Binary Oppositions in American Society and Culture: A Socio-Semiotic Analysis 1527573176, 9781527573178

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Binary Oppositions in American Society and Culture

Binary Oppositions in American Society and Culture: A Socio-Semiotic Analysis By

Arthur Asa Berger

Binary Oppositions in American Society and Culture: A Socio-Semiotic Analysis By Arthur Asa Berger This book first published 2024 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2024 by Arthur Asa Berger All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-5275-7317-6 ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-7317-8

For my children, Nina Savelle-Rocklin and Gabriel Berger

EPIGRAPH

The cultural studies theory known as Structuralism uses a term of art called "binary opposition" to explain human knowledge and to explain how many naturally occurring phenomena are constructed. Systems are "binary" when they are composed of only two parts. It's easy to imagine things "in opposition," like the Boston Red Sox and the New York Yankees, or the World War II alliances known as the "Axis Powers" and "the Allies." For an opposition to be truly "binary," however, the opposing classes of thing/idea must be mutually exclusive. That is, membership in one class must make impossible membership in the other….True binary oppositions that organize a class of thing are not supposed to allow confusion, that is allowing a thing to claim membership in both simultaneously, or exclusion, non-membership while still belonging to the class of things organized by the binary. The most obvious place in which binary oppositions work to structure knowledge is in computers' "machine code," the most basic level of programming which tells each tiny microprocessor switch whether it is to be opened (0 or "off") or closed (1 or "on"). Everything you see on this screen, together with instructions for how it is to be displayed and where it is to be stored, is expressed to the computers in enormous strings of zeros and ones, a binary code that cannot fail if properly constructed…. In the world of human cultural artifacts, binaries are much likely to be ambiguous if pressed to their limits, but they can function perfectly well as principles we use to navigate culture from day to day. For instance, we conventionally call "day" the period between sunrise and sunset, and "night" the remainder (or is it vice versa), although poets and painters long have drawn our attention to the beauties of the transitional moments at the dividing point between them. "Legal" and "Illegal" similarly function to help us distinguish between kinds of behavior even though a whole industry has grown up to argue the ambiguous points, and every year decisions it makes are found to be deeply disturbing to portions of the populace. http://faculty.goucher.edu/eng105sanders/binary_oppositions.htm

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Illustrations .................................................................................... ix List of Tables ............................................................................................. xi Preface ...................................................................................................... xii Acknowledgements ................................................................................. xiv Takeaways ................................................................................................ xv Chapter 1 .................................................................................................... 1 The Semiotics of Binarism Chapter 2 .................................................................................................. 12 Analog and Digital Chapter 3 .................................................................................................. 21 L.G.B.T.Q.I.A.+ Or Gay and Straight Chapter 4 .................................................................................................. 28 Nature Versus Culture Chapter 5 .................................................................................................. 34 Urban and Rural America Chapter 6 .................................................................................................. 40 Highbrow/Lowbrow Chapter 7 .................................................................................................. 63 Comedy and Tragedy Chapter 8 .................................................................................................. 74 Electronic and Print Media Chapter 9 .................................................................................................. 80 Upper Class and Lower Class

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Chapter 10 ................................................................................................ 87 Democrats and Republicans Chapter 11 ................................................................................................ 92 Coda Binaries Glossary .................................................................................... 104 References .............................................................................................. 141

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

0.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 2.1 2.2 2.3 3.1 4.1 4.2 4.2 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 7.1 8.1 8.2 8.3 9.1 9.2 10.1 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9

M.M. Bakhtin Ferdinand de Saussure Yin Yang Symbol Berger After Saussure Umberto Eco Daniel Chandler American Flag Watch Watch Advertisement Watch Advertisement Judith Butler Ralph Waldo Emerson Cowboy Espresso Machine Marshall McLuhan Media Analysis Techniques Signs in Contemporary Culture Postmortem for a Postmodernist Ocean Travel and Cruising Cover of Shakespeare’s The Comedy of Errors Marshall McLuhan Smartphone James Joyce W.L. Warner Basil Bernstein Trump Balloon Journal 106 Cover Journal 106 page 216 Journal 106 page 217 Brainstorming for Book on Choices Graphics Linoleum Block Drawings Used on Book Cover Geoffrey Gorer Secret Agent Stamp The Secret Agent Self-Caricature

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11.10 11.11

List of Illustrations

Page from “Secret Agent” Article Page from “Secret Agent” Article

LIST OF TABLES

1.1 1.2 2.1 3.1 4.1 4.2 5.1 6.1 6.2 6.3 7.1 7.2 8.1 8.2 9.1

Commonly Used Oppositions Historically Important Binary Oppositions Analog and Digital Common Male-Female Binary Oppositions Wilderness Civilization Oppositions America Europe Oppositions Urban Rural Oppositions The 45 Techniques of Humor The 45 Techniques of Humor by Category The 45 Techniques of Humor in Alphabetical Order The Comic and Code Violations Comedies and Tragedies Electric and Print Media Average Time Spent With Media in US 2010 Restricted and Elaborated Speech Codes

PREFACE

This book, which explores the social, psychological, cultural and political significance of the concept of binarism, is, like all books and creative works, intertextual in nature. That is, it borrows from the ideas and writings of many scholars whose ideas help us understand binarism and from some of my previous writings in modified and updated versions.

Figure 0.1 M.M. Bakhtin The concept of intertextuality is derived from the writings of the Russian communications theorist, M.M. Bakhtin, and his theories about dialogism, which are of central importance in this book. Intertextuality is a concept that refers to the interconnectedness of texts, where one text refers to quotes, or incorporates elements from another text. It is the idea that no text exists in isolation, but it is influenced by and refers to other texts that came before it. These references can be explicit or subtle, and they can include direct quotations, allusions, parodies, or even structural and thematic similarities.

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Intertextuality recognizes that every text is part of a broader network of texts and that the meaning of a particular text is shaped by its relationship to other texts. It emphasizes the interplay between the creator, the text, and the audience, as the audience’s understanding of a text is often enhanced when they recognize and interpret these intertextual references. Intertextuality can occur across various forms of media, including literature, film, art, music, and even advertising. For example, a novel might allude to a famous work of literature, a film might reference a classic scene from another movie, or a song might sample lyrics from a previous song. Binaries is also multi-disciplinary and is a cultural studies analysis that uses semiotics, psychoanalytic theory, sociological theory and Marxist theory to investigate the role binary oppositions play in shaping American culture, character, and society. I have provided a substantial glossary which deals with some of the central binary oppositions discussed in the book and with notes about some of the more important theorists and their works that are foundational for cultural studies research.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Springer Nature for giving me permission to reprint my chapter, “Pop Culture and Nobrow Culture” from a book by Peter Swirski (Editor), When Highbrow Meets Lowbrow: Popular Culture and the Rise of Nobrow, Palgrave Macmillan, 2017. I also want to thank the editorial and production staff of the Cambridge Scholars Press for their help in publishing this book. Finally, I owe a debt of gratitude to all the theorists, writers, thinkers, and scholars whose writings of topics related to binarism that I’ve discussed and from whom I’ve quoted.

TAKEAWAYS

This book deals with the ideas and in many cases offers brief passages from the works of some of the most important writers, theorists, and scholars who have had interesting things to say about binary oppositions and their role in American culture, character, and society. 1. Semiotics is the science of signs—a sign being anything that can stand for something else, whether that something else is real or imaginary. Signs have two elements: a sound or object (called in semiotics a signifier and the meaning of that signifier, namely a signified). The relation between signifiers and signified is arbitrary, which suggests that the meaning of signs can change over time. 2. Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss linguistics professor and Charles Sanders Peirce, an American philosopher, who worked independently, were the two “founding fathers” of the science of semiotics. 3. Binary, when referring to cultural phenomena, can be defined as oppositional, having two parts. Members of the LGBTQ community describe themselves as non-binary, meaning that they do not accept the binary notion that there are only two genders: male and female. 4. Yin and Yang are two complementary, interdependent, and opposing forces that exist in everything in the universe. They represent the balance and harmony of the natural world. Yin: Often associated with the feminine, passive, dark, cold, receptive, and internal aspects. Yin represents the shady side of a hill. Yang: Often associated with the masculine, active, bright, hot, assertive, and external aspects. Yang represents the sunny side of a hill.

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Yin and Yang are not independent of each other but depend on each other for their existence. They coexist in a dynamic relationship, with each containing a seed of the other within itself. For example, day turns into night, and night turns into day in a continuous cycle. The Yin-Yang symbol is a famous representation of these concepts. It consists of a circle divided into two parts: one black (Yin) and the other white (Yang), with a smaller circle of each color inside the opposite side. This symbol visually represents the interconnected and complementary nature of Yin and Yang. 5. Umberto Eco was an Italian semiotician and novelist who made important contributions to semiotic theory and to the application of semiotics to media studies, literary theory and popular culture analysis. 6. Daniel Chandler is a British semiotician who wrote an important introduction to semiotics, Semiotics: the basics, now in its fourth edition. Codes, Chandler writes in his book, “provide relational frameworks within which social and cultural meanings are produced.” He adds, “Sociologists argue that each individual has a repertoire of codes and that access to codes is unevenly distributed in society but is largely shared by those within particular social groups.” 7. There are certain dominant oppositions that exist in societies, and these oppositions shape the thinking and behavior of people in that society. I offer a list of some of these oppositions, taken from Chandler’s book. 8. The term “digital” refers to anything related to data expressed in discrete numerical form, often represented as binary digits (0s and 1s). In a broader sense, it pertains to technology, systems, or processes that use digital data in some way. Here are some common uses of the term “digital”: Digital Technology: This refers to any technology that operates using binary digits or digital signals. Examples include computers, smartphones, digital cameras, and digital audio players.

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Digital Data: Data represented in a digital format, which can be easily stored, processed, and transmitted electronically. Digital Communication: The exchange of information using digital signals through various channels such as the internet, emails, instant messaging, and social media. Digital Media: Content that is stored and distributed in digital formats, such as digital images, videos, e-books, and online articles. The digital revolution has significantly affected various aspects of our lives, from communication and entertainment to business and education, leading to a highly interconnected and digitized world. 9. Analog refers to a type of data or technology that represents information in continuous, non-discrete form. It exists in contrast to digital, which represents data using discrete values (usually binary digits 0 and 1). Analog Signal: In electronics and telecommunications, an analog signal is a continuous electrical signal that varies over time, representing some physical quantity. Examples of analog signals include the voltage output from a microphone or the continuous waveforms in an analog radio broadcast. Analog Devices: Analog devices or components are those that manipulate and process analog signals. Examples include analog integrated circuits (ICs), operational amplifiers (op-amps), analog-to-digital converters (ADCs), and digital-to-analog converters (DACs). Analog Technology: This refers to any technology that uses analog signals or methods to operate. In the past, many electronic devices, such as radios, televisions, and cassette players, operated on analog technology. However, with the advancement of digital technology, many of these devices have been replaced by digital counterparts. Analog Clocks: A clock with analog display represents time using rotating hands (hour, minute, and sometimes second hands) over a circular dial, as opposed to digital clocks that show time in numerical format.

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Analog Photography: The use of traditional film cameras and chemical processes to capture and develop images, as opposed to digital photography that relies on electronic sensors. Analog technology was prevalent in much of human history, but with the advent of digital technology, many systems and devices have transitioned to digital because of its advantages in terms of accuracy, reliability, and efficiency. However, analog technology is still used in various applications, especially in situations where continuous signals or interactions are necessary, or in specific specialized fields. 10. Transgender refers to individuals who are nonbinary and who may be in the process of changing from the gender assigned to them at birth to the gender they prefer. 11. Gender dysphoria is the feeling of discomfort or distress that might occur in people whose gender identity differs from their sex assigned at birth or sexrelated physical characteristics. Transgender and gender-diverse people might experience gender dysphoria in their lives. 12. LGBTQIA+ is an abbreviation for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or questioning, intersex, asexual, and more. These terms are used to describe a person’s sexual orientation or gender identity. 13. Judith Butler is the author of an important book, Gender Trouble, which argues that gender is something we can choose and can be seen as a performance and not something that cannot be changed. 14. Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) was an American essayist, lecturer, and poet, who became one of the leading figures of the transcendentalist movement in the 19th century. He was born on May 25, 1803, in Boston, Massachusetts, and grew up in a religious and intellectually stimulating environment. Emerson’s father was a Unitarian minister, and the young

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Ralph was exposed to various intellectual and philosophical ideas from an early age. In the 1830s, Emerson became one of the central figures of the transcendentalist movement, which was a philosophical and literary movement that emphasized individual intuition, self-reliance, and the importance of nature and the spiritual world. Transcendentalists believed individuals could transcend the limitations of the physical world and connect with a higher spiritual reality through intuition and self-reflection. Emerson’s most significant works include essays like “Nature” (1836), “Self-Reliance” (1841), “The Over-Soul” (1841), and “The Poet” (1844), where he expounded his transcendentalist ideas. His writing style was characterized by a poetic and philosophical approach that inspired readers to think deeply about existence and their place in the universe. 15. The Nature/Culture bipolar opposition, and the binary oppositions that logically stem from this binary opposition, tell us a great deal about American culture and society. 16. Urban/Rural is one of the most important binary oppositions in American culture and society and has had a major impact on everyday life and politics in the United States. 17. Cosmopolitan beliefs refer to a worldview that emphasizes a sense of global interconnectedness and shared responsibility among all human beings, regardless of nationality, ethnicity, or cultural background. The term “cosmopolitan” comes from the Greek word “kosmopolitês,” which means “citizen of the world.” Cosmopolitan beliefs advocate for recognizing and valuing the inherent dignity and worth of every individual, regardless of their geographical location or societal context. Some key aspects of cosmopolitan beliefs include: Universal Human Rights: Cosmopolitan beliefs hold that all individuals have inherent human rights that should be respected and protected universally, regardless of their nationality or citizenship status. This

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includes rights to life, freedom, equality, and necessities such as food, shelter, and healthcare. Global Solidarity: Cosmopolitanism encourages the idea that people have a moral obligation to show solidarity and empathy toward others, especially those who are suffering or facing injustice, regardless of geographical or cultural boundaries. Cultural Diversity and Respect: While cosmopolitan beliefs promote a sense of global community, they also value and celebrate cultural diversity. It emphasizes the importance of respecting and understanding different cultural practices, traditions, and values. While cosmopolitan beliefs are often associated with ideals of global harmony and unity, they can also be met with challenges, such as differences in cultural norms, national interests, and political ideologies. However, the core value of cosmopolitanism lies in recognizing our shared humanity and the importance of working together to create a more just and compassionate world. (See Urban.) 18. The term “highbrow” is an adjective used to describe something that is considered intellectually or culturally sophisticated. It is often used to refer to art, literature, music, or other forms of media and entertainment that are considered being of a high intellectual or artistic quality. The opposite of “highbrow” is “lowbrow,” which refers to things that are less refined or intellectually challenging. The concept of highbrow and lowbrow has its roots in cultural distinctions and preferences, but it’s essential to note that these terms can be subjective and may vary across different societies and individuals. What one person considers highbrow might be viewed differently by another, based on their personal tastes, interests, and cultural background. It’s important to recognize that different forms of art and media can hold value and significance for various people, irrespective of their classification as highbrow or lowbrow. 19. “Lowbrow” is a term used to describe a style, culture, or form of entertainment that is considered not sophisticated or intellectually demanding. It is often used in contrast to “highbrow,” which refers to things that are

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considered more cultured, refined, or intellectual. Lowbrow culture can be found in various forms, such as comic books, graffiti art, street art, tattoo art, certain types of music, and even some forms of internet humor. It often celebrates and embraces aspects of popular culture that may be dismissed or overlooked by mainstream or more traditional artistic and cultural circles. It is important to note that the distinction between lowbrow and highbrow is subjective and can be influenced by cultural and personal biases. Different people may have different opinions on what is lowbrow or highbrow, and there is no universal standard for making such categorizations. As with any form of art or cultural expression, it’s essential to recognize that tastes and preferences vary widely, and what one person might consider lowbrow, another might find enjoyable and meaningful. 20. Marshall McLuhan is a Canadian media theorist who wrote many important books such as The Mechanical Bride and Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. His ideas have been very influential in communication studies and in many other disciplines. 21. Li’l Abner was a long-running American comic strip created by cartoonist Al Capp. The strip first appeared on August 13, 1934, and ran until November 13, 1977. It gained immense popularity and became one of the most widely read and influential comic strips in American history. The comic strip is set in the fictional hillbilly town of Dogpatch, in the Appalachian Mountains. Abner Yokum, the main character, is a lazy, goodnatured, and often clueless young man who is the son of Mammy Yokum, a tough and strong-willed woman who often has to take charge of the family and the town’s affairs. The central theme of the strip revolves around satirical commentary on various social and political issues of its time, often parodying the government, bureaucracy, and the American way of life. It also frequently poked fun at corporate greed, media, and societal norms. The strip featured a memorable cast of characters, including Daisy Mae Scragg, Abner’s beautiful and love-struck girlfriend; Marryin’ Sam, the local matrimonial expert; and Evil Eye Fleagle, the town’s resident villain, among others.

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Li’l Abner’s success extended beyond the comic strip. It was adapted into a successful Broadway musical in 1956, featuring music by Gene De Paul and lyrics by Johnny Mercer. The musical received critical acclaim and several Tony Awards, further cementing the strip’s cultural significance. Li’l Abner was the subject of the author’s Ph.D. dissertation. 22. Popular culture, often referred to simply as “pop culture,” encompasses a wide range of ideas, practices, beliefs, images, objects, and phenomena that are prevalent and enjoyed by many people within a society. It is everchanging, influenced by various factors, and represents the collective preferences and tastes of a particular time and place. Key aspects of popular culture include: Entertainment: Movies, television shows, music, literature, video games, and sports are all major components of pop culture. Celebrities, artists, and athletes often become significant figures within this realm. Fashion: Clothing trends and styles that gain widespread acceptance and popularity are integral to pop culture. Fashion icons and designers shape these trends. Internet and Social Media: The rise of the internet and social media platforms has had a profound impact on popular culture, with viral challenges, memes, and online influencers significantly shaping cultural conversations. Technology: Technological advancements and gadgets, such as smartphones, tablets, and wearable devices, become intertwined with daily life and pop culture. Trends: Pop culture is characterized by trends and fads that can range from language and slang to viral dances and challenges. Food: Culinary trends and popular dishes often become symbols of a specific era or region. Gaming: Video games and gaming culture have become a significant part of pop culture, with esports and gaming events attracting massive audiences.

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Comics and Superheroes: Comic books and their characters, particularly superheroes, have a significant impact on pop culture, as is clear in the success of many movies and TV shows based on them. I have published a book, The Comic Stripped American, which deals with the way comics reflect important aspects of American culture and society. Influencers and Brands: Pop culture is heavily influenced by social media influencers and the brands they promote, driving consumer trends and behaviors. Celebrations and Holidays: Pop culture often shapes how holidays and celebrations are observed, with certain traditions gaining popularity through media representation. It’s essential to recognize that popular culture is not homogenous and varies across different regions, age groups, and social backgrounds. It reflects the diversity and complexity of society, and its influence can be both positive and negative, shaping values, opinions, and beliefs in various ways. As the world continues to change, so too will popular culture, adapting to new technologies, emerging trends, and changing social norms. 23. Dean MacCannell is a semiotician who taught at the University of California at Davis for many years. He is the author of an influential book about tourism, The Tourist. 24. Discourse theory, also known as discourse analysis or discursive theory, is an interdisciplinary approach to studying language, communication, and social interactions. It seeks to understand how language shapes and constructs social reality, power relations, and the formation of meaning within various contexts, such as politics, culture, media, and everyday life. In this context, “discourse” refers to any form of communication, including spoken and written language, which influences how people think, behave, and interact within society. Discourses can be found in various institutional contexts, such as legal, educational, political, and religious institutions, and they can be embedded in everyday conversations and media representations. Discourse theory recognizes that language is not neutral and that it plays a significant role in the exercise of power. Certain discourses can promote or

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suppress particular ideas, identities, and social norms, reinforcing existing power structures and social hierarchies. Discourse analysis employs various methods to examine language use and its implications. Some common approaches include: Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA): CDA focuses on revealing power relations, ideologies, and hidden meanings within texts or communication. It aims to expose how language is used to maintain or challenge social inequalities. Conversation Analysis: This method focuses on analyzing the structure and organization of spoken interactions to understand how meaning is created in everyday conversations. Narrative Analysis: Narrative analysis examines how stories and narratives shape individuals’ perceptions and experiences, influencing their understanding of events and identities. Overall, discourse theory offers valuable insights into the complex relationship between language, power, and society, and it has applications in various fields, including sociology, linguistics, media studies, political science, and cultural studies. I discuss many aspects of discourse theory in my book, Applied Discourse Analysis: Popular Culture, Media, and Everyday Life. 25. Structuralism refers to a diverse set of intellectual movements that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries across various disciplines, including linguistics, anthropology, psychology, literature, and philosophy. It aimed to analyze and understand phenomena by examining the underlying structures that give rise to them. Structuralism is often associated with the works of prominent thinkers like Ferdinand de Saussure (linguistics), Claude Lévi-Strauss (anthropology), and Roland Barthes (literary theory). Key Characteristics of Structuralism: A Focus on Structure: Structuralism emphasizes the importance of underlying structures and systems that shape human experiences, behaviors, and meanings. It seeks to uncover the hidden patterns and relationships that govern various phenomena. Binary Oppositions: Many structuralist theories rely on the concept of binary oppositions, which are pairs of contrasting elements that help define

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each other. For example, good/evil, male/female, culture/nature, etc. These binary pairs and several others are fundamental in constructing meaning and understanding the world. Universality and Structure over Content: Structuralists sought universal structures and principles that underlie various cultures and phenomena, downplaying individual differences and focusing on common underlying patterns. While structuralism was influential and provided valuable insights into the organization of various phenomena, it also faced criticism. One of the main critiques was that its approach could be overly rigid and reductive, overlooking historical and cultural contexts and the importance of individual agency. 26. Comedy is a form of entertainment that aims to make people laugh. It can take various forms, including stand-up comedy, sketch comedy, sitcoms, movies, and more. Comedy often relies on humor, wit, wordplay, satire, and absurdity to amuse its audience. There are many styles and genres of comedy, each appealing to different tastes. Comedy is subjective, and what makes one person laugh might not resonate with someone else. The beauty of comedy is its diversity and ability to cater to various tastes and sensibilities. I have published two books on literary comedy: The Art of Comedy Writing and Shakespeare’s The Comedy of Errors. 27. Tragedy is a literary and dramatic genre that depicts the downfall or suffering of a protagonist, often because of their tragic flaw or a combination of external circumstances. Tragedy has been a fundamental element of storytelling throughout history, dating back to ancient Greek theater with playwrights like Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. These playwrights established the conventions of the tragic form, which have been influential in shaping tragic narratives across cultures and time periods. Key elements of a tragedy typically include: A Protagonist: The tragic hero or heroine is a character who possesses admirable qualities and noble status but also has a fatal flaw (hamartia) or makes a significant mistake that leads to their downfall.

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A Tragic Flaw: The protagonist’s tragic flaw is a character trait or weakness that ultimately contributes to their tragic fate. It can be a personal trait like hubris (excessive pride), ambition, jealousy, or a lack of judgment. Fate or External Forces: Tragedies often involve the interference of external forces or circumstances that contribute to the tragic outcome, emphasizing the theme of inevitability. Catharsis: One of the primary purposes of tragedy is to evoke catharsis in the audience. Catharsis is an emotional release or purging of emotions, particularly feelings of pity and fear, as the audience witnesses the protagonist’s downfall and the consequences of their actions. A Downfall or Suffering: Tragedies revolve around a central conflict that leads to the protagonist’s suffering, culminating in a tragic ending, such as death, madness, or utter ruin. Morality and Ethics: Tragedies often explore complex moral dilemmas, highlighting the consequences of unethical choices. Tragedy can be found in various forms of literature, theater, film, and other media. It continues to be a powerful and resonant genre, as it allows audiences to reflect on the human condition, the consequences of our actions, and the unpredictable nature of life. Some famous examples of tragedies include William Shakespeare’s “Hamlet” and “Romeo and Juliet,” Sophocles’ “Oedipus Rex,” and Arthur Miller’s “Death of a Salesman.” 28. There are four dominant theories of humor, each of which argues that its theory is the correct one. These theories can be described as the Superiority theory (we laugh at people we feel are beneath us); Psychoanalytic theory, derived from the writings of Sigmund Freud (humor involves masked aggression); Incongruity theory (there is a gap between what we expect and what we get); and Cognitive theory (which focuses on paradoxes in communication). There is a great deal of interest in humor by sociologists, psychoanalytic theorists and linguists. 29. There are, I suggest, 45 techniques of humor, such as insult, exaggeration, and satire, which help us understand what it is in humorous texts that generates mirthful feelings or laughter.

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These 45 techniques are based on research conducted by the author and are discussed in his books, such as An Anatomy of Humor and The Art of Comedy Writing and many articles he has written. 30. The Tan Joke is offered as an example of how some of the 45 techniques of humor can be found in a humorous text. 31. Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin (1895-1975) was a prominent Russian philosopher, literary critic, semiotician, and scholar of linguistics. He is widely known for his influential work in the fields of literary theory, aesthetics, and the philosophy of language. Bakhtin’s ideas have had a significant impact on various disciplines, including literary studies, cultural theory, and communication studies. One of Bakhtin’s central contributions was the concept of dialogism, which he developed in his writings on literary criticism. He believed that language and communication are dialogical, meaning they are shaped by a continuous interplay of voices and perspectives. According to Bakhtin, meaning is not fixed, but emerges through the dynamic interaction of different voices, viewpoints, and cultural contexts. This idea laid the groundwork for a more interactive and social understanding of language and discourse. 32. Socio-economic class refers to a system of categorizing individuals or households based on their social and economic status within a society. It is a way of classifying people based on their income, education, occupation, and overall economic situation, as well as their social standing and access to resources and opportunities. It’s important to note that socio-economic class is not solely determined by income. Factors such as education, occupation, and social status also play a crucial role in defining one’s class. Additionally, social mobility, the ability of individuals to move between classes, is an essential aspect to consider when discussing socio-economic class in a dynamic society.

The basic unit of semiotics is the sign defined conceptually as something that stands for something else, and, more technically, as a spoken or written word, a drawn figure, or a material object unified in the mind with a particular cultural concept. The sign is this unity of word-object, known as a signifier with a corresponding, culturally prescribed content or meaning, known as a signified. Thus, our minds attach the word “dog,” or the drawn figure of a “dog,” as a signifier to the idea of a “dog,” that is, a domesticated canine species possessing certain behavioral characteristics. If we came from a culture that did not possess dogs in daily life, however unlikely, we would not know what the signifier “dog” means.௖.௖.௖.௖When dealing with objects that are signifiers of certain concepts, cultural meanings, or ideologies of belief, we can consider them not only as “signs,” but sign vehicles. Signifying objects carry meanings with them. —Mark Gottdiener, The Theming of America: Dreams, Visions, and Commercial Spaces. Since the meaning of a sign depends on the code within which it is situated, codes provide a framework within which signs make sense. Indeed, we cannot grant something the status of a sign if it does not function within a code.…The conventions of codes represent a social dimension in semiotics: a code is a set of practices familiar to users of the medium operating with a broad cultural framework.…When studying cultural practices, semioticians treat as signs any objects or actions which have meaning to the members of a cultural group, seeking to identify the rules or conventions of the codes which underlie the production of meaning within that culture. —Daniel Chandler. Semiotics: The Basics. London: Routledge. “The Universe is Perfused with Signs if not Made Entirely of Signs.” —C.S. Peirce.

CHAPTER 1 THE SEMIOTICS OF BINARISM

Figure 1.1 Ferdinand de Saussure Most people had never heard the term “binarism” until the development of the LGBTQ+ movement and articles about transgender people defining themselves as “non-binary.” The term “binary,” as we shall understand it (while avoiding its use in mathematics) comes from linguistics. It was explained in the work of a Swiss linguist, Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), one of the founding fathers of the science of semiotics—the study of signs. A sign can be defined as anything that can be used to stand for something else. In his book, A Course in General Linguistics, he writes (1915/1966:117): Concepts are purely differential and defined not by their positive content but negatively by their relations with the other terms of the system.

Later, he adds (1966:117):

2

Chapter 1 The most precise characteristics [of concepts] is in being what the others are not.

Saussure explains that for concepts (1966:118): Signs function, then, not through their intrinsic value but through their relative position.

Although many people have not heard the term “semiotics,” everyone, I would argue, is an amateur semiotician and functions as a semiotician in all of their everyday interactions. Words are signs. So are facial expressions and body language.

Figure 1.1 Yin and Yang Symbol Saussure wrote that signs have two parts whose relationship is arbitrary and thus the meaning of signs can change. Think of a sign as a coin. One side is a word or object or sound, which Saussure called a signifier. The other side of the coin is the meaning, which Saussure called a signified.

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Figure 1.3 Berger after Saussure Since signs can change, their meaning also can change. Maya Pines, a journalist, summarizes the subject in an article about semiotics (Oct. 13, 1982, San Francisco Chronicle): Everything we do sends messages about us in a variety of codes, semiologists contend. We are also on the receiving end of innumerable messages encoded in music, gestures, foods, rituals, books, movies, or advertisements. Yet we seldom realize that we have received such messages and would have trouble explaining the rules under which they operate.

What Pines calls “messages” can be understood as “signs.” We are always interpreting signs sent by others, and they are always interpreting the signs we send about ourselves. What complicates things is that we often make mistakes in interpreting the signs others are sending us and do not recognize how others may misinterpret the signs we send about ourselves. Umberto Eco, an Italian semiotician and novelist, defines semiotics in the following passage from his book, A Theory of Semiotics (1976:7): Semiotics is concerned with everything that can be taken as a sign. A sign is everything which can be taken as significantly substituting for something else. This something else does not necessarily have to exist or to actually be somewhere at the moment in which a sign stands for it. Thus, semiotics is in principle the discipline studying everything which can be used in order to lie. If something cannot be used to tell a lie, conversely it cannot be used to tell the truth: it cannot in fact be used “to tell” at all. I think that the definition of a “theory of the lie” should be taken as a pretty comprehensive program in general semiotics.

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Figure 1.4 Umberto Eco People with gray hair, or brown, black, or red hair, who dye their hair blond are “lying” about the color of their hair. This can complicate life because people have certain notions of what blonde women are like, and while a brunette may look like a blonde, she isn’t really a blonde and won’t act like a blonde. In order to interpret signs correctly, you need to know the codes (which vary from country to country) that help you interpret them. A gesture in the United States may have a different meaning from the same gesture in a different country.

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Figure 1.5 Daniel Chandler. Used by permission of Daniel Chandler. As Daniel Chandler, a British semiotician, explains in the first edition of Semiotics: The Basics (2002:147): Since the meaning of a sign depends on the code within which it is situated, codes provide a framework within which signs make sense. Indeed, we cannot grant something the status of a sign if it does not function within a code….The conventions of codes represent a social dimension in semiotics: a code is a set of practices familiar to users of the medium operating with a broad cultural framework….When studying cultural practices, semioticians treat as signs any objects or actions which have meaning to the members of a cultural group, seeking to identify the rules or conventions of the codes which underlie the production of meaning within that culture.

You have to know the codes to understand what signs mean and growing up in a culture means being imprinted with the codes of that culture. Since the meaning of signs can change, we have to be on guard and make sure we don’t misinterpret them or use them carelessly. Take, for example, the concept of binarism. As Chandler explains in the third edition of Semiotics: the basics (2017:107): Binarism is rightly criticized when it leads to negative stereotyping and when it is uncritically accepted as “the real”—as in common-sense assumptions that supposedly either/or oppositions, such as male and female, or heterosexual and homosexual, exhaust the possibilities of the domains they purport to encompass….Conceptual binaries have been prominent throughout history in political rhetoric and propaganda—and have indeed been used to instigate countless wars. However, the oppositions (or whatever kind) which we employ in our cultural practices help to generate

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order out of the dynamic complexity of experience. Our entire system of values is built upon oppositions, which exist within sign systems rather than in the world.

Chandler reminds us to be careful about assuming that bipolar oppositions are adequate to deal with the complexities of human experience and culture, even though we use them to make sense of many things in our everyday lives.

Dominant Oppositions in Our Thinking In the third edition of his book, he devotes a page to the most dominant oppositions in our thinking. Some of the most important oppositions he lists are: Table 1.1 Commonly Used Oppositions Used by 90% of people: Indoor/outdoor Up/down Yes/no East/West Open/closed Wet/dry Question/answer Self/other Success/failure

True/false Major/minor Hot/cold Win/lose Fact/opinion Hero/villain Problem/solution Theory/practice

Used by 80% of people: On/off Public/Private Male/female High/low Parent/child Gain/loss Gay/straight Masculine/feminine

Good/evil Comedy/tragedy Natural/artificial Internal/external Happy/sad Clean/dirty Rights/obligations Sacred/profane

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Used by 80% of people:

He provides lists for those oppositions used by70% and 60% of people. What is important to remember is that, he adds, “We live within a world constructed from such oppositions, so they have very real social consequences.”

Figure 1.6 American Flag In contemporary America, a “divided” America, there are many important binary oppositions worth considering: Non-Binary and Binary Gender Identity Digital and Analog Nature and Culture Democrats and Republicans Red states and Blue States Democratic and Authoritarian Governments Urban and Rural Communities North and South College Educated and High School Educated Americans Whites and People of Color Christians and Non-Christians It is binary oppositions like these which play an important role in our politics and everyday lives, which are the subject of this book. I hope that after reading this book you will describe it by choosing the “correct” part of the binary opposition: Interesting/Boring. We remember that many binary oppositions have areas between the oppositions that help mediate their impact. I am thinking of binary oppositions

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such as upper class and lower class, which has an intermediary area, middle class or red states and blue states and some purple states. “Yes” and “no” are mediated by “maybe.” But there is no inter-mediating possibility for electricity being “on” or “off.” Table 1.2 Historically Important Binary Oppositions Digital Modern Capitalism Figure Love Signifier Male Nature Sane Beautiful Conscious Theory Good Hero War Public Sacred Functional Popular Common Us

Analog Postmodern Communism Ground Hate Signified Female Culture Crazy Ugly Unconscious Practice Evil Villain Peace Private Profane Dysfunctional Elite Royal Them

These binary oppositions, and a number of others, have played a major role in human history, in terms of their role in the shaping of societies, in our historical experiences, and in the way we think about the world and act in it. As Chandler explains in the third edition of Semiotics: The Basics (2017:79): Sociologists argue that each individual has a repertoire of codes and that access to codes is unevenly distributed in society but is largely shared by those within particular social groups.

In his book, he lists different subcodes (2017:186):

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Interpretive Codes Social Codes Representative Codes which involve such matters as visual perception, ideological codes, bodily codes, commodity codes (fashion), and aesthetic codes. In turns out that different socio-economic classes, subcultures, regions, countries have different codes and subcodes which shape their thinking and behavior. Americans growing up in the deep south have certain accents, ways of cooking, attitudes towards people of color, and other codes that affect their behavior. We can say the same thing about people growing up in different geographical areas. They are Americans, but they are all different in many respects. I am thinking of such areas as the Pacific northwest, the Pacific southwest, New England, the mid-Atlantic states, and the Midwest. While Americans may share certain national codes, they all have different regional codes that shape their thinking and behavior. Semiotics is interested in these codes and the way they shape thinking and behavior. I grew up in Boston and have a Bostonian accent and certain values connected with Boston and New England. Eco lists some of the more important subfields in semiotics in his book A Theory of Semiotics (1976): Zoosemiotics, Olfactory signs Tactile communication Codes of taste Paralinguistics Medical semiotics Kinesics and proxemics Musical codes Formalized languages Written languages

Culture Codes Unknown alphabets Natural languages Visual communications Systems of objects Plot structures Text theories Aesthetic texts Mass Communication

We can see from this list that semiotic codes cover most aspects of our everyday lives. Other semioticians have found different areas of interest, such as biosemiotics and socio-semiotics.

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Whatever the case, we can understand now why semiotics is such an important science and appreciate the role it plays in our thinking and, for our purposes, the binary oppositions that inform so much of our thinking and behavior. Let me offer here a final note on binary as a concept: Binary as a concept: In a broader sense, the term “binary” is used to describe situations or systems that involve two opposing or mutually exclusive options or states. It implies a division or distinction between two parts. This concept can be found in various contexts, such as binary code (representation of information using bits), binary opposition (contrasting concepts like good vs. evil), and binary choices (selection between two alternatives). Overall, the meaning of “binary” depends on the context in which it is used, but it relates to the binary number system or the division of something into two opposing parts.

Analog refers to a continuous representation of data or signals. In an analog system, information is represented using continuously variable physical quantities, such as voltage, current, or sound waves. For example, a traditional vinyl record stores audio information in the form of grooves on the surface, which can be read by a needle. The needle detects the physical variations in the grooves and converts them into an electrical signal, which is then amplified and played back as sound. Digital, on the other hand, refers to a discrete representation of data or signals. In a digital system, information is represented using discrete values or digits, typically in binary form (0s and 1s). Digital systems process and transmit information in discrete steps, enabling precise representation and manipulation of data. For example, digital audio uses a process called sampling, where the continuous analog sound wave is measured at specific time intervals, and each measurement is converted into a binary number. These numbers can then be stored, processed, and reproduced as sound using digital devices. There are several advantages and differences between analog and digital systems: It’s important to note that analog and digital are not mutually exclusive, and they often coexist in modern technology. For example, digital audio signals can be converted back to analog form for playback through speakers or headphones. Additionally, some systems use a combination of analog and digital processing to achieve desired results, such as analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) and digital-to-analog converters (DACs).

CHAPTER 2 ANALOG AND DIGITAL

Digital represents the ultimate binary opposition: off or on, with no intermediary. As I pointed out earlier, Americans spend six hours a day interacting with digital media on their smartphones and tablets. The relation between digital and analog is complicated. In an essay, “Being Analog” published in a book I edited, The Postmodern Presence, Carol Wilder, who was a professor at San Francisco State University, presents us with a very long chart contrasting many examples of analog and digital bipolarities for us to think about. Table 2.1 Analog and Digital ANALOG Body Hand Life Qualitative Space Yes Primary Process Id Love Dreaming Symbol Icon Likeness Picture Pathos Nonverbal Semantics Context Relationship Process

DIGITAL Mind Fingers Death Quantitative Time No Secondary Process Superego Hate Waking Syllogism Explanation Name Word Logos Verbal Syntactics Code Content Product

Analog and Digital

Analog Watch Film Linear Editing Dial Phone Fax Vinyl Records Subway Token Hotel Door Key Imperial Measure Bank Teller Weeds Marijuana Motorcycle Harley ’65 Mustang New Yorker Big Mac Ballet Elevator Valentine’s Day Swimming Bill (Clinton) Hot Greek Mime Coney Island Bruno Magli Shoeprint Rolodex Rheostat “Old” Times Square Right Brain Tuning Knobs Gears Classroom GUI Plato Later Wittgenstein Actual Night

Digital Watch Video Avid ”Touch Tone” Phone Email CDs Metrocard Hotel Door Card Metric Measure ATM Flowers Cocaine Range Rover Kawasaki ’97 Rover People Chicken McNuggets Tap Dancing Stairs Fourth of July Jogging Hillary (Clinton) Cold Latin Monologue Disneyland O.J. DNA Evidence Database Light Switch “New” Times Square Left Brain Buttons Switches Distance Learning UNIX Aristotle Early Wittgenstein Virtual Day

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Wilder explains how she came up with this list of bipolar opposites (1998:248-249): In order to explore the limits of a postmodern multiplicity of meanings, I engaged friends and colleagues to expand upon the standard examples, the result of which is reported here as the dozens of pairs listed....What struck me was how easy it was for people entirely unfamiliar with the analog/digital concepts to pick up on the gist of this list after being given only a few examples. And yes, while the list itself is ”binary,” I was taken with how many stories of the digital age these pairs tell.

Some of these binary pairs are easy to understand, such as analog and digital watches and dial phones and ”touch tone” phones, but others are more difficult to comprehend.

Figure 2.1 Drawing of Watch by the Author.

A Case Study: Digital Watches It is interesting to think about the cultural significance of some topics discussed in Wilder’s chart. Here is my analysis of the semiotic, social and psychoanalytic significance of digital watches, adapted from my book Signs in Contemporary Culture, 2nd Edition ( 1999: 58-59): Watches have become an important fashion accessory in recent years, moving beyond their manifest function, which is to tell the time. You can buy perfectly fine Timex or Casio digital watches for around $15, and you can spend tens of thousands of dollars for a Rolex watch, but with the Rolex you are buying status more than just accurate time keeping. Status claims

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and the psychological rewards of conspicuous consumption, we can say, are the latent functions of purchasing expensive luxury watches. I noticed that the November 2007 issue of GQ magazine had a large number of watch advertisements—hoping to convince readers to purchase them as Christmas gifts, no doubt. Below I list most of the watches for men that were advertised, or written about, in that issue of the magazine: Casio G-Shock Pulsar Piaget Nautica Oakley Seiko Velatura Seiko Coutura Rolex Oyster Perpetual Movado

IWC Schaffhausen Victorinox Chrono Classic Guess GC Versace DV 1 Hilfinger Burberry Chanel J12 Oris Artelier ($1475) Timex

You can see from this list that there are a large number of companies making watches and that some of these watches are made by companies known for making clothes or perfume—such as Hilfinger, Burberry, and Versace-which have extended their brands into watches.

Figure 2.2 Watch Advertisement

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Most of the advertisements do not indicate the prices of the watches. The advertisements are mostly full-page ones—which is to be expected for expensive objects-- but there are some that are only a half of a page or a third of a page.

Figure 2.3 Watch Advertisement Watches are now an important element of consumer culture and have the advantage of being useful, being easy to see (by others) and, when they are in the luxury category of watches, helping their wearers make claims to a high status. Some watches for women have many diamonds or other jewels in their bands or on the watch itself and can be classified as jewelry as well as watches. The Versace watch was different from all the other watches in that it showed “round cut glittering diamonds and baguette cut sapphires” which would suggest it is for women. I noticed, also, that all of these watches, without exception, had analog displays—that is, hour hands, minute hands, and seconds hands. That would suggest that these watches are mechanical (some are quartz) and thus, technologically speaking, throwbacks to earlier times. Watches such as these can be seen as art objects and reflect a different sensibility from digital watches. Mechanical watches have been supplanted by digital watches, the watches worn now by most people.

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In Signs in Contemporary Culture: An Introduction to Semiotics (2nd edition), I use semiotic theory, sociological theory, psychoanalytic theory, and Marxist theory to speculate about what digital watches tell us about people who wear these watches and what these watches reveal about American society. I chose the following two hypotheses because I thought they offered some interesting insights into the cultural impact of these watches and what they reflect about modern society. I offer my first hypothesis and my explanation for my reasoning below: 1. Digital watches reflect a growth of alienation in contemporary societies. The essence of the digital method is “finger counting” which translates, when we come to machines (like clocks), to separate units. A digital watch flashes the time moment by moment, in contrast to the now “old fashioned” analog watch, which is based on relationality. We tell the time on an analog watch by looking at the position of hands on a watch face. The digital watch is atomistic; it divides time into discrete parts, which flick by rapidly. The analog watch sees time as something unified and is rooted in history. Time passes, but the cycle repeats itself every 12 hours. The atomism and separation found in the digital watch leads me to suggest that societies where such watches are popular are more alienated than those in which analog watches are most popular. It may also be that individuals who wear digital watches are more alienated than those who do not. I argue that the digitalization of American society (and the rest of the world as well) reflects an increasing sense of alienation, in that digital watches generate, with incredible accuracy, discrete moments in time, but they are not relational. Along with alienation, I suggest these watches signify the domination of the electronic over the mechanical. Indeed, if you look at people walking down the street, you find that many, if not most of them, are wearing digital watches, MP3 players and are carrying cell phones, reflecting the triumph of the electronic, and the digital version of the electronic, in modern life. I discuss this in my second hypothesis. 2. Digital watches reflect the triumph of the electronic over the mechanical in modern society. The traditional mechanical watches, with springs and winding mechanisms, are now old-fashioned “art objects” and do not have the power or resonance

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of the new electronic digital watches. Winding is a sign, generally, of the mechanical; in the electronic world, one pushes buttons. There are, of course, some people who feel hostile to the new electronic order and who prize old-fashioned things like mechanical watches and other relatively crude (though often beautiful) machines…What is important about all this is that the digital watch which helps us obtain a modern identity, gives us a “modern” look and feeling. The space-age modern style is becoming dominant in our culture. My other six hypotheses about the significance of digital watches follow, but without the explanations I offered in the book: 3. People who wear digital watches have a greater sense of powerlessness than those who wear conventional analog watches. 4. People who wear digital watches worry more about self-control than those who wear conventional watches. 5. Digital watches enable their wearers to impose their concern about time upon others. 6. The dominance of the digital watch shows the power of fashion. 7. Digital watches are magical toys. 8. The digital-watch phenomenon caught the Swiss Napping. It would be an interesting exercise for readers of this book to try to figure out my reasoning in the hypotheses I’ve just listed. It also is worth thinking about other hypotheses about digital watches that might be entertained. In his book, The Digital Dialectic: New Essays on New Media, the editor, Peter Lunenfeld, explains how digital differs from analog. He writes (1999: xv-xvi): Digital systems do not use continuously variable representational relationships. Instead, they translate all input into binary structures of 0’s and 1’s, which can then be stored, transferred, or manipulated at the level of numbers or “digits” (so called because etymologically the word descends from the digits on our hands which we count out those numbers). Thus, a phone call on a digital system will be encoded as a series of 0s and 1s and sent over the wires as binary information to be reinterpreted as speech at the other end. The digital photograph, rather than being a series of tonally continuous pigmented dots, is instead composed of pixels, a grid of cells

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that have precise numerical attributes associated with them, a series of steps rather than a continuous slope.

The digital watch was, it turns out, a harbinger of the incredible changes that other digital devices, such as cell phones, tablets, MP3 players, digital cameras, computers and digital television receivers, were to unleash on society.

Gender dysphoria is a feeling of distress that can happen when a person’s gender identity differs from their sex assigned at birth or from their sexrelated physical characteristics. Some transgender and gender-diverse people experience gender dysphoria at some point in their lives. Other transgender and gender-diverse people feel at ease with their bodies and gender identities, and they don’t have gender dysphoria. A diagnosis for gender dysphoria is included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), a manual published by the American Psychiatric Association. This diagnosis was created to help people with gender dysphoria get access to the health care and treatment they need. It focuses on distress as the problem, not a person’s gender identity. https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/adult-health/indepth/transgender-facts/art-20266812

CHAPTER 3 L.G.B.T.Q.I.A.+ OR GAY AND STRAIGHT

It’s useful to explain what the letters in this chapter heading mean. The acronym L.G.B.T.Q.I.A.+ stands for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer or Questioning, Intersex, and Asexual, with the “+” representing other identities and orientations that are not explicitly listed. This acronym is used to represent a diverse range of sexual orientations, gender identities, and intersex variations. Here is a brief explanation of each term within the L.G.B.T.Q.I.A.+ acronym: Lesbian: A woman who is emotionally, romantically, and/or sexually attracted to other women. Gay: A term often used to describe men who are emotionally, romantically, and/or sexually attracted to other men, but can also refer to individuals of any gender who are attracted to the same gender. Bisexual: Individuals who are emotionally, romantically, and/or sexually attracted to both men and women. Transgender: People whose gender identity differs from the sex assigned to them at birth. For example, a person might be assigned male at birth but identifies as a woman. Queer or Questioning: “Queer” is an umbrella term used to describe sexual orientations and gender identities that do not conform to societal norms. “Questioning” refers to individuals who are exploring their sexual orientation or gender identity. Intersex: Intersex refers to individuals who are born with sex characteristics (such as chromosomes, hormones, or genitals) that do not fit typical binary notions of male or female.

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Asexual: People who do not experience sexual attraction to others or have a lack of interest in sexual activities. “+” or “Other”: This symbolizes the inclusion of additional sexual orientations, gender identities, and variations that may not be explicitly mentioned but are part of the diverse L.G.B.T.Q.I.A.+ community. It’s important to note that the L.G.B.T.Q.I.A.+ community is diverse and intersectional, encompassing individuals with different racial, ethnic, cultural, religious, and socioeconomic backgrounds. The community advocates for equality, acceptance, and human rights for all its members. We can see that this acronym covers a wide variety of sexual identities and gender possibilities, often shown by identifying oneself as non-binary. Once the notion that everyone is either a male or a female, a binary notion, is challenged, a person’s sexuality and gender become a complicated matter. The terms “transgender” and “gender diverse” cover a range of gender identities and gender expressions. These terms move past the idea that all people can be classified as only one of two genders — female or male. That idea is called “the gender binary.” Gender identity is the internal sense of being male, female, neither or some combination of both. What we call gender expression typically involves how gender identity is shown to the outside world through the way a person looks or acts. Gender expression may include clothing, mannerisms, communication style and interests. People who are transgender or gender diverse include: Those who have a gender identity that differs from the sex assigned to them at birth. Those whose gender expression doesn’t follow society’s norms for the sex assigned to them at birth. Those who identify and express their gender outside of the gender binary. Most people have a sense of physical, emotional and romantic attraction to others. Sexual orientation describes the group of people to whom this attraction is directed. For example, a person may be attracted to men, women, both or neither. Being transgender or gender diverse isn’t linked to a specific sexual orientation. And sexual orientation can’t be assumed based on gender identity or gender expression.

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Judith Butler Judith Butler, a professor at the University of California at Berkeley, is a leading theorist of gender. Gender, she argues in her influential book, Gender Trouble, is best seen as a performance and is socially constructed. It is not a binary matter of being either male or female. So, gender, we may say, is based on choices people make and not on biology.

Figure 3.1 Judith Butler Judith Butler, in the first chapter of Gender Trouble, titled “Subjects of Sex/Gender/Desire,” discusses the relationship that exists between sex and gender (1999:9,10): Originally intended to dispute the biology-is-destiny formulation, the distinction between sex and gender serves the argument that whatever biological intractability sex appears to have, gender is culturally constructed: hence, gender is neither the casual result of sex nor as fixed as sex….If gender is the cultural meanings that the sexed body assumes, then gender cannot be said to follow from a sex in any one way. Taken to its logical limit, the sex/gender distinction suggests a radical discontinuity between sexed bodies and culturally constructed genders. Assuming for the moment the stability of binary sex, it does not follow that the construction of “men” will accrue exclusively to the bodies of males or that “women” will interpret only female bodies. Further, even if the sexes appear to be unproblematically binary in their morphology and constitution (which will become a question), there is no reason to assume that genders ought also to remain at two.

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What Butler argues is that gender is not “fixed” at birth but is socially constructed. This suggests that one can change one’s gender since it does not automatically follow from one’s sex “in any way.” Her book is an attempt to disrupt the conventional ways that people think about gender and sexuality. The L.G.B.T.I.Q.+ movement is a testimonial to that matter.

Daniel Chandler on Binarism Binary thinking, semioticians explain, is basic to the way the mind works. As Daniel Chandler writes, in his book, Semiotics: The Basics, third edition, (2017:107): As Jonathan Culler notes, “The advantage of binarism, but also its principal danger, lies in the fact that it permits one to classify anything” (1975:15). Binarism is rightly criticized when it leads to negative stereotyping and when it is uncritically accepted as “the real”—as in commonsense assumptions that supposedly either/or oppositions such as male and female, or heterosexual and homosexual exhaust the possibilities of the domains they purport to encompass….Our entire system of values is built upon oppositions, which exist within sign systems rather than in the world.

Chandler quotes sociologist Eviatar Zerubavel, who writes (2017:107): Our entire social order is a product of the ways in which we separate kin from non-kin, moral from immoral, serious from merely playful, and what is ours from what is not.

To this, Chandler adds (2017:107): We live within a world constructed from such oppositions, so they have very real consequences.

His point is that our thinking is largely based upon oppositions, and these oppositions often are simplistic. I would suggest that in the popular mind, something like the following binary oppositions exist relative to gender: Table 3.1 Common Male-Female Binary Oppositions Male Cisgender Normal Rigid Straight Binary

Female Transgender Abnormal Flexible Gay Non-Binary Table by the Author

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There are certain elements of non-binary lives that are of some consequence, such as the problem of sexually transmitted infections. Sexually transmitted infections have been growing rapidly, according to an article, “Antibiotics After Sex Cuts Risk of Infections for Some, Studies Show,” by Apodeva Mandavilla, in the March 10, 2022 issue of the New York Times (page A16). Certain members of the L.G.B.T.Q.I.A.+ community are affected by the growth of these diseases. She writes: The strategy has been shown to work among trans women and men who have sex with men who are at high risk for acquiring an S.T.I. But the pills have not shown a benefit in cisgender women (whose gender identity matches the sex assigned at birth).

We can see from this article that sex and gender can have a really complicated and, sometimes, a problematic relationship. There are also problems for many people involving males who have transitioned to females playing sports and using bathrooms for women. Many conservative “red” states have passed laws requiring trans males who have become female from competing in sports as females or using bathrooms not tied to their gender at birth. One of the most important aspects of the L.G.B.T.Q.I.A.+ movement is its argument that binary distinctions are inadequate and misleading. Gender is a very complex subject and we can see that many millions of people do not accept the binary perspective on gender and are leading normal lives, in many respects, such as getting married, raising children, and being politicians--lives that could now be described as mainstream, most Americans would say. In contemporary American politics, Republican governors, congressional representatives and women, and candidates for president are generally very antagonistic to the L.G.B.T.Q.I.A.+ community and many Republican controlled states have passed laws that are hostile to the interests of members of this community, especially concerning transgender people. Because there have been so many laws passed about L.G.B.T.Q.I.A.+ Americans, a gay journalist, Charles Blow, has suggested, in an article in The New York Times, that we should see L.G.B.T.Q.I.A.+ Americans as a “New Class of Political Refugees.” As he writes (2023:5): According to a report released this month by the Human Rights Campaign, out of more than 525 anti-LGBTQ bills introduced around the country in

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Chapter 3 this years legislative sessions, “over 220 of those target the transgender community.”

He adds that many people see gender dysphoria, the problems caused by a mismatch between one’s sex assigned at birth and one’s preferred gender as a choice rather than a medical condition. As he explains, “people assume that trans individuals are capriciously, almost recreationally choosing gender-affirming treatment with the ease of choosing an ice cream. They’re wrong.” A friend of mine with a Trans grandchild told me, “When she was two years old, she knew she was a male even though her assigned sex was female.” So, we have to recognize that Trans people suffer from gender dysphoria and changing one’s gender is an inner necessity for Trans people, not a trivial matter.

Ralph Waldo Emerson America, My Country (Selection from) Land without history, land lying all In the plain daylight of the temperate zone, Thy plain acts Without exaggeration done in day; Thy interests contested by their manifold good sense. In their own clothes without the ornament Of bannered army harnessed in uniform. Land where—and ‘tis in Europe counted a reproach Where man asks questions for which man was made. Land without nobility, or wigs, or debt, No castles, no cathedrals, and no kings. Land of the forest.

Figure 4.1 Ralph Waldo Emerson

CHAPTER 4 NATURE VERSUS CULTURE

In the Emerson poem, we find a contrast between America, a land without history, and Europe, a land full of history and full of oppositions to American culture—since we have no kings, no cathedrals, no nobility, and no wigged lawyers. We do have debt, however. We differentiate ourselves from Europe, which we can call “civilization,” by describing ourselves as a “Land of the forest” (that is, nature). Europe has gigantic cathedrals, and we have gigantic redwood trees.

Figure 4.2 Cowboy We find these basic oppositions in an important popular art form, westerns—the main one being between wilderness and civilization, nature and culture, and the West and the East. These binary oppositions are described in Kitses book, Horizon’s West (1969:11) in which he contrasts America (Wilderness) and Europe (Civilization) (1969:11):

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Table 4.1 Wilderness Civilization Oppositions The Wilderness

Civilization

The Individual freedom honour self-knowledge integrity self-interest solipsism

The Community restriction institutions illusion compromise social responsibility democracy

Nature

Culture

purity experience empiricism pragmatism brutalization savagery

corruption knowledge legalism idealism refinement humanity

The West

The East

America the frontier equality agrarianism tradition the past

Europe America class industrialism change the future

These bipolar oppositions are very similar to a list of oppositions I developed independently, long before I had read Kitses. His binary oppositions suggest the western reflected many important American values and beliefs. In various publications, I have suggested that there is a fundamental opposition in the American mind between the way it sees nature (America) and culture (Europe). I offer this set of binary oppositions which shows how Americans see or used to see themselves as contrasted with how they see or used to see Europeans.

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Table 4.2 America Europe Oppositions America

Europe

Nature The Cowboy The Frontier Freedom Innocence Hope Willpower Individualism Agrarian Achievement Equality Common man and woman Classless (all middle-class) Natural foods The Sacred

History The Cavalier Institutions Despotism Guilt Memory Class Conflict Conformity Industrial Ascription Hierarchy Elites Class-bound Gourmet foods The Profane

The central opposition is between America (the rejecting son) and Europe (the fatherland) and between nature and history. This list of opposites draws upon works by Geoffrey Gorer, Alexis de Tocqueville, and many other authors who wrote about American culture, politics and society. A conflict between a father and a son has, I would suggest, Oedipal implications and in many popular culture texts, such as the James Bond novels and films, there are battles between heroes like Bond and older father figures or, in gun battles, their henchmen. We are, Emerson suggested, a land without history (Europe has a long history) but a land of the forest, and we achieved our identity because we had “virgin land,” a frontier to subdue, which led to our developing certain characteristics—individualism instead of conformity and egalitarianism instead of hierarchy (no kings). Americans believed in the efficacy of an individual’s will power in contrast to the European belief in class conflict. This is the way Americans thought about themselves many years ago. Obviously, the bipolarity of individualism versus class conflict and many other oppositions no longer are as dominant as they were when Emerson wrote his poem, or when many American scholars wrote books such as Virgin Land.

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It is no longer valid to describe America as a classless, all middle-class country. At one time, we thought of poverty as relatively trivial and assumed we would soon take care of the problem, but now we realize that there are classes in America and there is a kind of class conflict that underlies American politics at every level. The inequities in income in America grow more problematic every year. We believe in achievement, but because of class differences, we really have a form of ascription in which middle-and upper-class Americans have much different and infinitely better “life chances” than working class and lowerclass Americans. Children born into poverty tend to remain in poverty for the rest of their lives. Most Americans live in cities and their suburbs, from small cities to gigantic ones (like New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles) and only a small percentage, less than nine percent of Americans, live in small town or in farming communities. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, most of the nation’s population live in incorporated places. About 76% of the approximately 19,500 incorporated places had fewer than 5,000 people, and almost 42% had fewer than 500 people. Census estimates from 2017 expected about 27.2 million people (8.4% of the U.S. population) lived in small towns. Places with populations smaller than 10,000 constituted about 9 percent of the nation’s population on April 1, 2010, and this has held steady for every year between 2010 and 2014. There has also been a subtle Europeanization of various aspects of American life, such as the development of gourmet restaurants for American “foodies,” and the spread in the popularity of espresso coffee thanks to Starbucks and many other espresso coffee houses in American cities.

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Figure 4.2 Espresso Machine (High End) If you look up espresso machines on Amazon.com, you find a bewildering number of machines which cost from sixty or seventy dollars to several thousand dollars. It is natural for things to change over time, so it is not remarkable that American culture, character and politics have changed over the years. But many of the ideas expressed in the nature versus culture charts still play a role in the American imagination and in American culture and politics.

In contemporary America, there is a gigantic battle being waged now between freedom and democracy and despotism, or, more precisely, between the Democratic Party and the Republican Party, which thanks to Donald Trump, has changed into an authoritarian—many would say fascist—political party and cult. This opposition will be discussed later in the book and the way it is resolved will shape American politics and society for many years to come. About 60 million people, or one in five Americans, live in rural America. The term “rural” means different things to different people. For many, it evokes images of farmlands and pastoral landscapes. For our purposes, we define rural based on the official Census Bureau classification. What is urban and what is rural is defined after each decennial census using specific criteria related to population thresholds, density, distance and land use. In general, rural areas are sparsely populated, have low housing density, and are far from urban centers. Urban areas make up only 3 percent of the entire land area of the country but are home to more than 80 percent of the population. Conversely, 97 percent of the country’s land mass is rural but only 19.3 percent of the population lives there. For more, go to Defining Rural at the U.S. Census Bureau. Opens as PDF.

CHAPTER 5 URBAN AND RURAL AMERICA

Most Americans live in cities or in suburbs near cities and less than ten percent of Americans live in small towns in rural areas. The differences between the lifestyles, politics, values and beliefs on urban and rural Americans are considerable and the binary oppositions, urban and rural, are of great importance. I will consider some of these oppositions in this chapter. We must remember that when focusing our attention on oppositions, we are neglecting positions in between the oppositions and often forced to make generalizations and to simplify relationships. Table 5.1 Urban Rural Opposition Urban

Rural

Cosmopolitan Mixed races Young Secular Institutions Liberal Democratic Crowded Death by violence

Nativist, Nationalist Mostly white Old Religious Nature Conservative/Reactionary Republican Isolated Death from despair

In a sense, there are two Americas: Urban America, with gigantic cities such as Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Area and the rural America of small towns and rural areas. The largest cities in America are: 1. 2. 3.

New York 8,550,405 Los Angeles 3,971,883 Chicago 2,720,546

Urban and Rural America

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

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Houston 2,296,224 Philadelphia 1,567,442 Phoenix 1,563,025 San Antonio 1,469,845 San Diego 1,394,928 Dallas 1,300,092 San Jose 1,026,908 Austin 931,830 Jacksonville 868,031 San Francisco 864,816 Indianapolis 853,173 Columbus 850,106

Some geographers argue that there are regions in America that play an important role in our lives, since people here differ from one another based on which region they were born and raised. For example, there are important differences among regions such as New England, the Deep South, the Midwest, the Southwest, the Pacific North, and the East Coast, which affect everything from the way people talk, eat and vote. Six of the fifteen largest cities in the United States are on either the east coast or the west coast, so we also have the differences between Americans on the coasts and those in the Midwest and South to consider. The urban/rural binary opposition is shaped by a number of factors that affect the way people in the two polarities live. Let me begin with an important difference between people in urban and rural areas—what is called the cosmopolitan culture found in urban areas.

Cosmopolitan culture Cosmopolitan culture refers to a cultural environment or society that is characterized by a diversity of influences, perspectives, and interactions from various parts of the world. It is a concept that embraces and celebrates cultural diversity, promoting openness, tolerance, and the exchange of ideas and practices among different cultures. In a cosmopolitan culture, people are often exposed to a wide range of traditions, languages, cuisines, arts, and beliefs. It encourages individuals to engage with and appreciate different cultural backgrounds, fostering a spirit of inclusivity and respect.

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Cosmopolitan cultures can be found in large cities, where people from different countries and backgrounds come together, creating a melting pot of cultures. These cities often attract diverse populations, leading to a vibrant and dynamic cultural scene. Cosmopolitan cultures promote cultural exchange, dialogue, and the enrichment of one’s own culture through integrating diverse elements. This openness to other cultures can lead to the development of new ideas, innovations, and artistic expressions. However, it is important to note that the realization of a cosmopolitan culture requires efforts to address cultural differences, promote equality, and combat discrimination. Creating an inclusive and harmonious cosmopolitan culture involves respecting and valuing cultural diversity, while also promoting social cohesion and understanding among different communities. The Merriam Webster Collegiate Dictionary (10th Edition) offers synonyms and antonyms for cosmopolitanism: Synonyms for Cosmopolitanism: urbanity, sophistication, intellectualism, education, erudition, scholarship, learning, literacy. Antonyms of Cosmopolitanism: barbarism, philistinism, ignorance, illiteracy, parochialism, provincialism, rusticity. One factor of importance when we think of the difference between urban/cosmopolitan and rural/nationalistic perspectives involves the matter of the over-representation of rural states in the Congress. A state like Wyoming with around 600,000 inhabitants has two senators, which contrasts with a state like California, which has around 39 million people, and also only two senators. So, there is one senator for 300,000 people in Wyoming and one senator for almost 20 million people in California. People who live in states with tiny populations tend to be nationalistic, religious, and conservative in politics and other areas of life. The states with the smallest populations are:

Urban and Rural America

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

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Wyoming — 580,175 Vermont — 648,279 Alaska — 740,339 North Dakota — 811,044 South Dakota — 908,414 Delaware — 1,017,551 Rhode Island — 1,110,822 Montana — 1,112,66

These eight states have sixteen U.S. Senators, which means they have, relatively speaking, a great deal of power relative to states like New York or California. Since the U.S. Senate is widely understood as the part of the U.S. government where “bills go to die,” it means that liberal, progressive bills usually have relatively little chance of getting adopted.

Rural America Books by sociologists and psychologists paint a dismal picture of the lives of many inhabitants of small towns and rural areas where people live lives of quiet desperation and the social fabric of life in America seems to have been damaged if not destroyed. There are extremes of poverty in many rural areas and lifestyles that are beyond the comprehension of people who live in urban cities—not that they don’t have many problems as well—such as homelessness and drug addiction. It is the inequality of income that is a major factor, and this inequality is fostered to a great degree by the conservative (or in some cases, reactionary) politicians and especially senators in the American Congress. Rural poverty in the United States is a complex issue that affects many communities across the country. While often overshadowed by discussions of urban poverty, rural poverty presents its own unique challenges and requires specific attention and interventions. Here are some key points to understand about rural poverty in the United States. Rural areas often face economic challenges, including limited job opportunities, lower wages, and industries that are vulnerable to economic fluctuations. Many rural communities rely on agriculture, natural resource extraction, or small businesses, which can be susceptible to downturns in the economy.

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Some rural areas have experienced the decline of traditional industries, such as coal mining or manufacturing, which has led to job losses and increased poverty rates. As these industries decline, it becomes more difficult for residents to find stable employment and maintain their livelihoods. Rural areas often lack access to essential services, such as healthcare, education, and transportation. This lack of access can exacerbate poverty by limiting educational opportunities, making it harder to access quality healthcare, and hindering economic mobility. These areas tend to have older populations, and many young people from rural areas migrate to urban areas in search of better job prospects. This demographic shift can further strain rural communities, leading to a decline in services and a reduction in economic opportunities. The geographic isolation of rural areas can create barriers to economic development. The cost of transporting goods and services to and from rural areas can be higher, making it less attractive for businesses to operate there. Rural poverty can be concentrated in specific regions or pockets within larger rural areas. These areas often experience a cycle of poverty, with limited resources, fewer employment opportunities, and a lack of investment. Addressing rural poverty requires a comprehensive approach that combines economic development strategies, improvements in infrastructure and services, access to education and healthcare, and targeted social support programs. Investments in broadband internet access, job training programs, small business development, and healthcare facilities can help revitalize rural communities and provide opportunities for residents to improve their economic well-being. Government agencies, nonprofit organizations, and community initiatives play a crucial role in implementing these strategies and fostering sustainable economic growth in rural areas. Additionally, collaboration between different stakeholders, including local communities, businesses, and policymakers, is essential to address the unique challenges of rural poverty effectively. This urban/rural divide exists in other countries as well, but does not have the political impact it has in the United States because of a unique American political institution, the United States Senate.

“Highbrow” and “lowbrow” are terms often used to describe different cultural tastes, preferences, or intellectual levels. These terms originated in the early 20th century and have been used to categorize various forms of art, entertainment, literature, and even social behaviors. Highbrow refers to cultural activities, interests, or products that are considered sophisticated, intellectual, or refined. It often implies a higher level of education, knowledge, or cultural appreciation. Highbrow pursuits may include classical music, literature, fine art, philosophy, theater, and complex or abstract ideas. Highbrow individuals are generally associated with intellectualism and a preference for more challenging or thoughtprovoking content. Lowbrow, on the other hand, refers to cultural activities, interests, or products that are considered less refined, popular, or intellectually demanding. It encompasses forms of entertainment that are often considered more accessible, entertaining, and sometimes even “cheap” or “vulgar.” Examples of lowbrow culture include reality TV shows, pop music, mainstream blockbuster films, comic books, and genres like horror or action films. Lowbrow culture is often associated with mass appeal and a broader, less intellectual audience. It’s worth noting that the categorization of cultural tastes as highbrow or lowbrow is subjective and can vary across different societies, time periods, and individuals. These terms are not absolute, and people may have a mix of highbrow and lowbrow preferences depending on their interests, backgrounds, or moods. Additionally, there is a range of cultural activities and products that fall between these two extremes, known as “middlebrow” or “middle-culture.” It’s important to remember that the highbrow versus lowbrow distinction should not be used to demean or judge someone’s cultural preferences or intelligence. Different forms of culture can have their own value and contribute to the diversity of human expression and experience.

CHAPTER 6 HIGHBROW/LOWBROW

A magazine hires a journalism professor to help improve its circulation. After reading a number of copies of the magazine, the professor says to the editor, “I suggest you raise the intellectual level of the magazine.” The editor replies, “We tried that, and it led to a loss of many readers.” “Well, then,” said the professor, “why not lower the intellectual level of the magazine?” “Impossible!” replies the editor. In 1962, I had a meeting with professor Mulford Q. Sibley, my dissertation advisor, a highly respected political theorist, to talk about a subject for my dissertation. I thought I was interested in utopian thought and considered doing something on that topic. When I mentioned utopias to Sibley, he smiled and said, “Arthur, you wrote an excellent paper on Li’l Abner in my course on American Political Thought. Why don’t you expand the paper into your dissertation?” So, I walked into Sibley’s office with utopian communities and walked out with Dogpatch.

Figure 6.1 Marshall McLuhan

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I was not the only scholar interested in Dogpatch and popular culture. In 1951, Marshall McLuhan published The Mechanical Bride: The Folklore of Industrial Man, which, to my mind, is one of the most important books about media and popular culture ever written. He writes in the introduction (1951: v): The present book.…makes few attempts to attack the very considerable currents and pressures set around us today by the mechanical agencies of the press, radio, movies and advertising. It does attempt to set the reader at the center of the revolving picture created by these affairs where he may observe the action that is in progress and in which everyone is involved. From the analysis of that action, it is hoped, many individual strategies may suggest themselves.

Then McLuhan offers analyses of the psychological, social, and cultural significance of several advertisements, comic strips (including Li’l Abner), the first page of The New York Times, and so on. Because he wrote the book in a jazzy style, many scholars dismissed him—and it—as unimportant. What he did was to use the techniques used in literary criticism to analyze popular culture texts. Donald Theall explained McLuhan’s methodology in his book, The Virtual Marshall McLuhan (2001:4-5): McLuhan became frustrated trying to teach first year students in required courses how to read English poetry, and began using the technique of analyzing the front page of newspapers, comic strips, ads, and the like as poems….This new approach to the study of popular culture and popular art forms led to his first move towards new media and communication and eventually resulted in his first book, The Mechanical Bride, which some consider to be one of the founding documents of early cultural studies. While the Bride was not initially a success, it introduced one aspect of McLuhan’s basic method—using poetic methods of analysis in a quasipoetic style to analyze popular cultural phenomena—in short, assuming such cultural productions to be another type of poem.

Later, in 1965, McLuhan wrote Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man, another important book that placed him, in my eyes, as one of the central figures in the criticism of media and popular culture and what is now described as cultural criticism. The era of cultural studies and popular culture studies had begun.

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Li’l Abner as a Dissertation Topic and the Problematic of Popular Culture I had some difficulties getting the American Studies thesis committee to accept my first proposal, but after I had a chat with a member of the English department, I revised my thesis statement, and the committee accepted it. I explained that I would write about the satire, narrative structure, use of language, and graphic elements in the strip, among other things. I believe my dissertation on Li’l Abner was the first PhD dissertation written at an American university on a comic strip, which is precisely why some members on the American Studies faculty from the English department might have been outraged. I received my doctorate in 1965, and, irony of ironies, my dissertation was published in 1970 as Li’l Abner: A Study in American Satire. At the graduation ceremony, the president of the University of Minnesota announced the topics of all the Ph.D. dissertations. The graduation ceremony went as follows. The president would say, “We are awarding a Ph.D. to Jane Doe for her dissertation on Turkish-American relations, 1898 to 1905” and everyone clapped. Then he would say, “We are awarding a Ph.D. to Bobby Watson for his dissertation on the use of fertilizers in hillside Peruvian villages,” and everyone clapped. Then he said, “We are awarding a Ph.D. to Arthur Asa Berger for his dissertation on the comic strip Li’l Abner as an American satire,” and most of the people in the audience laughed. I knew then that my career in academia would have elements of the comedic in it, and I was proven right. This laughter was a signifier of the way educated people in the sixties (and in some cases to this day) thought about popular culture. It wouldn’t have seemed funny that the person before me had written a dissertation on Turkish-American Relations 1898 to 1905, because that sounded suitably academic. But to write a dissertation on a comic strip, which people used to wrap their garbage, seemed ridiculous. At the time that I wrote my dissertation, something like two hundred million people all over the world were following Li’l Abner, but the law of inverse importance was accepted by many literary academics at that time: the more ordinary people do something, like follow a comic strip or watch a television show, the less important it is. This kind of material was dismissed as “subliterary” and therefore not worth bothering with by academic types. Social scientists weren’t so dismissive.

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I once wrote an article in which I asked, “Why is popular culture so unpopular?” I argued that popular culture was popular with large numbers of people who enjoyed it and got something from it, while it was unpopular with elitist literary scholars who thought people should only be interested in “the best that has been thought and said.” My point was that truck drivers and filing clerks and ordinary people like them liked popular culture because it was something they could understand and enjoy. It is worth remembering that in 1970, only sixteen percent of American had college degrees. So, when the early debates about popular culture and mass media were raging, only a relatively small percentage of the American population had graduated from college. It would be fair to say that the debate about popular culture manifested itself full-blown in 1957, with the publication of Mass Culture: The Popular Arts in America, edited by Bernard Rosenberg and David Manning White. The book has articles by scholars on both sides of the debate, from Gunther Anders and T.W. Adorno to Marshall McLuhan and Gilbert Seldes. The first section of the book, “The Issues Joined,” contained a chapter by Rosenberg, “Mass Culture in America,” and one by White, “Mass Culture in America: Another Point of View.”

Popular Culture Rosenberg despised popular culture: a short list of some of his indictments of popular culture includes arguments suggesting that we are being “dehumanized,” our minds are being “deadened,” we are the “objects of manipulation” because of our exposure to “sleazy fiction, trashy films, and bathetic soap operas.” He adds that for contemporary man (1957:7): Life has been emptied of meaning, that it has been trivialized. He is alienated from its past, from his work, from his community, and possibly from himself….Mass culture, threatens not merely to cretinize our taste but to brutalize our senses while paving the way to totalitarianism.

Rosenberg, it turns out, was correct in arguing about the danger of totalitarianism or authoritarian fascistic beliefs taking hold in America, as manifested in the candidacy of Donald J. Trump and the members of his political cult, but it is questionable whether popular culture is most responsible for this happening. White, on the other hand, defends popular culture. He points out that “Cassandras always catalogue the worst examples of mass media’s efforts

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and consequently generalize that Doomsday is surely near.” Then he comes to the point (1957:17): In the minds of certain critics of mass culture, the people will invariably choose the mediocre and the meretricious. This mixture of noblesse oblige and polite contempt for anyone outside of university circles, or avant-garde literary groups, seems to me just as authoritarian as the anti-intellectualism that the “masses” direct against scholastics.

In 1961, another book appeared, Culture for the Masses, edited by Norman Jacobs. It was a collection of discussions and essays that were first presented in a symposium held in June 1959 by the Tamiment Institute and the journal Daedalus, which is where most of the articles in the book first appeared. The book was reprinted in 1992 as Mass Media in Modern Society, with an introduction by Garth Jowett. In this modern introduction, he writes (1962:2): Mass Media in Modern Society was one of a series of important books that appeared in the short period between 1956 and 1962 that gave shape to the intellectual arguments surrounding the issue of “mass culture” as well as laying the groundwork for the emergence of popular culture studies in the university. The first was the anthology Mass Culture: The Popular Arts in America (1957) … followed by Reuel Denney’s wonderful collection of analyses of various forms of popular culture, The Astonished Muse (1957), William Kornhauser’s The Politics of Mass Society (1959), Leon Bramson’s The Political Context of Sociology (1961) which dealt with the history of mass society theories, and Dwight Macdonald’s acerbic but stimulating diatribe Against the American Grain.

These books were important because, as Daniel Bell suggested, theories of mass society were extremely influential, second only to Marxism in their importance. However, I would suggest the term “mass” culture is loaded, and that the terms “popular culture,” “mass-mediated culture,” or to some extent “nobrow culture” are more accurate. The term “mass” has negative connotations, especially in a country like the United States that prides itself on its individualism and exceptionalism. Ray B. Browne, a professor at Bowling Green State University, founded a journal in 1967 devoted to popular culture—The Journal of Popular Culture. A few years later, in 1971, Browne and Russell Nye and a group of other professors formed the Popular Culture Association. Now there was a journal and an organization that made the study of popular culture more acceptable in academic circles. The academic world began to

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recognize that popular culture reflected important things about American culture and society and could be studied to gain insights into people’s values and beliefs.

Italian Scholars and Popular Culture I spent 1963–1964 as a Fulbright scholar in Milan, where I met and became friends with Umberto Eco. In hindsight, the meeting was preordained. Shortly after I arrived, I asked my students at the University of Milan, “Who’s interesting in this city?” and they all said “Umberto Eco.” I met him for a cup of coffee in the Galleria there and discovered that we had many interests in common. Specifically, I found that Italian intellectuals believed in the importance of popular culture and that Eco was writing an article on the significance of the “Nembo Kid” which is what “Superman” was called in Italy (they used the term instead of Superman to avoid connections with Fascism). The Italians, I discovered, were very much interested in comics and other forms of popular culture. In 1962, Garzanti publishers put out a huge, largeformat book full of comics from Europe and America, I Primi Eroi, advertised as a presentation by Rene Clair of the French Academy, complete with his introduction. In 1964, a scholar named Roberto Giammanco published a book, Dialogo sulla societa Americana, which had material on popular culture and the cultural significance of American comics—in particular, Krazy Kat. My review of this book, which appeared in an Italian social-science magazine, Il Mulino, was my first publication in a scholarly journal. While in Italy, I was asked by the professor I was working for, Agostino Lombardo, to write an article for a journal he edited, Studi Americani. I wrote an article comparing American and Italian comic strips that were similar in terms of subject matter, kinds of heroes, and were published around the same time. One of the most interesting things I found was that the Italian strips reflected a different attitude towards authority from the American ones. Authority was seen as valid in Italian strips but not valid in American strips. This correlated with studies that Italian sociologists had made of Italian attitudes towards authority. Imagine that: a study of comic strips validates socialscience research.

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I also wrote an article for Il Mulino, a scholarly journal, on Italian weekly publications such as Oggi and Europeo, that was also published in 1963. I had been sent to Milan because I had written in my Fulbright application that I wanted to study the Italian weekly press and Milan was where most of these journals were located. In my article, I suggested these publications were like dinosaurs—with huge circulations (the body of the dinosaur) and a tiny editorial staff (the brain of the dinosaur). What particularly interested me was what they focused their attention on, who was on the covers of these publications (the Pope was the leader), and what they reflected about Italian society and culture. Italians read these publications because they dealt with topics and issues of interest to them, so studying these journals offered me an indirect way to gain some insights into Italian popular taste, fads, fashions, and values. My year in Italy and my conversations with Eco and his friends convinced me that popular culture was an important subject worthy of study and my dissertation on Li’l Abner opened the door for me to what turned out to be more than fifty years of writing about popular culture, mass-mediated culture, the media, everyday life, and related concerns. My efforts can be described as feeding into the emergent nobrow culture—a crossing over between elite and popular culture. You can understand the “no” in “nobrow” two ways. The first might be that nobrow is, somehow, below lowbrow. My story about the professor and the magazine editor, at the beginning of this chapter, suggests you can’t get below lowbrow culture. In the second interpretation, nobrow involves a repudiation of differentiating between levels of culture and the different “brows” that can be attached to literary and cultural works. In Argonauts of the Western Pacific, the anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski wrote (1922:18,19): There is a series of great importance which cannot possibly be recorded by questioning or computing documents but have to be observed in their full actuality. Let us call them the imponderabilia of actual life. Here belong such things as the routine of a man’s working day, the details of his care of the body, of the manner of taking food and preparing it; the tone of conversational and social life around the village fires; the existence of strong friendships or hostilities, and of passing sympathies and dislikes between people.

If we extend his concept of imponderabilia to include our entertainments and the mass mediated aspects of our daily lives, we have a good definition

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of popular culture that takes the sting out of the repeated attacks on it: popular culture is culture not for the masses but of the masses.

Pop Culture and Related Concerns In 1973, I wrote a book, Pop Culture, which dealt with various popular culture texts and different aspects of popular culture. It had chapters on the techniques of analyzing popular culture, on comics, on sports, on advertising, on material culture—topics that I was to work on for many years. In my book, I offered my justification for writing a book on popular culture and wrote (1973:8-9): Popular culture, to me, is broader than the popular arts. It is the culture of the people—their behavior, values, and in particular, their entertainments, and not just certain art forms which appeal to large numbers of people. Perhaps the best thing is to indicate what popular culture generally is not. It is not the classic works of literature and philosophy, though curiously much popular culture is related directly to the same myths as Greek tragedy, for instance. It is not highly sophisticated art which appeals only to a person of highly cultivated and discriminating tastes. This kind of person may enjoy modern poetry as well as roller derby and professional football, but the average roller derby and football fan doesn’t enjoy esoteric poetry or the novels of Henry James. Regardless of whether or not you like popular culture, the fact that millions of people do, and spend a great deal of time and money on it, means that it is significant. It offers us a useful way of understanding one’s society, and, indirectly, oneself.

It is interesting to note that my comment about myths led, forty years later, to my book, Media, Myth and Society, in which I showed how myth informs elite culture, psychoanalytic theory, historical experience, popular culture and everyday life. In 1974, I followed with an article, “The Secret Agent,” in which I discussed “what is right (and wrong) with the study of popular culture.” In that article, I listed several techniques for studying popular culture, and without recognizing it, dealt with topics that would occupy my attention for the rest of my career as an academic. I also published The Comic-Stripped American, a book that used many concepts I’d learned in my graduate studies to analyze the most important American comic strips from the earlier strips, such as The Yellow Kid and Krazy Kat up to underground comics. My focus was on what comic strips revealed about American culture (you can take the boy out of American Studies, but you can’t take the American Studies out of the boy). Not long

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after the book was published, it was translated into Italian and published as L’Americano a Fumetti. The next year, I published my analysis of significant American television shows and series, The TV-Guided American. Among the reviews it generated, there was one that was difficult to forget insofar as its author wrote that “Berger was to the study of television what Idi Amin was to tourism in Uganda.” The reviewer didn’t appreciate my semiotic and serious intellectual treatment of our more important television shows and series. It was still difficult for many people to think about comics and television programs as having any cultural significance, and this review reflected that bias in our country’s elites. In the early seventies, when I was assigned “Analysis of the Public Arts,” the course on media criticism at San Francisco State University, I faced the problem of how to teach it. At the time there were many anthologies of articles on popular culture and the media available, but I decided I didn’t like teaching courses in popular culture in which the students had to learn what this or that professor had to say about some television show or movie or whatever.

Figure 6.2 Media Analysis Techniques. First Edition.

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Instead, I decided to focus on techniques of analysis and so I wrote Media Analysis Techniques, first published in 1982 and now in its fifth edition. Besides formulating analysis techniques, in the second section, I applied them to American football, Agatha Christie’s Murder on the Orient Express, and similar topics. The year after that, I published my introduction to semiotics, Signs in Contemporary Culture: An Introduction to Semiotics, which was part of a series of books under the editorship of George Gerbner, Dean of the Annenberg School of Communication at the University of Pennsylvania.

Figure 6.3 Signs in Contemporary Culture This book explained the basic concepts of semiotics and applied them to popular culture. I became convinced that a semiotic approach to popular culture—in fact, all kinds of culture—was useful and valid. There is a striking similarity in how one of the most important cultural theorists and

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critics of the twentieth century, Roland Barthes, explained how he came to write his book, Mythologies. He writes in the preface (1972:9): This book has a double theoretical framework: on the one hand, an ideological critique bearing on the language of so-called mass culture; on the other, a first attempt to analyze semiologically the mechanics of this language. I had just read Saussure and as a result acquired the conviction that by treating “collective representations” as sign-systems, one might hope to go further than the pious show of unmasking them and account in detail for the mystifications which transforms petit-bourgeois culture into a universal nature.

Barthes’ first article in the book is on what we would call professional wrestling, and he also has articles on many other topics such as “The Face of Garbo,” “toys,” “Soap-powders and detergents,” and the “Lady of the Camellias.” Together with the second part of the book, devoted to his analysis of “Myth Today,” this book is one of the central documents of contemporary cultural criticism. With the development of cultural studies, which spread from the University of Birmingham to many universities, scholars in English departments, humanities departments, and many others felt free to write about popular culture—now an important stream in academic research. Cultural studies itself has evolved into a multi-disciplinary, pan-disciplinary, interdisciplinary undertaking that combines semiotics, Marxist theory, social thought, psychoanalytic theory, and other theories to make sense of whatever it is investigating. In 1971, the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at the University of Birmingham began publishing a journal, Working Papers in Cultural Studies, which dealt with topics like popular culture, media, subcultures, everyday life, race, feminism, and social movements, among other things. The first edition of this journal contained an introduction by Stuart Hall, one of the founding fathers of cultural studies, and articles on topics such as “What is News?,” by Paul Willis, “The Meaning of Tom Jones” by Richard Dyer, and “Football and Cultural Values” by Charles Cricher (subsequent issues contained articles by scholars such as Eco and Fredric Jameson). While the journal did not last very long, its impact was great, and it gave scholars interested in popular culture an enhanced sense of legitimacy. In the early eighties, I became interested in humor again (my dissertation on Li’l Abner was, after all, a study of comic-strip humor) and wrote a book, An Anatomy of Humor, in which I asserted that there are forty-five

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techniques that are used to generate humor in all humorous texts, from jokes to stories to narratives of all kinds. I found these techniques by making a content analysis of joke books, comic books, dramatic comedies, comic novels, and so forth. Table 6.1 The 45 Techniques of Humor Language

Logic

Identity

Action

Allusion Bombast Definition Exaggeration Facetiousness Insults Infantilism Irony Misunderstanding Over literalness Puns/Wordplay Repartee Ridicule Sarcasm Satire

Absurdity Accident Analogy Catalogue Coincidence Comparison Disappointment Ignorance Mistakes Repetition Reversal Rigidity Theme & Variation Unmasking

Before/After Burlesque Caricature Eccentricity Embarrassment Exposure Grotesque Imitation Impersonation Mimicry Parody Scale Stereotype

Chase Slapstick Speed

Once I isolated these techniques, I discovered they could be classified as involving the humor of logic, language, identity, or action. My argument was that these techniques, in various combinations, are found in jokes, comic novels, comic plays, and all kinds of humorous texts. The times may have been a-changing, but it took me until 1993 to get that book published. I was to follow this up with two other books on humor: Blind Men and Elephants: Perspective on Humor (1995) and The Art of Comedy Writing (1997), which has two parts. The first part deals with my forty-five techniques of humor and offers examples of each, and the second part applies these techniques to comic plays, from Plautus to Ionesco’s “Bald Soprano.” I also published a book on Jewish humor, The Genius of the Jewish Joke, that year. By now the study of humor has become widespread in academic— I almost said popular—circles, and there is even a scholarly journal devoted to humor, Humor: The International Journal of Humor Research, not to mention centers for the study of humor at various universities (which is not

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to say that institutional resistance to the study of humor or popular culture has evaporated altogether).

Figure 6.4 Postmortem for a Postmodernist In 1997, in addition to my career as an academic, I became a writer of genre fiction with the publication of the first of my “dark” academic mysteries, Postmortem for a Postmodernist. The backstory is that I was asked by Mitch Allen, a publisher with whom I’ve worked for many years, to do a comic book on postmodernism. I found it difficult to do a comic book but got the idea of writing a mystery novel and having a frame from a comic strip at the beginning of each chapter. In addition to this mystery, I also published The Mass-Comm Murders, about mass communication theory; Durkheim is Dead: Sherlock Holmes is Introduced to Sociological Theory, about sociological theory; and Mistake in Identity: A Cultural Studies Murder Mystery, about different perspectives on identity. Since then, I published half a dozen other academic mysteries, the best of which is The Hamlet Case, which is about a professor who murders the

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editorial board of a scholarly journal about Shakespeare that he edits because he’s afraid they will take the journal away from him. My academic mysteries are all didactic and formulaic and, I suppose, reflect my distaste for many aspects of academic life and many academics (though some of my best friends are academics). They also show how I adapted a popular culture formula, the mystery story, and used it to “sugar-coat the didactic pill” and teach students something about various academic subjects. Incidentally, The Hamlet Case was translated into languages as far apart as Farsi and Chinese, and published in Iran and China, along with several other books. Since 1982, I’ve spent many years writing new books for Sage and rewriting and revising Media Analysis Techniques and Media and Communication Research Techniques. In addition to the five editions of Media Analysis Techniques, I have written six editions of my book on advertising, Ads, Fads and Consumer Culture, and four editions of Seeing is Believing: An Introduction to Visual Communication for McGraw-Hill. It is fair to say that there’s not been a day, except when my wife and I are traveling, when I wasn’t working on a new edition of one of my books or a new book—all devoted to popular culture and to debunking the myth that it is unworthy of academic interest. After my wife and I took a cruise to Alaska a number of years ago, I offered an analysis of cruising as a form of popular culture and grassroots selfexpression. I wrote essays on the semiotics of cruising, a psychoanalytic interpretation of cruising, a chapter on the economics of cruising, and a few others. It was published as Ocean Travel and Cruising.

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Figure 6.5 Ocean Travel and Cruising Soon I was busy writing books on Thailand, India, Japan, and Bali for Haworth, a tourism publisher. I also wrote books on tourism in America and on global destinations and on tourism theory—a book called Deconstructing Travel: Cultural Perspectives on Tourism. Tourism, as I see things, is a form of mass culture and the tourist can be seen as the exemplar of modern man and modern woman. That point was made by Dean MacCannell is his classic study, The Tourist. He writes, in the introduction (1976:1): Tourist” is used to mean two things in this book. It designates actual tourist sightseers, mainly middle class, who are at this moment deployed throughout the entire world in search of experience .…At the same time, “the tourist” is one of the best models available for modern-man-in-general.

Thus, tourism can be seen as an important part of mass culture and nobrow culture. Tourists also consume a great deal of popular culture, since they spend many hours of their time shopping and watching shows of one kind or another.

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For example, on a recent ten-day cruise my wife and I took, we saw three big production shows with singers and dancers plus many other shows with comedians, singers, hypnotists, magicians, and so on. Interestingly, cruises used to be reserved for elites; now they are an important part of mass culture. Around fifteen percent of Americans have taken cruises, and since we have around 330 million people in the country, this adds up to tens of millions of Americans. In 2014 alone, according to the Wall Street Journal, over 22 million people took ocean cruises, more than half of them Americans. Tourism, incidentally, is the largest industry in the world.

Discourse Theory, Media, and Popular Culture: Highbrows, Lowbrows, and Nobrows Our media-saturated culture has become of interest to discourse theorists and, in particular, a recent development in discourse theory called “MultiModal Critical Discourse Analysis.” I always thought I was a pop culturist but discovered, from reading books on discourse theory, that I was really (and had always been) a discourse analyst. A few years ago, I received an email from a professor in Minsk, Irina Oukvanova, asking me to contribute some chapters to a book of essays using discourse theory. Later, in 2014, I became a Fulbright Senior Specialist in Minsk, Belarus, and so I investigated Discourse Theory in more depth. I got a dozen books on Discourse Theory and discovered, to my surprise, that I can be described as a “critical multimodal discourse analyst” and that my dissertation on Li’l Abner can be considered one of the first critical multimodal discourse studies: it deals with topics such as the language in the strip, its narrative structure, its satirical content (and relation to southwestern humor), and Al Capp’s art style. Discourse theorists are linguistic scholars who desire to move beyond the sentence, which is where most linguistic analysis traditionally has been focused. They want to deal with longer texts, such as conversations, stories, novels (including graphic novels), and now, material on social websites such as Facebook, where there is written language, photographs, drawings, other kinds of images, as well as videos. In their book Working with Written Discourse, linguists Deborah Cameron and Ivan Paunoviü offer this description of multimodal discourse analysis (2014:97): Interest in multimodal analysis has grown since the 1990s, in part because of the rise of new digital media, which make use of very complex semiotic

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This book, written by two linguists, is a very useful introduction to discourse theory. The notion that many texts are multimodal is, I would add, something that cultural theorists have always taken for granted, being long aware of non-verbal communication. What discourse theory reflects is the discovery by linguists of popular culture as a subject for serious investigation. One way I learn about topics is by writing books about them, and so I recently wrote a book in which I applied basic concepts in discourse theory to culture. On receiving it, the publisher asked me, “What’s different about your book?”, and I explained that my book is different in that each topic has an application to popular culture and society, so that readers can get an idea of how discourse theory helps us understand texts and topics of various kinds. So, we have come full circle from Li’l Abner, which is where we began. My point is that discourse theory can be applied to works of popular culture with interesting results, and many discourse theorists now write about advertising, Facebook, and other forms of mass- mediated culture nowadays. I decided, early in my career, not to bother with definitions of popular culture, an obsession with many scholars. I suggested that popular culture was a form of culture and that it was comprised of everything that was not elite culture—by which I meant operas, ballets, symphonic music, “serious” novels, poetry, and that kind of thing. We cannot argue, I suggested, that people who do not like “elite” culture are uncultured. They have a different kind of culture—popular culture (sometimes known as mass-mediated culture and perhaps also a major part of nobrow culture), and both of these terms, “popular,” and “culture,” are important. While working on this chapter, in January 2015, I did a bit of research on Google and on Amazon.com about popular culture and media. I found: Google lists 500,000,000 sites that mention popular culture. Google lists 57,700,000 sites that mention mass media.

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Amazon has 174,519 books that deal with popular culture. Amazon has 46, 843 books that deal with mass media. In the same mode, thanks to an internet site, eMarketing, which got its statistics from Nielsen, we have data on how much time Americans spend each day with electronic media. The answer is eleven hours: 5:04 2:46 1:07 1:10 00.32 00.12 00.09 00.02

Live television Radio Smartphone Internet on a PC Time shifted TV Game Console DVD/Blu Ray Multimedia Device

What these figures show is that popular culture and the mass media are subjects of great interest to many people. The fact that there are almost 175,000 books on popular culture is remarkable. In this context, it is astonishing, perhaps, that nobrow culture has only recently been gathering scholarly attention. Prior to the present volume, the most important book-length study on the subject is Peter Swirski’s From Lowbrow to Nobrow in 2005. The term “nobrow”, of course, immediately calls to mind the famous “brow” typology about taste in America and the classification of Americans into three categories: highbrows, middlebrows, and lowbrows. This typology ties the size of one’s forehead to one’s cultural taste level— a ridiculous idea, if you think about it, but one that many people found interesting and even compelling, not because they believed that the size of one’s brow makes any difference, but because it enabled people to tie cultural taste to something, namely educational level and degree of sophistication about the arts. Highbrows, to simplify matters, are elitists when it comes to the arts and are scornful of middlebrows, who have aspirations to a highbrow status as far as the arts are concerned. Both highbrows and middlebrows look down on lowbrows, who have no taste and lack refinement (according to the highbrows and middlebrows) but are nonetheless major consumers of popular or mass-mediated culture.

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Nobrow suggests these distinctions are false and rejects the dichotomy of highbrow and lowbrow and the trichotomy of highbrow, middlebrow, and lowbrow. One reason for rejecting this classification system is that many works that seemed, at first, to be lowbrow or middlebrow are now seen by many cultural critics as highbrow (think, for example, of Krazy Kat or “Showboat”). This rejection of differences can be also connected to postmodernism and its refusal to see much difference between popular culture and elite culture.

Postmodernism The incredulity toward metanarratives, of which Jean François Lyotard originally wrote about in The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, means that the great systematic theories, such as a belief in progress and hierarchy that characterize modernism, are no longer seen as valid and that the high seriousness of modernism has been replaced by a joyful lack of seriousness. Lyotard wrote (1993:8): Eclecticism is the degree zero of contemporary general culture: one listens to reggae, watches a western, eats McDonald’s food for lunch and local cuisine for dinner, wears Paris perfume in Tokyo and ‘retro’ clothes in Hong Kong; knowledge is a matter for TV games.

Postmodernism is also characterized, Lyotard added, by a crisis in legitimacy, which means, when applied to works of art of all kinds, it’s difficult to argue that operas are better than graphic novels and that serious novels are better than genre works such as The Maltese Falcon (which some argue is a great novel and a wonderful film) or other detective novels, science fiction novels, and romances. Better to whom, we might ask. What postmodernism does, to quote from Fredric Jameson’s Postmodernism or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism, involves (1991; 3): The effacement…of the older (essentially high-modernist) frontier between high culture and so-called mass or commercial culture, and the emergence of new kinds of texts infused with the forms, categories, and contents of that very culture industry so passionately denounced by all the ideologues of the modern, from Leavis and the American New Criticism all the way to Adorno and the Frankfurt School.

One difficulty with the term “nobrow” is that it doesn’t immediately suggest its opposite. Ferdinand de Saussure argued in his Course in General Linguistics (1915/1966:117):

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It is understood that concepts are purely differential and defined not by their positive content but negatively by their relations with the other terms of the system. Their most precise characteristic is being what the others are not.

Later he wrote (1915/1966L120): “in language there are only differences.” However, we must recognize that nobrow refers to a cultural formation, and while from a structuralist perspective the term might be problematic, as a description of social and cultural phenomena, “nobrow” is quite significant. One might even regard the very concept of nobrow as a critique of Saussurean structuralist perspectives and an implied attack on the binarism associated with structuralism. But I should add that binarism is not all there is to Saussurean thought. In his book, Ferdinand de Saussure (second edition), Jonathan Culler offers this insight into structuralist theory (1986:61): Saussure claims that the entire linguistic system can be reduced to and explained in terms of a theory of syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations….This is perhaps the clearest assertion of what might be called the structuralist view of language: not simply that a language is a system of elements that are wholly defined by their relations to one another within the system, though it is that, but that the linguistic system consists of different levels of structure; at each level one can identify elements that contrast with one another and combine with other elements to form higher-level units, and the principles of structure are at each level fundamentally the same.

So, as Culler explains, there is more to structuralism than simple binarism. It is the effacement that Jameson wrote about that is central, I would argue, to understanding “nobrow” as a cultural concept and the nobrow culture itself. There is, in the final analysis, culture—and various kinds of culture appeal to different elements in any society. I’ve been writing about popular culture, media and related concerns since 1963, when I published my first articles—in Italy, on comics and the Italian weekly magazine press. So, I’ve been at it for a long time. You can trace, in my career, the evolution of ways, disciplines, approaches—whatever you wish to call them—of studying popular culture and now, if we wish to, what we call nobrow culture for the past fifty years. I realized early on that it was possible and useful to use theories by highlevel thinkers, critics, and writers such as Roland Barthes, Jean Baudrillard, Karl Marx, Ferdinand de Saussure, Sigmund Freud, Mikhail Bakhtin, Marshall McLuhan, Max Weber, Vladimir Propp, and Walter Benjamin

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(and I could name dozens of others) to analyze popular culture, which I, my students, and the general public loved. Because my students were interested in popular culture (and consumed a great deal of it), they were willing to read material by what we would describe as great thinkers and theorists that would help them understand and better interpret and analyze this material. With the ideas from these theorists, students could analyze texts from any form or level of culture— whatever brow one might wish to assign to them. Thus, by focusing on method and not on the level of discourse, I was able to cut the Gordian Knot of dealing with culture’s complexities.

References Barthes, Roland. (1957/1972). Mythologies. Transl. Annette Lavers. New York: Hill & Wang. Berger, Arthur Asa. (1974). ”The Secret Agent.” The Journal of Communication 24 (2), 70–74. Berger, Arthur Asa. (1997). The Art of Comedy Writing. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books. Cameron, Deborah & Ivan Panovic. (2014). Working with Written Discourse. London: Sage. Culler, Jonathan. (1986). Ferdinand de Saussure, (2nd edition). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Jameson, Fredric. (1991). Postmodernism or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. Durham, NC: Duke University Press Jowett, Garth. (1992). “Introduction to the Transaction Edition.” In Norman Jacobs (Ed.), Mass Media in Modern Society. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books. Lyotard, Jean-François. (1988/1993). The Postmodern Explained. Transl. Don Barry et al. Minneapolis, MN: The University of Minnesota Press. MacCannell, Dean. (1976). The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class. New York: Schocken Books. Malinowski, Bronislaw. (1922). Argonauts of the Western Pacific. London: George Routledge & Sons. McLuhan, Marshall. (1951/1967). The Mechanical Bride: Folklore of Industrial Man. Boston: Beacon Press. Saussure, Ferdinand de. (1916/1966). Course in General Linguistics. Transl. Wade Baskin. New York: McGraw-Hill.

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Rosenberg, Bernard & David Manning White. (Eds.). (1957). Mass Culture: The Popular Arts in America. Glencoe, IL: The Free Press. Swirski, Peter. (2005). From Lowbrow to Nobrow. Montreal, London: McGill-Queen’s UP.

Laughter liberates not only from external censorship but first of all from the great interior censor; it liberates from the fear that has developed in man during thousands of years: fear of the sacred, of prohibitions, of power. It unveils the material bodily principle in its true meaning. Laughter opened men’s eyes on that which is new, on the future. This is why it why it not only permitted the expression of an antifeudal, popular truth; it helped uncover this truth and give it an internal form. And this form was achieved and defended during thousands of years in its very depths and in its popular-festive images. Laughter showed the world anew in its gayest and most sober aspects. Its external privileges are intimately linked with interior forces; they are a recognition of the rights of these forces. This is why laughter could never become an instrument to oppress and blind the people. It always remained a free weapon in their hands. As opposed to laughter, medieval seriousness was infused with elements of fear, weakness, humility, submission, falsehood, hypocrisy, or on the other hand with violence, intimidation, threats, prohibitions. As a spokesman of power, seriousness terrorized, demanded and forbade….Distrust of the serious tone and confidence in the truth of laughter had a spontaneous, elemental character. It was understood that fear never lurks behind laughter…and that hypocrisy and lies never laugh but wear a serious mask. Laughter created no dogmas and could not become authoritarian; it did not convey fear but a feeling of strength. It was linked with the procreating act, with birth, renewal, fertility, abundance. Laughter was also related to food and drink and the people’s earthy immortality, and finally it was related to the future of things to come and was to clear the way for them. —M. M. Bakhtin. Rabelais and His World: 1984:94-95

CHAPTER 7 COMEDY AND TRAGEDY

Comedy and tragedy are literary forms that focus on events in narrative texts, such as jokes, that are humorous and generate mirthful laughter, and other kinds of texts that are calamitous and generally end up, as in the case of Hamlet, for example, with many dead bodies—including that of Hamlet, the hero of the story. What complicates matters is that some texts, tragicomedies, are both humorous and calamitous. That is, they are tragedies but have humorous or comedic elements in them. From Aristotle’s time to the present, writers and scholars in many disciplines have tried to understand what makes a text humorous and how humor works. It has also fascinated and played an important part in the work of our greatest writers such as Cervantes, Shakespeare, Moliere, Swift and Twain. One could cite many others. Yet, curiously, after thousands of years spent trying to understand humor, there is still a great deal of controversy about what humor is, what humor does, and why something is funny. There are, however, some important theories on this matter which I would like to discuss here.

Superiority theory For Aristotle, comedy (and I will use the terms humor and comedy interchangeably, though comedy is, technically speaking, a literary form) is based on "an imitation of men worse than the average," of people who are "ridiculous." Hobbes, in a classic formulation, carried the same idea a bit further. As he put it in The Leviathan: The passion of laughter is nothing else but sudden glory arising from a sudden conception of some eminency in ourselves by comparison with the infirmity of others, or with our own formerly. https://www.quotescosmos.com/quotes/Thomas-Hobbes-quote-2.html

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Incongruity Theory Incongruity theory is probably the most important and most widely accepted of the explanations of humor. It argues that all humor involves some kind of a difference between what one expects and what one gets. The term "incongruity" has many different meanings--inconsistent, lacking propriety and not conforming, so there are a number of possibilities hidden in the term. Incongruity theories involve the intellect, though they may not seem to at first sight, for we have to recognize an incongruity before we can laugh at one. Incongruity theorists argue that superiority theories are really special forms of incongruity.

Psychoanalytic Theory Freud and his followers offer us one of the more interesting and controversial theories of humor. The psychoanalytic theory of humor argues that humor is essentially masked aggression (often of a sexual nature) which gives us gratifications we desperately crave. As Freud wrote in his classic book, Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious (1960:100-101): And here at last we can understand what it is that jokes achieve in the service of their purpose. They make possible the satisfaction of an instinct (whether lustful or hostile) in the face of an obstacle that stands in its way.

In the case of smutty jokes, Freud tells us, we get pleasure because women will not tolerate “undisguised sexuality,” so we mask our sexual aggressiveness by humor. We also derive pleasure camouflaging our aggression and hostility (and thus evading the strictures of our super-egos) or regressing to child-like stages, among other things. Freud's analysis of humor devotes a good deal of attention to the formal or structural properties of jokes. It is not only their subjects that are important but also the forms and the techniques they employ, such as wordplay, condensation and displacement. He also recounts a number of wonderful Jewish jokes in the book and alludes to the remarkable amount of selfcriticism found in jokes which Jews tell about themselves. "Incidentally," he wrote, "I do not know whether there are many other instances of a people making fun to such a degree of its own character." This “fun” which the Jews make of their character is connected to their social marginality and is, in truth, an effective means of countering and dealing with the difficulties they have faced in trying to live in societies

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which have frequently been very hostile. It might be argued that since humor is an effective way of keeping in touch with reality, Jewish humor has been intimately connected with Jewish survival.

Conceptual Paradox Theories There is another theory of humor to consider, and that might be described as the conceptual. It argues that humor is best understood as dealing with communication, paradox, play and the resolution of logical problems. This, at least, is the argument of many cognitive theorists (though Freud also concerned himself with cognitive jokes which suggests that he had cognition covered in his psychoanalytic theory of humor). William Fry, a psychiatrist who worked with Gregory Bateson at one time, has explained how paradox is related to humor. He writes, in Sweet Madness (1963:158): During the unfolding of humor, one is suddenly confronted by an explicitimplicit reversal when the punch line is delivered. The reversal helps distinguish humor from play, dreams, etc....But the reversal also has the unique effect of forcing upon the humor participants an internal redefining of reality. Inescapably the punch line combines communication and metacommunication.

This means that, at one stroke, the punch line in jokes gives us information which, if the joke is a good one, tells us about the world, strikes us as funny and functions as a meta-communication (that tells us that what we have heard is “unreal”). I describe these theories as “why” theories. They describe why we find something humorous but at a very high level of conceputalization. I did some research on the techniques found in humorous texts of all kinds and came up with what might be described as the ”what makes us laugh” theory of humor. I found forty-five techniques, shown in the charts below, that generate mirthful laughter and amusement, which I take as important to people who seek out humor in plays, books, films and other kinds of texts. The techniques are discussed in detail in my books, An Anatomy of Humor, Blind Men and Elephants, and The Art of Comedy Writing.

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Table 6.2 45 Techniques of Humor by Category LANGUAGE

LOGIC

IDENTITY

ACTION

Allusion Bombast Definition Exaggeration Facetiousness Insults Infantilism Irony Misunderstanding Over literalness Puns/Wordplay Repartee Ridicule Sarcasm Satire

Absurdity Accident Analogy Catalogue Coincidence Comparison Disappointment Ignorance Mistakes Repetition Reversal Rigidity Theme/Variation

Before/After Burlesque Caricature Eccentricity Embarrassment Exposure Grotesque Imitation Impersonation Mimicry Parody Scale Stereotype Unmasking

Chase Slapstick Speed

Table 6.3 45 Techniques of Humor in Alphabetical Order 1. Absurdity 2. Accident 3. Allusion 4. Analogy 5. Before/After 6. Bombast 7. Burlesque 8. Caricature 9. Catalogue 10. Chase Scene 11. Coincidence 12. Comparison 13. Definition 14. Disappointment 15. Eccentricity

16. Embarrassment 17. Exaggeration 18. Exposure 19. Facetiousness 20. Grotesque 21. Ignorance 22. Imitation 23. Impersonation 24. Infantilism 25. Insults 26. Irony 27. Literalness 28. Mimicry 29. Mistakes 30. Misunderstand

31. Parody 32. Puns 33. Repartee 34. Repetition 35. Reversal 36. Ridicule 37. Rigidity 38. Sarcasm 39. Satire 40. Scale, Size 41. Slapstick 42. Speed 43. Stereotypes 44. Theme/Variation 45. Unmasking

With these forty-five techniques, we can find out what techniques in humorous texts are generating the humor and list them, by number, in order of their importance. My book on dramatic comedies, which uses my techniques of humor, was reviewed by a linguistic scholar, Don L.F. Nilsen, who described my work as follows:

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For the work that I am presently doing involving humor in British, American, and Irish literature, Arthur Asa Berger has provided a very insightful and useful methodology for analyzing and creating humorous discourse in his The Art of Comedy Writing. For me, his model is as powerful as such other discourse models as “Script Model Grammar,” by Raskin and others, “Conversational Implicatures,” by Grice and others, “Conversational Analysis,” by Tannen and others, “Genre and Archetype Theory,” by Frye, White and others, “Signification Theory,” by Henry Lewis Gates and others, “Dialogic Theory,” by Bakhtin and others, various ethnographic and linguistic models by Schiffrin and others, or indeed any discourse model I have studied and/or used. Although Berger’s model is flawed in many ways, and although it is presented in a glib fashion, it is nevertheless a powerful and rigorous model. Its power comes from its detail (45 techniques of devices) and its rigor comes from how this detail is spelled out (15 “Language” devices, 14 “Logic” devices, 13 “Identity” devices, and 3 “Action” devices. —Don L.F. Nilsen. Journal of Humor Research (Humor, 12-1, 1999:96, 97)

Let me offer an example of how the forty-five techniques can be used in an analysis of a joke which I will call “The Tan.” I have numbered each part of the joke.

The Tan 1. A man goes to Miami for a vacation. 2. After a few days there he looks in a mirror and notices he has a beautiful tan all over his body, with the exception of his penis. 3. He decides to remedy the situation so the next morning he goes to a deserted section of the beach, undresses completely, lies in the sand and covers himself with it, leaving only his penis exposed to the sun. 4. A couple of old ladies walk by. 5. One notices the penis sticking out of the sand and points it out to her friend. 6. "When I was twenty, I was scared to death of them." 7. "When I was forty, I couldn't get enough of them." 8. "When I was sixty, I couldn't get one to come near me." 9. "And now they're growing wild on the beach."

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It is at joke element 9 that the punch line, shown in bold, occurs. The joke is linear up until joke element 8, and then, with joke element 9, some kind of resolution is established—a resolution that many people find amusing and which often generates laughter. The statement about penises growing wild on the beach established a humorous relationship between itself and the first eight statements and also was surprising. The basic techniques used in The Tan joke are: 15 29 21 18 34

Eccentricity Mistake Revelation of Ignorance Exposure Repetition and Pattern

The joke sets up an opposition between nature and culture and critics with different perspectives on things can interpret the joke in differing ways, depending upon their interests and the frame of reference (disciplines, concepts, etc.) they bring to the joke. I have argued in many writings that humor often involved code violations. What codes are violated? Let me suggest a few. Binary Oppositions in The Tan: Private Hidden Dormant Narcissism Perfectionism Correctness

Public Revealed (Sexual Desire) Alive (Sexual Appetites) Self-Effacement Adequacy Being Mistaken

First, let’s consider the code of privacy. One is not supposed to show one's private parts in public, so we have the binary opposition: private/public. Secondly, there is the matter of sexual desire which is supposed to be kept hidden, so we have the binary opposition: hidden/revealed. And we have the matter of the sexual appetites of elderly women, appetites which we generally tend to assume, in our conventional wisdom, are dormant. This leads to the opposition: dormant/alive.

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The man who desires the perfect tan violates a code that says trying to be perfect in every way can be defeating. This violation might be described as: perfectionism/good enough-ism or narcissism/self-effacement. Finally, we have the mistake made by the woman, who assumes that penises are growing wild on the beach, which leads to the opposition: correct/mistaken. Humor is a remarkably complex subject. I hope that this discussion of the theories of humor and my forty-five techniques of humor found in comedic texts provides a useful overview of the subject. And now I turn to the opposite of the comic, the tragic—a topic equally complicated. I begin with Aristotle’s ideas about the nature of tragedy. Aristotle, the ancient Greek philosopher, had significant contributions to the study of tragedy. In his work "Poetics," Aristotle outlined his ideas on what constitutes a tragic play and discussed the effects it should have on its audience. Here are some key points from Aristotle's analysis of tragedy, many of which were discussed in an earlier discussion of tragedy in this book: 1. Imitation: Aristotle believed that tragedy is an imitation of an action, rather than a direct representation of reality. It presents a narrative that evokes emotions and arouses a cathartic response in the audience. 2. Tragic Hero: According to Aristotle, a tragic hero is a central character in a tragedy who is neither completely virtuous nor thoroughly evil. Tragic heroes possess noble qualities but also has a tragic flaws or "hamartia" that leads to their downfall. This flaw is often hubris (excessive pride) or a lack of self-awareness. 3. Plot Structure: Aristotle emphasized the importance of a wellstructured plot in a tragedy. He introduced the concept of the threeact structure, consisting of the beginning (protasis), middle (epitasis), and end (catastrophe). The plot should have a clear causeand-effect chain of events, leading to a dramatic climax. 4. Catharsis: Aristotle believed that tragedy should evoke catharsis, a purging or cleansing of emotions, in the audience. Through the emotional identification with the tragic hero's experiences and downfall, the audience experiences a release of emotions, particularly fear and pity. This catharsis serves as a form of emotional and psychological purification. 5. Tragic Diction and Music: Aristotle emphasized the importance of the language and music employed in a tragic play. He argued that the diction (choice of words) should be poetic and elevated, conveying

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the gravity and seriousness of the subject matter. The music should also enhance the emotional impact of the performance. 6. Unity and Complexity: Aristotle emphasized the importance of unity and complexity in a tragedy. He advocated for the unity of action, time, and place, meaning that a tragedy should have a single main plotline that unfolds within a limited timeframe and a specific location. Additionally, Aristotle believed that a tragedy should have a complex and intricate plot, incorporating elements of reversal (peripeteia) and recognition (anagnorisis). Aristotle's ideas on tragedy have had a profound influence on the Western literary tradition, and many of his principles are still considered relevant and influential in the study and creation of tragic works today.

Comedy and Tragedy As Bakhtin has argued, the world of comedy is one of freedom, chance and coincidence while the world of tragedy is one of determinism, as tragic heroes move towards their inevitable destruction. Comic figures are generally low ones—fools, churls, gluttons, country bumkins while tragic heroes are usually elevated and persons of consequence. Comic figures get into messes from which they have to extricate themselves, often suffer humiliations of one kind or another, but survive while tragic figues move, ineluctably, towards their inevitable downfalls and, as is often the case, deaths. Comedies often end in celebrations and weddings while tragedies end in deaths and funerals.

Figure 7.1 My book on Shakespeare’s The Comedy of Errors

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Comedy (and humor of all kinds) involves what I describe as ”code violations,” which are described in the chart that follows. Table 7.3 The Comic and Code Violations The Comic

The Code Violation

Liars, Frauds Eccentrics Monomaniacs Crazies Obsessives Braggarts Swindlers, Cheats

Truthfulness Normalcy Flexibility Rationality Reasonableness Modesty Honesty

Comedies are full of ”types” whose behavior strikes us as humorous and, according to Aristotle, who are inferior to us. As he explained, comedy is (1941:1459): An imitation of men worse than average; worse, however, not as regards one particular kind, the Ridiculous, which is a species of the Ugly. The Ridiculous may be defined as a mistake or deformity not productive of pain or harm to others.

Aristotle can be described as the father of the superiority theory of humor. Comic figures and their opposites, tragic figures, can be seen as binary opposites. The following chart shows the difference between comedies and tragedies. Table 7.4 Comedies and Tragedies Comedies

Tragedies

Freedom Chance Survival Low Status Characters Worse than average Optimistic Pleasure Social Focus Weddings Cathexis

Determinism Inevitability Destruction High Status Characters Better than average Pessimistic Pain Individual Focus Funerals Catharsis

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This chart is somewhat reductionistic and simplistic (a problem charts often have) but it offers us a good overview of the differences between dramatic comedies and tragedies. Cathexis involves the liberation of pent-up energy and often has a sexual dimension to it. Catharsis, according to Dictionary.Com, can be defined as the purging of the emotions or relieving of emotional tensions, especially through certain kinds of art, as tragedy or music. Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night and The Comedy of Errors are superb examples of dramatic comedies and his Hamlet and Lear, of dramatic tragedies, but there are countless other plays as well as other kinds of narratives, such as novels, that could be cited as comedies and tragedies. I have written a book about Shakespeare’s The Comedy of Errors that explores the play in considerable detail. Complicating matters are texts that are both tragic and comic—that is, tragedies that have comic elements in them. The main elements in these works is the tragic but they contain some comedic aspects as well. This kind of text is understandable since it is often the case that there are mediating elements in binary oppositions, that contain elements of both oppositions or are situated between polar oppositions.

Marshall McLuhan (1911-1980) was a Canadian philosopher, professor, and media theorist. He is best known for his groundbreaking work on the effects of media and communication technology on human culture and society. McLuhan's ideas were influential in the 1960s and continue to be relevant today. McLuhan coined the famous phrase "the medium is the message," which encapsulates his central thesis that the form of media influences and shapes the content and the way we perceive it. He argued that different media have distinct effects on human perception, cognition, and social organization. One of McLuhan's key concepts was the idea of the "global village," which predicted that electronic media, such as television and the internet, would create a sense of global interconnectedness and eliminate the barriers of time and space. He believed that these new forms of media would transform society into a more unified and interconnected world. McLuhan also introduced the notion of "hot" and "cool" media. Hot media refer to those that demand high levels of participation and provide a high level of detail, such as print media, while cool media require more active participation from the audience and leave gaps to be filled in, such as television or telephone conversations. His influential book, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man, published in 1964, explored these ideas in-depth and examined how various media technologies shape human perception, communication, and social interactions. McLuhan's ideas challenged traditional ways of thinking about media and culture and paved the way for the field of media studies. While Marshall McLuhan passed away in 1980, his ideas continue to be studied and discussed by scholars, particularly those interested in media theory, communication studies, and cultural studies. His work remains influential for understanding the impact of media and technology on our lives and the way we interact with the world.

CHAPTER 8 ELECTRONIC AND PRINT MEDIA

Figure 8.1 Marshall McLuhan This discussion is based on Marshall McLuhan’s analysis of the difference between electronic and print media, found in his book, Understanding Media. In this book he has two discussions of binary oppositions: electronic and print media and hot and cool media. He writes, in his discussion of books in Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. (1965:172-173): Socially, the typographic extension of man brought in nationalism, industrialism, mass markets, and universal literacy and education. For print presented an image of repeatable precision that inspired totally new forms of extending social energies. Print released great psychic and social energies in the Renaissance, as today in Japan or Russia, by breaking the individual out of the traditional group while providing a model of how to add individual to individual in massive agglomeration of power. The same spirit of private enterprise that emboldened authors and artists to cultivate self-expression led other men to create giant corporations, both military and commercial.

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Perhaps the most significant of the gifts of typography to man is that of detachment and noninvolvement…The fragmenting and analytic power of the printed word in our psychic lives gave us that “dissociation of sensibility” which in the arts and literature since Cezanne and since Baudelaire has been a top priority for elimination in every program of reform in taste and knowledge…It was precisely the power to separate thought and feeling, to be able to act without reacting, that split literate man out of the tribal world of close family bonds in private and social life.

We must recognize, McLuhan suggests, that a change in the popularity of a medium has profound economic, political, social and cultural consequences. We can contrast McLuhan’s ideas about print media and electronic media in the chart below, which is based on the material quoted in Understanding Media: Table 8.1 Electric Media and Print Media Electronic Media

Print Media

the ear all-at-once simultaneity emotion radio community involvement pattern recognition

the eye linearity interconnectedness logic books individuality detachment data classification

This set of bipolar oppositions shows the difference between electronic media and print media and the social, cultural and political consequences that stem from this change and the popularity of electronic media. When electronic media are dominant, emotion becomes more powerful than logic, community becomes more dominant than individuality, and the interconnectedness found in print media dominated societies give way to simultaneity. Print media are linear, which, McLuhan argues, leads to the dominance of rationality, individualism, continuity, standardization, and nationalism.

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Table 8.2 Average Time Spent on Media in US 2019

In 2019, Americans spent 6:35 hours a day with digital media, 3:35 hours a day watching TV, 1.20 hours a day listening to the radio and 20 minutes with print: 11 minutes reading newspapers and 9 minutes reading magazines. Because some media users multi-task, it is now estimated that people spend twelve hours a day with media, most of it with electronic and digital media. The development of social media and with sites such as TicTok are examples of the way that electronic media have come to dominate our lives and play a role in shaping our social, cultural and political institutions. Ironically, many people who use digital media use it to read articles from print publications such as The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Wall Street Journal and other newspapers and magazines. So the statistics about our time spent reading print publications, approximtely 20 minutes a day, has to be amended since we read many print publications on our smart phones and tablets. McLuhan had relatively little interest in the work of American communications scholars whose work tended to be statistical, behaviorist and empirical, in contrast to his rhetorical and linguistic approach.

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Figure 8.2 Smartphone It was French theorists who embraced his work and drew attention to his work, and he, in turn, helped pave the way for French theory’s emergence— some might say dominance--in American academia. As Donald Theall points out in his book, The Virtual Marshall McLuhan (2001: 128): Since McLuhan was consciously suppressed by large segments of academia, it is not overtly recognized that his writings first raised the issues that concerned postmodernism and poststructuralism for a majority of North American scholars, particularly in communication, sociological theory, film and media studies, and cultural studies.

McLuhan wrote that he became a structuralist through Eliot and Joyce and the Symbolists and used this approach in The Mechanical Bride. It is these sources that explain his similarity to and affinity with contemporary French theorists. “Nobody except myself in the media field has ventured to use the structuralist or ‘existentialist’ approach,” he wrote in a letter in 1974.

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Theall explains how McLuhan became interested in media and popular culture. He had become frustrated trying to teach first year students how to analyze English poetry and concluded that applying the critical techniques he had learned at Cambridge University from the Cambridge school of literary interpretation to the front pages of newspapers, to advertisements and comic strips made more sense. As Theall writes: (2001: 4,5) This new approach to the study of popular culture and popular art forms led to his first major move towards new media and communication and eventually resulted in his first book, The Mechanical Bride, which some consider to be one of the founding documents of early cultural studies….The Bride illustrated yet another aspect of the ongoing McLuhanesque approach to cultural phenomena—the satiric use of wit and the comic as a mode of “tweaking” hidden levels of meaning and complexity from material that seems to be relatively simple—Blondie, Li’l Abner, the front page of a Hearst tabloid, ads for caskets, laundry soap, or stockings.

Theall adds that this satirical and poetic strategy was to inform McLuhan’s work for the remainder of his career. Much of the Mechanical Bride has to be seen as a parody of the ad styles and pop culture world that McLuhan was investigating—as a critic and not as a media theorist.

Figure 8.3 James Joyce To understand McLuhan, according to Theall, you have to recognize the significance his love of James Joyce’s novels, particularly Finnegan’s Wake, had for his temperament and his approach to the media and life.

Socio-economic class refers to the classification of individuals or households based on their economic and social positions within a society. It is determined by various factors such as income, occupation, education, and wealth. Socio-economic class is often used to understand and analyze social inequalities and disparities in access to resources, opportunities, and social mobility. There are different models and frameworks used to define socioeconomic classes, and they can vary across countries and researchers. However, a commonly used model is the one proposed by Karl Marx, which categorizes individuals into the following classes: 1. Bourgeoisie: Also known as the capitalist class, this class consists of individuals who own and control the means of production, such as factories, businesses, and capital. They typically have high levels of wealth and power. 2. Proletariat: This class includes individuals who do not own the means of production and must sell their labor to the bourgeoisie in order to earn a living. They typically have lower income and less control over their working conditions. Other models and frameworks may include additional categories, such as: 3. Upper Class: This class represents the highest social and economic stratum in society. It consists of individuals who have significant wealth, influence, and access to exclusive resources and opportunities. 4. Middle Class: The middle class is often divided into upper-middle and lower-middle categories. It includes individuals who have moderate levels of income, education, and occupational status. They typically hold professional or managerial positions. 5. Working Class: This class includes individuals engaged in manual labor, often in industries such as manufacturing, construction, or service sectors.

CHAPTER 9 UPPER CLASS AND LOWER CLASS

For many years, people saw America as essentially a classless country: mostly middle class with small pockets of wealthy people at one end and poor people at the other end of the income spectrum. That notion has given way to an understanding of America as a country in which socio-economic class is important and class differences are significant in many respects. W. Lloyd Warner did important work on the role of classes in America.

Figure 9.1 W. Lloyd Warner Warner was an American sociologist known for his research on social stratification and class in America. Born on October 16, 1898, Warner made significant contributions to the field of sociology throughout his career. Warner conducted one of his most notable studies, known as the "Yankee City" study, examined the social structure and class divisions within the community. Warner, along with several if his colleagues, conducted extensive interviews and surveys to gather data on the town's residents. The

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study aimed to understand the impact of social class on various aspects of people's lives, including education, occupation, and social mobility. The Yankee City study provided valuable insights into the complex nature of social class in America. It highlighted the ways in which social class influences people's opportunities, relationships, and aspirations. Warner and his colleagues emphasized the significance of social networks and community ties in shaping individuals' experiences within different social classes. Warner's work extended beyond the Yankee City study. He contributed to the understanding of social stratification and class through his writings on occupational prestige, social mobility, and the impact of social class on education. His research helped establish the foundation for future studies on social class and its consequences in American society. Overall, Loyd Warner was a prominent sociologist who made important contributions to the study of class and social stratification in America. His research shed light on the complexities of social class and its influence on various aspects of individuals' lives. Warner explained that there were six social classes in America: upper-upper, lower-upper, upper-middle, lower-middle, upper-lower, lower-lower. His breakdown still is fairly accurate. The “common” man and woman in America comes from either the upper-lower or lower-middle classes. One of the most important problems American society faces involves social classes and the gross distortion of wealth in America and the problems that inequality brings. Social inequality in America refers to the disparities and disparities in various aspects of life, such as income, wealth, education, healthcare, housing, and opportunities, which exist among different social groups. These groups can be defined by factors such as race, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, and more. Social inequality is a complex issue

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influenced by historical, systemic, and structural factors. Here are some key points to understand social inequality in America: Income and Wealth Inequality: The United States has one of the highest levels of income and wealth inequality among developed nations. The top 1% of the population holds a significant portion of the country's wealth, while many others struggle with stagnant wages and limited economic mobility. Racial and Ethnic Inequality: Racial and ethnic minorities, particularly African Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans, often face higher rates of poverty, unemployment, and limited access to quality education and healthcare. Discrimination, systemic racism, and historical disadvantages contribute to these disparities. Gender Inequality: Although progress has been made, gender inequality persists in various forms. Women continue to face wage gaps, occupational segregation, limited representation in leadership positions, and challenges related to work-life balance. Educational Inequality: Educational opportunities in the United States are unevenly distributed, with under-funded schools and limited resources disproportionately affecting marginalized communities. This contributes to a cycle of poverty and limited upward mobility. Healthcare Disparities: Access to quality healthcare is unequal, with marginalized communities often having limited access to healthcare facilities, health insurance, and adequate medical services. This leads to poorer health outcomes and a widening health gap. Housing Inequality: Segregation and housing discrimination persist in many areas, with minority communities often facing limited affordable housing options and being subjected to substandard living conditions. The Criminal Justice System: Racial and socioeconomic disparities exist within the criminal justice system, with minority and low-income individuals being disproportionately targeted, arrested, and incarcerated. This contributes to the perpetuation of social inequality. Addressing social inequality requires a multi-faceted approach involving policy changes, increased access to resources and opportunities, dismantling systemic barriers, promoting diversity and inclusion, and fostering equitable practices in various sectors.

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The British class system, according to recent research, is slightly different from the American class system. In 2013, the British Broadcasting System surveyed classes in Britain and came up with seven social classes based on what they described as: Economic capital income, the value of a home and savings Social capital number of high-status people known Cultural capital elite cultural interests and activities The term “cultural capital” was made popular by Pierre Bourdieu, whose writings on distinction and taste have been very influential. The seven groups the survey found were: Elites 6% The most privileged class in Britain. The Established Middle Class 25% They have high levels of all capitals Technical Middle Class 6% While they have high economic, they have low social and cultural capital New Affluent Workers 15% These workers have a medium level of economic capital, but higher levels of social and cultural capital Emergent Service Workers 19% They have low economic but higher levels of social and cultural capital Members of the Traditional Working Class 14% They rank low on all forms of capital

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The Precariat Most deprived class 15% They also have low levels of all capitals. While Britain and the United States are different in many ways, this typology may have some usefulness in helping us understand class differences in America as well as in Britain. These groups from which the typology was drawn emerged from a survey of 160,000 people in Great Britain, and they all differ from one another in terms of the three capitals: income, the number and status of people they know, and their cultural interests. In England, people in different classes often reveal which class they belong to when they speak, and by their accents. Working class and middle and upper class people in England use different codes when they communicate. Basil Bernstein, a sociolinguist from Britain, explains the differences between these two language codes.

Figure 9.2 Basil Bernstein As he explains in “Social Class, Language and Socialization” (in Pier Paolo Giglioli, ed. Language and Social Context. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin. 1972: 164): I shall argue that forms of socialization orient the child towards speech codes which control access to relatively context-tied or relatively contextindependent meanings. Thus, I shall argue that elaborated codes orient their users towards universalistic meanings. whereas restricted codes orient, sensitize, their users to particularistic meanings: that the linguistic realization

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of the two orders are different, and so are the social relationships which realize them. Elaborated codes are less tied to a given or local structure and thus contain the potentiality of change in principles. In the case of elaborated codes, the speech is freed from its evoking social structure and takes on an autonomy. A university is a place organized around talk. Restricted codes are more tied to a local social structure and have a reduced potential for disuse in principles. Where codes are elaborated, the socialized has more access to the grounds of his own socialization, and so can enter into a reflexive relationship to the social order he has taken over. Where codes are restricted, the socialized have less access to the grounds of his socialization, and thus reflexiveness may be limited in range, One of the effects of the class system is to limit access to elaborated codes. I shall go on to suggest that restricted codes have their basis in condensed symbols whereas elaborated codes have their basis in articulated symbols. That restricted codes draw upon metaphor whereas elaborated codes draw upon rationality.

We can draw a set of binary oppositions that reflect Bernstein’s conclusions more clearly. The codes that children learn play a major role in their future development and adult lives and become the matrix through which they filter their thinking. Table 9.1 Restricted and Elaborated Speech Codes Restricted Code

Elaborated Codes

Working classes Grammatically simple Uniform vocabulary Short sentence structure Little use of adjectives, adverbs Low conceptualization Emotional speech Few qualifications Users unaware of code

Middle classes Grammatically complex Varied vocabulary Complex sentences Careful use of adjectives High conceptualization Logical speech Many qualifications Users aware of code

In the United States, the different classes have variants of these codes that also play a role in shaping their beliefs and attitudes. For most people, it is difficult to “escape” from the class into which one was born because one’s “life chances” are so limited by their class upbringing in the working classes and the linguistic and other cultural codes that shape their lives.

Democrats and Republicans are the two major political parties in the United States. They have different ideologies, policy priorities, and approaches to governance. Democrats: 1. Ideology: Democrats generally identify as liberals or progressives. They advocate for a more active role of government in addressing social and economic issues. 2. Policy Priorities: Democrats often focus on issues such as healthcare reform, income inequality, climate change, LGBTQ+ rights, racial justice, and expanding social safety nets. 3. Government Role: Democrats generally support a larger government role in providing social services, regulating industries, and implementing progressive taxation. 4. Social Issues: Democrats tend to support progressive social policies, including abortion rights, gun control, and comprehensive immigration reform. 5. Base: Historically, the Democratic Party has drawn support from urban areas, minority communities, labor unions, and younger voters. Republicans: 1. Ideology: Republicans typically identify as conservatives. They emphasize limited government intervention and free-market principles. 2. Policy Priorities: Republicans often prioritize issues such as lower taxes, deregulation, strong national defense, traditional values, and law and order. 3. Government Role: Republicans generally advocate for smaller government, reducing regulations on businesses, and promoting free-market competition. 4. Social Issues: Republicans tend to oppose abortion rights, advocate for Second Amendment rights (gun ownership), and support stricter immigration policies. 5. Base: The Republican Party has historically drawn support from rural areas, religious communities, business interests, and older voters.

CHAPTER 10 DEMOCRATS AND REPUBLICANS

In the United States, the two parties—the Democrats and the Republicans— have undergone major changes over the years. It is not too much of a generalization to suggest that the Democratic Party has become more progressive and the Republican Party has become more authoritarian and, in recent years, a cult dominated by Donald Trump. This chart shows various binaries, in somewhat simplistic form, that separate the two parties. Table 10.1 Democrats and Republicans Democrats Blue Color Donkey as symbol Biden Liberal Policy Democratic College Educated Pro LGBTQ Proo “Choice” on Abortion

Republicans Red Color Elephant as symbol Trump Conservative Prosecution Authoritarian High School Educated Anti LGBTQ Pro “Life” on Abortion

Americans, it seems, are always voting: every two years for members of the House of Representatives and every four years for the president and countless times for other positions. So politics is always a major concern for Americans. Trump was a polarizing figure and as result of his role in politics, people often choose where they will buy a home or live based on whether the neighborhood is blue (Democratic) or Red (Republican) and states are designated by political commentators as red, blue or purple.

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Aristotle on Man as a Political Animal Aristotle wrote important works on an infinite number of topics. His statement about man being a “political animal’ being one of his most famous statements when it comes to politics. As he explained: It is clear that the city-state is a natural growth, and that man is by nature a political animal, and a man that is by nature and not merely by fortune citiless is either low in the scale of humanity or above it 㸦like the “clanless, lawless, hearthless” man reviled by Homer, for one by nature unsocial is also “lover of war”㸧 inasmuch as he is solitary, like an isolated piece at draughts. And why man is a political animal in a greater measure than any bee or any gregarious animal is clear. For nature, as we declare, does nothing without purpose; and man alone of the animals possesses speech. The mere voice, it is true, can indicate pain and pleasure, and therefore is possessed by the other animals as well for their nature has been developed so far as to have sensations of what is painful and pleasant and to indicate those sensations to one another㸧, but speech is designed to indicate the advantageous and the harmful, and therefore also the right and the wrong; for it is the special property of man in distinction from the other animals that he alone has perception of good and bad and right and wrong and the other moral qualities, and it is partnership in these things that makes a household and a city-state. Thus, also the city-state is prior in nature to the household and to each of us individually. For the whole must necessarily be prior to the part….It is clear therefore that the state is also prior by nature to the individual; for if each individual when separate is not self-sufficient, he must be related to the whole state as other parts are to their whole, while a man who is incapable of entering into partnership, or who is so self-sufficing that he has no need to do so, is no part of a state, so that he must be either a lower animal or a god. htpp:Classics.mit.edu.Aristotle/politics.html

In every country, politics is an important topic and plays an important role in that country’s everyday life, but in America, with its seemingly endless need to vote on all kinds of things, politics is important and the Democratic/Republican bipolarity is very important. This extreme divisiveness is caused by many factors, but the presidency of Donald Trump and his continued activity after he lost the presidency to Biden in 2020 has exacerbated the binary or oppositional nature of politics in America in recent years.

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When Trump became president, he made it possible for all kinds of extreme political groups who had been buried in the woodwork, so to speak, to emerge with a sense of legitimacy such as: White nationalists, Nazis, racists, and anti-Semites. They help form Trump’s base and play an important role in Republican politics. This “base,” made up of about thirty percent of Republican voters, are die-hard Trump supporters. The dilemma many Republicans face is that Trump’s base may be enough to help him win the nomination but it is questionable whether Trump will win the presidency because so many Americans dislike him: Democrats, moderate Republicans, and many Independents.

Figure 10.1 Trump Balloon As I explained in my book, Cultural Studies Theorists on Power, Psyche and Society: The Political Animal (2022:80): In many Republican districts, who will win an election is not a problem, but the primaries are. It is because of this situation that Trump has been able to dominate the Republicans in the House of Representatives and the Senate, since he can influence the primaries. All the Republican politicians are afraid of Trump and his loyal base, even though Trump lost his bid for a second term as president. He will not admit he lost the election and has perpetrated a lie that he really won and that the election was stolen from him (what Democrats call “The Big Lie”) with catastrophic results for national unity and our democratic institutions. There is reason to suggest that Trump is a fascist and has turned the Republican Party into a fascist party.

The keyword to understand Republican political theory is freedom. Republicans like to talk about freedom all the time, such as the freedom to

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carry guns everywhere. Yet they stand for preventing women from having a free choice if they want to have an abortion. Republicans believe, it would seem, in freedom from governmental control of anything and freedom for individuals and corporations to do everything they want to do. As Ronald Reagan, one of the Republican saints, once explained, “Government is the problem.” Democrats, on the other hand, are the party of equality and believe in using government to solve problems. For Republicans, this is seen as socialism and a “big” government is considered a danger to their beloved freedom. There is now widespread fear that if Trump is nominated and wins the presidential election in 2024, he will destroy American democratic institutions and turn America into a fascist state. He has been described as a malignant narcissist, who is only interested in himself and is really a terribly damaged (mostly, it is thought, by his father) and disturbed person. This means that politics in America now has an existential aspect to it and it is conceivable that Trump and his followers, who are all members of his political cult, could put an end to democracy in the United States. The notion that “it can’t happen here” (that is, fascism) has been supplanted by the fear that “it can happen here.” Thus, the breakdown on binarism in politics will have enormous consequences.

A number of personality characteristics have been shown to be associated with creative productivity. One of these is autonomy: creative individuals tend to be independent and nonconformist in their thoughts and actions. Equally important is mastery of a particular domain—that is, a sphere of activity or knowledge that requires a high level of ability. For example, in applying their knowledge of computers to the design of the Apple II, inventors Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak revolutionized the computer industry by appealing to individuals as well as businesses. French fashion designer Coco Chanel forever changed the way women dressed by designing simple yet stylish clothes. On the other hand, creative people may not have equally strong gifts across the spectrum of human ability. (A notable exception was Leonardo da Vinci, whose achievements in the visual arts, mechanics, and engineering disclosed the talents of a creative polymath.) Some creative people show an interest in apparent disorder, contradiction, and imbalance—perhaps because they are challenged by asymmetry and chaos. Creative individuals may also exhibit a high degree of self-assurance. Some possess an exceptionally deep, broad, and flexible awareness of themselves. Others are shown to be intellectual leaders with a great sensitivity to problems. The unconventionality of thought that is sometimes found in creative persons may be in part a resistance to acculturation, which may be seen as demanding surrender of one’s unique fundamental nature. In fact, independence is critical to the creative process, in that creative people must often be able to work alone and must also be willing to express ideas or develop products that others might perceive as radical. It should be pointed out, however, that a nonconformist lifestyle is not essential to creativity; indeed, many creative individuals lead quite ordinary lives, expressing their autonomy mainly in their unconventional ideas and work. https://www.britannica.com/topic/creativity

CHAPTER 11 CODA

I never know what a book will turn out like when I start one. That’s because the creative process is so complicated and difficult to explain. The creative process refers to the series of steps and mental activities that individuals go through to generate new ideas, concepts, or solutions to problems. It is the journey from the initial spark of inspiration to the realization of a finished product or creative outcome. While the creative process can vary from person to person and across different domains, it generally involves several common stages: Preparation: This stage involves gathering information, conducting research, and acquiring knowledge related to the subject or problem at hand. It may also include brainstorming and exploring different perspectives to develop a foundation for the creative work. Incubation: After the initial preparation, the mind enters a phase where it subconsciously processes the gathered information and allows ideas to marinate. This stage often involves stepping away from the problem and engaging in other activities, giving the brain the opportunity to make connections and associations. Inspiration/Insight: The incubation period may lead to a sudden "aha" moment or a flash of inspiration—an insight that brings together various elements and provides a new perspective or solution. This breakthrough can arise unexpectedly during activities unrelated to the problem or when the mind is in a relaxed state.

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Idea Generation: In this phase, the creative individual actively generates and explores a multitude of ideas or concepts based on the insight gained. Techniques such as brainstorming, mind mapping, sketching, or free associating may be employed to expand on initial ideas and explore different possibilities. I do a lot of brainstorming in my journals. Evaluation: Once a range of ideas has been generated, the evaluation stage involves analyzing and critiquing each idea's feasibility, relevance, and potential value. This involves considering practicality, marketability (if applicable), alignment with goals, and any other relevant criteria. Development: Once the most promising idea or ideas have been selected, the focus shifts to developing and refining them further. This stage often involves experimentation, prototyping, refining the concept, and exploring different iterations or variations. Implementation/Creation: The final stage involves translating the developed idea into a tangible form or creative output. This could be writing a story, composing music, designing a product, painting a picture, or any other form of creative expression. It requires skill, craftsmanship, and attention to detail. It is important to note that the creative process is not necessarily linear, and individuals may move back and forth between stages or skip some altogether. Additionally, the creative process is highly individual, and different people may emphasize certain stages or employ different techniques based on their unique approaches and preferences. We can see that there are many different aspects to creativity and many ”steps” a creative person takes in working on a project of any kind, all of which are dependent on the person involved in creating something.

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Figure 11.1 Journal 106 Cover I’ve been keeping a journal since 1954 and this book, like all of my books, is the result of something I wrote in my journals. For example, in journal 106 on May 28th, 2023 I devoted part of a page to Binaries. On that page, I wrote a possible title and some binary oppositions to write about: Democrats and Republicans, Biden and Trump, liberals and conservatives, North vs. South, etc. I also devoted the bottom thirds of pages 216 and 217 to Binaries and listed some other topics I might want to write about: Electronic vs. Print, Highbrow vs. Lowbrow, Analog and Digital, Upper Class and Lower Class, and Comedy and Tragedy. I ended up writing chapters on these topics, plus other not mentioned in my journal.

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Figure 11.2 Page 216 of Journal 106

Figure 11.3 Page 217 of Journal 106 It turned out that many of my chapters were based on the notes I had made in my journals. As I write a book, I write about writing the book in my journals—I discuss topics to consider, about how I am progressing, and about problems I am facing, among other things.

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I also brainstorm on some topic I am writing about. I don’t have any four column brainstorming pages for Binaries but I offer here an example of the kind of brainstorming I do. This page is from a journal and involves my writing a book titled Choices.

Figure 11.4 Brainstorming for book on Choices Once I have a draft of the book completed, I then consider additions I can make to various chapters and whether the order of chapters I have is best. In Binaries, for example, I moved my chapter ”Analog and Digital” up in the book because I thought it provided readers with an understanding of the difference between those two binaries that it was important for them to have so they could understand some of the material in later chapters.

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On the Importance of Images I like to use images in my book. The images break up the lines of type and make the book less intimidating and more interesting, from a visual point of view.

Figure 11.5 Linoleum Block Made Around 1960 Besides being a writer, I am an artist and I’ve made drawings of many of the important writers and cultural theorists about whom I write, that I use to illustrate my books. For many years I did illustrations for articles that appeared in a communication journal and I also did covers for publications and sometimes my own books. I did the drawing used for the cover of a dictionary of advertising and marketing concepts.

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Figure 11.6 Drawing Used in Book Cover I also did the drawing used as the cover for my book Bloom’s Morning.

Figure 11.6 Drawings Used on Book Cover

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I made a drawing for each chapter in the part of the book in which I analyze the hidden psychoanalytic significance of the various topics I write about in thirty chapters. It is only when I sent my drawings for each chapter that I was able to get the book published. I’ve also published other books in which I drew something for each chapter. Below I offer a drawing from my book, Cultural Studies Theorists on Power, Psyche and Society: The Political Animal, which has drawings for every theorist discussed in the book. The image below is taken from my discussion of the ideas of an English anthropologist, Geoffrey Gorer, who used psychoanalytic theory in his writings. My original title for this book was The Political Animal but my editors took my subtitle and made it the title and made my title the subtitle.

Figure 11.7 Geoffrey Gorer. Geoffrey Gorer, a British anthropologist, offers us a perspective on national character in his book, The People of Great Russia: A Psychological Study. He writes, in the Introduction to the book, about the way cultures maintain themselves (1961: xxxix): If we accept the fact that all the peoples of the world are human, with the same physiology and the same psychological potentialities, whatever their present level of technological development, system of values, or political organization, and that all human beings are organized into societies with distinctive cultures, then all human beings and human societies can be studied, at least potentially, by scientific techniques which have been

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I made an embosser stamp saying Arthur Asa Berger Writer, Artist and Secret Agent. I used it when I sent letters to people but now, in the age of internet mail, it is no longer of any use.

Figure 11.08 Secret Agent Stamp

Figure 11. 9 The Secret Agent The ”Secret Agent” comes from the title of an article I once published in The Journal of Communication. Its editor, George Gerbner, asked me to write an article about how I work as a scholar of popular culture. I wrote a long article in three parts. The third part was titled ”Secret Agent.” Gerbner didn’t use the first two parts but used the third one and my article was titled

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”Secret Agent.” I used the term ”secret agent” to describe myself as someone interested in aspects of popular culture and everyday life in America that escape people’s notice, but which have interesting things to reveal about American culture, character and society. It is my task, I suggest, to reveal the significance of these topics that attract my attention.

Figure 11.10 Page from ”Secret Agent” Article As you might expect, I did a drawing of myself (a caricature) as a secret agent, which was used in the article. In the article I also have an image of an onion, with different layers over a central part of the onion labelled ”myth.” I was to do a book on myth and culture many years after I used that image in my article.

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. Figure 11.11 Page from ”Secret Agent” Article I hope this Coda will be useful to you and that it will help you better understand how I work and why my books look the way they do. There’s nothing wrong with a scholarly book/textbook being written and published without many images in it. But it is much better, I suggest, to make sure that you have images in your books to make them more appealing from a visual perspective.

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If you found this book interesting and useful and better understand why the term ”binary” has become so complex and so important in recent years, my goal will have been achieved..

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This glossary has extended discussions of the topics discussed in various chapters of the book, but it also has material on theorists, writers and others, on topics of interest to cultural studies students and scholars and has material on the four core disciplines of cultural studies: semiotics, psychoanalytic theory, sociological theory and Marxist theory. Aberrant Decoding. The notion, elaborated by the Italian semiotician Umberto Eco, that audiences decode or interpret texts such as television commercials and print advertisements in ways that differ from the ways the creators of these texts expect them to be decoded. Aberrant decoding is the rule rather than the exception when it comes to the mass media. It has been estimated that about 25 percent of advertisements and commercials are decoded aberrantly--that is, not the way the creators of the texts expected them to be decoded. Abortion and “Life” versus “Choice.” "Abortion" is a complex and controversial topic that involves discussions about ethics, morality, religion, law, and personal beliefs. The debate often centers around two main perspectives: the "Pro-Life" stance and the "Pro-Choice" stance. Here's a brief overview of these perspectives: Pro-Life Perspective: Those who identify as pro-life believe that human life begins at conception, and therefore, consider abortion to be morally wrong because it ends the life of an innocent human being. They argue that the fetus has a right to life that should be protected, just like any other human being. Pro-life advocates often emphasize the potential for the fetus to develop into a fully formed human being with rights and potential contributions to society. They often advocate for legal protections for the unborn and seek to limit or eliminate access to abortion. Pro-Choice Perspective: Pro-choice advocates argue that a woman has the right to make decisions about her own body, including the decision to have an abortion. They believe that a woman's autonomy and her right to make choices about her reproductive health should be respected. Pro-choice proponents often highlight the potential risks and consequences of unwanted pregnancies, including health risks, economic challenges, and

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potential harm to existing relationships and family structures. They also emphasize that access to safe and legal abortion is essential to protect women's health and well-being. The debate between these two perspectives encompasses various nuanced viewpoints and raises questions about when human life begins, the status of the fetus, the role of government in personal decisions, and the balance between individual rights and societal values. It's important to note that discussions around abortion can be emotionally charged and deeply personal. People's opinions are often shaped by their cultural, religious, ethical, and personal beliefs. Constructive dialogue requires respecting diverse viewpoints and engaging in thoughtful, informed, and empathetic conversations. Additionally, laws and regulations regarding abortion vary significantly across different countries and regions, further contributing to the complexity of the issue. Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. Adam and Eve were the first man and woman created by God in his own image They lived in the Garden of Eden, where God provided for their needs and told them not to eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. They were tempted by the serpent, who lied to them that eating from the tree would make them like God. They disobeyed God and ate the fruit, which led to their banishment from the Garden and the introduction of sin and death to the human race. They are the ancestors of all mankind and a central story in the Judeo-Christian and Islamic traditions. Addiction. This term, as I use it in the book, describes a dependency and kind of compulsive behavior people develop about certain substances, their iPhones, video games they like, and digitally accessed material of all kinds. An addiction is a chronic dysfunction of the brain system that involves reward, motivation, and memory. It’s about the way your body craves a substance or behavior, especially if it causes a compulsive or obsessive pursuit of “reward” and lack of concern over consequences. Someone experiencing an addiction will be unable stay away from the substance or stop the addictive behavior, manifest a lack of self-control, and demonstrate an increased desire for the substance or behavior. Advertisement. The word “advert” means “to call attention to something,” and thus an advertisement is, for our purposes, a kind of text—carried by electronic or print media—that attracts attention to, stimulates a desire for, and in some cases leads to the purchase of a product or service. The

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convention is that commercial messages in print are called advertisements and those in electronic media are called commercials. Alienation. In Marxist theory, capitalist societies can create enormous amounts of consumer goods, but they also inevitably generate alienation and feelings of estrangement from oneself and others in society. Alienation is functional for those who own the means of production and distribution since alienation leads to consumer cultures—ones characterized by endless and frantic consumption, which people use as an escape from their feelings of alienation. In capitalist societies, therefore, advertising plays a central role in maintaining the status quo and distracting people from focusing attention on the inequality in capitalist countries. Analog refers to a method of representing data using continuous values or signals that vary in a smooth and continuous manner. In contrast, digital represents data using discrete values, often in the form of binary code (0s and 1s). Analog technology has been used for a long time, particularly in fields such as audio and video transmission, where signals are continuously variable. For instance, traditional vinyl records and cassette tapes are examples of analog audio storage and playback methods. Analog cameras capture images using a continuous variation of light intensity on photographic film. Analog watches use the position of hands on a dial to show the time. However, digital technology has largely overtaken analog in many areas due to its advantages in terms of accuracy, reliability, and the ability to process and store data more efficiently. Digital data can also be easily manipulated, transmitted, and stored without significant loss of quality, unlike analog data which can degrade over time due to noise and other factors. In the realm of computing and electronics, analog signals are often converted to digital signals through a process called analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) in order to process and store them digitally. This conversion allows for precise manipulation and analysis of the data. It's important to note that both analog and digital technologies have their own strengths and weaknesses, and each is suited to different applications based on the requirements and constraints of the task at hand. Anomie. Emile Durkheim used the term to describe people who don’t have the norms that most people have in a given society. The “a” means “no” and “nomie” means norms. Anomie is different from alienation. Members of a

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gang may be anomic, but they aren’t necessarily suffering from alienation. Durkheim (1858-1917) was the first to put forth the concept of anomie. It is a state of extreme social disorganization or a “normless condition” characterized by deviance in human behavior and the breakdown of norms. Anomie arises when there are few social expectations to guide behavior. Apple iPhone. This phone became an international bestseller when it was introduced and remains one of the most popular smartphones. Aristotle. (384–322 BC) Aristotle was a Greek philosopher, who was the founder of the Lyceum, the Peripatetic school of philosophy, and the Aristotelian tradition. His writings cover physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, poetry, theatre, humor, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics, meteorology, geology, and government. He may be considered the father of the superiority theory of humor. Audience. Audiences are generally defined as collections of individuals who watch a television program, listen to a radio show, watch a film, spend time on social media or some kind of live artistic performance (symphony, rock band, and so on). The members of the audience may be together in one room or, in the case of television, each watching from his or her own set. In technical communication terms, audiences are addressees who receive mediated texts sent by an addresser. In conversations, an audience can be one person. Binary can refer to different concepts beyond its numerical meaning. Here are a few ways in which the term "binary" intersects with society: Gender Binary: One of the most prominent uses of "binary" in society is related to gender. The gender binary refers to the classification of gender into two distinct, opposite, and disconnected forms of masculine and feminine. This concept has been challenged in recent years, as many people and scholars advocate for a more inclusive understanding of gender that recognizes a spectrum of non-binary identities beyond just male and female. Binary Thinking: Binary thinking is a cognitive process where people tend to simplify complex situations into two opposing categories. This can sometimes lead to polarization and an oversimplification of nuanced issues. Binary thinking can affect how people approach political, social, and ethical matters, often ignoring the potential middle ground or alternative perspectives. Digital Divide: The term "digital divide" refers to the gap between those who have access to digital technologies (such as computers and the internet)

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and those who do not. This divide can be economic, geographic, or related to factors such as age and education. Bridging the digital divide is crucial for ensuring equitable access to information, education, and opportunities in a digital society. Binary Opposition: In various fields, including linguistics, anthropology, and philosophy, the concept of binary opposition is used to describe pairs of related terms or concepts that are considered opposites. These pairs often hold cultural, social, or symbolic significance. Examples include light/dark, good/evil, and male/female. Binary Code and Technology: The digital world heavily relies on binary code, where data is represented using combinations of 0s and 1s. This foundational concept has transformed the way societies function, from communication and commerce to entertainment and healthcare. Political Discourse: In political discourse, binary rhetoric can be used to simplify complex issues and create a sense of "us vs. them." This can contribute to polarization and hinder productive discussions that address the complexities of societal challenges. In summary, the term "binary" has implications beyond its numerical meaning, touching on societal constructs, cognitive processes, technology, and the ways people perceive and interact with the world around them. It reflects how human society and thought processes are shaped by dualistic categorizations and representations. Borges, Juan Luis. Brittanica.com describes Borges (born August 24, 1899, Buenos Aires, Argentina—died June 14, 1986, Geneva, Switzerland), an Argentine poet, essayist, and short-story writer whose works became classics of 20th-century world literature. His best-known books, Ficciones (Fictions) and El Aleph (The Aleph), published in the 1940s, are collections of short stories. Bourdieu, Pierre. (1930-2002). He was an influential French sociologist who argued that taste is tied to our socioeconomic status or our economic and cultural capital and is shaped more by social forces than personal desires or preferences. His book, Distinction, is considered one of the most important books by a sociologist in recent decades. His theory of the habitus argues that the earliest experiences of children in their families play an important role in their development.

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Brands. Brands create emotional ties between individuals and certain products or services who will purchase them throughout their lives. From a semiotic perspective, brands are signs people use to display their taste or wealth and to help them fashion an identity. The fact that certain companies prominently attach their logos to what they make helps users consolidate their identities. Butler, Judith. She is a leading feminist thinker and is the author of an influential book, Gender Trouble and the Subversion of Identity. Butler argues that gender is, in essence, a performance and that the bipolar opposition male and female is no longer valid. She is a professor of rhetoric and comparative literature at the University of California at Berkeley. Buyer’s Remorse. Buyer’s remorse refers to negative emotions—such as regret, anxiety or guilt—that consumers may experience after buying an item. It’s typically linked to large purchases—like a car or a new home. But some people may experience it after smaller purchases—like buying a new bag or set of golf clubs. A person could experience buyer’s remorse for several different reasons. For example, impulse buys or overspending could cause a consumer to regret their purchase. A new homebuyer may worry they missed out on something better on the market. Others might feel like they made the wrong decision or didn’t do enough research before buying. Whatever the reason, buyer’s remorse is something many people may feel at some point in their lives. In fact, a recent Bankrate survey found that 64% of millennials are now second-guessing their recent home purchases. Many of these first-time homeowners cited unexpected maintenance costs and spending at the top end of their budgets as the main reasons for their remorse. https://www.capitalone.com/learn-grow/money-management/buyersremorse/ Celebrity. A celebrity is someone who is well known for reasons that are difficult to determine. They play a role as influencers in shaping people’s consumption practices. The lives of celebrities are publicly consumed as dramatic entertainment, and whose commercial brand is made profitable for those who exploit their popularity, and perhaps also for themselves. Certeau, Michel de. A French Jesuit priest and scholar who used psychoanalytic theory and other methodologies in his books on everyday life. He argued that people can counter messages sent to them by elites by various subterfuges in his book, The Practice of Everyday Life. He also

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wrote Heterologies: Discourse on the Other, which deals with the ideas of Freud, Lacan, and Foucault Chandler, Daniel. He is a British semiotician and author of a well-known book on semiotics, Semiotics: The Basics. He has written a great deal on codes and their relation to signs in semiotic theory and is also interested in visual semiotics and communication. Choice. Since the mid-twentieth century the term choice has been operationally defined in a variety of different ways in psychology. Consequently, the study of choice in psychology reflects this variability. Choice has often been studied as the outcome of a decision-making process. Economic theories of rational choice assume both that the decisions individuals make will determine their behavior and that decisions will be made based on a general set of rational laws. Freud suggested that forces in the unconscious play an important but unrecognized role in many of the choices we make. Britannica explains it this way: Choice, in philosophy, the supposed ability to freely decide between alternatives. Choice is a corollary of the traditional notion of free will, understood as the supposed power or capacity of humans to make decisions or perform actions independently of any prior event in or state of the universe.

Claritas. This marketing research firm lists over sixty kinds of Americans that advertising agencies can target. It shows that many of its categories live in the same zip code areas and argues that “birds of a feather flock together.” Claritas describes itself on its website.as follows: All marketing is personal. So, the more marketers know about current customers and potential prospects, the better. With over 10,000 highly predictive demographic and behavioral indicators and the most comprehensive multicultural data, our proprietary data assets give markets the most complete understanding of the American consumer.

Class. From a linguistic standpoint, a class is any group of things that have something in common. We use the term to refer to social classes or more literally, socioeconomic classes: groups of people who share income and lifestyle. Marxist theorists argue that there is a ruling class, which shapes the ideas of the proletariat, the working classes. Advertisers are interested in socioeconomic classes and lifestyles because these phenomena are held to be the key to selling products and services. Marxists argue that there is a

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ruling class in capitalist societies that shapes people’s thinking about politics and many other areas. Codes. Codes are systems of symbols, letters, words, sounds, and so on that generate meaning. Language, for example, is a code. It uses combinations of letters that we call words to mean certain things. The relation between the word and what the word stands for is arbitrary, based on convention. In some cases, the term code is used to describe hidden meanings and disguised communications. Semioticians explain that people have to know certain codes if they are to interpret signs correctly. Daniel Chandler explains in his book, Semiotics: The Basics, that since “the meaning of a sign depends on the code within which it is situated, codes provide a framework within which signs make sense.” Collective Representations. The French sociologist, Emile Durkheim used this concept to deal with the fact that people are both individuals pursuing their own aims, and social animals guided by the groups and societies in which they find themselves. Collective representations are, broadly speaking, texts that reflect the beliefs and ideals of collectivities. Comedy. Comedy is a form of entertainment that aims to amuse and provoke mirthful laughter in an audience. It can take many forms, including stand-up comedy, sitcoms, sketch shows, movies, and more. Here are some important aspects of comedy, many of which are found in my typology of the 45 techniques of humor and my books on humor such as An Anatomy of Humor and The Art of Comedy Writing: Types of Comedy: Physical Comedy: Relies on exaggerated movements, gestures, and actions to create humor. Think of slapstick comedy and pratfalls. Verbal Comedy: Focuses on wordplay, puns, witty remarks, and clever language usage. Observational Comedy: Comedians observe everyday situations, often pointing out the absurdities or quirks in them. Satirical Comedy: Uses humor to critique and mock societal issues, politics, and culture. Surreal Comedy: Incorporates bizarre or absurd elements that defy logic, creating humor from the unexpected.

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Timing and Delivery: Timing is crucial in comedy. A well-timed punchline or reaction can greatly enhance the comedic effect. Comedians also play with pauses, pacing, and surprise to build anticipation and maximize laughter. Punchlines and Setups: A classic comedic structure involves setting up an expectation and then subverting it with an unexpected punchline. The contrast between the setup and punchline is what often generates laughter. Cultural References: Comedy often incorporates references to popular culture, historical events, and shared experiences. These references can create a sense of relatability and recognition that contribute to the humor. Incongruity and Surprise: Comedy often arises from situations or ideas that don't match our expectations. The element of surprise can catch the audience off guard and trigger laughter. Exaggeration and Absurdity: Amplifying everyday situations to an extreme or presenting absurd scenarios can lead to laughter as people recognize the exaggeration and find it amusing. Self-Deprecation: Making fun of oneself can be endearing and relatable. Audiences often enjoy comedians who are willing to poke fun at their own quirks and shortcomings. Social and Political Commentary: Some comedians use humor to comment on social, political, and cultural issues. This can provide both entertainment and thought-provoking insights. Crossing Boundaries: Comedy can sometimes challenge societal norms and push boundaries. However, it's important to be mindful of the context and audience to avoid causing offense. Comedy is highly subjective, and what one person finds hilarious, another might not. Successful comedians often have a keen understanding of their audience and a unique perspective on the world. My book, The Art of Comedy Writing, deals with dramatic comedies from Roman times to the present. Communication. There are many different ways of understanding and using this term. For our purposes, communication is a process that involves the transmission of messages from senders to receivers. We often make a distinction between communication using language, verbal communication,

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and communication using facial expressions, body language, and other means, or nonverbal communication. Consumer Cultures. Consumer cultures are characterized by widespread personal consumption rather than socially conscious and useful investment in the public sphere. The focus is on private expenditure and leisure pursuits, and this leads to privatism, self-centeredness, and a reluctance to allocate resources for the public realm. Advertising is held by many critics to be a primary instrument of those who own the means of production in generating consumer lust and consumer cultures and distracting people from social and public matters. Social scientists Aaron Wildavsky and Mary Douglas suggest that there are four political cultures, which also function as consumer cultures: hierarchical or elitist, individualist, egalitarian, and fatalist. Luxury goods make up about ten percent of purchases in consumer cultures. Culture. There are hundreds of definitions of culture. Generally speaking, from the anthropological perspective, culture involves the transmission from generation to generation of specific ideas, arts, customary beliefs, ways of living, behavior patterns, institutions, and values. When applied to the arts, culture generally is used to specify “elite” kinds of artworks, such as operas, poetry, classical music, and serious art. Postmodernists do not consider “elite” culture and “popular culture” to be very different from one another. Culture, to summarize things, refers to the set of shared beliefs, values, practices, traditions, behaviors, and artifacts that characterize a particular group of people. It encompasses the way people live, think, interact, and express themselves within a given society. Culture is a complex and multifaceted concept that shapes individual and collective identities, influencing everything from art and literature to social norms and communication styles. Key aspects of culture include: Language: The language or languages spoken by a group greatly influence their culture. Language not only serves as a means of communication but also carries cultural nuances, expressions, and ways of thinking. Tradition and Customs: Traditions are long-standing practices that are passed down from generation to generation. Customs are the accepted ways of doing things within a particular cultural context, such as rituals, ceremonies, and celebrations.

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Beliefs and Values: Cultural beliefs and values are the fundamental principles that guide people's perceptions, decisions, and interactions. These can include religious, moral, and ethical beliefs. Social Norms: Social norms are unwritten rules that govern behavior within a society. They dictate what is acceptable and appropriate in various situations. Art and Expression: Art, music, literature, dance, and other forms of expression are deeply rooted in culture. They often reflect the values, history, and emotions of a particular group. Cuisine: The food and culinary practices of a culture provide insight into its history, geography, and social interactions. Clothing and Fashion: Clothing and fashion choices can be influenced by cultural norms, climate, historical trends, and personal expression. Architecture and Design: Architectural styles and design preferences can vary greatly across cultures, reflecting their unique history and functional needs. Family Structure: Cultural norms also shape family structures, including roles and responsibilities within the family unit. Communication Styles: Cultural differences in communication can encompass both verbal and nonverbal cues, affecting how people interact and convey meaning. Education: Cultural values often influence the importance placed on education and the methods of teaching and learning. Gender Roles: Cultural beliefs about gender roles and expectations can have a significant impact on societal norms and individual behavior. Gender has now become a topic shaping political discourse and behavior. Work Ethic: Cultural attitudes toward work, productivity, and success can vary widely and influence work-related behaviors. Cultures are not static; they can evolve over time due to various factors such as globalization, technological advancements, migration, and intercultural interactions. As a result, cultures can be incredibly diverse and can lead to both rich traditions and significant challenges when different cultures come into contact or conflict.

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Culture Code. A book by Clotaire Rapaille that describes consumption practices in different countries. It argues that children, up to the age of seven, become imprinted by a particular country’s codes of behavior and those codes shape people’s behavior for the rest of their lives. I argue in many of my writings that what we think of as a culture can be understood to be a collection of codes of behavior and thinking that people learn growing up in a culture or subculture. If you understand people’s codes, you can better understand their behavior. Cultural Studies aka Cultural Criticism. The term cultural criticism refers to the analysis of texts and various aspects of everyday life by scholars in various disciplines who use concepts from their fields of expertise to interpret mass-mediated texts, the role of the mass media, and related concerns. The focus is on what impact these texts and the media that carry them have on individuals, society, and culture. Cultural criticism involves the use of literary theory, media analysis, philosophical thought, communication theory, and various interpretive methodologies such as semiotics, psychoanalytic theory, Marxist theory and sociological theory. Cultural Studies is an academic field that emerged in the mid-20th century as a response to the changing landscape of culture and society. It is an interdisciplinary area of study that draws from various disciplines, including sociology, anthropology, literary theory, media studies, history, and more. Cultural Studies seeks to understand and analyze the complex interplay between culture, society, and power. Key concepts and approaches within Cultural Studies include: Culture and Power: Cultural Studies focuses on the ways in which culture is produced, consumed, and circulated within society. It examines how power dynamics shape and are shaped by cultural practices, representations, and discourses. Representation: Cultural Studies explores how different groups and identities are represented in various forms of media, literature, art, and popular culture. It delves into questions of stereotypes, identity construction, and the impact of representation on social perceptions. Identity and Difference: The field emphasizes the examination of how individuals and groups construct and negotiate their identities within larger cultural contexts. This includes studying issues related to race, gender, sexuality, class, ethnicity, and more. I have written an academic murder mystery, Mistake in Identity, which explores the matter of identity and a

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book, Searching for A Self that offers a cultural studies approach to the topic. Popular Culture: Cultural Studies places a strong emphasis on the study of popular culture, including television, film, music, fashion, advertising, and other forms of mass media. It seeks to understand how these forms of culture both reflect and influence society. Textual Analysis: Cultural Studies often employs close textual analysis to deconstruct and analyze cultural artifacts such as movies, advertisements, literature, and artworks. This approach focuses on understanding the hidden meanings, ideologies, and power structures embedded in these texts. Globalization and Transnationalism: Cultural Studies has adapted to the era of globalization, examining how cultural practices, ideas, and products are circulated across borders and impact local and global identities. Cultural Hegemony: This concept, rooted in the work of scholars like Antonio Gramsci, refers to the dominance of certain cultural values, ideologies, and norms over others. Cultural Studies examines how these hegemonic forces shape society and limit alternative perspectives. Interdisciplinarity: Cultural Studies encourages collaboration between different academic disciplines to create a holistic understanding of culture and society. This allows for a more comprehensive analysis of complex cultural phenomena. Social Change and Activism: Many practitioners of Cultural Studies are interested in using their insights to advocate for social change and challenge oppressive power structures. This can involve critiquing dominant narratives, highlighting marginalized voices, and promoting social justice. It's important to note that Cultural Studies is a diverse and evolving field, and its exact focus and approaches can vary among scholars and institutions. It continues to adapt to new cultural phenomena, technological advancements, and shifts in societal dynamics. Defense Mechanisms. According to Freudian psychoanalytic theory, Defense Mechanisms are methods used by the ego to defend itself against pressures from the id or impulsive elements in the psyche and superego, such as conscience and guilt. Some of the more common defense mechanisms are repression (barring unconscious instinctual wishes, memories, and so on from consciousness), regression (returning to earlier

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stages in one’s development), ambivalence (a simultaneous feeling of love and hate for a person, thing or concept), and rationalization (offering excuses to justify one’s actions). I’ve explained how the ego mediates between id-dominated desires to purchase products and services and superego attempts to avoid spending money. The Democratic Party is one of the two major political parties in the United States, with the other being the Republican Party. The Democratic Party traces its origins back to the Democratic-Republican Party founded by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison in the 1790s. Over time, it evolved into the modern Democratic Party as we know it today. The Democratic Party is generally associated with progressive and liberal policies, advocating for a range of social and economic issues such as healthcare reform, environmental protection, civil rights, labor rights, LGBTQ+ rights, and income inequality reduction. Its platform tends to prioritize government intervention in areas like healthcare, education, and social services, and it often supports a larger role for government in the economy. The party's base includes a diverse coalition of individuals and groups, including racial and ethnic minorities, women, young people, labor unions, environmentalists, and various social justice advocates. Its policy positions can vary, and different factions within the party might prioritize certain issues over others. Throughout its history, the Democratic Party has produced numerous presidents, including Franklin D. Roosevelt, John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, Bill Clinton, Barack Obama and Joe Biden. The party's political stances have evolved over time, and its leaders have adapted to changing circumstances and public sentiment. Demographics The term “demographics” refers to similarities found in groups of people in terms of race, religion, gender, social class, ethnicity, occupation, place of residence, age, and so on. Demographic information plays an important role in the creation of advertising and the choice of which media to use to deliver this advertising. Disfunctional (also Dysfunctional). In sociological thought, something is disfunctional if it contributes to the breakdown or destabilization of the entity in which it is found. Functional theory is one of the dominant concerns of many sociologists, political scientists, and social scientists.

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Dialogism. [Dialogism] means the process which meaning is evolved out of interactions among the author, the work and the reader or listener. Also, these elements are affected by the contexts in which they are placed, namely by social and political forces. A principle or condition of interconnecting performative differences underpins all forms of communication according to Bakhtin. We cannot understand how meaning is produced, he argues, unless we grasp that the meaning of individual words is the result of a negotiation, not only between actual speakers in dialogue with one another, but also with language itself. All language users shift and reshape the meaning of words according to the demands of their situation. Dialogism is, in this sense, an extra-linguistic function inasmuch as it is not intrinsic to words or any of the other parts of speech. https://vdocument.in/dialogism-in-the-novel-and-bakhtins-theory-ofculturepdf.html? Douglas, Mary. A British social anthropologist who developed grid-group theory, which argues that the number of rules and restrictions and the boundaries of the “lifestyles” to which people belong shapes their preferences in many areas. These lifestyles are not self-conscious groups but exist in modern societies and affect people’s taste, politics, and many other areas of life. As she explained in an influential article she wrote, “In Defence of Shopping” (in Pasi Fault and Colin Cambell, eds., The Shopping Experience (1997:17): We have to make a radical shift away from thinking about consumption as a manifestation of individual choices. Culture itself is the result of myriads of individual choices, not primarily between commodities but between kinds of relationships.

Durkheim, Emile. Durkheim is one of the most influential sociologists and is considered the father of French sociology. He is the author of a classic study of suicide, of religion, and numerous other books. Durkheim is one of the most influential functionalist theorists. He argued that social solidarity is achieved through shared values and beliefs, and that social order is maintained through social control and regulation. Eco, Umberto. He was an influential Italian semiotician and novelist whose work on semiotic theory and how it can be applied to popular culture and other kinds of texts and phenomena has been very important. His extremely complex novels are popular in Europe and many other countries. His novel, Name of the Rose, was made into a popular film.

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Edwards, Jonathan. A Puritan minister and thinker who is considered to be one of the greatest philosophical minds produced in America. He argued that man can act as he pleases but not please as he pleases, thus allowing free will in humans and, at the same time, God remaining all powerful. Egalitarians. They stress that everyone is equal in terms of certain needs, such as food, shelter, and access to health care. Egalitarians function as critics of the two dominant political/consumer cultures—elitist and individualist. Egalitarians are one of the four “lifestyles” discussed by social-anthropologist Mary Douglas and grid-group theorists. Ego. In Sigmund Freud’s theory of the psyche, the ego functions as the executant of the id and as a mediator between the id and the superego (conscience). The ego is involved in the perception of reality and adaptation to reality. One aspect of the ego involves helping the superego to restrain compulsive spending, which the id wishes to do. Ekman, Paul. American psychologist and world-famous authority on facial expression. He is one of the most important psychologists of recent years. Electronic Media. Electronic media refers to any form of media that uses electronic devices and technology to transmit and deliver information or entertainment to a wide audience. This includes various types of content such as audio, video, text, and graphics, which are distributed through electronic means such as television, radio, the internet, social media, podcasts, and more. Electronic media have revolutionized the way we consume and interact with information, as they allow for real-time communication, widespread dissemination of content, and greater interactivity. Here are some examples of electronic media platforms: Television: Traditional broadcast television delivers audio and video content to households through electromagnetic waves. Cable and satellite television also fall under this category. Radio: Radio broadcasts audio content over radio waves. It includes AM and FM radio stations, as well as internet radio stations and podcasts. Internet: The internet has brought about a significant transformation in electronic media. Websites, social media platforms, streaming services (such as Netflix and YouTube), online news portals, blogs, and other online content platforms are all part of the electronic media landscape.

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Social Media: Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and TikTok enable users to create, share, and engage with multimedia content in real time. These platforms have become a major avenue for information dissemination and communication. Podcasts: Podcasts are digital audio or video files that users can subscribe to and download or stream online. They cover a wide range of topics, from education to entertainment. Online News: News websites and apps provide instant access to news articles, videos, and multimedia content from around the world. E-books: Electronic books or e-books are digital versions of printed books that can be read on electronic devices like e-readers, tablets, and smartphones. Online Streaming: Streaming services allow users to watch movies, TV shows, live events, and other content in real time over the internet. Platforms like Netflix, Hulu, and Disney+ fall under this category. Online Gaming: Online gaming platforms enable players to interact and play video games over the internet, either collaboratively or competitively. Mobile Apps: Mobile applications provide various forms of content and services on smartphones and tablets, including news apps, entertainment apps, productivity apps, and more. The rise of electronic media has transformed the way people access and engage with information and entertainment. It has enabled global connectivity, personalized content consumption, and instant communication on a scale never before seen. However, it has also raised concerns about privacy, misinformation, and the potential negative effects of excessive screen time. Enclavists. Mary Douglas’ term for Egalitarians. Enclavists are one of the four lifestyles Douglas wrote about in her work on grid-group theory. Erikson, Erik. He was a developmental psychoanalyst who wrote important studies of children and adolescents. He was born in Germany but practiced in America and is considered one of the most important psychologists of recent years. He argued that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood.

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Ethnomethodology. This branch of sociology deals with how social interactions shape the social order. It is interested in analyzing conversation as a key to understanding behavior. Harold Garfinkel was one of its most outstanding theorists. False Consciousness. In Marxist thought, false consciousness refers to mistaken ideas that people have about their class, status, and economic possibilities. These ideas help maintain the status quo and are of great use to members of the ruling class, who want to avoid changes in the social and economic structure of a society. Karl Marx argued that the ideas of the ruling class are always the ruling ideas in society. Marxists would argue that the belief many Americans have that they can succeed if they have enough willpower and are “elites” because they can consume at a relatively high level is an example of false consciousness. Fatalists. They are at the bottom rungs of society—they have little political or consumer power and can only escape their status as a result of luck or chance, such as winning a lottery. Fatalists are one of the four “lifestyles” discussed by grid-group theorists. Feminist Theory. Feminist theory focuses on the roles given to women and the way they are portrayed in texts of all kinds, including one of the worst offenders—advertising. Feminist critics argue that women are typically used as sexual objects and are portrayed stereotypically in advertisements and other kinds of texts, and this has negative effects on both men and women. Functional. In sociological thought, the term functional refers to the contribution an institution makes to the maintenance of society, an institution or entity. Something functional helps maintain the system in which it is found. Many social scientists are functionalists. Functional Alternative. This term refers to something that takes the place of something else. For example, professional football can be seen as a functional alternative to religion. I argue in my writings that a department store can be seen as a modern functional alternative to medieval cathedrals. Gans, Herbert. An American sociologist who has written about popular culture in America and argues that there are what he calls “taste cultures” that are appropriate for different socio-economic classes. Gender. Gender is the sexual category of an individual: male or female, and the behavioral traits that are connected with each category. Gender is now

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held to be “socially constructed,” which means it is our societies that determine what we think about gender. The binary distinction between males and females is no longer considered valid and individuals who often describe themselves as “non-binary,” now have a range of possibilities when defining their gender. GOP. The GOP stands for the Grand Old Party, which is one of the ways the Republican Party has been described. In recent years, the nature of the Republican Party has changed and due to gerrymandering, the people Republicans voted into power tend to be ideological extremists. Some writers and social scientists argue that the Republican Party has become a cult whose leader is Donald Trump. Gorer, Geoffrey. British anthropologist who used psychoanalytic theory in his writings. He wrote about topics such as national character and the role that swaddling babies in Russia played in shaping the Russian psyche (for the people of Great Russia). He wrote books such as The Americans, The People of Great Russia, Exploring English Character, Death, Grief, and Mourning in Contemporary Britain, and The Danger of Equality. Grid-Group Theory. This theory is based on the work of social anthropologist Mary Douglas, who argued that there are four (and only four) consumer cultures or “lifestyles” in modern societies, based on the degree to which the groups have weak or strong boundaries and whether members have few or many rules and prescriptions to follow. The four lifestyles compete with one another and are antagonistic but need each other. Habitus. This concept deals with the impact of early childhood experiences on people’s development. Bourdieu defines habitus as “a subjective but not individual system of internalized structures, schemes of perception, conception, and action common to all members of the same group or class.” Haug, Wolfgang. He is a German Marxist who has written extensively about consumer culture and the role of aesthetics in advertising and selling products and services to people. Highbrow. "Highbrow" is a term used to describe something that is intellectually or culturally sophisticated, elevated, or refined. It's often used to refer to art, literature, music, or other forms of creative expression that are considered to be of a high intellectual or artistic quality. A "highbrow" individual is someone who is knowledgeable and appreciative of refined cultural pursuits.

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Hierarchical Elitists. One of the four lifestyles in Grid-Group theory and at the top of the economic and power pyramid. Elitists believe that hierarchy is needed for society to run smoothly. They have a sense of obligation to those beneath them. Elitists and individualists make up the core of luxury purchasers since they have the social and economic capital needed to buy luxury products and services. Hypothesis. A hypothesis is essentially a guess about something. Social scientists use the term to suggest that they have ideas that may be interesting and even correct, but which they have not been able to verify. We use the term to signify that we have an interesting idea about something but lack proof that our idea is correct. Id. The Id in Freud’s theory of the psyche (technically known as his structural hypothesis) is that element of the psyche that represents a person’s drives. In New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis, Freud called it “a chaos, a cauldron of seething excitement.” It also is the source of energy, but lacking direction, it needs the ego to harness it and control it. In popular thought, it is connected to impulse, lust, and “I want it all now” behavior. Many advertisements, for all kinds of products and services, appeal to Id elements in our psyches. Ideology. An ideology is a logically coherent, integrated explanation of social, economic, and political matters that helps establish the goals and directs the actions of a group or political entity. People act (and vote or don’t vote) based on an ideology they hold, even though they may not have articulated it or thought about it. Some critics argue that advertising is an ideological tool that members of the ruling class use consumer cultures to distract the masses from their problems and convince them that the political order is worth supporting. Image. Defining images is extremely difficult. In my book, Seeing Is Believing: An Introduction to Visual Communication, I define an image as “a collection of signs and symbols—what we find when we look at a photograph, a film still, a shot of a television screen, a print advertisement, or just about anything.” The term is used for mental as well as physical representations of things. Images often have powerful emotional effects on people and have historical significance. Imprints. According to the French psychoanalyst and marketing theorist Clotaire Rapaille, children in all countries are imprinted, by the age of seven, by the culture of the country in which they grow up. These imprints

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then shape, to a considerable degree, their thinking and behavior when they are adults. He discusses this in his book, Culture Codes. Individualists. In Grid-Group theory, individualists are members of a lifestyle that believe the basic function of government is to prevent crime and invasion by foreign powers. Members of this lifestyle are competitive and stress the importance of individual initiative. Intertextuality. This theory argues that texts (works of art) of all kinds are influenced to varying degrees by texts that preceded them. Sometimes, as in the case of parody, the relationship is overt but many times, creators of texts are influenced by stylistic practices or thematic ones from earlier works. We can say, then, that intertextuality involves making allusions to, imitating, modifying, or adapting previously created texts and styles of expression. Parody is a literary style that is intertextual. Some examples of intertextuality are Disney’s The Lion King, which is a take on Shakespeare’s Hamlet and J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series, which makes use of T.H. White’s The Sword in the Stone, and C. S. Lewis’s The Chronicles of Narnia Isolates. The term Mary Douglas uses for the lifestyle described by others as Fatalists. Jameson, Fredric. He is one of the most important theorists of postmodernism and the author of an influential book, Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. Jameson argues that postmodernism is an advanced form of capitalism. Latent Functions. Latent functions are hidden, unrecognized, and unintended results of some activity, entity, or institution. They are contrasted by social scientists with manifest functions, which are recognized and intended. The manifest function of buying a luxury automobile may be because it is technically superior to other cars but the latent function of buying the car is to show that one can afford it and to gain status. Lifestyle. Literally style of life, lifestyle refers to the way people live—to the decisions they make about how to decorate their homes (and where the homes are located), the cars they drive, the clothes they wear, the foods they eat, the restaurants they visit, and where they go for vacations. Lifestyles tend to be coherent or logically connected, and they play an important part in market research because lifestyles tend to shape consumption patterns in individuals. Social anthropologist Mary Douglas, in an article on shopping, uses the term to describe the four kinds of consumers found in contemporary societies: elitist, individualist, egalitarian, and fatalist She argues that

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people’s lifestyles play an important role in determining their preferences in many areas of life in consumption cultures. Lowbrow. "Lowbrow" refers to things that are more simplistic, popular, or geared towards mass appeal. The distinction between highbrow and lowbrow is somewhat subjective and can vary depending on cultural, historical, and personal factors. It's important to note that these terms can be value-laden and carry connotations of elitism or snobbery, as they often imply judgments about the relative worth of different forms of culture and entertainment. Lowbrow art and culture often embrace pop culture, humor, and unconventional styles. This can include things like comic books, graffiti, kitsch, B-movies, pulp fiction, and other forms of entertainment that might not be considered traditionally "high art" by cultural elites. The term can be somewhat subjective and can vary based on individual tastes and societal norms. The distinction between highbrow and lowbrow is not always clear-cut, and what is considered lowbrow in one context might be celebrated in another. Additionally, the concept of lowbrow has evolved over time as cultural perceptions and tastes change. LGBTQIA+. The letters stand for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer/Questioning, Intersexual, Asexual/Aromantic, and other identities in Queerness—all of which are possibilities in non-binary gender identities. Manifest Functions. The manifest functions of an activity, entity, or institution are those that are obvious and intended. Manifest functions contrast with latent functions, which are hidden and unintended. The manifest function of advertising is to sell products and services; the latent function is to sell the political order. See also Latent Functions. Mass Communication. This term refers to the transfer of messages, information, and texts from a sender to receivers, in many cases a large number of people, a mass audience. This transfer is done through the technologies of the mass media—newspapers, magazines, television programs, films, records, computers, the Internet, and CD-ROMs. A sender is often a person in a large media organization, the messages are public, and the audience tends to be large and varied. With the development of social media such as Facebook and Instagram, now many people can communicate with large numbers of people. Medium (plural: Media). A medium is a means of delivering messages, information, or texts to audiences. There are different ways of classifying

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the media. One of the most common ways is as follows: print (newspapers, magazines, books, billboards), electronic (radio, television, computers, CDROMs, the Internet), and photographic (photographs, films, videos). Various critics have suggested that the main function of the commercial media is to deliver audiences to advertisers and that everything else the media does is of secondary importance. Metaphor. A metaphor is a figure of speech that conveys meaning by analogy. For example, “My love is a rose.” It is important to realize that metaphors are not confined to poetry and literary works but, according to some linguists, are the fundamental way in which we make sense of things and find meaning in the world. A simile is a weaker form of metaphor that uses either “like” or “as” in making an analogy. Metaphors are an important element in advertising. For example, Fidji perfume had a campaign that was explicitly metaphoric: “Woman is an island.” If the advertisement had said “Woman is like an island,” that would have been a simile. Metonymy. According to linguists, metonymy is a figure of speech that conveys information by association and is, along with metaphor, one of the most important ways people convey information to one another. We tend not to be aware of our use of metonymy, but whenever we use association to get an idea about something (Rolls-Royce signifies wealth) we are thinking metonymically. A form of metonymy that involves seeing a whole in terms of a part or vice versa is called synecdoche. Using the Pentagon to stand for the American military is an example of synecdoche. Metonymy is another important technique used by advertisers to generate information and emotional responses to advertisements. Modernism. The period before postmodernism, from roughly 1900 to 1960, when postmodernism became culturally dominant. Modernism’s esthetics and values, its belief in master narratives (like its belief in progress), and grand theories were rejected by postmodernist thinkers and people affected by postmodernist thought. Myth. Myths are conventionally understood to be sacred stories about gods and cultural heroes (and in more recent years, mass-mediated heroes and heroines) that are used to transmit a culture’s basic belief system to younger generations and to explain natural and supernatural phenomena. This book argues that myths play an important role in shaping our behavior in many areas of life, which I describe in what I call the “myth model.”

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Myth Model. This model argues that myths inform many aspects of our lives, though we may not recognize this is the case. It shows how myths can be found playing important roles in psychoanalytic theory, historical experience, elite culture, popular culture, and everyday life. National character. This theory argues that people who grow up in a country can be characterized by certain values, beliefs, and distinctive behaviors. Thus, there is a big difference between people in different countries—a topic explored by Clotaire Rapaille in his book, The Culture Code and the work of the anthropologist Geoffrey Gorer and countless others. Nature/The Natural World: The "natural world" refers to the physical universe and all of its elements that exist without human intervention or manipulation. It encompasses everything from the smallest particles to the largest celestial bodies, as well as the ecosystems, organisms, and phenomena that occur within it. Here are some key aspects of the natural world: Ecosystems: These are dynamic systems formed by the interaction of living organisms with their physical environment. Examples include forests, deserts, oceans, and grasslands. Biodiversity: Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms in a given area. It includes the diversity of species, genes, and ecosystems, and is crucial for the stability and health of ecosystems. Physical Processes: These include natural processes such as weather patterns, geological events, natural disasters (like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions), and the water cycle. Celestial Bodies: The natural world extends beyond Earth to include celestial bodies such as planets, stars, galaxies, and other cosmic phenomena. Natural Resources: These are materials and substances found in the natural world that are useful to humans. Examples include minerals, water, forests, and fossil fuels. Adaption and Evolution: Living organisms in the natural world adapt to their environments over time, leading to the process of evolution. This is how species change and diversify to better survive and thrive.

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Conservation and Preservation: Given the importance of the natural world to human well-being, efforts are made to conserve and preserve natural areas and species. This involves protecting ecosystems, preventing habitat destruction, and combating pollution. Interconnectedness: The natural world is interconnected and interdependent. Changes in one part of an ecosystem can have ripple effects throughout the entire system. Scientific Study: Scientists study the natural world through disciplines like biology, physics, geology, astronomy, and ecology to understand its workings and to develop a deeper understanding of the universe. Aesthetic and Recreational Value: The natural world has aesthetic and recreational value, offering beauty, inspiration, and opportunities for activities like hiking, camping, and wildlife observation. Overall, the natural world is a complex and intricate web of systems and interactions that have fascinated scientists, philosophers, and individuals for centuries. It's a source of wonder, inspiration, and valuable resources for human societies while also requiring careful stewardship to ensure its preservation for future generations. One aspect of the natural world, climate change, now has become an existential threat whose effects, namely global warning, are becoming increasingly difficult to deal with. Nonfunctional. In sociological thought, something is nonfunctional if it is neither functional nor dysfunctional and plays no role in the entity in which it is found. Nonverbal Communication. Our body language, facial expressions, styles of dress, and hairstyles are examples of communicating our feelings and attitudes (and a sense of who we are) without words. In our everyday lives, a great deal of our communication is done nonverbally. It is estimated that between sixty percent to ninety percent of the messages we send to others are nonverbal in nature. Ocean Cruising. It is an increasingly important form of tourism with lines that appeal to people of different incomes and tastes. Cruises can cost as little as $50 a day per person to $1000 a day or more per person on some luxury cruise lines and on specialty excursion ships.

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Pappenheim, Fritz. He is a German Marxist who has written about the importance of alienation in Marxist theory and the impact of alienation on life in capitalist countries. Peirce, Charles Sanders. He is one of the founding fathers of the study of signs and gave the science its name, semiotics, a term based on the Greek word for sign, sƝme‫ۺ‬on. He was a professor at Harvard and produced many seminal works on semiotic theory. Phallic Symbol. In Freudian theory, an object that resembles the penis either by shape or function is described as a phallic symbol. Symbolism is a defense mechanism of the ego that permits hidden or repressed sexual or aggressive thoughts to be expressed in a disguised form. For a discussion of this topic, see Freud’s book, An Interpretation of Dreams. I offer the example of the Washington Monument as a gigantic phallic symbol, named after the father of our country. The term phallocentric is used to suggest societies that are dominated by males, and the ultimate source of this domination, which shapes our institutions and cultures, is the male phallus. In this theory, a link is made between male sexuality and male power. Pines, Maya. American journalist and author of an article on semiotics discussed in this book. She explained that what semioticians call signs should be seen as messages conveying meaning. Popular. Popular is one of the most difficult terms used in discourse about the arts and the media. The term means “appealing to a large number of people.” It comes from the Latin popularis, which means “of the people.” Separating the popular and elite arts has become increasingly problematic in recent years and the idea that they are radically different has been rejected by postmodern theorists. For example, is an opera shown on television an example of elite or popular culture? Popular Culture. Popular culture is a term that identifies certain kinds of texts, generally mass-mediated, that appeal to a large number of people. But mass communication theorists often identify “popular” with “mass” and suggest that if something is popular, it must be of poor quality, appealing to the mythical “lowest common denominator.” Popular culture is generally held to be the opposite of elite culture—arts that require certain levels of sophistication and refinement to be appreciated, such as ballet, opera, poetry, and classical music. Many critics now question this popular culture/elite culture polarity.

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Postmodernism. This theory states that a new kind of culture has developed in the United States and elsewhere, since approximately 1960, which rejected the values and beliefs of the modernist society that had been dominant until that time. One theorist of postmodernism argued that it involves “incredulity toward metanarratives,” by which he means the rejection of the overarching religious, social, political, aesthetic, and moral theories of the modernist period that had shaped people’s thinking and their lives. Postmodernism is associated with stylistic eclecticism and a rejection of the split between elite and popular culture. The theory is very controversial and important facets of it are explored in my books Postmortem for a Postmodernist (a postmodern mystery) and The Portable Postmodernist. Print media. Refers to forms of media that are distributed in a physical format, such as newspapers, magazines, brochures, newsletters, and other printed materials. These mediums have been a fundamental part of communication and information dissemination for centuries. While the rise of digital media has had a significant impact on the print industry, print media still retains its relevance and importance in various sectors. Here are some key aspects of print media: Newspapers: Newspapers are one of the most traditional forms of print media. They contain news articles, editorials, features, advertisements, and more. They are typically published daily, weekly, or in other regular intervals and cover a wide range of topics, from local news to global events. Magazines: Magazines are periodicals that focus on specific topics of interest, such as fashion, lifestyle, technology, science, entertainment, and more. They often have longer-form articles, high-quality images, and are published on a regular basis, usually monthly. Brochures and Flyers: Brochures and flyers are printed materials used for advertising, promoting events, products, or services. They are commonly distributed in public places, at events, or through direct mail. Newsletters: Newsletters are publications that provide information to a specific audience, often within organizations or communities. They can be used for updates, announcements, and educational content. Catalogs: Catalogs are printed materials that showcase a range of products or services offered by a company. They often include descriptions, images, and pricing information.

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Books: While books are a separate category, they are an important part of print media. Books encompass a wide range of genres, including fiction, non-fiction, academic texts, and more. Journals and Periodicals: Academic and scholarly journals are print publications that contain research articles, studies, and analyses in specific fields of study. They are often used by researchers, academics, and professionals to stay up to date with the latest developments in their respective disciplines. Comics and Graphic Novels: Comics and graphic novels are print media that combine visual art with storytelling. They can range from humorous comic strips to in-depth narratives. Print Advertising: Print media also includes advertisements that appear in newspapers, magazines, and other printed materials. Advertisements play a crucial role in generating revenue for print publications. Despite the digital shift, print media continues to offer unique benefits, such as tangible content, a sense of credibility, and a focused reading experience. However, the industry has faced challenges due to declining readership and advertising revenue as more people turn to online sources for information. Many print publications have adapted by establishing online versions or digital platforms alongside their traditional print editions to reach a wider audience. Psychoanalytic Theory. Sigmund Freud can be said to be the founding father of psychoanalytic theory. He argued that the human psyche has three levels: consciousness, preconsciousness, and the unconscious, which is the largest area of the psyche and an area not able to be accessed by individuals. What is important, psychoanalytic theorists argue, is that the unconscious shapes and affects our mental functioning and our behavior. Another of his theories posited three forces in the psyche: the id (desire), the ego (reason), and the superego (guilt), which were continually battling with one another for domination. Freud believed that sexuality and what he called “the Oedipus Complex” play a dominant role in human behavior, even if their presence is not recognized. Psychographics In marketing, the term psychographics is used to deal with groups of people who have similar psychological characteristics or profiles. It differs from demographics, which marketers use to focus on social and economic characteristics that people have in common.

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QAnon. Wikipedia describes QAnon as “a disproven and discredited farright conspiracy theory alleging that a cabal of Satan-worshipping cannibalistic pedophiles is running a global child sex-trafficking ring and plotting against former U.S. President Donald Trump, who is fighting the cabal.” The cabal, for QAnoners, is made up of Democrats. (See Democratic Party.) Rapaille, Clotaire. French psychoanalyst and marketer who wrote The Culture Code and The Global Code, which deal with how different nationalities and how new global elites shape purchasing decisions. He argued that children up to the age of seven are imprinted with the meaning of things most central to our lives and that different countries imprint different codes on children. Rationalization. In Freudian thought, a rationalization is a defense mechanism of the ego that creates an excuse to justify an action (or inaction when an action is expected). Ernest Jones, who introduced the term, used it to describe logical and rational reasons that people give to justify behavior that is really caused by unconscious and irrational determinants. We often use rationalizations to justify purchases that are unwise and unnecessary. Republican Party. The Republican Party is one of the two major political parties in the United States, with the Democratic Party being the other. The party's history dates back to the mid-19th century when it was founded in the 1850s as an anti-slavery movement and emerged as a major political force during the American Civil War. It is often referred to as the GOP, which stands for "Grand Old Party." The Republican Party's ideology has evolved over time, but some of its core principles include a commitment to limited government, free-market capitalism, individual liberty, a strong national defense, and traditional conservative values. Republicans typically advocate for lower taxes, reduced government regulation, and a more conservative approach to social and cultural issues such as abortion, LGBTQ rights, and gun control. Throughout its history, the Republican Party has produced numerous influential political figures, including Abraham Lincoln, Theodore Roosevelt, Ronald Reagan, and more recently, George W. Bush and Donald Trump. The party has also gone through various periods of dominance and opposition in American politics. It's important to note that political parties and their ideologies can evolve, and individual party members may have

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differing views on specific policies and issues. Many writers have suggested that the Republican Party has become a political cult led by Donald Trump. Riviera, Joan. She was a British psychoanalyst and a founding member of the British Psychoanalytical Society. Riviera was an editor of the International Journal of Psycho-Analysis from 1920 until 1937. She translated Freud's work into English and co-authored a book with another British psychoanalyst, Melanie Klein, Love, Hate and Reparation. Riviera’s contribution to the book was titled “Hate, Greed and Aggression.” The book is based on public lectures given in March 1936 about “The Emotional Life of Civilized Men and Women.” Role. Sociologists describe a role as a way of behavior that we learn in a society and that is appropriate to a particular situation. A person generally plays many roles with different people during the hours of a day, such as parent (family), worker (job), and spouse (marriage). We also use the term to describe the parts actors have in mass-mediated texts, including commercials. Rubinstein, Ruth P. American sociologist of fashion and clothing, and author of Dress Codes: Meaning and Messages in American Culture. Sapirstein, Milton. American psychiatrist who has written about the psychological significance of different aspects of everyday life. Self. This term is very difficult to define and there are, we find, countless definitions of the concept. Generally, a self is held to refer to a coherent sense of identity and a recognition of the ways that, although we are like others, we are all different from everyone else. My book, Searching for a Self, explores this topic in some detail. Semiotics Literally, the term semiotics means “the science of signs.” SƝme‫ۺ‬on is the Greek term for sign. A sign is anything that can be used to stand for anything else. According to C. S. Peirce, one of the founders of the science, a sign “is something which stands to somebody for something in some respect or capacity.” Semiotics is one of the core disciplines used by cultural studies scholars. Sign The basic concept in semiotics, the science of signs (from the Greek word sƝme‫ۺ‬on, sign) that deals with how we find meaning in images and other kinds of communication. Ferdinand de Saussure, one of the founding fathers of semiotics, argued that a sign is made up of a signifier (a sound or object) and a signified (a concept). The relation between the signifier and

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the signified is arbitrary and not natural. C. S. Peirce, another founding father of semiotics, had a different notion. He said a sign is “something which stands to somebody for something in some respect or capacity.” His theory of signs is dealt with in the discussion of symbols. Simmel, Georg. A German sociologist and philosopher who wrote on culture and society and whose ideas led to the development of urban sociology. Because he was Jewish, he never obtained a chair in an important German university, but his writings have been very influential, especially for non-positivist sociologists. Social Control. Social controls are ideas, beliefs, values, and mores people get from their societies that shape their beliefs and behavior. People are both individuals with certain distinctive physical and emotional characteristics and desires and at the same time members of societies. And people are shaped to a certain degree by the institutions found in these societies. Socialization. Socialization refers to the processes by which societies teach individuals how to behave: what rules to obey, roles to assume, and values to hold. Socialization was traditionally done by the family, educators, religious figures, and peers. The mass media in general and advertising, in particular, seem to have usurped this function to a considerable degree nowadays, with consequences that are not always positive. Socioeconomic Class. A socioeconomic class is a categorization of people according to their incomes and related social status and lifestyles. In Marxist thought, there are ruling classes that shape the consciousness of the working classes, and history is, in essence, a record of class conflict. Spectacle. The focus on spectacle is found in the book, The Society of the Spectacle, by Guy Debord. He argues that capitalist societies are shaped by spectacles and the triumph of images and illusion over reality. Stereotypes. Stereotypes are commonly held, simplistic, and inaccurate group portraits of categories of people. Stereotypes can be positive, negative, or mixed, but generally, they are negative. Stereotyping involves making gross overgeneralizations. (All Mexicans, Chinese, Jews, African Americans, WASPS (White Anglo-Saxon Protestants), Americans, lawyers, doctors, professors, and so on, are held to have certain characteristics, usually negative.) Subculture. Any complex society is made up of numerous subcultures that differ from the dominant culture in terms of such matters as ethnicity, race,

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religion, sexual orientation, beliefs, values, and tastes. Often members of subcultures are marginalized and victimized by members of the dominant culture. One problem advertisers face is in trying to reach and persuade members of these subcultures to purchase products and services designed for members of the dominant culture. Superego. In Freud’s structural hypothesis, the superego is the agency in our psyches related to conscience and morality. The superego is involved with processes such as approval and disapproval of wishes based on their morality, critical self-observation, and a sense of guilt over wrongdoing. The functions of the superego are largely unconscious and are opposed to id elements in our psyches. Mediating between the two and trying to balance them are our egos. The superego, in my application of Freud’s theory to advertising, is what tells the ego (and the id) that some product or service that the id longs for is not needed. The id says, “I want to buy it!” The superego says, “Don’t buy that!” And the ego helps the superego deal with the id. Symbol. Literally speaking, a symbol is something that stands for something else. The term comes from the Greek word symballein which means “to put together.” Advertisers use symbols because they have powerful emotional effects on people. Think, for example, of all that is found in three symbols: the cross, the Star of David, and the crescent. In C.S. Peirce’s theory of semiotics, there are three kinds of signs: icons, which communicate by resemblance; indexes, which communicate by cause and effect; and symbols, whose meaning must be learned. Advertisers make use of symbols because of their power to affect human emotions. Taste. Taste generally is understood to involve people’s liking of things, the sense people have that some article of clothing looks good, some kind of food tastes delicious and other areas where choice is a factor and one’s choice demonstrates one’s attitudes and feelings about something. As Pierre Bourdieu explains in his book, Distinction (1984:1): Whereas the ideology of charisma regards taste in legitimate culture as a gift of nature, scientific observation shows that cultural needs are the product of upbringing and education…and preferences in literature, painting, or music, are closely linked to educational level (measured by qualifications or length of schooling) and secondarily to social origins.

Text. For our purposes, a text is, broadly speaking, any work of art in any medium. Critics use the term text as a convenience—so they don’t have to name a given work all the time or use various synonyms. There are

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problems involved in deciding what the text is when we deal with serial texts, such as soap operas or comics. In this book, I use the term to stand for literary works, popular culture works and print advertisements, radio and television commercials, and any other kind of advertising or commercial messages carried by any medium. Theory. I make a distinction between theories and concepts. Theories, as I use the term, are expressed in language and systematically and logically attempt to explain and predict phenomena being studied. They differ from concepts, which define phenomena that are being studied, and from models, which are abstract, usually graphic, and explicit about what is being studied. For example, Freud developed psychoanalytic theory and one of the concepts in this theory is what he called the unconscious. Typology. We will understand a typology to be a system of classification of things that is done to clarify matters. Typologies are important because they allow us to organize ideas and concepts and we can use them to see relationships of interest. Urban. Urban life is marked by a variety of characteristics that distinguish it from rural or suburban living. Here are some key characteristics of urban life: Population Density: Urban areas are known for their high population densities, meaning that a large number of people live in relatively compact spaces. This leads to vertical construction and the development of tall buildings to accommodate the population. Diverse Population: Urban areas often attract a diverse population from various cultural, ethnic, and socio-economic backgrounds. This diversity contributes to a rich tapestry of languages, cuisines, traditions, and perspectives. Infrastructure: Urban areas tend to have well-developed infrastructure, including advanced transportation systems, modern utilities (water, electricity, sewage), and communication networks. Cultural and Entertainment Opportunities: Cities offer a wide range of cultural and entertainment activities such as theaters, museums, art galleries, music venues, cinemas, and sports facilities. This diversity of options caters to different interests and preferences.

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Economic Opportunities: Urban areas are often hubs of economic activity, providing job opportunities in various sectors such as finance, technology, manufacturing, services, and more. The presence of numerous businesses and industries drives economic growth. Education and Healthcare: Cities generally have better access to educational institutions, universities, research centers, and healthcare facilities, offering residents a wide range of learning and medical options. Social Services: Urban areas typically have a greater concentration of social services, including homeless shelters, addiction recovery centers, and support systems for various marginalized populations. Cultural Diversity: The mixing of people from different backgrounds in urban settings leads to cultural diversity. This can lead to increased tolerance and exposure to different ideas and ways of life. Public Transportation: Due to the high population density, urban areas often have efficient public transportation systems like buses, subways, and trains, reducing the reliance on private vehicles. Environmental Challenges: Urbanization can also bring about environmental challenges such as pollution, congestion, and increased demand for resources. However, many cities are also striving to implement sustainable practices to address these challenges. Social Interaction: Urban areas offer more opportunities for social interaction due to the large number of people in close proximity. This can lead to networking, collaborations, and the exchange of ideas. 24/7 Lifestyle: Many urban areas have a bustling, 24/7 lifestyle with businesses, restaurants, and services that operate around the clock, catering to people with different schedules. Higher Cost of Living: Due to the demand for space and resources, urban areas often have a higher cost of living compared to rural areas. Cultural Fusion: Urban centers often witness the fusion of cultures, leading to the development of unique urban cultures, languages, and traditions. Access to Amenities: Urban residents have easy access to various amenities such as shopping malls, entertainment venues, restaurants, and recreational spaces.

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Overall, urban life offers a dynamic and fast-paced environment with a wide array of opportunities and challenges that attract people seeking a vibrant and interconnected lifestyle. Uses and Gratifications. This sociological theory argues that researchers should pay attention to the way audiences use the media (or certain texts or genres of texts, such as soap operas, print advertisements, or radio and television commercials) and the gratifications they get from their use of these texts and the media. Uses and gratifications researchers focus, then, on how audiences use the media and not on how the media affects audiences. Rural Life. Rural life refers to the lifestyle, culture, and activities associated with living in the countryside or rural areas, as opposed to urban or metropolitan regions. Rural areas are characterized by their lower population densities, natural landscapes, agricultural activities, and often slower-paced lifestyles. Here are some key aspects of rural life: Natural Environment: Rural areas are known for their scenic beauty, open spaces, and natural landscapes. These areas often have a more direct connection to nature, with forests, rivers, mountains, and farmland being common features. Agriculture: Agriculture is a fundamental component of rural life. Many rural communities are centered around farming, including crop cultivation, livestock raising, and other agricultural practices. Farming is not only an economic activity but also a way of life that shapes the culture and traditions of rural communities. Close-Knit Communities: Rural areas tend to have smaller populations compared to urban areas, which can lead to stronger community bonds. People in rural communities often know their neighbors well, and there is a sense of mutual support and cooperation. Lifestyle: Rural life often comes with a slower pace of living compared to the hustle and bustle of cities. People may have more time for leisure activities, and there is generally less congestion and noise. Traditional Culture: Rural areas often maintain strong ties to traditional values, customs, and cultural practices. These traditions can include local festivals, crafts, music, and storytelling.

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Limited Access to Services: While rural life offers a quieter and more peaceful environment, it may also mean limited access to certain services and amenities commonly found in urban areas. Healthcare, education, and entertainment options might be more limited. Self-Sufficiency: Due to the distance from urban centers, rural communities often need to be more self-sufficient. People might grow their own food, generate their own energy, and rely on local resources. Challenges: Rural areas can face unique challenges such as limited job opportunities, lack of access to quality healthcare and education, and insufficient infrastructure development. These challenges can lead to issues like rural depopulation as young people move to cities for better opportunities. Technology Impact: The advent of technology has also influenced rural life. While some areas might still lack reliable internet access, technology has the potential to bridge the gap between rural and urban communities, enabling remote work, online education, and e-commerce. Tourism: Many rural areas attract tourists who are seeking a break from urban life and are interested in experiencing the tranquility and authenticity of the countryside. Overall, rural life offers a unique blend of natural beauty, close-knit communities, and traditional values. While it might come with its own set of challenges, many people find the simplicity and connection to nature in rural areas to be appealing and rewarding. Values. Values are abstract and general beliefs or judgments about what is right and wrong, and what is good and bad, that have implications for individual behavior and social, cultural, and political entities. There are some problems with values from a philosophical point of view. First, how does one determine which values are correct and good and which aren’t? That is, how do we justify values? Are values objective or subjective? Second, what happens when there is a conflict between groups, each of0 which holds a central value that conflicts with that of another group? Warren, W. Lloyd. An anthropologist and sociologist whose work on social class in the United States was of major importance. He elaborated a famous typology which argued that there are six classes in America: upperupper, lower upper, upper-middle, lower-middle, upper lower and lower-

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lower, with lower-middle and upper-lower forming the “common man” (and now “common woman”) level. Weber, Max. He was a German sociologist, historian and political economist, who is considered to be among the most important theorists of the development of modern Western society. Weber’s ideas profoundly influenced social theory and research. Despite being recognized as one of the fathers of sociology along with Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, and Émile Durkheim, Weber saw himself not as a sociologist but as a historian. Unlike Émile Durkheim, Weber did not believe in monocausal explanations, proposing instead that for any outcome there can be multiple causes. Weber's main intellectual concern was in describing and understanding the processes of rationalization and secularisation. He suggested that these processes result from a new way of thinking about the world[ and are associated with the rise of capitalism and modernity. Youth Culture Youth cultures are subcultures formed by young people around some area of interest, usually connected with leisure and entertainment, such as rock music, computer games, hacking, and so on. Typically, youth cultures adopt distinctive ways of dressing and develop institutions that cater to their needs.

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