Biodiversity, Conservation and Sustainability in Asia: Volume 1: Prospects and Challenges in West Asia and Caucasus 3030599272, 9783030599270

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Münir Öztürk Volkan Altay Recep Efe   Editors

Biodiversity, Conservation and Sustainability in Asia Volume 1: Prospects and Challenges in West Asia and Caucasus

Biodiversity, Conservation and Sustainability in Asia

Münir Öztürk • Volkan Altay • Recep Efe Editors

Biodiversity, Conservation and Sustainability in Asia Volume 1: Prospects and Challenges in West Asia and Caucasus

Editors Münir Öztürk Department of Botany & Centre for Environmental Studies Ege University Izmir, Turkey

Volkan Altay Biology Department Faculty of Science & Arts Hatay Mustafa Kemal University Hatay, Turkey

Recep Efe Department of Geography Balikesir University Istanbul, Balikesir, Turkey

ISBN 978-3-030-59927-0    ISBN 978-3-030-59928-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59928-7 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

1922–1985

This volume is dedicated to late Prof. Dr. Ali Rıza Çetik. A pioneer in the field of vegetation ecology. Graduated from the Agricultural Engineering Faculty of Ankara; got his Ph.D. in 1953; D. Sc. in 1958; full professorship in 1968; dean in the Faculty of Science, Ankara University, 1969–1970; member of Turkish UNESCO Commission on Turkish Nature Conservation Society, 1973–1976; first vice chancellor of Selçuk University, Konya, Turkey (1976– 1979); 25 published books and large number of papers on vegetation ecology.

Preface

Real concerns exist over the impacts of biodiversity loss. This loss is increasing following population pollution, which is producing strong impacts. There is a strong determination to succeed in halting biodiversity loss and achieving sustainable development. We have enough knowledge base from science and great experience, both good and bad, to build our future. The rate of biodiversity loss needs to be addressed by implementing more transformative solutions. The benefits provided by our global biodiversity is the fundamental way for achieving the sustainable development goals. The efforts to understand the importance of biodiversity as well as ecosystem services are increasing; however, we need more effective action towards the main drivers of biodiversity loss. The biodiversity vision adopted in 2010 discusses living in harmony with nature, where, by 2050, biodiversity is valued, conserved, restored and wisely used, maintaining ecosystem services, sustaining a healthy planet and delivering benefits essential for living beings. We keep on talking about living in harmony with nature but we certainly are not doing so currently. The loss is affecting human welfare, including health, nutrition and food security. Biodiversity is a collective term that describes the totality and variety of life on Earth. Biodiversity includes genetic diversity within species, the variety among species and the range of ecosystems within which life exists and interacts. Estimates of the number of species on Earth vary from 3 million to 100 million. As per some reports, there are nearly 13 million species, and out of these, only 1.7 million have been described. According to IUCN, 1.8 million species have been described out of an estimated 5  million to 30  million in existence; these include bacteria (4.000), algae  +  protozoa (80.000), vertebrates (52.000), invertebrates (1.272.000), fungi (72.000) and plants (270.000), and possible number is given as 14 million. Generally, species density is greatest in the southern hemisphere; countries such as Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Mexico and Peru include 70% of the global species diversity. The biodiversity hotspot concept was developed by environmental scientist Norman Myers of the UK in an attempt to identify priority areas for biodiversity conservation. A map of hotspots on the basis of their plant diversity and the impacts vii

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upon them has been produced. In addition to harbouring at least 1.500 endemic plant species, hotspots must also have lost more than 70% of their original natural vegetation. There are 25 biodiversity hotspots which contain 44% of all plant species, and 35% of all terrestrial vertebrates live in only 1.4% of the planet’s land area. The Living Planet Report, published by the WWF, provides useful information on the state of global ecosystems, tracking population trends for more than 1.600 freshwater, marine and terrestrial taxa. This datum reveals that some ecosystems are more threatened than others. Currently, only 1/5 of the global original forest cover remains in large tracts of relatively undisturbed forest named as frontier forest. Agriculture is a major contributor to biodiversity loss. The rate at which agricultural land is expanding varies greatly. Much work has been done on the economic value of biodiversity. Individual species play a critical role in human food, medicine, biological pest control, materials (such as timber) and recreation. The plant species used as food by humans include total described species (250.000), edible (30.000), cultivated (7.000), nationally important (120) and making up 90% of world’s calories (30). Out of 25 top-selling drugs, 10 have been derived from natural sources. The global market value of pharmaceuticals is estimated to vary between 75 and 150 billion US $ annually. In addition to the importance of individual species, researchers are discovering that ecosystems, too, play an important role in providing “services” to humans and that these services can be given a monetary value. Robert Costanza and group have calculated that the Earth provides “services” worth a minimum of 16–54 trillion US $ to humans a year. UN List of Protected Areas includes 102,102 sites covering 18.8 million km2. Of the total area protected, nearly 17.1 million km2 are terrestrial protected areas, or 11.5% of the global land surface; approximately 1.64 million km2 is in marine protected areas – an estimated 0.5% of the world’s oceans, and less than 1/10 of the overall extent of globally protected areas. The UN had declared 2010 the International Year of Biodiversity, and member states of the UN Convention on Biodiversity have set out a vision for 2050. They are identifying new targets and devising a new strategy to prevent biodiversity loss. Of the world’s seven continents, Asia is the largest, with its physical landscapes, political units and ethnic groups, both wide-ranging and many. Southwest, South and Middle Asia is a highly populated region with nearly 3 billion people. Out of these, the “Southwest” is often called the Middle East, which includes 18 countries. Central Asia has five republics lying between the Middle East, Russia and China. The region on the whole shows varied geography, including high passes and mountains. The current volume has tried to fill the gap by focusing on the diverse and dynamic biodiversity of Southwest Asia and the Caucasus. It covers wealth of information on plant, animal and agro diversity together with biogeography. Much of the land in the region is too dry or too rugged, with many geographical extremes. Overgrazing, oil and mineral extraction, and poaching are the major threats in the area. Livestock raising is also a dominant activity. A number of rare plant species are of a high value as food or medicinal plants. This volume will be of great interest among research workers and the teaching community. It will serve as a strong reference material for professional researchers working in the fields of plant diversity

Preface

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and vegetation, animal diversity and animal populations, and agro-diversity and their sustainable use. Southwest Asia and the Caucasus are unique areas in terms of plant diversity and large vegetation zones with different communities and biomes. They are rich in endemics, with rich specific and intraspecific diversity of plants. Only few sources in the form of books are available; therefore, this gap in the latest data on their biodiversity is much needed. This volume will focus on the diversity and dynamics of plants, animals and agro-diversity in the region. As pre-emptive measures to enhance the conservation of species for future ecological studies, data have been included for the species facing a threat of extinction. The estimates for Asia by 2100 are that nearly 30% of the species will vanish due to habitat degradation and nearly 50% may represent global extinctions. Habitat degradation is proportional to its negative impact on biodiversity, with irreparable losses. The biodiversity of Palestine reviews and discusses some of the data known on biodiversity in Palestine in Chap. 1. It mentions the threats – focusing on climate change, water and liquid waste, occupation/colonization, and efforts at environmental conservation. The chapter highlights opportunities for moving forward towards a strategy that ensures sustainability of both nature and human population. Environmental education rooted in justice and sustainability is stressed as a key factor in forging future strategies. The significant role that lichens play in desert ecosystems has been evaluated from the “Negev Desert” in Israel. The study in Chap. 2 highlights water availability as the main factor influencing growth and activity in different habitats. In Chap. 3, attempt has been made to provide information on the basic structural and metabolic characteristics of lichens, their uses from the past to the present and their importance together with the effects of lichen metabolites. The chapter also summarizes taxonomical revision studies on various genera and biological effects of lichen products with examples from Turkey. Chapter 4 explains observations on six swamp forests in Turkey known as “Important Plant Areas”. As an important ecological heritage, these forests have been separated as protected areas, and impact of current and potential changes in the near future has been evaluated together with the scope of sustainability, their floristics, ecological and syntaxonomic analysis vis-a-vis the prospects, and challenges regarding these ecologically unique forests. Fire is an important dominating factor in the Mediterranean ecosystems, leading to several changes. Authors emphasize that reactions of the ecosystem in total have become more vulnerable, more susceptible, within the shortened adaptation time, and all these aspects are summarized in Chap. 5. In Chap. 6, a detailed study on the wild orchids of Turkey has been presented. Wild orchids are generally defined as “salep” or “salep grass” by the locals, mostly used in the production of a beverage called “salep” and Maras ice cream – a traditional product in Turkey. 10–20 million wild orchids are removed from nature every year, and for 1 kg of salep, approximately 1.000–4.000 tubers, ranging from 0.25 g to 1 g, are required. The wild orchids in Turkey are facing a threat of extinction, but

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they can be saved by focusing on studies related to the determination of other wild species more suitable for salep production as well as Maras ice cream. Chapter 7 presents a detailed overview of agrodiversity in Turkey, emphasizing on rice. Aerobic rice has been introduced in the recent past in place of conventionally irrigated rice owing to its lower water needs and labour requirements. It is mentioned as a candidate which can ease mechanical harvesting operations owing to lower moisture in the soil than conventional rice. The yields are similar to the conventional method, and it can be harvested better if managed properly. In the agro-diversity in West Asia, an emphasis has been laid on Pepper which is widely grown in most of the West Asian countries and the Caucasus. Authors have evaluated the contribution of different pepper cultivars in the food production, agriculture, and regional economy, and an updated summary has been presented in Chap. 8 together with the efforts made by these countries to protect and increase biodiversity in agriculture. Information on the data related to the promising small molecules from Ganoderma genus against cancer has been reviewed in Chap. 9. The compounds isolated from different species during the last 20 years have been evaluated along with their anticancer and related biological activities. The terpenoids, steroids, phenolics and alkaloids, with biological activity related to cancer from 17 Ganoderma species, are reported herein. The vertebrate biodiversity of Turkey has been reviewed in Chap. 10. It shows that Turkish vertebrate fauna consists of 1728 species. Endemism rate is given around 13.14%, and 5 species are noted as extinct and 212 species are under threat globally. Within the Caucasus part, first-hand information on the “Medicinal Plants of Northeast Anatolia” has been discussed in Chap. 11 along with data on a total of 510 medicinal vascular plants, including 10 endemics reported to show distribution in this region which abounds in a variety of ecosystems and habitats in the Caucasus. This is followed by Chaps. 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16 from the Caucasus region, mainly Georgia, with a detailed description on the main problems of sustainable development in South Caucasus and processes of landscapes (ecosystems) biodiversity transformation, forest cover for the safety of biosphere and environment in Georgia, agrodiversity and sustainable development in Georgia, the plant diversity and general vegetation of Georgia, and a general perspective of the faunal diversity in Georgia. The follow up on the Caucasus region covers Chaps. 17, 18, 19 and 20 from Azerbaijan entitled: “An Overview of the Plant Diversity of Azerbaijan”, “Agrodiversity of Azerbaijan”, “Faunal diversity of Azerbaijan” and “Genus Crataegus in the flora of Nakhchivan”. In Chap. 21, the herbals used in Western Iran as food and for health treatments present information on 331 herbs belonging to 65 families used in the treatment of ailments. The list includes some edible plants. Most interesting is the information on Allium tripedale and A. ampeloprasum used here by some ethnic groups for making a delicious and appetizing bread called “Kalaneh”.

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Chapter 22 explains the knowledge collected during 2001–2018 on the fish fauna in the Amur Water system of the Jewish Autonomous Region in Russia with number of specific ecocenotic and biological characteristics. The composition is noted to vary considerably depending on how far the entrance to the Amur River is and the river flow characteristics. There are 92 species from 66 genera in 25 families found here, which is 74.2% of the species diversity of fish in the basin, and 6 species of rare fishes are found in the Amur basin. Paleogeography of the Caspian Sea, water level fluctuations and consequences on the environment and civilization are discussed in Chap. 23. The chapter covers information on the Caspian as area of the first civilization; big Caspian floods including Noah flood and its consequences; the water fluctuations; name of the sea as Hazar, which is said to be related with the fluctuation of sea level; its connections to the Black Sea by the Manych Spillway; other water connections; climate change issues; appearance as epicentre of the flood; and the most sensitive indicator of other events, Oasis theory. With the climate change and the increasing frequency of other destructive forces, reduction in biodiversity as well as agrodiversity can lead to catastrophic consequences for humans. Maintaining biodiversity poses a great challenge for humanity. The porosity of international borders and demands for wildlife will continue to threaten marketable species. Fragmentation, together with huge demand for wildlife as food, medicine and pets, will lead to increased trafficking, and many species with high commercial value are and will face the threat of extinction. This volume covers these issues together with other facets related to this theme in West Asia and the Caucasus region. Attempts have been made to highlight the research gaps in the countries covered.

Izmir, Turkey Hatay, Turkey Istanbul, Balikesir, Turkey

Münir Öztürk Volkan Altay Recep Efe  

Acknowledgment

The editorial team is highly indebted to the actively working colleagues from different parts of the world, who were kind enough to collaborate with us. We owe a deepest sense of gratitude for their full cooperation and support as they had to wait patiently for our lengthy submission procedure. The motivation from IPBES mail messages inspired us greatly to work on this book. The editors would like to express their special thanks to them. The success in the preparation of this volume depended largely on the encouragement from the Springer team who collaborated with us; therefore, our greatest appreciation goes to them.

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Contents

1 Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation in Palestine����������������    1 Mazin B. Qumsiyeh and Mohammed A. Abusarhan 2 Lichens of the Negev Desert (Israel): Diversity, Distribution, and Relationship with Microclimate������������������������������������������������������   23 Marina Temina 3 Lichens: Characteristics, Importance, Uses, and Distribution in Turkey����������������������������������������������������������������������   39 Şule Öztürk 4 Endangered Swamp Forests in Turkey—An Ecological Inventory, Prospects, and Challenges ����������������������������������������������������������������������   61 Münir Öztürk, Volkan Altay, Celal Yarcı, Ersin Yücel, and Hamdi G. Kutbay 5 Forest Fires and Sustainability in the Mediterranean Ecosystems ����   81 Hüseyin Barış Tecimen, Ali Kavgacı, and Orhan Sevgi 6 Turkey’s Wild Orchids����������������������������������������������������������������������������  101 Nazli Turkmen 7 Agrodiversity in Turkey: Case Study on Rice ��������������������������������������  111 Münir Öztürk, Khawar Jabran, and Mirza Hasanuzzaman 8 Agrodiversity in West Asia: Pepper��������������������������������������������������������  123 Esra Koç and Belgizar Karayiğit 9 Promising Small Molecules Against Cancer from Ganoderma Genus��������������������������������������������������������������������������  139 Mehmet Öztürk, Gülsen Tel-Çayan, Fatih Çayan, and Mehmet Emin Duru

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10 The Vertebrate Biodiversity of Turkey��������������������������������������������������  175 Ahmet Karataş, Halit Filiz, Kiraz Erciyas-Yavuz, Saniye Cevher Özeren, and Cemal Varol Tok 11 Medicinal Plants of Northeast Anatolia ������������������������������������������������  275 Salih Terzioğlu and Kamil Coşkunçelebi 12 Main Problems of the Sustainable Development of South Caucasus and Processes of Transformation of Landscape (Ecosystem) Biodiversity ������������������������������������������������������������������������  339 Nodar Elizbarashvili, Nino Sulkhanishvili, and Rusudan Elizbarashvili 13 Forest Cover for the Safety of Biosphere and Environment����������������  355 Tsisana Basilashvili 14 Agrodiversity and Sustainable Development����������������������������������������  371 Davit Sartania and Dali Nikolaishvili 15 Plant Diversity and General Vegetation of Georgia������������������������������  393 Dali Nikolaishvili 16 Faunal Diversity in Georgia: General Perspective��������������������������������  421 Dali Nikolaishvili and Davit Sartania 17 An Overview of the Plant Diversity of Azerbaijan��������������������������������  431 Sayyara J. Ibadullayeva and Irada M. Huseynova 18 Agrodiversity in Azerbaijan��������������������������������������������������������������������  479 Zeynal Akparov, Aydin Asgerov, and Afig Mammadov 19 Faunal Diversity of Azerbaijan ��������������������������������������������������������������  501 Elman Yusifov and Elshad Ahmadov 20 Genus Crataegus (Rosaceae) in the Flora of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic of Azerbaijan����������������������������  527 Anvar Ibrahimov 21 Herbals Used in Western Iran as Food and for Health Treatments����  547 Mehdi Younessi-Hamzekhanlu, Moslem Abdipour, Ata Dejahang, Mohsen Sabzi-Nojadeh, and Mina Amani 22 Fish Fauna in the Amur Water System of the Jewish Autonomous Region in Russia����������������������������������������������������  601 Vitaliy N. Burik 23 Paleogeography of Caspian Sea, Water Level Fluctuations, and Consequences on the Environment and Civilization��������������������  615 Mustafa Ergun Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  639

About the Editors

Prof. Dr. Münir Öztürk  holds a Ph.D. and D.Sc. from Ege University, Turkey, and has served at the same university for 50  years in different positions. He is currently vice president of the Islamic World Academy of Sciences. Prof. Ozturk received fellowships from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, the Japanese Society for Promotion of Science, and the National Science Foundation of the USA. He has served as chairman of the Botany Department and founding director of the Centre for Environmental Studies, Ege University; as consultant fellow, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia; and as distinguished visiting scientist, ICCBS, Karachi University, Pakistan. His fields of scientific interest are plant ecophysiology, medicinal and aromatic plants, conservation of plant diversity, biosaline agriculture and crops, pollution, and biomonitoring. He has published more than 40 books, 80 book chapters, and 190 papers in journals and has served as guest editor for more than 10 journals.

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About the Editors

Prof.  Dr.  Volkan  Altay  is professor of ecology and environmental sciences at the Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey. His fields of scientific interest are plant ecology, vegetation ecology, taxonomy, biodiversity, biomonitoring, pollution ecology, and sustainable use of medicinal plant resources. He has a proven track record of nearly 50 research publications in highly reputed journals. Prof. Altay has also published one book with Springer, written several reviews, and has contributed in numerous international conferences and seminars. Prof.  Dr.  Recep  Efe  completed his Ph.D. and D.Sc. degrees along with postdoctoral studies in the U.K. He has over 200 publications, has published more than 120 papers in national and international journals, and authored and co-authored/edited 600 books and 18 book chapters in Turkish and English. He has organized and chaired 18 national and international conferences. Dr. Efe is member of International Geographical Union (IGU), Association of American Geographers (AAG), International Associations of Geomorphologists (IAG), International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS-6648), Balkan Geographical Association, and Turkish Geographical Association. He is on the editorial board of several national and international journals. Dr. Efe works in the fields of ecology, ecosystem analysis, geomorphology, vegetation, biogeography, land degradation, land use, and e­ cotourism.

Chapter 1

Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation in Palestine Mazin B. Qumsiyeh and Mohammed A. Abusarhan

1.1  Introduction In the late twentieth century, the conservation of biological diversity became a main goal of global actions for a sustainable planet. This followed significant decline in biodiversity accompanying the industrialization that spread widely in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries resulting in climate change and habitat destruction (Nurlu et  al. 2008). Two key organizing documents emerged to set the stage for global actions: the Global Biodiversity Strategy and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (both in 1992). Palestine connects Africa with Eurasia, and it is where the first humans migrated out of Africa and also where the first human agriculture developed. The geologic history especially the formation of the Great Rift Valley formed varied topography and evolutionary changes with a rich fauna and flora. There are diverse habitats covering five ecological zones (Central Highlands, Semi-coastal Region, Eastern Slopes, Jordan Rift Valley, and Coastal Regions) and five phytogeographical areas (Coastal, Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian, Saharo-Arabian, and Sudanese/Ethiopian) (Qumsiyeh 1985; Soto-Berelov et al. 2015). Mild weather, rich soils, rich wildlife, and presence of wild edible fauna and flora allowed humans to go from being hunter-gatherers to developing an agricultural and nomadic shepherd life (McCorriston and Hole 1991; Eshed et al. 2004). The transition to agriculture from hunter-gatherer communities also allowed increase in population and more time for people to develop civilizations. Our region has undergone significant human-induced environmental changes including those caused by migrations, industrialization, climate change, and colonization, among others. This had a huge impact on biodiversity, but few studies have M. B. Qumsiyeh () · M. A. Abusarhan Palestine Institute for Biodiversity and Sustainability, Bethlehem University, Bethlehem, Palestine e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 M. Öztürk et al. (eds.), Biodiversity, Conservation and Sustainability in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59928-7_1

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M. B. Qumsiyeh and M. A. Abusarhan

addressed this. Just this year (2019), we noted numerous ecologically destructive incidents: trees were uprooted and agricultural lands ravaged by the Israeli army in Battir and Nahalin in Bethlehem governorate; wastewater dumped by colonists from “Betar Illit”; seedlings sabotaged by settlers in Burqa, Nablus governorate; continued environmental siege on Gaza that is devastating the environment; and much more.1 Israel’s tendency to put polluting industries in Palestinian areas has unsurprisingly produced negative health consequences for the people living there as well as for the local ecosystem. For example, significant genotoxicity is caused by Israeli industrial settlements on the Palestinian villagers near Salfit (Hammad and Qumsiyeh 2013), and recycling of e-waste that mostly originates in Israel in Idhna in the Hebron District impacted local health and environment (Khlaif and Qumsiyeh 2017). Also the local people engaged in many practices that impact the environment. Thus, in this chapter, we review data on what is known about threats to biodiversity in Palestine (a small but critical part of the Fertile Crescent) and discuss opportunities for conservation and sustainable living for both people and fauna and flora.

1.2  Status of Key Taxa Related to Conservation The area has been sporadically studied before by visitors to the “Holy land” from Tristram (1866, 1884) to Morton (1924) to David Harrison in the 1960s (e.g., Harrison and Bates 1991). In the 1950s and 1960s, there were some studies of fauna and flora by the Israelis. The most notable of these was a series called “Fauna Palaestina” issues by the Israel Academy of Sciences, and good published work continued to flow into the 1980s (Levy and Amitai 1980; Yom-Tov and Tchernov 1988; Zohary 1973; Werner 1988). Due to the colonization and occupation, research here still lags behind in Palestine (Qumsiyeh and Isaac 2012). Among native Palestinian zoologists, Dr. Sana Atallah (d. 1970) focused on mammals (Atallah 1977, 1978). Key taxa/groups that are useful for measuring environmental threats and thus important for conservation status were studied in Palestine. These include mollusks (Amr et al. 2018; Bdir and Adwan 2011, 2012; Handal et al. 2015, 2016; Heller and Arad 2009), amphibians (Salman et al. 2014), birds (Khalilieh 2016; Awad et al. 2016), and mammals (Atallah 1977, 1978; Qumsiyeh 1985, 1996; Werner 1988; Harrison and Bates 1991; Whitaker et  al. 1994; Qumsiyeh et  al. 1996; Qumsiyeh et  al. 1998; Mendelssohn and Yom-Tov 1999; Benda et al. 2010). For example, earlier studies on the freshwater snails of historical Palestine include those of Tristram (1884) and Germain and de Kerville (1922) and were supplemented by work of Abdel-Azim

  See, for example, http://www.lrcj.org/publication-3-1169.html, http://www.lrcj.org/publication-3-1170.html, http://www.lrcj.org/publication-3-1171.html.

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and Gismann (1956), Heller et al. (2005), and Handal et al. (2015). Those clearly show the utility of these taxa in assessing water quality. So far, 373 bird species belonging to 23 orders, 69 families, 21 subfamilies, and 172 genera have been recorded from the occupied Palestinian areas (Awad et  al. 2016). Birds of prey can be of good utility in assessing environmental changes (because of their position in the food web) (Brett 1988). Amr et al. (2016) showed a decline in biodiversity in the Bethlehem district evidenced by the study of old and newer food pellets of the Eagle owl. Saeed and Qumsiyeh (2020) compared records of birds reported by the first studies done in the nineteenth century with what is found today and showed significant negative trends (related to human effects) such as the disappearance of the brown fishing owl. It is then clear that a study of the threats to biodiversity is critical.

1.3  Environmental Threats in Palestine Environmental threats are global in nature but are exacerbated in developing countries especially in regions of conflict. In Palestine, even in ancient times, there is evidence of Canaanitic villages stripping their populations of gazelles. In the more modern era, forests in the Eastern Mediterranean region were cut down for household, industrial, and commercial uses. Under British occupation (1917–1948), and Israeli and Jordanian rule (>1948), destruction continued, but also interventions that were supposed to be beneficial like forestation were done mostly with European pine trees (monoculture of Pinus halepensis) (Qumsiyeh 1996). Under Israeli occupation and colonization, Palestinians were prevented not only from doing much of their usual agriculture but also from managing lands. Many forested hills were converted to residential Jewish-only colonial settlements (e.g., Jabal Abu-Ghneim became Har Homa colony near Bethlehem) and generated far more pollution than similar settlements inside Israel. The modern threats were not unanticipated. For example, Ives (1950) discussed the land’s capacity and the fact that trends which started in the 1930s if continued would devastate the area. Not only was he right, but more threats evolved since the 1950s (Qumsiyeh 1996; Tal 2002; Qumsiyeh 2004). Alon Tal acknowledged even before he wrote his book (2002) that: “We came here to redeem a land and we end up contaminating it” (Beyer 1998). The main threats to doing better conservation efforts can be simply categorized as issues that are peculiarly Palestinian (like occupation/colonization) or global issues. Anecdotal notes and opinions on the Palestinian environment are not reviewed in this work (for an example of the genre of this kind of work, see Alleson and Schoenfeld 2007; Abu Safieh 2012). The ranking of threats to the Palestinian Environment according to the fifth national CBD report is available and seems reasonable though could be adjusted when and if additional data become available (EQA 2015; Table  1.1). Another report used the Delphi approach to ask some “experts” what the main threats are and came up with a somewhat different answer

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Table 1.1  Selected threats to the Palestinian environment (After EQA 2015) Threats

Threat ranking West Bank

Gaza

Habitats fragmentation (due to urbanization, destruction Very High of forests, climate change, desertification, colonial activities)

Very High

Desertification and soil erosion (due to overgrazing, climate change, infrastructure construction etc)

Very High

Urbanization and population growth Removal of rocks for construction (stone querries etc)

High Very High Very low

Medium Very High

Uprooting trees

Low

High

Overgrazing

Low

Very low

Land degradation (poor planning, soil erosion etc.)

High

Very High

No data

No data

Climate change

Low

Medium

Overexploitation (including poaching, overfishing etc).

High

Very High

Medium

Very High

Invasive alien species

Pollution (waste water, solid waste, use of chemical pesticides/insecticides/fertilizers) Colonial residential and industrial settlements and associated infrastructure (like the Segregation wall)

Very high

Very low

(Abdallah and Swaileh 2011; AlHirsh et al. 2016). But the key threats need not even be prioritized to be analyzed. AlHirsh et al. (2016) used interviews with selected individuals involved in environmental issues in Palestine to see what threats are most prominent to the majority of those individuals. Here we highlight three of the main threats to the Palestinian environment (climate change, water and waste water, and occupation/colonization) taken as key examples that set the stage to discuss interventions. But even here we will have to be limited because of space.

1.3.1  Climate Change Climate change has a significant effect on biodiversity, human health, and sustainability (Harvell et al. 2002; Portnov and Paz 2008; Rinawati et al. 2013; Altay and Ozturk 2018; Imanberdieva et  al. 2018; Ozturk 2018; Ozturk and Altay 2018; Ozturk et al. 2020), and this requires us to integrate educational, evolutionary, and ecological responses into models and potential remedies (Settele et  al. 2017; Lavergne et al. 2010; Sternberg et al. 2015). The joint statement by world science academies warns that “Developing nations that lack the infrastructure or resources to respond to the impacts of climate change will be particularly affected..”.2 We in

 http://nationalacademies.org/onpi/06072005.pdf.

2

1  Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation in Palestine

5

countries in the southern Mediterranean areas, the MENA region, will be particularly vulnerable (Sala et al. 2000). Human-induced climate change will drastically effect the Arab world (Verner 2012). A World Bank study shows impacts including water resource decline will be drastic by 2040. In the West Bank and Gaza, while demand will double, supply will shrink dramatically! When coupled with population growth and habitat destruction (see Table 1.1), both the World Bank (Verner 2012) and the UN predict situation to become unlivable (UN 2012). Newer models attempt to integrate species’ own responses (ecologically, genetically, etc.) in predicting changes in species distribution following climate change and its impact on the habitat (Ozturk et al. 2004, 2012a; Lavergne et al. 2010). But preliminary data in Palestine in at least one study shows decline in vertebrate biodiversity as desertification spread into the Bethlehem district (Qumsiyeh et al. 2014).

1.3.2  Water and Liquid Waste The situation of water is becoming very critical in the MENA region. While it is clear how it impacts human health and well-being, it is also critical for the ecosystem. Open water sources if closed off to use only for humans will impact a diversity of organisms. The government of the state of Israel which controls Palestinian (native) water claims there is water shortage, but the reality is that there is simply unequal distribution. For example, Israel diverts and uses most of the water resources of the Jordan River basin for irrigation farming through the so-called Israel national water carrier/canal (Elmusa 1998). From 1250 million cubic meters (mcm) per year, the river’s flow declined to