Bladder Cancer. A Practical Guide 9783030706456, 9783030706463

Citation preview

Bladder Cancer A Practical Guide Ashish M. Kamat Peter C. Black Editors

123

Bladder Cancer

Ashish M. Kamat  •  Peter C. Black Editors

Bladder Cancer A Practical Guide

Editors Ashish M. Kamat Department of Urology University of Texas, MD Anderson Cancer Center Houston, TX USA

Peter C. Black Department of Urologic Sciences University of British Columbia Vancouver, BC Canada

ISBN 978-3-030-70645-6    ISBN 978-3-030-70646-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70646-3 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

Yet another book on urothelial cancers? The field of study for urothelial cancers, stagnant for a long time, has grown exponentially in the last decade. Keeping up with the advances in the field is challenging and exciting at the same time, and requires constantly being in tune with conference proceedings, and online webinars, since even journal publications are not able to keep pace with the speed of advances. This book does not aim to replace those. What it aims to do is to provide a comprehensive, insightful, state-of-the-art review of the field, taking a practical, multidisciplinary approach. By inviting contributions from leading experts around the world, we have collected, in one place, a wealth of institutional and personal experience to bridge the gap between conventional textbooks and practical, hands-on experience to provide a concise yet comprehensive summary of the current status of the field that will help guide patient management and stimulate investigative efforts. Houston, TX, USA Vancouver, BC, Canada

Ashish M. Kamat Peter C. Black

v

Contents

Part I Bladder Cancer 1 Bladder Cancer Screening, Signs and Symptoms, and Workup��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   3 Joshua J. Meeks 2 Cystoscopy and Enhanced Diagnostics������������������������������������������   9 Kamal S. Pohar 3 Using Urinary Biomarkers in Urothelial Carcinoma of the Bladder and Upper Tracts����������������������������������������������������  21 Rashed A. Ghandour, Nirmish Singla, and Yair Lotan 4 Pathology������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  33 Eva M. Compérat and Hikmat Al-Ahmadie 5 Risk Stratification of Patients: Risk Tables and Assessment – NMIBC and MIBC��������������������������������������������  41 James Douglas, Werner Struss, and Stephen Williams 6 Perioperative Preparation and Management of Cystoscopy Patient����������������������������������������������������������������������  53 Farzin Goravanchi 7 Transurethral Resection of Bladder Tumors (TURBT) ��������������  57 Tilman Todenhöfer and Arnulf Stenzl 8 Single Immediate Intravesical Instillation of Chemotherapy- Rationale and Practical Considerations��������  71 Max Burger 9 Adjuvant Intravesical Therapy: Bacillus Calmette-Guerin��������  75 Gautier Marcq and Wassim Kassouf 10 Adjuvant Intravesical Chemotherapy��������������������������������������������  91 Christopher R. Haas, Joseph M. Caputo, and James M. McKiernan 11 Device-Assisted Therapies for Nonmuscle-Invasive Bladder Cancer: A Practical Approach�������������������������������������������������������� 103 J. Alfred Witjes

vii

viii

12 Intravesical Salvage Therapy After BCG/Regular Chemo���������� 111 Michael A. O’Donnell and Nathan A. Brooks 13 Oncological Monitoring of NonMuscle Invasive Bladder Cancer (NMIBC)�������������������������������������������������������������� 123 Vishnukamal Golla and Karim Chamie 14 Radical Cystectomy ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 139 Saum Ghodoussipour, Siamak Daneshmand, Fiona C. Burkhard, Bernhard Kiss, George N. Thalmann, Naif A. Aldhaam, Ahmed S. Elsayed, Ahmed A. Hussein, Khurshid A. Guru, Marco Moschini, Mohamed Saad, Xavier Cathelineau, Rafael Sanchez-Salas, Utsav Bansal, and Seth P. Lerner 15 Surgical Technique: Urethrectomy������������������������������������������������ 177 Nathan Y. Hoy, Hadley M. Wood, and Kenneth W. Angermeier 16 Management of Common Complications After Radical Cystectomy, Lymph Node Dissection, and Urinary Diversion���� 185 Samuel Haywood, Timothy F. Donahue, and Bernard H. Bochner 17 Incontinent Urinary Diversion�������������������������������������������������������� 205 J. D. Subiela, Daniel A. González-Padilla, Silvia Castellarnau Uriz, Alberto Breda, Joan Palou, Óscar Rodríguez Faba, Ahmed S. Elsayed, Ahmed A. Hussein, and Khurshid A. Guru 18 Continent Cutaneous Urinary Diversions������������������������������������� 219 Spyridon P. Basourakos and Douglas S. Scherr 19 Orthotopic Bladder Substitution���������������������������������������������������� 227 Divya Ajay, O. Lenaine Westney, Ahmed S. Elsayed, Ahmed A. Hussein, and Khurshid A. Guru 20 Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy ���������������������������������������������������������� 245 Brandon Bernard and Thomas W. Flaig 21 Adjuvant Chemotherapy in Bladder Cancer�������������������������������� 251 Walter M. Stadler and Brian L. Heiss 22 Trimodal Therapy���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 257 Martin Swinton, Ananya Choudhury, Anne E. Kiltie, Peter Chung, Astrid Billfalk-Kelly, Nicholas James, Sophia C. Kamran, and Jason A. Efstathiou 23 Managing Urothelial Recurrences after Chemoradiation Therapy���������������������������������������������������������������� 281 Gregory J. Barton, Bridget F. Koontz, and Brant A. Inman 24 Cytotoxic Chemotherapy for Advanced Bladder and Upper Tract Cancer������������������������������������������������������������������ 289 Rosa Nadal and Joaquim Bellmunt

Contents

Contents

ix

25 Immunotherapy for Metastatic Urothelial Carcinoma���������������� 305 Victor R. Adorno Febles and Arjun V. Balar 26 Novel Therapies�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 315 Scot Niglio and Matthew D. Galsky 27 Variant Histology: Management Pearls ���������������������������������������� 323 Subodh K. Regmi and Badrinath R. Konety 28 Clinical Trials in Bladder and Upper Tract Cancer – Bladder Cancer Disease States �������������������������������������� 343 Seth P. Lerner 29 Practical Approaches to Clinical Trials in Non-muscle-Invasive Bladder Cancer �������������������������������������� 347 Robert S. Svatek and John A. Taylor III 30 Clinical Trials in Localized Muscle-­Invasive Bladder Cancer�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 355 Noah M. Hahn 31 Clinical Trials in Metastatic Urothelial Carcinoma���������������������� 365 Vadim S. Koshkin and Petros Grivas 32 Clinical Trials in Upper Tract Urothelial Carcinoma������������������ 373 A. H. Mostafid Part II Upper Tract Urothelial Carcinoma 33 Patient Evaluation and Diagnosis – Screening, Evaluation, and Workup ���������������������������������������������������������������� 379 Roger Li 34 Risk Stratification of Upper Tract Urothelial Carcinoma for Kidney-­Sparing Surgery ���������������������������������������������������������� 387 Mehdi Kardoust Parizi, Harun Fajkovic, and Shahrokh F. Shariat 35 Ureteroscopic Managment of Upper Tract Urothelial Carcinoma���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 403 Etienne Xavier Keller and Olivier Traxer 36 Adjuvant Therapy for Upper Tract Urothelial Carcinoma after Endoscopic Management ���������������������������������� 421 Morgan Roupret, Thomas Seisen, and Pietro Grande 37 Novel Adjuvant Therapies for Upper Tract Urothelial Carcinoma After Endoscopic Management���������������������������������� 429 Pranav Sharma and Philippe E. Spiess 38 Nephroureterectomy for Upper Tract Urothelial Carcinoma: Indications and Technique ���������������������������������������� 439 Vitaly Margulis, Rashed A. Ghandour, and Nirmish Singla

x

39 Selection, Administration and Description of Neoadjuvant versus Adjuvant Therapy for Upper Tract Urothelial Carcinoma������������������������������������������������������������ 447 Rohan Shotton and Alison Birtle 40 Oncologic Monitoring After Radical Nephroureterectomy �������� 457 Natasha Gupta, Jean H. Hoffman-Censits, and Phillip M. Pierorazio Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 463

Contents

Contributors

Victor  R.  Adorno  Febles, MD Department of Medicine, Laura & Isaac Perlmutter Cancer Center, NYU Langone Medical Center, New York, NY, USA Divya Ajay, MD, MPH  Department of Urology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA Hikmat  Al-Ahmadie, MD Department of Pathology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA Naif  A.  Aldhaam Urology Department, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY, USA Kenneth W. Angermeier, MD  Cleveland Clinic, Glickman Urological and Kidney Institute, Cleveland, OH, USA Arjun  V.  Balar, MD  Department of Medicine, Laura & Isaac Perlmutter Cancer Center, NYU Langone Medical Center, New York, NY, USA Utsav  Bansal, MD  Scott Department of Urology, Dan L Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA Gregory  J.  Barton, MD Division of Urology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA Spyridon  P.  Basourakos, MD Department of Urology, New YorkPresbyterian Hospital/Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA Joaquim  Bellmunt, MD, PhD Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA Brandon  Bernard, MD, MPH School of Medicine, Department of Medicine, Division of Medical Oncology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA Astrid Billfalk-Kelly, MB BCh BAO, MRCS, FFR RCSI  Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Alison  Birtle, MRCP, FRCR, MD Lancashire Teaching Hospitals, Manchester, UK University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

xi

xii

Bernard  H.  Bochner, MD Urology Service, Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA Department of Urology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Kimmel Center for Prostate and Urologic Cancers, New York, NY, USA Alberto  Breda, MD Department of Urology, Fundació Puigvert, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain Nathan A. Brooks, MD  Department of Urology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA Max  Burger, MD Department of Urology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany Fiona  C.  Burkhard, MD  Department of Urology, University Hospital of Bern, Inselspital, Bern, Switzerland Joseph  M.  Caputo, MD Department of Urology, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA Xavier Cathelineau  Department of Urology, Institut Mutualiste Montsouris and Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France Karim  Chamie, MD, MSHS Department of Urology, University of California Los Angeles Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA Ananya  Choudhury, MA(Cantab), PhD, MRCP, FRCR Division of Cancer Science, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Sciences Centre, Manchester, UK Department of Clinical Oncology, The Christie NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, UK Peter  Chung, MD Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Eva M. Compérat, MD  Pathology Department, Hôpital Tenon, GRC n°5, ONCOTYPE-URO, AP-HP, Sorbonne University, Paris, France Siamak  Daneshmand, MD USC/Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Institute of Urology, Los Angeles, CA, USA Timothy  F.  Donahue  Urology Service, Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA James  Douglas, MBBS, BSc, MSc, MD  Urological Surgery Department, University Hospital Southampton NHS Trust, Southampton, UK Jason  A.  Efstathiou, MD, DPhil Department of Radiation Oncology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA

Contributors

Contributors

xiii

Ahmed  S.  Elsayed, MD Department of Urology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY, USA Óscar  Rodríguez  Faba, MD  Department of Urology, Fundació Puigvert, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain Harun  Fajkovic Department of Urology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria Thomas  W.  Flaig, MD School of Medicine, Department of Medicine, Division of Medical Oncology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA Matthew D. Galsky, MD  Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA Rashed  A.  Ghandour, MD Department of Urology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA Saum Ghodoussipour, MD  Section of Urologic Oncology, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey and Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, New Brunswick, NJ, USA Vishnukamal  Golla, MD, MPH Department of Urology, University of California Los Angeles Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA Daniel  A.  González-Padilla, MD Department of Urology, University Hospital 12 de Octubre, Madrid, Spain Farzin Goravanchi, DO  Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA Pietro Grande, MD  Sorbonne University, GRC 5 Predictive ONCO-URO, AP-HP, Urology, Pitie-Salpetriere Hospital, Paris, France Petros Grivas, MD, PhD  Division of Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, USA Seattle Cancer Care Alliance, Seattle, WA, USA Natasha Gupta, MD  The James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute and Department of Urology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA Khurshid  A.  Guru, MD Department of Urology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY, USA Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, A.T.L.A.S (Applied Technology Laboratory for Advanced Surgery) Program, Buffalo, NY, USA Christopher  R.  Haas, MD Department of Urology, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA

xiv

Noah M. Hahn, MD  Department of Oncology and Urology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins Greenberg Bladder Cancer Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA Samuel  Haywood Urology Service, Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA Glickman Urological and Kidney Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH, USA Brian L. Heiss, MD, MA  Section of Hematology and Oncology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA Jean  H.  Hoffman-Censits, MD The James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute and Department of Urology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA Nathan  Y.  Hoy, MD, MSc Cleveland Clinic, Glickman Urological and Kidney Institute, Cleveland, OH, USA Ahmed  A.  Hussein, MD Department of Urology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY, USA Brant A. Inman, MD, MS, FRCSC  Division of Urology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA Nicholas  James Institute for Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden Hospital (NHS Foundation Trust), London, UK Sophia C. Kamran, MD  Department of Radiation Oncology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA Wassim Kassouf, MD, CM, FRSC(C)  Department of Surgery, Division of Urology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada Etienne  Xavier  Keller, MD Department of Urology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland Anne  E.  Kiltie CRUK/MRC Oxford Institute for Radiation Oncology, Department of Oncology, University of Oxford, Oxford, Oxon, UK Bernhard  Kiss Department of Urology, University Hospital of Bern, Inselspital, Bern, Switzerland Badrinath R. Konety, MD, MBA  Department of Urology, Rush University Medical College, Chicago, IL, USA Bridget F. Koontz, MD  Department of Radiation Oncology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA Vadim S. Koshkin, MD  Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, CA, USA

Contributors

Contributors

xv

Seth P. Lerner, MD  Scott Department of Urology, Dan L Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA Roger  Li, MD Department of Genitourinary Oncology, H.  Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA Yair Lotan, MD  Department of Urology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA Gautier  Marcq, MD, MSc  Department of Surgery, Division of Urology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada Vitaly  Margulis, MD Department of Urology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA James  M.  McKiernan, MD Department of Urology, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA Joshua  J.  Meeks, MD, PhD Department of Urology and Biochemistry, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Polsky Urologic Cancer Institute, Chicago, IL, USA Robert H.  Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA Marco  Moschini, MD, PhD Department of Urology, Institut Mutualiste Montsouris and Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France A.  H.  Mostafid, FRCS (Urol) FEBU Stokes Centre for Urology, Royal Surrey County Hospital, Guildford, UK Rosa Nadal, MD, PhD  National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institutes, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA Scot Niglio, MD  Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA Michael  A.  O’Donnell, MD Department of Urology and Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA Joan Palou, MD  Department of Urology, Fundació Puigvert, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain Mehdi  Kardoust Parizi Department of Urology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria Department of Urology, Shariati Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran Phillip M. Pierorazio, MD  The James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute and Department of Urology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA Kamal  S.  Pohar, MD, FRCSC Department of Urology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA

Contributors

xvi

Subodh K. Regmi, MD  Department of Urology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA Morgan  Roupret, MD, PhD Sorbonne University, GRC 5 Predictive ONCO-URO, AP-HP, Urology, Pitie-Salpetriere Hospital, Paris, France Mohamed Saad  Department of Urology, Institut Mutualiste Montsouris and Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France Rafael  Sanchez-Salas  Department of Urology, Institut Montsouris and Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France

Mutualiste

Douglas  S.  Scherr, MD Department of Urology, New York-Presbyterian Hospital/Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA Thomas Seisen, MD, PhD  Sorbonne University, GRC 5 Predictive ONCOURO, AP-HP, Urology, Pitie-Salpetriere Hospital, Paris, France Shahrokh F. Shariat, MD  Department of Urology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria Department of Urology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA Department of Urology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA Karl Landsteiner Institute of Urology and Andrology, Vienna, Austria Pranav Sharma, MD  Department of Urology, Texas Tech Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, USA Rohan  Shotton, BSc, MBChB, MRCP The Christie NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester, UK Nirmish  Singla, MD Department of Urology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA Philippe E. Spiess, MD, MS, FRCS(C), FACS  Department of Genitourinary Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, FL, USA Walter  M.  Stadler, MD, FACP Section of Hematology and Oncology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA Arnulf Stenzl, MD  Department of Urology, University Hospital, Tübingen, Germany Werner  Struss Urological Surgery Department, University Hospital Southampton NHS Trust, Southampton, UK J. D. Subiela, MD  Department of Urology, Fundació Puigvert, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain Robert  S.  Svatek UT Health San Antonio, Department of Urology, San Antonio, TX, USA Martin  Swinton Department of Clinical Oncology, The Christie NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester, UK

Contributors

xvii

John A. Taylor III, MD, MS  Department of Urology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Andover, KS, USA George N. Thalmann, MD  Department of Urology, University Hospital of Bern, Inselspital, Bern, Switzerland Tilman  Todenhöfer, MD Department of Urology, University Hospital, Tübingen, Germany Studienpraxis Urologie, Nuertingen, Germany Olivier  Traxer  Sorbonne Université, Service d’Urologie, AP-HP, Hôpital Tenon, Paris, France Sorbonne Université, GRC n°20, Groupe de Recherche Clinique sur la Lithiase Urinaire, Hôpital Tenon, Paris, France Silvia  Castellarnau  Uriz, MD Department of Anesthesiology, Fundació Puigvert, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain O.  Lenaine  Westney, MD, FACS Department of Urology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA Stephen  Williams, MD Division of Urology, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA J.  Alfred  Witjes, MD, PhD  Department of Urology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands Hadley M. Wood, MD  Cleveland Clinic, Glickman Urological and Kidney Institute, Cleveland, OH, USA

Part I Bladder Cancer

1

Bladder Cancer Screening, Signs and Symptoms, and Workup Joshua J. Meeks

Introduction

Screening

Bladder cancer is the fourth most common cancer in men and sixth most common overall in the USA and ninth most common internationally [1]. Most will develop hematuria as the inciting event that leads to an evaluation and diagnosis of bladder cancer [2]. Unfortunately, despite an increased association with smoking, population-­ based methods to screen for bladder cancer have not been accepted by screening task forces, largely due to the low incidence of invasive cancer in a non-risk stratified population. Therefore, an evaluation for bladder cancer occurs only after symptoms are present (hematuria), and unfortunately 20% of patients will have locally advanced or metastatic bladder cancer. In this chapter, we discuss screening procedures, evaluation, and workup to result in a diagnosis of bladder cancer.

To date, widespread screening for bladder cancer, even in “high-risk” patients, is not recommended by guideline committees [3]. The potential benefit of early detection has not balanced out disadvantages such as high cost, over-detection, and lack of specificity. Most screening trials have been structured to identify higher-risk individuals, but our knowledge of the causes of bladder cancer remains largely unknown as only half of patients are smokers, and the biology of tumors from non-smokers (gene-expression profiling and mutation analysis) has not been identified as a cause of most tumors [4].

J. J. Meeks (*) Department of Urology and Biochemistry, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Polsky Urologic Cancer Institute, Chicago, IL, USA Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA e-mail: [email protected]

Rationale for Screening Screening for bladder cancer may have widespread benefits, largely dependent on identifying invasive tumors prior to muscle-invasive stages (stage II or greater). Patients diagnosed with stage I or less cancers can usually avoid the morbidity of radical therapy (cystectomy or trimodal therapy) and systemic toxicity from chemotherapy. Diagnosis at an earlier stage of disease could also decrease the cost of treating advanced bladder cancer [5]. A modest reduction in the risk of muscle-invasive or metastatic cancer will impact thousands of patients each year in the USA, and prior screening studies suggest that the reduction

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 A. M. Kamat, P. C. Black (eds.), Bladder Cancer, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70646-3_1

3

4

in risk may be as high as 80%. As an example of the potential benefits of screening, an evaluation of 48 patients with a history of aristolochic-acid-­ induced nephropathy identified 22 patients with non-muscle-invasive bladder tumors with only three deaths from bladder cancer in patients who refused screening by cystoscopy [6].

Prior Screening Trials Screening using dipstick analysis was used in several large screening studies to identify patients at risk for bladder cancer. A total of 1575 men (aged ≥50  years) were screened at home with dipstick urinalysis (UA) for 14 consecutive days and the screening was repeated 9 months later in those with a negative screen [7]. Men with a positive dipstick UA underwent cystoscopy (n = 283) and 21 men were diagnosed with bladder cancer (1.3% incidence; including one with muscle invasion) [7, 8]. Stage at diagnosis and survival were compared to a contemporary 509 unscreened patients newly diagnosed with bladder cancer from the Wisconsin cancer registry. Screened men were less likely to be diagnosed with muscle invasive cancer than non-screened men (4.8% vs 23.5%) and had a significantly lower disease-­ specific mortality than unscreened men. No men with screen-detected bladder cancer died of bladder cancer, compared to 20.4% of non-screened men [8]. Britton et al. examined 2356 men aged 60–85 years for dipstick microhematuria weekly for 10  weeks [9]. Urine testing was positive in 20% of men and bladder cancer diagnosed in 17 men. No patient was diagnosed with muscle-­ invasive cancer, but more than half (9/17) had high-risk NMIBC (non-muscle invasive bladder cancer). A prospective bladder cancer screening study of 1500 high-risk subjects performed using a urine-based tumor marker test found an increased risk in subjects whose age was greater than 50 and in those who had more than 10 years of tobacco exposure or 15 years of occupational exposure, but the study did not detect an increase in the number of cancers [10]. In a trial of aluminum workers in Quebec in the 1980s, screening by cytology was implemented in patients with at

J. J. Meeks

least 10 years of exposure. In the Quebec cohort, screening increased the rate of early-stage tumors to 77% from 67% compared to the prior decade (p  65 increased the potential specificity of screening [17]. Burdens of screening for bladder cancer are minimal and screening characteristics of dipsticks  Unlike screening for lung, breast, and prostate cancers, there is almost no harm in screening for bladder cancer. Home urine dipstick evaluation kits for microhematuria have been used in prior screening studies for bladder cancer. Although dipstick has a low positive predictive value, when repeated testing is performed, very few times diagnoses of bladder cancer are

1  Bladder Cancer Screening, Signs and Symptoms, and Workup

missed (3 cm 3 cm LG T1 or LG Ta (multiple lesions) HG Ta ≤ 3 cm

High risk All other HG lesions, CIS, BCG failures in HG patients All variant histology/ LVI/ HG prostatic urethral involvement

Adapted from AUA/SUO Guidelines [4] PUNLMP papillary urothelial neoplasm of low malignant potential, LVI lymphovascular invasion

Surveillance Algorithm Oncological monitoring of NMIBC will involve some combination of surveillance tools such as cystoscopy, urine cytology/urine markers, and imaging. This section will lay the groundwork for a general follow-up algorithm with subsequent sections detailing specifics about these surveillance tools. Maintaining a rigorous surveillance protocol for NMIBC is critical as to capture progression to more advanced disease. The surveillance protocols outlined below are in the absence of disease recurrence and following appropriate treatment for intermediate- and high-­risk groups.

First Surveillance Cystoscopy Surveillance cystoscopy should be performed in a 3-month window from the index evaluation and treatment of NMIBC (i.e., date of initial TURBT), and is an important predictor for future recurrence and progression [5–7]. Therefore, in practice it is important for the urologist and office staff to ensure these patients do not delay this first surveillance cystoscopy.

Low-Risk Patient Follow-Up Surveillance cystoscopies should be performed 6–9 months later and then annually thereafter for

a minimum of 5 years. After 5 years of recurrence-­ free survival, the decision to continue with further surveillance should be based on shared-decision making [4]. For asymptomatic low-risk patients, there is no need to routinely surveil the upper tract with imaging. It is important to note that if a 90% [40]. While still commonly practiced, there is little evidence to show improved results with urine barbotage [50]. In fact, some experts prefer voided cytology because it may capture a urethral malignancy. Finally, in low-risk bladder cancer patients with unremarkable cystoscopy, the routine use of urine cytology or other urinary biomarkers during surveillance should be avoided.

V. Golla and K. Chamie

130

The limitations of traditional urine cytology invite a potential role for alternative adjunctive markers, as described below.

Nuclear Matrix Protein 22 (NMP22®) Nuclear matrix proteins (NMPs) are part of the scaffolding of the cell nucleus. They function to regulate gene expression and DNA replication by distributing chromatids to daughter cells. They serve as useful urine markers because urinary NMP22 is present in a 25-fold greater concentration in patients with bladder cancer [51, 52]. However, cystitis, urolithiasis, and hematuria can falsely elevate urinary NMP-22 levels [53]. The sensitivity and specificity of NMP22  in NMIBC disease range from 54% to 63% and 55% to 90%, respectively [40]. NPM22 is noted to have a lower sensitivity in detecting recurrent tumors as these are often smaller than primaries (recurrent tumor, 45% vs. primary tumor, 65%) [54]. This along with a relatively high false-­ positive rate (33–50%) has limited its widespread adoption for screening or surveillance [40]. Fortunately, NMP anecdotally has not been susceptible to BCG-induced false positives, has a NPV >90%, and has higher sensitivity and comparable specificity to urine cytology [55, 56]. A point of care assay (NMP22®BladderChek) can provide immediate results at a reduced cost of $10–$30, compared with $57 for urine cytology [57, 58].

sensitivity for NMIBC ranging from 45% to 75% and an overall specificity ranging from 64% to 89% [40]. Unfortunately, BTA suffers from the same limitations as NMP22 including a high false-­ positive rate in the presence of benign inflammatory conditions (i.e., UTI, ureteral stents, calculi or instrumentation) [56, 59]. Similar to urine cytology, it is not sensitive for low-grade and low-stage disease. Unlike NMP22, however, BTA stat demonstrates an increased false-­positive rate in the setting of BCG use [60]. Clinically, BTA could serve as a cost-saving ($10/test) replacement for urine cytology in surveillance of select NMIBC patients—those that are BCG-naïve and free of inflammatory urological conditions that could promote a false positive [40].

UroVysion®FISH

UroVysion uses fluorescence in-situ hybridization (FISH) to detect aneuploidy in chromosomes 3, 7,17 and deletions at chromosome 9p21 [61]. For the surveillance of recurrent tumors, UroVysion has a median sensitivity and specificity of 79% and 70%, respectively. And while it does perform well for the detection of CIS and high-grade disease, it is comparable to urinary cytology for its poor detection of low-grade and low-stage recurrent tumors. UroVysion excels in its detection of bladder cancer recurrence after intravesical BCG administration. A common scenario for urologists is an indeterminate result from both cysBladder Tumor Antigen (BTA®) toscopy and cytology following BCG therapy The bladder tumor antigen (BTA) test is an assay secondary to treatment-induced inflammation that detects complement factor H-related protein [43]. Patients with a positive UroVysion result in the urine that is selectively released by bladder following BCG have a four-fold increased risk tumors [43]. There are currently two FDA-­ of recurrence, a ten-fold increased risk of musapproved formats for the test which include the cle-invasive disease, and higher likelihood of qualitative BTA stat and quantitative BTA TRAK nonresponse to BCG [62]. This test can also be (Polymedco Inc. New York, NY). The BTA stat is used to adjudicate “atypical” urine cytology a rapid (