecología y Estudios de la Información/Master of Library Science and Information Studies.

The Library and Information Studies Programs at UNAM UNAM is recognised as the most important educational and research institution at the national level in Mexico and as one of the most outstanding universities in Latin America. It ranked 100th in the 2021 QS World University Rankings (2021). As of 2022, the University enrolled 369,607 students with 33,076 postgraduates, 229,269 undergraduates, and 106,574 baccalaureate or high school students (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 2022). UNAM offers the following study plans and programs: 42 graduate programs with 95 master’s and doctoral curricula; 133 bachelor degrees with 241 educational options; and three high school programs. The master and doctoral programs in LIS at UNAM were established in 1998. They are provided as part of the Facultad de Filosofia y Letras/Faculty of Philosophy and Letters and are administered by the Faculty and the Instituto de Investigaciones Bibliotecológicas y de la Información (IIBI)/Institute of Library and Information Research. The postgraduate programs receive financial support from the Government of Mexico’s Programa Nacional de Posgrados de Calidad (PNPC)/ National Quality Postgraduate Program. The program is part of public policy to promote training and research from a perspective of scientific and social relevance of postgraduate courses that the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología/National Council of Science and Technology and the Subsecretaría de Educación Superior de la Secretaría de Educación Pública/Undersecretariat of Higher Education of the Ministry of Public Education have promoted uninterruptedly since 1991. The PNPC funds are allocated to only the highest quality programs in Mexico and provide scholarships to students who are committed to completing the degree in a timely manner. The UNAM program is organised into five fields: Information, Knowledge, and Society; Organisation of Documentary Information; Information Technologies; Library and Information Systems and Services; and Information Users. The duration of each program varies according to the mode of delivery and student attendance, whether it is face-to-face or distance education, and full time or part time (Table 3.1).



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Table 3.1 Modalities and Duration of the Program Degree

Modality

Master’s degree

Face-to-face Full time Part time Distance Full time Part time

PhD

Duration (semesters) 4 6 6 8 10

In April 2023, there were 87 enrolled students with an additional 27 scholarship holders. The language of instruction is Spanish. The doctoral program is designed as a tutorial system, which does not include formal coursework. Instead, it involves each student undertaking independent study with the supervision of a tutor. Applicants present a proposal for a research project and are accepted based on the feasibility of the suggested project. If accepted, students develop their initial projects under the supervision of a tutorial committee comprising the main tutor and two co-tutors. At the beginning of the semester, students prepare a plan of activities, and obtain approval from their committees. Each student meets monthly with a tutor for an in-depth discussion exploring and developing research ideas and reporting on progress related to the research project. At the end of the semester, the tutorial committee evaluates students and compares student progress against the initial plan. During the eight or ten semesters, depending on whether the study is undertaken part time or full time, students work to strengthen their research. Doctoral candidates are required to complete six or eight semesters of coursework. Additionally, they have to pass the candidate exam and write and revise a dissertation proposal that the dissertation committee must approve. No specific courses in research methods are offered in the postgraduate programs. Students have a defined project chosen for their theses on admission. Students who complete the master’s degree are assigned a tutor and those in the doctoral program a tutorial committee who guide them during the process of generating the thesis. Students gain research skills through constant advice and feedback from their tutors. The process is very effective. The main measure is the completion rate. The tutors are specialists in the topics of the theses to which they are assigned, and are generally researchers, and the methodological feedback is customised for each student. However, the User Studies course is unique; it is designed specifically as a research methods course with appropriate learning outcomes designated. The course gives a foundation for solving problems and for conducting research.

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The User Studies Course at UNAM The User Studies course focuses on theories and research methods that can be used to identify the characteristics, behaviour and needs of communities of information users. Determining the characteristics of any community requires an analysis of available documentation, conducting desk research, examining the evidence of library and information resource use and approaching the members of the community either directly face-to-face or through fieldwork, or indirectly through some kind of user study. Students must identify the ways in which research with community members can be conducted. Understanding user behaviour involves tracing paths, and choosing methods, techniques, and instruments to collect information according to a specific theoretical framework. The theoretical framework on which the course is based is cognitivism, and the methodological approach is qualitative. Cognitivism is a learning theory that focuses on how information is received, organised, stored, and retrieved by the mind (Open Learn Create 2020). The concept views the mind as an information processer, like a computer, and involves analysing and examining human information behaviour from users’ own words in a holistic way.

Background to the Course The origin of the field of user studies dates to 1948, during the Royal Society Scientific Information Conference held in London. The objective of the conference was to consider the user in designing information services. Since then, each decade has marked significant changes. The background that has given rise to the interest in researching and teaching about user studies is outlined. In the 1960s, user studies were based on the physical paradigm of interaction and focused on the design of information retrieval systems. In the late 1970s, a group of information science researchers criticised the physical paradigm based on thematic matching and established the cognitive user-centred approach as an alternative (Belkin 1978). With the cognitive approach, all aspects related to the design of information tools and services refer to the individual’s image of the world and emphasise the cognitive transformations occurring in relation to information, and personal meaning and interpretation ascribed by the individual. In the 1980s, theoretical models related to two areas that constitute user studies started to be generated: information needs (Belkin, Oddy, and Brooks 1982; Brookes 1980; Ellis 1989); and information seeking (Krikelas 1983). During the 1990s, theoretical model generation continued, and user studies were associ-



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ated with context. Interdisciplinary work began, as theories and methodological models from other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, social psychology, psycholinguistics, anthropology, ethnography, linguistics, and communication were adopted including cognitive, social, alienation, reward, ecological, constructivism, small world, social networks, mental models, reference groups, positioning, and grounded theory (Chatman 1991; Dervin 1998; Ingwersen 1996; Savolainen 1995; Sonnenwald 1999; Todd 1999; Tuonimen and Savolainen 1997; Williamson 1998). The introduction of the various theories has facilitated addressing phenomena from a holistic perspective, always accommodating the individual at the centre of user studies. Listening to users’ voices and designing information systems and services based on their needs and information behaviours are privileged activities resulting in successful outcomes. Since the beginning of the 21st century, there has been an intention to build conceptual frameworks, to study information behaviour from diverse theoretical and methodological perspectives, and identify key concepts for future research (Fisher, Durrance, and Hintonet 2004; Kari and Savolainen 2007; Pettigrew, Fidel, and Bruce 2001; Wilson 2000). As consolidated areas of study, information needs, information-seeking behaviour, information behaviour, user satisfaction, and information use stand out. The more recent contributions to the theoretical bases are virtual ethnography, study of virtual communities, digital environments, resilience, human-computer interactions, behaviour in social networks, and evidence-based practice (Hine 2017; Miller et al. 2017; Radford et al. 2011). Before becoming a researcher and LIS educator, the author of this chapter worked as a library professional in school libraries, and later in academic and public libraries. Experiences in varied library settings led to an appreciation of the importance of ensuring that library services being provided matched users’ particular needs. The interest in researching and teaching on user studies is based on the theoretical readings outlined above and a conviction that the design of library services must be user-centred. Effective information service provision depends on clear understandings of the information needs of individual users. The author decided that the most interesting field of study within LIS was the body of knowledge related to users and their information needs and behaviours. Library services must be embedded in community workflows and focus on an understanding of how people engage with information in different environments for different purposes. The environment represents the physical surroundings along with the geographical, educational, economic, and social conditions under which people live; together the various elements determine user characteristics, needs and information behaviour and ultimately the design of the information services to be offered. With a growing interest in the theoretical and methodological issues of LIS, the author applied to become a researcher at IIBI at UNAM. Her first research project

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on user education in higher education explored theories and practices of pedagogy, educational psychology and teaching, and led to interdisciplinary approaches to user studies. Examining research methods in other disciplines broadened the approach to, and understanding of LIS methodology. The cognitive perspective was discovered along with hermeneutics, and the qualitative research approach. Hermeneutics allows learners to put aside their own point of views and interpret what people have said. The author became interested in communicating her expertise through teaching. The motivation to teach research methods came from observing the difficulties that LIS students faced in designing and completing their theses as well as in ensuring appropriate delivery of library and information services to various communities. The author’s main activity is research and her research interests encompass theoretical and methodological issues of information users, user education, and information literacy. A current project is focused on the information behaviour of older adults. Teaching responsibilities have included Information and Communications Technology (ICT), User Education, Information Users, Development of Information Skills and User Studies. The author has taught the User Studies course for twenty years. Teaching is a way of sharing research findings with new generations and a means by which students and budding librarians can be motivated to undertake research.

User Studies Course Objectives and Content The User Studies course is taught as an elective at the master’s level and involves 64 hours per semester with four hours per week including two theoretical and two practical sessions. The number of students varies from eight to ten per semester. The course objectives include: –– Review the concepts, processes, methods, and techniques that shape the user studies phenomenon, and –– Prepare to conduct research and solve problems related to the planning, development, and improvement of information services aimed at various communities. The course is organised into five parts that correspond to the stages of conducting a research investigation. Each unit address specific issues. 1. Information users. The unit introduces a theoretical framework to provide a broad understanding of the person who uses information and the importance of the user within the information cycle. Cognitivism is a theory introduced in



2.

3.

4.

5.

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class to explain the context, types of communities, categories, an image of the world, and cognitive transformations User studies. The unit distinguishes the meaning and development of user studies. It encompasses background methods, techniques, and instruments that have been developed in information behaviour research from the 1960s to the present day. It covers concepts, objectives in relation to information needs, search and retrieval behaviour, cognitive transformations, and user satisfaction, and theoretical models such as Nicholas Belkin’s anomalous state of knowledge (Belkin, Oddy, and Brooks 1982); Elfreda Chatman’s small worlds method for analysing information behaviour (Chatman 1991); Kirsty Williamson’s approach to incidental information acquisition (Williamson 1998); Ross Todd’s study on information use (Todd 1999); Tom Wilson’s work on human information behaviour (Wilson 2000); Brenda Dervin’s research on sensemaking (Dervin 2003); and Reijo Savolainen’s everyday life information seeking (Savolainen 1995) Methods and techniques for conducting user studies. The unit introduces qualitative methods, data collection techniques, and approaches to data analysis including focus groups, critical incident, life stories, phenomenography, grounded theory, content analysis including texts, digital fingerprints, photographs, and multimedia material, discourse analysis, case study, and observation. Examples of texts that students read in class include Limberg (2000) on phenomenography, Van Dijk (2000) on discourse analysis, and Glaser and Strauss (1999) on grounded theory Data collection instruments. The unit allows students to gain experience developing qualitative data collection instruments, such as diaries, in-depth interviews, field notes, essays, and information horizons (Sonnenwald 1999), and Analysis and interpretation of data. The unit examines the procedures for organising data, establishing categorical relationships, writing up and presenting results. MAXQDA data analysis software and Gephi visualisation software are demonstrated. The handling of the software is time-consuming, and only general aspects are explained.

User Studies Course Activities and Outcomes In the course, students are required to conduct an observation in a library setting and report the findings. They are expected to: –– Plan the observation: Students must determine the behaviour for observation and establish objectives, categories, place, and time

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–– Design a data collection instrument: Students must consider the date, start time, end time, time spent, and events to be observed –– Analyse data: Students must identify and highlight categories or topics and list the findings, and –– Interpret the data: Students must examine the findings, group the findings under common topics, explain the results and identify potential impacts of the work. Students gain knowledge of research processes and cognitive, communication, attitudinal and soft skills related to carrying out research. The cognitive skills include thinking, deducing, inferring, and learning to learn involving critical thinking as metacognition. What have the students learned from their activities? Skills related to the research process are listening, observing, questioning, identifying problems, selecting the community to study, choosing the most suitable method or technique, categorising, elaborating data collection instruments, collecting data, dealing with participants, adapting to participants, noting clothing, cultural perspectives, non-verbal communication and use of language, managing data, relating categories, handling data ethically, interpreting results, and writing reports. The course also promotes the analysis of documented research from the point of view of what the researchers write and how they write it. The students discuss the problem situations they find in scholarly papers, the ways in which they are resolved, and determine if what has been done can be useful for them. In addition, they identify the researchers’ contributions and validate them. Students can comment on a variety of research projects and exchange ideas about them, and participate in research teams and gain skills in collaboration. During the course, students reflect on their roles and identities as librarians. They are questioned about comments, ideas or perceptions that they raise, and are encouraged to open up and express themselves. Discussion or confrontation of ideas, opinions, and statements is encouraged so that students may learn how to disagree, present and resolve different ideas and opinions and in general involve themselves in scholarly discourse to present, argue and defend their points of view in different academic and social contexts. The class includes constant feedback and sharing of practical examples, explained from examples of a wide variety of research projects. Students have commented that the practical approach is very useful for them. Time permitting, students may talk about their own work and their theses, and the instructor offers support on the methodological issues. Based on classroom observations, students are attentive, participate in class activities, and most work consistently to achieve satisfactory outcomes.



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In the last semester of the master’s program, students must take a course Activity to Obtain the Degree in order to complete their education in research methods. The course relates to the thesis and highlights compliance with the required processes and stages of the thesis preparation and completion including confirmation that progress has been made as stipulated by the tutor.

Student Perceptions of the User Studies Course At the beginning of the semester, students are asked about their expectation of the objectives and content of the course. The goal is to identify students’ perceptions and attitudes before they take the course. Usually, students respond that the course is about conducting surveys; they do not initially consider that user studies can be a systematic process related to research methods.

Reflections The course program has undergone several changes over the time period in which it has been taught. At the beginning, it followed the quantitative paradigm. Because of the deepening influences of cognitivism and a qualitative approach, the quantitative emphasis was removed. The theories that support the qualitative approach are those that involve individuals, their thought processes in acquiring knowledge, and their relationships with other individuals. Cognitivism allows humanistic and social approaches, and necessarily involves the use of qualitative methods and techniques. At some point, the texts of the 1980s were left aside; however, the foundations of user studies are important. Students need to appreciate the theoretical and methodological transformation of user studies as a disciplinary area. Some students have carried out academic projects which included emerging interesting aspects or themes and their discoveries and resources have been taken up in redesigning the course. The production of information and data has been driven by the rapid development of digital technologies, including the Internet, social media, mobile devices, and cloud computing, which have enabled individuals and organisations to create and share vast amounts of information easily and quickly. The information explosion and the rapid growth of use of powerful new devices have created changes for individuals, organisations, and society as a whole. User Studies provides the basis for creating information systems and services that enable people to solve difficulties such as finding and using information effectively, information overload, misin-

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formation, post-truth, and data breaches. When people have access to accurate and reliable information, they can make more informed decisions about their own lives and the world around them. The User Studies course enables students to gain skills in designing and conducting research projects. Students evaluate the course at the end of each semester. Course evaluations are always very positive. Students have even asked for the course to be mandated as part of the program because they think that it helps them to develop their theses. The qualitative approach is another element for which the course receives positive evaluations. Students agree that the qualitative approach is the best way to do research on information behaviour. User Studies should be a required course since it enables students to perceive the importance of conducting research to solve the problems of everyday activities. Students learn to work in a systematic and orderly way and appreciate the value of research. The students identify themselves as social agents. Research training should be a core principle of library and information science education. LIS programs should not be focused solely on techniques for organising information but should include coursework on understanding information behaviour to identify the real needs of user communities within their contexts through appropriate methods and techniques so that responses can be made by libraries in ensuring they meet community needs. A significant challenge is to convince instructors who teach in areas such as LIS systems, bibliometrics, or information management, that user studies are the basis for designing any information system. LIS education has traditionally been based on the practical aspects of library organisation, processes and service design. In the current information environment, the teaching of LIS should be focused on theoretical issues and research methods. As User Studies is an elective, it requires heavy promotion to students who might participate. The message must be communicated that the course is useful to developing and concluding students’ theses and changing the practice and the profession of librarianship.

Conclusion There is a lack of training in LIS programs in research methods, nationally, regionally, and internationally. In Mexico, there are courses in research methods including quantitative and qualitative methods, and research seminars in bachelor’s degree programs. However, when students reach the master’s level, they have large gaps in their knowledge. At UNAM, there has been discussion about creating a research methods course in the master’s program, but there is a lack of agreement among



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the faculty. The main argument against the creation of such a course is that students would become confused if they were to follow course guidelines which might conflict with the advice from their tutors on their personal projects. Because each student has a tutor, the tutor provides personalised guidance to the student in the research process, and a general course on methodology may not be useful. At the graduate level, it is not necessary to include a course in research methods if teachers are required to address research methods by intersecting them with course content across the program, and integrating the practices of data collection and analysis within learning outcomes for individual courses. In master’s programs, research methods should be taught in a tutorial system. In LIS education, final examinations should be avoided as much as possible, especially for students who want to pursue an academic career and continue doctoral studies. It is necessary to change the paradigm of the LIS discipline to focus on access to information and use and users of information, and to highlight the importance of a user-centred approach instead of a system-centred one. To ensure that libraries design and deliver services appropriate for their users, library and information science education must include teaching of research methods. A library is a growing organism and identifying its future and implementing appropriate ways of achieving effective information service delivery require deep understandings of user behaviour and community information needs. It is essential that LIS education addresses the elements of effective research and data collection, analysis and interpretation to establish the evidence on which to base decision making.

References Belkin, Nicholas J. 1978. “Information Cncepts for Information Science.” Journal of Documentation 34, no. 1: 55–85. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb026653. Belkin, Nicholas J., Robert N. Oddy, and H. M. Brooks. 1982. “ASK for Information Retrieval: Part I, Background and Theory.” Journal of Information Science 38, no.2: 61–71. https://doi.org/10.1108/ eb026722. Available at https://surface.syr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1150&context=istpub. Brookes, Bertram C. 1980. “The Foundation of Information Science. Part I. Philosophical aspects.” Journal of Information Science 2, no. 3: 125–133. https://doi.org/10.1177/016555158000200302. Chatman, Elfreda A. 1991. “Life in a Small World: Applicability of Gratification Theory to InformationSeeking Behavior.” Journal of the American Society for Information Science 42, no. 6: 438–449. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(199107)42:63.0.CO;2-B Dervin, Brenda. 1998. “Sense-Making Theory and Practice: An Overview of User Interests in Knowledge Seeking and Use.” Journal of Knowledge Management 2, no. 2: 36–46. https://doi. org/10.1108/13673279810249369. Dervin, Brenda. 2003. Sense-Making Methodology Reader: Selected Writings of Brenda Dervin. Cresskill, New Jersey: Hampton Press.

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Ellis, David. 1989. “A Behavioural Approach to Information Retrieval System Design.” Journal of Documentation 45, no. 3: 171–212. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb026843 . Fisher, Karen E., Joan C. Durrance, and Marian Bouch Hintonet. 2004. “Information Grounds and the Use of Need-based Services by Immigrants in Queens, New York: A Context-based, Outcome Evaluation Approach.” Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 55, no. 8: 754–766. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.20019. Available at https://ibec.ischool.uw.edu/pubs/ JASIST.2004.Info.Ground.pdf . Glaser, Barney G., and Anselm L Strauss. 1999. The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. London: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. Available at http://www.sxf. uevora.pt/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Glaser_1967.pdf. Hine, Christine M. 2017. “Ethnographies of Online Communities and Social Media: Modes, Varieties, Affordances.” In The SAGE Handbook of Online Research Methods, edited by Nigel G Fielding, Raymond M. Lee, and Grant Blank. 401– 415. London: Sage Publications. Ingwersen, Peter. 1996. “Cognitive Perspectives of Information Retrieval Interaction: Elements of a Cognitive IR Theory.” Journal of Documentation 52: 3–50. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb026960. Krikelas, James. 1983. “Information-seeking Behavior: Patterns and Concepts.” Drexel Library Quarterly 19: 5–20. Kari, Jarkko, and Reijo Savolainen. 2007. “Relationships Between Information Seeking and Context: A Qualitative Study of Internet Searching and the Goals of Personal Development.” Library & Information Science Research 29: 47–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2006.08.011. Available at http://ithreads.pbworks.com/f/informationSeekingAndContext.pdf . Limberg, Louise. 2000. “Phenomenography: A Relational Approach to Research on Information Needs, Seeking and Use.” The New Review of Information Behaviour Research 1: 51–67. https://dl.acm.org/ doi/10.5555/568022.568026. Available at https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:870934/ FULLTEXT01.pdf. Miller, Faye, Helen Partridge, Christine Bruce, Christine Yates, and Alisa Howlett. 2017. “How Academic Librarians Experience Evidence-Based Practice: A Grounded Theory Model.” Library & Information Science Research 39, no. 2: 124–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2017.04.003. Open Learn Create. 2020. “General Teaching Methods: Cognitivism.” https://www.open.edu/ openlearncreate/mod/page/view.php?id=147079. Pettigrew, Karen E., Raya Fidel, and Harry Bruce. 2001. “Conceptual Frameworks in Information Behavior.” Annual Review of Information Science and Technology 35: 43–78. Available at http:// faculty.washington.edu/fidelr/RayaPubs/ConceptualFrameworks.pdf. QS World University Rankings. 2021. https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/ world-university-rankings/2021. Radford, Marie L, Gary P. Radford, Lynn Silipigni Connaway, and Jocelyn A. DeAngelis. 2011. “On Virtual Facework: An Ethnography of Communication Approach to a Live Chat Reference Interaction.” The Library Quarterly 81, no. 4: 431–453. Available at https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/30680589. pdf. Savolainein, Reijo. 1995.“Everyday Life Information Seeking: Approaching Information Seeking in the Context of ‘Way of Life’.” Library & Information Science Research 17, no.3: 259–294. https://doi. org/10.1016/0740-8188(95)90048-9. Available at https://infocom.hyperlib.sjsu.edu/wp-content/ uploads/2018/08/Everyday-Information-Seeking_Savolainen.pdf. Sonnenwald, Diane H. 1999. “Evolving Perspectives of Human Information Behavior: Contexts, Situations, Social Networks and Information Horizons.” In Exploring the Contexts of Information Behavior, edited by Tom Wilson and D. Allen, 176–190. London: Taylor and Graham. Available at https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/11880181.pdf.



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Todd, Ross J. 1999. “Utilization of Heroin Information by Adolescent Girls in Australia: A Cognitive Analysis.” Journal of the American Society for Information Science 50, no. 1: 10–23. https://doi. org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(1999)50:13.0.CO;2-B. Available at https://tefkos. comminfo.rutgers.edu/Courses/612/Articles/ToddHeroin.pdf. Tuominen, Kimmo, and Reijo Savolainen. 1997. “A Social Constructionist Approach to the Study of Information Use as Disicursive Action”. In Information Seeking In Context: Proceedings of an International Conference on Research in Information Needs, Seeking and Use in Different Contexts, 81–96. Milton Park, UK: Taylor Graham. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. 2022. “Portal de Estadística Universitaria. La Unam en Números [UNAM in numbers] 2021–2022.” https://www.estadistica.unam.mx/numeralia/. Van Dijk, Teun A. 2011. “Introduction: The Study of Discourse.” In Discourse Studies: A Multidisciplinary Introduction, edited by Teun A. Van Dijk, Chapter 1. London: Sage. https://doi. org/10.4135/9781446289068. Williamson, Kirsty. 1998. “Discovered by Chance: The Role of Incidental Information Acquisition in an Ecological Model of Information Use.” Library & Information Science Research 20, no. 1: 23–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0740-8188(98)90004-4. Wilson, Tom D. 2000. “Human Information Behavior.” Information Science 3, no. 2: 49–55. http:// informationr.net/tdw/publ/papers/2000HIB.pdf.

Zuza Wiorogórska

4 I ntroductory Research Methods for Students of Information Space Architecture in Poland Abstract: The Uniwersytet Warszawski/University of Warsaw has been offering a Bachelor’s programme in Architektura Przestrzeni Informacyjnych/Architecture of Information Spaces since the academic year 2008–2009. Research Methods in Information Science is a compulsory 30-hour introductory course for all students enrolled in the programme. The course aims to familiarise students with research methods in information studies and related fields. It introduces both theory and practice and shows how an appropriate methodology influences research outcomes. The course is divided into nine modules, and the readings consist of internationally recognised texts. This chapter discusses the background to teaching programmes in information space architecture in Poland and the course content and pedagogical approach of the research methods component, as well as the desired outcomes. Keywords: Library science – Poland; Library education – Poland; Library science – Research; Information science – Study and teaching (Higher)

Introduction Poland, unlike many other countries, has no official accreditation or qualifications required for work in the field of library and information science. In practice, it means that a library can hire anyone who fulfills the position requirements for a particular library role. Work in the library sector is state-funded and underpaid. There is consequently limited interest among new graduates to seek positions and careers in libraries. The formal tradition of teaching library and information science in Poland dates back to 1946 when the first chair of librarianship was established at the Uniwersytet Łódzki/University of Lodz. Since then, chairs or institutes of librarianship have been opened at several major universities and transformed into library and information science (LIS) education units. The LIS schools offer undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral education and remain active even though they have evolved over time. In the past, they were affiliated with humanities departments or faculties, particularly faculties of history or literature, while more recently they have been connected to social science faculties. For example, at the University of Warsaw the library science programme is delivered through the Wydział Dziennikarstwa https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-006

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Informacji i Bibliologii/Faculty of Journalism, Information and Book Studies; in Kraków/Cracow at the Uniwersytet Jagielloński/Jagiellonian University, the Instytut Studiów Informacyjnych/Institute of Information Studies comes under the Wydział Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej/Faculty of Management and Social Communication; and at the Uniwersytet Mikołaja Kopernika w Toruniu/Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, the Instytut Badań Informacji i Komunikacji/Institute of Information and Communication Research is within the Wydział Filozofii i Nauk Społecznych/Faculty of Philosophy and Social Sciences.

From Librarianship to Information Space Architecture LIS schools in Poland experienced a decrease in the number of students interested in studying pure LIS programmes and academic units began to explore new trends in LIS-related themes that might attract young people and prepare them for work in an information-driven society. New approaches reflected developments in North American I-schools and were variously named in Poland. Information architecture, information space architecture, architecture of information space/s and information architecture emerged as desirable fields for university programmes. The fresh approach in information space architecture emphasised the use of modern technologies in creating and optimising digital information services for culture, education and business; focused on the design of networked information services, websites and digital collections; analysed the user experience and human-computer interaction; examined processes related to the effective flow of information; and studied systems, methods and strategies for obtaining, processing and disseminating information in institutions and organisations including libraries, archives, galleries and museums. For almost a decade, an educational programme in information space architecture has been offered at the bachelor’s level in several universities in Poland. In the academic year 2021–2022, the University of Warsaw added a Master’s programme in the field.

A Bachelor’s Programme: The Architecture of Information Spaces Since 2008, the University of Warsaw has offered a bachelor’s programme for those who do not necessarily want to be librarians, but are familiar with informa-

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tion-related themes, and want to deepen their knowledge of the subject. In principle, the graduates of the programme can find positions not only in libraries or information centres, but also in many other public and private sectors that deal with information, information users, data management, or knowledge organisation. The Architecture of Information Spaces is an interdisciplinary programme that offers students both university education focused on research and theory, and an opportunity to develop skills useful in the 21st century. The programme covers three main areas: the architecture of information, users of information, and institutions of information. Students may decide whether they are more interested in the technological or social aspects of the information environment. The teaching curriculum covers methods, practices and processes of information services design for business, educational, and cultural sectors; basic knowledge, skills, and tools needed to establish e-commerce or digital repositories; and effective searching for information along with information evaluation and analysis. Students learn how to write for the Web and how to research the behaviours and needs of information users, which is particularly useful for the user experience (UX) field, as well as in participatory projects and design. Each year the programme recruits around forty first-year students. Entry to university programmes in Poland is comparatively easy and consequently student numbers tend to decrease due to poor examination results or changes in students’ programme selection, but over twenty students receive a bachelor’s degree each year. The bachelor programme lasts three years and is divided into six semesters, with each semester consisting of fifteen teaching weeks. A thesis is prepared within the programme under faculty supervision. The thesis is usually several dozen pages in length and includes a literature review and a small research project. For the thesis project, a solid background in methodology is needed. The course in research methods in information science in the bachelor’s programme described in detail in this chapter is offered in the fourth semester and consists of thirty teaching hours. There are fifteen classes with each lasting one and a half hours, the typical length of an academic class in Poland. Students meet once a week during the fifteen weeks in the spring semester of the second year of study. They are divided into two groups, each consisting of around fifteen students. The course is delivered in a seminar style. The smaller the group, the better it is for student engagement and discussion.

Research Methods in Information Science Research Methods in Information Science is a thirty-hour preparatory course required for all students in the Architecture of Information Space bachelor pro-

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gramme. Although there are some general guidelines on what should be included in the curriculum, at the University of Warsaw each lecturer has flexibility in choosing the themes and methods, facilitating the creation of a customised curriculum for the subject. The author of this chapter who is the course instructor took advantage of the flexibility and tailored the course content based on her knowledge of the field from the perspectives of both a practising librarian and an LIS researcher with international experience. The combination of practice and theory has proven to be an optimal choice which has been in place for four years.

The Instructor The author began working as an academic librarian at the University of Warsaw Library in 2003. Currently, she is an assistant professor in the Department of Information Studies at the same university, and a part-time academic librarian. The combination of practice with teaching, together with the international experience gained through several research projects conducted abroad along with activity within the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) have allowed the author to prepare an interesting and engaging course in research methods. The course focuses not only on pure research methodology but also on other methodological aspects, which are invaluable for students in their future professional life, regardless of the field in which they might work.

Course Design and Delivery The aim of the course is to familiarise students with research methodology in information studies and related fields. The course helps students understand both theory and practice; it shows how an appropriate methodology influences the research and its results. During the course, the following issues are discussed: –– The field of science and technology classification –– Systematic literature reviews and the research process –– Academic writing in English –– Methods and tools applied in quantitative research –– Methods and tools applied in qualitative research –– Quantitative data analysis –– Qualitative data analysis –– Research quality, and –– Bibliometrics and altmetrics basics.

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The readings for the course consist of internationally recognised texts, such as Boellstorff et al. (2012), Given (2008), O’Leary (2017), Pickard (2007), and Silverman (2008). Apart from the last text mentioned (Silverman 2009), the books have not been translated into Polish. Requiring students to read in English presents an additional challenge but also an advantage to the course, which will be explored later in the chapter. The University of Warsaw provides Google Workspace through an institutional account which gives students and faculty access to diverse applications. Google Classroom is used to communicate with students. It is very practical and used for uploading assignments, slides, readings, and exchanging messages between class members. It creates a single access point for all course materials and helps to avoid sending separate emails and slides to individual students.

Course Content This section briefly describes the content of each thematic module, giving the rationale and outlining the accompanying tasks and assignments.

The Field of Science and Technology Classification This module provides an introduction and theoretical background to classification in the field of science and technology (OECD 2007), which is necessary for at least two reasons. First, when discussing research, students must know the diverse classifications of the field and be able to place a discipline in a broader context; the structure of knowledge is also important when talking about the interdisciplinarity of LIS and comparing the methodology used in LIS with methodologies used in other disciplines. Second, in 2018, the Polish government introduced a new classification of fields and disciplines within science and the arts, which was supplemented in 2022 (Poland 2022), with the result that communication and media studies covering journalism, media communication, and library and information science would henceforth be classified as social sciences. Before 2018, the field of bibliotekoznawstwo i informacja naukowa/library and information science was separately named as bibliologia i informatologia/bibliography and informatics, and classified within the humanities. Classification aspects must be understood as they may impact on and influence the thematic coverage of research and the methods applied. Students conducting the review of Polish literature for their bachelor thesis should be aware of the change in classification.

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Systematic Literature Review and Research Process Each research project starts with a review of the literature and it is important to elaborate on the most effective techniques to use. Students have already taken courses in information seeking and information databases, and they know how to search for literature and how to use a reference management system, such as Zotero or Mendeley. The task of the instructor in the research methods course is to demonstrate to students how the tool-based skills help in developing research projects and gaining insights into topics, and what criteria should be used as the basis for undertaking a systematic literature review. The module places the literature review and the methodological framework in the wider context of the research life cycle. The instructor uses educational materials in English to familiarise students with terminology in use, emphasising Elsevier Library Connect resources, which are useful and prepared in a clear manner for people whose first language is not English. The resources are made available under a Creative Commons licence and can be reused free of charge. As the course progresses and students become more familiar with research methods and tools, they begin to learn about specific circumstances which might dictate targeted alternative approaches and exceptions to the customary approach. For example, a project applying the grounded theory approach does not necessarily commence with a literature review. According to Glaser and Strauss, the founders of grounded theory, “an effective strategy is, at first, literally to ignore the literature of theory and fact on the area under study” (Glaser and Strauss 1967, 37).

Academic Writing in English The inclusions of a module on academic writing in English might not appear related to research methodology. There is however a strong rationale. The bachelor programme is offered in Polish; student assignments, assessments and writing are in Polish. Students study non-Polish languages; but offerings are in general courses in the foreign languages school at the university and lack the vocabulary and terminology specific for each field of study, as well as for the research process. While preparing a bachelor’s or master’s theses, students must prepare a literature review based on foreign, mostly English, publications. In the English academic writing module, the instructor prepares a summary of the main issues related to scholarly writing. The summary is based on the books Successful College Writing (McWhorter 2000) and Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students (Bailey 2018), as well as materials dedicated to non-English speakers who want to improve their scholarly writing skills such as Elements of Style (Griffies, Perrie, and

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Hull 2013) and the European Conference on Information Literacy (ECIL) Writing Guidelines (ECIL 2018). The module highlights the most common mistakes made by emerging scholars, particularly from the Polish perspective, as well as the need for consistency in terms of grammar including tenses, vocabulary, terminology and language, and style. Finally, each student is assigned a research paper downloaded from recognised international LIS peer-reviewed journals and tasked with marking up the article with the elements of academic writing discussed in the class. The same paper is used once more during the course. Its usage will be discussed in more detail at the end of the section on qualitative data analysis.

Methods and Tools Applied in Quantitative Research The modules on quantitative research and qualitative research introduce students to methods used in each. With the instructor’s help, students deconstruct the survey research into basic elements. The module is used to activate students’ background knowledge, particularly concerning questionnaires which are commonly and frequently used for data collection. The instructor refers to students’ past assignments and asks them to revise completed work to improve it based on new knowledge acquired in the course. In some other courses within the programme, students have been asked to prepare a questionnaire on a topic related to the course. However the students lacked a deep understanding of questionnaire construction issues. Students are asked to return to completed questionnaires and analyse them to determine what could have been done better with the recently acquired knowledge of research methodology and tools. This is a scaffolding approach to learning; students develop knowledge further on a topic each time it is reviewed or encountered.

Methods and Tools Applied in Qualitative Research Methods and Tools Applied in Qualitative Research is an exploratory module discussing four chosen methods: content analysis, documentary analysis, interview, including focus groups, and ethnographic methods. Special attention is paid to the ethnography of virtual worlds as defined by Boellstorff et al. (2012). The four methods studied were selected due to their relative ease, which is particularly important for novice researchers, and because ethnographic methods are widely used in UX research. The module includes an assignment that points to the interdisciplinarity of research in information science. The assignment is a short presentation on research methods applied in other fields of study such as economics, law, linguis-

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tics, media studies, marketing, or psychology. The goal of the presentation is to show students that many disciplines use similar methods. First, it makes students more aware of the field’s interoperability and the interdisciplinarity of research which is commonplace nowadays. Second, it can make students more confident, as they are now familiar with research methods, and encourage them to enroll in another programme or to consider the field for future study at the master’s level. The assignment exemplifies on the one hand how information science stems from other disciplines and on the other hand, how information science can contribute to studies in other fields.

Quantitative Data Analysis In the quantitative data analysis module, basic statistical methods are introduced. Examples are the functionalities offered by spreadsheets such as MS Excel and data collection tools used by several online survey systems like SurveyMonkey or Qualtrics, or simple Google Forms. For a bachelor thesis in information science, these tools might be sufficient, and advanced knowledge of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) might not be required. Students review basic knowledge of statistical terms, such as mean, median, mode, or range, and how to measure them, as well as terms related to descriptive statistics. The focus is on numerical and graphical visualisation of data rather than on the sophisticated statistical tests, variances, and correlations offered by SPSS. However, the instructor explains the numerical tables in various research papers based on quantitative studies and the principles of SPSS. University faculty do not have access to an official SPSS licence and students watch instructional YouTube films to familiarise themselves with the software.

Qualitative Data Analysis The qualitative data analysis module is built on the strategies suggested by Pickard (2007) and the steps of analysis described by O’Leary (2017). It also refers to the analysis techniques used in UX, which is a vital interest to many students. The instructor explains how data gathered during interviews, focus groups, observation, or content and documentary analysis may be analysed and then presented. Memo writing and data coding, as well as presentation techniques such as mind mapping, concept or word mapping, or rich picture are discussed. The module concludes with tips on developing theories from the findings and drawing conclusions. Similar to the analysis of quantitative data, students do not work with any partic-

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ular software for data analysis; however, the instructor explains the principles of computer-assisted qualitative data analysis and shows introductory videos about NVivo and MAXQDA. As mentioned earlier in the chapter, students are assigned a research article in English in the academic writing module. Students are expected to prepare a short oral presentation accompanied by slides on the methodology applied in the study described. Students are expected to critically analyse the study design, methods, presentation of the results and limitations. Students must assess the methods applied and share their opinions about the study. The assignment not only allows the students to use their knowledge of diverse methods of data collection and analysis but also prepares them for the critical review of the literature needed when they start working on their theses.

Research Quality The research quality module is a summarising module. Students are already familiar with diverse research techniques and methods and can critically assess applications. This module discusses the criteria of research quality assessment and might include how to keep and present a solid methodological framework, validity, credibility, rigour in research, or objectivity. The topics are particularly important in the case of novices’ smaller research projects, like a bachelor thesis where the research design is more important than the actual process of conducting research. Because of limited time and a lack of experience, it is hard to require a bachelor student to conduct a study with a representative sample, high response rate, and hundreds of respondents. However, when students present well-conceived research projects and provide an in-depth analysis of data, even if the data set is unsatisfactory, the projects will be successful because research rigour is maintained throughout the process.

Basic Bibliometrics and Altmetrics The bibliometrics and altmetrics module provides a basic introduction as students undertake a course in the third year of study entitled Quantitative Information Research which is dedicated to bibliometrics, webometrics, and scientometrics. The introductory module presents the main features of bibliometrics and alternative metrics, bringing students’ attention to the opportunities for the use of the techniques in the context of their bachelor theses. The instructor explains the principles of alternative indicators that monitor the engagement of social media users

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and explore the potential for use in research related to the dissertation completed as part of the bachelor degree.. The module explores the results of applications such as Altmetric or Plum XMetrics implemented by big publishers or information providers, such as Science Direct, Scopus, SAGE, or Taylor & Francis.

Learning Outcomes The outcomes can be divided into three main areas: knowledge, skills, and competencies. Within the knowledge area, students gain basic knowledge on tools, techniques, and research methods applied in information studies and related fields; they are also able to reflect deeply on the research process stages in social sciences. Regarding skills, students obtain basic research skills; they are able to formulate and analyse research problems, and to choose an appropriate methodology for their own study; they are able to choose appropriate tools for research data analysis, as well as analyse the data and present the results; and they can critically analyse the research methodology applied by other researchers in their studies. Competencies gained include awareness of the importance of a well-chosen methodology for the students’ own study, as well as readiness for the bachelor research seminar and for conducting students’ own research projects. The instructor’s task is to equip students with the repertoire of tools and techniques from which to select when reflecting on research for the bachelor or master theses. Students will discuss methodology with their future thesis supervisors, but the course intent is to raise student awareness and build confidence. Students critically analyse diverse methods and become familiar with their advantages and disadvantages.

Student Feedback It is always interesting to compare expected course outcomes with students’ opinions at the end of the course. The instructor is satisfied when she hears the word “useful”, expressed by students in face-to-face conversations or left in the anonymous evaluation form issued automatically by university management after course completion. The course receives positive evaluations. According to students’ views, the course is “a good preparation for writing a thesis” and helps to “familiarise ourselves with several methods that we have known superficially if at all”, as well as “encouraging to read more research papers in languages other than Polish”. Students appreciate the diversity of teaching materials, forms of work, and assignments.

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Conclusion and Lessons for Others The course content has been highlighted in this chapter. What is also relevant is first the practicality of methods and techniques examined which will benefit the students’ future academic and professional lives in regard to preparing analyses, reports, analysing data, and summarising findings. Second in importance are the soft skills including group work with randomly drawn peers, practising public presentations, English–Polish comprehension and paraphrasing, formulating problems that require analysis, critical analysis, and synthesing findings. These skills are particularly important for working on diverse projects funded by research agencies. Combining the knowledge of information architecture and data management with research methodology, students might find work as research assistants or think about developing their own start-up initiatives. The course equips information professionals with some tools and opens paths for lifelong exploration. The third point is regarding the readings in English. From personal experience, the author knows that knowledge of foreign languages is important and will stay with the person forever, regardless of future professional and personal choices. Learning how to communicate in a foreign language in the professional setting is a process more time-consuming than taking one or two courses at the university. The greater the exposure to languages the better. Students are asked to read topical entries from the SAGE Encyclopedia (Given 2008) or Zina O’Leary’s book (2017). The classroom is, in a sense, flipped. Students discuss what they have read in English, paraphrase it in Polish, and view slides prepared in Polish to complete the topic. The slides are shared on Google Classroom after class and students can download them for later use. It is vital to incorporate bilingual teaching materials and course slides include for each Polish term an English equivalent in brackets. Fourth, there are multiple means of representation of content; wide-ranging engagement working in small, randomly assigned groups using collaborative tools; and varied expression with short presentations, group projects and surveys, as described by Laura Saunders during her presentation entitled Designing for engagement and achievement in an online environment, at a recent IFLA World Library and Information Congress (WLIC) (Saunders 2021). The last lesson is that engagement is valued more than assessment. Small assignments during the term are more important than a big project or an exam at the end of the course. The author’s preference is not to assess students in a traditional formal way as there are many issues with testing, evaluation, and examination. The intent is not to underestimate the importance of the course, but to reduce anxiety, fear of exams, and unnecessary stress. The course assessment prioritises work given from class to class, teamwork, and activity during class discussion. The more comfortable students feel, the better they learn and acquire new knowledge.

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Quoting Laura Saunders’ on the pedagogy of care: “let students know that you are present, you are paying attention, you care” (Saunders 2021).

References Bailey, Stephen. 2018. Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students. 5th ed. New York: Routledge. Boellstorff, Ton Bonnie Nardi, Celia Pierce, and T.L. Taylor. 2012. Ethnography and Virtual Worlds. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. European Conference on Information Literacy (ECIL). 2018. ECIL Writing Guidelines: English Language Usage. ECIL Style guide-Revised 6 Feb 2018. https://ecil2018.ilconf.org/wp-content/uploads/ sites/7/2018/02/ECIL-Style-guide-Revised-6-Feb-2018.pdf. Given, Lisa, ed. 2008. The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods. Los Angeles: SAGE. Glaser, Barney G., and Anselm L Strauss. 1967. The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. Chicago: Aldine Pub. Co. Griffies, Stephen M., William A. Perrie, and Gaëlle Hull. 2013. Elements of Style for Writing Scientific Journal Articles. Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Connect. https://elireview.com/content/ curriculum/imrad/elements-of-style-journal-articles.pdf. McWhorter, Kathleen T. 2000. Successful College Writing. Skills, Strategies, Learning Styles. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s Learning. O’Leary, Zina. 2017. The Essential Guide to Doing Your Research Project. 3rd ed. London: SAGE. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Directorate for Science, Technology and Industry. Committee for Scientific and Technological Policy. Working Party of National Experts on Science and Technology Indicators. 2007. Revised Field of Science snd Technology (FOS) Classification in the Frascati Manual. DSTI/EAS/STP/NESTI(2006)19/FINAL. JT03222603. Pickard, Alison Jane. 2007. Research Methods in Information. London: Facet. https://doi. org/10.29085/9781783300235. Poland. Minister Edukacji i Nauki. 2022. “Rozporządzenie Ministra Edukacji i Nauki z dnia 11 października 2022 r. w Sprawie Dziedzin Nauki i Dyscyplin Naukowych oraz Dyscyplin Artystycznych.” [October 11, 2022]. Warszawa: Dziennik Ustaw Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. https:// dziennikustaw.gov.pl/D2022000220201.pdf. Saunders, Laura. 2021. Designing for Engagement and Achievement in an Online Environment [online]. Presented at IFLA World Library and Information Congress 2021. https://www.ifla.org/ wp-content/uploads/2019/05/assets/information-literacy/conferences/more_info-presentations_ and_speakers-rev.pdf. Silverman, David. 2008. Doing Qualitative Research. 3rd ed. London: SAGE. Silverman, David. 2009. Prowadzenie Badań Jakościowych. tł. Małgorzata Głowacka-Grajper and Joanna Ostrowska; wprow. Krzysztof Tomasz Konecki. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.

Albina Krymskaya and Viktor Mutev

5 T eaching Research Methods in Library and Information Science Programmes: The Russian Perspective Abstract: Intensive transformations are taking place globally in the community, culture, economy, education, environment, information and communications technology, and society at large with significant responses within library and information science worldwide. The new world order and the changes occurring require new approaches to library theory, practice and education based on highquality research. Russian library and information science (LIS) programmes have a long and fruitful history  of professional education and training with a variety of experiences in research methods teaching. The purpose of this chapter is to give an up-to-date overview of the LIS education system in Russia and its characteristics through programmes in LIS teaching research methods provided at the Библиотечно-информационный факультет/ Bibliotechno-informatsionnyj fakul’tet/Library and Information Faculty of the Санкт-Петербургский государственный институт культуры/ Sankt-Peterburgskiy gosudarstvennyy institut kul’tury/St. Petersburg State University of Culture1. Keywords: Library science – Russia; Library education – Russia; Research methods – Study and teaching

Introduction Conducting research has been one of the important directions of Russian libraries over the years. In recent decades, however, attention to research in libraries has changed, caused by attempts to view libraries mainly as information centres, carrying out parallel cultural, educational and leisure activities (Samarin 2021; Samarin et al. 2022). In the Russian library and information science (LIS) context, there is growing attention to conducting research in libraries (Lodygina 2019, 2020, 2021), supported by several significant events in recent years. In 2019, the Russian professional LIS community initiated the development of The Strategy for the Development of Library Science in the Russian Federation until 2030 (Strategy), which was approved by the Government of the Russian Federation in March 2021 (Russian 1  The translated name is St. Petersburg Institute of Culture but the organisational charter gives the name in English as the St. Petersburg University of Culture. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-007



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Federation 2021). Amongst the challenges that exist in the Russian LIS field, the Strategy aims to address issues related to research and methodological support for library activities. There have been many recent initiatives and conferences emphasising research activities in the library profession in Russia, some of which have been discussed in the foundational monograph Scientific Research in Libraries: Topics, Organization, Presentation of Results (Samarin 2021). The attention to LIS research by Russian authorities and libraries has led to an increase in the perceived importance of LIS schools in training librarians capable of conducting research in different types of libraries. In Russian library education, bachelor’s courses with inclusions on research methods have a long yet irregular history as they appear and disappear from the curriculum. Mikheeva (2007) outlined the history of research methods as a unit of study in library science programmes. In 1975, a course on methodology of library science and bibliographic research was introduced to postgraduate library programmes for the first time. In 1979, the former Министерство высшего образования СССР/Ministerstvo vysshego obrazovaniya SSSR/Ministry of Higher Education of the USSR (variously named), together with other educational agencies, proposed plans for organising students’ research work, with the intention of teaching students to conduct research using a wide variety of research methods throughout their LIS programmes. By the 1980s, this plan had influenced the introduction of courses into bachelor’s programmes such as fundamentals of scientific research in library work for second-year undergraduate students. Among Russian universities offering LIS programmes, the Санкт-Петербургский государственный институт культуры/ Sankt-Peterburgskiy gosudarstvennyy institut kul’tury/St. Petersburg State University of Culture (SPbGIK) has had the greatest impact on the development of courses in research methods throughout the country (Mikheeva 2007). This chapter draws on examples from the SPbGIK Библиотечно-информационный факультет/Bibliotechno-informatsionnyj fakul’tet/Library and Information Faculty and presents the authors’ experiences in teaching research methods within specialised classes of the LIS programmes in Библиотечноинформационная деятельность/Bibliotechno-informatsionnaya deyatel’nost’/ Library and Information Activities, also described as the analysis of information in book business, art and business (51.03.06), to train students for professional work in LIS. The chapter includes an overview of the current situation in LIS education in Russia and details of the LIS programmes offered by the Library and Information Faculty of SPbGIK. The chapter highlights challenges that both teachers and students face when teaching and learning research methods and makes recommendations on teaching and promoting the importance of teaching research methods in LIS programmes.

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Library and Information Science Education in Russia: A Brief Overview From the 1970s to the early 2000s, there have been few articles about Russian or Soviet LIS education published in English (Davinson 1975; Johnson 1991; Lesokhina 1985; Olaisen 1987; Richardson 1998, 2000, 2003, 2006; Skrypnev 1964; Zazersky 1974). During that period, LIS education in Russia was repeatedly transformed. At present, library education in Russia is a multilevel system of educating and training of various levels of personnel for libraries of various types. The various levels of LIS education in Russia are listed in Table 5.1. Table 5.1: Levels of LIS education in Russia Educational level

Format

Duration

Course credits

Secondary vocational education Higher education (bachelor’s degree) / undergraduate programme Higher education (master’s degree) / graduate programme Training of highly qualified scientific and pedagogical personnel (postgraduate studies / programme) Training of highly qualified scientific and pedagogical personnel (doctoral studies) Continuing education (short-term and medium-term professional development programmes) Additional education (professional retraining programmes)

Full-time face-to-face Full-time face-to-face Remote learning

2–3 years 4 years 5 years

not applicable 240 credits

Full-time face-to-face Remote learning Full-time face-to-face Remote learning

2 years 3 years 3 years 4 years

120 credits

Full-time face-to-face

3 years

not applicable

Full-time face-to-face Remote learning Blended / mixed Full-time face-to-face Remote learning Blended / mixed

from 16 hours

not applicable

from 250 hours

not applicable

180 credits

Programmes in LIS provided within Russia are wide-ranging from diploma or vocational education levels through bachelor and master programmes to doctoral programmes and continuing education and retraining. Russian bachelor’s and master’s programmes are similar to the programmes provided in the US and Europe. Russian secondary vocational education is similar to the college system in the US. It is possible to enrol in vocational programmes at a junior college after graduating from a general secondary school, at the 9th or 11th grades. Junior colleges of library



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and information science provide programmes that are oriented to practical activities within libraries and emphasise applied knowledge and skills to enter a professional career. Students can choose a two-year programme route in secondary education study to earn an associate degree or diploma, which allows them to obtain entry level jobs in libraries or to continue to levels of higher education. Programmes are provided full-time with face-to-face teaching and learning and also through remote learning with part-time education on site. With remote learning, students, who are often already working, attend university  twice  each year for a month and for the remaining time do assignments on their own, using electronic resources provided by the university. Continuing education programmes are provided in a mixed or blended format with some on-site workshops, online lectures, and assignments completed remotely with access to various eresources. Higher education programmes at bachelor’s and master’s levels are offered in accordance with national educational standards in each field of study which are developed by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation (Brezhneva et al. 2018). The standards apply to all universities that have a state licence and accreditation. Based on the standard, educational programmes include required and elective blocks of courses. For example, at bachelor’s level the required courses in LIS programmes across all Russian universities include general courses such as history, foreign languages, or philosophy and more LIS-specific courses, including library science, library collections, library and information services, bibliography, bibliology, or research activities in libraries (Russian Federation. Ministry of Education and Science 2020). Master’s programmes also include required and elective blocks of courses. Among eighteen required courses are systems analysis and information technology, foreign languages in professional activities, self-development psychology, project management and research activities, global information resources and networks, organisation and methods of library science, bibliographic research, and teaching methods in specific disciplines (Russian Federation. Ministry of Education and Science 2021). Although there are required courses in both bachelor’s and master’s programmes, the number of academic hours allocated for each specific course, along with structure and content may vary across institutions. Elective courses differ significantly across the universities, depending on specific profiles in the library and information activities field of study. Such differences, as a rule, are associated with the regional, cultural, and historical characteristics inherent in each federal subject of Russia, as well as local regulations, traditions in the regional higher education systems, and the continuity of academic generations. Fifty-seven state organisations of vocational education offer library education programmes in library science, forty-eight higher education institutions offer bach-

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elor’s programmes, and fifteen institutions have master’s programmes in library and information activities (Russian Federation 2021, 18). Short-term and medium-term professional development programmes as well as professional retraining and continuing education programmes are offered by both higher educational institutions and national, scientific, academic, and public libraries. Although there is a variety of library education programmes on offer in Russia, some practitioners consider library training to be irrelevant, and the positions in different types of libraries may be held by graduates with a range of professional degrees in different fields. The educational requirements for library professionals are presented in the section on qualification characteristics of workers in cultural areas in the unified qualification reference book for various occupations prepared by the Ministry of Health and Social Development (Russian Federation Ministry of Culture 2011), but only two of fourteen positions, cataloguer and conservation specialist, require library education. Other positions such as a reference librarian, librarian, chief librarian, or research librarian require either library education, or degrees in related fields. In March 2023 a new professional standard came into operation for a library and information specialist following approval in September 2022 (Russian Federation Ministry of Labour and Social Protection 2022). And for now there is an ambiguous situation because libraries are not able to set their own educational requirements but still have an option to hire graduates with education in various fields, including socio-cultural activities, artistic organisation and mass media. National, regional, and scientific libraries generally hire graduates with degrees in LIS for traditional library jobs in such areas as the provision of information services, acquisition or cataloguing. Special libraries take a stance between the other two sets of institutional practices and employ graduates in various disciplinary areas along with graduates in LIS.

The St. Petersburg State University of Culture The St. Petersburg State Institute of Culture, also known as the St. Petersburg State University of Culture (SPbGIK) is the oldest and largest institution of higher education that trains personnel for library and information institutions. It was founded in 1918 and has the largest Library and Information Science School in the country in terms of the number of students and faculty. All courses are taught in Russian. In the 2022–2023 academic year, the LIS School enrolled 617 students in the Library and Information Activities programme. The mission of the faculty is to train highlevel professionals for the library and information industry, ensuring Russia’s



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competitiveness in the digital knowledge space. The school teaches bachelor’s and master’s level programmes and focuses on professionally preparing students who will become creative young professionals capable of withstanding competition in a fast pace emerging market for information products and services. Currently there are no doctoral students but there are researchers preparing for doctoral degrees as a part of their pedagogical careers. Faculty members are able to obtain a doctoral degree without completing a doctoral programme, but they need to defend their doctoral thesis publicly. At the bachelor’s level there are three programmes: Management of Library and Information Activities and Reading Technologies which primarily prepares graduates for work in public libraries; Information Analysis in Book Studies, the Arts and Business with graduates working in special libraries, information centres or the media; and Information Support of Professional Activity whose graduates work in scientific libraries or research centres. In the first year of the four-year programme, students take courses that include both liberal arts and library courses. Beginning with the second year, each bachelor’s programme includes specialised courses, such as Analytical Technologies or Media Communications in the library and information sphere, which involve research methods. A special three-credit research methods class is taught for the third-year students during a semester in all bachelor’s programmes. At the master’s level, there is one interdepartmental programme, Theory and Methodology of Library and Information Activities that includes several courses aimed at teaching research methods: Theory and Methodology of Library Science, Theory and Methodology of Book Science, Theory and Methodology of Bibliography, Historiography of Library and Information Sciences, Theory and Methodology of Information and Analytical Activities, and Theory and Methodology of Information Management. These courses are taught during three semesters of the programme. At each level of education, a mandatory requirement for all students is the preparation, writing and defence of the final qualifying work, whether that be a bachelor’s project or a master’s thesis. Within each course at the bachelor’s and master’s level, students complete assignments that contribute overall to the development of specific research knowledge and skills. The final qualifying work is the catalyst for students to develop their abilities to apply research methods in practice.

Research Methods in Detail The following section describes in some depth two required courses involving research methods taught at SPbGIK, Analytical Technologies and Media Commu-

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nications in Libraries and the Infosphere, offered in the bachelor’s programme, Information Analysis in Book Studies, the Arts and Business, that have been taught since 2014 (Table 5.2). Each class enrols sixteen to twenty-five students and teachers rely on publications especially developed in-house for use within LIS programmes (Gordukalova 2015; Krejdenko 2018; Varganova 2018). The publications provide descriptive content on research methods. During lectures, teachers present research methods required to complete assignments, and students develop their research skills through completing their assignments. Details of each course and examples of assignments are provided below. Table 5.2: Basic course information Course Title

Course Type

Credits

Semester Teacher’s Name Teacher’s Research Interests

Analytical technologies

Required

4

3

Media communica- Required tions in the library and information sphere

5

3, 4

Krymskaya A.

Mutev V.

LIS education, history of information science, knowledge management, international relations, information resources, and international librarianship Media theory, media literacy, history of the book, book science, news literacy, critical thinking, analysis of information sources

Analytical Technologies The Analytical Technologies course introduces the history of LIS and basic research methods, including information analysis. It offers both historical and contemporary contexts for understanding the role of information in society. Focus is placed on information resources in various disciplinary fields ranging from art to health and medicine which serve as a foundation for analysis of information in different subjects. Assignments include individual and group projects, as well as essays and reports on topics in business, policy, government, and other sectors. In addition to an introduction to research practices, including analysis, synthesis, induction and deduction, and comparative analysis, the assignments expose students to methods



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such as document analysis, bibliometrics, literature review, as well as content, bibliographic, and term analysis. The assignments may take two perspectives, with one focusing on studying professional publications and learning from other researchers, and the second examining the application and use of methods in studying a subject field. During a semester, students read five books on the history of LIS in Russia and write a review of each work. Each week students discuss articles published by a business magazine expert. Students study examples of review articles and special attention is paid to the article’s structure: the goals and objectives, methods, problem statement, research questions, findings, recommendations, cited sources, and illustrations. During the semester, students write two reviews on the topic of a company, a person, or a market sector. Reading broadly allows students to become acquainted with examples of research, the methods of data collection, and approaches to the presentation of results. They learn how to identify literature quickly and efficiently that will support them in conducting research. The course prepares students to understand and analyse research conducted by other researchers in the field. In term analysis, students select a concept, such as soft skills, creative industries, or smart city, and analyse its usage within a discipline. The analysis includes searching for literature using and discussing the term, conducting terminological and frequency analysis of a variety of keywords, identifying categories, combining keywords into related groups, and establishing relationships between keywords. The result of the assignment is an essay comprising 800–1000 words and a class presentation. Another assignment aims to study some of the methods of bibliometric analysis, such as Bradford’s law of scattering, or Burton and Kebler’s half-life of scientific and technical literature (Burton and Kebler 1960). A test of how well students have mastered research skills is the preparation of a term paper and its defence at the end of the semester. Mandatory elements of the work are a literature review and analysis of the subject area. To master their research and academic writing skills students can attend LIS conferences and write a report for posting on the university website or social media.

Media Communications in the Library and Information Sphere The Media Communications in the Library and Information Sphere course aims to develop students’ complex understanding of interdisciplinary media theories as a conceptual basis for analysing the content of books, information resources and media behaviour. The course focuses on key communication models and theories, their development, and the role of different types of media in impacting the processes of social transformation. Students learn about media influence, critical

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thinking, media consumption, information society, networked society, technological determinism, and cultural and creative industries. The course provides valuable perspectives and approaches to investigating socio-technical interactions and the various modalities of knowledge dissemination. It demonstrates the ways and means of interpreting media messages in a competitive information environment ranging from stable and traditional forms to extremely dynamic and born-digital technologies. Within the course framework, students master the theory and practice of media communications before completing a group research project. Through the project, students study the basic principles of goal setting, identify common mistakes in organising research, and learn the basics of quantitative content analysis. This method was chosen for a research project because it allows students to visibly demonstrate their mastery of communicating results involving categorising quantitative data, data analysis, and structured scientific research methods as well as their ability to grasp methodological problems that can occur while working with diverse categories and vast quantities of unstructured data. The representation of libraries in social media is suggested as a topic as it has significance for practice and is understandable to students. The outcome of the project is a group research report containing the essential elements of scientific research, including a goal, objectives, subject explication, hypothesis, research methods, findings, practical significance, conclusions and proposed solutions or recommendations. The assignment improves group interaction, lays the foundations for academic writing, and focuses on the interpretation and correct use of the collected data. In addition, students learn to interpret the results through the standpoint of various theoretical frameworks in media studies. Research competence serves as a foundation for making responsible decisions based on research and data, in everyday practice. Methodology ceases to be an abstract idea, and library and information issues can be understood to fit within a broader media and social context.

Putting Research Knowledge and Skills into Practice After completing their coursework, students have many opportunities to practise and improve their research knowledge and skills. Opportunities are provided by the LIS School in St. Petersburg and other Russian universities, as well as by various organisations, such as governmental bodies, libraries, library associations, scientific institutions, and businesses. Students can conduct research under the



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supervision of a teacher; present research results at conferences; and/or publish research conclusions in journals. Each year, the LIS School in St. Petersburg holds biannual student conferences in April and December at which students share their research results, and the best papers are published in the university’s student journal, Молодежный вестник СПбГИК/Molodezhnyj vestnik SPbGIK/Youth Bulletin of SPbGIK. Between 2012–2022, 82 articles were published in this journal. Students also participate in research projects (Katina 2020; Krymskaya, and Katina 2018; Lyandzberg and Sokolyuk 2020; Mutev, Kaganova, and Shavlinsky 2019). LIS schools in other Russian regions also organise student conferences and publish students’ papers (Sterlyagova 2021). Other opportunities include presenting research results in various competitions organised by the Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation and the government authorities of St. Petersburg. An additional opportunity for students to engage in research is to participate in a student-run festival, BiblioFest, which includes not only socio-cultural events but also research events, such as round tables with discussions (Katina 2018).

The Challenges The theory and practice of research is deeply rooted in Russian LIS education and reflection of this fact can be found in the works of LIS teachers. Among the most prominent topics are management methodology cases as a way of ensuring students’ professionalisation (Varganova and Mutev 2015), optimising use of innovative technology in LIS education (Varganova and Mutev 2017), obtaining regional library funds as a basis for research studies (Varganova and Kotlova 2021), and adaptation of foreign methodological approaches in book science for students (Elyashevich and Mutev 2020). SPbGIK LIS staff have made significant efforts to reflect on and analyse the problems related to teaching research methods, and have identified a number of challenges: –– The heterogeneous social and cultural experience of students coming to St. Petersburg from constituent subjects of the Russian Federation bring varying perspectives to their learning experiences –– Entry requirements with varying educational levels, including lack of bachelor degree qualifications for entry into the master’s programme. Students may have extensive knowledge and understand the philosophy and methodology of science, but not know the specifics of the library profession

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–– Attitudes of students to the LIS field with many treating the library and information bachelor’s degree as the first level of a liberal arts education, and having no developed plans for building a professional career –– Large class sizes which prevent individualised support for students seeking to develop proficient research methodological skills, and –– Other subjective reasons including student perceptions of research skills as vague, time-consuming, exhausting and irrelevant for their future professional careers.

Conclusion This chapter has described Russian experiences in teaching research methods in LIS programmes. There are implications for LIS education and practice. The skill of applying scientific methods is becoming key in the field of LIS education, and its importance is reflected in evolving Russian regulations, educational standards and professional publications. The need for knowledge of research methodologies is associated not only with expanding career opportunities in libraries, but also with the practice of organising and developing everyday library and information services. Knowledge of research methods also assists with the formation of students’ critical thinking skills. Integrating research methods into all library programmes is an important goal of LIS faculty and supports to application research methods in different professional environments, and in various types of libraries.

References Brezhneva, Valentina, Anna Gruzova, Albina Krymskaya, and Linara Solovjeva. 2018. “LIS Education at the St. Petersburg State University of Culture: Trends and Traditions.” In The Future of Education in Information Science Proceedings from FEIS – International EINFOSE Symposium, 10–11 September 2018 Pisa, Italy, edited by Tatjana Aparac-Jelušić, Vittore Casarosa, and Elena Macevičiūtė, 16–25. Osijek, Croatia: Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Osijek. https:// hb.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1278377/FULLTEXT01.pdf. Burton, Robert E., and R. W. Kebler. 1960. “The ‘Half‐Life’ of Some Scientific and Technical Literatures.” American Documentation 11, no. 1: 18–22. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.5090110105. Davinson, Donald. 1975. “Library Education in Russia.” New Library World 76, no. 12: 255–257. https:// doi.org/10.1108/eb038283. Elyashevich, Dmitry A., and Victor A. Mutev. 2020. “Зарубежное книговедение: анализ исследовательских подходов (на примере переводных монографий)/Zarubezhnoye knigovedeniye: analiz issledovatel’skikh podkhodov (na primere perevodnykh monografiy)/ [Foreign Book Science: Analysis of Research Approaches (on the Example of Translated



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Monographs)]” Вестник СПбГИК/Vestnik SPbGIK/[Bulletin of the St. Petersburg State Institute of Culture] no. 4 (45): 180–186. DOI 10.30725/2619-0303-2020-4-180-186. (In Russian). https:// vestnik.spbgik.ru/vestnic_jurnal/2020-4/4_20-2-193-180-186.pdf. Gordukalova, Galina F. 2015. Технологии анализа и синтеза профессиональной информации/ Tekhnologii analiza i sinteza professional’noy informatsii/Technologies for Analysis and Synthesis of Professional Information]. St. Petersburg: Профессия/Professiya. (In Russian). http://www. professija.ru/contextbookdetail.html?ID=483. Johnson, Ian M, ed. 1991. “The Education and Training of Librarians in the U.S.S.R.: Papers from a Section on Education and Training Workshop at the IFLA Conference, 57th Moscow 1991.” London: International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) 1993. Available at https:// eric.ed.gov/?id=ED377839. Katina, Alena Andreevna. 2018. “BiblioFest as an Educational Practice for Starting Professional Career: Russian Experience.” In The Future of Education in Information Science Proceedings from FEIS – International EINFOSE Symposium, 10–11 September, 2018, Pisa, Italy, edited by Tatjana AparacJelušić, Vittore Casarosa, and Elena Macevičiūtė, 123–128. Osijek, Croatia: Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Osijek. https://5dok.org/document/4yr6x97y-educationinformation-science-proceedings-international-einfose-symposium-september.html. Katina, Alena Andreevna. 2020. “Библиометрический анализ научного творчества И. Е. Баренбаума/ Bibliometricheskiy analiz nauchnogo tvorchestva I. Ye. Barenbauma/ [Bibliometric Analysis of the Scientific Work of I. E. Barenbaum].” Труды Санкт-Петербургского Государственного Института Культуры/Trudy Sankt-Peterburgskogo Gosudarstvennogo Instituta Kul’tury/[Proceedings of the St. Petersburg State University of Culture] 220: 17–26. (In Russian). https://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=46597866. Krejdenko, Vladimir S. 2018. Избранное/Izbrannoe/[Selected Publications], edited by M. N. Kolesnikova. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University of Culture. (In Russian). Krymskaya, Albina S., and Alena A. Katina. 2018. “Из истории международной деятельности библиотечного факультета ЛГИК/ Iz istorii mezhdunarodnoy deyatel’nosti bibliotechnogo fakul’teta LGIK (1960–1980-Е Gody)/[From the History of International Activities of the Library Department in Leningrad State Institute of Culture in 1960–1980s.]” Петербургская Библиотечная Школа. Санкт-Петербургское библиотечное общество (Санкт-Петербург)/ Peterburgskaya Bibliotechnaya Shkola. Sankt-Peterburgskoye bibliotechnoye obshchestvo (Sankt-Peterburg)/[Petersburg Library School. St. Petersburg Library Society (St. Petersburg)], no. 4–1 (64): 43–50. (In Russian). Available at: https://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=36470539. Lesokhina, Valentina S. 1985. “Problems of Training Library Personnel in the USSR.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 25, no. 3: 200–206. https://www.jstor.org/ stable/40323107. Lodygina, Polina A. 2019. “Роль РНБ в координации научно-исследовательской деятельности библиотек/Rol’ RNB v koordinacii nauchno-issledovatel’skoj dejatel’nosti bibliotek/[The Role of the National Library of Russia in Coordinating Research Activities of Libraries].” Библиография и Книговедение/Bibliografiya i Knigovedeniye/[Bibliography and Bibliology] 424, no. 5: 36–44. (In Russian). Lodygina, Polina A. 2020. “Научная и методическая деятельность библиотек в проекте ‘Стратегии развития библиотечного дела в РФ до 2030 года’/Nauchnaja i metodicheskaja dejatel’nost’ bibliotek v proekte ‘Strategii razvitija bibliotechnogo dela v RF do 2030 goda’/[Scientific and Scientific-Methodological Activities of Libraries in the Project ‘The Strategy for the Development of Library Science in the Russian Federation until 2030’.” [National Library] 15, no. 1: 46–48. (In Russian). Available at https://vivaldi.nlr.ru/pm000002079/view/?#page=48.

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Lodygina, Polina A. 2021. “Поддержка научных исследований в области библиотечного дела на государственном уровне/Podderzhka nauchnyh issledovanij v oblasti bibliotechnogo dela na gosudarstvennom urovne/Government Support for Scientific Research in the Field of Librarianship.” Библиография и Книговедение/Bibliografiya i Knigovedeniye/[Bibliography and Bibliology] 435, no. 4: 158–160. (In Russian). https://bik.rsl.ru/jour/article/view/138. Lyandzberg, Nika, and Mariy Sokolyuk. 2020. “Перестраиваемся на марше/ Perestraivayemsya na marshe/[Rebuilding on the March: A Review of Libraries’ Activities During the COVID-19.]” Библиотечное Дело/ Bibliotechnoye Delo/[Librarianship] no. 10: 3–14. (In Russian). http://www. bibliograf.ru/issues/2020/5/393/0/4500/. Mikheeva, Galina V. 2007. “Важное звено в подготовке информационно-библиотечных специалистов/Vazhnoye zveno v podgotovke informatsionno-bibliotechnykh spetsialistov/[An Important Link in the Training of Information and Library Specialists].” Библиосфера/Bibliosfera/ [Bibliosphere] no. 2: 9–12. (In Russian). https://www.bibliosphere.ru/jour/article/view/1437/1357. Mutev, Victor A., Elena A. Kaganova., and Maxim S. Shavlinsky. 2019. “Контент радиостанции «Эхо Москвы» в различных медиаканалах: Сравнительный анализ/Kontent radiostantsii «Ekho Moskvy» v razlichnykh mediakanalakh: Sravnitel’nyy analiz/[Content of Radio Station ‘Echo of Moscow’ in Various Media Channels: Comparative Analysis.]” Медиa Альманах/Media Al’manakh/ [Media Almanac] no. 6: 76–82. (In Russian). http://mediaalmanah.ru/upload/iblock/47a/7682-6-95.pdf . Olaisen, Johan L. 1987. “Library Education and Research in the Soviet Union Compared with Scandinavia.” International Library Review 19, no. 2: 119–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/00207837(87)90025-2. Richardson, John V. Jr. 1998. “Education for Library and Information Science in Russia: A Case Study of the St. Petersburg State Academy of Culture.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 39, no. 1: 14–27. Available at https://www.jstor.org/stable/40324176. Richardson, John V. Jr. 2000. “The Origin of Soviet Education for Librarianship: The Role of Nadezhda Konstantinovna Krupskaya, Lyubov’ Borisovna Khavkina-Hamburger, and Genrietta K. Abele-Derman.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 41, no. 2: 106–128. Available at http://www.jstor.org/stable/40324059. Richardson, John V. Jr. 2003. “Recent Developments in the Russian Far East: The State of Education for Librarianship.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 44, no. 2: 137–152. Available at https://www.jstor.org/stable/40323928 Richardson, John V. Jr. 2006. “Education for Librarianship in the Russian Far East: An Update on Vladivostok State University of Economics and Culture.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 47, no. 2: 160–164. Available at https://www.jstor.org/stable/40324329. Russian Federation. 2021. “Стратегия развития библиотечного дела в Российской Федерации на период до 2030 года /Stratyegiya razvitiya bibliotechnogo dela v Rossiyskoy Federatsii na period do 2030 goda/[The Strategy for the Development of Library Science in the Russian Federation until 2030.]” (In Russian). http://static.government.ru/media/files/ NFWPpXpAAAEbPW60HiZiDvdZZ8AcSNuu.pdf. Russian Federation. Министерство культуры Российской Федерации/Ministerstvo kul’tury Rossiyskoy Federatsii/Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation. 2011. “Об утверждении Единого квалификационного справочника должностей руководителей, специалистов и служащих, Раздел ‘Квалификационные характеристики должностей работников культуры, искусства и кинематографии’/Ob utverzhdenii Yedinogo kvalifikatsionnogo spravochnika dolzhnosteyr, spetsialistov i sluzhashchikh, Razdel ‘Kvalifikatsionnyye kharakteristiki dolzhnostey rabotnikov kul’tury, iskusstva i kinematografii’/[On Approval of a Unified Qualification Reference



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Book of Positions of Managers, Specialists and Employees, Section ‘Qualification Characteristics of Positions of Workers in Culture, Art And Cinematography’.]” [Ministry of Health and Social Development of the Russian Federation Order March 30, 2011] N 251n. (In Russian). https://www. consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_112416/. Russian Federation. Министерствo образования и науки/ Ministerstvo obrazovaniya i nauki/ Ministry of Education and Science. 2020. Приказ Министерства образования и науки РФ от 6 декабря 2017 г. N 1182 “Об утверждении федерального государственного образовательного стандарта высшего образования – бакалавриат по направлению подготовки 51.03.06 Библиотечно-информационная деятельность” (с изменениями и дополнениями) Редакция с изменениями N 1456 от 26.11.2020/ Prikaz Ministerstva obrazovaniya i nauki RF ot 6 dekabrya 2017 g. N 1182 “Ob utverzhdenii federal’nogo gosudarstvennogo obrazovatel’nogo standarta vysshego obrazovaniya – bakalavriat po napravleniyu podgotovki 51.03.06 Bibliotechno-informatsionnaya deyatel’nost’” (s izmeneniyami i dopolneniyami) Redaktsiya s izmeneniyami N 1456 ot 26.11.2020/[Order of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation of December 6, 2017 No. 1182 “On approval Federal State Educational Standard of Higher Education – Bachelor’s degree in 51.03.06 Library and Information Activities” (as amended and additions). Revised with amendments N 1456 dated 26.11.2020/]. https://fgosvo.ru/uploadfiles/FGOS%20VO%203++/ Bak/510306_B_3_15062021.pdf. Russian Federation. Министерствo образования и науки/Ministerstvo obrazovaniya i nauki/ Ministry of Education and Science. 2021. Приказ Министерства образования и науки РФ от 6 декабря 2017 г. N 1188 «Об утверждении федерального государственного образовательного стандарта высшего образования – магистратура по направлению подготовки 51.04.06 Библиотечно-информационная деятельность» (с изменениями и дополнениями). 26 ноября 2020 г., 8 февраля 2021 г./ Prikaz Ministerstva obrazovaniya i nauki RF ot 6 dekabrya 2017 g. N 1188 «Ob utverzhdenii federal’nogo gosudarstvennogo obrazovatel’nogo standarta vysshego obrazovaniya – magistratura po napravleniyu podgotovki 51.04.06 Bibliotechnoinformatsionnaya deyatel’nost’» (s izmeneniyami i dopolneniyami). 26 noyabrya 2020 g., 8 fevralya 2021 g./[ Order of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation of December 6, 2017 N 1188 “On approval of the federal state educational standard of higher education – master’s degree in the direction of preparation 51.04.06 Library and information activities” (with amendments and additions). November 26, 2020, February 8, 2021]. https:// fgosvo.ru/uploadfiles/FGOS%20VO%203++/Mag/510406_%D0%9C_3_17062021.pdf. Russian Federation. Министерство труда и социальной защиты/Ministerstvo truda i social’noj zashhity/Ministry of Labour and Social Protection. 2022 Приказ Министерства труда и социальной защиты Российской Федерации от 14.09.2022 № 527н “Об утверждении профессионального стандарта “Специалист по библиотечно-информационной деятельности/Prikaz Ministerstva truda i social’noj zashhity Rossijskoj Federacii ot 14.09.2022 № 527n “Ob utverzhdenii professional’nogo standarta “Specialist po bibliotechnoinformacionnoj dejatel’nosti” [Order of the Ministry of Labour and Social Protection of the Russian Federation of September 14, 2022 N 527n “On approval of the Professional standard ‘Specialist in library and information activities’”]. http://publication.pravo.gov.ru/Document/ View/0001202210140007. Samarin, Alexander Yurjevich, ed. 2021. Научные исследования в библиотеках: тематика, организация, представление результатов/Nauchnye issledovaniya v bibliotekakh: tematika, organizatsiya, predstavlenie rezul’tatov/[Scientific Research in Libraries: Topics, Organization,

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Presentation of Results]. Ros. gos. b-ka, Ros. nats. b-ka, Prezident. b-ka im. B. N. El’tsina; otv. red. A. Yu. Samarin. Moscow: Pashkov dom. (In Russian) Samarin, Alexander Yurjevich, Evgeny Alexandrovich Pleshkevich, Natalia Konstantinovna Lelikova, Margarita Yakovlevna Dvorkina, Galina Vladimirovna Varganova, and Olga Lvovna. 2022. “Наука в библиотеках/Nauka v bibliotekakh/[Science in Libraries].” Библиосфера/Bibliosfera no 2. С: 5–18. (In Russian). https://doi.org/10.20913/1815-3186-2022-2-5-18 Skrypnev, Nikolaj P., Eugene B. Krucko, and Sidney L Jackson. 1964. “On the State of Library Education in the U.S.S.R. and the Means of Improving It.” Journal of Education for Librarianship 5, no. 2: 110–113. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40321801. Sterlyagova, Natalia V. 2021. “Трансформации новостного потребления в различных каналах коммуникации: предварительные размышления/Transformacii novostnogo potreblenija v razlichnyh kanalah kommunikacii: predvaritel’nye razmyshlenija/Transformation of News Consumption in Different Channels of Communication: Preliminary Reflections.” in Cultural Initiatives, Materials of the 53rd All-Russian (With International Participation) Scientific Conference Of Young Researchers. Editors: Zubanova, Lyudmila Borisovna, Violeta Yakovlevna Askarova, and Nina Ivanovna Zapletina. Responsible Editor: Sergey Borisovych Sinetsky. Compiled by Yulia Vladimirovna Gushul, 106–109. (In Russian) https://www.elibrary.ru/ download/elibrary_46520079_57460610.pdf. Varganova, Galina Vladimirovna. 2018. Научные исследования в библиотечно-информационной ффере: Отечественные и зарубежные практики/ Nauchnyye Issledovaniya v BibliotechnoInformatsionnoy Sfere: Otechestvennyye I Zarubezhnyye Praktiki/[Scientific Research in the Library and Information Sphere: Domestic and Foreign Practices.] St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University of Culture. (In Russian). https://elibrary.ru/download/elibrary_35445400_34312417.pdf. Varganova, Galina Vladimirovna, and Irina Yu Kotlova. 2021. “Специальный проект. Современные практики библиотечно-библиографического краеведения: К юбилею Н.Н. Щербы: Краеведческие фонды как основа проведения научных исследований/ Spetsial’nyy Proyekt. Sovremennyye Praktiki Bibliotechno-Bibliograficheskogo Krayevedeniya: K Yubileyu N.N. Shcherby: Krayevedcheskiye Fondy Kak Osnova Provedeniya Nauchnykh Issledovaniy/[Special Project. Modern Practices of Library and Bibliographic Regional Studies: To the Anniversary of N.N. Shcherby: Local Lore Funds as the Basis for Scientific Research]” Культура: Теория и Практика/Kul’tura: Teoriya i Praktika/[Culture: Theory and Practice] no. 3: 13. (In Russian). http:// theoryofculture.ru/issues/120/1468/ Varganova, Galina Vadimirovna, and Victor A. Mutev. 2015. “Профессионализация студентов библиотечно-информационных факультетов вузов культуры/ Professionalizatsiya studentov bibliotechno-informatsionnykh fakul’tetov vuzov kul’tury/[Professionalization of Students of Library and Information Science Departments of Universities of Culture].” Федеральное Агентство Научных Организаций Всероссийский Институт Научной и Технической Информации Российской Академии Наук (ВИНИТИ РАН).Научно-техническая информация. Серия 1. Организация и методика информационной работы Ежемесячный Научно-Технический Сборник/Federal’noye Agentstvo Nauchnykh Organizatsiy Vserossiyskiy Institut Nauchnoy i Tekhnicheskoy Informatsii Rossiyskoy Akademii Nauk (VINITI RAN). Nauchno-Tekhnicheskaya Informatsiya. Seriya 1. Organizatsiya i Metodika Informatsionnoy Raboty Yezhemesyachnyy NauchnoTekhnicheskiy Sbornik/[Federal Agency of Scientific Organizations All-Russian Institute of Scientific and Technical Information Russian Academy of Sciences (VINITI RAN) Scientific and Technical Information. Series 1: Organization and Methodology of Information Work] no. 12: 29–32. (In Russian). http:// lamb.viniti.ru/sid2/sid2free?sid2=J14043189.



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Varganova, Galina Vladimirovna, and Victor A. Mutev. 2017.“Форсайт-технология в образовательной деятельности вузов культуры/Forsajt-tehnologija v obrazovatel’noj dejatel’nosti vuzov kul’tury/ [Foresight Technology in Educational Activities of Universities of Culture].” Вестник Московского Государственного Университета Культуры И Искусств/Vestnik Moskovskogo Gosudarstvennogo Universiteta Kul’tury I Iskusstv/[Bulletin of the Moscow State University of Culture and Arts] no. 1: 160–166. (In Russian). https://www.elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=29185320. Zazersky, Evgenii J. 1974. “System of Librarians’ Training in the U.S.S.R.” International Library Review 6, no. 2: 219–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/0020-7837(74)90031-4.

Mitsuhiro Oda

6 W  ith the Community in Mind: Teaching Research Methods at One University in Japan Abstract:

This chapter discusses the characteristics and significance of the courses in research methods in library and information science (LIS) provided in Japan with specific reference to the Aoyama Gakuin University. An overview of library and information science education in Japan is presented outlining the qualification system for librarians, the role of the日本図書館協会/Nihon Toshokan Kyōkai/Japan Library Association (JLA) as a professional body, and the system of higher education in Japan. Secondly, the curriculum for librarian qualifications is discussed, focusing on the courses for learning research methods according to the three types of universities in Japan. Finally, the practices at two departments of Aoyama Gakuin University, the College of Education, Psychology and Human Studies, and the College of Community Studies are discussed. The significant aspect of the programmes is the combination of LIS education with other academic fields. The approach might be seen as a model for promoting LIS education elsewhere and enhancing LIS research methods in the Japanese academic context.

Keywords: Library science – Japan; Vocational qualifications – Japan; Library education – Research – Japan; Library education – Study and teaching – Japan

Introduction This chapter discusses education in research methods in library and information science (LIS) programmes in Japan. Recent data about LIS education in Japan is available from the 2017 national study by a Working Group for LIS Education of the 日本図書館情報学会/Nihon Toshokan Jōhō Gakkai/Japan Society of Library and Information Science (JSLIS) (Nihon toshokan jōhō gakkai 2017). However, it is difficult to find courses in research methods listed in the report. It is only through examining the situation at a specific institution and describing how LIS students are introduced to research methods in practice that one gains an appreciation of the situation regarding the teaching of research methods in LIS in Japan. This chapter provides an overview of the provision of LIS education in Japan. Next, it puts the situation in context by presenting the specific circumstances at the 青山学院大学/Aoyama Gakuin Daigaku/Aoyama Gakuin University (AGU) where the author teaches the course in research methods. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-008



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Library and Information Science Education in Japan Overview There are many differences in LIS practices and LIS education globally that result from social and historical contexts in each country. It is important to bear in mind varying international contexts when focusing on the models of professional practice and the educational systems supporting them in each country. Libraries are funded in different ways across the world with governments at federal, provincial or state and local community levels adopting different stances; governance models vary resulting in different approaches to autonomy; the availability of information and communications technology (ICT) is dramatically different across the world and impacts significantly on library service capacity and delivery; and vision, values and cultural expectations of libraries are wide-ranging across the world and lead to different emphases in service delivery and programmes provided, to name but a few aspects. Japanese libraries and LIS education have distinctive features (Alix 2021; Japan Library Association n.d. a). It is difficult to make comparisons between LIS education in Japan and LIS education in other countries. While there are many unique elements to LIS education in Japan there are also many elements and challenges which are common to LIS education elsewhere. For example, the basic requirement for a qualified librarian or a teacher-librarian in Japan is the completion of a programme provided by a higher education institution within Japan. The numbers of hours and course credits in programmes leading to qualifications, that is, the total number of hours of class tutorials and independent learning, approximate to those in other countries. As the curriculum is centred on orthodox content, it is also common, but teaching methods and perspectives adopted might vary considerably. Focusing on the processes for controlling and developing educational programmes in librarianship, the following three elements can be found as features of LIS education in Japan which impact on the design and delivery of programmes: –– Qualification system –– Professional association involvement, and –– Educational system in the universities. The following section explores the role played by each of the three elements.

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The Qualification System There is no single standard for professional qualifications that can be applied to all types of libraries. Professional preparation for librarians employed in public libraries in Japan, jobs of a qualified librarian, called 司書/shisho and an assistant librarian 司書補/shishoho are regulated by the 図書館法/Toshokan-hō/Library Law no.118 in 1950, which addresses many matters related to libraries (Japan Library Association n.d. b). The educational requirement for becoming a qualified librarian is to complete a programme at the bachelor’s level at an institution of higher education. The programme is a national curriculum, defined in 図書館法施行規則/ Toshokanhō-shikō-kisoku/Library Law Enforcement Regulations (Japan. e-GOV n.d. a), which is established by 文部科学省/Monbu-kagaku-shō/Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). However, the degree does not necessarily have to be in the LIS field. The students study their major fields and can also choose the librarianship programme. Courses specialising in LIS can be selected in addition to other majors as part of the bachelor’s degree. For school librarians, the teacher-librarian’s requirements are specified in 学校図書館法/Gakkō-toshokan-hō/School Library Law (Japan. e-GOV n.d. b). The qualification programme for a teacher-librarian is provided by the higher education institutions and the courses are defined on the national level. Before finishing the librarian qualification programme, students are required to obtain a licence for schoolteachers. Aside from a teacher-librarian programme, MEXT released “a model curriculum for a school librarian” in 2016 (Japan. MEXT 2016). A school librarian is not a job title defined by the national government and there has been no national level certification. As a result of the laws and regulations, almost all Japanese schools have school libraries. However, the employment of professionals in school libraries in Japan has been a concern for over fifty years, although 司書教諭/shisho-kyōyu/teacher-librarian, a teacher with librarianship qualifications, has been identified by the School Library Law since 1953. In Japan, there is no professional preparation system to gain credentials for working as a librarian in academic libraries and special libraries. Therefore, in practice, libraries employ people who have a qualification for public librarianship. Based on the National Diet Library Law in 1954, the 国立国会図書館/Kokuritsu Kokkai Toshokan/National Diet Library (NDL) serves uniquely as the Japanese national library. There is no special qualification programme to work at NDL. However, the recruitment examination conducted by NDL covers twelve specialised subject areas including LIS, and the candidates can choose one of the subjects; law, political science, economics, sociology, literature, history, LIS, physics, chemistry, mathematics, engineering/information engineering and biology.



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Professional Association Involvement Although 日本図書館協会/Nihon Toshokan Kyōkai/Japan Library Association (JLA) is recognised as a core organisation for libraries and librarians, it is not engaged in controlling the professional qualification and accreditation programmes for librarians but it does play a significant role. Since 2010, JLA has implemented the notion of 認定司書/Nintei-shisho/certified senior or advanced librarian. To be recognised as a senior librarian, an applicant is examined to ensure compliance with the following requirements: –– Be an employee of a local authority, 日本赤十字社/Nippon Sekijūjisha the Japanese Red Cross Society, a general incorporated association/foundation, or equivalent thereto –– Hold a qualification in public librarianship as stipulated in the Library Law of 1950 –– Satisfy the following two conditions regarding work experience: –– Total work experience in the public library stipulated in Article 2 of the Library Law in 1950 which is ten years or more from the date of acquisition of the qualification, or total work experience in public libraries, libraries other than public libraries, and other related institutions must be ten years (120 months) or more –– Work experience in a public library must be for at least five years (60 months) out of the past ten years at the time of application –– Participate in professional development activities including training and conference attendance –– Provide evidence of scholarly and professional contributions within the ten years up to the time of application. –– Submit original work at the time of application –– Ensure that books, journal articles/papers, or reports submitted have been published within ten years from the time of application, and be independent works or shared works with clear identification of individual responsibility –– Submit other works that the Committee may recognise, and –– Comply with items stipulated in地方公務員法/Chihō-kōmuin-hō/Local Public Service Law (Japan e-GOV n.d. c) and the Japan Library Association’s図書館 員の倫理綱領/Toshokan’in no rinrikōryō/Code of Ethics for Librarians (Japan Library Association 1980) for 10 years until the time of application, as declared by the applicant (認定司書事業委員会/Nintei-shisho Jigyō Iinkai/Japan Library Association Certified Librarian Business Committee 2022). JLA also contributes to LIS education through the activities of the図書館情報学教 育部会/Toshokan-jōhōgaku-kyōiku-bukai/Division of the Education for Library and

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Information Studies (DELIS), one of six divisions in the Association, whose objectives are to promote LIS education and to sustain and improve its quality.

Educational System in the Universities As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the professional qualifications programme is established for public librarianship in the Library Law. Professional qualifications for a public librarian career can be gained through different educational approaches on an undergraduate level that range from a dedicated degree in LIS to additional coursework or LIS optional programmes within a general bachelor’s degree. Three major types of provision can be identified: A. One faculty/department/independent programme provides the LIS educational programme and a bachelor’s degree in LIS. Many faculty members have an academic background in LIS or academic areas related to LIS, such as bibliography, data science, and archival studies. B. LIS programmes or courses are offered by different departments. The curriculum is a combination of LIS courses and other academic subjects. The integrated title of Bachelor of Arts degree is awarded. The subject specialties of faculty members may include pedagogy, sociology, literature, or history. C. LIS programmes or courses are optionally provided, and not directly related to the faculty/department educational system. Those who teach LIS courses may belong to a different organisation and not be university faculty. Universities that offer type A professional programmes in LIS include the 筑波大学/ University of Tsukuba, 慶應義塾大学/Keio University, and 九州大学/Kyushu University. The numbers of institutions offering LIS courses in type B have increased slightly, and there are now over ten institutions nationwide operating in this way, including Aoyama Gakuin University which offers programmes that combine LIS preparation with an education in another subject area. Type C has been the most prevalent system operating in Japan. More than one hundred universities and colleges are included in this category. In addition to the university approaches in the Bachelor’s programmes, there is another opportunity to gain qualifications for public librarianship. It was originally started as a programme for those who work in a library but do not have qualifications for public librarianship. Since 1950, around five to ten higher educational institutions commissioned by MEXT have offered a short-term intensive training in LIS in summer. Courses are based on the same national curriculum as the one for the Bachelor’s programme.

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Courses in the National Curriculum The Enforcement Regulation of Library Law as an ordinance of the Ministry of Education in 1950 determines a national curriculum (Japan .e-GOV n.d. a). The current version of the required courses and credits was revised in 2012, which is the fourth edition since 1950. The programme consists of eighteen courses, with eleven mandated as essential and seven as electives. Students choose at least two courses from the elective list (Table 6.1). Table 6.1: Required and elective courses in the national curriculum Required

Elective

Introduction to Lifelong Learning (2) Introduction to Librarianship (2) System and Management of Library (2) Information Technology for Library (2) Introduction to Library Services (2) Information Service (2) Children’s Service (2) *Practice for Information Service (2) Introduction to Library Resources (2) Organisation of Library Resources (2) * Practice for Organisation of Library Resources (2)

Basic Seminar (1) Seminar for Library Services (1) Seminar for Library Resources (1) History of Books and Libraries (1) Library Facilities (1) *Practice for Specified Topics (1) *Placement in Public Library (1)

The number in parentheses after each course indicates the number of credits. One unit equates to fifteen hours and two units to thirty hours. However, courses marked with an asterisk are practical, and the number of hours is double that of other courses. In these courses, one credit equates to thirty hours and two credits to sixty hours. Research methods is not officially listed as a course in the national curriculum, although teachers could embed research methods in practically any course. If universities want students to learn research methods, they must establish special courses in addition to the established curriculum. There are options for including research methods training in the three types of educational approaches already mentioned. In type A, it would be easy to introduce a course in research methods as part of the LIS curriculum. In type B, although the programme may not offer a course in research methods for LIS itself, the programme might provide such a course for combined academic fields including LIS. For type C, establishing a course in research methods would depend on centralised university policy and it would consequently be very difficult to introduce a course in research methods.

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In addition to the different approaches in the bachelor’s programmes, another opportunity for gaining professional qualifications for public librarianship is through an intensive short term programme offered by some higher institutions commissioned by MEXT. The number of institutions offering this programme varies from year to year. In 2023, five institutions have been commissioned (Japan MEXT 2023).The programme has the same courses as the national curriculum explained above, but it is characterised by continuous course offerings from mid-July to mid-September. In addition to university faculty members, instructors can be practitioners working in libraries. When the system was first launched, it was intended to offer people who work in libraries, but do not have the qualification of public librarians, an opportunity to gain professional knowledge and skills for the services and management of libraries. However, nowadays, anyone who has graduated from a university or a junior college can take the courses. In other words, the intensive short terms programmes play a role in professional development and lifelong learning.

The LIS Programmes at Aoyama Gakuin University Aoyama Gakuin University (AGU) was founded in 1949 as part of Aoyama Gakuin, which was established in 1874 and is widely recognised as one of the leading private universities in Japan. It seeks to educate students with a strong sense of social responsibility and its educational policy is based on the Christian faith. AGU has two campuses: the Aoyama in Shibuya, Shibuya-ku, Tokyo and the Sagamihara campus in Fuchinobe, Sagamihara-shi, Kanagawa. On the undergraduate level, there are seven faculties in humanities and social sciences in Shibuya and four faculties in science/technology and interdisciplinary fields on the Sagamihara campus. There are nine departments in the graduate school. As of May 2022, there were almost 19,000 undergraduate students, and 1,163 graduate students. As previously mentioned, AGU is a type B university; there is a combination of LIS and other disciplinary offerings. AGU provides two programmes in LIS on the undergraduate level: one is in the Department of Education within the College of Education, Psychology and Human Studies (DE-CEPHS) (Aoyama Gakuin University n.d. a) and the other is in the College of Community Studies (CCS) (Aoyama Gakuin University n.d. b). Graduate courses in LIS are provided in the Graduate School of Education, Psychology and Human Studies (Aoyama Gakuin University n.d. c). The author belonged to DE-CEPHS for twenty years until 2018, and moved to CCS, a new faculty or college launched in 2019. CEPHS is located in Shibuya and CCS is in Sagamihara and the university provides LIS programmes on both campuses. The

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two programmes in LIS operating within AGU differ according to the objectives and policies of each department providing the programmes and are described in the following.

Undergraduate LIS Education in the Department of Education in the College of Education, Psychology and Human Studies Within DE-CEPHS, LIS education on both the undergraduate and graduate level is carried out in close relationship to pedagogy and lifelong learning. In undergraduate education, DE-CEPHS has five core components: –– Human Development –– Education in Practice/Lifelong Development –– Educational Information/Media –– Early Childhood Education, and –– Young Adult Pedagogy. LIS education is provided within Educational Information/Media along with other academic fields including cognitive science and educational technology. There is one course entitled Research Methods in Pedagogy in the undergraduate programme of DE-CEPHS and its course is required for all second-year students. The content includes literature searching, ethnography, action research, case studies, questionnaire surveys, methods of participant/non-participant observation, interviews, quantitative and qualitative methods for research, and research ethics. Teachers who specialise in educational sociology serve as instructors for the course. The objective of the course is to understand the major research methods of pedagogy and to recognise the background, significance and context in which they can be applied. Students are asked to conduct group work on the various aspects of the types of surveys mentioned above.

Graduate LIS Education in the Department of Education in the College of Education, Psychology and Human Studies DE-CEPHS offers a master’s level programme, the MA (Education) and a doctoral programme as a PhD (Education) in LIS. The master’s level programme includes Educational Information Technology and Library and Education courses offered in both lecture and seminar approaches. The LIS field is included (Aoyama Gakuin University n.d. d). in the doctoral programme. Advanced Educational Information Technology is offered in both lecture and seminar formats.

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There are four courses on research methods offered to all students in the master’s programme: –– Research Method of Educational Literature I –– Research Method of Educational Literature II –– Research Method of Educational Practice I –– Research Method of Educational Practice II Research Method of Educational Literature I and Research Method of Educational Literature II are often taught by LIS academic faculty. The objectives of these courses concern understanding the literature search methods required for writing a master’s thesis and academic papers and preparing a literature review which examines critically the literature collected. Students are required to obtain the knowledge and skills to collect, organise, and analyse comprehensively and systematically various types of literature related to educational research on the graduate level. Students are assigned to use typical reference resources, databases and other search tools. In Research Method of Educational Practice I and Research Method of Educational Practice II, the content focuses on research skills in fieldwork and case studies. The objectives of the courses relate to understanding the characteristics of research methods in pedagogy, and how to choose a research method appropriate for a specific research plan and purpose. Students are required to conduct simple practical fieldwork on a specific task, for example, an observation of pupils playing at an after school learning facility, or locating teaching materials suitable for use on a project for students of secondary schools. Students are required to measure required outcomes, analyse the results, and present the findings as case studies. The academic fields of instructors vary. Teachers in the fields of infant education, physical education, school education, educational psychology, and educational sociology take turns teaching these courses.

LIS Education in the College of Community Studies The mission of community studies in the College of Community Studies (CCS), is to prepare professionals and specialists, who will play an important role in local communities nationwide in Japan. “We foster new types of people who are capable of closely connecting their community lives and work-related lives in order to make direct contributions to the vitalization of local society.” CCS insists on practical knowledge, skills and attitudes for assisting with everyday activities and services in local communities. Providing support for community activities is one of the crucial



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concerns of local authorities. CCS provides five major programmes at the undergraduate level: –– Assistance for activities of children and youth –– Assistance for activities of women –– Assistance for community activities –– Community heritage resources, and –– Planning of community revitalisation. The background of teachers at CCS varies widely and includes academic fields related to community activities, such as social education, lifelong learning, sociology, social welfare, cognitive science, library and information studies, museology, archival studies, local authority administration, public facility management, and others. LIS courses are distributed across programmes, but the main LIS concentration is in the Community Heritage Resources programme. The following is a list of the courses offered: –– Facilities for Heritage Information and Materials In Local Community –– Searching Local Information Resources –– Introduction to Local Information Resources –– Heritage Information and Materials in the Local Community –– Restoration and Conservation of Local Information Resources –– Publishing and Information Distribution in the Local Community –– Local Community Archives –– Digital Archives –– Development of Local Community Archives I –– Development of Local Community Archives II –– Library Facilities, and –– Topics and Issues on Community Studies. Other courses in CCS focus on library and information skills, such as Searching Information Resources in Local Community I and II, Organisation of Local Information Resources, Handling of Local Information Resources, and Placement in Libraries/Information Institution.

Research Methods Courses in the College of Community Studies Research methods courses with each involving two credits are offered across all programmes. Students are required to complete them between the first and the third years.

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–– Basic Research Methods for Community Studies –– Statistical Research Methods for Community Studies, and –– Qualitative Research Methods for Community Studies. Because faculty members from various academic fields related to community studies belong to the CCS, in the courses for research methods, the teachers in charge of each course are assigned based on the research methods adopted in their academic fields. Since each course is taught by multiple teachers from a variety of fields, a convenor is assigned to each subject to form a unified syllabus and to standardise the quality of education and the evaluation of student grades. This approach to class management is relatively new in Japanese higher education and is recognised as one of the key characteristics of CCS. Basic Research Methods for Community Studies focuses on information processing and retrieval skills, analysis and access, and the use of various types of literature and is studied by all first year students for a half year. Eight teachers are responsible for the course and come from diverse academic fields including early childhood education, consumer law, lifelong pedagogy, women’s history, economic philosophy, bioethics, and LIS. Statistical Research Methods for Community Studies covers basic knowledge and skills of statistical analysis including questionnaires, interviews and surveys. The course is required for all second year students. The academic backgrounds of the eight teachers include LIS, educational sociology, comparative education, social welfare, sports science, social psychology, and cognitive psychology. Qualitative Research Methods for Community Studies is the course for third year students and provides an overview of the significance, theory and practices of qualitative research methods including observation, ethnomethodology, and grounded theory. Six teachers have backgrounds in academic areas such as LIS, gender studies, museology, developmental psychology, educational materials research, and social welfare. The objectives and assignments for each course are summarised in Table 6.2.

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Table 6. 2: Objectives and assignments in courses on research methods Course

Objectives

Examples of Assignments

Basic Research Methods for Community Studies

To understand how to use facilities/institutions for searching community information/ materials. To understand how to obtain community information/materials based on the characteristics of each type. To understand the matters to be noted in the survey of community information/materials.

Collecting community information/ materials. Clarifying community information/ materials sources. Organising community information/ materials.

Statistical Research Methods for Community Studies

To understand the design of social surveys, focusing on statistical surveys To understand how to collect existing statistical data and to analyse them. To understand how to proceed with the questionnaire survey in practice and to analyse them.

Creating simple summary table, calculation of representative values, double/triple cross tabulation table. Explaining correlations, causal relationships, and spurious correlations based on double/triple cross tabulation. Practising the questionnaire survey and presenting raw data.

Qualitative Research Methods for Community Studies.

To explain the definition and significance of qualitative research using the terms learned. To understand how to create a research interview plan. To understand how to extract the required qualitative data from a conducted research interview.

Creating a research interview plan and conducting a research interview survey. Organising, coding, categorising the qualitative data from the results of a research interview. Analysing and mining contents and texts of research interview scripts.

Aspects of research methods are embedded in all courses within the LIS programmes and research projects are conducted in each unit. Research methods is central to LIS education and each course emphasises the need for research to be undertaken. In the 2022 academic year, there were twenty students who wrote graduation project papers on themes of LIS, of which eleven used the quantitative method and nine used the qualitative. The content addressed in the research methods courses is activated and utilised in the various other courses studied by the students.

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Conclusion The curriculum for LIS education in the 20th century in Japan has focused primarily on public libraries. Education in research methods has been neglected. In the 21st century, LIS education has been incorporated into the specialised education of bachelor’s degrees in other academic disciplines, but there are limited instances of the inclusion of teaching research methods into LIS and affiliated programmes (Nihon toshokan jōhō gakkai 2017). With its practical approach and emphasis on effective means of information resource searching and use, the field of LIS should be expected to contribute considerably to an understanding of research methods in general. The practice of teaching LIS at AGU in two departments with different emphases in effect has trialled the use of alternative models and enabled comparisons to be made. How effective has each been? The approach at the DE-CEPHS graduate school is considered sound and the school has graduated master’s and doctoral degree students since 2010. The first students from the undergraduate CCS programme graduated in March 2023 and the outcomes of the programme are yet to be evaluated by faculty although the impact of the approach will take some tine to determine. LIS programmes providing courses in research methods are extremely rare in Japan with the exception of type A universities. To create innovative professional practices and to ensure effective delivery of library and information services to the community, librarians require appropriate attitudes to the importance of analysing evidence and determining user needs, as well as knowledge of research methods and skills in their application.

References Alix, Francis A. 2021. “The History and Current Challenges of Libraries in Japan.” SLIS Connecting: Journal of The University of Southern Mississippi’s School of Library and Information Science (SLIS) 10, no.1 (Spring/Summer): Article 9. https://aquila.usm.edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1213&context=slisconnecting. Aoyama Gakuin University. n.d. a “Department of Education.” https://www.aoyama.ac.jp/en/ academic/undergraduate/ephs/education.html. Aoyama Gakuin University. n.d. b “College of Community Studies.” https://www.aoyama.ac.jp/en/ academic/undergraduate/ccs/. Aoyama Gakuin University. n.d. c “Graduate School of Education, Psychology and Human Studies.” https://www.aoyama.ac.jp/en/academic/graduate/ephs/. Japan e-GOV. n.d. a “Toshokan-hō-shikō-kisoku/図書館法施行規則/[Library Law Enforcement Regulations (Ministry of Education Ordinance No. 27, Showa 25)].” https://elaws.e-gov.go.jp/ document?lawid=325M50000080027.



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Japan e-GOV. n.d. b “Gakkō-toshokan-hō/学校図書館法/[School Library Law (Act No. 185 of Showa 28)] https://elaws.e-gov.go.jp/document?lawid=328AC1000000185. Japan e-GOV, n.d. c “Chihō-kōmuin-hō/地方公務員法/[Local Public Service Law (Act No. 261 of Showa 25)]” https://elaws.e-gov.go.jp/document?lawid=325AC0000000261. Japan Library Association (JLA)/Nihon Toshokan Kyōkai/日本図書館協会. n.d. a “Brief Information on Libraries in Japan.” https://www.jla.or.jp/portals/0/html/libraries-e.html. Japan Library Association (JLA)/Nihon Toshokan Kyōkai/日本図書館協会. n.d. b “Library Law. (Law No. 118, April 30, 1950)”. https://www.jla.or.jp/portals/0/html/law-e.html. Japan Library Association (JLA)/ Nihon Toshokan Kyōkai/日本図書館協会. 1980. “Toshokan’in no rinrikōryō/図書館員の倫理綱領/J/[Code of Ethics for Librarians].” https://www.jla.or.jp/library/ gudeline/tabid/233/Default.aspx. Japan Library Association (JLA) Nintei-shisho Jigyō Iinkai/認定司書事業委員会/Certified Librarian Business Committee.. 2022. “Ninon Toshokan Kyōkai Nintei-shisho shinsei kinyu manyuaru (shinki-yō)/日本図書館協会認定司書申請書類記入マニュアル（新規用.” https://www. cstorage.jp/public/YNOwwAQFXknAEwUBmhaD197RkPYBnr7YpORkYRU8h-ZQ. Japan Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). 2016. “Gakko shisho no moderu karicyuramu’ ni tsuite (tsuchi)/「学校司書のモデルカリキュラム」について（通知// [School Library About ‘Model Curriculum for School Librarians’ (Notice)]”. https://www.mext. go.jp/a_menu/shotou/dokusho/link/1380587.htm. Japan Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). 2023. “Reiwa 5nendo shisho oyobi shisho-ho no kōshu-jisshi-daigaku ichiran/ 令和5年度司書及び司書補の講習実 施大学一覧/[List of Universities Where Librarians and Assistant Librarians Will Hold Courses].” https://www.mext.go.jp/content/20230208_mxt_chisui02-000013374_1.pdf. Nihon toshokan jōhō gakkai toshokan jōhō-gaku kyōiku ni shisuru jigyō wākingugurūpu/日本図 書館情報学会 図書館情報学教育に資する事業ワーキンググループ/Japan Society of Library and Information Science. Working Group Contributing to LIS Education. 2017. “Toshokan jōhō-gaku kyōiku no hirogari to kongo no hōkō-sei ni kansuru chōsa hōkoku-sho/図書館情報 学教育の拡がりと今後の方向性 に関する調査報告書 [A Survey on the Development and the Direction in Future of Library and Information Science Education: A Report].” https://jslis.jp/ wp-content/uploads/2017/08/JSLIS-EduWG-Report.pdf.

Notice Pasipamire

7 T eaching Research Methods in Library and Information Science in Zimbabwe Abstract: This chapter explores teaching of research methods in library and information science (LIS) curricula at the National University of Science and Technology (NUST) in Zimbabwe. The chapter begins by giving the rationale for scrutinising the teaching of research methods in LIS curricula. It outlines course nomenclatures, placement and timing of research methods in the curricula and presents the objectives and outcomes of the courses to paint a picture of how the courses equip students to conduct research within the programme and long term in professional practice. Most importantly, the chapter addresses the teaching approaches and the number of hours devoted to the courses. The challenges associated with the teaching of the courses are discussed. The chapter concludes by noting that the teaching of research methods is comprehensive and adequately prepares graduates to be both consumers and producers of research. Keywords: Library science – Zimbabwe; Library education – Zimbabwe Library science – Research

Introduction There is consensus among library and information science (LIS) educators, scholars, and practitioners that the ability to carry out and evaluate research is a basic requirement for 21st century LIS practitioners (Barraket 2005; Connaway and Powell 2010; Mandel 2017; Saunders 2019; Matusiak and Bright 2020; Stephenson 1990). Research knowledge and skills should be acquired as part of LIS education. The LIS community has been engaged in an ongoing debate about the most effective means for teaching research methods (Alemanne and Mandel 2018; Dilevko 2000). Alemanne and Mandel observe that the way research methods is taught varies widely in LIS schools (2018, 28). Matusiak and Bright (2020) point out that traditionally, LIS education emphasised that librarians required the fundamental knowledge of research methods and critical skills in evaluating the findings to access and use information effectively, particularly when dealing with library users. However, librarians are not only consumers of research; they are also active contributors to scholarship and need practical skills in designing and carrying out research projects. Alemanne and Mandel (2018) glean from various authors https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-009



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that some LIS educators have tried the experiential learning approach as a mechanism through which LIS students can learn to conduct research, analyse data, and present research findings. Given the foregoing, it is apparent that techniques and approaches for teaching research methods in the LIS curricula are of considerable interest to LIS educators as research knowledge and skills are an integral part of the LIS profession. The debate around the teaching of RM has received limited attention from African scholars. From the literature accessed, no scholars in Africa, let alone in Zimbabwe or at the National University of Science and Technology (NUST) in particular have focused on teaching research methods in the LIS curricula. Literature is replete with contributions from Europe and America with notable scholars such as Alemanne and Mandel (2018), Barraket (2005), Luo (2017), Mandel (2017), Matusiak and Bright (2020), and Stephenson (1990). This chapter attempts to fill the gap and contribute to the ongoing debate around research methods by characterising its teaching in the LIS curricula at NUST in Zimbabwe.

The National University of Science and Technology and the Department of Library and Information Science The National University of Science and Technology (NUST) was established in 1991 in Bulawayo as the second university in Zimbabwe. It uses English as the language of instruction and seeks to be a world-class university in science, technology, innovation, entrepreneurship and business development, and to provide an invigorating intellectual climate spearheading industrialisation locally and beyond. The university takes as its motto “Think in Other Terms” and formulated an ambitious strategic plan covering 2019 to 2023 which would see its student numbers double from its 10,700 enrolment. NUST has eight faculties of which one is the Faculty of Communication and Information Science. The Department of Library and Information Science was established within the Faculty in August of 2000 as a “solution to providing degree-level qualification in library science in the country” (NUST 2001). Before the introduction of the library science programmes at NUST, training for librarians was undertaken at the higher diploma level and offered by polytechnics, the Harare Polytechnic and the Bulawayo Polytechnic. In July 2004, an MSc in LIS was launched and currently, the Department offers LIS education with bachelor, master and doctoral progammes with the following aims:

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–– Produce graduates who will fit in the world of IT –– Produce librarians for the libraries and other information centres in the country and the region, and –– Provide students an opportunity to do further research and study in the field of information science. This chapter focuses on curricula in the four-year Bachelor of Science Honours Degree in Library and Information Science and the two-year Master of Science Degree in Library and Information Science (MSc LIS) programmes.

The Formalities of Teaching Research Methods at NUST The LIS curricula at NUST comprise core and elective courses. It is instructive to point out that all the research methods courses are core in the LIS curricula. Each course at the undergraduate level carries twelve credits with forty-eight hours of contact time spread over twelve weeks of each semester. NUST follows the semester-based system or semesterisation where modules are wholly taught and assessed at the end of each semester, although NUST is not fully semesterised. Some courses taught in the first semester are not available in semester two of the academic year and vice versa. The primary mode of instruction is face-to-face, but due to the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent lockdown restrictions, a blended approach that incorporates both in-person and online delivery of lectures has been adopted.

Course Nomenclature There are four research methods courses offered at the undergraduate level in the LIS curriculum at NUST and they assume the following nomenclatures: –– Research Methods and Statistics I –– Research Methods and Statistics II –– Research Seminars, and –– Research Project. The nomenclature of the first two courses indicates the merging of research methods and statistics. The nomenclate also indicates what is covered in the courses. There are three research methods courses offered in the MSc LIS programme at NUST and the courses assume the following nomenclatures:



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–– Research Methods and Data Analysis Techniques –– Research Seminars, and –– Dissertation.

Placement and Timing in the Curricula The research methods courses are spread throughout the LIS curricula. At the undergraduate level, Research Methods and Statistics I and Research Methods and Statistics II are offered in the second year of the BSc with the first taught in the first semester and the second in the second semester. The courses are timed and placed sequentially and many of the concepts introduced in the first semester course underpin more complex concepts dealt with in the subsequent course. In the fourth year of the programme, students undertake Research Seminars in semester one in preparation for conducting a research project in semester two. The Research Seminars are regarded as a course although not examined. The master’s degree is a two-year programme and the Research Methods and Data Analysis Techniques course is offered in the first semester of the first year. In the second year, the research methods course is offered as Research Seminars in the first semester. The last semester of the two-year programme is devoted to conducting research with the end product of a dissertation and no formally taught courses are offered.

Course Objectives and Student Outcomes The undergraduate Research Methods and Statistics I course provides an introduction to research methods. It takes students through the process of undertaking research from finding a researchable question to choosing appropriate methods to investigate the problem. By the end of the course, students should be able to identify research problems, understand qualitative and quantitative methods and write a research proposal. The Research Methods and Statistics II course is a continuation of Research Methods and Statistics I. The focus is on both qualitative and quantitative data presentation and analysis methods. It provides an understanding of basic statistics including terminology and common statistical tools employed in quantitative research. It also aims at developing qualitative data analysis skills. In the fourth year, the Research Seminars course focuses on the development of workable proposals by students. The Research Project’s main objective is to produce a dissertation. Table 7.1 captures the objectives and outcomes of the courses.

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Table 7.1: Objectives and Outcomes of the Undergraduate Research Methods Course Title

Objectives

Outcomes

Research Methods and Statistics I (Year 2, First Semester)

Introduce students to research concepts Develop understanding of main research designs Provide knowledge of how to identify a problem Develop skills in research proposal writing and choosing appropriate methods Develop competence in data collection Develop understanding of qualitative and quantitative data presentation and analysis methods. Understanding of basic statistics Develop abilities in applying basic statistical tools employed in quantitative research Help students develop capabilities in qualitative data analysis Acquire the know how to produce research papers from one’s research Develop project proposal Designing research projects Conduct a research project by collecting and analysing data Report findings Produce a research project

Identify researchable problems Appreciate quantitative and qualitative research approaches Write a research proposal

Research Methods and Statistics II, (Year 2, Second Semester)

Research Seminars (Year 4, First Semester) Research Project, (Year 4, Second Semester)

Exploratory data Identify suitable graphical techniques for different variables Present data using qualitative and quantitative techniques Understand the measures of centre and dispersion Use probability machinery to draw conclusions Code data Write a research report Develop a workable proposal Students involved in real research Produce a research project

The Research Methods and Data Analysis course in the master’s programme is concerned with the principles and procedures of planning and designing research projects. It seeks to demonstrate how students can use quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods throughout the research process and takes the process from idea generation through to report writing. Table 7.2 provides the course objectives and outcomes.



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Table 7.2: Objectives and Outcomes of the Master’s Degree Course Title RM and Data Analysis Techniques (Year 1, First Semester)

Objectives Equip students with analytical skills required in identifying a research problem Apply research concepts in LIS Impart knowledge on to how to evaluate different research designs, methods and tools Examine data analysis techniques for processing quantitative and qualitative data

Outcomes Ability to identify researchable research problems in LIS Formulate a project proposal Choose an appropriate research design for a given research problem Process data and choose appropriate presentation techniques

The Content of the Research Methods Courses The Research Methods and Statistics I course covers the research process; research designs and the various methods which can be used including quantitative methods, qualitative methods, and mixed methods as well as when they should be used,;trategies for inquiry including case studies, experimentation, comparative approaches, and historical research; and data collection instruments ranging from observation, through interviews, questionnaires, to focus group discussions. The course deals with primary and secondary sources of data, identification of target populations and sampling, research ethics, and writing effective research proposals. Students receive instruction on developing the background section of a study using inductive reasoning for qualitative approaches, deductive reasoning for quantitative approaches, and both reasoning approaches for mixed methods. In addition, students are taught how to formulate objectives using appropriate action verbs such as “to determine” and “to establish”. The Research Methods and Statistics II course introduces data presentation and analysis techniques. It covers descriptive and inferential statistics and examines distributions of qualitative and categorical variables using techniques such as tables, pie charts, bar charts, and histograms. Measures of central tendency and dispersion such as mean, mode, median, range, inter-quartile range and standard deviation are examined. The course also covers qualitative data analysis techniques such as discourse analysis, which centres on the use of language in particular contexts, narrative analysis, an analytical technique used to interpret narrative-based texts or visual data, comparative analysis, which focuses on the impact of various circumstances, and constant comparison analysis, which involves sorting and cat-

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egorising raw data excerpts based on specific attributes, and organising the groups in a structured manner to generate a novel theory. The appropriateness of the use of the various measures introduced is identified. At the postgraduate level, the Research Methods and Data Analysis course covers concepts similar to the undergraduate course but goes beyond basics. The course is set in the philosophical realm. The philosophical standpoint of research and worldviews are explored referring to areas like ontology, epistemology, and axiology which are fundamental beliefs that provide structure and guidance for researchers during the study process and influence their actions. At the master’s level, statistics for quantitative data analysis go beyond the basics of examining distribution and deal with advanced techniques such as two-way tables, scatter plots, and side-by-side boxplots to examine multivariance and the relationships of two or more variables. Although, the ideas and concepts presented are complex and esoteric, an attempt is made to simplify them in class for the benefit of students with no mathematical background.

Teaching Strategies Adopted NUST uses a mixture of strategies to teach research methods depending on the teaching approach adopted and topic under study. The COVID-19 pandemic has led to significant changes in the education sector, with traditional universities compelled to incorporate elearning content due to lockdowns and other restrictive measures. The move to elearning has resulted in a shift from teacher-centred approaches to learner-centred approaches, which are better suited for online environments. In the context of the research methods course, there have been changes in teaching methodologies. The lecture method and demonstration remain the commonly used teacher-centred approaches in the delivery of the course. The lecture method is the most favoured strategy because of its suitability for foundational work, especially when introducing a research methods topic. The demonstration strategy is particularly useful when teaching software packages such as SPSS, Excel and Atlas.ti. The rationale for utilising a discussion strategy is to encourage student interaction and the exchange of ideas, particularly following the delivery of a lecture. Discussion-based instruction is centred on the learner and promotes collaborative learning, making it especially advantageous for online teaching and learning environments where participation is required as a means of verifying attendance. The in-class test strategy is useful when teaching undergraduates to ensure students experience exam-



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ination techniques early and assess the level of preparedness for final examinations, as well as to obtain feedback on students’ understanding of topics. The debate strategy is suitable when teaching topics that require students to illustrate different viewpoints, especially when handling quantitative and qualitative debates and the philosophical worldviews. Exercises promote individualised student contact, for example when students are learning how to write a research proposal. Experiential learning or learning by doing is another approach used to teach research methods in the LIS curricula at NUST. Students conduct research projects by working on real problems in organisations or communities as part of inquiry-based learning. Research projects undertaken might address practical issues like investigating the low usage of electronic resources at the NUST library, or exploring the attitudes of library users towards print resources at the University of Zimbabwe library. Group presentations are a useful strategy for teaching research methods, particularly when dealing with a large number of students, as it may be impractical for every student to receive equal attention from the lecturer. Experience has shown that learners frequently tend to perform better in group work as opposed to individual work through the sharing of ideas and collaborative experiences are useful for future endeavours. Table 7.3 links the topic with the teaching strategies employed by the lecturer. Table 7.3: Teaching and learning strategies Topic

Teaching And Learning Strategy Undergraduate Graduate

Introduction to research methods The research process

Lecture

Lecture

Demonstration In-class test Lecture General discussion N/A

Demonstration General discussion Group presentations

Literature review Philosophical/worldview assumptions Research designs

Lecture Discussions In-class test Strategies of inquiry Group presentations General discussions Data collection instruments Group presentations General discussions Population and sampling Lecture

Lecture Debate Lecture method Debate General discussion Group presentations General discussions Group presentation General discussion Lecture presentation

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Topic Validity and reliability

Teaching And Learning Strategy Undergraduate Graduate

Lecture Group discussion Research ethics Lecture Qualitative and quantitative Lecture analysis Demonstrations In-class exercises Writing a research proposal Lecture Report writing techniques Demonstrations Research seminars Lecture Individual research proposal assignment Research project and/or Inquiry-based learning/ dissertation Experiential leaning

Lecture presentation Group discussion Lecture Lecture Demonstrations In-class test exercises Lecture Demonstrations Lecture Individual research proposal assignment Inquiry-based learning/ Experiential learning

Challenges The main challenge associated with the teaching of research methods is the apprehension expressed by students for what is primarily a logic-driven course. Students regard research methods as convoluted, esoteric and requiring high intellectual effort. The majority of students approach the course with a defeatist attitude. The situation is worsened by the fact that the majority of students who enrol for the LIS programme at NUST have a humanities background and consequently find statistics difficult to understand. The past few years have been dificult due to COVID-19 pandemic related lockdowns and other restrictions, which prevented lecture delivery through traditional face-to-face methods. Shifting from physical to online teaching presented several pedagogical and technical challenges for the lecturer and students. Kim and Gurvitch (2020) have noted that the rapid expansion of online teaching did not allow for sufficient time to make appropriate adjustments and lacked support from a theoretical framework specific to online education. For the lecturer, selecting the appropriate digital pedagogical strategies so that students became active contributors and independent learners was a challenge due to limited online teaching experience prior to the COVID-19 era. For learners, the introduction of online teaching failed to produce desired outcomes because for the greater part of their lives they had been exposed to teacher-centred approaches in a physical environment. Inadequate resources, connectivity issues, and high data costs led to student resistance towards adopting the new teaching and learning methods. Online education plat-



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forms were rejected by students in favour of social media platforms, which can function with limited connectivity and data. Another challenge in teaching research methods is centred on the diversity of the students in a group. To teach students with wide-ranging abilities in a way that accommodates their different educational and professional backgrounds is a huge challenge. The problem has been exacerbated at the graduate level where students come from other institutions of higher education and multiple disciplinary backgrounds. Some students join the programme with no background in research methods and others, particularly those from the LIS undergraduate programme at NUST, join with a strong background of research methods. To build common ground, find the right balance to allow students to develop and operate on the same wavelength, and move forward at a similar pace pose challenges. At the undergraduate level, the situation is less problematic because in most cases students form a homogeneous group and come from similar backgrounds with common learning experiences.

Reflection The teaching of research methods in the LIS curricula at NUST reflects the use of generic terms for developing course titles. Naming research methods courses in general terms is a common feature across the spectrum. Thirty course titles reviewed by Matusiak and Bright (2020, 367) showed that twenty-four of them, 80%, were general courses, while six / 20%, were more specialised. The inclusion of statistics as a term in the course titles at NUST indicates the influence of institutional tradition and aligns with the thrust and mandate of NUST of producing graduates who are biased towards science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). The titles also provide clues as to the content of the respective courses. The inclusion of the term statistics shows that the subject is an integral part of the research methods courses in the LIS curricula at NUST. The dominant LIS curriculum model at NUST comprises multiple offerings in research methods and the courses provided complement each another. Research methods courses at master’s and undergraduate levels reflect the same approach. At undergraduate level, for example, two of the courses are included in the second year of the programme, while another two are in the final year. The NUST approach differs from the findings of Matusiak and Bright (2020) who discovered that a single course in research methods was the dominant model in the United States. The LIS curricula at NUST emphasise understanding of empirical research, basic research methods and statistics. The fact that the curricula provide courses that

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are theoretical and practical is proof that the model adopted prepares information professionals not only to be critical consumers of research but also producers of research. The research seminars and projects provide hands-on experience in collecting and analysing data so that students become not only effective consumers but also producers of research. The aspirations and outcomes go beyond the objectives of the majority of programmes analysed by Matusiak and Bright (2020, 367) who found that the primary focus was to prepare students to become critical consumers of research. Inclusions in research methods courses in the LIS curricula at NUST reveal a balanced approach to the teaching of the subject. Quantitative and qualitative methods are treated in equal measure. The treatment adopted differs from the findings of Matusiak and Bright (2020, 369) which indicated that any overview of quantitative and qualitative methods provided in programmes contained varying emphases on each. Some courses focused more on survey design or qualitative approaches. At NUST, mixed methods design, an offshoot of qualitative and quantitative approaches, is not emphasised because of the limited time despite its popularity and use by students. Matusiak and Bright (2020, 369) found that mixed methods design was rarely discussed, with only three lecturers interviewed indicating mixed methods as a topic covered in their courses. There is adequate coverage of data analysis techniques in the LIS curricula at NUST, despite the observation of Van Epps (2012) as quoted by Alemanne and Mandel (2018, 28) that data analysis remains a weakness of many research methods courses. At NUST, the course Research Methods and Statistics II is completely devoted to statistics and qualitative data analysis. The fact that students approach the subject with fear is a concern. The same concern was raised by instructors interviewed by Matusiak and Bright. “The fact that students often enter their research methods courses without a background in research and with some fear was repeated throughout interviews” (2020, 372). The ability to change students’ perceptions and finding the means to make the subject more interesting and less difficult become the focus of teaching both in content and presentation. A related challenge associated with the teaching of the research methods at NUST is the already-noted large number of different backgrounds brought to the course by the students, especially at the graduate level. Dilevko (2000) observed that LIS programmes are largely comprised of students from various backgrounds, many of whom lack any research or statistics background and are anxious about learning the subjects. To help overcome the problem, he explored statistical concepts and methodological approaches through news stories from daily newspapers. At NUST, additional time was allocated to students who lacked a background in mathematics which provided them the opportunity to grasp some of the undergraduate level concepts needed before advancing to more complex concepts at the postgraduate level.



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Mandel (2017), citing various authors, recognised the need to consider new pedagogical approaches to teaching research methods in LIS, and participated in the “unClassroom” an experiential learning opportunity that allowed LIS master’s students to work on a research project for a statewide library consortium within a single semester. The unClassroom was extremely effective in teaching research methods and exceeded all expectations. Selecting appropriate digital educational strategies to ensure that students become active contributors and independent learners has been a challenge as delivery of programmes has gone online. The challenge of adopting appropriate teaching and learning strategies was raised by Barraket (2005, 67) who considered the pedagogical challenge of moving away from a standard teacher-centred didactic approach of transferring technical information about research methods to students, to the creation of an interactive environment in which students are able to master technical information through processes of reflection and collective analysis.

Conclusion The teaching of research methods in the LIS curricula at NUST is comprehensive and consistent across all degree programmes offered. The curricula adequately prepare graduates to be both consumers and producers of research as the teaching blends theory and practical work. The multiple course model followed at NUST ensures that all the salient issues are adequately covered. However, the challenge of diverse backgrounds in the student body makes it difficult to deliver the course effectively. Didactic, teacher-centred approaches to teaching limit the effectiveness of content delivery and learning, particularly in a COVID-19 environment characterised by lockdowns and other restrictions. The treatment of research methods in the LIS curricula at NUST has added weight to the view in LIS literature that research knowledge and skills are indispensable for information professionals and that LIS educators must put emphasis on research methods in their programmes.

References Alemanne, Nicole D., and Lauren H. Mandel. 2018. “Developing Research Practitioners: Exploring the Pedagogical Options for Teaching Research Methods in LIS.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 59, no. 3: 26–40. https://doi.org/10.3138/jelis.59.3.2018-0015.04. Available at https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/lsc_facpubs/18/.

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Barraket, Joe. 2005. “Teaching Research Method Using a Student-Centred Approach? Critical Reflections on Practice.” Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice 2, no 2: 65–74. https:// doi.org/10.53761/1.2.2.3. Available at https://ro.uow.edu.au/jutlp/vol2/iss2/3. Connaway, Lynn Silipigni, and Ronald R Powell. 2010. Basic Research Methods for Librarians. 5th ed. Santa Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited. Dilevko, Juris. 2000. “A New Approach to Teaching Research Methods Courses in LIS Programs.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 41, no. 4: 307–329. https://doi. org/10.2307/40324048. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/journal/jedulibinfosci. Kim, Gi-cheol and Rachel Gurvitch. 2020. “Online Education Research Adopting the Community of Inquiry Framework: A Systematic Review.” Quest 72, no. 4: 395–409. https://doi.org/10.1080/003 36297.2020.1761843. Luo, Lili. 2017. “Diversified Research Methods Education in LIS: Thinking Outside the Box.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 5, no. 2: 49–63. https://doi.org/10.3138/jelis.58.2.49. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/journal/jedulibinfosci. Mandel, Lauren H. 2017. “Experiencing Research Firsthand: The ‘unClassroom’ Experiential Learning Approach to Teaching Research Methods in an LIS Master’s Program.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 58, no. 4: 187–201. https://doi.org/10.3138/jelis.58.4.187. Available at https://www.jstor.org/journal/jedulibinfosci. Matusiak, Krystyna K., and Kawanna Bright. 2020. “Teaching Research Methods in Master’s-Level LIS Programs: The United States Perspective.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 61, no. 3: 357–382. https://doi.org/10.3138/jelis.61.3.2020-0001. Available at https://eric. ed.gov/?id=EJ1267897. National University of Science and Technology (NUST), Zimbabwe. 2001. “LIS Strategic Plan, 2001–2003.” Bulawayo: Department of Library and Information Science, National University of Science and Technology. Saunders, Laura. 2019. “Core and More: Examining Foundational and Specialized Content in Library and Information Science.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 60, no. 1: 3–34. https://doi.org/10.3138/jelis.60.1.2018-0034. Available at https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1206030. Stephenson, Mary Sue. 1990. “Teaching Research Methods in Library and Information Studies Programs.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 31, no. 1: 49–65. https://doi. org/10.2307/40323727. Available at https://www.jstor.org/stable/40323727. Van Epps, Amy S. 2012. “Librarians and Statistics: Thoughts on a Tentative Relationship.” Practical Academic Librarianship: The International Journal of the SLA Academic Division 2, no. 1: i–xiii. Available at https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1032&context=lib_fsdocs; https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/37374119.

Ederina Demo

8 B  etween Practice and Research: The National School of Librarianship in Albania Abstract: The Shkolla Kombëtare e Bibliotekonomisë/National School of Librarianship (NSL) operates in the Biblioteka Kombëtare e Shqipërisë/National Library of Albania and by comparison with library schools elsewhere in the world, is relatively new. However, it has evolved over time by evaluating what is best for it and its students. The curriculum of the school has changed over the years. It has expanded, extended, and become more comprehensive, directly affecting professional training of librarians. Considering the value of studying research methods courses in library and information science (LIS), efforts should be made to guide and support students in their learning processes by improving the curriculum, enhancing active and passive learning outcomes, and inspiring research among students. Identifying the day-to-day problems that need solutions within the library community and using appropriate research methods to address the problems is a strategy that makes the curricula more oriented towards library professionals, demonstrating how research skills are put to the service of solving problems that benefit the profession. This chapter addresses the questions that arise today regarding the National School of Librarianship. Does the NSL provide basic vocational practical library educational opportunities for Albanian future practitioners of library and information science working within libraries and provide for the education of fully-fledged professionals? Should students be trained as consumers of research studies or as research practitioners? In this chapter, the focus is on the curriculum provided by the National School of Librarianship and how the teaching of research methods in library and information science has influenced the research developed by the students at the school. Various topics of research studies conducted by the students are also mentioned. Keywords: Library science – Albania; Library education – Albania; Library science – Research

Introduction The Biblioteka Kombëtare e Shqipërisë/National Library of Albania was founded in 1920 and functions under the authority of the Ministry of Culture, and under legislation which determines its role and functions and the framework of librarhttps://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-010

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ies and library services in Albania (Albania 2000, 2004). In addition to collecting, processing, restoring, preserving and making available to the public the written cultural heritage of the Albanian people, the National Library of Albania organises library education and continuing professional education, and is the study research centre in the field of librarianship. The Shkolla Kombëtare e Bibliotekonomisë/ National School of Librarianship (NSL) in Albania was established in 1969 within the National Library of Albania. It was the only provider of library education in Albania until the University of Tirana created a master’s programme for library and information science (LIS) in 2009 which has since been abandoned. Generations of librarians have emerged from the National School of Librarianship’s programmes. Through its basic library education programme, the School prepared students to be library practitioners. Following a revised curriculum in 2016, its new aim was to educate professionals in library and information science and a research methods course was consequently introduced. Many authors have written about library education throughout the world, and a common theme that emerges from the literature is what content in library school curricula will provide the appropriate preparation for new professionals within LIS and what are the implications of changes in library practices and processes, community and user information needs and behaviour, and information and communications technology for LIS curricula (Alemanne and Mandel 2018; Estivill et al. 2005; Juznic and Badovinac 2005; Krasteva et al. 2014; Matusiak, Stansbury and Barczyk 2014; Perez-Montoro and Tammaro 2012; Venuda 2009; Virkus 2008; Xue et al. 2019). Most writers have focused on the effectiveness of teaching research methods in LIS, the introduction of new subjects in the field particularly those related to information and communications technology (ICT) and library management, and the interweaving of theory with practice. This chapter builds on the findings of the various studies, focusing on the NSL in Albania and its curriculum, the importance and necessity of teaching research methods, and touching on their application in practice.

The Development of the National School of Librarianship in Albania The very beginnings of library education in Albania date back to the 1950s when some Albanian students studied librarianship in the former Soviet Union. During that period, the Soviet Union, through the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), an economic organisation comprising the countries of the eastern bloc along with socialist states elsewhere in the world, “concentrated on subsidiz-



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ing higher education in librarianship to foreign students, and many foreign countries, financed by the Soviet Union” (Richards 2001, 193). After graduation, the librarians returned to Albania and became the first library science teachers at the Cultural High School in Tirana, teaching library techniques, book history and other professional subjects. Some of the early educators who contributed to professional library education in Albania were Gani Dogani, Faire Tabaku, and Hekuran Osmani. The course operated between1963 and 1967 and was the first and only librarianship programme taught at the School. Interestingly, only female students attended the course, with the majority coming from Tirana, and the remainder from other large cities in Albania. The programme’s design was based on three pillars: general subjects, for example, history, geography, mathematics, and chemistry; language and literature, including Albanian, English, German and Russian; and library science, including bibliography, cataloguing, classification and history of the book (Tefta Buzo, former student, interview by author, April 29, 2023; Fitim Çaushi, former student, interview by author, April 28, 2023). The students who graduated in librarianship from the Cultural High School served as librarians in all types of libraries in Albania. The course closed because graduating students could not find appropriate employment in the labour market of the time. Although new libraries were opened in the 1960s and continued to be opened, few librarians were employed because of small populations being served and a paucity of library materials in the collections. The recognised need for library staff with basic professional knowledge led to the establishment in 1969 by the Biblioteka Kombëtare e Shqipërisë/National Library of Albania (NLA) supported by the Ministry of Education and Culture of the two-year library training school, known today as the Shkolla Kombëtare e Bibliotekonomisë/National School of Librarianship (NSL), for the professional development of its employees. From 1971 onward, the School provided the professional development of librarians for all of Albania. “Biblioteka Kombëtare e ka nisur formimin profesional të punonjësve të bibliotekave në vitin 1969 fillimisht për punonjësit e vetë institucionit dhe nga viti 1971 për të gjithë sistemin bibliotekar të vendit/ [The National Library began the professional education of library employees in 1969 initially for employees of the institution itself and from 1971 for the entire librarian system of the country]” (Xhaja 2006, 47). Similar to education in other fields, library education in Albania has faced strong challenges decade after decade, and particularly in the 1990s with the opening of Albanian society towards greater democratisation. In analysing library education programmes of the National School of Librarianship in the National Library of Albania, it is important to note that the first curriculum consisted of subjects such as: the history of the Party of Labour of Albania, history of the book, library techniques, and reader services, as noted in the basic

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register of subjects outlined in the records of the library school’s activities recorded at the NSL. During the 1980s, the curricula were developed more extensively, introducing new courses as replacements for the earlier ones. The topic of library techniques was replaced by other subjects such as documentation, classification, cataloguing, bibliography, and book binding and repair. During the 1990s, more importance was given to subjects related to library and user services. In the 2000s, the library education programme was enriched with two other significant subjects: information and communications technology (ICT), and library management. Finally, in the 2010s the emerging subject of the digital library came to the library education programme. Similar curricular developments have taken place in other European LIS programmes: “Information and communication technologies (ICT) have dramatically transformed access, presentation of information and the life cycle of documents and information. Together with management and marketing, these subjects have been added to curricula” (Estivill et al. 2005, 19). In the past, the Albanian library education programme focused on the development of physical collections, and consequently prepared librarians to select, organise, retrieve and circulate library materials primarily in print. Nowadays, the library education programme has extended beyond physical collections emphasising the role of the library as a physical building, towards the virtual digital world of information resources made available locally and globally through the Internet. The programme takes a more user-oriented focus through examining the provision of information to users in different contexts. The progress in library education is understood as a continuation and extension of the previous programmes but at the same time, curricula have evolved to align with the latest developments in library and information science, and in accordance with IFLA’s Guidelines for Professional Library/Information Educational Programs (2012). In the past decade, LIS programmes have responded to the changing environment, both locally and globally, through the development of curricula that foster new skill sets and expertise for their graduates (IFLA 2018, 5) and will continue to evolve to match emerging needs. The IFLA Guidelines for Professional Library and Information Science (LIS) Education Programme. Draft February 3, 2021 (IFLA 2021) address the larger framework, pedagogical issues, foundational knowledge areas (FKAs), curriculum, governance, staffing, students, professional development, resources and facilities. The FKAs include: Information in society; Foundations of the LIS profession; Information and communication technologies; Research and innovation; Information life cycle management; Management for information professionals; Information needs and user services; and Literacies and learning.



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The Albanian Library Education Model The Albanian legal framework in Ligj 8576 “Për Bibliotekat në Republikën e Shqipërisë” 2000, i ndryshuar determines that “Biblioteka Kombëtare …drejton, organizon dhe kryen trajnimin dhe kualifikimin e vazhdueshëm profesional të punonjësve të bibliotekave të vendit /[The National Library…leads, organises and conducts professional training and continuing education of the library staff of the country]” which is achieved through the NSL at the NLA. Since the beginning of its existence, the NSL has provided the backbone of library education in Albania and has graduated more than one thousand professional librarians who are equipped with the necessary professional knowledge and adequate skills to face continual changes in the work environment, satisfy users’ needs, and who work all over the country. Harbo found that: The most frequent structure for LIS education in Europe is its location in a department within a university or other higher education institution. Rarely do independent library schools exist – except for Denmark. Sometimes, especially in countries of Central and Southern Europe, these departments coexist with other forms of on-the-job training offered by national libraries or other libraries or cultural institutions (Harbo 1996, as cited in Juznic and Badovinac 2005, 174).

The National Library of Albania offers on-the-job training linked to programmes offered by the National School of Librarianship. As previously mentioned, there have been other efforts in the field of library education. During 2009–2011, with the initiative of the Department of Literature, the Faculty of History and Philology at the University of Tirana, a master’s programme in librarianship commenced. The master’s programme was attended by qualified librarians who worked in all types of libraries, national, academic, public, and special libraries, and who had previously graduated from the NSL, which was the main condition for admission to the master’s programme. Unfortunately, this was the first and last attempt, to date, to provide a master’s level programme. It was discontinued. However, several graduates of the programme now contribute as educators at the NSL. Several higher education institutions in Albania include librarianship subjects in some educational programmes, at both the bachelor and two-year professional programme levels. The Universiteti i Elbasanit “Aleksander Xhuvani”/Aleksander Xhuvani University of Elbasan provides the subject of librarianship in several programmes: Bachelor in Albanian Language and Literature; Bachelor in Albanian and French Language; Bachelor of Albanian and Romani Language, and the two-year professional study programme in Specialised and Administrative Secretaries. Another Albanian university that has included some subjects on librarianship in its two-year pro-fessional study programme of Office Support for Communication, Libraries, and

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Archives is the Universiteti “Fan S. Noli” de Korçës/Fan S. Noli University of Korçë. The subjects include introduction to LIS, libraries and archives; classification of books, artefacts, and audio-visual materials; and library collections. The history of Albanian library education to date has been short and limited, but perhaps to be expected given a population of under three million people, Albania’s status as a developing nation, and the country’s recent complex history. “However, learning about other countries’ problems in LIS education does help one become better informed about what could be done in order to develop measures for coping with the challenges taking place in one’s own country” (Xue et al. 2019, 37).

Curriculum Perspectives in Library Education in Albania There has been a wide-ranging debate over the extent that LIS curricula in Europe and the US reflect the dramatic changes in the field relating to the evolving information environment, the impact of new information and communications technologies, the digital world, local labour markets, and many other challenges facing LIS education around the world, generally (Juznic and Badovinac 2005; Matusiak, Stansbury and Barczyk 2014; Venuda 2009; Virkus 2007; Xue et al. 2019). The content of library education curricula in Albania is changing, influenced by worldwide models. The Albanian library education curriculum incorporates learning traditional LIS practices and processes and follows traditional teaching strategies as a means of supporting the transition of LIS knowledge and skills to a digital environment; the curriculum is reaching out into new areas and adopting new approaches but in the meantime, it combines historic national knowledge and traditions. The main objective of the programme is to equip students with a theoretical, practical, and professional framework in LIS for effective operation in the workplace. Students have the opportunity to gain and demonstrate professional skills, as well as to become aware of problems related to the profession and to evaluate the interaction between professional theories and their application in practice. In 2016, the library education curriculum was revised by the Department of Studies and Qualification at the NLA which led the NSL. From then onward, the curriculum comprises the following subjects: –– Foundation of LIS –– Organisation of Information –– Development of Information Sources



–– –– –– –– –– –– –– ––

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Universal Decimal Classification of Information Sources Subject Cataloguing Descriptive Cataloguing User and Access Services Reference Service Library Management Technology of Information and Communication, and Digital Library.

LIS curricula should be reviewed regularly to ensure quality improvements and adaptation to changes occurring in the field and society at large. By comparison, the LIS curriculum model at the University of Denver provides an example of the changes in required courses (Matusiak, Stansbury and Barczyk 2014, 198) and much more has occurred since that date. The lists of required classes have similarities between the two programmes: both require subjects such as Foundations of LIS, Organisation of Information, User and Access Services, and Technology of Information and Communication. While cataloguing and reference were removed from the core subjects of the LIS curriculum at the University of Denver (Matusiak, Stansbury, and Barczyk 2014, 198), those subjects continue to be part of the core courses at the National School of Librarianship in Albania. This is undoubtedly related to the conditions and situation in which the library network exists in Albania, and to the lack of automation of library processes and systems in a significant proportion of the country’s libraries. Further attention could be paid to reviewing content of the curriculum against IFLA’s education 2021 library education guidelines which are still to be finalised with a view to emphasising the role of the library in an information society. Unfortunately, the library education programme of the NSL at the NLA is not yet accredited with accrediting associations like the American Library Association (ALA), although the school functions in a similar way to a master’s programme. The programme consists of two years of study through two semesters each year and has an enrolment of approximately 40 students. In addition to the theoretical aspects of the programme, practical experience is also required. At the end of each semester, students perform written or oral exams for every subject and complete the library education programme through presenting and defending a professional thesis on a specific topic to an ad hoc evaluation jury. It should be strongly emphasised that the NSL in Albania may be attended and completed only by existing library employees who have earned a degree in another field, including human and social sciences, natural and applied sciences, computer science or empirical sciences. All students attending library school are working in libraries and undertaking library work. They have practised the profession before

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studying it theoretically and are better able to absorb theoretical approaches and appreciate the practical applications. The benefit of employment in a library to students who are attending school is that the work background and experience help students understand client information needs, manage practical work, appreciate the relevance of library management including developing strategies and set priorities. The practice of the profession becomes easier and more understandable.

The Importance of Research Methods and Conducting Research The question that arises today regarding the National School of Librarianship in Albania is: Does the National School of Librarianship educate practitioners of library and information science (LIS) who are prepared for everyday work in libraries or professionals who will have leadership and management roles throughout the country? Should students be trained to be consumers of research or people who will be involved in the conduct of research studies? According to ALA’s 2009 Core Competences of Librarianship, among the eight basic competences that library professionals should possess is one related to research: 6A. The fundamentals of quantitative and qualitative research methods. 6B. The central research findings and research literature of the field. 6C. The principles and methods used to assess the actual and potential value of new research. (ALA 2009, 4).

While the updated competences are more expansive on the required competence of librarians in research and extend the statement to include evidence-based practice. The final statement takes the high ground: “7D. Understand the importance of engaging in the research foundations and scholarly communications that will enable continued professional growth, knowledge, and sharing.” (ALA 2021, 8). The Standards for Accreditations of Master’s Programs in Library and Information Studies address the vital role of research to the advancement of the field’s knowledge base (ALA 2015, 4), stress the importance of research by faculty involved in programmes and emphasise the involvement of students in research activities. To meet these expectations, library professionals should know the basics of quantitative and qualitative methods, be able to locate and assess research literature in the field, and appreciate the principles and methods used to assess the current and potential usefulness of new research. Research methods as a unit has also



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been evaluated and included in European and US LIS curriculum: “In LIS schools in Europe we can find different methodological approaches” (Estivill et al. 2005, 27), and one of the approaches is in the teaching of research methods. The same is true of the US LIS curriculum. Matusiak and Bright (2020, 367) found that “in the analysed sample of 30 course syllabi, 24 (80%) were general courses, providing an introduction to research methods”, while models of both required and elective courses co-existed across a number of programmes. Teaching research methods at the NSL is a new subject area that arose from the 2016 curriculum review, and to date it has been offered as an elective course. Since 2016, the curriculum of the NSL has been conceived in such a way that in addition to professional theory and practice, it is also based in research. The curriculum content has been implemented through theory and practice, with theory focused on a number of main issues: –– The importance of research in LIS –– The importance of reading, analysing, evaluating, and using findings and research results from current LIS literature –– Research methods and the conduct of research –– Use of particular research tools and methodologies used in the field, along with their strengths and limitations –– The importance of identifying and refining a research problem and designing a research project, and –– The development of a professional thesis on a particular topic. Students are acquainted with LIS theory and practical topics over eleven courses taught in the library education programme. In at least six of them, the students must compile a written assessment in the form of an article or paper. This practice has ensured students improve their skills in academic writing and accessing, reading, analysing, evaluating, and using published research in the field. In the middle of the second year of study, students are introduced to the guidelines for application, preparation, and defence of a thesis in the library education programme, which have been compiled by the Department of Studies and Qualification at the NLA. The students have the opportunity to refresh their knowledge of the theory of research methods through lectures and to discuss once again specific aspects and any issues or concerns. While the students are already employed in different libraries, they are “without a background in research” (Matusiak and Bright 2020, 374). Conducting research seems to them a difficult and impossible process when it comes to its implementation in practice; however, students are encouraged to choose topics related to their research projects and to identify mentors who might assist them on their research journeys. They are guided by the Head of the Studies and Qualification Department of the NLA, who also teaches the research

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methods course, in how to make the right choice in selecting a topic to research, taking into account the type of library and the job positions held by students in their respective libraries. The range of topics varies considerably and includes such topics as local history of a particular library, evaluation of library and user services, collection development, library-community collaborations, teaching information literacy, the role of subject librarians in academic libraries, digitisation, implementation of integrated library management systems, information literacy, the role of the library in student education, user needs, behaviour and satisfaction, and library management. The most used methodology in the research projects undertaken is the survey, with the questionnaire as the most applied tool. Students make this choice because they perceive it to be a simpler tool to use in their research projects. It is not easy to guide students in research. During review, discussion, and evaluation of projects with mentors, and from the evaluation of their professional theses, several problems have been identified: –– Appropriate application of research methods –– Interpretation and evaluation of existing research –– Development of research questions, and –– Improper use of literature and inappropriate citation practices. As Matusiak and Bright (2020, 375) found, while research methods courses may be part of the core LIS curriculum, they tend to focus on preparing students to understand and evaluate research, rather than to engage in conducting basic research or evaluation studies themselves. In seeking improvements to student research skills, analysing and evaluating the individual dynamic of each student can help and lead to: –– Increased self-confidence in their research abilities and presentations of their professional thesis –– Enhanced awareness of professional issues, and –– Higher level professional discussions. Finally, in order to encourage practitioner librarians in their involvement in research, some of the student librarians have been invited to present their research work in a continuing education programme developed by the NLA within the Albanian library network.



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Conclusion The curricula of Shkolla Kombëtare e Bibliotekonomisë/ National School of Librarianship (NSL) have changed considerably over the years. Programme content has been expanded, extended, and become more comprehensive, directly impacting the professional training of librarians. Considering the limited value of studying research methods in LIS through a stand-alone course, efforts should be made to embed research projects right across the curricula, enhance active and passive learning outcomes, and promote inspired research among students, including guiding and supporting them in their research processes. Identifying the day-today problems in the library community that need solutions and using appropriate research methods to address these problems in the professional field, are useful strategies that orient the curriculum towards library professionals, inculcate critical thinking skills in students, and support evidence-based practice and service delivery. Placing research methods at the centre of all curricula offerings demonstrates the commitment of the LIS programme to ensuring that research skills are put to the service of solving real world problems, to the benefit of the profession now and in the future.

References Albania. Republika e Shqipërisë. Kuvendi. 2000. Ligj Nr. 8576, datë 3.2.2000 “Për bibliotekat në Republikën e Shqipërisë.” Available at https://www.bksh.al/legjislacioni/ligji. Albania. Republika e Shqipërisë. Kuvendi. 2004. “Ligj nr. 9217, datë 08.04.2004 ‘Për disa shtesa dhe ndryshime në ligjin nr. 8576, datë 03.02.2000 ‘Për bibliotekat në Republikën e Shqipërisë’.” Available at https://www.bksh.al/legjislacioni/ligj. Alemanne, Nicole D. and Lauren H. Mandel. 2018. “Developing Research Practitioners: Exploring the Pedagogical Options for Teaching Research Methods in LIS.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 59, no. 3: 26–40. https://doi.org/10.3138/jelis.59.3.2018-0015.04. Available at https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/lsc_facpubs/18/ American Library Association. 2009. “ALA’s Core Competences of Librarianship.” https://www. ala.org/educationcareers/sites/ala.org.educationcareers/files/content/careers/corecomp/ corecompetences/finalcorecompstat09.pdf. American Library Association. 2015. “Standards for Accreditations of Master’s Programs in Library and Information Studies.” https://www.ala.org/educationcareers/sites/ala.org.educationcareers/ files/content/standards/Standards_2015_adopted_02-02-15.pdf Estivill, Assumpció, Lorenz Bernd, Anne Marie Bertrand, Frederic Blin, Ton de Bruyn, Tor Henriksen, Malgorzata Kisilowska, Fernanda Ribeiro, Josiane Roelants Abraham, and Anna Maria Tammaro. 2005. “Library and Information Science Curriculum in a European Perspective.” In European Curriculum Reflections on Library and Information Science Education, edited by Leif Kajberg and

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Leif Lørring, 17–36. Copenhagen: The Royal School of Library and Information Science. https:// repositorio-aberto.up.pt/bitstream/10216/39373/2/fribeirolibrary000112997.pdf. Harbo, O. 1996.”Recent Trends in Library and Information Science Education in Europe.” Paper presented at the 62nd IFLA Council and General Conference, The Challenge of Change: Libraries and Economic Development, Beijing. International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA). 2012. Guidelines for Professional Library/Information Educational Programs. Endorsed by IFLA’s Professional Committee at its meeting in August 2012. https://repository.ifla.org/handle/123456789/772. International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA). 2021. IFLA Guidelines for Professional Library and Information Science (LIS) Education Programmes. Draft – February 3, 2021. Draft document in development – For consultation purposes. Prepared by the LIS Education Framework Development Group of the IFLA Building Strong LIS Education Working Group https://bslise.org/. https://lisedu.files.wordpress.com/2021/02/lisepguidelines-consult-draft.pdf. International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA). Building Strong Library and Information Science Education (BSLISE) Working Group. 2018. Building Strong LIS Education: A Call to Global and Local Action: An IFLA BSLISE White Paper. https://openbooks.uct.ac.za/uct/catalog/ view/9/13/391. Juznic, Primoz, and Branka Badovinac. 2005. “Toward Library and Information Science Education in the European Union: A Comparative Analysis of Library and Information Science Programmes of Study for New Members and Other Applicant Countries to the European Union.” New Library World 106, no. 3/4: 173–186. https://doi.org/10.1108/03074800510587372. Krasteva, Rositsa, Tereza Trencheva, Sabina Eftimova, and Tania Todorova. 2014. “Academic Education in Library and Information Management in Bulgaria.” Open Journal of Social Sciences 2, no. 8: Paper ID:49235. DOI:10.4236/jss.2014.28023. https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation. aspx?paperid=49235. Matusiak, Krystyna K., Mary Stansbury, and Ewa Barczyk. 2014. “Educating a New Generation of Library and Information Science Professionals: A United States Perspective.” Przeglad Biblioteczny/Library Review 82, no. 2: 189–206. Available at https://digitalcommons.du.edu/ lis_facpub/3. Matusiak, Krystyna K., and Kawanna Bright. 2020. “Teaching Research Methods in Master’s-Level LIS Programs: The United States Perspective.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 61, no. 3: 357–382. https://doi.org/10.3138/jelis.61.3.2020-0001. Available at https://eric. ed.gov/?id=EJ1267897. Perez-Montoro, Mario, and Anna Maria Tammaro. 2012. “Outcomes of the Bologna Process in LIS Higher Education: Comparing two programs in Europe.” International Information & Library Review 44, no. 4: 233–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iilr.2012.10.002. Richards, Pamela Spence. 2001. “Cold War Librarianship: Soviet and American Library Activities in Support of National Foreign Policy, 1946–1991.” Libraries & Culture 36, no. 1: 193–203. Available at https://www.jstor.org/stable/i25548883. Venuda, Fabio. 2009. “LIS Education in Italy.” IFLA SET Bulletin 10, no. 2: 6–14. Available at https://air. unimi.it/bitstream/2434/67328/3/set-bulletin_jul2009.pdf. Virkus, Sirje. 2007. “LIS Education in Europe: Challenges and Opportunities.” Schriften der Vereinigung Österreichischer Bibliothekarinnen und Bibliothekare 5: 191–204. Available at http://eprints.rclis. org/14978/1/odok07_virkus.pdf. Xhaja, Farfuri. 2006. “Formimi Profesional i Bibliotekarëve në Mjedisin e ri.” Bibliothecae: Organ i Bibliotekës Kombëtare të Shqipërisë no. 7: 46–51. https://www.bksh.al/bksh/Bibliotekonomi/2006. pdf.



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Xue, Chunxiang, Xiuzhi Wu, Lei Zhu and Heting Chu. 2019. “Challenges in LIS Education in China and the United States.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 60, no. 1: 35–61. https:// doi.org/10.3138/jelis.60.1.2018-0006. Available at https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1206026.pdf.

Part II: Training and Development in Research Methods for Library Practitioners

Kristine R. Brancolini and Marie R. Kennedy

9 A  Model Research Methods Training Program: Implications for the Curriculum Abstract: The majority of academic librarians in the US are employed by their institutions either on tenure track, similar to teaching faculty, or they have some form of status that requires them to conduct and share the results of research to receive annual salary increases, achieve tenure or continuing employment, and/or gain promotion or enhanced ranking. Research published during the past two decades, however, confirms that most academic librarians enter the profession perceiving themselves to be unprepared for conducting research. To address deficiencies and alleviate anxieties surrounding research, the authors created a continuing education program for novice academic librarian researchers, the Institute for Research Design in Librarianship (IRDL). The program was based on Albert Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy and was designed to instill participants with confidence in their ability to conduct research through mastery experience, verbal encouragement, and vicarious learning. IRDL proved to be an effective way for librarians to gain knowledge about research methods, receive timely feedback on research projects through mentoring and peer support, and become part of a research community. The majority entered the program feeling tentative about their roles as researchers and emerged as more confident researchers. Master’s students would benefit from revisions to the LIS curriculum that would better prepare them for becoming librarian-researchers. Keywords: Library science–Research; Academic librarians – Tenure; Research – Methodology; Library education (Continuing education); Evidence-based library science

Academic Librarians and Research in the US Academic librarians may be one of the only professional groups employed in US colleges and universities who enter their chosen profession with unclear expectations about conditions of employment related to research productivity. The lack of clarity is potentially linked to the employment status for academic librarians in the US who may be classified by human resource regimes within academic institutions as faculty, professional staff, or administrative personnel. A survey examining faculty status for librarians in research libraries found that definitions of faculty status and expectations vary among institutions (Walters 2016). The study found https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-011

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that librarians in 52% of the libraries in the study had “nominal faculty status” (Walters 2016, 167), recognizing that faculty status for librarians is difficult to define. The status of librarians may have varying components related to length, level or conditions of employment and include such elements as: tenure, rank, peer review, sabbatical leave, access to research funding, and more, making it difficult to provide simple answers in the negative or affirmative to the question of faculty status. A further 69% of libraries responding to the survey required librarians to produce scholarship, a percentage that exceeded those with “nominal faculty status” (Walters 2016, 167). The study’s findings are consistent with Sassen and Wahl’s (2014) finding that research libraries without faculty status for librarians still expect them to engage in scholarship. Librarians on tenure track reported high levels of stress, especially around uncertain expectations for tenure, including measurements of research productivity and availability of support for research (Cameron, Pierce, and Conroy 2021). Other researchers confirm that the need for research training and institutional support for research is especially critical for early-career librarians on tenure track (Ackerman, Hunter, and Wilkinson 2018; Vilz and Poremski 2015), including librarians of color (Damasco and Hodges 2012; Griffin 2013). Variation in the employment status and conditions of academic librarians leaves the profession with an inconsistent culture of research. The situation for librarians differs from typical faculty positions in an academic teaching department or research institute in the same college or university environment. Faculty customarily graduate from disciplinary programs that clearly define the work environment for which they are preparing themselves within specific areas of academic expertise. The environment requires either scholarly outputs through book or journal publication, blog or online postings, conference presentations, research investigations, reports or creative outputs to achieve tenure and promotion, as well as to gain salary increases, sometimes described as merit. Doctoral programs that educate students for faculty positions include coursework, research experience, and mentoring designed to prepare students for success in tenure-track positions. On the other hand, academic librarians who enter the profession with the completion of a master’s program are typically not prepared for research responsibilities through formal education, direct research experience, or mentoring by more experienced colleagues. Most master’s programs touch lightly on research in library and information science (LIS), with any research-related coursework designed to teach reading, understanding, evaluating and applying scholarly literature in professional work and activities supporting the research of others, but not necessarily producing scholarship themselves (Luo 2011; Matusiak and Bright 2020; Vilz and Poremski 2015). Kennedy and Brancolini (2018) found that only 17%



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of librarians believe their LIS master’s degree programs adequately prepared them to conduct original research. In addition to lack of research training, it has been noted that “the socialization of librarians to the academic model lacks the full mentoring structure evident in graduate programs of many other disciplines” (Black and Leysen 1994, 232). Lack of preparation for research activity is a source of stress not only for early-career librarians but also for many librarians who find themselves on tenure track for the first time some years after graduation from an LIS program. A recent study of librarians transitioning to tenure-track positions found that the requirements of undertaking quality research projects, analyzing findings and publishing results produce significant anxiety in meeting tenure requirements (Hughes 2018). Post MLIS, most academic librarians rely on continuing education, formal and informal, for learning how to conduct research. Based on their own research on academic librarians as researchers (Kennedy and Brancolini 2012), the authors designed and implemented the Institute for Research Design in Librarianship (IRDL) to provide a continuing education program which would develop research knowledge and skills. Partial funding for the program was provided by the Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS). The authors based their work on related research conducted by other LIS researchers (Powell, Baker, and Mika 2002), and the theoretical work of social cognitive psychologist Albert Bandura (1977, 1994). Additional research shaped the formative evaluation and revision of the IRDL program. The co-directors conducted rigorous assessments to ensure the program’s effectiveness. This chapter describes IRDL, the only formal training program in research methods in the US for a general audience of academic librarian researchers, and relates how a program like IRDL can inform effective research training and institutional support for librarian-researchers. From 2013 to 2019, the Institute for Research Design in Librarianship (IRDL) provided continuing education, free of charge, to 124 novice researchers who were academic and research librarians.

The Institute for Research Design in Librarianship (IRDL) The Institute for Research Design in Librarianship (IRDL) was a yearlong continuing education opportunity designed to meet the needs of novice academic librarian researchers who wanted to improve their social science research skills and increase their research productivity. The program was focused on eliminating or reducing the effects of known barriers to successful research involvement. Decades of research on librarians as researchers had identified multiple issues: lack of

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time, unfamiliarity with research processes, inadequate institutional support, low research confidence, and insufficient training in research methods (Koufogiannakis and Crumley 2006; Miller and Benefiel 1998; Powell, Baker, and Mika 2002; Wilkinson 2013). Over time, the co-directors worked on the development of the program and shifted their attention from removing barriers to successful research activity to providing new, more effective supports to program participants who became known as the IRDL Scholars. The first iteration of IRDL was developed using the results of a national survey of librarians working in an academic setting conducted by Kennedy and Brancolini in late 2010, which was designed to gather evidence on librarian attitudes, involvement, and capabilities for engaging in research activities and to identify barriers to research involvement (2012). The study revealed that most academic librarians turned to continuing education to gain knowledge and skills to fill gaps in their research knowledge which had emerged following their initial education. The most popular form of continuing education was reported to be workshops, which guided the decision to make a research workshop the centerpiece of IRDL. One component of the survey was a ten-question self-efficacy, or research confidence, questionnaire. The authors found that most librarians lacked confidence in their research abilities. Bandura’s research found that people avoid tasks they feel exceed their capabilities, but pursue those they feel competent to perform (Bandura 1994). Perceived self-efficacy, or “people’s beliefs about their capabilities to produce effects” (Bandura 1994, 71), has been widely applied to work-related performance and achievement. Research has shown that efficacy beliefs are dynamic; behavioral change occurs through changing self-efficacy. People with a high degree of research self-efficacy have confidence in their ability to perform successfully the tasks associated with conducting research (Bieschke 2006; Forester, Kahn, and Hesson-McInnis 2004). The ten-question survey was later expanded to thirty-eight items and administered to the IRDL Scholars before and after workshop attendance. Development and use of this instrument in the assessment of IRDL is described by Brancolini and Kennedy (2017). IRDL was designed to maximize two of the four main sources that influence self-efficacy, as described by Bandura: mastery experiences and social persuasion (Bandura, 1977, 1994). The theoretical foundation chosen influenced the decision to focus on a hands-on workshop format to teach social science research methods, within a supportive community environment and with the objective of completing a research study within one year. Scholars had the opportunity to gain mastery through practice, while receiving positive verbal feedback during the research process, leading to increased research self-efficacy. To ensure that IRDL continued to address the research concerns of the academic librarian community, the co-di-



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rectors re-administered a revised version of the survey in 2015 (Kennedy and Brancolini 2018), and used the findings to update the program.

The Institute for Research and Design in Librarianship (IRDL) Workshop The yearlong program began with a nine-day, in-person summer research workshop which provided participants with time away from work and family obligations. Most costs of the program were covered with grant funding, including travel to Los Angeles, accommodation in a campus private room apartment, meals, and textbooks. For the first three years, the program spanned two full weeks, with the weekend in the middle and a couple of afternoons during the week available for leisure activities and socializing. The workshop time was shortened for the second three years of the program’s duration and spanned nine days, with some free time during the week. The revised format was equally effective with regard to learning and community-building, and, according to participants, was easier for librarians with families to manage. Applications for the IRDL included the submission of a draft research proposal, which became the basis for the IRDL experience. The workshop allowed participants to focus on revising a research project of their own design which would be ready for implementation during the upcoming academic year. The curriculum focused on social science research methods to give participants knowledge that could be applied to their projects, but would also impart the confidence to tackle new research and to commence subsequent projects. The social science research methods included in the program could also be applied to participants’ work-related assessment projects and used to support internal evidence-based practice. The workshop curriculum commenced with the formulation of the research question and moved through all steps in the process. The format of content delivery for the workshop included short lectures and many hands-on, small-group activities. The learning sessions were supplemented by one-on-one consultations with faculty conducting the workshop and the program co-directors; in some years, the external program evaluator also consulted with the participants. At the conclusion of the workshop, attendees possessed the tools to transform their ideas from vague inklings through the selection of research design and methods to data gathering and analysis, and finally to the interpretation of their findings.

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Building Networks, Mentoring, and Peer Support Following the research workshop, IRDL Scholars returned to their home institutions. They were allocated one month to update their research proposals. The proposals, including both pre- and post-workshop proposals, were then scored through a normed rubric-based assessment activity, with the goal of determining if the components of the research process taught in the workshop curriculum were adequately applied in the updated proposal. Participants received a post-workshop survey about the content and format of the workshop. The results of the proposal scoring and the survey were used each year to amend and update the workshop for the following year. One of the co-directors conducted a research network survey at various times during the year, to determine how the IRDL Scholars’ personal research networks might be changing due to their participation in the IRDL (Kennedy, Kennedy, and Brancolini 2017). At the time of the study there were 107 IRDL Scholars. The network analysis found that 55% of them described other scholars as both friends and colleagues. This relationship accounts for the highest percentage of reciprocal assistance in giving and seeking research advice, at about 69% (85). Furthermore, this group was the most likely to have collaborated on a major project. In revising the IRDL for a second round of funding from IMLS, the co-directors were influenced by the work of Hoffmann, Berg, and Koufogiannakis (2014) which focused on research success factors rather than barriers among practitioner-researchers, including academic librarians. They conducted a content analysis of forty-two evidence-based studies and found sixteen research success factors which could be categorized within three areas: –– Individual attributes –– Peers and community, and –– Institutional structures and support. While research mentoring had been an important success factor among other populations of practitioner-researchers, it has been infrequently studied among librarians. As a result of the research which highlighted the importance of mentoring, the second grant-funded iteration of IRDL, IRDL 2 which operated from 2016–2019, included a formal mentoring program, pairing each IRDL Scholar with an experienced researcher mentor. More about the research mentoring component can be found in Jason, Kennedy, and Brancolini (2021, 241–262). In addition to the formal mentoring component of the program, the cohort met throughout the year, in informal monthly online check-ins. Each Scholar was also admitted to a closed Facebook group for IRDL, which served as a communication mechanism between current



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and past cohorts. The Scholars were also active on Twitter in communicating with each other.

Related Research on Research Training The design and revision of IRDL was influenced by research in related areas, particularly research which focused on factors related to research productivity among early-career academic researchers and other practitioner-researchers. The results strongly suggested that a research training environment that emphasized both instructional and interpersonal components was the most effective (Borders, Wester, and Gonzalez 2018; Wester et al. 2019). Instructional components included the style of classroom instruction, along with content connecting research to practice, and engagement in research. Interpersonal components included mentorship, collaboration, and faculty excitement about research. Doctoral students and new PhDs are the focus of most research training, first in graduate school, and then once they enter the academy as new faculty members. Coursework is the centerpiece of preparation; however, studies have shown the importance of a more comprehensive approach which focuses on the individual development of researchers and the creation of an environment conducive to research productivity. Government agencies and academic institutions recognize that post-doctoral support through short training courses focused on research methods and publishing seminars increases productivity. Researchers have identified organizational factors that contribute to and may predict research success, including interpersonal relationships and departmental enthusiasm for research (Bland et al. 2005; Wester et al. 2019). Borders, Wester, and Gonzalez caution that the “effectiveness of programs designed to enhance faculty members’ research knowledge and skills could be thwarted by an unsupportive research culture that limits faculty members’ ability to enact their new learnings” (2018, 34). They urge the conduct of needs assessments and rigorous evaluation of the outcomes of programs designed to support research productivity among faculty; successful models must account for many variables and individual differences among researchers. The work of Borders, Wester, and Gonzalez aligns with elements of a 2017 study of librarian-researchers working at Canadian research universities which confirmed the complex interrelationships of the various factors impacting on successful research outcomes. In a follow-up to their 2014 content analysis, Hoffmann, Berg, and Koufogiannakis (2017) conducted a survey that linked research success factors to a calculated score of research productivity. Their study found that no single research success element dominated

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the others. Rather, “the three categories – Individual Attributes, Peers and Community, and Institutional Structures and Supports – all had a positive effect on librarians’ research productivity…which reinforces that many elements contribute to librarians’ research productivity” (Hoffmann, Berg, and Koufogiannakis 2017, 116). Numerous studies suggest that the research training environment must incorporate appropriate research methods instruction with the opportunity to practice research skills within the context of interpersonal encouragement and modeling.

Implications for the LIS Curriculum The Institute for Research Design in Librarianship (IRDL) proved to be an effective research-based continuing education program for academic librarians who wanted to improve their research skills and increase their research productivity. It also provided a model for similar programs which coupled an intensive learning opportunity with hands-on experience conducting a research project, supported by peer and expert mentors. The program that operated with IMLS funding from 2013– 2019, however, had three drawbacks. First, it was expensive to bring librarians to California and pay their living expenses for the nine-day summer research workshop, an essential component of the program. Second, not all librarians had the support from their home institutions to participate in such a program; deans and directors were required to provide release time for staff to attend the workshop and work on a research project during the subsequent year. Third, some librarians had familial obligations that made it difficult for them to be absent from home for the time involved. A later version of the program, IRDL Online, has addressed two of the problems identified by moving the summer research workshop to an online environment; however, deans and directors of libraries employing participating librarians must still release them from work responsibilities for the two weeks of the workshop. The larger problem is that regardless of the cost, only a fraction of the librarians who would benefit from IRDL can be accommodated, as participation is limited to thirty participants per year. The basic problem addressed by continuing education programs like IRDL is the curricular deficit in MLIS programs. Thousands of librarians enter the profession of academic librarianship, where the need for research skills is critical, without the necessary training in research methods. Continuing education cannot meet the needs of all librarians for research training. The situation has been documented by numerous studies over many decades (Kennedy and Brancolini 2012; Kennedy and Brancolini 2018; Powell, Baker, and Mika 2002; Vilz and Poremski 2015). Based on



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the expressed needs of working librarians and administrators, a commitment to linking research to practice should motivate administrators and faculty in library and information schools or faculties to revise master’s level curricula to provide substantive research methods courses. It would be beneficial if these courses were made essential for librarians preparing to become academic librarians. At the very least, ALA-accredited programs should offer the necessary sequence of research-centered courses to MLIS students and encourage students interested in careers in academic librarianship to take them. It would also be useful for these schools to offer a post-MLIS certificate program, online or in-person, for librarians who would like to gain research skills after they have entered the profession. Schools could package research methods courses for those who have not taken them within initial master’s programs with additional, more specialized courses and also target librarians who might have gained the skills elsewhere but require refresher or updating programs. Perhaps a capstone or thesis option could be made available in a certificate program. Conducting a research project in a supportive, positive environment has been an essential aspect of the IRDL experience. The MLIS course sequence, or capstone program, should include an overview of LIS research methods, quantitative research methods, qualitative research methods, and statistics. All research courses should stress that conducting research, not simply reading and interpreting research, is an essential part of the practice of librarianship. Librarians who have entered PhD or EdD programs to gain and/or enhance their research skills should be consulted for advice on structuring effective course sequences at the master’s level and post-master’s level. Librarian-researchers might be employed as research mentors or capstone advisors. It would be advantageous for schools of LIS and academic librarians to work together to solve the ongoing problems related to the lack of research expertise in academic librarianship. For librarians interested in programs like the IRDL with in-person workshops, the cost might be lessened by partnering with schools of library and information science who could offer regional programs that do not require students to travel. However, it will always be cost-prohibitive for some libraries to send librarians to programs like IRDL and it is hoped that online programs, like the latest iteration of IRDL, IRDL Online, which has been funded by IMLS for three years, 2021–2024, will offer more sustainable continuing education options.

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Conclusion The experience of creating and delivering a research-focused continuing education program led the authors to believe that better preparation for conducting research would help alleviate an identified source of stress for academic librarians. There is a recent body of LIS research devoted to the problems of low morale, stress, and burnout in academic librarianship (Cameron, Pierce, and Conroy 2021; Kendrick and Damasco 2019; Nardine 2019). Furthermore, there is evidence that the pressures of research productivity contribute to stress (Cameron, Pierce, and Conroy 2021) and stress contributes to feelings of injustice among academic librarians (Matteson, Ming, and Silva 2021). The onus is on library organizations and managers to create a fair and just work environment (Matteson, Ming, and Silva 2021). However, when it comes to the ability of libraries to create support structures for research, their options are limited. The lack of consistent research training in LIS master’s programs exacerbates the research anxiety faced by academic librarians, especially for those new to librarianship or in their first library faculty position, with or without tenure. Academic library administration and supervisors face challenges to support librarians who enter the profession with varying levels of expertise in research. The transition to academic librarianship would be easier for early-career librarians if they were better prepared for the research requirements and expectations in academic libraries. A more robust approach to research education in ALA-accredited master’s degree programs in schools of library and information science would provide early-career librarians with research confidence and a consistent foundation on which to develop additional research skills. Many IRDL participants wrote in their application letters about anxiety surrounding the research requirements of their jobs, whether they were recent graduates in their first jobs or more experienced librarians, perhaps in their first tenure-track job. All applicants were self-described novice researchers, but although many had published co-authored articles in peer-reviewed journals, they felt unprepared to establish and carry out their own research agendas. LIS master’s programs prepare students for professions in academic libraries through coursework and internships, but largely ignore the need to acculturate students to a profession that will expect them to conduct research. Librarians would benefit from formal coursework in research methods, direct research experience, and research mentoring. Internships in academic libraries could include opportunities to work on research teams with academic librarians. Most studies of research training environments examine academic courses and academic departments, but IRDL demonstrates that short term continuing education workshops can produce similar results. In addition to conveying curricular



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content and providing opportunities to practice skills like conducting a focus group or an in-depth interview, the summer research workshop also created a community of practice. The participants who came from outside the Los Angeles area lived in apartments on campus, were provided with opportunities to socialize on the weekends and days off, and were able to build communities around the shared purpose of working on research together. IRDL demonstrated that follow-up activities and peer support could extend the effectiveness of the workshop. During the last three years of the program, each Scholar worked with a research mentor through a structured program. The mentorship was critical for many librarians, especially when they encountered barriers to completing projects as planned. Few projects go exactly according to plan, and mentors were often instrumental in helping the Scholars find alternative paths to success. As the effects of the pandemic lessen and workplaces normalize, there is evidence that “the librarians are not okay” (Petersen 2022). Many librarians are seeking new jobs (Heady et al. 2020) and more empathetic work environments (Petersen 2022). Appropriate preparation for, and ongoing support of, academic librarian research could be one way in which we show care and concern for our colleagues. LIS faculty and administrators must collaborate with library administrators and supervisors to develop and support a culture of research with and for librarians.

References Ackerman, Erin, Jennifer Hunter, and Zara T. Wilkinson. 2018. “The Availability and Effectiveness of Research Supports for Early Career Academic Librarians.” The Journal of Academic Librarianship 44, no. 5: 553–568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2018.06.001 Bandura, Albert. 1977. “Self-efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change.” Psychological Review 84, no. 2: 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191. Bandura, Albert. 1994. “Self-efficacy.” In Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, edited by V. S. Ramachandran, vol. 4, 71–81. New York: Academic Press. Bieschke, Kathleen J. 2006. “Research Self-efficacy Beliefs and Research Outcomes Expectations: Implications for Developing Scientifically-minded Psychologists.” Journal of Career Assessment 14, no. 1: 77–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072705281366. Black, William K., and Joan M. Leysen. 1994. “Scholarship and the Academic Librarian.” College & Research Libraries 55, no. 3: 229–241. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl_55_03_229. Bland, Carole J., Bruce A. Center, Deborah A. Finstad, Kelly R. Risbey, and Justin G. Staples. 2005. “A Theoretical, Practical, Predictive Model of Faculty and Department Research Productivity.” Academic Medicine 80, no. 3: 225–237. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001888-200503000-00006. Borders, L. DiAnne, Kelly L. Wester, and Laura M. Gonzalez. 2018. “The Faculty Research Culture Scale: Initial Development and Validation.” The Journal of Faculty Development 32, no. 2: 31–36. https:// www.ingentaconnect.com/content/magna/jfd/2018/00000032/00000002/art00004.

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Brancolini, Kristine R., and Marie R. Kennedy. 2017. “The Development and Use of a Research Self-Efficacy Scale to Assess the Effectiveness of a Research Training Program for Academic Librarians.” Library and Information Research 41, no. 124: 44–84. https://doi.org/10.29173/lirg760. Cameron, Laura, Stephanie Pierce, and Julia Conroy. 2021. “Occupational Stress Measures of Tenure-track Librarians.” Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 53, no. 4: 551–558. https://doi.org/10.1177/0961000620967736. Damasco, Ione T., and Dracine Hodges. 2012. “Tenure and Promotion Experiences of Academic Librarians of Color.” College & Research Libraries 73, no. 3: 279–301. https://doi.org/10.5860/ crl-244. Forester, Michelle, Jeffrey H. Kahn, and Matthew S. Hesson-McInnis. 2004. “Factor Structures of Three Measures of Research Self-efficacy.” Journal of Career Assessment 12, no. 1: 3–16. https://doi. org/10.1177/1069072703257719. Griffin, Karin L. 2013. “Pursuing Tenure and Promotion in the Academy: A Librarian’s Cautionary Tale.” The Negro Educational Review 64, nos. 1–4: 77–96. Available at https://www.education.pitt.edu/ sites/default/files/NER-%20Volume-64-2013-12.pdf. Heady, Christina, Amy F. Fyn, Amanda Foster Kaufman, Allison Hosier, and Millicent Weber. 2020. “Contributory Factors to Academic Library Turnover: A Mixed-Methods Study.” Journal of Library Administration 60, no. 6: 579–599. https://doi.org/10.1080/01930826.2020.1748425. Hoffmann, Kristin, Selinda Adelle Berg, and Denise Koufogiannakis. 2014. “Examining Success: Identifying Factors that Contribute to Research Productivity Across Librarianship and other Disciplines.” Library and Information Research 38, no. 119: 13–28. https://doi.org/10.29173/lirg639. Hoffmann, Kristin, Selinda Adelle Berg, and Denise Koufogiannakis. 2017. “Understanding Factors That Encourage Research Productivity for Academic Librarians.” Evidence Based Library and Information Practice 12, no. 4: 102–129. https://doi.org/10.18438/B8G66F. Hughes, Cynthia. 2018. “A Change of Pace: Transitioning to Tenure-Track Librarianship.” Library Leadership & Management 32, no. 4: 1–18. https://doi.org/10.5860/llm.v32i4.7291. Jason, Don. P. III, Marie R. Kennedy, and Kristine R. Brancolini. 2021. “Mentoring Academic Librarians for Research Success.” In Academic Library Mentoring: Fostering Growth and Renewal, edited by Leila June Rod-Welch and Barbara E. Weeg, 241–262. Chicago, Illinois: Association of College and Research Libraries. Kendrick, Kaetrena Davis, and Ione T. Damasco. 2019. “Low Morale in Ethnic and Racial Minority Academic Librarians: An Experiential Study.” Library Trends 68, no. 2: 174–212. https://doi. org/10.1353/lib.2019.0036. Kennedy, Marie R., and Kristine R. Brancolini. 2012. “Academic Librarian Research: A Survey of Attitudes, Involvement, and Perceived Capabilities.” College & Research Libraries 73, no. 5: 431–448. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl-276 . Kennedy, Marie R., and Kristine R. Brancolini. 2018. “Academic Librarian Research: An Update to a Survey of Attitudes, Involvement, and Perceived Capabilities.” College & Research Libraries 79, no. 6: 822–851. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl.79.6.822. Kennedy, Marie R., David P. Kennedy, and Kristine R. Brancolini. 2017. “The Evolution of Personal Networks of Novice Librarian Researchers.” portal: Libraries and the Academy 17, no. 1: 71–89. https://doi.org/10.1353/pla.2017.0005. Koufogiannakis, Denise, and Ellen Crumley. 2006. “Research in Librarianship: Issues to Consider.” Library Hi Tech 24, no. 3: 324–40. https://doi.org/10.1108/07378830610692109. Luo, Lili. 2011. “Fusing Research into Practice: The Role of Research Methods Education.” Library and Information Science Research 33, no. 3: 191–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2010.12.001.



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Matteson, Miriam L., Yue Ming, and David E. Silva. 2021. “The Relationship Between Work Conditions and Perceptions of Organizational Justice Among Library Employees.” Library and Information Science Journal 43, no. 2: 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2021.101093 Matusiak, Krystyna K., and Kawanna Bright. 2020. “Teaching Research Methods in Master’s Level LIS Programs: The United States Perspective.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 61, no. 3: 357–382. https://doi.org/10.3138/jelis.61.3.2020-0001. Available at https://eric. ed.gov/?id=EJ1267897. Miller, Jeannie P., and Candace R. Benefiel. 1998. “Academic Librarians and the Pursuit of Tenure: The Support Group as a Strategy for Success.” College & Research Libraries 59, no. 3: 260–65. https:// doi.org/10.5860/crl.59.3.260. Nardine, Jennifer. 2019. “The State of Academic Liaison Librarian Burnout in ARL Libraries in the United States.” College & Research Libraries 80, no. 4: 508–524. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl.80.4.508. Petersen, Anne Helen. “The Librarians Are Not Okay.” Culture Study (blog), May 1, [2022], https:// annehelen.substack.com/p/the-librarians-are-not-okay?s=r. Powell, Ronald R., Lynda M. Baker, and Joseph J. Mika. 2002. “Library and Information Science Practitioners and Research.” Library & Information Science Research 24, no. 1: 49–72. https://doi. org/10.1016/S0740-8188(01)00104-9. Sassen, Catherine, and Diane Wahl. 2014. “Fostering Research and Publication in Academic Libraries.” College & Research Libraries 75, no. 4: 458–491. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl.75.4.458 Vilz, Amy J., and Molly Dahl Poremski. 2015. “Perceptions of Support Systems for Tenure-track Librarians.” College & Undergraduate Libraries 22, no. 2: 149–166. https://doi.org/10.1080/1069131 6.2014.924845. Walters, William H. 2016. “Faculty Status of Librarians at U.S. Research Universities.” The Journal of Academic Librarianship 42, no. 2: 161–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2015.11.002. Wester, Kelly L., L. DiAnne Borders, Laura McLaughlin Gonzalez, and Phillip Waalkes. 2019. “Factors Contributing to Scholarly Productivity of Assistant Professors in Counseling.” Counselor Education and Supervision 58, no. 3: 225–237. https://doi.org/10.1002/ceas.12152. Wilkinson, Zara. 2013. “Rock Around the (Tenure) Clock: Research Strategies for New Academic Librarians.” New Library World 114, no. 1/2: 54–66. https://doi.org/10.1108/03074801311291965.

Emily Bongiovanni, Seth Vuletich, and Brianna Buljung

10 L essons Learned from Incorporating Research Experience into a Graduate Internship Abstract: Using grant funding from the Colorado Department of Higher Education (CDHE), the Colorado School of Mines (Mines) established and sustained an Open Educational Resources (OER) initiative for four years. The grant enabled the Mines Library to hire Library and Information Science (LIS) graduate student interns from local programs to work with the Scholarly Communications Librarian on outreach, campus programming, and OER development. This chapter describes how research experiences were incorporated into a project-based graduate internship. It also provides details of the training programs in research workflows and practices such as data collection, clean-up, and analysis. Lessons learned from the Mines’ experience can be applied globally to help LIS students learn to conduct research alongside practitioner-researcher librarians. Keywords: Academic libraries – United States; Open educational resources; Interns (Library science); Research skills for students; Library education – United States

Introduction The Arthur Lakes Library at the Colorado School of Mines (Mines) obtained grant funding from the Colorado Department of Higher Education (CDHE) to establish and sustain an Open Educational Resources (OER) initiative for four years from 2019–2022. The CDHE grant program was created by the Colorado Legislature under H.B.18–1331 in 2016 to assist institutions of higher education across the state develop, adopt, and adapt OER. OER are free or low cost online learning materials that are available for reuse and modification by faculty and students. The benefits of using OER in higher education are numerous, especially in terms of reducing barriers to accessing education and saving students money spent on course materials. The Library facilitates distribution of the OER grant funds across campus. OER development is particularly important for institutions like Mines which are focused on science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). STEM textbooks and course materials tend to be more expensive and difficult for students to access than in other disciplines. The grant enabled the Mines Library to hire graduate students from local LIS programs. Since the initiative was established in 2019, Mines has hired two gradhttps://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-012

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uate students from the University of Denver Master of Library and Information Science (MLIS) program as interns to work with the Scholarly Communications librarian at Mines on outreach, campus programming, and OER development. The two interns filled a staffing need, enabled successful implementation of the OER program, and, at the same time, learned valuables lessons alongside practitioner-researcher librarians. As project-based interns, the students participated in the day-to-day management of the grant, working closely with Mines faculty from across campus who were developing OER. Participating faculty belonged to departments including mechanical engineering, physics, civil and environmental engineering, chemical and biological engineering, and mathematics, among others. Although training in research methodology was not an explicit part of the internship, the experience provided a valuable opportunity for graduate students to conduct research alongside academic librarians. Creating OER and managing OER programs are comparatively new roles for librarians and involve the development and testing of various approaches and methodologies. The research experiences related to the OER project introduced the interns to the global OER community and research norms within that community. The interns, now successful LIS professionals, participated in research projects related to the grant program, learned about human subject research, conducted literature reviews on the topic, and presented findings at conferences. This chapter describes how the research experiences were successfully incorporated into the project-based graduate internship program and contains insights from both practitioner-researcher librarians and a recent intern, elaborating on lessons learned from both perspectives. Insights gained from the Colorado School of Mines program can be applied more broadly to help LIS students learn to conduct research alongside practicing librarians.

Academic Library Internships Over the past several years, there has been increased exploration of the research expectations and outputs of academic librarians, particularly those with faculty status (Ackerman, Hunter, and Wilkinson 2018; Kennedy and Brancolini 2012; Kennedy, Brancolini, and Kennedy 2020; Sassen and Wahl 2014). As described by Hoffmann, Berg, and Koufogiannakis in their 2017 study, research output varies across the profession depending on library type, organizational promotion expectations and individual attributes of the people involved (116). However, research skills are not necessarily intuitively learned nor are they always covered in depth in the library science curriculum. Exposing students and early-career academic

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librarians to practitioner research can help them develop the necessary skills to become successful academic faculty. As the roles of academic librarians evolve and expectations change, LIS curriculum and opportunities for students must also evolve to ensure adequate preparation for work in the profession (Goodsett and Koziura 2016; Mullins 2012). The practicum or internship experience has been a common feature of LIS programs dating back to the 1980s (Coleman 1989). It provides students with the opportunity to gain experience working alongside practitioners in a professional setting. Although it is not a required aspect of an American Library Association (ALA) accredited degree curriculum, many programs require or encourage students to engage in this type of experience. Some aspects of the literature explore the student experience (Cooper 2013). Others examine the role an internship can play in the LIS curriculum (Lacy and Copeland 2013; Noor Azizi and Kaur 2023; Sewell and Kingsley 2017). Stevenson and Hannaford (2019) described the role an internship program played at the University of Toronto in supplementing classroom learning to prepare LIS students for work as academic librarians. In their program, they “encourage supervisors to provide a variety of projects/position responsibilities to ensure an enriching experience and exposure to a range of areas” (239). The approach helped students to integrate effectively into the professional community and prepare for work as academic librarians. In similar ways, the Mines OER internship mentored students through professional projects to prepare them for the expectations of academic library faculty.

The Open Educational Resource Project The OER movement has developed in higher education over the last two decades. OER are freely accessible teaching and learning materials and OER initiatives aim to lower the costs and barriers to educational materials. Various academic institutions have sought internal or external funding to support OER programs or OER adoption and creation at their institutions. The Arthur Lakes Library at Mines wished to implement new initiatives to support the use of OER within the institution and applied for funding from the Colorado Department of Higher Education (CDHE) to establish and sustain an OER initiative. Under the leadership of the Library, the CHDE-funded grant involved developing a campus funding program to incentivize instructors to adopt, adapt, and create OER for their courses. As part of the grant program, the Mines Library also developed and delivered workshops and short courses on OER topics to help equip the participating faculty with related skills and

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knowledge. Interns were instrumental in both management of the campus OER funding program and the accompanying outreach and educational programs.

The Internship Program The internships were posted as jobs to the Mines current job opportunities website and promoted to local library science programs. Applicants were selected based on experience and interest in the projects. Each internship was designed to accommodate the intern’s respective schedule, interests, and other commitments. For example, the interns worked between ten and twenty hours each week depending on their schedules and availability. The inbuilt flexibility allowed the interns to focus on academic success while simultaneously building career ready research skills. Both students came from the University of Denver, and the duration of the program was designed to accommodate the University of Denver’s quarterly academic schedule as opposed to the Mines semester academic schedule. The Mines Scholarly Communications Librarian was the principal investigator (PI) on the CDHE grant and collaboratively developed the schedule, goals, and responsibilities for the internship during initial meetings. The first internship ran from June 2020 to June 2021 and comprised approximately 500 hours of work. The second internship ran from January to November 2021 and also comprised approximately 500 hours of work. The interns were already nearing completion of a Master’s degree in LIS and the training provided in the Mines Library focused on gaps in their program including the practical knowledge necessary to participate actively in research. The training of the interns included general introductions to the institution, the grant project and research objectives, as well as an introduction to OER and related topics. The training process also included exploration of content previously created under funding from the grant including a Canvas Course for OER Champions on campus and related research guides. Mines uses the Canvas learning management system (LMS). The initial training activities took the interns approximately two weeks to complete. The interns met with the supervisor weekly and provided and received updates. The scheduled time for communication was essential to the program’s success because the internships were conducted remotely. Over the course of each internship, the interns participated in various aspects of the research project lifecycle, including leading meetings, contributing to grant proposals, collecting and analyzing data, and presenting findings. The interns’ research and project activities depended on the point at which they joined the project. Before conducting research, the interns were required to have completed

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Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) Program training, which covers research ethics involving human subjects. The interns’ support for grant management included gathering status updates from participating instructors, collecting data on the cost savings for students in participating courses, and compiling grant reports for CDHE. The interns provided critical support for the Scholarly Communications Librarian because limited staffing in the library makes it difficult to plan, manage, and implement projects without additional support. Data collected from participating faculty included the cost of the resources being replaced by OER and the course enrollment. The data obtained was untidy and the interns were instrumental in cleaning and collating the data into consistent formats. Both interns supported the project’s outreach and education components, which included the development and assessment of certificate courses for faculty and staff interested in learning about OER. The courses were developed to provide Mines faculty and staff with basic foundational skills and understanding related to OER. The first course provided a brief introduction to OER, while the second course focused on the principles, tools, and practices related to the remediation of resources for students with disabilities. Both the OER Champions and the Accessibility Course for Education (ACE) were developed and hosted on the campus’ LMS. The interns explored existing content on the topics to construct the two courses under the mentorship of the Scholarly Communications Librarian. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected to assess each of the courses. Data collection included pre- and post-tests and notes from open discussion sessions with course participants. The interns worked with the Scholarly Communications Librarian to develop questions that would capture the elements they wanted to assess. The interns also processed the collected data to gain valuable insights on the successes and areas for improvement across the courses. The delivery and assessment of the OER Champions and ACE courses led to numerous publications and presentations at conferences. In an initial collaboration, the first intern co-led a roundtable discussion on creating accessible resources with the Scholarly Communications Librarian in March 2021 at the Missouri Affordable & Open Educational Resources Symposium (Bongiovanni and Odicino 2021). They also collaborated with two librarians and the Mines Writing Center Director on a paper for the 2021 American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE) Conference (Bongiovanni et al 2021). Pursuing scholarship opportunities provided the interns with some of their first publishing experiences, helping to solidify their understanding of academic librarians as faculty members. The second intern had the opportunity to be first author on a peer-reviewed publication, a paper co-presented at the 2022 North Central Section ASEE conference (Vuletich et al 2022). Such experiences led to many conversations and teach-

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able moments about academic publishing practices, including responding to peer reviewers, writing in an academic style, and developing conference presentations. While some research publication outlets were determined early in the internship, other scholarship opportunities were identified over the course of the project. For example, when a conference related to OER and accessibility was advertised, the Scholarly Communications Librarian and interns were quick to submit a proposal to present on the accessibility course they developed. Each year Mines needed to reapply for funding from CDHE as well as report on progress on projects from the previous year’s funding which provided the interns with the opportunity to participate in the various steps of the grant process during their internships. In addition, the development and assessment of the two courses, within the context of the larger OER grant project at Mines, provided the interns with the opportunity to engage with processes and methods across the entire research lifecycle. Although the internship was project-based, and largely focused on supporting the OER grant, it also provided an opportunity to introduce the interns to aspects of academic librarianship beyond scholarly communication. Both interns met with the Mines Teaching and Learning Librarian to conduct an informational interview to learn more about information literacy instruction in a STEM-focused institution. They also had the opportunity to attend instruction sessions, develop research guide content, and shadow librarians’ reference interactions. The interns were able to complement their course-based learning with experiential learning in a midsized STEM library. These opportunities beyond the OER grant work and its associated research, helped the interns to experience the breadth of work they would be completing as practitioners in academic libraries.

Lessons Learned There were various lessons learned by both the Scholarly Communications Librarian and the interns during the project, including the length necessary for a productive internship and the challenges in providing a sense of community through a virtual work environment.

The Scholarly Communications Librarian’s Perspective For the supervisor of interns, involving interns in research requires a balance between managing expectations of all involved and giving ownership for achieve-

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ments when possible to the interns. It is also important to incorporate interns’ professional goals and interests into the project while simultaneously ensuring that tasks are completed as required. While the interns and the Scholarly Communications Librarian set goals and priorities for the internship during their initial meetings, the priorities changed as other opportunities arose. For example, when demand for the course on creating accessible resources expanded beyond Mines, the group decided to establish a cohort of learners which expanded to the greater Colorado higher education community. This resulted in the group setting other projects aside to focus on facilitating the second cohort. Initially, the Scholarly Communications Librarian had planned for the internship length to be flexible enough to accommodate students who preferred a program lasting one semester, or a shorter duration. However, the year-long length of the internship proved to be necessary for the interns to be fully engaged in the program. The initial two months of the program required a substantial amount of training and supervision from the Scholarly Communications Librarian. During the training period, the Scholarly Communications Librarian provided interns with work that was task driven, rather than opportunities for autonomous or creative work. As each internship progressed, the interns were granted more autonomy. The graduated training program for the interns eased them into the expected behavior and approach of a researcher and created a sense of ownership over the projects. It also allowed the Scholarly Communications Librarian to gauge each intern’s progress and build trust. The duration of the internship therefore determined the scale and scope of the work. A longer internship provided more opportunities for the students to become involved and plot their own way. It also provided interns with the opportunity to participate in the research process at each step of the research lifecycle. The projects assigned provided a manageable sandbox or simulated learning environment in which the interns could explore the field. The projects related to OER which was the focus of the internship and proved to be broad enough in scope to allow the interns autonomy and opportunities to own the work they were completing. Simultaneously, the projects were narrow enough for the Scholarly Communications Librarian to supervise the interns and manage their output. Both internships took place virtually to practice social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic. University restrictions on work and gathering gradually decreased in 2021 and the second intern was able to come to campus to work for the last few weeks of the internship. The virtual work environment made it challenging for the Scholarly Communications Librarian to engage with and mentor the interns. The Scholarly Communications Librarian’s weekly check-in meetings with the interns were conducted via Zoom and were often brief, covering only some

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aspects of the project to help mitigate online meeting fatigue. The Scholarly Communications Librarian found it necessary to schedule other meetings to connect beyond the specific OER content of the work being undertaken using the grant. The additional meetings facilitated mentoring and included more general professional development topics, such as interviewing for academic librarian positions, reviewing application materials, and practicing presentations.

The Intern’s Perspective The virtual work environment made it challenging for interns to connect with other library faculty who were not participating in the grant. Interns were encouraged to schedule times to meet with other librarians to discuss different aspects of the field and Mines as an institution. Despite the efforts to engage with others in the library, the online environment was a poor substitute for the organic conversations that arise in a shared office or other informal work environments. In addition, the combination of the interns’ limited hours and the flexibility necessary to accommodate the students’ academic obligations made engagement with the library and its staff a challenge. Pursuing education in a professional degree like LIS provides many opportunities for students to build an understanding of scholarly publication but few opportunities to participate in the process. While skills and competency in writing improve through practice in graduate school, publication and original research experience are harder to obtain. Well-facilitated internships can offer early-career librarians opportunities to collaborate with experienced professionals, meaningfully contribute to academic discourse, fill gaps in student knowledge and experience and position them well for an academic career. Collaboration is a valuable strategy to gain insights into the field and increase project capacity. Both students were included in and encouraged to participate in project planning and grant proposal writing. Providing interns with opportunities to share ideas and ownership of projects prepared students for collaboration skills they would need as professionals. Internships which focus heavily on collaboration and treat students as professional equals allow interns to become familiar with academic library work environments. They also provide opportunities for students to be co-owners of larger projects and to build relationships with professionals. Demonstrated research and scholarship are often necessary for obtaining employment as academic librarians. However, it can be challenging for graduate students to balance their education and professional workload with research and scholarship. New practitioners in LIS may find it daunting to add to their responsibilities, especially as it may not be considered a core expectation for their intern-

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ship nor bear academic credit in graduate programs. Research and publication, however, are typically necessary for career advancement in an academic library setting. Contributions to the field can help create a sense of belonging and open doors for early-career librarians. Opportunities to perform research and prepare publications with professionals as a part of an internship experience reduce the time and capacity commitment that such activities may otherwise involve.

Conclusion Project-based internships can provide opportunities for early-career librarians to develop the skills necessary to succeed in academic research. Interns can make capable and committed partners in developing and implementing projects and contributing to research outcomes while at the same time gaining knowledge and skills in research methods and processes. A symbiotic relationship between institutional project outcomes and personal knowledge development can help build a more capable workforce and fill gaps in staffing resources. Offering interns sufficient autonomy through careful management produces shared ownership of projects and goals. An appropriate balance between institutional and personal goals provides interns with the freedom to explore their own interests and find their niche while overall project goals are accomplished. The internship through the OER grant at Mines successfully met expectations. Similar internships elsewhere hold promise for future successful engagement within libraries by graduate students in LIS.

References Ackerman, Erin, Jennifer Hunter, and Zara T. Wilkinson. 2018. “The Availability and Effectiveness of Research Supports for Early Career Academic Librarians.” The Journal of Academic Librarianship 44, no. 5: 553–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2018.06.001. Bongiovanni, Emily, Brianna B. Buljung, Alexander Luis Odicino, and Allyce Horan. 2021. “Online OER Champion Courses: How a Scrappy Solution to Cope with Capacity Turned into a Vital Tool to Build OER Awareness, Interest, and Knowledge on Campus.” Paper presented at 2021 American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE) Virtual Annual Conference Content Access, Virtual Conference, July 26–29, 2021. https://peer.asee.org/37539. Bongiovanni, Emily, and Alexander Luis Odicino. 2021. “What’s in Your Accessibility Toolkit? A Roundtable on Equipping Instructors with the Skills Needed to Make their Resources Accessible.” Roundtable at the Missouri Affordable & Open Educational Resources Symposium, March 3–5, 2021. https://libguides.umsl.edu/MO-OER-Symposium/presentations.

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Coleman, J. Gordon. 1989. “The Role of the Practicum in Library Schools.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 30, no. 1: 19–27. https://doi.org/10.2307/40323496. Cooper, Linda Z. 2013. “Student Reflections on an LIS Internship From a Service Learning Perspective Supporting Multiple Learning Theories.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 54, no. 4: 286–98. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43686958. Goodsett, Mandi, and Amanda Koziura. 2016. “Are Library Science Programs Preparing New Librarians? Creating a Sustainable and Vibrant Librarian Community.” Journal of Library Administration 56, no. 6: 697–721. https://doi.org/10.1080/01930826.2015.1134246. Hoffmann, Kristin, Selinda Berg, and Denise Koufogiannakis. 2017. “Understanding Factors That Encourage Research Productivity for Academic Librarians.” Evidence Based Library and Information Practice 12, no. 4: 102–28. https://doi.org/10.18438/B8G66F. Kennedy, Marie R., and Kristine R. Brancolini. 2012. “Academic Librarian Research: A Survey of Attitudes, Involvement, and Perceived Capabilities.” College & Research Libraries 73, no. 5: 431–48. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl-276. Kennedy, Marie R., Kristine R. Brancolini, and David P. Kennedy. 2020. “An Exploratory Study of Accomplished Librarian-Researchers.” Evidence Based Library and Information Practice 15, no. 1: 179–217. https://doi.org/10.18438/eblip29655. Lacy, Meagan, and Andrea J. Copeland. 2013. “The Role of Mentorship Programs in LIS Education and in Professional Development.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 54, no. 2: 135–46. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43686941. Mullins, James L. 2012. “Are MLS Graduates Being Prepared for the Changing and Emerging Roles That Librarians Must Now Assume Within Research Libraries?” Journal of Library Administration 52, no. 1: 124–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/01930826.2011.629966. Noor Azizi, Nurul Aida, and Kiran Kaur. 2023. “Indicators for Modernising the LIS Internship: Evidences from a Systematic Literature Review.” Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, February: 09610006231154536. https://doi.org/10.1177/09610006231154536. Sassen, Catherine, and Diane Wahl. 2014. “Fostering Research and Publication in Academic Libraries.” College & Research Libraries 75, no. 4: 458–91. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl.75.4.458. Sewell, Claire, and Danny Kingsley. 2017. “Developing the 21st Century Academic Librarian: The Research Support Ambassador Programme.” New Review of Academic Librarianship 23, no. 2–3: 148–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/13614533.2017.1323766. Stevenson, Siobhan, and Julie Hannaford. 2019. “Workplace-Integrated-Learning: Preparing Tomorrow’s Academic Library Workforce.” The Journal of Academic Librarianship 45, no. 3: 234–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2019.03.001. Vuletich, Seth, Emily Bongiovanni, Brianna B. Buljung, and Alexander Luis Odicino. 2022. “Building Curriculum for Instructors to Address OER Accessibility as STEM Librarians.” Paper presented at 2022 ASEE-North Central Section Conference, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, March 19, 2022. https://peer. asee.org/39230.

Maria Micle and Elena Tîrziman

11 C  ontinuing Education in Research Methods for Library Professionals: The Romanian Experience Abstract: The library and information science (LIS) domain through the institution of the library is at the centre of contemporary manifestations of information expansion unprecedented in human history. There is a confluence of the growth of knowledge and scientific developments with expanding cultural diversity on which the library can impact. LIS professionals contribute to the organisation of scientific and cultural information content and mediate the dissemination of knowledge for all areas of research. By focusing on professional practice in support of the research of others, librarians run the risk of neglecting research in their own field. This chapter provides details on a study undertaken in Romania which examined the teaching of research methods in LIS education. The components of initial education in library research are identified; teaching research methods in continuing education are explored; and the extent to which librarians are supported in the use of research methods in LIS by professional associations and doctoral schools is examined. Keywords: Library science – Romania; Library education – Romania; Library research – Methodology; Library education (Continuing education)

Introduction The world is experiencing intensive rapid global change. The context is one of relentless ongoing development and an intensifying rate of growth combined with a dynamic research ecosystem involving projects, research methods, dissemination of results, and publishing of findings. Continuous adaptation is required to accommodate community needs and societal pressures. Emerging research methods are responding to fresh demands and involve additional training and a wide range of approaches to education and training. This chapter suggests that librarians need to look at the world with “scientific glasses” (Epstein 2020, 63), and develop and extend the role of research in LIS practice to bring about positive changes in society. The fundamental role of research and education has always been to bring progress and innovation into society. There is a paradox in the parallel developments occurring within information and communications technology (ICT) and information science: both disciplines advance societal progress but with the growing https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-013



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diversity and expansion of media, transmedia, and social media, the voices of non-specialists have become amplified, often in a dysfunctional manner. The huge growth of user-generated content (UGC) and the activities of influencers have led to the large-scale propagation of content which might be inaccurate and potentially lead to adherence by some people to fake news and conspiracy theories. The spread of misinformation has led to public confusion and induced many in the community to mistrust the findings and recommendations of researchers and specialists. Anyone can express an opinion and claim to be an expert. The presentation of evidence and the results of scientific investigation plays an important role in addressing and countering the communication of disinformation and misinformation. The voices of scientists must be louder, stronger and more targeted in disseminating the results of scientific research. Researchers must be more coherent in explaining the impact and meaning of their work. Results must be popularised for easy understanding by ordinary people. The field of LIS through the institution of the library is at the heart of contemporary manifestations of knowledge; the library lies at the confluence of the plurality of sciences and the diversity of cultures and has the capacity to assist the community in assessing the validity and value of information. LIS professionals contribute to the organisation of scientific and cultural information content and mediate the dissemination of knowledge for all areas (2016a). However, concentrating solely on the library’s supporting role for research and dissemination of knowledge and the librarian’s professional contribution to the work of others and community service may lead to the risk of neglecting research in the field of LIS itself. This chapter describes the state of LIS education in Romania and explores continuing education activities within the profession with a particular emphasis on examining research perspectives and content. The extent to which librarians are involved in these types of activities is discussed, and the various endeavours undertaken to ensure librarians can reach professional maturity in research and be supported are outlined. The forums and mechanisms for training in the use of research methods are described.

The Romanian Library Context Romania’s library system is similar to library systems operating throughout the world. It involves a network of libraries serving various community interests with coordination undertaken by government authorities. The Biblioteca Naţională a României/National Library of Romania is located in Bucharest and administratively

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is coordinated by the Ministerul Culturii/Ministry of Culture. In Romania there are several university libraries which are called central university libraries. They exist as separate legal entities and operate autonomously within the universities they serve. Libraries in the education system at universities and schools operate within the Ministerul Educației Naționale/Ministry of National Education1. Public libraries function at city, county, municipal, and community level and are controlled by local authorities such as county councils or municipal authorities. There are also special libraries serving government departments, businesses or organisations. The most important professional associations, by virtue of the number of members and involvement, are the Asociația Bibliotecarilor din România/Association of Libraries in Romania (ABR) and the Asociaţia Naţională a Bibliotecarilor şi Bibliotecilor Publice din România/National Association of Public Libraries in Romania (ANBPR) (Tîrziman and Micle 2016, 162).

Library and Information Science Education and Training in Romania The training and educational requirements for higher education librarians in Romania are outlined in Library Law (334/2002) (Lege nr. 334/2002) and determined by the Ministerul Educației Naționale/Ministry of National Education with the support and consultation of the professional library associations (Tîrziman and Micle 2016). Education in Romania at the university level includes bachelor’s degrees of three years, with 120 transferable credits; master’s degrees of two years, and doctoral degrees of three years. There are universities offering LIS programmes in Bucharest, Cluj-Napoca, Sibiu, and Timisoara. Only one university, the Universitatea din București/University of Bucharest within its Facultatea de Litere, Istorie si Teologie/Faculty of Letters, History and Theology, offers degrees at all three levels of bachelor, master’s, and doctorate. Over the last fifteen years there has been a persistent problem in recruiting young high school graduates to LIS programmes with a lack of interest in the educational programme itself and the LIS profession as a career. Librarianship as a profession is not highly regarded in Romanian society; librarians have little prestige or value within the community along with the education profession in general. Low salaries of librarians, teachers and faculty and limited investments in education at the national policy level have been significant

1  Variously known as Ministerul Educație Naționale/Ministry of National Education and Ministerul Educației/Ministry of Education



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factors impacting the perception of LIS programmes (Tîrziman and Micle 2016, 162–163).

Continuing Education and Training An alternative to formal education in LIS for the Romanian library profession is post-degree continuing education, further training and retraining. The continuing studies format is a one-year programme, with 30–60 transferable credits. The qualification is particularly addressed to early-career staff who hold bachelor’s degrees in other disciplines, and who have been recruited into their roles by specific libraries. The education provided is a hybrid between formal LIS education and on-thejob training. Students develop knowledge and skills in LIS through intensively taught programmes. The post-degree programmes are provided by the faculties that belong to the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Institute for Statistics International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) fields of education and training to the broad field of research and study, 03 Social sciences, journalism and information (UNESCO 2013, 17–19), and as a restricted field, 0322 Library, information and archival studies. The inclusions in teaching programmes are authorised by the Romanian Ministerul Educaţiei Naţionale/Ministry of National Education (2019), and registered in the Autoritatea Naţională pentru Calificări (ANC)/National Authority for Qualifications’ Registrului National al Programelor Postuniversitare (RNPP)/National Register of Postgraduate Programs (Romania ANC 2020) or by the Cultural Professional Training Centre for public libraries. The one-year educational programme is the preferred training model in Romania and is encouraged by libraries of all kinds. The post-degree training model is found in various countries, for example, France (Association des Bibliothécaires de France 2020). In Romania, ongoing continuing vocational training and education for the profession are provided by universities, professional associations, university libraries, county libraries, school libraries, and other private training organisations and follow the international guidelines developed by IFLA (2016b).

Teaching Research Methods in LIS in Romania Training in LIS research methodology is undertaken during studies in the bachelor, master’s and doctoral programs provided by universities teaching LIS. In Romania, the curricular development policy of university studies at the bachelor level man-

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dates in the disciplines related to social sciences and humanities, including LIS, the inclusion of research methods, academic writing, and academic ethics (ARACIS 2020). At the master’s level, programmes introduce scientific research studies which target the fundamental or applied research competencies of a particular field (ARACIS 2020). LIS university programmes do not currently run such a master’s programme in Romania. In general, instructors in LIS programmes teach students how to use information sources and how to conduct studies or prepare reports, while libraries teach practitioners how to use particular information management systems and specific information resources and documentation which are institutionally related. In some cases, the lack of librarians’ research experience makes it difficult, if not impossible, for librarians working in public libraries to assess the effectiveness of the products and services they are providing or even to implement products and services effectively. A knowledge of research methods is intrinsic to effective performance management of library services. Post-degree programmes for continuing training and retraining include research methods in the curriculum provided. For example the Universitatea de Vest din Timișoara/West University of Timisoara includes in its programme Biblioteconomie, științele informării și documentării/Librarianship, Information and Documentation Sciences, in Module 2 a topic entitled Methods of Research and Investigation of the Library Public. The programme is primarily addressed to mature graduates, who have at least a bachelor’s degree in a range of fields, and who want to reorient their professional career towards LIS. The programme offers practitioners specialised knowledge and skills in a concentrated and intensive way. The courses are offered in a series of modules during a typical university year with three teaching modules, combined with a module of professional practice that takes the form of an internship in a partner library. The content of the programme includes collection development, cataloguing, public relations, marketing, and legal deposit, and is completed by international library visits. Prior to the COVID19 pandemic, the students from the programme visited significant and successful libraries in Budapest, Vienna, Bratislava, Prague, and Belgrade.

What is the Reality of Teaching Research Methods in LIS Programmes in Romania? In May 2022, a study was conducted to identify the specific programmes and practices of teaching research methods to librarians which were being used at various institutions across Romania to develop a general picture of the situation across the country.



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Aims of the Study Methodology For the collection and analysis of data in the study, the authors applied qualitative research methods, namely case study and focus group techniques (Krueger and Casey 2005; Ţurcan 2021; Walliman 2018; Yin 2005). This approach was taken to identify examples of good practices that could be disseminated and replicated by other researchers. For quality content analysis, the researchers used public documents available through libraries, universities, and professional associations. Social sciences and, implicitly, information sciences, have turned to textual analysis as means of fixing and objectifying their own conclusions (Agabrian 2006). The authors based the research on their own expertise and professional experience gained through teaching and research activities in specialised university education, and they also involved members of professional associations. The primary method for data collection was that of a focus group. The authors organised and conducted a focus group meeting, based on two key themes of discussion, with the first reflecting on the research component of work in academic and public libraries, and the second addressing continuing education in LIS research methodology. Using purposive sampling, the target audience consisted of representatives of the LIS community with expertise in research and training in the Romanian professional LIS environment. The target group was composed of nine participants with the following characteristics: –– Socio-professional category, Romanian Occupation Code (COR): librarians (COR 2023, 262202) and bibliographers (COR 2023, 262201), with expertise and experience in LIS, who held a PhD, and occupied the position of Director or Head of Service in a library, or were involved in research –– Participants from various types of libraries with three from central university libraries, three from university libraries, one from a public library, one from the Biblioteca Academiei Române/Romanian Academy Library and one from the National Library of Romania. As already noted, in Romania the central university libraries have their own legal entity and operate autonomously within their institutions –– Membership and/or involvement with professional associations with seven from the Asociatia Bibliotecarilor din România (ABR)/Romanian Library Association and two from the Asociația Națională a Bibliotecarilor și Bibliotecilor Publice din România (ANBPR)/National Association of Public Librarians and Libraries in Romania

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–– Participants also represented different cities of Romania which were known as important university centres with two from Bucharest, five from Timisoara, one from Cluj-Napoca, and one from Oradea, and –– Participants were all females aged 34–57 years. The distribution of members of the participant group ensured a convenient sampling of the target population concerned with the research theme under investigation. The online format for the focus group ensured participants could be brought together easily. Barriers of transport were eliminated along with the provision of accommodation, and time-scheduling was easier. Through feedback following the focus group, participants claimed to be satisfied with the discussion of the topic. Some observations and ideas which emerged from the focus group have been developed and presented in the ABR training section, and at the ANPBR, with future additional prospects. The results obtained from the group interview were incorporated in the presentation on the work undertaken. In the focus group, participants were asked a series of open-ended questions related to the research practices and education in research methods offered through Romanian continuing education practices. Answers were transcribed and input synthesized. For reasons of confidentially, no individual participant’s comments were quoted, as individuals would be easily identifiable within the Romanian LIS community. Comments and information were transcribed, and a textual analysis undertaken.

The Outcomes: Research Activity in Library and Information Science in Romania Libraries are an integral part of the educational mission in society; they stimulate research activities, and help disseminate and transmit international scientific practices. Research in LIS is carried out by university faculty who have a dual mission of teaching and conducting research. Research is reflected through projects involving libraries, and also through scientific communication and dissemination of research results through publications including journal articles (Tîrziman and Micle 2018), and presentations at specialised events and conferences. The study found that research activity in Romanian libraries was carried out in central university libraries, university libraries, the Biblioteca Naţională a României/National Library of Romania, the Biblioteca Naţională a României/Romanian Academy Library, and, sporadically, in public libraries. The analysis of the answers to the open questions in the focus-group interview provided detailed and interesting views about the involvement of librarians in the field of research activ-



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ity. The data provided included details about the number of librarians holding PhDs and the number of librarians employed as researchers (Table 11.1). Table 11.1: Libraries Represented in the Focus Group Library

Abbrevia- Web address tion

Staff with PhD

Researchers Total Employees

Biblioteca Naţională a României/National Library of Romania

BNR

www.bibnat.ro

12

4

200

Biblioteca Academiei Române/Romanian Academy Library

BAR

https://biblacad.ro

17

2

200

Biblioteca Centrală Universitară “Lucian Blaga” Cluj-Napoca//“Lucian Blaga” Central University Library in Cluj-Napoca

BCUCj

https://www. bcucluj.ro/en

40

2

206

Biblioteca Centrală Universitară „Eugen Todoran” Din Timișoara/ “Eugen Todoran” Central University Library in Timișoara

BCUT

https://bcut.ro

11

1/2

87

Biblioteca Centrală BUPT a Universității Politehnica/ Library of the Polytechnic University in Timișoara

https://library. upt.ro

4

–

50

Biblioteca Universității din Oradea/Library of the University in Oradea

BUO

https://www. uoradea.ro/Library

1

–

27

Biblioteca Județeană „Sorin Titel”/“Sorin Titel” County Library in Timișoara

BJT

https://www.bjt.ro/

2 –

59

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Romanian legislation allows university central libraries to develop research departments. Such departments are found in the organisational structures of only four of the libraries represented in the study: BNR, BAR, BCUCj, and BCUB. BNR has in its structure a research and project management department, which includes five specialists as researchers with the following responsibilities: –– Coordinate the development of studies, research and documentary synthesis in the field of librarianship and related fields and communicate the findings through specialised publications and other means –– Carry out studies for publication in professional journals –– Propose and conduct library research projects –– Coordinate the development of research and analysis of internal library data –– Gather statistics on activities related to the functioning of the national library system and library activities and disseminate the results, and –– On request, conduct studies related to the field of information and documentation sciences, as well as related fields. BCUCj has special collections with an oral and multimedia archive. The area comprises eleven specialists and contains a research department with one researcher and one research assistant. The study found that libraries in Romania have a comparatively small number of employees working as researchers with four at BNR, two at BAR, two at BCUCj, and a half a position at BCUT. Librarians with doctoral degrees, however, are more numerous. As noted in the table, BNR has twelve staff with doctoral qualifications; BAR has seventeen, BCUCj has forty, BCUP has eleven, BPUP has four, BUO has one and BJT two. As a rule, the doctorates have been gained in domains pertaining to the social sciences and humanities. There are few librarians with doctorates in LIS, which can be explained by the fact that the only doctoral school in this field is at the University of Bucharest. Indeed, in all types of libraries there are librarians with doctoral credentials, primarily in social sciences or humanities. In libraries in Romania, doctoral studies in the fields of social sciences and humanities are formally recognised, and as a result, staff holding such degrees are additionally remunerated with an increase of 12% in the salaries paid. Most library staff with such qualifications have no clear or compulsory research tasks identified in their job descriptions. In general, they are heads of services or deal with the editorial activity of the library. Following the focus group, and through follow-up of information gathered from participants, the authors determined that librarians with the title of doctor had a higher salary level than those without the title and undertook job roles that were clearly stipulated to include undertaking research tasks, such as carrying out specialised studies for journals in the field, being involved in research projects, and contributing to the nation’s cultural and scientific heritage.



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Another theme identified from the focus group discussion was that intensive involvement in LIS research by libraries, especially by the universities, the National Library, and the Romanian Academy Library, had contributed to the progress and innovation of the entire LIS profession. Participants indicated that their research involvement resulted in improvements to the reputation and image of the library. As a consequence of the librarians’ endeavours, LIS was seen as an innovative, competitive, and multi-faceted disciplinary area. Research undertaken by librarians helped to change their image from stereotypical guardians of silence and library collections to a more vital concept of creative, innovative and forward-thinking professionals (Micle 2016).

The Outcomes: Availability of Research Methods Education and Training in LIS in Romania Training courses in research methodology previously offered by Romanian libraries in the past appeared not to be offered at the time of the study. The authors identified only two recent continuing education courses: in 2020 the ABR offered a course entitled Quantitative Research Methods: The Questionnaire, and in 2019 at the Teaching Staff House in Resita Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods in Supporting the Investigation of Libraries’ Public (CCD 2022). Librarians in the focus group expressed the need for strengthened initial and continuing education and training in the field of research methods. The purpose of the training would be to enable librarians to mediate the documentary research needs of their users and to assist users in engaging in research, particularly in university libraries, and also to facilitate the engagement of librarians in projects and research activities specific to the LIS field. The evolution and challenges of the LIS field developing in tandem with changes in related professions require adequate, high-quality training programmes for the career development of librarians. The participants in the study’s focus group confirmed the need for a diversity of continuing education courses adapted to the environment of new and developing information and communication technologies. After experiencing online courses provided during the COVID-19 pandemic, participants in the focus group indicated they would welcome online and hybrid courses in continuing education and training. Such courses would facilitate access to education and training and support the participation of librarians in as many varied and high-quality activities as possible across different remote geographic locations.

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Conclusion The LIS domain, through the institution of the library, is at the centre of contemporary unprecedented expansion of and access to information. The Library is located at the confluence of the plurality of knowledge developments across the spectrum and the diversity of cultural advances. LIS professionals contribute to the organisation of knowledge outputs and cultural information content and mediate the dissemination of knowledge for all areas of research, yet they often neglect conducting research themselves to support the development of the LIS field itself. From the analysis of the data collected for this study, the authors conclude that in Romania, research on topics strictly related to the field of LIS occupies a small portion of overall research activity, aligned with the limited number of LIS researchers. The study also examined the provision of continuing education in research methods in LIS and identified only two courses available in the last few years with one organised by the Romanian Librarians Association and one by the Teaching Staff House in Resita. At the level of initial training, however, whether bachelor’s or master’s level, Romanian study programmes do include compulsory courses in research methods and academic writing. LIS staff development and professional growth require perpetual continuing education and training which must change and adapt to new needs and circumstances. In Romania, the organisational transformations that libraries have undergone in adapting to extensive change in information and communications technology have led to the need for greater staff knowledge in specialised areas and revealed shortcomings and gaps and a need for continuing staff education and training. Even for librarians who are not directly involved in research activities, training courses on the use of research methods are useful because librarians need to know and understand their specific audiences and their diverse information needs. As identified by the study’s participants, a reassessment of the research component in LIS education and training, along with coherent and efficient collaboration in research activities between university faculty and library practitioners, will support the provision of more effective information products and services, and subsequently lead to better educational and research support for the communities served by their libraries.



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References Agabrian, Mircea. 2006. Analiza de Conținut [Content Analysis]. Iași: Polirom. Agenția Română de Asigurare a Calității în Învățământul Superior/Romanian Agency for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ARACIS). 2020. “Standardele specifice privind evaluarea externă a calității academice la programele de studii universitare de licență și de masterat: aferente Comisiei de specialitate nr. 4. Științe Sociale, Politice și ale Comunicării.” [Specific Standards for External Evaluation of Academic Quality in Undergraduate and Master’s Degree Programs]. https://www.aracis.ro/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/C4-Standarde-_30.07.-2020-2.pdf. Association des Bibliothècaires de France. 2020. Le Métier de Bibliothécaire. Paris: Éditions du Cercle de la Librairie. http://abf.asso.fr/162/194/833/ABF/le-metier-de-bibliothecaire. Casa Corpului Didactic Caraș-Severin (CCD). 2022. “Programe Avizate [Blended Learning.]” http:// www.ccdcs.ro/cursuri-avizate.html. COR. 2023. Clasificarea Ocupațiilor din România [Classification of occupations in Romania]: Sibiu: Rubinian. 262201 Bibliograf. https://www.rubinian.com/cor_6_ocupatia_detalii.php?id=262201; 262202 Bibliotecar (studii superioare) https://www.rubinian.com/cor_6_ocupatia_detalii. php?id=262202. Epstein, David. 2020. Range: De ce triumfă generaliștii într-o lume specializată [Range: Why Generalists Triumph in a Specialized World]. Translated by Dan Crăciun. București: Publica. International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA). 2016a. “Access and Opportunity for All: How Libraries Contribute to the United Nations 2030 Agenda.” https://www. ifla.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/assets/hq/topics/libraries-development/documents/ access-and-opportunity-for-all.pdf. International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA). 2016b. “Guidelines for Continuing Professional Development: Principles and Best Practices.” 2nd ed. Written by Jana Varlejs, with input from Vivian Lewis, Susan Schnuer, Juanita Jara de Sumar of the Continuing Professional Development and Workplace Learning (CPDWL) Section. https://www.ifla.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/assets/cpdwl/guidelines/ifla-guidelines-forcontinuing-professional-development.pdf. Krueger, Richard, and Mary Anne Casey. 2005. Metoda Focus Grup: Ghid Practic Pentru Cercetarea Aplicată [Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research]. Translated by Cristina Popa. Iași: Polirom. Lege nr. 334 din 31 mai 2002 *actualizată*) legea bibliotecilor (actualizată până la data de 25 decembrie 2004*) Emitent Parlamentul. Portal Legislativ. https://legislatie.just.ro/Public/ DetaliiDocument/58841. Micle, Maria. 2014. “Stereotypes Regarding Libraries and Librarians: An Approach of Romanian School and Academic Libraries.” Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences 163: 92–98. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.291. Part of special issue International Conference on Communication and Education in Knowledge Society, edited by Claudiu Mesaroş and Maria Micle. Romania. Autoritatea Națională pentru Calificări (ANC). 2022. “Registrul Național al Programelor Postuniversitare” [National Register of Postgraduate Programs]. http://www.anc.edu.ro/ registru_rnpp. Romania. Ministerul Educaţiei Naţionale. 2019. Ordin nr. 4750/2019 din 12 august 2019 privind aprobarea Metodologiei-cadru de organizare şi înregistrare a programelor postuniversitare de către instituţiile

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de învăţământ superior. “Monitorul Oficial”, NR. 689 (21 august 2019). https://www.edu.ro/sites/ default/files/fisiere%20articole/ordin%204750-2019%20%28reactualizat%202021%29.pdf. Tîrziman, Elena, and Maria Micle. 2016. “Adapting Librarians’ Professional Competences to Current Requirements through Initial Education and Lifelong Education.” European Journal of Social Sciences Education and Research 6, no. 2 (January–April) Special: 161–166. https://doi. org/10.26417/ejser.v6i2.p161-166 Tîrziman, Elena, and Maria Micle. 2018. “The Representative Romanian Journals in the Field of Library and Information Sciences.” Библиотекар [Bibliotekar] 60, no. 2: 41–52. Article 5. https://doi. org/10.18485/bibliotekar.2018.60.2.5. Țurcan, Nelly. 2021. Explorarea Metodelor de Cercetare în Biblioteconomie și Știința Informării [Exploring Research Methods in Librarianship and the Science of Information]. Chișinău: Biblioteca Municipală de Stat “B.P. Hasdeu”. https://hapes.hasdeu.md/xmlui/handle/123456789/333. UNESCO Institute for Statistics. 2015. International Standard Classification of Education: Fields of Education and Training 2013:(ISCED-F 2013) – Detailed Field Descriptions. Montreal QC: UNESCO Institute for Statistics. http://dx.doi.org/10.15220/978-92-9189-179-5-en. Walliman, Nicolas. 2018. Research Methods: The Basics. 2nd ed. London: Routledge. Yin, Robert K. 2005. Studiul de caz: designul, colectarea și analiza datelor [Case Study: Design, Data Collection and Analysis]. Translated by Valentin Alupoaie. Iași: Polirom. Available at https://kupdf. net/download/robert-k-yin-studiu-de-caz-designul-colectarea-si-analiza-datelorpdf_5b0e762fe2 b6f5444e8fa03c_pdf.

Kiran Kaur, Samsul Farid Samsuddin, and Diljit Singh

12 N  urturing Emerging Researchers in Malaysia Abstract: This chapter describes how the Department of Library and Information Science (DLIS), at the Universiti Malaya (UM) developed a research excellence training agenda for the successful completion of dissertations and theses by graduate students. In any research methodology course, at master’s or doctoral level, a single semester course may not be sufficient to impart research skills, and the DLIS initiated a series of workshops involving voluntary participation to not only teach specific research skills, understandings of the conceptual underpinnings of research and disseminating research findings through publications, but also to build graduate students’ passion for research. This chapter details the series of workshops conducted over a period of two years and the changes in the course content to accommodate the needs of the students, along with the impact of the workshop series as perceived by the graduates. The graduates’ voices on the benefits received and the impact of the series of workshops on their research practices set the scene for further initiatives in enhancing effectiveness among future library and information science practitioners and researchers. Keywords: Library science – Malaysia; Library education – Research; Library education – Study and teaching

Introduction The Department of Library & Information Science (DLIS) was established within the Universiti Malaya (UM) in Kuala Lumpur in 1992 and has seen several iterations of its position within the University. In 2010, it became part of the Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology but in 2021, the Department was moved to the Faculty of Arts and Social Science as the university considered it a better fit for the discipline. The Department is consistently ranked in the world’s top fifty schools in library and information management. It has a well-established research reputation, excelling in scientometrics, digital libraries, information behaviour, health informatics, digital humanities and scholarly communication and focuses in its teaching on the interactions between people, information, and digital technologies thereby enhancing information access and managing, sharing and using information to benefit society (Universiti Malaya n.d.).

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-014

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DLIS offers graduate programmes at both the master’s and doctoral levels to local and international students. The Master of Library and Information Science degree registered its first batch of students in 1995 as a postgraduate academic programme of the Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology. There has been successful growth of the programme and the number of doctoral students in library and information science (LIS) has steadily increased. There are three modes for the master’s programme: –– Master of Library and Information Science, (Coursework), a full course work programme of 45 credits, including twenty-four core credits, nine elective credits and a twelve-credit research project –– Master of Information Science (Library Science), a mixed mode programme with 50 credits comprising twelve core credits, three elective credits and a thirty-five credit dissertation, and –– Master of Information Science (Research), a full research programme. All three master’s programmes include the Research Methods in Library and Information Science compulsory core course taught over one semester of fourteen weeks in which one of the expected learning outcomes is the submission and presentation of a research proposal. The coursework master’s programme in LIS includes electives on bibliometrics and statistics for research in library and information science. The master’s programme in information science also includes electives on bibliometrics and statistics. The Doctor of Philosophy graduates undertake the research methodology course designed for all doctoral students in the Faculty of Arts and Social Science as a prerequisite, regardless of the area of study.

Back to the Beginning The Problem In early 2020, the Head of the DLIS received several requests from students for additional help with their research projects. At that time the research methodology courses were being taught online and all student presentations, including proposal defence, candidature defence, thesis seminar and viva-voce were also held online. The proposal defence is conducted within the first two semesters of the study for the student to defend his/her study proposal, while the candidature defence is conducted in the fifth semester for the candidate to report the progress of the research which includes initial findings of the study. Feedback to the students from the Panel of Examiners during the proposal defence or candidature defence of their research



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work prompted the students to bring forward to DLIS management a number of concerns. Some of the concerns related to the way in which the candidates had approached the research design in their work. The students’ ability to contextualise the research in relation to what was already evident in the literature and justifying the methodology used, especially in the selection of sample populations and type of data analysis used, were some of the issues raised by the examiners. Candidates were applying methods and procedures learnt without being able to strongly justify why those methods and procedures were the most suited to address the research objectives. The introductory research methodology course is usually completed by the graduates during their first semester. As Lei (2008) cautioned, some graduates may simply complete the course as required coursework and the lack of adequately taught research skills in the course may cause a negative impact on their attitude towards research. What was of concern was that the students were desperately seeking help along their research journeys at specific intervals and looking for additional knowledge and skills.

The Investigation In formal research methodology courses, not all topics can be covered in detail, although basic principles and applications of quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods are mandatory (Lei 2010). The DLIS conducted a needs analysis to ascertain the dimensions of the issues and the assistance sought by the students. In an effort to increase the number of students that graduate on time, the DLIS held faceto-face discussions with graduate students to explore the type of assistance needed. The discussions began in 2019 and continued through 2020 and 2021 during the pandemic. Each supervisor consulted her or his own master’s and doctoral candidates and brought forward the suggestions which emerged from the discussions to a departmental meeting which decided on the topics that would most benefit the students. Topics raised included the systematic literature review process, use of various qualitative and quantitative research methods, and data collection. It was determined that a series of research methods workshops related to specific topics would be the most appropriate approach. Each student could attend whichever session deemed suitable to particular individual needs.

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The Solution A research methods workshop series was consequently developed. Each workshop focused on a topic based on concerns raised during the student and supervisor feedback. The LIS master’s and doctoral programmes at UM are designed with the objectives of training graduates who are not only proficient in knowledge and skills but also able to conduct research to advance the discipline and inform professional practice. It is important to report on the development and implementation of the research methods workshop series to help identify the skill sets on which graduates wish to improve, indicate any gaps in the research methodology course, and ensure effective planning for the inclusion of additional topics in the series in the future. The UM experience presented in this chapter offers suggestions for LIS schools elsewhere to benchmark research methodology training in their academic programmes. The voices of the participants, including graduates and practising LIS professionals, highlight the need for increased research capabilities. Consultation has continued. The views expressed are heard, responded to, and will foster greater research interest among a wider audience of practitioners and assist others to develop sound researcher identities.

The Workshop Series The Background Issues and concerns with the delivery of research methods training were compounded by global developments and the emergence of the pandemic. In 2020 and 2021, due to the COVID-19 pandemic preventive measures taken by the government of Malaysia, all institutions of higher education were not accessible to the students and teaching and learning were conducted online. The DLIS master’s and doctoral candidates were not on campus. All learning and research consultations with supervisors took place online, mainly through Google Meet or Microsoft Teams. The learning management system was used to interact with the instructor of the Research Methodology course. Students were expected to be self-directed and to master research skills independently. The usual research methodology courses were conducted online. The constraints of time and physical contact between students, supervisors, and teachers, caused students and instructors to realise that additional assistance was required as the formal research methodology course taught in the first semester could not adequately fulfil the students’ research skills nor develop their motivation towards research.



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The series of research methods workshops was developed to meet the demands of master’s and doctoral graduate students which had been expressed in departmental discussions and to respond to new circumstances in relation to the pandemic. Each module in the series was designed to suit the students’ expressed needs and its delivery needed to be learner-centred and conducted in a manner that would focus on informality, student engagement and interactivity even though delivery would be online. Participation in the workshop series would be voluntary. Greater emphasis was gradually placed on the affective domain in teaching and learning. A primary request from students was for advanced knowledge on the systematic literature review (SLR) process. Research students at UM are required to publish their research output as part of their graduation requirements and DLIS students have shown a keen interest in publishing papers which contain the findings of their literature review activities. To ensure successful published papers, it was important for students to appreciate the methodological concerns of preparing a manuscript and writing a document which would effectively communicate the results of work undertaken. The provision of the first research methods workshop series and subsequent developments in relation to the second workshop series are described in the following sections, along with reflections about the series.

The First Workshop Series Content The first research methods workshop series focussed on two main concerns: contextualising research problems and research questions; and publishing research findings in the form of a systematic literature review (SLR). In the first series, the main participants were students in the full research master’s programme and doctoral students. Table 12.1 depicts the topics selected for the workshop series which ran from October to November 2020. The topics for the workshop encompassed the understanding or contextualising of the research problem and then formulating the respective research question(s) and ranged from an introduction to SLR methods through the various methods, including the selection of information sources and use of appropriate search tools and strategies, reporting techniques, qualitative and quantitative analysis,and use of bibliometrics and visualisation methods. Finally, the use of Mendeley as a reference management software was introduced. The mastery of its use was included in the workshop series, as effective use of the tool would be essential in the literature review process and use of refer-

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ence management tools had not been included in the introductory research methodology course. Six DLIS faculty members delivered the content with each session in the series conducted by a different person who was responsible for the topic. Table 12.1: Research Methods Workshop Series 2020 No.

Topics

1

Introduction to systematic literature review methods. Contextualising research problem and research question(s) SLR methods including selection of databases, searching strategies, identification, screening, eligibility SLR reporting techniques. Qualitative analysis. Conducting thematic analysis and literature review

2 3 4 5 6

SLR reporting techniques. Quantitative analysis. Bibliometric studies Reporting SLR. Quantitative analysis. Visualisation studies Reference management in research. Use of Mendeley

No. of participants 25 23 29 26 27 29

Feedback After each session, participant feedback was obtained to improve the content and delivery for the next topic, and for future series. The feedback was obtained using open-ended questions, for example: “What aspects of this workshop series were the most useful or valuable?” Student feedback reinforced the value of the series and emphasised the necessity for conducting such a series. Comments included: “post-grad students really need this kind of training” and “we hope for more of this programme”. One participant indicated a clearly significant impact when she commented “I can see a light at the end of the tunnel.” It is assumed by the authors that the student had lacked confidence, felt hopeless about her capacities and would have been struggling to fulfil the requirements for a published peer-reviewed journal article. The workshop helped her put her literature review into perspective and guided her towards a potential topic for an article as well as techniques in writing it. The training series had lifted her spirits, provided encouragement and made her feel more certain that she was on the right path to a positive outcome. Feelings of self-confidence are vital to successful achievement. Many students feel lost and are ready to give up on their learning and discovery journeys unless someone is able to show them an effective path. Several participants suggested that the workshop series be made available to working professionals, with one suggesting that DLIS “continue this workshop series and open it to professionals” indicating a need for productive research skills in the workplace. Librarians or



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information professionals are skilled at retrieving and reviewing literature but may not know the procedures for preparing a quality systematic literature review or investigating the possibilities of producing peer-reviewed publications for their professional development.

The Second Workshop Series Content In 2021, the topics addressed in the research workshop series were changed, with the injection of a more structured approach and a learner-centred focus into the content of the workshops. The department decided to have a more diverse set of workshops based on feedback received from the first series and on the issues and concerns which had been raised during the proposal and thesis defence presentation sessions and subsequent ongoing student discussions and inquiries. Table 12.2 lists the topics in the second workshop series which was held from April to November 2021. The first session provided an overview of the preparation of a research project and included many topics ranging from identifying the research problem, to determining the methodology, designing the research, data collection, analysis, interpretation and finally writing the report. Since the research methods course did not cover each research methodology in detail, the workshop was aimed at addressing specific concerns of students who were in the midst of their research. The topics included how to conduct case study research and explored data collection methods for qualitative research. Students had the opportunity to raise pertinent concerns regarding their research for discussion with the instructor, while other participants gained insight from the discussions. Two sessions covered specific research designs, namely the mixed method and descriptive design to allow students to improve knowledge of the method, while relating the fundamentals to their own work. The most popular topic was Preparing for Your Candidature Defence and Proposal Defence. Although students might be able conduct a well planned and systematic research project, at times their ability to present their work coherently and to respond to examiners’ queries accurately, can cause considerable anxiety. A workshop on addressing the concerns, exploring the assessment criteria, and identifying the optimal means of concise and clear presentations during proposal and candidature defences proved very helpful.

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Table 12.2: Research Methods Workshop Series 2021 No.

Topic

1 2

Your MLIS Research Project: A to Z Case Study Preparing for Your Candidature Defence And Proposal Defence Data Collection for Qualitative Research A Mixed Method Research Design: Are You Ready? Quantitative Research Approach: Descriptive Design

3 4 5 6

No. of Participants 7 15 29 15 10 12

Methods of teaching were enhanced to embrace the affective domain of learners. A year after completion of this series, another survey was conducted to gain insight into the impact the second workshop series had on the graduates and their attitudes towards research.

Feedback In March 2022, a Google survey form was distributed to twenty-six participants of both research methods workshop series. The purpose of the survey was to gain insights into how the workshop series impacted participants’ subsequent research and/or professional practices. A total of seven respondents, mainly librarians, research assistants, and lecturers gave their feedback. The number of respondents was low probably because the feedback was conducted much later and participants did not feel obliged to respond. All respondents reported that they conducted research as part of their job requirements and performance. Four also conducted research for their personal interests. Among the benefits the respondents reported receiving from the workshop series was fundamental knowledge of research methods, especially contextualising the research problem, and conducting the literature review. They also reported that the Mendeley session was especially useful and that they had continued to use the tool. Several respondents reported continuing to use the systematic literature review methodology to pursue publishing in the areas of their research interests. When asked about the influence of the workshops on their research behaviour and activity, several respondents to the survey provided positive and powerful accounts of the impact of the workshops as shown in the following comments: –– In some ways, it gives me the confidence to begin writing, provides me with an overview of the subject, and as someone who is not in the academic field who wishes to learn more, it provides a more objective perspective



–– –– –– –– –– –– –– ––

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The research skills could be applied in the routine works such as data analysis Know the information related to the ethics in supporting the researchers I understand the ethics of research The fact that I am learning from someone who is an expert in the field allows me to gain insight into the real research experience being shared I am able to conduct my research more confidently based on the knowledge and skills obtained from the series of research methods workshop series The more I engaged through the series, the more I made sense of the challenge. I finish with a new set of useful skills to take forward in work and study Gained confidence in conducting research, and Getting to know the weaknesses in doing research.

As expected, participants reported gaining research knowledge and skills based on the intended content of the workshops; however, it is interesting that they also reported on their affective behaviour. Gaining confidence, making sense, moving forward, and realising weaknesses are some of the changes experienced by the graduates as a result of the way the workshops were conducted. Sharing of experiences and the presentation of specific examples during the workshop were effective methods used to bring about positive attitudes toward research. The participants also voiced their appreciation for enhanced knowledge on the ethics of research. Research ethics is an important aspect of LIS research which frequently involves human subjects. Participants in effective teaching and learning activities related to ethical considerations will gain confidence as researchers in selecting the appropriate methodology to be applied in particular circumstances and in the interpretation of results. They will know and understand the ethical implications involved in each step of the research process. Participants in the survey on the research methods workshop series also indicated what they liked most about the series (Figure 12.1). They all agreed that the content was directly relevant to their research studies. The new design of the series was effective; all activities in the modules were based on the participants’ reflections on their own chosen topics of research; the overall topics for the series of workshops were also thought to be comprehensive by the participants. The presentation of content allowed the participants to gain confidence in research design because they contextualised and evaluated their own research processes and journeys. The duration and method of delivery did not receive high scores as the participants preferred face-to-face physical interaction and each session was only two to three hours in length. In the future, the department may consider allocating more time to each topic to allow for greater interaction with the participants and responses to individual queries. Only three participants responded to the question concerning the experience of the facilitators. There were one professor, two asso-

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ciate professors and three lecturers involved in the delivery of the workshops. It was not possible to ascertain which facilitators were referred to, but the instructors continuously work on improving their knowledge and competencies over time.

Figure 12.1: Participants’ preferences about the workshop series

Among the suggestions received to further improve the series was the inclusion of training on the use of statistical software for data analysis and hands-on practical training with statistical data analysis tools. The department will explore these suggestions for the future.

Reflections and Challenges The DLIS has successfully conducted additional workshops to assist graduates in completing their studies on time and in gaining additional knowledge of research methods. The learning objectives of the research methodology courses have been expanded to include not only Bloom’s cognitive domain, but also the affective domain of learning. Ormrod (2008) places emphasis on affective traits of learning to ensure students feel motivated and enjoy what they are learning. Motivation and enjoyment contribute to positive attitudes to learning and enhance achievement. In developing the series of workshops, the affective domain has been stressed by the faculty. The workshops have been well received mainly because the workshop series is not a formal compulsory course with a set of assessments to be graded. The students feel less stressed, more receptive, and engaged because they volunteered to attend. The open discussions held during the workshops allowed students to raise concerns relating to their specific research interests which enhanced the sense of relevance and usefulness of the programme. Nind et al. (2020) found in their study that doctoral students valued experiential learning based on their own and peers’



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experiences of applying particular research methods. In a formal research methodology class, students are at the initial stage of learning and embarking on their research work, which limits their ability to share experiences. However during the research methods workshop series, students who volunteered to participate were already in the midst of their research work and had much to share and wanted to raise questions for discussion. The ability to apply the principles and applications immediately to their own research influenced their attitudes towards the usefulness of the research methodology being taught. Daniel, Kumar, and Omar (2018) in their investigation of Malaysian postgraduate students’ conception of research methodology, found that the key challenges they faced in understanding research methodology included framing the research questions, understanding the theory or literature and its role in shaping research outcomes, and difficulties in performing data analysis. The same issues were brought forward by the students in the LIS programme at UM and the research methods workshop series was designed to address the issues. However, as publishing is mandatory at UM, the skills required to apply systematic literature review techniques have also been given due importance. The main challenge faced in conducting the workshops has been the timing limitation both in relation to the time of provision and the length of the workshop. Not all students were at the same exact phase in their research. Students may not have been ready to engage with a specific topic at the time the workshop was conducted. Some have requested repeat sessions but instructors’ teaching and research workload commitments have to date precluded this. The slides used in presentations are usually widely distributed and the online sessions are recorded and can be shared by the instructors. Another issue has been the duration of the workshops. Although in Davies’s (2021) investigation, the doctoral students agreed that a one hour session per seminar was the right duration, the participants at UM wanted longer sessions. The department intends to conduct more engaging physical faceto-face sessions for students on campus, particularly as COVID-19 pandemic restrictions lessen their impact.

Conclusion The experience of nurturing graduate students in their acquisition of appropriate attitudes, knowledge and skills through two workshop series on research methods held in 2020 and 2021 by the Department of Library and Information Studies at the Universiti Malaya has been outlined. The workshops provided additional assistance to the graduate students based on their articulated needs. Feedback from

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participants on both their immediate gains and long term impacts reveals that the workshop series have been effective in assisting the master’s and doctoral LIS students to complete their research theses and dissertations successfully and motivate them to conduct research in their workplaces and even for individual interests. The workshop series cultivated a positive attitude towards research in LIS and a reported gain in confidence and understanding of the basic structured process of research. Testimonies from participants suggest that a research methodology course not only needs to focus on the cognitive aspects of research principles and design, but also include the affective domain to ensure students become actively involved in the research process, understand the implementation of appropriate principles within their research work, and open their minds to the strengths and weaknesses of their work as they share experiences with peers during the learning process. Increased self-confidence, enhanced skills, and a new sense of challenge have enabled the students to bring forth their research capabilities to address present and future studies and work-related endeavours. The formation of a skilled information professional workforce in Malaysia that has the motivation and ability to make informed decisions based on research and evidence-based practice is the aspiration for the LIS master’s and doctoral programmes at the Universiti Malaya. Informal workshops on research methods, where sharing occurs at both intellectual and emotional levels, are definitely the way forward. Future workshop series will see additional topics emerge as the students seek more active engagement with other students to share experiences and insights on the problems and issues faced in research. The upcoming series includes an open discussion on research designs and lessons learnt. Librarians in Malaysia are keen to conduct research and publish and it is hoped that future graduates will engage in more systematic research to propel librarians in Malaysia to apply knowledge and skills to practical decision making in their workplaces.

References Daniel, Ben, Vijay Kumar, and Noritah Omar. 2018. “Postgraduate Conception of Research Methodology: Implications for Learning and Teaching.” International Journal of Research & Method in Education 41, no. 2: 220–236. https://doi.org/10.1080/1743727X.2017.1283397. Davies, Christine. 2021. “Online Seminar in Statistics for Doctoral Students: A Case Study.” Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice 18, no. 2: Article 06. https://ro.uow.edu.au/jutlp/vol18/ iss2/06/. Lei, Simon A. 2008. “Factors Changing Attitudes of Graduate School Students Towards an Introductory Research Methodology Course.” Education 128, no. 4: 667–685. Lei, Simon. A. 2010. “College Research Methodology Courses: Revisiting General Instructional Goals and Objectives.” Journal of Instructional Psychology 37, no. 3: 236–240.



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Nind, Melanie, Michelle Holmes, Michela Insenga, Sarah Lewthwaite, and Cordelia Sutton. 2020. “Student Perspectives on Learning Research Methods in the Social Sciences.” Teaching in Higher Education 25, no. 7: 797–811. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2019.1592150. Ormrod, Jeanne Ellis. 2008. Human Learning. 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merill Prentice Hall. Universiti Malaya. Department of Library and Information Science. n.d. “Department Overview.” https://fass.um.edu.my/departdepartment-of-library-and-information-science-ment-of-libraryand-information-science.

Annie Nickum and Kristyn Caragher

13 L earning As We Go: Junior Faculty Librarians’ Perspectives on Research Abstract: Librarians working in colleges and universities support the research of students and faculty. A large institution with a wide selection of disciplines requires not only a massive collection of information resources, but also a breadth of expertise from its librarians. The liaison model of librarianship involves library subject experts assigned to university colleges and departments; a single librarian or a small group works with specific fields such as medicine, physical sciences, or law. This chapter provides an overview of how two early-career junior faculty liaison librarians in the United States juggle the dual roles of new researcher and research practitioner. The authors discuss research expectations for academic librarians within the US context and describe their experiences in developing research agendas, expanding skills in research methodology, and conducting empirical research. Keywords: Academic librarians – Tenure; Academic librarians – Faculty status; Academic libraries – United States; Liaison librarians

Introduction The work of an academic librarian in the United States is not standardized and varies by institution, but the requirements are similar. Most academic librarian positions require a master’s degree in library and information science (MLIS), or the equivalent, from an American Library Association (ALA) accredited program and, depending on the position itself, a certain amount of experience. There are institutions that make an additional disciplinary degree a requirement, although most position statements include any additional qualification as preferred rather than essential. Some institutions classify librarians as professional staff and others as faculty (ACRL 2021a, 2021b). Duties are similar for both classifications and include maintaining the collection and supporting faculty and students affiliated with the college or university. The distinction lies in scholarship where faculty are expected to conduct research and professional staff focus on practical aspects of librarianship. Some institutions employ a hybrid model; librarians are not considered faculty but professional scholarly contributions to the field including publications are expected with a clear path to promotion. While librarian faculty positions differ from other faculty positions on campus, with many faculty librarians https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-015



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typically teaching one-shot instruction sessions rather than semester-long classes, faculty librarians must meet the promotion and tenure norms in place within each university to be promoted or gain tenure. At the University of Illinois Chicago (UIC), librarians are classified as faculty and required to publish to be promoted and to gain tenure. Those on the tenure track are divided into three levels: assistant professors are pre-tenure and have a set number of years to develop their research before institution norms permit them to apply for tenure; associate professors are tenured and therefore enjoy a protected employment status; full professors are not only tenured but renowned experts in their field. The authors are pre-tenured tenure-track faculty and in the process of fine-tuning their research agendas and goals. They are new to conducting original research, but at the same time are expected to be experts in the research processes of other fields. However, work is not limited to supporting and conducting research; information literacy instruction and information service provision are expected along with collection development, consultation, and such activities as preparation of library guides. Library faculty are frequently liaison librarians attached to particular disciplinary areas. They teach classes for students in their liaison areas, provide reference services answering student and faculty inquiries, serve on library and campus committees, and are active in professional associations. The designation of tenure or non-tenure track is a matter of institutional policy. The liaison model is more specific to academic libraries. Given the breadth of disciplines in a large university, it would be impossible for any one person to be able to answer anything more than surface level questions for library patrons. The liaison model addresses this nicely by assigning subject-matter experts to disciplines or groups thereof depending on the institution’s focus. An undergraduate university specializing in the humanities may have a single science librarian whereas a doctoral degree granting university with a medical school and teaching hospital might have subject librarians for the basic sciences, medicine, nursing, and allied health programs like speech pathology and physical therapy.

The Research Gap To meet the promotion and tenure requirements for research, a junior faculty member in the Library at the University of Illinois Chicago must become an expert on a topic or set of topics, undertake a research project, disseminate the research results, and hopefully become known in scholarly circles and beyond for excellence and expertise in a specific area. Library and information science (LIS) programs

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in the US have traditionally prepared future librarians for professional practice, such as reference, instruction, and collection development, rather than for future roles as scholars. At the University of Illinois Champaign-Urbana (UIUC), research methods courses are offered in the master’s of science in library and information science (MSLIS) and there is an option to do a thesis, but taking a research course or completing a thesis is not a requirement to obtain the degree (University of Illinois Champaign-Urbana School of Information Sciences n.d.). While the approach to program inclusions affords LIS students flexibility in their studies, MSLIS graduates who are planning on going into academic librarianship, or who decide to do so after graduation, do not necessarily leave university with the requisite skills to execute scholarly research themselves unless they intentionally take a research course or seek opportunities to obtain those skills through such activities as a research assistantship or completing a thesis. While a research course may be offered as a part of the LIS curriculum, it might not be required and the research courses that are offered typically focus on an overview of research methodologies rather than the execution of a research project (Matusiak and Bright 2020). At the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee School of Information Studies, research methods is a required course, but the emphasis is on understanding different methodologies and supporting the research activities of others as opposed to engaging in primary research personally. There is a strong likelihood that a librarian entering a job with faculty status will not have experience executing original scholarly research, particularly if the qualification is a terminal degree or highest level awarded in the discipline with no second master’s or doctorate degree.

Conducting Successful Research in Practice The research gap coupled with the opportunity to undertake a research project presents both a chance for achievement and a tension. On the one hand, it is exciting to be able to conduct original scholarly research as a part of one’s job; on the other, it is difficult to do so because, in addition to having to obtain the skills required for executing a research project successfully, a junior faculty member must also attend to librarian and teaching duties satisfactorily to meet performance targets for tenure. Because of the origins of the field of library and information science and the emphasis on service (Douglas and Gadsby 2020), there is an inherent tension between research, librarianship duties, and the realities of being on tenure track (Babb 2021; Silva, Galbraith, and Groesbeck 2017).



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To facilitate the highest quality of research by emerging library faculty, support should be given at the campus, college, and department levels. The Chicago campus at UIC encourages faculty to take part in writing accountability groups where scholars get together at regular intervals to work on their writing; members focus individually on their own work, but the very act of setting aside time and getting together is motivating. Faculty are also encouraged to participate in activities of the National Center for Faculty Development and Diversity, an independent organization with memberships from major institutions throughout the US. The Center provides tips and advice and programs for career transition. At the college level, the UIC Library allocates its faculty fifteen research days every fiscal year which are scheduled at the faculty’s discretion and assigns a tenured mentor to all incoming junior faculty. Department heads are tasked with protecting their faculty from being overcommitted and supporting a healthy balance between research, on-the-job performance, and service. Some of the strategies employed by the authors have included making sure research days are scheduled in advance of the beginning of the academic year, being selective with the service work undertaken, and being strategic with research projects, creating them where possible from service work or linking them to professional duties. As an emerging researcher, a junior faculty member must learn how to formulate a research question that addresses the heart of the problem under investigation, conduct a literature search, select the best research and data collection methods to answer the research question or set of questions, collect data and evidence, interpret findings, explore the impact of the results, and indicate further work or subsequent actions. The remainder of this chapter explores the authors’ experiences as earlycareer researchers and outlines their prior research experience, current research projects and experiences, with the aim of informing others who may be considering a tenure track or research-focused library position.

A Tale of Two Researchers The two authors of this chapter, Caragher and Nickum, have diverse interests, backgrounds and experiences. They tell the stories of their research journeys.

Caragher’s Story Caragher’s research interests in organizational change and leadership are rooted in social justice and anti-oppressive practices. During her graduate studies, she

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conducted a research study “Art Institutions’ Impact on Art Curators’ and Art Educators’ Social Justice Practices” utilizing semi-structured interviews. The research attempted to answer how institutional norms can influence art curators’ abilities to employ equitable practices in their curatorial work and in particular the influence and impact of donors on museum practices and the adoption of social justice practices (Caragher 2014). After completing her MSLIS, Caragher realized she wanted to focus on libraries, rather than museums, and enrolled in the Certificate of Advanced Study (CAS) in Library and Information Science graduate program at UIUC. During this time, her research interests became focused on anti-racist librarianship, and she designed and implemented an anti-oppressive workshop series for over 80 library employees at the University Library at UIUC. Subsequently she published a report that serves as a case study for other libraries interested in applying anti-oppressive principles to their practices and policies (Caragher 2016). Prior to moving into academic libraries, Caragher worked in public libraries as both an adult and teen services librarian. While she was a public librarian, she presented at conferences, published a book chapter on anti-racist librarianship (Kalpin Prescott, Caragher, and Dover-Taylor 2017), as well as a conference proceeding focusing on anti-racist collection development practices (Conner-Gaten, Caragher, and Drake 2017). Although working in a public library setting was exciting, the scholarly work Caragher was doing was primarily undertaken in her own time. It was her desire to conduct original scholarly research and present at conferences as a part of her job responsibilities that motivated Caragher to move from public libraries to academic libraries, and specifically to the role of assistant professor. In March 2020, Caragher began her position as an assistant professor and STEM Librarian at UIC where she is a liaison to the College of Engineering and two departments in the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences: Mathematics, Statistics and Computer Science; and Physics. Although Caragher took a social science research class while she was obtaining the CAS, the course deliverable outcome was a research proposal not a full research project. To help fill gaps in her knowledge, during her first year as an assistant professor she took an elective social science LIS research course at UIUC to help prepare for conducting original scholarly research as a junior faculty member. In December 2019 Caragher was invited to participate in the joint Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL), the Association of Research Libraries (ARL), the American Library Association’s Office for Diversity, Literacy and Outreach Services (ODLOS), and the Public Library Association (PLA) Building Cultural Proficiencies for Racial Equity Framework Task Force (ALA 2020). The purpose of the task force was to create a racial equity framework for academic and public libraries. Out of desire for the framework to be responsive to the needs of library practitioners in academic and public libraries, Caragher suggested creating a



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survey to obtain a sense of the most pressing issues faced by library employees regarding racial equity and racism in libraries. The survey served a dual purpose; it led to the creation of an aggregate data report to inform the task force and help create the racial equity framework; and it served as Caragher’s inaugural research study “Racial Equity in Libraries” as she worked towards tenure. Caragher created and led a subgroup of the task force, the survey working group. The working group collaboratively created the survey instrument, received feedback from the task force members, and select members of ALA. Caragher, along with her co-investigator Tatiana Bryant, another member of the task force, received Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval mandated for research activities in the US and the national study used the survey instrument to examine public and academic library employees’ perceptions of racial equity work at their libraries and library employees’ experiences with racism in the workplace. Due to support from ALA in marketing the survey, the researchers were able to reach a large audience, with a total of 717 participants. After data collection, Caragher and Bryant focused their analysis for the first article “Black and Non-Black Library Workers’ Perceptions of Hiring, Retention, and Promotion Racial Equity Practices” on data that related to hiring, retention, and promotion of Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) library employees (Caragher and Bryant 2023). To uncover inequities, scholars have made the call for disaggregating data by race and ethnicity (McNair, Bensimon, and Malcolm-Piqueux 2020). Caragher and Bryant therefore decided to disaggregate the data between Black and Non-Black participants to uncover potential inequities and address antiBlack racism. Caragher learned how to use the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) to run cross-tabulations for the quantitative data, which required skill development on her part. For the qualitative data, Caragher and Bryant co-created an iterative codebook to analyze the open-ended questions, coded responses individually, and then came together to develop the themes collaboratively. While Caragher had some familiarity with coding, she had never tackled the process with a co-collaborator and learned a great deal from the joint involvement. The experience of engaging in quantitative and qualitative research has helped Caragher better understand the types of research that are of interest to her. Her future research will include examining library leaders’ perceptions of accountability as it relates to racial equity, which will utilize data from the racial equity in libraries study.

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Nickum’s Story Nickum is a medical librarian and part of a professional specialty which has its own international association, the Medical Library Association. The designation has the same requirements as other types of librarians, with the difference being a preference for health sciences experience. Nickum’s undergraduate degree is in nursing. However, it is not uncommon for medical librarians, whether they work in hospitals or educational institutions, to have undergraduate degrees in the humanities. Despite variations in background, all new medical librarians are expected to support biomedical education and health care delivery (Myers and Rodriguez 2016). Nickum began her library career in an academic health sciences library. As a professional member of staff, she helped health science students with their research and was not required to conduct her own. While research coursework as part of her nursing degree provided preparation for assisting nursing students and faculty in their own scholarship, it did little to inform her library work as a researcher. Her alma mater, the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee School of Information Studies, provided a background in research methods, but it was not sufficient for active involvement in pursuing original research. Her library director at the time encouraged her to conduct research, present findings at conferences, and engage in professional associations. Nickum presented posters and lightning talks and participated in panels on challenges for early-career librarians, embedded librarianship, community engagement, and transitioning from a print to almost exclusively digital collection. These forays into research were a step in the right direction, but a far cry from the level of work required for tenure. Nickum’s background in nursing made her an ideal candidate for her current position at UIC which she commenced in 2019. In discussing a potential research agenda at the interview for the position at UIC, she experienced difficulty coming up with ideas which featured innovative library projects. After commencing at UIC, Nickum worked extensively with an assigned mentor and peers to develop an actionable research and development agenda. When Nickum commenced work at UIC, she was in the process of writing her first paper. New to library research and familiar with nursing, she developed her agenda around her liaison responsibilities. Her research focused on the information needs and searching behaviors of practicing nurses. She used the insight gained from assisting pre-licensure, practicing, and faculty nurses to develop ideas and drive research activities forward. Nickum’s experience with students, even with advanced doctoral students, gave her only an inkling of the level of assistance required for faculty research. At her previous institution, nursing faculty focused more on the education of students



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than their own research and many did not hold terminal degrees. The transition to a higher caliber institution like UIC constituted a steep learning curve regarding the level of support expected from Nickum. It is the expectation of non-library faculty that librarians will assist them with their literature reviews, writing up search methodologies, determining inclusion and exclusion criteria, and acting as an overall sounding board. Faculty who are library clients range from junior levels, sometimes at the same stage of the tenure process as the librarians, to full professors seeking additional opinions and guidance. An example of recent research is Nickum’s work on point-of-care tools (PoCTs), specialized resources emanating from the evidence-based practice emphasis in health care and used to inform care at the bedside. She examined how these tools fit the information needs of practicing nurses. Nursing leadership at the institution’s teaching hospital suggested the project during an informal discussion of PoCTs; Nickum saw an opportunity to take part in her first UIC collaborative research endeavor. Many tools exist, but it was not known which were the best fit for nursing. Nickum worked with other nursing liaison librarians to develop an evaluation rubric to compare tools from a practical nursing perspective. The team quickly realized that librarians making a determination was not enough; the voices of nurses were needed as well (Nickum et al. 2022). The research team developed a survey and sent it out to practicing nurses to determine their views on tool usage. The project began in early 2020 and it took two years to conclude the process with the papers published in 2022 (Nickum et al. 2022; Nickum, Raszewski, and Vonderheid 2022). Work on the project was an eye-opening experience. The evaluation rubric should have been straightforward; the simple yes or no format seemed clear when developing the rubric; and disagreements between research team members were not anticipated. The librarians involved were meant to review five PoCTs and determine whether each met agreed criteria. Not all the librarians were able to find all the criteria and the rubric turned out to be far more subjective than expected. Revisions to the publication reporting results proved difficult when one author was away on leave and the fourth had taken a position elsewhere. The survey presented challenges. All human subject research requires permission from the Institutional Review Board (IRB). The preparation of the proposal seeking approval was uncharted territory and proved more difficult than expected. The survey required finalization before submission and while no proposal is perfect, there is always hesitancy to submit a final draft. Nickum and her colleagues had hypothesized that one PoCT would outperform the others, but no single tool was statistically preferred above the others (Nickum, Raszewski, and Vonderheid 2022). As a consequence, nursing leadership was underwhelmed by the results and did not heed the library’s advice to continue with an

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existing product already licensed but receiving low usage. The combined projects gave the researcher an enhanced understanding of the hospital’s nurses and their use of, and need for, information resources, but also threatened to strain nascent relations with nursing leadership. Moving forward, the research will shift to nurses affiliated with the university but located outside the hospital.

Reflections The question of how one balances competing priorities is a frequent concern for new faculty. At UIC, each incoming librarian on the tenure track is assigned a tenured faculty member as a mentor to guide the newcomer and to provide research support and advice. The environment is collegial rather than competitive and peers are often on hand to offer advice and to share expertise on specific research methodologies. Advice on what to do and how to do it is often accompanied by what not to do. Effective time management is essential for tenure track junior faculty. One must be supremely well-organized to manage competing priorities and stay on track with each activity. A new tenure track position is exciting and wanting to get involved in multiple projects is understandable. Frequent advice to early-career librarians is to learn to say no, regardless of how interesting the topic might be. Boundaries must be drawn, and research partners must be on the same page. Junior faculty new to research might consider taking a research course if they have not previously done so or if they need a refresher. Even with completion of a research course, junior faculty in academic libraries within the US should anticipate supplementing skills by working with more experienced researchers or by seeking out additional support through research mentors or colleagues with specialist expertise in a particular research method being used. Conducting successful research and contributing to scholarly conversations are exhilarating. It is vital that junior faculty research topics about which they are passionate, even if they lie outside the bounds of disciplinary liaison areas. Caragher and Nickum have demonstrated that there are multiple ways to conduct research projects and supplement skills. While their experiences are unique to them and their institution, it is important for new junior faculty to seek out support and collaborators that align with their research interests as well as projects that help them grow as researchers.



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Conclusion The early career of an academic librarian and junior faculty member with a research focus is intense. At UIC, it is understood that support is needed, and it is provided. Mentors are assigned, and colleagues are careful not to overburden junior members. Librarianship is a broad field, and the degree requirements and course inclusions in university schools are wide-ranging to reflect the diversity of the profession. It should not be a rare occurrence for library schools to prepare future professionals to be scholars in their own right; ideally library schools should include research training for all graduates. Library research can take many forms; Nickum has chosen to focus on users while Caragher’s research centers on libraries and library professionals. Scholarship that advances the professional field of library and information science has considerable merit. Academic librarians sometimes struggle to be taken seriously as researchers within their campuses because librarians are viewed as part of a service unit (Babb 2021). A robust foundation in conducting research and promoting its importance to the academic community is vital for librarians and can only benefit the practice and profession of library and information science, libraries and by extension, the institutions served by libraries.

References American Library Association (ALA). 2020. “ACRL, ARL, ODLOS, and PLA Announce Joint Cultural Competencies Task Force.” ALA Member News June 18, 2020. https://www.ala.org/news/ member-news/2020/05/acrl-arl-odlos-and-pla-announce-joint-cultural-competencies-taskforce. Association of College & Research Libraries (ACRL). 2021a. “ACRL Standards for Academic Librarians Without Faculty Status.” https://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/guidelinesacademic. Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL). 2021b. “A Standard for the Appointment, Promotion and Tenure of Academic Librarians.” https://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/ promotiontenure. Babb, Maureen. 2021. “Faculty and Librarian Perceptions of Librarians as Researchers: Results from Semi-Structured Interviews.” Canadian Journal of Academic Librarianship 7: 1–19. https://cjal.ca/index.php/capal/article/view/36874. Caragher, Kristyn. 2014. “Art Institutions’ Impact on Art Curators’ and Art Educators’ Social Justice Practices.” Unpublished manuscript. Caragher, Kristyn. 2016. “Anti-Oppression Workshop Series at the University Library.” CAS project. University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. https://hdl.handle.net/2142/97950. Caragher, Kristyn, and Tatiana Bryant. 2023. “Black and Non-Black Library Workers’ Perceptions of Hiring, Retention, and Promotion Racial Equity Practices.” Journal of Library Administration 63, no. 2: 137–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/01930826.2022.2159239.

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Conner-Gaten, Aisha, Kristyn Caragher, and Tracy Drake. 2017. “Collections Decoded: Reflections and Strategies for Anti-Racist Collection Development.” In 2017 Brick & Click: An Academic Conference: 17th Annual, Northwest Missouri State University, Maryville, Missouri, November 3, 2017. Edited by Frank Baudino, Kathy Hart, and Carolyn Johnson, 151–158. Maryville, MO: Northwest Missouri State University. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED578189.pdf. Douglas, Veronica Arellano, and Joanna Gadsby. 2020. Deconstructing Service in Libraries: Intersections of Identities and Expectations. Sacramento: Litwin Books. Kalpin Prescott, Melissa, Kristyn Caragher, and Katie Dover-Taylor. 2017. “Disrupting Whiteness: Three Perspectives on White Anti-Racist Librarianship.” In Topographies of Whiteness: Mapping Whiteness in Library and Information Science, edited by Gina SchlesselmanTarango, 293–316. Sacramento, CA: Library Juice Press. Matusiak, Krystyna K., and Kawanna Bright. 2020. “Teaching Research Methods in Master’sLevel LIS Programs: The United States Perspective.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 61, no. 3: 357–382. https://doi.org/10.3138/jelis.61.3.2020-0001. McNair, Tia Brown, Estela Mara Bensimon, and Lindsey Malcom-Piqueux. 2020. From Equity Talk to Equity Walk: Expanding Practitioner Knowledge for Racial Justice in Higher Education. Newark: John Wiley & Sons Inc. Myers, Bethany A, and Bredny Rodriguez. 2016. “How Do Early Career Health Sciences Information Professionals Gain Competencies?” Journal of the Medical Library Association 104, no. 3: 215–220. https://doi.org/10.3163%2F1536-5050.104.3.006. Nickum, Annie, Emily Johnson-Barlow, Rebecca Raszewski, and Ryan Rafferty. 2022. “Focus on Nursing Point-of-Care Tools: A Pilot of an Evaluation Rubric.” JMLA: Journal of the Medical Library Association 110, no. 3: 358–364. https://doi.org/10.5195/jmla.2022.1257. Nickum, Annie, Rebecca Raszewski, and Susan C. Vonderheid. 2022. “A Comparative Evaluation of Three Point-of-Care Tools by Registered Nurses” JMLA: Journal of the Medical Library Association 110, no. 3: 323–331. https://doi.org/10.5195/jmla.2022.1388. Silva, Elsa, Quinn Galbraith, and Michael Groesbeck. 2017. “Academic Librarians’ Changing Perceptions of Faculty Status and Tenure.” College & Research Libraries 78, no. 4: 428–441. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl.78.4.428. University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. School of Information Sciences. n.d. “MS in Library and Information Science.” https://ischool.illinois.edu/degrees-programs/graduate/ms-library-andinformation-science. University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. School of Information Studies. n.d. “Library and Information Science, MLIS.” https://uwm.edu/informationstudies/academic-programs/library-andinformation-science-masters/.

Jessica L. Serrao

14 T he Personal Journey of an Early-Career Researcher in the United States Abstract: This chapter outlines research challenges faced by an early-career researcher in the United States in designing and modifying a research project on equity, diversity, and inclusion in digital collections metadata practices in archives. It addresses the usual challenges of balancing resources and shifting timelines to accommodate the unexpected, but also the learning curve experienced due to gaps in research knowledge and the multi-faceted understanding and application of equity, diversity and inclusion in archives in the United States. More specifically, it discusses how the author carved out research time from a busy work schedule, the library and information science (LIS) education limitations experienced, the issues in securing resources to support a tenure-track faculty research agenda, the challenge of defining and operationalizing equity, diversity, and inclusion, and difficulties ensuring an inclusive research design through sampling methods and input from experts. The chapter discusses how the challenges were addressed to accommodate differences in organizational structure and terminology among academic archives in the United States, the limitations faced during the COVID-19 pandemic, and finally, how to find space for self-care and emotional understanding. While the research project is ongoing, the challenges and how they have been dealt with provide insight into the complexity of archival research design that published articles and presentations rarely cover. The invisible work of library research is just as important as the reported findings and the experiences described suggest that just as much can be learned from the process as from the results. Keywords: Library science – Research; Library education – United States; Metadata; Diversity – Research

Introduction Research does not always go as planned. There are the usual challenges of balancing resources and shifting timelines to accommodate the unexpected. Throw in the learning curve of an early-career researcher and the multi-faceted application of equity, diversity, and inclusion in archives activities in the United States and designing a research project becomes a complex journey of understanding. This chapter outlines the ongoing process of conducting a research project that began in 2019 with the research journey lasting much longer than initially anticipated. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-016

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The experience described in this chapter reflects on the project challenges and the flexibility and humility required when adapting a research timeline. The chapter seeks to show that learning and applying research methods is complex but that there are resources available for support. It also addresses how, in practice, the validity and reliability of a well-designed research study can clash with the limitations of reality. An optimistic note is injected by relating how reliance on a community of practice along with reflection on the challenges faced can overcome the challenges experienced. Making visible the invisible work that goes into a research project demonstrates that the research process is as important as the outcomes in the learning experience.

Research Education and Training There is a general lack of concrete research training for library and archive professionals, which is a familiar experience for many early-career archivists and librarians (Ackerman, Hunter, and Wilkinson 2018; Kennedy and Brancolini 2012; Luo 2011; Powell et al. 2002; Vilz and Poremski 2015). Before conducting this study, the author’s research training consisted of a graduate research methods course and a half-semester proposal development course during a Master of Science in Library Science (MSLS) program at the 2022 highest ranking library and information science school in the US (U.S. News & World Report n.d. ), the University of North Carolina (UNC) School of Information and Library Science. Students had the option to pursue an individual research-based master’s paper or a practice-based team practicum project. Professors informed students that the paper was less stringent than a master’s thesis and often referred to it as a capstone experience. By requiring a research methods course, the UNC program was in the majority within the US. In 2010, 61% of forty-nine American Library Association (ALA)-accredited LIS degree programs required a research methods course (Luo 2016). Luo reported that librarians who took research methods courses possessed a better understanding of “the fundamental principles and processes of conducting research; knowledge of different types of research methods, their respective liabilities, and how to appropriately apply them” and that they could “conduct a systematic and critical literature review of published research” (Luo 2016, 194). Almost ten years later, Matusiak and Bright (2020) established that the percentage of programs requiring research methods had dropped slightly to 58% of fifty-two LIS programs. A large majority of the programs’ curricula, 96%, offered students at least one research methods course, but it was considered an elective in 48% of the programs (Matusiak and Bright 2020).



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In practice, a research methods course in an LIS program may not be enough. Berg and Banks (2016) argue that, while such courses provide an overview of quantitative and qualitative methods and guidance on writing up results for dissemination, they do not fully prepare librarians to undertake research successfully. The author’s experience aligns with their view. The required research methods course undertaken as part of graduate studies provided a valuable overview, and an understanding of what methods were available. The knowledge gap lies in the details of how to apply a particular method from start to finish. During the course, the author focused specifically on the qualitative method which was planned for use in the master’s paper and viewed the course primarily as preparation for that specific research. Consequently, knowledge of complex statistical analysis of quantitative research was not retained. One of the most valuable lessons the author learned from the research methods course and the proposal development course was how to plan a research project and select the appropriate method for the research questions posed. Professors provided extensive bibliographies of resources on research methods, practices, and applications to which the author continues to refer when planning new research and utilizes them for self-study and learning new methods.

Position Duties and Research Requirements After graduating in 2018 from a prestigious public research university in the southern states of the US, the author was fortunate to be offered a full-time tenure-track faculty position at Clemson University in South Carolina, a Carnegie R1 designated doctoral university with very high research activity and a “collective calling as a University… to change lives, change perception and, through our work, to change the world”. For over forty years, the Carnegie Classification has been “the leading framework for recognizing and describing institutional diversity in US higher education” (American College of Education n.d.). According to the Carnegie Classification, an R1 ranking signifies the highest level of research activity with at least $5 million in total research expenditures, and the awarding of at least twenty research/scholarship doctoral degrees. Many academic librarians in North America are appointed on tenure track similar to other faculty within the university system. The tenure track position at Clemson requires research, defined as research, scholarship, and creative activities, and service to meet departmental tenure requirements within a six-year timeline, in addition to librarianship duties. The Clemson University Libraries’ faculty departmental guidelines do not currently require research and publication to meet

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tenure. Scholarly outputs may take the form of publication, such as authored or edited scholarly works, significant contributions to monographs, or published conference proceedings, but they may also take other forms, such as significant professional presentations, poster presentations, significant web-based resources, scholarly exhibits, or software programs that do not require research (Clemson University Libraries 2021). The guidelines state that no one type of output is more significant than another, which differs from other departments and academic libraries that consider peer-reviewed publications as a standard requirement for tenure. Library faculty are discussing potential revisions to the guidelines to clarify research expectations. The purpose of any revisions is not only to define tenure requirements more precisely but also to assess alignment with the university’s strategic priority of research, which states that Clemson University “will be nationally recognized as a leader in research, consistently ranked among institutions with the highest level of research activity” (Clemson University 2019, 9). There is also the question of whether the library’s tenure guidelines should align more closely with requirements for teaching faculty in other departments that have more stringent research and publication requirements, and whether library faculty should have the same output as teaching and research faculty. The author wishes to conduct original research not only to build a sufficient dossier for tenure but also to improve professional practice and user experiences.

Tackling the Early-Career Learning Curve With five years of full-time academic library experience and four years of parttime graduate experience, the author considers herself an early-career library and archives professional, trained in archives and records management and working with archival digital collections. As an early-career professional at a research-focused institution, the author decided on an annual performance goal to conduct original research and in pursuit of this goal, was not sure where to begin. A knowledge gap was immediately identified. How was good research created? Each step of the design process felt overwhelming and complex, from formulating an appropriate research question to learning how to use statistical software for data analysis. There would be a huge learning curve in discovering how to design valid, reliable, and accurate research. The extent of the learning curve was made more apparent in the journal club at Clemson Libraries, where discussions about the perceived lower quality of LIS research compared to other disciplines arose. The club is a group of library faculty



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that gather each month to read an LIS-related article and discuss both its content and quality of research output. It became clear from the articles read and the quality of research published that a research knowledge gap exists for many librarians, which suggests a significant issue for the profession as a whole. The LIS literature supports this conclusion. Concerns about the quality, amount and methods of published research in LIS have been studied for decades (Blake 1961; Danton 1976; Enger, Quirk, and Stewart 1988; Feehan et al. 1987; Haddow 1997; Rayward 1990; Togia and Malliari 2017). Haddow argued that in librarianship “levels of scholarliness and research are low when compared to some other disciplines” (1997). To fill the knowledge gap post-graduation, the author sought to join a community of practice by applying for and being accepted into the Institute for Research Design in Librarianship (IRDL) in 2019. The year-long program is a continuing education program for academic and research librarians designed to create a growing community of confident librarian-researchers. It is hosted by Loyola Marymount University. The program commenced with a nine-day intensive workshop on social science research methods and design and continued throughout the year with support from mentors, instructors, and fellow participants. With funding from the Institute of Museum and Library Services, the program has gone online for 2022–2024. The education, guidance, and support provided from the founders, Marie Kennedy and Kris Brancolini, and instructors Lili Luo and Greg Guest were phenomenal. Fellow scholars and mentors became invaluable sounding boards for ideas and improving project designs and IRDL bolstered confidence and taught that ILS researchers need to know enough but not everything to conduct sound research. Relying on the expertise of colleagues and reaching out to others can be a huge component of the process. The author sought further support at Clemson and library colleagues initiated a research round table to build a local community of practice. The group assists with research ideas, crowdsourcing answers to questions about research, and offers networking opportunities and group writing time. The library’s journal club was also a great support group and expanded the breadth of the author’s readings and skills in analyzing research quality. At the university level, the author found further support from the Division of Research, which connected her to grant funding listservs and other resources on campus, such as the Statistics and Mathematics Consulting Center which offers survey feedback and statistical analysis guidance. National and local resources have formed a community of practice which provides support and engenders confidence in conducting original research. LIS educational programs offer basic research methods education; there is a wealth of additional resources available that can provide additional knowledge and skills to help earlycareer researchers overcome practical knowledge gaps.

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The Research Study As part of the IRDL experience, the author began working on an exploratory quantitative research study of academic archives in the US to gauge the variation of inclusive metadata practices in digital collections and what factors motivated the implementation of these practices. This section explores the practical challenges faced in designing an initial professional research project. The topic has assumed increasing importance with US incidents of police brutalities against Black and Brown citizens, anti-Asian attacks during the COVID-19 pandemic, various conspiracy theories, misinformation and disinformation, and the increased reliance on digital access to information and means of communication during pandemic shutdowns. One aim of the research study is to produce results that will enhance metadata decisions informed by evidence to create inclusive and equitable digital collections that better represent and serve diverse users. Many challenges were encountered in the course of the study.

The Research Design The research study seeks to measure inclusive practices, and also to be inclusive in design. Several questions were posed and answered: What is the unit of observation and what is the unit of analysis? Will the unit be the institution, the institution’s library, archive, digital collections, or the archivists? The purpose of the study is to quantify practices in place and the decision was taken to use academic archives as the unit of analysis. Key informants are necessary to provide the data needed to answer the research questions, and the unit of observation is the practitioners who manage metadata creation, create metadata, or make metadata policies, standards, and practices for digital collections.

Choosing a Sample Population The next issue to be addressed was what would constitute an inclusive sample population. What would happen if a single institution had more than one archive? Are the digital collections managed by the archive or another department? Because the expertise of key informants is essential to the study, a non-probability purposive sampling method was chosen. The decision was made to include US academic research archives with digital collections, and to focus on the institution’s main archive. To compile a diverse sample population, a conscious decision was taken in the design to reduce the author’s biases from the selection process. A white



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archivist who has worked at five privileged historically white institutions with high research activity might have biases which could intrude and skew the view on what constitutes a research institution. The author relied on six existing lists from research organizations and consortia: Carnegie 4-year Doctoral Universities with Very High Research Activity (R1); and member institutions from the Association of Research Libraries (ARL), the Center for Research Libraries (CRL), the Association of Southeastern Research Libraries (ASERL), the Greater Western Library Alliance (GWLA), and the NorthEast Research Libraries (NERL). The result was a manageable sample population of 265 institutions with academic archives. While it is possible that there are other archives that are part of a research institution not on the chosen lists, and the lists themselves and criteria for inclusion may be biased, the approach facilitated a broad scope of what constitutes a research institution. The initial recruitment strategy was to post a call for participation on metadata-related professional listservs and allow participants to self-select leading to potential bias in the resulting data. Individuals interested in a topic are more likely to choose to participate and may not represent the entire target population, leading to skewed results from data collection (Olsen 2008). In consultation with IRDL colleagues, it became clear that responses from multiple people from the same institution might cause issues. After further consultations with colleagues and mentors, the author chose to recruit participants by compiling a list of heads of archival departments at the 265 academic archives in the sample population.

Organizational Variation The recruitment strategy introduced a multi-layered complication. Position titles and organizational structures differ from one institution to the next. Compiling contact information for the heads of archives was difficult because academic archives often live within the library, but it may also be a separate campus entity. Digital collections are housed and managed in various ways. Some are within the archives. Others are managed by the library technology unit, a digital initiatives, or digital libraries department, or are cooperatively managed by many departments. To compound the organizational challenges, every library’s website is different, and it is not easy to locate the digital collections site or contact information leading to unexpected and time-consuming activity within the project. To further complicate matters, the recession following the pandemic introduced high levels of turnover at academic archives. Contact information compiled earlier in the study may no longer be accurate. The new strategy is to locate generic emails for the archives that are monitored and triaged to the appropriate person, such as an email address for archival research inquiries. The recruitment email

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would encourage the survey be sent on to the appropriate person with expertise in digital collections metadata. If this strategy results in a low response rate, the next stage is to find a specific email for the archival head. These challenges illustrate that, in practice, the validity and reliability of a well-designed research study can clash with the limitations of reality.

The Challenges The challenges encountered throughout the study have been wide-ranging including time management, the pandemic, and defining a complex topic like equity, diversity, and inclusion.

Carving Out Research Time One of the first challenges faced was finding dedicated time for research. It was difficult during the working week and, from conversations with colleagues, it is a common challenge faced by others as well. For a tenure-track faculty member, there are precedents that research is part of the job, but the heavy workload faced by librarians precipitates competing interests. The large workload often originates from understaffing and has not been helped by the great resignation of many employees in the wake of the pandemic with departing colleagues increasing the workload of a depleted staff. The workload is sometimes compounded by service-oriented values and what Ettarh has described as the vocational awe of librarianship. Vocational awe is “the set of ideas, values, and assumptions librarians have about themselves and the profession that result in notions that libraries as institutions are inherently good, sacred notions, and therefore beyond critique” (2018). Ettarh argues that vocational awe negatively impacts librarians and causes expansion of job duties and resultant burnout. There is a pressure to pursue new and innovative projects, be supportive to patrons and colleagues, and take on committee obligations that may not be in line with career goals. The author found that a packed schedule filled with meetings and work activities precluded finding time and mental bandwidth to focus on intensive work like research. One practice suggested by IRDL colleagues was to block dedicated research time on the calendar. The author implemented this practice and set aside Friday mornings, a time when fewer meetings were scheduled. The practice also served as a visual reminder to the author and to colleagues of the importance of research as an integral part of the work week. While it remains challenging to keep the time



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sacred, its importance continues to be emphasized. Another technique followed by academic faculty is to block off time for daily writing so that details of research undertaken remain fresh in the mind and continual progress is made (Boice 1990; Huff 2019; National Center for Faculty Development and Diversity n.d.). The technique might work for some, but Sword debunked the “write every day” mantra in her findings that showed that daily writing did not necessarily reflect the variety of real world practices of productive academics (2016).

The Pandemic To say the least, the world has faced challenges since 2020 with the upheaval introduced to personal and professional lives by the COVID-19 pandemic. For the author, the initial transition to working from home meant a shift in workload. Library colleagues needed tasks that could be completed from home; constructing metadata was one such task; and the metadata team dedicated a large portion of time to train, support, and control the quality of remote metadata work. The new priority meant research was placed on hold and previous time management issues were compounded. The research timeline turned into a living document rather than a static goal and it flexed to accommodate the unexpected. Initially, the continued timeline changes felt like a failure to uphold a promise. On reflection, the continual changes did not mean scrapping the timeline or the research altogether. The living document continued to give structure and set milestones but reduced the internal pressure to perform. And that is okay. Because the research being undertaken does not have the external deadlines that other research projects may have, such as grant timelines. Flexibility is a privilege that can be leveraged to accommodate other pressing duties.

Defining Equity, Diversity and Inclusion Conducting research in equity, diversity, and inclusion provided its own set of challenges. The first major hurdle was to determine how to define and operationalize a string of terms which is often used together interchangeably as a unified phrase, but which is also a combination of three distinct concepts. Compounding the challenge was a lack of profession-wide definitions of the terms in either the archival or library professions. The Society of American Archivists (SAA) has defined diversity in the SAA Dictionary of Archives Terminology, but not inclusion and equity. More recently, inclusion has become an umbrella term that encompasses equity and

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diversity, which was adopted for the research study. Choosing the term inclusive metadata creates a broader concept that addresses all three areas. To operationalize the term for this study, a working definition was created. Several existing definitions, including SAA’s definition of diversity and cultural competency, and the American Library Association’s (ALA) definitions for inclusion, equity, and diversity were combined to create the resultant definition: Inclusive metadata are descriptions of digital archival objects that: are fair, equitable, and respectful to all individuals’ intersectional identities and cultures; value diverse experiences and perspectives; strive to create equitable access to the resources they describe; and work to effectively meet the needs of diverse populations.

The definition is not perfect, but provides a baseline of understanding for survey participants. Since the definition was created, SAA has published a definition of reparative description in the Dictionary of Archives Terminology, which the author may incorporate into a revised definition (SAA).

Practical and Personal Considerations In some ways, the lessons learned in research methods have been learned the hard way. Learning through making mistakes is sometimes viewed as highly effective but it is challenging. The author has realized that learning from the various experiences described in this chapter has occurred but at a significant personal cost. Finding space for self-care and reflection is an important component of research activity. Early in the project, navigating the complexity of research design caused frustration and stress. It was also stressful seeing the research timeline move further into the future as continual adjustments were made for unforeseen circumstances. It took shared wisdom from mentors and hearing the experiences of others to realize that research does not usually go as planned. It is lucky if not miraculous if it does. A shift in mindset toward self-care, mindfulness, and empathy helped the author to reduce stress in the process and to be more compassionate and pragmatic when hiccups arose. Research is a journey. There are bumps along the way. The route is not clear. No simple map exists. Releasing the research project from self-inflicted deadlines was liberating. The author encourages researchers to make space, to step back and decompress. Practice deep breathing or yoga. Take a break for tea or coffee, or simply work on something else for a change. Take time out. Research is complex. It is better to take time to reflect and get the research design right than to rush through and realize there were design flaws that produced invalid results.



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Conclusion While the research project described in this chapter is ongoing and has not yet reached the data collection stage, the identification and management of the challenges provide insights into the complexity of archival research design that published articles and presentations rarely cover. The invisible work of library research tells a tale as powerful as the reported findings. Overcoming challenges to research validity, reliability, and accuracy will make a stronger researcher and lead to enhanced outcomes which will contribute to excellence in professional practice and information service delivery. The details of the personal research journey outlined in this chapter convey hope and encouragement to early-career librarians and archivists embarking on their own research agendas. Conducting research does not have to be a stressful sprint and LIS researchers can reach out to colleagues and build communities of practice for support. The library and information profession has room to grow in supporting research and research design education, but there is exciting work taking place among research-minded practitioners through groups like IRDL and the Society of American Archivists Committee on Research, Data, and Assessment (CORDA). The author encourages researchers, early-, mid- or late-career, to slow down and enjoy the process. Research is an exciting journey if time is spent along the way to take in the view, to reflect on what is seen, and to share the ideas and observations.

References Ackerman, Erin, Jennifer Hunter, and Zara T. Wilkinson. 2018. “Availability and Effectiveness of Research Supports for Early Career Academic Librarians.” Journal of Academic Librarianship 44, no. 5: 553–568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2018.06.001. American Council on Education. n.d. “Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. https://carnegieclassifications.acenet.edu/. Berg, Selinda A., and Michelle Banks. 2016. “Beyond Competencies: Naming Librarians’ Capacity for Research.” Journal of Academic Librarianship 42, no. 4: 469–471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. acalib.2016.06.002. Blake, Fay M. 1961. “A Look at Library Literature.” Wilson Library Bulletin 35: 715–720. Boice, Robert. 1990. Professors as Writers: A Self-Help Guide to Productive Writing. Stillwater, OK: New Forums Press. Available at https://vdoc.pub/documents/professors-as-writers-a-self-help-guideto-productive-writing-4u4pq7tl6p90. Clemson University. 2019. Clemson Forward. “ClemsonForward Strategic Plan.” https://www.clemson. edu/provost/documents/clemsonforwardplan-updated32019.pdf.

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Clemson University Libraries. 2021. “Guidelines for Appointment, Reappointment, Tenure, and Promotion of Library Faculty.” Requirements for Departmental TPR and PTR Documents. 2021–2022 Faculty Manual. https://library.clemson.edu/depts/staffweb/files/2022/01/ LibraryGuidelines_Aug31_22_signed.pdf. Danton, J. Periam. 1976. “The Library Press.” Library Trends 25, no.1: 153–176. Available at https:// docslib.org/doc/11022288/the-library-press. Enger, Kathy, Georgia Quirk, and J. A. Stewart. 1989. “Statistical Methods Used by Authors of Library and Information Science Journal Articles.” Library and Information Science Research 11, no. 1: 37–46. Available at https://ssrn.com/abstract=1365280. Ettarh, Fobazi. 2018. “Vocational Awe and Librarianship: The Lies We Tell Ourselves.” In the Library with the Lead Pipe, January 10, 2018. www.inthelibrarywiththeleadpipe.org/2018/vocational-awe/. Feehan, Patricia E., Lee Gragg, Mike Havener and Diane Kesteet. 1987. “Library and Information Science Research: An Analysis of the 1984 Core Journal Literature.” Library and Information Science Research 9: 173–185. Available at https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED277375.pdf Haddow, Gaby. 1997. “The Nature of Journals of Librarianship: A Review.” Library and Information Science Research 7, no. 1: 1–7. https://dx.doi.org/10.32655/LIBRES.1997.1.4. Available at https:// hdl.handle.net/10356/152357. Huff, Charlotte. 2019. “How to Be a More Productive Writer.” Monitor on Psychology 50, no. 9. https:// www.apa.org/monitor/2019/10/productive-writer. Kennedy, Marie R., and Kristine R. Brancolini. 2012. “Academic Librarian Research: A Survey of Attitudes, Involvement, and Perceived Capabilities.” College & Research Libraries 73, no. 5: 431–448. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl-276. Available at https://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/librarian_ pubs/36. Luo, Lili. 2011. “Fusing Research into Practice: The Role of Research Methods Education.” Library & Information Science Research 33, no. 3: 191–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2010.12.001. Matusiak, Krystyna K., and Kawanna Bright. 2020. “Teaching Research Methods in Master’s-Level LIS Programs: The United States Perspective.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 61, no. 3: 357–382. https://doi.org/10.3138/jelis.61.3.2020-0001. Available at https://eric. ed.gov/?id=EJ1267897. National Center for Faculty Development and Diversity. n.d. “The 14-Day Writing Challenge: Experience Explosive Writing Productivity.” https://www.facultydiversity.org/14-day-challenge. Olsen, Randall. 2008. “Self-Selection Bias.” In Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods, edited by Paul Lavrakis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. https://methods.sagepub.com/reference/encyclopediaof-survey-research-methods/n526.xml#:~:text=Self%2Dselection%20bias%20is%20the,to%20 participate%20in%20a%20survey. Powell, Ronald R., Lynda M. Baker, and Joseph J. Mika. 2002 “Library and Information Science Practitioners and Research.” Library & Information Science Research 24, no. 1: 49–72. https://doi. org/10.1016/S0740-8188(01)00104-9. Rayward, W. Boyd. 1990. “Scholarly Publishing in Journals of Librarianship and Information Science.” The Australian Library Journal 39, no. 2: 127–133. www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/scholarlypublishing-journals-librarianship/docview/1310513305/se-2. Society of American Archivists (SAA). 2022. “Reparative Description.” Dictionary of Archives Terminology. https://dictionary.archivists.org/entry/reparative-description.html#:~:text=n.,characterize%20 archival%20resources%20(View%20Citations) Sword, Helen. 2016. “’Write Every Day!’: A Mantra Dismantled.” International Journal for Academic Development 21, no. 4: 312–322. https://doi.org/10.1080/1360144X.2016.1210153.



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Togia, Aspasia, and Afrodite Malliari. 2017. “Research Methods in Library and Information Science.” In Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research, edited by Sonyel Oflazoglu. London: IntechOpen. http:// dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68749. U.S. News & World Report. n.d. “Find the Best Library and Information Studies Schools: Best Library and Information Studies Schools.” www.usnews.com/best-graduate-schools/top-library-informationscience-programs. Vilz, Amy J., and Molly Dahl Poremski. 2015. “Perceptions of Support Systems for Tenure-Track Librarians.” College & Undergraduate Libraries 22, no. 2: 149–166. https://doi.org/10.1080/1069131 6.2014.924845.

Part III: Studies in LIS Research Methods Practice and Teaching

Kawanna M. Bright

15 R  esearch Confidence of Liaison Librarians Providing Faculty Research Support Abstract: Recent research has affirmed that academic librarians are highly engaged in research, despite continuing concerns that they are not sufficiently prepared or confident in their abilities to conduct research. This lack of confidence may have implications not only for their ability to conduct their own research, but also for their ability to support the research needs of users. Research support services, particularly those offered to faculty, have broadened in scope and complexity, with librarians providing everything from literature searches to grant support. While librarians may be asked to provide these services, confidence in their ability to provide the services and related high-level research support has not been studied. This chapter shares the findings of a secondary analysis of data related to faculty research support services provided by academic liaison librarians and the confidence in their ability to provide those services. Chi-square analysis indicated an association between offering low- versus high-level research support services and librarians’ confidence to provide research services in support of faculty research. Librarians providing high-level support more often than expected reported being “Very confident” in their abilities compared with liaisons providing low-level support, who more often than expected reported being “Not at all confident” or only “Somewhat confident” in their abilities. More research is needed to understand fully the potential connection between varying levels of research support service provision and liaison librarians’ confidence in engaging in research activities. Keywords: Library science – United States; Liaison librarians; Academic librarians

Introduction The fact that US academic librarians working in higher education institutions are engaged in and conducting research is well supported in the literature. Often the reason for engaging in research is a requirement for promotion and tenure (Gill and Gosine-Boodoo 2021; Kennedy and Brancolini 2012, 2018). Other academic librarians apply research as a part of evidence-based assessment practices, often in support of accreditation needs (Kennedy and Brancolini 2012, 2018). A third reason for engaging in research is in support of the research of others (Matusiak and Bright 2020); however, while academic librarians often offer research support serhttps://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-017

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vices, the services provided do not always equate to active research engagement. There is a need to understand the connection between research services offered by academic librarians and the level and extent of research engagement involved. While academic librarians may be expected to engage in research, their ability and confidence in their ability to conduct research is mostly unknown. Sassen and Wahl (2014) note that academic librarians are not prepared for the level of research needed to secure promotion and tenure and suggest that the lack of preparation is partly due to lack of training and education. Indeed, recent studies suggest that there is limited exposure to research methods within the US library and information science (LIS) curriculum and that the purpose of the courses provided is to offer an overview of research methods rather than to teach librarians how to do research (Matusiak and Bright 2020). Increased exposure to research methods training, such as that found in graduate school, has been connected to increased confidence in conducting research within other fields (Bieschke, Bishop, and Garcia 1996). A connection between research training and confidence has also been suggested within LIS for librarians with additional, non-LIS master’s degrees (Crampsie, Neville, and Henry 2020). Given the connection between education and confidence, it is important to determine whether LIS courses that offer limited exposure to research methods training are sufficient preparation for librarians to conduct their own research, or support the research needs of others. In terms of offering research support services within an academic library, much of the responsibility tends to fall to liaison librarians, an eclectic role that can include everything from collection development, instruction, and outreach to in-depth research support. The liaison librarian role, though dynamic and changing, is fairly universal in US academic libraries (Church-Duran 2017) and in use throughout the world. Broadly, liaison librarians can be described as librarians who provide specialized services and support for specific programs, schools, departments, or colleges within an institution through the development of personalized relationships (Church-Duran 2017, 258). Because of the considerable variation in liaison responsibilities, it is unclear how engaged liaisons are in research support and whether that research support includes true engagement with users’ research beyond assisting with locating resources. An investigation of faculty research support services from the perspective of the liaison librarian offers one avenue to understand the research engagement of academic librarians. Relying on secondary analysis of data collected from a larger study into the role of liaison librarian-faculty research collaborations, this chapter considers the connection between offering research support services and the confidence of academic liaison librarians to engage in research activities.



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Methodology This chapter relies on secondary data analysis, a research methodology that uses data collected from a previous research study to answer a new research question (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison 2017). The previous research study was the author’s sequential, mixed methods study completed as a doctoral dissertation at the University of Denver. The quantitative strand explored the work of academic liaison librarians in US higher education institutions, the perception of relationship building experiences with faculty, and the confidence to support faculty research activities. The qualitative strand further explored the professional relationship building experiences of academic liaison librarians in research collaborations with university professors.. The quantitative strand identified factors such as discipline area, percentage of liaisons’ position devoted to liaison responsibilities, and holding an additional post graduate degree as impacting liaisons’ relationship building experiences and research support confidence. The author was able to re-examine the data resulting from the quantitative strand of the study from the perspective of a new research question: How does offering low- versus high-level research support services affect liaison librarians’ confidence in providing research support to faculty? A brief description of the data set and the application of the additional analysis to the data are offered.

Respondents in the Secondary Data Sample The data set sample consisted of 2,036 liaison librarians working in academic libraries in the US who responded to a 2017 dissertation survey about the liaison role, their perceptions of relationship building with faculty, and their perceptions of their confidence to provide specific research-related services and support to faculty (Bright 2018). For the purpose of this chapter, only respondents who indicated they offered research support services as part of their liaison role and responded to at least one-third, that is ten, of the confidence in research items were included in the sample used in the secondary data analysis, from a larger response set of 2,650.

Data Collection Instrument and Questions The original survey consisted of 81 questions divided into four sections: demographic information, liaison role and responsibilities, perception of relationship building with faculty, and confidence in ability to support and collaborate on faculty research. For the secondary analysis, only one question and two ques-

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tion sets were considered for data analysis. An initial question which sought to determine if research support services were provided was used to determine the new sample. A set of questions which had asked respondents to indicate which of nineteen research support activities they provided was used to ascertain the level and extent of research support provided. The second set of questions used had asked respondents to rate their level of confidence in supporting thirty-one faculty research activities. The activities included twenty activities that aligned with seventeen of the previously identified research support services which are listed in Table 15.2 and eleven activities that represented specific research methods and steps of the research process, ranging from formulating research questions to completing data analysis, which are also listed in Table 15.2. Two of the research support services did not have a corresponding confidence activity and three additional confidence activities were expansions on the provision of data management support. At the time, there was no intention of making comparisons of the two sections. With hindsight, the design might have been done differently. For the purpose of data analysis, the list of research support services was divided into two categories: those which might be deemed low-level research support and those considered high-level research support. The division was based on how activities were classified within the literature, with low-level items considered to be standard research support activities, such as one-on-one research consultations, assisting with citation or source management, and research data management (Karasmanis and Murphy 2014; Koltay 2016; Murphy and Gibson 2014). The activities tended to revolve around librarians providing information or resources in direct support of faculty research but were not examples of applying research methods. High-level items were those not as commonly offered by liaisons and more likely to require application of research methods or be deemed examples of liaison-faculty research collaboration and included such activities as co-authoring (Table 15.1). Research confidence activities were also further categorized for analysis into a research support activities group and a research methods activities group (Table 15.2). Table 15.1: Research support activities classified according to level Low Level of Research Support

High Level of Research Support

LL1.

HL1.

LL2

One-on-one research consultations with faculty in liaison area(s) Assist faculty with understanding copyright for their publications

HL2.

Co-author research articles with faculty Co-present research findings with faculty at professional events*



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Low Level of Research Support

High Level of Research Support

LL3.

HL3.

Provide faculty with information on open access publishing options LL4. Help faculty add items to an institutional repository LL5. Help faculty to properly cite their sources LL6. Help faculty to manage/organize their citations/sources LL7. Provide faculty with citation analysis (impact) of their research publications LL8. Provide faculty with journal impact information LL9. Provide faculty with data management support LL10. Identify potential grant opportunities for faculty research LL11. Help faculty add items to a disciplinary repository (submissions not based on institutional affiliation)

HL4. HL5. HL6.

HL7. Hl8.

 201

Compile literature reviews for faculty research Conduct systematic reviews for faculty research* Serve as member of a research team (not grant-related) Assist with development of grant proposals (pre-grant submission) Serve as a member of a grant team (post-grant submission) Review faculty publications prior to submission for publication

* No corresponding research activity in Table 15.2 Table 15.2: Research confidence activities classified as research support and research methods Research Support Activities

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Instruct faculty on how to locate sources (literature) to support their research (LL1) Assist faculty with understanding copyright for their publications (LL2) Assist faculty with understanding open access publishing options (LL3) Assist faculty with adding items to an institutional repository (LL4) Assist faculty with adding items to a disciplinary repository (LL11) Assist faculty with properly citing their sources (LL5) Assist faculty with citation management (LL6) Provide faculty with citation analysis of their research publications (LL7) Provide faculty with journal impact information (LL8) Assist faculty with the development of a research data management plan (LL9) Provide faculty with research data storage/preservation support (LL9) Provide faculty with research data security support (LL9) Provide faculty with research data sharing/use support (LL9) Identify potential grant opportunities for faculty research (LL10) Co-author research articles with faculty (HL1) Compile literature reviews for faculty research (HL3) Serve on a faculty member’s research team (not grant-related) (HL5) Assist with development of faculty grant proposals (pre-grant submission) (HL6) Serve on a faculty member’s grant team (post-grant submission) (HL7) Review faculty drafts (articles, book chapters) prior to submission for publication (HL8)

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Research Methods 1. Activities 2. 3. 4.

Assist faculty with formulating quantitative research questions Assist faculty with formulating qualitative research questions Assist faculty with formulating quantitative research hypotheses Assist faculty with creating data collection instruments (surveys, interview protocols, etc.) 5. Assist faculty with the IRB process 6. Assist faculty with data collection for their quantitative research 7. Assist faculty with data collection for their qualitative research 8. Assist faculty with locating data for their quantitative research 9. Assist faculty with locating data for their qualitative research 10. Assist faculty with quantitative data analysis 11. Assist faculty with qualitative data analysis

Data analysis was completed using IBM SPSS Statistics, Version 28. Descriptive statistical analysis was completed to determine frequencies of responses for research support services offered. Additional chi-square analysis was conducted to identify potential associations between offering low and high levels of research support and the confidence of liaison librarians in their ability to engage in research support and research methods activities.

Findings Research Support Of the nineteen research support services respondents indicated they provided as part of their liaison role, only one was selected by more than half of the respondents, with 1760, 86.44%, indicating they conducted one-on-one research consultations with faculty. All remaining activities were identified by under 50% of the respondents with three activities selected by more than 40% of respondents. Nine hundred and twenty-nine respondents, 45.63%, provided faculty with information on open access publishing options; 846 respondents, 41.55%, helped faculty to manage or organize their citations and sources consulted, and 842 respondents, 41.22%, assisted faculty with understanding copyright for their publications. Three additional activities were undertaken by at least 30% of respondents; 780 respondents, 38.31%, helped faculty to cite sources correctly, particularly following specialist guidelines; 766, 37.62%, provided faculty with journal impact information; and 670, 32.91%, helped faculty add items to an institutional repository. All remaining activities ranged from a low of 149 respondents, 7.32%, who indicated they helped faculty add items to a disciplinary repository, to the 561 respondents, 27.55%, who indicated they provide faculty with citation analysis or impact details



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of their research publications. The results for all activities are provided in Table 15.3. Table 15.3: Respondents providing specific research support activities Research Support Activity

N

One-on-one research consultations with faculty in liaison area(s) Assist faculty with understanding copyright for their publications Provide faculty with information on open access publishing options Help faculty add items to an institutional repository Help faculty to properly cite their sources Help faculty to manage/organize their citations/sources Provide faculty with citation analysis (impact) of their research publications Provide faculty with journal impact information Provide faculty with data management support Identify potential grant opportunities for faculty research Co-author research articles with faculty Co-present research findings with faculty at professional events Compile literature reviews for faculty research Conduct systematic reviews for faculty research Serve as member of a research team (not grant-related) Assist with development of grant proposals (pre-grant submission) Serve as a member of a grant team (post-grant submission) Review faculty publications prior to submission for publication Help faculty add items to a disciplinary repository (submissions not based on institutional affiliation)

1760 929 846 842 780 766 670 561 473 354 319 305 284 224 219 210 194 179 149

% 86.44% 45.63% 41.55% 41.36% 38.31% 37.62% 32.91% 27.55% 23.23% 17.39% 15.67% 14.98% 13.95% 11.00% 10.76% 10.31% 9.53% 8.79% 7.32%

The 2036 respondents were further grouped by the level of research support provided, either low or high as indicated in Table 15.1. Just over half of the respondents, 1060, 52.06%, offered low-level research support and just under half, 976, 47.94%, engaged in at least one high-level research support activity. Many of the latter respondents also engaged in some lower level research support activities. The eight research activities classified as high level were among the least performed by liaison librarians, with “Co-author research articles with faculty” selected by the most respondents with 319, 15.67%. All other high-level research activities were selected by fewer than 15% of respondents, with the lowest number of respondents, 179, 8.79%, indicating they reviewed faculty publications prior to submission for publication.

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Research Confidence Three median confidence ratings1 were calculated for participants across: –– all thirty-one research-related activities –– twenty research support activities, and –– eleven research methods activities. For all activities, nearly half of the respondents, 968, 47.54%, had a median rating of “Somewhat Confident”; followed by 676, 33.20%, with a median rating of “Confident”; 256, 12.57%, with a median rating of “Not at All Confident”; and 136, 6.68%, with a median rating of “Very Confident.” For the twenty research support activities, a slightly different pattern emerged. While the largest count was a “Somewhat Confident” median with 831 respondents, 40.32%, the “Confident” median was only two respondents lower at 819, 40.23%. And the number of respondents with a “Very Confident” median rating was larger at 234, 11.49%, than the 162, 7.96%, who emerged with a “Not at all Confident” median rating. For the research methods activities, another pattern emerged. While the “Somewhat Confident” median again had the highest count at 916 respondents, 44.99%, the “Not at all Confident” median was the next highest at 563, 27.65%, followed by “Confident” at 440, 21.61%, and 117, 5.75%, with a median of “Very Confident.” These patterns support the logic to explore further the differences between respondents’ confidence to engage in research activities based

Figure 15.1: Confidence ratings across all activities, research support activities only, and research methods activities only 1  Due to skipped items on the survey, some respondents had median ratings that fell between the rating levels. In order to classify them into a rating level, the mean ratings were also calculated and respondents were placed into the nearest rounded rating level.



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on whether those activities constituted research support or research methods, with less confidence overall for engaging in research methods activities. Figure 15.1 shows the reported confidence levels across the three median ratings.

Inferential Statistics Analysis To determine if there were an association between offering low- versus highlevel research support and the confidence of liaison librarians to support faculty research, three chi-square tests were conducted: –– Low- versus high-level research groups associated with median confidence rating for all research activities –– Low- versus high-level research groups associated with median confidence rating for research support activities only, and –– Low- versus high-level research groups associated with median confidence rating for research methods activities only. All three tests yielded a statistically significant result. There was a statistically significant but weak association between offering low- versus high-level research support and liaisons’ overall median confidence rating, χ2 (3, N = 2036) = 113.81, p < .001, Cramer’s V = .24, and offering low- versus high-level research support and liaisons’ median confidence rating to offer only research support activities, χ2 (3, N = 2036) = 147.25, p < .001, Cramer’s V = .27. Standardized residuals indicated that respondents who offered only low-level research support more often than expected were “Not at all confident” in their ability to provide all faculty research support activities or their ability to provide only research support activities, while those who offered some high-level research support more often than expected were “Confident” or “Very confident” in their ability to provide all faculty research support activities and only faculty support activities. There was also a statistically significant but very weak association for offering only research methods activities, χ2 (3, N = 2036) = 46.55, p < .001, Cramer’s V = .15. Standardized residuals indicated that respondents who offered some high-level research support more often than expected were “Very confident” in their ability to provide only research methods activities, while those who offered only low-level research support more often than expected were “Not at all confident” in their ability to provide only research methods activities.

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Interpreting the Findings The offering of research support services to faculty is fairly standard but not standardized, as a large number of respondents offered some types of research support services, but the type and extent of services offered varied greatly. Establishing that only one research support service, one-on-one consultations, was provided by more than half of the respondents was an unexpected finding, as the literature had suggested that other services, such as open access publishing and institutional repositories, were seen as common across most US academic libraries (Curry et al. 2022; Koltay 2016), even if faculty do not realize that librarians offer these services (Yang and Li 2015). This analysis suggests that the activities are not as commonly offered as anticipated. Less surprising was the low number of participants engaged in higher-level research support services, such as co-authoring research articles with faculty, serving on grant teams, and conducting systematic reviews. The literature earmarks these activities as tasks liaison librarians should engage in but rarely do (Blake et al. 2016; McCluskey 2013). The slow adoption of the provision of high-level research support services may be attributed to factors such as lack of time and engagement in other liaison activities (Creaser and Spezi 2014). As these activities represent a higher level of engagement with research, including a need for increased knowledge of research, it is possible that liaison librarians are not comfortable with or confident in their ability to provide the services. The literature on academic librarians’ confidence to conduct research is limited, with Kennedy and Brancolini (2012, 2018) and Crampsie, Neville, and Henry (2020) addressing the topic most directly. While Kennedy and Brancolini (2012, 2018) found that academic librarians were in general confident in their ability to conduct research, the current analysis indicates less confidence with all research activities and less confidence when considering discrete research methods activities. The lack of confidence with discrete research methods activities such as data analysis aligns with Crampsie, Neville, and Henry’s (2020) findings based on librarians’ self-assessment of their research confidence. Respondents in the study reported on in this chapter perceived their confidence to engage in any research-related activities in support of the research of others to be low, with a median confidence rating of “Somewhat Confident”. Having low confidence in one’s ability to perform a task has been shown to impact behavior towards completing that task (Wester et al. 2020). If one applies this determination to providing research support services or engaging in research activities, it could be suggested that low levels of confidence of liaison librarians in their ability to support and engage in research-related activities with faculty will negatively impact their interest and ability to conduct research for their own needs.



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The difference in the distribution of median ratings when research activities were separated into those that aligned with research support activities often offered by liaisons and those classified as discrete research methods activities may be more telling. While the majority of respondents were either “Somewhat Confident” or “Confident” in their ability to provide research support activities, the distribution shifted to “Somewhat Confident” and “Not at all Confident” for the research methods activities. Kennedy and Brancolini (2018) found similar lower levels of confidence for the application of some research methods, particularly those related to later stages of the research process like data analysis. Within this chapter’s analysis, the higher number of “Not at all Confident” respondents supporting the research methods activities of faculty may be indicative of librarians’ lack of confidence in engaging in those activities for their own research needs, let alone in support of the research needs of others. The statistically significant chi-square analyses offer support for further investigation into the importance of librarians engaging in high-level research support services as a way of bolstering their confidence in providing all levels of research support. Review of standardized residuals showed that liaison librarians who offered high-level research support services had “Very confident” medians for their ability to provide all research support activities, including research methods activities. This association suggests a need to extend understandings of the impact of offering research support services of all levels on librarians’ confidence to engage in research activities overall. There is a potential outcome that engaging in higher levels of research support will positively impact on the confidence of liaison librarians not only to support research needs but to engage actively in using research methods themselves as well.

Limitations and Future Research Considerations As an example of secondary data analysis, the research has both benefits and challenges. As the original data was not collected with the specific research questions in mind, there is a need to acknowledge that the data may not fully align with the questions as stated (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison 2017). There is less issue with understanding the original purpose of the collected data as the author was also the researcher who collected the original data, and addressing a different aspect of the topic of research confidence was not a difficult stretch. But the research could have benefited from additional questions related to preparation to engage in research, a topic not addressed in the original data collection process.

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There is also a limitation related to the creation of the groups for analysis. While the two-group structure of low-level and high-level research activities was based on logic, it is possible the groups overlapped. Every respondent placed into the lowlevel research group only selected activities classified as low-level research activities. But the high-level research group was based on whether someone selected at least one high-level research activity, as only fifteen respondents selected only high-level research activities. There is a possibility that some participants may engage in more low-level than high-level research activities but were placed into the high-level group for the purpose of data analysis. Additionally, the original data offered perspectives from one group of academic librarians, liaison librarians, but did not account for academic librarians who conducted research but did not provide liaison support. Additional studies of confidence to engage in research, research competency, and research efficacy are clearly needed.

Conclusion The academic librarians’ need to engage in research, both for themselves and in support of users, is not likely to change. Indeed, as more research-related services are being added to the growing list of services offered by academic librairies, it would behoove academic librarians to develop both competency and confidence in their ability to provide and engage in these services. The results of the data analysis included in this chapter suggested a connection between the services being offered and academic librarians’ ability to provide that support and engage in research activities confidently. Future investigations into the research efficacy of academic librarians is needed, to improve understandings of not only the impact of low and high efficacy on the ability to conduct research and publish, but to also understand the impact of low and high efficacy on the ability to offer services and support to users.

References Bieschke, Kathleen J., Rosean M. Bishop, and Victoria L. Garcia. 1996. “The Utility of the Research Self-Efficacy Scale.” Journal of Career Assessment 4, no. 1 (Winter): 59–75 https://doi. org/10.1177/106907279600400104. Blake, Lindsay, Darra Balance, Kathy Davies, Julie K. Gaines, Kim Mears, Peter Shipman, Maryska Connolly-Brown, and Vicki Burchfield. 2016. “Patron Perception and Utilization of an Embedded Librarian Program.” Journal of the Medical Library Association 104, no. 3: 226–230. http://dx.doi. org/10.3163/1536-5050.104.3.008.



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Bright, Kawanna. 2018. “Examining the Role of Liaison Librarians as Research Collaboration Partners: A Mixed-Methods Multiple-Case Study.” PhD dissertation, University of Denver. https:// digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/1537/. Church-Duran, Jennifer. 2017. “Distinctive Roles: Engagement, Innovation, and the Liaison Model.” portal: Libraries and the Academy 17, no. 2: 257–271. https://doi.org/10.1353/pla.2017.0015. Cohen, Louis, Lawrence Manion, and Keith Morrison. 2017. Research Methods in Education, 8th ed. New York: Routledge. Crampsie, Camielle, Tina Neville, and Deborah Henry. 2020. “Academic Librarian Publishing Productivity: An Analysis of Skills and Behaviors Leading to Success.” College & Research Libraries 81, no 2: 248–271. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl.81.2.248. Creaser, Claire, and Valérie Spezi. 2014. “Improving Perceptions of Value to Teaching and Research Staff: The Next Challenge for Academic Libraries.” Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 46, no. 3: 191–206. https://doi.org/10.1177/0961000613477678. Curry, Claire, Sarah Robbins, Amanda Schilling, and B. N. Tweedy. 2022. “Recruiting, Hiring, & On-Boarding Non-MLS Liaison Librarians: A Case Study.” Library Leadership & Management 36, no. 1: 1–16. https://doi.org/10.5860/llm.v36i1.7490. Gill, Michelle, and Meerabai Gosine-Boodoo. 2021. “A Case for Purposeful Mentorship in Research and Publishing at a Caribbean Academic Library.” The Journal of Academic Librarianship 47, no. 2: 102302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2020.102302. Karasmanis, Sharon, and Fiona Murphy. 2014. “Emerging Roles and Collaborations in Research Support for Academic Health Librarians.” Paper presented at the Australian Library and Information Association National Conference, Melbourne, Australia, 2014. Deakin, ACT: Australian Library and Information Association (ALIA). https://read.alia.org.au/emerging-rolesand-collaborations-research-support-academic-health-librarians-0. Kennedy, Marie R., and Kristine R. Brancolini. 2012. “Academic Librarian Research: A Survey of Attitudes, Involvement, and Perceived Capabilities.” College & Research Libraries 73, no. 5 (September): 431–448. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl-276. Kennedy, Marie R., and Kristine R. Brancolini. 2018. “Academic Librarian Research: An Update to a Survey of Attitudes, Involvement, and Perceived Capabilities.” College & Research Libraries 79, no. 6: 822–851. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl.79.6.822. Koltay, Tibor. 2016. “Are You Ready? Tasks and Roles for Academic Libraries in Supporting Research 2.0.” New Library World 117, no. 1/2: 94–104. https://doi.org/10.1108/NLW-09-2015-0062. Matusiak, Krystyna K., and Kawanna Bright. 2020. “Teaching Research Methods in Master’s-Level LIS Programs: The United States Perspective.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 61, no. 3: 357–382. https://doi.org/10.3138/jelis.61.3.2020-0001. McCluskey, Clare. 2013. “Being an Embedded Research Librarian: Supporting Research by Being a Researcher.” Journal of information Literacy 7, no. 2: 4–14. Murphy, Sarah Anne, and Craig Gibson. 2014. “Programmatic Assessment of Research Services: Informing the Evolution of an Engaged Liaison Librarian Model.” In Assessing Liaison Librarians: Documenting Impact for Positive Change, edited by Daniel. C. Mack and & Gary W. White, 17–32. Chicago: Association of College and Research Libraries. Sassen, Catherine, and Diane Wahl. 2014. “Fostering Research and Publication in Academic Libraries.” College & Research Libraries 75, no. 4: 458–491. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl.75.4.458. Wester, Kelly L., Shreya Vaishnav, Carrie Wachter Morris, Jordan L. Austin, Jaimie Stickl Haugen, Heather Delgado, and Lindsey K. Umstead. 2020. “Interaction of Imposter Phenomenon and Research Self-Efficacy on Scholarly Productivity.” Counselor Education & Supervision 59, no. 4 (December): 316–325. https://doi.org/10.1002/ceas.12191.

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Yang, Zheng Ye (Lan), and Yu Li. 2015. “University Faculty Awareness and Attitudes towards Open Access Publishing and the Institutional Repository: A Case Study.” Journal of Librarianship and Scholarly Communication 3, no. 1: eP1210. https://doi.org/10.7710/2162-3309.1210.

Anna Maria Tammaro, Mario Pèrez-Montoro, Simona Turbanti, and Elena Corradini

16 A  Comparative Study of Italian and Spanish Research in Library and Information Science

Abstract: There is a long-standing tradition of collaboration in the Italian and Spanish library and information science (LIS) community that includes a wide range of activities such as joint meetings, conferences, and exchange of students and teachers. Despite this, research collaboration is not strong. The purpose of the study described in this chapter is to explain the characteristics of LIS research methods in Spain and Italy and develop a theory to improve global collaboration and innovation in LIS research. The methodology used a four-stage comparative approach. The first stage involved analysing research methods of studies published in the core LIS Journals in Spain and Italy in 2019. In the second stage, the research team interpreted the LIS research characteristics in both countries, analysing the internal and social organisation of the discipline. In the third and fourth stages, the researchers compared and contrasted the collected data, applying a constructivist approach to evaluate a theory that could be used to improve the quality of LIS research nationally and possibly internationally. This chapter provides an overview of the research methods applied in the core LIS journals in Spain and Italy and discusses the impact of the cognitive and social organisation of LIS research nationally and comparatively. It includes insights on assessing the theory to improve global collaboration for LIS research. Keywords: Library science – Italy; Library science – Spain; Library science – Research

Introduction There is a long tradition of collaboration in the Italian and Spanish library and information science (LIS) community. The collaboration covers a wide range of activities, such as joint meetings and conferences for academic staff, and exchange of students and teachers in the context of Erasmus+, an EU programme for education, training, youth, and sport. Although LIS as a research and educational community has common historical roots in Spain and Italy, research and education have developed in different directions. In 2020, I Seminario Hispano-Italiano en Biblioteconomía y Documentaci/Spanish-Italian Seminar on Library Science and Documenhttps://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-018

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tation allowed scholars from Italy and Spain to share the disciplinary organisation of LIS in the two countries. The seminar focused on the organisation of the LIS discipline in Spain and Italy, including the education system, academic publishing, and professional associations (Gonzalo Sánchez-Molero and Sebastián 2020). However, the seminar did not consider the research systems and it was noted that research collaboration between scholars from Italy and Spain has been limited. The research team for the project described in this chapter began its work from the evidence of the gap identified in international research collaboration.

The Conduct of the Study The comparative study described in this chapter sought to understand the constraints to LIS research collaboration and investigate ways of improving global collaboration. The objectives were to compare the characteristics of the LIS research methods applied in studies in Spain with those in Italy and identify a conceptual framework useful for describing international research collaboration. The team included Italian and Spanish researchers with experience of research collaboration in European and national projects and interested in understanding how to improve collaboration between Spain and Italy for LIS research. The research team was inspired by the comparative method used by Bereday (1964) for the education system, which tried to avoid merely a comparison of data, thus preventing the risk of simply evaluating one nation as better than another. Bereday’s comparative method describes the characteristics of the nations individually before pointing out similarities and differences. The aim and objectives of the research stimulated an in-depth analysis of the factors that might influence collaboration between LIS researchers in Italy and Spain, and potentially in other international contexts. The study focused on content analysis of LIS publications in journals in Italy and Spain to determine any similarities and differences in the research undertaken and the research methods adopted.

Methodology The outline of the research methodology adopted by the research team is described in the following four stages: –– Data collection, selecting a significant sample of LIS journals and conducting content analysis to examine research methodology and techniques used in studies in Italy and Spain



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–– Data interpretation, comparing the data with the disciplinary and political contexts of LIS in Spain and Italy –– Juxtaposition, establishing similarities and significant differences related to the study aim and objectives, and –– Comparison, examining LIS research methods in Italy and Spain to develop a conceptual framework towards a grounded theory approach.

Data Collection In the first phase, the research team selected between six and seven journals from each country that were judged to be of quality due to their importance for LIS in Spain and Italy. The team decided to analyse the articles published in 2019. The sample of journals was not limited to academic journals but included journals from professional associations and commercial publishers. All selected journals satisfied the quality standards of the appropriate national research validation committee in each country. Because the quality of articles included was therefore assured, any attempt to differentiate between academic and professional authors was no longer judged relevant by the research team. The LIS research methods schema was based on the classification proposed by Rochester and Vakkari (2003) which was based on the work of Järvelin and Vakkari (1990) and further updated by Tuomaala, Järvelin, and Vakkari (2014). The research team assessed that this schema provided a flexible framework for comparison. It has been used in Spain since Cano’s first investigation (1999). Each article in the pool of the selected Spanish and Italian journals published in 2019 was separately read and classified according to the LIS research schema and the data collection approach. The Spanish researcher read the Spanish journals’ abstracts that were all provided with indexed keywords and research methods classification, while the Italian researchers each read several Italian journals’ abstracts, not all of which were provided with the aforementioned elements. As a result, the Italians in the team were forced to spend more time reading the abstracts, and in some cases even the full texts, to extract the necessary information for subsequent analysis. After the first round, data were examined by at least one of the other researchers to provide for consistency.

Data Interpretation In the second phase, the data collected were interpreted by the research team using Whitley’s (2000) model of differentiation between the social external and cognitive internal institutionalisation of the research undertaken to describe LIS research

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characteristics. Whitley’s second edition of The Intellectual and Social Organization of the Sciences (2000) outlined new trends. Whitley drew attention to the fragmentation in disciplinary fields which was indicated by the move to interdisciplinary research with new relationships being established across scientific fields. Another element in research activity is the tension between theory driven and explanatory models in research, which is manifested in different methodological approaches. The external or social aspects identified by Whitley concern characteristics of the education and research context and the social organisation of the scientific community. This aspect considers the degree of control that researchers have over research priorities and performance evaluation, such as peer review, evaluation of scientific journals, researcher recruitment, promotion, or mobility. The internal or cognitive aspects of a discipline include how central concepts and theories within the discipline are defined, as well as main research areas, research problems, methods, and relevant solutions.

Juxtaposition In the juxtaposition phase of the project, the research team sought to highlight similarities and differences, which were deduced from the data analysis of the low or high level of application of research methods. In this phase, the research team coded the existence of particular elements and provided evidence of the critical elements of a conceptual framework using a grounded theory-based approach. Grounded theory involves the construction and development of hypotheses and theories based on the collection and analysis of data. A general question is formulated; data are collected; concepts emerge from the data; coding can classify the emerging concepts to develop a new theory.

Comparison From the analysis of the results, the team was able to recognise that the research methodology employed influences the internal and external organisation of the LIS discipline. The analysis of the data highlighted that the extent of the application of research methods to either a greater or lesser level affected knowledge sharing, innovation, and the impact of the discipline on society. Following data collection and analysis, the implications of the research in determining the characteristics of research methods adopted in both Italy and Spain were assessed.



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Library and Information Science Research Methods: Italy The comparative study described in this chapter constituted the first Italian investigation of research methods being used in the LIS field and the initial activity was to select a representative sample of journals. The research team selected seven Class A journals considered to be of excellence by Agenzia Nazionale Valutazione Università Ricerca (ANVUR)/Italian National Agency for the Evaluation of Universities and Research Institutes. ANVUR is the national agency for evaluating quality in the Italian scholarly communication system and operates under the supervision of the Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research with the support of expert groups with some members of the groups belonging to the scientific societies. The rating of scientific journals is carried out by ANVUR in subject areas not subject to bibliometric analysis for the purpose of calculating the indicators used for the National Scientific Habilitation, the process by which the highest qualifications are gained for professorships in Europe, and for the accreditation of PhD programmes. The evaluation of publications is based on peer review (Solimine and Salarelli 2020). LIS research papers were chosen from the seven journals identified and analysed by highlighting the methods and research techniques used. The authors of the articles examined did not always clearly identify the methods used, or state whether the research was quantitative or qualitative in nature and it was therefore difficult to identify whether quantitative or qualitative research methods had been used by reading the LIS Italian papers. The research methods used in the papers demonstrated a prevalence of theoretical and historical methods over other kinds of methods. The results showed that the techniques used by Italian LIS researchers are limited to the reuse of data and text interpretation, instead of field research or new empirical investigations. The data can be interpreted by analysing the internal organisation of LIS in Italy and the external context. The LIS discipline in Italy focuses on traditional areas of library science, such as bibliography, general librarianship, archives, and the study of printed books. The historical dimension prevails in teaching (Traniello 2013). The internationalisation of research and interdisciplinarity are limited (Turbanti 2014, 2016). During the Seminar Hispano-Italiano en Biblioteconomía y Documentación internationalisation was acknowledged in two traditional areas: by Biagetti (2020) in the field of knowledge organisation for the International Society for Knowledge Organization (ISKO) which focuses on conceptual work in knowledge organisation in all kinds of forms, and for all kinds of purposes, such as databases, libraries, dictionaries and the Internet; .and by De Franceschi (2020) for SHARPWeb at the Society for the History of Authorship, Reading and Publishing (SHARP) which focuses on book history and the histories and analysis of material texts. An innovative trend in research highlighted by Faggiolani (2020) and called social librarianship promotes a focus on communi-

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ties and measures the impact on society. Social librarianship refers to the application of social science methods to librarianship and information work and examines user behaviour along with social justice issues. The social aspect implies a better application of research methods to measure the impact of LIS on society. In Italy, academic positions are classified by ministerial decree according to a system of disciplinary competition sectors, Settori Concorsuali, which are grouped into broad areas and then subdivided according to various criteria. The purpose of the classifications is to organise many aspects of universities, from the structure of degree programmes to the characterisation of university departments, research interests and the recruitment of professors. The social context of LIS in Italy is connected to historical studies classified as 11/A4, Scienze del libro e del documento e scienze storico religiose/science of the book and document and historical-religious sciences.

Library and Information Science Research Methods: Spain There is an extensive tradition in Spain regarding studies on research methods in LIS, commencing with Cano (1999). The selection of Spanish LIS journals was similar to the process for selecting Italian journals. The pool included eighteen academic LIS periodicals, all established before 2000 (Abadal and Guallar 2020). The six journals selected for further study were indexed by Scopus or the Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI) as quality periodicals. The productivity of the journals was considered to be high with a total of 193 research articles published in 2019. Half of the articles stated the methodology adopted in the abstract, with 49% of authors declaring it in the text of the paper. The most widespread methodology, 52%, was quantitative, with 48% of the papers examined adopting qualitative methodology. The most frequently used research methods were descriptive research and evaluative research. A variety of techniques was used, showing a high level of application of research methods to the work described. Content analysis and secondary analysis were the most popular research approaches, while surveys and case studies were limited. The interpretation of the data was conducted for the LIS community in Spain, highlighting the internal and external organisation of the discipline. Spanish LIS research activity began for the first time in the 1980s, in parallel with the creation of LIS schools in universities and grew with the introduction of study courses at all levels, bachelor, master’s and especially doctoral level (Abadal 2013). Documentation science was the discipline which examined the nature of information and which eventually became known as information science, although the term documentation remained in use in many European countries (Castellucci 2013). Prior to 2000, research in Spain in documentation was oriented towards dissemination rather than innovation (Delgado-López-Cózar 2000). The interna-



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tional impact of the work undertaken was low and research suffered from limited financial and human resources and poor quality. In the first twenty years of the 21st century, research in documentation experienced an extraordinary level of growth thanks to a quantitative increase in research activity resulting in increased numbers of publications, theses, and research projects accompanied by a qualitative improvement in the use of systematic research methods and techniques, as well as a diversification of research topics. Abadal and Guallar (2020) state that internationalisation of the results of Spanish research is still limited, but interdisciplinarity has grown widely with LIS capitalising on developments in other disciplines, particularly the social sciences. LIS in Spain includes communication and documentation which are connected to the broader field of the social sciences. Many LIS projects have been funded at the national level and in European programmes since the early 1990s with the participation of a significant number of LIS researchers. The performance of the Spanish science and innovation system has improved considerably in recent years. Research evaluation is frequently based on bibliometric indicators. The increasing publication rate in LIS has led to a growing visibility of LIS research in Spain and to the presence of evidence of Spanish research output in international LIS journals measured by international indicators (Urbano and Ardanuy 2020). Social librarianship in research is a trend in Spain, with a push to focus research on sustainable development goals (Perez Pulido 2020). Similarly, research into user studies is growing in Spain (Gonzales Teruel 2020).

Similarities and Differences between Italian and Spanish Research LIS communities in Italy and Spain use different approaches to research and demonstrate a different approach to research methodology, ranging from what might be deemed low level a high level with a seeming absence of research methodology and a focus only on narrative or historical description to what might be called high level involving a detailed research strategy and full details of research methods used with an outline of the research plan in the abstract of the article. A conservative approach to research favours a choice of theoretical and historical methods while the choice of evaluative and experimental methods involves an innovative approach. The analysis of research techniques chosen by the authors of the articles examined highlighted the presence of an argumentative approach combined with analysis of texts and data that contrasted with the choice of a detailed descriptive case and an investigative research approach. The prevalent combinations are illustrated in Table 16.1.

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Table 16.1: Comparison of research strategies, methods, and techniques Research approach

Italy

Spain

Research strategy

No research strategy or methodology in abstract Theoretical historical approach Argumentation on research texts and data

Methodology well defined and included in abstract Experiential and evaluative approach Content analysis and secondary analysis

Research methods Research techniques

From an examination of the data collected, it appeared that there have been different applications of research methods across Italian and Spanish LIS research, and that some particular approaches have fostered disciplinary collaboration and innovation. In the juxtaposition phase of the study, the team developed a conceptual framework to highlight the application of research methods with a range of descriptors ranging from high to low. The range of descriptors used was not sufficiently refined to highlight similarities and differences precisely, but trends could be generalised from the data. To develop a conceptual framework, the team codified the different elements highlighted during the discussion of internal and external factors of research together with the new trends. The elements were compared with the different levels of application of the research methods. A low or high level of application of research methods influences and is influenced by sharing knowledge, innovation and impact on society (Figure 16.1).

Figure 16.1: Conceptual framework towards a grounded theory approach



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Comparison The application of low or high level research methods was contrasted with the three critical elements influencing research: –– Sharing: the application of high levels of research methodology fosters sharing and collaboration in research. The internal organisation of a discipline is based on effective sharing and reuse of knowledge –– Innovation: the application of high level and appropriate research methods facilitates innovation within a discipline. The external organisation of a discipline involves national policies for research evaluation and the organisation of power among new and different actors, and –– Impact: the LIS research trend which places users, the community, society at large and sustainability at the centre extends the impact of LIS in complex social situations such as the current one. These three factors emerged from the team discussions of the collected data towards a grounded theory for LIS research.

Factors Influencing Sharing and Innovation The analysis of the data in this comparative study showed that research methodology is a tool to foster national and international collaboration. Use of low-level research methods leads to a low level of collaboration preventing information and knowledge sharing, while high-level empirical methods have greater chances of fostering the sharing of research activity and outcomes. More theoretical approaches lead to the choice of argumentation and descriptive techniques on texts while more empirical approaches involve data collection and analysis, use of surveys and case studies. In this conceptual framework, the distinction between using low or high levels of research methods influences innovation along with any national political choices for knowledge infrastructure which might be in place. The importance of choosing appropriate research methods is that use of lower-level methods aligns with conservative outcomes and a high level experimental approach leads to innovative outcomes. It might be that evaluation of research and the recruitment system by groups of so-called experts supports the status quo and prevents innovation, while bibliometric systems could favour it and strengthen novel outcomes.

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Trends in Library and Information Science Research The comparative study highlighted a trend towards fragmentation of the LIS discipline accompanied by new perspectives on librarianship, with a focus on professional responsibility for improving society, community service, social justice, deep understandings of user behaviour and needs and sustainability. Extending the influence of libraries into the community and society and enhancing the impact of the contribution of libraries to society requires a higher and more sophisticated level of research methods, influencing both the internal and external organisation of LIS. A common trend in Spain and Italy is community-centred librarianship, referred to in various ways as social, participatory, new, or relational. The trend has an important influence on research methods adopted. It stimulates two lines of activity: one is to get to know the community served, using quantitative and qualitative methodologies, and the second aims to measure the impact of libraries on the community itself. User studies are not widespread in Italy, while they are regularly conducted in Spain. Determining societal impact is a challenge for LIS research. Understanding the impact improves data sharing and innovation.

Conclusion The comparative study of research methods in LIS research studies published in Italy and Spain began with evidence of a gap in research collaboration within the LIS community in both countries, despite the many collaborative activities for education and other projects. The analysis of the data has made it possible to understand how to improve research collaboration with an application of higher level research methods that work toward sharing, innovating and achieving an impact. Starting from the juxtaposition of LIS research methods in use in Italy and Spain, the research team developed a conceptual framework based on a grounded theory that could be tested and validated in other contexts and that could be used to add knowledge to the internationalisation of LIS research methods. Further studies could examine two aspects that the team did not consider in this study: the topics of the research undertaken and the authors’ backgrounds and affiliations. Such studies would deepen and test the conceptual framework.



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Sophia V. Adeyeye and Opeyemi R. Oboh

17 R  esearch Competencies of Postgraduate Students at Lead City University, Nigeria Abstract: The relevance, continuity, and viability of any academic discipline or profession depend on the quality and output of research. In the library and information science field, postgraduate students have gained research competencies in research methodology classes which prepare them for writing master’s theses and doctoral dissertations and equip them with lifelong skills in research and scholarly writing. The main objective of the study reported in this chapter was to investigate the research and scholarly writing competence of postgraduate students in the library and information science programme at Lead City University in Ibadan, Nigeria. A mixed-methods research design was adopted with content analysis, focus group discussion, and interviews as data collection techniques. The findings showed a wide gap between knowledge and practice which was attributed to research methodology being taught as a course for only one semester. It was therefore recommended that research methodology be taught for a full academic year and that students attend research seminars during their academic journey. Keywords: Library science – Nigeria; Library education – Research; Library education – Nigeria; Library science – Research

Introduction The present generation of scholars has inherited an intellectual heritage produced by the persistence, perseverance, expertise, and cultured inquisitiveness of those who have gone before them. The knowledge created has been handed over to the present generation in the form of journal articles, books, online content and other intellectual outputs in various forms to facilitate the continuity of knowledge. It is incumbent on the present generation to continue building knowledge and to communicate and transmit it to successive generations. The library and information science (LIS) profession is not exempted from this general process of knowledge transfer. The professional mission of engagement in the LIS profession, both in its practice and its education, is not limited to collecting, preserving, and disseminating knowledge generated by others. Practitioners and educators in the LIS field are also producers of knowledge. One of the ways of achieving the goal of knowledge production is through research and scholarly writing. Juznic and Urbanija (2003) support this point by asserting that LIS has emerged not only as a profession but https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-019

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also as a research discipline. Research is a prerequisite provision for the creation of new knowledge and thereby contributes to the growth of LIS as a profession and as a scientific discipline. Juznic and Urbanija further argue that the absence or the scarcity of research implies that there is no LIS profession but only an occupation grounded in techniques, routine and common sense. There is a common mantra that today’s children are the tomorrow’s future. “Children are like buds in a garden and should be carefully and lovingly nurtured, as they are the future of the nation and the citizens of tomorrow” said Jawaharlal Nehru. The continuity of every academic discipline or profession depends on budding scholars and their efforts and achievements. In the context of the study reported in this chapter, the emerging scholars were the postgraduate students, master’s and doctoral students enrolled in the Library and Information Science programme, at the Faculty of Communication and Information Sciences, Lead City University. The university is a private university in Ibadan, Oyo state, Nigeria. The competence of these students is very important to the continuity and development of LIS as a discipline and as a practising profession.

Developing Research Competencies Mallari and Santiago stated that: Research competency… includes identification of potential sources of research problems in the field …, the identification of disagreements and inconsistencies in the meanings of a particular concept as used in the practice of [the] profession, appraisal of certain practices in the field …, formulation of questions, construction of hypotheses, assessment of the appropriateness of scope and boundaries of the research, employment of the correct procedures in conducting review of related literature and using the literature review in enhancing the research questions and framework (2013, 54).

Research competence is a significant attribute that should be developed by all postgraduate students. Ensuring that postgraduate students acquire the necessary knowledge and skills is essential if they are to complete the research process successfully. They must be able to select a research topic or research problem, conduct a literature review, develop objectives, formulate research questions and hypotheses, design a research study, choose a method of data collection and analysis, organise and present the data, analyse and discuss the findings, explore the results, draw conclusions, make recommendations, and disseminate the research outcomes. The development of research competencies for many professionals commences during undergraduate education, yet many graduates seem incapable of



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planning and conducting quality research work. Independent research competencies are critical for developing students’ interests, leadership roles, and critical thinking. However, evidence exists to suggest that students’ research competencies are low (Davidson and Palermo 2015). There are many different factors contributing to poor skills and inadequate knowledge. For example, students might have unfavourable perceptions of the necessity for research skills and knowledge; they might have adverse dispositions towards the course; or they might not be able to apply the theoretical knowledge imparted through classroom teaching. Teaching research competence to postgraduate students is essential in preparing them for future professional activities. In addition to teaching postgraduate students the required research skills and preparing them for the knowledge society, higher education has a crucial role to play in the production and dissemination of information. One way to ensure that students acquire the requisite knowledge and skills, is to make the teaching of research methodology a compulsory course in LIS programmes. It is important to understand the skills and knowledge required by LIS postgraduate students and to develop their levels of skills and knowledge acquisition to determine the appropriate responses to be taken in teaching programmes.

Examining Research Competencies of Postgraduate Students at Lead City University The study reported in this chapter was conducted in 2020 to investigate the research and scholarly writing competence of postgraduate students in the library and information science programme at Lead City University in Ibadan, Nigeria.

Specific Objectives of the Study The specific objectives of the study were to: –– Examine how well the students demonstrated research competence through content analysis of their theses –– Determine how the existing research methodology course prepared the students for thesis writing and research in general, and –– Analyse the impact of the effort of faculty members who teach research methodology to postgraduate students in bridging the gap between theory and practice.

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Methodology of the Study The study used a mixed-methods design for data collection. The following methods were used: content analysis, focus group discussion, and interview. As of 2020 when the study was conducted, the doctoral programme was yet to commence which explains the reason for focusing on master’s theses. At the time of conducting the study, twelve master’s degree students had graduated from the programme.

Content Analysis Content analysis was conducted on the theses of the students who had graduated from the LIS master’s programme and was used primarily to address the first objective of the study, to examine how well the students had demonstrated their research competence. Copies of the master’s theses were consulted at the Lead City University Library. The content analysis checklist (Appendix 1) was drafted based on the components of research competence identified in the work of Mallari and Santiago (2013) and contains the title of thesis, the variables examined, and the themes used for the examination of the theses. The titles were examined to identify the independent and dependent variables. The themes were developed to analyse the content and capture the expectation or standard of inclusion of the competency in the thesis. The themes used for the analysis are contained in the table provided in Appendix 1 to this chapter and included research design, research instrument, and method of data analysis the title and the variables. What research design was chosen by the student? What research instruments were used? What method of data analysis was used including descriptive, statistical, inferential, linear or multiple regression, and/or correlation analysis?

Focus Group The focus group discussion addressed the second objective of the study and sought the views of the students on their research abilities. The group included ten students: five postgraduate students in the second semester of the master’s programme and five doctoral students. Master’s students in their first semester were excluded from the study because the research methodology course is taught in the second semester. The discussion session was conducted in one of the university’s gardens to provide a relaxed setting. An interview guide with a prepared list of six questions guided the interview. The interview guide was



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developed to ensure that the discussion did not veer from the focus of the study. Some of the questions raised were: Do you think that the Research Methodology course has furnished you with enough knowledge for a life-long research journey? Did the Research Methodology course open your insights to other data collection methods? One of the authors conducted the discussion session while the second author used a mobile phone to record the discussion and took notes as necessary. The discussion lasted almost one hour. The audio recording was later transcribed and summarised.

Interview Only one faculty member teaches research methodology at the postgraduate level in the programme and was interviewed to provide answers to the third research question. Comments made by participants in the focus group addressing the second research question were also considered, along with the content analysis which primarily concerned itself with the first research question posed.

The Study’s Findings The findings are provided in relation to the objectives posed for the study.

Objective 1: Examine how well postgraduate students demonstrated research competence through content analysis of their theses. All twelve theses of past master’s students submitted to the University library were analysed /and a summary of the results is presented in Appendix 1. The findings showed a similar pattern across all the theses analysed. As regards the formulation of titles for the theses, all indicated the independent variables and dependent variables. The prevalent research design which had been chosen was survey research design and the questionnaire served as the commonly preferred instrument for data collection. It therefore followed from the choice of research design and data collection that the use of descriptive and inferential statistics was the most heavily utilised method of data analysis. The pattern revealed by the findings is not inappropriate. However, little dynamism or interest was observed in exploring other research methodologies and using triangulation or alternative means of analysis.

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Objective 2: Determine how the research methodology course prepared the postgraduate students for thesis writing and research. A focus group discussion addressed this objective and was used to elicit information from the ten postgraduate students included. As already noted, six questions formed the basis for the discussion. The following is a summary of the participants’ responses. The majority of participants expressed an opinion that taking research methodology as a course had helped hone their research skills, increased their knowledge of different areas of research like methods of data collection both qualitative and quantitative, and improved their understanding of research design including Delphi techniques, phenomenological research, ethnographic, and historical approaches. However, despite the broad coverage of research methods in the course, there seemed to be a tendency for the participants to use only questionnaires for data collection, and survey research design. Students were oriented to the use of questionnaires as a tool for data collection. According to the participants, the concentration on using surveys was influenced by the interactive session during the classroom lecture. This finding with its emphasis on use of questionnaires resonated with findings from the content analysis of masters’ theses, as all made use of questionnaires for data collection along with survey research design. When the participants were asked about what measures the department might put in place to further hone their research knowledge and skills, they indicated that the course should take the form of seminars and workshops rather than classroom lectures and examinations; a few participants suggested that the course should be taught for more than one semester to allow for sufficient interaction between the lecturer and students. In addition, it was also proposed that the course should run concurrently with students’ thesis writing so that they could immediately apply the theoretical knowledge learned in the classroom. Lastly, it should be a requirement for students to publish a minimum of two journal articles before the end of the programme. A bi-monthly seminar was one of the provisions of the department to improve research competence among postgraduate students. The students attested to the effectiveness of the seminar because it took a more practical approach and allowed the students to share their experiences and learn from the expertise of others. According to one participant in the discussion group, the department could emphasise that research is a lifelong process and part of career development, not just a one-off teaching or learning session. Good teaching could emphasise a simplification of the processes involved. The research methods class should result in a publication or a practical work and be taught in a way that would generate a research paper.



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Objective 3: Analyse the impact of the effort of faculty members who teach research methodology to postgraduate students in bridging the gap between theory and practice One faculty member was the focus of feedback in response to this objective. However, participants in the focus group discussion also provided relevant feedback. The participant indicated that the research methodology curriculum used in the department was robust and inclusive. However, from observations in the content analysis activity, and in the discussion group, most postgraduate students were more inclined to use quantitative methods and survey research design which could be attributed to lack of or scant exposure to other research approaches within the course. Perhaps there were limitations to guidance provided to the students during their project or thesis writing experiences. The department was, and remains, strongly interested in exposing the students to all kinds of research designs and methods. It might be that a research phobia amongst the students caused them to seek what is perceived to be an easier way out by using questionnaires and surveys. The instructor providing the primary feedback to the research question stressed that the courseware and teaching methodology were sufficient to prepare postgraduate students for lifelong research in library and information science. The teaching methodology adopted a practical approach to research rather than a purely theoretical teaching model. The instructor’s words were: “My teaching methodology is highly interactive and give [sic] relatable practical examples.” To enhance postgraduate students’ research competencies, the instructor suggested that the faculty take a more gradual approach in introducing students to the complexity of research methodology to alleviate some of the students’ anxieties. The instructor also suggested including within the course an emphasis on the importance of academic integrity to forestall students engaging in all manner of academic dishonesty such as plagiarising other people’s works and outsourcing their work to others.

Research Competencies of Postgraduate LIS Students: Interpreting the Results The findings of the study provided insights into the research competences of LIS postgraduate students at the Lead City University in Nigeria and are discussed in the light of other studies. The titles and structure of master’s theses examined in the content analysis took similar approaches and followed a narrowly prescribed pattern of construction. They lacked innovation in the research design. Results

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from the content analysis showed that all the theses from the past students used the same research methods. The research design relied mainly on surveys and questionnaires as instruments of data collection. The use of one research method might reflect the in-house style acceptable in the department. However, the key informant interview with the instructor revealed that postgraduate students were encouraged to be dynamic and open-minded. It is therefore likely that the reliance on one approach might have resulted from not having the requisite knowledge and skills which would allow for a more varied selection of research designs. This finding is in harmony with the findings of the study carried out by Nwabueze, Ikegbunam, and Anike (2018) on dominant elements in research methods among communication students in two South East Nigerian universities. One of the objectives of the study was to ascertain the dominant research methodology used by students included in the study. The findings revealed that the most dominant research method adopted by students was the survey research method and consequently the use of questionnaires for data collection. The approach accounted for 51% of the sample under study. Arellano, Morano, and Nepomucheno (2012) tested 963 graduating students with a two-part questionnaire to ascertain their perceptions of research proficiency. The results indicated that while knowledge of many aspects of the research process was gained, fewer than half of the respondents expressed confidence in their ability to state an hypothesis, develop appropriate scales for measuring outcomes, or identify the appropriate statistical analysis means for a particular research project. The study concluded that the students were poorly equipped in many aspects of research competence. One of the key findings of the study of LIS postgraduate students in Nigeria indicated that they did not want to challenge themselves. They preferred to stay in their comfort zones and use research methodologies that seemed to be readily established in the department. The prevalence of survey research design and the use of questionnaires was probably an indication of their low research competency or a lack of confidence in their abilities to use alternative approaches. The finding corroborates work done by Desmennu and Owoaje (2018) in a study on the challenges of research conducted among postgraduate research students across all faculties at the University of Ibadan; significant barriers to research were lack of funding, irregular power supply and lack of access to research materials. The participants rated their research competence as low in many aspects of research methodology and in conducting research and documenting results. Further training was required in proposal development, seeking funds and evaluating intervention. According to the observations of the student participants of the Lead University study during the focus group, the teaching model adopted by the lecturer in conducting the research methodology course was perceived to be theoretical.



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This perception contradicted the information gained at the key interview with the instructor, wherein the faculty member stated that the curriculum for the research methods course gave priority to practical applications. The course included both theoretical components and hands-on practice. The reason for the gap between student and instructor perceptions could be explained in many ways: the lecturer’s approach was too complex for the students to comprehend; the time allocated to the content was insufficient; the teaching methods adopted were inappropriate. In finding solutions to the problems revealed in the study, it is suggested that a research methodology course should be taught for more than one semester, thereby giving the teaching staff and the students sufficient time to interact with each other and with the content being presented. Lecturers should be further trained on the importance of pedagogy and alternative teaching models that would afford a more hands-on experience. Workshops, seminars and webinars should be organised for postgraduate students on technical and soft skills needed for a well-grounded researcher. In addition, training in research methods should be extended through professional development opportunities following graduation.

Conclusion The findings from the study of postgraduate student research competencies in the LIS programme at the Lead City University in Ibadan, Nigeria, indicated that the research methods course in the LIS programme was not fully succeeding in meeting its goals of increasing the level of research competence amongst postgraduate students. The course did not focus on diversity either in content of research methods and design or in delivery. The course appeared to focus on the survey as the main approach to research design with a questionnaire as the primary data collection instrument and the use of descriptive and inferential statistics in data analysis. Postgraduate students followed an established path with a formulaic approach to research with apparent lack of interest in exploring alternative research methods and creative approaches to problem-solving. The professed phobia towards research was a strong contributory factor. The teaching model used appeared to be highly theoretical and postgraduate students found it difficult to apply what was learned in the classroom to their thesis writing. The lack of creativity and innovation shown in their initial work will have a far-reaching impact on their professional and research journeys. The lack of research competencies in budding librarians is a clarion call to stakeholders in the LIS profession, and those teaching LIS, to be more deliberate and focused about the approaches to teaching research methodology and engaging

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students in research and scholarly activities. The Nigerian study described in this chapter points to the need to focus on pedagogical delivery and teaching styles, in addition to the content of courses in research methodology, and to ensure that teaching styles adopted match the learning outcomes desired. The present generation of students included in the study seemed to prefer to follow established models of research and to express little interest in innovative approaches. But were the students led in the pursuit of established ways by their instructors ? Were they following the lead of the faculty and of the practising profession? Understanding the behaviour and preferences of students may call for different pedagogical measures to ensure that past standards are maintained, innovation is encouraged and the unique needs of the present generation of students and the changing LIS profession are considered.

References Abu-Rumman, Ayman Ahmad, and Ahmad Fathi Alheet. 2019. “The Role of Researcher Competencies in Delivering Successful Research.” Information and Knowledge Management 9, no. 1: 29–32. IISTE International Knowledge Sharing Platform. https://iiste.org/Journals/index.php/IKM/article/ view/45969/47849. Arellano, Elvira R., Lourdes N. Morano, and Cherry T. Nepomuceno. 2012. “Assessing Undergraduate Research Competence: Readiness for Research-Oriented Jobs.” Development Education Journal of Multidisciplinary Research 1, no. 2: 92–116. Available at https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id=6621 Davidson, Zoe E., and Claire Palermo. 2015. “Developing Research Competence in Undergraduate Students Through Hands on Learning.” Journal of Biomedical Education 25: Article ID 306380. 9 pages. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/306380. Desmennu, Adeyimika Titilayo, and Eme Theodora Owoaje. 2018. “Challenges of Research Conduct among Postgraduate Research Students in an African University.” Educational Research and Reviews 13, no. 9: 336–342. Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1178271.pdf. Hosein, Anesa, and Namrata Rao. 2017. “Students’ Reflective Essays as Insights into Student CentredPedagogies within the Undergraduate Research Methods Curriculum.” Teaching in Higher Education 22, no. 1: 109–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2016.1221804. Juznic, Primoz, and Joze Urbanija. 2003. “Developing Research Skills in Library and Information Science Studies.” Library Management 24, no. 6/7: 324–331. https://doi.org/10.1108/01435120310486048. Mallari, Myrna Q., and Myrel M. Santiago. 2013. “The Research Competency and Interest of Accountancy Faculty Among State Colleges and Universities in Region III.” Review of Integrative Business & Economics Research 2, no. 1: 51–66. http://www.buscompress.com/ uploads/3/4/9/8/34980536/riber_k13-015__51-66_.pdf. Nwabueze, Chinenye, Peter C. Ikegbunam,. and Raji Anike. 2018. “Dominant Elements in Research Methods Among Communication Students in Two South East Nigerian Universities.” The Nigerian Journal of Communication 15, no. 1: 149–164. http://tnjc.org.ng/wp-content/uploads/Vol15N1Full/ Dominant-Elements-in-Research-Methods-among-Communication-Students-in-Two-South-EastNigerian-Universities.pdf



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Appendix 1: Summary of content analysis of theses S/N Year Title

Independent Dependent Research Research Method Of Variable Variable Design Instrument Data Analysis

1

Digital Literacy Library Skills Usage

2

3

4

5

2020 Digital Literacy Skills, Reading Habit as Determinants of Library Usage among Undergraduates in two Private Universities in Oyo State, Nigeria 2020 Leadership Styles and Staff Motivation as Factors Influencing Job Satisfaction of University Library Personnel in Ondo State 2021 Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology Model Indicators and Use of Institutional Repository among Postgraduate Students in Southwest Nigeria 2021 Leadership Styles and Knowledge Sharing among Librarians in Universities in Oyo State 2021 Availability, Accessibility and Use of Electronic Information Resources by Postgraduate Students of University of Lagos, Nigeria

Reading Habit

Descrip- Questiontive and naire non-experimental

Descriptive Analysis Partial Correlation Analysis Multiple Regression Analysis

Descrip- Questiontive naire Survey Research Design

Descriptive Analysis Correlation Analysis Multiple Regression Analysis

Leadership Styles Staff Motivation

Job Satisfaction

Performance Expectancy Effort Expectancy Social Influence Facilitating Conditions

Use of Descrip- QuestionInstitutional tive naire Repository Survey Research Design

Descriptive Analysis Linear Regression Analysis Multiple Regression Analysis

Leadership Styles

Knowledge DescripSharing tive Correlational Research Design Use of DescripElectronic tive Resources Correlational Survey Research Design

Questionnaire

Descriptive analysis Inferential Statistical analysis

Questionnaire

Descriptive Analysis Linear Regression Analysis Multiple Regression Analysis

Availability Accessibility

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 Sophia V. Adeyeye and Opeyemi R. Oboh

S/N Year Title

Independent Dependent Research Research Method Of Variable Variable Design Instrument Data Analysis

6

Attitudes Productivity Descrip- QuestionTechnical Skills tive naire Research Survey

7

8

9

2021 Attitudes, Technical Skills and Productivity of Cataloguers in Tertiary Institutions in Edo State, Nigeria 2020 Academic Staff Awareness, Attitude and Use of Open Access Resources in Polytechnics in Lagos, State, Nigeria 2020 Awareness, Accessibility and Use of Electronic Information Resources (EIRs) by Students of Public Polytechnics in Lagos State, Nigeria 2020 Attitude, Subjective Norms, Perceived Behavioural Control and Reading of Patient Information Leaflet by Lagos State Polytechnic Students, Ikorodu, Lagos State, Nigeria

Academic Staff Use of Open Descrip- QuestionAwareness Access tive naire Attitude Resources survey of the Correlation type

Descriptive analysis Linear Regression Analysis Multiple Regression Analysis Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

Awareness Accessibility

Use of DescripElectronic tive Information Survey Resources (EIRs)

Questionnaire

Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

Attitude Subjective Norms Perceived Behavioural Control

Reading Survey of Patient Information Leaflet

Questionnaire

Simple and Multiple Regression Analysis



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S/N Year Title

Independent Dependent Research Research Method Of Variable Variable Design Instrument Data Analysis

10

Infrastructural Utilisation Facilities of KOHA Information Software and Communication Technology (ICT) Skills

Descriptive Survey

Questionnaire

Descriptive Statistics Multiple Regression

Library Collection Availability Information Need Information Seeking Behaviour

Library Patronage

Descrip- Questiontive Sur- naire vey of the Correlational Type

Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

Information Need Information Seeking Behaviour

Use of Library

Descrip- Questiontive Renaire search of the Correlation Type

Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

11

12

2020 Infrastructural Facilities, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Skills and Utilisation of KOHA Software by Library Personnel in Two Polytechnics in SouthWest, Nigeria 2020 Library Collection Availability, Information Need and Seeking Behaviour as determinants of Library Patronage by Advertising Practitioners in Lagos State, Nigeria 2020 Information Need, Information Seeking Behaviour and Use of Library by Seminarians in Christ Apostolic Church Theological Seminary, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria

Danilo Madayag Baylen and Iyra S. Buenrostro-Cabbab

18 D  eveloping Students’ Research Skills in the Philippines Abstract: This chapter explores how two library and information science (LIS) graduate courses in the Philippines equip students with research skills and experience in problem identification, literature reviewing, data collection and analysis, and presentation and communication of findings. The two courses offered in different universities and locations are compared to identify similarities and differences in issues and implications for future practice. Issues identified relate to content knowledge, instructional strategies, technology-based tools and support, student profiles, and faculty presence. Based on the results of the comparison, specific research skills need to be introduced in some courses to give students more practice during program completion. The authors recommend that master’s programs in LIS review and identify areas to embed one or two research skills in courses across the curriculum. There is a need to re-examine the use of pedagogical approaches to determine which ones best meet the research needs and capabilities of students. Keywords: Library science – Philippines; Library education – Philippines; Library science – Research; Research – Methodology

Introduction Research is systematic inquiry that involves suitable methodologies and approaches to address issues and provide logical solutions to particular problems. Research helps individuals better understand the complexities of a specific phenomenon, uphold truth, and become critical thinkers when making decisions and expanding or generating new knowledge. In Library and Information Science (LIS), research helps improve practice and cultivate the profession’s theoretical foundations (Connaway and Radford 2017, 3–5). Knowing how to conduct research is one of the core areas of LIS education (Buenrostro 2019, 2). Research methods classes are offered to guide students and practitioners in learning various strategies and approaches to the analysis of information activities to move towards the development of effective, equitable, and inclusive delivery of library and information services to diverse communities. This chapter explores how two LIS courses in the Philippines equip students with the necessary research skills. Many LIS degree programs adopt a research methods course as the foundation for conducting inquiries in completing a thesis or capstone project. However, the acquisition and demonstration of research skills are https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-020



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not the sole domain of one course in any program. Many elective courses require research skills to complete assignments. This chapter shows how research skills are taught among graduate students with different backgrounds and capabilities through both core and elective courses.

Library Education and Librarianship in the Philippines A wide variety of colleges and universities, known as higher education institutions, operate in the Philippines under the administration and regulation of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED). In announcing examination results in 2019, the Philippines Professional Regulation Commission listed eighty-eight higher education institutions offering Bachelor of Library and Information Science (BLIS) and Master of Library and Information Science (MLIS) programs (2019). Library education in the Philippines began with three courses in library economy offered by the University of the Philippines in 1914, which were later developed into a fouryear bachelor’s degree program in 1916 to teach library science to students and to prepare them for professional work in libraries (Faderon et al. 2016, 279–280). Following the work of the first American teachers James Alexander Robertson, Mary Polk, and Lois Osborn, by the middle of 1924, the Filipino library science pensionados who were sent to the University of Wisconsin Library School (UWLS) in the United States took the lead in managing the key Philippine libraries and teaching of library science (Brazzeal 2023, 8–12). In the succeeding years, with numerous libraries being established especially during the post-war rehabilitation, more private and public colleges and universities started to offer undergraduate library science programs to meet the increasing demand for school librarians (Faderon et al. 2016, 281–284). Graduate programs in LIS eventually followed within the late 20th century. The programs offered have followed global developments in LIS education. Most programs focused on technical skills but gradually became more concerned with the needs of users and adopted alternative worldviews. The librarianship profession, library education and libraries in the Philippines develop alongside each other. The Philippines, like most countries, has the full range of libraries: academic, public, school and special with a key role played by the National Library of the Philippines. According to the National Library of the Philippines’ data, as of May 2023, there are 1640 public libraries, with 116 city libraries, 605 municipal libraries and 856 barangay or village libraries (National Library of the Philippines 2023). In recent years, more professionally trained and licensed librarians have been required to oversee libraries in the Philippines in accordance with the Republic Act

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No. 9246 or the Philippine Librarianship Act of 2003 (Adel 2020). There is a need to promote the profession and education of librarians constantly through regulation and improvement of curricula across higher education institutions. Buenrostro and Cabbab in an editorial in the Philippine Journal of Librarianship and Information Studies address the question of the purpose and the “why?” of library education and emphasize the need to examine competencies required to deal with information needs emerging in society along with program accreditation requirements (2021).

A Tale of Two Universities in the Philippines The authors share their experiences with two universities in the Philippines to help the reader understand how LIS students acquire research skills necessary for conducting successful research projects. Both situations focus on courses in master’s degree programs from two Philippine universities: University of the Philippines School of Library and Information Studies (UP SLIS) and the Central Philippine University (CPU). The courses provided by these two universities are guided by the policies, standards and guidelines set by the Philippines’ Commission on Higher Education (CHED) which stipulate: Graduate programs…[focus] on a particular or interdisciplinary academic discipline or profession and [involve]… 1. Rigorous evaluation of work and interaction with professors and peers 2. Professional experience via internships, teaching, and research and 3. Production of original research or creative work. … [The]ultimate goal is to contribute to the process of knowledge acquisition, generation, sharing and exchange ….The general outcomes…are the mastery of a specialized field of study, the development of original and critical thinking, and the demonstration of problem-solving skills that prepare the degree holder for advanced instruction and leadership positions in the areas of research, creative work, as well as the practice of his or her profession (The Philippines. Commission on Higher Education 2019, Sec. 2).

Each degree-granting institution aligns its courses with learning activities and outcomes to ensure compliance with the CHED guidelines, and to develop the necessary research skills of the LIS graduate students.



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University of the Philippines School of Library and Information Studies The Context The UP SLIS, formerly known as the Institute of Library Science and the Institute of Library and Information Science, has been recognised in the Philippines as the premier higher education institution providing education and training for future and existing library and information professionals (UP SLIS n.d.). The UP SLIS proactively enhances its curricula, professional involvements and research activities on library and information science, archival studies, records management, information systems, and other areas related to library and information studies to broaden the school’s direction and reach, and address the exigencies of the LIS profession and discipline. The faculty members improve their syllabi, reading lists, and most importantly, pedagogical approaches to adjust to the nature, needs, and capabilities of the students as well as the expected competencies that the students must develop. The UP SLIS adheres to the CHED’s goals and guidelines. The ultimate goal of the graduate programs is “to contribute to the process of knowledge acquisition, generation, sharing, and exchange that is distinct from the baccalaureate level” (The Philippines Commission on Higher Education 2019, Sec. 2). With this goal, the UP SLIS aligns its courses in the MLIS curriculum with the requisite learning activities and outcomes to ensure that graduate students not only build up their practical skills in library and information work, but also develop critical thinking skills needed to identify and analyze problems, and tackle conceptual and methodological issues in both the theory and practice of LIS. The acquisition of these competencies is emphasized and cultivated throughout the MLIS program, especially in the research methodology course. At UP SLIS, the master’s degree is a 36-unit program which includes a Thesis option or a 37-unit program which includes a Special Problem option. One credit unit is equivalent to one lecture hour, and one course is usually equivalent to three credit units, except for the Thesis which represents six units, and the Special Problem which entails four units. The students can choose between the two options based on their interests and perceived capabilities in conducting either a more theoretical study, the Thesis, or an applied study or project, the Special Problem. In recent years, more students are opting to do special problems, as many of them are practitioners and involved in providing industry and community-specific solutions to problems related to information management. Students must take the prescribed courses and electives, including the three-unit Research Methodology course which

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must be taken before proceeding to the final or terminal requirement of the Thesis or Special Problem to complete the degree program. The Research Methodology course is offered every semester with an average of ten to fifteen students per class. Faculty members teaching the course have experience conducting research and employing different methods to collect and analyze research data. The program expects faculty members to be familiar with the terrain of LIS research locally and globally. The faculty must understand the emerging trends and methods used to address research inquiries. While the standard course structure includes course description, credit units, the number of class hours per week, and expected learning outcomes, faculty members design their syllabi and choose class policies and instructions, activities, assignments, and reading lists. The second author is one faculty member who handles this course. Most students work full-time while pursuing their master’s degrees. Their employers include school, academic, public, and special libraries or information centers. Some students work in archives and record centers while others work for non-governmental organizations and want to gain more knowledge and experience in librarianship. Some do not work in library settings but would like to pursue a career in librarianship; not all students have an undergraduate degree in LIS. Despite differences in work and educational experiences, the students are homogeneous in geography and culture as they are all from the Philippines.

Course Content As already noted, the Research Methods course is a preparatory prerequisite to fulfilling the students’ final program requirements, either the Thesis or Special Problem. During the particular semester when this comparative study was conducted, students of this course received the necessary guidance in expertise and resources to identify and articulate LIS-related issues. They examined and evaluated scholarly literature and applied appropriate methodologies to address gaps and problems involving theory and practice. The course also prepared the students to communicate research outcomes through academic writing and public presentations.

Course Activities The course activities focused on problem identification and definition, conducting an effective literature review, data collection, data analysis methods, report writing and communication.



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The faculty member provided opportunities for group discussion and oneon-one consultations to discuss chosen topics or projects. Students presented an expanded topic outline consisting of central concepts of interest, supporting literature, problem statement, the significance of the inquiry, proposed target population for any study being undertaken, and the potential contribution to LIS. In submitting the outline, the faculty member had opportunities to ask about the value of the topic to LIS practice, the extent of the contribution to the research literature, and the relevance to and impact on the population to be studied, if any. After completing the required outline, students familiarized themselves with relevant literature to their areas of research. They searched and identified literature from various sources and produced annotated bibliographies on studies available about their chosen topics. Since this was a preliminary step that would lead the students to more readings and publications, they were required to annotate at least ten primary or secondary sources. The students concisely summarized and evaluated a list of references found and provided justification on the relevance to their work. Based on the annotated bibliography activity, students reviewed and reflected on their work guided by questions focusing on the diversity of operational definitions and conceptual meanings and the appropriate concept usage for the chosen study or project. Students conducted a comprehensive literature review on the research focus or concept studied to identify any gaps or unexplored areas. The activity helped the students understand their research projects better and identify potential methodologies for use. It also helped the students understand how they would go about their projects, including the strategies, standards, and models to follow in planning, executing, and completing the projects. Students chose the methodology to operationalize their conceptual lens and research questions. Class discussions focused on examining different research strategies, including project management and consultations with other faculty members. Having a solid grounding in theoretical and practical applications helped the students appreciate the application of the concepts and theories they were analyzing based on the literature. The approach was an attempt to connect theory with practice and close the gap between the research done by academics and practitioners (Nguyen and Hider 2018, 5–6). With the guidance of other faculty members, the students looked for possible frameworks and methods applicable to their proposed studies. A similar guided experience also applied in data analysis. The faculty introduced students to the distinction between quantitative and qualitative research and how to gather, manage and analyze the data using various methods. The students were provided with templates and guides to follow as they prepared their proposals. The faculty members examined the content of the proposals

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and reflected on the significance of the work and the students’ abilities to conduct research or lead a project. The proposals and subsequent reports could later be improved and adjusted to the templates with the guidance of the designated faculty advisers. The faculty member provided feedback and advice on justifying the need for the research project and suggested methods for students to consider in collecting data to address research problems, meet project objectives, observe ethical imperatives before, during, and after the conduct of the study or project, and effectively communicate research findings or project deliverables. The typical final paper contained an introduction, literature review, methodology, findings, interpretation and appendices. During the course, students learned not only academic writing but also oral presentation skills. At the end of the course, students held mock presentations with some faculty members participating as panelists. The exercise offered students a chance to listen to the faculty’s comments and recommendations to improve their proposals before the students made final presentations to the Thesis proposal defense and Project pitch panels. Students had the opportunity to deliver the essential points and answer the panelists’ questions. The experience served as an effective training ground for students’ future academic and public presentations at conferences, symposia, or even stakeholders’ and organizational meetings.

Central Philippine University The Context The Central Philippine University (CPU) is a private educational research institution located in Panay Island in the Philippine’s Western Visayas region (CPU n.d.). A grant from  John D. Rockefeller, an American industrialist and philanthropist, facilitated the establishment of the institution in 1905 as the Jaro Industrial School and Bible School. With support from the American Baptist Foreign Mission Society, the institution became the second American and Protestant university in the Philippines and in Asia. Through the years, the institution experienced several name changes including Central Philippine School and Central Philippine College, and finally attained university status in 1953 when it became known as the Central Philippine University with affiliation to the Convention of Philippine Baptist Churches as an independent and non-sectarian entity. In more than a century, CPU grew from a school with fewer than twenty elementary students to a university with an enrolment of more than 14,000. Since 2001, CPU has been granted autonomous status by CHED. CPU is recognized as one of the top higher education institutions in the Western Visayas region.



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The university administers a graduate program in library and information studies, the MLIS. In partnership with the Association for Theological Education in South East Asia (ATESEA), the university offers an MLIS degree with a specialization in theological librarianship (MLIS-TL). The degree program aims to provide continuing education to librarians of theological schools in Asia. These librarians have acquired a degree in theology or its equivalent or have taken some considerable number of credits in theology. Students qualifying to attend the graduate program at CPU receive funding support from ATESEA for two years. The university asked the first author to teach a course on global librarianship in the MLIS-TL program for a cohort of students from the Philippines and other Southeast Asian countries. The course is considered an elective and the final one before the students complete the comprehensive examination and commence their research projects. Although the global librarianship course is not a research course, the faculty member expects students to demonstrate the research skills learned from past classes taken in the program. The twelve students enrolled in the degree program attend full-time and take twelve credit hours for each of the three terms, including a summer experience devoted to a library practicum equivalent to three credit hours and a semester of thesis writing with six credit hours. Students are admitted to the program by nomination or recommendation from their home institutions, including seminaries or religious organizations, to specialize in theological librarianship. The student cohort for 2017–2019 hailed from Southeast Asian countries, including two from Indonesia, four from Myanmar, four from the Philippines, one from Taiwan and one from Thailand. All students had experience working in librarian roles or library contexts at institutions with religious affiliations in their home countries. The LIS program at CPU enrolls undergraduate and graduate students. The program coordinator manages the day-to-day operations, including recruiting faculty to teach the courses. Most faculty members teach part-time. The faculty member hired to teach the class described in this chapter lives in the United States, and is remote from the university campus located in the Philippines during the academic term. Although the faculty planned face-to-face visits on campus during the semester, several course components were delivered online.

Course Content The course titled Seminar on Global Librarianship was one of the twelve courses students must complete before taking the comprehensive exam and conducting their research projects. The course content and experience focused on interna-

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tional or global librarianship, including philosophies, theories, practices, and contributions to the LIS profession.

Course Activities Given the distance between the Philippines and the US, the faculty delivered the course using mixed modes of online and face-to-face interaction. Students attended face-to-face classes when the instructor visited the Philippines. When the faculty member returned to the US, all learning experiences were online supported by video conferencing, using for example the GoToMeeting software, digital content and virtual asynchronous discussion through applications like Weebly, and online email communication. Online activities integrated authentic learning experiences involving individual and small group work. Examples included students conducting SWOT analyses of libraries at their home institutions. SWOT analysis is a strategy for identifying and examining existing resources, opportunities, and threats from internal and external sources (Namugenyi, Nimmagadda, and Reiners 2019, 1145). Students used email and web conferencing applications, for example Zoom and Gotomeeting, to interview colleagues in their home countries to complete the SWOT analysis assignment. Students designed and developed proposals introducing global librarianship activities to their home organizations. The faculty introduced the students to online materials such as articles and videos. Students accessed online events and resources made available by the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) during its annual congress. The online experience allowed students to participate, lurk, and observe patterns and themes generated by the live-streamed sessions, abstracts, and discussions. The course created online opportunities for instructor-student interactions through meetings and videoconferencing sessions using the GoToMeeting application. With the guidance of the US-based faculty, the students carried out face-to-face interactions among themselves similar to other classes. Within the global librarianship course, the faculty designed activities promoting interactivity among students. The students worked in pairs on the program proposal development assignment, connected with and interviewed local experts for the home country practitioner interview assignment, and wrote comparative papers about libraries’ organizational operations and administrative activities in the SWOT analysis assignment. With the return of the faculty to the university campus, students had opportunities to engage in face-to-face activities. The Philippine Librarians Association Inc. (PLAI) West Visayas Regional Librarians Council (WVRLC) provided an opportunity



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for students to engage in professional development activities. The faculty involved the students in co-facilitating three half-day workshops. The two-day event allowed them to experience the professional community beyond their cohort group and to open connections for networking with practicing librarians.

Research Skills and Activities in the Two Programs Against the backdrop of the Philippines’ higher education system and the learning spaces that the LIS program and the university provided, UP SLIS sought to bridge the gap between the expected students’ competencies and outputs and their actual capacity to conduct research projects. The CPU MLIS-TL completed a similar required research course in the program’s first semester. Table 18.1 identifies the various activities conducted by the students in each university which aligned with the research skills identified. Table 18.1: Comparison of research skills and course activities between the two universities Research Skills

UP SLIS Course Activities

Problem Identification and –– Definition –– Literature Review –– Data Collection Methods

CPU MLIS-TL Course Activities

Expanded Topic Outline

––

Blogging and Discussion

Concept Paper

––

SWOT Assignment

Annotated Bibliography

––

Annotated Bibliography

––

IFLA Reflection Paper

––

Peer Interview

––

Peer Interview

––

Program Proposal Paper

––

Program Proposal Presenta-

––

Survey of Methods

––

Introduction to Project Management

–– Data Analysis Methods

One-on-one consultation with the faculty

––

One-on-one consultation with the faculty

Report Writing

––

Communication

––

Thesis or Special Problem Proposal Proposal Presentation

tion

Students learned various research skills in both courses. However, there are differences in course focus and content covered, faculty engagement and supervi-

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sion, student background knowledge and skills, and course outcomes. The UP SLIS approach focused on understanding research knowledge and skills, while the CPU MLIS-TL provided opportunities for students to apply and demonstrate research skills learned from previous courses. The following section provides a comparison between the two.

Course Focus and Content The focus of each course is different. The UP SLIS course was a typical introductory research course for graduate students in an LIS program. It taught students to be both consumers of research literature and designers of research and project activities. The CPU MLIS-TL course is an elective that allowed students to apply the research skills acquired from past courses and experiences. Students studied global librarianship at CPU and completed activities requiring demonstration and application of research skills. The primary focus was not on research and research methods but students engaging in the course synthesized existing literature, collected data through peer interviews, analyzed data for the program proposal, and disseminated findings in the presentation.

Faculty Engagement and Supervision The UP SLIS course was taught and delivered by a full-time faculty member, one of the fourteen working for the university department of LIS. Teaching faculty have master’s degrees in library and information studies, and related fields such as archival studies, records management, and information management, and potentially a doctoral degree or progress towards one. At CPU, the teaching faculty member had part-time status. More than half of the program’s faculty teach from another program or college within the university, or are adjunct or part-time. The faculty member for CPU, and co-author, is a part-time faculty member who works for another university outside the Philippines.

Student Background Knowledge and Skills The students in both instances are not homogeneous, specifically in terms of their research skills and orientation. Observations identify differences in students’ background and experience, position duties and support, and overall research culture. In the case of UP SLIS, the program accepts students from different academic back-



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grounds, not just LIS, and from various institutions of higher learning. Student learning experiences and exposure to research are not equal. Some students had undertaken research after completing undergraduate theses. Some had already published papers or presented at academic conferences. Others had not had the opportunity to experience these activities. With CPU, the twelve students who specialized in theological librarianship came from diverse backgrounds. Eleven had completed a non-LIS bachelor’s degree, and several had master’s degrees in theology or divinity. All worked in religious contexts, but only nine worked in library settings. Others were practicing priests or ministers with no library experience. Two-thirds of the students were not from the Philippines. The students received funding from a non-profit, religious-affiliated organization to complete the program. A degree in theology or its equivalent was a requirement for student recruitment into the program. Students without any theological degree but graduates of other baccalaureate degrees required twenty-one units of theological content. At least 300 hours of library work experience was a preferred requirement along with demonstrated proficiency in the English language.

Course Outcomes Students at UP SLIS produced a full proposal of a plan for their final requirements. The experience in the course provided an essential point in the students’ academic careers in demonstrating research skills on a specific project from problem identification and definition through to report writing and communication. The course outcome at CPU MLIS-TL was different because it was an elective. Students were expected to create a global librarianship program proposal for their home institution. The faculty member expected the student to use the data collected from peer interviews to identify programming needs, challenges to implementation, and potential impact on the community. When the program proposal was complete, the students presented it to the faculty member to demonstrate report writing and presentation skills.

Reflections In comparing the two courses, the authors identified similarities and differences in issues and implications for future practice. Issues identified included knowl-

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edge content, instructional strategies adopted, use of technology-based tools and support, student profile, and faculty presence.

Content The content of the UP SLIS course focused on the need to prepare students for designing a research project proposal. Students learned specific research skills and became acquainted with project management fundamentals to help them plan and implement LIS-related projects addressing real-life or practical problems. The CPU MLIS-TL course asked students to design and develop a global librarianship program proposal. For students to create a program proposal, they needed to demonstrate knowledge and skills in conducting a literature review, identifying needs, seeking supporting information, and writing the proposal. The authors found similarities in research skills taught in both courses. However, the UP SLIS course taught more comprehensive research skills as students worked toward completing outputs that may significantly shape their scholarship, advocacy, and career after finishing their degrees. For the CPU MLIS-TL course, the students employed specific research skills to create a program proposal focusing on the practice of global librarianship.

Instructional Strategies and Support Before the pandemic, the UP SLIS faculty member delivered the course face-to-face using conventional lectures, group discussions, and one-on-one consultations. The faculty member used technology tools such as the university’s Learning Management System (LMS) called UVLê or the University Virtual Learning Environment where students accessed course materials, completed online activities, submitted outputs, and received feedback. Students communicated via email and accessed available resources provided by the library. Other tools used included video conferencing applications like Zoom for synchronous meetings, group discussions, and one-on-one consultations. The tools proved beneficial in helping and engaging the students, especially when the university transitioned to online delivery during the pandemic. In CPU MLIS-TL, the faculty member taught the course at a distance with limited face-to-face interaction before the pandemic. The faculty member used web-based tools and applications supporting online teaching and learning strategies, including blogging and discussions, to engage students with the different course components. The class used email communication, videoconferencing, web-based readings,



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and virtual field experiences when responding to prompt questions, discussing relevant ideas, interacting with peers, and reflecting on knowledge learned about library practices. When available, face-to-face activities included interactions with other students and faculty members, local librarians, and the library community. Without an LMS provided by the university, the students submitted their outputs for assessment using an email application. The two university courses had differences in access to available resources supporting teaching. The UP SLIS course had access to a technology infrastructure (LMS) in delivering courses with university support. For the CPU MLIS-TL course, the faculty member had to mix and match available technology-based resources to enable students to access course materials, engage with faculty and peers, and submit completed assignments for assessment (Baylen 2021). During the COVID-19 pandemic, UP SLIS shifted to an online mode for all programs. The faculty member prepared course packs containing study guides and reading materials that students could use and review asynchronously, especially those with limited access or unstable Internet connections. There were also synchronous lectures and discussions conducted via videoconferencing solutions like Zoom to ensure that the students still interacted with their classmates and faculty as they studied and understood the lessons. Similarly, CPU shifted its course delivery to online formats when the local government imposed a total lockdown. At the same time, the university acquired Canvas as LMS to support teaching. The university provided training to students and faculty in using the new delivery system.

Student Profile Students at the two universities were different from each other. Predominantly, students at UP SLIS worked full-time, and studied part-time. Students at CPU lived on campus or in nearby communities and attended school full-time having received funding from a sponsoring professional organization. Another difference for UP SLIS students was country of origin and language proficiency. All students were from the Philippines and familiar with the Filipino and English languages, if not fluent. Only a third of the CPU MLIS-TL students were Filipinos. The course identified was taught in English, while the UP SLIS faculty member had the opportunity to use both Filipino and English.

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Challenges Teaching the courses at the two universities presented challenges and insights into developing research skills for LIS students. One of the challenges is the timing in introducing the research skills as content. UP SLIS scheduled the research methods course following completion of all coursework and before implementation of the final requirement of the research proposal. In reviewing the curriculum for CPU MLIS-TL, students completed the research course at the beginning of their program. They did not take a research-related course the semester before conducting research. Another challenge is choosing a problem that students find meaningful and relevant to pursue as a research or program proposal. Knowing that not all students have the same research awareness, experience, and abilities, it is essential for faculty members to scaffold course activities to guide students in completing the different tasks. During implementation, the design of scaffold activities needs consideration to help students develop their research skills and confidence to engage in research projects. Faculty members must re-examine the use of particular pedagogical approaches to determine which one meets the needs and capabilities of the students. Given the challenges identified, the first author argues that specific research skills need to be introduced in some courses to give students more practice throughout program completion. As the experience of demonstrating research skills becomes more iterative, the students develop mastery of the research skills expected as they approach research implementation and completion. Finally, whether the students are taking the required research courses or electives, faculty members should be more than ready to accommodate consultation requests and research collaborations to ensure that learning experiences go beyond classroom activities.

Conclusion Many people perceive the task of conducting research from each end of a balance beam. Some consider the job a joy because it leads to discovery. Others look at it as a burden incurred along the journey to achieving a goal such as writing for publication, doing a presentation, or getting a degree. In comparing the courses of the two universities, the authors noted that being proficient at conducting research meant developing specific skills: identifying and defining problems, becoming familiar with the relevant literature, collecting and analyzing data, writing up and inter-



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preting results, and communicating the findings. They believe that mastery will prevail by focusing the student experience on skills development. The authors agree that mastering a skill requires practice. In reviewing the experiences with each course, the value of having students continue to demonstrate their research skills was proven. Practice in the use of research skills is critical. LIS programs may have a dedicated course to teach the basics of research methods, but it is essential to provide multiple opportunities throughout the program to engage in research activity. The authors recommend that MLIS programs review and identify all course areas and embed one or two research skills in courses across the curriculum. The students will realize the value of the skills as part of their day-today activities. Finally, the outcomes of the comparison of the two research methods reinforced the conclusion that teaching research skills across the LIS curriculum facilitates attainment of the desired mastery level for students.

References Adel, Rosette. 2020. “Librarians on the Philippines’ Need for More Libraries and Librarians.” Philstar Global. Headlines, July 30, 2020. https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2020/07/30/2031776/ librarians-philippines-need-more-libraries-and-librarians. Baylen, Danilo M. 2021. “Teaching with Limited Presence: Making a Case for a Global Librarianship Course.” International Journal of Educational Media and Technology 15, no. 2: 6–15. https://jaems. jp/contents/icomej/vol15-2/01_Baylen6_15.pdf. Brazzeal, Bradley. 2023. “The University of Wisconsin and the Development of Librarianship in the Philippines.” Mississippi State University. University Libraries Publications and Scholarship 47: 1–24. https://scholarsjunction.msstate.edu/ul-publications/47. Buenrostro, Iyra S. 2019. “Editorial: Bridging Stronger Connections Between LIS Research and Practice.” Philippine Journal of Librarianship and Information Studies 39, no. 2: 1–2. https://phjlis. org/index.php/phjlis/article/view/20/15. Buenrostro, Iyra S., and Johann Frederick A. Cabbab. 2021. “Editorial: A Purpose-driven LIS Education.” Philippine Journal of Librarianship and Information Studies 41 no. 1: 1–2. https://phjlis.org/index. php/phjlis/article/view/79/54. Central Philippine University (CPU). n.d.. “History.” https://cpu.edu.ph/about-us/history/. Connaway, Lynn Silipigni, and Marie L. Radford. 2017. Research Methods in Library and Information Science. 6th ed. Denver, CO: Libraries Unlimited. Faderon, Rosalie B., Vyva Victoria M. Aguirre, Iyra S. Buenrostro, and Johann Frederick A. Cabbab. 2016. “15. The University of the Philippines (UP) School of Library and Information Studies: Legacies, Challenges and Commitment to the Profession Through Excellence in LIS Education.” In Educating the Profession: 40 years of the IFLA Section on Education and Training, edited by Michael Seadle and Clara Chu, 278–301. Berlin, Germany: De Gruyter. https://doi. org/10.1515/9783110375398-022.

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Namugenyi, Christine, Shastri L. Nimmagadda, and Torsten Reiners. 2019. “Design of a SWOT Analysis Model and its Evaluation in Diverse Digital Business Ecosystem Contexts.” Procedia Computer Science 159: 1145–1154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2019.09.283 National Library of the Philippines. 2023. “Statistical Number of Affiliated Public Libraries.” http://web. nlp.gov.ph/nlp/?q=node/10266. Nguyen, Linh Cuong, and Philip Hider. 2018. “Narrowing the Gap Between LIS Research and Practice in Australia.” Journal of the Australian Library and Information Association 67, no. 1: 3–19. https:// doi.org/10.1080/24750158.2018.1430412. The Philippines. Commission on Higher Education. 2019. “CHED Memorandum Order No. 15: Policies, Standards, and Guidelines for Graduate Programs.” https://ched.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/ CMO-No.-15-Series-of-2019-–-Policies-Standards-and-Guidelines-for-Graduate-ProgramsUpdated.pdf. The Philippines. Professional Regulation Commission. 2019. “September 2019 Librarian Licensure Examination Results Released in Three (3) Working Days.” Examination E-Services, Advisories, Notice to the Public. September 16, 2019. https://www.prc.gov.ph/article/september-2019librarian-licensure-examination-results-released-three-3-working-days/4122/. University of the Philippines (UP). School of Library and Information Studies (SLIS). n.d. “More About Us: History and Milestones of the UP SLIS.” https://upslis.info/moreaboutus.

Part IV: Voices from the Field of Practice

Stacy Brody, Shaila Mensinkai, Caroline De Brún, Margaret Sampson, and Nicole Askin

19 R  esearch and Practice: Developing Searching Guidelines During a Pandemic Abstract: During the COVID-19 pandemic response, librarians worldwide were tasked with providing current and relevant evidence to decision makers. The urgency of searching for appropriate information during a public health emergency, the novelty of the pathogen, the lack of standardised language, and rapid changes in research dissemination during the pandemic presented challenges not readily addressed by existing approaches or standards. Discussions among information professionals demonstrated the need for flexible recommendations to guide searching during an infectious disease outbreak as well as future emergencies. In response, a group undertook a project to identify best practices and craft guidelines, Best Practices for Searching during Public Health Emergencies. This chapter describes the planning, conduct, and dissemination of the rapid research study conducted during the response phase of a public health emergency. It describes the evolution of the research question, the development of the methodology and plan, and the selection of the best practices format, which enabled contextualisation and adaptation. The information professionals involved in the project built international relationships, asserted leadership and rapidly implemented new skills and tools. This chapter provides insights into personal experiences and lessons learned and encourages readers to identify and reflect on related experiences. Readers will learn about the challenges and opportunities of qualitative research and the adjustments needed to adapt to emergency contexts; reflect on experiences facilitating successful collaboration involving diverse groups; and through understanding the affordances and limitations of best practice guidelines identify any gaps in professional standards that could be addressed using a similar approach. Keywords: COVID-19 Pandemic, 2020-; Qualitative research; Research – Methodology; International librarianship; Multinational work teams; Virtual work teams

Introduction The Best Practices for Searching during Public Health Emergencies project (Best Practices) was motivated by discussions within an informal working group https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-021

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created in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. In May 2020, two months following the official World Health Organization (WHO) declaration of a pandemic, information professionals supporting the development of COVID-19 literature collections and databases began meeting to share knowledge and reduce duplication of effort. Meetings were coordinated by codirectors of the Librarian Reserve Corps (LRC). The LRC is a group of volunteer information professionals who came together to meet information needs during health emergencies. The group was founded in March 2020 and partnered with WHO’s Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network (GOARN). The meetings sponsored by the LRC resulted in collaborative efforts to maintain COVID-19 information resources and examine the currency and completeness of COVID-19 literature collections and core databases (Butcher et al. 2022; Callaway 2021a; Callaway 2021b). The aim of the Best Practices project was to develop guidance for librarians searching the literature in emergency response efforts. The project began formally in February 2021 and the outcome was a broad, living document of best practices for searching to support the needs of medical providers, health care administrators, and public health experts. The document provides twenty-three recommendations spanning six topics: core resources, search strategies, publication types, transparency and reproducibility, collaboration, and conducting information science research.

Librarians and Public Health Emergencies In public health emergency responses, librarians play a variety of roles, ranging from gathering and ensuring access to information to participating in organisational planning (Featherstone et al. 2012; Featherstone, Lyon, and Ruffin 2008; Swain et al. 2004). The COVID-19 pandemic was unique in the novelty of the pathogen, the scale of its impact, and the rapid changes in information dissemination. Although literature was scant at the onset, the number of publications and information sources rose quickly, as demonstrated in various studies (Else 2020; Pearson 2021) and in Figure 19.1.



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Figure 19.1: Cumulative number of COVID-19 articles added to Scopus from April 29 2020 to March 27 2022. Created by Margaret Sampson

While guidance on the preparation of systematic reviews and a code of practice for literature searching are available, the COVID-19 pandemic and associated changes in evidence dissemination revealed the lack of guidance appropriate for searching in the quickly evolving information landscapes of public health emergencies (Baer et al. 2019; Higgins et al. 2022). Librarians often share knowledge through face-to-face interaction and listservs (Olayemi and Olayemi 2021). They may call colleagues for advice on new tools and search requests. The COVID-19 pandemic, and the challenges it posed to librarians worldwide, prompted rapid knowledge sharing, particularly on appropriate search strategies and information sources. Even as biomedical and public health data coalesced into guidelines for clinicians and public health officials, and as guidelines addressing other aspects of the evidence synthesis process were modified, guidance for literature searching was found to be inadequate (Lamontagne et al. 2020; National Institutes of Health 2023; Schünemann et al. 2020). The growth in the volume of literature, the faster pace of publication, and the use of dissemination pathways beyond scholarly journals, such as preprints, posed new challenges. Existing challenges, including incomplete and inconsistent metadata and linking of related research objects, such as retraction notices, were exacerbated. The Best Practices for Searching during Public Health Emergencies project aimed to support searchers in addressing these and other challenges. This chapter: –– Describes the challenges and opportunities presented by conducting rapid, qualitative research with international partners in an emergency context

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–– Reflects on experiences leading discussions among individuals with diverse professional and geographic backgrounds, and –– Demonstrates how best practices guidelines can address gaps in professional standards.

Background to the Project Existing information search guidelines may not afford the flexibility needed for agile response efforts in times of emergency. The Best Practices project was grounded in expertise and evidence: the experiential knowledge of librarians supporting responses to COVID-19 and previous public health emergencies; literature on publication trends, search methodologies and information retrieval; and the reported information needs of decision makers (Garritty et al. 2021; Gianola et al. 2020; Lurie et al. 2013; Revere et al. 2007). Discussions early in the COVID-19 pandemic facilitated informal knowledge sharing among information professionals and revealed the need for formal recommendations for searching during public health emergencies. The methodology and preliminary results of the work undertaken in the Best Practices project have been presented internationally and posted on the Open Science Framework (OSF) (Brody et al. 2022) as well as being shown in an International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) webinar hosted by the IFLA Evidence for Global and Disaster Health Special Interest Group Committee (Loree et al. 2021).

The Best Practices for Searching Framework Though best practices have been defined in various ways in the library literature, in the context of this project, and according to Sethi, best practices can be understood to evolve and expand, in contrast to “rule-like guidance… [which] can be both over- and under-inclusive of new technologies” (2018, 241 citing Bennett Moses 2007), and implementation examples can support searching in varied situations (Druery, McCormack, and Murphy 2013). The best practices framework provides flexibility and concrete illustrations of recommendations in practice (Sethi 2018). The diversity of contexts in which librarians practise and the types of emergencies to which they respond necessitate adaptability. The Best Practices project sought to “improve the quality of practice” (Merriam and Tisdell 2016, 3). In other words, it aimed to answer the question “Is this really the best way to do this?” (Booth and Brice 2004, 24).



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Project Development A qualitative research approach seemed ideal for the Best Practices project. The urgency of the COVID-19 response, the lack of external funding, the risk of disease transmission, and travel restrictions were among the factors that precluded the use of the formal Delphi method or complete adherence to recommendations for developing consensus documents (Moher et al. 2010). Necessary and feasible components, for instance, electronic questionnaires, were adopted. Meetings conducted in-person for similar projects, were conducted virtually. The aim of the Best Practices project was to develop a broad, living document of best practices for searching in public health emergencies to ensure search quality, encourage transparency, and support information professionals effectively. The focus was restricted to looking specifically at search, as other groups adapted guidance for other steps of the evidence synthesis workflow. The project leaders moved quickly to meet the current need and harness experiences of the COVID-19 pandemic. The project consisted of four phases: informal literature review which would identify topics to be addressed within the project, preparation of questionnaires and examination of written responses, virtual meetings on the responses, and writing and review of recommendations. The project, from the initial meeting to submission of the final guidelines lasted eighteen months. Throughout the project, presentations were made at international, albeit virtual, meetings and conferences, and materials were posted online for transparency. The final product included a description of the development process and twenty-three recommendations across the six identified topics. Many people were involved in the project including four project leaders and four coordinators, twelve panellists, six reviewers, and ten members of the writing team. There was overlap in membership of the groups. The project leaders and coordinators were volunteers from the LRC. Leaders provided overall direction for the project, managed internal and external communications, and provided final approval of materials. Coordinators analysed data, facilitated and took minutes for meetings, participated in project planning meetings, and served on the writing team. Identifying the potential participants was an important part of the project. Details on the recruitment of the participants and the four phases of the project are further outlined below.

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Figure 19.2: Overview of methods for the Best Practices for Searching During Health Emergencies guidelines development project. Created by Stacy Brody

Participant Recruitment Participants were required for both the expert panel and the reviewer group. The project leaders relied on contacts and referrals to recruit experts for the panel and the reviewer group. Expertise in searching, conducting evidence synthesis projects, or maintaining specialised literature collections, particularly in response to public health emergencies was required. Use of purposive samples of experts is common in qualitative research (Merriam and Tisdell 2016).

Expert Panel The twelve experts on the panel included librarians, knowledge translation advisors, and meta-research experts, who were working in academic, government, clinical, and non-governmental organisation settings across five countries: Australia, Canada, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The experts held positions with varying responsibilities and brought unique perspectives on evidence searching and synthesis. While many participants held degrees in information and library science, participants also included registered nurses and scholars with PhD degrees. Participants were at varying career stages and included six early-career researchers.



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Expert panellists provided written responses, participated in virtual meetings, and reviewed the draft guidelines documenting the best practices.

The Reviewer Group Additional experts were recruited to diversify the perspectives represented in the initial recommendations and provide a level of quality assurance for the final product. The reviewer group specifically commented on the draft guidelines documenting the best practices prior to publication. Reviewers did not provide written responses or participate in virtual meetings. There were six reviewers comprising information science researchers, librarians, and research advisors from Canada, Ethiopia, Scotland, and the United States.

The Informal Literature Review Project leaders gathered literature on public health emergency responses, information needs of decision makers, and preliminary meta-research on COVID-19 publications. Given the evolving nature of the pandemic and its rapid spread, it was not possible to conduct a systematic search for the evidence in the customary rigorous manner. Information resources were frequently located and obtained following personal recommendations from experts and serendipitous discovery. The results were stored in a shared Zotero library. Zotero is a freely available reference management tool, enabling sharing and collaboration. The search for relevant literature relied on subject matter experts and current awareness newsletters, and further references were recommended by members of the expert panel and the writing team. The literature review and personal experiences of the project leaders informed the six topics for which recommendations would be developed. The six topics were: –– Core resources –– Search strategies –– Publication types –– Transparency and reproducibility –– Collaboration, and –– Conducting information science research. Because shared understanding of the project and goals is important in teamwork (Levi and Askay 2021), scope notes were developed to describe the six topics in the context of the project.

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Questionnaires and Written Responses Expert panellists reviewed scope notes of the six topics using LibWizard, a feedback and assessment tool provided by Springshare, to ensure common understanding. Agreement on the content was reached after one round of questionnaires. Project leaders then sent to the expert panellists guiding questions to elicit initial recommendations, understand current practice, and identify additional challenges. Expert panellists submitted written responses using Box, an online platform for file-sharing and collaboration. Responses were not anonymous. LibWizard, Box, and similar tools can be adapted for research uses. Project coordinators reviewed written responses and extracted key themes, areas of agreement, areas of disagreement, and gaps for each topic. Responses were coordinated by the end of March 2021.

Virtual Meetings on the Responses Following review of the scope notes, completion of the questionnaires, and analysis of the written responses, virtual meetings were held to discuss the six topics and relevant recommendations. The initial discussion was held at two different times in early April 2021 to ensure attendance of all participants and ran for one hour; in this meeting, the research question and scope of work were redefined. Participants were provided with project materials, including a timeline and project description, as suggested by previous work (Levi and Askay 2021; Moher et al. 2010). Held from mid-April through June 2021, each of the subsequent meetings was devoted to a single topic. Analyses of panellists’ written responses were used to develop facilitation documents and discussion questions, as demonstrated in Core Resources. Discussion at the virtual meetings was designed to clarify and, if necessary, elaborate on recommendations drawn from the written responses, with the objective of achieving consensus agreement on the recommendations. All meetings were held via the videoconferencing software WebEx and in English. All meetings other than the first were held at alternating times to accommodate time zones and were scheduled for one and a half hours. The discussions identified recommendations and examples and explored reasons for disagreement and areas where flexible guidance was necessary. Each meeting subsequent to the initial meeting focused on one of the six topics. Prior to each meeting, participants were provided with the facilitation document. Leadership of the meetings rotated among project coordinators. A coordinator also viewed recordings and took minutes. Key themes were identified by the project leader during meetings and summarised at the conclusion.



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Writing and Review of Recommendations – the Final Product Following the virtual meetings, sections of the final guidelines documenting best practices were assigned. The ten-member writing and editing team included project leaders, project coordinators, and expert panellists. Individual section authors were provided with access to the Zotero library, expert panellists’ written responses, meeting facilitation documents, and meeting notes and minutes. Formal methodologies for coding interview transcripts were not followed in this process. Each section author was able to approach the development of recommendations independently. The writing team held an initial meeting and subsequent team meetings, were accompanied by individual check-ins between section authors and the project leader. The project leader sent regular emails and updates. Team members undertaking the documentation reviewed other sections for overlap in recommendations before compiling the first draft document. Box was used throughout this process for file management and collaboration. Manuscript drafts were reviewed by the expert panel and review group. Panellist and reviewer feedback was collected via a LibWizard form designed to focus feedback on substantive issues. The form generated a spreadsheet that could be easily reviewed and shared among members of the writing and editing team. The project leaders undertook a preliminary review of feedback, highlighting key issues. They divided the feedback among writing team members and provided guidance on incorporating feedback. Writing team members recorded their decisions and actions in response to feedback with modifications made to the draft on spreadsheets shared in Box. After writing team members incorporated feedback into a shared draft, changes were reviewed by the project leader and a project advisor. The draft was edited for grammar and style by a third team member and circulated among experts and reviewers for final approval before submission for publication.

Lessons Learned Various technological tools, including LibGuides, LibWizard, WebEx, Box, and Zotero were used throughout the project and were invaluable in enabling multinational collaboration and facilitating the continuation of project work during a time when public health restrictions limited international travel and access to traditional workspaces. The use of online tools provided practical solutions to the issue of time and costs that might impact in-person meetings.

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As expert input was gathered and synthesised in the virtual meetings, changes were made to potential outcomes. For example, responses to the initial questionnaire and in the early part of the project did not highlight conducting information science research as a key topic. It was initially excluded, with the intention of accelerating the development and dissemination of best practice. Any section on information science research would be an addendum or be incorporated into subsequent versions of the Best Practices document. However, the virtual meetings revealed concerns which would be best addressed in a focused area and following further discussion, a segment on Conducting Information Science Research was ultimately included in the final version of Best Practices. In addition to the final guidelines and recommendations, the project fostered relationships within and across professions, which supports the findings of others (McLoughlin et al. 2018). Team projects can be evaluated on whether the goal was achieved, including the development of recommendations and publication of final deliverables. They can also be evaluated for their impact on relationships among participants and on personal and professional rewards for individuals (Levi and Askay 2021). The Best Practices project provided opportunities for personal professional development, the formation of connections with others and the provision of mutual support during profound challenges.

Challenges The COVID-19 situation placed significant demands on the time and capacity of participants involved in the project and may have prevented some individuals from participating fully. In addition to working on the Best Practices project, participants were supporting local, regional, national and international response efforts to the pandemic. For example, the team member responsible for recording the minutes of meetings was busy supporting local response efforts and unable to attend meetings in real time. The inevitably politicised nature of the pandemic response might have discouraged potential participants. Participants and potential participants were faced with external pressures such as workforce reductions, changes in family situations or responsibilities, and personal pandemic-related stressors that negatively impacted the energy and attention available to devote to a project above and beyond day-to-day work (Berg et al. 2021). The dynamic nature of the situation meant that the pressures being experienced could vary from week to week, even day to day, depending on the local situation. The limitations experienced were particularly pressing given the need to develop the statement over a short timeline to respond to the COVID-19 emergency. Balancing



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the urgency of the situation with the desire to engage a broad and diverse group of experts was difficult; concessions to the former limited the latter. For example, the reliance on a virtual discussion group methodology may have prevented the “development of collegial relationships” among experts (Freshwater, Sherwood, and Drury 2006, 299). In addition, virtual meetings limited the pool of expert participants to participants who were comfortable communicating in English and who had reliable Internet access. The expert panel comprised information professionals from primarily Western, English-speaking, higher-income countries. Although the authors intend to translate the final Best Practices statement to enable broader dissemination, the limited diversity of participants involved may impact the applicability of implementation examples to other contexts. Given that diversity in team composition improves creativity, bringing in diverse opinions might have fostered more imaginative recommendations. The inclusion not only of information professionals but also community members, collaborators, and information users might also have provided additional richness to the outcomes (Levi and Askay 2021). The demands on participants and the urgency of the need for the statement prevented the implementation of the rigorous methods typically used in qualitative methodology, for example, coding of interview transcripts. The process of developing a coding system can take “six months of meetings and hours of… discussion” (Weston et al. 2001, 388). Because participants completed the project in addition to making day-to-day work and emergency responses to the pandemic, use of complex methods was not possible or perhaps even desirable. Understanding the limitations of the ad hoc approach adopted for the project, the coordinators redistributed drafts of the final version to experts and reviewers for any revisions before publication. A practical challenge was coordinating time zones and scheduling (Freshwater, Sherwood, and Drury 2006). Including participants in time zones from Australia to Europe to North America complicated scheduling meetings within what might be deemed normal working hours. The problem was partially addressed by alternating meeting times between morning and evening in North American time zones. As a result, not all participants were able to contribute to the virtual meetings in real time. An asynchronous process for submission of feedback was made available but limited participants’ ability to respond to the comments of others. Consistent communication during and between meetings was important to maintain continuity and motivation, whether team members participated in discussions in real time or asynchronously (Freshwater, Sherwood, and Drury 2006). The final challenge in the process of developing the Best Practices project statement relates to the plan for future directions. The statement is intended to be a living document subject to continuous extension and revision, particularly at the point that the next public health emergency emerges, to assess the applicability of specific recommendations to situations other than the COVID-19 pandemic. Ideally,

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future revisions will engage a broader set of information professionals and include experts from other fields such as policymakers and humanitarian workers but it may be difficult to foster engagement once the public health emergency has passed.

Conclusion This chapter describes how an international team of librarians overcame the challenges of conducting research in an emergency context by adapting methodologies and utilising web-enabled technologies. It provides opportunities to reflect on experiences involving discussions among diverse professionals, which result in creative solutions and challenge participants to negotiate professional perspectives to find areas of alignment. Finally, it demonstrates how documentation of best practices with concrete examples can provide flexible guidance to practitioners in contexts responding to similar circumstances. The limitations of existing search guidelines to guide searching during a public health emergency were highlighted during the COVID-19 pandemic. Stemming from a global need for the development of formal guidelines for searching during public health emergencies, the Best Practices for Searching during Public Health Emergencies project emerged. Through a shared vision, flexible project framework, facilitative leadership, strategic project management, use of virtual collaborative technology, and international collaboration of librarians with researchers, the project demonstrated that: –– It is possible and worthwhile to conduct research during difficult times. The urgency of the situation may be a motivating factor for participants who wish to contribute meaningfully. Participation may be an opportunity for professional development and for individuals to connect and provide mutual support –– Qualitative methods can be adapted to address challenges such as varying time zones, fluctuating workloads, and inability to meet face-to-face, although compromises might reduce effectiveness. Other challenges, such as language diversity, may be more difficult to overcome –– Qualitative methods featuring inductive processes and rich descriptions were ideal for the project. Researchers were able to pose open-ended questions and collect a large amount of information, including data on participant experiences (Merriam and Tisdell 2016) –– Researchers were empowered to restructure the approach in response to data gathered. For example, the topic of conducting research was, after the initial questionnaire, not going to be included in the initial draft of the state-



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ment. After several virtual meetings, conducting information science research re-emerged as a key topic area and was subsequently addressed –– Excellent support for participants may have been a success factor in the research. Support included background information from a literature review, guiding questions for participant responses to each of the six topics, and meeting facilitation which included a synthesis of responses highlighting areas of consensus and gaps, and –– Although the study did not have any financial funding, in-kind support from team members’ organisations and the use of familiar tools, such as LibGuides, in addition to novel tools helped produce potentially high impact research. Despite best efforts, the project had the following limitations: –– What was intended as a purposive sample might have become a convenience sample. It was difficult to identify participants from low-resource settings and barriers to their participation were significant. Consequently, the generalisability of the recommendations was reduced, and. –– Timelines were met through careful project management. Nonetheless, despite the sense of urgency and the desire to prepare guidance that would assist searchers during the COVID-19 pandemic, the process took eighteen months. It is hoped this chapter on the development of best practices for searching in public health emergencies helps bridge the chasm between researchers and practitioners and enables colleagues and researchers to retrieve quality information during challenging times, despite limited access to resources (Booth and Brice 2004, 51). The project is an example of rigorous, adaptable, applied research conducted with limited resources by practitioners seeking a better way to do things.

References Baer, Susan, Ashley Farrell, Pat Lee, Jacqueline MacDonald, Danielle Rabb, Brook Ballantyne Scott, and Marcus Vaska. 2019. “Mediated Searching: A Code of Practice.” Prepared by the 2014–2019 Canadian Search Standards Working Group. Literature Search Standards Working Group [blog] March 19, 2019. https://standardsworkinggroup.blogspot.com/2019/03/mediated-searching-code-ofpractice.html. Bennett Moses, Lyria. 2007. “Recurring Dilemmas: The Law’s Race to Keep Up with Technological Change.” University of Illinois Journal of Law, Technology and Policy 7: 239–285. https://illinoisjltp.com/ journal/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/05-05-08_Moses_AHW_Formatted_FINAL.pdf. Available as University of New South Wales Faculty of Law Research Series no. 21 http://www5.austlii.edu.au/ au/journals/UNSWLRS/2007/21.html.

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Romy Hilbrich and Sina Menzel

20 U  nderstanding User Needs and Research Methods through Diary Studies: A Comparative Perspective from Berlin Abstract: The area of user experience (UX) research is crucial in library practice and has gained traction over the past few years. However, some methods of user experience research appear more challenging than others. Diary studies are a rewarding, yet underused ethnographic research method for libraries. Comparing two cases at two different German research libraries, this chapter explores the multiple possibilities the diary method can offer. It presents two different examples of how the method can be applied in library practice. It also outlines the skills and knowledge needed in implementing the diary method in practice along with an exploration of the researchers’ learning experiences. Keywords: Library science – Germany; Libraries – User satisfaction; Library users; Diaries

Introduction User experience (UX) is a relatively new concept in library and information science which has had a significant impact on the library world, especially in Anglo-American countries. UX focuses on how a user interacts with a product, system or service and its primary application has been within the community examining human-computer interaction. This chapter presents an example of one UX method, the diary, and compares two diary studies in two German research libraries: the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin/Berlin State Library (SBB), and the Universitätsbibliothek/ University Library Freie Universität/Free University Berlin (UB FU). While both studies followed the same goals and used diaries, they conceptualised the diary method differently. Drawing from the two cases, the chapter presents two different ways the method can be applied in library practice, discusses when the method can be partially substituted by other methods, and outlines the skills and methodological knowledge needed for conducting a diary study.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-022



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User Experience (UX) and Diary Studies Libraries have embraced UX by creating new positions and new organisational structures in which UX librarians and other library staff work together in various constellations (Gullikson 2020). UX librarians draw from a rich repertoire of research methods, but while some methods are well established and frequently used, other methods are less visible and rarely applied in practice. One of the underused yet highly productive UX methods is the ethnographic diary method, focusing on “understanding a group, community or culture from an insider’s perspective” (Hyers 2018, 38). A diary study is exactly what it sounds like: participants are asked to keep a diary for a period of time and make entries on a specific topic. When reporting about factual topics such as a library visit, the cultural and often emotion-based practice of keeping a diary triggers an in-depth response and reflection (Priestner 2021). Sometimes, the participants are pre- and post-interviewed. It is the self-reported diaries, however, that make up the core of the research data, and they contain multiple, subjective views of the reported situations. While this may sound “mysterious, and even kitschy” (Hyers 2018, VII), diarising can provide a completely new perspective on library users and their activities and attitudes. “Diary studies are probably one of the most underrated research methods in the field of UX”, Alita Joyce from Nielsen Norman Group announced in a video released on the group’s YouTube Channel (Nielsen Norman Group 2022). The point holds true for the field of library and information science. A 2020 survey showed that diary studies are the least likely method currently employed by UX professionals in US academic libraries (Young, Chao, and Chandler 2020).  They seem to be more challenging than other methods, not only relating to the resources required but also regarding the methodological approach. Even though there are instructive and inspiring examples of diary studies in libraries (Clark 2007; Gabridge, Gaskell, and Stout 2008; Priestner 2016; Shankar, O’Brien, and Absar 2018), the “paucity of methodologically oriented literature on diary method” (Cao and Henderson 2021, 830) may add to the rarity of use of the method.

Two Diary Studies in Berlin The Background Two frequently cited examples of diary studies in academic libraries are the mapping diary study from the large anthropological and ethnographic Studying

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Students project at the University of Rochester (Clark 2007) and the diary study connected to the FutureLib project at the Cambridge University Library (Murphy 2016; Priestner 2016). In the mapping diary at Rochester, students recorded where they went during their day. As the two examples cited show, diary studies are often set within a larger project using a mixed-methods approach. The University of Rochester was seeking to understand undergraduate work processes and Cambridge sought input to shaping a user-focused ecosystem integrating digital and physical resources, services and environments. And so it was with the SBB diary study. The library is preparing for a major renovation, and the StaBi 2030 project aimed to inform the renovation planning for the entire building based on users‘ behaviour, needs and desires, and through investigation methods including a diary study (Hilbrich and Heindl 2022). UB FU established a UX Librarian position in September 2020 and commenced structured UX work. In this context, a semester-long project called UXFoyer was initiated, where the UX librarian and interested colleagues located themselves in the library foyer and gathered data from on-site users in the two largest subject libraries, the Philoligische Bibliothek/Philological Library and the Campusbibliothek Natur-, Kultur- und Bildungswissenschaften, Mathematik, Informatik und Psychologie der Freien Universität Berlin/Campus Library for Sciences, Cultural Studies, Education, Mathematics, Computer Science and Psychology of the Freie Universität Berlin.

Who Conducted the Studies and Why? In both cases in Berlin, the diary studies were initiated and managed by library UX personnel who were supported by other library staff. The SBB UX team consisted of two people, a cultural researcher and a sociologist with a background in empirical social research. The UX librarian at UB FU has a background in library and information science with emphasis on human information behaviour studies. For the diary study, she worked with a handful of interested colleagues from each of two subject libraries at the university. Both libraries aimed at adding to their UX experience and wanted to test the diary method for future use. Both studies sought to answer the following research questions: –– What do users do in the library? –– Where do they do it? –– How adequate are the library areas for the activities pursued? and –– Which activities cannot take place as the library does not offer adequate areas yet?



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Sampling and Recruitment of Participants SBB recruited sixteen participants through calls for participation that were distributed in online blogposts and via posters and flyers in the library. The project team carefully selected the participants to represent a good sample of relevant user groups. An effort was made to ensure diversity by recruiting participants from various disciplines and research subjects, language backgrounds, preferred working environments, people with disabilities, parenthood status, and experience in using the library. Data collection took place over a period of two months before the COVID-19 pandemic, from January until March 2020. Participants themselves chose three average days for journalling, not necessarily consecutive days, within this timeframe. A total of thirty-eight diaries from fifteen individuals were collected for analysis, based on the initial expectation of three daily diaries for each, but with fewer entries due to participant withdrawal and entries lacking data. Besides the diaries, the study included additional briefing and debriefing interviews. This allowed for the collection of detailed information on the diarists‘ backgrounds and their feedback on the research method. UB FU distributed diaries to all interested on-site users in the two largest subject libraries at FU. Data collection took place on a Wednesday under pandemic conditions in the first weeks of winter semester 2021. The diaries could be completed anonymously and returned to a box at the library exit by closing time on the same day. Due to the pandemic, a working space had to be booked in advance and vaccination or negative test status was mandatory and checked at the entrance. In the four hours of recruitment, about 180 users were approached and approximately 130 diaries were distributed of which 79 were returned. The diaries were filled in anonymously, which allowed for quick and easy data collection without concerns about data privacy, but no prior or post-interviews could be conducted. Participants could record optional information related to their specific user group on the first page of the diary. This led to the conclusion that about 95% of participants in the diary study were students. The informational content of the diary entries differed tremendously, probably related to participants’ motivation. Since UB FU asked for spontaneous commitment from one single on-site visit to the library, the recruitment process did not necessarily culminate in a sample of highly motivated users. In fact, and this is supported by the differing length of diary entries, some users would arguably not have participated without the persuasive face-to-face recruitment efforts or incentives. A snack was offered for returning a completed diary. Ultimately, 73 diaries were available for analysis of which one quarter contained entries with informational content on a medium level, defined as a few sentences, which nevertheless offered valuable information that would have been lost without on-site recruitment.

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Both libraries differed considerably in their recruitment strategies as well as the resulting sample size. SBB went for voluntary response sampling after several calls for participation using different channels in combination with stratified sampling. UB FU opted for convenience sampling and worked with on-site university library users. Since the cases offer a direct comparison of anonymous diarists versus known diarists, a clear trade-off between the close commitment of the participants and the expected openness of the entries could be identified. While the anonymous approach of UB FU arguably enabled a safer space for uncensored diary entries and the inclusion of less motivated participants, SBB’s closely supervised approach increased commitment and obtained richer data. This leads to the conclusion that the more labour–intensive the participation is for the diarists, the more elaborate the recruitment needs to be to ensure participants’ commitment to the study.

The Diary Design and Experiences Unlike more popular UX methods such as interviews or surveys, the diary method is neither a purely qualitative nor quantitative method. Instead, it is highly adaptive to the respective research interest. It also bridges the attitudinal-behavioural dichotomy as it can be used to learn about users’ attitudes and opinions as well as about user behaviour. A time-space diary (Ellegård 2020), for example, is a good choice if researchers need quantitative data on how users perform activities in time and space. Hyers (2018) designed a diary where participants completed on a regular basis a structured questionnaire related to mentoring during their studies, and by this means collected almost exclusively quantitative data on participants’ activities. This approach is very similar to a quantitative longitudinal study. On the opposite end of the spectrum is a diary design suggested by Andy Priestner (2021). His open diary templates contain stimulating questions encouraging diarists to describe in their own words their feelings and experiences during their library visits resulting in a “wholly attitudinal approach” (Priestner 2021, 219). The diary method is probably one of the most flexible methods in the UX universe with the potential to combine qualitative and/or quantitative data with an attitudinal and/or a behavioural approach. While the diary method provides significant advantages, it is also a challenge for anyone who wishes to apply the method. A diary study does not come as a method with standard procedures but, to a great extent, has to be created by the researchers involved. Both cases presented in this chapter sought to combine quantitative data, such as what activities were performed where, when and for how long, and qualitative data, such as how users feel about the library spaces and whether they deem them fit for the activities being undertaken. The diaries incorporated a time-space entry



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aspect, in which participants noted time and space for every activity performed. Additional qualitative data was collected in different ways. SBB simply asked the participants to enrich their time-space entries with personal impressions, ratings and suggestions on days two and three of their diarising (Appendix 1. SBB diary template). UB FU embedded the time-space aspect in a more complex diary form containing six double pages with a short entrance and exit survey, as well as multiple pages for log entries and a closing question “Anything else you want us to know?” (Appendix 2. UB FU diary template). As the library had topics that it definitely wanted to know more about, the survey elements of the diary were structured to ensure that participants gave their opinions on those topics. On the first page, both libraries added a note on how to use the diary. SBB and UB FU both opted for a manual pen and paper approach because it was important that no participant would be disadvantaged by the choice of format due to a lack of access to digital devices. In the case of UB FU, print diaries also ensured a quick and spontaneous process without a briefing process on software usage. In both cases, the physical diary worked well for all participants who were happy about the pen and paper approach as it set journalling apart from their own research work. The cases differed in the duration of the study. With hindsight, the one-day approach worked very well for UB FU, while SBB found that two diaries per participant might have sufficed, as the third diary did not provide substantially new information. The relationship between the research team and participants was handled differently in each institution. In the SBB case, a small group of sixteen participants was put together and looked after relatively closely during the entire study. The personal interviews created an atmosphere of trust and stimulated interest and commitment among the participants. The commitment was crucial since the diarists were required to devote a lot of time to the study without compensation, apart from minor incentives. The interviews, however, also substantially decreased the level of anonymity for the diarists. The diarists knew that they would meet the researchers for a debriefing interview after they had handed in their diaries. UB FU went for a different level of anonymity. The diaries were distributed during the recruitment and the participants remained completely anonymous. Anonymity is great for diarists as they can express their experiences, feelings and critiques, unrestrained by consideration for the researchers. Politeness or sentiments such as shame or even fear do not get in the way of writing the diary. While the approach worked very well, commitment levels varied among the participants. Commitment and anonymity seem to be on opposite sides of the coin; increased levels of anonymity might decrease commitment levels and vice versa. The research interest in each instance should therefore determine the specific design.

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The diary method, of course, is not the only method for UX librarians interested in people’s activities, mobility patterns, experiences, and opinions. Observation, shadowing, interviews, and feedback boards are other suitable methods to gather data. However, the combination of two qualities sets the diary method apart from those alternatives: First, diary entries provide self-reported data which means data collection influences participants’ behaviour only slightly as opposed to shadowing and comparable observational methods. Hence, “the diary harnesses the power of immediate personal witness” (Hyers 2018, 27). Secondly, diary entries are an almost instantaneous record of diarists’ behaviour and experiences, which makes the method considerably less prone to recall bias effects than other methods such as interviews (Bartlett and Milligan 2015; Bolger, Davis, and Rafaeli 2015).

Data Analysis Hyers (2018) points out that “There is no single method for analyzing diary data” (31) since the design of a diary study can take so many different shapes. Regardless of the study design, however, the data collected usually determines the analysis strategy. Analysing qualitative data requires a completely different approach, strategy and skills from dealing with quantitative data. Both cases presented in this chapter are mixed-data diary studies in the sense that they combine qualitative and quantitative data. Qualitative diary entries registered participants’ feelings, impressions, experiences, desires and ideas like: „Einmal durch die Bibliothek gelaufen, um einen Platz mit Licht zu finden. Nichts frei. Bin genervt/[I searched the entire library for a free desk with good lighting – nothing! Annoyed!]” which was a comment made in the second diary of one SBB diarist. Participants’ feelings comprised the bulk of the qualitative data in both studies. The task of the UX team was to structure the data by coding and aggregating it. Both libraries already had coding schemes from previous studies that could be adapted and enriched to analyse the diaries. Coding the diary entries was essential for assigning activities to general categories, such as arriving, finding a desk, doing online research, and interacting with other visitors or with library staff. The coding schemes also covered locations, such as reading room, cafeteria, and lobby, and assessments of library aspects such as chairs, noise level, natural light and distraction. Inevitably the coding is contextual and related to a specific situation. Quantitative data requires a very different approach. Contrary to qualitative analysis, counting and quantifying the phenomena observed were the main strategies adopted and related primarily to the time-space-activity data in both diary studies. It required data cleaning and plausibility checking before it was used to answer questions such as: How much time did participants spend on breaks? How



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many break episodes did they have during one visit? or Where did they spend their breaks? Not all the diary entries could be used for the quantitative data analysis, as diarists did not always stick to the structure given in the diaries. Missing values reduced the number of entries that could be used in the study. Can researchers make sure diarists stick to the templates? In both studies, researchers were sure they had sufficiently described the task, verbally and in writing. However, both teams learned that participants had their own understandings of what to do with the diaries, with considerable variation in interpretation.

Learning Research Methods by Doing The researchers managing the diary studies learned a great deal from the experience, some of which has already been outlined. The format and specific design of the diary templates have a big influence on the data quality, but especially in mixed-data diary studies; openness and prestructuring do not go together easily. Researchers should know what is really important to learn from their diary studies and support this aspect through the design of the template and the instructions given to the participants. What skills do diary researchers need? As Hyers (2018) points out, the researcher’s crucial role in a successful diary study is often “overlooked” (79). This particularly applies to the analysis process with qualitative data, but is also relevant for conceptualising either kind of diary study. The conceptual phase involves finding one or more clear, relevant and specific research questions or hypotheses, making well-founded decisions on the diary format and the sampling process, as well as being aware of any potential legal restrictions, for example, in data protection or privacy. Generally, the initial conceptual phase should involve several people and might need to involve stakeholders to make sure the design of the diary study provides helpful assistance to decision making in the library. The analysis phase is different for quantitative and qualitative data. A person with specialist expertise in analysing either qualitative or quantitative data should be involved or at least consulted. Coding and interpreting the data can be a cooperative process involving colleagues with little or no experience if the consistency of the analysis is ensured by a more experienced researcher.

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The Outcomes of the Studies Both diary studies provided solid and useful insights on users’ activities during a library visit and the suitability of the library space for those activities. In addition to an overview of all activities documented, the duration of users’ visits and the places they visited, SBB learned that better spaces were needed for spending breaks in the library. Areas for making phone calls, for self-catering and for refilling water bottles were required. UB FU also found that breaks were usually spent outside the library in pursuit of good food options and fresh air and that water fountains for refilling water bottles were desired by half of the participants. In addition, the diary studies sent a signal to library users that the libraries cared about them and their needs. The studies also produced an easily repeatable methodological approach to gain UX insights. In both libraries the method might be applied at other library sites in the future. But most importantly, obtaining a fresh perspective on users’ daily routines in the library opened a new way of empathising with them in general. Moreover, the studies were conducted in cooperation with interested staff, which, as Gullikson (2020) suggests, proved to be helpful in terms of maximising the impact and supporting UX work on a larger scale.

Conclusion This chapter has presented the diary method as a productive and highly flexible approach that can be adapted to many research contexts and research questions. A diary study is neither a quantitative nor a qualitative method but can generate either kind of data. Both behavioural and attitudinal data can be collected and analysed with a diary study. While the flexibility of diary studies comes with a vagueness that renders them somewhat more challenging by comparison with other more established UX methods, the advantages of their use outweigh the disadvantages. UX librarians must design a diary study to fit specific research outcomes sought and topics to be investigated. Compared with applying a method of a less fluid character, the diary study method might feel riskier and result in its less frequent use. Methodological skills and knowledge for the researcher involved are determined by the specific character of the diary study, namely whether a qualitative, a quantitative or a mixed-method approach is applied. Each kind of data requires specific expertise. After having experimented with the diary method for the first time, the authors especially appreciate the way it can be customised to different objectives. Without their personal specific methodological backgrounds as an



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information scientist and a sociologist, however, they would have approached the diary study experience with less confidence. The rare use of diary methods in libraries and elsewhere may be rooted in the fact that other methods, such as shadowing or other observational methods, interviews, mind maps and feedback boards, are alternatives that inspire more confidence. The alternatives can at least partially substitute for the diary method. However, the combination of self-reported data and immediate recording makes the diary method a special tool that limits interference with participants’ behaviour, while at the same time providing high quality data due to minimal recall bias. The presentation and comparison of the two diary studies in this chapter are intended to encourage those who are not sure yet about diary studies to take the plunge and dive into the adventure of a diary study. Good step-by-step guides on how to be successful are available (Hyers 2018) and the results are worth the effort.

References Bolger, Niall, Angelina Davis, and Eshkol Rafaeli. 2003. “Diary Methods: Capturing Life as it is Lived.” Annual Review of Psychology 54: 579–616. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev. psych.54.101601.145030. Bartlett, Ruth, and Christine Milligan. 2015. What is Diary Method? London: Bloomsbury Academic. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781472572578. Cao, Xuemeng, and Emily F. Henderson. 2021. “The Interweaving of Diaries and Lives: Diary-Keeping Behaviour in a Diary-Interview Study of International Students’ Employability Management.” Qualitative Research 21, no. 6: 829–845. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794120920260. Clark, Katie. 2007. “Mapping Diaries, or Where Do They Go All Day?” In Studying Students: The Undergraduate Research Project at the University of Rochester, edited by Nancy Fried Foster and Susan L. Gibbons, 48–54. Chicago: Association of College and Research Libraries. https://urresearch.rochester.edu/fileDownloadForInstitutionalItem.action?itemId=7052&ite mFileId=12750. Ellegård, Kajsa. 2020. “Time-Space Diaries.” In International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, 2nd edition, edited by Audrey Kobayashi, volume 13, 301–311. Amsterdam: Elsevier. https://doi. org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102295-5.10345-2. Gabridge, Tracy, Millicent Gaskell, and Amy Stout. 2008. “Information Seeking through Students’ Eyes: The MIT Photo Diary Study.” College & Research Libraries 69, no. 6: 510–523. https://doi. org/10.5860/crl.69.6.510. Gullikson, Shelley. 2020. “Structuring and Supporting UX Work in Academic Libraries.” Weave: Journal of Library User Experience 3, no. 2. https://doi.org/10.3998/weave.12535642.0003.202. Available at https://quod.lib.umich.edu/w/weave/12535642.0003.202?view=text;rgn=main. Hilbrich, Romy, and Barbara Heindl. 2022. “Getting Real Close: What a Diary Study Can Do for Your Library.” Weave: Journal of Library User Experience 5, no. 1. https://doi.org/10.3998/weaveux.651. Hyers, Lauri L. 2018. Diary Methods. Understanding Qualitative Research. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Murphy, Helen. 2016. “Who Has? A Pilot Study Exploring the Value of Peer-To-Peer Sub-Lending Service.” In User Experience in Libraries: Applying Ethnography and Human-Centred Design, edited by Andy Priestner and Matt Borg, 103–107. London: Taylor and Francis. Nielsen Norman Group. 2022. “Diary Studies.” NNGroup. February 11, 2022. 2.13. https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=fCx87YVbpLs. Priestner, Andy. 2016. “Illuminating Study Spaces at Cambridge University with Spacefinder: A Case Study.” In User Experience in Libraries: Applying Ethnography and Human-Centred Design, edited by Andy Priestner and Matt Borg, 94–102. London: Taylor and Francis. Priestner, Andy. 2021. “Diary Studies.” In Handbook of User Experience Research & Design in Libraries, by Andy Priestner, 219–234. Goxhill, Lincolnshire: UX in Libraries. Shankar, Saguna, Heather L. O’Brien, and Rafa Absar. 2018. “Rhythms of Everyday Life in Mobile Information Seeking: Reflections on a Photo-Diary Study.” Library Trends 66, no.4: 535–567. https://doi.org/10.1353/lib.2018.0016. Available at https://hdl.handle.net/2142/101436. Young, Scott W.H., Zoe Chao, and Adam Chandler. 2020. “User Experience Methods and Maturity in Academic Libraries.” Information Technology and Libraries 39, no. 1. https://doi.org/10.6017/ital. v39i1.11787.

Appendix 1: Diary Template SBB [Translation]. Page 1 Welcome on day 1! Please write down, when and where and in which areas of the library you spend your time and what activities you pursue there. Why did you choose this spot? Please remember to add your name and throw the diary in the mailbox at the information desk at the end of your library visit. Thank you and have fun! PS: You will find an example at the following page. [Translation]. Page 2 Date / name / time Where? e.g. reading room, information desk level, near the reference collection for art history What? e.g. revising chapter 3 of my dissertation thesis, very tired now Why there? e.g. Nice view, only few passersby



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Kari D. Weaver and Kate Mercer

21 N  avigating Multidisciplinary Research in STEM Information Literacy Abstract: Multidisciplinary research has been identified as an area of rapid growth and potential in the library and information science (LIS) field. It conforms with the publication and research tendencies of LIS practitioners who regularly publish or cite publications from related fields like literary studies, computer science, and education. This chapter examines intermingling cross-disciplinary interests in developing an information literacy programme. The concept of bricolage was used to capitalise on the existing knowledge of disparate members of the team creating the programme, and to interweave research methods, perspectives, and interests from the various team members’ backgrounds into the way the team functioned. A case study of the interdisciplinary development and scholarship around a set of information literacy modules for undergraduate engineering students at a large university in Canada is presented. The process, approach, methods, and lessons learned are discussed through a multidisciplinary lens. Keywords: Information literacy; Library research; Interdisciplinary research; Research – Methodology

Introduction Historically the pillars of academic pursuit, research and teaching, have been fundamentally siloed and centred on disciplinary ways of knowing and traditional approaches. As society’s problems have become more complex, the world has moved increasingly to finding innovative solutions in an integrated way that encompasses both disciplinary and interdisciplinary approaches, as well as evidence-based research. LIS research is following general research trends and embracing collaborative and interdisciplinary research to enhance outcomes. Designing and developing research in an academic library context involves multidisciplinary collaboration and stakeholder engagement across an institution. The collaboration may require understanding and navigating multiple disciplines and departments or faculties. The needs of many different users with varying perspectives must be considered. Dissemination of research outcomes must be undertaken in multiple ways and communication strategies will vary. Research planning should embrace various research processes and methodologies but also actively

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use a variety of knowledge translation techniques to disseminate the research across different outputs. Information Literacy (IL) is foundational to the work of academic libraries and Library and Information Studies (LIS) research. The American Association for College and Research Libraries has provided a framework for IL for use in higher education. Information literacy is the set of integrated abilities encompassing the reflective discovery of information, the understanding of how information is produced and valued, and the use of information in creating new knowledge and participating ethically in communities of learning (ALA 2016).

All students require skills in discovering, accessing, and using information effectively. Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) students need to build skills to be able to understand, critique and evaluate information quickly. Gaining IL skills in a systematic and effective manner will allow them to be technologically agile, ethical in their practice, do well in their classes and be successful in their careers. When looking at separate academic disciplines, a traditional siloed approach is to treat each disciplinary context as distinct and functioning independently (McNicol 2003). A team preparing an IL programme for STEM students at a the University of Waterloo in Canada and examining the challenges in engaging STEM students with IL realised that the process provided a significant opportunity. The team comprised members from different disciplinary backgrounds including LIS, education, user experience (UX) and STEM. The team members realised they could use the occasion to reframe the approach. Instead of disciplines working in parallel, the intersections of the disciplines could be highlighted through an examination of methodology. There are many examples of theories and methods originating in one field being successfully adapted to meet the needs of another. The goal of the project was to build a multidisciplinary team that would level-set language, align methods, and at the same time build an end product that integrated the perspectives of each discipline in cohesive ways. This chapter presents a case study on the preparation and final plan of research methods and approaches used to design, develop, test, and disseminate a set of five openly published STEM focused IL modules for undergraduate engineering students. The case study emphasises the benefits and challenges of creating a multidisciplinary research plan that was rooted in practice and integrated ideas from theory and practice in LIS, education, and STEM fields. An examination of the development of the programme and details of the lessons learned are provided, along with a discussion of the various methods and dissemination approaches. It is



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hoped that practitioners looking to engage in interdisciplinary research projects or expand their research skill sets will learn from the experiences outlined and consider new avenues for conducting their work and developing research plans. Specifically, to ensure successful development of the IL modules, the team realised a multidisciplinary approach to the process was necessary. The team combined User Experience (UX) research methods with LIS focused theories and methods through the methodological process of bricolage to create a research plan and approach that spanned different academic disciplines.

Multidisciplinary Research in an Academic Library and Information Science Context As a field, library and information science has long been concerned with interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary research pursuits (Huang and Chang 2012; Li 2021; Prebor 2010; Tang 2004). Early studies examined the frequency and breadth of citation patterns of LIS publications in related disciplines like computer science, communication, education, and literature (Tang 2004) and conversely the use of research from other disciplines within LIS research (Huang and Chang 2012). For the purposes of the discussion in this chapter, the terms interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary are being used interchangeably, even if there is some disagreement about approaching them in this manner (Park and Son 2010). Traditionally, interdisciplinary study has been conducted either by individuals from one discipline moving into and co-opting the research interests or approaches of another discipline (McNichol 2003, 24–25) through teams of researchers working independently alongside each other on a task of interest using the methods of their disciplines separately (Aboelea et al. 2007), or through asking questions about previously unexplored phenomena studied in one academic discipline through the lens of another (Knapp 2012). Working across disciplines presents unique barriers for practitioners, ranging from incomplete cross-disciplinary knowledge through disciplinary-specific socialisation (Lewis, Ross, and Holden 2012), to collaboration concerns (Ju, Tao, and Brenton Stewart 2016), and friction between the fundamental approaches to research (Aboelela et al. 2007). Many disciplinary areas are increasingly acknowledging the importance of multidisciplinary research (Bardhan, Chen, and Karahanna 2020; Smith and Boger 2022). A multidisciplinary focus is a rapidly growing approach to conducting research across the spectrum (Facilitating Interdisciplinary Research 2004). Interdisciplinarity is reflected in many areas including health, sustainability, biotechnology, and engineering resulting in improved research outcomes. Historically research has

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been siloed resulting in a perceived embedded hierarchy not only of professions and fields, but also research methodologies, something noted as a limitation in the broader realm of multidisciplinary research (Grönqvist et al. 2017). In health research teams, where successful multidisciplinary research has been closely studied, research leads with an awareness of and interest in respecting and integrating diverse methods of study have had more successful research outcomes than others with a narrowly defined focus (O’Cathain, Murphy, and Nicholl 2008). While there are methods that support multidisciplinary research, there are no currently established clear theoretical frameworks that offer ways to guide the process of multidisciplinary research, leaving it to research teams to communicate and adapt strategies to suit their needs. What has yet to be firmly established within LIS and related fields is a process of integrating diverse methods and perspectives to create a genuine multidisciplinary approach to research. One option, which informed the approach described in this case study, is the concept of research bricolage which can be defined as the skill of creating something new from materials already at hand or available, or, in this case, methods previously used and already in existence (Lévi-Strauss 1966). The theory of bricolage has been applied in many different fields, including entrepreneurship, education, and anthropology, amongst others, and is in strong alignment with the large number of practice-based approaches to research often deployed within the LIS field. Bricolage in the context of integrating research methods involves designing an approach to study that incorporates a variety of methods used in various disciplines and draws on the specialist expertise of all members of the research team (Yee and Bremner 2011). The application of bricolage proved to be particularly fitting in the IL programme because the disparate research methods were used to inform the creation of a final product of five educational asynchronous modules.

Developing the Information Literacy Programme The Process The spread of the COVID-19 pandemic has presented academic institutions with many important new challenges. Arguably one of the most significant tasks to be tackled has been the need to make a rapid transition to online learning. In early 2021, an interdisciplinary team of subject matter experts and designers at the University of Waterloo was assembled to conceptualise a project that spanned disciplinary boundaries and focused on developing a flexible set of learning modules with the ultimate goal of giving guidance to students and faculty for point of need



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access to information resources on a series of topics. Engineering students were chosen to be the pilot group for whom the modules would be developed, as they have unique needs in relation to information seeking. The engineering students depend on what might be termed non-traditional information sources for a significant amount of their needs after first and second year. The sources include patents, standards, white papers, and blogs. While the project was originally scoped to engineering, it was acknowledged that the content would ultimately be applicable across other STEM contexts with minimal content edits, as most STEM students broadly navigate similar types of information resources to those used by engineers and require information which is similarly theoretical, experimental, regulatory and professional in content. Ongoing efforts to improve education in a STEM context have focused on greater engagement of students with undergraduate research activities proposed as a key strategy (Gentile, Brenner and Stephens 2017). Implementing appropriate learning experiences involves the various multidisciplinary stakeholders who are involved in STEM education. The ability to locate and use effectively information sources in a STEM context requires the following skills: –– Navigating a large amount of information and misinformation, particularly in the face of contradictory knowledge and opinions; information overload is connected to other challenges students encounter throughout their undergraduate careers (Blummer and Kenton 2014) –– Critiquing information. Engineering students come to reading textual information with a particular transaction mindset rather than a critical perspective; “transaction beliefs emphasise the construction of knowledge by individual readers, whereas transmission beliefs regard text as a means of direct communication between author and reader, without interpretation” (Taraban 2006, 11.1295.4-5). In a study of information seeking by first year engineering students, most students found much of their information using websites like Google, Reddit, and Wikipedia; students may find competing sources of information, be unable to determine authority or credibility of information located and experience difficulty in distinguishing quality from easy to find (Lamont et al. 2020); and –– Evaluation. Engineering students do not consistently evaluate sources for credibility if they do not perceive an authentic engineering-specific value to the activity (Lamont et al. 2020, 13). While the above challenges are closely tied to engineering, they have validity across all STEM disciplines. Any IL programme focusing on the requirements in STEM will have broader uses for undergraduate students navigating information. The development of a set of IL modules that can be adapted to different contexts, uses and

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audiences will result in a tool that can be used to support improved IL teaching and learning across different disciplines. Ultimately, the modules chosen related to the growing challenge of information overload, and to the pressing need to teach students to navigate effectively the growing information deluge with strategies that enable them to evaluate information, regardless of origin or complexity. The topics included in the programme were chosen based on discussions around service gaps, instruction requests, and disciplinary need. Formative discussions included conceptualising mastering critical thinking as an essential step for student academic success and the future growth of graduating students as top talent in their professions. Initial project discussions examined and scoped the preliminary topics and determined the inclusions. The discussions also agreed that digital learning objects that were sustainable, customisable, easily embedded into courses, and transferable to other higher education institutions would be created. Preliminary topics to be included were: –– Information overload –– Diversity of information –– Misinformation, trust and bias –– Information evaluation and filtering; and –– Information use, ethics, and professionalism.

The Team Involved A multidisciplinary team was formed to design, develop, test, and disseminate a set of openly published IL modules in engineering. To address the wide variety of expertise needed to create the project, the team comprised subject matter experts and designers. Undergraduate co-op students are students who undertake co-op internships and gain work experience during their studies. The inclusion of co-op students in the team was essential to its effectiveness in developing the content. The six-person team was led by two librarians with additional doctoral degrees, one in a STEM field and one in education. Beyond the team leaders, interdisciplinarity was a critical component in the team’s overall composition with members bringing expertise from a wide variety of disciplines, including UX, instructional design, engineering, computer science, LIS, education, sociology, and graphic design. To mirror the importance placed on normalising non-academic information sources in the engineering field, the project team highly valued and integrated the lived experiences of STEM students who worked on the project itself. The team worked together to select the topics, develop the content, choose the methods to be used and research strategies to be adopted, and make decisions about design and integrated theory and practice from LIS, education, UX, and STEM fields.



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The Approach The goal was to incorporate the different methods and perspectives of the various team members to produce an effective IL programme. Incorporating multidisciplinary methods requires a combination of factors, including the expertise and diversity of the team members, particularly their varied past field-specific experiences and the use of different methodologies. Multidisciplinary methods that worked for the IL project included: –– Card Sorting –– Thematic Analysis –– Surveys, using qualitative and quantitative metrics –– Task Analysis –– Storyboarding, and –– Nominal Group Technique. Team members brought educational backgrounds and experiences from diverse fields and were already well-versed in integrating knowledge and methods from prior experiences in other settings. Storyboarding, for instance, was brought in as a method from a team member with long experience in instructional design. Thematic analysis had been used in the health decision making research by one team member and in the educational research of another. Card sorting, a key UX method integrated into the project had also been previously used for usability testing purposes by another team member on different module-based design projects. Though the methods were not deployed in the same manner across prior research experiences, the facility in working across disciplines which team members brought to the project significantly aided the overall project and the willingness to engage in the bricolage approach.

Key Successful Strategies Trust is a key element of success in interdisciplinary team projects. Taking the time to build trust, level set language, and align thinking was invaluable in building an effective team. The team members had completed other collaborative research projects and were experienced in working with each other. STEM pedagogical research is multidisciplinary by necessity. The design, implementation, and evaluation of STEM educational pedagogy and praxis require expertise in engineering, education, user experience, and many other fields. Work on STEM educational activities often draws from other disciplines such as LIS. With many stakeholders

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at the table, the use of intentional strategies that built consensus across the various groups grounded in mutual trust, significantly helped group opinions converge and align. Supported by past experiences, the group found that rapid style, or lightning talk type presentations, group discussions, and consensus building tools were effective ways of aligning knowledge, experiences and expectations, deciding on methodology, and identifying both a research and practice agenda (Harvey and Holmes 2012; Mercer et al. 2015). The strategies adopted were also helpful for engaging collaborators with the larger group, and educating each other about contexts, discipline-specific knowledge, and building relationships (Hinchcliff, Greenfield, and Braithwaite 2014). When disseminating the results of the work undertaken, the research team intentionally decided to create a set of diverse dissemination pathways. Academic journals, white papers, academic and practice-based conferences, and public presentations, in addition to the developed modules themselves, were all used to publicise the project to the stakeholders including students, community members, and academic and professional colleagues.

Lessons Learned and Future Directions The overall experience of collaboration and module development was overtly positive. However, many lessons were learned throughout the process of adopting a bricolage approach to multidisciplinary collaboration. The following are some key lessons learned that the authors believe will be helpful for future projects. –– To be interdisciplinary, all involved must value and integrate a wide variety of perspectives –– Asking questions with the intention of understanding other approaches or ways of knowing is a sign of respect when done well –– Choose methods that have worked with various disciplines, and plan for time to explain them to the group –– Communicate in lay language and avoid discipline-specific jargon –– Interdisciplinary work, in general, takes longer and plans must be made accordingly –– Set and keep firm deadlines for feedback and discussion, especially of content –– Ensure team members are clear about their roles and levels of engagement; and –– Be open minded!



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The experience presented here is transferable across many disciplines for researchers, instructors, librarians, and others with a vested interest in promoting and understanding advancements in STEM IL pedagogy. The next phase of development will focus on science students and mathematics students, as well as exploring multidisciplinary approaches that reach beyond STEM fields. More work is needed to gather the perspectives of individuals and additional areas, to drill down into each discipline, and to understand how multidisciplinary research can engage diverse teams. The need for effective IL programmes is paramount given the current state of the world. Educators have an obligation to involve each and every stakeholder in the process of devising effective learning experiences and to create common understanding, trust, and best inclusive practices.

References Aboelela, Sally W., Elaine Larson, Suzanne Bakken, Olveen Carrasquillo, Allan Formicola, Sherry A. Glied, Janet Haas, and Kristine M. Gebbie. 2007. “Defining Interdisciplinary Research: Conclusions from a Critical Review of the Literature.” Health Services Research 42, no. 1: 329–346. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6773.2006.00621.x. American Library Association (ALA). 2016. “Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education.” Filed by the ACRL Board on February 2, 2015. Adopted by the ACRL Board, January 11, 2016. https://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/ilframework. Bardhan, Indranil, Hsinchun Chen, and Elena Karahanna. 2020. “Connecting Systems, Data, and People: A Multidisciplinary Research Roadmap for Chronic Disease Management.” Management Information Systems Quarterly 44, no. 1: 185–200. https://aisel.aisnet.org/misq/vol44/iss1/9/. Blummer, Barbara, and Jeffrey M. Kenton. 2014. “Reducing Patron Information Overload in Academic Libraries.” College & Undergraduate Libraries 21, no. 2: 115–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/10691316. 2014.906786. Facilitating Interdisciplinary Research. 2005. Committee on Facilitating Interdisciplinary Research, Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy, National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. Washington, DC.: National Academies. https://doi.org/10.17226/11153. Gentile, James, Kerry Brenner, and Amy Stephens, eds.. 2017. Undergraduate Research Experiences for STEM Students: Successes, Challenges, and Opportunities. Committee on Strengthening Research Experiences for Undergraduate STEM Students Board on Science Education Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Board on Life Sciences Division on Earth and Life Studies. A Report of National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/24622. Grönqvist, Helena, Erik Martin Gustaf Olsson, Birgitta Johansson, Claes Held, Jonas Sjöström, Annika Lindahl Norberg, Emma Hovén, Robbert Sanderman, Theo van Achterberg, and Louise von Essen. 2017. “Fifteen Challenges in Establishing a Multidisciplinary Research Program on eHealth Research in a University Setting: A Case Study.” Journal of Medical Internet Research 19, no. 5: e7310. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.7310.

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Harvey, Nichole, and Colin A. Holmes. 2012. “Nominal Group Technique: An Effective Method for Obtaining Group Consensus.” International Journal of Nursing Practice 18, no. 2: 188–194. https:// doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-172X.2012.02017.x. Available at https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/22604/. Hinchcliff, Reece, David Greenfield, and Jeffrey Braithwaite. 2014. “Is it Worth Engaging in Multi-Stakeholder Health Services Research Collaborations? Reflections on Key Benefits, Challenges and Enabling Mechanisms.” International Journal for Quality in Health Care 26, no. 2: 124–128. https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzu009. Huang, Mu-Hsuan, and Yu-Wei Chang. 2012. “A Comparative Study of Interdisciplinary Changes Between Information Science and Library Science.” Scientometrics 91, no. 3: 789–803. http://link. springer.com/10.1007/s11192-012-0619-7. Ju, Boryung, Tao Jin, and J. Brenton Stewart. 2016. “Investigating Communication Hindrance in Interdisciplinary Collaboration: A Grounded Theory Approach.” Proceedings of the Association for Information Science and Technology 53, no. 1: 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1002/pra2.2016.14505301113. Knapp, Jeffrey A. 2012. “Plugging the ‘Whole’: Librarians as Interdisciplinary Facilitators.” Library Review 61, no. 3: 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1108/00242531211259328. Lamont, George James, Kari D. Weaver, Rachel Figueiredo, Kate Mercer, Andrea Jonahs, Heather A. Love, Brad Mehlenbacher, Carter Neal, Katherine Zmetana, and Rania Al-Hammoud. 2020. “Information-Seeking Behavior Among First-Year Engineering Students and the Impacts of Pedagogical Intervention.” [Paper presented at] 2020 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Proceedings, June 22–26, 2020, American Society for Engineering Education. Paper ID #29553 1–17. https://dx.doi.org/10.18260/1-2--34827. Lévi-Strauss, Claude. 1966. The Savage Mind. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Lewis, Jenny M., Sandy Ross, and Thomas Holden. 2012. “The How and Why of Academic Collaboration: Disciplinary Differences and Policy Implications.” Higher Education 64, no. 5: 693–708. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-012-9521-8. Li, Xiaotao. 2021. “Analysis of Topics of Interdisciplinary Research in the Field of Library Science and Information Science from the Perspective of Altmetrics.” Open Access Library Journal 8, no. 11: 1–9. https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation.aspx?paperid=113180. McNicol, Sarah. 2003. “LIS: The Interdisciplinary Research Landscape.” Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 35, no. 1: 23–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/096100060303500103. Mercer, Kathryn, Neill Baskerville, Catherine M. Burns, Feng Chang, Lora Giangregorio, Jill Tomasson Goodwin, Leila Sadat Rezai, and Kelly Grindrod. 2015. “Using a Collaborative Research Approach to Develop an Interdisciplinary Research Agenda for the Study of Mobile Health Interventions for Older Adults.” JMIR mHealth and uHealth 3, no. 1: e3509. https://doi.org/10.2196/mhealth.3509. O’Cathain, Alicia, Elizabeth Murphy, and Jon Nicholl. 2008. “Multidisciplinary, Interdisciplinary, or Dysfunctional? Team Working in Mixed Methods Research.” Qualitative Health Research 18, no. 11: 1574–1585. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732308325535. Park, Ji-Yong, and Jeong-Bae Son. 2010. “Transitioning Toward Transdisciplinary Learning in a Multidisciplinary Environment.” International Journal of Pedagogies and Learning 6, no. 1: 82–93. https://doi.org/10.5172/ijpl.6.1.82. Prebor, Gila. 2010. “Analysis of the Interdisciplinary Nature of Library and Information Science.” Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 42, no. 4: 256–267. https://doi. org/10.1177/0961000610380820. Smith, Emma M., and Jennifer Boger. 2022. “Better Together: Promoting Interdisciplinary Research in Assistive Technology.” Assistive Technology 34, no. 1: 1. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400435.2022.20 47397.



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Tang, Rong. 2004. “Evolution of the Interdisciplinary Characteristics of Information and Library Science.” Proceedings of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 41, no. 1: 54–63. https://doi.org/10.1002/meet.1450410107. Taraban, Roman. 2006. “The Growth of Text literacy in Engineering Undergraduates.” [Paper presented at] 2006 Annual Conference & Exposition Proceedings, Chicago, Illinois, 18–21 June. American Society for Engineering Education 11.1295.1 – 11.1295.13. https://peer.asee.org/133. Yee, Joyce and Craig Bremner. 2011. “Methodological Bricolage: What Does it Tell Us About Design?” In Doctoral Design Education Conference, Hong Kong Polytechnic, Hong Kong, 23–25 May. Northumbria Research Link, Northumbria University Newcastle. http://nrl.northumbria.ac.uk/id/eprint/8822/.

Bronwen K. Maxson and Betsaida M. Reyes

22 Lessons from a Research Trip to Mexico Abstract: As practitioners who work closely with international students, the researchers involved in the project described in this chapter sought to understand the information literacy (IL) preparation that students coming from Mexico had experienced prior to studying at US institutions. US researchers had done some work related to collection development and cultural exchange with Mexican information professionals, but less was known about their training for, and attitudes toward, IL instruction. The researchers designed a cross-cultural and cross-national study to interview library and information professionals in Mexico to learn how they taught for IL to produce conditions so that students can use and practice IL related activities. IL is not a discreet skill but a practice honed over one’s life and work. On the surface, the project seemed straightforward: develop a research instrument, apply for ethics approval, and go forward. The reality proved more challenging as the researchers navigated the nuances of conducting research in another country. Throughout the project, there were questions about logistics, institutional review board and ethics requirements, the impact of positionality, language, culture, and methodology. This chapter details the lessons learned about conducting research internationally, gives insights to other researchers who want to work in a similar context, suggests methods and approaches to avoid pitfalls, and discusses the rewards of engaging with peers in another country. Keywords: Information literacy – Study and teaching (Higher); Academic librarians – Mexico; Focus groups

Introduction Librarians working with international students inevitably come across different perspectives about how students from other countries understand the library and its role in their academic experiences. Cultural competency is of utmost importance in developing relationships and working well with people from other countries and environments. In a 2018 study focused on the information literacy (IL) practices of Spanish-speaking graduate international students, the researchers came to appreciate the gaps in their knowledge regarding students’ previous experiences with libraries and education in IL (Reyes, Hicks, and Maxson 2018). The logical next step was to engage teaching librarians in the students’ home countries to obtain a better understanding of the students’ prior work and experiences. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-024



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The librarians undertaking the research are current and former Latin American Studies librarians, and selected Mexico for the site of a follow-up study, because of the large number of international students that Mexico sends to school in the US (Hicks, Maxson, and Reyes 2021). For logistical reasons, the researchers narrowed the scope to Mexico City for holding focus groups. In the summer of 2018, and with the financial support of SALALM, the Seminar on the Acquisition of Latin American Library Materials through the Dan C. Hazen SALALM Fellowship, two of the researchers travelled to Mexico City to interview IL librarians in five institutions of higher education in Mexico City. The project sought to learn from colleagues in Mexico and to lay the groundwork for potential future collaborations. It was the first international research trip for the authors. The most significant challenges in the project related to gaining approval for the research, positionality, language and cultural sensitivities. The authors hope that others wishing to engage in international research, especially in Mexico, will find the content helpful.

Gaining Approval for the Research Most countries use institutional research boards also known as ethical review boards to examine, review, approve and monitor biomedical and social research involving human beings to ensure the rights of human subjects are observed, and that no harm occurs. In addition, many academic and research institutions have their own protocols to be observed for research projects. A cornerstone of academic research in the United States is the office of the Institutional Research Board (IRB), which is administered by the Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP). “The purpose of IRB review is to assure, both in advance and by periodic review, that appropriate steps are taken to protect the rights and welfare of humans participating as subjects in the research” (US Food and Drug Administration 1998). Following the guidelines provided in relation to the IRB and securing approval are vital components of the research process. Several challenges were experienced in undertaking the work in Mexico. They included: –– Varying standards or requirements from different institutions –– Absence of Spanish language skills in the IRB office, and –– Lack of clarity regarding international research. The research project involved three researchers in three different institutions which added an additional layer of complexity. Only two of the researchers (the authors) intended to gather data and sought IRB approval through two of the

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institutions involved, ensuring the protocol included the third researcher. After the initial submission to the IRB office, one of the institutions required additional information. Consequently, the researchers prepared two separate protocols with one providing more details and documentation than the other. Multi-institutional studies typically involve just one protocol from the first institution and a reliance agreement from the second institution delegating IRB oversight to the first institution, as outlined in the National Institutes of Health Reliance (Authorization) Agreement (US NIH 2022). One would think that since most researchers undertake the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative program for research, ethics, and compliance training, reliance agreements would be a simpler process, but in this case, one institution was more stringent than another. IRB approval is of utmost importance in research involving human participants, and complex requirements from one participating institution can affect the data collection and project timelines. Submitting documents as early as possible in the project’s timeline will give the IRB time to process documents and avoid delays and stress. If a research project involves multiple institutions, it is helpful to review the protocols of each institution involved to ensure all unique requirements are addressed. As in most matters, planning ahead and preparation save time in the long term. Advance knowledge enables advance preparation if one of the institutions asks further questions or requires additional documentation. The second challenge was the lack of Spanish language skills in the IRB office. The research goal involved gathering data from Spanish speakers. All forms used in the project were required to be in Spanish. The researchers translated the forms into the local Spanish regional dialect and submitted them along with English language counterparts as part of the IRB protocol. No certification of translation is required for submission, putting the onus on researchers to be ethical in the translation of materials. Thirdly, the IRB process required a foreign local review letter from someone in Mexico who was qualified to review the research process and affirm that local research norms would be followed. Online searches retrieved details on how to apply for permits to collect specimens or how to transport them back to the US but little if anything at all was available on how to conduct social science research. The researchers were unsure if the letter prepared for the project would be sufficient to comply with equivalent IRB norms in Mexico. The IRB office was not able to advise on the concerns or direct the inquiry to an appropriate authority. Instead, the burden was passed on to the researchers. After locating a template online in English, one author translated the letter into Spanish and gave it to the main contact in Mexico for review and authorisation. The IRB office accepted the signed letter with the English original. If the research team lacks the necessary language skills for a project, obtaining the services of a professional translator can be costly



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in terms of both time and money. Language considerations are discussed later in of this chapter. Despite the complexities and potential obstacles, completing the IRB protocols is an excellent exercise for anyone embarking on a new research project. The process forces researchers to write for readers outside a specific field and to articulate clearly the details and goals of the project.

Positionality and Aspects of Identity According to the Encyclopedia of Diversity and Social Justice, “Positionality provides a space to critically interrogate the researcher’s motivations, assumptions, and decisions at each and every stage of the research process” (García 2014). One researcher had attended workplace training on positionality, which provided an opportunity to consider how she might be perceived by others in terms of outward expressions of gender, class, race, or ethnic traits, among other factors. The training involved writing a brief description of one’s own positionality, a practice that many social sciences researchers incorporate into their work. As a result of the training, the researcher realised the ways in which she was perceived by participants in research studies could affect engagement, disclosures, and outcomes of that research. In addition, the readers’ perceptions of the researcher might affect interpretation of the results. Imbued with these reflections, the authors decided to include information about their own identities and backgrounds in the published study. In addition to positionality, the researchers recognised that they could be perceived by study participants as both insiders and outsiders. Researchers might see themselves as neutral observers of what is being studied, outsiders, or part of the community under study, insiders. “Interlocking socially constructed categories—including race, class, gender, and sexuality—all work together to disrupt the narrow designation of insider researcher. Moreover, the dynamic nature of community can reposition a researcher from insider to outsider or vice versa” (García 2014). Some of the study participants were potentially members of the same international professional library organisation, SALALM, and might therefore share a sense of community. However, the participants could also perceive the researchers as outsiders since they were coming from a different country and linguistic and cultural backgrounds. The realisation led to considerations of insider and outsider research, which the researchers decided to acknowledge in the published study as a potential limitation.

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Linguistic and Cultural Sensitivities The research study did not have explicit ethnocultural or ethnographic goals. In other words, it was not intended to learn about all students studying in the US from Mexico or define IL in a Mexican cultural context. However, one of the important considerations was the language of participants. The large number of students that come to the US from Mexico (Institute of International Education n.d.), coupled with the large number of professional librarians in Mexico, made Mexico an ideal location for the research project. Language is a great unifying cultural element, but for many languages, there are regional dialects and/or variations. In the case of Spanish: El español no es idéntico en todos los lugares en que se habla. En cada país, e incluso en cada zona geográfica y culturalmente delimitada dentro de cada país, las preferencias lingüísticas de sus habitantes son distintas, en algún aspecto, de las preferencias de los hablantes de otras zonas y países/ Spanish is not identical in all the places that it is spoken. In every country, even in each geographical and culturally delimited areas within each country, the linguistic preferences of each speaker is distinct, in some aspect, to that of other speakers in other areas or countries (Diccionario panhispánico de dudas 2005).

The researchers knew they must be sensitive and respectful of local linguistic norms within Mexico and consider language variations when using Spanish. Ensuring language suitability was crucial in designing the recruitment documents and survey instruments for the project. To eliminate a potential communication barrier, the researchers sought the input of Spanish-speaking colleagues to review documentation. As an additional layer of review, colleagues with specialist knowledge were contacted to hone-in on the language variation used in Mexico City. One result of the focus on local language usage was a change made by the researchers in the phrase profesionales de la información to profesionistas de la información. According to the Real Academia Española (RAE)/Royal Spanish Academy [of Language], the authority on normative uses of Castilian Spanish, the use of the word profesionista is exclusive to Mexico and is also translated as professional. The approach adopted to language use demonstrated cultural competency on the part of the researchers. If researchers do not have the language skills required, a professional translator for preparing written research instruments and a local professional interpreter for speaking to research participants can be recruited. As noted earlier in this chapter, the costs can be high and should be included in the budget.



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Research Methods The researchers developed their methodology after articulating the two research questions for their study: –– How do library and information professionals understand and teach for academic IL in a Mexican context? –– What are the implications of the findings for teaching librarians who work with Mexican international students? The researchers belong to the population indicated in the second question, teaching librarians, and the targeted population of the study was information professionals in Mexico, the group indicated in the first goal. The researchers used two approaches, a mixed method survey and a qualitative approach, focus groups. To gather initial data, the researchers selected a survey that used a purposeful sampling method, also known as purposive, judgmental, expert or selective. “Purposeful sampling means that the researcher is looking for participants who possess certain traits or qualities” (Koerber and McMichael 2008) “...to produce a sample that can be logically assumed to be representative of the population” (Battaglia 2008). To reach the intended sample populations, an online questionnaire was sent to two major library professional organisations through a known academic librarian contact in Mexico and the survey was posted to a related Facebook group. The questionnaire contained a termination element that enabled the separation of academic librarians who taught from non-academic librarians who did not teach. The survey questions investigated the general context of IL teaching in Mexico. The survey was intended to identify focus group participants from the entire country for follow-up interviews in person, by telephone, or via video conferencing software. However, time constraints forced a pivot from the survey to an alternative recruitment strategy through local professional contacts. As Galletta points out, qualitative research involves making choices in sampling, and issues related to the constraints of “time, cost, and other practicalities” (2013) impact the choices made. Because of established travel plans and the demands of the project on personal and work time, the researchers opted to conduct focus groups in Mexico City only. As already noted, the sampling for the focus groups was based on purposeful sampling. The researchers applied their expert knowledge to select a sample that represented a “cross-section of the population” (Battaglia 2008). The participants included in the final sample were known within the professional community and recommended by peers, and were the most likely to provide insights to the research questions. The focus groups involved researchers from the US and librarians from Mexico and the researchers were aware of the potential impact of power dynamics in oper-

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ation which might affect the outcomes. Hegemonic dynamics, colonial contexts, or Global North/Global South subtleties might be involved. The concerns related to, but went beyond, the considerations of aspects of identity in insider-outsider research. The focus groups facilitated conversations between the participants and the researchers, and among the participants, and enabled clarification and nuancing of both questions and responses, mitigating any risk that participants might have felt coerced to participate or might have skewed their responses. Research endeavours are themselves intrinsically sociocultural as is the topic of information literacy. The focus groups facilitated a full discussion of the issues and a constructivist approach to knowledge creation. “The sociocultural focus on everyday life centers our attention upon the design and construction of meaningful educational contexts with the goal of improving learning within today’s complex information landscapes, rather than merely trying to overcomplicate and confuse issues” (Hicks 2018, 80). Teaching IL is not teaching students to carry out a discreet skill or set of skills. It is not transactional or behaviourist work. Students are being guided towards practices that lead to IL abilities and habits. “In addition, by demonstrating how learning within higher education has often simplistically focused on either fixing or socializing learners, the Academic Literacies model, which developed from New Literacy Studies, helps us to interrogate the ways in which we support the development of student research practices” (Hicks 2018). Professional contacts were essential to this research, but also presented an added layer of complexity. The contacts ensured that researchers could attend pre-arranged meetings at set times and locations in Mexico with the assurance of knowing participants were all instructors of IL in higher education and would be present. However, following the researchers’ arrival in Mexico came the realisation that recruiting the participants personally might have established more prior rapport. The participants of the focus group were peer librarians, and not subjects who were disconnected and indifferent. Navigating the relationship between researcher and focus group members was less complex given the participants’ familiarity with the nature and processes of research in general. Although the researchers initially hoped to deepen their understandings of the IL contexts experienced by Latin American students, they found that studying just one country, Mexico, presented logistical challenges. Qualitative research findings are not usually generalisable; the findings in this study “can only be said to be representative of sampling units that have actually been observed” (Latpate et al. 2021). Flexibility is needed and broad cultural assumptions must be avoided. The researchers chose the title Hay muchos Méxicos/There are many Mexicos from a longer published quotation to reflect the idea that there is great diversity within Mexico and within the teaching practices of those who live and work in Mexico.



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Any research study is only a beginning and further research is needed to explore the issues more deeply.

Sharing the Findings To avoid being extractive with the research, and to ensure effective sharing of the results with interested parties and those who might benefit (Campbell 2013), the researchers considered it imperative to allow participants to review the drafted manuscript. Participants were given the opportunity to review the interpretation of their contributions to provide feedback which helped ensure the credibility of the research outcomes. Nagata, Suzuki, and Kohn-Wood point out the importance of relationship within ethnocultural research: “Without attention to relationship the researcher’s findings may be tainted, superficial, and inaccurate” (2012). One of the goals of the project was a two-way conversation about the pedagogical praxis of librarians across borders. Checking back with participants about the findings allowed the conversations to continue. The research crossed over two countries and some barriers persisted. First, the English manuscript might not be read and understood by all participants in the same way as if it had been written in Spanish. Second, providing an opportunity for input does not guarantee that one receives responses or that the responses contain useful feedback. Nevertheless, sharing the manuscript allowed the authors to strengthen ties with professional contacts and opened the possibility for future collaborations. As an act of reciprocity, the authors also chose to publish the manuscript containing the full findings in an open access institutional repository to guarantee that readers in Mexico and around the globe could access it freely.

Engagement with the Community In late 2021, one of the researchers was asked to speak about the topic of “Desafíos de la comunicación científica: el papel de las bibliotecas y los bibliotecarios/Challenges in scholarly communications: the role of libraries and librarians” during the 25th annual Colloquium of Librarians at La Feria Internacional del Libro (FIL)/ International Book Fair in Guadalajara, Mexico. She chose the topic of designing IL instruction for scholarly communication and outlined the implications for librarians who teach. The presentation provided an opportunity to publicise findings from the study and to share the results more broadly and specifically with the

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community involved. The slides prepared and written conference proceeding were exclusively in Spanish. Some participants in the original focus groups attended the presentation, along with professional contacts familiar with the study. The moderator remarked that the study filled a gap. Most of the research undertaken into IL in Mexico until that time had used quantitative not qualitative methods. The contacts and participants at the colloquium embraced the study and expressed further interest in continued collaboration. Attending this colloquium was another way the researchers tried to mitigate power dynamics and resist being extractive, while also providing a chance for further contact, conversation, and collaboration.

Further Reflections For librarians pursuing tenure-track or continuing appointment positions requiring research activity, undertaking projects can seem like a continuous state of motion where one is unable to stop or reflect on achievements and outcomes before moving on to the next. Preparing this chapter has provided the opportunity for the two authors to revisit the project, reflect on it and evaluate their own growth as researchers. Working with a third author on the study allowed the authors to rely on, and defer to, the expertise of a colleague with deep knowledge of research study design and methodology. Both authors developed in their understanding of research by discussing and questioning the process together. Writing down the lessons learned has been an opportunity to revisit the generosity of the Mexican librarians and to recognise their continuous commitment to strive for a better society through their information literacy work with individuals and communities in a way that seems distant from how IL is often conducted in the US. The researchers have seized opportunities to give back their reflections and results. Collaborative initiatives have emerged in their professional community. The 2022 SALALM conference featured a large collaborative project to create open access IL tutorials with one US and twenty Mexican librarians at five different institutions: “Alfin sin fronteras: Un proyecto colaborativo e interinstitucional para brindar una herramienta pedagógica para toda América Latina/ Information literacy beyond borders/An interinstitutional collaborative project to share a pedagogical tool across Latin America.” which was given by Camelia Romero Millán (Colegio de México), Leticia Hernández (Universidad de Guadalajara), José Martínez (Universidad Veracruzana), Alfredo Avendaño (Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla), and Anne C. Barnhart (University of West Georgia). The project built on and expanded Anne Barnhart’s work with LibraryDen, for which she and her team



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at the University of West Georgia won the 2021 ALA Library Instruction Round Table (LIRT) Innovation in Instruction Award (Marcyk 2021). Additional discussion about collaboration with librarians in Mexico can be found in work written by the authors (Hicks, Maxson, and Reyes 2021).

Conclusion Conducting research in another country, especially in another language brings a new set of considerations to be evaluated. Cultural and linguistic knowledge facilitate such projects. There are many differences, but also similarities, perhaps as a result of today’s globalised world. Cross-cultural and cross-national research projects are invaluable. They expose alternative practices, open up new ways of thinking and facilitate conversations and information exchanges which enable improvements in information services, and enhanced planning of information literacy programs moving away from US-centric approaches. The collaborative approach to the project left the researchers feeling that they had built bridges with colleagues, learned from them and gained fresh insights to empower future endeavours.

References Battaglia, Michael P. 2008. “Nonprobability Sampling.” In Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods, edited by Paul J. Lavrakas, 1: 645. Online version, 524–527. Thousand Oaks CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. https://edge.sagepub.com/system/files/Ch5NonprobabilitySampling.pdf. Campbell, Anne. 2013. “‘Extractive’ Research and Its Prevention.” Higher Education + International Development. [Blog] June 15, 2013. https://anneccampbell.wordpress.com/2013/06/15/extractiveresearch-and-its-prevention/. Diccionario Panhispánico De Dudas. 2005. “Qué es | La norma culta.” Madrid: Real Academia Española. https://www.rae.es/dpd/ayuda/que-es. Galletta, Anne. 2013. “Mastering the Semi-Structured Interview and Beyond: From Research Design to Analysis and Publication.” In Mastering the Semi-Structured Interview and Beyond: From Research Design to Analysis and Publication, 9–44. New York: New York University Press. http://nyu.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.18574/nyu/9780814732939.001.0001/ upso-9780814732939. García, Myrna. 2014. “Positionality.” In Encyclopedia of Diversity and Social Justice, edited by Sherwood Thompson, 794–6. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. Hicks, Alison. 2018. “Making the Case for a Sociocultural Perspective on Information Literacy.” In The Politics of Theory and the Practice of Critical Librarianship, edited by Karen P. Nicholson, and Maura Seale, 69–85. Sacramento: Litwin Books & Library Juice Press. https://litwinbooks.com/books/ the-politics-of-theory-and-the-practice-of-critical-librarianship/. Available at https://discovery.ucl. ac.uk/id/eprint/10044627/1/Hicks.pdf.

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Hicks, Alison, Bronwen K. Maxson, and Betsaida M. Reyes. 2021. “‘Hay Muchos Méxicos’: A New Approach to Designing International Information Literacy Instruction.” portal: Libraries and the Academy 21, no. 4: 859–84. https://doi.org/10.1353/pla.2021.0044. Institute of International Education. n.d.. “Open Doors. [Fact Sheet]. Latin America.” U.S. Department of State. https://opendoorsdata.org/fact_sheets/latin-america/ Koerber, Amy, and Lonie McMichael. 2008. “Qualitative Sampling Methods: A Primer for Technical Communicators.” Journal of Business and Technical Communication 22, no. 4: 454–73. https://doi. org/10.1177/1050651908320362. Latpate, Raosaheb, Jayant Kshirsagar, Vinod Kumar Gupta, and Girish Chandra. 2021. Advanced Sampling Methods. Springer: Singapore. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-160622-9. Marcyk, Emillia. 2021. “Ingram Library of the University of West Georgia Chosen for the LIRT 2021 Innovation in Instruction Award.” ALA News, May 4, 2021. https://www.ala.org/news/ press-releases/2021/04/ingram-library-university-west-georgia-chosen-lirt-2021-innovation. Nagata, Donna K., Lisa A. Suzuki, and Laura Kohn-Wood. 2012. “Qualitative Research with Ethnocultural Populations: Addressing the Unique Challenges of Relationship, Role, and Context.” In Qualitative Strategies for Ethnocultural Research, edited by Donna K. Nagata, Lisa A. Suzuki, and Laura Kohn-Wood, 9–18. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/13742-001. Reyes, Betsaida M., Alison Hicks, and Bronwen K. Maxson. 2018. “Information Literacy Practices of Spanish-Speaking Graduate Students at the University of Kansas.” portal: Libraries and the Academy 18, no.3: 595–615. doi:10.1353/pla.2018.0035. Available at https://muse.jhu.edu/ article/698635. US. Food and Drug Administration. 1998. “Information Sheet: Institutional Review Boards Frequently Asked Questions: Guidance for Institutional Review Boards and Clinical Investigators.” Issued by the Office of the Commissioner, Office of Clinical Policy and Programs, Office of Clinical Policy, and Office of Good Clinical Practice. Content current 04/18/2019. https://www.fda.gov/ regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/institutional-review-boards-frequentlyasked-questions#IRBOrg. US. National Institutes of Health Office of Management Assessment. 2022. “NIH Policy Manual. 3014–001 – Introduction to NIH Human Research Protection Program (HRPP) Policy Development: Transmittal Notice. Appendix 1: NIH IRP Human Research Protection Program (HRPP) Policy Glossary. https://policymanual.nih.gov/3014-001.

Yun Dai, Xinyao Liu, and Fan Luo

23 R  esearch and Practice in a Loop: A Case in and Beyond China Abstract: How essential is research to library practitioners at university libraries if research and publications are not antecedents of faculty status and promotion? What motivates library practitioners to conduct research and publish in a service-oriented environment? How are research activities coordinated and promoted where a research support system is available but not fully established? This chapter examines these questions in the unique milieu of the Library of New York University Shanghai, a Sino-US joint venture located in Shanghai, China, and focuses on the library’s data services. It discusses a qualitative study on research data sharing in China with implications for the next steps in setting up research data management services. The entire research process with qualitative methods, including research design, data collection, qualitative data analysis, data management, and research ethics is outlined and provides a model for connecting research to practice. Research and practice inform each other in a loop to facilitate service development as well as information literacy education and research support on qualitative research methods and tools. On a practical note, the chapter addresses how to engage various library stakeholders in contributing to a research project outside their job responsibilities. Keywords: Library research; Academic librarians; Academic libraries – China; Academic libraries – United States; Research data services; Information literacy

Introduction In the US, the employment of academic librarians for the purposes of tenure, other faculty contracts, or promotion is frequently tied to research activities undertaken. The approach provides a strong incentive for librarians to conduct research (Pickton 2016, 107). In Chinese higher education institutions, research, publications and government grants applications are part of library management responsibility. Research, along with strategic development, performance evaluation, business management, statistics and reports, archives management, assessment, asset management, and public safety, falls under Chapter 7, Management, in the Regulations for Libraries of Higher Education Institutions issued by China’s Ministry of Education (China MOE 2016). To encourage librarians and libraries to undertake research activities, Chinese universities have included publications and research https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-025

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output in what is known as the title review process in the promotion of librarians (Wang 2019, 178; Ye 2008, 19). Promotion through the ranks of librarians involves a change in professional position titles and qualifications and requirements are stipulated for each title. The process by which the assessment is undertaken for movement from one rank to another is called the title review process. For example, the requirements for Associate Research Librarians include the publication independently, or as the first author, of three papers in journals or one scholarly monograph at provincial and ministerial levels or above (Shanghai Municipal Human Resources and Social Security Bureau 2021). However, publications are considered as additional achievements by librarians rather than as part of everyday performance in most university libraries in China, and are usually not incorporated into libraries’ daily operations. As a result, librarians’ enthusiasm for research is often thwarted by the demands and duties of service delivery (Wang 2019, 178). It is logical to ask then, how essential is research to library practitioners at Chinese university libraries, if research and publications are not antecedents of faculty status and promotion? What motivates library practitioners to research and publish in a service-oriented environment? Furthermore, how are research activities coordinated and promoted when the research support system is available but not fully established? These questions are examined in the unique milieu of New York University Shanghai Library (hereinafter NYU Shanghai Library), a Sino-US joint venture of New York University and East China Normal University, located in Shanghai, China (New York University Shanghai n.d.). NYU Shanghai Library does not use the US tenure-track system or China’s title review system, and research is encouraged but not required. Research is supported through travel funds, professional development, and research working groups. These realities provide an opportunity to review the assumptions, conditions and motivations behind library practitioners’ research, where librarians face no external pressure to publish, but can acquire from their library research sponsorship based on need. The chapter focuses on the data services of NYU Shanghai Library and discusses a qualitative study on research data sharing in China with implications for the next steps of establishing research data management (RDM) services within the Library. As the project evolved, research became integral to the work of the data services library practitioners. Research and practice began to inform each other in a loop to facilitate service development, as well as instruction and consultations on qualitative research tools and methods. Emerging service needs from daily operations were input into the research project; the findings then directed service improvement; and research skills gained from the qualitative study were used to create teaching materials on qualitative methods in information literacy instruction. This chapter outlines the institutional context; explores details of the



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research project and process; describes the research/practice loop; and addresses the significance of the project.

Institutional Context NYU Shanghai follows the academic standards and culture of an American university, and participates in scholarly activities together with the local Chinese research community, including applications for government grants. Founded in 2012, the institution is still in its early stages of development. The current student body consists of almost 2000 undergraduate and graduate students; half are from China and the other half are from the US and approximately 70 other countries (NYU Shanghai n.d.). The institution is young, small, diverse and growing; these factors intertwine to create a fluid and agile organisational setting and cultural context. The Library inherits and implements the dual identity of the university. It operates its services to match an academic library of a US university, joins its local and global counterparts to contribute to librarianship through scholarly exchanges, and responds to trends in the international and local social, economic and legal spheres.

The Research Project This section describes the formation of the research team and explores the research design, implementation and ethics.

The Research Team In 2019, a research team designated as the Data Working Group was convened by the Library Director to explore and determine the RDM needs of the academic departments within the University. The team comprised three liaison librarians from the business, social science and STEM subject areas, a data librarian, a technology expert with specialist knowledge of digital scholarship, the Library Director, and interns. The team members would support users’ data needs through reference services, technical assistance, instruction, consultation, resource acquisition and other ways as required. The data librarian was appointed as the leader of the group, and led discussions in two-hour, bi-weekly themed meetings. In-person meetings where all group members were present lasted six months from the first

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day of July to the last week of December, 2019, when COVID-19 hit China. Fortunately, by that time, the group had finalised the research proposal and submitted it to the NYU Institutional Review Board (IRB) for approval as the research involved human subjects. The project resumed in 2021 to implement the research design, which lasted another six months. In the early stages of the project, the working group functioned as a study group, since the members had little to no experience and practical knowledge of RDM. For the first four meetings, group members received readings and assignments from the group leader. The meetings constituted an introductory phase, and the readings and assignments were warm-up exercises to introduce team members to the RDM field. In the second phase of the project, the focus of the group meetings shifted to the research project itself. The task was to devise a strategy to construct and execute in-depth interviews with faculty engaged in data-driven research to identify and understand their data management needs and practices. In the next seven meetings, discussions on the research design were extensive, and the process of problem solving was intensive, especially regarding sampling and formulating interview questions. Considerable behind-the-scenes decision making occurred in determining and finalising the research design.

Research Design The research project began with the question of whether the Library needed to create an RDM service based on the model of US academic libraries but rooted in the local policy and Chinese institutional environment, and if so, how. In the US, following the National Science Foundation update of its data management policy in 2010, many libraries extended their data services to help researchers write and implement data management plans as required by the federal funding agencies (Dietrich et al. 2012). The Data Working Group was assembled to investigate the prospect of offering a data management service comparable to services operating in the US. Such a service would follow a tested international model but also be in line with local circumstances in the absence of data sharing mandates from Chinese government funders. To give an evidence-based answer to the question and to propose a feasible RDM service model, the Working Group conceptualised a qualitative study and interviewed faculty conducting data-driven research. The team reviewed China’s policies on scientific data management over the decades and the LIS literature in both English and Chinese to position the study in the history of China’s RDM policy making and in a comparative context of research data management practices. The



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team members expanded their research skills substantially through what became an immersive and wide-ranging project. In designing the research, the first item to discuss was the procedure with the conduct of the planned interviews. Several proposals were discussed in the Working Group meetings: Should the project use a pilot study to test the questionnaire with junior researchers and research staff, for example, postdoctoral fellows, doctoral students, and laboratory managers before using the protocol and questionnaire with faculty researchers? Should the project unfold in sequences, with the first contact being short interviews with a large pool of faculty, followed by full interviews with faculty who proved to be most interested in the topic? Should the group proceed with long interviews with all sampled faculty researchers? After several debates, the project team finally decided to use the third option because it balanced the investment of time and resources from both the Library and the researchers. The next step was to select interviewees. The team first identified faculty in the business, social science and STEM departments whose research could be considered data-driven, who utilised quantitative, computational, experimental, or qualitative methods. The sampling frame narrowed down to the tenure-track and tenured faculty within the group, a hard decision that traded inclusiveness for efficiency within the constraints of time and resources. The final pool of interviewees resulted from those who met the two conditions of being data-driven and tenured, and who also agreed to participate. Once the interview format and sampling frame were settled, the third step was the preparation of the interview questionnaire. To create the framework, the group referred to two documents (Carlson 2010; Witt and Carlson 2007), which were designed to provide foundational information for the creation of a dataset and find out the required infrastructure and services for data curation. Each question in the final version of the questionnaire was reviewed by all group members through rounds of discussions and word-by-word edits. The questionnaire consisted of twenty-seven questions in seven categories. The categories and a sample question in each follow: –– Project description. What is the story of your data? –– Dataset description. What is the form and format of your data? –– Data lifecycle. What is the expected lifespan of the dataset? –– Data management. What are the storage tools you use when you manage your data? –– Data sharing. Do you think your dataset would be useful for you or others in the future? –– Preservation. Have you applied for any grants that require you to deposit data into a data repository? and

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–– Data services. Rank in order a given list of functionalities that researchers would like to have in data sharing, such as APIs. The questions were mostly closed questions. In retrospect, the project team could have created more customised open questions in the questionnaire to elicit researchers’ perspectives and experiences of research data sharing, since the purposes of the two guiding documents were not exactly the same as that of the new research project.

Research Ethics Approval for the research project was sought and obtained from the IRB because the research involved human subjects. All project members, including the interns, completed the online training required to participate in a research study. Two supplementary documents were reviewed by the IRB: the recruitment email template and the consent form. The template included a recruitment message and a reminder, and was strictly followed in communications with the subjects. The consent form was compiled with the help of NYU IRB Consent Form Generator (New York University IRB n.d.). The group updated the application with amendments to research arising from changes during COVID-19.

Research Implementation To recruit faculty interviewees, project members sent emails to the faculty with whom they worked most frequently. The three subject librarians contacted faculty in the areas of their respective responsibilities: business, social science and STEM departments; the library director contacted researchers with senior leadership roles. Each interviewee was assigned to two interviewers. During the interviews, questions were delivered in English, the working language of NYU Shanghai, but answers could be given in English or Chinese as chosen by the interviewee. Interviews were audio recorded with the interviewees’ consent. Interview transcripts were processed using the caption generation feature available in NYU Stream, a media streaming service, before being transcribed manually by three interns, and confirmed by the interviewers. The data librarian and a data services assistant who spoke both English and Chinese coded the transcripts using Taguette, an open-source text tagging tool. They trained themselves in qualitative data analysis techniques by reading textbooks and academic papers. Following community practice, the coders first tagged the transcripts independently.



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Then, the coders sat together to formalise the coding protocol and normalise the codes. Next, the coders marked interviewees’ self-initiations of topics in each transcript, signals of importance considering that most questions were closed. Finally, coders summarised the tags in quantities. All datasets, codes, and documentation produced in the project were carefully managed. Intermediate products were uploaded to a group Google Drive during active collaboration. For long-term preservation, final products were copied to the local Networked Attached Storage (NAS) device as a convenient method of file sharing among multiple computers.

The Research Practice Loop The research project constituted the first part in the chain of a research-practice service loop, as characterised in Figure 1. In a reciprocal relationship, needs assessment in developing an RDM service propelled a qualitative study to gauge researchers’ demand for RDM, while outcomes from the project informed the service implementation, especially in customising RDM service to each discipline as researchers from different departments shared their thoughts in the interviews.

Figure 23.1: Research Practice Loop

As part of the loop, insights and skills gained from the research project fed into library workshops and consultations on research methods and tools particularly those involving qualitative approaches, which boosted the Library’s professional profile. Two project members leveraged their project experiences and delivered a workshop that introduced and compared qualitative and quantitative approaches and tools of text analysis; they used the same documents on vaccination expectations in a sample of US universities across blue and red states (Dai and Luo 2021). Teaching in the workshop deepened two instructors’ knowledge of research methods, as they applied the skills cultivated in the data interview project to new materials, and analytically and systematically explained the concepts and procedures to students. Research informed practice and practice informed research.

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Project Significance The significance of the work undertaken has many aspects. First, the project examined the question “why do library practitioners conduct research” in a scenario where motivations stem from a library’s service needs rather than from performance evaluation requirements. Second, the project provided an example of how research and practice closely and continuously interact with each other to benefit the work of library practitioners and their service provision to library users. Third, the entire process of research with qualitative methods was documented, adding to the scant body of literature on the use of such methods in LIS research in general (Ullah and Ameen 2018, 57). Fourth, the research topics under study by library practitioners in China added to the body of knowledge available. Research data sharing and data management did not appear in the top forty most studied subject areas by China’s university librarians (Wang 2019, 176); among qualitative studies, the topic did not appear in the top twenty most studied areas (Bao and Ke 2021, 72). Fifth, on a practical note, the description of the project addressed how to engage various library stakeholders to contribute to a research project outside their job responsibilities.

Discussion The project provided a model for connecting research to practice when research is not a primary responsibility of the library practitioners. The authors shared their experiences with qualitative research, reflected on the lessons learned in designing and executing the project, and demonstrated how institutional attributes were woven into the research design and implementation. The research team faced many challenges throughout the project. The first challenge was the change of mindset from a library practitioner to a researcher in the research-practice loop. Librarians were more proficient with discovering resources, managing information, and supporting technical tools, than with employing research methods to answer questions. In addition, pressures began to mount when the project team tried to make sense of the extensive number of information sources available on the topic from both the US and China. The group relied on self-training to acquire practical knowledge of empirical social science research, and strategies of learning by doing and learning by teaching. It was critical to engage different library stakeholders in a lengthy and ongoing project that might consume considerable time and energy of the participants. To turn the challenges into opportunities, the project provided incentives to all parties



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involved. For the liaison librarians, interviewing the faculty they supported had the potential for being both a research activity and an outreach effort to learn about users’ research progress and resource needs. For the Library, the act of interviewing many faculty members provided the opportunity to promote existing and new data services. For the faculty, their research needs were channelled to appropriate liaison librarians for support as a result of the interviews.

Conclusion The project described in this chapter contributes to the field of research data management in several ways. It adds to the literature of case studies on needs assessments for RDM services, especially at a small research institution, a topic which is underrepresented in the literature (Goben and Griffin 2019, 913). The research project depicted responded to social movements inside and outside of academia in China. In industry, the Internet Plus action plan and promotion of big data from China’s central government (China State Council n.d.) drive academic libraries to build infrastructure and services to advance big data storage and to conduct research on ethical and legal issues associated with big data, such as privacy and property rights (Zhao 2019, 5). Inside academia, the measures for scientific data management regulation issued by the State Council in China (2018) provide a catalyst for China’s university libraries to conduct research on data management, sharing and preservation (Ma 2020, 20) and develop RDM services. In this chapter, the authors illustrated a mutually beneficial relationship between research and practice as structured in a service loop, which aligns with the findings by library practitioners reported in the LIS literature. Librarians at Chinese universities and globally have generally agreed that research is an important scholarly activity and practice for librarians, in addition to any requirements for tenure and promotion which might be in place. Library research advances the practice of the profession of librarianship as well as the discipline of library and information science. Research enhances the academic characteristic of the library and its reputation in knowledge discovery and innovation in the community being served. Library research provides the evidence base and support for decision making within libraries and improves service provision. For library practitioners, research motivates them to hone their professional skills through project development. Research also rewards them with professional benefits, such as stronger bonds with teaching faculty and potentially financial grants to conduct research (Exner 2019, 8–10; Kennedy and Brancolini 2018, 823; Perkins and Slowik 2013, 151–152; Pickton 2016, 106; Ye 2008, 19; Xie and Sun 2018, 187; Zeng 2005, 76).

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Regardless of the ample benefits to be gained when library practitioners conduct research, the majority of publications in the Chinese LIS literature have been authored by LIS faculty and students. Among the government-funded research projects, a very small percentage has been written by library practitioners (Xie and Sun 2018, 191–194; Wang 2019, 174). Time conflicts, lack of skills, and the absence of incentives are common barriers to the conduct of research by library practitioners (Ye 2008, 20; Zeng 2005, 76). The factors affecting research by library practitioners in China are shared by their international counterparts (Pickton 2016, 107). While it might be difficult, and unnecessary, to require all library practitioners to do research, a fully-fledged support system is highly desirable to help motivated practitioners navigate the unfamiliar territory of research.

References Bao, Xin 包鑫, and Ping Ke 柯平. 2021. “Fangtanfa zai woguo tushu qingbao lingyu de yingyong tanxi——jiyu 534 pian wenxian de wenxian jiliang yu neirong fenxi访谈法在我国图书情报 领域的应用探析——基于534 篇文献的文献计量与内容分析/[Discussion on Application of Interview Method in Library and Information Science in China: On the Basis of Bibliometric Analysis and Content Analysis of 534 Samples].” Tushuguan qingbao gongzuo图书情报工作 / [Library and Information Service] 65, no. 15 (August): 71–77. Carlson, Jake. 2010. “The Data Curation Profiles Toolkit: Interview Worksheet.” Data Curation Profiles Toolkit, Paper 3. Purdue University Purdue e-Pubs. http://dx.doi.org/10.5703/1288284315652. China. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE) Zhonghua renmin gongheguo jiaoyubu [中华人民共和国教育部]. 2016. “Jiaoyubu guanyu yinfa putong gaodeng xuexiao tushuguan guicheng de tongzhi教育部关于印发《普通高等学校图书馆规程》的通知 [Notice of the Ministry of Education on the Issuance of the Regulations on Libraries of Ordinary Colleges and Universities].” http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A08/moe_736/s3886/201601/ t20160120_228487.html. China. State Council of The People’s Republic of China n.d. “Internet Plus.” [Blog] https://english. www.gov.cn/2016special/internetplus/. China. State Council of The People’s Republic of China/Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guowuyuan [中 华人民共和国国务院]. 2018. “Guowuyuan bangongting guanyu yinfa kexue shuju guanli banfa de tongzhi/国务院办公厅关于印发科学数据管理办法的通知/[Notice of the State Council on the Issuance of the Scientific Data Management Regulation].” Guo Ban Fa [2018] No. 17. https:// www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2018-04/02/content_5279272.htm. Dai, Yun, and Fan Luo. 2022. “Text Mining/Analytics and Qualitative Approaches Back to Back: University Vaccination Expectations as an Example.” [Workshop]. NYU Shanghai Data Services. https://nyu-shanghai-data-services.github.io/TMA-QDA/. Dietrich, Dianne, Trisha Adamus, Alison Miner, and Gail Steinhart. 2012. “De-mystifying the Data Management Requirements of Research Funders.” Issues in Science and Technology Librarianship 70, no. 1 (Summer). https://doi.org/10.5062/F44M92G2.



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Exner, Nina. 2019. “Development of Research Competencies among Academic Librarians.” PhD dissertation, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. https://doi.org/10.17615/p159-ya91. Goben, Abigail, and Tina Griffin. 2019. “In Aggregate: Trends, Needs, and Opportunities from Research Data Management Surveys.” College & Research Libraries 80, no. 7 (November): 903–924. https:// doi.org/10.5860/crl.80.7.903. Kennedy, Marie R., and Kristine R. Brancolini. 2018. “Academic Librarian Research: An Update to a Survey of Attitudes, Involvement, and Perceived Capabilities.” College & Research Libraries 79, no. 6 (September): 822–851. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl.79.6.822. Ma, Huiping 马慧萍. 2020. “2010–2019 nian guonei tushuguan kexue shuju gongxiang yanjiu zongshu 2010–2019 年国内 书馆科学数据共享研究综述 /[A Summary of the Research on Library Scientific Data Sharing in China in 2010–2019].” Tushuguanxue yanjiu 书馆学研究/ [Research on Library Science], no. 8 (April): 19–26. https://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/ CJFDTotal-TSSS202008003.htm. New York University Institutional Review Board (IRB). n.d. “Consent Form Generator.” https://pages. nyu.edu/irb/forms/consent/. New York University Shanghai. n.d. “Who We Are.” https://shanghai.nyu.edu/about. Perkins, Gay Helen, and Amy J. W. Slowik. 2013. “The Value of Research in Academic Libraries.” College & Research Libraries 74, no. 2 (March): 143–157. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl-308. Pickton, Miggie. 2016. “Facilitating a Research Culture in an Academic Library: Top Down and Bottom up Approaches.” New Library World 117, no. 1/2 (January): 105–127. https://doi.org/10.1108/ NLW-10-2015-0075. Available at http://nectar.northampton.ac.uk/8004/9/Pickton20168004.pdf. Shanghai Municipal Human Resources and Social Security Bureau/Shanghaishi renli ziyuan he shehui baozhangju [上海市人力资源和社会保障局]. 2021. “Guanyu kaizhan 2021 niandu shanghaishi tushu ziliao xilie gaoji zhicheng pingshen gongzuo de tongzhi关于开展2021年度上海市图书资 料系列高级职称评审工作的通知 [Notice on the 2021 Senior Title Review Process of Shanghai Library and Information Professionals].” https://rsj.sh.gov.cn/tgjjszwpstz_17412/20210506/ t0035_1399338.html. Ullah, Ahsan, and Kanwal Ameen. 2018. “Account of Methodologies and Methods Applied in LIS Research: A Systematic Review.” Library & Information Science Research 40, no. 1 (January): 53–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2018.03.002. Wang, Miao 王淼 . 2019. “Jin shinian gaoxiao tushuguan de keyan kunjing fenxi 近十年高校图书馆的 科研困境分析 [An Analysis of the Dilemma of Conducting Research in University Libraries in the Last Decade].” Tushuguan jianshe图书馆建设/ [Library Development], no. S1 (October): 173–179. Witt, Michael, and Jake Carlson. 2007. “Conducting a Data Interview.” Libraries Research Publications, Paper 81(December). Purdue University Purdue e-Pubs. https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/lib_ research/81. Xie, Jingzhen, and Lili Sun. 2018. “A Content Analysis of Journal of Library Science in China in 2007–2016.” Journal of Electronic Resources Librarianship 30, no. 4: 185–197. https://doi.org/10.108 0/1941126X.2018.1521083. Ye, Guo 叶国. 2008. “Xin xingshi xia gaoxiao tushuguan fuwu gongzuo yu keyan gongzuo de guanxi 新形势下高校图书馆服务工作与科研工作的关系 [The Relationship Between University Library Service Journal of Science and Technology] no. 3 (May): 19–22. https://www.cnki.com.cn/ Article/CJFDTotal-HKTY200803010.htm. Zeng, Weiqing 曾伟清. 2005. “Qianxi gaoxiao tushuguan keyan gongzuo de xianzhuang yu duice 浅析高校图书馆科研工作的现状与对策 [On Current Research Work of University Libraries].” Tushuguan luntan图书馆论坛 [Library Tribune] no. 2 (April): 76–78I. https://www.cnki.com.cn/ Article/CJFD2005-TSGL200502023.htm.

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Zhao, Ruihan 赵蕊菡. 2019. “Woguo tushuguanxue yanjiu redian ji fazhan qushi fenxi——jiyu 2015– 2019 nian guojia sheke jijin xiangmu de tongji我国图书馆学研究热点及发展趋势分析—— 基于2015—2019年国家社科基金项目的统计 [A Research on the Focus and Development Trends of Library Science — Based on the Statistics of National Social Science Fund Project (2015–2019)].” Tushuguanxue yanjiu 图书馆学研究 [Research on Library Science] no. 20 (October): 2–9. https://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTotal-TSSS201920001.htm.

Ophelia T. Morey

24 I ntegrating a Theoretical Framework into Research Proposal Design Abstract: The chapter explores a tenure-track librarian’s journey to learn how to integrate a theoretical framework into a telephone survey project examining consumer health information seeking behavior. It explores how to identify theories, how to develop the theoretical framework with the literature review, and how to integrate the theoretical framework into the design of the proposal to support research questions, data collection, findings, and recommendations. This case study offers a clear and specific example of one method to address the research and theory practice gap through direct application of theoretical frameworks. Keywords: Library science – Research; Academic librarians; Professional development; Research – Methodology; Research – Design

Introduction The author’s interest in research began when she was hired as a tenure-track librarian at the University at Buffalo, a public research university in the state of New York, US, following part-time librarian positions at other academic institutions. The new position was her first experience working in an environment where research output was expected of a librarian. During library school she had not anticipated working in an academic setting and had not completed an optional research methods course that was recommended for students interested in research or working in higher education. In the new position, the opportunity to gain experience about the research process was exciting, but initially intimidating by having to conceptualize, design, and implement a research project. As a junior faculty librarian and novice researcher, the author gradually learned how to conduct research by initially collaborating on grant proposals with senior librarians. For example, her first role on a grant proposal collaboration was to research literature. The experience provided lessons in the grant proposal process. She also learned how to integrate the literature into a proposal to support project goals and objectives. These experiences led to the opportunity to co-author a grant proposal targeting organizations serving minorities for consumer health information outreach. The proposed project was not funded but proved to be the catalyst for the development of a research project about consumer health information seeking behavior in the community. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772593-026

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The idea for the research proposal was based on a local study entitled The Health Status of the Near East Side Black Community: A Study of Wellness and Neighborhood Conditions that was released on May 22, 2001 (University at Buffalo 2010). The Black Leadership Forum commissioned the research, Kaleida Health provided funding, and the University at Buffalo’s Center for Urban Studies and Primary Care Research Institute conducted the study. The purpose of the study was to gain insight into Black community wellness by examining social, economic, cultural, and lifestyle issues affecting the health status of Buffalo’s Near East Side Black community. The study was impactful but did not explore consumer health information seeking behavior. The work focused on the author’s community outreach interests and led to enhanced understanding of consumer health issues within the community. The experience inspired the author to develop a research project to complement the study because of the limited amount of literature on the consumer health information seeking behavior of African Americans. Although the primary motivation for conducting the research was a combination of keen interest driven by the requirement for tenure-track librarians to focus on research, the opportunity to contribute to how the community could be better served was fulfilling.

The Journey Begins The research journey officially began with the decision to conduct a telephone survey to investigate consumer health information and a realization that further knowledge was required. The first step towards designing the research project was to register for a semester-long course in survey research methods that was offered by the University at Buffalo’s Department of Sociology. During the discovery and learning period, time was spent reviewing research articles and dissertations on consumer health information to learn about different approaches to conducting research and about theoretical bases. Specifically, the literature generated by library and information science (LIS) researchers revealed that very few consumer health information studies conducted by LIS professionals were theoretically based (Baker and Pettigrew 1999). Baker and Pettigrew’s opinion was that as a result, the value of the findings from the studies undertaken was limited. They suggested that a more formal framework was needed to understand consumer health information seeking behavior. An approach grounded in theory would provide better outcomes than the more traditional non-theoretically based generalizations and personal theories that LIS professionals often develop to implement information services to consumers seeking health information.



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To further support their point, Baker and Pettigrew (1999) discussed the sociological theory of the strength of weak ties (SWT). A tie refers to relationships in an individual’s social network, where strong ties are close family and friends, and weak ties are distant friends and acquaintances. Mark Granovetter (1973) further defines the strength of a tie as a combination of the amount of time, the emotional intensity, the intimacy or mutual confidences and the reciprocal services which characterize the tie. A weak tie exists between an information provider and a service recipient when the recipient encounters the provider only occasionally to seek services; by contrast, a strong tie exists when the recipient is in the same social network as the service provider and frequent encounters occur. Granovetter developed the strength of weak ties theory contending that weak ties serve as bridges to other social networks and influence the diffusion and flow of information. If a person with weak ties to many individuals who are not part of a close interpersonal network communicate information to those individuals, the spread of information will be greater than an individual’s communication of information using strong ties to family and friends where the information will stay within the close network rather than spreading beyond it.

The Journey Continues Discovering and learning how the strength of weak ties theory was used in a consumer health information seeking behavior study piqued the author’s interest and led to further discovery and learning, resulting in a decision to attend the American Society for Information Science and Technology (ASIS&T) 2004 annual meeting. The ASIS&T conference provided the perfect professional development opportunity because of its research focus and targeted audience of library and information science professionals, although at the time not many librarians attended. In addition, ASIS&T featured a special interest group on information needs, seeking and use, SIG USE, that focused on information seeking behavior research. Conferences provide an excellent opportunity for learning as well as networking, and attendance at the ASIS&T conference led to a conversation with a library school faculty member who provided advice about the International Network for Social Network Analysis’ (INSNA) Sunbelt conference. The Sunbelt meeting provides workshops on social networks with a focus on teaching attendees specific methods, applications, software, or theories. The research journey continued with attendance at Sunbelt 2005 and participation in the pre-conference workshop, Networks for Newbies, taught by Barry Wellman. The workshop provided insights into survey research work that could be applied to other survey research projects.

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After completing the University at Buffalo survey methods course, the author was awarded research leave and funding to design and implement a telephone survey to study the consumer health information seeking behavior of residents on the East Side of Buffalo. Research projects involving human subjects usually involve special conditions. Before beginning any study, researchers might be required to complete online compliance training for human subject research and/ or submit protocols for approval. The author’s research learning journey continued with training and preparation of the research protocol for submission to the University’s Social and Behavioral Sciences Institutional Review Board (SBSIRB) for approval. Over a four-month period, the protocol was finalized including the participant consent form. A script and survey based on SWT theory was designed, programmed, and tested by the researcher to learn about consumer health information seeking behavior, and the Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI) system located in the University at Buffalo’s Department of Sociology was used to structure the flow of the survey and the collection of data. The system is a software application that is used for survey management and data collection.

The Survey Journey The target population for the survey was African Americans, males and females, aged 18–74, who lived on the East Side of Buffalo in the Masten and Ellicott districts. Telephone surveys were conducted over a two-month period with the help of a student assistant, who was also required to complete the human subject research training. Calls were made Sunday through Saturday, between the hours of 9 a.m. and 9 p.m. Two hundred and sixteen surveys were completed with 139 women and 77 men after calling 940 randomly selected telephone numbers. The list of randomly selected landline numbers was generated from the defined target group and geographic area using GENESYS sampling solutions offered by the Marketing Systems Group. GENESYS is a suite of solutions for commercial, social science, government and public opinion researchers that also provides cellular address, online, and voter sample data. The survey was successfully completed after dealing with challenges along the way, such as learning to program the survey in the CATI system and learning to design the participant consent form. There was a steep learning curve in figuring out how to program the survey from CATI instruction manuals so that the questions would appear on the screen and follow the appropriate skip patterns, and to ensure that answers were recorded properly. With the use of software and programming



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there is frequently the occasional glitch, but fortunately the instructor from the survey methods course was available for consultation which was invaluable. Another major challenge was the process for protocol approval by the SBSIRB that included a version of a consent form that the board had recommended. After initial submission of the protocol for review, minor requested changes were made before receiving final approval. As further learning occurred, it was realized during survey testing and training of the student assistant that the consent form was too lengthy to read to participants over the telephone. Consultation took place between the researcher and a former instructor and the dean of the sociology department for suggestions on shortening the document. Since the longer consent form had been approved by the SBSIRB with the initial protocol, an additional submission was made for approval to use the shorter form, which was granted. The shortened form helped to improve participant willingness to complete the survey. As presented, the learning process for the researcher’s journey included formal study, completing a comprehensive literature review, seeking informal advice, accepting guidance when problems were encountered, recognizing missteps, and learning from them, and, while learning was taking place, persevering through the challenges associated with designing and implementing research surveys that are often hidden to survey participants. This is where the appreciation for research is fostered, and how junior researchers may transition over time to a senior researcher.

Learning About Theoretical Frameworks Along the Way There are many formal definitions of theory, and many different understandings of what a theory is and how theories can be used. The following definition is accessible to everyone: Theories are explanations. They are generalizations. Theories are statements that try to explain relationships among various phenomena …and from which one can make inferences and deductions. Theory results from an interplay among ideas, evidence, and inference (Case 2012, 168, citing others).

In addition, “a theory provides a testable explanation for the relationship between two or more concepts, phenomena or variables, and often provides a basis for prediction” (Baker and Pettigrew 1999, 445), The combination of these definitions provided the personal impetus for the exploration of theoretical constructs for

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research into information behavior. The goal was not only to collect data about consumer health information seeking behavior, but to explain the results in the context of a theoretical framework with the potential for basing further actions and services on evidence rather than conjecture. The health sciences have emphasized the use of evidence in developing approaches to practice through evidence-based medicine with treatment of patients based on the best knowledge of existing evidence within a strong theoretical framework. Evidence-based practice is important across all professions where “information behavior researchers are among the highest users of theory within the library and information science research (Fisher, Erdelez, and McKechnie 2005, xx). One definition for framework is “a basic structure, plan, or system, as of concepts, values, customs, or rules”. The framework constitutes the basic structure underlying a system, concept, or text. A simple definition of a theoretical framework is a theory or theories used as the basis for a research approach or proposal. A more formal definition is: The theoretical framework is the foundation from which all knowledge is constructed (metaphorically and literally) for a research study. It serves as the structure and support for the rationale for the study, the problem statement, the purpose, the significance, and the research questions. The theoretical framework provides a grounding base, or an anchor, for the literature review, and most importantly, the methods and analysis (Grant and Osanloo 2014, 12).

Conceptual and theoretical frameworks are sometimes used interchangeably. Understandings of terms and approaches and interpretations of meaning are inevitably subjective and personal, and sometimes relate to topic and context. In this instance, the conceptual framework was defined as the structure by which the theory of weak ties could be connected with information seeking behavior and with the researcher’s personal interest and experience with the topic.

Locating Theoretical Frameworks Discovery of appropriate theoretical frameworks for use in particular research contexts can be daunting. Simply put “Conceptual work is the greatest and most constant challenge for many researchers” (Fisher, Erdelez, and McKechnie 2005, xix). One means of finding an appropriate construct is to learn from the work of others and previous use of models with particular topics. Searching the literature on the main topic of interest was the obvious first step. The next step on the research journey was to examine the research undertaken on consumer health information seeking behavior with the purpose of learning from what had been done by others.



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Replicating the work of others and following the strategies of successfully completed research projects are useful actions for research novices. The importance of attending conferences focused on library and information science research has already been mentioned. Conferences may be regional, national, or international and provide a host of differing experiences. The ability to attend such conferences may depend on institutional support and location of the researcher. It can be difficult for novice researchers to involve themselves in conference attendance, and some personal costs might be involved. As well as ASIS&T, the Information Seeking in Context (ISIC) conference which is held internationally and promotes interdisciplinary information research, and the iConference, held by the iSchools which unite universities all over the world who have a common interest in the research and teaching of information, provided helpful learning about research and theories. As already noted, attendance at conferences involves gaining knowledge from the presentations and workshops, but also networking, with the opportunity to put questions to prominent researchers. Details about theoretical frameworks used can be obtained in this way. In addition, novice researchers can also submit proposals for presentation. Participation in conferences allows the sharing of research results and facilitates gaining additional knowledge about the research process. Another approach to locating appropriate theoretical frameworks to use in research studies is to borrow theories from other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, and mass communication (Case 2012). Theories of Information Behavior by Fisher, Erdelez and McKechnie (2005) describes 72 theories and is a helpful resource. The authors suggest that “practitioners seeking to enrich their work through theoretical understanding could read all or selected relevant portions of the book” (Fisher, Erdelez, and McKechnie 2005, xxi). Grant and Osanloo (2014) identify a range of theories which have potential for application in library and information science studies including transformational/relational theories, transactional/management theories, servant leadership/moral theories, trait theories and situational theories (14). Aspiring researchers in library and information science can discover much from the work of others which can be applied to LIS activity. For example, McMillan and Chavis’ theory of sense of community was used by researchers to study the role of the national library in fostering a sense of community in Singapore (Lin and Luyt 2014). And another study used critical race theory (CRT) as a lens to investigate how collection development practices for healthcare information services in the UK could contribute to health equity (O’Driscoll and Bawden 2022).

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The Literature Review Expedition In research, the goal of the literature review is to gain new knowledge about a proposed topic and to make comparisons with existing knowledge about the topic. Academic librarians teach others how to search effectively for information as part of their service delivery. Guides on translating research questions into search strategies for use in particular databases abound in many subject areas on most library websites. For the consumer health information project, reviewing the literature in the stages prior to proposal writing helped to define and refine the topic and identify gaps. The literature review examined the research literature on various aspects of the topic including strength of weak ties theory, consumer health information seeking behavior, and consumer health in general as related to African Americans and the results of the searches have been outlined in the preliminary findings of the research project (Morey 2007). The theoretical framework and literature review were prepared and conducted together to inform the research questions, support the data, interpret the findings, and make recommendations. More details about theoretical framework integration is contained in the work of Grant and Osanloo (2014). The questions they propose for consideration in integration of theoretical frameworks include the following: –– Which discipline will the theory be applied to? –– Do the problem, purpose, and significance of the study align well with your theoretical framework? –– How does the theoretical framework inform your literature review? and –– Does your theoretical framework undergird your conclusions, implications, and recommendations based on the data analysis? (Grant and Osonloo 2014, 24). A thorough review of all the literature ensured that the design of the study was based on previous studies and that the theories being used, along with the theoretical framework, aligned with consumer health information seeking behavior, and were appropriate for the methodological plan. Results were presented from previous research studies identified in the literature review and questions to measure the strength of weak ties incorporated social network theory related questions from another research study. It was established from the literature that the strength of weak ties theory is a well-developed theory that is widely used by many disciplines, and there was no doubt that the overall study, problem, purpose, and significance aligned well with the theory. Based on the information and data analysis, conclusions and implications were seamlessly tied to the theoretical framework.



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Arriving at the Destination This chapter has provided an overview of one person’s journey to implement a research project in which a theoretical framework was applied. It describes how a librarian motivated by community outreach work became involved in research to gain understandings which might improve delivery of health information services and at the same time meet a requirement to conduct a research project as a tenure-track librarian. At the beginning of the project, there was a limited understanding of how the project might contribute to the field of research in library and information studies. The thinking was narrowly confined to how the theoretically informed results could inform the research work undertaken. In other words, the approach taken modeled a theory-practice gap, “expressed as a difference in the typical perspectives and motivations of researchers and academics, who prioritise and value theory, on the one hand, and practitioners, who prioritise and value pragmatism and action, on the other” (Pinfield et al. 2021, 65). At the journey’s end dawned the realization that the work undertaken in a broader sense offered an example of how to bridge research, specifically theoretical research, and library practice. Many actions taken were in alignment with current suggestions on how to address the gap between research and practice by proactively reading theoretical literature and forming personal relationships between practitioners and researchers (Pinfield et al. 2021). The shared approach and mentoring proved invaluable. Beginning researchers will find it helpful to contact authors whose work they have read. Scholars in the field are happy to share their knowledge and experience. Contacts can be made with authors after reading their articles and further details acquired, including survey documentation. The importance of data management and reuse has been recognized widely and replication of studies by new researchers provides experience and may validate previous results. Attendance at research focused conferences, as Pinfield et al. (2021) suggest, was invaluable. Being a part of research focused environments not only expands networks but helps understanding of the research process and its application.

Conclusion Research takes time, especially for those new to the process. The project described in this chapter took about four years from initial conceptualization of the research project to publication of an article with the results. Collaborating with other researchers is an important option to consider when addressing the research and

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practice gap, and the theory-practice gap (Pinfield et al. 2021). Collaboration with teaching and research faculty not only resulted in the opportunity to co-author and co-present but provided a platform to contribute expertise from a practitioner’s perspective, and to broaden the scope of research experience and knowledge. Finally, if completing a course on research methods for credit is not an option, practitioners should explore research training programs targeting librarians. Participation in these types of continuing education programs provides hands-on instruction and experience, access to experienced faculty or librarian-researchers as instructors and mentors, and networking opportunities which may lead to future research project collaborations.

References Baker, Lynda M., and Karen E. Pettigrew. 1999. “Theories for Practitioners: Two Frameworks for Studying Consumer Health Information-Seeking Behavior.” Bulletin of the Medical Library Association 87, no. 4: 444–450. Available at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC226619/. Case, Donald O. 2012. “Chapter 7: Metatheories, Paradigms, and Theories.” In Looking for Information: A Survey of Research on Information Seeking, Needs, and Behaviors, by Donald O. Case, 3rd ed., 163–198. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Fisher, Karen E., Sanda Erdelez, and Lynne (E. F.) McKechnie, eds. 2005. Theories of Information Behavior. Medford, NJ: Information Today. Granovetter, Mark S. 1973. “The Strength of Weak Ties.” American Journal of Sociology 78, no. 6: 1360–1380. Available at https://info.sice.indiana.edu/~katy/L597-F05/granovetter73.pdf. Grant, Cynthia, and Azadeh Osanloo. 2014. “Understanding, Selecting, and Integrating a Theoretical Framework in Dissertation Research: Creating the Blueprint for Your ‘House’.” Administrative Issues Journal: Connecting Education, Practice, and Research 4, no. 2: 12–26. Available at https:// files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1058505.pdf. Lin, Hui, and Brendan Luyt. 2014. “The National Library of Singapore: Creating a Sense of Community.” Journal of Documentation 70, no. 4: 658–675. https://doi.org/10.1108/JD-11-2012-0148. Morey, Ophelia. 2017. “Health Information Ties: Preliminary Findings on the Health Information Seeking Behaviour of an African-American Community.” Information Research 12, no. 2: Paper 297. http://informationr.net/ir/12-2/paper297.html. O’Driscoll, Grace, and David Bawden. 2022. “Health Information Equity: Rebalancing Healthcare Collections for Racial Diversity in UK Public Service Contexts.” Education for Information 38, no. 4: 315–336. https://doi.org/10.3233/EFI-220051. Pinfield, Stephan, Simon Wakeling, David Bawden, and Lyn Robinson. 2021. Open Access in Theory and Practice. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. University at Buffalo. Center for Urban Studies. 2001. “The Health Status of the Near East Side Black Community: A Study of the Wellness and Neighborhood Conditions Buffalo, New York.” The Black Leadership Forum September 2000. Buffalo NY: UB Center for Urban Studies School of Architecture and Planning and the UB Center for Research in Primary Care. https://ubwp.buffalo. edu/aps-cus/wp-content/uploads/sites/16/2015/04/EastSideHealthStudy.pdf.

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Contributors

Adeyeye, Sophia V. Lecturer, Department of Information Management, Lead City University, Ibadan, Nigeria. Sophia is also a Certified Librarian of Nigeria. She received her bachelor’s and master’s degrees from the Department of Library and Information Studies and PhD from the Department of School Library and Media Technology, University of Ibadan. She serves as a member of the Standing Committee of the IFLA Section on Education and Training. Her research interests are in bibliotherapy, innovation and creativity in school libraries, Indigenous knowledge, and information literacy. [email protected]. Askin, Nicole Librarian, Winnipeg Regional Health Authority (WHRA) Virtual Library, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB. Nicole is a Canadian medical librarian and liaison librarian at the University of Manitoba serving the WRHA Virtual Library. She holds an MLIS from the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC. Her primary research interests include knowledge synthesis and systematic search methodologies, patient and consumer health information and health literacy, and open educational resources. nicole.askin@ umanitoba.ca. Baylen, Danilo Madayag Professor of Instructional Technology, Media, and Design, College of Education, University of West Georgia, Carrollton, GA. Danilo holds an EdD in Instructional Technology and an MSEd in Counseling, from Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL, an MLIS from the University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, and an MA in Elementary Studies from Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Myers, FL, and a BA from the University of the Philippines. Before becoming a faculty member, he worked as an instructional designer, IT services director, and faculty developer in higher education institutions. His

teaching, research, and publishing focus on technology integration practices, visual literacy, collaborative learning, and creative thinking. He also studies visual representations of identity, relationships, and culture in Asian children’s literature. Danilo is a 2022–2023 Fulbright US Scholar. [email protected]. Bongiovanni, Emily Psychology Liaison Librarian, Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) in Pittsburgh, PA. At CMU, Emily supports the teaching and research needs of psychology students and faculty, as well as taking a lead in the provision of open science and open educational resources activities across campus. Before joining CMU, Emily was the Scholarly Communications Librarian at the Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, where she supported faculty and students throughout the research lifecycle and promoted open science. She holds a BA from Denison University. Granville, OH, and an MLIS from the Morgridge College of Education at the University of Denver, CO. [email protected]. Brancolini, Kristine R. Dean, William H. Hannon Library at Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, CA. Since 2010, Kristine has been studying academic librarian-researchers to learn more about removing barriers and providing support for their research success. She formerly held posts at Indiana University, Bloomington, IA. She earned a BA from Scripps College, Claremont, CA, and an MLS from Indiana University. Kristine and Marie Kennedy are co-directors of the Institute for Research Design in Librarianship (IRDL). kristine. [email protected]. Bright, Kawanna M. Assistant Professor in Library Science, Department of Interdisciplinary Professions, College of Education, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC. Kawanna completed her

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 Contributors

doctorate in research methods and statistics in 2018 from the University of Denver, CO, and an MLIS in 2003 from the University of Washington, Seattle, WA. She was an academic librarian for twelve years, specialising in public services. Her research focuses on assessment in libraries, equity, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) in libraries, applying research methodology to library and information science, and the liaison librarianship role in academic libraries. Kawanna is a member of the Standing Committee of the IFLA Library Theory and Research Section. brightka19@ecu. edu. Brody, Stacy Librarian, Himmelfarb Health Sciences Library, School of Medicine and Health Sciences George Washington University, Washington, DC. Stacy is a reference and instruction librarian at the Himmelfarb Health Sciences Library, and former Co-Director of the Librarian Reserve Corps, a group of volunteers who responded to work together to deal with the emergence of the pandemic. She has a BS from the School of Environmental and Biological Sciences and an MI from the School of Communication and Information at Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ. She was a 2018–2019 United States National Library of Medicine Associate Fellow. [email protected]. Buenrostro-Cabbab, Iyra S. Associate Professor, School of Library and Information Studies, University of the Philippines Diliman (UP SLIS). Iyra teaches LIS and archival studies courses at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. She holds a PhD in Information Studies from Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore and bachelor’s and master’s degrees in library and information science from the University of the Philippines. Her research focuses on the role of archives, particularly photographs, in shaping collective memory. She is also interested in oral history, and qualitative methods for LIS and archival research. Iyra is currently the Graduate

Program Coordinator at UP SLIS, and the Editorin-Chief of the Philippine Journal of Librarianship and Information Studies. [email protected]. Buljung, Brianna Teaching and Learning Librarian, Colorado School of Mines (Mines), Golden, CO. Brianna coordinates the library’s information literacy programme, teaching lessons and collaborating with classroom faculty to integrate information literacy instruction into the curriculum. She holds a BA from Colorado College, Colorado Springs, CO, and an MLIS from the University of Denver, CO. In 2021, Brianna served as a US Fulbright Scholar at Tunghai University in Taichung. Taiwan. Prior to joining Mines in 2016, she served as Engineering and Computer Science Librarian at the US Naval Academy and as a contract reference librarian at the National Defense University, Washington, DC. bbuljung@ mines.edu. Caragher, Kristyn Assistant Professor, Reference and Liaison Librarian, University of Illinois Chicago, IL. Kristyn is the STEM Librarian and works with faculty, staff, and students in the College of Engineering and two departments in the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences: Mathematics, Statistics, and Computer Science, and Physics. In addition to her liaison responsibilities, she enjoys community engagement and working with high school students. Her current research focuses on racial equity efforts in libraries, library employees’ perceptions of racism within their organisations, and how to make institutions less hostile to Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) library employees. [email protected]. Colón-Aguirre, Mónica Assistant Professor, School of Information Science, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC. Mónica is a recipient of the Spectrum Doctoral Fellowship for 2008. With a PhD and MS in Information Science from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, an MBA from the Inter-American University of Puerto Rico, San

 Germán, and a BBA from the University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras, she has more than ten years of experience as an instructor and researcher. Her areas of research include academic libraries, library management, user services, services for underserved populations, and information behaviours of Spanish-speakers. Before she became a faculty member, Mónica worked in libraries both in the continental US and in her native Puerto Rico. [email protected]. Corradini, Elena Librarian, Biblioteca Comunale de Ala/Municipal Library in Ala, Trento, Italy. Elena has been working as a librarian since 1997. She holds a degree in German and English language and literature, and a masters’ degree in information studies jointly awarded by the University of Parma, Italy, and Northumbria University, Newcastle, England. Her research interests are in research methods, information and media literacy, digital humanities, and online learning, with a focus on web resource use by young people. [email protected].

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New University, Wycombe, England. She is the Evidence Lead for the IFLA Evidence for Global and Disaster Health Special Interest Group. [email protected]. Demo, Ederina Head, Studies and Qualification Department, Biblioteka Kombëtare e Shqipërisë/National Library of Albania (NLA). Ederina is responsible for the Shkolla Kombëtare e Bibliotekonomisë/National School of Librarianship which is affiliated with the NLA. Her research and teaching interests focus on the theory of library and information science, cataloguing and subject indexing, information literacy, digital reference, research methods, and data curation. Prior to taking the position at the NLA, Ederina was Head of Cataloguing at the Scientific Library of the Polytechnic University of Tirana, and she worked as a cataloguer for twenty years. ederina.demo@ bksh.al.

Dai, Yun Data Services Librarian, Library, New York University Shanghai, China. Yun leads the library’s data services and initiatives to support the needs of data-intensive research and teaching at the University. She is responsible for advancing the library’s data literacy programme and designing and delivering instructions on quantitative and qualitative data programmes and tools among other work. Yun received an MA in sociology from Columbia University, New York, NY, and an MI from Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ. [email protected].

Haddow, Gaby Professor, Libraries, Archives, Records and Information Science, School of Media, Creative Arts and Social Inquiry, Curtin University, Perth, Australia. Gaby’s research interests focus on research evaluation in the social sciences and humanities, research support in academic libraries, and collaboration within scholarly communities. She co-edited Australian Academic & Research Libraries from 2012–2016 and for 2017 was a founding co-editor of the Journal of the Australian Library and Information Association. She teaches in the areas of research methods and information literacy and is a strong advocate for practitioner research and the communication of research to practice. [email protected].

De Brún, Caroline Knowledge and Evidence Specialist, UK Health Security Agency, London, England. Caroline has a PhD from Coventry University, England, which focused on consumer health information literacy, an MA in library and information studies from London Metropolitan University, England, and a BA in business studies from Buckinghamshire

Hernández-Salazar, Patricia Researcher, Institute of Library and Information Research, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico. Patricia received a PhD in information sciences from the Universidad Complutense Madrid/Complutense University of Madrid, Spain, and a master’s degree in librarianship from the Universidad Nacional

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Autónoma de México/National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City. Her research interests are focused on information users and encompass user studies, information behaviour and information literacy. She conducts her studies using a qualitative approach. Her current research project is digital inclusion of older adults. [email protected]. Hilbrich, Romy Librarian, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin/State Library of Berlin, Germany. Romy is a sociologist and responsible for the State Library’s research activities that focus on the creation of improved understandings of the library’s users and their behaviour. Employing a variety of quantitative and qualitative methods, she seeks to provide useful data for improving the library’s online and on-site services. Prior to becoming a librarian, Romy undertook sociological research on the transformation of educational organisations at Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and MartinLuther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Gemany. [email protected]. Kaur, Kiran Professor, Department of Library and Information Science, Faculty of Arts and Social Science, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Kiran gained an MLIS in 1998 and a PhD in 2011 from Universiti Malaya. Before joining the Department of Library and Information Science, she served as the Director of the Quality Management and Enhancement Centre which is responsible for accreditation and quality assurance of all levels of academic programmes in Universiti Malaya. She has had twenty years of experience in quality management systems and academic quality assurance. Her research interests include information services, service quality, quality management, academic librarianship, social networking, community information services, social capital and scientometrics. Kiran is co-editor of the Malaysian Journal of Library & Information Science, which is indexed in both Social Sciences Citation Index and Scopus. She

serves on the technical committee of various conferences and is an active reviewer and member of the editorial board of several reputable journals. [email protected]. Kennedy, Marie R. Serials and Electronic Resources Librarian, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, CA. Marie has a BA from St Mary’s College, Notre Dame, IN, an MFA from the University of Texas at Austin, and an MSIS from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. She writes the Organization Monkey blog about information organisation and librarianship and is the co-director of the Institute for Research Design in Librarianship (IRDL). [email protected]. Krymskaya, Albina Associate Professor and Deputy Dean, Библиотечно-информационный факультет/ Bibliotechno-informatsionnyj fakul’tet/Library and Information Faculty of the Санкт-Петербургский государственный институт культуры/SanktPeterburgskiy gosudarstvennyy institut kul’tury/St. Petersburg State University of Culture, Russia. Albina holds a PhD in library and information science. Her research focuses on knowledge management, international cooperation in the library field, and information support of international relations. She is Chair of the Standing Committee of the IFLA Section on Education and Training where she developed a webinar series for LIS students. She is a member of the Section for International Cooperation of the Российская библиотечная ассоциация/ Rossiyskaya bibliotechnaya assotsiatsiya/Russian Library Association. krymskayaalbina@gmail. com. Liu, Xinyao Assistant Librarian, Resource Acquisition, Library, Tongji University, Shanghai, China. As a member of the Collection Development Department, Xinyao is currently engaged in the life cycle management of print materials and the acquisition of electronic resources. She is primarily responsible for collection evaluation,



liaison with vendors and resource budget management. She worked as a Data Services Fellow at New York University Shanghai Library before joining Tongji University. Xinyao received her MSLS from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 2021. [email protected]. Luo, Fan Digital Scholarship Manager, Library, New York University Shanghai, China. Fan has been a member of the Research and Instructional Technology Services team at NYU Shanghai Library since 2016 and specialises in digital humanities, geographic information systems, mapping, and visualisation. Fan is responsible for the design and presentation of relevant workshops and consultations. She gained an MSI degree from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. [email protected]. Matusiak, Krystyna K. Associate Professor, Research Methods and Information Science Department, University of Denver, CO. Krystyna received her MLIS and PhD from the University of WisconsinMilwaukee. Her research interests include digital libraries, digitisation of cultural heritage, visual information, international librarianship, and research methods. Her book, Discover Digital Libraries: Theory and Practice, co-authored with Iris Xie was published in 2016 (New York: Elsevier). She has been an active member of the Standing Committee of the IFLA Library Theory and Research (LTR) Section and served as its Chair from 2020 to 2021. She coordinated two international research projects sponsored by LTR. [email protected]. Maxson, Bronwen K. Coordinator, Undergraduate Engagement and Instructional Services, and Subject Librarian for Spanish, Portuguese, and Latin American Studies, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR. Bronwen joined the University of Oregon Libraries in 2019 and provides leadership and collaboration with campus partners to promote undergraduate learning and research in the

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 337

classroom and beyond. She coordinates the library’s involvement with several first-year programmes and Writing 123 courses. Her professional interests include information literacy, the scholarship of teaching and learning, creating digital learning objects, and promoting inclusivity through scholarship and outreach. [email protected]. Mensinkai, Shaila Librarian Reserve Corps, Canada. Shaila holds an MA and MLIS from McGill University. She is a volunteer strategy advisor with the Librarian Reserve Corps, a group of volunteers formed to provide assistance with information access during the pandemic. She is the former Director of the Research Information Services and Operations of the Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health, Ottawa, Canada. [email protected]. Menzel, Sina UX Research Librarian, Freie Universitätsbibliothek/ Freie University Library, Berlin, Germany. Sina specialises in user experience (UX) studies and human information behaviour in libraries. As the first UX Research Librarian at Freie Universität Library, Sina is helping to make evidence-based decisions for a user-centred library. She holds a master’s degree in library and information science from Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. Sina is inspired by the idea of research being an integral part of everyday library work. Previously, she worked as a research assistant at the Institut für Bibliotheks- und Informationswissenschaftt für Bibliotheks- und Informationswissenschaft/Berlin School of Library and Information Science at Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. sina.menzel@ ub.fu-berlin.de. Mercer, Kate STEM Liaison Librarian and Adjunct Professor in Systems Design and Biomedical Engineering, University of Waterloo, ON, Canada. Kate teaches communication and user-centred design research. She completed an MI at the University of Toronto’s iSchool, and a PhD at the University

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of Waterloo’s School of Pharmacy, focusing on medical decision-making. Her current research addresses how science, technology, engineering and medicine (STEM) students access, understand, and disseminate information. kate. [email protected]. Micle, Maria Lecturer in Communication Studies, Facultatea de Științe Politice, Filosofie și Științe ale Comunicării/ Faculty of Political Science, Philosophy and Communication Science, Universitatea de Vest din Timișoara/West University of Timisoara, Romania. Since 2008, Maria has coordinated the programme in education and training, and the postgraduate, and the programme in librarianship, information and documentation sciences. She has published several scholarly articles and books, including the 2021 Innovative Instruments for Community Development in Communication and Education, which she co-edited with Gheorghe Clitan (Budapest: Trivent). Areas of research include information and communication sciences, intercultural library services, contemporary professional skills, and research methodology in communication science. [email protected]. Morey, Ophelia T. Associate Librarian, University at Buffalo University Libraries, Buffalo, NY. Ophelia received an MLS from the School of Information and Library Studies at the State University of New York at Buffalo. [email protected]. Mutev, Victor Associate Professor, Библиотечноинформационный факультет/ Bibliotechno-informatsionnyj fakul’tet/Library and Information Faculty of the Санкт-Петербургский государственный институт культуры/ Sankt-Peterburgskiy gosudarstvennyy institut kul’tury/St. Petersburg State University of Culture. Victor is Head of the Scientific and Creative Programmes Department and has published a wide range of articles focused on media theory, book science, information

analytics, LIS methodology, information policy and library management. He developed two exclusive courses: Media-communications in LIS and Analysis of News and Advertisements for the Russian LIS educational system. Victor is a member of the Standing Committee of the IFLA News Media Section. [email protected]. Nickum, Annie Assistant Professor and Information Services and Liaison Librarian, University of Illinois Chicago (UIC), IL. Annie (Nicky) supports the College of Nursing and the University of Illinois Hospitals. Her research interests relate to promoting the understanding of the importance of consumer health literacy amongst nurses and ensuring that what she teaches nursing students translates well into practice. Before commencing work at UIC, she worked at the Library of Health Sciences at the University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, as the Nursing and Biomedical Sciences Librarian for five years. Her MLIS is from the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee in 2013. [email protected]. Oboh, Opeyemi R. Lecturer II, Department of Information Management, Lead City University, Ibadan, Nigeria. Opeyemi is a junior faculty member at Lead City University and also a doctoral student at the University of Ibadan where she obtained both her first and second degrees in library and information science. She was recognised as the best-graduating student and awarded a scholarship. Her research interests are in human information behaviour, information use and user studies, information management and community informatics. [email protected]. Oda, Mitsuhiro Professor of Library and Information Studies and Dean, College of Community Studies, Aoyama Gakuin University, Japan. Mitsuhiro served as President of the 日本図書館情報学会/Nihon Toshokan Jōhō Gakkai//Japan Society of Library and Information Science between 2014 and 2020, and as President of the 日本図書館協会/ Nihon Toshokan Kyōkai/Japan Library Association,



between 2019 and 2021. He was awarded an Honorary PhD from Kamphaeng Phet Rajabhat University, Nakhon Chum, Thailand, in 2018. He serves as a member of the Standing Committee of the IFLA Continuing Professional Development and Workplace Learning Section. He is an author of many books and articles on information services and education and training methods in LIS. [email protected]. Pasipamire, Notice Lecturer, Department of Library and Information Science, National University of Science and Technology (NUST), Zimbabwe. Notice is currently Chairperson of the Department. He holds a PhD in Information Studies from the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa, and a Master of Philosophy in Library and Information, a Postgraduate Diploma in Higher Education, and a Bachelor of Science Honours Degree in Library and Information Science from NUST. Notice specialises in teaching research methods, academic libraries, and project management. He has written book chapters and articles on indigenous knowledge, research methods, research support, and LIS education. ORCID: 0000-0001-5148-9975. notice. [email protected]. Pèrez-Montoro, Mario Professor, la Facultad de Información y Medios Audiovisuales de la Universidad de Barcelona/ Faculty of Information and Audiovisual Media, University of Barcelona, Spain. Mario holds a PhD from the University of Barcelona and a master’s degree in information management and systems from the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya. BarcelonaTech (UPC)/Polytechnic University of Catalonia, Spain. He also studied at the Istituto di Discipline della Comunicazione, Università di Bologna/University of Bologna in Italy. He has been a professor at various universities in Spain, including the Universidad Complutense de Madrid/Complutense University of Madrid, the Universitat Oberta de Catalunya/Open University of Catalonia, and the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona/Autonomous University of Barcelona, and a visiting scholar at the Center for the

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 339

Study of Language and Information at Stanford University, CA, and at the School of Information at UC Berkeley, CA. [email protected]. Reyes, Betsaida M. Head of Humanities and Social Science, Social Sciences Library, George and Sherry Middlemas Arts and Humanities Library at Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA. Betsaida was formerly Librarian for Spanish, Portuguese, Latin American and Caribbean Studies at the University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, and held various posts at the State University of Albany (SUNY), NY. She has master’s degrees in library and information science, and Hispanic and Latin American languages, literatures and linguistics from SUNY. [email protected]. Sampson, Margaret Information Specialist, Children’s Hospital of Eastern Ontario Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada. Margaret holds a PhD from Aberystwyth University in Wales, and an MLIS from Western University, London, ON, Canada. She is a Searcher with the Cochrane Review Update (CRU) systematic review service and is Scientific and Technical Strategy Advisor with the Librarian Research Corps, a volunteer group formed in response to the pandemic to enhance access to health information. [email protected]. Samsuddin, Samsul Farid Senior Lecturer, Department of Library and Information Science, Faculty of Arts and Social Science, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Samsul holds a PhD from the Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang. He was a Senior Librarian at Universiti Putra Malaysia Library from 2010–2018 before joining the Universiti Malaya in 2018. He graduated with a Diploma in Building Surveying in 2003 and Bachelor of Science in Information Studies in 2010 both from the Universiti Teknologi Mara, Shah Alam, Malaysia. Samsul obtained an MLIS from Universiti Malaya in 2012. His research is geared towards library services and information management, information literacy, information

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services for rural advancement, and the use of ICT for development. [email protected]. Schachter, Debbie Associate Vice-President, Students, Langara College, Vancouver, BC, Canada. Debbie is an academic library leader, teacher and researcher in higher education who represents academic and Canadian libraries in local and international consortia, cooperatives, and associations. In 2019 she was awarded her EdD from the University of Edinburgh, researching the critical information literacy teaching practices in British Columbia, Canada. She is an active member of IFLA, serves as Secretary of the Standing Committee of IFLA’s Library Theory and Research (LTR) Section, and participates extensively in international research sponsored by LTR. [email protected]. Serrao, Jessica L. Metadata Librarian for Digital Collections, Clemson University, SC, where she creates, enriches, and manages metadata for digital objects of unique and enduring value. She received an MSLS from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill with a concentration in Archives and Records Management and a Certificate in Digital Curation. She also holds an MA in public history from North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, and a BA in anthropology from Binghamton University, NY. Her current research focuses on inclusive and reparative descriptive practices for digital collections. [email protected]. Singh, Diljit Retired Professor, Department of Library and Information Science, Faculty of Arts and Social Science, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Diljit holds a PhD and MSLS from Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, and a BSc and DipEd from the Universiti Malaya. He retired from the university eight years ago, after almost twenty years of service. As an LIS educator, he has had wide experience in teaching research methods, conducting research, and

guiding students in their research. These days he keeps himself professionally active through conducting seminars and workshops, serving in visiting professor positions, and on editorial boards and committees of LIS journals. He serves on various committees in library associations at the national, regional, and international levels. [email protected]. Tammaro, Anna Maria Professor. Università degli studi di Parma/ University of Parma, Italy. Anna Maria’s qualifications include master’s and doctoral degrees from Northumbria University, Newcastle, England. Her research interests include internationalisation of LIS education and research, data curation and digital heritage. She is the Editor in Chief of Digital Library Perspectives, and member of the Editorial Board and Column Editor, Digital Heritage, of the International Information & Library Review. Anna Maria is the Convenor of the IFLA Library History Special Interest Group and works closely with the Association for Information Science and Technology (ASIS&T). [email protected]. Tîrziman, Elena Professor, Facultatea de Litere, Universitatea din București/Faculty of Letters, University of Bucharest, Romania, in the field of library and information science. Elena holds a PhD from the University of Bucharest and has also studied at the Școala Națională de Studii Politice și Administrative din București/ National School of Political and Administrative Studies, Bucharest, Romania, and the Université Bordeaux Montaigne, formerly Université Michel de Montaigne Bordeaux 3/ Bordeaux Montaigne University, France. Elena participates in scientific meetings and debates on librarianship education, has published over twenty books and more than 140 communications, papers and studies in specialised reviews and been involved in over twenty national and international research projects. Her areas of research include information and communication science, librarianship, and



digital libraries. [email protected]. ro. Turbanti, Simona Librarian and Adjunct Professor, Università di Pisa/University of Pisa and Università degli Studi di Milano/University of Milan, Italy. Simona has a PhD in library and information science from the Sapienza Università di Roma/ Sapienza University of Rome, Italy, and a master’s degree in library and information science from the University of Pisa. She works part time in the library system at the University of Pisa. Her research interests are in theory and techniques of cataloguing and classification, bibliometrics, altmetrics, scientific communication, and digital humanities. simona. [email protected]. Vuletich, Seth Scholarly Communications Librarian, Colorado School of Mines (Mines), Golden, CO. Seth supports students and faculty through instruction, consultations, and leading the campus’ efforts toward open science. He holds an MLIS from the University of Denver, CO. Prior to joining Mines, Seth worked at the Westminster Law Library at the University of Denver, and at the Jerry Crail Johnson Earth Sciences and Map Library at the University of Colorado, Boulder, in addition to several years as a professional woodworker. Seth’s passion for equitable access guides his primary research interest in accessibility of materials for users with disabilities. sethvuletich@mines. edu.

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 341

Weaver, Kari D. Learning, Teaching, and Instructional Design Librarian, University of Waterloo Library, ON, Canada. Kari holds an EdD in Curriculum and Instruction from the University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, and an MLIS from the University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI. Her publications focus on pedagogical approaches to teaching information seeking, critical thinking, and student information behaviour across academic disciplines. [email protected]. Wiorogórska, Zuza Assistant Professor, Katedra Informatologii/ Department of Information Technology, Wydział Dziennikarstwa, Informacji i Bibliologii/ Faculty of Journalism, Information and Book Studies, Uniwersytet Warszawski/University of Warsaw, Poland. Zuza also has an appointment as an Academic Librarian at the University of Warsaw Library and is Associate Member of the Laboratoire Groupe d’Études et de Recherche Interdisciplinaire en Information et COmmunication (GERiiCO) at the Université de Lille/University of Lille, France. Her doctoral dissertation was prepared as part of a dual supervisor agreement between the University of Warsaw and the Laboratoire GERiiCO. She is a member of the Standing Committee of the IFLA Library Theory and Research Section. Her areas of interest include research data management, information literacy in multicultural contexts, users of information, and information skills required in the 21st century. ORCID: 0000-0003-1015-2000. [email protected].