Between Russians, Ottomans, and Turks: Crimea and Crimean Tatars 9781463230043

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Between Russians, Ottomans, and Turks

Analecta Isisiana: Ottoman and Turkish Studies

33

A co-publication with The Isis Press, Istanbul, the series consists of collections of thematic essays focused on specific themes of Ottoman and Turkish studies. These scholarly volumes address important issues throughout Turkish history, offering in a single volume the accumulated insights of a single author over a career of research on the subject.

Between Russians, Ottomans, and Turks

Crimea and Crimean Tatars

Alan Fisher

The Isis Press, Istanbul

0ûr0ÎaS preSS 2010

Gorgias Press LLC, 954 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA www.gorgiaspress.com Copyright © 2010 by The Isis Press, Istanbul Originally published in 1998 All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise without the prior written permission of The Isis Press, Istanbul. 2010

ISBN 978-1-61143-132-2

Reprinted from the 1998 Istanbul edition.

Printed in the United States of America

Alan Fisher received his Ph.D. at Columbia University in 1967, in Russian and Ottoman history. He studied with Mark Raeff, Tibor Halasi-Kun, Kathleen Burrill, Edward Allworth. and Enver Ziya Karal (who served as visiting professor at Columbia in the early 1960s). Author of two books: The Russian Annexation of the Crimea, I 772-1783, Cambridge University Press, 1970; and Crimean Tatars, Hoover Institution Press, 1978. The first appeared in Turkish translation, in serial form, in the Crimean Tatar journal Emel. He is Professor of History at Michigan State University, Chairman of the Board of the Institute of Turkish Studies, Vice-President of the American Research Institute in Turkey; elected Fellow of the Royal Historical Society; corresponding Fellow of the Turk Tarih Kurumu; former President of the Turkish Studies Association and former editor of its Bulletin.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction "Ottoman Sources f o r a Study of Kefe Vilayet: The Maliyeden MUdevver Fond in the Ba§bakanhk Argivi in Istanbul," Cahiers du Monde russe et soviétique, XIX/102, 1978, pp. 191-205 "Les rapports entre l'Empire Ottoman et la Crimée: L'aspect financier," Cahiers du Monde Russe et Soviétique, XIII/3, 1972, pp. 368-381 "The Ottoman Crimea in the Sixteenth Century," Harvard Ukrainian Studies, V/1, 1981, pp. 135-170 "The Ottoman Crimea in the Mid-Seventeenth Century: Some Problems and Preliminary Considerations," Harvard Ukrainian Studies, III/IV, 1979-1980, pp. 215-226 "Crimean Separatism in the Ottoman Empire," William W. Haddad and William Ochsenwald (eds). Nationalism in a Non-National State: The Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, Ohio State University Press, Columbus, 1977, pp. 57-76 "§ahin Giray, the Reformer Khan, and the Russian Annexation of the Crimea," Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, XV/3, 1967, pp. 341-364 "Social and Legal Aspects of Russian-Muslim Relations in the Nineteenth Century: The Case of the Crimean Tatars," Abraham Ascher, Tibor Halasi-Kun, Béla K. Kirâly (eds.), The Mutual Effects of the Islamic and Judeo-Christian Worlds: The East European Pattern, Brooklyn College Press, Brooklyn, 1979, PP- 77-92 "Ismail Gaspirali, Model Leader for Asia," Edward Allworth (ed), Tatars of the Crimea: Their Struggle for Survival, Duke University Press, Chapel Hill, 1988, pp. 11-26 "Ismail Bey Gasprinski, 1851-1914," §ura, nos. 21 (1 November 1914), 2.2 (15 November 1914), 23 (1 December 1914), 24 (15 December 1914), pp. 641-44, 673-75, 705-8, 737-41, respectively; translated by AF, in Edward Allworth (ed), Tatars of the Crimea: Their Struggle for Survival, Duke University Press, Chapel Hill, 1988, pp. 72-99 "The Crimean Tatars, the USSR, and Turkey," William O. McCagg, Jr., Brian D. Silver (eds), Soviet Asian Ethnic Frontiers, I'ergamon Press, New York, 1979, pp. 1-24

VII

1

19 35

67

79

93

123

137

153

177

INTRODUCTION

The

collapse

of

the U S S R

and

Yugoslavia,

followed

by

the

transformation of s o m e of their f o r m e r minorities into sovereign, majority states; the continued struggle of remaining minorities to follow suit, generally unsuccessfully to date and resulting in much bloodshed and suffering; and the appearance of a n u m b e r of interesting and skillful historical accounts of both successful and unsuccessful minorities have led me to reconsider s o m e of the work that I have d o n e on the C r i m e a n Tatars over the last 35 years. This introduction gives m e the opportunity to survey briefly what I wrote about the Tatars and how I would d o it differently today. A s I look back on my first work, written while a graduate student in both Russian and Ottoman history at Columbia University, I see that I inherited the prevailing view that large states determined historical development and rightly

so. Studies of the "small peoples" were subordinate to large multi-

national states — "the center" — of which they were a part. Thus, in the case of the Russian E m p i r e , most of us e x a m i n e d the policies of the central government towards the "minorities"; and we gave high marks to policies which successfully incorporated the minorities within the large whole. In the Ottoman case also, w e gave credit to governmental policies which w e v i e w e d as "tolerant" of minorities. In contrast, attitudes of the "small peoples" towards their rulers were virtually ignored. Even historians of the United States at the time almost completely concentrated on its dominant culture and, like their counterparts who

studied

the R u s s i a n

or O t t o m a n

Empires,

avoided

consideration of minorities within. Indeed, most A m e r i c a n a c a d e m i c s w h o worked on Russian imperial history viewed work on the minorities which was hostile to the Russian center as unproductive, and to use a term common today, "politically incorrect". In the light of views today, it was ironic that historians who ventured into the study of non-Russian peoples within the E m p i r e , and later within the U S S R , were almost automatically portrayed as politically conservative or hostile towards the USSR. Today, after the break-up of the Soviet Union and the divisions in the old Yugoslavia, the "mainstream" has shifted to a consideration of historical development from minority or "small people" points of view. 1 Before I concentrated specifically on the Crimean Tatars, I wrote a short piece 011 one episode in Russian history in which the leadership pursued a

^Certainly this is true in the study of United States' history, and for history both of the Russian Empire and the USSR. It is less so in the case of Ottoman history, w h e r e f o c u s remains on the center.

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CRIMEA

AND CRIMEAN

TATARS

tolerant policy t o w a r d s one large m i n o r i t y , and c o n c l u d e d that this w a s a g o o d e x a m p l e of "large-state success." 1 A t t h e time, I i n t e n d e d to f o l l o w this u p in m y dissertation, w h i c h w a s initially d e s i g n e d a r o u n d R u s s i a n policies t o w a r d s the V o l g a / K a z a n Tatars. Everything I h a d read in preparation f o r that w o r k had led m e to e x p e c t to f i n d c o n s i s t e n t l y " e n l i g h t e n e d " and "tolerant", a n d thus, " s u c c e s s f u l " policy resulting in a general level of satisfaction by these T a t a r s ' leaders within the larger Russian multi-national state. T o my d i s m a y , after s t u d y i n g R u s s i a n and O t t o m a n T u r k i s h , a n d K a z a n T a t a r , and r e a d i n g all a v a i l a b l e s e c o n d a r y literature and p u b l i s h e d p r i m a r y s o u r c e s o n t h e s u b j e c t , I learned f r o m m y m e n t o r s that it w a s unlikely that I w o u l d r e c e i v e r e s e a r c h p e r m i s s i o n f r o m the U S S R a u t h o r i t i e s to c o n d u c t r e s e a r c h in K a z a n , and also unlikely that I c o u l d w o r k o n that s u b j e c t in t h e libraries and archives in Leningrad and M o s c o w . So, a l m o s t at t h e last m o m e n t , I decided to g o to Istanbul to w o r k in t h e B a § b a k a n h k Ar§ivi [hereafter B. A.], in the s u m m e r of 1 9 6 5 . 1 hoped to b e able to f i n d e v i d e n c e , p r o m i s e d by R u s s i a n and Soviet historians, f o r close relations b e t w e e n the O t t o m a n s and the K a z a n T a t a r s , and particularly on e f f o r t s by t h e O t t o m a n s to i n f l u e n c e the Tatars a g a i n s t their g o v e r n m e n t . T h e r e , again to my d i s g r u n t l e m e n t , I f o u n d that the K a z a n T a t a r s and the O t t o m a n s had had n o close relations, indeed virtually n o relations at all. T h e R u s s i a n and Soviet historians had misled me. I w a s in a very a w k w a r d position, and had to q u i c k l y c h a n g e my f o c u s to o n e f o r w h i c h there w a s e v i d e n c e to e x a m i n e , the e n o r m o u s a m o u n t of e v i d e n c e f o r relations b e t w e e n t h e O t t o m a n s and the C r i m e a n T a t a r s . It was in this w a y that I f o u n d the C r i m e a n T a t a r s as m y s u b j e c t f o r study. Fortunately I h a d b y n o w t h e l a n g u a g e s f o r this s e c o n d , related area, and I w a s working in the O t t o m a n archives during a "golden" period f o r r e s e a r c h . 2 Since I had already read f o r my initial topic in the 18th century, I decided to work in the B.A. on t h e last years of the C r i m e a n K h a n a t e , the R u s s o - O t t o m a n w a r s of the late 18th century, and t h e Russian a n n e x a t i o n of C r i m e a and the C r i m e a n Tatars. T h e f i r s t piece that I wrote on this subject [# 7 in this v o l u m e ] w a s an o u t g r o w t h of that d i s s e r t a t i o n , w h i c h itself w a s published a f e w years later. W h i l e writing this d i s s e r t a t i o n , I d i s c o v e r e d that little or n o t h i n g had been written a b o u t the annexation by O t t o m a n or Turkish scholars. A k d e s N i m e t K u r a t had included this topic in his m o r e general survey of R u s s i a n -

' "Enlightened Despotism and Islam Under Catherine II", Slavic Review, XXVII/4, 1968, pp. 542553. T h i s was an outgrowth of an essay I wrote early in m y graduate career, in 1963, and w a s published only after m y work on the Tatars had begun. * T h e B.A. archive staff, especially Turgut I§iksal and Midhat Sertoglu, were extremely cordial, friendly, and gave m e much personal assistance and attention. In those days it w a s even possible for a researcher to make his own microfilm copies of documents! 3 The Russian Annexation of the Crimea, 1772-1783 ( C a m b r i d g e Univ. Press, 1970). T h i s w a s subsequently published in Turkish, in installments, in the Crimean Tatar emigré journal, Emel, in Istanbul.

I N T R O D U C T I O N

IX

Ottoman relations, but only marginally and without detail. 1 A number of Ottoman chronicles and accounts gave useful information, but none dealt in detail with the Russian annexation nor with the period of Crimean "independence" between 1772 and 1783. 2 Russian and Ottoman, and Soviet and Turkish historians, for the most part, had seen the two large states as the major players in events, and the "small peoples" between as peripheral, however interesting. In addition, Turkology had been an important discipline in Russia and the USSR, and some significant studies of Ottoman history had been made by Russian historians, and in the process a few had looked at Crimean history as well, using Ottoman and Tatar chronicles, and archival sources which were housed in Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Odessa. 3

' A k d e s Nimet Kurat, Türkiye ve Rusya: XVIII. Yüzyü Sonundan Kurtulu$ Savanna Kadar Tiirk(1798-1919) (Ankara, 1970); his later study, IV-XVI1I YUzyillarda Karadeniz Rus ili§ikleri Kuzeyindeki Türk Kavimleri ve Devletleri (Ankara, 1972), treated Crimean Tatars as one of m a n y "Turkish" groups in the North Black Sea area, and downplayed the fact that these Tatars had their own sovereign state and distinct culture. 9 " F o r example, ' A b d a l - G a f f a r Kirimi, 'Umdat al-tawarikh, ed. N. A s i m , in supplement to Tarih Osmani Mecmuasi (Istanbul, 1343/1924); A h m e t Cevdet, Tarih-i Cevdet (Istanbul, 1854-1891), 12 vols., but esp. Vols I a n d II; S a ' d u l l a h E n v e r i (mss. H . 0 . 101, 105 , 2 0 1 - 2 0 2 , in the Österreichisches Staatsbibliothek); Halim Giray Sultan, GUlbün-ü Hanan Yakut Kirim Tarihi (Istanbul, 1909); Mehmed Necati Efendi, Rusya Sefaretnamesi published both in Turkish (partial); F. Unat (ed.), "Kirim Tarihi v e y a Necati Efendinin Rusya Sefaretnamesi", Tarih Vesikalari, III, pp. 60-68, 137-149, 222-229; and in Russian (full), V.E. Smirnov (ed.), "Zapiski M u k h a m m e d a Nedzhati-Efendi: Turetskago Plennago v Rossii v 1771-1775 g g . , " R u s s k a i a Starina, March 1894, pp. 179-208, April 1894, pp. 113-134, and May, 1894, pp. 144-169; Mustafa Nuri Pa^a, Netaic UlVukuat (Istanbul, 1909), 4 vols.; A h m e t Resmi, Hülusal ül-Ihtibar (Istanbul, 1869); and A h m e t Väsif Efendi, Mehasin al-Asar ve Hakaik al-Ahbar (Cairo, Bulak, 1830), 2 vols. D. Smirnov's two volumes, Krymskoe Khantstvo pod verkhovenstvom Ottomanskoi Porty do nachala XVIII veka (St. P e t e r s b u r g , 1887), and Krymskoe Khanstvo pod verkhovenstvom Ottomanskoi Porty v XVIII stoletii (Odessa, 1889), were far more detailed, and sophisticated, than either his Soviet successors or A . N. Kurat's volumes. V. V. Veliaminov-Zernov and H ü s e y n Feyzhanoglu published materials on the Crimean Tatars housed in the Moscow State Archives of the Ministry of Foreign A f f a i r s , Materialy dlia istorii krymskogo khanstvo izvlechennykh iz Moskovskogo Glavnogo Arkhiva Ministerstva Inostrannykh Del (St. Petersburg, 1864). Other Russians, w h o were both skilled Turcologists and historians, included A. Borzenko, V. Brun. F. Lashkov, A. Markevich, A . Negri, S. Shapshal, A. Skal'kovskii, and S. D. Smirnov. Boris Nolde included the Russian annexation of the Crimea, and the developments which led up to it, in his La formation de 1'empire russe (Paris, 1952-1953), 2 vols. Of course there was the short survey of Crimean Tatar history by Hammer-Purgstall, though it paled by comparison with those of Smirnov: J. von Hammer-Purgstall, Geschichte der Chane der Krim unter Osmanischer Herrschaft (Vienna, 1856). A number of Soviet historians wrote about the Crimean Tatars, though most, until recently, w e r e expected to present the Tatars in the most unfavorable light possible, since Stalin had attempted to eliminate them as a nationality. A m o n g those w h o were Turcologists, and thus could use Tatar and Ottoman sources, were: N. A. Smirnov, Rossiia i turtsiia v XVIXVII vv. ( M o s c o w , 1946), 2 vols.; A. A. Novosel'skii, Bor'ha Moskovskgo gosudarstva s Tatarami vpervoipoknine XVII veka (Moscow, 1948); and M, A. Alekberli, Bor'ha ukrainskogo naroda protiv turetskotatarskoi agressii (Saratov, 1961). Important to m y studies w e r e the works of C. M. Kortepeter: "Gazi Giray II, Khan of the Crimea, and Ottoman Policy in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus," Slavonic and East European Review, XLIV, 1966; "Ottoman Imperial Policy and the Economy of the Black Sea Region in the Sixteenth Century", Journal of the American Oriental Society, L X X X V I , 1966; and, later, his book, Ottoman Imperialism During the Reformation: Europe and the Caucasus (New Y o r k , 1973). Most valuable f o r m y research, a f t e r the B.A., w a s the collection of Russian and T a t a r documents edited by N. F. Dubrovin, on the Russian annexation: N. F. D u b r o v i n , Prisoedinenia Kryma k Rossii: reskripty, pis'ma, reliatsii, doneseniia iSt. Petersburg, 1885-1889), 4 vols. Several Crimean Tatar historians a l s o p u b l i s h e d i m p o r t a m collections of documents during the short period of Tatar independent life in the 1920s, especially O. Ak^okrakly and A. Ozenba^li.

X

C R I M E A

A N D

C R I M E A N

T A T A R S

It was in the process of writing that dissertation, that I began to see that it was important to view ev ents, not only f r o m the capitals of the large states, but f r o m within the society of the smaller peoples between. I felt uncomfortable doing so, for I still hoped to be able, at some future time, to conduct research in Soviet archives, and wanted lo be careful not to unnecessarily antagonize Soviet scholars, who, in those days, did not mind one concentrating on the condition of minorities in other states, but did not appreciate scholarly attention towards their own minorities. Attitudes of Turkish historians towards the topic of the Crimean Tatars were more accepting, perhaps since I was working on "someone else's" minorities. When working on the Russian annexation, I discovered that the Crimean k h a n , in theory a "vassal" of the O t t o m a n sultan, had s u p e r v i s e d

an

administration that w a s large a n d c o m p l e x , and had ruled a "state" which behaved independently of Ottoman policy. One important aspect of this seemed to be tied to the fiscal relationships between the Ottomans and the Crimeans. T h e source materials in the B.A., and occasionally in Ottoman chronicles, 1 led to the next stage in this study (# 3 in this volume). Interestingly, I found that these relationships were quite different from those between the Ottomans and any other of their "vassals 1 ' or subjects. T h i s evidence suggested that the Crimeans were viewed from Istanbul in a special light, as associated with them but independent. It was an interesting discovery, and enough to satisfy me on the subject of the Crimea f o r several years. I m o v e d on to other areas and I b e c a m e interested in the problems "small" nations and states had in maintaining their identities in w o r l d s where the "big states" appeared to d e t e r m i n e historic developments. Again, the Tatars sprang to mind. How small states perceive themselves led m e back to the study of the Crimean Tatars [with project # 6 in this volume], this time focusing on C r i m e a n - O t t o m a n relations f r o m the Crimean perspective. At this time, with the exception of the "French team",

' i would have preferred to have c o m b i n e d this study with o n e on O t t o m a n - C r i m e a n political relations, but 1 was never granted p e r m i s s i o n to work in the archives of the T o p k a p i Sarayi [indeed, that is o n e trove of documents w h i c h has remained closed to m e j w h e r e many of those diplomatic and political materials ire preserved. W e are very fortunate that a group of French scholars were permitted to study the T o p k a p i materials on the Crimea which they published in facsimile, translation, and with important and interesting analyses. See: A l e x a n d r e B e n n i g s e n , Pertev Naili Boratav, Dilek Desaive, and Chantai Lemercier-Quelquejay, Le khanat de Crimée dans les archives du musée de Topkapi (Paris and La Haye, 1978). Dilek Desaive published a fascinating series of diplomatie correspondence between the Ottomans and the C r i m e a n s in "Le khanat de Crimée et padichahs ottomans dans les registres des name-i hiimayun," Cahiers du monde russe et soviétique, XIII. 1972, pp. 560-583. A n d Dilek Desaive and Ô z a l p G ô k b i l g i n wrote an account of fiscal and political relations surrounding o n e particular period of C r i m e a n history in "Le khanat d e Crimée et ies c a m p a g n e s militaires de l'Empire Ottoman — fin du X V I I e début du XVIIIe siècle," Cahiers du monde russe et soviétique, XI, 1970, pp. 110-117. AU but the last of these were published too late for m e to use in my project, but have been e n o r m o u s l y helpful in the years since.

I N T R O D U C T I O N

XI

most historians believed that the Crimean Tatars had been totally subservient to the Ottoman before 1772, and had virtually disappeared within the Russian Empire after 1783. However, evidence on the Crimean side suggested that the Tatars saw themselves as distinct and independent before 1772, and that they had continued to maintain their identity after 1783, albeit no longer independent. The nature of the fiscal relations between the Crimeans and the Ottomans had supported this view, perhaps had prompted me to rethink what I had originally argued in my dissertation/book, and now opened up new possibilities lor understanding the realities of their relations. T h e traditional viewpoint, and my original one, had been based on several explanations. Since Ottoman dynastic ideology made claims for Osmanli descent f r o m Ghengis K h a n , at least politically, the Ottoman government found it inconvenient to recognize the Crimean Giray dynasty of khans as the "true" successors [ideologically, politically, and perhaps even biologically] of Ghengis Khan. 1 T h e main problem with this argument was that Crimean chronicles and histories, which d i s c u s s e d the Tatars in the 16th through 18th centuries, suggested that Crimean intellectuals, sensing an Ottoman expectation of subservient status, felt compelled to defend Tatar independence, and to explain it. 2 In 1976 I put together all of the various ideas I had come up with about the Crimean Tatars w h e n the invitation to write a "survey" of their history arrived. In order to do so, I had to learn a great deal about the Tatar experience

' H a l i l Inalcik's "Yeni V e s i k a l a r a Gore Kirim Hanliginin O s m a n l i T a b i l i g i n e G i r m e s i ve A h i d n a m e Meselesi", Belleten, V1II/31, 1944, pp. 185-229, helped m e understand the realities of Ottoman-Crimean relationships at the start. His "Power Relationships Between Russia, T h e Crimea and the Ottoman Empire as Reflected in Titulature", in Ch. Lemercier-Quelquejay, G. Veinstein, and S. E. W i m b u s h (eds.), Passé Turco-Tatar Présent Soviétique, Études offertes à Alexandre Bennigsen (Louvain-Paris, 1986), pp. 175-211, w a s published after I had m o v e d on f r o m this subject, but further corroborated the necessity of looking at events f r o m Bahçesaray as well as from Istanbul. ' ' A m o n g these Crimean works, most interesting were: Halim Giray Sultan, Gulbun-u Hanan Yahud Kmm Tarihi (Istanbul 1909) — written in 1811; Ozalp Gokbilgin (ed.), Tarih-i Sahib Giray Han (Ankara, 1973) — written soon after 1551; Tevarih-i Dest-i Kipçak (published by A n a n i a s z Z a j a c z k o w s k i as La chronique des steppes kiptchak ( W a r s a w , 1966); Kirimli Haci M e h m e d Sena'i, 111. Islam Giray Han Tarihi [published by Olgierd Gorka and Zbigniew Wojcik (eds.), Hadzy Mehmed Senai z K r y m u , Historia Chana Islam Gereja III (Warsaw, 1971)] — written in the 1650s; Seyyid M e h m e d Riza, Al-Sab' al-sayyar fi akhbar al-muluk al-Tatar (ed by Mirza Kazembek, as Seiid M u k h a m m e d Riza, Asseh' o-sseiiar' Hi sem'planet (Kazan, 1832) — written in the 1750s, and served as o n e of the main sources f o r V.D. S m i r n o v ' s volumes. T h e m a n y pieccs written by Halil Inalcik on the Tatars and their khans have been of great help to me, as well; in addition to those cited above, in the Encyclopaedia of Islam, "Dawlat Giray," "Ghazi Giray I," "Ghazi Giray II," " H a d j d j i Giray;" and in Islam Ansiklopedisi, "Giray," and "Kirim Hanligi"; "The khan and the tribal aristocracy," Harvard Ukrainian Studies, III-IV, 1979-80; B. F. Manz, "The clans of the C r i m e a n Khanate", Harvard Ukrainian Studies, II/3, 1878, pp. 282-309. Publication of Crimean T a t a r diplomatic correspondence with other states and discussion of their language include: Z. A b r a h a m o w i c , " D o k u m e n t y tatarskie i t u r e c k i e w zbiorach polskich," Przeglad orientalistyczny, X, 1954, pp. 141-148; Mary Ivanics, "Formal and linguistic peculiarities of seventeenth-century C r i m e a n Tatar letters addressed to princes of T r a n s y l v a n i a , " Acta orientalia (Hungary), X X I X , 1975, pp. 213-224; and J. Matuz, Krimtatarische Urkunden im Reichsarchiv zu Kopenhagen (Freiburg, 1976).

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AND CRIMEAN

TATARS

a f t e r their a n n e x a t i o n by R u s s i a , a n d I entered here u n f a m i l i a r g r o u n d . In t h e p r o c e s s I d i s c o v e r e d the extent to w h i c h western s c h o l a r s h i p on the history of the U S S R h a d b e c o m e p o l i t i c i z e d , f o r at that t i m e , to f o c u s o n R u s s i a n minorities was seen as politically conservative. In retrospect, and with a certain w r y h u m o r , I see it is ironic, in light of the 1980s and 9 0 s and d e v e l o p m e n t a n d a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e study of t h e b r e a k - u p of Y u g o s l a v i a a n d t h e C h e c h e n problem.1 I learned a lot a b o u t the T a t a r s in studying their p o s t - 1 7 8 3 history. I m e t a n u m b e r of C r i m e a n Tatars l i v i n g in T u r k e y , a n d c a m e t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e i r d i f f i c u l t i e s in retaining their T a t a r culture in a society which e x p e c t e d t h e m t o a s s i m i l a t e i n t o t h e l a r g e r T u r k i s h p e o p l e . T h e q u e s t i o n of a c c u l t u r a t i o n , rejection, assimilation or retention of a separate identity s e e m e d to m e to be an i m p o r t a n t one, a n d here was a very s p e c i f i c e x a m p l e to e x a m i n e . I b e g a n a c o m p a r i s o n of t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of C r i m e a n T a t a r life in t h e U S S R a n d in T u r k e y ; in the f o r m e r they e x p e r i e n c e d r e p r e s s i o n , in t h e latter strong e n c o u r a g e m e n t s f o r assimilation. In n e i t h e r case, would T a t a r identity survive easily. 2 D u r i n g 1 9 7 6 - 7 7 in Istanbul I d i s c o v e r e d a n u m b e r of d o c u m e n t s and r e g i s t e r s c o n t a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n o n that p o r t i o n of the C r i m e a n p e n i n s u l a w h i c h w a s directly u n d e r O t t o m a n administration. I w a s particularly interested in the question: w h a t of the p e n i n s u l a w a s actually controlled by the O t t o m a n s a n d what w a s u n d e r the Khan's a u t h o r i t y ? I f o u n d it e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t , e v e n with the large a m o u n t of O t t o m a n s o u r c e s relating to their C r i m e a n holdings, to a n s w e r this q u e s t i o n , though I tried in # 4 and # 5 in this v o l u m e . 3 O n e of the

' T h e book was published in 1978 the first of what would in t i m e b e c o m e the series w h i c h included works on the Volga Tatars, v a r i o u s Baltic and Central Asian peoples: Alan Fisher, Crimean Tatars (Stanford, Hoover Institution Press, 1978); others were on the Volga Tatars by Azade-Ay§e Rorlich; Kazakhs by Martha Brill Olcott; Estonians by Toivo U. R a u n ; Georgians byRonald Grigor Suny; Uzbeks by Edward Allworth; Azeris by Audrey L. Allstadt; and Latvians by Andrejs Plakans. ^ T h e r e s u l t w a s # 1 1 , in t h i s v o l u m e . 3

T h e comparable archives of the Khanate had disappeared early in this century, though some of them had been studied by F. Lashkov, "Arkhivnyia dannyia o beilikakh v krymskom khanslve," Arkheologicheskii S'ezd: Trudy, V I / 4 , 1889, pp. 9 6 - 1 1 0 ; "Istoricheskii o c h e r k k r y m s k o tatarskago zemlevladeniia," Zapiski imperatorskago odesskago obshchestva istorii i drevnostei, XXIII, 1895, pp. 71-117; "Sbornik d o k u m c n t o v po istorii krymsko-tatarskago zemlevladeniia", Izvestiia tavricheskago uchennagc arkhivnago kommissii, X X V I , 1897, pp. 24-154. F r e n c h colleagues, led by Gilles Veinstein. w e r e also working on this subject, and published extremely interesting work on the Crimea. These included: M. Berindei and G. Veinstein, "La p r é s e n c e ottomane au sud de la Crimée et en mer d'Azov dans la première moitié du XVIe siècle," Cahiers du monde ruses et soviétique, XX. 1979, pp. 389-465; Ibid. "Règlements fiscaux et fiscalité de la province de B e n d e r - A q k e r m a n ( 1 5 7 0 ) , " Cahiers du monde russe et soviétique, XXII, 1981, pp. 251-328; G. Veinstein, "L'occupation o t t o m a n e d'Ocakov et le problème de la frontière lituanotatare, 1538-1544," Ch. L e m e r c i e r Q u e l q u e j a y , G. Veinstein, and S. E. W i m b u s h , op. cit.. p p . 123-155; Ibid., La révolte des mirza tatare contre le Khan, 1724-1725," Cahiers du monde russe et soviétique, XII, 1971, pp. 327-328. Ibid., "Règlements de Siileyman 1er concernant le livà' de K e f e , " Cahiers du monde russe et soviétique, XVI, 1975, pp. 57-104; Ibid., Les tatars de Crimée et la seconde élection d e Stanislas l.eszczynski', Cahiers du monde russe et soviétique, XI, 1970, pp. 24-92; and Ibid., "Missionaircs j é s u i t e s et agents f r a n ç a i s en Crimée au début du X V I I I e siècle," Cahiers du monde russe et soviétique, X, 1969, pp. 416-442.

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xra

great difficulties I encountered on this topic was the inadequacy of "finding tools" in the B.A. in those years. Well over half my time in the archives was spent in searching for materials that were relevant to the subject. A s a result, I published a "guide" to the materials that I did uncover [#2 in this volume], much of which I did not have the time to examine in sufficient detail to use in my project; yet I hoped at the time, and still hope that it would be of use to other scholars. I also hoped that others, possessing the same sort of "guide" for their own research topics, would make them available to others in the same manner. This still remains a good idea, I think, to further the discipline. Finally, a conference at Columbia University on the Crimean Tatars, led by Edward Allworth, gave m e the opportunity to consider anew the role that Ismail Gaspirali had played in Crimean intellectual development and in Islamic modernism in Central Asia, resulting in items #9 and # 1 0 in this volume. I knew of the significant work done by Edward Lazzerini on Tatar intellectual lif e, and now was even m o r e impressed with his sophisticated treatment of the subject, also presented at this conference. Should one read his work, and then these t w o items of m i n e , it will be evident that I w a s able to add only marginally to what w e know about Ismail Bey. 1 What m o r e d o w e know now about the Crimean T a t a r s than when I began researching and writing about them 35 years ago? First of all, the Tatars, themselves, have transformed the subject by forcing a reconsideration of their place in R u s s i a , a n d since the c o l l a p s e of the U S S R , in U k r a i n e and Kazakhstan. It is worth repeating here a portion of the introduction I wrote in 1977 for my book on the Crimean Tatars to see how much has changed in the interim. 2

' E d w a r d Lazzerini's P h . D . dissertation, "Ismail B e y Gasprinskii a n d M u s l i m Modernism in Russia," University of Washington, 1973, is a model of doctoral work, and in m y opinion s:ill deserves to be published on its own. His articles, "Gadidism at the Turn of the Twentieth Century: A View f r o m Within", Cahiers du monde russe et soviétique, 1975, pp. 245-277; "Ismail B e y Gasprinskii (Gaspirali), the Discourse of Modernism, and the Russians," in the same volume as m y t w o pieces, pp. 149-169; "Tatarovedenie and the ' N e w Historiography' in the USSR: revising the interpretation of the Tatar-Russian relationship," Slavic Review, XL, 1981, pp. 625-635, "Ethnicity and the uses of history: the case of the Volga Tatars and Jadidism, " Central Asian Survey, I, 198283, pp. 61-69, and "The Revival of Islamic Culture in Pre-Revolutionary Russia: Or, Why a P r o s o p o g r a p h y of the T a t a r UlemaV Ch. L e m e r c i e r - Q u e l q u e j a y , G. Veinstein, and S. E. Wimbush (eds.), op. cit., pp. 367 372. continue his high level of scholarship. See also M. Mobin Shorish, "Traditional I s l a m i c Education in Central Asia Prior to 1917," in Ch. LemercierQuelquejay, G. Veinstein, and S. Hi. Wimbush (eds.), op. cit., pp. 317-343. 2 A l a n Fisher, Crimean Tatars (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1978), pp. xi-xii.

XIV

CRIMEA

AND C R I M E A N

TATARS

"The C r i m e a n T a t a r s a r e t o d a y a n a t i o n a l i t y living in a D i a s p o r a . D e n i e d the right to return to their h o m e l a n d in the C r i m e a n p e n i n s u l a , their c o m m u n i t i e s are s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t the U S S R , t h e T u r k i s h R e p u b l i c , a n d the West. L i k e o t h e r nationalities that h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d the s a m e disasters (the J e w s c o m e to m i n d ) , the T a t a r s ' claim t o national identity a n d a national h o m e a r e b a s e d on h i s t o r i c a l , c u l t u r a l , a n d linguistic foundations. " A p p e a r i n g f i r s t in t h e C r i m e a in t h e t h i r t e e n t h a n d f o u r t e e n t h centuries, t h e C r i m e a n T a t a r s soon d i s p l a c e d the existing political and cultural entities with their o w n ; they established their first state there in the m i d d l e of t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y . F r o m that t i m e until t h e R u s s i a n a n n e x a t i o n of t h e p e n i n s u l a in 1783, the C r i m e a n T a t a r s o r g a n i z e d and lived in a state, called the C r i m e a n K h a n a t e , that w a s ruled by their o w n G i r a y d y n a s t y . F r o m 1 7 8 3 until 1918, the T a t a r s l i v e d w i t h i n the Russian E m p i r e as subjects of t h e tsars. " D u r i n g t h e latter p e r i o d , t h e T a t a r s w e r e d i s p l a c e d g r a d u a l l y b y immigrating Slavic settlers, o f f i c i a l s , and l a n d o w n e r s . D e s p i t e c o n c e r t e d e f f o r t s by their Russian rulers to eliminate T a t a r culture and identity and to a s s i m i l a t e t h e m into t h e f a b r i c of R u s s i a n society, t h e T a t a r s w e r e able to p r e s e r v e their n a t i o n a l a w a r e n e s s . W i t h the fall of t h e tsarist s y s t e m , the T a t a r s w e r e t e m p o r a r i l y s u c c e s s f u l in r e e s t a b l i s h i n g their o w n state and i n d e p e n d e n t society. But the a d v e n t of B o l s h e v i k p o w e r soon put an end to their s u c c e s s , if not to their efforts. "Since 1920, the C r i m e a n Tatars h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d o n e c a l a m i t y a f t e r another: collectivization a n d its related f a m i n e s , the e l i m i n a t i o n of their political a n d cultural elites b e t w e e n 1928 a n d 1939, the r a v a g e s of w a r a n d o c c u p a t i o n frw 1941 t o 1 9 4 4 , a n d f i n a l l y , t h e i r w h o l e s a l e deportation to remote a r e a s of the U S S R w h e r e they now reside. [Had I the vocabulary n o w popular, 1 w o u l d have called this "ethnic cleansing."] Y e t there h a v e been d e v e l o p m e n t s in t h e T a t a r c o m m u n i t y t h a t s h o w a c c o m p l i s h m e n t in the f a c e of adversity — d e v e l o p m e n t s that s h o w that the T a t a r s possess a l m o s t u n e q u a l e d c o u r a g e to struggle f o r w h a t they c o n s i d e r to be a just solution to their problems. A p p l y i n g pressure u p o n the Soviet authorities w h o w e r e responsible f o r the denial of their national e x i s t e n c e , they h a v e s u c c e e d e d in the y e a r s s i n c e 1944 in gaining partial restitution of w h a t w a s taken f r o m t h e m by Stalin. In 1967, in a d e c r e e issued by t h e Soviet g o v e r n m e n t , t h e c h a r g e s m a d e against the T a t a r s in 1944 w e r e r e m o v e d ; they were "rehabilitated" as a nationality. Y e t their r e h a b i l i t a t i o n w a s virtually m e a n i n g l e s s , f o r t h e p u n i s h m e n t s under which t h e y s u f f e r e d w e r e not r e m o v e d . T h e y c a n n o t return to their h o m e l a n d . T h e i r national and cultural rights remain denied to them, and their struggle f o r these rights continues today."

INTRODUCTION Fortunately, I w a s then overly pessimistic. Like others at t h e time, I did not suspect that the U S S R would disappear, and that this d i s a p p e a r a n c e w o u l d o f f e r the Tatars, and m a n y other f o r m e r Soviet nationalities, the opportunity to reestablish their national identity and c o m m u n i t y on m o d e r n t e r m s . M a n y h a v e been able to return to t h e C r i m e a n peninsula, though their national o u t c o m e is still in d o u b t . T h e r e s e e m s little l i k e l i h o o d that U k r a i n e will p e r m i t the reestablishment of an o r g a n i z e d T a t a r c o m m u n i t y there. B u t t h o s e Tatars w h o are nationally active are b e g i n n i n g to recreate Tatar culture. If I w e r e g o i n g t o w r i t e a n e w edition of m y b o o k o n t h e C r i m e a n T a t a r s , I w o u l d cast it quite differently, as a result of what I h a v e learned in the i n t e r v e n i n g y e a r s , b o t h f r o m my o w n r e s e a r c h , but e s p e c i a l l y f r o m w h a t c o l l e a g u e s h a v e w r i t t e n , and c o n t i n u e to w r i t e on the s u b j e c t . First, I w o u l d place t h e m m o r e in the international contexts in which they lived - between t w o l a r g e a n d e x p a n s i v e s t a t e s , a n d as an i m p o r t a n t part in t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l e c o n o m y of the sixteenth and s e v e n t e e n t h centuries. S e c o n d , I w o u l d let their own chroniclers and historians tell m o r e of their story, particularly in the period before 1783, and d e p e n d less on what their Russian and O t t o m a n c o n t e m p o r a r i e s had to say about them. T h i r d , I would concentrate, in the 19th c e n t u r y , on those remaining Crimean T a t a r institutions which contributed to their survival, a g a i n s t c o n s i d e r a b l e o d d s . F o u r t h , I w o u l d i n c l u d e in m y s t u d y of s o u r c e materials f o r C r i m e a n T a t a r history visual and "material cultural" sources, and n o l o n g e r d e p e n d so entirely on written survivals. Fifth, I w o u l d take advantage of the gradual o p e n i n g of the f o r m e r S o v i e t archives to f i n d the Soviet side of their T a t a r r e p r e s s i o n , b e f o r e 1940; I w o u l d then be able to p l a c e the T a l a r e x p e r i e n c e within the larger context of Soviet repression of minority cultures. A n d f i n a l l y , I w o u l d b r i n g their story u p to date, with the b e g i n n i n g of their return to their h o m e l a n d . I w a n t to t h a n k all t h o s e w h o h a v e h e l p e d m e in m y c a r e e r , in m y studies a n d r e s e a r c h e s , and writing. T h i s includes m y m e n t o r s : M a r c R a e f f , T i b o r H a l a s i - K u n , E n v e r Ziya K a r a l w h o w a s a visiting p r o f e s s o r , E d w a r d Allworth, and Kathleen

Burrill at C o l u m b i a ; m y f e l l o w s t u d e n t s ,

and

s u b s e q u e n t l y p r o f e s s i o n a l colleagues: G u s t a v Bayerle, T o m G o o d r i c h , D i k r a n K o u y u m j i a n , B r u c e M c G o w a n ; m y w i f e Carol w h o was with m e in Istanbul on all m y research trips, a n d w h o s e s c h o l a r s h i p on O t t o m a n art s h o w e d m e h o w i m p o r t a n t visual s o u r c e material is to an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of a s o c i e t y ; and our c h i l d r e n , Elisa, C h r i s t y , and Garrett, w h o w e r e with us on all but the first of our Istanbul stays. I a l s o would like to thank m y parents, S y d n e y and Elizabeth [Scipio] Fisher and her parents, Lynn and Margaret Scipio f o r m a k i n g T u r k e y a part of my " g r o w i n g - u p " y e a r s — t h e S c i p i o s had g o n e to C o n s t a n t i n o p l e in 1912, r e m a i n i n g until 1942, w h e r e L y n n served as D e a n of t h e E n g i n e e r i n g School

at R o b e r t C o l l e g e ; S y d n e y w a s a tutor there in t h e late 1920s a n d earfy

1930s, and taught O t t o m a n history until his retirement.

OTTOMAN SOURCES FOR A STUDY OF KEFE VILAYET: THE MALIYEDEN MUDEWER FOND IN THE BA§BAKANLIK AR§IVI IN ISTANBUL

One need not emphasize to readers of this journal the potential value of the Ottoman sources in the Ba§bakanhk Argivi in Istanbul for the study of East European and Russian history. Indeed it may well be that CMRS has played the most significant role in publicising their importance, and has contained within its issues ample evidence of their utilization. Yet the work of exploring these sources has only begun. An enormous obstacle for many historians who work in these archives is the lack of scientific catalogues and references, prepared according to modern archival standards and principles. Although a massive revision of the existing catalogues has been underway for several years, it may be a few more years before the task is completed and the results made available to researchers. It is for this reason that I want to share with my colleagues the simplified catalogue that I have made, on one subject and from one large fond of registers in the archives. I do this in the hope that (1) it will publicise the variety and quantity of documentary evidence available on this subject; (2) make it at least somewhat easier for my colleagues to approach this subject, and (3) persuade my colleagues to share their "catalogues" too. The task of examining the Ottoman sources is so immense that only quasi teamwork will bring forth fruitful results in our lifetime. The documents and registers are so many and so difficult to find that it makes no sense to proceed in the "old-fashioned" way of withholding knowledge of this or that source "until one finds time in the future to utilize it himself". Without an increase in "team" efforts, we will each be examining and describing "grains of sand on a beach". *

The following list of Ottoman registers is selected from the Maliyeden Mudevver classification in the Ba§bakanlik Ar§ivi in Istanbul and includes financial sources concerned with Ottoman holdings along the northern shore of the Black Sea, from O/ii (Ochakov) to Azak (Azov), including Ottoman

2

CRIMEA

AND CRIMEAN

TATARS

territory on the C r i m e a n p e n i n s u l a w h i c h m a d e u p K e f e vilayet. A m o n g t h e places included are Sogudak ( S u d a k ) Baliklagu (Baliklava), M a n k u p , K a m a n i 9 e ( K a m e n e t s - P o d o l s k ) , T e m r i i k , T a m a n , Ker§ ( K e r c h ) , O r ( P e r e k o p ) , K i l b u r u n (Kinburn), Aco, and Kale-i cedid (Yenikale). It includes also s o m e sources a b o u t the C r i m e a n Tatars. O n these s u b j e c t s the earliest register I h a v e f o u n d in this classification is # 3 3 4 ( T i m a r s f o r K e f e ) f r o m 9 0 3 / 1 4 9 7 . I did n o t include in m y "catalogue" any r e g i s t e r s f o r t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , since m o s t of this territory w a s n o longer O t t o m a n . B u t there well m a y b e some. T h e Maliyeden

Miidevver

c l a s s i f i c a t i o n c o n s i s t s of s o m e

24,000

r e g i s t e r s , s o m e s m a l l , others as l a r g e as 2 2 0 0 f o l i o s . A t h r e e - v o l u m e t y p e d c a t a l o g u e exists, c o v e r i n g the dates to 1066/1655. But I h a v e d i s c o v e r e d quite a n u m b e r of additional registers f o r t h o s e d a t e s not included in the c a t a l o g u e . W h a t I h a v e used instead as m y s o u r c e are t h e b o x e s of f i c h e s o r g a n i z e d a c c o r d i n g to the type of register. E a c h fiche is handwritten in O s m a n l i , s o m e are blurred and d i f f i c u l t to read. O n p o o r quality p a p e r , heavy use of t h e s e f i c h e s will shorten their life; perhaps b e f o r e the new cataloguing is completed. T h e Maliyeden

Miidevver

classification includes registers on

the

f o l l o w i n g subjects: a s s i g n m e n t s of military units to various forts and locations, w i t h n a m e s , f u n c t i o n s , s a l a r i e s ; r e p a i r s , p r o v i s i o n i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n of military e s t a b l i s h m e n t s ; tax r e c o r d s f o r all the taxes levied by the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t ; accounts of g o v e r n m e n t expenditures; and so forth. *

T h i s list has been c o n s t r u c t e d in the f o l l o w i n g w a y : by s u b j e c t of t h e register arranged c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y . M a n y of these registers include i n f o r m a t i o n and geographical areas beyond m y interest at the time. T h u s , under subject, if it reads: "... A z o v . . . O r . . . K e f e .." it m e a n s that this register is c o n c e r n e d with a great m a n y places, i n c l u d i n g A z a k , Or, and K e f e ; A z a k f o l l o w s s o m e o t h e r places, s o m e are listed between A z a k and O r in the register, then o t h e r s f o l l o w b e t w e e n O r and K e f e , and finally others a f t e r K e f e . T h e dots " . . . " i n d i c a t e t h e p r e s e n c e in the register of o t h e r " n o n - B l a c k Sea" a r e a s in the s p a c e p r o v i d e d . Dates are given in both Hicri and Christian f o r m . Istanbul, 1977.

3

OTTOMAN S O U R C E S FOR A STUDY OF KEFE VILAYET Menazil

defterler

(register concerned with stopping places along a traveller's route; expenses and assignments of posts) Date

No.

Pages

1123/1711

Register

3858

71

1147/1734

18425

7 Evkaf

Subject of

register

Istanbul-Ozii... Kirim.Ozii... defter

(register of endowed pious foundations, such as mosques, medresses, etc.) 1001/1592-3

626

368 Timar, vazife

... Kefe'de camiler... defterler

(register concerned with assignment of military fiefs, government officials) Register

Date 903-9/1497-1503

No.

Pages

Subject of

register

Timar ve zeamet: Kefe livasinda Irgun,

334

84

18727

8

Vazife: Kefe

1024-1615

5950

20

Vazife: Kefe

1032/1622-3

1795

24

Vazife: Kefe

1059/1649

4448

84

Sursat-u zahire: Azak, Özii

Sogudak, Baliklagu, Mankup 999-1144/1590-1731

(Permission to export grain) Cizye, ispence,

hane-i avariz, bedel-i avariz.

bakiye

(these registers are valuable sources for demographic information, and contain population and tax figures. Cizye and ispence

were general taxes levied, in the

Kefe and Ozii region, on the n o n - M u s l i m population. Avariz

taxes were

originally extraordinary levies; later they became general additional taxes on both Muslim and non-Muslim inhabitants of the Empire. Bakiye

registers

contain information on tax arrears. Many of the f o l l o w i n g registers "detailed", that is, they include tax levies by village and city) No.

Pages

1030/1620-1

2751

114

1032/1622-3

14921

16

1036/1626-7

3096

56

Hane-i avariz:... Kefe...

1038/1628-9

7416

50

Avariz (bakiye): ... Kefe

Date

Register

Subject of

register

Hane-i avariz:... Kefe... Cizye: Ozii vilayet

3722

72

Cizye: Kefe vilayet

1048/1638

15176

49

Cizye: Kefe vilayet

1048-9/1638-9

17460

42

Cizye: Kefe ve Sogudak

1044/1634-5

are

4

CRIMEA

\ND

Date

Register No.

CRIMEAN

Pages

TATARS

Subject of register

14674

17

1050/1640

3382

46

Avari7;

Kefe...

1051/1641

3093

48

Avari7:

Kefe...

1051/1641

3845

53

AvarÌ7'

Kefe...

1053/1643

15514

2

1049-50/1639-40

Cizye: Kefe

Cizye: Kefe vilayet

1053/1643

1885

12

1054/1644

15898

44

Cizye: .. . Özü Cizye: Kefe ve Sogudak

1059-70/1649-60

14680

62

Avariz: Kefe...

1066

48

Cizye: Kefe vilayet

1061-3/1650-3

12801

52

Cizye: .. . Kefe ...

1062/1651-2

18160

26

Cizye: Kefe (Giray Hani)

306"

64

Avariz: . .. Kefe...

1063/1652-3

15365

43

Cizye: .. . Kefe ...

1063/1652-3

5281

53

Cizye: .. . Kefe ...

1064-5/1653-5

3354

20

Avariz: . .. Kefe...

1066/1655-6

384"

1 16

Avariz: . .. Kefe...

1066/1655-6

752-1

44

Cizye: .. . Kefe ...

1067 8/1656-8

3850

66

Avariz: . .. Kefe...

1073/1662-3

293"

256

Avariz: . .. Kefe...

1073/1662-3

315"

124

Avariz: . .. Kefe...

1083/1671-2

5345

38

1086-8/1675-7

2018

88

Cizye (bakiye): ... Kefe...

1088-91/1677-80

4038

78

Cizye (bakiye): ... Kefe...

1089/1678

380«)

71

Avariz: . .. Kefe...

1096-1106/1684-95

9480

46

Avariz: . .. Kefe...

1097/1684 5

323

44

Avariz:

1099/1687-8

1500!

1060/1650

1063-4/1625-4

f

Ispence-ii yahud: ... Kefe...

Kefe...

1

Cizye: Özü vilayet Cizye: Kefe (Murtaza Pa§a)

1099/1687-8

14882

4

1100/1688-9

316"

172

Avariz: . .. Kefe...

1108/1696-7

3807

105

Avariz: . .. Kefe...

1110/1698-9

3974

88

Avariz: . .. Kefe...

1111/1699-1700

382(i

96

Avariz: . .. Kefe... Avariz: . .. Kefe...

3826

90

1909(1

8

1124/1712

3155

242

Avariz: . .. Kefe...

1128/1715-6

38 18

210

Avariz: . .. Kefe...

1130-48/1717-35

3706

14

1150/1737-8

3815

224

Avariz: . .. Kefe...

1153/1740

3825

212

Avariz: ,... Kefe...

1159/1746

3155

224

Avariz:

Kefe...

1162/1748-9

397 2

218

Avariz'

Kefe...

1112/1700-1 11 15-7/1703-5

Cizye (bakiye): Kefe (Mehmed A g a )

Cizye (bakiye): Kefe

OTTOMAN SOURCES FOR A STUDY OF KEFE VILAYET No.

Pages

1167/1753-4

3148

254

Avariz: ... Kefe...

1178/1764-5

3968

232

Avariz: ... Kefe...

1190/1776

2991

236

Avariz: ... Kefe...

Date

Register

5

Subject of register

Ahkam, berat, emir

defterler

(these registers contain copies of orders, patents, privileges, ordinances, sent to various officials in the provinces from the central government) No.

Pages

Subject of register

233

138

Ahkam: ... Kefe...

1031-2/1621-3

7589

170

Ahkam-i maliye:... Kefe...

1036-7/1626-8

3457

150

Ahkam, berat: ... Kefe...

1076-9/1665-9

2745

194

Ahkam, berat: ... Kefe...

1077-9/1666-9

14800

114

Ahkam: Kefe'de ¡9 kale...

1087/1676

20706

4

1087/1676

9853

172

Ahkam, emir: ... Azak...

1092-3/1681-2

2926

216

Berat:... Özü beylerbegi

1092-6/1681-5

3244

158

Ahkam-i maliye:... Kefe...

1098 1101/1686 90

2949

22

1108-9/1696-8

3462

570

Date

Register

960/1552-3

1118/1706-7 1125-6/1713-4

Ahkam, emir: Azak (Ahmed Pa§a)

Ahkam: ... Kefe... Ahkam-i maliye:... Özü...

203

155

Ahkam: ... Kefe...

9901

419

Ahkam: Azak... Ahkam, berat:... Özü...

3434

590

1133/1720-1 1149/1736-7

18361 18451

16 20

Ahkam: Özü valisine Ahkam: Kirim canibinde Kapudan Haci

1165-75/1751-62

19308

178

Mehmed Pa§a ve sabika Azak defterdar Evamir-i maliye:... Özü...

1125/1713

Mukataa

defterler

(these registers contain names of individuals to whom tax farms were assigned, the sorts of taxes, and the revenues anticipated from them) No.

Pages

954/1547

1088

94

Mukataa-i iltizam: ... Kefe eyaleti has

958/1551

71

82

Has-i mukataa:... Kefe eyalet

1080-6/1669-75

3301

56

Mukataa: Bakiye-i zimmet: ... Özü...

1102 5/1690-4

7375

60

Mukataa: . . . K e f e . . .

15967

9

Mukataa: . . . K e f e . . .

1110/1698-9

3499

48

Mukataa: . . . K e f e . . .

1110/1698-9

7253

48

Mukataa: . . . K e f e ...

Date

1108/1696-7

Register

Subject of register

6

CRIMEA

Date

Register

No.

AND

CRIMEAN

Pages

Subject of

TATARS register

1110/1698-9

6249

28

Mukataa: . . Kefe ...

1111/1699-1700

4906

48

Mukataa: . . Kefe ...

1112/1700-1

3097

28

Mukataa: . . Kefe ...

12858

34

Mukataa: . . K e f e . . .

196

Mukataa: . . Kefe ...

1141/1728 9

240') 3707

34

Mukataa: . . Kefe ...

1145/1732

2684

32

Mukataa: Bakiye-zimmet: ... Kefe

1155/1742

7737

80

Mukataa: . . K e f e . . .

1158/1745

5496

84

Mukataa: Kefe ...

1159/1746

4090

84

Mukataa: Kefe ...

1121/1709 1124-5/1712-3

971

8

—

3791

8

Mukataa: . . Kefe ...

—

1495

8

Mukataa: . . Kefe ...

1196/1718-2

Muhasebe ruznamçe

Mukataa: . . K e f e . . .

(bookkeeping accounts), varidat (revenues), masrafat

(expenses),

(rough day-book of current financial transactions), irad (income)

Date

Register

No

Pages

Subject of

register

928-32/1521-6

7668

32

988-94/1580-6

5338

222

Muhasebe:... Kefe ...

1015-7/1606-8

275

240

Muhasebe: Kefe

Varidat:... Kefe

1019/1610

5956

97

1023-4/1614-5

534.'

112

Varidat: ... Kefe...

1024/1615

272 5

574

Varidat: ... Kirim ...

1027/1617-8

742.»

40

Irad:... Kefe ...

1037/1627-8

20163

10

Ruznamçe: Özü

1039/1629-30

1663

16

Muhasebe: Özü

1040/1630-1

7495

58

Varidat: ... Kefe ...

1081/1670

1258

32

Muhasebe: ... Moskov elçi ...

1091/1680

4559

12

Irad: Kamaniçe

1092/1681

i8i:

107

1097/1687

18289

16

Varidat: Kefe ...

22 18

34

Muhasebe: Özü (Serasker Mustafa Pa§a)

1100-1/1688-90

Varidat: ... Kazaklar...

Muhasebe: ... Kamaniçe, Azak

1 1

Varidat: ... Kefe...

1114/1702-3

1563X 3186

34

Irad: ... Kefe ...

1104/1692-3

6003

86

Muhasebe: ... Azak ...

1110/1698 9

1668"

8

1116/1704

324. 1

42

Masrafat:... Kefe ...

1 134-5/1721-3

370 >

36

Muhasebe: Azak

1196/1781-2

1964S

16

Muhasebe: ... Rusya elçi

1199/1784-5

311""

232

Irad: Özü...

1204/1789-90

3250

407

Masrafat: Özü...

1110-12/1698-1701

Irad: Özü

OTTOMAN S O U R C E S FOR A STUDY OF KEFE VILAYET Specific Date

Register

991/1583

military campaigns

or

armies

Subject of

register

No.

Pages

16267

1097

6727

648

18631

12

Irad: for Polish campaign Muhasebe: Ozii Campaign

7

Ozii janissaries, with Ferhad Pa§a on an eastern campaign

1030/1620-1

Janissary salaries, for the Polish campaign

1095-6/1683-5 1111/1699-1700

2339

50

1 151/1738-9

2585

40

Muhasebe: Crimean campaign

1152/1739-40

4493

32

Muhasebe: Crimean Serasker Vezir Noman Pa§a

Various Date

Register

taxes Subject of

register

Ao.

Pages

1045/1635-6

3854

35

1069/1658-9

2219

291

1080-6/1669-75

3301

56

Zimmet (tribute from non-Muslims):

1125/1713

2569

16

Zimmet: ... Kefe ...

1130-6/1717-24

4161

76

Zimmet: ... Kefe ...

Bedel-i mekari (tax on pack horses): Kefe Adet-i zimmet (special tax on nonMuslims):

...Azak...

... Özii...

Various

military expenses:

mühimmat

cebeciyan

(armorers),

(ammunition), tamirat (repairs)

No.

Pages

1036/1626-7

16458

222

Cebeci: ... Özü ...

Date

Register

Subject of

register

1051/1641

16557

189

Cebeci: ... Özü ...

1051/1641

16539

128

Cebeci: ... Azak ...

1052/1642

2021

27

1 0 5 9 - 6 0 / 1 6 4 9 50

21245

1271

1090/1679

Mühimmat: Azak Cebeci: Özü ... Azak ...

16714

208

1114-74/1702-61

3221

902

1127-30/1715-8

12873

24

Cebeciyan: Özü eyalet Tamirat: Or kalesi

Cebeci: Azak... Mühimmat: Kirim'da kaleler

1128/1715-6

13 77

15

1130/1717-8

2854

518

1131/1718-9

2858

182

Mühimmat: ... Azak ...

1146/1733-4

17070

120

Cebeci: ... Azak, Or, Özü ...

1149/1736-7

17105

79

3160

906

1178-87/1764-73

Mühimmat: ... Azak ...

Cebeci: ... Azak ... Tamirat: Kefe, Kirim ...

8

CRIMEA

\ND

CRIMEAN

TATARS

Crimean Tatars Date

Register No.

Pages

329

10

Zahire icmal: Cihangiray ben Saadetgiray

6278

48

Muhasebe: . . . Tatarhan $avu§lar Masrafat: . . . Kirim hanlari saliyane

950/1543

Subject of register

Han ve agyan, iimera, evlad ve ahvan 977-82/1569-74 1012/1603

19221

18

1013/1604

3665

168

Mevacib: . . . Kirim hanlannin evladini...

1018/1609

5538

482

Mevacib: . . . Kirim ham

1034/1624-5

2120

364

Mevacib: ... Tatar ham ...

1034/1624-5

6768

368

Mevacib: ... Kirim ham ...

1048/1638

1332

102

Masrafat: ... Kirim han zadeler

1054/1644

18186

63

At tayinat: ... Kirimgiray suitanlari

175

22

Saliyane: Tatar suitanlari

1082-3/1671-2

3726

42

Saliyane: Tatar suitanlari

1086/1675

5239

44

Saliyane: Tatar suitanlari

1088/1677

4904

32

Saliyane: Tatar suitanlari

1088-9/1677-8

4685

31

Masrafat: Kirimhan zadeleri

1088/1677

60- 1

43

Iskan (settlement) Kinm'dan Nogay Taifesi

1091/1680

185')

60

Saliyane: Tatar suitanlari

18631

12

Irad: Leh seferi, Selimgiray Han, K a l g a , . . .

183

55

Saliyane: Tatar suitanlari

1074-81/1663-70

1095-6/1683-5 1096/1684-5

14525

15

Has: ... Kirim tatarlan...

1 103/1691-2

397"

60

Mevacib: ... Tatar han tabii . . .

1 104/1692-3

243 3

100

Saliyane: Tatar suitanlari

1 105/1693-4

184"

80

Saliyane: Tatar suitanlari

1 105/1693-4

18542

39

Saliyane: Kirim hanlari

1105/1693-4

296"

424

1106/1694-5

2426

100

Saliyane: Tatar suitanlari

1108/1696-7

184

42

Saliyane: Tatar suitanlari

1108/1696-7

19560

54

Has: ... Kirim ham ve suitanlari ...

11 1 0 / 1 6 9 8 - 9

2 2 6l)

60

Mevacib: Tatar han tabii ...

1110/1698 9

18546

16

Has: ... Kirim hanlari...

1111/1699

2963

586

Masrafat: . . . Kirim hanlari ...

1114/1702

2491

354

Masrafat: . . . Kirim hanlari ...

1100

12/1688-1700

Masrafat: ... Kirim hanlari ...

1115/1703

174"

160

Saliyane: Tatar suitanlari

1121/1709

2488

340

Masrafat: ... Kirim ham Devlet Giray

1122/1710

2483

374

1123/1711

6870

12

muhimmat-i masraf Masrafat: ... Kirim ham, ve Kalgai Sultan... E j y a defter: Kirim ham ile suitanlari

OTTOMAN S O U R C E S FOR A STUDY OF KEFE VILAYET Date

Register

No.

Pages

1125/1713

7107

32

1126/1714

2894

406

18806

26

1128/1715-6

2847

354

1129/1716-7

3537

20

1126-7/1714-5

9

Subject of register Mevacib: ... Kirim harn tabii... Masrafat: ... Kirim ham ... Saliyane: Kirim ham Masrafat: ... Kirim ham Teslimat: Mirzalar ile Giray Sultanlarin ramazanda gönderilen Mehmed Giray han...

1129/1716-7

7083

138

Mevacib: ... Kirim ham ...

1134/1721-3

3136

407

Saliyane: ... Kirim ham ...

1135/1722-3

3132

400

Saliyane: ... Kirim ham ...

1136/1723-4

3135

400

Saliyane: ... Kirim ham ...

1140-1/1727-9

8984

339

Saliyane: Kirim h a n l a n , Kalgai ve Nureddin ...

1158/1745

6593

354

Saliyane: ... Kirim hanlan ...

1158/1745

6598

298

Masrafat:... Tatar askerinin ba§bugu...

1167 7 1 / 1 7 5 3 - 8

15655

14

1168-78/1754-61

14368

582

Mevacib: ... Tatar sultanlan ... Tezaker: ... Kirim ham ...

Saliyane: Kirim hanlari

6307

254

19405

67

1181/1767

3140

300

Masrafat: Kirim ham ...

1168/1754-5 1168-81/1754-67

Saliyane: Kirim hanlari ...

1182/1768

3376

244

Masrafat: ... Kirim ham ...

1182-6/1768-72

5970

268

Masrafat: Rus seferi, Kirim sultanlan ...

1182/1768

4052

377

Kuyudat: Kirim hanlan ...

1187/1773

6601

246

Kuyudat: Istanbul'a gelen Mehmed

1191/1777

3012

372

Saliyane: Kirim ham ...

1191-4/1777-80

8519

304

Ahkam: Kirim Tatar taifesi...

1195/1780-1

9054

771

Masrafat: ... Sabik Kirim ham Sefa Giray

1202/1787-8

2478

376

Masrafat: ... Kirim sultanlan

1206/1791-2

2974

440

Masrafat: ... Kirim hanlari ...

1207-23/1792-1808

9004

472

Saliyane: Kirim hanlan, sultanlan

Giray Sultan ile mirzalar...

Sakiz adasinda ikamet ...

1208/1793-4

19621

24

1209/1794-5

4385

219

Saliyane: Kirim sultanlan Masrafat: ... Kirim ham ...

10

CRIMKA

AND

CRIMEAN

Bazi yeniçeri

TATARS

mevacib

(salaries for janissaries) Date

Register

No.

Pages

Subject of

register

1 6 4 6 2

6 0 2

... Azak ... Özii...

1 0 2 2 / 1 6 1 3

6 9 2 5

6 4 6

... Özü ...

1 0 2 3 / 1 6 1 4

6 8 0 4

6 6 8

... Özü ...

2 0 0 5 0

1 3 3

Kefe

1 0 2 5 / 1 6 1 6

6 9 1 2

2 4 2

... Kefe ...

1 0 2 5 / 1 6 1 6

6 9 1 4

3 7 6

1 0 2 5 / 1 6 1 6

1 6 3 7 9

2 4

9 8 8 / 1 5 8 0

1 0 2 3 - 5 / 1 6 1 4 - 6

... Kcfe ... Kefe Kefe...

1 0 2 6 / 1 6 1 7

6 9 6 9

7 2 6

1 0 2 6 / 1 6 1 7

1 6 4 0 5

4 1 6

... Kefe ...

1 0 2 6 / 1 6 1 7

1 6 4 0 7

7 8

... Kefe ...

6 0

Kefe, Azak

1 0 2 7 / 1 6 1 7 - 8

2 2 0 3

1 0 2 7 / 1 6 1 7 - 8

1 9 9 9 7

1 0 2 7 / 1 6 1 7 - 8

6 2 5 6

4 8

1 0 2 7 / 1 6 1 7 - 8

6 9 2 9

5 9 0

Kefe ... Özü ... Azak

1 0 2 7 / 1 6 1 7 - 8

6 7 1 9

7 8 6

...Kefe...

1 0 2 7 / 1 6 1 7 - 8

6 7 0 9

7 6 2

... Azak ...

1 0 2 7 / 1 6 1 7 - 8

6 8 2

8 4 4

...Özü...

1 0 2 8 / 1 6 1 8 - 9

7 2 3 0

1 0 2 9 / 1 6 1 9 - 2 0

7 0 2

1 0 3 0 / 1 6 2 0 - 1 1 0 3 0 / 1 6 2 0 - 1

1

!

15

...Özü... ... Özü ...

8 8 0

. . . K e f e ...

5 8 6

Azak ...

6 7 4 2

7 3 4

...Özü...

6 9 2 7

7 1 8

... Azak

1 0 3 4 / 1 6 2 4 - 5

5 5 6 1

5 7 2

... Or ... Özü ...

1 0 3 4 / 1 6 2 4 - 5

1 8 3 2 4

1 0 8

. . . K c f e ... ... Kefe ...

!

1 0 3 5 / 1 6 2 5 - 6

2 2 0 2

4 5

1 0 3 6 / 1 6 2 6 - 7

1 6 4 5 9

1 3 3

1 0 3 6 / 1 6 2 6 - 7

1 7 7 0 6

9 2

... Azak ...

1 6 6

...Kefe...

1 0 3 9 / 1 6 2 9 - 3 0

716";

1 0 4 7 / 1 6 3 7

6 7 3 0

1 0 4 7 / 1 6 3 7

1 6 5

1

IX

... Kefe ...

5 0 2

...Kefe...

1 3 6

Kefe... ... Kefe ...

1 0 4 8 / 1 6 3 8

6 9 4 7

7 7 2

1 0 5 1 - 3 / 1 6 4 1 - 3

7 3 6 4

6 0 4

... Azak ...

1 0 5 1 / 1 6 4 1

1 6 5 4 1

2 0 1

Kefe...

1 0 5 2 / 1 6 4 2

1 4 4 8

S

1

... Azak, Kefe

1 0 5 2 / 1 6 4 2

1 6 9 1

1

6 8

1 0 5 3 / 1 6 4 3

7 4 "

i

7 6 8

1 0 5 3 - 8 / 1 6 4 3 - 8

4 7 4 6

3 1

1 0 5 4 / 1 6 4 4

6 9 9 5

6 3 0

1 0 5 4 / 1 6 4 4

1 8 1 8 8

1 2 0

1 4

... Özü ... ...Kefe... ... Kefe, Kerj, Sudak ... Kefe ... ... Özü, Azak ...

OTTOMAN S O U R C E S FOR A STUDY OF KEFE VILAYET Date

Register

No.

Pages

Subject of register

6109

264

Azak, Özü ...

17674

184

... Kefe, Azak ..

5232

76

1108/1696-7

20188

7

1129/1716-7

16929

253

6757

1146

1058/1648 1062-3/1651-3 1074-81/1663-70

1146/1733 1163/1749-50

11

... Kefe ... Özü ... Azak ... Kirim ... ...Kefe...

7015

1150

1181-7/1767-73

17405

136

1182-3/1768-9

17351

87

1183 5/1768-71

17368

122

Özü

Özü (sekbanlar) Özü...

1184/1770

17370

114

Kirim

1185/1771

17388

292

...Özü...

—

17677

83

...Kefe...

—

17776

86

... Azak...

Kaleler muhafazan,

mevacib

(registers of names and salaries of all types of soldiers found in forts in the Ottoman Empire) Date 982/1574

Register

No.

Pages

7093

42

Subject of register ... Kefe, Temrük, Baliklagu, Tarn Ker§, Azak

997/1588

20155

466 17

1001/1592-3

2224 164

26

Azak, Cankirman, Kefe, Mankup ... Azak ...

1003/1594-5

16292

93

...Kefe, Ö z ü . . .

1010-4/1601-5

16410

103

... Azak, Kefe

1019/1610

16371

273

Özü... ... Kefe, Azak ...

997-8/1588-9

... Azak, Özü ...

1019/1610

16373

701

1019/1610

16376

264

... Azak

1019/1610

18108

82

...Kefe

1019/1610

15835

36

... Kefe

1023/1614

16495

83

... Azak...

1023/1614

3975

52

... Kefe ... Temrük, Sogudak,

1025-7/1616-8

6696

966

Taman, Özü ... 1026/1617

1782.9

38

1026/1617

6841

1296

1029/1619-20

6358

522

... Özü ... Kefe ... Özü... ... Azak ... ...Özü...

12

CRIMEA

Date

Register

No.

AND C R I M E A N Pages

TATARS

Subject of

register

1037/1627-8

7068

80

1038/1628

7374

68

1038-44/1628-34

12791

149

1039/1629-30

16471

30

392

53

... Sogudak, Kefe ... Taman ...

1047/1637

2206

37

Ker§, Kefe

1048/1638

16528

136

1050/1640

6045

58

1050/1640

1833

104

1052/1642

7272

58

Taman, Temriik, Ker§

1052/1642

1043-4/1633-4

...Kefe... ... Taman, Kefe, Ker§, Temriik Kefe... Kefe

Kefe... ... Kefe ... ...Kefe...

19961

56

Kefe, Ker§

1052-3/1642-3

5695

34

Azak

1052-5/1642-5

6133

634

14758

28

1053/1643

... Azak ... Azak

1053/1643

757

551

Azak ...

1053/1643

6997

480

... Azak ...

1054/1644

6934

1 170

1057/1647

20171

105

Ozii, Azak ...

1057/1647

20179

500

Azak, Ozii ...

1058/1648

16565

91

... Azak ...

1058/1648

20183 6999 16067

106

... Azak ...

468 69

... Ozii, Azak ... Kefe

693.i 16767

664

... Azak ...

229

... Azak ...

16579

... Azak ...

700 ?

586 572

1062/651-2

6603

256

... Azak ...

1064/1653-4

6701

652

... Azak ...

1064/1653-4

16874

1 18

... Azak ...

1064/1653-4

7004

412

... Azak ... Kefe

1064-7/1653-7

6391

282

... Azak ...

1065/1654-5

6693

650

... Azak ...

1066/1655-6

6685

1998

1067/1656-7

5426

194

Kefe, Taman, Ker§, Temriik

1068/1657 8

6820

628

... Kefe ... Azak ...

1068/1657-8

6306

594

... Ozii... Azak

1068/1657-8

682 )

684

... Kefe, Azak ...

1070/1659-60

7007

446

... Azak ...

1070/1659-60

6998

438

...Ozii...

1058/1648 1060/1650 1060 3/1650-3 1060-4/1650-4 1061/1650-1 1061-5/1650-5

...Kefe...

... Azak ... Kefe...

... Azak ... Kefe ...

O T T O M A N S O U R C E S F O R A S T U D Y OF K E F E V I L A Y E T No.

Pages

Subject of register

1072/1661-2

6976

288

... Özü ... Azak ...

1073/1662-3

16635

152

... Azak ...

1076-7/1665-7

612,6

1337

... Azak ... Kefe ...

1076-7/1665-7

6843

1012

... Azak ...

16638

151

... Azak ...

6557

798

... Azak, Kefe ...

1078-81/1667-70

16640

134

1082/1671

16659

63

1082/1671

6961

718

... Azak. Özü ...

1082-4/1671-3

6319

898

Azak... Kefe ... Kirim ... ... Kirim ...

Date

1077/1666-7 1078-9/1667-8

1082-5/1671-4

Register

... Azak ... Azak

5979

736

1083/1672

16662

22

...Kefe

1083/1672

16674

96

Kefe...

1083/1672

16664

58

... Azak ...

1083/1672

16665

406

... Azak ...

1083-4/1672-3

16661

365

... Azak ... Kefe

1085/1674

16673

152

... Azak

1087/1676

1607

57

1087/1676

16693

118

Azak... Kaman^e

1088/1677

16694

392

... Kefe ... Kamanise

1088-90/1677-9

16697

109

...Kefe...

1089/1678

3113

28

Kamani9e

1090/1679

16715

181

... Kamani9e ...

1090/1679

16719

122

...Kefe...

1090/1679 1090/1679

16720 16721

152 347

... Azak ...

1090-1/1679-80

17435

148

...Özü...

1091/1680

16725

158

... Kamani9e ... Azak ...

1091/1680

16728

84

1091/1680

21234

236

... Kefe

1091-2/1680-1

17439

362

Azak ... Kefe, Özü ...

1091-2/1680-1

16738

338

... Azak ...

1091-2/1680-1

791

742

Azak, Özü, Taman ...

1092/1681

... Kirim ...

... Kirim, Aco, Kefe ... Özü ...

... Kamani9e

16742

278

Kefe, Kirim ...

1094/1682-3

821

738

Özü... Azak...

1095/1683-4

18286

6

1095/1683-4

16756

95

1095/1683-4

16760

120

... Azak, Kamani9e ...

1095/1683-4

6936

738

... Kefe ... Azak ...

16757

194

...Kefe...

1095-6/1683-5

Kefe Azak ...

14

CRIMEA

Date

Register

AND CRIMEAN

No.

Pages

Subject

of

TATARS register

16753

32

1097/1685-6

6398

130

1097/1685-6

6385

138

... Kefe ... Azak ...

1097/1685-6

11765

421

Azak ...

1095-7/1683-6

... Azak, Özü ... ... Kamaniçe ... Özü ...

1097-9/1685-8

6944

892

... Azak, Kefe ...

1098-9/1686-8

7243

406

... Kamaniçe ...

1099/1687-8

3685

40

... Azak ...

1099/1687-8

16772

564

... Azak ...

1100/1688-9

16775

42

1101/1689-90

17756

86

1103/1691-2

5337

8

6942

1836

4216 16794

800

1103/1691-2 1 103-5/1691-4 1104/1692-3 1105/1693-4 1106-7/1694-6 1107/1695-6 1108/1696-7

48

...Kefe ... Azak, Kamaniçe ... Kamaniçe ... Azak ... Kefe ... ... Azak ... Azak ...

16798

45

4321 16804

680 44

Azak ...

43 18

720 272

...Özü...

180

... Kamaniçe, Kefe ...

1109/1697-8

16809

1109/1697-8 1109-11/1697-9

1681(1 6683

1110/1698-9

168 1 y

1111/1699

16812

1111-24/1699-1712

16953 4325 432(

1 114

... Kefe, Özü ... ...Özü... ... Aco, Özü ... ... Or, Kefe ... Aco, Akkerman, Kirim ... Özü ...

1112/1700-1 11 13/1701-2 11 13-4/1701-3 1114/1702

253 353 47 476 394

... Kefe ...Özü... Or Özü, Kefe Özü, Aco, Or ...

43 2T 1682?

760 66

1 1 14/1702

1682-

270

1 114/1702

17031 67 31

18 434

... Or,Özü ... Kefe ...

392.

806

Kefe...

61^

118

1115/1703 1115-6/1703-5 1115-9/1703-7

... Özü, Kefe ... Kefe ... ... Taman ... Aco ... Kefe ... Özü

Kefe, Ker§, Baliklagu, Kale-i cedid, Taman

1116/1704

57 2'

492

... Aco, Or ... Kefe...

1116/1704 1117/1705

21 17(,

248

... Kefe

517;

488

... Aco, Özü, Akrlburun, Kefe ...

1118/1706

1683

33

1118-9/1706-7

39(id 16840

1118-20/1706-8

1234 188

... Özü, Aco ... Kefe ... ... Kefe, Taman ... Özü, Or ... ... Özü, Aco ...

OTTOMAN S O U R C E S FOR A STUDY OF KEFE VILAYET No.

Pages

1120/1708

6700

542

... Kale-i cedid, Taman ... Aco,

1120/1708

2463

396

... Ozii... Aco ... Temrtik ... Kefe

1120/1708

16845

289

... Aco ... Ozii, Kale i cedid, Kefe

1121/1709

16854

126

... Kefe ... Ozii

Date

Register

Subject of register

Ozii, Kefe ...

1122/1710

17773

244

Ozii ... Kefe ...

1122/1710

16861

178

Ozii... Kefe ...

1123/1711

16880

30

...Kefe...

1123/1711

16869

288

...Kefe...

1123/1711

16872

232

1123/1711

16875

48

Kefe ... Or, Ozii ... Aco, Azak ... ... Kefe, Taman, Ozii ...

... Ozii...

1123-5/1711-3

16871

84

1124/1712

21170

173

... Taman ...

1124-5/1712-3

3623

656

Azak, Ozii, O r . . .

1125-8/1713-6

3666

76

1126/1714

787

846

... Azak ... Ker§, Kefe ...

1126/1714

16882

112

Azak ...

1126/1714

16897

317

1126/1714

3725

46

1127/1715

Azak ...

... Azak Azak

70J2

656

1128/1715-6

19826

8

...Ozii, K e f e . . . Or, A z a k . . .

1128/1715-6

6756

28

Ozii ... Azak ...

... Azak

1128/1715-6

17042

12

1128/1715-6

20262

322

... Azak ... O r . . . O z i i . . .

1128/1715-6 1129/1716-7

17772 21242

98 901

... Ozii ... Azak ... ... Azak, Aco, Taman, Ozii ...

1129-30/1716-8

16926

126

Kefe ... Ozii ... Azak

1130/1717-8 1130/1717-8

4 3 10

924

... Or, Aco, Ozii, Kefe ...

835

681

1130/1717-8

16937

83

1131/1718-9

2211

8

Azak

1131/1718-9

1860

68

Azak

1131/1718-9

16951

55

... Kefe, Ozii, Azak

1131/1718-9

16957

16

...Ozii...

1131-45/1718-32

5543

257

... Azak ...

1132/1719-20

6373

508

... Azak ... Ozii...

1132/1719-20

17007

70

1133/1720-1

6958

786

1133/1720-1

16974

177

... Azak, Ozii... ... Or, Ozii, Azak, Aco ...

... Azak ... Azak ... Aco, Ozii... Temriik, Taman ... Kale-i cedid ... ... Azak ...

16 Date

C R I M E A AND C R I M E A N T A T A R S Register

No.

Pages

1133/1720-1 1133/1720-1 1134/1721-2 1134/1721-2 1135/1722-3

19969 20100 6844 6571 6960

70 449 814 696 752

1135-6/1722-4 1136/1723-4 1137/1724-5

6152 16984 6952

194 640 716

1137/1724-5 1138/1725-6 1138/1725-6 1138/1725-6 1139/1726-7

19971 2316 1700-1 16949 63 1 5

49 196 51 230 786

1139-4/1726-8

6575

1558

1140/1727-8 1141/1728-9 1141/1728-9 1142-4/1729-32

2542 2340 6207 3949

18 74 72 1012

1143/1730-1 1144/1731-2 1144-5/1731-3 1145/1732-3 1145/1732-3 1146/1733-4 1146/1733-4 1149/1736 1149/1736 1149/1736 1149/1736 1149-50/1736-7 1150/1737 1150/1737 1150-1/1737-8 1150-1/1737-8 1150-2/1737-9 1154/1741

4369 4370 4068 6949 17056 6328 17061 6812 6537 17093 171 08 17 1 1 ( 17111 66"' 65 6( 171 I-j 1715" 171""

930 862 1522 1040 114 1302 64 200 1498 302 24 464 126 1282 680 264 297 300

Subject of

register

Azak ... ... Azak ... Aco ... Azak ... Òzii... Or, Aco ... Taman ... Azak ... Òzii, Kefe ... ... Azak, Or ... Aco ... Ózii... Temriik, Taman Kale-i cedid, Kefe Azak ... Azak ... Aco, Òzii, Azak, Or, Temriik, Taman, Kale-i cedid, Kefe ... Azak ... Azak Òzii Taman ... ... Or, Ozii, Sogudak, Taman, Kefe, Azak ... ... Temriik, Kefe, Taman, Aco, Kale-i cedid, Azak, Or, Ozii ... Sogudak Azak ... Òzii ... Kefe ... Kale-i cedid, Kefe ... ... Kefe, Kale-i cedid, Aco, Kilburun, Òzii ... ... Kefe ... ... Azak ... Kale-i cedid, Kefe ... ... Azak ... Ozii ... ... Ozii ... Azak ... Aco ... Taman ... ... Azak ... Ozii ... ... Azak ... ... Òzii... Azak ... Azak ... Kefe ... ...Ozii... ...Kefe... ... Òzii ...Òzii... Or... Òzii... Temriik, Aco ... .,. Òzii... ... Òzii... ... Or... Aco ...

O T T O M A N S O U R C E S FOR A STUDY OF KEF H V I L A Y E T Date

Register

No.

Pages

1155/1724

18158

31

1157/1744 1157/1744

1737

1800

6562

684

1157/1744

6791

1270

1158-9/1745-6

6553

936

1160/1747

6548

1450

Subject

of

register

... Or, Kefe, Taman, Kale-i cec ... Taman ... Kefe ... Taman, Temriik ... ...Or... ... Özü ... Kefe ... Taman, Temriik, Aco, Or ... ... Ö z ü . . . Kefe, O r . . . ... Kefe ... Taman ...

1160/1747

17205

259

1161/1748

6291

1293

1161/1748 1161/1748

20102

341

...Kefe...

1530 10

...Özü, Or

1162/1748-9

6556 17239

1165/1751-2

834

...Kefe...

1166/1752-3

1724-1

1310 14

1166/1752-3

17242

10

... Özii...

1167/1753-4

20077

251

... Kefe ... Azak

1168/1754-5

16751

116

...Özü...

1168/1754-5

17245

18

Aco, Sogudak, Temriik, Or, Kale-i cedid, Taman, Kefe

1168/1754-5

82.2

1168/1754-5

765

1164 32

... Or, Kale-i cedid, Kefe ... Özü

1168-9/1754 6

17250

Kefe, Taman, Kale-i cedid ...

...Kefe... ...Özü...

1169/1755-6

5991

131 774

1170/1756-7 1171/1757-8 1171/1757-8 1172/1758-9

17254 6689 5720

22 1201 1290

... Özü ... ... Özü ... Kefe ... Özü ... Kefe ...

5769

1173/1759-60 1173/1759-60 1173/1759-60

5766 17272 21277

1214 1044 117

... Or,Özü ... ...Özü...

1173-4/1759-61

17530

128 72

1173-4/1759-61

17518

171

1174/1760-1

5770 17275

1 192

1174-5/1760-2 1174-5/1760-2

264

... Azak ... Kale-i cedid, Kefe ...

...Özü... ...Kefe... ...Özü... ... Taman ... ... Özü, Kilburun, Taman, Kefe ...Özii...

17 27 9

310

1175/1761-2

4305

... Özü, Or, Aco ...

1175/1761-2

17277

1388 162

1175/1761-2

68! 1

1210

... Özü...

1175/1761-2

17278

182

...Özü...

1175/1761-2

17281

40

... Kefe ... Taman ... ...Kefe...

... Taman ...

17

CRIMEA

18

Register

AND

CRIMEAN

TATARS

No.

Pages

1175/1761 2

17285

239

Kefe...

1175/1761-2

17293

132

... Azak ...

1176/1762-3

17306

131

...Özü...

1177/1763-4

17309

453

...Özü...

1177/1763-4

6536

1216

17318

20

6541

1206

17314

396

... Aco ... Or ...

230.5

736

... Kefe...

1179-80/1765-6

17324

318

...Kefe ...

1180/1766

17328

203

... Kefe, Kale-i cedid, Or,

1180-1/1766-7

17334

314

... Özü ...

Date

1177-8/1763-5 1178/1764-5 1178-9/1764-5 1179/1765

Subject of register

...Özü, Or... ... Kefe, Sogudak ... ...Özü...

Temrük, Taman ... 1180-3/1766-9

17358

46

Özü

1181/1767

19390

28

... Özü ... Kefe

1183/1769

17364

...Özü...

1184-8/1770-4

17414

168 394

1189/1775

1723

1 102

...Özü...

1190/1776

824

1 134

...Özü...

1191/1777

69 P

388

...Özü...

1193/1779

1746"'

188

...Özü...

1194/1780 1194/1780

1746X

48 536

... Kefe ... ...Özü ...

1195/1780-1

21 194

158

... Kefe ... Taman

1195/1780-1 1196-7/1781-3

1747
o obsCestva

istorii

i drevnostej,

1844, p. 383. ^ C o m m e Smirnov, ces deux historiens paraissent induits en erreur par la phrase miïtad (« selon la coutume ancienne») q u o n trouve si souvent dans les Chroniques o t t o m a n e s Muhimme Defierleri. D'habitude les c h r o n i q u e u r s mentionnent l'attribution des saliyane tirke- baha sans indiquer les sommes, en disant simplement qu'ils étaient accordés miitad Cette phrase é v i d e m m e n t se réfère i l'acte d'attribuer le salaire ou la donation et non pas s o m m e spécifique. Voici les a b r e v a t i o n s e m p l o y é e s , toutes dans les Baç-Bakanlik d'Istanbul : CA CD CEM CH CM Emiri H K MM

Cevdet tasnifi, Askeri Cevdet tasnifi, Dahiliye Cevdet tasnifi, Eyalet-i miimtaze Cevdet tasnifi, Hariciye Cevdet tasnifi, Maliye Ibn-ul-Emin tasnifi, Hariciye Kepeci defterleri Maliyeden mudevvere defterleri

I,

uzere et les et des uzere. à une Arçivi

EMPIRE

OTTOMAN

ET

CRIMÉE

23

siècle sont, en moyenne, deux fois supérieurs à ceux de la dernière partie du XVII e siècle. Les Ottomans essayaient, évidemment, de compenser la perte des sommes que les trafic des esclaves rapportait aux Girây avant le traité de paix de Carlowitz. Les saliyane accordés aux khans régnants montrent beaucoup moins de régularité que les chiffres totaux (Tabl. II). Il ne semble pas qu'il y eût de traitement fixe que le khan recevait avec sa charge, bien que la somme s'accroissait quand il accédait au trône. Des saliyane étaient accordés également aux autres Girây, notamment à ceux qui occupaient des positions officielles (le qalgha et le nûrredûî), aux khans déposés, aux parents, proches et éloignés, dont le nombre pouvait varier de trente-cinq à quatre-vingts (Tabl. VI). D'après un registre, un ancien khan, Qaplân Girây, reçut un saliyane supérieur à celui du khan régnant, Feth Girây 1 . Plus de moitié des saliyane provenait des droits de douane de Kefe ; le reste venait de quelque douze sources différentes, y compris les droits de douane d'Istanbul et d'Izmir ; la taxe de djizye (sur les non-musulmans) à RusCuk, à Inedjik, à Ôzii (Oéakov) et à Tekfurdag; la taxe à'adeti agnam (sur les animaux) de Kirkkilise et d'Edirne; et les revenus généraux d'Avlonya et de Kili. Les saliyane transférés d'Istanbul étaient également accordés aux Tatars choisis parmi d'autres clans que des Girây. Dans les documents d'archives crimcens, actuellement à Moscou, il y a plusieurs documents signalant des sommes accordées aux membres des clans Sîrîn et Argïn 2 . L'usage du saliyane comme paiement, bien qu'il ne fût pas commun dans tout l'Empire, n'était cependant pas réservé à la Crimée. Le saliyane était d'usage dans la plupart des provinces arabes. Les documents indiquent que les chiffres totaux pour l'Egypte dépassaient ceux de la Crimée aux XVII e siècle, alors qu'ils étaient inférieurs aux salaires des Girây au XVIII e siècle 3 . Les registres des saliyane relatifs à la Crimée donnent presque toujours les salaires de la deniz iïmerast'Xla. noblesse maritime) qui gouvernait Yeyalet de Qapudân Pacha, dans la mer Égée. En 1740, le total accordé aux Girây était de 6 594 039 aqce, tandis que d'après le même registre la deniz umerasi"reçut 24 690 891 aqëe4.

l

K 5610 (1149/1736) le k h a n Feth Girây reçut 6 2 0 0 0 0 aqie

tandis q u e l'ancien khan Qaplan

Girây reçut 876 000 aq?e. 7 Un firmân de 1681 accordait à un mirzâ Sîrîn 41 275 aqCe ; un autre de 1727 à un mirzâ

Sîrîn,

18 725 aqie\ un de 1671 à un mfrza Argïn, 20 6 1 8 aq(!e. Cf. F. L a s k o v , «Arhivnye d a n n y e o bejlikah v K r y m s k o m hanstve» (Données des archives sur les beyliks dans le khanat de Crimée), Arheologiteskij s'ezd, Trudy VI, 1889, IV, pp. 97-103; et aussi CA 33 183 (1696) pour attribution des saliyane ottomans aux mirzâ tatars en campagne. 3 S . T. Siiaw, op. cit., pp. ( 8 5 - / 8 8 . ^K 5613.

CRIMEA

24 2. Khanlik

AND C R I M E A N

TATARS

tesrifati

Outre le saliyane reçu par un Girây lors de son accession au trône de Baghéesaray, le Trésor ottoman lui accordait la parure normale de souveraineté islamique, ainsi qu'une somme d'argent, toutes deux appelées tesrifat. C o m m e le salaire, la somme d'argent pouvait changer selon les règnes, et parfois pouvait s'approcher du saliyane annuel. Certains khans, tel Selîm I e r , qui régnèrent à plusieurs reprises profitaient financièrent de leurs fréquentes dépositions. Après 1690, un khan déposé recevait rarement une somme inférieure à celle perçue pendant son règne. Le khan Mengli Girây II reçut même une augmentation de salaire après avoir été déposé en 1730, passant de 700 000 à 896 000 aqce. Le qalgha recevait aussi le tesrifat à son nomination 1 .

3. Tiyis Les khans de Crimée étaient autorisés à percevoir un tribut annuel des États vassaux ottomans d'Eflak (Valachie) et de Bugdan (Moldavie). Bien que les s o m m e s n'aient j a m a i s été très grandes, c'était un revenu que les khans s'efforçaient de garder. En 1581, le khan demanda que le tribut du Bugdan déjà échu lui fût payé si le sultan voulait qu'il participât à l'expédition contre l'Iran en cette même année 2 . Uzunçarçili dit que le montant normal de chaque tribut était 500 000 aqce par an et Peysonnel indique 1 440 000 aqce comme total annuel des deux, au milieu du XVIII e siècle 3 .

4. Segbûn

agëesi

Depuis le milieu du XVI e siècle, les Ottomans payaient la solde d'un corps spécial de l'armée tatare, appelé segbân, qui formait la garde personnelle du khan, ainsi que celle d'un corps similaire, mais plus petit, attaché au qalgha. La

' L e s documents relatifs un tesrifat

n'ont pu être retrouvés que pour les qalgha

; pour les khans, il

a fallu se reporter aux s o m m e s indiquées dans les comptes figurant dans les chroniques. L e qalqha

184); le qalgha

M o h a m m e d (1761) perçut 300

000 agCe (CH 1073) ; le khan Adel Girây (1665), 100 000 aqie

d'après M e h m e d Aga Silahdar

(Silahdar

Selâmet (1762) reçut 300 000 aqCe (CEM

tarihi, Istanbul, 1928,1. p. 395) ; le khan Hâdji Girây (1682) reçut 2 000 altih (ibid., II,

p. 99) ; le khan Selîm Girây (1683). 1 0 0 0 000 aqie (ibid., p. 132); le khan Selîm Girây (1692), 250 000 aqie

(ibid.,

(Rasid

Istanbul. 2 e éd. 1865. VI, p. 288) ; le khan Selîm Girây (1770), 1 150 0 0 0 aqCe

tarihi,

p. 682) ; le qatgha

d'après A h m e t Vasif (Mehasin 2

al-asur

E u d o x i de H u r m u z a k i , Documente

T o q t a m î (1724), 6 0 0 000 aqce d'après M e h m e t R a s i d

ve haqaiq al-akhhâr. privitoare

la istoria

Le Caire, 1830, II, p. 131). românilor

l'histoire des roumains), suppl. I. vol I. Bucarest, 1886, pp. 55-56. 3 U z u n ç a r § i h . op. cit., II, p. 434; M .le Peysonnel, Traité sur le commerce 1787,1, pp. 239-241.

(Documents

concernant

de la mer Noire,

Paris,

EMPIRE

OTTOMAN

ET

25

CRIMÉE

somme variait d'une année à l'autre et dépassait souvent 4 000 000 aqce. Les segbân devaient accompagner le khan dans ses expéditions, mais un chroniqueur ottoman indique que des versements importants étaient aussi faits en temps de paix 1 . 5. Hass Dès le XVI e siècle, les Ottomans entretenaient des princes Girây dans divers domaines (ciftlik) des provinces européennes de l'Empire, ces princes ayant le titre de rehin (otage). Le but original des otages était de permettre aux Ottomans d'avoir sous leur contrôle les vassaux souvent peu coopératifs. Au XVIII e siècle, les Girây étaient entretenus dans les ciftlik aussi, pour permettre aux khans de régner avec plus de sécurité chez eux. Les Ottomans faisaient vivre ces otages en leur assignant une somme du hass (le maintien des autorités) de la région dans laquelle ils étaient tenus. Un registre du hass de 1688 cite, parmi d'autres autorités ottomanes, quatre princes Girây recevant respectivement 331 320 aqce, 99 960 aqce, 144 000 aqce et 259 560 aqce. On peut le comparer au hass de la valide sultane (la mère du sultan) qui était de 18 408 450 aqce, et à celui du qapudati-i derya (l'amiral de la flotte) de 6 296 520 aqce2-.

6 Tirkes baha En contrepartie de tout ce support financier, on comptait sur les Girây pour assurer la défense du flanc nord de l'Empire, et pour envoyer sur demande une armée tatare accompagner les expéditions ottomanes. Quand les Ottomans invitaient les khans à participer aux campagnes, ils éprouvaient la nécessité d'envoyer une donation supplémentaire, appelée tirkes baha («le prix de carquois»). Cette donation était variable et dépendait de l'importance de la campagne, et de la grandeur de l'armée tatare que le khan devait y mener. Un registre indiquant les dépenses initiales complètes de la campagne polonaise de 1683 fixe le tirkes baha à 1 090 030 aqce, soit des dépenses totales de 14 875 000 aqce3. D'habitude le tirkes baha était en moyenne de 30 000 à

l

Rasid

tarihi. op. ci!., II, p. 5 2 3 (4 800 000 aqfe);

(4 800 000 aqfe)

; CEM,

ibid., p. 535 (4 800 0 0 0 aqCe) ; ibid., IV. p. 217

181 (1750), 1 001 0 0 0 aqâe; CH 6103 (1697) pour segbân

(960 000 aqte) et CM 9883 (1716) pour segbân d'un ancien khan (240 0 0 0 2

MM

14 525. Le hass d e Qaplan Girây ( N i g b o l u ) était de 160 0 0 0 aqie

du

qalgha

aqie). (1737) (CEM 675); et

celui de Sa'âdet Girây, de 18 7 5 0 aqie (1723) (CH 4646). 3

M M 18 631. Ce tirkes baha f u t partagé ainsi : le khan Hâdji Girây, 223 220 aqce ; son fils Devlet, 7 8 590 ; le basbug d e l'armée tatare, Ali Aga, 60 000 ; le basbug de l'armée tatare, Mustafa Aga, 60 000 ; Yttmera tatar, 4 2 0 000 ; le qalgha, 144 4 2 0 ; Qïrïm Girây de la suite du qalgha, 76 700 ; le defterdâr du khan, 6 600 ; le deflerdâr du qalgha et les autres, 20 600.

26

CRIMEA

AND C R I M E A N

TATARS

40 000 altih (pièces d'or). Pourtant, en 1601, le sultan envoya 100 000 altih au khan avec un saliyane double, en l'invitant à envahir la Hongrie 1 . Ôzalp Gôkbilgin et Dilek Desaive découvrirent des tirk.es baha de 15 000 à 50 000 altih au cours de la dernière partie du XVII e siècle et du XVIII e siècle 2 . Le khan les distribuait parmi les chefs et surtout parmi les chefs de clans tatars dont l'accord était nécessaire pour pouvoir assembler une armée tatare. Tandis que ce fait n'est mentionné nulle part, il est certain que tout le butin et tous les captifs pris par le clan ou les chefs étaient gardés par eux.

III.

- L ' I M P O R T A N C E DU S O U T I E N F I N A N C I E R

DES

OTTOMANS Bien que les Ottomans disposent de bien des moyens de subventionner les khans, et que les totaux en aqce paraissent élevés, les khans ne dépendaient pas financièrement du sultan. Malheureusement, la plupart des documents concernant le khanat restent en Union Soviétique et les historiens russes et soviétiques s'en servent insuffisamment dans leurs recherches. Peysonnel donne un «budget» du khan en 1743, après l'augmentation des paiements ottomans et l'arrêt du trafic des esclaves, budget dans lequel sur un total de 15 396 000 aqce, seul s 2 4 6 0 000 aqce (dont 1 440 000 provenaient des tributs de la Moldavie et de la Valachie) pouvaient être imputés aux Ottomans 3 . Selîm Girây I er laissa une grande somme en mourant en 1704 ; Halîm Girây Sultan estime la valeur de sa succession à 2 4 0 0 000 aqce. Pourtant V. D. Smirnov écrit qu'il a trouvé dans les archives du khanat un registre évaluant les biens de Selîm Girây à 437 242 4 4 0 aqce, y compris ses terres. Sur cette somme, les Ottomans retenaient 3 543 660 aqce4.

' E . de Hurmuzaki, op. cit.. suppl. Il vol. Il, pp. 42-47 ; Naima florins- IV, p. 82: (1644) 3 600 000 /