Biomedical Science Professionals: A Practical Career Guide 2020031063, 2020031064, 9781538141700, 9781538141717

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BIOMEDICAL SCIENCE PROFESSIONALS

PRACTICAL CAREER GUIDES Series Editor: Kezia Endsley

Biomedical Science Professionals, by Marcia Santore Clean Energy Technicians, by Marcia Santore Computer Game Development and Animation, by Tracy Brown Hamilton Craft Artists, by Marcia Santore Culinary Arts, by Tracy Brown Hamilton Cybersecurity and Information Security Analysts, by Kezia Endsley Dental Assistants and Hygienists, by Kezia Endsley Education Professionals, by Kezia Endsley Fine Artists, by Marcia Santore First Responders, by Kezia Endsley Health and Fitness Professionals, by Kezia Endsley Information Technology (IT) Professionals, by Erik Dafforn Medical Office Professionals, by Marcia Santore Multimedia and Graphic Designers, by Kezia Endsley Nursing Professionals, by Kezia Endsley Plumbers, by Marcia Santore Skilled Trade Professionals, by Corbin Collins Veterinarian Technicians and Assistants, by Kezia Endsley

BIOMEDICAL SCIENCE PROFESSIONALS A Practical Career Guide

MARCIA SANTORE

ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD Lanham • Boulder • New York • London

Published by Rowman & Littlefield An imprint of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.rowman.com 6 Tinworth Street, London, SE11 5AL, United Kingdom Copyright © 2021 by The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Santore, Marcia, 1960– author. Title: Biomedical science professionals : a practical career guide / Marcia Santore. Description: Lanham : Rowman & Littlefield, 2021. | Series: Practical career guides | Includes bibliographical references. | Summary: “This book covers seven of the many careers in the growing field of biomedical science and includes interviews with professionals.”—Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2020031063 (print) | LCCN 2020031064 (ebook) | ISBN 9781538141700 (paperback) | ISBN 9781538141717 (epub) Subjects: LCSH: Biology—Vocational guidance. | Biologists—Vocational guidance. | Medical personnel—Vocational guidance. Classification: LCC QH314 .S56 2021 (print) | LCC QH314 (ebook) | DDC 570.23—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020031063 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020031064 The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.

Contents Introduction vii Chapter 1: Why Choose a Career as a Biomedical Science Professional?

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Chapter 2: Forming a Career Plan

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Chapter 3: Pursuing the Education Path

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Chapter 4: Writing Your Résumé and Interviewing

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Notes 115 Glossary 119 Resources 125 Bibliography 137 About the Author

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Introduction

So You Want a Career as a Biomedical Science Professional Young people who are interested in science are often told, “You should be a doctor!” But being a doctor is only one of many choices open to you. With a career in biomedical science, you have so many opportunities! The biomedical science professions include many types of careers. You could practice medicine, helping people or animals to be healthier and have better lives. You could research new questions about biology or medicine, making exciting discoveries and creating new knowledge. You could design and

Biomedical science professionals make fascinating discoveries while helping people and animals.  Getty Images/nd3000 vii

viiiINTRODUCTION

build medical technologies that never existed before. Or you could combine all of these things into any number of really interesting careers! • Are you good at science and math? • Do you want to help people and/or animals? • Do you like looking in a microscope at incredible organisms and seeing what they do? • Do you want to figure out answers to new questions or test the answers others have come up with? • Do you want to help solve crimes with scientific evidence? • Do you want to know how diseases arise and spread through communities? If any of these sounds good to you, there’s a biomedical science profession for you. And this is just the tip of the iceberg. There are many different kinds of careers in the biomedical sciences. Check out the list in chapter 1 to get you started thinking about all your options.

Society desperately needs your talents. The future health, wealth, and even survival of Homo sapiens depends on a deeper understanding of the laws and mechanisms of nature and on using this information to develop new technologies and therapies. For rationally thinking people with an altruistic bent, life can be no more rewarding than when practicing the scientific method for the benefit of all of the denizens of this fragile planet.—Jonathan W. Yewdell1

The recent COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the importance of biomedical science professionals in a wide variety of careers. Epidemiologists tracked the spread of the disease and taught us what to do to keep as many people safe as possible without overwhelming medical facilities. Biochemists, microbiologists, and medical research scientists studied the nature of the virus and ways to combat it with vaccines and treatments. Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians worked day and night to test potentially infected patients. Biomedical engineers made ventilators, face masks, and shields, and devised ways

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to use technology to protect patients and healthcare workers alike. Meanwhile, forensic scientists around the world worked to devise ways to identify, understand, and safely manage the remains of those victims of the virus who did not survive. Biomedical science professionals are needed, and opportunities just keep growing. People in these careers are respected throughout our society and earn good salaries. But most important, their work is constantly interesting. There is always something new to discover, some new person or animal to help, some new problem to solve.

What Does This Book Cover? In this book, you’ll get a general overview of what biomedical science professionals do and what to expect at different stages of your career.

STEP 1: WHY CHOOSE A CAREER AS A BIOMEDICAL SCIENCE PROFESSIONAL? In the first chapter, you’ll learn about the different biomedical science professions. This book focuses on seven of these careers, and you’ll learn more about what it’s like to do each of these jobs. • • • • • • •

Biomedical Engineer Clinical Biochemist Clinical Laboratory Technologist Epidemiologist Forensic Scientist Medical Scientist Microbiologist

STEP 2: FORMING A CAREER PLAN The second chapter is all about you and how you can plan your career as a biomedical science professional. What do you need to know about yourself? What kind of career suits you best? How can you make your time in high school work for you? Where can you find more information?

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You’ll also learn more about what to expect in each of these seven biomedical science careers—and what will be expected from you.

STEP 3: PURSUING THE EDUCATION PATH The third chapter shows you what kind of education you need for each career. You’ll learn what to consider when choosing your educational opportunities, how admissions and financial aid work—and some things to watch out for.

STEP 4: WRITING YOUR RÉSUMÉ AND INTERVIEWING In the fourth chapter, you’ll learn about applying and interviewing for a job as a biomedical science professional. Will you need a résumé or a curriculum vitae (CV), and what goes into each of those? How do you write a cover letter? You’ll also find tips about making a great first impression.

Don’t Miss the Interviews with Biomedical Science Professionals Five biomedical science professionals took the time out of their busy schedules to answer a few questions and give you a peek into their worlds. These interviews are found throughout the book—don’t miss them, because they are full of great insights and useful information.

If you love what you do, work stops being work and becomes a passion instead. Problems turn into challenges and every small step forward is a great victory. In other words, you stop worrying about your career and start enjoying the journey.— Jack Leeming2

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Where Do You Start?

Where will your journey lead?  Getty Images/CreativaImages

There are so many directions you can go as a biomedical science professional. What road will you want to take? Medicine? Teaching? Research? Technology? There are many options. You might even want to try several at different times in your career, or you might combine your interests into something new and different. Begin your path to discovering your future by turning the page and taking the first step.

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Why Choose a Career as a Biomedical Science Professional?

About the Biomedical Sciences

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iomedical science brings together all the natural, biological, and medical science fields. Biomedical science is about both creating and applying knowledge to improve the health and well-­being of people and animals.

A career in biomedical science can lead in so many fascinating directions!  Getty Images/gmast3r

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People who work in the biomedical sciences could become healthcare professionals, research scientists, or pursue any number of other careers that make important contributions to the fields of biology and medicine. They work at the micro level of cells, mitochondria, and organelles. They work at the macro level to study the systems and functions of physical bodies to better understand and treat disease. They create techniques and technologies to help diagnose and treat various health conditions. And they work at the mega level of how diseases move through communities, societies, and the world. Do you want to be at the forefront of scientific discovery? Do you want to continuously learn more about the biological world and how it works? Do you want to help people by participating in diagnosing and curing diseases? Do you want to investigate clues and solve crimes? Do you want to help communities plan for and respond to health-­related situations? As a biomedical science professional, you could do any of these things and so much more.

What Is a Biomedical Science Professional? There are many different types of biomedical science professionals. Some are devoted to pure research, working in laboratories to understand how biological systems function and how diseases and disorders from Alzheimer’s disease to Zika virus behave. Some work in the medical field, focusing on new diagnostic and treatment methods for real patients in real time. Some work in between, running tests on patient samples in hospital laboratories to help physicians discover the cause of an illness or syndrome. Some work in public health settings,

When you’re starting your research into all the biomedical science career options, be sure to notice the difference between what “biomedical scientist” means in the United States versus what it means in the United Kingdom. The British use the term biomedical scientist for the specific type of research career that is called medical scientist in the United States. In this book, we’ll be using the term biomedical science to mean the entire field—and all the careers inside that field—and we’ll be using the term medical scientist for that one specific research-­oriented field.

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educating the public on ways to stay healthy and prevent the spread of disease in communities. Take a look at the list below of just some of the many biomedical science careers that are available to you!

Some Biomedical Science Careers • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Analytic Chemist Anatomist Animal Biochemist Biochemist Bioengineer Bioinstrumentation Specialist Biological Photographer Biological Technician Biologist Biomaterials Engineer Biomechanics Engineer Biomedical and Laboratory Practitioner Biomedical Engineer Biomedical Equipment Technician Biophotographer Biophysicist Biostatistician Botanist Cellular Biomedical Engineer Certified Nurse-­Midwife Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetist Chemical Analyst Chemical Technician Chemist Clinical Biochemist Clinical Cytogeneticist Clinical Engineering Clinical Genomics Scientist

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• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Clinical Immunologist Clinical Laboratory Technologist Clinical Nurse Specialist CT Technologist Cytogenetic Technologist Dentist Developmental Psychologist Ecologist Environmental Manager Environmental Scientist Epidemiologist Experimental Psychologist Forensic Scientist Genetic Counselor Genetic Engineer Geneticist Healthcare Social Worker Health Educator Health Information Manager Health Physicist Health Sciences Librarian Health Services Administrator Immunohematologist Industrial Hygienist International Health Specialist Medical Illustrator Medical Imaging Medical Science Technical Writer Medical Scientist Microbiologist MRI Technologist Neuropsychologist Nurse Practitioner Nutritionist Occupational Health and Safety Technologist Occupational Safety Specialist

Why Choose a Career as a Biomedical Science Professional?

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

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Occupational Therapist Oral Surgeon Orthopedic Bioengineer Orthotist and Prosthetist Pharmacist Pharmacologist Physical Therapist Physician Production Chemist Psychiatric Mental Health Technician Public Health and Program Specialist Public Health Educator Radiographer Radiologic Technologist Registered Nurse Rehabilitation Engineer Research Dietitian Respiratory Therapist Risk Manager Safety Engineer Surgeon Systems Physiology Technical/Scientific Writer Tissue Culture Technician Tissue Engineering Toxicologist Veterinarian Veterinary Technologist/Technician Zoologist/Wildlife Biologist

There’s no way this book could give you complete information on so many possibilities! So, we’re going to focus on just the following seven careers. You will find a quick overview here, and the next chapter will delve into specifics about what level of education you need, what salaries are like, what conditions you’ll be working in, and what kind of advancement opportunities you can look forward to.

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If you’re interested in finding out more about other careers mentioned here but that aren’t covered in this book, be sure to check out Rowman & Littlefield’s other career titles that cover many of these areas—Health and Fitness Professionals, Dental Assistants and Hygienists, Nursing Professionals, Medical Office Professionals, and Veterinarian Technicians and Assistants, for example.

A biomedical science profession provides many opportunities.  Getty Images/nd3000

Biomedical Engineer Biomedical engineering is a multidisciplinary field that brings together several STEM fields, including biology, medicine, math, and engineering. By combining knowledge in all these areas, biomedical engineers design, create, build, and maintain devices that people depend on for their lives. It’s a growing field, as innovations in healthcare and medical technology are needed to assist aging populations as well as to address new or long-­standing issues that once had only limited treatment options. Biomedical engineers use their knowledge of biology, chemistry, and anatomy plus mathematics and engineering to design and make biomedical devices, software, and equipment. This includes everything from imaging technology

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to new and better prosthetics to improved chemotherapy shunts to dialysis machines to surgical robots to nanotechnology—and more. There are many different fields within biomedical engineering, such as: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Bioinstrumentation Biomaterials Biomechanics Biomechatronics Biomedical electronics Bionanotechnology Bionics Biophysics Cellular, tissue, and genetic engineering Clinical engineering Computational biology Medical imaging Neural engineering Orthopedic bioengineering Rehabilitation engineering System physiology

Biomedical engineers work for companies, hospitals, universities, government, and research institutions. They also conduct research, evaluate safety considerations, and train clinicians in how to use the technology. Biomedical engineers pursue research topics that can be translated in clinical applications. According to an article in Time magazine, biomedical engineering is one of the “24 high-­ paying jobs that are low in stress.”1

A biomedical engineer must be a bridge between basic research and patient outcomes, and thus it is critically important that you understand the fundamentals in your research area while understanding the needs of a patient and the hurdles that must be overcome to translate an idea to the clinic.—David Belair2

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Clinical Biochemist Biochemists study the chemical principals of biological processes and living things. Biochemistry makes medical science possible. Understanding the chemical structures and processes of living organisms provides the underlying knowledge that enables us to address pathologies and changes in physiological status. Understanding the chemicals used in pharmaceuticals is the only way to begin to understand how drugs affect the body—whether they will heal or harm. Clinical biochemistry includes understanding the body’s chemical components and processes, nutrition and metabolism, molecular genetics, genomics, and heredity. Clinical biochemists study the chemical composition of living cells and organisms and conduct laboratory analyses of patients’ blood and other body fluids and tissues. Biochemistry is often paired with biophysics, which studies the relationship of physical laws to biological phenomenon. Clinical biochemists are in charge of developing and implementing laboratory systems that ensure tests are conducted properly and analyzed accurately. In a hospital lab, for instance, a clinical biochemist would analyze results from an automated test, spot any anomalies or suspicious results, and conduct more advanced tests. Clinical biochemists also conduct research projects and publish their results.

You’ll put your knowledge and skills to work as a biomedical science professional.  Getty Images/gorodenkoff

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In its overview of “Best Science Jobs,” U.S. News & World Report rated biochemist as fourth overall, as well as number twenty-­eight on its list of “Best STEM Jobs.” The magazine also reports “above average” upward mobility within the field.3

The biochemistry and biophysics are the notes required for life; they conspire, collectively, to generate the real unit of life, the organism. The intermediate level, the chords and tempos, has to do with how the biochemistry and biophysics are organized, arranged, played out in space and time to produce a creature who grows and divides and is.—Ursula Goodenough4

Clinical Laboratory Technologist Clinical laboratory technologists (also called medical laboratory scientists or medical laboratory technologists) perform the vital work of testing biological samples. Without these tests, physicians would be flying blind in terms of diagnosing and treating their patients. Every year, more than 10 billion lab tests need to be performed—and the results need to be accurate, verifiable, and done quickly. Clinical laboratory technologists work in medical laboratories. They collect samples of body fluids and tissue from people or animals, run tests, and analyze and record the results. They perform the more complex tests and procedures, including preparing specimens and running detailed tests that have to be completed by hand. Clinical laboratory technologists also supervise the technicians who do the more routine tests that involve running automated equipment. There are clinical laboratory generalists, who work across the board on whatever kinds of tests are needed. In large hospitals or research facilities, clinical laboratory technologists sometimes specialize in certain areas, like the following: • Blood bank • Chemistry • Flow cytometry

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• • • • • • • •

Hematology Histocompatiblity Immunology/serology Microbiology Molecular biology/DNA Molecular Diagnostic Science Stem cell/bone marrow labs Virology

At a time when lab tests guide more than 70 percent of medical decisions and personalized medicine opens new windows to wellness, clinical lab professionals play an increasingly important role in today’s healthcare system. From early detection and diagnosis of disease to individualized treatment plans based on a person’s unique genetic makeup, clinical lab testing is key to improving healthcare quality and containing long-­term health costs.—Alan Mertz5

Epidemiologist Epidemiologists study the patterns and causes of infectious and noninfectious diseases, injuries, and other health-­related conditions that occur in populations. They ask important questions like: How does famine affect the rate of communicable diseases? How does disease move through populations? How do the genetics of certain populations affect their health? As the BLS puts it, “They seek to reduce the risk and occurrence of negative health outcomes through research, community education, and health policy.”6 Epidemiologists collect and analyze data relating to health issues using biological samples, interviews or surveys, or other methods. This work can be done in any of several different roles: • Epidemiologists may work in applied public health for state and local governments to address public health problems. This usually involves education and advocacy, helping people in the community understand and address various health risks. Epidemiologists manage public health

Why Choose a Career as a Biomedical Science Professional?

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programs, communicate with officials and the public, and supervise professional, technical, and clerical staff. • Epidemiologists also work as researchers at universities or national institutions, such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention or the National Institutes of Health. Epidemiologists who conduct pure research generally are not involved in health advocacy. • In the for-­profit environment, health insurance companies and pharmaceutical companies employ epidemiologists to conduct health-­related research affecting their customers and their businesses.

EPIDEMIOLOGY AND THE COVID-19 OUTBREAK The importance of epidemiology became very apparent during the COVID-19 outbreak that started in Wuhan, China, and was first reported to the World Health Organization in December 2019. By January 2020, the virus had spread around the world, including to the United States, and was declared a pandemic. Epidemiologists from many nations worked to understand how the disease spread and made recommendations about how to contain the virus and reduce the likelihood that people would contract the illness. Terms like “social distancing” were suddenly heard everywhere, and many people found themselves working or going to school from home. We learned the difference between self-­quarantine and self-­isolation. It was epidemiologists who let us know that washing our hands and disinfecting surfaces were the best ways to avoid contracting the disease, and that wearing face masks could help stop us from spreading it to others. While implementation of these recommendations was in the hands of local, state, and national governments, epidemiologists were responsible for figuring out what was going on and what the best response options were. At the time this book was written, the ultimate outcome of COVID-19 was unclear; we didn’t know whether a vaccine could be created, how or if the virus would mutate, or what other new viruses might be out there. But we did know that epidemiologists all over the world were working on figuring it out.

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Epidemiologists often specialize in a particular area of health, such as: • • • • • • • • • •

Chronic diseases Environmental health Infectious diseases Injuries Maternal and child health Mental health Occupational health Oral health Public health preparedness and emergency response Substance abuse

Epidemiology has elements in common with both natural and social sciences. Its methods may be scientific, but its objectives are often thoroughly human.—Alex Broadbent7

Forensic Scientist Forensic scientists (also called forensic science technicians) collect and analyze evidence taken from the scene of unnatural deaths, including crime scenes. They conduct analyses on biological, chemical, and microscopic samples and record their observations and findings. In the laboratory, a forensic scientist uses both chemicals and technology to determine the nature of collected samples and whether they match other samples, such as DNA or other identified substances. Forensic scientists compile the data they collect into detailed reports of their findings to share with law enforcement, lawyers, and other officials. Sometimes, they might be expected to appear in court to testify about their results. Good hygiene practices and wearing personal protective equipment (PPE) are important in any job in the biomedical sciences, but that is especially true for forensic scientists. Forensic scientists work with blood and other bodily fluids, hair, insect and other animal parts, and tissue in various stages of decomposition. PPE not only protects them from potential contamination, it also helps

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prevent them from potentially contaminating evidence with their own DNA. This is the case both at the crime scene and in the lab. There are many subspecialities within forensic science, such as: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Criminalistics Digital forensics Forensic anthropology Forensic archeology Forensic botany Forensic DNA analysis Forensic engineering Forensic entomology Forensic geology Forensic linguistics Forensic odontology Forensic optometry Forensic pathology Forensic podiatry Forensic psychology Forensic toxicology Trace evidence analysis

There are even forensic accountants, but that’s not a biomedical science profession, so we’re not going to go into that here. The public relies on forensic scientists to provide accurate results and truthful testimony in court cases to ensure that criminals are convicted and the innocent go free. While the public might expect DNA or other measurable evidence to be available in every case—as it is on TV—that doesn’t always happen. But when forensic scientists are called upon to testify, it’s important that

Both psychologically and physically, the job is not for everyone. You’re working with the dead. Often, you’re working with the not-­so-­pretty dead. You’re working with violent death very frequently: homicides, suicides, accidental deaths.—Kathy Reichs8

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Biomedical research leads to amazing discoveries.  Getty Images/yacobchuk

they are clear and honest about what they can and cannot determine from the available evidence.

Medical Scientists All the careers this book covers could be considered medical scientists. In this case, we’re using the term medical scientist (sometimes called biomedical scientists, especially in the UK) to talk specifically about medical research scientists. Medical scientists’ research is focused on improving health. This could include the causes of diseases, the effects of new drugs, or the way different biological processes and organisms work. Medical scientists design and conduct research studies and other laboratory studies. You could be analyzing biological samples and data, testing new drugs and medical devices, and developing programs with health agencies and physicians to improve health outcomes. Medical scientists who conduct clinical research on human beings that involves administering drugs or gene therapy, or practicing medicine in any way, must also be licensed physicians.

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Medical scientists frequently lead teams of technicians and students. Medical scientists usually specialize in one area of research within the health field. Some conduct pure research in a university or research institute laboratory. Some are affiliated with hospitals and medical centers. And others conduct research for the benefit of a particular company, such as a pharmaceutical company. When they have results to report, they write articles for peer-­reviewed journals and make presentations at conferences. There are as many potential research areas as there are body systems, diseases, and syndromes. Here’s just a short list of medical subjects that need more research: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Aging Anxiety and depression Asthma Cancer Chronic fatigue syndrome Diabetes Diet and nutrition Fibromyalgia Gender differences in medicine Heart disease HIV/AIDS Immunology Infertility Lupus Medical uses of marijuana Metabolism and endocrinology Multiple sclerosis Neuroscience Osteoporosis Polycystic ovary syndrome Probiotics Psychosocial factors in illness Stroke Tobacco use and dependence

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Health research has high value to society. It can provide important information about disease trends and risk factors, outcomes of treatment or public health interventions, functional abilities, patterns of care, and healthcare costs and use. The different approaches to research provide complementary insights. Clinical trials can provide important information about the efficacy and adverse effects of medical interventions by controlling the variables that could impact the results of the study, but feedback from real-­world clinical experience is also crucial for comparing and improving the use of drugs, vaccines, medical devices, and diagnostics.—Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Health Research and the Privacy of Health Information9

Microbiologists Microbiologists are scientists who study microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, prions, and parasites). They identify and classify microorganisms and conduct research to understand how these organisms live and function and how they react to changes in their environments. Some microbiologists do pure research; others work to solve specific problems, such as finding new and effective vaccines or better biofuels. They meticulously prepare samples, sometimes growing organisms in the laboratory, and analyze their structure and behavior. This can involve many different types of technical tools and equipment, such as microscopes, spectrographs, nuclear magnetic resonance, centrifuges, and electrophoresis. As research scientists, microbiologists write reports, publish their research in peer-­reviewed journals, and present their findings to other scientists, officials, and the public. Microbiologists can specialize in many areas, including: • • • • • • •

Bacteriology Clinical microbiology Environmental microbiology Industrial microbiology Mycology Parasitology Public health

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• Teaching • Virology Microbiologists frequently work as part of a team, with physicians, laboratory personnel, medical scientists, and/or molecular biologists. They also supervise the work of biological technicians and other lab workers.

From the paramecium to the human race, all life forms are meticulously organized, sophisticated aggregates of evolving microbial life. Far from leaving microorganisms behind on an evolutionary “ladder,” we are both surrounded by them and composed of them. Having survived in an unbroken line from the beginnings of life, all organisms today are equally evolved.—Lynn Margulis10

The Pros and Cons of a Biomedical Science Professional Career How do you assess the pros and cons of a career in biomedical science? What one person sees as a pro, another might see as a con. Here are some things to know about pursuing a career in biomedical science. You’re the only one who can say which goes in which category. • Biomedical science careers require at least a bachelor’s degree, usually a BS in biomedical science, biology, or other natural science. • Most biomedical science careers require advanced degrees—usually a PhD, an MD, or both—which adds years and thousands of dollars to your educational experience. • Biomedical science careers tend to pay pretty well, especially for those with advanced degrees. • Biomedical science careers are prestigious. • Biomedical science careers are competitive. • Biomedical science careers are interesting—you’ll always be learning something new.

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Good research is the key to success in a biomedical science profession.  Getty Images/ Totojang

• Biomedical science careers require excellent math and science skills. • Biomedical science careers involve a lot of mental problem solving. • Biomedical science can include research with the opportunity to publish and present your findings. • Until you reach the highest levels, you may not be able to design and complete your own research projects. • Biomedical science research often depends on grant funding, so writing grant proposals can be an important part of these careers.

How Healthy Is the Job Market for Biomedical Science Professionals? The job market for biomedical science professionals in all of these fields is quite healthy. The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) keeps track of statistics on job growth and the need for workers and professionals in many fields in its online

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Occupational Outlook Handbook. The following predictions are for job growth through the year 2028. • Biomedical Engineers. BLS predicts about 4 percent job growth for biomedical engineers by 2028, which is about the same as most careers in the United States. Employment growth is likely to be tied to new technologies, like smartphones and 3D printing. • Clinical Biochemists. The need for clinical biochemists is expected to grow by about 6 percent by 2028, which is about the national average. Clinical biochemists work in hospitals, research centers, and universities. Competition for faculty positions at colleges and universities is fierce; many clinical biochemists hold several postdoctoral fellowships before landing a permanent faculty or research job in academia. • Clinical Laboratory Technologists. BLS predicts that jobs for clinical laboratory technologists will grow 11 percent by 2028, which is much faster than the national average for all occupations, because an aging population will lead to a greater need to diagnose medical conditions; at the same time, prenatal testing for genetic conditions is becoming increasingly common. • Epidemiologists. BLS predicts that jobs in epidemiology will grow about 5 percent by 2028, which is about average for all occupations. The number of jobs will also depend on funding for public health programs at local, state, and federal levels, as well as commitment from governments and society as a whole to protecting the public health. • Forensic Scientists. Jobs for forensic scientists are predicted to grow 14 percent by 2028, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. While it’s not a large field, advances in forensic science will increase the need for forensic scientists to collect, evaluate, analyze, and report their findings. • Medical Scientists. Jobs for medical scientists are predicted to grow at about 8 percent by 2028, which is much faster than most career fields. As the population ages, more research and pharmaceutical and nonpharmaceutical solutions will be needed for chronic conditions. In addition, new medical issues such antibiotic resistance and the spread of new diseases will need to be studied and solved. Since the federal government

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funds most medical research, these jobs will depend on how committed our leaders are to addressing these important issues. • Microbiologists. In the coming years, microbiologists will be needed to conduct the research that will lead to new medical treatments, improved foods, and safer environments. BLS predicts jobs for microbiologists to grow about 5 percent by 2028, which is in line with the national average. For those doing basic research, jobs depend highly on federal funding, especially grants from the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health. This creates a certain amount of competition. Funding varies depending on the commitment to scientific research held by the administrative and legislative branches of government at any particular time.

Am I Right for a Career in Biomedical Sciences? There are a number of qualities that all successful biomedical science professionals have in common: • You need to be good at math and science. Biomedical science is rooted in deep knowledge of biology, mathematics, chemistry, and other physical and natural sciences. It’s important to develop your math and science skills and abilities, so that you can use them easily in your career. • You need to be prepared to dig in, dig deep, and do your best over long periods of time. A professional career in any biomedical science field involves working hard at your education (usually through several degree programs of increasing difficulty), long hours, and meeting rigorous standards throughout your career. Then bringing that same dedication and stamina to the workplace. • You need good concentration. Biomedical science professionals need to be able to stay focused on both the big picture and the fine details of everything they do. Whether you are conducting research, treating patients, designing medical equipment, analyzing medical samples, or following clues, people’s lives depend on the work you do. • You need to be patient and have perseverance. It can take a long time to earn the qualifications to enter a biomedical science profession. And

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once you are working, it may take a long time for a project to go from idea to funding to research to results to publication to real-­world application. Sometimes research seems to produce no results at all, or it needs to be repeated to be sure the results are correct. Sometimes peer reviewers don’t recognize the value of a particular line of research for many years. It’s important to be able to keep going. You need critical-­thinking skills. Critical thinking involves analyzing and questioning the information you receive and drawing conclusions about it. In science, it is especially important to avoid assumptions based on received information or anecdotes. (For more on this, see the sidebar “The Scientific Method.”) You need problem-­solving skills. The purpose of biomedical science is to find solutions to health problems, whether directly (by creating a new medicine, treatment, or tool) or indirectly (through the pure research that makes finding solutions in other areas possible). This involves a mindset that looks for the reasons for problems and for effective solutions. You need to be meticulous and detail oriented. Attention to detail is extremely important in science and medicine. Careless mistakes cost time, money, and—most important—lives. You need people skills. This is especially true if you’ll be working with patients, research subjects, students, colleagues, or members of the community. And you often will be. Some important people skills include: ∘∘ A genuine interest in helping people—either directly as patients or indirectly as a result of your research ∘∘ The ability to see patients or study subjects as whole people, not just their disorder ∘∘ Compassion and understanding for how health problems make people feel and how they can react to them ∘∘ Respect for others, even when their opinion is different from yours or when they don’t share your expertise

• You need communication skills. Biomedical science discoveries are no use to anyone if you can’t communicate them to others. You’ll need to understand how to communicate with other professionals in your field as well as with nonprofessionals, so you need to understand the

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language (terminology and/or jargon) that is meaningful within your field. And you’ll need to be able to translate that into everyday language for others. Communication can be written, verbal, or nonverbal. Chapter 2 will look at the specific skills and characteristics needed for each of the specialties considered in this book.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD You’ve probably already been introduced to some concepts about the scientific method in your science classes at school. It’s so important, though, that it won’t hurt to look at it again. The scientific method is a process scientists use to design and complete experiments. Its purpose is to increase accuracy by minimizing any chance for error or bias to affect the results. Depending on whom you ask, there are between five and eight steps in the scientific method. There are also different steps favored by people in different fields. How does biomedical science apply the scientific method? By using these six steps: 1. Observation. You notice something, like a health sign, symptom, or pattern. This leads you to . . . 2. Questioning. You wonder what is happening, and how and why. Based on your questions, you form a . . . 3. Hypothesis. This is a possible explanation for what you’ve observed, like an educated guess. Scientists often find several possible explanations (alternative hypotheses) and need to know which is the most likely to be right. To find out, you’ll need to design an . . . 4. Experiment. A good experiment is designed to have an independent variable (that you can change) and a dependent variable (that doesn’t change). By designing experiments to test only one independent variable at a time, scientists can be confident that they are not confusing one result with another. Once you’ve collected your experimental data, you’ll need to conduct an . . . 5. Analysis. Record and organize the data you’ve collected and see what they show. Save all your data, even if doesn’t support your hypothesis. Data that can disprove your hypothesis may be the most important! Reflect on your result so you can decide what to do next. Was your hypothesis supported

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or not supported? There’s no such thing as a wrong outcome—all results (positive or negative) are important. Next, it’s time for . . . 6. Iteration. Do it again and again. Maybe you need to do additional tests to confirm or refine supportive results. Maybe you need to retest if results don’t support your hypothesis. You might need to examine your experiment methods to see if you made a mistake in the test design.

In most cases, the scientific method is an iterative process. In other words, it’s a cycle rather than a straight line. The result of one go-­round becomes feedback that improves the next round of question asking.—Salman Khan11

Summary Biomedical science professions are interesting, challenging, and beneficial to the world, and they provide a good living. If you can see yourself pursuing one of these careers (or any of the careers on that long list at the beginning of the chapter), then read on to learn more.

As a Biomedical Science professional, you have many options!  Getty Images/BrianAJackson

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The next step is to start planning how to get from where you are to where you want to be. Turn the page, because the next chapter is all about planning!

AMY SWINFORD—MICROBIOLOGIST

Microbiologist Dr. Amy Swinford in her lab at Texas A&M University.  Jim Lyle

Dr. Amy Swinford is associate director and veterinary microbiologist at the Texas A&M Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory. She rose to this position after serving as microbiology branch chief and Bacteriology Section head at the Texas A&M College Station laboratory. Dr. Swinford earned a BS in microbiology, an MS in veterinary pathobiology, and a doctorate in veterinary medicine (DVM) from the University of Illinois. She is a diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Microbiologists and served on the board of governors.

How did you decide to become a microbiologist? My first love is animals, all kinds of animals. When I went to college and picked an undergraduate major, I went into animal science, which is common for people in a pre-­vet curriculum. I sat in on clinics, but being a practicing veterinarian didn’t excite me that much. I was more interested in genetics and the science part of the animal science curriculum. I took an intro course in microbiology and that changed everything. I left the agriculture program and enrolled in the College of Arts and Sciences so I could major in microbiology. I was so excited by the kit where you could put something in a dish and see something growing by the next day! I was very single-­minded on infectious diseases. I graduated in microbiology. I took a job in science but not microbiology. Then I decided to go back to graduate school. I was working with fellow grad students who were veterinarians studying microbiology, and I wanted that knowledge—to put it all together, the “hoof” side of things

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as well as the “bug” side of things. I decided to go to vet school to have that background and combine it with my microbiology degree. It took different paths to get to where I am, because the microbiology by itself didn’t seem like the right fit, and the veterinary side didn’t seem like the right fit—but together, they did. You don’t have to go to vet school to be a veterinary microbiologist. Many of the people who work in my lab have degrees in microbiology or other sciences. But for section heads, we prefer to have someone with a vet degree with advanced training in the particular field.

What is a typical day on your job? My typical day would be reading cultures, looking at plates, looking for pathogens set up from animal samples sent to us by veterinarians and animal owners. Lab people set up the samples on agar plates, and then experts like myself would open them up and look for certain pathogens, and do testing to see if it is or isn’t what we think. Then we send e-­mail reports to clients. I do a lot of talking to clients on the phone about results, and what the next step would be if testing doesn’t provide an answer. I would oversee the work of the technicians and be sure they were taking their proficiency tests, and that kind of thing. Preparing reports, budget updates, manuscripts for publication when we have time to do small research projects. Research is not our primary mission—we focus on the diagnostic work.

What’s the best part of your job? Like most people who work in this type of job, the best part for me is that we help our clients solve their problems, help treat their patients. It’s rewarding to be working behind the scenes with veterinary clinics and veterinarians to help them help their patients. Because I did try the corporate route for a while, there is satisfaction in being a public servant. We’re employees of the state—we’re under the university, but we’re a separate state agency. We may not get paid as well as in the private sector, but there’s a lot of satisfaction in it. There’s a lot of diversity in the job, there’s never a dull or boring day. There’s some comfort we take in the routine, we know what the day is going to be like for the most part, but in diagnostic medicine, we never know what we’re going to encounter. Sometimes things get really interesting in a hurry! You always have to be on your toes and paying attention. There’s a good mix of routine and excitement if you’re a microbiology nerd or a science nerd.

What’s the most challenging part of your job? The personnel management side of the job. A lot of us who go into science are introverts. The farthest thing from our minds in school is managing other people. But

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if you’re good at your job or show leadership potential, you rise through the ranks by taking on supervisory positions. Even at the bench level, that happens. Starting with the technicians, they could become a lab supervisor. Or someone could become a section head or assistant section head. Here, we provide formal training for that, but it’s nothing you inherently thought about when you went to school. Managing other people can take up a lot of time. Some people are happy staying at the bench and just doing the work, but if you plan to move up, it’s something to think about.

What’s the most surprising thing about your job? For me, how after all these years, it’s just still so interesting. It’s always evolving. You’re not doing the same thing, even if you’re doing the same type of work like a culture result. The methods change with technology. There’s always something new to learn. It remains fascinating to me. I have someone in the lab who’s been doing this for thirty years, she’s a walking encyclopedia of knowledge of veterinary microbiology, there’s almost nothing she hasn’t seen, but she still brings that excitement to work every day.

How did (or didn’t) your education prepare you for the job? My education prepared me very well. In this field, veterinary microbiology in the diagnostic lab, the degrees get your foot in the door. But by no means do we expect people to walk in the door and start doing what we do. Even as a microbiology major, you need to learn on the job. For veterinary medicine, we look for people who have the type of degrees that I have, but in addition we expect to do a lot of on-­the-­job training with these folks. There’s a lot of figuring things out on your own, so we have standard operating procedures for people to read. It just takes a while for people to see all the different types of situations they might encounter and to work independently of supervision. Most of us didn’t take any management training, so I can’t say my degrees prepared me for that part of the job. With this degree, I’ve been able to do a lot of different jobs. I’ve worked in a couple of diagnostic labs, in private industry for companies that develop vaccines and therapeutics. I did a stint as a US Air Force Reserve public health officer. A microbiology degree can be used in a lot of different ways.

Is the job what you expected? I would say so, except for the supervising. Although I did that in my first job out of vet school.

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What’s next? Where do you see yourself going from here? I’m already on the other side of the bell curve. I’m not looking to advance. I’d like to retire from my current position, though not anytime soon. On the other hand, I’ve thought about what I would do afterward. I’ve thought about doing science writing. I’ve worked with our national organization on quality assurance; there’s room for consulting there. There are any number of things to do. With this training, I feel like you have many options.

Where do you see the career of microbiologist going from here? It’s been evolving since I’ve been in the field, and will certainly continue to and even accelerate. Within bacteriology, there are tried and true methods of culturing things. More and more, those techniques are being supplemented by automated ways to identify pathogens. PCR (pulmonary chain reactions) are based on molecular methods. What’s being used to test for COVID-19, those are being used by microbiologists. Gene sequencing of samples to see what types of organisms are in there. We can only cultivate in vitro about 4 percent of the known organisms that exist in nature. There’s all this stuff that we know is there but can’t grow in the lab. Now we have methods to detect it, but we don’t yet know what to do with that information. What role do they play? So we’re getting a better picture than just scraping the tip of the iceberg with things that could be cultured. There will always be a need for microbiologists to know whether the answers we’re getting make sense. We’ve got an automated MALDI-­TOF mass spectrometer in our lab that’s being used more and more by veterinary diagnostic laboratories to rapidly detect types of bacteria. But like any of these automated systems, it can give you answers that don’t make sense with what we’re seeing. So we need experienced microbiologists to understand and evaluate those results, to be testing and researching vaccines and therapeutics. This career is not going away anytime soon.

What is your advice for a young person considering this career? I’ve mentored a few young people who have gone on to microbiology or to vet school or pharmacy school. People need to listen to their own interests. If you do that, you’ll find the best fit for you. I listened to what really piqued my interest and that led me to what really worked for me. What I hear young people say is they’re afraid they’re going to make a mistake by taking the wrong job. I think that’s an unnecessary fear. A job might not be the right fit, but how will you know if you don’t try it? Everything has something to teach you. As long as you pay attention, you’ll be amazed at the way that the things you learned in a job that wasn’t right for you translate into jobs that do turn out to be the right fit. Another thing, they need to be curious and not expect everything to be taught to them. They need to be able to

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figure things out for themselves. We can give them the tools, but they need to be the ones to learn it. You have access to all of these different things you can do, but you can only get there by teaching yourself and not being impatient. I learned 90 percent of what I learned on the job, teaching myself, going back and reading slides, and doing it day after day. It’s not a field for someone looking for instant gratification. It takes time to learn how to be a competent microbiologist. You do get some immediate satisfaction, but I think people fail to realize how long it can take to be the one to take the plates out and make a confident diagnosis. That can take a couple of years.

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Forming a Career Plan

Planning the Plan

J

ust as a biomedical science professional needs to plan experiments with care and thoughtfulness, you’ll need to plan your career path the same way. You may already know exactly which biomedical science path is the one for you, but if you’re like most people, you can see several different options. How do you decide which path to follow?

Consider all the factors that go into finding your perfect career.  Getty Images/airdone 29

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Taking some time to consider the different career options out there, as well as your own qualities—what you do best, what you like best, what you don’t like at all—can help you narrow down the many options to just the ones that interest you most and suit you best. Be sure to think about the long term as well as the short term. It’s important to plan ahead so your first job can lead to the next one and the next one, moving you up your career ladder. When you first get out of school, you may just be focused on your immediate needs, like finding a job that will pay for your daily, monthly, and yearly living expenses—an apartment, a car, and the things you like to do for fun. But before long, you’ll realize that your goals for yourself as a professional and as an individual reach father than that. Ask yourself the important questions now: What do you want to achieve in the biomedical sciences? What do you see yourself doing in five years, ten years, twenty years? And how do you want to live your life? Do you see yourself having a family and a home of your own someday? The earlier you start planning for your future, the better prepared you will be when it suddenly becomes the present.

We must discipline ourselves to convert dreams into plans, and plans into goals, and goals into those small daily activities that will lead us, one sure step at a time, toward a better future.—Jim Rohn1

So What Goes into Your Plan? Your plan must always start with you. What do you like and dislike? What are you good at and not so good at? What feels comfortable to you? To be satisfied in your career over a lifetime, it’s important that it’s the right fit for you. Your parents and teachers may have opinions (even strong ones) about what you should do for a living, and it’s worth your while to listen to those opinions. But other people’s opinions always need to be balanced against your own feelings, your gut instinct will tell you where you belong, but only if you listen to it. Next, you’ll need to look at the different types of biomedical science careers and look for the overlap between you and your interests and what the job is actually like. We started looking at seven careers in chapter 1. In this chapter,

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we’ll look at them in more detail. Even if you’re really interested in a completely different biomedical science career (zoology, anyone?), you can learn about how to analyze a potential career by reading through the information on these seven. Another important planning step is understanding what you can do in advance to prepare yourself for the job you want. How do you become qualified to work as a biomedical science professional? What kind of education will you need? What kind of training will you need? And how do you go about getting it? In this chapter, you’ll learn where to start and where to go from there. Let’s start by making a few lists.

Think about what you’re like and how you like to spend your time when planning the right career path for you.  Getty Images/AnnaStills

WHAT ARE YOU LIKE? What does it mean to say your plan starts with you? A good place to start is by thinking about your own qualities. What are you like? Where do you feel comfortable and where do you feel uncomfortable? What do you like to do and what do you really dislike?

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Ask yourself the questions in the box called “All About You” and then think about how your answers match up with a career in the biomedical sciences.

ALL ABOUT YOU PERSONALITY TRAITS • • • • • •

Are you introverted or extroverted? How do you react to stress—do you stay calm when others panic? Do you prefer people or technology? Are you better at making things or explaining things? How much money do you want to make—just enough or all of it? What does the word “success” mean to you? INTERESTS

• • • • •

Are you interested in how things and systems work? Are you interested in solving problems? Are you interested in helping people? Are you interested in moving up a clear career ladder? Would you like to move around from one kind of job to another, or would you like to focus on one thing and dig into the details for years? LIKES AND DISLIKES

• D  o you like to figure things out or to know ahead of time exactly what’s coming up? • Do you like working on your own or as part of a team? • Do you like talking to people or do you prefer minimal interaction? • Do you like to figure out problems and solve them? • Can you stand the sight of blood and other bodily fluids or are you easily disgusted? • Can you take direction from a boss or teacher, or do you want to decide for yourself how to do things? • Do you like things to be the same or to change a lot?

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STRENGTHS AND CHALLENGES • What is something you’ve accomplished that you’re proud of? • Are you naturally good at school or do you have to work harder at some subjects? • Are you flexible and able to adapt to changes and new situations? • Are you better at math or better at English? • Are you better at computers or with hands-­on technologies? • What is your best trait (in your opinion)? • What is your worst trait (in your opinion)?

This list is for you and you alone. You’re not trying to impress anybody or tell anyone what you think they want to hear. You’re just talking to you. Be as honest as you can—tell yourself the truth, not what you think someone else would want the answer to be. Once you’ve got a good list of your own interests, strengths, challenges, and likes and dislikes, you’ll be in a good position to know what kind of career you want.

WHAT ARE THE JOBS LIKE? Now that you’ve considered your own characteristics, it’s time to think about the characteristics of the different possible jobs you might do. Take a look at the questions in the box called “About the Job” and consider the similarities and differences between different biomedical science careers.

ABOUT THE JOB • What kind of work will you be doing? • What kind of environment will you be working in? • Will you have regular nine-­to-­five hours or will you be working evenings, weekends, and overtime? • Will you be able to live where you want to or will you need to go where the job is?

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• • • • • • • • •

Will you work directly with patients or more behind the scenes? If you’d be working with patients, what kind of patients? Will you be working on a large team or a small one? How much education will you need? Do you need certification? Will you need to be licensed? Is there room for advancement? What does the job pay? Is there room to change jobs and try different things?

Biomedical Science Professions and You How does each of the biomedical science professions match up with your desires and expectations? Each job is different. Some start with just a bachelor’s degree; others require more education, even up to the doctoral level. Some work directly with patients; others never do. Some have direct and immediate results that can be realized almost instantly; others add new knowledge to the world, with results that can’t be foreseen at the time.

What career can you see yourself in best?  Getty Images/PeopleImages

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BIOMEDICAL ENGINEER Education Biomedical engineers generally begin with a bachelor’s degree in biomedical engineering and/or bioengineering. You can also earn a BS in mechanical or electrical engineering supplemented with courses in the biomedical sciences. To advance in the field, you’ll probably need a graduate degree. If you want to move into management, a master of business administration (MBA) degree can also be helpful.

Skills The myth about engineering is that it’s all math and science, not creative, and that engineers don’t have communication or people skills. None of that is true. Take a look at the skills needed by biomedical engineers—there are a lot more soft skills on this list than hard skills! • Math skills, including calculus and statistics, to use complex equations and formulas, analyze data, and quantify experimental results • Technical skills to work with computers, tools, and other technology in order to build and operate new technologies • Creativity to invent innovative technology • Critical-­thinking skills to understand processes and procedures and to draw conclusions from experimental results • Problem-­solving skills to find solutions to health, science, and technical problems • Communication skills to write research papers, grant proposals, and applications; to communicate verbally with other team members; and to present research findings to other professionals • Observational and decision-­making skills to evaluate and analyze the work being done • Ability to work as part of a team, as well as to lead and motivate team members • Time-­management skills and perseverance to be thorough and careful in conducting research, meeting deadlines, and prioritizing tasks

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Salary The average salary for biomedical engineers is around $89,000 per year. The highest wages go to those in computer systems design and related services (averaging about $120,000) and semiconductor and other electronic component manufacturing (averaging about $112,000). The top-­paying states for biomedical engineering jobs are Minnesota, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Arizona, and Connecticut.2

Work Experience and Advancement Most accredited degree programs in biomedical engineering include on-­the-­job experience such as cooperative education (co-­op) programs or internships, usually in hospitals or with manufacturers. These programs give students a chance for hands-­on learning about practical applications in biomedical engineering before they even graduate. Biomedical engineers advance in the profession by rising through the ranks based on their education, experience, and ability. Some choose to specialize as clinical engineers or clinical trials managers.

Licensing/Certification There are no specific licenses or certifications associated with being a biomedical engineer, unless you go on to medical school to earn an MD or dental school for a DDS. To practice in those fields does require a license.

Where You’ll Work Biomedical engineers work in industry for companies that build medical equipment such as imaging scanners, pharmaceutical delivery devices, or any of the many other kinds of technology used in healthcare. They also work in hospitals and other clinical settings as well as in laboratories as part of a team that includes medical professionals, healthcare workers, scientists, engineers, and technicians. Industries that employ the most biomedical engineers include medical equipment and supplies manufacturers, pharmaceuticals and medicine

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manufacturers, and scientific research and development services. Biomedical engineers are also hired by academic institutions and by manufacturers of navigational, measuring, electromedical, and control instruments. The states hiring the most biomedical engineers include California, Massachusetts, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and Minnesota.

Examine your options closely to find the right fit for your career.  Getty Images/AzmanL

CLINICAL BIOCHEMIST Education While there are some entry-­level positions in biochemistry for people with bachelor’s degrees, typically a master’s degree is required in order to work as a clinical biochemist in a hospital or laboratory. Many clinical biochemists also earn PhDs, especially if they’re interested in doing independent research.

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Skills Clinical biochemists need skills in several areas, including analytical and technical skills as well as communication and interpersonal skills. • Mechanical and technical skills to use existing chemical and laboratory equipment and create new applications • Critical-­thinking skills to understand and use processes and procedures, draw conclusions from experimental results, and see both the big picture and the details in the work • Math skills, including calculus and statistics, to use complex equations and formulas • Communication skills (both written and verbal) to prepare technical reports, research papers, recommendations, grant proposals, and applications; to communicate with other team members; and to present research findings to other professionals • Interpersonal skills to work as part of a team and to lead and motivate team members • Time-­management skills and perseverance to be thorough and careful in conducting research, meeting deadlines, and prioritizing tasks • Problem-­solving skills to find solutions to complex scientific problems and help the team function at its best

Salary According to the BLS, the median annual wage for biochemists and biophysicists is around $93,000. An entry-­level clinical biochemist with less than three years of experience is likely to earn an average annual salary of around $63,000.3 Biochemists with years of experience who have moved up into management earn the most (averaging about $139,000 annually), while those working in other professional, scientific, and technical services follow closely, at around $132,000 each year. The states with the highest salaries for clinical biochemists are New Jersey, Illinois, Indiana, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire.4

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Work Experience and Advancement Clinical biochemists get their on-­the-­job experience during postdoctoral fellowships, where they work under the guidance of experienced professionals. A postdoc position usually includes the chance to publish research as part of a team, which makes a big difference for future employment (especially for a university faculty position). As you move up as a clinical biochemist, you might become a chemistry supervisor specialist, which requires a master’s degree. Or you might become a research scientist and/or laboratory director with a doctoral degree.

Licensing/Certification Licensing and certification are not required for clinical biochemists. As with many of the professions in biomedical science, certification through a professional organization demonstrates both your competence and your commitment. There are different types of certification through different organizations for both doctoral-­level clinical biochemists and predoctoral-­level personnel. See the Resources section of this book to learn more about certification.

Where You’ll Work Clinical biochemists work in laboratories in hospitals, research institutions, and corporations. They work alongside physicians, nurses, and other medical personnel, as well as administrators, technicians, businesspeople, government officials, and students. The states with the most clinical biochemist jobs are New Jersey, California, Massachusetts, Texas, and Pennsylvania.

Clinical chemistry is an equal opportunity employer—MD or PhD, medical technologist or technician—you advance on the strength of your training, dedication, and initiative. We need good scientists, good managers, good executives, and good directors who have a solid background in molecular diagnostics and speak a common language—chemistry. We need people willing to be full partners in healthcare delivery. Studying for a career in clinical chemistry is a great place to start. How far you go is in your hands.—Lisa Pallatroni and Pasquale Buttitta5

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CLINICAL LABORATORY TECHNOLOGIST Education A bachelor’s degree in medical technology or life sciences is required for an entry-­level position as a clinical laboratory technologist. These programs include coursework in chemistry, biology, microbiology, math, and statistics.

Skills In addition to your education, success as a clinical laboratory technologist depends on mastery of certain skills. • Technological skills to operate laboratory equipment and computers • Dexterity and good hand-­eye coordination to work with precision laboratory equipment, needles, and other small or delicate instruments • Detail orientation and problem-­solving abilities to be able to follow exact instructions, perform tests and procedures correctly, document them accurately, and find and resolve errors • Physical stamina to be on your feet for long periods every day, as well as to lift or turn patients to collect samples for testing • Verbal and written communication skills and people skills to work well with patients, coworkers, supervisors, and the community

Salary The average salary for a clinical laboratory technologist in the United States in 2019 was about $70,000. An entry-­level position pays, on average, about $48,700. Salaries are affected by factors like what part of the country you’re in and the size of the institution. The states that pay the highest salaries for clinical laboratory technologists are Rhode Island, Alaska, Connecticut, New Jersey, and Oregon.6

Work Experience and Advancement Clinical laboratory technologists don’t have formal internships or residencies, but entry-­level positions may be listed as trainee jobs. For a job like this, you

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need to have your bachelor’s degree in hand, as well as some experience working in a laboratory setting, perhaps as a technician. With certification and experience, clinical laboratory technologists may decide to specialize in a specific laboratory science (like histotechnology, immunology, or clinical chemistry). They might advance to be lead medical technologist in a laboratory or be the administrative director for their hospital or institution.

Licensing/Certification Some states have licensing requirements for clinical laboratory technologists. In states that require a license, certification is also required. Requirements vary, so be sure you know your state’s requirements if you want to pursue this career— check with the state Board of Health or Occupational Licensing. Certification may or may not be required in your state, but it is always a good idea to have it. Certification can be general or for a specialty. Meeting the requirements for certification is generally part of all accredited clinical laboratory technologist education programs. In addition, professional organizations also provide information about getting and maintaining credentials. (See the Resources section of this book for more information about this.)

Where You’ll Work More than half of all clinical laboratory technologist jobs are in the laboratories of general medical and surgical hospitals. The rest can be found in medical and diagnostic labs, physicians’ offices, academic institutions, and other ambulatory healthcare services. Because of the importance of lab results for patients, many labs are open twenty-­four hours a day. That means you might work day, evening, night, and/or weekend shifts. The states that employ the most clinical laboratory technologists include California, Texas, Florida, New York, and Pennsylvania.7

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EPIDEMIOLOGIST Education An entry-­level epidemiologist needs at least a master’s degree, usually a master of public health (MPH). Coursework combines biological and physical sciences with math and statistics, and includes methods of reviewing research, comparing healthcare systems, and practical applications and interventions. To move up in the field and be in charge of research projects, epidemiologists go on to earn a doctorate—either a PhD in epidemiology or an MD. A master’s degree usually takes two to three years and a PhD adds another five or six years of education, while an MD takes four years in medical school plus a one-­year internship and another three to eight years in residency. Some schools offer combined bachelor’s and master’s degree programs for students interested in epidemiology and public health. For instance, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health offers a combined BA in public health studies and a master of health science (MHS).8

Skills Epidemiologists need to have the skills to both conduct research and inform the public: • Communication skills (both written and verbal) to convey information to the public, public officials, and health professionals at all levels • Math skills, including a strong grasp of statistics and statistical methodology • Computer skills, especially for using large databases and statistical programs • Critical-­thinking skills to evaluate and analyze information quickly and accurately and figure out how to address urgent health problems such as public health issues or emergencies • Detail orientation for precise and accurate observation, evaluation, and action • Teaching skills for educating community leaders and the general population about health risks and solutions

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Salary According to the BLS, the median annual wage for epidemiologists is about $70,000. The highest wages are paid in scientific research and development services, followed by hospitals, local and state government, and academic institutions.

Work Experience and Advancement Master’s degree programs in epidemiology usually have a one- or two-­semester internship or practicum requirement. Those with medical degrees would follow the requirements for internships that apply to all medical doctors. Advancement in epidemiology is based on experience and education. If you specialize, do ongoing fieldwork, and accumulate years of experience as an epidemiologist, you can advance to managing others. Having a doctoral degree gives you access to jobs in larger facilities and with greater responsibility. Those with MD or PhD degrees can conduct their own research projects, head a lab, and/or teach at the university level. You’ll need an MD to conduct research that involves giving drugs or medicines to test subjects.

Licensing/Certification Epidemiologists with master’s or PhD degrees are not required to have licenses, but those with medical degrees do need to be licensed to practice medicine. Certification is not required but is a good additional credential that shows you are a dedicated professional who is up-­to-­date with the latest knowledge and best practices. The Certification Board of Infection Control and Epidemiology (CBIC) offers certification and recertification (see the Resources section at the end of this book) starting at the bachelor’s degree level.

Where You’ll Work As an epidemiologist, you’ll work in both an office and a laboratory. State and local governments employ the most epidemiologists, followed by academic institutions, hospitals, and scientific research and development services. Epidemiologists working in public health will often travel throughout their

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community to conduct research and provide education. Research-­focused epidemiologists may travel to remote areas or other countries to study the origin and spread of diseases. The states with the most epidemiologist jobs are California, Texas, Georgia, Washington, and Colorado.9

FORENSIC SCIENTIST

The forensic sciences form a vital part of the entire justice and regulatory system. The forensic scientist’s goal is the evenhanded use of all available information to determine the facts and, subsequently, the truth. Because the work of a forensic scientist is intended to be used in court and because scientific evidence can be very powerful, the forensic scientist must be accurate, methodical, detailed, and above all, unbiased.—Forensic Sciences Foundation10

Education A bachelor’s degree in a natural science is the basic education needed to become a forensic scientist. You could major in biology, chemistry, or even forensic science itself. In a forensic science bachelor’s degree program, you might specialize in a specific area such as pathology, DNA, or toxicology. For many forensic scientists, the usual path is to earn a bachelor’s degree in a natural science and go on for a master’s degree in forensic science. Some forensic scientists who work for police departments as crime scene investigators also choose to go to the police academy and be sworn in as police officers.

Skills • Critical-­thinking skills to analyze and evaluate evidence, to notice more than just what you expect to find, and to figure out what it all means • Attention to detail to find small differences in crime scenes and evidence, and between different but similar results • Problem-­solving skills to find ways and methods of testing and analyzing samples from unusual or new locations

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• Math and science skills to conduct scientific tests accurately and understand the results • Communication skills to write reports, explain results, and testify clearly and correctly in court; many of the people you’ll communicate with will have a very different skill set and knowledge base than you do

Salary According to the BLS, the average annual salary for forensic scientists is around $59,000. The entry-­level wage is around $35,000, while the top 10 percent earn more than $97,000. The highest salaries are found in Illinois, California, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Hampshire.11

Work Experience and Advancement Forensic scientists are expected to work under the supervision of more experienced investigators while they learn the hands-­on aspects of collecting and documenting evidence. They also spend up to a year learning a laboratory specialty, often followed by a proficiency exam or accreditation process. On-­ the-­job training and education continue throughout your career as a forensic scientist to ensure that you are always working with the newest methods and information.

Licensing/Certification You may or may not need a license or certification as a forensic scientist. It all depends on the jurisdiction you are working for.

Where You’ll Work Most forensic scientists work for local or state governments. Others work for medical, diagnostic, and testing laboratories. The states with the most forensic scientists include California, Florida, Texas, New York, and Arizona. Forensic scientists who work as crime scene investigators will also work indoors and outdoors, in any kind of weather, and will probably travel within their own jurisdictions. Since there’s no way to know when or where evidence

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will need to be collected, forensic scientists sometimes have to work day, evening, or night shifts. Even those who work only in the lab may sometimes need to work longer hours than usual for an important case.

MEDICAL SCIENTIST Education Medical scientists typically hold a PhD in biology or another life science, and many also earn an MD or a specialized medical degree, like a DO, DDS, or DVM. There are some dual-­degree programs where a graduate student can earn a PhD along with a medical degree or a doctoral-­level nursing or dental degree. To prepare for graduate work in biomedical science, it’s helpful to earn a bachelor’s degree in biology, chemistry, or a similar field. Be sure to take classes in math, the physical and life sciences, and writing.

Skills Medical scientists need important analytical, technical, communication, and interpersonal skills to be successful: • Critical thinking to understand and use processes and procedures and to draw conclusions from experimental results • Math skills, including calculus and statistics, to use complex equations and formulas, analyze data, and quantify experimental results • Observational and decision-­making skills to conduct experiments and analyses accurately and precisely • Written communication skills to prepare research papers, grant proposals, and applications • Oral communication skills to communicate with other team members and to present research findings to other professionals • Ability to work as part of a team as well as to lead and motivate team members • Time-­management skills and perseverance to be thorough and careful in conducting research, meeting deadlines, and prioritizing tasks • Problem-­solving skills to find solutions to complex scientific problems and help the team function at its best

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Salary According to the BLS, on average, medical scientists earn about $85,000 per year, with the bottom 10 percent making about $46,800 and the top 10 percent earning around $157,000. The highest salaries are in the pharmaceutical industry (averaging about $115,000 annually) and the lowest are in colleges and universities (around $61,270). The lower figure for colleges and universities reflects their nonprofit status as well as the lower pay rates of postdocs and graduate assistants. The highest-­paying states for medical scientist jobs are New Jersey, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Delaware.12

Work Experience and Advancement Medical scientists usually gain experience in temporary postdoctoral research positions or in a medical residency. In a postdoc position, they learn more about their specialties while working in a laboratory under the supervision of more experienced scientists. A postdoc can provide the opportunity to publish research (usually as part of a larger team), which is necessary for earning a faculty position at a college or university. Graduates of an MD or DO (doctor of osteopathy) program do a residency in their specialty area. This can take three to seven years and usually takes place in a hospital. For a medical scientist, advancement in the profession comes through experience and expertise. In a lab, this translates to more independence and control over your research agenda. In a university, you advance through the tenure system from assistant to associate to full professor. You might also move into management.

Licensing/Certification Medical scientists who focus primarily on research typically don’t need a license or certification. Those who are also practicing medicine or conducting research that involves administering drugs or gene therapy do need to be licensed physicians.

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Where You’ll Work Medical scientists work in laboratories and offices. According to the BLS, most medical scientists work in research and development in the physical, engineering, and life sciences; in a college, university, or professional school; or in a hospital setting. They may also manufacture pharmaceuticals or work in medical and diagnostic laboratories. The states that employ the most medical scientists are California, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, and Washington—but there are plenty of jobs in other states, too.

MICROBIOLOGIST Education Entry-­level microbiology jobs require a bachelor’s degree in microbiology or another field that is closely related, like biochemistry, cell biology, or another biomedical science. Lab requirements are a major component of these degree programs, because you must have lab experience to get a job as a microbiologist. Doctoral degrees are necessary to move up in the field, and to do independent research, as well as to hold a faculty position at a college or university. You may specialize in a field like bacteriology or immunology at the PhD level.

Skills • Technical skills to use microscopes, electron microscopes, computers, and other laboratory equipment • Logic, critical-­thinking skills, and detail orientation to design accurate, meaningful experiments, record results, and draw sound conclusions • Observational skills to monitor and notice what is happening in experiments • Math skills, including calculus and statistics, to quantify observations and results • Perseverance plus problem-­solving and time-­management skills to work on complex projects that may take a long time and involve a lot of trial and error • Interpersonal skills to work on teams and supervise team members

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• Communication skills, both verbal and written, to report results to other microbiologists and to people outside of the field

Salary The BLS reports the average salary for microbiologists to be about $72,000 per year. Microbiology is one of the few areas where the highest wages are paid by the federal government (averaging $112,000 annually), with scientific research and development services coming next (about $95,000 annual average), and the next three areas (medical and diagnostic laboratories, pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing, and chemical manufacturing) averaging between $71,000 and $78,000 per year. States with the highest wages for microbiologists include Maryland, California, the District of Columbia, Georgia, and Virginia.13

Work Experience and Advancement As an undergraduate student, you’ll get practical laboratory experience during the lab sections of your science courses. At the graduate level, it’s common for new PhDs to begin with a postdoc position in a research lab, working with experienced senior scientists. Microbiologists move up through experience and growing expertise as well as certification and advanced degrees. You might end up in charge of your own lab and controlling your own research projects. If you’re good at administrative duties, you could move into a managerial position as well.

Licensing/Certification Microbiologists don’t need licenses. Certification is not mandatory, but professional certification in a specific area (such as medical devices, pharmaceuticals, quality, or food safety) demonstrates that you have knowledge in and commitment to your subspecialty.

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Where You’ll Work Whether you work for a university, a corporation, or a government entity, as a microbiologist you’ll mostly be working in a laboratory as well as an office. Sometimes you may travel to other places to collect samples. You’ll generally be working full time and have regular hours, with only occasional late nights or weekends. The states that employ the most microbiologists include California, Maryland, Texas, Illinois, and Georgia.

Having a plan gives you a place to start—and you can change the plan whenever you want to!  Getty Images/Charday Penn

Where to Go for Help Good planning requires good information. There are all kinds of resources out there that can give you more ideas about how to make your plan to pursue your goals. All of these steps are useful, and you don’t have to follow them in any particular order.

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START WHERE YOU ARE If you’re in high school, you have a guidance counselor. It’s the counselor’s job to give you guidance about your plans beyond graduation. If you’re working on a GED at a community college or someplace similar, there is probably a career office that is there to help you. Take the initiative and walk in the door. Be sure to tell the counselor what you are interested in doing. Speak up! Remember, your counselor can’t read your mind—say what you’re thinking so you can get appropriate advice. Each school handles things a little differently and which state you’re in also makes a difference, but a high school guidance office usually has several resources specifically about applying to college, such as: • • • • • • • • • •

Senior handbook Higher education handbook College visit forms Student brag sheet/résumé forms Useful links for college planning and searches Useful links for scholarships/financial resources NCAA hints for sports scholarships SAT and ACT information Common App tips and application Essay writing tips

Your guidance office can also help you take interest and aptitude tests to help you narrow down your interests or discover new ideas for careers you’ve never thought of. They can help you develop a résumé and a career portfolio to show what you’ve done and what you’re capable of. Your guidance counselor can work with you individually but many also put on school-­wide or grade-­ wide workshops, classes, focus groups, or presentations about job skills and personal development. And, of course, a well-­stocked guidance office or school library/media center will have books like this one for you to explore!

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LOOK IT UP Before you talk to others about a biomedical science profession, be sure you’ve found as much information as you can on your own. In addition to reading books like this one, go online and search for what you want to know. Sure, the internet is full of memes and nonsense, but if you search carefully, you can find lots of information about every possible career. Try some of these keyword strings to get started: • • • • • • • •

Biomedical science careers Healthcare careers Professional associations (for each career you’re interested in) Top careers in biomedical science Top careers in life science Biomedical science schools Biomedical science undergraduate programs Biomedical science university near me (or in your state)

TALK TO PROFESSIONALS IN THE FIELD After you’ve done some research on your own, you’ll already have an idea of which biomedical science field appeals to you most. But what is it like to really do that job? One of the best ways to learn what a job is like is to talk to someone who does it. Start with your own city or town. If there is a hospital, university, or research institute where you live, there will be people in biomedical science professions. Ask people you know for introductions to people they know. Or look them up online and contact them yourself. Even if those people are farther away, there are ways to see these careers through their eyes. For instance: • Informational interview in person, on the phone, or online via Skype, Zoom, or a similar program. Ask to speak to the person for twenty or thirty minutes. It’s important to respect that they are likely to be very busy and it may be difficult for them to spare you even that much time. Ask them open-­ended questions about the job itself, how they chose it, what they like and don’t like. Be sure to ask the two most important questions at the end:

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1. What other advice would you give me? 2. Who else should I talk to? • Job shadowing is an opportunity to spend a day with a professional in order to learn about a career and observe daily work activities. This kind of program is usually organized by your high school guidance office or sometimes through a community program like Junior Achievement. • Summer internship programs can provide a high school student with valuable professional development, mentoring, and job shadowing alongside hands-­on work. Check out the Resources section at the end of this book for more information about internships for high school students interested in biomedical science professions.

Making High School Count How can you get the most out of your high school education if you want to be a biomedical science professional? • The most important thing you can do is work hard and make the best grades you can. • Take science classes: biology, chemistry, and physics, and possibly environmental science, forensic science, or marine biology, depending on your interests. • Take math classes: algebra, geometry, trigonometry, calculus, probability, and statistics are all important. • Take classes where you can learn about writing and communication. • If your school doesn’t offer all of these courses, you may be able to find them through an online program. • Participate in extracurriculars like sports or music or clubs, but don’t let being involved in other things get in the way of your coursework. • Graduate! To work in a biomedical science profession, you will need to go to college and probably graduate school.

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ALL ABOUT NETWORKING What is networking? It can sound a little intimidating, but it’s not all three-­piece suits, cocktails, and elevator pitches. Networking is really just getting to know people who are interested in (or employed in) the same field that you’re in or want to go into. Recent estimates Networking means meeting people with say that 70 to 85 percent of jobs are similar interests.  Getty Images/Moyo Studio found through personal contacts, so it’s important to get to know people and, when the time comes, let them know you’re seeking a job in their field. Another advantage of networking is the opportunity to meet mentors. A mentor is an experienced person who gives helpful advice to someone new to the field. Mentors can be teachers, supervisors, colleagues—anyone who knows more than you do, thinks highly enough of you to help you, and has valid advice to give. There are basically two kinds of networking: • Internal networking means reaching out to people you already know, such as at your internship or at school. These people don’t necessarily have to work in biomedical science. They may have other advice or ideas that will help you on your journey. Be sure to give back, too. You don’t want to be the one who is always asking for help but never giving any! Take care of these relationships. They are valuable in too many ways to list. • External networking means meeting new people at work, in clubs, in student chapters of professional associations, at conferences or workshops, or anywhere that you don’t already spend a lot of time. If you discover someone you’d like to know or ask a question, seek them out and introduce yourself. Be polite and professional. Don’t take up too much of their time, at least at first. So how do you start networking? By being active in the world and looking for opportunities to meet people who do what you’d like to do. For instance: • Clubs. If your school has a biology club, a healthcare club, or a science club, join and be an active member. Invite people you’d like to learn from to come

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and speak to the club or give the club a tour of their workplace. • Volunteering and Internships. These activities give you unique opportunities to learn from and get to know experienced biomedical science professionals. • Professional Organizations. Some of these have student chapters or special events that students can attend. • Social Media. Some sites, such as LinkedIn, let you connect with professional organizations as well as people in the field. However, just as with all social media, be wary of sharing personal information with people you don’t know personally, especially while you are a minor.

Summary When you know where you want to go, it’s a lot easier to get there. Making a plan is the best way to get started on the road to where you want to be. Start by taking inventory of yourself, then consider the qualities of the job. Put your plan together to help you know yourself better and clarify your goals. Your plan will contain: • Insight into who you are and what you’re good at (as well as what you’d like to avoid) • What you want out of your career as a biomedical science professional • What the different kinds of biomedical science careers are like • What kind of education and experience you need to achieve your goals • Ideas to improve or hone your people skills • Ways to meet people in your chosen field and learn from them. Don’t miss the Resources section at the end of this book! You’ll find plenty of additional sources to help you figure out your plan. The next chapter will look at what kind of educational options are available and answer the most important question—how do you pay for it? Don’t worry! It’s easier than you might think.

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LOUIS POLLENZ—BIOMEDICAL ENGINEER Louis Pollenz has a bachelor of science degree in biomedical engineering with minors in math and music performance from the University at Buffalo, and a master of engineering (MEng) degree in biomedical engineering from Cornell University. He works as a biomedical engineer for SynchroPET in Stony Brook, New York. The company develops small, adaptable, and noninvasive positron emission technology (PET) devices. He’s also a magician! Louis Pollenz, Biomedical Engineer.  Photo courtesy of Louis Pollenz

How did you decide to become a biomedical engineer? Early on in high school, my mom told me how my grandfather was an engineer. At first, I didn’t know what engineering was or seem too excited about it, but as I went through high school and started talking to other kids about classes like AP Physics that seemed difficult and challenging, it was like the engineering classes you’d take in college. I started thinking I should go for it. I like math and science. I applied to all of my undergraduate schools for general engineering. In spring semester of freshmen year, I started focusing on biomedical engineering. I thought biomed was the one where you could really help people the most.

What is a typical day on your job? My company is a startup medical imaging device company. We build cancer imaging scanners. I generally say that instead of PET, because people sometimes think that means imaging scanners for animals. We are in Stony Brook in the Long Island Technology Incubator. I come into the office every day. The COO is usually here every day. There’s a hardware guy and a software guy. The CEO and CFO usually come in sporadically. I’m one of the only ones who’s here every day. It’s different from a lot of jobs, so I’m still wondering what a “normal” biomedical engineer does. There’s a lot of coding using MATLAB with the software engineer. I’ve definitely learned a lot there. I work with the electrical engineer, talk about the circuit boards and plastics we need to design. I use Solidworks and do 3D modeling. We look at capacitors, resistors, diodes, the traces on the circuit boards, the software, the PCB

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layout. PET scanners involve radiation and to check our scanners we use radiation, so I’m the “radiation safety officer.” Whenever we’re doing a test, I put on my lab coat and glasses, set up the proper shielding and equipment, and work with our advisors to test the scanners. Also writing e-mails and documentation procedures. It’s always different.

What’s the best part of your job? The potential for the device that we have to really help people and impact their lives in a positive way. Right now, we have not had any human trials yet. There’s a decent amount of work to be done on the device before it will help people. I’m looking forward to the CEO saying that we have a customer, and we’re going to build the device for sale. So the excitement and potential to innovate and bring something new to the industry that hasn’t been there before. That I could form part of a team that could really move forward the medical imaging industry is very exciting. I like to travel, and we travel around the state. We’re going to be attending conferences around the world. If we can move things forward, I could potentially travel to various parts of the world. It’s exciting to get in relatively early in the company.

What’s the most challenging part of your job? Probably dealing with the startup craziness. The general consensus is that startups are a little crazy and don’t have their protocols and procedures in place yet. I expected that, but it was more than I thought. Communication can be hard—there are a lot of improvements there that could be made. Many people here have other jobs, so it can be hard to communicate. Weekly meetings sometimes have some of the people on the phone. Ideas and concepts can get lost in the lag time.

What’s the most surprising thing about your job? It can be surprising sometimes dealing with the startup mentality. Sometimes things move slowly because people have so many other things going on. We establish timelines that we can’t always meet. When I first took on the job, I thought things would move quicker than they do. Part of that is the general nature of startups.

How did (or didn’t) your education prepare you for the job? That’s a really interesting question. I know that I wondered about that when I was looking for a job. When I was in graduate school at Cornell, they had a lot of alumni come in and talk about their jobs. My question was always “How much of what you learned in class actually applies to your job?” I’d get answers like 1 percent or 5 percent. I’m actually using a lot of what I learned in school toward my job. Engineering in college is math and science, and more math and more science.

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In the more advanced math classes, when you’re writing down all these crazy equations and algorithms, you wonder if you’re ever going to use it. Everyone wonders this. Obviously, not every class is being applied to what I do, but a surprising amount of it is. I’m using coding—lots and lots of coding. Definitely stuff with circuit boards; I took a lot of circuits and signals classes in undergrad and grad school. At my job, I literally wrote out Ohm’s law (V = IR) on projects. Electrical engineers will definitely be using that, and I use it, too. Physics-­based stuff is important for the radiation stuff we do, as are 3D modeling techniques, and the language and verbiage that are used with engineers. Looking back, I wouldn’t have known certain terms without a particular class. If you weren’t taught how to read an electronic schematic, you wouldn’t be able to do it. Also, how to make a presentation—60 percent of my classes had a group project with a presentation at the end. That was extremely valuable. And teamwork skills. In my opinion, teamwork skills are something you have to develop. I definitely use those on my job. Another example is which websites to order stuff from, what the terms are, what the names of different tools are. Soldering circuit boards and place resistors and capacitors on circuit boards—that was one of the first things I did at my job.

Is the job what you expected? Yes. If I told myself when I was a junior or senior in college or in graduate school, “You’re going to be working at a startup medical device company that makes PET scanners,” I would have said, “Awesome! That’s exactly what I want to do!” Even the day-­to-­day stuff, team meetings, maybe conferences—I think it does match fairly closely what I thought it would be.

What’s next? Where do you see yourself going from here? I ask myself that question probably twice every week. It’s very difficult to answer. One reason is that, being at a startup, it’s difficult to project. I’m turning twenty-­five in a month, so I need to think about health insurance soon. If we do really well, I could see myself staying here. I’m really interested in the technology and taking it forward to deliver something to the industry that it can really use. If not, I’d need to reconsider my whole situation. I got this job by e-­mailing the CEO and asking if they had any jobs, and they did. This isn’t a large company with an obvious ladder, but I’ve thought it would be cool to move up here and have more control and more ability to do more important things. I took a course in entrepreneurship for scientists and engineers in grad school. Almost every time I sat in that class, I thought it would be awesome to create and develop my own company. I like the whole startup vibe. One day I’d like to start my own company and run it from the ground up. In the course, they said you’ll probably be in the workforce and notice something missing. You’ll wonder why it doesn’t exist, do the research, and decide

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to pursue it. That makes more sense to me than inventing something out of thin air that no one’s ever thought of before. So I do keep my mind open to see if I notice something missing like that, that I could build a company out of, and help people and help the medical field.

Where do you see careers in biomedical engineering going from here? I think it’s really, really promising. I’m not just saying that because it’s the standard thing to say about your own field. I think there’s so much potential research out there for so many different types of medicine. At first, I thought biomedical engineering was just about medical devices, but that’s not all it is. A biomedical engineer could work in a wet lab setting, developing a drug or a cure for something. I took a course in stem cell engineering—it’s fascinating. You could engineer some kind of graft or delivery system for stem cells. It doesn’t need to be a device necessarily. It could be with tiny organism and cell cultures and a Petri dish. From both the medical device side and the therapy or pharmaceutical side, there’s so much room for growth. Within the past decade, there’ve been big strides in this field, and I think it will only continue to grow. Biomedical engineering hasn’t really been around all that long. Engineers who are fifty years old now didn’t have biomedical engineering when they were in school. It has taken off, and I think it will continue to take off in the future. That’s one of the reasons I wanted to become one.

What is your advice for a young person considering this career? In terms of college, I’d say you have to enjoy math and science, and be good at math and science. Biomedical engineering is kind of the “jack of all trades.” We’re expected to know all or a lot of different facets of engineering. We’re expected to know the mechanical, electrical, technical, and computer side as well as the medical side, biology, anatomy, medicine. If that interests you, go into biomedical engineering. Learn some kind of computer programming. I guess almost every engineer does programming. In high school, I took the AP Computer Science exam. I was surprised how much that helped in college. We had classes where we were just expected to know some coding, or at least pseudocoding. In my job now, I’m doing a lot of coding, and I certainly enjoy it.

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Pursuing the Education Path

Higher education is required for a career as a Biomedical Science professional.  Getty Images/sshepard

W

hat is the education path for a biomedical science professional? It’s a little different for each one, but it all starts with a bachelor’s degree. Most biomedical science careers require at least a master’s degree after that, and frequently a doctoral degree. That can mean a PhD, a medical degree, or both.

Finding the College That’s Right for You There’s so much information out there about how and why to choose a particular college. And there’s so much to consider! How can you can ever narrow it down and make the right decision? 61

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The best way to be sure you find the right place for you is to think about what matters to you and narrow down your choices. Consider the different qualities in this section and make sure the schools you’re considering offer what you’re looking for. On the other hand, don’t narrow your list too far. You want to apply to several colleges or universities, not just one.

ACADEMIC ENVIRONMENT The first thing you need to know is if the school offers the major you want. What’s involved in the degree program? What percent of classes are taught by professors and what percent are taught by adjunct instructors? Are adjunct instructors working professionals in the field? Does the school offer internships or cooperative education programs? Can you do a double major or a minor if you want to? Does it have a good reputation? (See the sidebar called “Your School’s Reputation.”) The place to find most of this information is on the university’s website. Dig deep. Look at the name of the program, what courses are required, who the faculty members are (including their own research areas, which lets you know if they are active in their field). Don’t limit yourself to just the program’s or the department’s page.

YOUR SCHOOL’S REPUTATION One factor in choosing a college or certificate program is the school’s reputation. This reputation is based on the quality of education previous students have had there. If you go to a school with a healthy reputation in your field, it gives potential employers a place to start when they are considering your credentials and qualifications. Factors vary depending on which schools offer the program you want, so take these with a grain of salt. Some of the factors affecting reputation generally include: • Nonprofit or for-­profit. In general, schools that are nonprofit (or not-­for-­profit) organizations have better reputations than for-­profit schools. • Accreditation. Your program must be accredited by a regional accrediting body to be taken seriously in the professional world. It would be very rare to find an unaccredited college or university with a good reputation.

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• Acceptance rate. Schools that accept a very high percentage of applicants can have lower reputations than those that accept a smaller percentage. That’s because a high acceptance rate can indicate that there isn’t much competition for those spaces, or that standards are not as high. • Alumni. What have graduates of the program gone on to do? The college’s or department’s website can give you an idea of what graduates are doing. • History. Schools that have been around a long time tend to be doing something right. They also tend to have good alumni networks, which can help you when you’re looking for a job or a mentor. • Faculty. Schools with a high percentage of permanent faculty compared to adjunct faculty tend to have better reputations. Bear in mind that if you’re going to a specialized program or certification program, this might be reversed—these programs are frequently taught by experts who are working in the field. • Departments. A department at one school might have a better reputation than a similar department at a school that is more highly ranked overall. If the department you’ll be attending is well known and respected, that could be more important than the reputation of the institution itself. There are a lot of websites that claim to have the “Top 10 Schools for Microbiology” or “Best 25 Forensic Science Programs.” It’s hard to tell which of those are truly accurate. So where to begin? U.S. News & World Report is a great place to start to find a college or university with a great reputation. Go to https://www​.usnews​ .com to find links to the highest-­ranked schools for the undergraduate or graduate degree programs you’re interested in.

SUPPORT SERVICES Support services are things like academic counseling, career counseling, health and wellness, residence services, the financial aid office, information technology support, commuter services, and services for students who are disabled, or who have families, or who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender. Some schools also have religious support, such as a chaplain. Before you choose a school, look through the website and be sure it provides the services you will need.

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CLUBS/ACTIVITIES/SOCIAL LIFE Most colleges have clubs and other social activities on campus, whether the student population is mostly residents or mostly commuters. Look for clubs related to the major you’re interested in as well as clubs and activities for your other interests. College campuses have all kinds of things going on all the time, for students and for the local community: concerts, comics, plays, open mic nights, game nights, art shows, and lots of other things. Don’t miss out!

SPECIALIZED PROGRAMS Does the school or program you’re looking at have any programs that meet your specialized needs? For instance, some institutions have programs specifically for veterans. Some address learning disabilities or mental health issues. If you might benefit from a specialized program like these, be sure the school you attend can meet that need.

HOUSING OPTIONS What kind of housing options do you want or need? Most four-­year colleges and universities expect undergraduate students to live on campus. What are the dorms like? How many students will share a room? Graduate students might live on or off campus. Are there on-­campus apartments? Will you need family student housing? Is there help with finding off-­campus housing like apartments or rooms for rent? Be sure you have an affordable place to live!

TRANSPORTATION If you live off campus, how will you get there? Is there a campus or city bus system? Is there a ride-­share program? Could you ride a bicycle? Will you need to have access to a car? If the campus is large, is there an on-­campus shuttle bus service that can get you around quickly? Is there enough student parking?

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STUDENT BODY What’s the makeup of the student body? What’s the ratio of men to women? Is there enough diversity? Do most of the students live on campus or are they commuters? Part time or full time? Who will you meet there? College is a great place to meet and get know other people who share your interests. It’s also a great place to meet and get to know people who are very different from you. On a college campus, you’ll encounter people from small towns and large cities; of all different ethnic backgrounds, genders, and ages; studying or teaching many different topics. Be sure you take advantage of the opportunity to discover more kinds of people!

THE RIGHT FIT As you look at the facts and figures, you also need to think about a less quantifiable aspect of choosing a college or university: fit. What does that mean? It’s hard to describe, but students know it when they feel it. It means finding the school that not only offers the program you want, but also the school that feels right. Many students have no idea what they’re looking for in a school until they walk onto the campus for a visit. Suddenly, they say to themselves, “This is the one!”

Be sure to participate!  Getty Images/SDI Productions

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While you’re evaluating a particular institution’s offerings with your conscious mind, your unconscious mind is also at work, gathering information about all kinds of things at lightning speed. When it tells your conscious mind what it’s decided, we call that a gut reaction. Pay attention to your gut reactions! There’s good information in there.

Determining Your Degree Plan Let’s take a look at the different degree options that you might be considering if you plan on a biomedical science profession.

BACHELOR’S DEGREES Everyone in a biomedical science profession needs to start with a bachelor’s degree. This can be a BA (bachelor of arts) or a BS (bachelor of science). The BS degree programs usually contain more math and science, while BA programs will include more humanities or liberal arts subjects. Major subjects may be called: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Biochemistry Bioengineering Biology Biological science Bioinformatics Biomedical engineering Cell biology Chemistry Criminal science and forensics Life sciences Medical technology Microbiology Natural science Physiological sciences Physiology Public health

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A few of the careers considered in this book have entry-­level jobs at the bachelor’s level, including: • • • •

Biomedical Engineer Clinical Biochemist Clinical Laboratory Technologist Microbiologist

However, higher-­level positions in any of these fields will require graduate study.

MASTER’S DEGREES For most people in biomedical science professions, a master’s degree is not a stopping point. It is one of the steps on the way to a doctoral degree. In some cases, you skip the master’s degree step altogether, and head straight into a doctoral program once you have your bachelor’s degree (some of these will give you a master’s degree about halfway through the doctoral program; others don’t bother). Sometimes, people who want to go to medical school but didn’t have enough biology or life sciences in their undergraduate degree will choose to do a master’s degree in a biomedical science before applying to medical school. Most master’s degrees can be completed in two or three years and usually include a master’s thesis. A master’s thesis documents your original research on a specific project, under the supervision of a professor who serves as your thesis adviser. Requirements for theses vary by institution, but in general a master’s thesis is much shorter than a dissertation. The number of pages required also varies, but every institution has highly specific formatting that you must follow! Some of the master’s degree programs you might find for the biomedical science professions in this book could be: • • • • • • •

Master of public health (MPH) MS in biochemistry MS in biohazardous threat agents and emerging infectious diseases MS in bioinformatics MS in biomedical sciences MS in biomedical science policy and advocacy MS in biostatistics

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• • • • • • • •

MS in biotechnology MS in clinical and translational research MS in clinical biochemistry MS in clinical quality, safety, and leadership MS in epidemiology MS in forensic biology MS in health informatics and data science MS in microbiology

You can pursue a career in biomedical science with a master’s degree in these fields: • • • •

Biomedical Engineer Clinical Biochemist (clinical supervisor) Epidemiologist Forensic Scientist

COMBINED BACHELOR’S AND MASTER’S PROGRAMS Some institutions offer combined programs that allow you to complete a graduate degree in less time than usual when it immediately follows the university’s own bachelor’s degree program. Here is a short list of some combined programs currently out there: • The University of Florida offers a “4 + 1” combined BS/MS in microbiology and cell science. • Georgia Tech has two five-­year combined BS/MS degrees: the BSBIO/MSBIO in biology or the BSBIO/MSBINF in biology and bioinformatics. • The University of California San Diego has a contiguous program leading to an MS in biology for students enrolled in the BS in biology program. • Colorado State University has a five-­year combined BS/MS degree in biochemistry. • The University of Rochester offers a five-­year BS/MS program in immunology, microbiology, and virology.

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This list is not comprehensive and isn’t an endorsement of any particular program. It’s just a guide to what’s available and a starting place to help you find a combined program that might be right for you.

DOCTORAL DEGREES To reach the top of your profession in biomedical science, you will probably need a doctoral degree. There are two kinds of doctoral degrees that are relevant to the world of biomedical science: the research doctorate and the medical degree.

Research Doctorate A research doctorate, such as a PhD, is an academic degree offered in a particular field of study. It shows that you have completed the highest level of study in your field, including research that qualifies for peer-­reviewed publication. A research doctoral degree is the credential usually needed to teach at the college or university level. It’s often referred to as a terminal degree, meaning that you can stop there—no further degree is required. Of course, you don’t have to stop there. Requirements vary by program and country, but in general a research doctorate is earned after several years of advanced graduate study that leads to a body of original research. That research is documented in a dissertation that is assessed by a committee of experts. The candidate is then asked questions about the research in an oral examination. This is called “defending your dissertation.” It’s common to use the dissertation as the basis for one or more published articles and sometimes a book. In the biomedical science professions, you would most likely pursue one of these degrees: • PhD (doctor of philosophy) is not the only research doctorate out there, but it is the most recognized and the most common in Biological Sciences. • DPH (doctor of public health, sometimes abbreviated DrPH) is the advanced terminal degree for public health practice.

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• DEng (doctor of engineering, sometimes abbreviated DESc or DES for doctor of engineering science) is a terminal degree in the field of engineering.

Medical Degree Many biomedical science professionals choose to get a medical degree, usually an MD. Having a degree in medicine gives you more options for pursuing any biomedical science career, especially one that combines medicine with research. Becoming a medical doctor is a long and expensive road. After completing your undergraduate degree, medical school is four more years, then between three and seven years of residency (the first year of residency is sometimes still called an internship). That’s a ten-­year commitment before you are qualified to practice medicine on your own. But the opportunity to help others is unmatched!

In medical school, I remember asking an attending (a supervising faculty member to residents and medical students) what it took to become a great doctor. His reply: “Your 20s.”—Ibrahim Busnaina, MD1

There are a number of different medical degrees that each have their own educational requirements and standards. You must have the appropriate degree and be licensed by the state in order to practice medicine on humans or animals, or to conduct research on human beings that includes any kind of drug intervention. Here’s a sample of medical degrees: • MD (medical doctor) is the most usual and recognized medical degree. MDs are trained in allopathic medicine, which means traditional science-­based treatment. About 90 percent of all physicians in the United States have MD degrees. • DO (doctor of osteopathic medicine) is another recognized medical degree. Training is a little different, as DOs take a more holistic approach and use hands-­on manipulation techniques. DOs must also be licensed by the state to practice medicine.

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• DDS (doctor of dental surgery), DMD (doctor of medicine in dentistry), or DDM (doctor of dental medicine) are all degrees held by dentists or oral surgeons. • DVM (doctor of veterinary medicine) is the degree that qualifies you to practice medicine on animals. Someone going into medical research or planning to do research in a biomedical field might want to earn both a medical degree and a research doctorate. A forensic scientist might have a master’s degree in forensic science and a medical degree to move to the top of the field as a medical examiner.

Applying and Getting Admitted Once you’ve narrowed down your list of potential schools, you’ll want to be accepted. But first, you need to apply. There isn’t enough room in this book to include everything you need to know about applying to colleges. But here is some useful information to get you started. Remember, every college or university is unique, so be sure to be in touch with the admissions offices of the schools you are interested in so you don’t miss any special requirements or deadlines.

Before you go to college, you have to be admitted.  Getty Images/YinYang

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APPLYING TO COLLEGES It’s a good idea to make yourself a to-­do list while you’re a junior in high school. Already a senior or already graduated? No problem. It’s never too late to start.

Standardized Tests Many colleges and universities require scores from standardized tests that are supposed to measure your readiness for college and ability to succeed. There is debate about how accurate these tests are, so some institutions don’t ask for them anymore. But most do, so you should expect to take them.

Undergraduate-­Level Tests To apply to an undergraduate program, students generally take either the SAT or the ACT. Both cover reading, writing, and math. Both have optional essays. Both are accepted by colleges and universities. Both take nearly the same amount of time to complete. If one test is preferred over another by schools, it’s usually more about where you live than about the test.2 • SAT, offered by the College Board. There are twenty SAT subject tests that you can take to show knowledge of special areas, such as Math 1 and Math 2, Biology (Ecological or Molecular), Chemistry, Physics, as well as US or World History and numerous languages. • ACT. There aren’t any subject tests available with the ACT. Questions are a little easier on the ACT, but you don’t have as much time to answer them. Ultimately, which test you take comes down to personal preference. Many students choose to take both exams.

Graduate-­Level Tests • Graduate Record Exam (GRE), published by Educational Testing Service. The GRE is the most widely used admission test for graduate and professional schools. It covers verbal and quantitative reasoning and

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analytical writing. The test results are considered along with your undergraduate record for admissions decisions to most graduate programs. • GRE Subject Tests. Some graduate programs also want to see scores from subject tests. GRE subject tests are offered in biology, chemistry, literature in English, mathematics, physics, and psychology. • Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), administered by the Association of American Medical Colleges. MCAT is the standardized test for admission to medical school programs in allopathic, osteopathic, podiatric, or veterinary medicine (although some veterinary programs accept the GRE instead).

Know the Deadlines • Early decision (ED) deadlines are usually in November, with acceptance decisions announced in December. Note that if you apply for ED admission and are accepted, that decision is binding, so only apply ED if you know exactly which school you want to go to and are ready to commit. • ED II is a second round of early decision admissions. Not every school that does ED also has an ED II. For those that do, deadlines are usually in January with decisions announced in February. • Regular decision deadlines can be as early as January 1 but can go later. Decision announcements usually come out between mid-­March and early April. • Rolling admission is used by some schools. Applications are accepted at any time and decisions are announced on a regular schedule. Once the incoming class is full, admissions for that year close.

The Common App The Common Application form is a single, detailed application form that is accepted by more than nine hundred colleges and universities. Instead of filling out a different application form for every school you want to apply to, you fill out one form and have it sent to all the schools you’re interested in. The Common App itself is free, and most schools don’t charge for submitting it.

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If you don’t want to use the Common App for some reason, most colleges will also let you apply using a form on their website. There are a few institutions that require you to apply through their sites and other highly regarded institutions that only accept the Common App. Be sure you know what is preferred by the schools that interest you. The Common App website (https://www​.commonapp​.org) has a lot of useful information, including tips for first-­time applicants and for transfer students.

Essays Part of any college application is a written essay, and sometimes even two or three. Some colleges provide writing prompts they want you to address. The Common App has numerous prompts that you can choose from.

Not only is the college essay a place to showcase writing skills, it’s one of the only parts of a college application where a student’s voice can shine through.— Kelly Mae Ross, Devon Haynie, and Josh Moody3

Essay Tips • Topic. Choose something that has some meaning for you, something you can speak to in a personal way. This is your chance to show the college or university who you are as an individual. It doesn’t have to be about an achievement or success, and it shouldn’t be your whole life story. Perhaps choose a topic that relates to a time you learned something or had an insight into yourself. • Timing. Start working on your essays the summer before senior year, if possible. You won’t have a lot of homework in your way, and you’ll have time to prepare thoughtful comments and polish your final essay. • Length. Aim for between 250 and 650 words. The Common App leans toward the long end of that range, while individual colleges might lean toward the shorter end.

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• Writing. Use straightforward language. Don’t turn in your first draft— work on your essay and improve it as you go. Ask someone else to read it and tell you what they think. Ask your English teacher to look at it and make suggestions. Do not let someone else write any portion of your essay. It needs to be your ideas and your writing in order to represent you. • Proofreading. Make sure your essay doesn’t have any obvious errors. Run spell check, but don’t trust it to find everything (spell checkers are notorious for introducing weird errors). Have someone you trust read it over for you and note spelling, grammar, and other mistakes. Nobody can proofread their own work and find every mistake—what you’ll see is what you expect to see. Even professional editors need other people to proofread their writing! So don’t be embarrassed to ask for help.

Letters of Recommendation Most college applications ask for letters of recommendation from people who know you well and can speak to what you’re like as a student and as a person. How many you need varies from school to school, so check with the admissions office website to see what they want. Some schools don’t want any!

Who Should You Ask for a Letter? Some schools will tell you pretty specifically who they want to hear from. Others leave it up to you. Choose people who know you and think well of you, such as: • One or two teachers of your best academic subjects (English, math, science, social studies, etc.) • Teacher of your best elective subject (art, music, media, etc.) • Adviser for a club you’re active in • School counselor • School principal (but only if he or she knows you individually as a student) • Community member you’ve worked with, such as a scout leader, volunteer group leader, or religious leader

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When to Ask for a Letter Don’t wait until applications are due. Give people plenty of time to prepare a good recommendation letter for you. If possible, ask for these letters in late spring or early summer of your junior year.

Submitting Your Letters of Recommendation Technically, you’re not supposed to read your recommendation letters. This lets recommenders speak more freely about you. Some might show you the letter anyway, but that’s up to them. Don’t ask to see it! Recommenders can submit their letters electronically either directly to the institutions you’re applying to or through the Common App. Your job is to be sure they know the submission deadlines well in advance so they can send in the letters on time.

ADMISSIONS REQUIREMENTS Each college or university has its own admissions requirements. In addition, the specific program or major you want to go into may have admissions requirements of its own in addition to the institution’s requirements. It’s your responsibility to go to each institution’s website and be sure you know and understand the requirements. That includes checking out each department site, too, to find any special prerequisites or other things that they’re looking for.

What’s It Going to Cost You? Costs can be quite different, depending on the field you want to go into and the program you choose. And there are a lot of other factors that affect the cost of your postsecondary education. Are you going straight to a four-­year school or could you do your first two years at a community college and transfer to finish your bachelor’s degree? Is it public or private? How much financial aid are you eligible for in terms of scholarships or grants? How much will you be expected to borrow in student loans?

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Education costs are high—but you can do it!  Getty Images/William_Potter

College may seem expensive. But the truth is that most students pay less than their college’s sticker price, or published price, thanks to financial aid. So instead of looking at the published price, concentrate on your net price—the real price you’ll pay for a college. . . . Your net price is a college’s sticker price for tuition and fees minus the grants, scholarships, and education tax benefits you receive. The net price you pay for a particular college is specific to you because it’s based on your personal circumstances and the college’s financial aid policies.—BigFuture4

The following information is from the College Board website. It represents the state of things for the 2019–2020 academic year.5 That’s a lot of money! However, these are averages. And note the difference in cost between a year at a two-­year community college and a year at a four-­year college or university. In general, tuition and other costs for college tend to go

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Average Estimated Full-Time Undergraduate Budgets (Enrollment-Weighted) by Sector, 2019–2020. From Trends in College Pricing 2019 https://research.collegeboard.org/trends/college-pricing

up about 3 percent every year, so take that into consideration when planning for the year that you’ll be going to school. You’ll need to look closely at the costs of the schools you’re considering—they could be quite different from the figures shown here. There are all kinds of ways to get those costs down!

Financial Aid It is worth your while to put some time and effort into finding out what financial aid you qualify for. Reach out to the financial aid office at the school you want to attend. They can tell you a lot about what you may be able to work out.

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It’s important to understand how financial aid works to make the most of your opportunities.  Getty Images/designer491

Financial aid can come from many sources. The kind of awards you’re eligible for depend on a lot of things, such as: • • • •

Academic performance in high school Financial need Program/field of study Type of college

NOT ALL FINANCIAL AID IS CREATED EQUAL Educational institutions tend to define financial aid as any scholarship, grant, loan, or paid employment that assists students to pay their college expenses. Notice that financial aid includes both money you have to pay back and money you don’t have to pay back. That’s a big difference!

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DO NOT HAVE TO BE REPAID • Scholarships • Grants • Work-­study HAVE TO BE REPAID WITH INTEREST • Federal government loans • Private loans • Institutional loans

SCHOLARSHIPS Scholarships are financial awards that are usually offered on the basis of academic merit, membership in Scouting or some other organization, or for going into a particular field. Scholarships can also be available to students who have certain characteristics, such as athletes, or who are underrepresented in a particular field or major, such as women or members of a minority group. Some scholarships go toward tuition; others are for specific things like textbooks and school supplies. Scholarships usually pay a portion of tuition. It is very rare to receive a full-­tuition scholarship, but it does happen. Scholarships do not have to be paid back. Scholarships can be local, regional, statewide, or national in scope. There are also scholarships specifically for community college students, including those who want to transfer to a bachelor’s degree program later on or those who are studying a particular subject. Some are offered by professional associations, some by nonprofit organizations, and some by the community colleges themselves. Be sure to check with your high school guidance counselor as well as the school you’re planning to attend. Some high schools have scholarships that go to graduating seniors who are planning to pursue a particular career, and many are restricted to community and technical colleges. Take a look at the Resources part of this book: “Paying for College” is the very first section!

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GRANTS Grants are similar to scholarships. Most tuition grants are awarded based on financial need, but some are restricted to students in particular academic fields, sports, or demographic groups, or those with special talents. Grants do not have to be paid back. Some grants come through federal or state agencies, such as the Pell Grant, SMART Grants, and Federal Supplemental Education Opportunity Grant. You’ll need to fill out the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) form to apply for these grants. Learn more about those at https://studentaid​.ed​ .gov/types/grants-­scholarships. Grants can also come from private organizations or from the college itself. For instance, some private colleges or universities have enough financial resources that they can “meet 100 percent of proven financial need.” That doesn’t mean a free ride, but it usually means some grant money to cover the gap between what the financial aid office believes you can afford and the amount covered by scholarships and federal loans. (More on federal loans below.)

WORK-­STUDY The federal work-­study program provides money for undergraduate and graduate students to earn money through part-­time jobs. Work-­study is a need-­based program, so you’ll need to find out if you are eligible for it. Some students are not eligible at first but become eligible later in their college career. Most jobs are on-­campus and some relate to your field, but others—like working in the library—are more general. Some colleges and universities don’t participate in the work-­study program, so check with the financial aid office to see if it’s available and if you’re eligible for it. It’s good to apply early to have a better chance of getting the job you want most. Since work-­study is earned money (you do a job and get paid for it), this money does not need to be paid back. To learn more, check out https://studentaid​.ed​.gov/sa/types/work-­study.

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LOANS There is almost always a gap between the full cost of tuition and the amount of money you receive in scholarships and grants. That gap is filled by student loans. Student loans do have to be repaid. Interest varies depending on the type of loan. Be sure you understand how much interest you will be charged, when the interest starts to accumulate, and when you must start paying the loan back. Usually, repayment starts when you graduate or after a six-­month grace period. In most cases, undergraduate loan repayment gets put on hold for people who are enrolled in graduate school (including medical school).

Federal Loans Federal student loans are issued by the US government. They have lower interest rates and better repayment terms than other loans, and you don’t need anyone to cosign. If the loan is subsidized, the federal government pays the interest until you graduate. If it’s unsubsidized, interest starts to accrue as soon as you accept the loan. That can amount to a very big difference in how much you pay for your education by the time the loan is paid off. The most common federal student loan is the low-­interest federal Stafford Loan, which is available to both undergraduate and graduate students. Depending on household income, a student’s Stafford Loan might be subsidized or unsubsidized. Most schools will require you to fill out the Free Application for Federal Student Aid when you apply for financial aid. Note that it doesn’t say “free student aid”; it says “free application.” That means it does not cost anything to apply for federal student aid. You may get offers to submit the FAFSA for you for a fee—this is a scam. Don’t do it.

Private Loans Chances are, if you are attending a four-­year bachelor’s degree program, federal student loans will not completely fill the gap between your tuition bill and any scholarships or grants you receive. Private student loans are issued by a bank or

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other financial institution. Rates of interest are generally higher than for federal loans, so be careful not to borrow more than you need. Eligibility criteria for private loans are based on credit history (both yours and your cosigner’s). Don’t just take the first loan you find. Do some research and compare interest rates and terms. Is the interest rate variable or fixed? Is there a cap on the variable interest? Is the company reputable? What are their repayment requirements?

Institutional Loans Many educational institutions make their own loans, using funds provided by donors such as alumni, corporations, and foundations, as well as from repayments made by prior college loan borrowers. Every college has its own rules, terms, eligibility, and interest rates. Interest may be lower than private student loans, and the deferment option may be better as well. Learn more about all kinds of financial aid through the College Board website at http://bigfuture​.collegeboard​.org/pay-­for-­college.

FINANCIAL AID TIPS • S ome colleges and universities will offer tuition discounts to encourage students to attend, so tuition costs may be lower than they first appear. • Apply for financial aid during your senior year of high school. The sooner you apply, the better your chances. • Compare offers from different schools—one school may be able to match or improve on another school’s financial aid offer. • Keep your grades up—a good GPA helps a lot when it comes to merit scholarships and grants. • You have to reapply for financial aid every year, so you’ll be filling out that FAFSA form again! • Look for ways that loans might be deferred or forgiven—service commitment programs are a way to use service to pay back loans.

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Your education will give you the foundation for a lifetime of learning.  Getty Images/SolStock

While You’re in College Once you’re in an undergrad program, of course you will take all the classes required by your major, including all the labs. This will be time consuming and a lot of hard work, as it should be. But there’s more to your college experience than that! One of the great advantages of college is that it’s so much more than just training for a particular career. It’s your opportunity to become a broader, deeper person. Use your electives to take courses far outside your major. Join clubs, intramural teams, singing groups—whatever catches your interest. Take a foreign language. The broader your worldview is, the more interesting you are as a person—and the more appealing you are to employers in the future!

It has always seemed strange to me that in our endless discussions about education so little stress is laid on the pleasure of becoming an educated person, the enormous interest it adds to life. To be able to be caught up into the world of thought—that is to be educated.—Edith Hamilton6

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WORKING WHILE YOU LEARN If you’re in a biomedical science-­related major, you’ll get a lot of hands-­on experience in the lab sections of your classes. But that doesn’t always convey what it’s like to do the work in real life. If you have the opportunity, consider trying some of these ways to learn and work at the same time.

Cooperative Education Programs Cooperative education (co-­op) programs are a structured way to alternate classroom instruction with on-­the-­job experience. There are co-­op programs for all kinds of jobs. Co-­op programs are run by the educational institution in partnership with several employers. Students usually alternate semesters in school with semesters at work. A co-­op program is not an internship. Students in co-­op jobs typically work forty hours a week during their work semesters and are paid a regular salary. Participating in a co-­op program means it will take longer to graduate, but you’ll come out of school with a lot of legitimate work experience. Be sure the college you attend is truly committed to its co-­op program. Some schools are deeply committed to co-­ops as integral to education, but others treat it more like an add-­on program. Also, the company you co-­op with is not obliged to hire you at the end of the program, but can still be an excellent source of good references for you in your job search.

Internships Internships are another way to gain work experience while you’re in school. Internships are offered by employers and usually last one semester or one summer. You might work part-­time or full-­time, but you’re usually paid in experience and college credit rather than money. There are paid internships in some fields, but they aren’t common. “Internship” is also the term used for the first year of residency after you finish medical school. This is a different kind of internship that is not part of an undergraduate learning experience.

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Summary

Your education is just the beginning!  Getty Images/idealistock

This chapter should give you a good idea of the kinds of things you need to be thinking about in terms of going to college and (possibly) graduate or medical school afterward. As someone interested in biomedical science, you already know the importance of doing your own research. So don’t stop with what you’ve read here! Use this information as a jumping-­off point to investigate the college or university program that’s right for you, understand the admissions requirements, get those great recommendation letters, write a terrific essay, get that financial aid in place, and start the next phase of your life. In the next chapter, we’ll take a look at what you do after graduation— when it’s time to go out into the world and get your first job as a biomedical science professional. It’s going to be great!

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ALYSSA M. BURNS—CLINCICAL BIOCHEMIST

Alyssa Burns, PhD, is a clinical biochemist.  Photo courtesy of Alyssa Burns

Clinical biochemist Alyssa M. Burns holds a bachelor’s degree in food science and human nutrition and a PhD in nutrition biochemistry from the University of Florida. She works as a clinical research protocol developer for a contract research organization near Washington, DC, where she studies aspects of preventing, diagnosing, and treating diseases and conditions. Her goal is to translate basic science from the laboratory setting through clinical trials into new treatments and interventions that benefit people.

How did you decide to become a clinical biochemist? As an undergrad, I took a nutrition and disease course. One lesson was how they discovered vitamins and minerals, and solved problems of nutritional deficiencies. It was so interesting. Then I started working in a clinical lab and just fell in love with clinical research. How can we solve these problems? And just the research itself. At first, I thought I would be an MD and work with patients. If I hadn’t taken that class, I wouldn’t have been exposed to research outside of the medical school setting. I didn’t know there were people who just did biochemistry. A lot of the time, you work with sponsors, and they might have a question about their product. We can test it in humans and see if it’s effective or if it works. We’re part of research and development. Someone reads a label on their orange juice or cereal—that came from research. Research is how we know that eating more fiber benefits gastrointestinal health, for instance—because there’s research on it. We get to be part of creating products that improve overall health and quality of life.

What is a typical day on your job? It definitely varies! No day is ever the same. When I’m not in the clinic doing assessments, I’m working on data management and statistical analyses, drafting and editing manuscripts for publication, or writing grants and creating new protocols. In the clinic, we’re doing patient assessment, anthropometric measurements, collecting questionnaire data. We also do lab work, so that involves collecting biological

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specimens. We use randomization to determine what a subject is getting—intervention or placebo. I could be processing samples at the bench, that’s the basic science part of it. That’s where we do experiments and assays with the samples we’ve collected.

What’s the best part of your job? One of my favorite parts is getting the data back. That’s when you get to see the results of your experiment. Another favorite part is the daily operations of what we do, the behind the scenes correspondence, organizing and picking out the questionnaires, organizing the regulatory documents. I like to do the IRB paperwork. The Institutional Review Board is in charge of making sure all research with humans is ethical and meets government guidelines. All of this is what keeps the wheels running to keep your project going.

What’s the most challenging part of your job? The most challenging part is making sure that you stay innovative and keep up with the current literature and research. You want your research to remain competitive and relevant. That means taking risks, trying new experiments, changing up your methodologies. There’s a chance it may or may not work. It’s high risk, high reward!

What’s the most surprising thing about your job? Just the human body’s capability. How unique the human body is. Our physiology and how things work. I study nutrition, and we can give a probiotic or a fiber supplement and see the results. The power of the human body to heal itself—that always gets me when I read research and I’m doing research. When I was doing my graduate work, just seeing the changes in how people feel. That’s why you get into this work—to improve health outcomes. Physiology itself is so surprising—how things work, how they function, and when they break down, how can we get those pathways and processes to work again. Our organs, our anatomy, biological compounds, how all these systems work together.

How did (or didn’t) your education prepare you for the job? It was a long time coming! Definitely, my undergraduate and graduate coursework taught me how to be a critical thinker. That’s so important. As a scientist, you always want to know the why of something. My graduate coursework also taught me how to be an independent thinker and how to challenge what we know. Academically, it prepared me because I know the basics and the fundamentals. Undergrad gave me the basic preparation and grad work helped me apply what I know to my research. Now, I know the facts, and I can critically and independently think and apply that to

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my research. You have to know how to critically evaluate the research for yourself, evaluate the evidence in order to come to a conclusion for yourself. I know how the body works so I can help come up with interventions. It’s like putting a puzzle together—knowledge and application.

Is the job what you expected? Yes, for sure. I can now be my own independent thinker and work on a team to improve human health outcomes. I’m using everything I learned, from research management and operations to protocols to submitting a manuscript and getting it published. I enjoy being able to help other scientists and research scientists create and develop competitive protocols. I’m in a position now where I can create and facilitate, coordinate, manage, and oversee comprehensive research protocols in which I can take my health outcome data and translate it into treatments that will benefit overall health.

What’s next? Where do you see yourself going from here? I have two goals. One of my goals is to get into management, so that includes ultimately becoming a director of a program and overseeing other research scientists, pushing the mission and vision forward. My second goal would be to get into research policy, lobbying and encouraging more funding for research. One thing I’m really passionate about is getting more girls and other underrepresented populations into STEM [science, technology, engineering, and math], so either creating a program or a nonprofit to introduce young girls to science beyond what they would learn in school. Giving girls more access to careers in STEM. For my research, I want to make sure that it’s practical and evidence based.

Where do you see the career of clinical biochemist going from here? Our field is going to be very interdisciplinary. I literally see us working with computer scientists, with artificial intelligence and robotics. Working a lot more with technology. Being able to study in a different way. Before, you’d have to do something invasive, whereas now we have the technology so that you often don’t even have to open someone up. I can see us being more patient focused, conducting interviews, seeing what the patient feels about how they’re doing on these interventions. That’s the future! I talk to my brother, who’s still in college, and they have all kinds of things we didn’t have!

What is your advice for a young person considering this career? My biggest advice is to stay naturally curious, keep reading, keep questioning things. That’s how you become a better scientist—you’re always questioning things

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and figuring things out. In research, everything doesn’t go our way. You have to try again. You have to figure out the best solution to your problem. Also, remember that research means evidence-­based research. In our field of nutrition, there’s so much pop-­ed stuff on the internet. You want to be sure that your research is evidence based and has been critically evaluated by your peers. Give it time—you don’t learn anything overnight. It takes time and commitment. But the community is so huge and so great. It takes a lot of time and practice, but don’t give up.

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The next step is starting your career as a biomedical science professional.  Getty Images/SDI Productions

Putting It All Together and Getting the Job

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ou’ve done your planning and research, and you’ve chosen a career as a biomedical science professional. You’ve prepared yourself with your education and training, and developed your practical skills as well as your knowledge of the job. And you know that being a biomedical science professional is a great career with lots of opportunity. This chapter takes a look at the other skills you will need as a new biomedical science professional to land the career you’re looking for.

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Far and away the best prize that life offers is the chance to work hard at work worth doing.—Theodore Roosevelt1

Finding and Applying for the Job Of course, to apply for a job, you first have to know where to look for one. One of the quickest ways to find out what jobs are available in your field is to simply Google it (or search the internet with whichever search engine you like best).

ONLINE JOB SITES When companies want to hire new employees, they post job descriptions on job-­hunting or employee recruitment websites. These are a fantastic resource long before you’re ready to actually apply for a job. You can read real job descriptions for real jobs and see what qualifications and experience are needed for the kinds of job you’re interested in. You’ll also get a good idea of the range of salaries and benefits that go with different types of biomedical science professions. Pay attention to the required qualifications, of course, but also pay attention to the desired qualifications—these are the ones you don’t have to have, but if you have them, you’ll have an edge over other potential applicants. Here are a few to get you started: • • • • •

www​.monster​.com www​.indeed​.com www​.ziprecruiter​.com www​.glassdoor​.com www​.simplyhired​.com

PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS One of the services provided by most professional organizations is a list of open positions. Employers post jobs here because organization members are often the most qualified and experienced. The Resources section in this book lists professional organizations for the different biomedical science professions

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we’ve covered. For other biomedical science professions, check online and talk to people in your field (such as your professors) to find out which organizations to join and where the best source of job information is likely to be.

NETWORKING Some say the absolute best way to find a job is through networking. Your personal and professional contacts may know about an upcoming job that hasn’t even been advertised yet. Sometimes an employer may even create a position for someone they want to hire. Keep in touch with the people you know in the field, at every level, and let them know that you’re available. Still wondering about how to network? Flip back to chapter 2 and check out the sidebar “All about Networking” for some useful tips.

Writing Your Résumé A résumé is how you list everything you’ve done to prepare yourself for the job you’re applying for. It includes sections for different things: your education, your training, your previous experience. It may also include any honors you’ve earned or special things you’ve done or been a part of.

Your résumé or CV documents your education and experience.  Getty Images/relif

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You will submit your résumé (along with a cover letter) whenever you apply for a job. You may also want to upload your résumé to a few of the many résumé sites available on the internet. A résumé should be one to two pages long. For many careers in biomedical science, you’ll be using a longer type of résumé called a curriculum vitae (or CV for short). Whether you’re using the shorter résumé or the longer CV, it’s important to keep it current. Whenever you have a new accomplishment, receive an honor or award, publish or present a paper, obtain a professional certification, or start a new job, be sure that you record it immediately. That way, you will always be ready for any opportunity that comes your way.

RÉSUMÉ Today, the preferred type of résumé is a combination of the skills résumé and the reverse chronological résumé. The reverse chronological résumé is the most traditional format; it’s written with the most current information first, going backward to list the oldest information last. The skills résumé (sometimes called a functional résumé) is designed to highlight your skills and qualifications rather than your work history. The combined résumé is the best of both worlds. It lets you highlight your most important skills and abilities while also showing your employment history in order, from most recent to earliest. The usual layout for a combined résumé is pretty simple: • Name and contact information at the top • Summary of your skills and abilities • Education, starting with the most recently completed. (If you have a college degree, it isn’t necessary to include your high school.) Note that once you’ve been employed for several years, you can move the education section to follow the experience section. • Professional experience, with job title and dates of employment (month or year is fine). • Qualifications such as certification and licensing • Awards and honors (if any) • Volunteer experience (if relevant)

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Created by author.

CURRICULUM VITAE For higher-­level jobs and academic jobs, such as working in a university or research center, you’ll need to use a CV rather than a résumé. A CV is much more comprehensive than a résumé. While a résumé should be short—only a page or two—your CV will be many pages long. Typically, your CV will contain the same information as your résumé, in roughly the same order, and in reverse chronological order. The usual sections you’ll need in your CV are: • Name and contact information at the top

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• Education, starting with the highest degree completed • Qualifications such as certification and licensing • Professional experience, with job title and dates of employment (month or year is fine) • Publications • Presentations • Awards and honors (if any) • Volunteer experience (if relevant) If you don’t have a lot of publications and presentations yet, you can combine those into a single section. The sample below gives you an idea of what the first page of your CV should look like.

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A good CV isn’t just a boring, exhaustive encyclopedia of your career. Like a résumé, a CV should lend itself to being skimmed by readers who don’t care as much about the details. It should deliver an accurate (and strategic) impression of your work. Careful CV craftsmanship and maintenance is a crucial career skill, serving academic scientists well at every career stage.—Sarah A. Webb2

Writing Your Cover Letter Your cover letter is an opportunity to tell your story. It’s a short, personalized letter that you send with your résumé or CV to introduce yourself to a potential employer. A well-­written cover letter is a way to show a little of your personality, to highlight where and how your background makes you a good fit for the position you want, and to indicate your interest in working for that employer. You should always try to send your letter and résumé together to the person who is responsible for making the hiring decision. If (and only if ) you absolutely cannot find out who the decision maker is, send them to the human resources office. Your letter should be in business letter format (see the sidebar “What Does a Business Letter Look Like?”) • Be sure your name and contact information are at the top of the letter, either centered or on the right. • Address the reader by name—avoid generic greetings like “Dear Manager” or “Dear Director.” If the person you are addressing has a doctoral degree, use Dr.; if not, use Ms. or Mr. with the last name. (Do not use Miss or Mrs. unless you have been specifically instructed to do so.) • Identify the specific position you are interested in and where you heard about it (some companies like to track how applicants heard about the position). Mention that your résumé is included or attached. • If you heard about the opening from a specific person, mention him or her by name. • Highlight your most relevant qualifications: skills that match the ones in the job description and/or skills that could transfer to those in the job

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WHAT DOES A BUSINESS LETTER LOOK LIKE? You’ll be using a business letter format for your cover letter and for your thank-­you note. There are several options for what a business letter can look like. This one is considered the most businesslike, so it’s always a good choice. Always try to keep a business letter to a single page if you can.

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description. Focus on your strengths and on what you could bring to the position. Think about this from the employer’s point of view: What about your background will benefit them? Avoid negative language—phrase everything in a positive way. In particular, avoid complaining about a previous employer. Your conclusion should include a confident call to action, such as requesting an interview. Don’t ask directly for the job at this point, just an interview. Include your phone number here, as well as with your contact information at the top. Closing: Sincerely, (That’s it. Don’t use any other word.) Add a few lines of space for your signature, then type your name. Sign the letter by hand.

Sometimes, you’ll be sending your business letter as an e-­mail message. The basic format remains the same. There are only a few minor differences between a business letter on paper and an e-­mail version: • You’ll need an appropriate subject line for the e-­mail. • You only need to leave two lines of space between “Sincerely,” and your name. • Your contact information should follow your signature in an e-­mail, rather than appearing at the top as it would in a paper letter.

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GETTING TO YES Biomedical science professionals are needed, and you will most likely find a job. But there’s no guarantee that you will be offered the job you want most when you first start looking. Here are some tips that will improve your chances of getting to yes. • D  o your research. Find out about the company or institution that you want to apply to. • Talk to people, especially people you know already or friends of friends who know something about that employer. Ask them: ∘∘ ∘∘ ∘∘ ∘∘

what the potential employer is like to work for; what they value in their employees; about benefits; and the general pros and cons of working there.

• If there is a specific job opening you’re qualified for, apply for it! • If there isn’t a specific job opening, send a letter to the head of the company or the department you’re interested in, mention your contacts, and ask if they would have a conversation with you about potential openings. • Be flexible. You might find a good job in a different location than you wanted or doing something slightly different than you originally planned. • Put your best self forward. Everyone you meet is a potential contact for a job (or maybe just a new friend). • If you get an interview, don’t forget that all-­important thank-­you note! It’s one of the most important things you can do to make a good impression. Send the note that day, as soon after the interview as possible. • Don’t put all your eggs in one basket. Apply for many different jobs at the same time.

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DEALING WITH NO A wise person once said, “If they didn’t hire you, you probably would not have been happy working there anyway.” Both employers and employees need to find the right fit. If they didn’t think you were the right fit, you most likely wouldn’t have thought so after a while, either. Here are some tips to get you through a no while you’re waiting for the yes. • A pply for lots of jobs at the same time, so no particular job will be too important to you. • It doesn’t feel great to be turned down for a job, but try not to take it personally. • Don’t burn your bridges! Don’t retaliate with an angry letter or e-­mail or troll the company all over social media. Another opportunity may come up there or with someone they know. • Keep improving your résumé and your cover letter. • Keep putting your best self forward. Even if you’re feeling discouraged, pick up your head and go through your day shining with confidence. • Work your contacts. Talk to other people you know. They may know an employer who would be a great match for you. • Take advice. If someone (especially at or following an interview) tells you that you need to improve something, improve it. This may be an additional credential, or it may be something about your interpersonal skills or your spelling or your breath or whatever. If someone tells you something about yourself that you don’t like to hear but suspect may be right, don’t get mad—get better. • Keep doing your research, so if one employer turns you down, you have three more to apply to that day. • Keep telling yourself that employment is just around the corner. Then make it true!

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Recommendations and References In chapter 3, you learned about asking for letters of recommendation when you apply to college. Likewise, you’ll need professional references when you apply for a job. Each employer may handle this request a little differently. Some will ask you to include contact information for your references (usually three separate individuals) when you apply, especially if they use an online application submission process. Others will expect you to supply that contact information at some later point—usually at or after your interview. Good choices for professional references include: • Previous employers who can speak to your abilities and work ethic • Professors in your field, especially those who know you best • Other professionals in the field, if they know you well and can speak to your qualifications and abilities

Interviewing Skills An interview is a business meeting where a prospective employer is checking you out. Don’t forget that you are also checking them out. You are both there to see if it would be a good fit for you to work together. No matter how much you want the job, remember that you are not there to beg for charity—you are there to offer your services in your professional role.

At a job interview, you are interviewing them as much as they are interviewing you.  Getty Images/PeopleImages

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As a biomedical science professional, you are in high demand. But it’s still important to make a good impression when you’re applying for a job. After all, you won’t be the only person being considered. Be your best self, be confident, be polite.

INTERVIEWING TIPS • Be on time. Don’t be late, ever. Try to arrive ten to fifteen minutes early so you have time to go into the restroom and check yourself in the mirror before you go into the interview. And don’t be too early—that’s just awkward. • Be polished. See the section below on how to dress. • Bring your résumé/CV. Yes, they already have it. Bring extra copies just in case. It’s helpful and shows that you’re the kind of person who is prepared. If you have published research papers, bring copies of the most important ones. • Smile. Let them know that you will be a pleasant person to work with. • Shake hands well. A firm handshake marks you as a person to be taken seriously. It’s traditional to shake hands as you enter the meeting and again before you leave. (See the box “To Shake or Not to Shake.”) • Ask for a business card. You may meet with just one person, with a committee, or with several people individually. At the end of the meeting, ask for a business card from each person so that you have good contact information for your thank-­you notes (see below). • Have good posture. Sit up straight, make reasonable eye contact, and keep your shoulders back. Make it look normal, though—as though you always sit or stand that way. Good posture conveys energy and enthusiasm for the job. • Be prepared. Learn about the company or institution ahead of time so that you sound knowledgeable during the interview. Read the company’s website and talk to people. • Be ready to answer questions. At a job interview, you can expect to get asked some standard questions (“Where do you see yourself in five years?”) plus questions about your specific biomedical science field and the work you’ve already done in it, whether in school or at work.

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• Be ready to ask questions. Some people don’t like to ask questions in an interview because they think it makes them look ignorant. Actually, not asking questions makes them look uninterested. Have some questions prepared—both basic and more in-­depth, because the basic ones might get answered before you have a chance to ask them. • Pay attention. If you’re looking at your phone or out the window during an interview, you’ll look like you don’t care. Nobody wants to hire someone who doesn’t care before the job even starts! Making (at least) intermittent eye contact helps show that you’re paying attention.

TO SHAKE OR NOT TO SHAKE? A handshake is a traditional form of greeting, especially in business. When you arrive for a job interview—or just meet someone new—a good firm handshake shows that you are a person to be taken seriously. But shaking hands is not done in every culture, and even in North America, the norm of shaking hands has changed. During the COVID-19 crisis of 2020, people stopped shaking hands in order to avoid spreading germs. As things get back to normal, some people will want to resume shaking hands and some people won’t. People who work in biomedical science professions may be more aware of the need to prevent infections. (On the other hand, sometimes people who work closely with microbes can start to assume that they don’t need to worry about them.) When you arrive for a job interview, follow the lead of the person Shaking hands in the twentyfirst century is something to think you’re meeting with. A respectful about.  Getty Images/PeopleImages head nod is just fine.

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DRESSING APPROPRIATELY Biomedical science professionals don’t always wear business clothes to work, especially if you work in a healthcare setting. On the job, you might be wearing scrubs or “business casual.” So what should you wear for a job interview? The answer is easy—business clothes. • For men, that means a suit with a button-­down shirt and a necktie. Or if you don’t have a suit, nice slacks with a jacket and tie. Wear real shoes—not sneakers. • For women, a suit is always ideal and is expected for an upper-­level position such as a senior scientist or an administrative role. If you are applying for an entry-­level job, then you could opt for a dress with a jacket, or a nice blouse with either a tailored skirt or dress pants. Wear dress shoes (not sports shoes) but not super-­high heels. Regardless of gender, you should be neatly groomed. Your hands should be clean, especially your fingernails. Your hair should be arranged in a neat and tidy way. Your clothes should be clean, pressed, and well fitting, without spots, rips, or tears. If you wear any jewelry, keep it to a minimum. If you have tattoos, keep them covered. Be sure your shoes are clean and polished.

What Employers Expect Of course, employers everywhere expect you to be qualified and to know what you’re doing. (You wouldn’t have gotten the interview otherwise.) They expect that you will know how to use the technology associated with your job. They expect that you will take the interview process seriously and be ready with your résumé, your questions, and your answers to their questions. There are also certain qualities that every biomedical science professional should have. During a job interview, potential employers will be assessing you for these characteristics:

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COMMUNICATION AND SOCIAL SKILLS • Ability to communicate clearly, both verbally and nonverbally, including active listening and speaking and writing clearly • Ability to work well with your colleagues in and out of the job setting • Politeness, friendliness, a good attitude toward coworkers, clients, and the general public • Willingness to step up, to work independently, to cooperate with others, and to help when your help is needed

GOOD WORK ETHIC • • • • •

Willingness to work hard at assigned tasks Willingness and ability to work with little supervision Seeking opportunities to help colleagues or employers Being on time and not watching the clock Showing initiative and solving problems

ADAPTABILITY • Flexibility about new situations, new processes, new rules and regulations, and new or different environments • Willingness to learn the latest developments in your field and keep your skills and knowledge up-­to-­date • Ability and willingness to get along with all kinds of people

ENTHUSIASM FOR YOUR FIELD • Passion for your biomedical science field • Desire to do your best work at all times • Additional preparation beyond your education, such as volunteer jobs, internships, cooperative education programs, and the like • Commitment to continuing education and learning new developments in your field

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• Desire to build on what you learned in school and grow your skills and knowledge on the job

Following Up After any job interview, it is extremely important to follow up. This is what shows the company or institution that you are genuinely interested in the job. Write your thank-­you note immediately after the interview. Be sure to mention your interest in the job and one or two things from the interview that were important in your conversation. If you met separately with several people, send each one of them a separate note. While an e-­mail is less personal than a hand-­signed letter on paper, it’s a lot faster and is considered an acceptable way to communicate. An e-­mail should have all the same content as a handwritten letter including (and especially) communicating your enthusiasm for the job. Just like a handwritten note, start with “Dear Dr. Name” (replacing “Name” with whatever the person’s name is, of course) and signing it “Sincerely,” two line breaks, “Your Name.” Since you won’t be writing your signature, two line breaks are enough.

On the Job Now that you’ve got the job, it’s important to keep it! It’s not that hard. Just remember these simple tips: • Safety first. Biomedical science professionals deal with hazards all day long. Stay safe and watch out for the safety of those around you. • Do your best. Your biggest asset is high-­quality work. • Be reliable. Your coworkers, clients, and supervisors will respect and appreciate you most when they know they can rely on you. • Be on time. Show up on time for work or even a few minutes early. • Be prepared. Walk in the door ready to work. • Keep good records. This is important for safety as well as efficiency.

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• Be polite. Treat everyone you meet with the same respect you want to receive. • Stay calm. You do your best work when you’re calm, especially if there’s a problem to solve or an emergency. • Have integrity. Be honest and respect other people’s person and property.

Summary There is a strong market out there for all the types of biomedical science professionals we’ve talked about in this book, and there will continue to be. As long as you do a good job and respect the people you work with and work for, you should have a long and lucrative career. You’ll be creating new knowledge, figuring out mysteries, solving problems, and helping people or animals get well or stay healthy. Most important, you’ll be helping make the world a better place. You’re ready to begin the first steps toward your new career as a biomedical science professional!

KIM FALLON—FORENSIC SCIENTIST

Kim Fallon, Chief Forensic Investigator for the State of New Hampshire.  Photo courtesy of Kim Fallon

Kim Fallon is chief forensic investigator for the Office of the Chief Medical Examiner for the state of New Hampshire. She is also an assistant deputy medical examiner (ADME) as an independent contractor. As chief forensic investigator, she also supervises the other independent contractors who serve as ADMEs. She has a bachelor of science degree in biology from Southern Connecticut State University. Prior to moving into forensic work, she was a certified paramedic in New York City and in New Hampshire. She also holds a certificate in paralegal studies from Franklin Pierce University and studied chemistry and anthropology at City University of New York–Lehman College.

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How did you decide to become a forensic acientist? When I got into it twenty-­five years ago, you were not able to go to school for death investigation. In the 1990s, I was a freelance writer for a journal that covered career paths in technology and computers, and I was working as a paramedic in New Hampshire. I was also working for New England Eye Bank [now New England Donor Services]. I was writing an article on child abuse, and I heard the chief medical examiner was going to be speaking on the topic, so I called him for an interview. Later, I heard about the possibility of becoming an ADME, which I was qualified to do as a paramedic. I called him again, trained in the office for a year, and then started doing death investigation cases as an ADME. In New England, we’re on a medical examiner system. We have a chief medical examiner, an associate chief medical examiner, and an incoming deputy chief medical examiner. They are all board-­certified forensic pathologists. ADMEs all have backgrounds as EMTs, RNs, or PAs. We have about twenty-­four ADMEs, all independent contractors. Other places have the coroner system, which is different. Coroners are elected positions; the coroner could be a funeral director who then hires pathologists to do the autopsies.

What is a typical day on your job? On the death investigator job, we work with law enforcement. You’re going to the scene of an unnatural death to do the scene investigation. That includes accidents, suicides, and homicides. I’m the supervisor of the ADMEs. I also work as an ADME, usually only on the weekend because I’m in the office all week as the chief forensic investigator. We’ve had a lot of drug overdoses in recent years. We went from fewer than two hundred in 2010–2011 up to almost five hundred starting in 2014, with no increase in help in the office. That work is interesting to me, because I like the medical part of it. I might have liked to be a detective or a police officer but I’m not brave enough! [laughs] I like my chief forensic investigator job, too, because that involves a lot of different things. We do a lot of public health work. The law gives us authority to investigate certain deaths—every death that’s not natural, but also natural deaths that are a threat to public health. Deaths from COVID-19, for example, would be natural deaths. Our office would be looking at deaths that were possible COVID-19 deaths, but not diagnosed and tested. We would collect specimens and send them to the public health lab. I also have some grants with the CDC to study SUID (sudden unexpected infant death) and SDY (sudden death in the young). We work with the maternal and child health people at the New Hampshire Department of Health and Human Services on those issues. Every state has fatality review meetings—there’s an SUID committee, an SDY committee, a child death review committee, a domestic violence committee, and others. We get together and review all the infant cases

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that fall into that category and come up with a list of risk factors, with information from the police, the pediatrician, and others who can address the case. We come up with recommendations based on that data.

What’s the best part of your job? I really like the public health aspect of it, I like doing the cases. I’ve presented at national conferences. I got invited to join the ONDCP (Office of National Drug Control Policy)—I’m on the emerging threats committee. We put out updates and get a lot of good feedback on it. I like doing that kind of thing. I like working on issues that are going to be preventing deaths.

What’s the most challenging part of your job? We’re a state agency in a small state. It’s a lot of work for a small staff. We got approved for a third doctor, but there’s a nationwide shortage. The position was open for two and half years, and we filled it this spring. As a death investigator, some of the environments you work in can be challenging—you could be in the dead of winter down an embankment at the scene of a car crash, or going to find someone who died two miles into the woods.

What’s the most surprising thing about your job? When I started the full-­time job here, I didn’t know about the public health work we do, the review committees. We were sending letters with resource information to families of youth suicides, and we’ve expanded that to families or next of kin for all suicides. Families have told us that’s helpful to them, because suicide is the hardest death for families to deal with.

How did (or didn’t) your education prepare you for the job? I feel like my bachelor’s in biology made me more knowledgeable about a lot of things. My paramedic class was a year long in New York City, and I loved it. That really gave me a lot of education that was applicable to what I was going to be doing as a paramedic—it was really specific, great medical training. Working in New York City was really fun. The paralegal course was also interesting and gave me a lot of information on different areas of the law, and also how to read the law. The Office of the Medical Examiner is in the Department of Justice. It’s the law that gives us the authority to investigate deaths. I’m not a lawyer, but I do refer to the law a lot.

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Is the job what you expected? The death investigator job is what I expected. When I got trained, there wasn’t much of a training program. I trained one-­on-­one with a single person. We have a course now that we put on, instead of doing one-­on-­one training. So that helps the new people coming on as ADMEs know what to expect. I didn’t know what it would be like working in the Office of the Medical Examiner.

What’s next? Where do you see yourself going from here? Retiring! To go higher in the Office of the Medical Examiner, I would need to be a doctor. I’d like to get into writing again.

Where do you see the career of forensic scientist going from here? That’s a question I get asked a lot. We have a lot of interns here. You can study forensics now—people can get degrees in it. There’s the forensic laboratory as part of the Department of Safety. There’s certification from the ABMDI (American Board of Medical Death Investigators). I got into it before people were interested in it. When I interviewed for this office, there was an interview panel of six and one of them said, “I don’t know how you can do that!” But now there’s a lot of interest in it. Look at how many TV shows there are about it! And they’re all terrible—the fiction ones.

What is your advice for a young person considering this career? Scout out colleges that offer forensic science. Go to the ABMDI website and the NAME (National Association of Medical Examiners) website. There are conferences people can go to—the American Academy of Forensic Sciences has a conference every year. Colby College in Maine has a forensic seminar every summer for a week. The Office of the Medical Examiner in New Hampshire doesn’t take high school interns anymore, but other places might. Some high schools have forensic courses—I’ve been a guest speaker at some of them.

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CAROL CATHEY—CLINICAL LABORATORY TECHNOLOGIST Carol Cathey is a medical technologist with the bacteriology department of the Texas A&M Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory in College Station, Texas. Her title is Scientist II. She has a bachelor’s degree in microbiology and a master’s degree in toxicology.

How did you decide to become a medical technologist? I went to a very small high school—there were something like twenty people in my graduating class. We Carol Cathey, didn’t have a lot of options for courses. I was very interMedical Laboratory ested in science, but it wasn’t like a larger school with Technologist.  Photo a lot of opportunities. There were two of us in my high courtesy of Carol Cathey school chemistry class, and they only taught it because we wanted it. I started at a junior college. The idea of doing microbiology sounded really interesting. Science was just the most interesting thing to me. I ended up majoring in microbiology, and I loved it the whole way through. I just wanted to know more! I got my bachelor’s in micro and my master’s in toxicology. I followed my husband while he got his PhD, postdoc, first job. I’ve done a lot of research jobs—all kinds of different things. I taught microbiology. You’ve got to be a certain kind of person to work by yourself in a lab—meaning do your own work, even with other people there—being at the work bench, doing things, figuring things out. That’s where I’ve been the happiest.

What is a typical day on your job? The typical day is you go in and you have a lot of samples to analyze and sift through. They’re sited on different media. Depending on the kind of sample (an ear, a wound, etc.), you have to know what’s bad and what’s normal. We’ve got stuff all over us all the time—it’s not necessarily bad—so you have to decide whether it’s OK or not. You have a lot of these samples to work on all day and do all the tests on them to see what they are. Then we run antibiotic sensitivities to tell the doctor or veterinarian. You’re running different possible antibiotics the doctor could use in order to recommend which antibiotic will work best or be resistant to that bacterium. That’s an overnight test—you set it up one day and get your results the next day. Basically, we’re giving the doctors or vets reports saying this is what the sample is and these are the antibiotics this sample is resistant to or sensitive to, meaning you should try treating with this one instead. They’re all different. There’s not a single sample that

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comes through that’s going to look the same as the one you just looked at. You learn by looking at what the characteristics of each one are, so you get quicker, and you get quicker at looking at the plates and figuring things out. There are a lot of little tests that go on to get to that point. It can take from two to seven days to get the answers. I’ve had some medical tech jobs that were not microbiology, that were more clinical pathology, where you put the sample on the instrument and it gives you your results in ten minutes and you give it to the doctor. That doesn’t happen in microbiology—you’re looking at twenty-­four to forty-­eight hours usually. Other parts of the hospital can be more mechanical.

What’s the best part of your job? For me, because I love being able to sit down at my workbench and work on my own to get things done, it’s a really good feeling to get a sample finished and be able to tell the doctor or veterinarian, this is what’s wrong and this is what you can treat it with. Just knowing you can sit down and figure all that out is a pretty cool thing.

What’s the most challenging part of your job? Sometimes just the sheer volume of the work can seem a little overwhelming, especially when you’re new, because you won’t be as fast. Now that I’ve done this for a while, I guess it’s hoping I’m not missing something. Every case is important, no matter what they are.

What’s the most surprising thing about your job? Even with all our computers and technology, it still takes a person and their two eyes looking at the plate and figuring it out. It’s so involved that a person has to actually do it all themselves. People think you just put it on a machine and get an answer, but it’s not that way in this field.

How did (or didn’t) your education prepare you for the job? My education definitely gave me the basic background, the science behind the work, the knowledge that there are so many kinds and types of bacteria. It touches on the tip of the iceberg—you definitely have to have that basic microbiology knowledge. How to apply it to an actual life sample just takes time and training on the job. That’s where you really learn what’s going on.

Is the job what you expected? Yes. I have worked in a human hospital doing the same kind of microbiological analysis. It’s completely different from working in a research lab, where you’ve got

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your projects and you’ve got to have something figured out in six months to a year. It’s not like you’ve got someone’s life hanging on your results, like this is. So, yes.

What’s next? Where do you see yourself going from here? In the lab I’m in right now, at my level of scientist, there’s probably going to assistant section head or something like that. The same thing in a human hospital—everyone’s on a pretty even keel in terms of what their job levels are. There are technician-­ level jobs in the lab with people who are just starting out. They have room to move up from lab tech to scientist to supervisor. As a scientist, I have more supervisory roles to go on to. I like the bench, so I don’t know if I want to do that. I had a job with a doctor for five years. I was called a patient educator—I got the histories from patients, and got what they needed, and talked to them on the phone. It was interesting, but for someone like me, I prefer working directly on the bench.

Where do you see the career of clinical laboratory technologist going from here? I know they need them; they need them a lot. It’s not a field that a lot of people go into right now. They’re going to be needed forever, because they have the knowledge and the background to get answers to all the things the doctors and veterinarians need to know. People just have to like to do this work, and to work hard and know that they’re helping somebody.

What is your advice for a young person considering this career? It’s pretty cool! If it’s something that interests them, they should definitely pursue it. I have kids in college right now who are trying to figure out what they want to do. You’ve got to go with what you feel in your heart you really want to do. If a high school student is interested in science and thinking about this kind of applied science job, they’re needed! Don’t ever think you can’t do it. There were only two people in my chemistry class! You can do it.

Notes Introduction 1.  Jonathan W. Yewdell, “How to Succeed in Science: A Concise Guide for Young Biomedical Scientists. Part I: Taking the Plunge,” Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology 9, no. 5 (2008): 413–416, https://doi​.org/10.1038/nrm2389. 2.  Jack Leeming, “The Way to Success in Science,” NatureJobs, January 2, 2017, http://blogs​.nature​.com/naturejobs/2017/01/02/the-­way-­to-­success-­in-­science/.

Chapter 1 1.  Jacquelyn Smith, “24 High-­Paying Jobs That Are Low in Stress,” Time, October 21, 2015, https://time​.com/4081673/high-­paying-­low-­stress-­jobs/. 2.  David Belair, “The High-­Paying, Low-­Stress STEM Job You Probably Haven’t Considered,” Forbes, May 25, 2016, https://www​.forbes​.com/sites/quora/2016/05/25/ the-­high-­paying-­low-­stress-­stem-­job-­you-­probably-­havent-­considered/#11d12fc12bf8. 3.  U.S. News & World Report, “Biochemist: Overview,” January 7, 2020, https:// money​.usnews​.com/careers/best-­jobs/biochemist. 4.  Ursula Goodenough. The Sacred Depths of Nature. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 48. 5.  Alan Mertz, quoted in “Importance of Clinical Lab Testing Highlighted During Medical Lab Professionals Week,” ACLA News, April 17, 2014. 6.  US Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Epidemiologists: What Epidemiologists Do,” https://www​.bls​.gov/ooh/life-­physical-­and-­social-­science/epidemiologists​.htm#tab-2. 7.  Alex Broadbent. Epidemiology, Risk and Causation: Conceptual and Methodological Issues in Public Health Science. (Cambridge, UK: PHG Foundation, 2011), 11. 8.  Jesse Feith, “Kathy Reichs: Forensics Is Bred in the Bone,” Montreal Gazette, March 13, 2016, https://kathyreichs​.com/interview-­with-­montreal-­gazette/. 9.  Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Health Research and the Privacy of Health Information: The HIPAA Privacy Rule; Sharyl J. Nass, Laura A. Levit, and Lawrence O. Gostin, eds., “The Value, Importance, and Oversight of Health Research,” in Beyond the HIPAA Privacy Rule: Enhancing Privacy, Improving Health through

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Research. (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2009), 3, https://www​.ncbi​ .nlm​.nih​.gov/books/NBK9571/ 10.  Lynn Margulis and Dorion Sagan, Microcosmos: Four Billion Years of Evolution from Our Microbial Ancestors (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 28. 11.  Salman Khan. “The Scientific Method,” Khan Academy, https://www​.khan​ academy​.org/science/high-­school-­biology/hs-­biology-­foundations/hs-biology​ -­a nd​ -­the-­scientific-­method/a/the-­science-­of-­biology?modal=1.

Chapter 2 1.  Jim Rohn, Five Major Pieces to the Life Puzzle (Lake Dallas, TX: Jim Rohn International, 1991). 2.  US Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Occupational Employment and Wages, May 2018: 17-2031 Biomedical Engineers,” last modified March 29, 2019, https://www​.bls​ .gov/oes/2018/may/oes172031.htm. 3.  US Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Biochemists and Biophysicists,” https:// www​. bls​ . gov/ooh/life-­p hysical-­a nd-­s ocial-­s cience/biochemists-­a nd-­b iophysicists​ .htm#tab-1. 4.  US Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Occupational Employment and Wages, May 2018: 19-1021 Biochemists and Biophysicists,” last modified March 29, 2019, https:// www​.bls​.gov/oes/2018/may/oes191021.htm. 5.  Lisa Pallatroni and Pasquale Buttitta, “Clinical Chemistry as a Career” MLO’s National Salary Survey: Compensation and Respondent Profiles, MLO, July 1999: Suppl: 17–20. https://www​.aacc​.org/community/sycl/career-­guidance/clinical​-­chemistry​-­as​-­a​ -career. 6.  US Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Occupational Employment and Wages, May 2018: 29-2010 Clinical Laboratory Technologists and Technicians,” last modified September 4, 2019, https://www​.bls​.gov/oes/2018/may/oes292010.htm. 7.  US Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Clinical Laboratory Technologists and Technicians: Job Outlook,” https://www​.bls​.gov/ooh/healthcare/clinical-­laboratory-­ technologists-­and-­technicians​.htm#tab-6. 8.  Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, “Epidemiology: Degree Programs,” https://www​.jhsph​.edu/departments/epidemiology/degree-­programs/. 9.  US Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Occupational Employment and Wages, May 2018: 19-1041 Epidemiologists,” last modified March 29, 2019, https://www​.bls​.gov/ oes/current/oes191041.htm#st. 10.  Forensic Sciences Foundation, “So You Want to Be a Forensic Scientist!” American Academy of Forensic Sciences, https://www​.aafs​.org/aafs/Resources/Students/

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Choosing-­a-Career/AAFS/Resources/Students/Choose-­Career​.aspx?hkey=d98fa0cf-36 00-46a1-b343-24f9984e1c77. 11.  US Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Occupational Employment and Wages, May 2018: 19-4092 Forensic Science Technicians,” last modified March 29, 2019, https://www​.bls​.gov/oes/2018/may/oes194092.htm. 12.  US Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Occupational Employment and Wages, May 2018: 19-1042 Medical Scientists, Except Epidemiologists,” last modified March 29, 2019, https://www​.bls​.gov/oes/2018/may/oes191042.htm. 13.  US Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Occupational Employment and Wages, May 2018: 19-1022 Microbiologists,” last modified March 29, 2019, https://www​.bls​ .gov/oes/2018/may/oes191022.htm.

Chapter 3 1.  Veritas Prep [Ibrahim Busnaina, MD], “Is an M.D. Right for You?” U.S. News & World Report, March 28, 2011, https://www​.usnews​.com/education/blogs/ medical​-­school-­admissions-­doctor/2011/03/28/is-­an-­md-­right-­for-­you. 2.  Allison Wignall, “Preference of the ACT or SAT by State (Infographic),” CollegeRaptor, November 14, 2019, https://www​.collegeraptor​.com/getting-­in/articles/act​-­sat/preference-­act-­sat-­state-­infographic/. 3.  Kelly Mae Ross, Devon Haynie, and Josh Moody, “How to Write a College Essay,” U.S. News & World Report, February 28, 2020, https://www​.usnews​.com/ education/best-­colleges/articles/how-­to-­write-­a-college-­essay. 4.  College Board, “Focus on Net Price, Not Sticker Price,” BigFuture, https:// bigfuture​.collegeboard​.org/pay-­for-­college/paying-­your-­share/focus​-­on-­net-­price-­not​ -­sticker-­price. 5.  Jennifer Ma, Sandy Baum, Matea Pender, and C. J. Libassi, Trends in College Pricing 2019 (New York: College Board, 2019), https://research​ .collegeboard​ .org/ trends/college-­pricing. 6.  Edith Hamilton, quoted in the Saturday Evening Post, September 27, 1958.

Chapter 4 1.  Theodore Roosevelt, A Square Deal, speech to farmers at the New York State Agricultural Association, Syracuse, September 7, 1903. 2.  Sarah A. Webb, “Tips for a Successful CV,” Science, October 27, 2006, https://www​.sciencemag​.org/careers/2006/10/tips-­successful-­cv.

Glossary allopathic medicine: Modern medical practice based in science and including the use of medication, surgery; also called conventional medicine. anthropometry: The study of measurements (especially comparative) of the human body. assay: Analysis to determine the presence and amount of a particular substance, also of the substance’s biological or pharmacological potential. bench: The workbench in a science laboratory; usually a long table. biochemistry: The subset of the field of chemistry dealing with the chemical compounds and processes occurring in organisms. biological science: The branches of natural science that deal with the structure and behavior of living organisms. biology: The branch of knowledge that deals with living organisms and vital processes; the life processes of an organism or group. biomedical engineering: An applied science field that combines engineering principles and design concepts with medicine and biology. certification: An official document attesting to a status or level of achievement. Some fields require certification by the state; others (especially in medicine) offer certification through professional organizations. clinical: Relating to observation, diagnosis, or treatment of patients within a healthcare setting. clinical biochemistry: The division of laboratory medicine that deals with the measuring natural and artificial chemicals in blood, urine, and other body fluids. clinical laboratory technologist: A scientist working in a clinical laboratory to test biological samples, determining the presence or absence of disease, and 119

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providing physicians with data to determine treatment for the patient; also called clinical laboratory scientists or medical laboratory scientists. cooperative education program (co-­op): A structured, practical work experience where college students work for an employer during alternate semesters as part of or in conjunction with their degree program. coroner: A public official who is responsible for conducting an inquest into the manner or cause of a death or confirm the identity of a deceased person. In many jurisdictions, this is an elected or appointed political position and does not require a medical degree. curriculum vitae (CV): A long-­form résumé that includes the person’s entire professional history, including education, job experience, publications, presentations, and other relevant information. DDS: Doctor of dental surgery degree. diplomate: In medicine, a physician who is qualified to practice in a specialty because of advanced training and experience in the specialty plus an intensive examination by a national board of senior specialists. DMD: Doctor of dental medicine degree. DO: Doctor of osteopathic medicine degree. EMT: Emergency medical technician. epidemiology: A branch of biomedical science that studies the incidence, distribution, and control of disease in a population. evidence-­based: An approach to education, medicine, biomedical science, health policy, and other areas that requires the use of the best available current research. experiment: A procedure done under controlled conditions to test a hypothesis or discover an effect. forensic medicine: Science dealing with the relation of medical facts to legal problems, including investigation of crimes, gathering biological samples, and establishing the causes of injury or death; also called forensic pathology.

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forensic pathologist: A medical professional who determines the cause of death by conducting a postmortem (after death) examination (autopsy) of a corpse or partial remains. Qualifications vary by jurisdiction but typically include a medical doctorate with specialization in general or anatomical pathology and forensic medicine, and a license issued by the state. intervention: An action, medication, or other process intended to change the outcome of a medical condition/disease or to improve functioning. laboratory (or lab): The place where scientific experiments, studies, tests, or other research takes place; a room or other space equipped for such research. license: Official permission from an authorized agency (such as the state) to practice a particular field within a particular locality. Medical professionals must be licensed by a government-­approved professional association or by a government agency. MBA: Master of business administration degree. MD: Medical doctor degree. medical examiner (ME): A public official trained in pathology who investigates unnatural or natural deaths on behalf of a local, county, or state government. Qualifications vary by jurisdiction, but a medical examiner is usually required to have a medical degree and license. medical laboratory scientist: See clinical laboratory technologist. medical scientist (or biomedical scientist): A scientist trained in biology, especially relating to medicine, who conducts biomedical research on diseases, diagnostic tools, and therapeutic strategies. microbiology: The branch of biology dealing with microscopic forms of life, including sub-­disciplines such as virology, bacteriology, protistology, mycology, protozoology, parasitology, and cellular microbiology. osteopathic medicine: A system of medical practice that theorizes that diseases are caused by a loss of structural integrity, which can be restored by manipulation of the parts. Osteopathy also includes traditional therapeutic measures like medication or surgery.

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pathology: The study of the structural and functional changes in an organism caused by disease or injury. There are many subspecialties within the field of pathology. peer review: The practice of having experts in a field (such as science, medicine, engineering, or other academic fields) evaluate research and findings proposed for publication, further research, or funding to ensure that defects are found and fixed. PhD: Doctor of philosophy degree. A PhD is a terminal degree in any field except those (such as medicine or dentistry) that have a different, specific doctoral degree. physician assistant (PA): A licensed healthcare professional who treats patients under the supervision of a physician. placebo: An inert or innocuous substance used in medical research in place of a drug or other treatment in order to test whether observed effects can be attributed to the treatment. postdoc: A position or fellowship in a research laboratory that is offered to someone who has finished their doctoral degree in order to develop experience and publish research prior to finding a university position. prosthesis: An artificial device that is made to replace or augment a missing or impaired part of the body. pseudocoding: An informal high-­level description of the operating principle of a computer program or other algorithm, which uses the structural conventions of a programming language, but is intended for human reading rather than machine reading. registered nurse (RN): An RN has graduated from a college’s nursing program or from a school of nursing and has passed a national licensing exam. résumé: A short (preferably one-­page) document that encapsulates a person’s professional history, including education and work experience. STEM: Abbreviation for “science, technology, engineering, and math”; often used to describe classes, degrees, or jobs that involve any of these areas or combinations of these areas.

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terminal degree: The highest degree awarded in a specific academic or professional subject. In general, a terminal degree is usually required to hold a tenure-­ track faculty position at a university. Terminal degrees are usually doctoral degrees, but some fields consider the master’s degree to be the terminal degree. veterinary medicine: A branch of medicine that deals with prevention, diagnosis and treatment of disease, disorder and injury in nonhuman animals

Resources

Paying for College Trends in College Pricing 2019, CollegeBoard Trends in Higher Education Series https://research​.collegeboard​.org/trends/college-­pricing This extensive report covers trends in higher education costs. It contains a lot of information. You can download the entire report or just the highlights in PDF or PowerPoint form from the College Board website. Go College http://www​.gocollege​.com/financial-­aid/scholarships/types/ GoCollege offers helpful information for current and soon to be college students about the admissions and financial aid process. Federal Student Aid https://studentaid​.ed​.gov/types/grants-­scholarships An office of the US Department of Education, Federal Student Aid provides complete information on the federal student loan process, including the FAFSA. Big Future http://bigfuture​.collegeboard​.org/pay-­for-­college Big Future is the website from the College Board that provides all kinds of information about college, including how to find a college, how to get in, how to choose a major, and to find financial aid.

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Careers in Biological and Biomedical Sciences American Institute of Biological Sciences (AIBS) https://www​.aibs​.org/about-­aibs/ AIBS is a nonprofit scientific association dedicated to advancing the biological sciences to promote an increased understanding of all life. Advocates for the use of scientific information to inform decision making and advance biology for the benefit of science and society. CareerOneStop https://www​.careeronestop​.org/ Sponsored by the US Department of Labor and a partner of the American Job Center Network, this site provides extensive information on exploring careers, finding training, job searching, and finding local help. It also provides a toolkit of job and career information and a section on useful resources for different kinds of job seekers, such as veterans, entry-­level workers, older workers, young adults, people with disabilities, and more.

Professional Organizations Professional organizations provide a variety of services to their members, including certification, continuing education, conferences, professional journals, and networking opportunities. Below are several professional organizations for each of the biomedical science professions this book covers.

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEER American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering (AIMBE) https://aimbe​.org/ AIMBE is a nonprofit organization based in Washington, DC, that represents “the most accomplished individuals in the fields of medical and biological engineering.” AIMBE supports diversity in biomedical engineering and has Diversity and Inclusion and Underrepresented Minorities committees.

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American Society of Biomechanics (ASB) http://www​.asbweb​.org/ ASB encourages and fosters the exchange of information and ideas among biomechanists working in different disciplines and facilitates the development of biomechanics as a basic and applied science. The organization includes “academic researchers, clinicians, scientists, students, and industry members working to solve basic and applied problems in the realm of biomechanics and to improve understanding of the workings of biological systems.” American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE) Biomedical Engineering Group https://www​.asee​.org/member-­resources/groups/divisions#Biomedical The ASEE Biomedical Engineering Group “provides a vital forum for those interested in biomedical engineering education through workshops, paper sessions, and panel discussions of current topics in the area. Every year, the division recognizes the efforts of senior educators.”

CLINICAL BIOCHEMIST American Association for Clinical Chemistry (AACC) https://www​.aacc​.org/ AACC is an international society comprised of medical professionals with an interest in clinical chemistry, clinical laboratory science, and laboratory medicine. It offers Point-­of-­Care Testing Professional Certification open to “all personnel who perform diagnostic tests outside the central laboratory, which encompasses near-­patient testing, point-­of-­care device selection and validation, quality management, operator training, regulatory compliance, and serving as a liaison with the central laboratory.” American Board of Clinical Chemistry (ABCC) https://abclinchem​.org/ ABCC is a nonprofit organization that provides certification of individuals with doctoral level degrees in clinical chemistry, toxicological chemistry, and other clinical laboratory medicine disciplines. Analogous to the certifying boards in various medical specialties, ABCC establishes standards of competence for

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those who practice clinical laboratory medicine, and certifies as Diplomates those qualified specialists who comply with ABCC requirements. American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology https://www​.asbmb​.org/ ASBMB is an international nonprofit scientific and educational organization made up of students, researchers, educators, and industry professionals. Its mission is to advance the science of biochemistry and molecular biology and to promote the understanding of the molecular nature of life processes. The organization offers scientific and educational journals, meetings, advocacy, career development, and science education at all levels, and promotes diversity of individuals entering the scientific workforce.

CLINICAL LABORATORY TECHNOLOGIST American Medical Technologists (AMT) https://www​.americanmedtech​.org/ AMT is a nationally and internationally recognized certification agency and membership society for medical laboratory technologists, technicians, lab assistants, and other laboratory and allied health professionals. American Society for Clinical Pathology (ACSP) https://www​.ascp​.org/ According to its website, “The ASCP unites more than 100,000 anatomic and clinical pathologists, residents and fellows, medical laboratory professionals, and students to advance laboratory medicine to better improve patient care through knowledge, collaboration and global community.” ASCP provides board certification for medical laboratory scientists. American Association for Clinical Chemistry (AACC) https://www​.aacc​.org/ AACC is an international society comprised of medical professionals with an interest in clinical chemistry, clinical laboratory science, and laboratory medicine. It offers Point-­of-­Care Testing Professional Certification open to “all personnel who perform diagnostic tests outside the central laboratory, which encompasses near-­patient testing, point-­of-­care device selection and validation,

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quality management, operator training, regulatory compliance, and serving as a liaison with the central laboratory.”

EPIDEMIOLOGIST American College of Epidemiology (ACE) https://www​.acepidemiology​.org/ ACE is an organization of epidemiologists that serves the interests of the profession and its members through advocating for issues pertinent to epidemiology, a credential-­based admission and promotion process, sponsorship of scientific meetings, publications and educational activities, and recognizing outstanding contributions to the field. Association for Professionals in Infection Control (APIC) https://apic​.org/ APIC is the leading professional association for infection preventionists. APIC’s more than fifteen thousand members include nurses, physicians, public health professionals, epidemiologists, microbiologists, or medical technologists. Certification Board of Infection Control and Epidemiology https://www​.cbic​.org/CBIC.htm CBIC endorses the concept of voluntary periodic certification for all infection prevention and control professionals meeting educational and practice requirements. CBIC offers several types of certification and recertification for professionals working in epidemiology and infection control.

FORENSIC SCIENTIST American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS) https://www​.aafs​.org AAFS is a multidisciplinary professional membership organization that provides leadership, education, and advocacy for “accuracy, precision, and specificity in the forensic sciences.” The organization publishes the Journal of Forensic Sciences and provides links to academic programs and jobs in forensic science.

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American Board of Medical Death Investigators (ABMDI) https://www​.abmdi​.org/ ABMDI promotes the highest standards of practice for medicolegal death investigators by certifying “individuals who have the proven knowledge and skills necessary to perform medicolegal death investigations.” American Society of Crime Lab Directors (ASCLD) https://www​.ascld​.org/ ASCLD is a “nonprofit professional society of crime laboratory directors and forensic science managers dedicated to providing excellence in forensic science through leadership and innovation. The purpose of the organization is to foster professional interests, assist the development of laboratory management principles and techniques; acquire, preserve, and disseminate forensic based information; maintain and improve communication among crime laboratory directors; and to promote, encourage, and maintain the highest standards of practice in the field.” Forensic Science Education Programs Accreditation Commission (FEPAC) http://www​.fepac-­edu​.org/ FEPAC maintains and enhances the quality of forensic science education through a formal evaluation and recognition of college-­level academic programs. According to its website, “The primary function of the Commission is to develop and to maintain standards and to administer an accreditation program that recognizes and distinguishes high quality undergraduate and graduate forensic science programs.” National Association of Medical Examiners (NAME) https://www​.thename​.org/ NAME is “the national professional organization of physician medical examiners, medicolegal death investigators and death investigation system administrators who perform the official duties of the medicolegal investigation of deaths of public interest in the United States.”

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MEDICAL SCIENTIST In addition to the groups below, medical research scientists should also look for professional organizations that address their specific research area, such as those devoted to cancer, Alzheimer’s, or other medical issues. Association of Clinical Research Professionals (ACRP) https://acrpnet​.org/ ACRP provides certification credentials to those in the field of clinical research. It recognizes excellence through their awards program, holds an annual conference, and offers local chapters. Association of Clinical Scientists (ACS) http://www​.clinicalscience​.org/ ACS promotes education and research in clinical science and fosters professional development, ethical standards, and cooperation among all professions concerned with “applications of scientific methods in clinical practice and research.”

MICROBIOLOGIST American Society for Microbiology (ASB) https://www​.asm​.org/ ASB is a professional organization to promote and advance the microbial sciences, including professional conferences and journals, advocacy, and educational outreach. American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology https://www​.asbmb​.org/ ASBMB is an international nonprofit scientific and educational organization made up of students, researchers, educators, and industry professionals. Its mission is to advance the science of biochemistry and molecular biology and to promote the understanding of the molecular nature of life processes. They offer scientific and educational journals, meetings, advocacy, career development, and science education at all levels, and promote diversity of individuals entering the scientific workforce.

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Summer Internship Programs Dartmouth-­Hitchcock Workforce Readiness Institute https://dhwri​ . org/high-­s chool-­a nd-­u ndergraduate-­s ummer-­i nternship-­ program/ According to its website, “The Dartmouth-­Hitchcock (D-­H) internship program combines work, professional development, mentoring and shadowing into a robust summer learning experience. It is our goal to spark a lasting interest in the many opportunities available in the healthcare industry while also offering you the opportunity to practice important work place skills.” There are opportunities to intern in many wide-­ranging departments, mostly on the main Dartmouth-­Hitchcock Medical Center campus in Lebanon, NH, and others at their facilities in other communities. Joint BioEnergy Institute (US Department of Energy Office of Science) JBEI offers several programs: • Biotech Partners http://www​.biotechpartners​.org/ “JBEI partners with Biotech Partners, a nonprofit that helps youth from populations underrepresented in the sciences navigate the worlds of school, work and life through a biotechnology-­focused curriculum, including job training and internships, that provides access to fulfilling well-­paid careers in bioscience and increases opportunities for higher education. JBEI hosts Biotech Partner summer interns in its labs. If you are currently enrolled in the Biotech Partner program, you can apply for internships in the spring.” • Summer Science Intensive: iCLEM https://www​.jbei​.org/education/ research-­experiences/iclem-­program/ “The Introductory College Level Experience in Microbiology (iCLEM) is an eight-­week paid summer science intensive for economically disadvantaged high school sophomores and juniors. The program seeks to broaden students’ understanding of biotechnology, microbiology, and biofuels. In addition to completing a research project, the program also exposes students to career exploration and preparation for the college application process.”

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Maine Medical Center Research Institute Summer Student Research Program (SSRP) http://mmcri​.org/ns/?page_id=505 According to its website, “Research at MMCRI covers a broad area in biomedical science including vascular biology, stem cell biology, developmental biology, neurobiology, hematology, nephrology, tumor biology, and molecular genetics as well as outcomes research, vector-­borne diseases, and clinical research.” SSRP is open to undergraduate students or high school seniors who are at least eighteen years old. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) MIT offers numerous programs through several different institutes and departments: • Broad Summer Scholars Program (BSSP) https://www​.broadinstitute​ . org/partnerships/education/k-12-outreach/broad-­s ummer-­ scholars-­ p rogram Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard works to improve human health by using genomics to advance understanding of the biology and treatment of human disease, and to help lay the groundwork for a new generation of therapies. “The Broad Summer Scholars Program (BSSP) invites highly motivated high school students with a strong interest in science to spend six weeks at the Broad Institute. We match students with Broad scientists to conduct original, cutting-­edge research projects in areas such as: cancer biology, psychiatric disease, chemical biology, computational biology, infectious disease, and more. In addition to original research, students will get to explore scientific careers; attend interesting scientific talks, including the Midsummer Nights’ Science public lecture series; present their research to the Broad community in a scientific poster session; attend a college fair; participate in fun social events; and meet other students who share similar interests.” • Minority Introduction to Engineering and Science (MITES), Office of Engineering Outreach Programs http://oeop​.mit​.edu/programs/ mites/program-­details “Minority Introduction to Engineering and Science (MITES) is a rigorous six-­week residential academic enrichment program for rising high school seniors—many of whom come from

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underrepresented or underserved communities—who have a strong academic record and are interested in studying and exploring careers in science and engineering. This national program stresses the value and reward of pursuing advanced technical degrees and careers while developing the skills necessary to achieve success in science and engineering.” • Research Science Institute (RSI), Center for Excellence in Education Research Science Institute https://www​.cee​.org/research-­science-­institute Each summer, eighty accomplished high school students gather at MIT for the RSI. Cost-­free to students, the summer science and engineering program combines on-­campus course work in scientific theory with off-­ campus work in science and technology research. “Participants experience the entire research cycle from start to finish. They read the most current literature in their field, draft and execute a detailed research plan, and deliver conference-­style oral and written reports on their findings.” MDI Biological Laboratory High School Student Summer Research Fellowship https://mdibl​.org/education/high-­school-­opportunities/ According to its website, “MDI Biological Laboratory offers summer research fellowship opportunities for high school students with an interest in developing scientific research skills. Fellows are supervised by a faculty mentor and work alongside undergraduate fellows, graduate students, postdoctoral fellows and research assistants, thereby gaining experience and perspective on scientific research careers. They will conduct an independent research project and present their findings at our annual Summer Science Symposium. Fellows live with other high school students in an on-­campus dormitory with a resident advisor and participate together in group activities outside the work day. Students must reach out to their science teacher or guidance counselor about receiving a nomination for the program. Homeschooled students can also be nominated by a professional with knowledge of the student’s abilities.” The Summer Science Program (SSP) https://summerscience​.org/ SSP is operated in cooperation with host campuses Indiana University, New Mexico Institute of Technology, Purdue University, and the University of Colorado Boulder, and affiliates California Institute of Technology, Harvey Mudd

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College, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology. SSP is a unique immersion experience with a strong culture where talented young people discovering their limits, then overcome them through collaboration. It is the shock of not being the smartest person in the room, followed by the joy of realizing that’s not a problem, it’s an opportunity. “Top high school students have other opportunities to learn about science and math. Here they do science. Each participant gains a deep, visceral understanding of what that feels like. They go home knowing whether to pursue a STEM major and career—and most do.” Pathways to Science https://www​.pathwaystoscience​.org/programs​.aspx Pathways to Science provides a searchable database of many summer opportunities, including internships and science camps. Search high school students and the field you’re interested in.

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About the Author Marcia Santore is an author and artist from New England. She enjoys writing about interesting people and the fascinating things they do. She’s written on many topics, including the profiles of artists, scholars, scientists, and businesspeople. She has also illustrated and published several children’s books. See her writing website at www​.amalgamatedstory​.com and her artwork at www​.marciasantore​.com.

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