Between Freedom and Security [1 ed.] 9783737016407, 9783847116400

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Beata Pituła / Małgorzata Wyganowska / Piotr Mocek (eds.)

Between Freedom and Security

With 68 figures

V&R unipress

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available online: https://dnb.de. The publication was financed from the project entitled “Work safety as a value, a need and an obligation according to the idea of Industry 4.0”, financed within the framework of a grant awarded by the GZM from the Metropolitan Science Support Fund (06/030/FWN23/0074). Reviewer: Prof. Zenon Gajdzica (University of Silesia in Katowice), Prof. AWSB, DSc., PhD., Eng. Łukasz Wróblewski (WSB University in Da˛browa Górnicza). © 2023 by Brill | V&R unipress, Robert-Bosch-Breite 10, 37079 Göttingen, Germany, an imprint of the Brill-Group (Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands; Brill USA Inc., Boston MA, USA; Brill Asia Pte Ltd, Singapore; Brill Deutschland GmbH, Paderborn, Germany; Brill Österreich GmbH, Vienna, Austria) Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Schöningh, Brill Fink, Brill mentis, Brill Wageningen Academic, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Böhlau and V&R unipress. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without prior written permission from the publisher. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Verlage | www.vandenhoeck-ruprecht-verlage.com ISBN 978-3-7370-1640-7

Contents

Part 1: Problems of freedom and security – reflections of humanists Urszula Szus´cik Freedom and Security and Education for Creativity

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Małgorzata Kus´pit The role of the creative attitude of corporate employees in creating inspiring working conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Zdzisław Wołk Technological culture and work culture as the essential determinants of safe work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Zdzisława Janiszewska-Nies´cioruk / Julia Nies´cioruk People with disabilities as “vagabonds”? On the need for seeking balance between their freedom and security in an open – competitive labour market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Beata Pituła / Barbara Grzyb Teacher autonomy in the optics of safety

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Sylwia Jaskulska Using movies in pedagogy teaching programs: schools’, teachers’, and teenagers’ freedom and enslavement as movies’ themes . . . . . . . . . .

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Part 2: The road to safe freedom in the working environment – engineers’ musings Małgorzata Wyganowska Co-teaching as a new training method in occupational health and safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

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Katarzyna Tobór-Osadnik / Anna Bluszcz Error culture vs. Safety culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Joanna Herczakowska Human factor and behavioral safety in the context of the effectiveness of actions taken under the occupational health and safety management system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Marcin Krause Identifying the areas of increased risk of accidents at work for the implementation of the tasks of state supervision over working conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Maja Taraszkiewicz-Łyda Safety Issues in the Context of Cardiovascular Disease and Sudden Cardiac Arrest Incidence as a Global Public Health Problem . . . . . . . . 173 Paweł Wrona / Edyta Franiel Study of visibility in a short tunnel during a fire – numerical model in the Pyrosim program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Piotr Mocek Industrial noise as a source of hazards at the Mechanical Coal Processing Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Adam Duda Activities of the occupational health and safety service for shaping the level of safety culture by activating pro-safety behaviour of employees in an automotive company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Ewelina Włodarczyk Survey of public sentiment among coal mine workers in connection with the Fit for 55 package being introduced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Piotr Ban´ka The problem of ensuring common safety in the presence of induced seismicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Autors List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Introduction

Life is a value and an inalienable right of every human being. However, it can be enjoyed only if individual’s right to freedom and safety is respected. There is no doubt that preservation of life is related to concern for safety, while the hierarchy of values is disputable. Is life a value that is superior to freedom or vice versa? The question inherently remains unresolved in the face of acts of sacrificing life to maintain freedom and giving it up precisely to preserve life. And while safety and freedom are instrumental values to the value of life, there is much to suggest that they can function in opposition to each other, be in conflict with each other, one can limit the other. Researchers of the problem agree that it is impossible to achieve a state of total freedom while maintaining complete safety. Research and observation of social life prove that an excess of freedom obtained at the expense of giving up safety breeds anarchy, while in turn, security obtained at the expense of freedom leads to subjugation and inertia. So, to what extent and to what degree is it possible to give up freedom for the sake of preserving safety, “how much” safety is really necessary for an individual to carry out assigned functions and tasks while maintaining a sense of autonomy and independence? The search for an answer to this question seems to be crucial today in view of the radical transformation of human needs and the changing model of society. Inherent for centuries, at the core of human existence, the need for survival has become less important today in the face of social aspirations and the pursuit of the highest quality of life. Thus causing the need to abandon the perception of safety in traditional terms: as a state in which the absence of a subjective feeling of threat is confirmed by the absence of its actual existence, in favor of expanding its dimension to include the autonomous, independent decisions and activities of a given subject caught up in it; moving away from a competing model of the relationship between safety and freedom to building a network of their interdependent, complementary interrelationships. Given the dynamics and characteristics of the modern world created by the latest technologies, artificial intelligence, and, above all, the eternal dream of mankind to make it ideal (which, as the concept of a super intelligent society 5.0

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assumes, has a chance to become a reality today), the authors of the publication thought it worthwhile to lean into the problem of the limits of human freedom as defined by human safety in the work environment. The results of the theoretical and empirical explorations of engineers and educators are presented in the following chapters of the study. The first part of the monograph, entitled Problems with Freedom and Safety – Reflections of Humanists, takes up reflections on the essence and contextualization of the key concepts in the study: freedom and safety. Analyses include their significance and role in human development, life and work. Presented here are the results of research on the formation of creative attitudes and their implications for the creation of inspiring working conditions and for the coherence of human feelings in the dimension of individual judgments and independent activities. At the center of the considerations here are also the issues of shaping the work culture and technical culture of employees as an effective prevention for the numerous hazards occurring in the course of performed work, which are a consequence of assisting man in the implementation of professional tasks by technology. Consideration has also been given to the special importance of employment for people with disabilities, experiencing many limitations because of them; the role of work in building and reinforcing their sense of security, self-esteem and dignity. The need and opportunities to eliminate existing barriers in the education sector and the labor market were identified. Much attention has been paid to the teaching profession and the ever-increasing social expectations associated with it. Formal-legal restrictions on the freedom to function in the profession and their objective justifications, as a consequence of the imperative to provide the safety of students and safety of the school/institution, are shown. Areas of apparent teacher autonomy in the bureaucratic space of the school are revealed, and in this context an attempt is made to answer the question of its scope, content, determinants and possibilities for safely expanding the boundaries of teacher freedom. This part of the study concludes with a presentation of the method of working with feature film as a way to initiate a reflective discussion on the framework of freedom and subjugation in relation to topics such as educational ideologies, parenting styles and adolescent development. The second part of the monograph, entitled The Road to Safe Freedom in the Work Environment – Reflections of Engineers, covering issues of safety in a broad sense, including general safety, presents studies from the field of safety engineering. The first chapter in this section discusses the use of the co-learning-coteaching method in training in the field of occupational safety and health. This

Introduction

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method can significantly improve the effectiveness of training and benefit both trainees and trainers. The approach to assessing errors made in an organization marks the maturity of both the safety culture and the error culture. Seen as part of an organization’s culture, safety culture reflects the rules, values, attitudes and behaviors of its employees in the area of H&S. Safety is inextricably linked with acceptance and reacting to mistakes and undesirable behavior. That is why the attitude of management in enterprises in situations where such mistakes are made by employees is so important. The research presented in next chapter of the monograph presents employees’ opinions about employers’ behavior in such situations. At the same time, the study paid particular attention to the impact of the error culture on H&S behavior in an organization. Studies have shown that it is important for employees to be both appreciated for their efforts at work and treated properly when they make a mistake. From a similar area, issues are presented in the chapter on human factor and behavioral safety in the context of the effectiveness of activities undertaken within the framework of the occupational safety and health management system. As shown, the most common cause of occupational accidents are inappropriate human behavior and errors, so behavioral safety should be an integral part of the occupational safety and health management system, allowing it to improve in areas where, despite efforts to minimize risks, the number of undesirable incidents is not decreasing. Thus, following chapter identifies areas of increased risk of occupational accidents, which can be used, among other things, to carry out the tasks of state supervision of working conditions. In the following part of the study, various areas of safety are discussed in very practical terms with specific examples being given. Safety issues in the context of the incidence of cardiovascular disease and sudden cardiac arrest as a global public health problem, results of numerical simulations of a car fire in a short tunnel or noise in the work environment. Using the results obtained as an example, the changes that occur in the hearing organs of workers due to exposure to industrial noise are presented, and attention is drawn to the need to take measures to constantly control the level of noise at the workplace and implement solutions to reduce it and better protect workers from its disastrous consequences. Accidents continue to be a serious problem for employers and cost money to both companies and the social security system. The cause of accidents is the material environment (machinery and equipment), as well as the social environment (employees). Increasing employee awareness and raising the level of safety culture are key elements of health and safety at work policies in modern companies. In order to raise the level of safety culture at work, managers responsible for managing occupational health and safety systems implement organizational and technical solutions to enable employee participation in creating

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Introduction

safe working conditions. A key element in ensuring the active participation of employees in the creation of technical and organizational solutions is the implementation of training to raise awareness of the role of employees in the creation of safe working conditions, as well as the implementation of projects to motivate employees to behave pro-safety and take active measures to improve the state of occupational safety in the company. The chapter presents the activities of the occupational health and safety service carried out to improve the safety culture in automotive company. The final part of the presented monograph presents the issue of public safety: it examines public sentiment among mine workers in connection with the Fit for 55 package being introduced, or the difficulties of ensuring public safety under conditions of induced seismicity. We remain hopeful that the book handed over to the Readers, at least to some extent, will inspire the search for optimal solutions to eliminate the dissonance between what is objectively necessary and individually justified in the work environment, so that individuals seeking professional fulfilment may be both free and safe. Beata Pituła, Małgorzata Wyganowska

Part 1: Problems of freedom and security – reflections of humanists

Urszula Szus´cik1

Freedom and Security and Education for Creativity

Introduction A man is self-determined, but in order for this process of her/his development to be able to fully reach the possible dimensions of her/his abilities conducive to this process, s/he should have a sense of freedom and security. These are the categories that need to be considered in terms of philosophical (thoughts and ideas), psychological (conditions and possibilities) and sociological (effects and effects) analysis. The areas of these considerations are important for pedagogy, where a number of questions can be asked: Who and how do we educate? What is the meaning of pedagogical work? and What kind of lives do we want the children and youth we work with to lead? These are the questions about the meaning of life and its quality, as well as about the meaning and motivation of self-improvement and learning. I am a pedagogue, a pedagogue concerned about children and youth, about their creative development and thus about the place of art in their lives and education. Each education system adopts a specific image of the person subject to it. Gerald L. Gutek2 remarks that such an approach results from the accepted philosophy of man, understanding the world as a result of existing knowledge and the development of science and technology. I believe that the boundaries of the requirements and personal shape of the pupils are thus set, i. e. to what extent they are shaped by their awareness of the possibility of knowing and developing their individual potential, their abilities and skills, as well as their reflective, independent and critical thinking. In my reflection, this approach is also related to the sense of security from the pupils and the teacher, i. e. I am able to learn, study, live without a sense of threat, impossibility of self-realization. Upbringing 1 Professor of human sciences, University of Silesia in Katowice, Institute of Pedagogy, email adress: [email protected]. 2 G. L. Gutek, Filozoficzne i ideologiczne podstawy edukacji, transl. A. Kacmajor, A. Sulak, GWP, Gdan´sk, 2003.

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one to freedom is very demanding and responsible, i. e. I am able to experience, develop, but not at the expense of the other person and with respect for their self and the differences, otherness that they bring to our mutual relations. Education for freedom is the most important category determining the conditions for development, the way to growth3. Józef Tischner aptly observes: “The arguments about the essence of freedom that have been taking place in modern philosophy since Descartes were more than arguments about our freedom. The way of posing and resolving the question of freedom radiated on the way of treating many other philosophical issues, such as the concept of God, the meaning of historical development, the problem of the limits of scientific knowledge, and vice versa – the way of solving those problems determined the fundamental direction of solving the problem of freedom. The general theoretical and even practical context of the dispute not only gave the question of freedom a metaphysical depth, but also the meaning of a dramatic dispute, because it is still relevant”4. Tadeusz Gadacz rightly observes that, “education to freedom is the very essence of education, because freedom is the essence of man. (…) All education must begin with the recognition of the individual freedom of each person (regardless of whether he or she already uses it consciously or not yet). A person deserves affirmation not because of the values he embodies, but because he is a person, because of his freedom. (…) Thus, human life cannot be governed by fear or authoritarian coercion. If anything in the world has value, it can only be realized through freedom. (…)”5. Freedom always refers to the world of values. What’s more, it adds new value to the world. It is absolute in the sense that, thanks to it, some value will either be realized in the world, or not. Due to this possibility of realizing values, but also their negation, freedom finds itself in an antinomian situation6. Also, the sense of security allows us to be free, that is, function in the environment of our life and develop the possibility of growth for self-realization. While building the image of a man in a man, one should remember the words of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry: “I can’t foresee, but I can lay the groundwork. Because the future is something that builds”7. Education has always been and is up3 More on the topic: J. Bartmin´ski, St. Niebrzegowska-Bartmin´ska, Nie ma (prawdziwej) wolnos´ci bez odpowiedzialnos´ci. O kontrowersjach wokół poje˛cia wolnos´ci, [in:] ODKRYWANIE SŁOWA – historia i współczesnos´c´, pod red. U. Sokólskiej, Wyd. Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku, Białystok 2015, pp. 13–38. 4 J. Tischner, S´wiat ludzkiej nadziei, Wydawnictwo Znak, Kraków 1994, p. 126. 5 T. Gadacz, Wychowanie do wolnos´ci, “ZNAK” MIESICZNIK, Kraków Rok XLV, nr 460 (9) Wrzesien´ 1993, p. 4, 7, 8. 6 See also very fruitful remarks by R. Rosicki, O istocie i poczuciu bezpieczen´stwa, [in:] “Przegla˛d Politologiczny”, Rok XV, nr 3, 2010, pp. 23–32. 7 A. Saint-Exupéry, Twierdza, transl. A. Ole˛dzka-Frybesowa. Wydawnictwo MUZA S.A., Warszawa 2005. Ksie˛ga XX, p. 98.

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bringing through values and towards values, while the shape of upbringing can either take on a creative, developmental or negative, destructive dimension. It is A. de Saint-Exupéry who observes: “I hate what’s easy. You can’t be human if you don’t resist.”8 It depends on what we assume as the goals of activities on the part of people and institutions that teach and educate.

The idea of freedom in education The essence of freedom is important for the issues of upbringing and education, because it results from a specific philosophy of education, and from it the style, methods of work, the system of social and cultural values. I believe that education for freedom is a necessity and a sense of freedom and security are the basis for self-realization. Among others Thomas Gordon9 or Bogusław S´liwerski, as well as a number of other pedagogues and historians of education pay attention to the educational style and the resulting methods and effects in the form of a specific personality of a child, who will become a mature person in the future. B. S´liwerski distinguishes three models of raising a child in the modern world. The first model – the most traditional one, in which the basis for raising a child is the belief that an adult knows better what a child is allowed to do in order to become a fully human being. The child does not create culture, but participates in it passively. The second model is the model of equality, isonomy in the relationship between a child and an adult, “being the same person as an adult”. A child is the same person as an adult and they are authorities for each other. They learn from each other. The third autonomous model of the child-adult relationship is referred to as self-education or self-socialization of the child. A child lives by experiencing, learning and trying. Thus, the scholar remarks “Education is understood here as a path from natural to reflective dissidence, which children prefer to test themselves and should organize for themselves. They distance themselves from adults, however, using their experiences.”10 The style of upbringing is related to the value system preferred in given socioeconomic and political conditions. And the issue of values in education introduces the understanding of freedom, i. e. what is important in shaping a young person, what patterns he/she receives and prefers in his/her socio-cultural environment.

8 A. Saint-Exupéry, Twierdza… Ksie˛ga XXIX, p. 126. 9 Th. Gordon, Wychowanie bez poraz˙ek, transl. A. Makowska, E. Sujak, IW PAX, Warszawa 1991. 10 B. S´liwerski, Pedagogika dziecka. Studium pajdocentryzmu, GWP, Gdan´sk 2007, p. 110.

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Zbyszko Melosik believes that “there is a widespread belief that we live in a period of collapse of great meta-narratives that concentrated human life around one idea (or ideology)”.11 In his opinion, their place was taken by a different narrative defined today by the “culture of consumption”; I would add a global attempt to make people fully informed, the spheres of education, life and influence on them included. The basic assumption of the ideology of consumption is pleasure and joy, and the obligation to be happy at all costs, immediacy and speed, as well as easy access to information and means. It is becoming an “instant” culture, characterized by a slogan-like triad: fast food, fast sex, fast car; once again, I would add fast life to this enumeration. This is the source of feigned emancipation. Today, disciplining identity is about “the duty to be fragmented”; one can be anyone (at the same time). In modern society, the center of gravity of life has shifted from the public to the private. Consumption in all spheres of life tries to impose on us needs, lifestyle, living conditions. We’re free, but only when we tell you what’s good for you. This is a hidden manipulation that leads to a lack of independence of decision and action. A global lifestyle is preferred, propagated by popular culture and ideologies of consumption. There comes an idol, that sets patterns of behavior and being as well as a system of values. People stop living their lives, taking on the second lives of real or fictional idols instead. General reflections from the texts by Z. Melosik, Maria Dudzikowa, as well as many other contemporary educators underlie the dimension of values and their role in broadly understood education, its axiological context included12. In Polish pedagogical texts, the philosophy of J. Tischner is quite often invoked as a philosophical reference, especially the texts from the book Thinking by values13, devoted to various aspects connected to this notion of “thinking by values”. A observed by Katarzyna Olbrycht, such thinking is defined by the author as “thinking at the axiological level, what indicates the thinking that prefers the truth.”14 J. Tischner himself, while, analyzing various philosophical approaches to freedom, draws attention to its axiological context, in which freedom appears to us as a value. His words: “being in the middle of a world of values, freedom is above all an affirmation of positive values”15 remain the most evident example of such interpretation. 11 Z. Melosik, Teoria i praktyka edukacji wielokulturowej, Oficyna Wydawnicza Impuls, Kraków 2007, p. 29. 12 Z. Melosik, Teoria i praktyka edukacji wielokulturowej… p. 29. M. Dudzikowa, Uczyc´ sie˛ od idola, [in:] M. Dudzikowa, M. Czerepaniak-Walczak (red.), Wychowanie. Poje˛cia. Procesy. Konteksty. Interdyscyplinarne uje˛cie. T. 2., GWP, Gdan´sk 2007, pp. 217–276. 13 J. Tischner, Mys´lenie według wartos´ci, Wyd. Znak, Kraków 1982. 14 K. Olbrycht, Prawda, dobro i pie˛kno w wychowaniu człowieka jako osoby. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu S´la˛skiego, Katowice 2000, p. 37. 15 J. Tischner, S´wiat ludzkiej nadziei, Wydawnictwo Znak, Kraków 1994, p. 157.

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It is also determined by the conditions in which we live, study and work. At this point, I recall the brilliant and well-known concept of psychological development proposed by Lev S. Vygotsky16, called the zone of proximal development of the child. L.S. Vygotsky17 recognizes that the zone of proximal development is important for the child’s development process, e. g. in the course of learning, because the learning process is not based on mature (i. e. completed) but maturing processes in the sphere of proximal development. Teaching at every stage of a child’s development requires the maturity of certain mental functions as necessary prerequisites. The child’s development does not follow the school curriculum, but is guided by his/her own internal logic and by those features that have not yet matured at the time of starting school. I accept the zone of the child’s closest development as the zone of his/her potential abilities and skills. This process takes place in the child as a result of contact with all manifestations and forms of life, its own activity and its stimulation. It is necessary to take into account the activities of the child, which s/he is able to develop independently, creative expression included. The process of formatting conditions for full, creative development and life also requires a change in the style of work and putting the teacher in a situation that forces them to look for optimal conditions, for interesting and motivating work in the process of learning and growing. The teacher her/himself becomes ought to become creative as well as child- and learner-orientated. “According to Nikos Kazantzakis the ideal teacher builds a bridge of her/himself, invites students to cross over it, and having made it easier for them, happily collapses, thus encouraging them to build their own bridges”.18

Being creative within the notion of freedom From the pedagogical point of view I understand freedom as a process that helps formatting conditions for the development of a person’s creative potential, the ones that show their possibilities and allow the learners, as well as their educators (in the broad sense of the word) to notice, discover and develop.19 Optimizing the 16 L.S. Wygotski, Narze˛dzie i znak w rozwoju dziecka, transl. B. Grell, PWN, Warszawa 1978. 17 L.S. Wygotski, Wybrane prace psychologiczne, tłum. E. Flesznerowa, J. Fleszner, PWN, Warszawa 1971, p. 521. 18 L.F. Buscaglia, Rados´c´ z˙ycia. O sztuce miłos´ci i akceptacji, transl. E. Wojtych, GWP Gdan´sk, 2005, p. 9. 19 Among others they write about it: G. Hüther, Kim jestes´my – a kim moglibys´my byc´. Zache˛ta neurobiologiczna, transl. V. Grotowicz, Wyd. Dobra Literatura, Słupsk 2015. G. Hüther, U. Hauser, Wszystkie dzieci sa˛zdolne. Jak marnujemy wrodzone talenty, transl. A. Lipin´ski, Wyd. Dobra Literatura, Słupsk 2014. Á. Bilbao, Mózg dziecka. Przewodnik dla rodziców, transl. Z Zawadzki, Wyd. Bukowy Las Sp. z.o.o., Wrocław 2018.

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conditions for the development of a child and/or a youngster shapes their awareness of their personal capabilities. The learners illustrate it in various forms of expression, in creative activity. Freedom is related to creativity, or creative activity, by getting to know oneself through creativity. This notion has been emphasized, among others, by20 Władysław Stróz˙ewski, Tadeusz Gadacz or – more generally – Hubertus von Schönebeck. W. Stróz˙ewski, when writing about the nature of the creative process, emphasizes its dialectic nature, which consists in the fact that “in each of its aspects appearing to the researcher, there are opposing moments or forces, which only in their short circuits show the essential features of this process”21. Creativity, resulting from the creative process, is expressed in the form of expression, in the personal characteristics of the individual. It is characterized by novelty22, the social attitude of the audience and its influence over time on culture, science, art and even technology. All this, as we know, is the result of the effort and intellectual, and creative work of individuals that affect the shape of reality. Creativity, which is the result of creative activity, is referred by Tony Proctor to “the ability to look at a given issue from a new point of view, different from the previous one. It involves the processes of questioning and restructuring of all existing knowledge, which enables a new perspective on a given issue.”23 The concept of self-actualization, self-fulfillment, and self-creation was formulated by Abraham H. Maslow24, a humanistic psychologist who defined the pyramid of human needs; the concept itself results from the possibility of satisfying the basic and higher needs of man for life and remains in line with the idea of freedom, so that a human can fully know and realize her/his potential abilities and/or skills. Maslow does not only refer creativity to products, but also to people in the characterological sense, as well as to processes, activities and attitudes. He distinguishes creativity as a special talent, understanding it as a notion resulting from personality, which usually appears in ordinary everyday life activities (e. g. running a home, teaching etc.). It is a higher need that arises when having satisfied the necessary lower order needs, such as: physiological, safety, esteem, 20 T. Gadacz, Wychowanie do wolnos´ci, “ZNAK” MIESICZNIK, Kraków Rok XLV, nr 460 (9) Wrzesien´ 1993, p. 6. Wł. Stróz˙ewski, Dialektyka twórczos´ci, PWM, Kraków, 1983. H. von Schönebeck, Kocham siebie takim, jakim jestem, Oficyna Wydawnicza Impuls, Kraków 1994. 21 Wł. Stróz˙ewski, Dialektyka twórczos´ci, PWM, Kraków 1983, p. 27. 22 Z. Pietrasin´ski, Mys´lenie twórcze, PZWS, Warszawa 1969. R.J. Stenberg (red.), The nature of creativity. Contemporary psychological perspectives, University Press Cambridge, UK 1988. E. Ne˛cka, Proces twórczy i jego ograniczenia, Oficyna Wydawnicza Impuls, Kraków 1995. K.J. Szmidt, Pedagogika twórczos´ci, GWP, Gdan´sk 2007. 23 T. Proctor, Twórcze rozwia˛zywanie problemów, GWP, Gdan´sk 2002, p. 17. 24 A.H. Maslow, W strone˛ psychologii istnienia, transl. I. Wyrzykowska, IW. PAX, Warszawa 1986.

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belongingness and love. The need for self-fulfillment is related to the realization of the potential capabilities of the individual. The scholar also distinguished aesthetic, cognitive and transcendental needs. One of the characteristics of selfactualizing people is not only their high level of autonomy (i. e. independence), but also the ones of self-acceptance, solitude, tolerance towards others, sense of humor, high degree of self-awareness, and/or involvement in social matters.25 Carl Rogers also belongs to the circle of humanistic psychology. In his opinion, a creative man has the courage to be himself. Such a person reveals his emotions and feelings; he is open to experience. A creative person is also free in their decisions, does not meet the expectations of others, does not feel their pressure26. C. Rogers mentions the self-actualizing tendency, inherent in every human being, which consists in constant striving for development and improvement. Another researcher, Ellis P. Torrance27 also believes that basing the teaching system on the process of creative thinking will trigger the desire to learn in students. The creative process is based upon a specific problem solving, its first stage being to identify ambiguities, disharmony, gaps in the information system. This is associated with the feeling of emotional tension, the removal of which is associated with solving the problem. Thus, E.P. Torrance believes that creativity is a quality that can be both learned and trained. Creative thinking is a basic concept embedded within the concept of creative learning and teaching; this is the basis for the process of acquiring knowledge and skills, i. e. creative learning28. Both C. Rogers and E.P. Torrance base the teaching process on the student’s intrinsic motivation to learn, although each of them approaches this process differently. E.P. Torrance cites the concepts of divergent thinking presented by Joy P. Guilford29. Among the techniques for developing creative thinking, E.P. Torrance mentions brainstorming, (later developed by Alex I. Osborn30, Sidney J. Parnes’s31 creative problem solving, William Gordon’s32 synectics, and Jacob L. Moreno’s33 socio-drama. Both C. Rogers and E.P. Torrance treat the process of teaching as a creative activity. One of the foundations for implementing the 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

Ibid, pp. 135–146. C. Rogers, Freedom to learn. Columbus, Charles Merill, Ohio 1969. E. P. Torrance, Creativity in the classroom, National Education Association, Washington 1977. C. Rogers, Freedom to learn. Columbus, Charles Merill, Ohio 1969. E. P. Torrance, Education and creative potencial, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis 1963. E. P. Torrance, Creativity in the classroom, National Education Association, Washington 1977. J.P. Guilford, Natura inteligencji człowieka, transl. J. Czarnicki, B. Czarniawska, W. Kozłowski, PWN, Warszawa 1978. A.I. Osborn, Unlocking Your Creative Power, Meyers Press, 2007. S.J. Parnes (ed.) Compendiums of research on creative imagination, Creative Education Foundation, New York 1960. W.J.J. Gordon, Synectics: The development of creative capacity, Pub. Harper & Brathers, New York 1961. J.L. Moreno, Sociometry and the Science of Man, Beacon House 1956.

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principles of such understood creative teaching is individualization. In this regard, E.P. Torrance believes that the process of getting to discover a young learner’s inside is continuous; such student develops and changes, and the teacher’s role is to aptly follow the process of these changes. Among the teacher’s activities supporting the child’s creative activity, E.P. Torrance lists: taking into account the child’s questions, developing the child’s ability to ask questions and/ or respecting the child’s ideas.34 According to Mirosław S. Szyman´ski35, E. P. Torrance not only established environmental conditions, especially didactic and educational ones, conducive to the development of creativity but also formulated directives for the teacher’s creative behavior with students. Thus, the teacher should be able to value new [students’] ideas, educate children in the ability to be open to experience, stimulate them to manipulate objects and ideas, and – last but not least – teach how to systematically analyze and evaluate each oncoming idea. Some other directions for the teacher responsible for the formation of one’s creative atmosphere should be: development of the tolerance towards new ideas; being aware not to impose mental patterns; making a creative atmosphere in the classroom; being able to avoid criticism of other teachers; putting down the [new] ideas; to providing materials for action; developing patience and striving to implement an idea; arousing cognitive curiosity, being able to educate courageous, non-conformist people. These elements are also mentioned in Klaus K. Urban’s36 “model of creativity”. Also Joan Freeman37 draws attention to the situational context of a child’s creative activity, and David H. Feldman38 states that there is a relationship “between the cognitive development of children and adolescents” presented by Jean Piaget and the development of creative abilities. The researcher emphasizes that a child, reaching each of the oncoming stages of her/his cognitive development, experiences the phenomenon of insight, typical of artists experiencing this phenomenon in the moments of creative involvement. The ideas of creative development of individuals and groups were included, among others, in the concept of transgression, whose author is a Polish psychologist Józef Kozielecki39. The scholar, while developing the idea id transgression, analyzes human activities in the context of the needs approached by 34 E. P. Torrance, Education and creative potencial, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis 1963. E. P. Torrance, Creativity in the classroom, National Education Association, Washington 1977. 35 M. S. Szyman´ski, Twórczos´c´ i style poznawcze uczniów, WSiP, Warszawa 1987. 36 K.K. Urban, Recent trends in creativity research and theory in West Europe, “European Journal For High Ability”, 1, 1990, pp. 99–114. 37 J. Freeman, The psychology of gifted children, J. Wiley and Sons, New York-London 1985. 38 D. H. Feldman, The development of creativity, [in:] R. J. Sternberg (red.), Handbook of creativity, Cambrige University Press, Cambridge UK 1999, pp. 169–186. 39 J. Kozielecki, Koncepcja transgresyjna człowieka, PWN, Warszawa 1987.

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humans and actions resulting from them. J. Kozielecki40 emphasizes the importance of the phenomenon of intentionality in human activity, as a result of which man creates new values. At the same time, man lives in the intentional world of culture. These two terms: the individual and the culture the individual exists in, not only interact with each other but also interrelate. These are the activities that consist in the fact that a person consciously crosses the existing material, social and symbolic boundaries. J. Kozielecki calls them transgressive actions, (or transgression for short). It is thus transgressive activity, i. e. such transgressive acts that allow one to transform reality. Human activity is dependent on external (objective) and internal (subjective) influences, i. e. on environments and personalities. Awakening needs and cognitive activity force the pupil to look for solutions in the light of his/her previous knowledge and experience, which coexists in symbiosis with the values of the social and cultural environment. These are called by J. Kozielecki the so-called psychological transgressions. They prepare the pupil for future functioning in social life and for assuming specific social and professional roles. This is related to creativity understood as a specific type of expansion, the one expanding the existing boundaries of knowledge, opening a new space that no one has noticed so far. Creative activity, according to J. Kozielecki, requires commitment, strong and lasting motivation, expenditure of energy and time, concentration of attention on a difficult problem, and – sometimes – “inspiration”. One of the peculiarities of creative transgressions analyzed by the scholar is that preparatory (strategic) activities dominate over executive activities. The strategic level determines the direction and control of activities. At this level, heuristics play a key role, i. e. general rules, principles and methods that guide the creative process, determine its dynamics and changeability. In addition to shaping the issues of solving problems and overcoming individual barriers, students in the course of education come into contact with cultural values, that are the result of historical transgressions, which are related to inventions, outstanding works of art etc. They learn and expand their cognitive field with aesthetic values, which are an expression of artistic and non-artistic beauty. What is actually taking place is – according to Krystyna Ferenz41 – a process of acculturation. Krzysztof J. Szmidt42 remarks that in pedagogy, one can find many concepts that define school as a place of crossing the existing boundaries and possibilities of the student, and thus his/her creative development.

40 Ibid. 41 K. Ferenz, Konteksty edukacji kulturalnej, Uniwersytet Zielonogórski, Zielona Góra 2003. 42 K. J. Szmidt, Współczesne koncepcje wychowania do kreatywnos´ci i nauczania twórczos´ci: przegla˛d stanowisk polskich, [in:] K. J. Szmidt (red.), Dydaktyka twórczos´ci. Koncepcjeproblemy-rozwia˛zania, Oficyna Wydawnicza Impuls, Kraków 2003, pp. 19–133.

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Among the group of contemporary Polish educators who emphasize the value of creativity in education is also Roman Schulz43. One of the issues the scholar points out is that pedagogical creationism was shaped at different stages of the development of education. He also emphasizes that all activities spotted in the field of education and upbringing should be creative in order to be effective. This applies to both school, teachers and learners, but I would also add their parents. Pedagogical creationism formulates and promotes the idea of a creative school. The pedagogy of creationism treats the student as a subject of creative activity. R. Schulz44 also believes that pedagogical work (both the activities related to teaching and these connected with upbringing) is creative, as school is a place of innovative activities that naturally trigger creative behavior of students. As we know, the idea of an active student was formulated within the framework of pedagogical progressivism called the Trend of New Upbringing, also called the active school, or the creative school. The ideas of the creative school were defined by John Dewey45, William. H. Klipatrick46, Ovidiusz Declory47, Celestyn Freinet48, Hubertus von Schönebeck49 and others. The whole topic closely is related to the ideas of student activity (and his/her education-directed activation) in the teaching process, individualization of education, problembased teaching, making students’ work independent, creativity, etc. The idea of an active school has not lost in its attractiveness. Quite the contrary, the idea of an active school has been enriched with many new issues, propositions and solutions, both in the area of idea itself, as well as the one of experiment and practice. There are many interesting and still inspiring concepts of education that allow one to discover oneself and the other person, lead them in harmony with themselves and consent to the otherness of others. It is enough to mention Maria Montessori50, Rudolf Steiner51, Celestyn Freinet, Jean Piaget52, Alexander S. Neill53, Jerome S. Bruner54, Arno Stern55, Hubertus von Schönebeck, 43 R. Schulz, Studia z innowatyki pedagogicznej, Wyd. UMK, Torun´ 1996. 44 Ibid. 45 J. Dewey, Sztuka jako dos´wiadczenie, transl. A. Potocki, Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolin´skich, Wrocław 1975. 46 W.H. Klipatrick, The Project Metod, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York 1929. 47 O. Declory, È. Monchamp, Gry wychowawcze, transl. H. Berggruenerowa, NK, Warszawa 1931. 48 C. Freinet, Wybór pism, O szkołe˛ ludowa˛. Pisma wybrane, transl. H. Semenowicz, Wydawnictwo Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolin´skich, Wrocław 1976. 49 H. von Schönebeck, Kocham siebie takim, jakim jestem, Oficyna Wydawnicza Impuls, Kraków 1994. 50 M. Montessori, O kształtowaniu sie˛ człowieka, transl. L. Krolczuk-Wyganowska, PWN, Warszawa 2019. 51 R. Steiner, Ogólna wiedza o człowieku jako podstawa pedagogiki, transl. A. Winiarczyk, Wyd. GENESIS, Gdynia 2008. 52 J. Piaget, Jak sobie dziecko wyobraz˙a ´swiat, transl. Z. Zakrzewska, PWN, Warszawa 2006. 53 A.S. Neill, Summerhil, transl. B. Białecka, Oficyna Wydawnicza “Almaprint”, Katowice 1991.

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Ken Robinson56, and many other creative, courageous educators, psychologists, artists and teachers who make a constant effort to cross the current boundaries of education, life and science in a positive direction of the development of child and/ or learner on a daily basis. We know that what children will be like, such will be the future world; and they are just like us, they break out of the framework of our world, which often overwhelms them and does not allow them to be free in their decisions, plans and expression of sensations, experiences and artistic expression. Freedom is an important value in life, education, art and science, because it triggers creativity. L. F. Buscaglia gives the following quote from one of wise and beautiful books written by A. de Saint-Éxupery57 “Perhaps love (here, if one only wants to, one can replace the word ‘love’ with ‘education’) is that I gently guide you back to you again. (…) But not to you, as I would like you to see, but to you as you really are.”58

Consolidation The fulfillment of the conditions and implementation of creative assumptions in pedagogical work allows for the fulfillment of the postulates of freedom and security recognized as necessary conditions for optimizing the children’s creative potential. This involves respecting their dignity, the right to respect and development. This task is a very difficult one to follow, mostly because it makes them be responsible and demanding, creative and open to new experiences, inspirations, looking for interesting, original methods of work, solutions, brave, not afraid of failures and related difficulties. Such teachers go parallel with the child and at the same time a step behind her/him, without imposing themselves and their subjective solutions. A perfect and difficult job to fulfill. It seems a longish quote from a book by Jean Liedloff may be the most suitable and just for the conclusion: “the secret lies in the experience. (…) Development stops where the demand for experience ceases to be met. (…) Different aspects of emotional, intellectual and physical abilities coexist in each person, and in individuals, who experienced deprivation in childhood, the degree of their ma54 J. Bruner, Kultura edukacji, transl. T. Brzostowska-Tereszkiewicz, UNIVERSITAS, Kraków 2006. 55 A. Stern, Odkrywanie ´sladu, transl. M. Bizub, Wyd. Element, Gliwice 2016. 56 K. Robinson & L. Aronica, Kreatywne szkoły, tłum. A. Baj, Wyd. Element, Kraków 2015. 57 A. Saint-Exupery, Ziemia planeta ludzi, transl. Z. Bien´kowski, W. Bien´kowska, PIW, Warszawa 1987. 58 L.F. Buscaglia, Rados´c´ z˙ycia. O sztuce miłos´ci i akceptacji, transl. E. Wojtych, GWP, Gdan´sk, 2005, p. 35.

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turity varies greatly. All developmental abilities, those that may have matured and those that have been retained, work together in the form they currently happen to be. Each of them is waiting for a specific type of experience that will satisfy the need encoded in it. If it actually happens to experience some other, incorrect, need, there is no development. Human well-being largely depends on how and in what aspects their actions are limited”.59

References Bartmin´ski J., Niebrzegowska-Bartmin´ska St., Nie ma (prawdziwej) wolnos´ci bez odpowiedzialnos´ci. O kontrowersjach wokół poje˛cia wolnos´ci, [w:] ODKRYWANIE SŁOWA – historia i współczesnos´c´] [There is no (true) freedom without responsibility. On the controversy surrounding the concept of freedom [in:] [Discovering the word – history and the present times], U. Sokólskiej (ed.), Wyd. Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku, Białystok 2015, pp. 13–38. Bilbao Á., Mózg dziecka. Przewodnik dla rodziców, [A child’s brain. A guide for parents], transl. Z Zawadzki, Wyd. Bukowy Las Sp. z.o.o., Wrocław 2018. Bruner J., Kultura edukacji, [Culture of education] transl. T. Brzostowska-Tereszkiewicz, UNIVERSITAS, Kraków 2006. Buscaglia L.F., Rados´c´ z˙ycia. O sztuce miłos´ci i akceptacji, [L.F. Buscaglia, LIVING, LOVING, LEARNING], transl. E. Wojtych, GWP Gdan´sk, 2005. Declory O., Monchamp È., Gry wychowawcze, [Educational games] transl. H. Berggruenerowa, NK, Warszawa 1931. Dewey J., Sztuka jako dos´wiadczenie, [Art as an Act of Experience] transl. A. Potocki, Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolin´skich, Wrocław 1975. Dudzikowa M., Uczyc´ sie˛ od idola, [in:] M. Dudzikowa, M. Czerepaniak-Walczak (eds.), Wychowanie. Poje˛cia. Procesy. Konteksty. Interdyscyplinarne uje˛cie. T. 2. [“Learning from an Idol” in:] M. Dudzikowa, M. Czerepaniak-Walczak (eds.), [Education. Concepts. Processes. Contexts. Interdisciplinary approach], GWP, Gdan´sk 2007, pp. 217–276. Feldman D.H., The development of creativity, [in:] R. J. Sternberg (ed.), Handbook of creativity, Cambrige University Press, Cambridge UK 1999, pp. 169–186. Ferenz K., Konteksty edukacji kulturalnej, [Contexts of cultural education], Uniwersytet Zielonogórski, Zielona Góra 2003. Freeman J., The psychology of gifted children, J. Wiley and Sons, New York-London 1985. Freinet C., O szkołe˛ ludowa˛. Pisma wybrane, [Towards a folk school. Selected writings] transl. H. Semenowicz, Wydawnictwo Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolin´skich, Wrocław 1976. Gadacz T., Wychowanie do wolnos´ci, [“Education for freedom”], Znak [Sign], XLV, no 460 (9) September 1993, pp. 4–13.

59 J. Liedloff, W głe˛bi kontinuum, transl. C. Urban´ski, Wyd. Mamania, Kraków 2010, pp. 43, 52– 53.

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Gordon W.J.J., Synectics: The development of creative capacity, Pub. Harper & Brathers, New York 1961. Gordon Th., Wychowanie bez poraz˙ek, [P.E.T., Parent Effectiveness Training. The Tested New Way To Raise Responsible Children], transl. A. Makowska, E. Sujak, IW PAX, Warszawa 1991. Guilford J.P., Natura inteligencji człowieka, [The Nature of Human Intelligence], transl. J. Czarnicki, B. Czarniawska, W. Kozłowski, PWN, Warszawa 1978. Gutek G.L, Filozoficzne i ideologiczne podstawy edukacji, [Philosophical and ideological foundations of education], transl. A. Kacmajor, A. Sulak, GWP, Gdan´sk, 2003. Hüther G., Kim jestes´my – a kim moglibys´my byc´. Zache˛ta neurobiologiczna, tłum. V. Grotowicz, Wyd. Dobra Literatura, Słupsk 2015. [G. Hüther, WAS WIR SIND UND WAS WIR SEIN KÖNNTEN. Ein neurobiologischer Mutmacher, S. Fischer Verlag GmbH, Frankfurt am Main 2011]. Hüther G., Hauser U., Wszystkie dzieci sa˛ zdolne. Jak marnujemy wrodzone talenty, tłum. A. Lipin´ski, Wyd. Dobra Literatura, Słupsk 2014. [G. Hüther, U. Hauser, Jedes Kind ist hoch begabt: Die angeborenen Talente unserer Kinder und was wir aus ihnen machen, by Albrecht Knaus Verlag, München Germany 2012.] Kozielecki J., Koncepcja transgresyjna człowieka, [The transgressive concept of man] PWN, Warszawa 1987. Klipatrick W.H., The Project Metod, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York 1929. Liedloff J., W głe˛bi kontinuum, [The continuum Concept] transl. C. Urban´ski, Wyd. Mamania, Kraków 2010. Maslow A.H., W strone˛ psychologii istnienia, [Toward a Psychology of Being] transl. I. Wyrzykowska, IW. PAX, Warszawa 1986. Melosik Z., Teoria i praktyka edukacji wielokulturowej, [Theory and culoture of multicultural education] Oficyna Wydawnicza Impuls, Kraków 2007. Montessori M., O kształtowaniu sie˛ człowieka, [On the formation of man] transl. L. Krolczuk-Wyganowska, PWN, Warszawa 2019. Moreno J. L., Sociometry and the Science of Man, Beacon House 1956. Ne˛cka E., Proces twórczy i jego ograniczenia, [Creative process and its limitations] Oficyna Wydawnicza Impuls, Kraków 1995. Neill A.S., Summerhil, transl. B. Białecka, Oficyna Wydawnicza “Almaprint”, Katowice 1991. Olbrycht K., Prawda, dobro i pie˛kno w wychowaniu człowieka jako osoby. [Truth, goodness and beauty in the upbringing of a man as a person] Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu S´la˛skiego, Katowice 2000. Osborn A.I., Unlocking Your Creative Power, Meyers Press, 2007. Parnes S.J. (ed.), Compendiums of research on creative imagination, Creative Education Foundation, New York 1960. Piaget J., Jak sobie dziecko wyobraz˙a ´swiat, [How a child imagines the world] transl. Z. Zakrzewska, PWN, Warszawa 2006. Pietrasin´ski Z., Mys´lenie twórcze, [Creative thinking] PZWS, Warszawa 1969. Proctor T., Twórcze rozwia˛zywanie problemów, [Solving problems creatively], GWP, Gdan´sk 2002.

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Robinson K. & Aronica L., Kreatywne szkoły, [Creative School: The Grassroots Revolution That’s Transforming Education], transl. A. Baj, Wyd. Element, Kraków 2015. Rosicki R., O istocie i poczuciu bezpieczen´stwa, [“About the essence and sense of security”], Przegla˛d Politologiczny [Review of Politology], XV(3), pp. 23–32. Rogers C., Freedom to learn. Columbus, Charles Merill, Ohio 1969. Saint-Exupery A., Ziemia planeta ludzi, [Earth, planet of people] transl. Z. Bien´kowski, W. Bien´kowska, PIW, Warszawa 1987. Saint-Exupéry A., Twierdza. [Fortrress] transl. A. Ole˛dzka-Frybesowa. Wydawnictwo MUZA S.A., Warszawa 2005. Schulz R., Studia z innowatyki pedagogicznej, [Studies in pedagogical innovation], Wyd. UMK, Torun´ 1996. Steiner R., Ogólna wiedza o człowieku jako podstawa pedagogiki, [General knowledge about man as the basis of pedagogy] transl. A. Winiarczyk, Wyd. GENESIS, Gdynia 2008. Stenberg R.J. (ed.), The nature of creativity. Contemporary psychological perspectives, University Press Cambridge, UK 1988. Stern A., Odkrywanie ´sladu, [Track discovery] transl. M. Bizub, Wyd. Element, Gliwice 2016. Stróz˙ewski Wł., Dialektyka twórczos´ci, [Dialectics of creativity], PWM, Kraków, 1983. Szmidt K.J., Współczesne koncepcje wychowania do kreatywnos´ci i nauczania twórczos´ci: przegla˛d stanowisk polskich, [in:] K. J. Szmidt (ed.), Dydaktyka twórczos´ci. Koncepcje – problemy – rozwia˛zania, [Contemporary concepts of education for creativity and creativity-based teaching: a review of Polish positions] [in:] K. J. Szmidt (ed.), The didactics of creativity. Concepts – problems – solutions, Oficyna Wydawnicza Impuls, Kraków 2003, pp. 19–133. Szmidt K.J., Pedagogika twórczos´ci, [Pedagogy of creativity], GWP, Gdan´sk 2007. Szyman´ski M.S., Twórczos´c´ i style poznawcze uczniów, [Creativity and cognitive styles of students], WSiP, Warszawa 1987. S´liwerski B., Pedagogika dziecka. Studium pajdocentryzmu, [Creativity and cognitive styles of students], GWP, Gdan´sk 2007. Tischner J., S´wiat ludzkiej nadziei, [The world of human hope] Wydawnictwo Znak, Kraków 1994. Tischner J., Mys´lenie według wartos´ci, [Thinking by values] Wyd. Znak, Kraków 1982. Torrance E.P., Education and creative potencial, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis 1963. Torrance E.P., Creativity in the classroom, National Education Association, Washington 1977. Urban K.K., Recent trends in creativity research and theory in West Europe, “European Journal For High Ability”, 1, 1990, pp. 99–114. Wygotski L.S., Narze˛dzie i znak w rozwoju dziecka, [A tool and a sign in the development of a child], transl. B. Grell, PWN, Warszawa 1978. Wygotski L.S., Wybrane prace psychologiczne, [Selected psychological works], transl. E. Flesznerowa, J. Fleszner, PWN, Warszawa 1971. Von Schönebeck H., Antypedagogika. Byc´ i wspierac´ zamiast wychowywac´, [Anti-pedagogy. Being and supporting instead of upbringing] transl. D. Sztobryn, Agencja Wydawnicza Jacek Santorski & Co., Warszawa 1994.

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Von Schönebeck H., Kocham siebie takim, jakim jestem, [I love myself as I am] Oficyna Wydawnicza Impuls, Kraków 1994. Von Schönebeck H., Szkoła z ludzka˛ twarza˛. Wizja i rzeczywistos´c´, [A school with a human face. Vision and reality], transl. A. Murzyn, Oficyna Wydawnicza Impuls, Kraków 2001.

Małgorzata Kus´pit1

The role of the creative attitude of corporate employees in creating inspiring working conditions

The article deals with the importance of a creative attitude in overcoming barriers and creating an inspiring working environment. The issue of creativity is more and more often addressed by researchers from different disciplines. Creativity, according to the egalitarian approach, is a property that every human being possesses, albeit to varying degrees. Its formation is influenced by both personal, emotional and environmental factors, which can be inhibitors or stimulators in its development. A creative attitude manifests itself in an active approach to life and the search for effective solutions to tasks and solving complex problems2 3. The development of a creative attitude and a creative and innovative approach to the professional goals undertaken is of particular importance in the workplace. Increasing demands and associated requirements mean that a divergent and multidirectional approach to problem solving is beginning to play a significant role especially in large enterprises, such as corporations. The article is of an empirical nature. This article presents some of the research that was carried out as part of a wider project45. The research surveyed 120 people in managerial and executive positions in corporations with a service and manufacturing profile in south-eastern Poland. The respondents included 66 women and 54 men. The study used the Creative Behaviour Questionnaire – KANH6 (and the Hope – KNS 1 Professor at MCSU, Faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology at the Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin Institute of Pedagogy, [email protected]. 2 Getzels J. W., & Csikszentmihalyi M., From problem solving to problem finding. “In Perspectives in creativity” Routledge, 2017, pp. 90–116. 3 Mumford, M.D., Marks, M.A., Connelly, M.S., Zaccaro, S. J., & Reiter-Palmon, R. Development of leadership skills: Experience and timing “The Leadership Quarterly”, 11(1), 2000, pp. 87–114. 4 Kus´pit M., The creative attitude of organizational employees and their hope for success, “Culture and Education” No.3 (133), 2021 pp. 227–243. 5 Kus´pit M., Subjective Aspects of the Functioning of Employees in the Organization. “LABOR et EDUCATIO” no. 9, 2021, pp. 127–141. 6 Bernacka E.R., Popek S.L., Gierczyk M., The KANH III Creative Behaviour Questionnairepresentation of psychometric properties, Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska Lublin-Polonia, Vol. XXIX, 2016, pp. 33–57.

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Questionnaire) 7. The analyses concerned comparisons of women and men, as well as age in the scope of creative attitudes and hope for success in the examined group of corporate employees. It turns out that fostering creative attitudes in the workplace can contribute to increased performance and professional success.

Introduction The issue of creativity is increasingly becoming the subject of theoretical considerations and empirical research by representatives of many disciplines. This is undoubtedly related to with the increasing complexity of today’s reality, the progress of civilisation and the various problems that require unconventional ways of solving them. The fostering of a creative attitude and a creative and innovative approach to the professional goals undertaken is of particular importance in the working environment. On a macroeconomic level, innovation is one of the important elements of economic growth. On the other hand, on a microeconomic scale, the use of a creative approach contributes to better satisfaction of consumer needs, lowers production costs, expands the range of products, contributes to faster identification of consumer needs, and reduces the ecological harm of production89. There is now an increasing focus on an integrated management structure, individual resources and the development of diverse staff competencies10. A creative approach contributes to making changes in both the internal and external environment of the organisation11. Therefore, developing a creative attitude can contribute to an inspiring working environment and efficiency of employees’ actions, which consequently contributes to economic progress.

7 Laguna M., Trzebinski J., Zieba M., The KNS hope for success questionnaire manual, Psychological Testing Centre PTP, Catholic University of Lublin, Lublin 2005. 8 Kronenberg J., Bergier T. [eds], Challenges of sustainable development in Poland, Sendzimir Foundation, Krakow 2010. 9 Czerniak J., Innovation in the global economy, Scientific Circle of Economists of the Faculty of Economics of the Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin 2013. 10 Mróz B., Chudzicka-Czupała A., Kus´pit M., Personal and creative competences. Psychological determinants of employee creativity, Scholar, Warsaw 2017. 11 Drori, I., Honig, B., A process model of internal and external legitimacy. “Organization Studies”, 34(3), 2013, pp. 345–376.

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Creative attitude and hope for success in the working environment Creativity is considered in the literature in different contexts and analysed from multiple perspectives12. There are two approaches to creativity: elitistand egalitarian. According to the first, creativity is attributed only to outstanding individuals13. According to the second, the egalitarian approach, everyone is creative, although to varying degrees. Creativity, therefore, is one of the properties of human beings. The creative individual is able to perceive discrepancies between needs and opportunities for satisfaction and to organise action by making significant changes in the external environment as well as in their own behaviour14. The uncommonness of a person with a high level of creativity is not only related to intellectual abilities but includes the affective sphere, temperamental traits, motivation and relations with other people15. Therefore, creativity is important for the functioning of a person in different areas o their activity16. It is therefore a multidimensional phenomenon and can be shaped and developed17. Representatives of the social theory of creativity psychology undertake a number of studies on the meaning of creativity and its importance in organisations. This research concerns, among other things, the relationship of climate, sense of safety in the workplace, characteristics of the employee team, and leadership behaviours with creative thinking18 19 20 21. It is worth mentioning that there are various concepts in the literature in the context of human functioning in 12 Mróz B., Chudzicka-Czupała A., Kus´pit M., Personal and creative competences. Psychological determinants of employee creativity, Scholar, Warsaw 2017. 13 Ne˛cka E., Gifted people and novel tasks: The intelligence versus creativity distinction revisited, [In]: K.A., Heller, E.A. Hany (ed.). Competence and responsibility. Hongrefe and Huber Publishers, Sattle 1994. 14 Strzałecki A., Selected issues in the psychology of creativity, Pan´stwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 1969. 15 Eysenck, H.J., Creativity and personality: Suggestions for a theory. “Psychological Inquiry”, 4 (3),1993 pp. 147–178. 16 Ledzinska M., Information technology and scholarly creativity, [in]: S. Popek, S. Bernacka, C.W. Doman´ski, B. Gawda, D. Turska [ed.], Creativity in theory and practice, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej, Lublin 2004. 17 Mróz B., Chudzicka-Czupała A., Kus´pit M., Personal and creative competences. Psychological determinants of employee creativity, Scholar, Warsaw 2017. 18 Amabile T.M., Conti R., Coon H., Lazenby J., Herron M., Assessing the work environment for creativity. “Academy of Management Journal”, 39(5), 1996, pp. 1154–1184. 19 Polzer J., Milton L.P., Swann B., Capitalizing on diversity: Interpersonal congruence in small work groups. “Administrative Science Quarterly”, 47, 2002, pp. 296–324. 20 Amabile T.M., Schatzel E., Moneta G.B., Kramer S.J., Leader behaviors and the work environment for creativity: Perceived leader support. The Leadership Quarterly, 15(1) 2004, pp. 5– 32. 21 Edmondson A.C., Mogelof J.P., Explaining psychological safety in innovation teams: Organisational culture, team dynamics, or personality? [in]: L. Thompson, H.S. Choi (ed.), Creativity and Innovation in Organizational Teams, Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum, NJ 2006.

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organisations, such as creativity, creativity, innovation. Creativity is a person’s competence, their style of functioning, which is characterised by intrinsic motivation, openness and tolerance of ambiguity. A person with these qualities easily generates new ideas and introduces innovative solutions. Creativity, on the other hand, is the willingness to take action in response to specific problems in a way that is considered creative, introducing new solutions. Innovation, on the other hand, manifests itself in the effects of actions and the ability to realise new ideas and put them into practice. In a broader sense, it is related to an organisation’s culture, its goals and rules. On a narrower level, it involves a task that should meet certain criteria, such as utility, realism, budget2223. In this model, which has been aptly described by other researchers24 these concepts interrelate and there is a feedback loop between them. By activating creativity, it is possible to take creative action that manifests itself in concrete behaviour. The results of creativity are new products or possible solutions, which manifests itself in innovation. A climate of innovation, in turn, enables creativity and allows the activation of creativity-creative competences in approaching problems25. Researchers also use the concept of a creative attitude, thereby emphasising the multidimensional nature of creativity and pointing out factors important in shaping it. It is associated with self-creation and self-realisation in many areas of human activity26. An attitude is “(…) a component of personality that expresses itself in a relatively stable attitude towards a given object, concept or relationship, and manifests itself in an enduring tendency to react in a specific way in certain situations”27. Creative attitude is also understood as creative activity, personal creativity or creative invention28. Other researchers argue that “an attitude is most fully manifested in the behaviour of the subject towards a particular object; in the case 22 Stasiakiewicz M., Creativity in theory and practice, Wydawnictwo Naukowe University of Adam Mickiewicz, Poznan´ 1999. 23 Stasiakiewicz M., Creative behaviour in organisations. [in:]: M. Strykowska (ed.), Contemporary organisations – challenges and threats. Psychological perspective (s. 153–174), Published by the Humaniora Foundation, Poznan´ 2002. 24 Drozdowski R., Zakrzewska A., Puchalska K., Morchat M., Mroczkowska D., Fostering proinnovative attitudes by enhancing individual creativity, PARP , Warsaw 2010. 25 Mróz B., Chudzicka-Czupała A., Kus´pit M., Personal and creative competence. Psychological determinants of employee creativity, Scholar, Warsaw 2017 p. 70. 26 Mróz B., Chudzicka-Czupała A., Kus´pit M., Personal and creative competence. Psychological determinants of employee creativity, Scholar, Warsaw 2017 p. 70. 27 Tymiakin L., Creativity as an activity for self-creation. [in:]: B. Myrdzik, M. Karwatowska (ed.), Creativity at school. Actual and possible aspects of the issue (pp. 15–28), University of Maria Curie-Skłodowska Publishing House, Lublin 2011. 28 Kielar M., On the need for art in development [in:]: M. Tyszkowa (ed.), Art and Adolescence, National Scientific Publishing House, Warsaw 1981.

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of creative attitudes, it is about exploratory activity, about initiative, about actions aimed at improving the existing state of affairs”29. Nosal30 defines creative attitude as a certain personality “norm” expressing an active, non-tendentious attitude of a person towards information discrepancies. According to Trojanowska-Kaczmarska31 and Wojnar32, it is an active, committed attitude of a person towards themselves and the world. A person with a high level of creative attitude is open to embracing new experiences. According to Popek33, the creative attitude consists of the cognitive sphere and the character and it is: “an active attitude towards the world and life, expressed in the need to know and consciously process the reality found, as well as one’s own Self”. Previous research on the relationship between creative attitude and other personality characteristics indicates that it is associated with positive self-esteem34, a sense of humour35, higher levels of social competences363738 and effective coping with conflict and coping with stress and failure3940. There are also reports 29 Dobrołowicz D., Feder B., Creative attitudes of teachers and managers, [in:]: W. Dobrołowicz, M. Karwowski (eds.), Towards creativity (pp. 36–58), Publishing House of the Academy of Special Education, Warsaw 2002. 30 Nosal C.S., Educating for creativity [in:]: C.S. Nosal (ed.), Creative information processing (pp. 131–142), Delta, Wrocław 1992. 31 Trojanowska-Kaczmarska A., The child and creativity, . The Committee of Pedagogical Sciences and the Ossolin´ski National Institute – Polish Academy of Sciences Publishing House, Wrocła˛w 1971. 32 Wojnar D., A theory of aesthetic education, National Scientific Publishing House, Warsaw 1976. 33 Popek. S., KANH Creative Behaviour Questionnaire, University of Maria Curie-Skłodowska Publishing House, Lublin 2000. 34 Wysocka I., Tokarz A., Two types of self-evaluation and creative attitudes and creative behaviours of youth from general, art, and economic high schools [in:]: S. Popek, R. Bernacka, C.W. Doman´ski, B. Gawda, D. Turska, A.M., Zawadzka (ed.), The Psychology of Creativity: New Horizons (pp. 119–127), University of Maria Curie-Skłodowska Publishing House, Lublin 2009. 35 Jurasz B., Creative attitude versus a sense of humour. [in:]: W. Dobrołowicz, J.J. Szmidt, I. Pufal-Struzik, U. Ostrowska, J. Gralewski (eds.), Creativity – the key to success in education, Publishing House of the Polish University of Higher Education TWP, Warsaw 2006. 36 Kus´pit M., Creative attitude versus level of social competences [in:]: S. Popek, E. Bernacka, C.W. Doman´ski, B. Gawda, D. Turska (eds.), Creativity in theory and practice (pp. 63–74), University of Maria Curie-Skłodowska Publishing House, Lublin 2004. 37 Połowniak M., Creativity and social competence – together or apart, [in:]: M. Karwowski, A. Gajda (eds.), Creativity (not only) in the school classroom (pp. 62–73). Publishing House of the Academy of Special Education, Warsaw 2010. 38 Tychmanowicz A., Value system of students with differing levels of creative attitude. [in:]: W. Dobrołowicz, J.J. Szmidt, I. Pufal-Struzik, U. Ostrowska, J. Gralewski (ed.), Creativity – the key to success in education (pp. 96–105). Publisher of the Wszechnica Polska Szkoła Wyz˙sza TWP, Warsaw 2006. 39 Kus´pit M., Creative attitude and the styles of coping with stress of individuals in early adulthood, [in:]: K. Denek, A. Kamin´ska, E. Kraus, P. Oles´niewicz (ed.), Education of tomorrow. Educational quality and school failure (pp. 135–147), Sosnowiec 2015.

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in the literature on the relationship between creativity with entrepreneurship4142. There is an increasing focus on harnessing the potential of people in the workplace, especially in organisations. Researchers emphasise that the creative worker is able to use external resources depending on the type of task. “Creativity is selective and developmental, based on the choices a person makes and contributes to development”43. The author of one of the key models depicting the creative process in place is Teresa M. Amabile44. She lists three essential components of creative action, the occurrence of which is a hallmark of creative activity. According to the author of the theory, these aspects are particularly important and are reflected in the creative action of employees. These include task motivation, professional knowledge, intellectual capacity, as well as other specific predispositions of the person that foster creative activity, such as openness and creative thinking. Task motivation can be external and internal4546. External motivation manifests itself by limiting employees’ creativity and can lead to a reduction in work efficiency. It is associated with imposing specific goals and procedural schemas on employees, neglecting their needs and ideas, and also limits free expression in expressing emotions and feelings. This leads to dissatisfaction, passivity and reluctance to take action and achieve career goals. Employees then experience frustration and negativity, which can turn into organisational cynicism47. Extrinsic motivation is rooted in environmental factors and the employee then pursues external goals such as money, a certain status or a positive image. Intrinsic motivation, on the other hand, stems from the individual needs of employees, which makes work satisfying and more effective. The employee strives for independent thinking and free creative expression and 40 Strzemieczna E., Conflict an opportunity for creativity? Conflict resolution styles and selected aspects of junior school students’ creativity, [in:]: M. Karwowski, A. Gajda. (Ed.), Creativity (not only) in the school classroom (pp. 46–61), Publishing house of the Academy of Special Education, Warsaw 2010. 41 Boguslavskaya A., Does creativity take a village? A model of community participation and entrepreneurial activity. Academy of Management Proceedings, 1, 2014, pp. 174–175. 42 Bratnicka K., Creative organisational entrepreneurship, Economic Studies, 212, 2015, pp. 23– 34. 43 Stasiakiewicz M., Creativity and interaction, Scientific Publishing House of the Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan´ 1999. 44 Amabile T.M., Conti R., Coon H., Lazenby J., Herron M., Assessing the work environment for creativity, Academy of Management Journal, 39(5), 1996, pp. 1154–1184. 45 Amabile, T.M., Creativity in Context: Update to the Social Psychology of Creativity, Westview Press, New York 1996. 46 Amabile T.M., Pillemer J. (2012). Perspectives on the social psychology of creativity. Journal of Creative Behavior, 46(1), 3–15. 47 Chudzicka-Czupała A., Grabowski D., Adamek D., Who tends to be cynical at work? Commitment to work, commitment to the organisation and work ethic versus organisational Cynicism, Human Resource Management, 114(1), 2017, pp. 69–86.

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takes pleasure in taking action, which fosters creative ideas and solutions48. Another factor that fosters creative action is ability and skill. An employee’s competence, knowledge and preparation for the job are dependent on cognitive abilities as well as skills and experience gained49. Researchers emphasise the vital importance of the education system, culture and the values transmitted, on the basis of which the individual’s experiences are shaped50. A third factor necessary for creative activities in the workplace is a predisposition towards creative activity, such as perseverance, cognitive curiosity, the ability to work for long periods of time, and a willingness to take risks, among others. Such abilities result from specific personality traits and a cognitive style manifested in a tendency to take on new and creative challenges51. The empirical research model in this study is based on an understanding of creativity in S. Popek’s interactional approach52 which views the structure of creativity in a holistic way and the individual elements that comprise it as mutually interpenetrating. He mentions the social environment as an important factor in the development of creativity. In his opinion “under the same conditions of environmental influence, some people perceive its impact as stimulating (creative), others as conditions for good adaptation to life, others as a source of frustration and depression”53. The creative personality consists of cognitive qualities such as perceptual aptitude, attention skills, imaginative memory, intuition and convergent and divergent thinking. The second element is the emotional sphere, to which Popek includes: emotional sensitivity, perception ability, assimilation, understanding of emotions, ability to manage emotions, and emotional expression. The next volitional-motivational element contains internal and external motivation, volitional character traits, such as creative courage and self-direction. Creative properties create such characteristics as: emotional intelligence, non-conformity, motivation, and creative activity. All these elements are influenced by the socio-

48 Hennessey B.A., Amabile T.M., Creativity, Annual Review of Psychology, 61,2010, pp. 569– 598. 49 Amabile, T.M., Creativity in Context: Update to the Social Psychology of Creativity, Westview Press, New York 1996. 50 Csíkszentmihályi M., Society, culture, and person: A systems view of creativity [in:]: R. Sternberg (ed.), The Nature of Creativity (pp. 325–339). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1997. 51 Mróz B., Chudzicka-Czupała A., -Kus´pit M,., Personal and creative competence. Psychological determinants of employee creativity, Scholar, Warsaw 2017. 52 Popek S., The psychology of plastic creativity, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University Publishing House, Lublin 2010, p. 121. 53 Popek S., The psychology of plastic creativity, Lublin: University of Maria Curie-Skłodowska Publishing House, Lublin 2010.

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ecological environment, which can stimulate or inhibit the development of creativity5455. Another factor that became the focus of this study’s analysis is the hope for success, which is linked to the functioning of the human being in different areas of activity. Research conducted in this area indicates better adjustment and greater flexibility in action and experiencing positive emotions by individuals with a high level of hope for success, greater sense of life satisfaction, higher selfworth565758. High levels of hope for success are associated with high self-esteem and a sense of purpose in life59 and emotional intelligence60. Research indicates that the level of hope contributes to the way one responds to various types of difficult situations of failure and challenge. People with high levels of hope adapt more easily and are able to deal effectively with situations of risk and uncertainty61. Hope has a regulatory function. It can be considered a resource that allows one to maintain mental equilibrium even when difficulties arise, but also to regain it quickly. Hope in Snyder’s conception is a cognitive process mainly related to motivation and thinking, it is not an emotional process. In his view, emotions are processes that accompany hope, but are secondary to it. He treats the hope of success as a belief characterised by stability that emerges in concrete action. Hope is shaped through learning in early childhood and through individual experiences in later life and is linked to self-perception62. Snyder defines

54 Popek S., Man as a creative individual, University of Maria Curie-Skłodowska Publishing House, Lublin 2001. 55 Popek S., The psychology of plastic creativity, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University Publishing House, p. 119–120, Lublin 2010. 56 Affleck G., Tennen H., Constructing benefits from adversity: adaptational significance and dispositional underpinnings. Journal of Personality, 64 (4), 1996, pp. 899–923. Kwon P., Hope and dysphoria: themoderating role of defense mechanisms. Journal pf Personality, 68 (2), 2000 pp. 199–214. 57 Kwon P. (2000). Hope and dysphoria: themoderating role of defense mechanisms. Journal of Personality, 68 (2), pp. 199–214. 58 Snyder C.R., Sympson S.C., Michael S.T., Cheavens J. (2000). Optimism and hope construct: variations on a positive expectancy theme.W: E.C. Chang (ed.). Optimism and pessimism: Implications for theory, research and practice (pp. 101–123). Washington, DC: American Psychological Associacion. 59 Barnum D.D., Snydler C.R, Rapoff M.A, Mani M.M, Thompson R., Hope and social support in the psychological adjustment of children who have survived burn injuries and their matched controls, Children’s Health Care, 27 (1), 1998, pp. 15–30. 60 Matczak A., Salata, E., Emotional intelligence versus hope, Scientific Quarterly Fideset Ratio,2 (2), 2010, pp. 19–23. 61 Łaguna M., Trzebin´ski, J., Zie˛ba M., KNS hope for success questionnaire manual, PTP Psychological Testing Laboratory, Catholic University of Lublin, Lublin 2005. 62 Łaguna M., Trzebin´ski J., Zie˛ba M., KNS hope for success questionnaire manual, PTP Psychological Testing Laboratory, Catholic University of Lublin, Lublin 2005.

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hope as a motivational state of a positive nature linked to two types of beliefs6364. The first is a belief in the possibility of carrying out a planned action and therefore a belief in the power of one’s own will. A person pursues a goal despite difficulties and obstacles. The second component of hope is related to the perception of oneself as being able to find effective ways to achieve a goal. Refers to “one’s own knowledge and competence to effectively execute the will. It is the belief in the ability to find solutions”65. Hope, in this case, is associated with the expectation of positive results from one’s own actions and is therefore equated with the hope of success. A person with the hope of success feels that he or she is capable of taking action towards a goal and pursuing it in spite of the difficulties that arise, and is convinced that he or she is competent to achieve this. In cognitive terms, hope can contribute to reducing the fear of failure66. In this sense, the hope of success is an important factor in driving an individual to become active in a threatening situation67. Research conducted by the author of this study indicates that there is a link between creative attitudes and hope for success. Both the overall outcome of the creative attitude, as well as its characterological and cognitive dimensions, are related to the hope of success and its individual components: willpower and the ability to find solutions. Hope for success manifests itself in thought processes and concrete action, and can therefore co-occur with heuristic behaviours such as reflexivity, intellectual independence, creative imagination, divergent thinking, cognitive activity. Also, non-conformism manifesting itself in adaptive flexibility, independence and originality in taking action, courage, perseverance in pursuit of a goal promotes the search for a variety of solutions in situations where there are difficulties in pursuing a goal, in which the hope of success is manifested68. Furthermore, it appears that there is a relationship between creative attitudes and hope for success and the educational background and functions of the organisation’s employees. Those in managerial positions have higher levels of creative attitudes and non-conformism compared to those in executive roles. The 63 Snyder C.R., Cheavens J., Sympson S.C., Hope: An individual motive for social commerce, Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 1 (2), 1997, pp. 107–118. 64 Snyder C.R., Sympson S.C., Michael S.T., Cheavens J., Optimism and hope construct: variations on a positive expectancy theme. [in.] E.C. Chang (ed.). Optimism and pessimism: Implications for theory, research and practice (pp. 101–123), DC: American Psychological Associacion, Washington 2000. 65 Trzebin´ski J., Zie˛ba M., Basic-hope as a world-view: an outline of a con⌐cept, Polish Psychological Bulletin, 2, 2004, p. 7. 66 Jarymowicz M., Bar-Tal D., The dominance of fear over hope in the lives of individuals and collectives, European Journal of Social Psychology, 36(3), 2006, pp. 367–392. 67 Porzak R., Sagan M., Hope and entrepreneurship., WSEI Scientific Journals series: ECONOMY, 6(1/2013), 2013, pp. 179–193. 68 Kus´pit M., The creative attitude of organisational employees and their hope for success. Culture and Education. No. 3 (133)., 2021.

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study also found that education significantly differentiates the level of hope for success among the organisation’s employees. Those with a university education have a higher overall hope for success score, greater willpower and ability to find solutions compared to those with a secondary education. It can be hypothesised that the greater amount of experience gained in the training and education process, the sense of self-efficacy in the pursuit of career goals contributes to the strengthening of hope for success, willpower and the formation of the ability to find solutions in the workplace69. The above analyses indicate that both a creative attitude and hope for success can foster an inspiring working environment and promote professional success. This prompted the author’s further research into the importance of creative attitudes and hope for success in a group of corporate employees.

Purpose and method The aim of the presented research was to determine the relationship between creative attitude and hope for success and the gender of corporate employees. The main research problem of the presented study took the form of a question: Are there significant differences between men and women in terms of creative attitudes and hopes for success among corporate employees? The research used the KANH III Creative Behaviour Questionnaire70. This is a modified version of the KANH questionnaire. The theoretical basis of the tool can be found in the work of S. Popek (1989–2000). The KANH III consists of two scales, conformism-nonconformism, which belongs to the personality domain, and heuristic behaviour-algorithmic behaviour, which belongs to the cognitive domain. The overall level of creative attitude can also be determined. Each scale diagnoses 13 dimensional properties of a continuum nature. The questionnaire consists of 26 statements. The tool’s reliability as measured by test-retest is 0.95. Reliability calculated (N = 4271) using Cronbach’s alpha for the K-N scale = 0.69, for the A-H scale = 0.65. The second tool used in the research is the Hope for Success Questionnaire – KNS (Łaguna, Trzebin´ski, Zie˛ba, 2005). It consists of 12 statements. It contains four items relating to strong-willed beliefs and four items relating to solutionfinding skills. The four remaining items are not diagnostic. Based on the scores obtained, it is possible to determine the overall score of hope for success and its 69 Kus´pit M., Subjective Aspects of the Functioning of Employees in the Organization, LABOR et EDUCATIO no 9, 2021, pp. 127–141. 70 Bernacka E.R., Popek S.L. Gierczyk M., KANH Creative Behaviour Questionnaire III- presentation of psychometric properties, Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska LublinPolonia, Vol. XXIX, 2016, pp. 33–57.

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individual components such as willpower and the ability to find solutions. The KNS is a reliable and accurate diagnostic tool. The internal consistency index (Cronbach’s alpha) of the Polish version of the questionnaire was 0.82. The reliability of the willpower belief scale is equal to 0.74, for the belief scale on the ability to find solutions the reliability coefficient is 0.72. The hope for success scale measures well the strength of beliefs about one’s own ability to pursue goals and achieve success71. The study involved 120 people, employees with a variety of service and production activities employed by corporate companies in south-eastern Poland. The respondents included 66 women and 54 men, aged 19–60, in management and executive roles.

Findings The values of the analysed measurable parameters are presented using the mean and standard deviation, and immeasurable ones using the frequency and percentage. The normality of variable distribution in the studied groups was tested using the Shapiro-Wilk normality test. The t-Student test was used to examine differences between two groups, and the Mann-Whitney test was used if the conditions for its use were not met. Analyses were conducted on raw data. The database and statistical tests were carried out using Statistica 9.1 computer software (StatSoft, Poland). Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the results on the individual KANH and KNS scales Scale analysed Creative attitude KANH Conformism-non-conformism Algorithmic-heuristic behaviour Overall result KNS Ability to find solutions Willpower

Mean Standard deviation 66.70 10.56 33.41 6.22 33.29 5.74 46.93 7.26 25.00 3.71 21.93 4.50

Source7273

The data in Table 1 show that, in the group of employees surveyed, the average creative attitude score was 66.70, on the conformism-nonconformism scale it was 71 Łaguna M., Trzebin´ski, J., Zie˛ba, M., KNS hope for success questionnaire manual, PTP Psychological Testing Laboratory. Lublin: Catholic University of Lublin, 2005, pp. 17–31. 72 Kus´pit M., Subjective Aspects of the Functioning of Employees in the Organization. LABOR et EDUCATIO no 9, 2021, 127–141. 73 Kus´pit M., The creative attitude of organisational employees versus their hope for success. Culture and Education. No. 3 (133), 2021, pp. 227–243.

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33.41, while on the algorithmic-heuristic behaviour scale it was 33.29. The overall level of hope for success was 46.93, while on the scale of ability to find solutions it was 25.00, and willpower was 21.93. Further analyses involved checking whether there are differences between general indicators of a creative attitude, as well as their individual subscales and the gender of the subjects. The results are presented in the table below. Table 2. Gender differences in KANH scores Gender Group comparison Women Men M SD M SD t p Creative attitude 66.64 11.54 66.78 9.33 − 0.073 0.942 Conformism-non-conformism 33.39 7.01 33.43 5.16 − 0.029 0.977 Algorithmic-heuristic behaviour 33.24 6.06 33.35 5.39 − 0.103 0.918

KANH

Source: own elaboration

As the table above indicates, there were no statistically significant differences between men and women in either the creative attitude or its individual dimensions. Table 3. Gender differences in KNS results

Hope for Success (KNS)

Gender Women Men

M SD M Overall result 47.18 7.07 46.63 Ability to find solutions 25.21 3.60 24.74 Willpower 21.97 4.59 21.89

Group comparison

SD t p 7.53 0.413 0.680 3.86 0.691 0.491 4.43 0.097 0.923

Source: own elaboration

As the table above indicates, there are no statistically significant differences between men and women on the variable hope for success. There are no differences in either the overall hope for success score or in its individual dimensions. It was further decided to test whether age significantly differentiates the level of creative attitude and its individual dimensions, such as conformism-nonconformism, algorithmic-heuristic behaviour. Table 4. Differences in KANH scores by age

Creative attitude Creative attitude

Up to 25 years

Age 26–35 years

over 35 years

Group comparison

M SD M SD M SD F p 65.63 11.29 67.03 11.62 67.24 9.06 0.256 0.775

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Table 4 (Continued) Age Creative attitude

Up to 25 years M SD

26–35 years M SD

Group over comparison 35 years M SD F p

Conformism-non-conformism 32.74 6.50 33.95 6.35 33.44 5.98 0.349 0.706 Algorithmic-heuristic behaviour 32.89 5.71 33.08 6.72 33.80 4.84 0.289 0.750 Source: own elaboration

As the data in Table 4 indicate, there were no significant differences between the age of the subjects and the creative attitude and its dimensions. Subsequent analyses looked at whether age differentiates the level of hope for success. The data are included in Table 5. Table 5. Differences in KNS results by age Age Group Hope for Success (KNS) Up to 25 years 26–35 years over 35 years comparison M Overall result 45.89 Ability to find solutions 24.77 Willpower 21.11

SD 6.72 3.34 4.52

M SD M 46.23 7.36 48.38 24.90 4.07 25.27 21.33 4.04 23.11

SD 7.49 3.71 4.72

F p 1.457 0.237 0.195 0.823 2.549 0.082

Source: own elaboration

There were no statistically significant differences in the overall level of hope for success and its individual dimensions: the ability to find solutions and willpower in the male and female groups. Gender, therefore, does not differentiate between hope for success and its individual dimensions. Based on the above analyses, it can be concluded that both gender and age do not differentiate the level of creative attitude and its individual dimensions. Although women have a higher level of creative attitude, the results are not statistically significant. Similar results were obtained by Pufal-Struzik when she conducted a study in a group of students74. Men and women also do not differ in their hopes for success in the surveyed group of corporate employees. Women scored higher on hope for success and willpower and ability to find solutions, but the results are not statistically significant.

74 Pufal-Struzik I., Creativity and risk propensity in students – gender differences, Rocznik Lubuski Vol. 45, Ch. 1, 2019, pp. 91–103.

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Conclusions The results obtained from the survey may have important implications for the functioning of employees in the corporation. It appears that both gender and age are not significant in terms of shaping creative attitudes and hopes for success. The creative attitude as well as its individual dimensions: conformism-nonconformism, algorithmic-heuristic behaviour can be developed to the same extent in women and men of different ages. Motivation for any kind of creative activity and the pursuit of originality depends on the cognitive, emotional processes and personality characteristics of the individual. Equally important in stimulating creative behaviours is the environment, in this case the proper organisation of work conditions and the creation by the employer of an appropriate climate inspiring creative achievements. Kozielecki75 speaks of transgression in this context. By pushing the limits of past achievements, the individual overcomes his or her weaknesses, which leads to the development of self-improvement. Education through creative activities can lead to a change in perception of the world, reality and one’s own inadequacies. The potential inherent in employees can be activated and developed, or conversely, inhibited through various situations, socio-cultural changes, and economic anomalies in workplace relations. Negative emotions such as fear, discouragement, powerlessness, withdrawal may then emerge. Awareness of limitations and expectations from the environment on one hand can lead to a feeling of inferiority, on the other hand, to a belief in one’s own power and motivation for change76. Stimulating creative potential can, on one hand, meet with negative reactions, which may stem from fear of criticism or ridicule, or low self-esteem. At the same time, these same factors can become an opportunity to seek ways to overcome one’s own inadequacies and to find effective ways to solve existing problems77. Shaping creativity involves interactions of two kinds. The first is about overcoming the barriers and blocks that impede creative thinking and action. The second involves activating and developing certain cognitive skills78. The literature mentions objective barriers: related to the external environment, subjective ones that concern available intellectual or material means, and psychosocial ones: related to the internal states of the individual and their social life79. Social barriers arise as a result of improper relations between the individual and the group, which can often be observed in large companies. The following, among others, 75 Kozielecki J., The transgressive concept of man, PWN, Warsaw 1987. 76 Gołaszewska M., Who is the artist?, WSiP, Warsaw 1986. 77 Łukasiewicz-Wieleba J., Jabłonowska M., Capabilities and creativity, Published. Academy of Special Education, Warsaw 2010. 78 Ne˛cka E., The psychology of creativity, GWP, Gdan´sk 2003. 79 Dobrołowicz W., Psychology and barriers, WSiP, Warsaw 1993.

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can be mentioned here: excessive use of norms and algorithms, conservatism, destructive criticism, prejudices and preconceptions, intolerance, inappropriate attitudes of the environment, deprivation of subjectivity, insecurity, rejection by the social group. Psychological barriers, on the other hand, result from stereotypes, defensive reactions, unfavourable attitudes, anxiety, lack of self-confidence, complexes or crises. Among these, one can mention emotional-motivational barriers: arising from fears of negative opinions from others, fear of the new and unknown, impatience in striving towards a goal, pessimism, and personality barriers, which are associated with a lack of belief in the success of actions, conformity, difficulty in making decisions, fear of public presentation of ideas, egocentrism, and lack of self-awareness8081. Knowledge of the barriers (inhibitors) that hinder creative thinking allows you to become aware of your own limitations and thought patterns that hinder the search for multiple solutions to a problem and encourage convergent, stereotypical thinking that lacks flexibility. Appropriate atmosphere and climate in the workplace and proper communication between employees and superiors is the basis for the free expression of one’s own ideas, the generation of ideas and the possibilities to express them in the presence of others82. A creative attitude can inspire the right climate in the workplace and contribute to a greater sense of hope for success among employees at different levels. Both a creative attitude and hope for success can foster motivation to take on new tasks and strengthen the belief in one’s own competence and effectiveness in achieving goals, overcoming difficulties and solving complex problems, resulting in a sense of job satisfaction and effectiveness in achieving professional success.

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Zdzisław Wołk1

Technological culture and work culture as the essential determinants of safe work

Introduction Similarly to technology, professional work constitutes a benefit, however it is also often associated with risk and a series of hazards. Thus, it is essential to strive for safe work, i. e. work that allows the person performing it to take care of its own well-being, as well as the well-being of environment understood in a broad sense. In the remote past, in statu ascendi of taming nature, a man at first reached for a stone and then for a stick, in order to improve the strength and capabilities of his own hand2. This constituted the beginning of technology, which multiplied individual capabilities of humans throughout the entire civilisation. Furthermore, without the support of technology, which allowed to improve physical and intellectual capabilities, people would not be able to maintain the achieved level of satisfying their own needs. Among them, the need for safety is of essential importance, however it was initially neglected due to uncritical and unconditional fascination with technology. When a social division of labour emerged and professional work was distinguished, at first no attention was paid to the safety issues. However, over time – in addition to non-professional safety – also professional safety has become a developed and improved area. Unfortunately, disability and death are still a frequent consequence of accidents at work, or inappropriate and reckless use of technological devices in the professional environment all over the world. In the United States alone, there were 6588 fatal accidents at work in 1994, i. e. 18 per day3. Nowadays, this problem remains very much valid, while the deadline for complete elimination of serious accidents is moving further away. According to the ILO data, 270 million accidents at work

1 Uniwersytet Zielonogórski, Instytut Pedagogiki, ORCID: 0000-0002-2846-6246, Email: [email protected]. 2 Nowacki T., Tworza˛ca re˛ka, ITEE, Radom 2010, p. 16. 3 Schulz D.P., Schulz S.E., Psychologia a wyzwania dzisiejsze pracy, PWN, Warszawa 2008.

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occur every year around the world, including 350 000 fatal accidents4. The sources of hazards and hazardous situations occur everywhere, and it is not possible to predict and list them all. Therefore, prudence at work in the scope of one’s own safety, as well as safety of co-workers and beneficiaries of work constitutes a significant and current issue. In the case of approx. 60% of accidents, people are responsible for their occurrence. As a result, implementation of the rules of safe and harmless (both to people and their environment) work is primarily associated with the performer of a given work, i. e. the person performing it. Therefore, technological culture and work culture constitute an essential determinant of safe and hazard-free work.

Contribution of technology and work in the human achievements Regardless of the era and saturation of achievements in the field of technology, the correlations between technology and people have always interested and still occupy the minds of scientists5. Over various historical periods, both work and technology have been sometimes despised, and at other times they have been elevated to the rank of essential factors that determine the directions of human activity, and define the capabilities of meeting the needs and shaping opportunities for their subsequent development. Since the dawn of time, the technological civilisation has had a major impact on people’s lives. Although this relationship has always existed, nowadays it is very intense and it occurs in all areas of human life, without exception6. Despite the fact that technology is an instrument allowing for the occurrence of active relationship of people with nature, as well as its beneficial processing, sometimes it also generates serious threats to people and their natural environment7. There are many such threats, because by replacing people, technology limits and eliminates them from many spheres of activity, while weakening their individual efficiency and often contributing to the degradation of natural environment. Thus, on the one hand it harms nature, while on the other hand the same technology supports people in repaying their debts to nature, and it is increasingly used to protect the environment, as well as to ensure safety of people. It is more 4 Wypadki przy pracy, “Solidarnos´c´”. Available at: https://www.solidarnosc.org.pl/en/zdrowe -miejsca-pracy-2/wypadki-przy-pracy (24. 06. 2023). 5 Brynjolffson E. and McAfee M., The Second Machine Age: Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies, W.W.Norton & Company, New York London 2014. 6 Furmanek W., Edukacja a przemiany cywilizacyjne, Fosze, Rzeszów 2010, p. 55. 7 Palka D., Stecuła K., Poste˛p technologiczny – dobrodziejstwo czy zagroz˙enie?, [in:] Innowacje w zarza˛dzaniu i inz˙ynierii produkcji, (ed.). R. Knosala. T. 1, Oficyna Wydawnicza Polskiego Towarzystwa Zarza˛dzania Produkcja˛, 2018, Opole 2018, p. 59.

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and more common to describe many products of technology as “friendly to people and their natural environment”8. The technology started being directed towards safe life and work, when people – supported by technology – satisfied their consumption needs at such a level that the time has come to focus on the need for safety. Thus, it is not possible to ignore technology, however it still seems important to find the optimal relationship between people and technology, so that it would support us without harming or threatening us. Tadeusz Kotarbin´ski indicated the need for such relationship, because he perceived technology as a chance to control the “extra-social, dangerous forces of reality”. Furthermore, Kotarbin´ski saw technology as a chance to unite the world community and he actually spoke of a global village that can be integrated due to technology. Despite the fact that he was aware of the threats posed by technology, he believed that it still offers a chance for human progress. He wrote that: “there is no elementary contradiction between humanism and technology. They are characterised by essential compatibility. This results from the fact that technology – as a historical force – frees people from the most basic worries and from the hardest work, while opening up the possibilities for such a rich life, which would not be possible without all the facilitations provided by technology. The humanistic culture that we know from our tradition, e. g. from philological school of the old type, will have to change a lot. In a certain sense, we have to move away from it, because the culture of modern humanism is less historical and more related to the current economic life, as well as associated prospective issues”9.

The above-mentioned optimism was not shared by Erich Fromm, who predicted that humanity was threatened by the evolution of society towards a “dehumanised technotronic society”. Furthermore, he pointed out that modern technological system as well as people functioning within its framework are governed by the principles threatening humanity. Firstly, people strive to create anything that the technological possibilities allow them to create. Therefore, technological progress is the only basis of ethics. Secondly, people strive to achieve maximum efficiency and production, which leads to a loss of individualism10. The technology unifies people and makes their aspirations, as well as methods used to satisfy their needs very similar. Furthermore, the disastrous consequences of a technocratic society were also argued by Neil Postman, who gave a bitter subtitle to one of his books: “The Surrender of Culture to Technology”. In this book, Postman interprets “facts from the past”, associates them and then arranges the above-mentioned facts into logical sequences of events. He tries to demonstrate, 8 Leska-S´le˛zak J., S´wie˛tochowska U., Przemiany cywilizacji współczesnej, Adam Marszałek, Torun´ 1996, p. 47. 9 Kotarbin´ski T., Pisma wybrane, Ossolineum, Wrocław -Warszawa – Kraków 1987. 10 Fromm E., Rewolucja nadziei, Vis – a Vis Etiuda, Kraków 2017.

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how technology (its consequence is “technopoly”) forces the way society is organised and how it affects the nature of human activity, as well as axiological orientation of people. In an attempt to stop the attack of technology, he refers to education and proposes an essential reorganisation of the educational contents. Nevertheless, he openly writes that he has “no illusions that the proposed organic work will actually stop the offensive of the world of technological thought”11. Józef Ban´ka had similar reflections and he posed the following question that is still valid: “Are we threatened by further development of civilisation in the future?”12. The fact of posing such question in this way suggests that technological progress – or more generally civilisational progress – may constitute a threat to humanity. Nevertheless, this is not an unreasonable question. Modern man is passionate about the achievements of technology, or rather his own (human) achievements in the field of technology. Since the moment of invention of the steam engine, inventiveness started to develop and flourish in an unprecedented manner. Subsequent inventions are conducive to the emergence of new, more and more improved inventions. There is even a claim that the greatest invention of modern times is inventiveness (Postman: 1995). While referring to the consequences of the fourth industrial revolution, Klaus Schwab posed the following question: “how will the uncontrolled integration of technology with our lives affect our perception of identity, and will it lead to the impairment of some of our typical human responses, e. g. the ability to reflect on ourselves, empathy or compassion? The technological progress determines our new boundaries of ethics”13.

All of this is associated with concerns about the disruption of human-technology relation. People and their lives are affected by the technological discipline, technical precision, order and organisation of work, i. e. specific “products of technology”. Furthermore, technology is inseparably associated with work. After all, people created technology in order to multiply the strength of their hands, and subsequently also the strength of their minds. So, people primarily used technology for the performance of work, initially focusing on taking away the nature’s resources, processing them and using them for their own benefit. Furthermore, professional work determines the social position of a person and provides satisfaction, often determining even the meaning of life. Currently, it is not possible to perform any work without the involvement of technology. This results from the fact that it allows for more efficient implementation of the tasks set by people, 11 Postman N., Technopoly. The surrender of culture to technology, Knopf, New York 1992. 12 Ban´ka J., Byc´ i mys´lec´, Młodziez˙owa Agencja Wydawnicza, Warszawa 1982. 13 K. Schwab, The fourth Industrial Revolution, World Economic Forum, Cologny Geneva 2016, p. 125.

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and that it makes work lighter as well as safer, while the resulting products are better. Work constitutes a benefit for people, however it requires prudence in the scope of its use.

Technological culture and work culture as the personal traits of an employee Every professional work is inseparably associated with technology. Moreover, technological culture and work culture can be considered in terms of personal traits, which are closely associated. This results from the fact that nowadays it would be very hard to find an occupation, specialty or any form of professional work, in which it would not be necessary to use technology or at least some products of technology. Furthermore, technology has penetrated into all areas of human life – both professional and everyday life. As a result, there is a need to use it prudently, so that it serves people well and favours their development, as well as social progress14. Furthermore, employee potential of a person results from its personal dispositions, as well as professional competences. Work culture binds them together as a specific, individual and exceptional characteristic of a person, which expresses its multiple references to professional work, while taking into account its specific individual personal dispositions. Moreover, work culture is a personal trait of an individual. Therefore, every person has certain individual characteristics, which determine the way a given person and only such person implements a work process15. Work culture consists of a triad of interconnected components and each of these components determines in a significant manner the level of discussed personal trait. Moreover, they cannot be separated from each other, because they occur together as well as penetrate each other, and they are associated with psychophysical dispositions, based on which they occur and based on which they must be considered, as well as interpreted. The following three components comprise work culture, understood as a personal trait: – operational knowledge concerning work, which is based on broad general knowledge and which allows to understand the phenomena occurring in the 14 M.A. Kra˛piec, Kultura techniczna a humanistyczna, [in:]: Kultura wobec techniki. Materiały z sympozjum z cyklu “Przyszłos´c´ cywilizacji Zachodu” zorganizowanego przez Katedre˛ Filozofii Kultury KUL ed. P. Jaroszyn´ski, I. Chłodna, P. Gondek, Fundusz Rozwoju Kultury Polskiej, Lublin 2004, p. 16. 15 Z. Wołk, Człowiek i jego kultura pracy w realizacji drogi zawodowej, “Szkoła Zawód Praca” 5– 6, 2013, p. 23.

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work process, as well as assess work, its products and phenomena, while shaping and developing a creative attitude towards it; – intellectual and manual employee skills, which allow for rational undertaking and performance of professional activities; – attitude towards work, which manifests itself in interests and commitment to work, as well as in personal responsibility for the implementation methods of professional tasks and their consequences16. Moreover, the attitude towards work characterises the ethics and integrity of an employee. An employee implements its professional tasks throughout the entire work process, and in some cases goes even beyond its formal framework. Identifying with a professional role requires continuous reflection in regard to the encountered situations, as well as in relation to one’s own behaviour17. Nowadays, it is possible to observe the pursuit of professionalism in every field and at every job position, i. e. the pursuit of high professional competence. A work organisation, which has employees with a high level of knowledge and which is characterised by implementation of a knowledge-based model, has greater development possibilities in the changing postmodern reality. Furthermore, possession of knowledge resources, their dissemination and use become the primary source, as well as an essential factor in the development of every work organisation18. This is associated with the need for an employee to be characterised by extensive knowledge, which serves not only such employee, but also – along with its dissemination in the enterprise – other employees and the company itself 19. Nevertheless, it is not only about professional knowledge, but also about broad general knowledge, which allows to understand the world and the processes occurring in it, as well as to search for one’s place and role in it. Based on the above-mentioned knowledge, it is possible to develop general professional knowledge, which is necessary for the conscious performance of work, regardless of professional position of a given employee. Moreover, such knowledge also generates opportunities for the conscious profiling of a given career and allows to achieve high professional mobility. In addition, it also allows to appropriately 16 R. Gerlach, R. Tomaszewska, Człowiek w organizacji. Na osi czasu,. Od historycznych do prognostycznych kierunków rozwoju, Wydawnictwo UKW, Bydgoszcz 2022. 17 Dec A., Uwarunkowania osobowos´ciowe i edukacyjne zwia˛zane z kultura˛ bezpieczen´stwa pracy. [in:] Ergonomia ochrona zdrowia i bezpieczen´stwo pracy, ed. R.J. Kasperska, A.M. Lasota i G. Dudarski, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Polskiego Towarzystwa Profesjologicznego Zielona Góra 2015, p. 93. 18 Tomaszewska-Lipiec R., Zakład pracy mie˛dzy retrospekcja˛ a przewidywanym kierunkiem rozwoju, [in:] Pedagogika pracy: Tradycje i wyzwania współczesnos´ci, ed. S. Kwiatkowskiego, ITEE, Radom–Warszawa–Bydgoszcz 2012. 19 I. Nonaka, H. Takeuchi, The Knowledge – Creating Company, New York–Oxford 1995, p. 378.

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understand other people, as well as processes taking place in a given company. Operational knowledge associated with the performance of specific activities in a given job position is placed only on the third level. A technical knowledge is the understanding of specific technical items and facts concerning technology, as well as the understanding of correlations between them, contained in the concepts and views concerning technology. In this respect, there is no mention of knowledge about the risks at work and how to avoid them. It is more about the concept that the knowledge and understanding of technology, as well as work are supposed to ensure that the person entering into relations with them and the consumers of its products will be safe. In the scope of safety, the knowledge constituting a component of work culture and technological culture concerns the principles of operation and use of technological devices, the principles of technology application and work performance, associated hazards and methods necessary to compensate for their consequences, as well as assistance and rescue behaviours. Unfortunately, very often these areas of knowledge are treated marginally and sometimes they are even disregarded. In the scope of modern work conditions, the employees are required to possess a high level of professional knowledge, which above all must allow them to complete the tasks at the current job position, but which also allows them to quickly adapt to other job position. Therefore, the operability of knowledge, the ability to control it as well as expand, interpret and apply it are very significant. A professional must be characterised not only by a broad horizon of knowledge, which is much wider than current expectations, and must not only know the practiced field of knowledge, but above all must be able to apply it. More and more often, the employers notice that their companies’ effectiveness and competitiveness depend on the knowledge and skills of their employees20. The skills are based on knowledge and in order to acquire professional skills, it is necessary to know the laws and principles that govern the specific actions and situations. Less and less often it is possible to rely on intuition when performing employee tasks, or to develop only the skills, without relying on awareness. Such attitude, which has the characteristics of treating an employee as an object, limits its independence and sense of freedom21. Regardless of profession or performed work, both knowledge and skills are instrumental features and specific “tools”, which are used by every employee. They are essential in the scope of every work process. Furthermore, their level determines the quality and efficiency of performed work. As a result, it is nec20 T.W. Nowacki, U. Jeruszka, Podstawy dydaktyki pracy, Wydawnictwo WSP-TWP, Warszawa 2004, p. 45. 21 Banach B., Rozwój i poste˛p techniczny na tle ogólnych prawidłowos´ci gospodarczych i cywilizacyjnych. Wybrane problemy, Ksie˛garnia Akademicka, Kraków 2010, p. 85.

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essary to ensure continuous updates and verifications in this regard. The skills are associated with the work methods and they determine the accuracy as well as proficiency of undertaken actions. Particular importance is assigned to the third component of work culture – the attitude that constitutes a kind of guidepost, which determines the ways of proceeding and activating instrumental dispositions. Furthermore, the attitude towards work determines the methods of using knowledge as well as skills, and it must not be reduced to the attitude expressed on a scale between the following states: “work is a necessary evil” and “work is the meaning of life”. While perceiving attitude as a component of work culture, it is necessary to distinguish two aspects of it: responsibility and readiness22. Each mature person is characterised by responsibility for himself/herself, as well as for their actions and results of such actions23. Furthermore, the employee responsibility has not only a legal aspect, but also an ethical one24. A responsible person is “a person morally or legally obliged, or both morally and legally obliged to be responsible for its own actions and omissions, towards itself, society or another person. A responsible person can be relied upon, because such person is characterised by awareness and a sense of duty”25.

Above all, the attitude towards work is determined by responsibility and readiness. Responsibility at work is applicable to many areas and especially concerns the responsibility for co-workers, work process, its course, organisation and duration, for the final work results and their consequences, for the quality of work and process evaluation, for itself as a work process participant, for the material costs and financial consequences of undertaken actions. While performing work, an employee contributes its own mental and physical resources. Furthermore, an employee often experiences fatigue and stress, particularly when solving difficult unusual problems. In addition, the responsibility associated with the accepted professional tasks and the consequences of their performance may burden mental condition of an employee, if it involves objectified participation in the work process and the use of technology. However, this risk is eliminated in the case when it involves self-responsibility resulting

22 Wołk Z., Kultura pracy profesjonalisty, Difin, Warszawa 2017, p. 41. 23 Z. Pietrasin´ski, 1992, Rozwój ludzi dorosłych, [in:] Wprowadzenie do pedagogiki dorosłych, ed. T. Wujek, Warszawa 1992, p. 23. 24 Sprenger R.K., Zasada autoodpowiedzialnos´ci. Drogi do motywacji, MT Biznes, Warszawa 2010, p. 41. 25 T. Nowacki, K. Korabiowska-Nowacka, B. Baraniak, Nowy słownik pedagogiki pracy, Wydawnictwo WSP-TWP, Warszawa, 2005, p. 166.

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from a high level of technological culture and work culture. Furthermore, the responsibility for oneself is associated with respecting ethical principles. This result from the fact that their use shapes the image of a particular employee. The second aspect of the attitude towards work is readiness. It is characterised by multidimensional nature and in the case of professional work it refers to: application of rules, reliability, education, self-development, change (flexibility), innovation, subjection to the assessment of others, cooperation, respect for the recipient of work results and admission of own helplessness.

A necessary condition in every profession and at every job position is the readiness to apply the rules and principles of work. Nowadays, an employee in many situations decides by himself/herself about professional conduct and is responsible for its correctness, above all towards oneself. Therefore, in such case we are talking about self-control at work. The employee’s self-control must not be limited to the ongoing monitoring of own behaviour at work, but should also be associated with the prediction of future consequences of the currently performed actions, which in many cases may occur independently of a given employee and without the possibility of correcting possible errors. Sensitivity to the consequences of performed work is associated with referring to the appropriate knowledge, with awareness of possible negative consequences of performed work, with indication of methods that allow to reduce them, and – above all – with shaping sensitivity, prudence as well as caution. Omission or underestimation in this regard may lead to ruthlessness in the performance of professional tasks, even in the case of potential hazards that may result from them. Moreover, readiness for reliability and honesty in the scope of appropriate conduct also constitutes an important guidepost, characterised by a universal character, which however must be articulated in relation to the professional attitude towards work. It means striving to the continuous improvement of own workmanship, as well as individual and exceptional treatment of each client. According to Tadeusz Kotarbin´ski, reliability in action is associated with mastery at work, which constitutes an action leading to the optimal results, i. e. containing everything that is necessary for appropriate functioning, while at the same time not containing anything that is not necessary26. Readiness to change and to undertake innovative actions, as well as to educate oneself are closely related and they should be considered together. Change can be perceived as the opposite of stability and stagnation. It constitutes a characteristic of modernity in all areas of life and cognition. Therefore, readiness to change determines the flexibility level of an employee, who must take into account the 26 T. Kotarbin´ski, Traktat o dobrej robocie, Ossolineum, Wrocław – Warszawa – Kraków 1975, p. 469.

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variability of approaches, methods, techniques and tools of work, as well as changes on the labour market. Nevertheless, the most significant seems to be the acceptance of the need to permanently work on oneself and to strive for continuous improvement. This is associated with the readiness for education. Due to the dynamics of occurring changes, every employee faces the need to constantly update knowledge about the labour market and knowledge in the scope of own work skills. If a given employee limits himself/herself to the set of competences acquired at any level of education, it may very quickly lead to the obsolescence in the scope of acquired competences, despite the acquisition of new and valuable experiences through practice. The readiness to admit own helplessness is difficult, however necessary. More and more often, the employee situations are characterised by unique nature and they rarely make it possible to refer to routine, algorithms or patterns of conduct. Therefore, it may happen that the nature of a given problem or the specificity of the client’s personality will make the employee performing a given work unable to accomplish the task. In such case, it is necessary to demonstrate humility in the face of complexity and unpredictability of a given situation. Furthermore, it is necessary to admit it to the client and to oneself. In such case, searching for substitute solutions, referring to intuition, risking an ambiguous solution of the problem or using the trial-and-error method can be more harmful than admitting one’s powerlessness. General knowledge, professional knowledge, essential skills, work skills, as well as attitude towards work expressed via responsibility and readiness, together determine the professional potential of an employee. They complement and condition each other, but only their co-occurrence determines the actual capabilities of a person applying for a job and performing it. Furthermore, a deficit in the scope of any of them may eliminate even great capabilities inherent in the other components. Work culture is closely correlated with technological culture, because technology takes part in every area of human life. Despite the fact that they are not identical, they closely overlap, which results from the increasing versatility of many technological devices, as well as the possibilities of their application at work and outside of it. Just as technology constitutes an important area of professional work, technological culture constitutes an important area of work culture. Each of the above-mentioned levels requires different knowledge and different skills, and the higher the level of technological culture, the greater the responsibility. Organisational culture is a distinguishing feature, and just as every organisations is unique, so is organisational culture. It constitutes: “a specific way of life and discipline, along with specific taboos. The climate or culture of the

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system reflects the norms and the values of formal system, as well as their reinterpretation in the informal system”27. Every enterprise has its own organisational culture, therefore it is: “a system of assumptions, values and social norms that are the behavioural stimulants of the organisation’s members, which are significant from the viewpoint of achievement of the formally assumed objectives. Therefore, it is about the behaviours resulting from cultural norms, which either support the behaviours resulting from formal organisational norms, supplement them, modify them or completely contradict them”28.

In this case, it is about behaviors resulting at the same time from one’s own needs.

Conclusion Respect for people is associated to an increasing extent with taking care of their lives, as well as living conditions. It constitutes one of the greatest achievements of our civilisation. In order to implement it, everyone must exhibit a high level of technological culture and work culture, particularly with regard to many hazards associated with modern times. Furthermore, the attitude towards technology and the attitude towards work should be recognised as particularly important. The attitude towards technology at every level – i. e. the level of user, manufacturer and designer – is associated with different competencies and different responsibility, which is particularly high at the level of technology creator. In turn, the attitude towards work expresses the employee’s responsibility for everything associated with the performed work and its results, as well as with the readiness to undertake actions that make a given work more empowered and safer. The abovementioned attitude determines the application of instrumental dispositions, i. e. knowledge and skills, which are equally significant for safe work and its consequences. Therefore, improvement of the societal level of work culture and technological culture should not be omitted in terms of education at any stage of continuous learning, nor in any environment of human life.

Bibliography Banach B., Rozwój i poste˛p techniczny na tle ogólnych prawidłowos´ci gospodarczych i cywilizacyjnych. Wybrane problemy, Ksie˛garnia Akademicka, Kraków 2010. 27 D. Katz, L.R. Kahn, Społeczna psychologia organizacji, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 1997, p. 108. 28 C. Sikorski, 2001, Zachowania ludzi w organizacji, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2001, p. 235.

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Ban´ka J., Byc´ i mys´lec´, Młodziez˙owa Agencja Wydawnicza, Warszawa 1982. Brynjolffson E. and McAfee M., The Second Machine Age: Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies, W.W.Norton & Company, New York London 2014. Dec A., Uwarunkowania osobowos´ciowe i edukacyjne zwia˛zane z kultura˛ bezpieczen´stwa pracy. [in:] Ergonomia ochrona zdrowia i bezpieczen´stwo pracy, ed. R.J. Kasperska, A.M. Lasota i G. Dudarski, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Polskiego Towarzystwa Profesjologicznego Zielona Góra 2015, pp. 91–100. Fromm E., Rewolucja nadziei, Vis – a Vis Etiuda, Kraków 2017. Furmanek W., Edukacja a przemiany cywilizacyjne, Fosze, Rzeszów 2010. Gerlach R., Tomaszewska R., Człowiek w organizacji. Na osi czasu,. Od historycznych do prognostycznych kierunków rozwoju, Wydawnictwo UKW, Bydgoszcz 2022. Katz D., Kahn L.R., Społeczna psychologia organizacji, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 1997. Kotarbin´ski T., Pisma wybrane, Ossolineum, Wrocław -Warszawa – Kraków 1987. Kotarbin´ski T., Traktat o dobrej robocie, Ossolineum, Wrocław -Warszawa – Kraków 1975. Kra˛piec M.A., Kultura techniczna a humanistyczna, [in:]: Kultura wobec techniki. Materiały z sympozjum z cyklu “Przyszłos´c´ cywilizacji Zachodu” zorganizowanego przez Katedre˛ Filozofii Kultury KUL ed. P. Jaroszyn´ski, I. Chłodna, P. Gondek, Fundusz Rozwoju Kultury Polskiej, Lublin 2004, pp. 7–19. Leska-S´le˛zak J., S´wie˛tochowska U., Przemiany cywilizacji współczesnej, Adam Marszałek, Torun´ 1996. Nonaka I., Takeuchi H., The Knowledge – Creating Company, Oxford University Press, New York–Oxford 1995. Nowacki T.W., Tworza˛ca re˛ka, ITEE, Radom 2010. Nowacki T.W., Jeruszka U, Podstawy dydaktyki pracy, Wydawnictwo WSP-TWP Warszawa 2004. Nowacki T.W., Korabiowska-Nowacka K., Baraniak B., Nowy słownik pedagogiki pracy, Wydawnictwo WSP-TWP Warszawa 2005. Palka D., Stecuła K., Poste˛p technologiczny – dobrodziejstwo czy zagroz˙enie?, [in:] Innowacje w zarza˛dzaniu i inz˙ynierii produkcji, (ed.). R. Knosala. T. 1, Oficyna Wydawnicza Polskiego Towarzystwa Zarza˛dzania Produkcja˛, 2018, Opole 2018, pp. 587– 595. Pietrasin´ski Z., 1996, Rozwój ludzi dorosłych, [in:] Wprowadzenie do andragogiki, ed. T. Wujek, ITEE w Radomiu, Warszawa 1996, p. 13–35. Postman N., Technopoly. The surrender of culture to technology, Knopf, New York 1992. Schulz D.P., Schulz S. E., Psychologia a wyzwania dzisiejsze pracy, PWN, Warszawa 2008. Schwab K., The fourth Industrial Revolution, World Economic Forum, Cologny Geneva 2016. Sikorski C., 2001, Zachowania ludzi w organizacji, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN Warszawa 2001. Sprenger R.K., Zasada autoodpowiedzialnos´ci. Drogi do motywacji, MT Biznes, Warszawa 2010, p. 41. Tomaszewska-Lipiec R., Zakład pracy mie˛dzy retrospekcja˛ a przewidywanym kierunkiem rozwoju, [in:] Pedagogika pracy: Tradycje i wyzwania współczesnos´ci, ed. S. Kwiatkowski, ITEE, Radom–Warszawa–Bydgoszcz 2012, pp. 370–411.

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Wołk Z., Człowiek i jego kultura pracy w realizacji drogi zawodowej, “Szkoła Zawód Praca” 5–6, 2013, pp. 18–29. Wołk Z., Kultura pracy profesjonalisty, Difin, Warszawa 2017. Wypadki przy pracy, “Solidarnos´c´”. Available at: https://www.solidarnosc.org.pl/en/zdro we-miejsca-pracy-2/wypadki-przy-pracy (24. 06. 2023).

Zdzisława Janiszewska-Nies´cioruk1 / Julia Nies´cioruk2

People with disabilities as “vagabonds”? On the need for seeking balance between their freedom and security in an open – competitive labour market

Introduction Disability remains a serious and multifaceted issue. It can be analysed at an individual level and then be associated with the individuals experiencing its effects/consequences, but it undoubtedly has a broader, society-wide, or economic dimension as well. It is therefore a problem with extensive, multifaceted medical, legal, sociological, technical, and other implications that should be identified and analysed at varying times and contexts in people’s lives3. The consequences of disability can significantly affect the quality of life not only of those affected, but also of their families, local, and wider communities in which they function daily. Thus, it is necessary that social practice in the broadest sense respects the importance of the context of the lives of people with disabilities and the multidimensionality of their functioning, which is to a considerable extent dependent on the demands and expectations of a given environment. It is in the interaction of these individuals, their resources and therefore their strengths and weaknesses with the demands of the environment that their disability is revealed, obliging parents/carers and different professionals to establish the profile, scope, and location of the support people with disabilities require. As far as necessary and possible, it should bridge the gap between their personal resources and the demands of their environment4. It is no less important that support should be 1 Associate Professor, Head of the Department, Educational Psychology Faculty of Social Sciences University of Zielona Góra, email adress: [email protected], ORCID: 0000-0003-2874-1524. 2 Akademia im. Jakuba z Paradyz˙a w Gorzowie Wielkopolskim, ORCID: 0000-0002-3737-1433, e-mail: [email protected]. 3 Niedzielski, E., Wybrane problemy zatrudnienia osób niepełnosprawnych. “Optimum. Studia Ekonomiczne,” 2 (68), 2014, pp. 158–166. 4 ICF – International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health, WHO, 2001, The Director-General of the World Health Organisation granted the rights to publish the translation in Polish to the Centre for Health Information Systems in 2009. Available at: https://app s.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42407/9241545429_pol.pdf;jsessionid=DA78C3E313

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readily available and not only formally (legally) guaranteed, at the same time flexible and varied in its offer, as well as successively monitored and, if necessary, modified or adjusted, always according to the needs, possibilities, or expectations of people with disabilities5. Moreover, disability is an ever-changing and dynamic phenomenon that results from the interaction between individuals with a variety of disorders or dysfunctions, as well as the perception of environmental and human attitudes that are always seen as barriers that prevent them from participating fully in social and economic life on an equal footing with non-disabled individuals6. Therefore, addressing the previously mentioned issue of assistance is currently a priority, since it reflects individuals’ capabilities and limitations in various sectors and areas of everyday life in the context of their deficits, and also considers their capabilities and limitations. The goal is to find a balance between freedom and self-determination as well as a sense of security, which is both a prerequisite to fulfilling this desire as well as an opportunity to achieve it. Moreover, disability is a normal part of the human experience, which means that it does not in any way limit the rights and capabilities of those afflicted by it. They can still live independently and make choices, in addition to pursuing their professional dreams7. Therefore, it does not portray these people as individuals with a single attribute that solely has negative ramifications for the quality of their lives8. Bearing in mind the above considerations, as well as the fact that the support received has a significant impact on the health and functioning of each in-

5

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7

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CEC52F05D423741620FAC4?sequence=67 (access: 10. 05. 2023); Schalock R.L., BorthwickDuffy S.A., Bradley V.J. at all., Intellectual Disability: Definition, Classification, and Systems of Supports, Eleventh Edition, American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAiDD), Washington 2010; Schalock, R. L., Luckasson, R., & Tassé, M. J., Intellectual disability: Definition, diagnosis, classification, and systems of supports (12th ed.), American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, Washington 2021. Janiszewska-Nies´cioruk Z., (Nie)dojrzałos´c´ proinkluzyjnych zmian w kształceniu osób z niepełnosprawnos´ciami, (Im)maturity of pro inclusive changes in the education of people with disabilities). “Niepełnosprawnos´c´. Dyskursy pedagogiki specjalnej,” Disability. Discourses of special education, 22, 2016, pp. 47–59. Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, drafted in New York on 13 December 2006, Journal of Laws of the Republic of Poland, Warsaw, 25 October 2012. item. 1169, Available at: https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU20120001169/O/D20121169.pdf (access: 10. 05. 2023). Szczupał B., Samostanowienie i integracja społeczno-zawodowa dorosłych osób z niepełnosprawnos´cia˛ na przykładzie zastosowania programu Centrum Wspierania Edukacji Zawodowej (PACE) w USA (Self-determination and socio-professional integration of adults with disabilities based on the example of the use of the Professional Assistant Center for Education (PACE) in the USA) [in:] Wielowymiarowos´c´ integracji społeczno-zawodowej studentów z niepełnosprawnos´cia˛, (eds.) B. Szczupał, K. Kutek-Sładek, Uniwersytet Papieski Jana Pawła II, Kraków 2016, pp. 219–231. Galasin´ski J., Osoby niepełnosprawne czy z niepełnosprawnos´cia˛, Available at: https://www.pf ron.org.pl/fileadmin/files/0/477_01-Dariusz_Galasinski.pdf (access: 11. 05. 2023).

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dividual, as it builds a sense of security, openness to relationships with others, strengthens the belief in the sense of action taken to improve one’s own situation and that of one’s family, inspires hope and optimism, motivates to overcome difficulties9, its deficits or limitations, especially in the situation of seeking and maintaining employment on the open labour market, can be highly destructive for the well-being and social inclusion of people with disabilities. We will therefore focus our reflections on the need to support these people already in the educational system, or through special projects, in acquiring the necessary competences to enable them to function smoothly in the currently highly competitive labour market. We will also emphasise the problem and the need to restore activities and solutions for the professional activisation of people with disabilities by institutions established for this purpose. Their functioning so far, e. g., of the District Labour Offices (PUP), is unfortunately not conducive to the elimination of the problem of inactivity, often long-term unemployment, precarity10 or the reluctance of employers to employ these people. Consequently, people affected by disabilities may become ‘vagabonds’, i. e., experiencing irregularity, short-term or temporary employment, dependence on others (family and institutions), social marginalisation and even exclusion11.

9 Dyduch E., Trojan´ska M., Wsparcie społeczne ucznia z niepełnosprawnos´cia˛ w okresie zmian edukacyjnych (Support for students with disabilities in a period of educational change), “Szkoła Specjalna”, 2, 2020, pp. 99–107. 10 The issues of increasing precarity/precariousness and its destructive consequences for a growing group of people in the world are presented in a remarkably interesting and at the same time reflective way in his well-known book by Guy Standing, Prekariat. Nowa niebezpieczna klasa (The Precariat: The New Dangerous Class), PWN, Warszawa 2011; It is worth noting that Jozefina Hrynkiewicz analyses this problem with reference to Polish conditions as well. (Fenomen prekariatu jako wyzwanie dla współczesnej polityki społecznej [in:] Prekariat − perspektywa katolickiej nauki społecznej, (ed.). J. Mazur OSPPE, ks. Ł. Marczak, Spotkania Naukowe Wykładowców Katolickiej Nauki Społecznej, XIII, UPJPII WN, Kraków 2017, pp. 75–107, czy Kania E. Prekariat i proces prekaryzacji pracy – nowe kierunki zmian społeczno-gospodarczych w ´swiecie, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Torun´ 2021. 11 Poniat R., Ludzie luz´ni w społeczen´stwie Rzeczypospolitej szlacheckiej w konteks´cie badan´ nad cyklem z˙ycia. “Roczniki Dziejów Społecznych i Gospodarczych”, 73, 2013, pp. 51–77. We address the problem of ‘vagabondage’ metaphorically and, in addition to its selected/indicated features, we also associate it with the consequences of socio-economic and civilisational change, which are often severely experienced by people with disabilities and, more recently, with the effects of the pandemic and, of course, the war in Ukraine, which are particularly debilitating for these people and their families.

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On the need to develop competencies that facilitate the acquisition and retention of employment by people with disabilities in their pro-inclusive process of education and rehabilitation In the space of today’s pro-inclusionary educational system, as well as throughout the process of rehabilitation of people with disabilities, it is necessary to take a reflexive approach to their diverse capacities, skills, and abilities, which compel teachers and other professionals to safeguard appropriate educational conditions and highly personalised support for them. Although the current educational preferences of pupils and their parents are primarily related to their inclusion in mainstream schooling, given their specific needs, it is advisable to be open in the organisational solutions offered to them in this respect. There are still integrative and special educational institutions in Poland, as well as occupational therapy workshops or vocational institutions for adults, whose multidimensional activity and openness to the local community can serve as an example of the efforts to optimise, rather than maximise, the undertaken tasks and solutions in the domestic education and rehabilitation of people with disabilities12. It seems that it is precisely the diversity and flexibility of the educational offer, including vocational and lifelong learning, which gives a real chance to verify or acquire new competences, currently particularly expected/ desired on the open labour market, and personalised support in this respect that will really favour the normalisation of the life situation of these people. It should be reflected not only in terms of individual life stages of children, adolescents, and adults with disabilities (being able to live as others do), but also in terms of living and working circumstances by adjusting tasks and professional challenges to their abilities and needs. This could be either open market work, or supported work, but incorporated into the production system. Regular work is a source of income and a chance for development (and not just rehabilitation), it is also an opportunity to be an adult and make one’s own autonomous decisions, but also to establish partnerships and start a family13. In order to achieve these goals and to create the conditions for these people to live independently, to determine themselves and to take up employment, it is expected that the current educational programme will be modified at all stages of education in such a way that, in the course of its implementation, it will take into 12 Krause A., Z˙yta A., Nosarzewska A. Normalizacja ´srodowiska społecznego osób z niepełnosprawnos´cia˛ intelektualna˛, Wydawnictwo Akapit, Torun´ 2010; Z˙ółkowska T. Normalizacja – niedokon´czona teoria praktyki. “Niepełnosprawnos´c´. Dyskursy Pedagogiki Specjalnej”, 5, 2011, pp. 85–93. 13 Z˙ółkowska T., Normalizacja – niedokon´czona teoria praktyki. “Niepełnosprawnos´c´. Dyskursy Pedagogiki Specjalnej”, 5, 2011, pp. 85–93.

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account to a greater extent than before the need for pupils to master important and life-relevant competences. The development of such competencies – knowledge, skills as well as social and civic competencies – will enable them to find and function comfortably in the current demanding and highly competitive open labour market. We appreciate the value of sheltered work, but it should provide an alternative rather than being an obligatory choice for people with disabilities. All the more so because, as emphasised in the recommendations of the Council of the European Union of 22 May 2018 on key competences, every person has the right to quality and inclusive education, training and lifelong learning in order to maintain and acquire the skills to participate fully in society and to cope effectively with changes in the labour market. Equally important, is the need to respect the right of every person, and therefore also those affected by disability, to timely and tailored support to improve their employment prospects or to run their own business. It is no less important to reflect on the importance of support for training and retraining, further education and finding and keeping a job. Supporting the development of the indicated competences is one of the objectives included in the vision for the creation of a European education area, which would allow “to make full use of the potential of education and culture as drivers of employment, social justice and active citizenship, and as a way of experiencing the European identity in all its diversity”14. Especially since, for people with various impairments, taking up and being able to work thanks to their competences is “…not only in their view, a specific ‘proof ’ that they are the same as other people of their age and have similar needs and the same rights, that they do not fall outside the nucleus of society, thus reducing the risk of them being marginalised in society because of their disability”15. Thus, the signalled need for changes in the educational programme of the modern school should also specifically consider the competences expected from individuals with disabilities in the near future, defined as key competences in a lifelong learning process/strategy. At the same time, their requirements have changed significantly due to the progress or even a leap in civilisation, which has resulted in the automatisation of many jobs, the increased importance of information technology, in all areas of life and work, and social, civic, and entrepreneurial competences. They make it possible to ensure resilience, and at the 14 Official Journal of the European Union, Council Recommendation of 22 May 2018 on key competences for lifelong learning. (Dziennik Urze˛dowy Unii Europejskiej, Zalecenie Rady z dnia 22 maja 2018 r. w sprawie kompetencji kluczowych w procesie uczenia sie˛ przez całe z˙ycie.) Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/PL/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32018H0604(0 1)&from=en (access: 14. 05. 2023). 15 Brzezin´ska A., Kaczan R., Piotrowski K., Rycielski P., Uwarunkowania aktywnos´ci zawodowej osób z ograniczeniami sprawnos´ci: kapitał osobisty i społeczny. “Nauka”, 2, 2008, pp. 129–156.

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same time increase adaptability to these highly dynamic and often unpredictable changes16. It is fair to conclude that “humanity has now entered a new phase of civilisational development characterised, inter alia, by a change in the mode of production, a reduction in the role of traditional industry in favour of advanced technologies and the service sector, and an increase in the role of knowledge and skills”17. Artificial intelligence (AI) has a significant impact on society and the economy. It will therefore be crucial to take action to include it in the course of education that prepares all students to use new technologies. It will have a considerable impact on the current and future labour market, so the shaping of new competences in this area is essential. Undoubtedly, such challenges should inspire educational authorities to make changes in education/training also for people with disabilities, starting from its earliest stage. This would then enable them to respond efficiently and effectively to the challenges of artificial intelligence; to use it satisfactorily and adequately in the process of social and vocational rehabilitation. It will therefore be necessary to professionally prepare teachers, representatives of the educational administration, as well as the institutions involved in their training, and other professionals who are involved to varying degrees in the education and therapy of pupils with disabilities, for the challenges associated with its safe and rational application or use18. Hence, bearing in mind the needs of these learners and a society that is becoming increasingly mobile and digital, memorising facts and procedures, while still important, is insufficient in the quest for intensified development and greater achievement. Nowadays, problem-solving skills, critical, creative, and computational thinking, and the ability to collaborate are more important than ever. 16 Official Journal of the European Union, Council Recommendation of 22 May 2018 on key competences for lifelong learning. (Dziennik Urze˛dowy Unii Europejskiej, Zalecenie Rady z dnia 22 maja 2018 r. w sprawie kompetencji kluczowych w procesie uczenia sie˛ przez całe z˙ycie.)Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/PL/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32018 H0604(01)&from=en (access: 14. 05. 2023). 17 Borkowski R., Cywilizacja, technika, ekologia. Wybrane problemy rozwoju cywilizacyjnego u progu XXI wieku. Wydawnictwa Akademii Górniczo-Hutniczej, Kraków 2001, p. 7. 18 Given the importance of this problem, the Educational Research Institute in Warsaw has prepared an interesting publication – Artificial Intelligence (AI) as a megatrend shaping education. How to prepare for the socio-economic opportunities and challenges of artificial intelligence, which was published in 2022. It outlines key areas and examples of application of innovative technologies, especially those based on data processing, machine learning and the networking of devices and people. It further explains how technological change is affecting the competences required of people and the future labour market. How AI is changing the working environment, its impact on everyday life, what we learn and how we should use our knowledge, Sztuczna inteligencja (AI) jako megatrend kształtuja˛cy edukacje˛. Available at: https://www.ibe.edu.pl/index.php/pl/aktualnosci/1694-sztuczna-inteligencja-ai-jako-megatr end-ksztaltujacy-edukacje-nowa-publikacja-ibe (access: 15. 05. 2023).

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They are the tools through which knowledge is applied to create new ideas, theories or new solutions or products19. Therefore, as Jan Fazlagic´ aptly points out, Polish schools and universities should reconstruct their curricula and syllabuses as soon as possible so that their graduates, not excluding those with disabilities, are ready for the challenges of the fourth industrial revolution, which is entering our lives in a more or less discernible way and at a different pace or scope, depending on the sector of the economy. In the educational system, however, it should be used with great caution, as its use is associated with a reduction in effort, which is necessary in the process of learning, struggling with one’s own weaknesses and often unpleasant experiences. People’s lives, especially those with various deficits or disorders, are still saturated with many difficulties and barriers. A certain challenge may be how AI can help prepare for them. Thus, when using the possibilities of such technology, it is important to be mindful of whether the redundancy of various types of facilitation offered to learners will in fact disrupt the context of education, which has historically been primarily concerned with overcoming barriers and challenges. However, in certain areas, AI, as an effective tool, can be particularly useful – for example in simulating (through simple algorithms) the most effective teaching strategies or in selecting specific forms of therapy tailored to an individual’s personalised needs and expectations. Its usefulness will also be considerable in the situation of doing such work for the teacher, such as performance appraisal, to relieve him or her of typically bureaucratic tasks in favour of those involving the education and support of pupils in the development of professionally useful competences20. An example of measures promoting a balance between a sense of freedom and security for people with disabilities when they try to find employment on the open labour market can be found in the Professional Assistant Center for Education (PACE) programme, which has been in operation for several decades at one American university. Its implementation enables participants to master the skills necessary to start living independently and obtain employment with at19 Official Journal of the European Union, Council Recommendation of 22 May 2018 on key competences for lifelong learning. (Dziennik Urze˛dowy Unii Europejskiej, Zalecenie Rady z dnia 22 maja 2018 r. w sprawie kompetencji kluczowych w procesie uczenia sie˛ przez całe z˙ycie.) Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/PL/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32018H0604(0 1)&from=en (access: 14. 05. 2023). 20 Fazlagic´ J., Wprowadzenie, [in:] Sztuczna inteligencja (AI) jako megatrend kształtuja˛cy edukacje˛. Jak przygotowywac´ sie˛ na szanse i wyzwania społeczno-gospodarcze zwia˛zane ze sztuczna˛ inteligencja˛?, (ed.) J. Fazlagic´, Instytut Badan´ Edukacyjnych, Warszawa 2022; Fazlagic´ J. Moz˙liwos´c´ i rozwój sztucznej inteligencji jako wyzwanie dla systemu edukacji, [in:] Sztuczna inteligencja (AI) jako megatrend kształtuja˛cy edukacje˛ Jak przygotowywac´ sie˛ na szanse i wyzwania społeczno-gospodarcze zwia˛zane ze sztuczna˛ inteligencja˛?, (ed.) J. Fazlagic´, Instytut Badan´ Edukacyjnych, Warszawa 2022.

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tention to preserving the work/life balance. Furthermore, considering their disabilities, it is emphasised that achievements in one area of activity can foster success in other areas, allowing these individuals to rise above their limitations. Equally important is the inclusion of project participants in various activities of their non-disabled peers to develop their social competences, their ability to control their own behaviour and to solve crisis situations effectively. They can also, according to their interests and skills, take the courses, training and work placements offered to them. Training is conducted through practice and experience with the support of a work instructor. Once the general professional predispositions or preferences of the participants have been established, a specific form of activity in a particular workplace is chosen, appropriate to their interests and abilities21. A programme implemented in this way can be a valuable complement to activities and solutions for the social and professional inclusion of people with disabilities. It prepares for a chosen profession, but also stimulates the process of seeking and maintaining employment on the open labour market. It is therefore necessary for the educational environment to be more open to cooperation with the local community, institutions, enterprises and workplaces in which students, with the support of specialists, will be able to develop their passions and professional dispositions by doing various jobs, e. g., as part of internships, interest circles or projects22. The proficiency in competences enabling them to make autonomous decisions about their own educational path, 21 Szczupał B., Samostanowienie i integracja społeczno-zawodowa dorosłych osób z niepełnosprawnos´cia˛ na przykładzie zastosowania programu Centrum Wspierania Edukacji Zawodowej (PACE) w USA (Self-determination and socio-professional integration of adults with disabilities based on the example of the use of the Professional Assistant Center for Education (PACE) in the USA) [in:] Wielowymiarowos´c´ integracji społeczno-zawodowej studentów z niepełnosprawnos´cia˛, (ed.) B. Szczupał, K. Kutek-Sładek, Uniwersytet Papieski Jana Pawła II, Kraków 2016. 22 See: Senge P.M., Pia˛ta dyscyplina. Teoria i praktyka organizacji ucza˛cych sie˛, Wolters Kluwer, Warszawa 2012. We indicate here the necessity of functioning of the school as a self-learning organisation in which the ability of all its subjects to cooperate with the local environment plays a significant role. It should be added that the issues of teacher cooperation and its importance for the effectiveness of education (including preparation for tasks related to future work) of students in the space of mainstream schooling have been engagingly presented in publications by Grzegorz Szumski et al., Joanna Giebułtowska, Zuzanna NarkunJakubin´ska et al. (Szumski G., Smogorzewska J., Narkun Z., Tre˛bacz-Ritter A., Współnauczanie i jego znaczenie dla procesu edukacji. Przegla˛d badan´. (Co-teaching and its importance for educational process. Review of research), “Niepełnosprawnos´c´. Dyskursy pedagogiki specjalnej”, (Disability. Discourses of special education), 44, 2021, pp. 76–97; Giebułtowska J., Team-teaching – dos´wiadczanie współnauczania. “Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska Lublin-Polonia, Sectio J, Paedagogia-Psychologia”,34 (1), 2021, pp. 45–55; NarkunJakubin´ska Z., Smogorzewska J., Tre˛bacz-Ritter A., Wołowicz A., Szumski G., Współnauczanie w praktyce. poradnik metodyczny dla nauczycieli i nauczycieli współorganizuja˛cych kształcenie w oddziałach ogólnodoste˛pnych integracyjnych. Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, Warszawa 2022.

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including those related to their career, and their relationships and ties with others, giving them a sense of security and empowerment, will be no less important for their quality of life23.

On the need to (re)encourage professional mobilisation of people with disabilities by institutions and state bodies established for this purpose In the context of the considerations presented, it is equally important to take a closer look at the functioning of those units or institutions whose task should be not only to register or inform about employment opportunities, but to mobilise people with disabilities in the labour market. In this context, it is worth recalling the most recent data on the number of people with disabilities in Poland. Over three million people with disabilities are registered (legally confirmed disability), but there are many more (including biological disabilities) – between 4.9 and 7.7 million24. Other figures are equally overwhelming; more than 2.5 million working-age Polish citizens are unemployed precisely because of illness or disability, and one in five families included in Szlachetna Paczka25 with this problem is unable to cover all necessary medical expenses. Such situation is closely related to poverty, which is still experienced by a large number of Poles. In 2021, 1.6 million people will be living below the extreme poverty line in our country, including 333,000 children and 246,000 people in middle and late adulthood (seniors). Still many people, especially those affected by disabilities, despite their commitment, work, and efforts, are not able to get out of it, and in recent months, due to persistently high inflation, their situation is becoming critical. Nevertheless, the so-called “poor myths” are still doing well. As many as 15% of respondents believe that living in poverty is a choice, and 17% believe that the poor are to blame for their poverty (culpable poverty). In contrast, 22% of respondents felt that the main reason for 23 Zakrzewska M., Zatrudnienie wspomagane – niemoz˙liwe staje sie˛ moz˙liwe, [in:] Zatrudnienie wspomagane szansa˛ na samodzielnos´c´ osób z niepełnosprawnos´cia˛ (eds.). B. Trochimiak, M. Wolan-Nowakowska, Wydawnictwo Akademii Pedagogiki Specjalnej, Warszawa 2017. 24 How many people with disabilities are there in Poland. (Ile jest osób z niepełnosprawnos´ciami w Polsce.)Available at: https://www.gov.pl/web/popcwsparcie/ile-jest-osob-z-niepelnosprawno sciami-w-polsce (access: 20. 05. 2023); zob. tez˙ Biuro Pełnomocnika Rza˛du do Spraw Osób Niepełnosprawnych. Informacje i dane demograficzne. Available at: https://niepelnosprawni.go v.pl/p,79,informacje-i-dane-demograficzne (access: 20. 05. 2023). 25 Szlachetna Paczka, is one of the best-known social programmes in Poland, which has been operating since 2001. Its volunteers search for and work with families in need of help, while donors prepare dedicated support for them. Available at: https://www.szlachetnapaczka.pl /o-paczce/ (access: 20. 05. 2023).

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poverty is laziness, and therefore one-third of respondents would advise the poor to pursue employment. Such stereotypes indicate that, in the opinion of many people, experiencing poverty is well-deserved26. As Ryszard Szarfenberg emphasises, our country’s economic and social policies are responsible for preventing and reducing this highly socially destructive phenomenon. As we read the author’s intentions, the former should keep unemployment and inflation low. In contrast, properly implemented education, health, housing, and social security policies not only prevent poverty but also homelessness. Education, with its current lifelong perspective, ought to equip people with the right skills to allow them to earn an independent income from work, appropriate to their needs and aspirations. Health, in connection with public health policies, reduce poverty caused by untreated somatic and mental illnesses. Compensation of income lost due to social risks, e. g., illness, disability, or unemployment, should be regulated by an effectively implemented social insurance policy. It is equally important to meet the housing needs of those with lower incomes through a properly implemented housing policy27. The problems identified undoubtedly multiply one’s disability, and “the struggle to meet one’s own and one’s family’s basic needs is sometimes very exhausting and prevents active job-seeking”28. Therefore, both in obtaining and maintaining a job, especially on the open market, these people should be supported. This is more so as employment problems make them dependent on others and insecure. They also intensify the environment’s obligations towards these people. And although the most current legal regulations, especially the Strategy for Persons with Disabilities 2021–203029 adopted by the Government of the Republic of Poland. 26 Report on poverty 2022 (Raport o biedzie 2022); The survey was conducted on an Ariadna panel on a nationwide sample of N=1075 persons. Quotas were selected according to representation in the population of Poles aged eighteen and over for gender, age, and the size of the place of residence. Date of conduct: 11–14 November 2022. Available at: https://www.szlache tnapaczka.pl/raport-o-biedzie/?gclid=EAIaIQobChMI8KXIjcyD_wIVyQJ7Ch39mg-qEAAY ASAAEgJ1XPD_BwE (access: 20. 05. 2023). 27 Report on poverty 2022. (Raport o biedzie 2022) Available at: https://www.szlachetnapaczka.pl /raport-o-biedzie/ (access: 20. 05. 2023). 28 Report on poverty 2022, The spiral of poverty. (Raport o biedzie 2022, Spirala ubóstwa.) Angelika Szela˛gowska-Mironiuk. Available at: https://www.szlachetnapaczka.pl/raport-o-bi edzie/ p. 62 (access: 20. 05. 2023). 29 Resolution No. 27 of the Council of Ministers from 16 February 2021 on the approval of the document Strategy for Persons with Disabilities 2021–2030, Monitor Polski, Official Journal of the Republic of Poland Warsaw, 25 February 2021. Item 218. (Uchwała nr 27 Rady Ministrów z dnia 16 lutego 2021 r. w sprawie przyje˛cia dokumentu Strategia na rzecz Osób z Niepełnosprawnos´ciami 2021–2030, Monitor Polski, Dziennik Urze˛dowy Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej Warszawa, dnia 25 lutego 2021 r. Poz. 218.) Available at: https://niepelnosprawni.go v.pl/download/SON-RCL-Monitor-Polski-1639387201.pdf (access: 21. 05. 2023); Strategy in support of People with Disabilities 2021–2030, Monitor Polski, Annex to Resolution No. 27 of the Council of Ministers of 16 February 2021. (item 218), (Strategia na rzecz Osób z Nie-

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emphasises, among other things, their right to employment (priority area four – work), pointing to the need for a comprehensive horizontal, cross-sectoral public policy approach to support these people, taking into account their needs for independent living and social inclusion, this is still a difficult issue of great social and economic importance. That is, as Eugeniusz Niedzielski aptly concludes, a problem not only of excessive magnitude, but also of extensive personal and socio-economic impact. Undoubtedly, many people with a mild or even moderate degree of disability could start and continue employment if the barriers that hinder and sometimes even prevent them from working were eliminated with greater effectiveness. Factors hindering and, to varying degrees, excluding these people from the labour market are, for example, their place of residence or difficulties in communication (getting to the workplace), but also, not infrequently, the reluctance of employers, their fear that due to frequent absenteeism they will not fulfil their duties properly, as well as the lack of adaptation of workplaces to the needs of people with disabilities30. Additional risk factors include competency deficiencies and personality traits of these individuals expressed in anxiety about themselves and coping with the new conditions associated with working in the open labour market and in their relationships with their supervisors and colleagues31.The above is unfortunately confirmed by the results of a study by the Supreme Chamber of Control in Poland (NIK), published in 2021. It was found, among other things, that Poland has one of the highest inactivity rates of people with disabilities in Europe and ranks fifth in this respect. During the audit period, more than 80 per cent of people with a disability certificate were not working or making efforts to obtain employment. Between 2018 and 2020, this was 2514,000, 2517,000 and 2495,000 people, respectively. It was added that this situation has not changed for years. Between 2010 and 2020, the proportion of economically inactive people with disabilities was 82–84%, twice as high as the economically inactive proportion for the total population over 15 years of age (44–45%). For the working-age population (18–59 for women and 18–64 for men), the proportion of economically inactive people with disabilities is more than three times higher than the economically inactive proportion of the total working-age population. Although the unemployment rate, as in the non-disabled population, has been declining over the period indicated (the unemployment rates for people with disabilities of working age were pełnosprawnos´ciami 2021–2030, Monitor Polski, Zała˛cznik do Uchwały nr 27 Rady Ministrów z dnia 16 lutego 2021 r. (poz.218)), Available at: https://niepelnosprawni.gov.pl/p,170,strategia -na-rzecz-osob-z-niepelnosprawnosciami-2021-2030 (access: 21. 05. 2023). 30 Niedzielski, E., Wybrane problemy zatrudnienia osób niepełnosprawnych. “Optimum. Studia Ekonomiczne”, 2 (68), 2014, pp. 158–166. 31 Niedzielski, E., Wybrane problemy zatrudnienia osób niepełnosprawnych. “Optimum. Studia Ekonomiczne”, 2 (68), 2014, pp. 158–166.

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7.2%, 7.2% and 5.3% respectively.), at the same time the employment rates of these people have remained exceptionally low for years. Over 54% of the total population aged 15+ and just over 16% of people with disabilities aged 16+ were in work during this period32. In 2019, before the pandemic, the labour force participation rate of nondisabled people of working age was 81.0%, the employment rate was 78.4% and the unemployment rate was 3.4%. The difference between the employment rate of non-disabled and disabled people of working age was therefore 51.6%, and between the unemployment rate of these two groups was 3.8%. As highlighted in the NIK report, despite significant outlays, especially from the Labour Fund, the European Social Fund, and the State Fund for the Rehabilitation of Persons with Disabilities (PFRON), the employment rates of people with disabilities have increased for a dozen years only from 14.4% in 2010 to 16.7% in 2020. At the same time, this rate is almost three times lower than for the general population. In the context of this data, although only a selection was cited, an attempt was made to identify the reasons for such high inactivity, unemployment, and the persistently low level of employment of people with disabilities, despite the efforts of the above-mentioned public institutions. And it was shown that the reasons are unfortunately overly complex. According to the survey, barriers regarding entry and retention in the labour market are frequently caused by limitations related to the nature of the disability, inadequate competencies and education, but also by employers’ unfavourable views (stereotypes) towards the employment of people with disabilities. Others were practical challenges, such as architectural barriers, workplace unsuitability, and a lack of a sign language interpreter. Transport constraints also hindered these individuals’ access to firms operating in the open labour market33. The indicated difficulties may be a specific testimony to the insufficient activity of the PUP, as well as of the county governments, which, by definition, apart from obtaining and transferring an offer of employment or various other benefits, should, in particular, launch activities and solutions to activate, monitor and support people with disabilities in the course of employment.

32 Information on the results of the audit. Vocational mobilisation of people with disabilities by county labour offices. Supreme Audit Office (NIK) 2021. (Informacja o wynikach kontroli. Aktywizacja zawodowa osób niepełnosprawnych przez powiatowe urze˛dy pracy. Najwyz˙sza Izba Kontroli (NIK) 2021.) Available at: https://www.nik.gov.pl/plik/id,25417,vp,28178.pdf (access: 20. 05. 2023). 33 Information on the results of the audit. Vocational mobilisation of people with disabilities by county labour offices. Supreme Audit Office (NIK) 2021. (Informacja o wynikach kontroli. Aktywizacja zawodowa osób niepełnosprawnych przez powiatowe urze˛dy pracy. Najwyz˙sza Izba Kontroli (NIK) 2021.) Available at: https://www.nik.gov.pl/plik/id,25417,vp,28178.pdf (access: 20. 05. 2023).

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In a situation where people fail to work, lose their jobs, and remain unemployed, it is necessary to identify the reasons and guarantee personalised support for these people. Even more so as, as the Supreme Audit Office A(NIK) inspectors found, some employers treat people with disabilities as cheap labour; they employ them for the duration of obtaining refunds and funding for this purpose and then dismiss and recruit more people referred by the labour office34. This is an example of the commodification and objectification of these people, which should have no place in a civilised country and therefore, as highly reprehensible, should be immediately eradicated. Such treatment of people, irrespective of their status or disability, creates their professional experience as well as their biography in a certain negative way. It makes them, to varying degrees, “vagabonds”, as they often have no influence on their own, life situation, making social inclusion in the local and wider environment difficult and sometimes even impossible.

Concluding remarks In addressing the employment of people with disabilities in an open and, as we indicated in the title of the article, competitive labour market, it is important to reflect on all the mechanisms of its functioning, which are evidently based on economic processes, but also conditioned to varying degrees by law and culture. Consequently, it also has a social dimension, which is of considerable importance for creating appropriate working and employment conditions for people with disabilities35. No less important in such an approach is a system of personalised and at the same time pro-inclusion support for these people in obtaining and maintaining and, if necessary or advisable (given their preferences, abilities, and limitations), also in changing their place of work. It is particularly advisable in the current difficult situation related to the employment and functioning of this group of people on the open labour market, as they are still, as we tried to emphasise in the article, denied the right to employment for various reasons, in particular due to their lower productivity and lower competences or 34 Information on the results of the audit. Vocational mobilisation of people with disabilities by county labour offices. Supreme Audit Office (NIK) 2021. (Informacja o wynikach kontroli. Aktywizacja zawodowa osób niepełnosprawnych przez powiatowe urze˛dy pracy. Najwyz˙sza Izba Kontroli (NIK) 2021) Available at: https://www.nik.gov.pl/plik/id,25417,vp,28178.pdf (access: 20. 05. 2023). 35 Giermanowska E., Ekonomiczne, prawne i kulturowe uwarunkowania zmian zatrudnienia osób niepełnosprawnych. Perspektywa pracodawców i wyzwania dla polityki społecznej. (Economic, Legal and Cultural Determinants of Changes in Employment of People with Disabilities. Perspective Employers and the Challenges for Social Policy). “Studia Oeconomica Posnaniensia”, 2015, vol. 3, 10, 2015, pp. 7–24.

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due to entrenched social and employers’ prejudices and stereotypes (this is indicated by the results of the NIK research referred to by us). Therefore, bearing in mind the importance of work for these people, which gives them a sense of security, dignity, self-determination and effectiveness of the activities they undertake, as well as fulfilment in various social roles and integration with nondisabled people, we pointed out the need to enrich their professional36 competences already in the course of their education. We have also highlighted the need to reorganise the existing functioning of institutions and, incidentally, the labour market to provide real, rather than superficial, support to people with disabilities during their search for and subsequent provision of employment. It seems that effective efforts in the area of social policy and the designated institutions set up to support the professional mobilisation of people with disabilities, but also the openness of society and employers to their needs and possibilities in this regard, should reduce the problem of their “vagabondage”, which is particularly related to the precariousness of employment and its negative consequences for such people and their families.

Bibliography Biuro Pełnomocnika Rza˛du do Spraw Osób Niepełnosprawnych. Informacje i dane demograficzne. Available at: https://niepelnosprawni.gov.pl/p,79,informacje-i-dane-demog raficzne (access: 20. 05. 2023). Borkowski R., Cywilizacja, technika, ekologia. Wybrane problemy rozwoju cywilizacyjnego u progu XXI wieku. Wydawnictwa Akademii Górniczo-Hutniczej, Kraków 2001, p. 7. Brzezin´ska A., Kaczan R., Piotrowski K., Rycielski P., Uwarunkowania aktywnos´ci zawodowej osób z ograniczeniami sprawnos´ci: kapitał osobisty i społeczny. “Nauka”, 2, 2008, pp. 129–156. Dziennik Urze˛dowy Unii Europejskiej, Zalecenie Rady z dnia 22 maja 2018 r. w sprawie kompetencji kluczowych w procesie uczenia sie˛ przez całe z˙ycie. Available at: https://e ur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/PL/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32018H0604(01)&from=en (access: 14. 05. 2023). Dyduch E., Trojan´ska M., Wsparcie społeczne ucznia z niepełnosprawnos´cia˛ w okresie zmian edukacyjnych, Support for students with disabilities in a period of educational change, “Szkoła Specjalna”, 2, 2020, pp. 99–107.

36 It should be added that the problem of what she describes as life skills, including those that prepare people with intellectual disabilities for employment, is very thoroughly presented in her monograph by Danuta Wolska. The author has developed a very interesting tool to assess the level of these skills (Wolska D., Umieje˛tnos´ci z˙yciowe jako wyznacznik aktywizacji zawodowej dorosłych z głe˛bsza˛ niepełnosprawnos´cia˛ intelektualna˛. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Pedagogicznego, Kraków 2015).

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Fazlagic´ J., Wprowadzenie, [in:] Sztuczna inteligencja (AI) jako mega trend kształtuja˛cy edukacje˛. Jak przygotowywac´ sie˛ na szanse i wyzwania społeczno-gospodarcze zwia˛zane ze sztuczna˛ inteligencja˛? (ed.) J. Fazlagic´, Instytut Badan´ Edukacyjnych, Warszawa 2022. Fazlagic´ J., Moz˙liwos´c´ i rozwój sztucznej inteligencji jako wyzwanie dla systemu edukacji, [in:] Sztuczna inteligencja (AI) jako megatrend kształtuja˛cy edukacje˛. Jak przygotowywac´ sie˛ na szanse i wyzwania społeczno-gospodarcze zwia˛zane ze sztuczna˛ inteligencja˛?, (ed.) J. Fazlagic´, Instytut Badan´ Edukacyjnych, Warszawa 2022. Galasin´ski J., Osoby niepełnosprawne czy z niepełnosprawnos´cia˛, Available at: https://www.pf ron.org.pl/fileadmin/files/0/477_01-Dariusz_Galasinski.pdf (access: 11. 05. 2023). Giebułtowska J., Team-teaching – dos´wiadczanie współnauczania. “Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska Lublin-Polonia, Sectio J, Paedagogia-Psychologia”,34 (1), 2021, pp. 45–55. Giermanowska E., Ekonomiczne, prawne i kulturowe uwarunkowania zmian zatrudnienia osób niepełnosprawnych. Perspektywa pracodawców i wyzwania dla polityki społecznej. (Economic, Legal and Cultural Determinants of Changes in Employment of People with Disabilities. Perspective Employers and the Challenges for Social Policy). “Studia Oeconomica Posnaniensia”, 2015, vol. 3, 10, 2015, pp. 7–24. Hrynkiewicz J., Fenomen prekariatu jako wyzwanie dla współczesnej polityki społecznej [in:] Prekariat – perspektywa katolickiej nauki społecznej, (ed.). J. Mazur OSPPE, ks. Ł. Marczak, Spotkania Naukowe Wykładowców Katolickiej Nauki Społecznej, XIII, UPJPII WN, Kraków 2017. ICF – International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health, WHO, 2001, Dyrektor Generalny S´wiatowej Organizacji Zdrowia udzielił praw do wydania przekładu w je˛zyku polskim dla Centrum Systemów Informacyjnych Ochrony Zdrowia w 2009 r., Available at: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42407/9241545429_pol. pdf;jsessionid=DA78C3E313CEC52F05D423741620FAC4?sequence=67 (access: 10. 05. 2023). Ile jest osób z niepełnosprawnos´ciami w Polsce. Available at:https://www.gov.pl/web/popc wsparcie/ile-jest-osob-z-niepelnosprawnosciami-w-polsce (access: 20. 05. 2023). Informacja o wynikach kontroli. Aktywizacja zawodowa osób niepełnosprawnych przez powiatowe urze˛dy pracy. Najwyz˙sza Izba Kontroli (NIK) 2021. Available at: https:// www.nik.gov.pl/plik/id,25417,vp,28178.pdf (access: 20. 05. 2023). Janiszewska-Nies´cioruk Z., (Nie)dojrzałos´c´ proinkluzyjnych zmian w kształceniu osób z niepełnosprawnos´ciami, (Im)maturity of pro-inclusive changes in the education of people with disabilities). “Niepełnosprawnos´c´. Dyskursy pedagogiki specjalnej”, Disability. Discourses of special education, 22, 2016, pp. 47–59. Kania E., Prekariat i proces prekaryzacji pracy – nowe kierunki zmian społeczno-gospodarczych w ´swiecie, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Torun´ 2021. Konwencja o prawach osób niepełnosprawnych, sporza˛dzona w Nowym Jorku dnia 13 grudnia 2006 r., Dziennik Ustaw Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej Warszawa, dnia 25 paz´dziernika 2012 r. Poz. 1169, Available at: https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp /WDU20120001169/O/D20121169.pdf (access:10. 05. 2023). Krause A., Z˙yta A., Nosarzewska A., Normalizacja ´srodowiska społecznego osób z niepełnosprawnos´cia˛ intelektualna˛, Wydawnictwo Akapit, Torun´ 2010. Narkun-Jakubin´ska Z., Smogorzewska J., Tre˛bacz-Ritter A., Wołowicz A., Szumski G., Współnauczanie w praktyce. poradnik metodyczny dla nauczycieli i nauczycieli wspó-

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łorganizuja˛cych kształcenie w oddziałach ogólnodoste˛pnych integracyjnych. Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, Warszawa 2022. Niedzielski E., Wybrane problemy zatrudnienia osób niepełnosprawnych. “Optimum. Studia Ekonomiczne”, 2 (68), 2014, pp. 158–166. Poniat R., Ludzie luz´ni w społeczen´stwie Rzeczypospolitej szlacheckiej w konteks´cie badan´ nad cyklem z˙ycia. “Roczniki Dziejów Społecznych i Gospodarczych” 73, 2013, pp. 51–77. Raport o biedzie 2022. Available at: https://www.szlachetnapaczka.pl/raport-o-biedzie/ (access: 20. 05. 2023). Raport o biedzie 2022, Spirala ubóstwa. Angelika Szela˛gowska-Mironiuk. Available at: https://www.szlachetnapaczka.pl/raport-o-biedzie/ s. 62 (access: 20. 05. 2023). Schalock R.L., Borthwick-Duffy S.A., Bradley V.J. at all., Intellectual Disability: Definition, Classification, and Systems of Supports, Eleventh Edition, American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAiDD), Washington, 2010. Schalock R. L., Luckasson, R., & Tassé, M. J., Intellectual disability: Definition, diagnosis, classification, and systems of supports (12th ed.), American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, Washington 2021. Senge P.M., Pia˛ta dyscyplina. Teoria i praktyka organizacji ucza˛cych sie˛, Wolters Kluwer, Warszawa 2012. Standing G., Prekariat. Nowa niebezpieczna klasa (The Precariat: The New Dangerous Class), PWN, Warszawa 2011. Strategia na rzecz Osób z Niepełnosprawnos´ciami 2021–2030, Monitor Polski, Zała˛cznik do Uchwały nr 27 Rady Ministrów z dnia 16 lutego 2021 r. (poz.218), Available at: https://niepelnosprawni.gov.pl/p,170,strategia-na-rzecz-osob-z-niepelnosprawnoscia mi-2021-2030 (access: 21. 05. 2023). Szlachetna Paczka, Available at: https://www.szlachetnapaczka.pl/o-paczce/ (access: 20. 05. 2023). Szczupał B., Samostanowienie i integracja społeczno-zawodowa dorosłych osób z niepełnosprawnos´cia˛ na przykładzie zastosowania programu Centrum Wspierania Edukacji Zawodowej (PACE) w USA (Self-determination and socio-professional integration of adults with disabilities based on the example of the use of the Professional Assistant Center for Education (PACE) in the USA) [in:] Wielowymiarowos´c´ integracji społecznozawodowej studentów z niepełnosprawnos´cia˛, (ed.) B. Szczupał, K. Kutek-Sładek, Uniwersytet Papieski Jana Pawła II, Kraków 2016. Sztuczna inteligencja (AI) jako megatrend kształtuja˛cy edukacje˛. Available at: https:// www.ibe.edu.pl/index.php/pl/aktualnosci/1694-sztuczna-inteligencja-ai-jako-megatre nd-ksztaltujacy-edukacje-nowa-publikacja-ibe (access: 15. 05. 2023). Szumski G., Smogorzewska J., Narkun Z., Tre˛bacz-Ritter A., Współnauczanie i jego znaczenie dla procesu edukacji. Przegla˛d badan´. (Co-teaching and its importance for educational process. Review of research), Niepełnosprawnos´c´. Dyskursy pedagogiki specjalnej, (Disability. Discourses of special education), 44, 2021, pp. 76–97. Wolska D., Umieje˛tnos´ci z˙yciowe jako wyznacznik aktywizacji zawodowej dorosłych z głe˛bsza˛ niepełnosprawnos´cia˛ intelektualna˛. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Pedagogicznego, Kraków 2015). Zakrzewska M., Zatrudnienie wspomagane – niemoz˙liwe staje sie˛ moz˙liwe, [in:] Zatrudnienie wspomagane szansa˛ na samodzielnos´c´ osób z niepełnosprawnos´cia˛ (ed.).

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B. Trochimiak, M. Wolan-Nowakowska, Wydawnictwo Akademii Pedagogiki Specjalnej, Warszawa 2017. Z˙ółkowska T., Normalizacja – niedokon´czona teoria praktyki. “Niepełnosprawnos´c´. Dyskursy Pedagogiki Specjalnej”, 5, 2011, pp. 85–93. Uchwała nr 27 Rady Ministrów z dnia 16 lutego 2021 r. w sprawie przyje˛cia dokumentu Strategia na rzecz Osób z Niepełnosprawnos´ciami 2021–2030, Monitor Polski, DZIENNIK URZDOWY RZECZYPOSPOLITEJ POLSKIEJ Warszawa, dnia 25 lutego 2021 r. Poz. 218. Available at: https:// niepelnosprawni.gov.pl/download/SON-RCL-Monitor-Polski-1639387201.pdf (access: 21. 05. 2023).

Beata Pituła1 / Barbara Grzyb2

Teacher autonomy in the optics of safety

Introduction The question of autonomy in the teaching profession is an extremely important, relevant issue, the subject of analysis and debate not merely in the educational community, but also in the social environment at large. Thus, making it the subject of special reflection, it should first be noted that in the era of modern socio-cultural and technological changes, autonomy is a kind of link between the implementation of teaching and educational tasks and the specific pedagogical activity of the teacher. It is, as it were, a link on which external pressure (authorities, parents, institutions) is very often exerted, which implies “the development (of teacher)3 from external bestowal and does not result in autonomy, but anomy”4 thus illustrating the apparent image of professional independence and self-reliance “ascribed” to the modern teacher. The indicated “apparentness” becomes even clearer when teacher’s autonomy is viewed through the perspective of the imperative to ensure the safety of students and school safety. Hence, the question of the scope, boundaries and content of teacher autonomy remains permanently open, and any attempt to answer it is connected with the need for in-depth reflection on its factors, since, as it is assumed, a reliable diagnosis of them will make it possible to indicate the necessary changes in educational practice, which will become a contribution to building real teacher autonomy. It seems that safety, as the most basic human need and a cardinal 1 Associate Professor, Faculty of Mining, Safety Engineering and Industrial Automation of the Silesian University of Technology, email address: [email protected], ORCID: 0000-00027691-3821. 2 Ph.D., Institute of Education and Communication Research of the Silesian University of Technology, email adress: [email protected]. 3 Own supplement. 4 Kwiatkowska H., Toz˙samos´c´ nauczycieli – dylematycznos´c´ relacji podmiotowos´c´ – przedmiotowos´c´. [in:] Nauczyciel – Toz˙samos´c´ – Rozwój, (ed.). R. Kwiecin´ska, S. Kowal, M. J. Szyman´ski, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Akademii Pedagogicznej, Krakow 2007, p. 71.

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right, is one of the main determinants of autonomy in this profession, and that is why our consideration of the professional freedom of teacher is centered around it.

Autonomy in the teaching profession Referring to the terminological recognition of autonomy, it should be emphasized that we are dealing with a multiplicity of studies, as well as with different understanding of the concept. Hence, for the purposes of the article, the definitions were selected that, in the opinion of the authors, are the most consistent with the subject matter covered. However, assuming the standpoint that autonomy in the teaching profession, in a certain sense, is coherent with the general definition of the term in question, we can most likely understand it as a transition from professional to organizational professionalism. Apple also argues that “under conditions of licensed autonomy, teachers are generally free – within certain limits – to act in their classrooms according to their own judgment […] based on trust in ‘professional discretion’”5. Thus, it can be assumed that autonomy means freedom of discretionary judgment and is exchanged for specialized expertise, which professional practitioners should use to promote student welfare. Autonomy is therefore closely linked to professional judgment, trust and the ethics of the profession6. According to Sos´nicki, one can also consider autonomy as a kind of ability to exercise control over one’s own actions and attitudes, over one’s own development and self-improvement, requiring the ability to know oneself and to direct oneself, one’s thoughts, feelings, will and actions7. A broader view of the concept is presented by Wis´niewska, for whom autonomy means an individual’s independence from someone or something, the ability to responsibly direct one’s behavior, to make choices taking into account one’s own and others’ needs, and to form social relationships based on reci5 Apple M. W., Sadovnik A. R., Whose markets, whose knowledge? [in:] Sociology of education. A critical reader, (ed.). A. R. Sadovnik Routledge, New York 2007, pp. 177–194, p. 185. 6 Sachs J., Teacher professional identity: Competing discourses, competing outcomes. “Journal of Education Policy”, 16(2), 2001, pp. 149–161; cited after: Wermke W., Salokangas M., Autonomy in education: theoretical and empirical approaches to a contested concept. “Nordic Journal of Studies in Educational Policy”, 2, 2015, pp. 1–6. DOI:10.3402/nstep.v1.28841 [access: 14. 05. 2023.]. 7 Sos´nicki K., Teoria ´srodków wychowania, Nasza Ksie˛garnia, Warsaw 1973, cited after S´liwerski B., keyword: Autonomia, [in:] Encyklopedia aksjologii pedagogicznej, (ed.). K. Chałas, A. Maj. Polskie Wydawnictwo Encyklopedyczne, Radom 2016, p. 127; after: Popławska A., Autonomia nauczyciela w reformowanej szkole. [in:] Nauczyciel we współczesnej rzeczywistos´ci edukacyjnej, (ed.). A. Karpin´ska, M. Zin´czuk, K. Kowalczuk, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku, Białystok 2021, p. 81.

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procity. On an individual level, autonomy is seen as a value, a need, a right and a privilege for an individual to build a unique shape of his or her own person and a personal version of his or her life8. Abandoning at this point in-depth semantic analyses of the concept, it is worth noting, however, that an inalienable condition for the existence and construction of autonomy is conscious, unconstrained thinking and acting, which, because it occurs under certain conditions and relates to the scope and content of professional tasks, may face certain obstacles and limitations. Having this fact in mind, Wermke and Ho¯stfa¯lt recognize that teacher autonomy must be understood in terms of the dichotomous pair of coercion vs. freedom9. This compulsion stems from the legal prerogatives to which education and its employees, particularly teachers, are subject. In turn, the aforementioned freedom means permission for teacher to make autonomous decisions and activities, but within specific and acceptable limits. Thus, it can be said that the indicated perimeter of the two categories is somewhat dependent on each other, as often the legal one spells out the nature of discretionary autonomy. It is worth noting that teacher’s autonomy is increasingly spoken of in the context of teacher’s professionalism, recognizing that it is a significant distinguishing feature of the teacher, manifested in the rational use of the possibility of real influence on the directions of activities and processes occurring within the work environment. It is emphasized that the diversity, complexity and problematic nature of the tasks inherent in the work of teacher, as it were, by definition, requires teacher to make well-considered, autonomous decisions and actions. The need for the teacher’s reflexivity, which involves attainment of self-knowledge about one’s own abilities, beliefs, attitudes, individual theories about the world, is exposed10. The need to create the right conditions for the building and development of teacher autonomy is postulated. At the same time, researchers of the problem, among others Lundstro˝m note the deepening devaluation of professionalism and licensed teacher autonomy derived from the destructive influence of so-called market logic and bureaucratic logic. We are talking about formally expanding the boundaries of autonomy in the face of simultaneous stiffening and multiplying bureaucratic procedures11.

8 Wis´niewska E., Autonomia Nauczyciela – Wymiar teoretyczny i praktyczne implikacje. “Społeczen´stwo-Edukacja-Je˛zyk,” 14, 2021, pp. 40–59. DOI: 10.19251/sej/2021.14.1(3) [access: 15. 05. 2023.]. 9 Wermke W., Ho¯stfa¯lt G., Contextualising teacher autonomy in time and space. A model for comparing various forms of governing the teaching profession. “Journal of Curriculum Studies”, 46(1), 2014, pp. 58–80. 10 Wis´niewska E., Autonomia nauczyciela – wymiar teoretyczny… op. cit, p. 46. 11 Lundstro˝m U., Teacher autonomy in the era of New Public Management. “Nordic Journal of Studies in Educational Policy”, 1(2), 2015, pp. 73–85, https://doi.org/10.3402/nstep.v1.28144 [access: 18. 05. 2023.].

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It should be remembered that bureaucracy is also a form of control and imposed restrictions, set in the context of formal and discretionary tasks with their reporting role. Observation of teaching practice and numerous reports on the condition of education indisputably prove that this form of bureaucratic and formalized teacher duties is subject to special evaluation. The observation is confirmed, among others, by Wis´niewska, according to whom the erosion of teacher autonomy is widely noted, manifested in the increasing powers of governments to determine curriculum frameworks, the assumption of responsibility for school management, various types of evaluation, visitation, hospitation, etc.12. Assuming the standpoint that in the era of unlimited possibilities created by new technologies and new visions of society, well thought-out and functioning education for autonomy is necessary as never before. According to Madalin´skaMichalak, the education, that will emphasize the development of the competencies necessary to be autonomous in the social world still remains in the sphere of pedagogical postulates, given the rather mediocre results of the modern school in this regard13. The educational present having its foundations in different – more or less – education-friendly times, shows an extremely important variability that quite significantly affects the scope and content of teacher autonomy. Analyzing the educational law, Popławska argues that successive educational reforms created the right conditions for the development and manifestation of teacher autonomy, especially when it pertains to strictly didactic issues, such as the preparation of original curricula, the choice of teaching instruments, and the application of pedagogical innovations. On the other hand, there was very limited consideration of teacher autonomy in terms of the teleology and axiology of upbringing. Nonetheless, it remains a legitimate question whether these were not merely declaratory privileges, apparent teacher autonomy that in reality had no chance of materializing due to the mode of reform, the lack of adequate preparation of education subjects to fully participate in the change, as well as socio-economic constraints and the difficult-to-predict and uncontrollable effects of reform efforts14. The conclusions of the study seem to confirm just that. Looking from the perspective of modern times (fluid, uncertain, changeable), both the autonomy of teachers and their pedagogical, educational, and caring 12 Wis´niewska E., Autonomia nauczyciela – wymiar teoretyczny… op. cit, p. 56. 13 Madalin´ska-Michalak J., Odpowiedzialnos´c´ za przyszłe pokolenia: edukacja do autonomii. [in:] Pedagogika i edukacja wobec kryzysu zaufania, wspólnotowos´ci i autonomii. (ed.) J. Madalin´ska-Michalak, A. Wiłkomirska, Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, Warsaw, 2020, p. 32. 14 Popławska A., Autonomia nauczyciela w reformowanej szkole. [in:] Nauczyciel we współczesnej rzeczywistos´ci edukacyjnej, (ed.). A. Karpin´ska, M. Zin´czuk, K. Kowalczuk, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku, Białystok, 2021, p. 79.

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activities are marked by much greater responsibility than it is commonly thought. The directive of multiplied responsibility stems mainly from the obligation to ensure the safety of students and to take care of the safety of the school as an institution. And this, in view of the fact of the growing number of threats in every sphere of human life and functioning, appears as an extremely difficult task, constantly forcing the teacher to make choices, including those that are of cardinal importance to him and put him in opposition to his own hierarchy of values.

Teacher autonomy in the shadow of student safety The concept of regulated autonomy and organizational professionalism, which is discussed in some detail by Apple15 and Evetts16, allows us to see in the professional tasks of teachers an important role not only of control (including external control), but also of accountability and standardization. These activities also relate to safety procedures and the creation of such conditions for students in which the process of their education, upbringing and development, will take place in a climate of trust and protection from the dangers of the modern world. This brief introduction to the topic of safety, however, prompts us to present a snapshot of the terminology of the term safety, which is defined in various ways. In Kunikowski’s terms, it means the absence of physical danger or protection from it17. Janusz Gierszewski, on the other hand, considers safety as an objective state defined by the absence of threats18. A rather similar approach is proposed by Włodarczyk and co-authors, as they clearly define it as countering threats to the exclusion of the core issue – creative activity in the face of the challenges encountered19. However, referring to the tasks of teacher in the context of the safety cited above, all, general indications are identified by legal acts. One of the most im15 Apple M.W., Whose markets, whose knowledge? [In:] A. R. Sadovnik (eds.) Sociology of education. A critical reader, NY, Routledge, New York 2007, pp. 177–194. 16 Evetts J.,The management of professionalism. [in:] Changing Teacher Professionalism. International trends, challenges and ways forward (ed.) S. Gewirtz, P. Mahony, I. Hextall, A. Cribb, Routledge, London 2009, pp. 19–30. 17 Kunikowski J., Edukacja obronna i edukacja dla bezpieczen´stwa, [in:] Bezpieczen´stwo i obronnos´´c w ´swietle współczesnych wyzwan´ i potrzeb. Uje˛cie naukowe, pedagogiczne i edukacyjne, (ed.). J. Kunikowski, Wydawnictwo Akademii Podlaskiej, Siedlce 2010, p. 307. 18 Gierszewski J., Bezpieczen´stwo społeczne. Studium z zakresu bezpieczen´stwa narodowego, Wydawnictwo Difin, Warsaw 2013, p. 7; after: Piwowarski J., Nauki o bezpieczen´stwie. Zagadnienia elementarne. Wydawnictwo Wyz˙szej Szkoły Bezpieczen´stwa Publicznego i Indywidualnego Wydawnictwo “Apeiron”, Krakow 2017, p. 20. 19 Włodarczyk E., Sadowska-Wieciech E., Rokitowska J., Edukacja dla bezpieczen´stwa. Istota i uwarunkowania, Wydawnictwo LIBRON, Krakow, 2018, p. 78.

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portant of them, is the Constitution, which clearly states that regardless of status, occupational position, and age, freedom, human rights as well as safety of citizens are ensured20. In turn, the Education Law, fundamental to the functioning of education and teachers, indicates that institutions should ensure the maintenance of safe and hygienic conditions for learning, upbringing and care in schools and institutions21. A key issue, according to the law, is also the dissemination of safety knowledge among children and young people and the formation of appropriate attitudes towards threats, including those related to the use of information and communication technologies, and emergencies22. Also, one should not forget to conduct educational activities on improving the safety of children and young people, as the education law clearly states23. Given the rather specific and subjective nature of the dangers that students may face, it is the teacher’s duty to reliably carry out the tasks associated with the position entrusted to him or her and the basic functions of the school: didactic, educational and caring, including tasks related to ensuring the safety of students during activities organized by the school.24. Thus, it can be said that the provision of safety in an educational institution is one of the basic tasks of teacher and, according to Zie˛ba, it involves meeting the complex and multifaceted needs of students: biological, social and cultural25. When considering such broad approach to the term of safety, it is puzzling how working teachers, through the implementation of their professional tasks with outlined and controlled autonomy, are able to provide students with high safety level. The first determinant is the safety components, which in a sense must be considered separately. This is due not only to the fact of the contemporary variability of threats, but also, as Se˛powicz-Buczko and Kamin´ska note, to the subjective sense of safety, which, according to the authors, is unstable, changing in accordance with the ongoing transformations in the environment, in the 20 Constitution of the Republic of Poland of April 2, 1997, Journal of Laws. 1997 No. 78, item 483 as amended. 21 Announcement by the Speaker of the Sejm of the Republic of Poland of March 10, 2023, on the announcement of the consolidated text of the Education Law, Journal of Laws. 2017 item 59; Id. Journal of Laws. 2023 item 900; Chapter 1 General Provisions Article 1. The educational system provides in particular:, sect. 14, https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WD U20170000059/U/D20170059Lj.pdf [access: 22. 05. 2023.]. 22 Ibid, Art. 1, sect. 21. 23 Ibid, Art. 3. 1, sect. 4. 24 Announcement of the Speaker of the Sejm of the Republic of Poland of September 6, 2021 on the announcement of the consolidated text of the Law – Teachers’ Charter, Article 6, https:// samorzad.pap.pl/kategoria/edukacja/w-dzienniku-ustaw-opublikowano-tekst-jednolity-kar ty-nauczyciela-dokument [access: 22. 05. 2023.]. 25 Zie˛ba R., Tres´ci i zakres poje˛cia “Bezpieczen´stwo Polski”, [in:] Bezpieczen´stwo Polski. Współczesne wyzwania, (ed.) S. Wojciechowski, A. Potyrała, Wydawnictwo Difin, Warsaw 2014, pp. 13–14.

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development of society and related to these processes factors determining the emergence of new hazards26, which also take place in education. Among the many determinants, Nerwin´ska singles out the main three parameters for characterizing safety in a school facility. psychosocial factors

Safety in school

ethical dimension

institutional dimension

Figure 1. Safety in school. Source: own study based on: Nerwin´ska E., Psychospołeczne uwarunkowania bezpieczen´stwa w szkole, ORE, Warsaw, 2012.

The author considers school safety as a diverse conglomerate of factors that determine it and the numerous dynamically variable links between them. She believes that ensuring safety and keeping it at the highest level involves taking care of the social climate, interpersonal relations, teacher support, students’ attitudes towards school, social, psychological and emotional competencies and skills (of students and teachers), as well as teachers’ professional competences27. As can be seen in meeting the need for safety at the psychosocial level, there are actually listed those activities that teachers in reality carry out in the scope of their professional tasks (didactic-educational, caring, organizational). These are primarily put in place due to educational laws, but also resulting from typical/ fixed pedagogical approaches. An issue of particular importance in the area of psychosocial determinants of the condition of safety at school are the competencies possessed by the teachers employed in schools. The catalog of qualifications and competencies required of the modern teacher is extremely extensive and is constantly being supplemented by new ones. Teacher is required to be a modern technological professional, striving for the highest educational standards, the one who’s taking into account the specific principles of safety and 26 Se˛powicz-Buczko K., Kamin´ska R., Poczucie bezpieczen´stwa uczniów klas trzecich szkoły podstawowej. “Zeszyty Naukowe Pan´stwowej Wyz˙szej Szkoły Zawodowej im. Witelona w Legnicy”, 31 (2), 2019, p. 40. 27 Nerwin´ska E., Psychospołeczne uwarunkowania bezpieczen´stwa w szkole, ORE, Warsaw, 2012.

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protection of students from hazards28. Referring to the next group of factors determining safety, which is the ethical (moral) area, the value system on the basis of which school functions and the individual attitudes of members of its community: teachers, students, support staff and also parents come to the fore. According to Nerwin´ska, a huge impact on ensuring safety at school have clear rules and norms governing social relations at school and the way teachers and students function29. In this context, special importance should be attributed to the canons of teacher ethics, which indicate the moral duties that a teacher at work should maintain. And despite the evolution of the teaching profession taking place throughout history, the abundant literature on the deontology of the teaching profession invariably puts on top of the list of teacher’s moral obligations, such values as: truth, the welfare of the child, including child’s safety, giving good example, pedagogical projection, emotional bond with the pupil, respect for child’s personality and professionalism in raising, caring and teaching.30. The objective of creating a safe environment for students imposes a number of responsibilities on the teachers, which, in a way, are “anchored” in themselves, in their commitment, competence and the values they represent. Thus, it can be seen that even this superficial view of ethical obligations shows just how big demands are addressed to teachers and the enormous psychological costs they must bear to meet these high expectations. This is because they concern not only the process of education and upbringing of the student itself, but also competence and knowledge of the essence of safety, its dimensions, rules and procedures, enabling to provide the safety of students on the school premises, but also outside. Therefore, teacher is required to be able to anticipate threats that may exist in the reality of the school, minimize the risk of their occurrence, act rationally in a situation of emerging danger, which involves the burden of constant responsibility for the life and health of students entrusted to his or her care. According to Piotrowicz, responsibility for student safety is a strategic element in school management31. The safety of students is constantly supervised primarily by educators, teachers, followed by school administration and the principal. With 28 Gołe˛bniak D., Zmiany w edukacji nauczycieli. Wiedza. Biegłos´c´. Refleksyjnos´c´. Wydawnictwo Edytor, Poznan´-Torun´, 1998, p. 139; after: Wis´niewska E., Autonomia nauczyciela… op. cit, p. 55. 29 Nerwin´ska E., Psychospołeczne uwarunkowania bezpieczen´stwa … op. cit, p. 1. 30 Homplewicz J., Etyka pedagogiczna. Podre˛cznik dla wychowawców, Wydawnictwo Salezjan´skie, Warsaw 1996, pp. 19–26; after: Zaja˛c A., Etyczny wymiar osobowos´ci a moralne zachowania nauczyciela – wychowawcy. Biblioteka Współczesnej Mys´li Pedagogicznej, Vol. 2, 2013, pp. 244–245. 31 Piotrowicz D., Odpowiedzialnos´c´ za zapewnienie bezpieczen´stwa uczniów w konteks´cie sytuacji kryzysowych. ORE, Warsaw 2012, p. 3. https://bezpiecznaszkola.men.gov.pl/wp-conten t/uploads/2015/09/bhp_i_higiena_poradnik_odpowiedzialnosc_za_zapewnienie_bezpiecze nstwa_uczniow1.pdf [access: 23. 05. 2023.].

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the function of a school principal comes, of course, a great responsibility for the smooth and safe functioning of the school as an organization in its entirety32. The last of the dimensions of school safety to which teachers are subject is their institutional counterpart. We are talking here primarily about compliance with the law, but also, as Nerwin´ska points out, the organization of work, methods of management, organization of teachers’ in-service training, methods of supervision, administrative subordination, location, class size and many other factors33, incumbent on school employees and, above all, on teachers. As one can see, the list of factors determining safety is long and yet it does not exhaust all the prerequisites for creating safe working conditions for teachers and students. Among those most often cited as problematic/disputable is the organization of the teaching and learning process outside of school in the framework of so-called outings and excursions or longer trips. Under these circumstances, ensuring the safety of students is regulated by the so-called internal acts of the school, i. e. regulations for excursions and out-of-school trips, which are created in accordance with the regulations in force in this regard34 and the educational law35. However, despite efforts to minimize the risk of potentially threatening incidents, reports and statistics prove that the existing state of affairs is far from desirable. Unfortunately, the traditional school, as Skubisz notes, is dangerous and isolated from reality, from real life, and it does not keep up with the current demands of the post-industrial or post-modern era in terms of science, IT and social progress, ecology, culture and morality36. And this is the environment, in which the modern teacher operates. On the one hand, limited by legal acts, regulations, on the other hand, legally and morally obliged to ensure the full sense of security of the students entrusted to his or her care. So, whether and to what extent can we speak of teacher autonomy in relation to the imperative of student safety? In addition, one should pose the question, who will provide safety for teacher and how? Skubisz believes that despite extensive school legislation, there is still a lack of any effective legal measures to protect teachers against such threats as 32 Piotrowicz D., Odpowiedzialnos´c´ za zapewnienie bezpieczen´stwa uczniów … op. cit, p. 3. 33 Nerwin´ska E., Psychospołeczne uwarunkowania bezpieczen´stwa … op. cit, p. 1. 34 Regulation of the Minister of National Education dated May 25, 2018 on the conditions and manner of organizing sightseeing and tourism by public kindergartens, schools and institutions, It. 1055, https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU20180001055/O/ D20181055.pdf [access: 23. 05. 2023.]. 35 Announcement of the Speaker of the Sejm of the Republic of Poland of March 10, 2023, on the announcement of the consolidated text of the Education Law, Art. 125 …op. cit. 36 Cf. Kuz´ma J., Nauka o szkolnictwie. Teorie i wizje przyszłej szkoły, “Roczniki Pedagogiczne”, 5/41, (2), 2013, pp. 15–52; after: Skubisz J., Bezpieczen´stwo w szkole przyszłos´ci – wizja zmian współczesnej rzeczywistos´ci edukacyjnej w Polsce. “Annales Universitatis Paedagogicae Cracoviensis. Studia de Securitate,” 10(1), 2020, p. 183.

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political blackmail, discriminatory threats in the financial sphere, or ideological pressure from factors of public power37. This issue calls for a broad, public debate on the limits of the legal subordination of the teaching profession and reflection on the existing bureaucratic obstacles to the exercise of the autonomy granted to teacher. Today, there also seems to be a pressing need to design a new vision of school, one that provides safety to all educational subjects equally. Safety, on the other hand, as Skubisz points out, when reflected upon in theoretical and pedagogical terms, becomes a general concept, used to group concepts that describe particular aspects of educational reality. Therefore, pedagogy as a scientific discipline that describes, explains and helps to understand the world around humans must include in the composition of its base terminology safety of educational processes, upbringing and education, jointly38.

Conclusion It should be pointed out that the changing educational reality requires an increased demand for control, accountability and preservation of established standards, and for this reason, the teacher’s work is becoming increasingly standardized, rationalized and supervised, and the professional tasks undertaken by the teacher are subject to systematic monitoring and evaluation. Both the course of educational processes and their results are evaluated39. Thus, the question of autonomous actions of teachers becomes contentious, despite the fact that current educational situations ever more are not fitting into existing schemes and recognized frameworks and require individualized, out-of-the-box approach. This state of affairs is confirmed by Dubis, who states that the modern world poses new threats of negative social phenomena that threaten the proper development and functioning of humans. This phenomenon has a particularly negative impact on young people with unformed personalities, i. e. mainly students40. Thus, in an era of crisis of values, where the boundaries between a sense of control and the provision of safety are blurred, it is the teacher who is given the extremely responsible task of protecting students from existing and emerging threats, and preparing them for life in a world of risk. Whether and to what extent teacher will live up to it, will probably hinge on expanding the boundaries of his

37 Ibid, p. 182. 38 Skubisz J., Bezpieczen´stwo w szkole przyszłos´ci … op. cit, pp. 185–186. 39 Apple M.W., Whose markets, whose knowledge? [in:] Sociology of education. A critical reader, (ed.) A. R. Sadovnik, Routledge, New York 2007, pp. 177–194. 40 Dubis M., Poczucie bezpieczen´stwa gimnazjalistów w szkole. “Zeszyty Naukowe Wyz˙szej Szkoły Informatyki, Zarza˛dzania i Administracji w Warszawie”, 2 (27), 2014, p. 87.

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or her autonomy and making safety prevention one of the main goals of educating the young generation.

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Wermke W., Salokangas M., Autonomy in education: theoretical and empirical approaches to a contested concept. “Nordic Journal of Studies in Educational Policy”, 2, 2015, pp. 1– 6. DOI:10.3402/nstep.v1.28841 [access: 14. 05. 2023.]. Wis´niewska E., Autonomia Nauczyciela – Wymiar teoretyczny i praktyczne implikacje. “Społeczen´stwo-Edukacja-Je˛zyk,” 14, 2021, pp. 40–59. DOI: 10.19251/sej/2021.14.1(3) [access:15. 05. 2023.]. Włodarczyk E., Sadowska-Wieciech E., Rokitowska J., Edukacja dla bezpieczen´stwa. Istota i uwarunkowania, Wydawnictwo LIBRON, Krakow, 2018, p. 78. Zaja˛c A., Etyczny wymiar osobowos´ci a moralne zachowania nauczyciela – wychowawcy. “Biblioteka Współczesnej Mys´li Pedagogicznej”, Vol. 2, 2013, pp. 244–245. Zie˛ba R., Tres´ci i zakres poje˛cia “Bezpieczen´stwo Polski”, [in:] Bezpieczen´stwo Polski. Współczesne wyzwania, (ed.) S. Wojciechowski, A. Potyrała A, Wydawnictwo Difin, Warsaw, 2014, pp. 13–14.

Sylwia Jaskulska1

Using movies in pedagogy teaching programs: schools’, teachers’, and teenagers’ freedom and enslavement as movies’ themes

Freedom, in common understanding, is a value that belongs to human and is connected with ones rights. Duties, obligations, and responsibilities limit it. In philosophical or sociological terms freedom and enslavement are much more complicated categories, in which human life can be described in various aspects. These concepts are also perfect for describing phenomena related to education. The tension between freedom and enslavement as a pedagogical problem in its many dimensions is included in the curriculum of pedagogical studies. This is a demanding, difficult topic that requires hugely conscious reflection. Freedom in pedagogy, education and upbringing can be understood in different ways depending on the adopted point of reference, but the pedagogical definition certainly differs from the common. As Astrid Me˛czkowska-Christiansen writes, the concept of freedom in pedagogy is accompanied by a conceptual clutter: “Sometimes it is expressed in romantic categories of freedom from any coercion. Other times, it is identified with the idea of liberalization of upbringing, transforming the sense of freedom into the concept of arbitrariness. It is worth recalling that the fundamentally pedagogical and, at the same time, political understanding of the concept of human freedom refers to its source already in the ancient culture of ancient Greece, where the ideal of a free man was formed. According to Socrates, who paves the way for thinking about human nature as called to freedom, a free man is one who “owns himself” (…) Freedom understood in this way is therefore not a state of being determined by external circumstances, but an ethical challenge regarding a reasonable, questioning and at the same time courageous way of being a man in the world, associated by Socrates with the idea of upbring the citizen”2. 1 Prof. UAM, dr hab. Wydział Studiów Edukacyjnych Strona domowa: Wydział Studiów Edukacyjnych Uniwersytet Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu, ORCID: 0000-0002-3454-7894, Email: [email protected]. 2 A. Me˛czkowska-Christiansen, Edukacja dla demokracji jako demokracja w edukacji: wokół podstawowych poje˛´c [Education for democracy as democracy in education: around basic concepts], [in:] Demokracja i edukacja: dylematy, diagnozy, dos´wiadczenia, (eds.) K. Gawlicz, P. Rudnicki, M. Starnawski, T. Tokarz, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Dolnos´la˛skiej Szkoły Wyz˙szej, Wrocław 20014.

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An example of understanding the concept of freedom, which allows to understand its pedagogical features, can be the analysis of this concept in terms of Sergiusz Hessen, who distinguishes two types of freedom: positive and negative3. “While the first secures the individual’s ability to make a choice and to take into account or reject a given value, i. e. freedom from any kind of external pressure, positive freedom is the freedom to, consisting in voluntarily accepting obligations resulting from the acceptance of a given value. The condition for the realization of these two aspects of freedom becomes the readiness of an individual to make an effort to take a specific position towards values, and then to consistently act aimed at its implementation”4.

As a lecturer at pedagogical studies, I face the challenge of how to motivate students preparing to work as teachers to discuss the problem of freedom and enslavement in various perspectives, so that the reflection is real and internalized. These considerations are one of the objectives of classes on topics such as ideologies of education, educational systems, styles of teaching, upbringing, and human development. Educational ideologies5, as well as the conditions of the teacher’s work, and the framework in which young people are brought up can be analyzed by reading their tensions between enslavement and freedom. Freedom and enslavement are also development categories. Freedom is a need, but it is realized along with other needs in a social environment. It is a question of a philosophical nature, what place does one’s own freedom have in human development and how does it relate to the social framework that restricts its freedom in various ways. Particularly in relation to adolescence, when Erikson’s search for identity spans between the need for self-determination and the need to belong, the question of optimal conditions for development in relation to freedom is relevant6. One of the methods of working with these topics is the discussion initiated by movies. I have been using it in my work as an academic teacher for years. This is a great way to start a discussion on the issues of what is freedom in upbringing? How does the bondage-freedom tension define adolescence? How is this tension inscribed in the teaching profession? 3 S. Hessen, Podstawy pedagogiki [Basics of pedagogy], Z˙ak, Warszawa 1997. 4 J. Wojniak, Komparatystyka edukacyjna w perspektywie filozoficznej: Sergiusz Hessen (1887– 1950) i jego podejs´cie do badan´ porównawczych w pedagogice [Educational comparative studies from a philosophical perspective: Sergiusz Hessen (1887–1950) and his approach to comparative research in pedagogy]. “Acta Universitatis Nicolai Copernici Pedagogika”, 42(2), pp. 37–62, p. 50. 5 C. Braslavsky, C. Borges, M. S. Simão, N. Truong, Historical Competence as a Key to Promote Democracy, [in:] School Knowledge in Comparative and Historical Perspective Changing Curricula in Primary and Secondary Education, (eds.) A. Benavot, C. Braslavsky, Springer, Dordrech 2007. 6 K. Wasilewska, Koncepcja wychowania w ´swietle teorii Erika Eriksona [The concept of education in the light of Erik Erikson’s theory], “Kultura i Edukacja”, 3, 2004, pp. 89–94.

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This text aims to show, using the examples of several examples, how films can be used to initiate discussions in student groups on freedom and enslavement in educational systems, in families, and as a distinctive feature of growing up. Before I I go any further to specific film images worth using during classes with pedagogy students, I will refer to the value of using films in education in general. As Yaffa Moskovich and Simha Sharfb write, analyzing the potential of films in teaching “film can help provoke a meaningful inquiry of a social event, thus allowing students to make insightful decisions based on what they viewed and what the teacher does to support the curriculum (…). First, films have been found to bring students closer to the people, events, concepts, and theories, and help them come alive academically; second, films correct, improve, and simplify social content by enhancing long-term memory and retention and generating abstract thinking”7.

When I meet my former students after many years and ask them which topics and classes they remember, many recall those during which film images accompanied us. This is probably related to the psychological mechanisms of memory: we better remember elements encoded in two systems – verbal and pictorial (that is why the production of visual images of memorized words is an element of many mnemonics) and the material we work with (e. g., discussions), which we manipulate8.. Therefore, the films can complement the textbook. They introduce to the school classroom practical elements, as Muhammad Azmi calls it in relations to the the history classes: living history or other subjects constituents9. They are also treated as a triggers of associations: analogies to social processes are sought through the film metaphor, and the film may even be a provocation to take some actions10. Films are beneficial to work not only with theoretical material but also with emotions. “Using movies in teaching is an effective way to reach people’s affective domain, promote reflective attitudes, and link learning to experiences. Teaching using movies triggers disclosing emotions, and this allows questions, expectations and dilemmas to arise for both learners and faculty. Movies provide a narrative model grounded in the learners’ familiar world that are framed in emotions and images”11. 7 Y. Moskovich, S. Sharfb, Using Films as a Tool for Active Learning in Teaching Sociology, “The Journal of Effective Teaching”, 12(1), 2012, pp. 53–63. p. 54. 8 M. Jagodzin´ska, Psychologia pamie˛ci. Badania, teorie, zastosowania [The psychology of memory. Research, theories, applications], Sensus, Gliwice 2008. 9 M. Azmi, Learning History through Historical Movies: Bringing Living History into Classroom, “Proceedings of the International Conference on Teacher Training and Education 2017 (ICTTE 2017)”, 2017, pp. 261–567. 10 W.B. Russell, The art of teaching social studies with film, “The Clearing House”, 85, 2012, pp. 157–164. 11 P. Blasco, M. Blasco, M. Levites, G. Moreto, J. Tysinger, Educating through Movies: How Hollywood Fosters Reflection, “Creative Education”, 2, 2011, pp. 174–180.

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Films are an effective method of moral education – they sensitize, provoke reflection, shape the imagination12. Chuchai Smithikrai even showed in his research that systematic movie-based teaching course can promote positive characteristics and behaviors of students. As the author notes in the discussion of his results “movies are a powerful tool for enhancing positive characteristics and reducing negative ones. This is because the appropriate movies speak to the unspoiled spot that is present in all of us, where people escape from their lives into themselves and come out feeling better, stronger, and more willing to take healthy action (…). Viewers are likely to be influenced by behaviors being portrayed in the movie. Consequently, viewers leave the movie with new ideas about values and behaviors they need to develop and strengthen”13. Films are an excellent voice in discussions on complex/difficultes topics, which was confirmed in research, for example conducted by Audrey Smith Rorrer and Susan Furr14, during courses for future teachers. Researchers presented various film images, provoking discussion around the issues of multiculturalism in education. The increased awareness and sensitivity of students in this area allowed the researchers to call the films multicultural awareness tools in the education of future teachers. Alper Kackaya, Ihsan Unlu, M. Said Akar,and Meryem, Ozturan Sagirli15 have also studied the role of film in teacher training. They proved that the ininclincluditeachersers struggling with everyday hardships into cines signinantly positively affects self-assessment, professional effectiveness in students preparing for this profession and people who have recently started working. Elif Tug˘çe Gezer also proved in research that education-themed movie has statistically significant influence pre-service teachers’ perception on effective teacher attributes and attitudes towards the profession16. Similar conclusions were reached in studies of academic students by Elizabeth Marquis, Wojcik, Effie Lin, and Victoria McKinnon. According to them, films serve sig-

12 M. Wonderly, Children’s film as an instrument of moral education, “Journal of Moral Education”, 38(1), 2009, pp. 1–15. 13 Ch. Smithikrai, Effectiveness of Teaching with Movies to Promote Positive Characteristics and Behaviors, “Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences”, 217, 2016, pp. 522–530. 14 A.S. Rorrer, S. Furr, Using film as a multicultural awareness tool in teacher education, “Multicultural Perspectives” 11(3), 2009, pp. 162–168. 15 A. Kaçkaya, I. Ünlü, M.S. Akar, M. Özturan Sagirli, The effect of school and teacher themed movies on pre-service teachers’ professional attitudes and perceived self-efficacy, “Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice” 11(4), 2011, pp. 1778–1783. 16 E.T. Gezer, The influence of education-themed movies on pre-service teachers’ perception of effective teacher attitudes and personal-professional attributes, Middle East Technical University, Ankara 2020.

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nificant pedagogical goals, such as the development of deep learning or the promotion of critical thinking17. Below I discuss a few movies that are part of the program of pedagogical courses that I run. I use them in classes on educational ideology, teacher’s professional development, psychology of adolescence. All of them make it possible to provoke discussions around the themes of freedom and enslavement in education. The first film is Dead Poets Society18, which I refer to when discussing educational ideologies during classes. As Kaja Zabłocka writes the film, “tells the story of an unorthodox English teacher, John Keating, who breathes new life into Welton Academy, an elite preparatory school”19. The teacher shows students that apart from the path of tradition, good upbringing and education, there are also other, alternative pathes. That the maxim carpe diem is as important as striving for mastery, cultivating traditions, inscribing oneself in the roles given by the family. He wants to show boys whose lives are strictly planned that they can break free. He encourages them to be, as he calls it, freethinkers20. On the one hand, the film shows how one person can unmask areas of enslavement and possible ways of liberation, but on the other hand, it poses the question of whether freedom is possible at all. Can a passionate teacher break into the rigid framework of school ideology with his vision of teaching? The end of the story shows that this is a very complicated problem. Superteacher – as Adam Fahri calls film teachers appearing out of nowhere and changing the life of the class and school – can not be assessed unequivocally21. He wins and fails at the same time. A wall of parental prohibitions stands in the “being free”, “being onselve” way of one of the students, Neil Perry. The suicide of a student in an extremely brutal way disturbs the teacher’s methodology, based on the carpe diem slogan. During the classes, where we watch fragments of the film Dead Poets Society, the overriding question is about freedom as an idea of education. Is it possible? An interesting thread for students is observing what happens when in a school with well-established principles and strictly accepted ideology someone tries to 17 E. Marquis, C. Wojcik, E. Lin, V. McKinnon, Meaningful Teaching Tool and/or ‘Cool Factor’? Instructors’ Perceptions of Using Film and Video within Teaching and Learning, “Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning”, 20(1), 2020, pp. 130–150. 18 P. Weir, Dead Poets Society, USA 1989. 19 K. Zabłocka, Two Cinematic Portrayals of Teachers: John Keating in Dead Poets Society and Terence Fletcher in Whiplash, “New Horizons in English Studies”, 1, 2017, pp. 8–97. 20 K. Zabłocka, Two Cinematic Portrayals of Teachers: John Keating in Dead Poets Society and Terence Fletcher in Whiplash, “New Horizons in English Studies”, 1, 2017, pp. 87–97. 21 A. Farhi, Hollywood Goes to School: Recognizing the Superteacher Myth in Film, “The Clearing House”, 72(3), 1999, pp. 157–159.

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make a breach by introducing a new ideology. The dynamics between freedom and enslavement, the perspectives changing along with the changes in the film’s plot, is an excellent introduction to the discussion. The films also support my students in the learning process during classes about the specifics of adolescence as a challenge for the school and the teacher. I usually choose one of three films: Carrie22, On the Edge23 or Elephant24. The film On the Edge shows teenagers from the suburbs. Their everyday life is boring and monotonous. They spend all their free time in the Recreation Center – it is an area near the city with a playground and a hangar where there are pingpong tables, sofas, etc. During the day, young people play there and discuss, at night they drink alcohol do drugs. Due to boredom, they commit minor crimes – the action begins when one of the boys shoots at a police car. An enraged policeman launches an action against the “rampantness” – excessive freedom – of the youth of New Grenada. At the same time, negotiations are underway in the town – a Recreation Center to be sold to an investor, a millionaire from Mexico. Young people are protesting, riots are intensifying. An accident occurs – during the chase, a policeman fatally shot one of the boys. The climax of the plot is meeting at school – only adults, parents and teachers, are invited. They are supposed to debate about the event and juvenile delinquency, but it turns out that the organizers of the meeting are more worried about successfully making the deal with the investor than about the school’s students. They want to take away from them the Recreation Center, which is presented as a nest of all evil. Enraged students block all exits and lock adults in the school. They demolish their cars, start a fire, devastate the school area. One of the policemen is killed. In the last scene, we see a school bus filled with young people. Under police escort, they leave the city (probably the kids are taken to some reformatory center)25. On the Edge mixes the stereotypical images of worlds of young people from wealthy families, where there is money but no time and understanding, and kids from working-class blocks. New Grenada is a common world of those children who, living in a place far from other communities, are left their own and have to organize their own world. Stimulants and weapons appear in it, kids out of boredom experiment and cross the boundaries set by their parents. Adults want 22 23 24 25

B. De Palma, Carrie, USA 1976. J. Kaplan, On the Edge, USA 1979. G. Van Sant, Elephant, USA 2003. S. Jaskulska, Ta szkoła symbolicznie rozstrzelała sie˛ sama… Filmy Słon´, Carrie, Nad krawe˛dzia˛ w dyskusji o problemach współczesnej szkoły i młodziez˙y podczas zaje˛´c z pedagogiki na specjalnos´ciach nauczycielskich [This school symbolically shot itself to death… Films Elephant, Carrie, Over the Edge in a discussion about the problems of contemporary school and youth during pedagogy classes in teaching specialties], “Kultura-Społeczen´stwo-Edukacja”, 10 (2), 2016, pp. 315–327.

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to take away the last piece of the world that they consider to be truly theirs. The freedom of young people demands frame, but made by parental love and interest, not bans and restrictions. Adults, impose on their freedom the enslavement through oppression, total control. In the film, there is a game between freedom and enslavement. Adults want to take away youth’s freedom. Lockdown at school becomes a symbol of the reversal of roles – an unusual plot development. Young people literally take away the freedom of adults by fighting for their own space. The book Carrie by Steven King,26on which the film of the same title was based, tells the story of an adolescent girl. Her mother, a religious fanatic, raises daughter using physical and psychological violence. Carrie stands out from her peers – her mother imposes on her conservative clothing and behavior. The teenager is rejected and ridiculed. As a result of a school conspiracy, the girl goes to the ball invited by one of the most popular boys in the school, she even becomes the queen of the ball. When for a moment she regains faith in herself and seems to be really liberated from the network of oppressive upbringing, the girl’s friends enter the action and the last chords of the conspiracy resound. They pour a bucket of pig’s blood on the title character in front of the entire school community. Carrie goes into a rage. She devastates the school, kills many of her peers and teachers, and then demolishes the entire city. In the plot layer, this is a horror thread – the ability to telekinesis, i. e. the power to move objects by force of will, makes Carrie a monster. However, considering the psychological layer, this is a film about freeing oneself from parental and peer oppression, which takes the form of violent rebellion during adolescence27. Psychologically speaking, it is a film about a girl lonely by a busy and brutal mother, about peer rejection, about public humiliation, about growing up in spite of family. Maybe we see the fantasy of a girl who, in her weakness, dreams of superpower, of telekinesis that allows her to kill all her persecutors? King writes that while her mother was abusing Carrie, a meteor shower was falling from the sky, brought down by the girl’s forces28. But perhaps this rain appears only in the mind of a girl escaping into a fantasy world helpless against her mother’s violence? What else could she do? How else to free oneself from parental slavery? Similar to Over the Edge it is an exaggerated image of the fantasy of changing 26 S. King, Carrie, New American Library, New York 1974. 27 S. Jaskulska, Ta szkoła symbolicznie rozstrzelała sie˛ sama… Filmy Słon´, Carrie, Nad krawe˛dzia˛ w dyskusji o problemach współczesnej szkoły i młodziez˙y podczas zaje˛´c z pedagogiki na specjalnos´ciach nauczycielskich [This school symbolically shot itself to death… Films Elephant, Carrie, Over the Edge in a discussion about the problems of contemporary school and youth during pedagogy classes in teaching specialties], “Kultura-Społeczen´stwo-Edukacja”, 10 (2), 2016, pp. 315–327. 28 S. King, Carrie, New American Library, New York 1974.

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roles in the process of growing up – teenagers take control of their parents. As Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain said about Over the Edge, “This film has largely defined my personality … Total anarchy.”29 From the biographical picture Kurt Cobain: Montage of Heck, we learn that the creators of On the Edge showed the greatest dream of young Cobain. Lock all adults in one place as hostages30. Maybe it is the dream of many adolescent whose search for identity and the need for freedom are suppressed by adults. The last movie I will mention in this text is Elephant. In terms of plot, the film Elephant tells the story of two boys who plan a doomsday at their school. They buy guns, come to school, and shoot. Students, teachers, and principals die. Much of the film, however, shows what he looks like hours before the shooting. The director tells us a few seemingly trivial and ordinary stories. In the film Elephant, the tension between freedom and enslavement is built in the images of ordinary school life. Teachers laugh, discuss important topics with students, and safety standards are in place at school (e. g., monitoring exits from school during lessons). In this ideal school, however, the headmaster punishes a student who is late for school through no fault of his own, does not know his home situation, and does not even try to help him. The physical education teacher has no empathy for an adolescent, unattractive girl. Some girls order only lettuce for dinner and force themselves to vomit after eating it. Nobody reacts. And then two boys come and start shooting31. Everyday life turns out to be not so ordinary but very complicated. Jennifer A. Rich calls the film narrative in Elephant dialectics typical of horror films32. The directors of this type of film build the atmosphere of horror by putting fear in situations with positive connotations. The same is true in Elephant33. We see a beautiful sky for a few minutes but get anxious because we don’t witness a school 29 http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0079688/trivia, accessed: 25. 05. 2023. 30 B. Morgen, Kurt Cobain: Montage of Heck, USA 2015. 31 S. Jaskulska, Ta szkoła symbolicznie rozstrzelała sie˛ sama… Filmy Słon´, Carrie, Nad krawe˛dzia˛ w dyskusji o problemach współczesnej szkoły i młodziez˙y podczas zaje˛´c z pedagogiki na specjalnos´ciach nauczycielskich [This school symbolically shot itself to death… Films Elephant, Carrie, Over the Edge in a discussion about the problems of contemporary school and youth during pedagogy classes in teaching specialties], “Kultura-Społeczen´stwo-Edukacja”, 10 (2), 2016, pp. 315–327. 32 J.A. Rich, Shock corridors: the new rhetoric of horror in Gus Van Sant’s Elephant, “The Journal of Popular Culture”, 45(6), 2012, pp. 1310–1329. 33 S. Jaskulska, Ta szkoła symbolicznie rozstrzelała sie˛ sama… Filmy Słon´, Carrie, Nad krawe˛dzia˛ w dyskusji o problemach współczesnej szkoły i młodziez˙y podczas zaje˛´c z pedagogiki na specjalnos´ciach nauczycielskich [This school symbolically shot itself to death… Films Elephant, Carrie, Over the Edge in a discussion about the problems of contemporary school and youth during pedagogy classes in teaching specialties], “Kultura-Społeczen´stwo-Edukacja”, 10 (2), 2016, pp. 315–327.

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scene (we hear sounds only)34. We see the problems of the characters, and the growing emotions, but the scenes showing them are lazy and calm. Van Sant also uses the tension between building sympathy and dislike of the main characters. One moment we feel sorry for a girl who is attacked in a conversation by school friends, only to see her mocking another student in a very moment35. Balancing between sympathy/antipathy, sympathy/indignation, a sense of freedom, and enslavement allows us to feel the tension the students of this school community must experience. The film, regardless of the anxiety it arouses, evokes great sympathy. One can identify with each of its characters. Teens’ problems are universal. The film is a collective portrait of young people36. Parents’ alcoholism, peer exclusion, eating disorders – this is their everyday life. The massacre that took place at school is like the sum of tension, loneliness, exclusion, anger, enslavement of the characters. Anyway, hence the title of the film, Elephant. The director was inspired by a Buddhist story in which several blind men touch different parts of an elephant – ear, leg, tail, tusks, etc. Each of the blind men is convinced that the knowledge of this one part allows him to understand the true nature of the animal. One says that an elephant is like a fan, another says that it is like a tree, a rope, a snake or a spear. Only the sum of their impressions would give an answer to the question of what an elephant is37. It’s the same in the movie. Tension is built by all students’ experiences, not just the experiences of boys who brought guns to school. Problems add up when we see them all, and shown with such calmness, it is an unbearable accumulation for the viewer. All the more unbearable for the characters of the film. The shooting seems to be a liberation from problems. The discussed films are symbolic stories about the hardships of growing up and fantasies about spectacular ways of facing them, and liberating. As I wrote in one of my previous articles on the use of films in academic education, Carrie, On the Edge and Elephant show how enormous tension explodes and raise questions about what role we as educators have/may have in this process38.

34 J.A. Rich, Shock corridors: the new rhetoric of horror in Gus Van Sant’s Elephant, “The Journal of Popular Culture”, 45(6), 2012, pp. 1310–1329. 35 J.A. Rich, Shock corridors: the new rhetoric of horror in Gus Van Sant’s Elephant, “The Journal of Popular Culture”, 45(6), 2012, pp. 1310–1329. 36 K. Jones, Corridors of powerlessness: Elephant. “Film Comment”, 9/10, 2003, pp. 32–38. 37 J.A. Rich, Shock corridors: the new rhetoric of horror in Gus Van Sant’s Elephant, “The Journal of Popular Culture”, 45(6), 2012, pp. 1310–1329. 38 S. Jaskulska, Ta szkoła symbolicznie rozstrzelała sie˛ sama… Filmy Słon´, Carrie, Nad krawe˛dzia˛ w dyskusji o problemach współczesnej szkoły i młodziez˙y podczas zaje˛´c z pedagogiki na specjalnos´ciach nauczycielskich [This school symbolically shot itself to death… Films Elephant, Carrie, Over the Edge in a discussion about the problems of contemporary school and

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The most significant value of using film images in teaching classes is problematizing the issues raised and showing their ambiguity. Reflections on freedom in education are not easy, but at the same time, they are crucial in understanding the role of the teacher and school in human development. Education and upbringing are the leading factors in shaping the relationship between freedom and coercion. As Małgorzata Kamin´ska writes, recalling Sergiusz Hessen’s considerations: “the ability of positive freedom, which can be born as a result of the transformation of external coercion into a sense of duty, obligation. Transformation is based on acquired knowledge, ethical considerations, well-established subjectivity, and the ability to assess human behavior and attitudes critically. However, is the complete “removal of coercion” possible in man’s pursuit of freedom, autonomy, and independence? You may ask further, is it beneficial to man? Is there unlimited freedom, and is a man able to exist in a situation of limitless freedom?39”.

So does the new teacher at the Dead Poets Society bring freedom or take it away? Are the youth in the film On the Edge free only when they lock their parents and teachers in school? Were they free at the Recraation Center, neglected by her parents who were too busy to care? That are very practical, visible, almost touchable images of theoretical problems that must be discussed. The characters’ experiences in the films that I choose – because they show the game between freedom and enslavement – allow students to see the dynamics and ambiguity of these concepts. Aroused emotions allow to initiate exciting discussions.

Bibliography Azmi M., Learning History through Historical Movies: Bringing Living History into Classroom, “Proceedings of the International Conference on Teacher Training and Education 2017 (ICTTE 2017)”, 2017, pp. 261–567. Blasco P., Blasco M., Levites M., Moreto G., Tysinger J., Educating through Movies: How Hollywood Fosters Reflection, “Creative Education”, 2, 2011, pp. 174–180. Braslavsky C., Borges C., Simão M. S., Truong N., Historical Competence as a Key to Promote Democracy, [in:] School Knowledge in Comparative and Historical Perspective Changing Curricula in Primary and Secondary Education, (eds.) A. Benavot, C. Braslavsky, Springer, Dordrech 2007. youth during pedagogy classes in teaching specialties], “Kultura-Społeczen´stwo-Edukacja”, 10 (2), 2016, pp. 315–327. 39 M. Kamin´ska, Oblicza wolnos´ci edukacyjnej w perspektywie zmian os´wiatowych i społecznych. Mie˛dzy samowola˛ a zniewoleniem [Faces of educational freedom from the perspective of educational and social changes. Between self-will and enslavement], “Pedagogika Społeczna Nova”, 2(4), 2022, pp. 99–111.

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Farhi A., Hollywood Goes to School: Recognizing the Superteacher Myth in Film, “The Clearing House”, 72(3), 1999, pp. 157–159. Gezer E.T., The influence of education-themed movies on pre-service teachers’ perception of effective teacher attitudes and personal-professional attributes, Middle East Technical University, Ankara 2020. Hessen S., Podstawy pedagogiki [Basics of pedagogy], Z˙ak, Warszawa 1997. http:// www.imdb.com/title/tt0079688/trivia, accessed: 25. 05. 2023. Jagodzin´ska M., Psychologia pamie˛ci. Badania, teorie, zastosowania [The psychology of memory. Research, theories, applications], Sensus, Gliwice 2008. Jaskulska S., Ta szkoła symbolicznie rozstrzelała sie˛ sama… Filmy Słon´, Carrie, Nad krawe˛dzia˛ w dyskusji o problemach współczesnej szkoły i młodziez˙y podczas zaje˛c´ z pedagogiki na specjalnos´ciach nauczycielskich [This school symbolically shot itself to death… Films Elephant, Carrie, Over the Edge in a discussion about the problems of contemporary school and youth during pedagogy classes in teaching specialties], “KulturaSpołeczen´stwo-Edukacja”, 10(2), 2016, pp. 315–327. Jones K., Corridors of powerlessness: Elephant. “Film Comment”, 9/10, 2003, pp. 32–38. Kamin´ska M., Oblicza wolnos´ci edukacyjnej w perspektywie zmian os´wiatowych i społecznych. Mie˛dzy samowola˛ a zniewoleniem [Faces of educational freedom from the perspective of educational and social changes. Between self-will and enslavement], “Pedagogika Społeczna Nova”, 2(4), 2022, pp. 99–111. Kaçkaya A., Ünlü I., Akar M. S., Özturan Sagirli M., The effect of school and teacher themed movies on pre-service teachers’ professional attitudes and perceived self-efficacy, “Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice” 11(4), 2011, pp. 1778–1783. King S., Carrie, New American Library, New York 1974. Marquis E., Wojcik C., Lin E., McKinnon V., Meaningful Teaching Tool and/or ‘Cool Factor’? Instructors’ Perceptions of Using Film and Video within Teaching and Learning, “Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning”, 20(1), 2020, pp. 130–150. Me˛czkowska-Christiansen A., Edukacja dla demokracji jako demokracja w edukacji: wokół podstawowych poje˛c´ [Education for democracy as democracy in education: around basic concepts], [in:] Demokracja i edukacja: dylematy, diagnozy, dos´wiadczenia, (eds.) K. Gawlicz, P. Rudnicki, M. Starnawski, T. Tokarz, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Dolnos´la˛skiej Szkoły Wyz˙szej, Wrocław 20014. Moskovich Y., Sharfb S., Using Films as a Tool for Active Learning in Teaching Sociology, “The Journal of Effective Teaching”, 12(1), 2012, pp. 53–63. Rich J.A., Shock corridors: the new rhetoric of horror in Gus Van Sant’s Elephant, “The Journal of Popular Culture”, 45(6), 2012, pp. 1310–1329. Rorrer A. S., Furr S., Using film as a multicultural awareness tool in teacher education, “Multicultural Perspectives” 11(3), 2009, pp. 162–168. Russell W.B., The art of teaching social studies with film, “The Clearing House”, 85, 2012, pp. 157–164. Smithikrai Ch., Effectiveness of Teaching with Movies to Promote Positive Characteristics and Behaviors, “Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences”, 217, 2016, pp. 522–530. Wasilewska K., Koncepcja wychowania w ´swietle teorii Erika Eriksona [The concept of education in the light of Erik Erikson’s theory], “Kultura i Edukacja”, 3, 2004, pp. 89–94. Wojniak J., Komparatystyka edukacyjna w perspektywie filozoficznej: Sergiusz Hessen (1887–1950) i jego podejs´cie do badan´ porównawczych w pedagogice [Educational

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comparative studies from a philosophical perspective: Sergiusz Hessen (1887–1950) and his approach to comparative research in pedagogy]. “Acta Universitatis Nicolai Copernici Pedagogika”, 42(2), pp. 37–62. Wonderly M., Children’s film as an instrument of moral education, “Journal of Moral Education”, 38(1), 2009, pp. 1–15. teacher attitudes and personal-professional attributes. Middle East Technical University. Zabłocka K., Two Cinematic Portrayals of Teachers: John Keating in Dead Poets Society and Terence Fletcher in Whiplash, “New Horizons in English Studies”, 1, 2017, pp. 87–97. teacher attitudes and personal-professional attributes. Middle East Technical University.

Filmography De Palma B., Carrie, USA 1976. Kaplan J., On the Edge, USA 1979. Morgen B., Kurt Cobain: Montage of Heck, USA 2015. Van Sant G., Elephant, USA 2003.

Part 2: The road to safe freedom in the working environment – engineers’ musings

Małgorzata Wyganowska1

Co-teaching as a new training method in occupational health and safety

Introduction According to K. Neuman, “Safety is not everything, but without safety everything is nothing”2 How aptly this sentence captures the idea of safety in the working environment. Safety, nowadays presented inseparably with occupational hygiene, is becoming an important element in the management of most Polish enterprises, and a high culture of occupational safety is already becoming a standard of effectively managed enterprises. Occupational safety symbolises actions and measures that serve to prevent injuries and accidents at work. Occupational hygiene, on the other hand, includes actions and measures that serve to prevent occupational diseases. A fundamental issue in the field of occupational health and safety is the behaviour of workers, with the emphasis on the most unpredictable resource of any enterprise-a demographic. As statistics show, nearly half of all occupational accidents are due to the incorrect behaviour of workers and their incorrect attitude in the working environment. As early as the 1930s, H.W. Heinrich (1941) drew attention to workers’ attitudes in the context of occupational health and safety, and research by the National Safety Council at the time showed that 88% of accidents depended on workers’ behaviour. Of course, the technical condition of equipment and the working environment are also important, but the decisive factor in accident rates is the frequency with which workers engage in unsafe behaviour, either as a result of their attitude to risk or their intrinsic motivation to do so. Workers’ ignorance – lack of training – is often at fault. There are many definitions of the causes of work-related accidents. There is a noticeable evolution in the theory of the causality of accidents at work and related 1 Faculty of Mining, Safety Engineering and Industrial Automation of the Silesian University of Technology, [email protected], ORCID: 0000-0002-2704-3188. 2 Neuman K., Die Bundeswehr in einer Welt im Umbrach, Berlin 1994.

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OSH prevention, from accidents being seen as ‘accidental events or the result of an unforeseeable force majeure’ to the ‘accident model’ as ‘the consequence of mistakes made due to a deficit in workers’ motivation, knowledge and experience’. This approach to the causality of accidents in the workplace prompts OSH prevention to address, in addition to the technical sphere, the sphere of management and, above all, the subject of proper employee training. The awareness of employers in this area is growing. Employers are now seeing OSH training as a key factor in reducing or even eliminating accidents at work or occupational illnesses. But it is not only this awareness that influences employers to take action on training. Training is part of each employee’s self-development.3 It increases his or her competence and self-esteem. It also promotes better use of the employee’s capabilities. It is therefore worth looking for new methods to effectively train employees. This can result in an increase in the effectiveness of training, and consequently an improvement in the elements described above.

Occupational health and safety training-basic information It is impossible to manage work safely without the attitudes and competence of workers. We can shape attitudes directly at work by setting an example, by informing workers about the importance of OSH. We can also use OSH training for this purpose, which also improves workers’ competence. The effectiveness of training depends on the content, methods and techniques of training, as well as on the instructor, his or her qualifications or skills in imparting knowledge. The employer’s obligations with regard to health and safety training of employees are set out in the Polish Labour Code, precisely its Section X. Every employer is obliged to ensure that an employee is trained in occupational health and safety before being allowed to work and to conduct periodic training in this field. Training of an employee prior to his/her admission to work is not required if he/she takes up the same job position that he/she held with the employer immediately prior to entering into another employment contract with that employer. The Labour Code also imposes an obligation on the employer to, inter alia, provide employees with safe and hygienic working conditions and to conduct systematic training of employees in occupational health and safety.4 An employer may not allow an employee to work if he or she does not have sufficient knowledge of health and safety rules. The obligation applies not only to 3 Wyganowska M., Tobór-Osadnik K., Rola demotywatorów w bezpiecznej pracy. Przegla˛d Górniczy, vol. 73/9, 2017, p. 11–18. 4 Ustawa z dnia z dnia 26 czerwca 1974 r. Kodeks pracy (Dz. U. z 2019 r. poz. 1040, 1043, 1495).

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initial training, but also to periodic training. The employer is also obliged to give detailed instructions and guidance on OSH, general and job-related. According to the law, the employee must confirm in writing that he or she is familiar with the health and safety regulations and must strictly comply with them.5 An effective training process is one that benefits all those involved. It is a consequence of good preparation of the lecturers, which gives the possibility to meet the requirements of the trainees and also to increase the knowledge and competences of the trainees in the area covered by the training. It should be noted that there is no single effective teaching method in the field of H&S and it is worthwhile all the time to search for new training methods in order to increase their effectiveness, through new effective teaching methods, forms and techniques together with didactic means. Increasingly, it is only by combining elements from different methods of the teaching process that an effective educational dialogue between the partners can take place. Training is “the totality of purposeful and systematic activities occurring in an organisation directed towards deepening and broadening certain elements of its human resources and equipping them with new elements necessary for the present and future needs of that organisation”.6 It is, in principle, a planned process of changing an employee’s attitude, knowledge or skills by learning and achieving the right results in one or more tasks. It is an increase in the value of a company’s most important resource, the employees it employs, often determining a company’s competitive advantage in the market. It is capital that cannot be easily and quickly copied. Unfortunately, according to Eurostat, in Poland only 4.7% of people aged 25–64 are covered by any form of training and further training. Meanwhile, according to a study by the Polish Agency for Enterprise Development, as many as 91% of the entrepreneurs surveyed said that the benefits obtained from training exceeded the costs incurred, 78% of those surveyed noticed an increase in the effectiveness of their employees and 63% an increase in their commitment.7 Advantages of the employee training process include: a. an improvement in the performance of both the individual (employee) and the company as a whole, achieved to a greater or lesser extent, depending on the effectiveness of the process; b. reduction of wastage of materials, equipment, resources; c. a reduction in complaints, production of run-outs;

5 https://kadry.infor.pl/bhp/szkolenia-bhp/312981,Okresowe-szkolenie-BHP-dla-pracownik ow.html. 6 Pocztowski A., Zarza˛dzanie zasobami ludzkimi, PWE, Warszawa 2007, p. 277. 7 Personel i zarza˛dzanie vol. 4/241/2010, p. 23.

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d. attracting high-calibre professionals with a good offer of personal development; e. increasing the competence flexibility of employees; f. easier introduction of changes – an employee aware of their opportunities and threats reacts differently to the change proposals made to him. The training process should take a systematic and planned form, and the choice of method and venue should depend on the content of the training and the specifics of its target audience (participants). The following method of training can be identified: – passive and active (due to the mode of learning), – individual and group (by the number of participants), – information and demonstration, simulation and action training (in terms of the way and mode of knowledge transfer). Training can also be categorised by location: – on-the-job training. Training methods are: instruction, coaching, mentoring, job rotation; – training outside the workplace, but in the workplace. Training methods: lecture, discussion, case study, role play, games and simulations, interactive video, slideshow, instructional videos, – off-the-job training – in specialised training centres offering a wide often interdisciplinary range of training within the business. This training is often organised in training and leisure centres located in attractive tourist destinations. Training methods are similar to those used outside the workplace. In all types of training, co-teaching can also be used as a modern training method that increases its effectiveness and the interaction between trainees and trainers. A training method is an activity designed to supplement employees’ knowledge necessary for them to properly perform the tasks of their current job and to create opportunities to further develop their knowledge, skills and competences with a view to promotion or organisational change. The following basic training methods can be distinguished8: – assigned reading – this method involves an individual employee or a group of employees studying a specific educational text, the reading may or may not have been prepared specifically for training purposes; – instruction – this involves employees being introduced to specific tasks (demonstration, imitation);

8 Griffin R.W., Podstawy zarza˛dzania organizacjami, PWN, Warszawa 2002, p. 436–439.

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– coaching – coaching an employee “one on one” based on the trainer’s own experience; – mentoring – a person with knowledge, experience and authority acts as an advisor and guide for the mentee for a period of time. The mentor does not train continuously, but over a wider period of time, even throughout the career of the trainee in question; – Behaviour modelling training – the use of a videotaped model showing correct behaviour and then role-playing by the trainees and discussing the correct behaviour; – lectures and exercises – oral presentation of material by the trainer with limited or no audience participation; these cover a wide range of knowledge and are organised for employees at all levels; – conferences – a small group discussion on selected topics, usually stimulated by the trainer; it is usually carried out for managers and specialist groups. During conferences, company employees present papers on their work, ideas; sometimes people from outside the company, e. g. consultants, scientists, are invited to conferences. Participation in such a conference allows knowledge to be expanded not only in the chosen field, but also enables employees of large companies to make contact with other units. Of course, conferences also take place outside the company and do not have to be organised by the company. Professionals are sometimes sent to scientific conferences, which – in addition to their content-related goals; serve the purpose of integrating the participants of a given environment; – rotation of positions and tasks between employees. This form allows employees to get to know their company, its different areas, to become more connected to it, to identify with it. Rotation is used at all levels of management; – case discussions – discussion in small groups about real or fictional cases or events; drawing common conclusions, analysing mistakes and irregularities, but also positive behaviour and successes; – psychological games and training – this method develops interpersonal behaviour skills, human skills and personality. It is important that these games are carefully selected to meet the individual needs of the employee. They can be computer games or simulations oriented towards the development of specific skills, psychological games, psychosocial games, role play, sensitivity training. These types of development methods are practically only found in management courses; – games and simulations – this method develops mainly practical skills. Despite its playful form, it generally produces better results than tedious and quiet lectures. There are many types of games that allow participants to learn about a new reality, to play with it. The probability of situations that are used in games and simulations occurring at work is very high. Therefore, the course

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leader tries to sensitise participants to regularities, interests of different parties and winning strategies; – sensitivity training – also known as T-group technique or laboratory training; this is an intensive small-group exercise in which individual participants evaluate each other and try out new behaviour. It is designed to foster trust, open communication and an understanding of group dynamics; – interactive video – a new training technique that uses computers and a video show; – enactment – (role play) – trainees play roles, e. g. a boss evaluating performance or a subordinate reacting to an evaluation in order to gain experience in interpersonal relationships. Training in occupational health and safety plays an important role both in the process of professional preparation and in the later stages of professional work.9 Training is a procedure that aims to achieve specific objectives. When planning training, we need to determine not only what will be covered, but also what we want to teach and how we will check that participants have learned it.10 Properly implemented training benefits both employees and employers. People who have the right level of knowledge about the hazards in their workplace are less likely to develop occupational illnesses or have accidents. On the other hand, employers with fewer such incidents can expect fewer losses, whether in terms of absenteeism, continuity of production or investigating the causes and circumstances of accidents. Ensuring safety in the workplace also reduces accident insurance expenses in the long term.11 The basic prerequisite for the proper implementation of training is its professional preparation, which makes it possible to eliminate shortcomings, errors and deficiencies. It gives certainty of achieving the required and set goals. The learning process should be based on a systematic learning cycle.

9 Ustawa z dnia z dnia 26 czerwca 1974 r. Kodeks pracy (Dz. U. z 2019 r. poz. 1040, 1043, 1495). 10 https://arslege.pl/cel-szkolenia/k1208/a75802/. 11 http://bezpieczniwpracy.pl/szkolenia-bhp-a-wiedza-pracownikow/.

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PLANNING preparing the training

IMPROVEMENT drawing conclusions for the future

EXECUTION implementa#on of training

EVALUATION checking the results

Figure 1: Training process concept based on the Deming cycle [based on12]

Health and safety training is the only mandatory training that an employer must provide to its employees. This follows from the law. In detail, the issue of training is standardised in the Regulation of the Minister of Economy and Labour of 27 July 2004 on OSH training. This regulation specifies: 1) detailed rules of training in the field of occupational health and safety, hereinafter referred to as training; 2) the scope of training; 3) requirements concerning the content and implementation of the training programme; 4) the manner of documenting training; 5) cases in which employers or employees may be exempted from certain types of training.13 OSH training is divided into: – initial training, – periodic training, which may be conducted in the form of instruction, course, seminar or guided self-study.

12 Kowal E., Gabrylewicz I., Jakos´c´ i efektywnos´c´ szkolen´ bhp, Innowacje w zarza˛dzaniu i inz˙ynierii produkcji, 2014. 13 Rozporza˛dzenie Ministra Gospodarki i Pracy z dnia 27 lipca 2004 r w sprawie szkolenia w dziedzinie bezpieczen´stwa i higieny pracy (Dz. U nr 180, poz. 1860 ze zm.).

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– Initial training is carried out in the form of instruction according to programmes developed for each job and includes: – general instruction, i. e. initial general training, – job-specific instruction, i. e. initial training at the workplace. Initial training is given to: – newly hired employees, – students on work experience placements, – vocational school students employed for practical vocational training.14 Instruction is a form of training with a duration of not less than 2 lesson hours, enabling the participants to acquire, update or supplement their knowledge and skills concerning the execution of work and behaviour at work in a manner compliant with the regulations and principles of occupational safety and health. General instruction – should ensure that the trainees are familiar with the basic health and safety regulations contained in the Labour Code, collective agreements or work regulations, with the health and safety regulations and rules in force in the given workplace, as well as with the principles of first aid in the event of an accident. General instruction is given by an employee of the occupational health and safety service or a person who performs the tasks of this service for the employer or an employee appointed by the employer and possessing knowledge and skills which ensure that the instruction programme is carried out in an appropriate manner. Position briefing – should ensure that the trainees are familiar with the work environment factors present at their workstations and the occupational risks associated with their work, the ways of protecting themselves against the dangers that these factors may cause, and the methods of performing work safely at these workstations. It is intended for: – workers newly recruited to blue-collar and other positions where there is exposure to harmful to health, arduous or hazardous factors, – workers transferred to such positions and in the event of a change in technical and organisational conditions, – trainee students and apprentices. Standing instruction shall be carried out by the person in charge of the employees designated by the employer or by the employer himself.15

14 Ibidem. 15 Ibidem.

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At the end of the general and position instruction, a test of the knowledge and skills of the trained employees is carried out, which is the basis for allowing the employee to perform the work in the specified position. Periodic training is intended to update and consolidate knowledge and skills in the field of occupational safety and health and to familiarise trainees with new technical and organisational solutions in this field.16 Training is also an important element of building a safety culture in the workplace. The need for it arises both from the requirements of the legislation in force and from efficient occupational health and safety management. Health and safety training has several objectives, but among the most important are the acquisition of skills related to the safe performance of work duties, familiarisation with health and safety regulations and rules, and orientation on factors of the working environment. The formulation of the general objective of training is to specify the range of knowledge that an employee should acquire after completing a specific training course and to what extent he or she should be able to apply this knowledge in practice. The objective of the training is to: 1) to familiarise themselves with the factors in the working environment that may cause risks to the safety and health of workers at work and with the appropriate preventive measures and actions; 2) to learn the regulations and principles of occupational safety and health to the extent necessary to perform work in the workplace and in a specific work position, as well as work-related duties and responsibilities in the field of occupational safety and health; 3) to acquire the ability to perform work in a safe manner for themselves and others, to deal with emergency situations and to provide assistance to a person who has suffered an accident. Attitudes to safety are positively influenced by the involvement of the employees themselves in safety training at the workplace.17 In the modern training model, the role of unforced activity of trainees is emphasised above all. Activity has a primarily instrumental function in training. In this function, it firstly enriches the content of the training through the practical wisdom of the trainees, and stimulates the trainers to enrich the information and arguments provided and to present them more clearly, then it is a factor that significantly increases the effectiveness of the training – the employees assimilate 16 https://www.prawo.pl/kadry/szkolenie-okresowe-sluzy-ugruntowaniu-wiedzy-z-zakresu-bh p,188421.html. 17 https://arslege.pl/cel-szkolenia/k1208/a75802/.

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more fully and quickly the information and skills being practised. Secondly, the active participation of employees in training has a motivational function, i. e. it triggers in them and strengthens their will to put into practice the information they have learnt. Effective and professional occupational safety training is about ensuring that the trainee acquires as much knowledge as possible about occupational safety in the shortest possible time. The training venue, suitable training room conditions, effective training methods, appropriate teaching aids and qualified trainers are all elements that contribute significantly to effective and good training.

Co-teaching – an effective training method in occupational safety and health The training process should provide opportunities for trainees to interact, gain experience and build the knowledge themselves. This process should not only be based on the individual activity of the learner, but also on the support of the trainer-lecturers and other trainees. Co-learning and group work are also important. The main idea of co-teaching is contained in the phrase: “one mind in two bodies”.18 Co-teaching involves two people working together to deliver training. It can take the form of a trainer being mentored individually by a more experienced colleague. Two trainers cooperating in the implementation of the training programme and their active coaching have the opportunity to discuss many didactically important questions, to reflect together on the difficulties in the implementation, their meaning and source, and to work out alternative solutions.Co-teaching is peer counselling, subjecting what happened in class to a reflective discussion. In practice, it can also be applied to such training courses that require an interdisciplinary approach to the topics and problems addressed. The importance of co-teaching for the development of both trainers, who have the chance to learn from each other, but also to co-create classes and view them from different perspectives, cannot be overestimated.19 According to the author,

18 Konecki K., Konecki K.T., Teoretyzowanie w socjologii – czyli o odkrywaniu i konstruowaniu teorii na podstawie analizy danych empirycznych. Wprowadzenie do: Odkrywanie Teorii Ugruntowanej.Strategie badania jakos´ciowego, Kraków: Nomos, 2009. Konecki K., Konecki K. T., Strauss A., Pragmatyczne korzenie, pragmatyczne konsekwencje. Przegla˛d Socjologii Jakos´ciowej, t. 11, vol. 1, 2015, pp. 12–39. 19 Sajdak A., Paradygmaty kształcenia studentów i wspierania rozwoju nauczycieli akademickich. Teoretyczne podstawy dydaktyki akademickiej. Kraków: Impuls, 2013. Sajdak-

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TRAINER

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TRAINEE

Figure 2: Co-teaching relation between trainer and trainee [own study]

this idea can also be implemented to the co-teaching relationship in the implementation of health and safety training. In this case, the co-teaching method involves activities/collaboration created between trainer-trainee, trainer-trainee and also trainee-trainee. During the course of the training, the trainees (in coteaching) can co-lead the other group, based on their work experience, sharing their experiences, including the activities they undertake at their workplaces. Such training is aimed at disseminating the knowledge necessary to do the job properly. Trainers and trainees form a community of learners, supporting each other in the difficult process of acquiring knowledge through individual and social construction of meaning. In this way, trainees can have the opportunity to act independently, ask questions, actively seek answers and work creatively. To confirm the above considerations and the thesis, the graphs below will present, in parts, the results of the 2022 survey conducted by the author. They used one of the qualitative research methods – grounded theory – using expert purposive selection and face-to-face interviewing. This method is based on the assumption that social reality is best understood by the actors involved. The survey was conducted in May 2022, among Project Based Learning (PBL) project supervisors from the Faculty of Mining, Safety Engineering and Industrial Automation. As many as 93% of tutors stated during face-to-face interviews that they gain knowledge from students during projects, especially when students from different faculties or fields of study are involved. Similar relationships to those between tutor and student occur between trainer and trainee. Burska A., Paradygmat humanistyczny w dydaktyce akademickiej – utopia, koniecznos´´c, szansa? Pedagogika Szkoły Wyz˙szej, 2/2017 {22} ISSN: 2083–4381, p.13–26.

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TAK

NIE

Figure 3: Do PBL supervisors gain knowledge from student-participants during project implementation?

TAK

NIE

Figure 4: Is it possible to conclude that co-teaching is taking place between the participants during the PBL project?

In the next question, the answers again confirmed the thesis made at the beginning of the discussion that co-teaching, i. e. co-learning, occurs between participants during the implementation of PBL projects. Such a relationship can be implemented in the training process, which may confirm the validity of the thesis made in this publication about the use of co-teaching in OSH training in the relationship occurring between trainer and trainee.

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Summary and conclusions The article shows that co-teaching should be implemented in the practice of training services as a new training method applicable to occupational safety and health. Such an activity has a good chance of increasing the effectiveness of training because of its specificity and the participation of people who already have a basic knowledge of OSH, but who also usually have a lot of professional experience that they can share with the trainers during training as trainees. This is also confirmed by the results of surveys of research project implementers and their supervisors, where a clear co-learning relationship was demonstrated..

References Griffin R.W., Podstawy zarza˛dzania organizacjami, PWN, Warszawa 2002, pp. 436–439. Konecki K., Konecki K.T., Teoretyzowanie w socjologii – czyli o odkrywaniu i konstruowaniu teorii na podstawie analizy danych empirycznych. Wprowadzenie do: Odkrywanie Teorii Ugruntowanej.Strategie badania jakos´ciowego, Kraków: Nomos, 2009. Konecki K., Konecki K. T., Strauss A., Pragmatyczne korzenie, pragmatyczne konsekwencje. Przegla˛d Socjologii Jakos´ciowej, t. 11, vol. 1, 2015, pp. 12–39. Kowal E., Gabrylewicz I., Jakos´c´ i efektywnos´c´ szkolen´ bhp, Innowacje w zarza˛dzaniu i inz˙ynierii produkcji, 2014. Mills J., Redman-MacLaren M., Transformational Grounded Theory: Theory, Voice, And Action, International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 14(3) 2015, pp. 1–12. Neuman K., Die Bundeswehr in einer Welt im Umbrach, Berlin 1994. Personel i zarza˛dzanie vol. 4/241/2010, p. 23. Pocztowski A., Zarza˛dzanie zasobami ludzkimi, PWE, Warszawa 2007, p. 277. Sajdak A., Paradygmaty kształcenia studentów i wspierania rozwoju nauczycieli akademickich. Teoretyczne podstawy dydaktyki akademickiej. Kraków: Impuls, 2013. Sajdak-Burska A., Paradygmat humanistyczny w dydaktyce akademickiej – utopia, koniecznos´c´, szansa? Pedagogika Szkoły Wyz˙szej, 2/2017 {22} ISSN: 2083–4381, p.13–26. Ustawa z dnia z dnia 26 czerwca 1974 r. Kodeks pracy (Dz. U. z 2019 r. poz. 1040, 1043, 1495). Wyganowska M., Implementation of co-teaching in Project Based Learning at a technical University, Pituła B., Kowalski M. (red.): Co-teaching – everyday life or Terra Incognita of contemporary education?, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht unipress, 2022, p. 296, ISBN 9783-8471-1500-7. Wyganowska M., Tobór-Osadnik K., Rola demotywatorów w bezpiecznej pracy. Przegla˛d Górniczy, vol. 73/9, 2017, p. 11–18. Rozporza˛dzenie Ministra Gospodarki i Pracy z dnia 27 lipca 2004 r w sprawie szkolenia w dziedzinie bezpieczen´stwa i higieny pracy (Dz. U nr 180, poz. 1860 ze zm.). Ustawa z dnia z dnia 26 czerwca 1974 r. Kodeks pracy (Dz. U. z 2019 r. poz. 1040, 1043, 1495). https://arslege.pl/cel-szkolenia/k1208/a75802/. http://bezpieczniwpracy.pl/szkolenia-bhp-a-wiedza-pracownikow/.

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https://kadry.infor.pl/bhp/szkolenia-bhp/312981,Okresowe-szkolenie-BHP-dla-pracowni kow.html. https://www.prawo.pl/kadry/szkolenie-okresowe-sluzy-ugruntowaniu-wiedzy-z-zakresubhp,188421.html.

Katarzyna Tobór-Osadnik1 / Anna Bluszcz2

Error culture vs. Safety culture

Safety culture The concept of safety culture was first used by a group of advisers to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in relation to the Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident in 19863. Safety culture can be viewed in multiple ways4. Some emphasise observable indicators of safety culture in their definitions, while others focus more on identifying the underlying assumptions of safety culture that constitute the attitudes of an organisation’s members that lead to safe and effective operations. Seen as part of an organisation’s culture, safety culture is thus reflected in the rules, values, attitudes and behaviours of its employees. Based on E.Schein’s ‘iceberg’ model of organisational culture5, Thomas S. Krause developed the safety culture model (Fig.1.)6. The first group, the most visible, is made up of artefacts, manifested in standing signs, graphic symbols, OSH equipment, training system, etc. The more difficult to measure and perceive group characterising safety culture are the professed values in the organisation (safety mission and objectives, reward system, individual characteristics and attitudes of employees). The most difficult to measure part of culture in an organisation is always the underlying assumptions

1 Faculty of Mining, Safety Engineering and Industrial Automation of the Silesian University of Technology, [email protected], ORCID: 0000-0003-4568-3485. 2 Faculty of Mining, Safety Engineering and Industrial Automation of the Silesian University of Technology, [email protected], ORCID: 0000-0001-9724-5706. 3 Wilpert B., & Fahlbruch B., Safety culture: Analysis and inter- vention. [in:] C. Spitzer, U. Schmocker, & V.N. Dang (Eds.), Probabilistic safety assessment and management. Springer, Vol. 2, London 2004, pp. 843–849. 4 Schneider B., Ehrhart M. G., & Macey W. H., Organizational climate and culture. Sage Publications, Inc., 2016. 5 Schein E.H., Organizational culture and leadership, (Vol. 2). John Wiley & Sons, 2010. 6 Krause T.R., The behavior-based safety proces, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York 1997, pp. 29–54.

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that form the superstructure of the visible and more easily measurable signs and characteristics of the culture under study7, including safety culture. The maturity of a safety culture8 can be understood as the level to which it contributes to the achievement and maintenance of certain assumptions, values, attitudes and awareness of processes that improve safety. Artefacts: personal protec#ve equipment ; procedures; posters, safety signs ; safety lines painted on the floor; organisa#on of worksta#ons; health and safety mee#ngs Values: exposed principles of social life, philosophy and company objec#ves; mission; responsibility for safety; reward and punishment.

Assump"ons: beliefs about the nature of reality; what is safety, how do we know something is safe, who decides what is safe in case of conflict; proper#es of human nature, what people are really like; what is the nature of reality. Figure 1: The safety culture model according to T.S. Krause9

Figure 2: Maturity of safety culture – the Bradley model10 7 Warrick D.D., What leaders need to know about organizational culture. “Business Horizons”, vol. 60, 3, 2017, pp. 395–404, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2017.01.011. 8 Goncalves Filho A.P., Waterson P., Maturity models and safety culture: A critical review. “Safety science”, 105, 2018, pp. 192–211, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2018.02.017. 9 Own study based on: Krause T.R., op. cit. 10 Behari, N., op. cit.

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Error culture vs. Safety culture

One of the first models to assess the maturity of safety culture in general is the Bradley model11, developed in collaboration with DuPont. In the model, the state of the safety culture is reflected by a so-called Bradley curve using accident rates12. This model distinguishes four levels of safety culture maturity: – Natural instincts – in this phase, employees’ behaviour is driven by natural instincts. This means that employees first have to suffer serious consequences in order to act differently in a similar situation in the future. – upervisory – everyone knows the rules of occupational health and safety (OSH) and knows that it is important to follow them. Procedures, training are emerging. – Awareness – workers themselves report the lack of adequate procedures to safeguard their lives, request them or refuse to work when nothing changes. – Team – each employee is aware of why they are working safely and in the process helping others to work safely. individual behaviour

organisa#onal behaviour Coopera#on

DNA of an organisa#on

Involvement Compa#bility

experience Regula#ons

strengthening Levels of maturity

Figure 3: Maturity of safety culture – NSF International model

11 Behari N., Assessing process safety culture maturity for specialty gas operations: A case study. “Process Safety and Environmental Protection”, 123, 2019, pp. 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016 /j.psep.2018.12.012. 12 Siuta D., Kukfisz B., Kuczyn´ska A., & Mitkowski P. T., Methodology for the determination of a process safety culture index and safety culture maturity level in industries. “International journal of environmental research and public health”, 19(5), 2022, 2668.

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Another option for assessing the maturity of a safety culture could be the proposal identified by NSF International13. It distinguishes five main levels, which are identified with the so-called generational, generational maturity of an organisation, in terms of understanding the importance of safety. The NSF scale starts from only the minimum legal requirements of OSH to deeply embedded in the awareness and behaviour of occupational safety personnel.

Error culture The phenomena of error and blundering are very common in everyday life and ubiquitous in human culture since the dawn of time. The first checks on the quality of food, clothing and shelter were made by “trial and error”, allowing experience and knowledge to be gained in the selection of goods with which Homo sapiens slowly surrounded himself. The term ‘error’ can be variously defined1415 as, for example, ‘a departure from correctness’. According to the Cambridge Dictionary, it is “something done or written by accident that is incorrect, inaccurate or does not produce the correct result”16. In addition to mistakes made by accident, a distinction can be made between mistakes that people make on purpose. Often defending himself against the consequences of other acts. T. Kotarbinski, in his work entitled Efficiency and Error, draws attention to errorlessness when he writes: “Errorlessness is understood as the absence of misrepresentations as well as omissions”17. The same classicist recognises that in human practice erroneous behaviour can be divided into nine groups: 1. substitutes for action, 2. automatisms of implementation 3. losing 4. forgetting to do something, 5. being late in doing something, 13 Baur P., Getz C., Sowerwine J., Contradictions, consequences and the human toll of food safety culture. “Agric Hum Values”, 34, 2017, pp. 713–728, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460–017– 9772–1. 14 Richards J.C., Error analysis: Perspectives on second language acquisition. Routledge 2019, ebook, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315836003. 15 Wis´niewska M.Z., Błe˛dy ludzkie i just culture (Human Errors and a Just Culture Approach), “Problemy Jakos´ci”, 10, 2019, pp. 9–14, doi 10.15199/46.2019.10.2. 16 Cambridge Dictionary, https://dictionary.cambridge.org/pl/dictionary/english/error, [22. 05. 2023]. 17 Kotarbin´ski T., Sprawnos´c´ i bła˛d (Efficiency and Error), Pan´stwowe Zakłady Wydawnictw Szkolnych, Warszawa1960.

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unsuccessful search, neglecting to intervene impulsive, hectic reactions, practical errors based on logical fallacies.

The susceptibility to making mistakes is well explained by the so-called ‘Swiss cheese’ model (Fig 4.)18. The model was developed by the British scientist J. Reason, a professor of psychology and renowned air crash researcher. J. Reason considered that a change in behaviour considered to be dangerous, abnormal, results from systemic changes and added that when a system fails, one should immediately ask: why did it fail, not – who contributed to it?

Figure 4: The Swiss cheese model19

– – – –

In doing so, J. Reason proposed the following classification of errors20: human error – despite a planned sequence of actions, the intended effect is not achieved, latent error – wrong decisions by senior management, active error – actions of people directly involved in the process, violation – error resulting from intentional failure to follow established rules and procedures.

Using this model, a distinction can be made between intentional errors (fully conscious, deliberate and with a specific purpose) and unintentional errors (performed unintentionally, reflexively, under the influence of the moment). Within the group of unintentional actions, two subgroups can be distinguished: mistakes and factual errors. Mistakes are errors that are not due to a lack of knowledge or experience, but to the fallibility of human memory, resistance to 18 Larouzee J., and Le Coze J.C., Good and bad reasons: The Swiss cheese model and its critics, “Safety science”, 126, 2020, 104660, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2020.104660. 19 Reason J., Achieving a safe culture: theory and practice, “Work & Stress”, 12, 3, 1998, 768–770. 20 Olson J.A., Raz A., Applying insights from magic to improve deception in research: The Swiss cheese model. “Journal of Experimental Social Psychology”, 92, 2021, 104053, https://doi.org /10.1016/j.jesp.2020.104053.

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stress or fatigue. Factual errors are the result of a misunderstanding of facts or situations and are due to a lack of knowledge21. F. Arnstein also distinguishes between hidden errors22. These are unidentified systemic faults that only become apparent under certain circumstances. They are failures due to lack of ergonomics at work, lack of training, lack of qualifications, lack of knowledge, incorrect rules adopted in the organisation, imperfect records, lack of sufficient assistance or supervision, haste, social and cultural factors. Hidden errors can be expressed by the so-called iceberg (Fig. 5). They are generally not identified, with the result that they contribute to the highest costs.

Figure 5: Ice-berg errors based on F. Arnstein

In addition to identifying the type of error, it is important to carry out a risk analysis, the role of which is to counteract errors and the events that may occur as a result. One well-known method is the FMEA method – Failure Modes and Effects Analysis23. It is preventive in nature and analyses the entire process or activity and assesses the level of error occurrence and its effects. This method also has the task of identifying specific preventive and corrective actions. The approach to errors within an organisation is primarily driven by the level of the organisation’s culture and, more specifically, its safety culture. The more the organisation’s culture is oriented towards a learning organisation24, the more constructive it is towards mistakes made by its members. A mistake is

21 Kuchta K., Tylek I., Rawska-Skotniczy A., Przyczyny i metody zapobiegania błe˛dom ludzkim w inz˙ynierskiej działalnos´ci budowlanej, Cze˛´sc´ I: Klasyfikacja i z´ródła błe˛dów. “Przegla˛d Budowlany”, 5, 2017, 17–23. 22 Arezes P.M.F.M., & de Carvalho P.V.R., Ergonomics and human factors in safety management. CRC Press, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315370354. 23 Wu Z., Liu W., & Nie W., Literature review and prospect of the development and application of FMEA in manufacturing industry. “Int J Adv Manuf Technol”, 112, 2021, 1409–1436. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-020-06425-0. 24 Serrat O., Knowledge Solutions. Tools, Methods, and Approaches to Drive Organizational Performance. Springer 2017. doi 10.1007/978-981-10-0983-9.

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feedback to management that there is an area for improvement. Such a mistake should be a stimulus for development. Making a mistake itself is not a problem, but what is important is the number of mistakes and the lack of learning from them. Lack of space for error leads to strong frustration and high stress levels among the workforce, and this always results in a threat to the safety status of the company.

Result of studies Employers’ approaches to agreeing to employees’ mistakes can vary. Therefore, the presented pilot study was conducted. The research questionnaire contained 21 questions on error culture and respondent characteristics. and 18 of these were used in the analysis. The remaining 3 confirmed the results obtained. In the first phase of the research, the questionnaire was sent out to 190 people employed in various companies in the Silesian Voivodeship. The 30% of the questionnaires were completed correctly. These results were treated as preliminary to further indepth research on error culture in relation to the state of occupational safety. Figures 6 to 18 show the responses obtained. Female Male

Figure 6: Gender of respondents

The respondent group is represented 52.9% by women and 47.1% by men. This distribution of respondents is similar to the existing distribution of the population in Poland (51.7% women according to CSO data as of 31. 12. 2021).

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Figure 7: Size of enterprise

The majority of respondents (44.1%) were employed in large enterprises, followed by an equal distribution (29.4% and 17.6%) in micro and medium enterprises respectively. Absolutely yes Not necessarily Not all, but should be done o"en No, everyone should do their job well (not for praise)

Figure 8: Is it necessary to recognise and appreciate every success and effort made at work?

In conducting the survey, respondents were asked about their views on the right to make a mistake during working time. Employers should not only notice mistakes made, but also notice and appreciate the successes and efforts employees put into their work. This is the view of 59% of respondents (absolutely yes) and 33.3% (it should be done). Yes Some#mes, but rarely No

Figure 9: Do health and safety posters and slogans make for safer work?

When asked about the effectiveness of posters and promotional slogans, respondents confirmed that such actions have a positive impact on safety at work (59% yes and 33.3% sometimes).

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Error culture vs. Safety culture It causes frustra#on I do not care Encourages me to do be!er It makes me very stressed and paralysed

Figure 10: What feelings does pointing out mistakes at work evoke in you?

Respondents mostly believe that pointing out their mistakes causes them frustration and severe stress (59%). However, it should be noted that for 41%, pointing out an error motivates them to work better. Motivation and demotivation tools should therefore be chosen accordingly when dealing with an employee’s mistake. Yes Yes, but not always Some#mes but rarely No

Figure 11: Is there voluntary reporting of adverse events in your work? Yes Some#mes special mee#ngs are held Yes, but very rarely No

Figure 12: Is regular review of adverse events used in your work?

Respondents point out that in their workplaces, not only can adverse events be reported voluntarily (78.5%), but they are also analysed (41% definitely yes and 20.5% sometimes). Unfortunately, one in four respondents (28.2%) stated that such incidents are not analysed in their work. This means that there is no culture of learning from mistakes.

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Figure 13: Is making the same mistakes at work a development opportunity or a failure?

1 #me 2 #mes Several #mes Don't get it wrong

Figure 14: How many times do you think it is possible to make a mistake at work in the same area?

Employees allow making a mistake (fig. 14) once or twice (12.8% and 51.3%), but they have a negative view of repeating it more often. Admoni#on Addi#onal training Reprimand Dismissal at the earliest opportunity

Figure 15: What action should be taken against a person who makes a mistake at work that does not endanger the health and lives of employees?

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Error culture vs. Safety culture Admoni#on Addi#onal training Reprimand Dismissal at the earliest opportunity

Figure 16: What action should be taken against a person committing a work error endangering the health and life of employees?

Interesting are the answers about the actions to be taken with regard to employees making non-threatening and threatening mistakes. With regard to the former, additional training is recommended (61.5%) and dismissal is not considered at all. In the second situation (life-threatening errors), 12.8% already recommend dismissal. During periodic and ini#al training From our own mistakes From the mistakes of others During adapta#on with another qualified worker

Figure 17: When is it best to learn so-called safe behaviour at work? Yes Only for a selected group of employees Only in rela#on to a selected gender No

Figure 18: In your work, does management use a management method based on guilt induction and non-compliance?

When answering the question When is it best to learn so-called safe behaviour at work? The majority (43.6%) indicated professional adaptation and learning from one’s mistakes (38.5%). If such a large group of employees allow learning from their mistakes, it shows well the level of error culture in more than one in three companies.

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The vast majority answered that they do not (71.8%). This percentage indicates the avoidance of coercive personnel management tools in Polish companies. However, almost one in four (23.1%) pointed to discriminatory behaviour towards won groups of employees. In-depth research may reveal the criterion for this discrimination.

Summary Respondents confirm in their answers that appreciating the employee and rewarding them is valuable. At the same time, pointing out mistakes to an employee causes strong frustration and stress. This is why it is important to build a strong error culture into the safety culture of the organisation. Leaving workers a degree of freedom of choice and judgement about unsafe events shows that workers take responsibility for ensuring good OSH at work. For the most part, both workers and employers try to analyse (meetings and discussions) potentially dangerous situations. Such activities contribute to building a stronger safety culture. Respondents believe that making mistakes is one way to improve, but at the same time they do not agree with making mistakes often. They define the boundaries precisely. Such responses indicate the conscious building of a culture of error in companies. Respondents accurately identify the hierarchy of errors and the levels of responsibility for making them. They point out the good impact of occupational adaptation and self-education on the level of OSH at work, and they rate well the use of posters and slogans advertising safe behaviour at work. Survey respondents gave good marks to the attitudes of employers who do not stigmatise workers who make mistakes. With this attitude they are building a learning organisation, also in the area of occupational safety.

References Arezes P.M.F.M., de Carvalho P.V.R., Ergonomics and human factors in safety management. CRC Press, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315370354. Baur P., Getz C., Sowerwine, J., Contradictions, consequences and the human toll of food safety culture. “Agric Hum Values”, 34, 2017, pp. 713–728, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10 460–017–9772–1. Behari N., Assessing process safety culture maturity for specialty gas operations: A case study. “Process Safety and Environmental Protection”, 123, 2019, pp. 1–10. https://doi.o rg/10.1016/j.psep.2018.12.012. Cambridge Dictionary, https://dictionary.cambridge.org/pl/dictionary/english/error, [22. 05. 2023].

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Goncalves Filho A.P., Waterson P., Maturity models and safety culture: A critical review. “Safety science”, 105, 2018, pp. 192–211, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2018.02.017. Kotarbin´ski T., Sprawnos´c´ i bła˛d (Efficiency and Error). Pan´stwowe Zakłady Wydawnictw Szkolnych, Warszawa 1960. Krause T.R., The behavior-based safety proces. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York 1997, pp. 29–54. Kuchta K., Tylek I., Rawska-Skotniczy A., Przyczyny i metody zapobiegania błe˛dom ludzkim w inz˙ynierskiej działalnos´ci budowlanej, Cze˛´sc´ I: Klasyfikacja i z´ródła błe˛dów. “Przegla˛d Budowlany”, 5, 2017, pp. 17–23. Larouzee J., Le Coze J.C., Good and bad reasons: The Swiss cheese model and its critics. “Safety science”, 126, 2020, 104660, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2020.104660. Olson J.A., Ra, A., Applying insights from magic to improve deception in research: The Swiss cheese model. “Journal of Experimental Social Psychology”, 92, 2021, p. 104053, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2020.104053. Reason J., Achieving a safe culture: theory and practice. “Work & Stress”, 12, 3, 1998, pp. 768–770. Richards J. C., Error analysis: Perspectives on second language acquisition. Routledge 2019, ebook, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315836003. Schein E.H., Organizational culture and leadership. (Vol. 2). John Wiley & Sons, 2010. Schneider B., Ehrhart, M. G., & Macey, W. H., Organizational climate and culture. Sage Publications, Inc., 2016. Serrat O., Knowledge Solutions. Tools, Methods, and Approaches to Drive Organizational Performance. Springer 2017. doi 10.1007/978-981-10-0983-9. Siuta D., Kukfisz B., Kuczyn´ska A., & Mitkowski P.T., Methodology for the determination of a process safety culture index and safety culture maturity level in industries. “International journal of environmental research and public health”, 19(5), 2022, 2668. Warrick D.D., What leaders need to know about organizational culture. “Business Horizons”, vol. 60, 3, 2017, pp. 395–404, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2017.01.011. Wilpert B., & Fahlbruch B., Safety culture: Analysis and inter- vention. [in:] C. Spitzer, U. Schmocker, & V.N. Dang (Eds.), Probabilistic safety assessment and management. Springer, vol. 2, London 2004, pp. 843–849. Wis´niewska M.Z., Błe˛dy ludzkie i just culture (Human Errors and a Just Culture Approach). “Problemy Jakos´ci”, 10, 2019, pp. 9–14, doi 10.15199/46.2019.10.2. Wu Z., Liu W., Nie W., Literature review and prospect of the development and application of FMEA in manufacturing industry. “Int J Adv Manuf Technol”, 112, 2021, pp. 1409– 1436. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-020-06425-0.

Joanna Herczakowska1

Human factor and behavioral safety in the context of the effectiveness of actions taken under the occupational health and safety management system

Introduction The primary task of safety management systems operating in modern companies is to ensure safe and hygienic working conditions, preventing negative effects on the physical and mental health of employees. With the current state of knowledge and with the use of the latest solutions for the physical protection of employees and workplaces, it would seem that accidents at work and work-related health problems should be a marginal problem, but as statistics show, this is not the case. This raises the question: why, despite the increasing ability to protect workers and the implementation of increasingly sophisticated occupational health and safety management systems, the number of negative safety incidents is not significantly decreasing? And, on the other hand, are declining accident rates the right indicator for assessing improvements in working conditions and the quality of OSH management? The answer to the questions posed cannot be clearcut and will certainly depend on the conditions and characteristics of the organization. Nevertheless, the key element, common to all organizations, which determines the effective implementation of an occupational health and safety management system in a company, are the people, both employees and top management, who, through their attitudes, decisions, awareness, and commitment, can be the weakest as well as the strongest link in the system and determine the success or failure of occupational health and safety management.

1 Faculty of Mining, Safety Engineering and Industrial Automation of the Silesian University of Technology, [email protected], ORCID: 0000-0001-7579-0447.

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Attitudes towards risk and occupational health and safety management Risk is an immanent part of our life and business, but how we perceive risk and make decisions under conditions of risk and uncertainty is a very individual and subjective matter. The approach to risk, called risk appetite or risk sensitivity, is defined by three distinct attitudes: – risk aversion, when one takes risks expecting a premium for taking them, – neutrality (indifference) to risk, when the magnitude of risk during decisionmaking is irrelevant, – propensity to risk, when the decision-maker is able to incur additional expenses when making a decision with a higher level of risk2. Therefore, what dictates our approach to risk, and what determines why some people behave safely and others take risks? The acceptable level of risk depends on each person’s personal characteristics, but also on the available information needed to make a decision in a given situation, and the expected results. With regard to occupational safety, employees’ motivations for taking risks vary widely. Usually, people break the rules because they are lazy, they want to do something faster, with less effort to achieve greater benefits. Some risk-taking activities are also somehow encouraged and socially accepted – we are impressed by people who, by taking risks, have stepped outside their comfort zone and achieved success. A greater willingness to take risks is also evident in decisions made in groups or under the influence of a group3. Risk in the context of occupational safety is usually understood in a negative way as harm, loss, or injury. In recent years, however, there has been an apparent shift in the approach to safety management from a reactive one, focused on analyzing past events (occupational accidents, occupational illnesses, or other work-related problems) to a proactive one, concerned with the future and looking for opportunities to improve working conditions, even in crisis situations. The change in the approach to safety and health management was noted by Professor Erik Hollnagel, who pointed out that the traditional approach to safety and health management, called Safety-I, corresponds to the definition of safety as a state in which the number of negative events, i. e. accidents, near misses and incidents, is as low as possible. This approach assumes that systems work because 2 Jajuga K., [red.], Zarza˛dzanie ryzykiem, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2007, p. 14. 3 Clark R.D., Przesunie˛cie poziomu ryzyka pod wpływem grupy. Analiza krytyczna, [w:] W.E. Scott, L.L. Cummings, “Zachowanie człowieka w organizacji”, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, pp. 28–51.

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they are properly designed and properly maintained, and that people behave as expected, with the result that safety is defined by its absence and measured indirectly by the effects of its absence, focusing on accidents, situations in which safety is by definition absent. Professor Hollnagel proposed an approach called Safety-II, in which he pointed to the ability to succeed under changing conditions so that the number of intended and acceptable outcomes is as high as possible, i. e. a change in the understanding of safety from “avoiding that things go wrong” to “ensuring that things go right”. In summary, both the Safety-I and Safety-II concepts lead to the reduction of undesirable outcomes, but they use fundamentally different approaches – reactive and proactive, which has important implications for how to manage and achieve their intended goals4. The change in the approach to occupational health and safety management is also noticeable in ISO 450015 with guidance for use, which introduced the new concept of “OH&S opportunity” into the terminology for occupational health and safety management systems, which is “a circumstance or set of circumstances that can lead to improvement of OH&S performance”. The introduction of this definition, as well as the guidance provided by the standard, underscores a shift in corporate health and safety management from a reactive approach, focused on the past, analyzing and taking action on events that have already happened, to a proactive, forward-looking approach of looking for solutions, recognizing opportunities, including in crisis situations, and using all available information to continuously improve the company’s safety management system.

The human factor in causing occupational accidents – theory and statistics Human factors, as defined by The Health and Safety Executive (HSE), “refer to environmental, organizational and job factors, and human and individual characteristics which influence behavior at work in a way which can affect health and safety”6. So, for a proper understanding of the human factor, it is necessary to analyze the three key elements quoted in the definition – job, individual and organizational factors, and the relationship between them. The culture and organization of work, as well as the individual tasks performed at the workplace, should consider both the principles of ergonomics and 4 Hollnagel E. Resilience engineering: a new understanding of safety, “Journal of the Ergonomics Society of Korea”, 35.3, 2016, pp. 185–191. 5 ISO 45001:2018 Occupational health and safety management systems – Requirements with guidance for use. 6 Introduction to human factors, Health and safety Executive. Available at: https://www.hse.go v.uk/humanfactors/introduction.htm (access: 20. 05. 2023).

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the capabilities and competences of the employee, since the imbalance between the work and the employee creates space for potential human error. Reducing this space through proper management makes it possible to reduce the number of accidents and occupational diseases. The role of the human factor in causing occupational accidents has been a topic of research and a source of interest for many scientists around the world for many years. As proven, human error is the most common cause of accidents at work7,8,9,10. Accident causation theories and models attempt to explain the causes of workplace accidents by presenting them as a sequence of certain events. The first scientific approach to accident causation theory was the Domino model proposed by Heinrich, according to which events occurring in succession form a cause-effect sequence leading to an accident11,12. The theory is based on the assumption that each of the factors identified by Heinrich, thus: – ancestry and social environment, – fault of person, – an unsafe act and /or mechanical/physical hazard, – the accident, – the injury or damage, can be depicted as a series of domino tiles standing on edge, where one overturning element sets off a chain reaction, so each factor depends on the previous one. Heinrich further believed that an accident could be avoided if one of the factors could be removed and suggested that the key to the occurrence of an accident is the middle element associated with a dangerous action and/or mechanical or physical hazard. Interestingly, Heinrich concluded from his research that 88% of all accidents are the result of unsafe acts, 10% of unsafe conditions, and 2% are unpredictable

7 Heinrich H.W., Industrial accidents prevention. New York, Toronto, London, Mc Graw Hill Book Company, Inc., 1959. 8 Kletz T.A., An engineer’s view of human error. IChemE, 2001. 9 Osobonye G.T. INTRODUCING DUPON’S SAFETY TRAINING OBSERVATION PROGRAMME (STOP) IN NIGERIAN SECONDARY SCHOOL LABORATORIES AND WORKSHOPS. Available at: https://www.globalacademicgroup.com/journals/nard/Gabriel.pdf (access: 20. 05. 2023). 10 Znajmiecka M., Boczkowska K., Kształtowanie bezpiecznych zachowan´ pracowników. Teoria i praktyka Behavior Based Safety. Wydawnictwo Politechniki Łódzkiej, 2020. 11 Heinrich H.W., Industrial accidents prevention… op.cit. 12 Pietrzak L., Modelowanie wypadko´w przy pracy (1), “Bezpieczen´stwo Pracy 4/2002”.

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events. Heinrich’s concept sparked numerous studies in accident theory and is still considered the classic accident model today13,14. Monitoring occupational health and safety performance is possible, among other things, by analyzing the company’s accident rates. At the macro level, it is possible to analyze the volume, causes and consequences of occupational accidents using data collected by the Statistics Poland (SP) in annual cycles on the basis of the so-called statistical accident card15. The causes of accidents at work are classified into the following categories: – inappropriate condition of the material agent, – inappropriate organisation of work or workstation, – absence or inappropriate use of the material agent, – not using protective equipment, – employee’s inappropriate wilful action, – employee’s inappropriate mental and physical condition, – employee’s incorrect action, – other causes. Importantly, according to the SP, the sum of causes is greater than the total number of accidents due to the fact that an accident can be a compilation of several different causes. Figure 1 presents the total number of accidents at work from 2013 to 2021 and the percentage of accidents by cause.

13 Fu G., Xie X., Jia Q., Li Z., Chen P. and Ge Y., The development history of accident causation models in the past 100 years: 24Model, a more modern accident causation model. “Process Safety and Environmental Protection”, 134, 2020, pp. 47–82. 14 Pietrzak L., Modelowanie wypadko´w …op.cit. 15 Statistics Poland (SP), Accidents at work. Available at: https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/labourmarket/working-conditions-accidents-at-work/accidents-at-work-in-2021,3,15.html (access: 20. 05. 2023).

16 Ibid.

Figure 1: Causes of the accidents at work in 2013–202116 9%

other causes 87.596

9%

total

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2013 56%

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Total number of the accidents at work

Causes of the accidents - share in the total number [%]

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There is a noticeable downward trend in occupational accidents between 2013 and 2021, but it is important to distinguish three separate periods to properly understand the statistics: – pre-pandemic Sars-Cov-2, i. e., 2013–2019, in which the number of accidents at work from 2013 to 2017 was relatively constant, and a slight decrease in the number of accidents of 4–5% was recorded in 2018–2019, – the peak of the Sars-Cov-2 pandemic in 2020, in which a significant reduction in the number of accidents at work (by 25% from the previous year) was due to a specific period related to the coronavirus pandemic, during which many companies halted or reduced their operations, which was ultimately reflected in the number of accidents, and – after the Sars-Cov-2 pandemic – the year 2021 (unfortunately, data for 2022 was not available at the time of publication), when the economy was returning to pre-pandemic operations, in which the number of accidents increased by 10% compared to the previous year. In terms of the causes of accidents at work, employee’s incorrect action dominated, accounting for as much as 61% of all accidents in recent years. It is worth noting that while the number of total accidents at work during the period under review is variable, the percentages expressing the share of individual causes are fairly constant over time. In order to further analyze the data in detail, which is the subject of this discussion, the causes of accidents at work were categorized into: – accidents at work resulting from improper employee behavior: – not using protective equipment, – employee’s inappropriate wilful action, – employee’s inappropriate mental and physical condition, – employee’s incorrect action – absence or inappropriate use of the material agent by employee. – accidents at work due to causes that are outside the employee (technical, organizational, etc.) – inappropriate condition of the material agent, – inappropriate organisation of work or workstation – other causes. The results of this aggregation for 2021 are shown in Figure 2.

inappropriate condition of the material agent 8%

inappropriate organisation of work or workstation 10%

other causes 4%

human error 78%

employee's incorrect action 61%

employee's inappropriate mental and physical condition 2%

employee's inappropriate wilful action 7%

not using protective equipment 2%

absence or inappropriate use of the material agent by employee 7%

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Figure 2: The share of human error in total number of accidents at work in 202117

17 Statistics Poland (SP), Accidents at work…op.cit.

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Accidents at work included in the first group accounted for as much as 78% of all accidents, which makes it possible to conclude that employee improper behviour, or the so-called “human factor”, is the most common cause of accidents at work. At the same time, it is worth noting the statistics on the severity of accidents – these also show that the most common cause of fatal and serious accidents is the employee’s improper behavior, as shown in Figures 3 and 4. Interestingly, while the share of accidents at work caused by inappropriate willful behavior of an employee in the total number of accidents was at 7%, their share in severe and fatal accidents was twice as high, i. e. about 13–15% in 2021. The above data, presented in Figures 1–4, indicate the need to implement appropriate measures for the modification of unsafe behavior among employees, which could contribute to minimizing the number of accidents at work caused by human factors and reducing the negative consequences of these incidents.

18 Ibid. 20% 15% 4% 5% 3% 8% 13%

employee's inappropriate mental and physical condition

other causes

not using protective equipment

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Figure 3: Causes of the serious accidents at work in 2013–202118 14%

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146 Joanna Herczakowska

Causes of the serious accidents - share in the total number [%]

19 Statistics Poland (SP), Accidents at work…op.cit. 20% 14% 9% 13% 3% 4% 11%

employee's inappropriate mental and physical condition

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Figure 4: Causes of the fatal accidents at work in 2013–202119 10%

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Causes of the fatal accidents - share in the total number [%]

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Behavioral safety – safety culture, BBS concept and behavioral audit Many modern companies focus on the number of accidents, treating it as the only indicator of the effectiveness of safety activities. Meanwhile, accident rates only inform us about a certain trend, and do not fully reflect the state and culture of an organization’s safety performance. The term safety culture was first used after the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 and defined as “the assembly of characteristics and attitudes in organizations and individuals which establishes that, as an overriding priority, protection and safety issues receive the attention warranted by their significance”20. Safety culture is a component of an organization’s culture and relates to risk and safety issues, and aims to reflect the company’s important values in the attitudes, beliefs and behaviors represented by employees. The correlation between the likelihood of an accident and safety culture was noted by Nick Pidgeon in 199121. In February 2016, the International Conference on Human and Organizational Aspects of Assuring Nuclear Safety – Exploring 30 Years of Safety Culture called for a shift from a theoretical conception of safety culture to a more practical and systemic one, stressing that safety culture is not a stand-alone activity that can be implemented or removed from an organizational culture, but an inherent element present in all aspects of an organization. Accordingly, the goal of any company should be to create an organizational culture that strives for safety every day, i. e. a culture for safety22. An element of building a safety culture, and at the same time a response to the needs of companies in which the number of safety incidents is not decreasing, despite the measures and technical solutions taken to minimize risks, can be the concept of behavioral safety and the Behavior Based Safety BBS methodology, the roots of which go back to the behavioral theories of e. g.: Skinner23 and Geller24. This methodology is based on the assumption that the reduction of accidents in the workplace is possible provided there is a balance between three measurable elements of the system, i. e. the employee (his competence, experience and

20 Culture for Safety, Nuclear Safety and Security Programme. Available at: https://www.iaea.org /sites/default/files/culture_for_safety_leaflet.pdf (access: 20. 05. 2023). 21 Pidgeon N.F., Safety culture and risk management in organizations. “Journal of cross-cultural psychology”, 22 no.1, 1991, pp. 129–140. 22 Culture for Safety…op.cit. 23 Skinner B.F., Science and human behavior. No. 92904. Simon and Schuster, 1965. 24 Geller E.S., Behavior-based safety and occupational risk management. “Behavior modification”, 29(3), 2005, pp. 539–561.

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qualifications), the environment (work environment and culture, machinery, equipment) and the employee’s behavior (action or inaction)25. In the context of occupational health and safety, the following types of behavior are most often distinguished: – unsafe behavior, i. e., hazardous actions that often result in injury, – risky behavior, which is behavior characterized by a low probability of injury, – safe behavior are events with little or no danger practically never result in injury because known risks are controlled. Behavioral safety is based on the observation and modification of employee behavior in the workplace, and assumes that people learn their behavior by repeating those that were pleasant for them and avoiding those that are negative to them. Thus, the decision to choose a behavior is largely determined by our expectations regarding the consequences. An example of the implementation of an unsafe behavior modification program is a behavioral audit, the fundamental elements of which are observation and dialogue26. Observation of employees and their behavior during the performance of assigned tasks in the workplace makes it possible to determine the degree of implementation and functioning of the safety management system in reality, as well as to assess the level of safety culture. On the other hand, the second element, i. e. dialogue, makes it possible to praise safe and correct behavior and to make the employee aware of the consequences of his risky actions – it is important to point out that the extent of the negative consequences of the actions taken does not affect only the employee himself, but also includes his family, co-workers and the entire organization. Behavioral safety as part of a health and safety management system should therefore define and specify the behaviors that are required of every employee. It can be said that in some way we are constantly obliged to behave in a certain way, and we understand that some situations simply require it – for example, when going to the theater we know that we should dress appropriately, not be late, and keep quiet during the performance. Certain behaviors are simply natural to us. If we approach safe behavior at work in the same way, we will understand that health and safety procedures and rules are a kind of instructions indicating the correct behavior in a given situation, and not just orders and prohibitions for which we face punishment if we do not comply. The key to changing behavior is to move from extrinsic motivation to intrinsic motivation and to understand that going beyond certain safety limits always increases the likelihood of undesirable 25 McSween T.E., Values-based safety process: Improving your safety culture with behaviorbased safety. John Wiley & Sons, 2003. 26 Embros G., Audyt zachowan´ jako narze˛dzie systemu zarza˛dzania bezpieczen´stwem i higiena˛ pracy. Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae, 7(1), 2009, pp. 165–179.

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events, the consequences of which are felt not only by the person breaking the rules, but also by his family, co-workers and the entire organization. Fostering correct, safe behavior should therefore be the foundation for building the right safety culture for an organization, which should strive to reach the appropriate level of maturity called “generative” by Professor Hudson, in which safety is seen as an integral part of the organization, where everyone is responsible for safety, and in which the involvement of employees and management determines the level of human error.

Freedom versus safety in the context of the behavior modification program and the BBS concept In the context of safety and the behavior modification program, there is the issue of interference with the employee’s independent decision to take risky actions. Everyone has the right to freedom and safety, but the hierarchy of these values can be, as Jan Widacki27 points out, debatable, and the concepts themselves can be mutually limiting. Unequivocally defining safety and freedom is difficult because they are dynamic and multidimensional concepts. In the context of occupational safety, the protection of workers’ health and life derives from a number of legal acts, from the Polish Constitution to the Labor Code. Freedom in the general sense is understood as an area of life and decisions in which no one has the right to interfere, where people are considered untouchable, and, on the other hand, as an activity resulting from the opportunities created by negative freedom (that is, situations in which an individual has the opportunity to act both unhindered and without being ordered to do so by others). Since freedom is an area in which no one has the right to interfere, how do we find the boundary and balance between the need to ensure the safety of employees and personal freedom? Does the employer have the right to interfere with and modify the employee’s behavior? We are all human, and making mistakes is part of our lives. In the context of workplace safety, the negative consequences of our wrong decisions can be seen in the form of incidents, injuries and accidents, which can affect not only us as individuals, but also our family, co-workers or the entire organization. Becoming aware of the adverse impact of our erroneous decisions on others can be crucial to reviewing the unsafe behaviors we engage in. Behavioral safety is not about criticizing and stigmatizing people who behave riskily, but about raising awareness, dialogue, providing constructive information and systematically valuing correct attitudes. Employees should see 27 Widacki J., Wolnos´c´ a bezpieczen´stwo. Zamiast podsumowania. “Bezpieczen´stwo. Teoria i Praktyka”, spec., 2008, pp. 103–108.

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their superiors as safety leaders they will want to follow and emulate, and a high level of employee knowledge of existing risks and their commitment to improving safety will make them feel part of the organization they form and influence. This approach, driven by the voluntary actions and attitudes of employees, does not force or limit in any way the freedom of employees and does not infringe on their independence.

Summary and conclusions The evaluation of the effectiveness of the measures taken within the framework of the company’s occupational health and safety management system should be based not only on the analysis of measurable accident rates, which of course should be monitored, but should also take into account non-technical aspects of safety relating to the attitudes of employees and the safety culture of the organization. As indicated in these considerations, human errors are the most common cause of accidents at work, so the so-called “human factor” should not be overlooked when designing, implementing and maintaining a safety management system, as it is crucial to the effectiveness and quality of OSH management. The implementation of behavioral methods in occupational safety management has gained popularity in recent years due to their effectiveness and sound scientific basis, nevertheless, it should be borne in mind that the implementation of such methods is an element of system improvement and is not intended to replace traditional occupational health and safety activities. Behavioral methods should therefore be introduced as a supplement to the safety management system after analyzing the state of OSH in the organization and exhausting the available solutions for the technical and physical protection of employees from the negative effects of work. As an element of continuous improvement, it is an ongoing activity, constantly promoted and sustained, rather than a one-time endeavor. Importantly, behavioral safety and behavior modification programs also fit with the intent of ISO 45001, which calls for a proactive and preventive approach to managing risk and safety in the workplace. The road to success in improving the quality of safety management is not quick and easy, as it requires commitment and the provision of adequate resources, but the tangible benefits in the form of reduced absenteeism, health problems or workplace accidents are certainly worth the sacrifice.

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References Clark R.D., Przesunie˛cie poziomu ryzyka pod wpływem grupy. Analiza krytyczna, [w:] W.E. Scott i L.L. Cummings (red.), “Zachowanie człowieka w organizacji”, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, pp. 28–51. Culture for Safety, Nuclear Safety and Security Programme. Available at: https://www.iaea.o rg/sites/default/files/culture_for_safety_leaflet.pdf (access: 20. 05. 2023). Embros G., Audyt zachowan´ jako narze˛dzie systemu zarza˛dzania bezpieczen´stwem i higiena˛ pracy. Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae, 7(1), 2009, pp. 165–179. Fu G., Xie X., Jia Q., Li Z., Chen P. and Ge Y., The development history of accident causation models in the past 100 years: 24Model, a more modern accident causation model. “Process Safety and Environmental Protection”, 134, 2020, pp. 47–82. Geller E.S., Behavior-based safety and occupational risk management. “Behavior modification”, 29(3), 2005, pp. 539–561. Heinrich H.W., Industrial accidents prevention. New York, Toronto, London, Mc Graw Hill Book Company, Inc., 1959. Hollnagel E., Resilience engineering: a new understanding of safety, “Journal of the Ergonomics Society of Korea”, 35.3, 2016, pp. 185–191. Introduction to human factors, Health and safety Executive. Available at: https://www.h se.gov.uk/humanfactors/introduction.htm (access: 20. 05. 2023). ISO 45001:2018 Occupational health and safety management systems – Requirements with guidance for use. Jajuga K., [red.], Zarza˛dzanie ryzykiem, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2007. Kletz, T.A., An engineer’s view of human error. IChemE, 2001. McSween T.E., Values-based safety process: Improving your safety culture with behaviorbased safety. John Wiley & Sons, 2003. Osobonye G.T., Introducing Dupont’s Safety Training Observation Programme (Stop) In Nigerian Secondary School Laboratories And Workshops. Available at: https:// www.globalacademicgroup.com/journals/nard/Gabriel.pdf (access: 20. 05. 2023). Pidgeon N.F., Safety culture and risk management in organizations. “Journal of crosscultural psychology”, 22 no.1, 1991, pp. 129–140. Pietrzak L., Modelowanie wypadko´w przy pracy (1), “Bezpieczen´stwo Pracy 4/2002”. Sadiq N., Establishing an occupational health & safety management system based on ISO 45001. IT Governance Ltd, 2019. Skinner B.F., Science and human behavior. No. 92904. Simon and Schuster, 1965. Statistics Poland (SP), Accidents at work. Available at: https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/labo ur-market/working-conditions-accidents-at-work/accidents-at-work-in-2021,3,15.html (access: 20. 05. 2023). Widacki J., Wolnos´c´ a bezpieczen´stwo. Zamiast podsumowania. “Bezpieczen´stwo. Teoria i Praktyka”, spec., 2008, pp. 103–108. Znajmiecka M., Boczkowska K., Kształtowanie bezpiecznych zachowan´ pracowników. Teoria i praktyka Behavior Based Safety. Wydawnictwo Politechniki Łódzkiej, 2020. Zohar D., Luria G., A Multilevel Model of Safety Climate: Cross-Level Relationships Between Organization and Group-Level Climates, “Journal of Applied Psychology”, Vol. 90, No. 4, 2005, pp. 616–628.

Marcin Krause1

Identifying the areas of increased risk of accidents at work for the implementation of the tasks of state supervision over working conditions

Introduction Safety can be understood as, for example, a positive value, the opposite of hazard, the absence of hazards, a state of non-hazard. Examples of interpretation: safety as human rights, safety as protected values, safety as human needs, safety as a state and process2. Freedom in the simplest terms means, for example, a situation of non-coercion, a certain characteristic and value to which an individual and the collective are entitled. Examples of interpretation: freedom is vested in man by nature; freedom is a creation of cultural, legal and institutional evolution; freedom is negative in nature and is the absence of constraints; freedom is a positive characteristic and the ability to achieve rational goals3. The concepts of safety and freedom have reference to current law – starting with the Constitution of the Republic of Poland4, according to which: – “The Constitution is the supreme law of the Republic of Poland” (Article 8.1). – “The Republic of Poland shall safeguard the independence and inviolability of its territory, ensure the freedoms and rights of man and citizen and the safety of citizens, guard the national heritage and ensure the protection of the environment, guided by the principle of sustainable development” (Article 5).

1 Faculty of Mining, Safety Engineering and Industrial Automation of the Silesian University of Technology, [email protected], ORCID: 0000-0002-9934-1539. 2 Krause M., Podstawy inz˙ynierii bezpieczen´stwa. Wydawnictwo Politechniki S´la˛skiej, Gliwice 2020, p. 12–14. 3 Encyklopedia PWN. Available at: https://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo/wolnosc;3997768.html (access 30. 04. 2023). 4 Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 2 kwietnia 1997 r. (Dz. U. z 1997 r. Nr 78, poz. 483, z póz´n. zm.). Available at: https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU19970780 483 (access 30. 04. 2023).

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The freedoms, rights and duties of a human being and citizen are defined in the Constitution of the Republic of Poland, including Chapter II, “Freedoms, Rights and Duties of a Human Being and a Citizen”, which includes personal freedoms and rights, political freedoms and rights, economic, social, and cultural freedoms and rights. According to the Constitution of the Republic of Poland: – “Human freedom shall be protected by law” (Article 31.1). – “Everyone shall be guaranteed personal inviolability and personal freedom; deprivation or restriction of freedom may take place only on the terms and in the manner prescribed by law” (Article 41.1). – “Everyone has the duty to obey the laws of the Republic of Poland” (Article 83). The legal protection of labor derives from the Polish Constitution, according to which: – “Labor is under the protection of the Republic of Poland, and the state shall supervise the conditions under which work is performed” (Article 24). – “Everyone has the right to safe and hygienic working conditions, and the manner of execution of this right and the duties of the employer are determined by law” (Article 66.1). The law defining the rights and obligations of the employer, mentioned in the Polish Constitution, is the Labor Code5, according to which: – “The employer is obliged to provide employees with safe and hygienic working conditions” (Article 15). – “The National Labor Inspectorate shall supervise and control the observance of labor law, including regulations and rules of occupational safety and health” (Article 184 § 1). – “The employer is responsible for the state of occupational health and safety at the workplace” (Article 207 § 1). – “The employer is obliged to protect the health and life of employees by ensuring safe and hygienic working conditions with appropriate use of the achievements of science and technology” (Article 207 § 2). Taking measures related to accidents at work follows from the Labor Code, according to which:

5 Ustawa z dnia 26 czerwca 1974 r. Kodeks pracy (Dz.U. z 2022 r. poz. 1510, z póz´n. zm.). Available at: https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU19740240141 (access 30. 04. 2023).

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– “The employer is obliged, in the event of an accident at work, to take the necessary measures to eliminate or reduce the hazard, to ensure that first aid is provided to the injured persons and that the circumstances and causes of the accident are established in the prescribed manner, and to apply appropriate measures to prevent similar accidents” (Article 234 § 1). – “The employer is obliged to systematically analyze the causes of accidents at work, occupational diseases and other diseases related to the conditions of the working environment, and based on the results of these analyses, apply appropriate preventive measures” (Article 236). According to the Law on National Labor Inspectorate6, its tasks include: – “Supervision and control of compliance with labor laws, in particular with the rules and regulations of occupational safety and health, regulations concerning the employment relationship, compensation for work and other benefits arising from the employment relationship, working time, vacations, employees’ rights related to parenthood, employment of juveniles and disabled persons” (Article 10.1 item 1). – “Undertaking activities involving the prevention and reduction of hazards in the work environment, and in particular: investigating the circumstances and causes of accidents at work and controlling the application of measures to prevent such accidents; (…) undertaking preventive and promotional activities aimed at ensuring compliance with labor laws” (Article 10.1 item 7). Summarizing the analysis of legal acts (the Constitution of the Republic of Poland, the Labor Code, the Law on the National Labor Inspectorate), it can be said that: – Freedom is a fundamental human and civil right, and according to the Constitution of the Republic of Poland, freedom is subject to legal protection. – Ensuring the protection of human life and health in the work environment requires compliance with occupational health and safety regulations, and according to the Constitution of the Republic of Poland, everyone has a duty to obey the law. – Labor is under the protection of the state, and according to the Polish Constitution, the state supervises the conditions under which work is performed. – The employer is responsible for the state of occupational health and safety at the workplace, and the National Labor Inspectorate supervises and controls

6 Ustawa z dnia 13 kwietnia 2007 r. o Pan´stwowej Inspekcji Pracy (Dz. U. z 2022 r. poz. 1614). Available at: https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20070890589 (access 30. 04. 2023).

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compliance with labor laws, including occupational health and safety regulations and rules. – The employer is obliged to take the necessary measures in the event of an accident at work and systematically analyze the causes of accidents at work, and the tasks of the National Labor Inspectorate include investigating the circumstances and causes of accidents at work (especially fatal, serious, and collective accidents). The purpose of the publication was to identifying the areas of increased risk of accidents at work in terms of the implementation of the tasks of state supervision over working conditions, using the example of the National Labor Inspectorate. The scope of the publication includes a literature review in the aspect of the labor protection system and the analysis of accidents at work, as well as an analysis of statistics on accidents at work using the criteria of absolute, indicator and generic analyses based on the data of the Statistics Poland.

Literature review Labor protection system – outline of the problem The labor protection system is one of the elements of the state safety system, which includes, among others, the legal system and the organizational system. The literature review on the labor protection system in the aspect of occupational safety and health is presented, for example, in the following compact publications (chronologically): Koradecka D. i in.7, Zawieska W. i in.8, Krause M. i Romanowska-Słomka I.9, Krause M.10, Krause M.11 The legal basis for the labor protection system in the aspect of supervision and control systems includes the following areas of safety and protection12, among other issues:

7 Koradecka D. (red.), Bezpieczen´stwo i higiena pracy. CIOP-PIB, Warszawa 2008. 8 Zawieska W. (red.), Ryzyko zawodowe. Metodyczne podstawy oceny. CIOP-PIB, Warszawa 2009. 9 Krause M., Romanowska-Słomka I., Podstawy bezpieczen´stwa i higieny pracy. PWSZ, Wałbrzych 2014. 10 Krause M., Podstawy badan´ w dziedzinie bezpieczen´stwa i higieny pracy. Wydawnictwo Politechniki S´la˛skiej, Gliwice 2018. 11 Krause M., Podstawy inz˙ynierii bezpieczen´stwa. Wydawnictwo Politechniki S´la˛skiej, Gliwice 2020. 12 Krause M., Podstawy inz˙ynierii bezpieczen´stwa. Wydawnictwo Politechniki S´la˛skiej, Gliwice 2020, pp. 49–61.

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– Supervision over working conditions – occupational safety and labor protection, including the National Labor Inspectorate (PIP) and the State Sanitary Inspectorate (SANEPID). – Sanitary supervision – health safety and public health protection, including the State Sanitary Inspectorate. – Veterinary supervision – animal health protection, food safety, public health protection against infectious diseases of animals, including the Veterinary Inspectorate (IW). – Epidemiological supervision – health safety and public health protection against infections and infectious diseases in humans, including the State Sanitary Inspectorate. – Construction supervision and architectural-construction administration – safety of construction work and protection of buildings, including the General Office of Construction Supervision (GUNB). – Technical supervision – technical safety and protection of equipment subject to technical supervision, including the Office of Technical Inspection (UDT). – Nuclear supervision – nuclear safety and radiation protection, including the National Atomic Energy Agency (PAA). – Surveying and cartographic supervision and administration – safety of surveying and cartographic works, protection of land and property information, including the General Office of Geodesy and Cartography (GUGiK). – Mining supervision and geological administration – safety of mining and geological works, protection of mining plants, including the State Mining Authority (WUG). Technical standards supporting the legal basis for the labor protection system include, among others, the following problem areas: – Harmonized standards on conformity assessment and market surveillance systems, the lists of which are published on the website of the Polish Committee for Standardization. – Standards on occupational safety and health, which belong to ICS No. 13, including principles and methods of occupational risk assessment. – Standards on ergonomics and machine safety, which belong to ICS No. 13.110 and 13.180, including the principles of risk assessment and reduction. – Standards on management systems, including quality, environment, occupational health and safety, food safety, information safety. The labor protection system is formed by, among others, the following groups of labor protection supervision, control, and advisory entities:

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– Entities of state supervision and control over working conditions, such as: National Labor Inspection, State Sanitary Inspection, General Office of Construction Supervision. – Entities of social supervision and control over working conditions as external entities and/or internal units, e. g.: trade unions, social labor inspectorate. – Inspection and advisory entities acting for the employer as internal entities and/or external entities, e. g.: occupational health and safety service, occupational medicine service, occupational health and safety commission. – Education, science and consulting industry entities, e. g.: Central Institute for Labor Protection in Warsaw, Institute of Occupational Medicine in Lodz, Silesian University of Technology in Gliwice. – Entities belonging to the legislative, executive and judicial branches of government: the President of the Republic of Poland, the Parliament of the Republic of Poland, the Polish Committee for Standardization (PKN), the Statistics Poland (GUS). The primary supervisory, control and advisory bodies for labor protection include (Labor Code Act13): – “National Labor Inspectorate – supervises and controls compliance with labor law, including regulations and rules of occupational safety and health” (Article 184 § 1). – “State Sanitary Inspectorate – supervises and controls compliance with the rules, regulations of occupational hygiene and conditions of the working environment” (Article 184 § 2); – “Social Labor Inspectorate – exercises social control over compliance with labor law, including regulations and rules of occupational safety and health” (Article 185 § 1). – “Employer – shall be responsible for the state of occupational safety and health at the workplace” (Article 207 § 1). – “The employer and the person in charge of employees are obliged to know the regulations on labor protection” (Article 207 § 3). – “Occupational safety and health service (OSH service) – performing advisory and inspection functions in the field of occupational safety and health” (Article 23711 § 1). – “Occupational safety and health commission (OSH commission) – performing advisory and consultative functions in the field of occupational safety and health” (Article 23712 § 1). 13 Ustawa z dnia 26 czerwca 1974 r. Kodeks pracy (Dz.U. z 2022 r. poz. 1510, z póz´n. zm.). Available at: https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU19740240141 (access 30. 04. 2023).

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The leading role in supervision over working conditions is played by the National Labor Inspectorate (PIP), which consists of: Main Labor Inspectorate (GIP), District Labor Inspectorates (OIP), and the National Labor Inspectorate Training Center in Wroclaw. The PIP is subordinate to the Sejm of the Republic of Poland and is supervised by the Labor Protection Council to the extent specified in the law. The organs of the PIP are: Chief Labor Inspector, district labor inspector, labor inspector, acting within the territorial jurisdiction of the district labor inspectorates.

Analysis of accidents at work – outline of the problem The analysis of accidents at work is one of the primary responsibilities of the employer at the workplace level, as well as the supervisory and control bodies at the state and/or industry (sections of the NACE) level. The leading role in this regard is played by the Statistics Poland (collection and publication of statistical data) and the National Labor Inspectorate (investigation of selected accidents, especially fatal, serious, and collective accidents). The literature review on the analysis of accidents at work is presented, among others, in the following compact publications (chronologically): Pietrzak L.14, Pietrzak L.15, Krause M. i Romanowska-Słomka I.16, Krause M.17, Krause M.18 The scale of the phenomenon of occupational accidents is evidenced by the annual data published by the Statistics Poland entitled “Accidents at work”19, which are compiled on the basis of forms entitled “Statistical card of accidents at work”20. In the period between 2010–2019 (due to the pandemic period, the years 2020– 2022 were intentionally not included in the study), 884,562 accidents at work were registered, which caused 37,068,059 days of incapacity for work and in which

14 Pietrzak L., Badania wypadków przy pracy. Modele i metody. CIOP-PIB, Warszawa 2004. 15 Pietrzak L., Analiza wypadków przy pracy dla potrzeb prewencji. PIP, Warszawa 2007. 16 Krause M., Romanowska-Słomka I., Podstawy bezpieczen´stwa i higieny pracy. PWSZ, Wałbrzych 2014. 17 Krause M., Podstawy badan´ w dziedzinie bezpieczen´stwa i higieny pracy. Wydawnictwo Politechniki S´la˛skiej, Gliwice 2018. 18 Krause M., Podstawy inz˙ynierii bezpieczen´stwa. Wydawnictwo Politechniki S´la˛skiej, Gliwice 2020. 19 Wypadki przy pracy (okres lat 2010–2022), Główny Urza˛d Statystyczny. Available at: https:// stat.gov.pl/obszary-tematyczne/rynek-pracy/warunki-pracy-wypadki-przy-pracy/ (access 30. 04. 2023). 20 Rozporza˛dzenie Ministra Rodziny i Polityki Społecznej z dnia 9 grudnia 2022 r. w sprawie statystycznej karty wypadku przy pracy (Dz. U. z 2022 r. poz. 2750). Available at: https://i sap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20220002750 (access 30. 04. 2023).

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890,684 people were injured, including 2,952 people in fatal accidents and 5606 people in serious accidents. By relating the number of injured in accidents to the parameter of time, it is possible to determine the statistical clock of accidents at work in Poland between 2010–2019, which shows that: – within an hour, 10 people are injured in accident, – during a day, 244 people are injured in accident, – during a week, 1,707 people are injured in accident, – every 6 minutes, a person is injured by an accident, – every 15 h 38 min, a person is injured in serious accident, – every 29 h 42 min, a person is injured in fatal accident. The legal requirements specify, among other things, the general rules for dealing with an accident at work21 and detailed rules for determining the circumstances and causes of an accident at work, but do not explicitly indicate the rules and criteria for analyzing statistics on accidents at work22. The classification of accidents at work in force in Poland distinguishes two basic criteria for division: according to the criterion of the number of person injured into individual and collective accidents, and according to the criterion of the severity of the consequences for life and health into fatal and serious accidents. In accordance with the reporting used by the Statistics Poland23 and the National Labor Inspectorate24, a name – light accidents was adopted. The analysis of statistics on accident at work includes the following criteria25, among others: – absolute analysis based on the comparison of the number and consequences of accidents, – indicator analysis based on the comparison of the value of accident indicators, – generic analysis based on the research of specific accident parameters.

21 Ustawa z dnia 26 czerwca 1974 r. Kodeks pracy (Dz.U. z 2022 r. poz. 1510, z póz´n. zm.). Available at: https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU19740240141 (access 30. 04. 2023). 22 Rozporza˛dzenie Rady Ministrów z dnia 1 lipca 2009 r. w sprawie ustalania okolicznos´ci i przyczyn wypadków przy pracy (Dz. U. z 2009 r. Nr 105, poz. 870). Available at: https://i sap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20091050870 (access 30. 04. 2023). 23 Wypadki przy pracy (okres lat 2010–2019). Główny Urza˛d Statystyczny. Available at: https:// stat.gov.pl/obszary-tematyczne/rynek-pracy/warunki-pracy-wypadki-przy-pracy/ (access 30. 04. 2023). 24 Sprawozdanie z działalnos´ci Pan´stwowej Inspekcji Pracy (okres lat 2010–2021), Główny Inspektorat Pracy. Available at: https://www.pip.gov.pl/pl/o-urzedzie/sprawozdania-z-dzialal nosci (access 30. 04. 2023). 25 Krause M., Podstawy badan´ w dziedzinie bezpieczen´stwa i higieny pracy. Wydawnictwo Politechniki S´la˛skiej, Gliwice 2018, pp. 152–153.

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Absolute analysis of accidents at work includes, among others, the following metrics: – number of injured due to accidents: individual and collective accidents, – severity of effects on human life and health: fatal, serious and light accidents, – number of days of incapacity due to accidents. Indicator analysis of accidents at work includes, among others, the following indicators: – frequency indicators of accident that determine the probability of an accidents, such as: the number of injured persons per contractual number of workers or employees, man-days or man-hours, production volume, – severity indicators of accident determining the consequences of an accident, e. g.: number of days of work incapacity due to accidents per contractual number of injured persons or contractual number of man-days, – aggregate indicators of accident determining the risk of an accident, e. g.: the product of an frequency indicator of accident and an severity indicator of accident. Generic analysis of accidents at work includes, among others, the following accident parameters: – description of the person injured, e. g.: occupation performed (professional qualifications), length of service, age, gender, nationality; – description of the consequences of the accident, e. g.: number of injured persons, type of accident, type of injury, location of injury, number of days of incapacity; – description of the place of the accident, e. g.: place where the accident occurred, work process, type of accident site, organizational unit (department, division); – description of the time of the accident, e. g.: year, day of the month, day of the week and time of the accident, hours worked from the start of work until the time of the accident; – description of the course of the accident, e. g.: the activity performed at the time of the accident, the event that is a deviation from the normal state, the event causing the injury, material factors, the causes of the accident.

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Methodology of research Source data on the statistics on accidents at work in Poland are made available in periodic publications of the Statistics Poland entitled “Accidents at work”26. Data on accidents at work come from the form “Statistical card of accident at work (ZK-W)”27 and concern those working in the national economy. Information on accidents at work provides detailed data on accidents and person injured, circumstances, causes and consequences of accidents. The subject scope of the card of accident at work is aligned with the European Statistics on Accidents at Work (ESAW). The analysis of the statistics on accidents at work included selected criteria of the absolute, indicator and generic analysis for the period 2010–2019 (the period 2020–2022 was deliberately not included in the research due to the pandemic period – limited activity of selected the NACE sections). The following measures were selected for the absolute analysis of accident rate: – number of total accidents, number of collective accidents, number of person injured in collective accidents; – number of person injured by severity (total, fatal, serious); – number of days of incapacity for work due to accidents. The following indicators were selected for the indicator analysis of accident rate: – frequency indicator of total accidents per 1000 employees, frequency indicator of fatal accidents per 100,000 employees, frequency indicator of serious accidents per 100,000 employees; – severity indicator of accidents per 1 person injured, risk indicator of accidents (the product of frequency indicator of total accidents and severity indicator of accidents); – frequency indicator of collective accidents per 100,000 employees, indicator of number of person injured for 1 collective accident.

26 Wypadki przy pracy (okres lat 2010–2022). Główny Urza˛d Statystyczny. Available at: https:// stat.gov.pl/obszary-tematyczne/rynek-pracy/warunki-pracy-wypadki-przy-pracy/ (access 30. 04. 2023). 27 Rozporza˛dzenie Ministra Rodziny i Polityki Społecznej z dnia 9 grudnia 2022 r. w sprawie statystycznej karty wypadku przy pracy (Dz. U. z 2022 r. poz. 2750). Available at: https://i sap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20220002750 (access 30. 04. 2023).

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The following accident parameters were selected for the generic analysis of accident rate (definitions in accordance with Annex 2 to the Regulation28): – “activity performed at the time of the accident – there is activity performed by person injured in an deliberate and purposeful way, immediately before the accident”; – “causes of the accident – these are all shortcomings and irregularities that directly or indirectly contributed to the occurrence of the accident, related to material (technical) agents, to the general organization of work in the plant or organization of the workplace, or related to the employee”. The research was divided into two stages: – pilot studies – included the comparative analysis of the NACE sections for the year (2019), based on selected criteria of indicator analysis (5 indicators of accident rate); – proper research – included the comparative analysis for Poland and selected the NACE section (“mining and quarrying” – the name of the mining industry was adopted) for the period of 10 years (2010–2019), based on selected criteria of absolute analysis (7 measurers of accident rate), indicator analysis (7 indicators of accident rate) and generic analysis (2 accident parameters).

Pilot research The pilot research were aimed at comparing the NACE sections of and selection of business activities with an increased risk of accidents at work. Statistical data on accidents at work covered 2019 as the last year before the pandemic, because in the years 2020–2022 there were restrictions on the activity of selected the NACE sections. The research were based on selected criteria of indicator analysis (frequency indicators, severity indicator, risk indicator). Selected results of the indicator analysis of accidents at work by the NACE sections for 2019 are presented in table 1. The scope of the indicator analysis of accidents at work according to the data of the Statistics Poland (codes adopted in table 1) was as follows: – indicator of accident rate (author’s names): frequency indicator of total accidents per 103 employees (1.1), frequency indicator of fatal accidents per 105 employees (1.2), frequency indicator of serious accidents per 105 em-

28 Rozporza˛dzenie Ministra Rodziny i Polityki Społecznej z dnia 9 grudnia 2022 r. w sprawie statystycznej karty wypadku przy pracy (Dz. U. z 2022 r. poz. 2750). Available at: https://i sap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20220002750 (access 30. 04. 2023).

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ployees (1.3), severity indicator of accidents per 1 person injured (1.4), risk indicator of accidents (1.5); – the NACE sections (Polish Classification of Activities – abbreviated names): agriculture, forestry, hunting and fishing (A1), mining and quarrying (A2), manufacturing (A3), electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply (A4), water supply, sewage, waste management and remediation activities (A5), construction (A6), trade, repair of motor vehicles (A7), transportation and storage (A8), administrative and support service activities (A9), public administration and defense, compulsory social security (A10), education (A11), human health and social work activities (A12). Table 1. Selected results of indicator analysis of accident at work by the NACE sections Sekcja PKD A1 A2

1.1 8,60 17,34

1.2 8,47 13,69

1.3 16,10 7,20

1.4 52,7 76,3

1.5 453 1323

A3 A4

9,96 5,19

1,06 1,61

7,12 2,41

42,8 55,2

426 286

A5 A6

14,09 4,83

5,61 4,48

8,72 4,18

46,0 54,6

648 264

A7 A8

4,43 8,12

0,46 3,11

1,56 3,11

37,4 44,4

166 361

A9 A10

3,53 6,19

0,50 1,21

0,80 2,77

38,2 38,9

135 241

A11 A12

3,91 9,92

0,50 0,22

0,17 0,66

38,9 34,9

152 346

Polska

6,06

1,46

3,14

42,3

256

Source: own elaboration based on the data of Statistics Poland

Based on the conducted of the indicator analysis of accidents at work in 2019, according to the NACE sections, it can be concluded that: – section A1 “mining and quarrying” showed an increased risk for all values of indicators of accident rate (place in the classification; how many times higher than Poland): frequency indicator of total accidents (I; 2.86), frequency indicator of fatal accidents (I; 9, 38), frequency indicator of serious accidents (III; 2.29), severity indicator of accidents (I; 1.80), risk indicator of accidents (I; 5.17); – for section A5 “water supply, sewage, waste management and remediation activities” an increased risk was found for all values of indicators of accident rate (place in the classification; how many times higher than Poland): frequency indicator of total accidents (II; 2.33), frequency indicator of fatal

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accidents (III; 3.84), frequency indicator of serious accidents (II; 2.78), severity indicator of accidents (V; 1.09), risk indicator of accidents (II; 2.53); – for section A1 “agriculture, forestry, hunting and fishing” an increased risk was observed for all values of indicators of accident rate (place in the classification; how many times higher than Poland): frequency indicator of total accidents (V; 1.42), frequency indicator of fatal accidents (II; 5.80), frequency indicator of serious accidents (I; 5.13), severity indicator of accidents (IV; 1.25), risk indicator of accidents (III; 1.77); – moreover, for several sections, an increased risk was demonstrated for selected indicators of accident rate (indicator code): A3 “manufacturing” (1.1, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5), A4 “electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply” (1.2, 1.4, 1.5), A6 “construction” (1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5), A8 “transportation and storage” (1.1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.5), A12 “human health and social work activities” (1.1, 1.5).

Proper research Absolute analysis Selected results of the absolute analysis of accidents at work for Poland and the mining industry for the period 2010–2019 are presented in tables 2–3. The scope of the absolute analysis of accidents at work according to the data of the Statistics Poland (codes adopted in tables 2–3) was as follows: number of total accidents (2.1), number of people injured in total accidents (2.2), number of people injured in fatal accidents (2.3), number of people injured in serious accidents (2.4), number of days of incapacity for work due to accidents (2.5), number of collective accidents (2.6), number of people injured in collective accidents (2.7). Table 2. Selected results of absolute analysis of accident at work for Poland

96 573 97 222

Arithmetic mean 88 456 89 068

Standard deviation 4135 4197

Coefficient of variation 4,7% 4,7%

184 396

446 703

295,2 560,6

82,9 97,7

28,1% 17,4%

2.5 2.6

3418 936 256

3996 121 429

3706 806 354,0

197 769 66,5

5,3% 18,8%

2.7

630

1090

866,2

169,7

19,6%

Parameter

Minimum

Maximum

2.1 2.2

82 820 83 205

2.3 2.4

Source: own elaboration based on the data of Statistics Poland

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Table 3. Selected results of absolute analysis of accident at work for the mining industry

3127

Arithmetic mean 2437

Standard deviation 331

Coefficient of variation 13,6%

3175 29

2478 21,6

336 6,0

13,5% 27,6%

28 219 422 67 104

16,0 187 846 23,0 63,8

6,5 15 814 18,1 24,4

40,9% 8,4% 78,8% 38,3%

Parameter

Minimum

Maximum

2.1

2167

2.2 2.3

2200 11

2.4 2.5

9 174 766 9 33

2.6 2.7

Source: own elaboration based on the data of Statistics Poland

Based on the conducted the absolute analysis of accidents at work in 2010–2019, it can be concluded that: – for Poland: number of total accidents (small variation, decreasing trend -11.5%), number of people injured in total accidents (small variation, decreasing trend -11.7%), number of people injured in fatal accidents (medium variation, decreasing trend – 58.7%), number of people injured in serious accidents (small variation, decreasing trend -38.6%), number of days of incapacity for work due to accidents (small variation, decreasing trend -10.1%), number of collective accidents (small variation, decreasing trend -37.9%), number of people injured in collective accidents (small variation, decreasing trend -38.5%); – for the mining industry: number of total accidents (small variation, decreasing trend -30.7% in 2010–2017 and increasing trend +7.2% in 2017–2019), number of people injured in total accidents (small variation, decreasing trend -30.7% in 2010–2017 and an increasing trend +9.4% in 2017–2019), number of people injured in fatal accidents (moderate variation, no trend), number of people injured in serious accidents (high variation, no trend), number of days of incapacity for work due to accidents (small variation, decreasing trend -17.0%), number of collective accidents (high variation, no trend), number of victims of collective accidents (medium variation, no trend).

Indicator analysis Selected results of the indicator analysis of accidents at work for Poland and the mining industry for the period 2010–2019 are presented in tables 4–5. The scope of the indicator analysis of accidents at work according to the data of the Statistics Poland (codes adopted in tables 4–5) was as follows: frequency

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indicator of total accidents per 103 employees (1.1), frequency indicator of fatal accidents per 105 employees (1.2), frequency indicator of serious accidents per 105 employees (1.3), severity indicator of accidents per 1 person injured (1.4), risk indicator of accidents (1.5), frequency indicator of collective accidents per 105 employees (1.6), indicator of number of person injured for 1 collective accident (1.7). Table 4. Selected results of indicator analysis of accident at work for Poland

8,34 3,86

Arithmetic mean 7,22 2,43

Standard deviation 0,70 0,80

Coefficient of variation 9,7% 32,9%

2,88 38,7

6,03 43,5

4,58 41,8

0,96 1,4

21,0% 3,3%

1.5 1.6

256 4,67

344 9,31

301,4 7,07

28,1 1,71

9,3% 24,2%

1.7

2,23

2,60

2,45

0,13

5,4%

Parameter

Minimum

Maximum

1.1 1.2

6,06 1,34

1.3 1.4

Source: own elaboration based on the data of Statistics Poland Table 5. Selected results of indicator analysis of accident at work for the mining industry

17,82

Arithmetic mean 15,72

Standard deviation 1,32

Coefficient of variation 8,4%

7,92 6,26

18,77 17,03

13,62 10,01

3,26 3,56

23,9% 35,5%

1.4 1.5

69,7 1048

82,5 1323

76,9 1207,2

4,1 91,8

5,3% 7,6%

1.6 1.7

18,88 1,12

74,92 5,47

40,83 3,52

16,58 1,50

40,6% 42,6%

Parameter

Minimum

Maximum

1.1

13,97

1.2 1.3

Source: own elaboration based on the data of Statistics Poland

Based on the conducted the indicator analysis of accidents at work in 2010–2019, it can be concluded that: – for Poland: frequency indicator of total accidents (small variation, decreasing trend -22.1%), frequency indicator of fatal accidents (medium variation, decreasing trend -65.2%), frequency indicator of serious accidents (moderate variation, decreasing trend -48.4%), severity indicator of accidents (small variation, decreasing trend -7.2% in 2010–2014 and constant trend in 2015– 2019), risk indicator of accidents (small variation, decreasing trend -21.0%), frequency indicator of collective accidents (medium variation, decreasing

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trend -45.8%), indicator of number of person injured for 1 collective accident (small variation, constant trend); – for the mining industry: frequency indicator of total accidents (small variation, decreasing trend -21.6% in 2010–2013 and increasing trend +21.1% in 2013–2019), frequency indicator of fatal accidents (medium variation, no trend frequency indicator of serious accidents (medium variation, no trend), severity indicator of accidents (small variation, increasing trend +18.4% in 2010–2017 and decreasing trend -7.5% in 2017–2019), risk indicator of accidents (small variation, no trend), frequency indicator of collective accidents (high variation, no trend), indicator of number of person injured for 1 collective accident (high variation, no trend).

Generic analysis Selected results of the generic analysis of accidents at work for Poland and the mining industry for the period 2010–2019 are presented in tables 6–9. The scope of the generic analysis of accidents at work according to the data of the Statistics Poland (codes adopted in tables 6–9) was as follows (share [%] was examined): – activities performed at the time of the accident: operating machines (3.1), working with hand tools (3.2), driving / driving means of transport / operating other machines and devices (3.3), handling objects (3.4), manual transport (3.5), movement (3.6); – causes of the accident: improper condition of the material agent (3.7), improper general organization of work (3.8), improper organization of the workplace (3.9), lack or improper use of the material agent (3.10), improper willful behavior of the employee (3.11), improper behavior of the employee (3.12). Table 6. Selected results of generic analysis of accident at work for Poland (share [%] of activities performed at the time of the accident)

9,73

Arithmetic mean 9,29

Standard deviation 0,27

Coefficient of variation 2,9%

12,33 6,40

12,86 6,79

12,59 6,61

0,19 0,13

1,5% 2,0%

3.4 3.5

15,79 14,20

17,65 15,07

16,75 14,69

0,60 0,31

3,6% 2,1%

3.6

34,72

36,67

35,65

0,72

2,0%

Parameter

Minimum

Maximum

3.1

8,83

3.2 3.3

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Source: own elaboration based on the data of Statistics Poland Table 7. Selected results of generic analysis of accident at work for the mining industry (share [%] of activities performed at the time of the accident)

7,45 14,46

Arithmetic mean 6,61 12,99

Standard deviation 0,44 0,44

Coefficient of variation 6,7% 3,4%

4,17 19,23

6,72 21,94

5,67 20,33

0,62 0,80

10,9% 4,0%

17,80 30,41

21,66 32,36

19,38 31,20

0,74 1,08

3,8% 3,5%

Parameter

Minimum

Maximum

3.1 3.2

5,94 12,21

3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6

Source: own elaboration based on the data of Statistics Poland Table 8. Selected results of generic analysis of accident at work for Poland (share [%] of causes of the accident)

9,04

Arithmetic mean 8,63

Standard deviation 0,26

Coefficient of variation 3,0%

4,11 5,24

5,14 5,51

4,61 5,39

0,38 0,11

8,2% 2,0%

3.10 3.11

6,86 6,61

7,49 6,87

7,29 6,74

0,18 0,10

2,4% 1,5%

3.12

54,04

60,83

57,94

2,84

4,9%

Parameter

Minimum

Maximum

3.7

8,34

3.8 3.9

Source: own elaboration based on the data of Statistics Poland Table 9. Selected results of generic analysis of accident at work for the mining industry (share [%] of causes of the accident)

12,96

Arithmetic mean 10,18

Standard deviation 1,07

Coefficient of variation 10,5%

8,11 7,65

6,64 7,12

1,07 0,89

16,1% 12,5%

6,32 9,13

8,34 11,41

7,50 10,12

0,44 0,62

5,8% 6,2%

49,56

55,74

52,62

0,80

1,5%

Parameter

Minimum

Maximum

3.7

9,12

3.8 3.9

5,49 6,33

3.10 3.11 3.12

Source: own elaboration based on the data of Statistics Poland

Based on the conducted the generic analysis of accidents at work in 2010–2019, it can be concluded that (notes: for all activity parameters – small variation and constant trend, for all cause parameters – small variation): – ranking of the percentage share of activities performed at the time of the accident for Poland: movement (35.65%), handling objects (16.75%), manual

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transport (14.69%), working with hand tools (12.86%), operating machines (9.29%), driving / driving means of transport / operating other machines and devices (6.40%); – ranking of the percentage share of activities performed at the time of the accident for the mining industry: movement (31.20%), handling objects (20.33%), manual transport (19.38%), working with hand tools (12.99%), operating machines (6.61%), driving / driving means of transport / operating other machines and devices (5.67%); – ranking of the percentage share of the causes of the accident for Poland: improper behavior of the employee (57.94%, constant trend in two separate periods – 2010–2013 and 2014–2019), improper condition of the material agent (8.63%, constant trend), lack of or improper use of the material agent (7.29%, constant trend), improper willful behavior of the employee (6.74%, constant trend), improper organization of the workplace (5.39%, constant trend), improper general organization of work (4.61%, increasing trend +18.0%); – ranking of the percentage share of accident causes for the mining industry: improper behavior of the employee (52.62%, decreasing trend -10.8% in 2010– 2013 and constant trend in 2014–2019), improper condition of the material agent (10.18%, constant trend), improper willful behavior of the employee (10.12%, increasing trend +25.0% in 2010–2014 and constant trend in 2015– 2019), lack of or improper use of the material agent (7.50%, increasing trend +18.0%), improper organization of the workplace (7.12%, constant trend), improper general organization of work (6.64%, constant trend).

Summary Summary of the results of own research in the field of analysis of accidents at work: – The leading supervisory authority over working conditions is the National Labor Inspectorate, which supervises and controls compliance with labor law, and its tasks include investigation of the circumstances and causes of accidents at work. Identification of risk areas of accidents at work can be carried out on the basis of the analysis of statistics on accident rate using absolute, indicator and generic analyses. – The values of all measures of accident rate for Poland show decreasing trend, but in the case of mining, different results were obtained, e. g. (for fatal, serious and collective accidents – medium and high variation): decreasing trend in the years 2010–2017 and increasing trend in the years 2017–2019 for number of total accidents and number of people injured in total accidents, no trend for

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–

–

–

–

–

–

–

171

number of people injured in fatal, serious and collective accidents, and number of collective accidents, decreasing trend for number of days of incapacity for work due to accidents. The values of most indicators of accident rate show for Poland decreasing trend (exceptions: decreasing trend in the years 2010–2014 and constant trend in the years 2015–2019 for severity indicator of accidents, constant trend for indicator of number of person injured for 1 collective accident), but in the case of mining, different results were obtained, e. g. (for fatal and serious accidents – medium variation, for collective accidents – high variation): decreasing trend in the years 2010–2013 and increasing in the years 2013–2019 for frequency indicator of total accidents, no trend for frequency indicator of fatal, serious and collective accidents, risk indicator of accidents and indicator of number of person injured for 1 collective accident, increasing trend in the years 2010– 2017 and decreasing trend in the years 2017–2019 for severity indicator of accidents. The values of indicators of accident rate are higher for mining than for Poland (how many times): frequency indicator of total accidents (2.18), frequency indicator of fatal accidents (5.60), frequency indicator of serious accidents (2.19), severity indicator of accidents (1.84), risk indicator of accidents (4.01), frequency indicator of collective accidents (5.78), indicator of number of person injured for 1 collective accident (1.44). The dominant activity performed at the time of the accident was movement, which accounted for every third activity related to an accident in Poland and mining – the average share was 35.65% and 31.20%, respectively (mining by over 4% less). Struktura udziału czynnos´ci wykonywanych w chwili wypadku dla Polski i górnictwa jest identyczna, obejmuje kolejno: poruszanie sie˛, operowanie przedmiotami, transport re˛czny, prace narze˛dziami re˛cznymi, obsługiwanie maszyn, kierowanie / jazda s´rodkami transportu / obsługa innych maszyn i urza˛dzen´. The structure of the share of activities performed at the time of the accident for Poland and the mining industry is identical, it includes: movement, handling objects, manual transport, working with hand tools, operating machines, driving / driving means of transport / operating other machines and devices. The dominant cause of accidents was the improper behavior of the employee, which was more often than every second cause of accidents in Poland and in the mining industry – the average share was 57.94% and 52.62%, respectively (mining by over 5% less). The structure of the share of causes of accidents for Poland and the mining industry shows some differences, with improper behavior of the employee and improper condition of the material agent, but the next items switch places

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(items 3–4 and 5–6), the largest differences were found for improper willful behavior of the employee (average share for Poland and mining) – 6.74% and 10.12%, respectively (mining by over 3% more).

References Encyklopedia PWN. Available at: https://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo/wolnosc;3997768. html (access 30. 04. 2023). Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 2 kwietnia 1997 r. (Dz. U. z 1997 r. Nr 78, poz. 483, z póz´n. zm.). Available at: https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id =WDU19970780483 (access 30. 04. 2023). Koradecka D. (red.), Bezpieczen´stwo i higiena pracy. CIOP-PIB, Warszawa 2008. Krause M., Podstawy badan´ w dziedzinie bezpieczen´stwa i higieny pracy. Wydawnictwo Politechniki S´la˛skiej, Gliwice 2018. Krause M., Podstawy inz˙ynierii bezpieczen´stwa. Wydawnictwo Politechniki S´la˛skiej, Gliwice 2020. Krause M., Romanowska-Słomka I., Podstawy bezpieczen´stwa i higieny pracy. PWSZ, Wałbrzych 2014. Pietrzak L., Analiza wypadków przy pracy dla potrzeb prewencji. PIP, Warszawa 2007. Pietrzak L., Badania wypadków przy pracy. Modele i metody. CIOP-PIB, Warszawa 2004. Rozporza˛dzenie Ministra Rodziny i Polityki Społecznej z dnia 9 grudnia 2022 r. w sprawie statystycznej karty wypadku przy pracy (Dz. U. z 2022 r. poz. 2750). Available at: https://i sap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20220002750 (access 30. 04. 2023). Rozporza˛dzenie Rady Ministrów z dnia 1 lipca 2009 r. w sprawie ustalania okolicznos´ci i przyczyn wypadków przy pracy (Dz. U. z 2009 r. Nr 105, poz. 870). Available at: https://i sap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20091050870 (access 30. 04. 2023). Sprawozdanie z działalnos´ci Pan´stwowej Inspekcji Pracy (okres lat 2010–2021), Główny Inspektorat Pracy. Available at: https://www.pip.gov.pl/pl/o-urzedzie/sprawozdania-zdzialalnosci (access 30. 04. 2023). Ustawa z dnia 13 kwietnia 2007 r. o Pan´stwowej Inspekcji Pracy (Dz. U. z 2022 r. poz. 1614). Available at: https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20070890589 (access 30. 04. 2023). Ustawa z dnia 26 czerwca 1974 r. Kodeks pracy (Dz.U. z 2022 r. poz. 1510, z póz´n. zm.). Available at: https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU19740240141 (access 30. 04. 2023). Wypadki przy pracy (okres lat 2010–2022), Główny Urza˛d Statystyczny. Available at: https://stat.gov.pl/obszary- tematyczne/rynek-pracy/warunki-pracy-wypadki-przy-pra cy/ (access 30. 04. 2023). Zawieska W. (red.), Ryzyko zawodowe. Metodyczne podstawy oceny. CIOP-PIB, Warszawa 2009.

Maja Taraszkiewicz-Łyda1

Safety Issues in the Context of Cardiovascular Disease and Sudden Cardiac Arrest Incidence as a Global Public Health Problem

Introduction There is a close relationship between broadly understood and defined security and health. One of the commonly used definitions of security claims that it is a state that provides a sense of certainty and a guarantee of its preservation, as well as opportunities for improvement. It is one of the basic human needs characterized by the absence of risk of losing something that an individual particularly values, for example, health, work, respect, feelings, and material goods2. Health is a fundamental value, and the issue of health security is an immensely important and complex area of action in state policy. Ensuring the health security of citizens is the most crucial element of health policy. When touching on the area of health, it is necessary to point out the scope of public health tasks, which is expanding with the rise of civilization threats. The World Health Organization (WHO) states that the goal of organized efforts of society is to enable every citizen to secure his or her inherent right to health and longevity3. A significant impact on improving people’s sense of health security comes from the numerous support activities of health-promoting institutions. Certainly, disease prevention is much more beneficial and efficient for human beings and the health care system. As in other countries of the European Union, Poland is facing increasing mortality from diseases of civilization, which include, for example, cardiovascular diseases, being the most common cause of death in the country. This mortality for years has remained at a constant high level – annually, more than 440 people per 100,000 population die (in EU-370). Despite the improvement of the epidemiological situation, in the last two decades mortality rates due to 1 Faculty of Mining, Safety Engineering and Industrial Automation of the Silesian University of Technology, [email protected], PhD, ORCID: 0000-0002-3658-500X. 2 Kaczmarek J., Łepkowski W., Zdrodowski B. (red.), Słownik termino´w z zakresu bezpieczen´stwa narodowego, Wydawnictwo AON, Warszawa 2009, p. 13. 3 Expert Committee on public health administration. First Report, WHO Technical Report Series, no 55, WHO, Geneva, 1952.

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cardiovascular disease, especially premature mortality rates (under 65 years of age), have been still high in Poland. The incidence of cardiovascular disease remains strongly related to lifestyle and the environmental issues, including cultural, social, and socioeconomic conditions. Undoubtedly, health promotion and health education on, for example, the prevention of cardiovascular disease, but also on the management of emergencies (e. g., sudden cardiac arrest) and the provision of pre-medical first aid can have an impact on shaping correct responses in the event of an emergency. These are the challenges that public health is facing today.

Public health – role and scope of activities One of the first definitions of public health reads: public health is the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life, and promoting physical health and fitness through the organized efforts of society to make the environment more hygienic, combat infections found in communities, educate individuals about the principles of personal hygiene, organize medical and nursing services aimed at early diagnosis and preventive targeted treatment, and develop social mechanisms that will ensure that every individual in society has a standard of living appropriate for maintaining health4. Another accepted definition describes public health as the art and science of preventing disease, promoting health, and prolonging life through the organized efforts of society5. The American Academy of Sciences, on the other hand, sees public health as all that we, as a society, do collectively to ensure the conditions under which people can stay healthy. The scope of these activities, in turn, reflects the interest society has in providing these conditions6. Public health means the concern for the preservation and enhancement of health at the macro-social, local and environmental levels, involving the scientific recognition of the health status and health needs of the collective and the initiation of coordinated efforts by governmental, local governmental and nongovernmental institutions to achieve the desired standards of health. This is achieved through the control of ecological factors, the creation of socioeconomic conditions conducive to health, the prevention of infectious and non-infectious social diseases, universal and equal access to medical care, and, above all, as a 4 Winslow C-E.A.,The untilled fields of public health. Science, 1920, vol. 51 (1306); 23–33. 5 Acheson D., Independent inquiry into inequalities in health. HM Stationary Office, London, 1988. 6 The Future of Public Health. Committee for Study of the Future of Public Health, Division of Health Care Services, Institute of Medicine, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 1988.

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result of the formation of healthy lifestyle habits within preschool and school education and the implementation of health promotion programs. In this view, public health means: 1) the health status of the collective (population) of society, the nation (macrosocial dimension), residents of cities, municipalities, counties, and provinces (local dimension), children, adolescents, women, men, working population, people with disabilities, etc. (environmental dimension), 2) the role of factors affecting the health status of a given collective (population), including genetic, socioeconomic, cultural, physical, chemical, biological, and climatic factors, 3) the active role (concern) of various actors – including, first and foremost, the state obligated to initiate (for example, appropriate legislation), organize and, more specifically, solicit and encourage participation in joint ventures of individuals and social groups, coordinate and evaluate collective efforts to achieve health goals and desired health standards7. There is also a new approach in operation defining the so called new public health that considers contemporary health risks and current knowledge of their sources and opportunities for counteracting them, as well as pointing the direction of comprehensive action. The new public health is a science and comprehensive proceedings aimed at preserving and strengthening the health of the population at a macro-social and local level. The basis of this proceeding is the scientific recognition of the health and health needs of the collective, and the initiation and organization of coordinated efforts of governmental, local and non-governmental institutions to achieve the desired standards of health. This is achieved through the implementation of the basic functions of public health, particularly through the formation of healthy lifestyle habits, the implementation of health promotion programs, the prevention of communicable and non-communicable diseases of social importance, the control of ecological factors, the creation of socioeconomic conditions conducive to health, and the provision of universal and equal access to medical care8. This approach to the new public health emphasizes management and health promotion aspects. The fundamental goal of public health activities is to target the entire population, preserve and strengthen human health and prevent disease and premature death. Unlike medical interventions that focus on patients, public health activities encompass the entire population, and many times also have an inter7 Nosko J., Zachowania zdrowotne i zdrowie publiczne. Aspekty historyczno-kulturowe. IMP Ło´ dz´. 2005. pp. 137, 283–284. 8 Wysocki M., Miller M., Paradygmat Lalonde’a, S´wiatowa Organizacja Zdrowia i Nowe Zdrowie Publiczne, Przegl. Epidemiologiczny, 2003; 57(3): 506–511.

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national or even global dimension. At its core, public health is a broadly defined system of social action. Since cardiovascular disease develops in the early stages of life, the primary task of health promotion in reducing the incidence of cardiovascular disease is to bring about, through education and changes in living conditions, the spread in the population, pro-healthy lifestyles that weaken the dynamics of the process. It is important that educational and environmental activities aimed at this goal include the entire population, starting with the youngest possible segments of society. The basis of population-oriented educational health promotion activities should be considered the development in individuals, groups and collectives of the ability to perceive and adequately assess the relationship between everyday life and the risk of cardiovascular disease. It is also about developing the ability and will to counteract the perceived risk.

Cardiovascular disease and sudden cardiac arrest Of all recorded causes of death worldwide, the most common are those related to cardiac arrest. In Europe, it affects about 700,000 people a year, of which about 350,000 cases occur outside the hospital. This phenomenon is spreading with the deepening negative changes in both civilization and society. Epidemiological data consider the existence of lifestyle-dependent relationships and incidence of cardiovascular disease. With the increase in the level of industrialization, and consequently the development of Western markets, the number of cases of cardiac arrest (sudden cardiac arrest, SCA) is increasing. The occurrence of the situation is unpredictable, occurs unexpectedly, and the health consequences borne by the patient are irreversible. A case of SCA is defined as a sudden medical condition in which there is a cessation of circulation, which is equivalent to a cessation of blood flow. As a result, breathing stops and irreversible brain damage occurs. Any cardiac arrest is associated with a high risk of death. The same situations are particularly dangerous when a cardiac arrest occurs, such as on the street, at home, and therefore in an out-of-hospital setting. Out-of-hospital sudden cardiac arrest (OHCA) is an event with a particularly high risk of death. According to the latest data from a study in the United States, survival in OHCA is still around 12% and requires decisive corrective action. In situations OHCA, where all first aid measures are not performed, up to 90% mortality is recorded9. 9 Andres J., Resuscitation Guidelines 2015. Polish Resuscitation Council, Kraków 2016.

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Sudden cardiac arrest is the third most common cause of death in Europe. Many efforts have been made to understand the background and causes of cardiac arrest and the differences in its incidence within and between countries10,11. Undertaking cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) by witnessing an event can increase survival rates by 2–3 times. Unfortunately, as of today, CPR is undertaken in only 1 out of every 5 out-of-hospital sudden cardiac arrest events. Increasing the frequency of resuscitation efforts could save 100,000 lives a year in Europe. In many cases of SCA, it is possible for the victim to survive, provided that resuscitative measures are implemented immediately. All actions leading to the rescue of a person with SCA are included in the Chain of Survival. The chain of survival for a casualty with out-of-hospital sudden cardiac arrest was first described by Friedrich Wilhelm Ahnefeld in 1967. He emphasized the importance of timing of individual interventions (presented as links) to maximize the chance of survival12. This concept was further developed in 1988 by Mary M. Newman of the Sudden Cardiac Arrest Foundation in the United States13 and modified and updated by the American Heart Association in 199114. Links of the survival chain: 1. Early recognition of a life-threatening situation and calling the emergency services: notification of the emergency services: phone 112 or 999. 2. Early undertaking of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) by witnesses to the incident. 3. Early defibrillation: CPR combined with defibrillation within 3–5 minutes of loss of consciousness can increase the survival rate to 49–75%. Each minute of delay in defibrillation reduces the probability of survival to hospital discharge by 10–15%. 4. Early initiation of Advanced Resuscitation Procedures by the ambulance team and post-resuscitation care. In most cases, it takes at least 8 minutes from the time of the call for help to the arrival of emergency services. The victim’s 10 Grasner J.T., Wnent J., Herlitz J., et al., Survival after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest in Europe – results of the EuReCa TWO study. Resuscitation 2020; 148: 218–26. 11 Kiguchi T., Okubo M., Nishiyama C., et al., Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest across the World: First report from the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR). Resuscitation 2020; 152: 39–49. 12 Considine J., Gazmuri R.J., Perkins G.D., et al., Chest compression components (rate, depth, chest wall recoil and leaning): A scoping review. Resuscitation 2020; 146: 188–202. 13 Newman M.M., Chain of survival concept takes hold. J Emerg MedServ 1989; 14: 11–3. 14 Cummins R.O., Ornato J.P., Thies W.H., Pepe P.E., Improving survival from sudden car- diac arrest: the “chain of survival” concept. A statement for health professionals from the Advanced Cardiac Life Support Subcommittee and the Emergency Cardiac Care Committee, American Heart Association. Circulation 1991; 83: 1832–47.

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chances of survival depend on the implementation of the first three links in the chain of survival by witnesses to the incident during this time. One tool for improving survival rates, both those calculated at the time of admission to the hospital and after treatment, is widespread access to Automated External Defibrillators (AEDs). Defibrillators are highly specialized, reliable, computerized devices that use voice and visual commands to guide both medically trained and non-medically trained individuals through the procedure for safe defibrillation in cardiac arrest. Their rapid application minimizes the effects of hypoxia and significantly increases the chances of survival – among those who undergo AEDs, the average survival rate is close to 50%. For an AED to be effective, however, certain conditions must be met. One of these is the use of an AED shortly after the onset of SCA. It is estimated that the effectiveness of defibrillation decreases by 7–10% with each minute. The greatest effectiveness is achieved when defibrillation is performed up to 3 minutes after SCA. The use of apparatus to support rescue efforts in urban areas is an undeniable convenience and help in situations of sudden threat to the health and life of the victim. Immediate care in any case is associated with a more favorable prognosis for further treatment compared to no such action. However, rapid response is possible if the public is aware of the nature of the AED defibrillator, its location, and has the skills to use it. As indicated by numerous research results and guidelines of international scientific societies, the correct and thoughtful location of an external defibrillator is one of the main factors that guarantee the possibility of carrying out effective assistance.

Promoting Health and knowledge of preventive health care and first aid skills Health promotion is very often equated with health education, however, there are differences between the two. Prevention in its pure form takes action in terms of diseases, while health promotion takes action through the prism of health determinants, especially environmental, social and economic factors. Prevention is usually implemented by professionals (doctors, nurses, teachers, etc.). Health promotion seeks to mobilize community members to do their own thing. The success of prevention is measured in health terms (e. g., reduction in mortality or incidence of a particular disease), while the success of health promotion is most often measured in social terms (e. g., self-reliance, assertiveness) or organizational terms (e. g., pro-health change in the functioning of institutions).

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In one of the earliest documents, the so-called Ottawa Charter, health promotion was described as a process that enables people to increase their control over their health and thus improve it. The word “control” here has a broad meaning and includes the mastery of life and health situations, as well as managing them for the benefit of health. For this process to occur, it is necessary to: (1) enable change, (2) mediate between different groups, and (3) advocate for health15. In 1989, the American Journal of Health Promotion provided an expanded definition16: Health promotion is the science and art of helping people change their lifestyles to achieve a state of optimal health. Optimal health results from a balance of physical, emotional, social, spiritual, and intellectual health. Lifestyle changes can be facilitated through a combination of efforts to raise awareness, change behavior and create environments that support good health practices. Of the three, the third factor – a supportive environment – is arguably the most influential in bringing about lasting change.

Summary European countries are struggling with increasing mortality from diseases of civilization, which include cardiovascular disease, the most common cause of death. Ensuring the health security of citizens is the most important element of health policy. Touching on the area of health, it is necessary to point out the scope of public health tasks, which is expanding with the rise of civilization threats. Undoubtedly, health promotion and health education, for example, in the prevention of cardiovascular disease, but also in the management of emergencies (such as sudden cardiac arrest) and the provision of premedical first aid has an impact on the formation of correct responses in the event of an emergency. Such measures should be implemented and disseminated in the population through education starting with the youngest possible segments of society.

15 Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion [online]. World Health Organization World Health Organization, 1986. [doste˛p: 15. 05. 2023]. Doste˛pny w Internecie: https://www.who.int/team s/health-promotion/enhanced-well-being/first-global-conference. 16 Mittelmark M.B., Kickbusch I., Rootman I., Scriven A., Tones K., Health Promotion. W: Heggenhougen H.K.; Quah S. red.: International Encyclopedia of Public Health. Amsterdam, Elsevier, Academic Press, 2008, Tom 3, pp. 225–240.

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References Acheson D., Independent inquiry into inequalities in health. HM Stationary Office, London, 1988. Andres J., Resuscitation Guidelines 2015. Polish Resuscitation Council, Kraków 2016. Considine J., Gazmuri R.J., Perkins G.D., et al., Chest compression components (rate, depth, chest wall recoil and leaning): A scoping review. Resuscitation 2020; 146: 188–202. Cummins R.O., Ornato J.P., Thies W.H., Pepe P.E., Improving survival from sudden cardiac arrest: the “chain of survival” concept. A statement for health professionals from the Advanced Cardiac Life Support Subcommittee, and the Emergency Cardiac Care Committee, American Heart Association. Circulation 1991; 83: 1832–47. Expert Committee on public health administration. First Report, WHO Technical Report Series, no 55, WHO, Geneva, 1952. Grasner J.T., Wnent J., Herlitz J., et al., Survival after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest in Europe – results of the EuReCa TWO study. Resuscitation 2020; 148: 218–26. Kaczmarek J., Łepkowski W., Zdrodowski B. (red.), Słownik termino´w z zakresu bezpieczen´stwa narodowego, Wydawnictwo AON, Warszawa 2009, p. 13. Kiguchi T., Okubo M., Nishiyama C., et al., Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest across the World: First report from the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR). Resuscitation 2020; 152: 39–49. Mittelmark M.B., Kickbusch I., Rootman I., Scriven A., Tones K., Health Promotion. W: Heggenhougen H.K.; Quah S. red.: International Encyclopedia of Public Health. Amsterdam, Elsevier, Academic Press, 2008, Tom 3, pp. 225–240. Newman M.M., Chain of survival concept takes hold. J Emerg MedServ 1989; 14: 11–3. Nosko J., Zachowania zdrowotne i zdrowie publiczne. Aspekty historyczno-kulturowe. IMP Ło´dz´. 2005. pp. 137, 283–284. Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion [online]. World Health Organization World Health Organization, 1986. [doste˛p: 15. 05. 2023]. Doste˛pny w Internecie: https://www.who.in t/teams/health-promotion/enhanced-well-being/first-global-conference. The Future of Public Health. Committee for Study of the Future of Public Health, Division of Health Care services, Institute of Medicine, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 1988. Winslow C-E.A.,The untilled fields of public health. Science, 1920, vol. 51 (1306); 23–33. Wysocki M., Miller M., Paradygmat Lalonde’a, S´wiatowa Organizacja Zdrowia i Nowe Zdrowie Publiczne, Przegl. Epidemiologiczny, 2003; 57(3): 506–511.

Paweł Wrona1 / Edyta Franiel2

Study of visibility in a short tunnel during a fire – numerical model in the Pyrosim program

Introduction With the development of road and rail transport, there is a need to build more tunnels. In the terms of safety, due to the limited evacuation possibilities in the event of a fire or other accident, the tunnel is a critical element of the infrastructure. The factors that have the greatest impact on the functioning of the tunnel are its dimensions (length, width, height), inclination, shape of the crosssection and the number of traffic directions. At the stage of planning the tunnel and its fire ventilation, the expected number of vehicles and people using it, the expected gas concentrations and the safety of its users, including evacuation, smoke removal and fresh air supply are taken into account. In the event of a fire, evacuation must be possible, as well as efficient access of emergency services3. Tunnel ventilation can be natural or mechanical4. In the case of natural ventilation, during a fire, convective streams are formed as a result of the temperature increase, which results in raising smoke to the ceiling of the tunnel. The increasing amount of smoke accumulated in the upper part of the tunnel causes it to be pushed towards the portals and tends to fill the entire cross-section of the tunnel. The consequence of using only natural ventilation during a fire may be cutting off the escape routes due to the lack of visibility and the release of harmful combustion products. According to the EU regulations5, natural ventilation is used only in tunnels not longer than 400 m. In this case, the air flow is caused by 1 Faculty of Mining, Safety Engineering and Industrial Automation of the Silesian University of Technology, [email protected], ORCID: 0000-0001-5978-4039. 2 JSW SiG Sp. z o. o., [email protected]. 3 Mizielin´ski B., Kubicki G., Wentylacja poz˙arowa. Oddymianie, Wyd. Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2017. 4 We˛grzyn´ski W., Krajewski G., Wentylacja poz˙arowa tuneli drogowych, “Materiały budowlane, Budownictwo Podziemne” 2/2015 (no. 510). 5 Directive 2004/54/WE Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady z dnia 29 kwietnia 2004 r. w sprawie minimalnych wymagan´ bezpieczen´stwa dla tuneli w transeuropejskiej sieci drogowej, Dziennik Urze˛dowy Unii Europejskiej L 167/39/2004.

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the so-called chimney draft with the additional participation of wind or vehicles. The results of work on the issue of natural chimney draught in the tunnels were presented, for example, in the article. The work showed that it is important to take into account the chimney draft when designing and properly designing fire ventilation devices in tunnels6. Mechanical ventilation can be longitudinal, transverse or mixed. The choice of solution depends on the technical conditions of the facility. The basis of mechanical ventilation in the tunnel is the operation of fans7. Properly made and adjusted mechanical ventilation is a guarantee of safe use of the tunnel. Properly designed, it provides good visibility necessary for evacuation, because the level of visibility largely contributes to efficient evacuation from a tunnel during a fire. Visibility is understood as the maximum distance at which the human eye, under the prevailing conditions, is still able to recognize the object and the background behind it. The concept of the visibility range was also present in the already withdrawn (and so far not replaced) standard in the field of fire protection of buildings8. According to her, it is considered as the maximum distance at which an object observed in a given light-scattering environment is still visible, which means that the luminance contrast of the object observed in this medium is equal to the threshold contrast sensitivity of the human eye. One of the most important aspects affecting the safety of using the facility is the appropriate level of visibility, which in the event of a fire improves evacuation and rescue services. The applied fire ventilation should ensure visibility up to a height of at least 1.8 m, which means that the bottom layer of smoke cannot be below this height. Measuring devices are used to monitor the level of visibility in tunnels. Their operation is based on the determination of the optical density factor K, which shows the loss of visibility due to air pollution, and the detection of stray light by air sampling and analysis9. As it is presented in the work9, so far, visibility tests during a fire in a tunnel have been carried out, for example, in terms of changes in visibility in the test chamber during test fires. Other works are

6 Król M., Król A., Koper P., Wrona P., The influence of natural draught on the air flow in a tunnel with longitudinal ventilation, “Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology”, 2019, vol. 85, pp. 140–148, doi:10.1016/j.tust.2018.12.008. 7 Nawrat S., Napieraj S., Wentylacja i bezpieczen´stwo w tunelach komunikacyjnych, Wyd. AGH, Kraków 2005. 8 Standard PN-B-02856:1989 Ochrona przeciwpoz˙arowa budynków – Metoda badania włas´ciwos´ci dymotwórczych materiałów. 9 Koch N., Niewiadomski A., Wrona P., Influence of light wavelengths on visibility in smoke during a tunnel fire, “Sustainability”, 2021, vol. 13, no. 21, pp. 1–10, doi:10.3390/su132111599.

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referred to measurements and simulations of air velocity in the tunnel with different activation variants, for instance1011. Another option is to use numerical simulations. One of the available computational programs is the Fire Dynamics Simulator program with the Pyrosim graphical interface belonging to the group of CFD programs12. This paper shows the results of research into the impact of the selection of the type of ventilation in the tunnel on the amount of visibility during a fire in the tunnel. Since it is impossible to carry out reliable in situ measurements during a fire, numerical simulations make it possible to study the development of a fire. The main purpose of the research was to show that although mechanical ventilation is not obligatory for use in tunnels shorter than 400 m, it can have a positive effect on changes in visibility in the tunnel during fire and therefore should be considered as an alternative solution by designers of fire ventilation in tunnels.

Methodology and assumptions The PyroSim program is an interface for the FDS (Fire Dynamics Simulator) environment. It is used to create fire simulations, and it belongs to the group of CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) programs. The simulation results are presented in the form of visualization in Smokeview directly in the model and as graphs of data saved on the measuring devices used in the project13. The model consisting 168000 cells in the network were established. The tested tunnel has a rectangular cross-section and dimensions of 250 m in length, 12 m in width and 7 m in height, Figure 1. With a tunnel length of 250 m, natural ventilation can be used and this is the first of the calculation variants. The slope is equal to 0º. The burning object is a passenger car 4 m long, 1.5 m wide and 1.5 m high, located 38 m from the tunnel entrance. The power of the tested fire is 2.4 MW, which corresponds to the hypothetical power of a burning car14. The resulting visibility 10 Król A., Król M., Koper P., Wrona P., Numerical modelling of air velocity distribution in a road tunnel with a longitudinal ventilation system, “Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology”, 2019, vol. 91, pp. 1–14, doi:10.1016/j.tust.2019.103003. 11 Qinghua G., Hehua Z., Yuxin Z., Yi S., Yinping Z., Zhiguo Y., Smoke flow in full-scale urban road tunnel fires with large cross-sectional vertical shafts, “Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology”, 2020, vol. 104, doi:10.1016/j.tust.2020.103536. 12 Wrona P., Visibility at the first stage of fire in a blind excavation – CFD simulations, “Modern mining – selected issues, Monograph”, Wyd. Pol.Sl., vol. 800, Gliwice, 2019. 13 Pyrosim Manual [https://support.thunderheadeng.com/docs/pyrosim/2020-2/user-manual/]. 14 Park Y., Ryu J., Ryou H.S., Experimental Study on the Fire-Spreading Characteristics and Heat Release Rates of Burning Vehicles Using a Large-Scale Calorimeter, “Energies” 2019, 12, 1465. doi:10.3390/en12081465.

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plane was placed in the model, located in the middle of the section (6.0 m) along the entire length and height of the model.

Figure 1: The model [own study]

Four visibility sensors were used (in the middle of the section, at a height of 2.0 m, at distances of 10.0 m (sensor 4), 60.0 m (sensor 1), 125.0 m (sensor 2), 190.0 m from the tunnel entrance (sensor 3). In order to study the course of a fire using mechanical ventilation in the second, third and fourth variants, visibility sensors were used in the model (in the middle of the section, at a height of 2.0 m, at distances of 10.0 m, 60.0 m, 125.0 m, 190.0 m from the tunnel entrance) and three smoke detectors (in the middle of the section, at a height of 6.0 m, at distances of 40.0 m, 120.0 m, 200.0 m from the tunnel entrance), Figure 1. In the first variant of the model, a passenger car fire was simulated without the use of mechanical ventilation. The operation of gravitational ventilation was tested. In the second, third and fourth variants, two sections of two were use fans installed under the tunnel ceiling at distances of 80.0 m and 160.0 m from its inlet. In the second variant, the first smoke detector is located above the fire (at a distance of 40.0 m from the tunnel inlet, at a height of 6.0 m) activated two fans of the first section, and the second sensor (at a distance of 120.0 m from the tunnel entrance, at a height of 6.0 m) activated two fans of the second section. The flow rate on each fan was determined at 10.0 m3/s, which corresponds to the volume flow measured during the tests. In the third variant, the fire was investigated, when the first smoke detector activates all four fans installed in the tunnel at once, and the flow of air on each of them is 10.0 m3/s. In the fourth variant, the fire

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was tested for the same conditions as in the third variant, but with a higher air flow on each fan of 20.0 m3/s. The time of fire simulation was assumed to be 90.0 s. Turbulence simplification in the form of Large Eddy Simulation (LES) was used in the program. A brief summary of major assumptions for following simulation variants is given below: a. Variant 1 – Heat Release Rate 2.4 MW, gravitational ventilation. b. Variant 2 – Heat Release Rate 2.4 MW, mechanical ventilation, 1 smoke detector activates 1 section of 2 fans, airflow rate generated by the fans 10.0 m3/s. c. Variant 3 – Heat Release Rate 2.4 MW, mechanical ventilation, 1 smoke detector activates 2 section of 2 fans, airflow rate generated by the fans 10.0 m3/s. d. Variant 4 – Heat Release Rate 2.4 MW, mechanical ventilation, 1 smoke detector activates 2 section of 2 fans, airflow rate generated by the fans 20.0 m3/s.

Results and discussion a)

Variant 1 – natural ventilation

In variant 1 (without the use of mechanical ventilation), the smoke spread over 100.0 m of the tunnel after 30 s, and over 200.0 m after 90 s, Figure 2.

Figure 2: Variant 1 – visibility in a tunnel without mechanical ventilation in 90 s of simulation [own study]

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In the section from the tunnel entrance to the fire center (0–38.0 m), the visibility for 67 s was 30.0 m, and after that time it decreased to 8.0 m. In the last seconds of the simulation, it dropped to 6.0 m. In the part of the tunnel behind the burning car (40–250.0 m), visibility throughout the simulation was 30.0 m. Figure 3 shows the change in visibility read from sensor 4, located closest to the burning object for the variant 1.

Figure 3: Variant 1, visibility read from visibility sensor 4 [own study]

b)

Variant 2 – mechanical ventilation, smoke detectors activate a separate fan section

In the variant 2 (with mechanical ventilation, where smoke detectors 1 and 2 activated the 1st and 2nd section of the fans, respectively), the smoke spreads over 90.0 m of the tunnel after 30 s, and over 130.0 m after 90 s, Figure 4. In the area between the tunnel entrance and the car, the visibility was 30.0 m for 78 s, then it decreased to 22.5 m and until the end of the simulation it was 30 m was 30 m, then decreased to 2.0 m and then changed to values between 1.0 and 8.0 m. Between fan sections (80.0–160.0 m) the visibility was 30.0 m for 80 s of the simulation, then sharply decreased to 2.0 m and in the last seconds it was 5.0–13.0 m. In the section from the second fan section to the tunnel outlet (160.0–250.0 m) the visibility was at the level of 30.0 m throughout the simu-

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lation. Figure 5 shows the change in visibility read from sensor 4, located closest to the burning object for variant 2.

Figure 4: Variant 2 – visibility in a tunnel without mechanical ventilation in 90 s of simulation [own study]

Figure 5: Variant 2, visibility read from visibility sensor 4 [own study]

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Variant 3 – mechanical ventilation, smoke detector activates two sections of fans

In the variant 3 (with mechanical ventilation, where the smoke sensor 1 activates both fan sections), the smoke spreads over 80.0 m of the tunnel after 30 s, and over 90.0 m after 90 s, Figure 6.

Figure 6: Variant 3 – visibility in a tunnel without mechanical ventilation in 90 s of simulation [own study]

In the area between the tunnel entrance and the car, visibility was equal 30.0 m for 57 s, then it dropped to 3.0 m once, and by the end of the simulation it had a value of 1.0 to 7.0 m. In the section from the car to the first section of the fans, the visibility for 10 s was 30.0 m, once it fell to 21.0 m, and then it assumed different values, decreasing up to 1.0 m. In the area from the first section to the outlet, the smoke was in small amounts only under the ceiling of the tunnel, and the visibility was 30.0 m for the duration of the simulation. Figure 7 shows the change in visibility read from sensor 4, located closest to the burning object for variant 3.

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Figure 7: Variant 3, visibility read from visibility sensor 4 [own study]

d)

Variant 4 – mechanical ventilation smoke detector activates two sections of fans, increased air flow

In the variant 4 (with mechanical ventilation, where the smoke sensor 1 activates both fan sections, increased flow rate) the smoke spreads over 60.0 m of the tunnel after 30 s, and over 40.0 m after 90 s, Figure 8.

Figure 8: Variant 4 – visibility in a tunnel without mechanical ventilation in 90 s of simulation [own study]

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On the section from the entrance to the car, the visibility for 19 s was 30.0 m, then it decreased to 4.0 m, once it was 20.5 m, and between 40 and 50 s of the simulation reached the lowest values of 0.5 m – 4.0 m. In the area between the fire focus and the first section of the fans, the visibility for 18 s of the simulation was the value was 30.0 m, and between 19 and 29 s it was from 3.0 to 18.0 m. By the end of the simulation, the visibility was 30.0 m. In the areas between the fan sections and from the second section to the outlet, the visibility was at 30.0 m throughout the simulation. From the 40 s of the simulation, the smoke was located only on a section of 38.0 m from the tunnel entrance. Activation of the fans with a higher airflow rate caused proper smoke removal. The tunnel is free from the smoke between the burning car and the further portal of the tunnel. Figure 9 shows the change in visibility read from sensor 4, located closest to the burning object for variant 4.

Figure 9: Variant 4, visibility read from visibility sensor 4 [own study]

Figure 10 shows the range of smoke for all variants in 30 and 90 s of the simulation. The greatest variations in visibility in each variant occur in the first and second section of the tunnel – between its inlet and the fire source and between the fire source and the first section of the fans. In the variant 1 without mechanical ventilation, air and smoke behave most predictably. Their movement is not disturbed by the operation of the fans, so the smoke accumulates under the ceiling of the tunnel, without disturbing the visibility below 2 meters high. However, it is expected that during the fire spread the smoke should go down,

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Figure 10: Range of smoke for all variants in 30 and 90 s of the simulation [own study]

decreasing visibility and finally making the escape impossible, In the variant 2, the flow of air and smoke is regulated by the operation of fans, which push the smoke towards the inlet and the bottom of the tunnel, causing visibility disturbances along the entire height. Application of this mechanical ventilation variant reduces the spread of smoke in the tunnel up to 130.0 m. In the variant 3, the operation of mechanical ventilation causes pushing the smoke towards the inlet, causing a temporary accumulation of smoke in the first part of the tunnel. The use of starting more fans at once at the beginning of the simulation significantly reduces the spread of smoke – up to 90.0 m. In the variant 4, mechanical ventilation pattern is the same as in the variants 2 and 3, it pushes the smoke out of the tunnel. In this case, it does most effective operation. It limits the spread of smoke initially to 60.0 m, then even to 40.0 m. However, such a limitation of the size of the smoke area causes that the smoke is accumulated in the first part of the tunnel, which causes a sharp decrease in visibility in that place, Figure 9. Nevertheless, the obtained results indicate that the use of mechanical ventilation with appropriately selected values of the flow rate generated by fans can contribute to improving the visibility in the tunnel during fire, during its first phase, even for short tunnels where such ventilation is not required.

Conclusions Natural ventilation in the tunnel does not limit the spread of smoke, but it is above 2 m high, so the visibility of 30 m is maintained throughout the first 90 seconds of the fire and evacuation from the fire area is possible at any time tunnel portal. However, it is expected that spread of the fire should ultimately decrease the visibility.

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Mechanical ventilation ensures effective reduction of smoke spread and it depends on the tested variant. During the simulations it was limited even up to 40 m in length of the tunnel. When the airflow rate of the fans is increased and they are activated to remove the smoke from the tunnel to the nearby portal, the smoke cumulates between the source of the fire and the portal limiting visibility even to 0 m. On the other hand, the rest part of tunnel is free of smoke in this case. It means that evacuation is possible only through one portal.

References Directive 2004/54/WE Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady z dnia 29 kwietnia 2004 r. w sprawie minimalnych wymagan´ bezpieczen´stwa dla tuneli w transeuropejskiej sieci drogowej, Dziennik Urze˛dowy Unii Europejskiej L 167/39/2004. Koch N., Niewiadomski A., Wrona P., Influence of light wavelengths on visibility in smoke during a tunnel fire, “Sustainability”, 2021, vol. 13, no. 21, pp. 1–10, doi:10.3390/ su132111599. Król A., Król M., Koper P., Wrona P., Numerical modelling of air velocity distribution in a road tunnel with a longitudinal ventilation system, “Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology”, 2019, vol. 91, pp. 1–14, doi:10.1016/j.tust.2019.103003. Król M., Król A., Koper P., Wrona P., The influence of natural draught on the air flow in a tunnel with longitudinal ventilation, “Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology”, 2019, vol. 85, p.p 140–148, doi:10.1016/j.tust.2018.12.008. Mizielin´ski B., Kubicki G., Wentylacja poz˙arowa. Oddymianie, Wyd. Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2017. Nawrat S., Napieraj S., Wentylacja i bezpieczen´stwo w tunelach komunikacyjnych, Wyd. AGH, Kraków 2005. Qinghua G., Hehua Z., Yuxin Z., Yi S., Yinping Z., Zhiguo Y., Smoke flow in full-scale urban road tunnel fires with large cross-sectional vertical shafts, “Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology”, 2020, vol. 104, doi:10.1016/j.tust.2020.103536. Park Y., Ryu J., Ryou H.S., Experimental Study on the Fire-Spreading Characteristics and Heat Release Rates of Burning Vehicles Using a Large-Scale Calorimeter, “Energies” 2019, 12, 1465. doi:10.3390/en12081465. Pyrosim Manual [https://support.thunderheadeng.com/docs/pyrosim/2020-2/user-manu al/]. Standard PN-B-02856:1989 Ochrona przeciwpoz˙arowa budynków – Metoda badania włas´ciwos´ci dymotwórczych materiałów. We˛grzyn´ski W., Krajewski G., Wentylacja poz˙arowa tuneli drogowych, “Materiały budowlane, Budownictwo Podziemne” 2/2015 (no. 510). Wrona P., Visibility at the first stage of fire in a blind excavation – CFD simulations, “Modern mining – selected issues, Monograph”, Wyd. Pol.Sl., vol. 800, Gliwice, 2019.

Piotr Mocek1

Industrial noise as a source of hazards at the Mechanical Coal Processing Plant

Introduction According to data from the Central Statistical Office2 there were 182.2 thousand people working in noise hazardous conditions in Poland in 2021, which is more than 53.8% of the total number of employees working in hazardous conditions and another increase, this time by 8.3% over the previous year. Noise in the work environment is, therefore, today the most common harmful factor as it occurs three times more often than industrial dust and six times more often than hot microclimates or biological agents. The highest risk of noise in Poland is among workers in industrial processing (138274 at risk), mining (21130) and construction (6798). The highest noise levels at workplaces often exceeding the applicable hygienic standards are found in Mining (101–135dB), industrial processing (95–128dB), construction (87–126dB) and transportation (85–116dB). Long-term exposure to noise in the work environment in excess of 80dB can pose a significant risk to workers. This is because excessive noise damages not only the organ of hearing and can lead to occupational diseases, but under its influence other pathological changes occur, such as contraction of small arterial vessels causing circulatory disorders3. Changes occur in the organ of vision causing impairment of the ability to distinguish colors and reducing the field of vision. Long-term exposure to noise also often results in disorders occurring in the functioning of the nervous and digestive systems. There is a reduction in the physical and mental capacity of the worker, which reduces the

1 Faculty of Mining, Safety Engineering and Industrial Automation, Silesian University of Technology, [email protected], ORCID: 0000-0001-9560-8462. 2 Kazanowska D., Kazimierowska-Wasiołek M., Pragacz M., Working conditions in 2020. Central Statistical Office. Warsaw, Gdansk 2021. 3 Bortkiewicz A., Czaja N., Extra-auditory effects of noise with special attention to cardiovascular diseases. Forum of Family Medicine 2018, vol. 12, no. 2, 41–49.

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Figure 1: Employed in occupational environmental hazards by harmful health factors in 2021 [own elaboration]

precision of his movements4. At this point it is also worth noting that as a result of the implementation of the guidelines of the Parliament of the European Union, work in continuous noise within 95–100 dB may last no more than 40–100 minutes per day5, nd with noise exceeding up to 110 dB – no more than 10 minutes per day6. Meanwhile, occupational realities in many industries are quite different, the time of exposure to noise of workers at individual workstations lasts continuously for several hours or even the entire work shift. According to a report by the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work7, noise-induced hearing damage is also the most common occupational disease in Europe, as it accounts for about a third of all work-related illnesses and is more common than skin and respiratory diseases. According to Eurostat, millions of Europeans are exposed to occupational noise and all its associated risks every

4 Marczak P., Noise pollution. Selected issues. Thematic study OT-612 Chancellery of the Senate, Warsaw 2012. 5 ISAP. Chancellery of the Sejm of the Republic of Poland. Ordinance of the Minister of Economy and Labor of August 5, 2005 on occupational safety and health in work involving exposure to noise or mechanical vibrations (Journal of Laws No. 157, item 1318). 6 ISAP. Office of the Sejm of the Republic of Poland. Ordinance of the Minister of the Family, Labor and Social Policy of June 12, 2018 on the maximum permissible concentrations and intensities of factors harmful to health in the work environment Journal of Laws. 2018 item 1286. 7 Eurostat, Work and health in the EU: a statistical portrait, 2014.

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year, with about 7% consistently suffering from hearing-related problems. Noiseinduced hearing loss among workers is no longer a problem only in industries such as heavy industry, construction or mining8. It is increasingly occurring in other sectors of the economy as well9. A number of publications and studies by the Institute of Occupational Medicine in Lodz show that as a result of many years of occupational exposure to noise in excess of 85dB, symmetrical sensorineural hearing loss appears in a large group of workers, particularly concerning high frequencies, especially in the 3–6 kHz range. The dynamics of hearing damage caused by industrial noise is relatively rapid during the first 10 years of exposure, after which it slows down. After 15 years of working in excessive noise, the first cases of hearing damage involving lower frequencies, i. e. < 2 kHz, are already recognized. In turn, 30 years of noise exposure can cause total deafness10. And although these cases are not seen in the statistical data11, as there is talk of a decline in the statistical numbers for the diagnosis of permanent hearing impairment among workers especially in the mining industry12, it should be remembered that two important conditions have a decisive influence on this state of affairs1314: – Reporting of cases of occupational disease in mining by workers only after retirement, – Temporary limitation of reporting of suspected occupational disease in Poland to two years for noise exposure15, when for other disease entities such as pneumoconiosis this limitation does not exist. Research conducted in recent years by employees of the Department of Safety Engineering of the Silesian University of Technology in cooperation with the company ACS Słuchmed Limited Liability Company from Lublin and the Central 8 Augustyn´ska D., Pleban D., Radosz J., Noise hazards at workplaces in Poland and other European Union countries Occupational Medicine 2012; 63(6): 689–700. 9 EU – OSHA – European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, Data to describe the link between OSH and employability, 2012. 10 Institute of Occupational Medicine, Lodz, Poland. Occupational hearing loss. http://www.p rogramyzdrowotne.pl/, 2020. 11 S´wia˛tkowska B., Hanke W., Occupational diseases in Poland in 2021. Central Register of Occupational Diseases. Institute of Occupational Medicine in Lodz. Lodz 2021. 12 WUG Working Conditions Department. Assessment of the state of work safety, mine rescue and public safety in connection with mining and geological activities in 2022. WUG. Katowice 2023. 13 Mocek P., Hearing loss among coal mine miners. Production Engineering Support Systems 2019 vol. 8 iss. 1 s. 263–279, bibliogr. 13. 14 Mocek P., Noise in the mining work environment – causes, effects and threats. Eds. by Isik Yilmaz, Marian Marschalko, Marian Drusa. Bristol : Institute of Physics, 2020. 15 ISAP. Chancellery of the Sejm of the Republic of Poland. Ordinance of the Council of Ministers of June 30, 2009 on occupational diseases Dz.U. 2009 no. 105 item 869.

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Laboratory for Work Environment Research “Stanislaw Bielaszka” from Jastrze˛bie Zdrój allowed to shed some light on the current scale of the discussed threat and its effects. The presented chapter of the monograph presents the results of environmental studies of noise and its impact on the employees of plants for mechanical processing of hard coal that are part of mines and mining plants.

Characteristics of the research facility The object of every coal mine in Poland is to bring the finished raw material to the surface, process it and enrich it. This process takes place in the Mechanical Coal Processing Plant adjacent to the mines, where the excavated material with different mineral compositions and grain shapes and sizes brought to the surface is subjected to a series of mechanical processes aimed at giving the raw ore its full industrial value. In the process of mechanical coal processing, a distinction is made between primary operations involving the initial classification of the mined ore, its grinding and enrichment, and auxiliary operations, which include dewatering and drying of the ore, its dedusting and de-dusting, and in the final stage I proceed to briquetting, and internal transport and storage (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Machinery diagram of the Mechanical Coal Processing Plant16

16 BN-91/1750-03. mechanical processing of hard coal. Diagrams. Principles of execution. Polish Committee for Standardization.

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The mechanical coal preparation plant of X mine consisted of such facilities as: 50–0 mm feed preparation station; 7,000 t raw coal storage tank; three-product and two-product enrichment sections; concentrate drying plant; radial thickeners with pumping station; 20,000 tons of coal concentrate heap; finished product tanks; finished product loading plant; – raw coal and waste loading plant; drop settling tanks with pumping station; reagent storage and rail dispatching (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Basic equipment of the Mechanical Coal Processing Plant of the X mine [own elaboration]

The entire coal preparation process, due to the machinery, technologies and equipment dimensions used, is a process that generates high noise levels both during the working shift and during the day (Figure 4). Part of the manufacturing processes of the preparation plant, due to the high noise level, is carried out remotely from stations located in soundproofing cabins, while the rest is performed and supervised by employees exposed to significant noise emissions, often exceeding values and 100 dB.

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Figure 4: tailings processes that generate high levels of noise at the workstation [own elaboration]

Methodology of the research conducted The research project carried out by the Department of Safety Engineering at the Silesian University of Technology in Gliwice included several stages that yielded a number of interesting scientific results. As part of stage one – hearing screening of employees of mines and mining plants using Mobile Hearing Diagnostic Centers, hearing disorders were diagnosed by more than 20% of the surveyed coal mine employees. Among the 3265 people surveyed (89.6%. men and 11.4%. women), the highest percentage of hearing impairment was in the position of a blasting machine operator (46.0%) who conducts excavation work with explosives and a plumber who operates: high-pressure pumps, compressor sets and main drainage systems (41.2%). A significant risk of hearing impairment of more than 35% is also registered in workers at the Mechanical Coal Processing Plant (Figure 5), where even among active workers there is significant hearing loss, as well as deafness (Figure 6). These changes, according to diagnosticians and ENT specialists working with Słuchmed Ltd. are caused by the contact of mine workers with mining machinery and equipment with a high intensity of generated sounds. The second stage of the study included – identification of noise sources in selected branches of coal mines and was combined with measurement of noise emitted in octave bands by various mining machinery and equipment. The mines will not make such measurements, limiting themselves to determining the time of

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Figure 5: Examples of workstations in the Mechanical Coal Processing Plant – operation of the Disa enricher, PF belt press and PT B 1200 conveyor [own elaboration]

Figure 6: An example of an audiometric test sheet for a processing worker [own development]

exposure of workers to noise and determining the value of the equivalent sound level at the workplace. Meanwhile, the analysis of noise generated in particular octave bands by machinery and equipment is necessary to determine noise exceedances for particular frequencies, and thus determine its harmfulness to the hearing organ of workers. The main objectives of this phase of the research were thus: – Recognizing sources of excessive noise at the positions of the Coal Processing Plant that may affect the health of employees participating in hearing screening. – Determination of the actual values of noise intensity in the various stages of the processing generated by machinery and equipment in selected octave bands.

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– Assessing the impact of emitted noise on the hearing organ of people working at the processing plant. – Analyzing the possibility of reducing the noise generated by individual machines and equipment of the tailings plant in order to improve occupational safety.

Noise measurement methodology and apparatus used Measurements of the intensity of sound emitted by mining machinery and equipment operated by employees of the Coal Processing Plant were made during their normal operation at idle and under load. Measurements were made in accordance with the provisions of the standards: PN-EN ISO 9612:201117 and PN-N-01307:199418 taking into account for noise emitted by individual machines and equipment also the provisions of the standard PN-EN ISO 11203 :201019 and PN-EN ISO 3746:201120. During the measurements, sound level parameters such as octave bands in the range of 31.5 Hz – 8000Hz, equivalent sound level A, LAea˛ (dB), maximum sound level A, LAmax (dB) and peak sound level C, Lcpeak (dB) were recorded. Three Sanopan DSA-50 type sound level meters were used to measure the noise, with serial numbers: 523/2020, 207/2016, 56/2020 having current certificates of calibration and legalization, as well as an acoustic calibrator KA 50 from Sonopan with serial number 104/06. The meters had first class accuracy and allowed sound measurement in octave bands in the range of 31.5 Hz – 8000Hz meeting the requirements of PN-EN 61672-1:201421. The DSA-50 is a meter that allows sound intensity measurement both at workplaces and in the environment. It allows operation at temperatures from -10 °C to 50 °C and up to 90% humidity, without the results of measurement distortion. The measurement range of the meter Laeq was from 18-135dBA and LCPk 45-137dBC.

17 PN-EN ISO 9612:2011 Acoustics – Determination of occupational noise exposure – Technical method. Polish Committee for Standardization. 18 PN-N-01307:1994 Noise – Permissible values of noise in the work environment – Requirements for taking measurements. Polish Committee for Standardization. 19 PN-EN ISO 11203:2010 Acoustics – Noise emitted by machinery and equipment – Determination of emission sound pressure levels at the workstation and other specified locations on the basis of sound power level. Polish Committee for Standardization. 20 PN-EN ISO 3746:2011 – Acoustics – Determination of sound power levels and sound energy levels of noise sources from sound pressure measurements – Guidance method using a surrounding measurement surface over a reflecting plane. Polish Committee for Standardization. 21 PN-EN 61672-1:2014 Electroacoustics. Sound level meters. Part 1: Requirements. Polish Committee for Standardization.

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The basis for the evaluation of noise levels were the results of measurements taken three times at each test stand during the performance of individual technological processes. The average levels of sound intensity LAeqs´r and loudness LwA were determined from the relationships described in the previously cited standards.

Results of measurements of the intensity of sound emitted by machinery and equipment of the Mechanical Coal Processing Plant An example of detailed measurements of acoustic power levels in octave bands and loudness in the Mechanical Coal Processing Plant for the purposes of the presented chapter of the monograph is presented for a vibrating screen of the PZ3090 type with a capacity of 1000Mg/h and a maximum diameter of feed grains up to 200 mm equipped with 2 electric motors with a power of 22 kW each and a mass of 6900 kg (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Noise test stand for a vibrating screen of the PZ – 3090 P type at the Mechanical Coal Processing Plant of the X mine [own elaboration]

Measurements of the noise generated by the working vibrating screen PZ-3090 were measured both at idling with no load of ore and during normal operation of the screen with a full load of the screened ore. From the noise measurements (Table 1), it can be seen that the exceedance of noise limits (formula 2) is higher than the hygienic norms in force in Poland (85 dB) for both idling (11 times) and full-load operation of the screening machine (26 times). The nominal working time for operating a screening machine during an entire 8-hour work shift should not, therefore, exceed 40 minutes per day. The reality deviates considerably from these parameters and workers in the noisy work environment of operating the

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screening machine spend up to 6 hours a day, resulting in an energy-averaged sound level A, (formula No. 1) measured in decibels, of 99 dB.. LEX;8h ¼ LAeg;Te þ 10!log K NDN ¼ 100;1ðLzm $LNDN Þ

Te ; ½dB# To

(formula 1) (formula 2)

Where:

Lzm – measured values of noise parameters, [dB] Ldop, 8h – permissible values of parameters determining noise during 8 h, [dB] LAeqTe – equivalent sound level A at the workplace,[dB] LEX,8h – noise exposure level related to an 8-hour day working time, [dB] Te – total exposure time per working day, [min] To – Normative working hours – 480 minutes, [min] KNDN – the rate of exceeding the normative.

The averaged results of the conducted tests of the emitted noise from the other machinery and equipment installed at the Mechanical Coal Processing Plant of mine X during the work of processing and enrichment of the extracted raw material to the surface are presented in Table 2. The results obtained, in addition to the average sound level A, maximum sound level A, peak sound level C, also illustrate the values of exceeding the hygienic norms for each machine and equipment used at the Mechanical Coal Processing Plant, as well as the maximum time a worker can spend operating it. The averaged measurement results show that the machinery of the preparation plant, due to the size of the equipment and the power of the drive units, generates significant noise levels. Although not at any of the analyzed workstations were exceedances of the peak C sound level and maximum A sound level observed, out of the thirty-three machines and equipment presented in Table 1, as many as twenty-nine emit noise levels exceeding exposure levels related to eight-hour working hours, posing a significant threat to workers at the preparation plant. It follows from this fact that the employer, according to the regulations in force in Poland, is obliged to improve working conditions after providing employees with appropriate protective measures against noise and introducing such technical solutions that will result in the reduction of noise or its constant monitoring.

Sound power level in three measurements [dB]

Parameter 63

86,4

86,9 84,9

97,1

96,6 99,4

110,4

Peak Sound Level C, L Cpeak [dB]

89,5

89,5 93,3

Center frequencies of octave bands [Hz] 125 260 500 1000 2000

4000

8000

Volume LwA [dB]

Permissible operating time at the sifter, [min] 44

102,3

Maximum sound level A L Amax [dB]

91,7

90,4 92,5

57,6 57,3

68,1 67,7

79,3 78,1

88,7 89,6

97,4 95,2

99,4 98,1

98,4 97,7

93,1 93,2

86,8 84,8

103,9 102,8

The measurement was made on the vibrating screen operator’s stand at the load 67,1 68,5 79,6 87,5 91,7 95,3 93,1 94,9 87,8 100,5

31,5

Equivalent sound level A, L Aeg,Te [dB] 96,6

90,7

85,9 87,6

54,2 62,8 76,1 84,1 89,3 Measurements averaged for idling

77,7 77,1

89,4 94,3

69,9 69,8

88,7 90,8

56,2 53,5

Exceeding of NDN values 10,7

95,3

Volume LwA [dB]

31,5 63 125 260 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 The measurement was made at the operating station of the vibrating screen at idle speed

Noise exposure level related to an 8-hour working day LEX,8H [dB]

sound power level in three measurements [dB]

Parameter

Center frequencies of octave bands [Hz]

Table 1. Results of sound intensity and loudness measurements in octave bands for vibrating screen type PZ – 3090

Industrial noise as a source of hazards at the Mechanical Coal Processing Plant

203

26,3

99,2 Exceeding of NDN values

100,5

Peak Sound Level C, LCpeak [dB]

18

106,5 119,6 Permissible operating time at the sifter, [min]

Load-averaged measurements Noise exposure level related to an 8-hour working day Equivalent sound level Maximum sound level A, L LEX,8H [dB] A, LAeg,Te [dB] Amax [dB]

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205

Industrial noise as a source of hazards at the Mechanical Coal Processing Plant

Table 2. Measurement results of sound intensity emitted by individual, machinery and equipment at the Mechanical Coal Processing Plant of the X Mine Lp. Hand tools, device, machinery

1. 2.

Volume Average Max. LwA sound sound intensity level [dB] [dB] 99,2

[dB] 106,5

[dB] 119,6

Exceeding Maximum NDN operating time in service [min] 26,3 18

88,4

93,1

97,6

2,2

219

L Aeqsr

Vibrating screen 100,5 type PZ-3090 Mobile screening 89,7 machine SR-514

L Amax

Peak sound level C L Cpeak

Vibrating screen PWP 1–2,2x 5,5 Circular vibrating screen WK2,2x6,0

98,3

96,1

100,4

108,7

12,9

37

102,7

101,5

108,5

112,4

44,7

11

Belt conveyor PT B -1600 Belt conveyor PT B – 1200

95,2

94,8

98,1

103,4

9,5

50

93,4

91,3

95,2

99,6

4,3

113

PT B -1200 inclined belt conveyor Ball mill MK 900 x 180

91,0

90,7

94,3

98,1

3,7

129

89,6

88,4

92,5

97,6

2,2

219

Coal and stone crusher KWK 200U Impact crusher 10. UP – 1500

91,6

90,2

96,3

100,4

3,3

145

100,4

99,7

106,4

112,5

29,5

16

UPK 1000x1500 impact crusher Maxtrak 1150/ 12. Pre-Screen cone crusher

98,2

97,6

101,3

110,4

18,2

26

94,1

92,5

99,4

104,8

5,6

85

Premiertrak 600 / 93,3 600E jaw crusher ZWM straight 87,6 14. chute

92,1

100,6

108,4

5,1

94

86,5

91,6

97,8

1,4

340

15. Screw chute 86,5 Trough chute 89,7 16. with PWB feeder

84,6 87,8

89,5 97,3

94,2 101,9

0,9 1,9

480 252

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

11.

13.

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Piotr Mocek

Table 2 (Continued) Lp. Hand tools, device, machinery

Volume Average Max. LwA sound sound intensity level [dB] L Aeqsr

[dB] 96,2

[dB] 100,7

Exceeding Maximum NDN operating time in service [min] 4,3 113

L Amax

Peak sound level C L Cpeak

Pulsating Oscil17. lating Machine OM 15 Pulsating Oscil18. lating Machine OM 30

92,1

[dB] 91,3

94,0

92,6

98,2

102,3

5,8

83

OS4 medium 19. grained settling machine WOW-1.3 vibratory 20. dewatering centrifuge

91,5

90,4

99,1

106,3

3,5

138

89,8

88,6

92,5

97,1

2,3

210

21. Coil jet enricher 84,6 DISA 2S Dual 97,5 22. Product Enricher

82,4 95,6

86,2 104,6

89,4 111,6

0,5 11,5

480 42

Pulse classifier K-151 Pulse classifier 24. K-102

91,3

90,4

96,2

100,3

3,5

138

90,6

89,1

94,8

99,1

2,6

187

GP pump-rotor mixer Rotary Mixer 26. MW 1400S-F

102,4

101,2

111,2

116,2

41,7

12

100,7

98,4

105,0

111,4

21,9

22

27. Pump unit SK 8 PH-150 ZD 28. Pump Unit

94,2 97,9

93,5 96,3

99,1 100,8

106,8 106,3

7,1 13,5

68 36

Shaft pump unit 50Z2K-6WT Sedimentation and 30. filtration centrifuge WS-F

83,5

82,4

86,4

90,5

0,5

480

89,6

87,6

93,9

96,7

1,8

264

HBF hyperbaric disc filter 32. PF filter press

98,1

96,8

100,6

107,6

15,1

32

93,0

91,9

94,2

98,3

4,9

98

33. Dorra desludger

83,0

82,5

85,0

91,2

0,6

480

23.

25.

29.

31.

Industrial noise as a source of hazards at the Mechanical Coal Processing Plant

207

Survey research In order to verify the noise measurements obtained among the employees of the Coal Processing Plant, questionnaire surveys were also carried out to collect opinions on the working and living environment of the employees, and to determine the noise-related hazards that accompany them at work and in everyday life (Table 3). The questionnaires conducted during the hearing screening became the basis for selecting machinery, equipment and processes that were decided to be tested for noise emissions. A total of 263 workers participated in the survey, 74% of whom were women. Due to the nature of this occupation and the relationship of employment to other departments of the mine, this is a large random sample. Among the workers surveyed, 92 were diagnosed with hearing changes caused by exposure to excessive noise (35.1% of those surveyed). The average age of those surveyed was 43 years, which indicates the long tenure and experience of workers at the tailings plant. When asked about the incidence of noise at the workplace, respondents stressed (84.4% of respondents) that it accompanies them daily during their work and on average they are exposed to it for 3 to 6 hours (74.6% of respondents). Table 3. Partial results of a survey assessing noise exposure at the ZPMW How often does noise occur at your workstation? daily several times a week

84,40% 8,10%

once a week does not occur

7,00% 0,50%

How long a day are you exposed to noise while working at the mine? at all 0,50% up to 3 hours 3–6 hours

13,20% 74,60%

over 6 hours Have you noticed that the noise at your workstation is too loud?

11,70%

Yes Not

90,10% 3,60%

Don’t know/don’t have an opinion Are noise mitigation measures in place at the processing plant? Yes Not

6,30%

Don’t know/don’t have an opinion

10,6%

71,1% 18,3%

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Piotr Mocek

Do you use hearing protectors at work? Yes

86,20%

Not I don’t know/sometimes

3,60% 10,20%

What noise mitigation measures do you use most often at work? Earmuffs

46,30%

Earplugs Soundproof cabin

23,40% 4,20%

Acoustic screens Employee turnover in a noisy workplace

0,30% 8,20%

None 17,60% Does the noise at your job interfere with your work performance? Yes Not

62,60% 3,60%

Sometimes 33,80% Do you know the results of noise measurements at your workplace? Yes Not

84,40% 3,60%

I had no interest in this Have you observed hearing problems in yourself ?

12,00%

Yes Not

21,30% 53,60%

Sometimes What hearing problems have you noticed in yourself ?

25,10%

Ringing and humming in the ears Difficulties in receiving radio and television broadcasts

20,10% 31,30%

Difficulties in speech recognition Profound hearing loss

6,60% 0,20%

Any complaints 41,80% How often do you consult your hearing condition with your doctor? Once a year Once every few years

0,60% 23,00%

At all

76,40%

Industrial noise as a source of hazards at the Mechanical Coal Processing Plant

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The survey showed that the vast majority of workers are aware that the noise level at their workplaces is very high (90.1% of respondents), especially in the process of classifying and grinding the excavated material. 86.2% of respondents emphasize that they are constantly using personal protection against noise – 43.6% in the form of earmuffs, 23.4% use earplugs. Unfortunately, as many as 17.6% of respondents also admit that although their employer equips them with personal protection equipment against noise, they often do not use it because it interferes with the proper recognition of the operation of the machinery and equipment they supervise. Undoubtedly, a weak point in the work performed by employees of the Mechanical Coal Processing Plant is the fact that collective protection measures cannot be used for most of the activities involved in safeguarding the processing. Only 4.2% of respondents use soundproofing booths. However, workers are aware of the risks associated with noise at their workplaces and are kept informed of the values of environmental noise measurements taken by the employer (84.4%). In terms of lesions caused by working in excessive noise, 21.3% of respondents perceived hearing deterioration manifested by persistent ringing and tinnitus in their ears – 20.1% of respondents, and difficulties in receiving radio and television broadcasts – 31.3% of respondents. Unfortunately, as many as 90.2% of respondents did not consult an ENT specialist about these changes. It is also significant that the vast majority of employees of the Coal Processing Plant who were diagnosed with changes in the hearing organ, or even cases of advanced deafness, were unaware of this fact. Some of those surveyed explained the process of hearing loss by the progressive aging of the body. Unfortunately, as all the surveys show, the awareness of processing workers in terms of the health changes that occur in their bodies in connection with their work is low, and they are more concerned about having to change jobs due to a diagnosis of, for example, an occupational disease caused by noise than they are about their own health. These fears, as much as 74.6% of the employees associate with cases observed among their co-workers who were diagnosed with hearing impairment, as a result of which the employer was forced to transfer the sick employees to another job, usually a lower-paid one.

Discussion and conclusion Comprehensive hearing tests carried out among employees of the Mechanical Coal Processing Plant, supported by the identification of processes and equipment generating excessive noise in the work environment for which a number of sound level measurements were made, showed that despite the apparent improvement shown in statistics of occupational diseases, the observed acoustic

210

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climate in the mechanical processing plants of coal mines is still uncomfortable and poses a significant health risk to people working there. Combating noise by technical methods, through passive or active reduction of its emission sources, brings limited results. The high level of sound emitted by processing machinery and equipment is in fact a result of the specifics of their work related to the need to process 8 to 12 thousand tons of ore per day, and thus the large dimensions of the equipment and the power of the drive units that must power them. In coal preparation plants, it is also impossible to apply large-scale organizational measures, such as moving the maintenance worker away from the source of noise and allowing him to observe and control the operation of machinery from a soundproofing cabin or using CCTV. The problem of excessive noise in the work environment is the subject of research by many scientists from Poland22 23 24 25 and the World26 27 28 dealing with both the problems of reducing noise emissions at the workplace29 30, as well as aspects of its impact on the health of workers31 32 33. Their activities constantly 22 Augustyn´ska D., Pleban D., Radosz J., Noise hazards at workplaces in Poland and other European Union countries Occupational Medicine 2012; 63(6): 689–700. 23 Korbiel T., Stepien B., Batko W., Baranski R., Mleczko D., Pawlik P., Blaut J., Recognition of the 24-hour Noise Exposure of a Human (2017) Archives of Acoustics, 42 (4), pp. 601–607. Cited 8 times. DOI: 10.1515/aoa-2017-0064. 24 Lutyinski A., Noise hazard in coal preparation plants. Mining Machinery Nr. 4 pp. 15–22. ISSN 2450-9442. 25 Mocek P., Hearing loss among coal mine miners. Production Engineering Support Systems 2019 vol. 8 iss. 1 s. 263–279, bibliography. 13. 26 Golmohammadi R., Darvishi E., Shafiee Motlagh M., Faradmal J., Aliabadi M., Rodrigues M.A., Prediction of occupational exposure limits for noise-induced non-auditory effects (2022) Applied Ergonomics, 99, art. no. 103641 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2021.103641. 27 Murillo Gómez D.M., González León E., Piedrahíta H., Yate J., Gómez Cristancho C.E., Advanced Engineering Control Strategies Applied to Occupational Noise Management in Mining Dump Trucks (2021) Communications in Computer and Information Science, 1431 CCIS, pp. 505–516. (Murillo Gómez, DM, González León, E., Piedrahíta, H., Yate, J., Gómez Cristancho, C.E. 28 Yang B., Yao H., Yang P., Guo Y., Wang F., Yang C., Li A., Che L., Effects of thermal and acoustic environments on workers’ psychological and physiological stress in deep underground spaces (2022) Building and Environment, 212, art. no. 108830, DOI: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.108830. 29 Bortnowski P., Nowak-Szpak A., Król R. and Ozdoba M., “Analysis and distribution of conveyor belt noise sources under laboratory conditions,” Susainability (Switzerland), vol. 13 (4), no. art. 2233, pp. 1–14, 2021. 30 Korbiel T., Batko W., Pawlik P., Baranski R., Ste˛pien´ B., Blaut J., Personal noise hazard index. Concept and Laboratory Research. AGH Publishers, Krakow 2017, pp. 1–134. 31 Bortkiewicz A., Czaja N., Extra-auditory effects of noise with special emphasis on cardiovascular diseases. Forum of Family Medicine 2018, vol. 12, no. 2, 41–49. 32 Yang B., Yao H., Yang P., Guo Y., Wang F., Yang C., Li A., Che L., Effects of thermal and acoustic environments on workers’ psychological and physiological stress in deep underground spaces (2022) Building and Environment, 212, art. no. 108830, DOI: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.108830.

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211

contribute to improving working conditions and looking for solutions to improve safety. The problem, however, is that many noise-exposed workers are convinced that “mining machinery and equipment make noise alike,” and are unable to identify the extent of the danger present. Studies of the loudness of the sound power level of individual equipment and machines in octave bands at the Mechanical Coal Processing Plant show that this is not the case. The noise level is variable, because each machine within different frequencies generates different sounds that are unfavorable to humans. Therefore, it would be necessary to consider the possibility of suppressing non-mining machinery and equipment in the design phase, which would be one of the effective ways to combat excessive noise emissions at workplaces. Undoubtedly, however, this is a complicated process and requires significant financial outlays, which mines cannot afford at the moment. In addition, more than 50% of the machinery and equipment used in the mechanical processing plants of Polish mines is often more than 30 years old, and the degree of wear and tear is not insignificant for effective preventive measures to reduce noise. The observations observed lead to the conclusion that in the current prevailing situation in coal mining in Poland, an effective solution for today, to combat noise is not to reduce it at all costs, but to monitor it. Giving workers periodic information about noise levels and their effects does not increase safety culture and pro-safety habits among mining crews. Only constant monitoring of the threat influences people’s awareness and behavior, as has been seen in the mining industry for years with gas and geophysical systems34 35 36.

33 Ising H. and Kruppa B., “Health effects caused by noise: Evidence in the literature from the past 25 years,” Noise and Health, vol. 6(22), pp. 5–13, 2004. 34 Cała D., Kozielski M., Sikora B., S´liwa J., Selected monitoring systems operating in coal mining in Poland. In Przystałka Piotr, Sikora Marek (eds.): Integrated, skeletal decision support system for monitoring systems of processes, equipment and hazards, 2017, Katowice, EMAG Centre for Electrification and Automation of Mining, 219 p., ISBN 978-83-63674-25-0. 35 Cierpisz S., Miskiewicz K., Musiol K., Wojaczek A., Gasometric systems in mining. Silesian University of Technology Publishing House Gliwice 2007. 36 Wojaczek A., Wojaczek Ad., Monitoring the environment and machinery in an underground mine. Zeszyty Naukowe rok 2017, No. 99, pp. 57–70 of the Institute of Mineral Raw Materials and Energy Management of the Polish Academy of Sciences.

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Figure 8: Proposal for continuous noise monitoring at individual mine workstations [own elaboration37

This is also the direction taken by the employees of the Department of Safety Engineering of the Silesian University of Technology in the framework of an ongoing research project on continuous monitoring of noise levels in the work environment and the construction of a device that, working with dispatching systems, will warn employees of excessive noise at the workplace. The constructed intrinsically safe noise sensor, thanks to constant measurement of sound intensity, should increase the level of safety at work, especially in a situation where the normative values for noise are given on a logarithmic scale, which means a 100% increase in danger after every 3 dB. The concept of a noise sensor which, thanks to built-in visual and acoustic alarms, will inform workers about the need to wear personal protective equipment or withdraw from the area of danger seems to be an ideal solution for improving occupational safety. In turn, the entrepreneur, thanks to the connection of the noise sensor with the dispatching system, will be informed in real time about the need for technical inspection of machinery and technical equipment used in the production process, which may generate excessive noise in the working environment for a long time (Figure 7).

37 Kazanowska D., Kazimierowska-Wasiołek M., Pragacz M., Working conditions in 2020. Central Statistical Office. Warsaw, Gdansk 2021.

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Summary The chapter presents partial results of measurements of industrial noise accompanying employees of the Mechanical Processing Department of mines and coal mining plants in Poland. It also discusses the results of hearing screening tests carried out by employees of the Department of Safety Engineering of the Silesian University of Technology and ACS Słuchmed Limited Liability Company at 37 mines and mining plants that are part of combined or independent plants. More than 3,200 employees took part in the hearing tests. The surveys were also aimed at identifying the sources of noise and the level of noise emissions generated by mining machinery and equipment, which are operated on a daily basis by employees of coal preparation plants belonging to a mine or mining plant. Using the results obtained as an example, the chapter of the monograph presents the changes that arise in the hearing organs of the employees of the Mechanical Coal Processing Plants in connection with exposure to industrial noise, and also draws attention to the need to take measures to constantly control the level of noise at the workplace and to introduce solutions that will make it possible to reduce it and allow better protection of employees from its disastrous consequences.

References Augustyn´ska D., Pleban D., Radosz J., Noise hazards at workplaces in Poland and other European Union countries Occupational Medicine 2012; 63(6): 689–700. BN-91/1750-03. mechanical processing of hard coal. Diagrams. Principles of execution. Polish Committee for Standardization. Bortkiewicz A., Czaja N., Extra-auditory effects of noise with special attention to cardiovascular diseases. Forum of Family Medicine 2018, vol. 12, no. 2, 41–49. Bortnowski P., Nowak-Szpak A., Król R. and Ozdoba M., “Analysis and distribution of conveyor belt noise sources under laboratory conditions,” Ssainability (Switzerland), vol. 13(4), no. art. 2233, pp. 1–14, 2021. Cała D., Kozielski M., Sikora B., S´liwa J., Selected monitoring systems operating in coal mining in Poland. In Przystałka Piotr, Sikora Marek (eds.): Integrated backbone decision support system for monitoring systems of processes, equipment and hazards, 2017, Katowice, EMAG Centre for Electrification and Automation of Mining, 219 p., ISBN 978-83-63674-25-0. Cierpisz S., Miskiewicz K., Musiol K., Wojaczek A., Gasometric systems in mining. Silesian University of Technology Publishing House Gliwice 2007. WUG Working Conditions Department. Assessment of the state of work safety, mine rescue and public safety in connection with mining and geological activities in 2022. WUG. Katowice 2023.

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EU – OSHA – European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, Data to describe the link between OSH and employability, 2012. Eurostat, Work and health in the EU: a statistical portrait, 2014. Golmohammadi R., Darvishi E., Shafiee Motlagh M., Faradmal J., Aliabadi M., Rodrigues M.A., Prediction of occupational exposure limits for noise-induced non-auditory effects (2022) Applied Ergonomics, 99, art. no. 103641 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2021.103641. Institute of Occupational Medicine, Lodz, Poland. Occupational hearing loss. http://www.p rogramyzdrowotne.pl/, 2020. ISAP. Chancellery of the Sejm of the Republic of Poland. Ordinance of the Minister of Economy and Labor of August 5, 2005 on occupational safety and health in work involving exposure to noise or mechanical vibration (Journal of Laws No. 157, item 1318). ISAP. Chancellery of the Sejm of the Republic of Poland. Ordinance of the Council of Ministers of June 30, 2009 on occupational diseases Dz.U. 2009 no. 105 item 869. ISAP. Office of the Sejm of the Republic of Poland. Ordinance of the Minister of the Family, Labor and Social Policy of June 12, 2018 on the maximum permissible concentrations and intensities of factors harmful to health in the work environment Journal of Laws. 2018 item 1286. Ising H. and Kruppa B., “Health effects caused by noise: Evidence in the literature from the past 25 years,” Noise and Health, vol. 6(22), pp. 5–13, 2004. Kazanowska D., Kazimierowska-Wasiołek M., Pragacz M. Working conditions in 2020. Central Statistical Office. Warsaw, Gdansk 2021. Korbiel T., Stepien B., Batko W., Baranski R., Mleczko D., Pawlik P., Blaut J., Recognition of the 24-hour Noise Exposure of a Human (2017) Archives of Acoustics, 42 (4), pp. 601– 607. Cited 8 times. DOI: 10.1515/aoa-2017-0064. Korbiel T., Batko W., Pawlik P., Baranski R., Ste˛pien´ B., Blaut J., Personal noise hazard index. Concept and Laboratory Research. AGH Publishers, Krakow 2017, pp. 1–134. Lutyinski A., Noise hazard in coal preparation plants. Mining Machinery Nr. 4 pp. 15–22. ISSN 2450-9442. Marczak P., Noise pollution. Selected issues. Thematic study OT-612 Chancellery of the Senate, Warsaw 2012. Mocek P., Noise in the mining work environment – causes, effects and threats. Eds. by Isik Yilmaz, Marian Marschalko, Marian Drusa. Bristol : Institute of Physics, 2020. Mocek P., Hearing loss among coal mine miners. Production Engineering Support Systems 2019 vol. 8 iss. 1 s. 263–279, bibliogr. 13. Murillo Gómez D.M., González León E., Piedrahíta H., Yate J., Gómez Cristancho C.E., Advanced Engineering Control Strategies Applied to Occupational Noise Management in Mining Dump Trucks (2021) Communications in Computer and Information Science, 1431 CCIS, pp. 505–516. (Murillo Gómez, DM, González León, E., Piedrahíta, H., Yate, J., Gómez Cristancho, C.E. PN-N-01307:1994 Noise – Permissible values of noise in the working environment – Requirements for taking measurements. Polish Committee for Standardization. PN-EN ISO 11203:2010 Acoustics – Noise emitted by machinery and equipment – Determination of emission sound pressure levels at the workstation and at other specified locations on the basis of sound power level. Polish Committee for Standardization.

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PN-EN ISO 3746:2011 – Acoustics – Determination of sound power levels and sound energy levels of noise sources from sound pressure measurements – Guidance method using a surrounding measurement surface over a reflecting plane. Polish Committee for Standardization. PN-EN ISO 9612:2011 Acoustics – Determination of occupational noise exposure – Technical method. Polish Committee for Standardization. PN-EN 61672-1:2014 Electroacoustics. Sound level meters. Part 1: Requirements. Polish Committee for Standardization S´wia˛tkowska B., Hanke W., Occupational diseases in Poland in 2021. Central Register of Occupational Diseases. Institute of Occupational Medicine in Lodz. Lodz 2021. Wojaczek A., Wojaczek Ad., Monitoring the environment and machinery in an underground mine. Scientific Journals. 2017, no. 99, pp. 57–70 of the Institute of Mineral Raw Materials and Energy Management of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Yang B., Yao H., Yang P., Guo Y., Wang F., Yang C., Li A., Che L., Effects of thermal and acoustic environments on workers’ psychological and physiological stress in deep underground spaces (2022) Building and Environment, 212, art. no. 108830, DOI: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.108830.

Adam Duda1

Activities of the occupational health and safety service for shaping the level of safety culture by activating pro-safety behaviour of employees in an automotive company

Introduction Safety culture is one of the key elements in a modern organization’s approach to preventing hazards and minimizing risks. It encompasses the knowledge, values, beliefs, norms and practices related to safety that influence the decision-making of employees at different levels of the organization. As technology advances and manufacturing processes become more complex, safety issues have become more complicated. Accidents are becoming more costly2 therefore many companies have begun to pay more attention to safety culture and implement policies, procedures and systems to influence employee engagement3,4 and increase the level of safety culture. Research on safety culture points to its key role in preventing accidents, incidents and occupational illnesses. Safety culture can help identify and minimize risks, as well as influence safety-related decision-making by employees at all levels of the organization5. Studies conducted in various industrial sectors indicate the importance of safety culture in improving safety performance in these sectors. In the petrochemical sector, studies show the

1 Faculty of Mining, Safety Engineering and Industrial Automation of the Silesian University of Technology, [email protected], ORCID: 0000-0003-4952-828X. 2 Duda A., Possibility of reducing costs of mining operations – economic aspects of workplace accidents. IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 268 012009, 2017, pp. 1–7. DOI 10.1088/1757-899X/ 268/1/012009. 3 An Y., Wang H., Yang X., Zhang J., & Tong R., Using the TPB and 24Model to understand workers’ unintentional and intentional unsafe behaviour: A case study. Safety Science, 163, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2023.106099. 4 Kowal B., & Wyganowska M., Aspects of motivation and engagement of employees in their work based on the example of mining companies. Inz˙ynieria Mineralna, R. 21(1), 2020 pp. 237–242. https://doi.org/10.29227/IM-2020-01-80. 5 Patankar M.S., & Sabin E.J., The Safety Culture Perspective. Human Factors in Aviation, 2010, pp. 95–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374518-7.00004-3.

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impact of safety culture on reducing accidents and incidents,6,7,8 similarly in the construction industry9,10,11. In the metal industry, research shows that a strong safety culture has a strong impact on ensuring worker safety12,13. Research on safety culture in the context of public organizations has also been conducted, with results showing the impact of safety culture in health care,14 or administrative workers during office work15. The development of a safety culture in a company is not the initial stage of health and safety activities because the implementation of tasks related to ensuring the safety of employees is a technical activity aimed mainly at minimizing risks and introducing collective and individual protection measures. Also, it is not always the case that safety culture activities are undertaken by employers who choose an approach based solely on meeting legal requirements related to occupational health and safety issues. Active forms of developing a safety culture and increasing employee awareness in the areas of occupational health and safety are therefore 6 Boughaba A., Hassane C., & Roukia O., Safety culture assessment in petrochemical industry: A comparative study of two algerian plants. Safety and Health at Work, 5(2), 2014, pp. 60–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.shaw.2014.03.005. 7 Çakıt E., Olak A.J., Murata A., Karwowski W., Alrehaili O., & Marek T., Assessment of the perceived safety culture in the petrochemical industry in Japan: A cross-sectional study. PLOS ONE, 14(12), 2019. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0226416. 8 Wu T.C., Lin C.H., & Shiau S.Y., Developing measures for assessing the causality of safety culture in a petrochemical industry. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution: Focus, 9(5–6), 2009, pp. 507–515. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11267-009-9242-X/METRICS. 9 Abdullah D.N.M.A., & Wern G.C.M., Investigating factors that affect safety culture in construction sector. CHUSER 2012–2012 IEEE Colloquium on Humanities, Science and Engineering Research, 2012. pp. 21–25. https://doi.org/10.1109/CHUSER.2012.6504274. 10 Biggs H., Dinsdag D., Kirk P., & Cipolla D., Safety culture research, lead indicators, and the development of safety effectiveness indicators in the construction sector. International Journal of Technology, Knowledge and Society, 2010. http://ijt.cgpublisher.com/product/pub.42/p rod.670. 11 Santoso J., Latief Y., & Machfudiyanto R.A., Building a safety culture in the construction sector: A model to assess the safety maturity of a company. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management, IEOM, 2018, pp. 3050– 3061). 12 Brown K.A., Willis P.G., & Prussia G.E., Predicting safe employee behavior in the steel industry: Development and test of a sociotechnical model. Journal of Operations Management, 18(4), 2000, pp. 445–465. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-6963(00)00033-4. 13 Milczarek M., & Najmiec A., The relationship between workers’ safety culture and accidents, near accidents and health problems. International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, 10(1), 2004. https://doi.org/10.1080/10803548.2004.11076592. 14 Kim S., Kitzmiller R., Baernholdt M., Lynn M.R., & Jones C.B., Patient Safety Culture: The Impact on Workplace Violence and Health Worker Burnout. Workplace Health and Safety, 71 (2), 2023, pp. 78–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/21650799221126364. 15 Odu J.O., Hamedon T.R., Mahmud A., & Baharudin M.R., Systematic Review of Intervention Programs to Improve the Level of Knowledge, Attitude, and Practices towards Work Safety Culture among Office Workers. Malaysian Journal of Medicine and Health Sciences, 19(1), 2023, pp. 263–271. https://doi.org/10.47836/mjmhs.19.1.34.

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something particularly valuable for encouraging pro-safety behavior among employees and developing their self-awareness16. The formation of pro-safety behavior in employees in general is very important with the occurrence of employee turnover between different workplaces. Employees in which an appropriate level of safety culture has already been built up by changing jobs transfer, safety culture and pro-safety behavior to other companies. This chapter presents the measures taken by managers of Autoneum Poland Ltd. to improve safety culture.

Description of the company The Autoneum Poland Ltd. plant in Katowice is engaged in the production of rear shelves and acoustic and thermal insulation for the automotive industry. The acoustic insulations produced at the plant are used for comprehensive soundproofing of the passenger cabin by minimizing noise from the engine compartment, chassis space and trunk space.

Figure 1: Components manufactured at Autoneum Poland Ltd. [www.autoneum.com]

There are many mechanical hazards associated with operating machinery and equipment such as: – firing presses, – firing and forming presses, – cutting presses, – foaming lines, – heating tables, – robots for high-pressure water cutting (Water Jet). 16 Wyganowska M., & Tobór-Osadnik K., Working environment and observance of occupational health and safety regulations – case study. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 174(1), 012016, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/174/1/012016.

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The equipment and machines are used to implement the following technological processes: – Production of acoustic and thermal insulation – the technological process of burning details is carried out on burning presses. It consists in giving specific shapes to the material, which consists of natural wool and cotton fibers, synthetic fibers – acrylic, phenolic resin or non-phenolic resin and anti-rot agents. One cycle includes: spraying the heated die with a release agent, then placing the mold on the forming tool, closing the press and hot forming. The heating medium of the forming tools is hot oil, circulating in a closed circuit, heated electrically. Each press additionally has a steam generator and a condensate return system. After a certain time, the press opens automatically. The operator then removes the workpiece, tears off the excess material, and the product thus obtained, with the appropriate homogeneity and shape, is deposited in a container for finished products. – Production of acoustic insulation from heavy layer (HL) – the production process begins with heating the heavy layer on a heating table, where it becomes very plastic. It is then transferred to a vacuum forming tool – the vacuum sucks the plastic sheet into the mold giving it the desired shape. At the same time, by cooling the forming tool, the material cools and retains the required shape. The semi-finished product formed in this way is transferred to the next stage, which is foaming. Within this stage, the molded heavy layer is placed on the lower part of the foaming tool. The operator then sprays the upper part of the foaming tool with a release agent, which makes it easier to remove the finished parts from the tool. Once the mold is closed, the components (polyol and isocyanate) are injected into the mold, where a chemical reaction takes place, resulting in the formation of a flexible polyurethane foam on the surface of the heavy layer that reflects the shape of the die. This stage is followed by the process of cutting out the final shape of the manufactured part and cutting the required holes in it. These operations are performed using robots cutting with a high-pressure Water Jet. The worker places the workpiece on the work table, which is then brought into the cutting chamber where the robot cycle begins. – Production of car shelves – car shelves produced at the plant perform the function of separating the trunk space from the passenger compartment. Each shelf is composed of three elements, i. e.: the shelf ’s basic support material, steel profile, TNT materials and Septum (a type of fabric) constituting the shelf ’s top and bottom outer layers. These three layers under heat and pressure are pressed in a press on a forming and cutting tool. The forming operation is followed by arming the shelf with tendons, hinges, other necessary components.

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In parallel with the implementation of the aforementioned processes, the transportation of materials, semi-finished and finished products takes place at the plant, implemented through forklifts and electric railroad. The aforementioned information is intended to give an idea of how difficult an automotive manufacturing enterprise is in terms of the risks involved, and the importance of the activities of the occupational health and safety service to reduce the possibility of accidents and identify near misses.

Employee participation in identifying near-misses Near-miss events occur much more frequently in a company than accidents themselves. According to the definition of an accident at work17 for an accidental event to be an accident at work, it must meet the following conditions: – the event is caused by an external cause, – is related to the work performed, – caused injury or death, – was a sudden event. In near misses, injury or death does not occur. Most often, this is because collective or individual protection measures worked, or the employee was simply lucky. One of the forerunners of the issue of near-misses was Herbert Heinrich, who in the 1930s introduced the innovative concept of safety management at work. His approach focused on identifying and eliminating the causes of accidents, rather than simply correcting their effects18. Heinrich’s concept was based on three assumptions: – most accidents are caused by human factors, not by errors in machinery or technology, – accidents have causes and effects that can be studied and analyzed, – eliminating the causes of accidents is more effective than merely fixing the effects of accidents. Heinrich also created the so-called “accident triangle” (also called the accident pyramid), which represents a hierarchy of accident causes. At the top of the triangle are placed serious and fatal accidents, which account for a small percentage of all accidents. Further down the triangle are accidents that cause injury 17 Ustawa z dnia 30 paz´dziernika 2002 r. o ubezpieczeniu społecznym z tytułu wypadków przy pracy i chorób zawodowych. Dz.U. 2002 nr 199 poz. 1673. Available at: https://isap.sejm.gov.pl /isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20021991673. (accessed 12 May 2023). 18 Heinrich H.W., Herbert W., Industrial accident prevention; a scientific approach. First edition. New York ; London : McGraw-Hill book company, inc., 1931.

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or property damage, but they are not serious. The widest part of the triangle represented incidents that do not cause damage, but can lead to accidents if not dealt with in time.

1 Serious injury 29 Minor injuries

300 Near Miss Figure 2: The accident triangle by H.Heinrich [own study based on 18]

Most often mentioned in the literature in addition to Heinrich’s triangle is H.W. Bird’s accident triangle its structure is very similar to Heinrich’s triangle there is an additional element of material loss generating events19. One of the more recent concepts of the accident triangle developed on the basis of Heinrich’s theory and presented by the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) also applies to occupational risk indicators20. 1 Fatality 10 Serious injury 29 Accidents with material damage 600 Near Miss

Fatality Lost #me/ Serious injury Minor injury Near Miss Unsafe act

Figure 3: Accident triangles according to H.W.Brida and OSHA [own study based on 18,19]

19 Bird F.E., & Loftus R.G., Loss control management. Intl Loss Control Inst; First Edition 1976. 20 OSHA Outreach Courses. “The Safe Pyramid”. (2021). https://www.oshaoutreachcourses.co m/blog/safety-triangle-the-safe-pyramid/ (accessed 14 May 2023).

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Each of the concepts presented above takes into account the role of the human factor, the behavior of the worker in certain situations, including his reaction to a potentially accidental situation. Each accident is the result of several causes of both the incubation and active phases of the accident. Reporting of near misses and deviation situations contributes to minimizing accidents mainly by leveling indirect causes. At Autoneum, a near-miss reporting system has been in place since 2017 and is still being developed as part of the Kaizen policy. Kaizen philosophy is a Japanese business concept that focuses on continuous improvement in all aspects of an organization. The word “Kaizen” translates as “continuous improvement” or “improvement”21. The Kaizen philosophy is based on the belief that small, incremental changes can lead to significant improvements over time. This method encourages employees at all levels of the organization to identify areas for improvement and continuously implement changes to optimize processes, reduce waste and increase productivity.22 The Kaizen concept is characterized by several key principles, including: – continuous improvement – focuses on continuously improving processes and practices over time, rather than making radical changes all at once, – respect for people – emphasizes the importance of respecting and valuing employees and involving them in the improvement process, – teamwork – encourages collaboration and teamwork at all levels of the organization to identify areas for improvement and implement change, – standardization – promotes the development and use of standardized processes and procedures to ensure consistency and efficiency. – waste elimination – seeks to eliminate waste and inefficiencies in processes, such as excess inventory, waiting times, defects, overproduction and unnecessary activities. Since the Kaizen philosophy focuses on creating a culture of continuous improvement and enabling employees to contribute to the development of the organization linking it to the development of a safety culture and efforts to improve workplace safety is very legitimate. In the company under review, various mechanisms for identifying hazardous events (NM), unsafe conditions (UC) and unsafe behaviors (UA) have been created and function within a single IT tool/system. Information from employees is entered into the system from various places (sources) ie:

21 Singh J., & Singh H. (2009), Kaizen Philosophy: A Review of Literature. The IUP Journal of Operations Management 8, 2009, p. 51–72. 22 Kharub M., Gupta H., Rana S., & McDermott O., Employee’s performance and Kaizen events’ success: does supervisor behaviour play a moderating role? The TQM Journal, 2023 https://doi.org/10.1108/TQM-06-2022-0203.

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A. Publicly accessible Infokiosk (Figure 4) where any employee can make a report. B. Cyclical reviews performed by managers and supervisors according to the plan and guidelines of the Health and Safety Department. C. Ongoing reviews performed by EHS department employees. (EHS Work Place Audits) D. Submissions made by Team leads and shift managers. E. Reports made by employees to the maintenance department – reports mainly concern problems with the operation of machinery and equipment.

Figure 4: Infokiosk [own study]

Employees can make a request after logging into the system and selecting the appropriate module, then make a selection of the topic to which the request applies. Figure 5 shows a view of the report card with Security and Management selected. Below the selection of the topic, the employee gives a brief description of the event and provides suggestions for improvement or leveling the reported event. In the next step, the information goes to the appropriate organizational unit indicated by the employee and is further processed. Employees of organizational units who are responsible for a given content area evaluate the information and assign the event to the appropriate subject group, depending on the nature of the reported information and what it concerns. Employees evaluating the notification make a selection from among the following types of incident (Fig. 6): lack of or inadequate protective equipment; protruding elements; moving parts, sharp elements, edges; high/low temperature; slippery

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Figure 5: View of the report card filled out by the employee reporting the incident [own study]

surface; electric current; chemicals; working at height; work ergonomics; disorderly conditions; failure to follow procedures; fire hazard; workstation organization; noise; faulty tools; messed-up fire equipment, escape doors; means of transport; faulty or missing safety devices; manual transport; failure to use LOTO safety devices; other.

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Figure 6: View of the application form to be filled in by the staff member assessing the application [own study]

After an opinion on the report and safety impact assessment, measures are taken to implement either technical or organizational solutions to eliminate the causes of the incident or unsafe working conditions. The employee receives feedback on how his reported incident was handled and when it was or will be removed. As of 2023, an additional module dedicated only to reporting dangerous and risky behavior of employees is being implemented in the company. A special application has been created to enable such reporting, within which any employee can make a report through the Infokiosk, a company computer or a company smartphone. A view of the UNSAFE ACT REGISTER application is presented below in Figure 7. The implementation of an application dedicated only to reporting unsafe behavior by employees is aimed at facilitating the process of reporting such behavior and obtaining as much information as possible from employees. This

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Figure 7: Screen view of UNSAFE ACT REGISTER application [own study]

approach is the result of the company’s health and safety analysis, which indicates that a large number of dangerous incidents and a portion of accidents are caused by unsafe employee behavior. Reporting unsafe behavior in the UNSAFE ACT REGISTER application takes very little time and is intuitive requiring the employee only to select basic information from the drop-down menu (e. g., date, department/brigade number) and check individual boxes for the type of unsafe behavior, e. g.: lack of personal protection, failure to use LO-TO lock, failure to wear seat belt, failure to follow procedures, smoking outside designated areas. The employee has the opportunity to enter additional comments, but this is not mandatory. Collected and grouped information on the number of potentially dangerous events, unsafe conditions and unsafe behavior is a valuable source of information for plant managers on how working conditions are shaping up, what incidents are taking place and what is the involvement of employees in the process of improving safe working conditions. In 2022, 2251 notifications were obtained thanks to the solutions in operation at the company. Table 1 shows the number of notifications in each month of 2022 and Figure 8 shows a graph of applications in 2022 by source.

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Table 1. Summary of the entries made in 2022 [own study]

INCIDENTS REPORTING Cyclical reviews by leaders and managers according to the health and safety plan

InfoKiosk

UA

UC

NM

UA

UC

NM

Day-to-day reviews by health and safety staff

UA

UC

NM

Reported by Team Leaders and Shift Leaders

UA

UC

NM

Reported by workers to the maintenance department

UA

UC

NM

Reported by employee (SAFETY GEMBA WALK)

UA

UC

NM

January

0

24

0

2

6

0

2

3

0

1

4

0

0

32

0

ND

ND

ND

February

0

37

0

2

7

0

5

20

0

4

25

0

0

2

0

ND

ND

ND ND

March

1

56

0

6

48

0

6

11

0

1

14

0

0

81

0

ND

ND

April

0

33

0

0

5

0

0

1

0

1

3

0

0

123

0

1

28

0

May

0

20

0

4

13

0

6

1

0

4

1

3

0

128

0

3

11

0

June

1

25

1

1

11

0

28

0

0

3

0

0

0

162

0

1

51

0

July

1

24

0

0

9

0

1

0

0

1

0

4

0

170

0

28

5

0

August

0

15

0

0

0

0

7

21

0

0

1

0

0

88

0

7

16

0

September

0

39

0

0

13

0

8

10

0

0

0

1

0

195

0

6

32

0

October

0

24

0

4

12

0

12

17

0

0

0

1

0

174

0

13

22

0

November

0

29

0

9

12

0

14

15

0

1

0

0

0

146

0

16

37

0

December

0

15

0

2

11

0

0

4

0

0

1

0

0

96

0

0

7

0

3

341

1

30

147

0

89

103

0

16

49

9

0

1397

0

75

209

0

SOURCES OF INCIDENT REPORTING IN 2022 Reported by employee (SAFETY GEMBA WALK); 284

InfoKiosk; 345

Cyclical reviews by leaders and managers according to the health and safety plan; 177 Day-to-day reviews by health and safety staff; 192 Reported by Team Leaders and Shi! Leaders ; 74

Reported by workers to the maintenance department; 1397

Figure 8: Charts of numbers of applications in 2022 by source [own study]

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Activating employees to participate in creating safe working conditions by reporting information about improper working conditions and near misses requires appropriate tools and procedures to report and record these incidents, but above all to make employees aware of their role and responsibility for ensuring safe working conditions. Changing this awareness of employees is a long-term stage requiring training activities and actions to promote participation and involvement of workers’ participation to improve working safety conditions.

Work safety training and actions to promote participation Occupational health and safety training plays a key role in ensuring the prevention of accidents and occupational diseases. In accordance with legal requirements in Poland, occupational health and safety training aims to make employees aware of the potential hazards associated with their work and of the methods to minimize those hazards. In the course of mandatory training, employees are provided with information on safety rules and procedures in the workplace, how to properly use tools, machinery and equipment, how to avoid risky situations and how to react in the event of a breakdown or accident. The quality of the training provided varies and depends mainly on the awareness of employers of their approach to health and safety issues, the competence and commitment of health and safety services and, in the case of periodic training, on the financial resources available. Unfortunately, most often employers limit themselves only to carrying out initial and periodic training required by the provisions of the Decree of the Minister of Economy and Labor of July 27th, 2004 on training in the field of occupational safety and health23, thus they do not carry out any training activities between the training periods or the mandatory thematic scope of the law. Such action although in compliance with the law results in the training aspect not playing a significant role in shaping the safety culture in the organization. Undertaking additional training activities focused not only on the transfer of knowledge but on the practical application of knowledge and awareness of the employee’s role in ensuring safe work contributes to increased awareness and commitment to safety issues. In the company under review, in order to develop a safety culture at work, a health and safety training program has been introduced, which involves the implementation of training in addition to the legally required initial and periodic training: 23 Rozporza˛dzenie Ministra Gospodarki i Pracy z dnia 27 lipca 2004 r. w sprawie szkolenia w dziedzinie bezpieczen´stwa i higieny pracy. Dz.U. 2004 nr 180 poz. 1860. Available at: https://i sap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20041801860 (accessed 15 May 2023).

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– training of all newly hired employees in the application of 15 good health and safety practices, – training of all newly hired employees on OSH and environmental management systems, – short 5-minute weekly training sessions for employees conducted by Team Leaders based on issues sent by the OHS department, – monthly meetings of the OHS department with Team Leaders at which current occupational safety issues are discussed, – quarterly meetings of the company Director with the entire staff at which aspects of safe working conditions are discussed, among other things, – training sessions in the Safety Dojo room (Figure 9) for all employees. Safety Dojo trainings are a very interesting solution. During these trainings, each employee performs tasks and practical exercises during which they must, for example: – demonstrate knowledge of the use of appropriate personal protective equipment for a given hazard. – demonstrate knowledge of how collective safeguards work when operating machinery and the ability to test these safeguards before starting work. – demonstrate the ability to identify unsafe working conditions on prepared graphic tasks – employees mark irregularities on special boards depicting work stations. – identify their role in occupational safety activities.

Figure 9: Dojo Training Room [own study]

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In order to ensure the quality of training, employees fill out evaluation sheets after periodic training and their results are the basis for the selection of the contractor for periodic training and the selection of training methods. All the above-described organizational solutions and training activities are supported by a system of incentives to encourage employees to participate in the reporting of potentially hazardous events and to make them aware of how important it is for them to maintain safe working conditions at work. As an example, we can mention here the implemented in the company: – benefit card program for employees who have earned the highest number of points for completed reports of hazardous incidents, unsafe conditions, unsafe behavior. Points are awarded for reporting and for suggestions for improvement that have been implemented, – art contests for children of employees on topics related to occupational safety, – monthly meetings of the OHS Department with Team Leaders at which current occupational safety issues are discussed, – quarterly meetings between the company’s Director and the entire staff at which aspects of safe working conditions are discussed, among other things, – making employees aware of the fact that participation in reporting dangerous events, unsafe conditions and unsafe behavior serves to learn the reasons for the occurrence of these events and their elimination, which contributes to the prevention of accidents and thus the protection of life and health of themselves and their co-workers. One of the primary retrospective measures of health and safety status is the number of accidents24 and Accident Frequency Rate (AFR). The accident frequency rate is calculated from the formula: AFR ¼

the number of reported accidents " 106 number of employee hours worked

(1)

The charts below (Figure 10) shows the AFR values and (Figure 11) the number of accidents at Autoneum Ltd. from 2018 to 2022.

24 Krause M., Podstawy badan´ w dziedzinie bezpieczen´stwa i higieny pracy. Monografia, Politechnika S´la˛ska (Vol. 695), 2018.

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The accident frequency rate from 2018 to 2022 30 25

25

20 15

13,8

10 6,3

5 0

2018

2019

2020

5,5

2021

3,8

2022

Figure 10: Chart of Accident Frequency Rate (AFR) [own study]

The number of accidents from 2018 to 2022 30 25

25

20 15

14

10

9

5 0

7 4

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

Figure 11: Charts of the number of accidents [own study]

Summary Whether employees will work with safety at work is based on two main factors, i. e. whether employees know how to behave and whether they want to behave that way. At work as in private life, cultural factors stemming from practice and intrinsic motivation are of the greatest importance in choosing a certain behavior and our response.

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Changing employee awareness and developing a culture of safety at work is a long-term process in which the example going from the top, i. e. the behavior and approach to safety at work presented by the employer and its management, is very important. The easiest way to learn is by doing the activities in question – practical exercises, which is why the participation of employees in the identification of dangerous events, unsafe conditions and unsafe behavior is so important in the development of a culture of occupational safety. Employees who pay attention to aspects of occupational safety want to work safely and demand the same from their colleagues. By doing so, they directly influence the behavior of other employees and increase the level of safety culture in a given enterprise by creating safe work conditions. An employer wishing to involve employees in the creation of safe work conditions must give them the right organizational tools to enable them to get involved and take measures to motivate them to this behavior. The presented solutions functioning in the company Autoneum Poland sp. z o.o. Contribute directly to the growth of safety culture by giving employees the opportunity to participate in the implementation of health and safety issues in the company and rewarding their involvement. The effect of the introduced measures is a decrease in the number of accidents from 25 in 2018 to 4 in 2022 and the accident frequency rate from 25 to 3.8, respectively. An immeasurable effect of the increase in safety culture is the observation of employees while performing their work and their correct reaction to the occurrence of dangerous conditions or unsafe behavior.

References Abdullah D.N.M.A., & Wern G.C.M., Investigating factors that affect safety culture in construction sector. CHUSER 2012–2012 IEEE Colloquium on Humanities, Science and Engineering Research, 2012. pp. 21–25. https://doi.org/10.1109/CHUSER.2012.6504274. An Y., Wang H., Yang X., Zhang J., & Tong R., Using the TPB and 24Model to understand workers’ unintentional and intentional unsafe behaviour: A case study. Safety Science, 163, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2023.106099. Biggs H., Dinsdag D., Kirk P., & Cipolla D., Safety culture research, lead indicators, and the development of safety effectiveness indicators in the construction sector. International Journal of Technology, Knowledge and Society, 2010. http://ijt.cgpublisher.com/produc t/pub.42/prod.670. Bird F.E., & Loftus R.G., Loss control management. Intl Loss Control Inst; First Edition 1976.

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Boughaba A., Hassane C., & Roukia O., Safety culture assessment in petrochemical industry: A comparative study of two algerian plants. Safety and Health at Work, 5(2), 2014, pp. 60–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.shaw.2014.03.005. Brown K.A., Willis P.G., & Prussia G.E., Predicting safe employee behavior in the steel industry: Development and test of a sociotechnical model. Journal of Operations Management, 18(4), 2000, pp. 445–465. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-6963(00)00033-4. Çakıt E., Olak A.J., Murata A., Karwowski W., Alrehaili O., & Marek T., Assessment of the perceived safety culture in the petrochemical industry in Japan: A cross-sectional study. PLOS ONE, 14(12), 2019. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0226416. Duda A., Possibility of reducing costs of mining operations – economic aspects of workplace accidents. IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 268 012009, 2017, pp. 1–7. DOI 10.1088/1757899X/268/1/012009. Heinrich H.W., Herbert W., Industrial accident prevention; a scientific approach. First edition. New York ; London : McGraw-Hill book company, inc., 1931. Kharub M., Gupta H., Rana S., & McDermott O., Employee’s performance and Kaizen events’ success: does supervisor behaviour play a moderating role? The TQM Journal, 2023 https://doi.org/10.1108/TQM-06-2022-0203. Kim S., Kitzmiller R., Baernholdt M., Lynn M.R., & Jones C.B., Patient Safety Culture: The Impact on Workplace Violence and Health Worker Burnout. Workplace Health and Safety, 71(2), 2023, pp. 78–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/21650799221126364. Kowal B., & Wyganowska M., Aspects of motivation and engagement of employees in their work based on the example of mining companies. Inz˙ynieria Mineralna, R. 21(1), 2020 pp. 237–242. https://doi.org/10.29227/IM-2020-01-80. Krause M., Podstawy badan´ w dziedzinie bezpieczen´stwa i higieny pracy. Monografia, Politechnika S´la˛ska (Vol. 695), 2018. Milczarek M., & Najmiec A., The relationship between workers’ safety culture and accidents, near accidents and health problems. International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, 10(1), 2004. https://doi.org/10.1080/10803548.2004.11076592. Odu J.O., Hamedon T.R., Mahmud A., & Baharudin M.R., Systematic Review of Intervention Programs to Improve the Level of Knowledge, Attitude, and Practices towards Work Safety Culture among Office Workers. Malaysian Journal of Medicine and Health Sciences, 19(1), 2023, pp. 263–271. https://doi.org/10.47836/mjmhs.19.1.34. Patankar M.S., & Sabin E.J., The Safety Culture Perspective. Human Factors in Aviation, 2010, pp. 95–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374518-7.00004-3. OSHA Outreach Courses. “The Safe Pyramid”. (2021). https://www.oshaoutreachcourse s.com/blog/safety-triangle-the-safe-pyramid/. Rozporza˛dzenie Ministra Gospodarki i Pracy z dnia 27 lipca 2004 r. w sprawie szkolenia w dziedzinie bezpieczen´stwa i higieny pracy. Dz.U. 2004 nr 180 poz. 1860. Available at: https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20041801860 (accessed 15 May 2023). Santoso J., Latief Y., & Machfudiyanto R.A., Building a safety culture in the construction sector: A model to assess the safety maturity of a company. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management, IEOM, 2018, pp. 3050–3061). Singh J., & Singh H. (2009)., Kaizen Philosophy: A Review of Literature. The IUP Journal of Operations Management 8, 2009, pp. 51–72.

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Ustawa z dnia 30 paz´dziernika 2002 r. o ubezpieczeniu społecznym z tytułu wypadków przy pracy i chorób zawodowych. Dz.U. 2002 nr 199 poz. 1673. Available at: https://isap.sej m.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20021991673. (accessed 12 May 2023). Wu T.C., Lin C.H., & Shiau S.Y., Developing measures for assessing the causality of safety culture in a petrochemical industry. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution: Focus, 9(5–6), 2009, pp. 507–515. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11267-009-9242-X/METRICS. Wyganowska M., & Tobór-Osadnik K., Working environment and observance of occupational health and safety regulations – case study. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 174(1), 012016, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/174/1 /012016.

Ewelina Włodarczyk1

Survey of public sentiment among coal mine workers in connection with the Fit for 55 package being introduced

Introduction The European Union’s energy policy was initially oriented toward the need to guarantee a secure supply of energy resources. However, with time and with the changes that were taking place in the international environment, the need also emerged to take into account environmental and social aspects. Whereas the concept of a sustainable energy policy has become the subject of much debate2. A sustainable energy policy should address three dimensions namely environmental, economic and socio-cultural. Thus, it should take into account aspects such as global warming, tolerance of nature, abuse of renewable resources and potential risks to human health, impact on the country’s economy, meeting energy needs, appropriate prices, anti-concentration and economic viability of the energy market, economic dependence on the supply of raw materials and efficiency, social tolerance, sustainable security of supply, integration into existing structures, participation in the avoidance of global conflicts, as well as security.3 In order to achieve a sustainable energy policy, the Communication from the European Commission called the European Green Deal was created in December 2019.4 The European Commission (EC), as part of the Green Deal, is working on

1 Faculty of Mining, Safety Engineering and Industrial Automation of the Silesian University of Technology, [email protected], ORCID: 0000-0003-0836-5998. 2 Adamczewska N., Zaja˛czkowska M., Realizacja zrównowaz˙onej polityki energetycznej Unii Europejskiej w konteks´cie Celów Zrównowaz˙onego Rozwoju (SDG)–wybrane aspekty, “Folia Iuridica Universitatis Wratislaviensis”, 11(2), 2022, pp. 9–25. 3 Rogall H., Ekonomia zrównowaz˙onego rozwoju. Teoria i praktyka, Zysk i S-ka, Poznan´ 2010, p. 366. 4 Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions the European Green Deal COM(2019) 640 final.

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legislative solutions to meet the world’s most ambitious climate change targets.5 The EC believes the changes will make the EU a modern, resource-efficient and competitive economy.6 The “heart of the New Green Deal” became the Regulation adopted on the 30th of June 2021. Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council (EU) on establishing a framework for achieving climate neutrality (European Climate Law – ECL) 7. The adoption of the ECL was controversial because it was done on the basis of Article 192(1) of the Treaty on the functioning of the European Union (TFEU). Hence, the goal of achieving climate neutrality in the EU, which was based on primary European environmental law, became legally binding. The mentioned legal basis does not require unanimity in the Council therefore the adopted regulation did not have to be accepted by all member states. Theoretically, the adopted climate law could be challenged before the Court of Justice of the EU because the adopted climate neutrality regulation could indirectly affect both the free “choice of energy source by a member state and the overall structure of its energy supply”8. And that already requires unanimity in the Council.9 According to the climate targets set by the European Union, greenhouse gas emissions are to be reduced by 55% by 2030 relative to 1990. In turn, the EU aims to achieve net zero emissions by 2050 and become the first climate-neutral continent. How this goal should be achieved, the European Commission announced in its communication COM(2021) 550 final on the 14th July 2021 called “Fit for 55”.10 This is a legislative package on climate and energy, including more

5 Piskorz A., Europejski zielony ład jako narze˛dzie realizacji ochrony klimatu i działan´ na rzecz sprawiedliwos´ci klimatycznej w unii europejskiej. [in]. Zrównowaz˙ony rozwój i europejski zielony ład wektorami doskonalenia warsztatu naukowca, (eds.) Buzek J., Kretek A., Staniszewski M., Wydawnictwo Akademii Nauk Stosowanych w Raciborzu, Racibórz 2022 pp. 63–72. 6 Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions the European Green Deal COM(2019) 640 final. 7 Regulation (EU) 2021/1119 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 June 2021 establishing the framework for achieving climate neutrality and amending Regulations (EC) No 401/2009 and (EU) 2018/1999 (“European Climate Law”) Dz. Urz. UE L 243/1 z 9. 07. 2021r. 8 Treaty on the functioning of the European Union – TFEU Available at: https://eur-lex.e uropa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A12012E%2FTXT [02 May 2023] Art.192.2.1c. 9 Hoffmann J., Europejski Zielony Ład, prawo europejskie i Łuz˙yce. “Folia Iuridica Universitatis Wratislaviensis”, 11(2),2022 pp. 102–110. 10 Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: “Fit for 55”: delivering the EU’s 2030 Climate Target on the way to climate neutrality [COM(2021) 550 final] EESC 2021/05481 Bruksela, 14. 7. 2021 r.

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than a dozen related updated laws and new climate and energy bills.11,12 Among the regulations included in the Fit for 55 there were provisions on reducing methane emissions in the energy sector. The EC proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the reduction of methane emissions in the energy sector and amending Regulation (EU)2019/94213, suggested in December 2022, is not favorable to Poland. Poland’s energy sector relies mainly on coal, thanks to its internationally significant reserves of solid fuels. In addition, Poland does not have significant natural gas and oil resources – their extraction is not capable of covering the current demand for them, making imports necessary. Therefore, the changes in the Polish energy sector to date have been rather reluctant. Admittedly, in 2020 the ministry in charge of energy, in consultation with trade unions, decided to move away from coal for energy production in Poland. However, the mine liquidation plan assumes that the last coal mine in the Polish Mining Group will close in 204914,15. On the other hand, the solutions contained in the proposal of the aforementioned regulation include a ban on the release of methane into the atmosphere and flaring from demethanation stations from the 01st January 2025, and the ban on the release of methane into the atmosphere from ventilation shafts in coal mines, other than coking coal mines, emitting more than 0.5 tons of methane per kiloton of coal mined from the 01st January 2027. However, in the case of coking coal mines, this issue is to be settled by the Commission in a special delegated act three years after the entry into force of the regulation.16 In Poland, practically all mines belong to this group, so carrying out the regulations in their current form would mean their liquidation after 2027. After negotiations in the EP, the Council adopted a position to increase the limit to 5 tons of methane per kiloton of coal mined. In addition, it was agreed that this threshold would apply per operator if one entity operates several mines. In addition, the Council wording postponed the prospect of publishing a delegated act on coking coal to five years. It also turned the draft’s 11 Jastrze˛bski M., “Pakiet Fit for 55”–dekarbonizacja Europy a europejski przemysł celulozowopapierniczy. “Przegla˛d Papierniczy” 78, 2022, pp. 25–26. 12 Je˛dral W., Energetyka w 2050 r.-tylko wiatr i słon´ce?. “Energetyka Cieplna i Zawodowa”. 1/ 2022. pp. 40–47. 13 Proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on methane emissions reduction in the energy sector and amending Regulation (EU) 2019/942 COM/ 2021/805 final. 14 Energy Transition in Poland 2021 Edition-Forum Energii. Available online: http://forum-ene rgii.eu/en/analizy/transformacja-2021 (accessed on 5 April 2023). 15 Bartoszczuk P., Singh U.S., Rutkowska M., An Empirical Analysis of Renewable Energy Contributions Considering Green Consumer Values – A Case Study of Poland, “Energies”, 2022; 15(3):1027. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15031027. 16 Proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on methane emissions reduction in the energy sector and amending Regulation (EU) 2019/942 COM/ 2021/805 final, Artycle 22.

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penalties for violations into fees that will go to the member state budget, which will then be transferred to mines for investment in methane reduction technologies. Assuming that the changes agreed upon through negotiations are implemented in the regulation, this is still a big problem for Poland, as domestic mines emit an average of 8 to 14 tons of methane per kiloton of coal, according to estimates. Moreover, this indicator will grow as mining is carried out from deeper and deeper deposits.17,18,19 Therefore, most Polish mines will have to pay sizable fees for emissions starting in 2027.

Demoscopic survey among coal mine workers in connection with the introduction of the Fit for 55 package The introduction of the EP and Council Regulation on methane reduction in the energy sector will undoubtedly have a huge impact on the mining industry in Poland. Hence, the EU’s plans and the ongoing negotiations in the EP are causing concern in the Polish mining industry. This is all the more so because at the moment it is not yet certain whether the Council’s position will be reflected in the Regulation. Moreover, the details of the emission fees are still unknown. Thus, there are concerns that the new solutions could cripple the Polish mining industry and negatively affect Poland’s energy security. In that regard, it is worth checking how the current situation affects public sentiment among coal mine workers. For this purpose, a survey was conducted among randomly selected coal mine employees of one of the coal companies. The minimum random sample size n was determined from the formula for a finite general population of N elements20: n¼

N 1þ

d2 ðN$1Þ za2 pq

(1)

17 Dreger M., Emisja metanu i wydobycie we˛gla kamiennego w Górnos´la˛skim Zagłe˛biu We˛glowym w relacji do zwie˛kszania sie˛ efektu cieplarnianego w Polsce w latach 1994–2018. “Mining Science”, 28, 2021, pp. 59–76. https://doi.org/10.37190/msc212805. 18 Patyn´ska R., Prognoza wskaz´ników emisji metanu z kopaln´ metanowych we˛gla kamiennego w Polsce. “Polityka Energetyczna” 16.3, 2013, pp. 157–169. 19 Patyn´ska R., Identyfikacja i ocena emisji metanu z kopaln´ we˛gla kamiennego w Polsce. “Zeszyty Naukowe Instytutu Gospodarki Surowcami Mineralnymi i Energia˛ PAN”, 86,2014, pp. 151–166. 20 Matuszak A., Matuszak Z., Okres´lenie próby i jej licznos´ci w badaniach pedagogicznych, “General and Professional Education”, 2/2011, pp. 33–39.

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where: zα – 1,64 for α = 0,10 1,96 for α = 0,05 2,28 for α = 0,01 N – of the general population, p – expected order of magnitude of the estimated fraction, q – is 1 –p, d – acceptable error of estimation of fraction p (given as a decimal fraction). For the calculations assumed: 1. confidence factor 1 – α = 0,95, thereby zα = 1,96, 2. maximum error (statistical) d = 0,10, 3. p = 0,5, The size of the general population N is about 37,000 people. On the basis of the assumptions made earlier and the calculations carried out, it was determined that 100 people employed by the company should be surveyed. The surveyed employees varied in age and, consequently, their professional experience was also heterogonous. Those who took part in the survey were under 50 years old and their length of service was a maximum of 20 years. (Fig.1 and Fig. 2) There was not a single woman among the surveyed employees. In addition, all survey participants underlined that they worked underground.

0%

12%

34%

54%

18-30

Figure 1: The age of the respondents

31-40

41-50

more than 50

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0%

30%

30%

40%

0-5

6-10

11-15

16-20

21-25

26-30

more than 30

Figure 2: Seniority of respondents

Respondents had varied educational backgrounds. The largest number of respondents indicated that they had a high school education, followed by graduates of first and second cycle studies. In addition, 2 people among the respondents had vocational education. They were in within the age range of 41–50. (Fig.3).

2% 24%

40%

34%

voca#onal educa#on

high school educa#on

Figure 3: Educational background of respondents

first cycle studies

second cycle studies

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The survey addressed the feelings and plans of respondents regarding the intended introduction of methane emission restrictions in the energy sector, which will undoubtedly affect the mining industry in Poland. Due to the fact that the law allows mine workers to retire early due to their length of service in mining, the answers received to most questions were analysed taking this factor into account. First, respondents were asked whether they felt uneasy about the EU’s changes in the Fit for 55 package (Fig. 4). More than two-thirds of respondents marked a positive answer. The figure shows that anxiety is not felt primarily by those with higher seniority who may retire in the near future. In contrast, those with less seniority who marked a negative answer included those who do not believe in the implementation of the solution proposed in Fit for 55 to reduce methane emissions in the energy sector. 35 35

30

27

25

19

20

15 11 10 5 3

5

0

6-10

11-15

16-20

length of service yes

no

Figure 4: Respondents’ answers to the question: “Do you feel anxious about the EU’s changes in the Fit for 55 package?”

Respondents were then asked whether they feared losing their jobs due to the climate package adopted by the EU. (Fig.5) The vast majority of workers with less seniority are afraid of losing their jobs. In contrast, the majority of respondents with more than 15 years of seniority marked a negative answer. This is probably due to the fact that they are likely to retire within a few years. Another question in the survey referred to employees’ plans to change sectors (Fig.6). Employees with higher seniority do not plan to do it. In contrast, virtually most of the respondents with the lowest seniority are thinking of changing in-

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dustries due to fear of losing their jobs. In contrast, employees with seniority between 11 and 15 years are divided on this issue.

30 30

27

25

22

20

15 10 8

10

3

5

0

6-10

11-15

16-20

length of service yes

no

Figure 5: Respondents’ answer to the question: “Are you afraid of losing your job due to the climate package adopted by the EU?”

29

30 25 25 21 19

20

15

10 5 5 1 0

6-10

11-15

16-20

length of service yes

no

Figure 6: Respondents’ answers to the question: “Are you thinking about changing sectors due to planned mine closures?”

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Respondents were then asked whether they were taking any steps to change sectors (Fig.7). The most senior employees do not plan to do it so they have not taken any action in this regard. On the other hand, a considerable number of their younger senior colleagues have taken actions to change sectors.

30 28

30

25

20 16 15

14 12

10

5 0 0

6-10

11-15

16-20

length of service yes

no

Figure 7: Respondents’ answers to the question: “Have you taken any steps to change sectors?”

Another question asked what actions they would take to change sectors (Fig. 8). Respondents primarily take part in various types of courses and training. Some of them, in order to acquire a different qualification, have started 2nd cycle or postgraduate studies. Many of these people conduct their activities in two ways, i. e., simultaneously studying and participating in courses and trainings. Next, respondents were asked whether they screen job offers (Fig. 9). As in the previous question, the majority of workers with the shortest seniority follow the job market. Among respondents with seniority between 11 and 15 years, 17 out of 40 will sift through offers. In contrast, workers with the highest seniority do not check the offers available on the labour market. The last two questions asked respondents’ opinions on the impact of the proposed solution for reducing methane emissions in the energy sector in the Fit for 55 package on Poland’s energy security and the likelihood of its implementation. The vast majority of employees surveyed believe that the introduction of methane emission restrictions in the mining sector could negatively affect Poland’s energy security (Fig.10). In addition, the majority of those surveyed believe that conducting methane emission reductions in the energy sector in the EU is possible (Fig.11). 42% of

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those surveyed think it is highly likely, another 40% think it is likely and 12% think it is unlikely. In addition, only 6 people said that it is not possible to implement such a limitation. 20 20

18

16

14

12 10

10

10

8 6 6

4

2 0 0

courses

training

first cycle studies

2nd cycle studies

postgraduate studies

Figure 8: Respondents’ answers to the question: “What actions have you taken to change the industry?”

30 30

25

24

23

20

17

15

10 6 5 0 0

6-10

11-15

16-20

length of service yes

Figure 9: Respondents’ answers to the question: “Do you sift job offers?”

no

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Survey of public sentiment among coal mine workers

8%

92%

yes

no

Figure 10: Respondents’ answers to the question: “In your opinion, are the solutions proposed in Fit for 55 for reducing methane emissions in the energy sector likely to negatively affect Poland’s energy security?”

0%

6% 12%

42%

40%

not possible

unlikely

likely

highly likely

certain

Figure 11: Workers’ opinion on the feasibility of the proposed Fit for 55 solution to reduce methane emissions in the power sector.

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Conclusions One of the most important challenges facing the EU is undoubtedly to ensure the economic security of its members, as well as the organization as a whole. The energy sector and energy policy are therefore an integral part of the European Union’s development strategy. On the other hand, there is still the issue of countering the climate crisis and environmental pollution. Therefore, taking into account environmental aspects and the fact that economic projections indicate an increase in energy consumption in the EU in the next few years, and that it is heavily dependent on external suppliers of energy resources (in particular, fossil fuels), the European Union is strongly promoting the transformation of Europe into a low-carbon economy. New legislation is therefore being drafted, obliging member countries to act on the transition to clean energy in order to create a sustainable energy sector that takes into account environmental protection by, among other things, reducing emissions of carbon dioxide and other gases that affect the greenhouse effect. One such regulation that was proposed in the Fit for 55 package is the EC’s motion for a regulation of the European Parliament and the Council on reducing methane emissions in the energy sector. The introduction of such regulations will have a significant impact on the Polish mining industry, and consequently on the situation of those employed in it. Surveys carried out have shown that coal mine employees feel uneasy about the planned changes in the Fit for 55 package. Additionally, employees with less seniority as a result of it are worried about losing their jobs. They are considering changing sectors and are beginning to take various actions in this regard. Respondents believe that the introduction of methane emission restrictions in the energy sector is likely, and that it could negatively affect Poland’s energy security. It is hard to disagree, given that Poland’s energy sector is based mainly on coal, thanks to its internationally significant reserves of solid fuels. Poland also lacks significant natural gas and oil resources, making it necessary to import them. Therefore, changes in the Polish energy sector have been quite resistant so far. In addition, renewable energy sources are not sufficiently developed, there is also a problem with storing the energy they produce, and natural gas and oil prices are strongly correlated with coal prices. In fact, nuclear energy is to be introduced into the energy mix, but these plans have been postponed for many years, and at the moment there is still no nuclear power plant built in the country. Therefore, further reductions in the capacity of mines in the near future could lead to an energy crisis for the country, as Poland does not have an alternative energy source at present that could replace coal in the short term. Hence, leaving aside completely whether it is economically viable at all, Poland still needs a long time to move away from coal without affecting the country’s energy security.

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References Adamczewska N., Zaja˛czkowska M., Realizacja zrównowaz˙onej polityki energetycznej Unii Europejskiej w konteks´cie Celów Zrównowaz˙onego Rozwoju (SDG)–wybrane aspekty. “Folia Iuridica Universitatis Wratislaviensis”, 11(2), 2022, pp. 9–25. Bartoszczuk P., Singh U.S., Rutkowska M., An Empirical Analysis of Renewable Energy Contributions Considering Green Consumer Values – A Case Study of Poland, “Energies”, 2022; 15(3):1027. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15031027. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions the European Green Deal COM(2019) 640 final. Dreger M., Emisja metanu i wydobycie we˛gla kamiennego w Górnos´la˛skim Zagłe˛biu We˛glowym w relacji do zwie˛kszania sie˛ efektu cieplarnianego w Polsce w latach 1994–2018. “Mining Science”, 28, 2021, pp. 59–76. https://doi.org/10.37190/msc212805. Energy Transition in Poland|2021 Edition-Forum Energii. Available online: http://forum -energii.eu/en/analizy/transformacja-2021 (accessed on 5 April 2023). Hoffmann J., Europejski Zielony Ład, prawo europejskie i Łuz˙yce. “Folia Iuridica Universitatis Wratislaviensis”, 11(2),2022 pp. 102–110. Jastrze˛bski M., “Pakiet Fit for 55”–dekarbonizacja Europy a europejski przemysł celulozowo-papierniczy. “Przegla˛d Papierniczy” 78, 2022, pp. 25–26. Je˛dral W., Energetyka w 2050 r.-tylko wiatr i słon´ce?. “Energetyka Cieplna i Zawodowa”. 1/ 2022. pp. 40–47. Matuszak A., Matuszak Z., Okres´lenie próby i jej licznos´ci w badaniach pedagogicznych, “General and Professional Education” 2/2011 pp. 33–39. Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: “Fit for 55”: delivering the EU’s 2030 Climate Target on the way to climate neutrality [COM(2021) 550 final] EESC 2021/ 05481 Bruksela, 14. 7. 2021 r. Patyn´ska R., Identyfikacja i ocena emisji metanu z kopaln´ we˛gla kamiennego w Polsce. “Zeszyty Naukowe Instytutu Gospodarki Surowcami Mineralnymi i Energia˛ PAN”, 86,2014, pp. 151–166. Patyn´ska R., Prognoza wskaz´ników emisji metanu z kopaln´ metanowych we˛gla kamiennego w Polsce. “Polityka Energetyczna” 16.3, 2013, pp. 157–169. Piskorz A., Europejski zielony ład jako narze˛dzie realizacji ochrony klimatu i działan´ na rzecz sprawiedliwos´ci klimatycznej w unii europejskiej. [in]. Zrównowaz˙ony rozwój i europejski zielony ład wektorami doskonalenia warsztatu naukowca, (eds.) Buzek J.,Kretek A., Staniszewski M, Wydawnictwo Akademii Nauk Stosowanych w Raciborzu, Racibórz 2022 pp. 63–72. Proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on methane emissions reduction in the energy sector and amending Regulation (EU) 2019/942 COM/2021/805 final. Regulation (EU) 2021/1119 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 June 2021 establishing the framework for achieving climate neutrality and amending Regulations

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(EC) No 401/2009 and (EU) 2018/1999 (“European Climate Law”) Dz. Urz. UE L 243/1 z 9. 07. 2021r. Rogall H, Ekonomia zrównowaz˙onego rozwoju. Teoria i praktyka, Zysk i S-ka, Poznan´ 2010, p. 366. Treaty on the functioning of the European Union – TFEU Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.e u/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A12012E%2FTXT [02 May 2023] Art.192.2.1c.

Piotr Ban´ka1

The problem of ensuring common safety in the presence of induced seismicity

Introduction Many areas experience strongly perceptible surface vibrations caused by induced seismicity. In practice, such vibrations cause stronger tremors, whose seismic energy exceeds 106 J. In areas where such impacts are found, the problem of ensuring common safety arises. This concept is defined in various ways2. For the purposes of this work, it is assumed that it should be understood as the limitation of the magnitude of occurring surface vibrations to a level that can be safely absorbed by building and technical infrastructure structures. A separate problem, which will not be discussed in detail here, is the social acceptance of occurring vibrations. This depends on many unmeasurable factors. It is often found that, paradoxically, where such vibrations occur relatively frequently, the level of their acceptance by local communities is higher than in areas where such impacts occur sporadically. It is important for businesses to take appropriate measures to respond quickly to possible damage to property and to conduct a proper information campaign about the expected level of ground surface vibration and its possible effects. Objective determination of ground vibration parameters is possible at those sites where specialised measuring apparatus is installed. Due to the large number of construction sites and technical infrastructures, it is not possible to install such apparatus at every site. Technical, organisational and economic reasons make this impossible. In order to determine the magnitude of ground vibrations at non-observed points, a relationship is established between the cause – the magnitude of the tremor, defined by its magnitude or seismic energy and the distance from the focus of the tremor to the point of the ground surface under 1 Faculty of Mining, Safety Engineering and Industrial Automation of the Silesian University of Technology, [email protected], ORCID: 0000-0002-5476-1716. 2 Gromek P., Istota bezpieczen´stwa powszechnego w Polsce. Zeszyty Naukowe SGSP, 68/4, 2018.

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consideration – and the effect – the peak acceleration or velocity of the ground vibrations. The above relationships are often referred to in the literature as attenuation relationships. These relations are most often determined by methods of regression analysis. This is due to the complexity of energetic processes occurring in the rock mass on the way from the source of a tremor to the ground surface, which practically exclude a strict analytical description of the considered phenomenon. The above-mentioned relationships are also used to determine the parameters of surface vibrations generated by induced tremors with predicted values of seismic energy or magnitude. The use of the regression analysis method, in addition to the undoubted advantages of the relative simplicity of the calculations, the possibility of verifying the determined relations with significance tests, is characterised by certain limitations, which include: the need to meet the assumptions about the independence of the independent variables and the normality of the distribution of the residual variables3. The problem is also posed by the proper determination of confidence intervals, on which depends the reliability of prepared forecasts of ground surface vibration parameters, and thus the proper determination of the threat to buildings and technical infrastructure. A proper estimation of the level of this hazard has a direct impact on ensuring common safety in the areas affected. This problem was the subject of considerations, the results of which are presented in this paper.

Regression model of ground vibration velocity with respect to seismic energies and epicentral distance of tremors Using a set of observations of ground vibration parameters from a given area, it is possible to determine the parameters of a regression model of peak values of ground surface vibration velocity with respect to seismic energy and distances of induced tremors. In the simplest model, which is a modification of the widely used attenuation relation4, the logarithm of the maximum amplitude of the vibration velocity is given by the following expression: logV max ¼ a1 logE þ a2 logR þ a3 þ e

(1)

3 Draper N.R., Smith H., Analiza regresji stosowana. PWN, Warszawa 1973. 4 Joyner, W.B., Boore, D.M., Peak horizontal acceleration and velocity from strong-motion records including records from the 1979 Imperial Valley, California, earthquake. Bull. Seism. Soc. Am. 71, pp. 2011–2038.

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where: V max – maximum amplitude of ground vibration velocity [m/s], E – seismic energy of the tremor [J], R – epicentral distance [m], ai – regression model parameters, e – random component. There are a great many different forms of attenuation relationships in the literature. Examples include the relationships given in the works5678. A particularly comprehensive review of attenuation relationships is provided in the work of Douglas9. The ground conditions of the observation site have a significant influence on the observed ground vibration velocity values. The near-surface layers of the overburden influence the ground vibration levels in two ways. They cause increased vibration damping and, at the same time, vibration amplification due to resonance effects. Where thin overburden layers are present, the vibration amplification effect dominates over the damping effect. The watering of the overburden layers can also significantly increase the vibration intensity of the ground. Another important element that determines the conditions for wave propagation is the terrain. In the case of irregular surfaces, there is a complex phenomenon of scattered wave interference. This results in a local amplification or weakening of ground vibration amplitudes, relative to a flat surface. The influence of a large number of factors on the observed amplification or attenuation of tremor-induced surface vibrations means that the most accurate evaluation of the vibration amplification factor can be obtained by carrying out systematic seismometric measurements. In the absence of measurements, it is necessary to use analytical or numerical methods. Since the use of numerical methods requires precise knowledge of the physical parameters of the overburden layers, the more commonly used are simple analytical models – for 5 Ban´ka P., Jaworski A., Odtwarzanie i prognozowanie parametrów drgan´ gruntu wywołanych wstrza˛sami górotworu. Przegla˛d Górniczy 7–8, 2007, pp. 29–37. 6 Golik A., Mendecki M., Ground-Motion Prediction Equations for Induced Seismicity in the Main Anticline and Main Syncline, Upper Silesian Coal Basin, Poland. Acta Geophysica, 60, 2012. 7 Chodacki J., New Ground Motion Prediction Equation for Peak Ground Velocity and Duration of Ground Motion for Mining Tremors in Upper Silesia. Acta Geophysica, 64, 2016. 8 Lasocki S., Szybin´ski M., Matuszczyk J., Mirek J., Pielesz A., Prognozowanie drgan´ powierzchni wywołanych wstrza˛sami górniczymi – przegla˛d krytyczny. Materiały Sympozjum Warsztaty 2000, Ustron´ S´l., 29–31 maja 2000, Kraków 2000, pp. 261–280. 9 Douglas J., Earthquake ground motion estimation using strong-motion records a review of equations for the estimation of peak ground acceleration and response spectra. Earth-Science Reviews, 2003.

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example, the method for the evaluation of the vibration amplification factor given in the paper. The solution of the wave equation for an elastic medium with damping (according to the rheological Kelvin model) was used to estimate the value of the ground vibration amplification factor10. This solution makes it possible to assess the influence on the vibration level of the horizontal layer of overburden lying on the rock half-space from which the seismic wave propagates. The most commonly determined values of the amplification factor range from values smaller than 1 (decrease in the amplitude of surface vibrations relative to the amplitude of vibrations of the bedrock) to 4 (increase in amplitude), significantly depending on both the thickness of the overburden and the frequency of the wave. Using the regression analysis method, the most accurate estimates of tremor magnitude can be expected in the ‘middle’ of the range of variation in the values of epicentral distance and tremor energy considered for the estimation of model parameters. Worse results can be expected away from the “centre”. For values of distance and seismic energies not available for estimation of model parameters, even worse accuracy is to be expected, getting worse as one moves away from the original range of variation of epicentral distances11. Although it is possible, on the basis of the determined regression equation, to mathematically derive the value of predicted vibration accelerations for any value of epicentral distance and seismic energy, one must be aware of the above limitations. Due to the use of regression analysis to determine vibration parameters, there may be vibrations greater than those predicted by the equation (1) used. Statistically, this applies to 50% of the observations. The upper limit of the confidence interval determines which values, with a given probability, will not be exceeded. Confidence intervals can be defined – for the true expected value of the explanatory variable, – for a single value of the explanatory variable. Taking the confidence intervals into account, in the first case it can be concluded, with a specified probability (e. g. 90%), that the true expected value of the peak ground vibration velocity for given values of seismic energy and epicentral distance lies within the calculated confidence interval. In the second case – it can be concluded, with an assumed probability (e. g. 90%), that the observed peak ground vibration velocities, caused by a tremor of a given seismic energy and occurring at a given epicentral distance, will lie within the calculated confidence 10 Sawarenski E.F., Podstawowa ocena wpływu nadkładu na drgania powierzchni ziemi. Izwiestia Akademii Nauk ZSRR, s. Geofizyka, 10, 1959, pp. 591–605. 11 Draper N.R., Smith H., Analiza regresji stosowana. PWN, Warszawa 1973.

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interval. Obviously, in the second case, much larger estimates of ground vibration parameters are obtained than in the first case. The upper limit of the confidence interval for a single value of the explained variable – logV maks Gð1$aÞ100 % , especially when considering large sets of observations, can be determined in a simplified way using the relation: dmaks þ sl 1 logV maks Gð1$aÞ100 % ¼ logV ð1$2aÞ

(2)

where:

" ! 1 lð1$12aÞ – quantile of the order 1 $ a of the normal distribution, 2 dmaks – values calculated from the determined regression equation [m/s], logV s – standard error of the estimation.

The issue of the proper adoption of the confidence interval limit when predicting ground vibration velocity, due to the empirical approach – the use of the regression analysis method, is best discussed for the specific case of mining operations inducing strong tremors in the rock mass.

Results of the prediction of surface vibration parameters for the selected investigation poligon An area of one of the mines located in the USCB, subjected to the effects of numerous strong tremors of the rock mass, recorded by a surface observation network consisting of 3 surface stations, was selected for the study. Table 1. Location of surface equipment stations Station

Location of the site [m]

A1

X 18270.7

Y 9066.6

Z 221

A2 A3

17398.1 17033

9084.8 10933

209 238

Amplification factor

Number of registrations

1.4

830

1.3 1.4

42 469

In the area under consideration, 1,341 induced seismicity vibration records were recorded between 2018 and 2022. In the vast majority, the maximum amplitudes of vibration accelerations did not exceed 0.05 m/s2 – this applies to 87% of all recorded vibrations. Only a very small part of them (less than 2.5%) was characterised by maximum amplitudes of vibration acceleration exceeding the value of 0.15 m/s2. Also the recorded maximum amplitudes of the ground vibration

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velocity did not reach large values – generally they did not exceed 0.005 m/s – 98% of the registrations. The maximum recorded ground vibration accelerations were 0.555 m/s2. These occurred after a tremor with an energy of 9x106 J, which occurred at an epicentral distance of 1621 m. In contrast, the highest recorded ground vibration velocities were 0.0209 m/s. These also occurred after a tremor with an energy of 9x106 J, which occurred at an epicentral distance of 1382 m. Before entering the regression model parameters (1) into the calculations, the recorded peak vibration velocities were divided by the vibration amplification factor at the apparatus locations (Table 1). Consequently, the values calculated with the determined regression equations determine the magnitude of bedrock vibrations. In order to determine the vibration parameters of the ground surface, they should be multiplied by the value of the vibration amplification factor. The results of the estimation of regression model parameters are presented in the table 2. Table 2. Results of estimation of regression model parameters Number observations 1342

Correlation coefficient value R = 0.90 Value of the coefficient of determination R2 = 0.82 Regression significance test F(2,1339) = 2951.6; p