Becoming a Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Professional: A Global Perspective 9781848726161, 9781848726178, 9780203093184

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Becoming a Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Professional

The editors of this important new volume showcase what professionals are doing around the world in terms of sport exercise, and performance psychology (SEPP) practice and training in an effort to bridge the global divide of the field. This book will focus on service delivery as well as training and supervision of future SEPP practitioners. It will be an excellent book for graduate courses, and professionals around the world will want to read this book to gain a more global perspective on current practices in these fields. J. Gualberto Cremades, Ed.D., Ph.D., CC-AASP, is an Associate Professor in the Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences at Barry University. He has also taught at the University of Houston, Manchester Metropolitan University, Florida International University, and University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. In the applied setting, Gualberto is an AASP Certified Consultant and has worked with exercisers as well as youth, high school, collegiate, professional and Olympic athletes since 1994 in sports such as golf, tennis, basketball, soccer, track and field, fencing, baseball, softball, swimming, rowing, volleyball, and cycling. He has also been providing supervision and mentoring to prospective sport and exercise psychology practitioners since 2001. In addition, Dr. Cremades has been an active Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP) member during the past 13 years and is currently serving as the AASP Public Relations and Outreach Division Head. Most recently, he has designed and produced with his colleague, Lauren S. Tashman, the Performance Enhancement Training Tool (PETT), a case-based, online learning community for students and professionals in the field (www.peinnovate.com). Lauren S. Tashman, Ph.D., CC-AASP, is an Assistant Professor of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology in the Sport and Exercise Sciences department at Barry University in Miami, Florida. She received her bachelor’s degree in Psychology from The College of New Jersey, and her master’s and Ph.D. degrees in Sport Psychology from Florida State University. She has consulted with youth, recreational, collegiate, and national level athletes and teams in sports such as golf, softball, tennis, volleyball, soccer, equestrian showjumping, basketball, rowing, swimming, diving, and baseball. She is an active member of the Association of Applied Sport Psychology (AASP), attending and presenting at the annual conferences since 2003, and is currently serving as the Chair of the AASP Distinguished Student Practice Award committee. She also designed and produced, with her colleague, J. Gualberto Cremades, the Performance Enhancement Training Tool (PETT), a case-based, online learning community for students and professionals in the field (www.peinnovate.com).

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Becoming a Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Professional A Global Perspective Edited by

J. Gualberto Cremades and Lauren S. Tashman

First published 2014 by Psychology Press 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Psychology Press 27 Church Road, Hove, East Sussex BN3 2FA Psychology Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2014 Taylor & Francis The rights of the editors to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Cremades, J. Gualberto. Becoming a sport, exercise, and performance psychology professional : a global perspective / J. Gualberto Cremades and Lauren S. Tashman.—First edition. pages cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Sports psychologists—Vocational guidance. 2. Sports sciences—Vocational guidance. I. Title. GV706.4.C74 2015 796.019—dc23 2013044303 ISBN: 978-1-84872-616-1 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-84872-617-8 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-203-09318-4 (ebk) Typeset in Galliard by Apex CoVantage, LLC

This book is dedicated to my wife, Carolina, for her love, care, companionship, and support throughout the years, and to my children, Maite and Marco, for their unconditional love. J. Gualberto Cremades This book is dedicated to my parents, Myles and Diana, who have always believed in and supported me. Without you, I would not be who I am or where I am today. Lauren S. Tashman

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Contents

About the Editors About the Contributors Foreword by Sidónio Serpa Preface Acknowledgments

Introduction 1 Initial Considerations: Developing the Pathway to Become a Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Professional

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1

3

J. GUALBERTO CREMADES, LAUREN S. TASHMAN, AND ALESSANDRO QUARTIROLI

The Practice of Service Delivery 2 Gleaning Insights: Perspectives of New Sport Psychology Practitioners

13 15

ROBYN A. BRAUN AND ALEXIS DEVRIES

3 Pursuing a Career in Applied Sport Psychology in the Czech Republic

23

KATERINA KUDLACKOVA

4 Sport Psychology Consulting in Trinidad and Tobago

31

DONALD LA GUERRE

5 The Process of Providing Sport Psychology Services in Taiwan

39

CHUNG-JU HUANG (GLEN), TSUNG-MIN HUNG, AND TAI-TING CHEN

6 Dr. Seuss and the “Great Balancing Act”: Exploring the Ethical Places You’ll Go Within Australian Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology

45

GENE M. MOYLE

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7 Passing on Values of Fair Play and Sportsmanship Through the Practice of Sport Psychology

53

DIEGO GUTIÉRREZ DEL POZO, PILAR JEREZ VILLANUEVA, AND J. GUALBERTO CREMADES

8 Developing a Philosophy and Theoretical Framework: Mapping a Rich and Complex Landscape for the Brave Explorer

61

RICHARD J. KEEGAN

9 Sport Psychology Service Delivery to Danish Elite Athletes: From Professional Philosophy to Successful Cases

69

GREGORY DIMENT, KRISTOFFER HENRIKSEN, AND JAKOB HANSEN

10 Enhancing the Performance of Individual Athletes and Teams: Considerations and Challenges for the Delivery of Sport Psychology Services

77

KARL STEPTOE, JAMIE BARKER, AND CHRIS HARWOOD

11 Age and Expertise: Issues When Working With Performers and Their Support System—Moving Beyond “Teaching Grandma to Suck Eggs”

85

TIM HOLDER

12 Promoting Physical Activity and Performance Excellence Among Individuals With Disabilities

92

RICARDO DE LA VEGA AND VÍCTOR RUBIO

13 A Theory-Based Model for Health Performance Consultation

102

SAM J. ZIZZI AND LIZ GILCHRIST

14 The Role of Theory in Designing Physical Activity Interventions for School-Aged Children

111

CATHERINE B. WOODS

15 Training the Tactical Soldier-Athlete: Education to Application

119

TAMARA HOLT

16 Circus Also Needs Performance Psychology: Facts and Realities of Consulting at Cirque du Soleil

127

JEAN FRANÇOIS MÉNARD AND MADELEINE HALLÉ

17 Cultural Sport Psychology: Considerations for Enhancing Cultural Competence of Practitioners KERRY R. MCGANNON, ROBERT J. SCHINKE, AND REBECCA BUSANICH

135

Contents 18 Cultural Diversity, Transnational Athletes, and Performance

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TATIANA V. RYBA

19 Incorporating Technology Into Practice: A Service Delivery Approach

152

JACK C. WATSON II AND MEGHAN HALBROOK

20 Infusing Technology in Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Practice

160

CARRIE CHEADLE, GLENN PFENNINGER, AND ERIKA CARLSON

21 The Business of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology in the United States

168

ERIKA CARLSON AND GLENN PFENNINGER

22 Setting Up a Business in Sport and Performance Psychology: A German Perspective

178

PETER SCHNEIDER

23 The Practice of Applied Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology: Irish and International Perspectives

186

MARK CAMPBELL AND AIDAN MORAN

24 Creating and Maintaining Argentina’s National Training Center for Elite Athletes

193

PATRICIA WIGHTMAN WORTELBOER

25 Sport Performance Psychology Service Delivery Process: A German Perspective

200

DIETER HACKFORT AND MICHAEL KUHN

26 The Changing Landscape of Sport Psychology Service in Canada

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ROBERT J. SCHINKE AND KERRY R. MCGANNON

Training, Supervision, and Mentorship in the Applied Setting

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27 The Neophyte Supervisor: What Did I Get Myself Into?

219

BRENDAN CROPLEY AND RICH NEIL

28 From Mentee to Mentor: Considerations for the Neophyte Supervisor

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JUSTINE VOSLOO, REBECCA ZAKRAJSEK, AND EMMA GRINDLEY

29 Facilitating Our Future: Roles, Responsibilities, and the Development of the Sport, Exercise, and Performance Supervisor JACK C. WATSON II, MICHELLE M. MCALARNEN, AND VANESSA R. SHANNON

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30 The Seasoned Supervisor: Challenges, Models, and Lessons Learned

243

JOAQUÍN DOSIL AND SANTIAGO RIVERA

31 Ethical Issues in Training Future Practitioners

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SARAH L. CASTILLO

32 Sport Psychology Supervision in the Netherlands: Starting from Scratch

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R. I. VANA HUTTER

33 Developing the “Total” Consultant: Nurturing the Art and Science

268

ANGUS MUGFORD, DAVID HESSE, AND TARYN MORGAN

34 Insights from Sweden: Halmstad Applied Sport Psychology Supervision Model

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NATALIA STAMBULOVA, URBAN JOHNSON, AND LUKAS LINNÉR

35 A Supervision Model Utilizing Peer Mentoring and Consultation Teams in the Provision of Applied Sport Psychology Services

285

JODI YAMBOR AND MELISSA THOMPSON

36 Peer Mentoring and Peer Supervision: Nordic Experiences

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ALEXANDER TITKOV, MICHALA BEDNÁRIKOVÁ (ENYSSP), AND JANNE R. MORTENSEN

37 Nordic Supervisee Experiences in Applied Sport Psychology

300

SAE-MI LEE, ALEXANDER TITKOV, AND JANNE R. MORTENSEN

38 Looking Through the Supervisees’ Eyes: Australia and China

308

HIN YUE LI AND XIAOBO JIANG

39 Diffusion of International and European Knowledge and Standards on the Training of Sport and Exercise Psychology Professionals: The Case of Greece

315

ATHANASIOS G. PAPAIOANNOU, ANTONIS HATZIGEORGIADIS, AND STILIANI CHRONI

40 International Perspectives: Training and Supervision in the United Kingdom and Australia

324

DAVID TOD, MARTIN R. EUBANK, AND MARK B. ANDERSEN

41 Peer Consultations with Colleagues: The Significance of Gaining Support and Avoiding the “Lone Ranger Trap” ALISON RHODIUS AND KARLENE SUGARMAN

331

Contents 42 Meta-Supervision: Training Practitioners to Help Others on Their Paths

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STEVE T. BARNEY AND MARK B. ANDERSEN

43 The Wave of the Future: Integrating Technology into Service Delivery Training

347

LAUREN S. TASHMAN AND J. GUALBERTO CREMADES

Conclusion

355

44 Where Do We Go From Here?

357

ALESSANDRO QUARTIROLI, J. GUALBERTO CREMADES, AND LAUREN S. TASHMAN

Author Index Subject Index

367 375

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About the Editors

J. Gualberto Cremades, Ed.D., Ph.D., CC-AASP, is an Associate Professor in the Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences at Barry University. Gualberto received his High School Diploma from Escuela Inmaculada Jesuitas and Instituto San Blas in Alicante, Spain. He earned his Ed.D. in Physical Education with a specialization in the Psychological Bases of Movement and his Ph.D. in Kinesiology with an emphasis in Research Statistics and Measurement. Both degrees were conferred at the University of Houston. He developed his research and consulting skills during his doctoral internship at Manchester Metropolitan University in England where he was an Erasmus Mundus representative to different European Universities. He has taught at the University of Houston, Manchester Metropolitan University, Florida International University, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and Barry University. Dr. Cremades has been an active Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP) member over the past 13 years and is currently serving as the AASP Public Relations and Outreach Division Head. In addition, Gualberto is an active presenter at conferences and has published 16 peerreviewed articles in national and international sport science as well as psychology journals. In the applied setting, he is an AASP Certified Consultant and has worked with exercisers as well as youth, high school, collegiate, professional, and Olympic athletes in a variety of sports since 1994. He has also been providing supervision and mentoring to prospective sport and exercise psychology consultants since 2001 and is the current Master’s Program Coordinator in Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology at Barry University. Most recently, he has designed and produced with his colleague, Lauren S. Tashman, the Performance Enhancement Training Tool (PETT), a case-based, online learning community for students and professionals in the field (www.peinnovate.com). Lauren S. Tashman, Ph.D., CC-AASP, is an assistant professor of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology in the Sport and Exercise Sciences department at Barry University in Miami, Florida. She received her bachelor’s degree in Psychology from The College of New Jersey, and her master’s and Ph.D. degrees in Sport Psychology from Florida State University. At Barry University, she teaches undergraduate and graduate courses, supervises graduate thesis and practicum students, works on various research projects, and is the coordinator of sport psychology services for the athletic department. Her research interests include, for example, expert performance, psychological factors involved in performance preparation and competition, improving training for sport psychology practitioners, and psychological skills training interventions. Lauren is a certified consultant with the Association of Applied Sport Psychology (CC-AASP) and has a private practice, Inspire Performance Consulting, LLC, in which she provides performance enhancement services to athletes, teams, coaches, and other non-sport performers in the south Florida area. She has consulted with youth, recreational, collegiate, and national level athletes and teams in sports such as golf, softball, tennis, volleyball, soccer, equestrian showjumping, basketball, rowing, swimming, diving, and baseball. She is an active member of the Association of Applied Sport Psychology, attending and presenting at

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the annual conferences since 2003, and is currently serving as the Chair of the AASP Distinguished Student Practice Award Committee. She has also published articles in peer-reviewed journals on topics such as perfectionism and burnout in coaching, the development and evaluation of an online case-based learning tool for service delivery training, expertise in police work, the experience of competing in an ultraendurance adventure race, and a review on the development of expertise. She also designed and produced, with her colleague, J. Gualberto Cremades, the Performance Enhancement Training Tool (PETT), a case-based, online learning community for students and professionals in the field (www.peinnovate.com).

About the Contributors

Mark B. Andersen, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia Jamie Barker, Staffordshire University, Staffordshire, UK Steve T. Barney, South Utah University, Cedar City, UT, USA Michala Bednáriková, European Network of Young Specialists in Sport Psychology (ENYSSP) Secretary General, Kosice, Slovak Republic Robyn A. Braun, University of Texas—Permian Basin, TX, USA Rebecca Busanich, Plymouth State University, Plymouth, NH, USA Mark Campbell, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland Erika Carlson, private practice, Pleasanton, CA, USA Sarah L. Castillo, National University, San Diego, CA, USA Carrie Cheadle, private practice, Petaluma, CA, USA Tai-Ting Chen, ೟ゟৄ☷᏿㆘໻ᅌ / National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan Stiliani Chroni, Høgskolen i Hedmark / Hedmark University College, Hedmark, Norway J. Gualberto Cremades, private practice, Barry University, Miami, FL, USA Brendan Cropley, Prifysgol Metropolitan Caerdydd / Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, Wales, UK Ricardo de la Vega, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid / Autonomous University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain Alexis DeVries, Comprehensive Soldier and Family Fitness (CSF-2), Fort Benning, Columbus, GA, USA Gregory Diment, Team Danmark / Team Denmark , Københavns Universitet / University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark Joaquín Dosil, Universidad de Vigo / University of Vigo, Vigo, Spain Martin R. Eubank, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK Liz Gilchrist, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, USA Emma Grindley, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA Diego Gutiérrez del Pozo, Universidad Camilo José Cela / Camilo José Cela University, Madrid, Spain

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About the Contributors

Dieter Hackfort, Universität der Bundeswehr München / University AF Munich, Neubiberg, Germany Meghan Halbrook, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA Madeleine Hallé, private practice, Cirque du Soleil, Montréal, Canada Jakob Hansen, Team Danmark / Team Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark Chris Harwood, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK Antonis Hatzigeorgiadis, ´´ / Panepistimio Thessalias / University of Thessaly, Trikala, Greece Kristoffer Henriksen, Team Danmark / Team Denmark, Syddansk Universitet / University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark David Hesse, IMG Academy, Bradenton, FL, USA Tim Holder, University of Chichester, Chichester, UK Tamara Holt, Comprehensive Soldier Fitness-Performance and Resilience Enhancement Program (CSF-PREP), Fort Gordon, Augusta, GA, USA Chung-Ju Huang (Glen), ৄ࣫Ꮦゟ໻ᅌ / University of Taipei, Taipei, Taiwan Tsung-Min Hung, ೟ゟৄ☷᏿㆘໻ᅌ / National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan R.I. Vana Hutter, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam / University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Xiaobo Jiang, 佭␃储㚆ᅌ䰶 / Hong Kong Sports Institute, Sha Tin, Hong Kong Urban Johnson, Högskolan i Halmstad / Halmstad University, Halmstad, Sweden Richard J. Keegan, University of Canberra, Bruce, Australia Katerina Kudlackova, private practice, Prague, Czech Republic Michael Kuhn, private practice, Gauting, Germany Donald La Guerre, private practice, Arouca, Trinidad and Tobago Sae-Mi Lee, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA Hin-Yue Li, 佭␃储㚆ᅌ䰶 / Hong Kong Sports Institute, Sha Tin, Hong Kong Lukas Linnér, Högskolan i Halmstad / Halmstad University, Halmstad, Sweden Michelle M. McAlarnen, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA Kerry R. McGannon, Université Laurentienne / Laurentian University, Ontario, Canada Jean François Ménard, private practice, Kambio Performance, Montréal, Canada Aidan Moran, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland Taryn Morgan, IMG Academy, Bradenton, FL, USA Janne R. Mortensen, private practice, Københavns Universitet / University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark Gene M. Moyle, private practice, Brisbane, Australia Angus Mugford, IMG Academy, Bradenton, FL, USA

About the Contributors

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Rich Neil, Prifysgol Metropolitan Caerdydd / Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, Wales, UK Athanasios G. Papaioannou, ´´ / Panepistimio Thessalias / University of Thessaly, Trikala, Greece Glenn Pfenninger, private practice, Dallas, TX, USA Alessandro Quartiroli, University of Wisconsin—La Crosse, WI, USA Alison Rhodius, John F. Kennedy University, Pleasant Hill, CA, USA Santiago Rivera, private practice, Seville, Spain Víctor Rubio, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid / Autonomous University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain Tatiana V. Ryba, Syddansk Universitet / University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark Robert J. Schinke, Université Laurentienne / Laurentian University, Ontario, Canada Peter Schneider, private practice, Universität Leipzig / Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany Vanessa R. Shannon, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA Natalia Stambulova, Högskolan i Halmstad / Halmstad University, Halmstad, Sweden Karl Steptoe, University of Greenwich, London, UK Karlene Sugarman, private practice, John F. Kennedy University, Pleasant Hill, CA, USA Lauren S. Tashman, private practice, Barry University, Miami, FL, USA Melissa Thompson, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, USA Alexander Titkov, Lunds Universitet / Lund University, Lund, Sweden David Tod, University of the Sunshine Coast, Queensland, Australia Pilar Jerez Villanueva, Universidad Francisco de Vitoria / Francisco de Vitoria University, Madrid, Spain Justine Vosloo, Ithaca College, Ithaca, NY, USA Jack C. Watson II, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA Catherine B. Woods, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland Patricia Wightman Wortelboer, Centro Nacional de Alto Rendimiento del Deporte / Center for Peak Sport Performance, Buenos Aires, Argentina Jodi Yambor, Thomas University, Thomasville, GA, USA Rebecca Zakrajsek, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA Sam J. Zizzi, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA

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Foreword

Despite the important contribution of distinguished pioneers in the field of Sport Psychology (SP) who established research and applied centers in different countries, the international development of SP and associated areas was strongly determined by two visionaries: Pierre de Coubertin and Ferruccio Antonelli. The ability of Pierre de Coubertin—the father of the Modern Olympic Games—to see much further than his contemporaries with regard to the multiple facets of sport led him to write about SP from 1900 onwards and to organize the First International Congress of Psychology and Physiology of Sport. According to his words, with this International Congress that was held in Lausanne, Switzerland, in 1913, he aimed “to baptize a new science or, to speak in more precise terms, a new branch of a science, by making it more widely known: sports psychology” (Coubertin, 1913, p. 19). Coubertin understood the importance of the relationship between the psychological dimension and sport behavior as well as their mutual influence. The congress topics approached conceptual, philosophical, and aesthetical aspects concerning the inter-relationship of mind– body, as well as applied issues regarding sports excellence, such as the athlete’s state of mind when breaking a record (Serpa, 2009). For the first time in the history of sport and of SP, philosophers, teachers, athletes, and medical doctors were together in Coubertin’s attempt to promote the cause of SP (Muller, 2000) at an international level. This was a remarkable first step in the development of international fundamental and applied SP. Later on, in 1965, the Italian psychiatrist Ferruccio Antonelly initiated a new era in our field when he organized the first World Congress of Sport Psychology, in Rome, Italy. More than 500 participants coming from 40 countries met in Rome and started important networks, leading toward international cooperation that stimulated the advancement of theory and practice of SP (Cei, 2011). The increase of publications was an obvious result considering that the figure of 814 papers, registered between 1898 and 1963, rose to 2,687 after the Rome Congress (Olsen, 1966). In this regard, the role of the International Journal of Sport Psychology (IJSP) since 1970 was a determinant for the dissemination and worldwide progressive knowledge produced internationally. Through an initiative promoted by Ferruccio Antonelli, IJSP became the official journal of the International Society for Sport Psychology (ISSP) and was the first international journal devoted to the SP field. However, more literature on SP was needed for the development of research and applied practice. Until 1970, only 207 books had been published, but in the seven subsequent years, 515 new volumes appeared (Essing, Bertram, & Meckbach, 1977). Applied interventions gained progressive theoretical support, and SP consultants started to be accepted among athletes and coaches, namely in what concerned performance enhancement. However, until recently, relevant scientific production was missing in regard to psychological training methods and techniques for specific sports. In his personal communication to the 1995 European Congress of SP in Brussels, Miroslav Vanek, the second president of ISSP, suggested an orthogonal division of SP with two

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axes: General Sport Psychology (GSP)—Specific Sport Psychology (SSP), and Theoretical Sport Psychology (TSP)—Practical Sport Psychology (PSP). Following this idea, publications on the interaction between GSP and PSP would concern the application of SP, the interaction of GSP and TSP would regard the theory of SP, the interaction of TSP and SSP would include the reporting of specific psychological processes, and the interaction of SSP and PSP publications would be about specific psychological training. Additionally, Vanek suggested that, at that moment, SP literature was still very poor in regards to work within the context of specific sports. In regards to exercise psychology, the field has become a major theme among the most important topics traditionally studied in SP. There has been increased success since the 1970s in the awareness of the importance of active lifestyles in developed countries and programs designed to extend the participation of citizens in physical activity. Further, this success has also generated outstanding quantity and quality of research and applied work. Moreover, the major funding thereby favoring this scientific field was effective in developing research teams and fieldwork in exercise psychology, including how to optimize the results of exercise participation. Recently, a number of SP consultants have been highly successful in preparing athletes and teams to reach optimal performance in competitive sports. This has stimulated other areas where human performance is a major goal to invite sport psychologists to work in non-sport performance settings (e.g., soldiers, musicians, dancers). In addition, non-SP professionals (e.g., organizational psychologists, executive coaches) have joined the area of sport performance enhancement and other non-sport performance areas. Therefore, a new concept and professional field seems to have appeared: performance psychology. A conceptual discussion is now needed about the relationship of sport psychology, exercise psychology, and performance psychology. The first two concepts already have a consistent field of knowledge establishing a coherent link between theory and practice. They regard the psychological processes in the context of sport and exercise, and concern human development through the different levels of sport or exercise practice that will lead to excelling and, eventually, to optimal performance. Sport psychology and exercise psychology are focused on the person and the client’s well-being and development. In regards to performance psychology, there is a risk of focusing mostly on the outcome, devaluing the human condition of the performer. This risk will increase with more limited educational backgrounds of the professionals in the field of psychology. For this reason, a consistent theoretical education, a rigorous tutorial system, efficient supervision work, and a deep ethical conscience are essential. This book stimulates this debate and will certainly contribute to increasing the humanistic quality of our profession in order to help all those who want to excel in various fields. During the past two decades, SP professionals have witnessed a remarkable increase of research as well as applied strategies and tools to work in specific types of sports and different contexts (e.g., special psychological preparation for Olympic participation, athletes with disabilities). Thus, SP literature has expanded in the last few years with new journals and books. This book will be a unique addition to this recent expansion of SP knowledge and will become an important component of SP literature in an attempt to bring the SP world together to a global consensus. The editors of this book attempt to showcase what professionals are doing around the world in terms of SP practice and training in an effort to bridge the global divide of the field. A constructive discussion and action should emanate in regards to definitions, boundaries of practice, and training methods in sport, exercise, and performance psychology. In the first half of the book, the editors have focused on service delivery, while in the second half the editors have emphasized the training and supervision of future practitioners. I strongly encourage professionals around the world to read this book and gain a more global perspective of the service delivery and training/supervision practices in the field.

Foreword

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In conclusion, the editors of this book call for a greater globalization of the field that will enable the members of our profession to redirect their attention to issues that serve the profession and professional practice in more productive (less divisive) ways than have the debates of recent years. I believe this book could be a step forward to promote the systematic globalization and further development of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology. Sidónio Serpa, Ph.D. Full Professor/Professor Catedrático Past-President—International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP) Faculty of Human Kinetics—University of Lisbon, Portugal Faculdade de Motricidade Humana—Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal

REFERENCES Cei, A. (2011). Ferruccio Antonelli: His work and legacy. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 9(4), 356–361. Coubertin, P. (1913). The Olympic congresses. In N. Muller (Ed.), Pierre de Coubertain, 1863–1937— Olympism, selected writings (pp. 451–452). Lausanne: IOC. Essing, W., Bertram, W., & Meckbach, C. (1977). Monographien, kongressberichte und sammelwerke zur psychologie des sports, eine bibliographie, Anfaenge bis 1977. Muenster. Muller, N. (Ed.). (2000). Pierre de Coubertain, 1863–1937—Olympism, selected writings. Lausanne: IOC. Olsen, M. A. (1966). Sports psychology in the literature. In F. Antonelli (Ed.), Sport psychology. Roma: Federazione Medico-Sportiva Italiana. Serpa, S. (2009). Olympic Games and sport psychology. In T.-M. Hung, R. Lidor, & D. Hackfort (Eds.), Psychology of sport excellence (pp. 33–43). Morgantown: FIT.

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Preface

The primary purposes of this edited book are to address relevant issues and experiences in the application of sport, exercise, and performance psychology (SEPP) and discuss the appropriate training of individuals to become professionals in the field. The book focuses on models of applied SEPP practice, related theories, ethical issues, as well as supervision models, approaches, and techniques (e.g., process recall, self-reflection) that supervisors/mentors have and should use when training future professionals in the SEPP field. Furthermore, professionals around the world address their experiences and perspectives, which will offer an in-depth, global perspective. In order to facilitate this global understanding of the field, authors from a wide variety of countries have contributed to the book. For example, countries represented include Argentina, Australia, Canada, China, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Greece, Hong Kong, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Trinidad and Tobago, the United Kingdom, and the United States. There has been limited attention in the field thus far regarding supervision/mentorship with a global perspective on how to best train individuals to become SEPP professionals. Further, discussions about approaches to and perspectives on applied practice have also been limited (i.e., the focus of the literature on applied practice has traditionally been on the “what” and not the “how” of service delivery). However, there has been substantial growth in the number of students entering graduate programs in SEPP and increased awareness about the field and its potential applications. Consequently, there has been an increase in the number of individuals seeking certification or licensure (e.g., APS, BPS, CC-AASP). This book can help these individuals to better understand the nature of the SEPP field and the need for a globalization of the profession. In addition, it is important to note that each year new generations of students go through training in their respective graduate programs to become future practitioners and eventually may also serve in a supervisory role in the near future. At the same time, many SEPP professionals and academics do not have training in supervision and do not have other options for receiving training. In turn, they are the ones who are supposed to supervise/mentor and train the new generations. The fact that the majority of supervisors have not received formal training regarding how to effectively supervise a neophyte practitioner is a flaw in the SEPP field. Thus, the book provides the knowledge to understand the missing gap in the appropriate training of supervisors and their role in the field by discussing approaches to and perspectives on both receiving and providing supervision. This book aims to enhance the knowledge of applied SEPP practice and the training process as well as the overall quality of future SEPP professionals. The main reason for editing this book is to invite colleagues in the SEPP field from around the world to share their knowledge of appropriate practice and supervision. Furthermore, practitioners and supervisors from around the world are allowing the readers into their professional world by sharing their

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service delivery/training models and experiences. Thus, providing a sense of mutual understanding and consensus on what is needed to advance the SEPP field (e.g., a globalization of the SEPP field, approaches to applied practice, and appropriate training and supervision of future practitioners). The target audience for this book is students, university professors, practitioners, and supervisors in the SEPP field. The aim is to enhance the knowledge in the profession regarding applied practice and supervision models/methods/approaches. In addition, the book will promote an increase in awareness of the need for a unified consensus among practitioners and professional organizations around the world. Thus, the intent is to reach out to an international audience in hopes of promoting a globalization of the field. The contents of this book cover specific techniques and models of practice and supervision as well as different perspectives from around the world. The first chapter introduces the reader to some current issues in the SEPP field (e.g., lack of consensus about definitions and roles, the need for a culture of competencies). Following this, the book is divided into two parts: Part I focuses on applied SEPP practice and Part II focuses on training and supervision. Finally, the last chapter of the book discusses the history of the SEPP field as well as roadblocks to and potential solutions for the globalization of the field. In Part I of the book, neophyte and experienced practitioners from around the world discuss their approaches to and experiences with applied SEPP practice. For example, they discuss first applied experiences, specific approaches to practice, working with different populations (e.g., exercisers, individuals with disabilities, and non-sport performers), philosophy of practice, the use of technology, ethical issues, and lessons learned from seasoned practitioners. Part II of the book allows readers to get a global perspective on the supervision/mentorship of SEPP trainees. Both the perspectives of supervisees and supervisors are represented. For example, authors discuss their approaches to supervision and training, supervisees’ experiences with supervision/mentoring, methods for incorporating technology into supervision (e.g., an online learning management system), ethical issues, and lessons learned from seasoned supervisors. The global perspectives provided in this book make it distinctive from other texts in the SEPP field. Including chapters from authors around the world can help promote a global understanding of the field. Further, including perspectives on both applied practice and supervision/training in the field will be of great benefit to the reader, as there is little discussion in the literature on the process of applied practice and supervision/training methods and techniques. In addition, the student neophyte practitioner as well as the supervisee’s perspective is included in this book. Thus, the reader has a rare opportunity to hear the stories of the next generations of practitioners as they go through the learning process of becoming a professional in the field. As noted in the title of the book, one of the objectives of this book is to expand the discussion of the field to sport, exercise, and performance. However, readers will note that there is still a bias towards the field of sport psychology reflected in the book chapters. While exercise and performance psychology are emerging and evolving as disciplines of their own, most practitioners, supervisors, and organizations around the world are still struggling to incorporate them (i.e., exercise and performance psychology) into their agendas. It was the editors’ wish to bring together these three unique but overlapping disciplines in an effort to advance the SEPP field. However, it was a struggle to find a diverse pool of contributors who have experience in all three areas (i.e., sport, exercise, and performance) when addressing specific concepts, such as applied models of supervision or philosophy of applied practice. It is suggested that organizations, university programs, researchers, and practitioners find a balance by incorporating and applying the fundamental principles of psychology to sport, exercise, and performance. Further, readers will also notice that various titles for practitioners (e.g., sport psychologist, consultant, practitioner) are used throughout the book. It is the aim of this book to promote a globalization of the field and issues such as definitions, titles, roles, and training will be

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important parts of that discussion. By presenting perspectives from authors around the world, the intention is to begin this discussion and develop a global understanding of the field. In summary, the intent of this book is to showcase what individuals are doing around the world in terms of practice and training in an effort to bridge the global divide in the field and promote discussion and action regarding definitions, boundaries of practice, and training methods in SEPP. The first half of the book focuses on SEPP practice, giving voice to neophyte and more experienced professionals from around the world to discuss their experiences, models, and thoughts on service delivery. The second half of the book discusses training and supervision, enabling supervisors and supervisees to discuss their experiences, models, and thoughts on methods for training future SEPP practitioners. It is the authors’ hope that the members of the field across the world read this book and gain a more global perspective of the service delivery and training/supervision practices in the field in order to promote the systematic globalization and further development of the SEPP field. J. Gualberto Cremades Lauren S. Tashman

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Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge the mentorship of Dr. Mark B. Andersen throughout the exciting world of editing a book. His encouragement and willingness to share his expertise was a major factor in the decision-making process of this project. We would also like to acknowledge the feedback and suggestions from Dr. Jean M. Williams, Dr. Craig A. Wrisberg, and Dr. Robert J. Schinke.

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Introduction

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1

Initial Considerations Developing the Pathway to Become a Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Professional J. Gualberto Cremades, Lauren S. Tashman, and Alessandro Quartiroli

WHAT ARE SPORT, EXERCISE, AND PERFORMANCE PSYCHOLOGY? Different labels are being used to define the science and study of thoughts and behavior underlying human performance (e.g., exercise, sport, dance, music). Due to legal, social, political, and contextual issues, each country has followed a specific path to define its label(s) and has created organization(s) where professionals in the field are joining forces in the advancement of the application of psychology in sport, exercise, and performance settings. For example, one can become a Sport and Exercise Psychologist in the U.K. through the British Psychological Society (BPS) or a ‘Certified Consultant’ through the Association of Applied Sport Psychology (CC-AASP) in the U.S.; in addition, to date, in neither case has the label ‘performance’ been used even though sport and exercise psychology principles are being used in the performance setting. As of today, there is no common and internationally accepted definition of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology (SEPP). The controversy in defining the three specializations in the field is based on diverse educational systems and philosophical differences among countries. Each culture, society, and country has a different way of understanding and implementing these differences and definitions. Globally, a major step in the advancement of the field was the change from the concept of sport psychology to the concept of sport and exercise psychology (Quartiroli & Zizzi, 2011). Depending upon the cultural context, the term ‘sport’ can change in its connotation; it can either incorporate physical activity (as in most European countries) or include competitive sport and exclude exercise and physical activity (as in the U.S.) (Wilkes & Côté, 2007). There have been several definitions of sport psychology throughout the history of the field by either contributors or organizations (Weinberg & Gould, 2011; Cox, 2012). For example, the Fédération Européenne de Psychologie des Sport et des l’Activités Corporelles (European Federation of Sport Psychology, or FEPSAC) offers one of the most inclusive definitions that goes beyond the concept of competitive sport stating that: Sport psychology is concerned with the psychological foundations, processes, and consequences of the psychological regulation of sport-related activities of one or several persons acting as the subject(s) of the activity. The focus may be on behavior or on different psychological dimensions of human behavior. The physical activity can take place in competitive, educational, recreational, preventative and rehabilitation settings and includes health-related exercise. Subjects are all persons involved in the different sport and exercise settings. (FEPSAC, 1996, p. 221) In the past 30 years, there has been a movement growing in the field of health and exercise/ physical activity psychology. In turn, this has created different views and definitions of the field.

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For example, in one of the most comprehensive and recent definitions, exercise psychology is defined as the study that “encompasses the psychological and biological consequences of exercise and physical activity and the subsequent effects on mood and mental health. Exercise psychology also entails the study of exercise behavior and the promotion of regular exercise” (Buckworth, Dishman, O’Connor, & Tomporowski, 2013, p. 1). This definition includes both the biological and psychological consequences and makes an attempt to distinguish between exercise and physical activity. In a different introduction to terminology, Acevedo (2012) states separate definitions for exercise and physical activity but notes that these terms are often used interchangeably in the literature. Exercise is defined as a form of structured physical activity with the specific objective of improving or maintaining physical fitness or health and physical activity is defined as “any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure” (Caspersen, Powell, & Christenson, 1985, p.126). However, Acevedo (2012) argues that physical activity programs promote health and quality of life and “the necessity or desire to efficiently and effectively quantify, prescribe, and promote physical activity to increase the likelihood of a positive health outcome is the rationale for the use of (the term) ‘exercise psychology’” (p. 4). In regards to the performance psychology field, there have been attempts to define the field with different perspectives and philosophical foundations. The literature is beginning to address this issue, and organizations have included the ‘performance’ component in recent publications, such as the APA Div.47 Journal of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology. Moreover, multiple authors have recently proposed definitions of performance psychology. For example, according to Hays (2012), “performance psychology refers to the mental components of superior performance, in situations and performance domains where excellence is a central element” (p. 25). Performers “must meet certain performance standards: they are judged as to proficiency or excellence, there are consequences to poor performance, and good coping skills are intrinsic to excellent performance” (Hays & Brown, 2004, p. 19). Based on all these definitions and philosophical differences in the international landscape, we will attempt to define the three areas of SEPP (i.e., sport, exercise, and performance) practice in the following section.

DEFINING SPORT, EXERCISE, AND PERFORMANCE PSYCHOLOGY These differences in definitions are only creating confusion among the professionals within the field and the general public about the field and its members. The time has come for the main national and international organizations, such as the International Society for Sport Psychology (ISSP), to advance the SEPP field and create a clear statement in which the fields and professional practice of SEPP are all clearly defined. Throughout this book you will see a variety of labels used for the field (e.g., sport psychology, sport and exercise psychology, SEPP) as well as titles for the practitioners in the field (e.g., sport psychologist, SEPP practitioner, sport psychology consultant, mental skills coach). This reflects the lack of standardization in the field across the world with regards to the boundaries and purpose of the field, as well as to the nature of service delivery by the practitioners representing the field. Even though we understand that each culture has a different perspective on the SEPP field and that it is difficult to be inclusive of all areas and specializations, we have made an attempt to define the three distinct areas of practice in the SEPP field: Performance Psychology focuses on the psychology of human performance in domains such as athletics, the performing arts, surgery, firefighting, law enforcement, military operations, business, and music. Evidence-based practice in this area focuses on performance excellence and/or restoration and well-being in individual performers and groups.

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Sport Psychology addresses the interactions between psychology and athletic performance, including the psychological aspects of optimal athletic performance; the psychological well-being of athletes, teams, coaches, and sport organizations; and the connection between physical and psychological functioning. Evidence-based practice in this area focuses on psychological skills development for performance excellence and/or restoration, as well as team dynamics and cohesion. Sport psychology could be considered a specialization within the general field of performance psychology. Exercise Psychology (based on the definition stated below, it could also be labeled as Health, Exercise, and Physical Activity Psychology) focuses on the application of psychological principles to the promotion and maintenance of health-enhancing behaviors over the lifespan, including play, leisure physical activity and structured exercise, and the psychological and emotional consequences of those behaviors. Evidence-based practice in this area focuses on the promotion of exercise for disease prevention and remediation, stress reduction, participation in and adherence to exercise and health-enhancing behaviors, as well as restoration. In an effort to address this confusion with definitions, a recent document drafted by APA Division 47 proposed a definition for the field. However, their contention was that performance psychology becomes the umbrella label for the field. While we agree that this label fits for service delivery with non-sport and sport populations, it unlinks exercise psychology from the field, suggesting that this area is a separate area of psychology. If we divide the field and exclude certain areas, the argument could be made that other areas could also become their own separate specialty (e.g., exercise psychology, military psychology, business psychology, youth psychology, music psychology, etc.). The intent with the above-proposed definitions is to suggest that all three areas are linked within the same field and have the same underlying modes of practice, competencies, and training, with some specialization regarding knowledge about the particular populations themselves. While an overarching, more streamlined label would be more useful and practical, we believe it would further divide an already divided and inconsistent field. The field has already been established to cover, and many are already practicing in, sport, exercise, and non-sport performance domains. Thus, using performance psychology as the umbrella may serve to exclude many members and practitioners in the field. Further, it lacks a global consideration of the field when we should be promoting a global understanding and defining of the field. In the end, the difference lies not in what is being done in practice, but rather the unique characteristics of the specific population one is working with (e.g., rehabilitating injured athletes, enhancing physical activity among senior citizens, dealing with emotional issues among collegiate athletes, working with military personal, reducing pre-performance anxiety with musicians). The Importance of Clear Definitions and Complications Surrounding Their Development In the early stages of the field, Rejeski and Brawley (1988) stated that despite the use of a global label (i.e., sport psychology), a lack of a formal definition has resulted in ambiguous understandings of the boundaries for research and practice in the field. They argued that the use of an umbrella label without definition “fails to pinpoint important differences between sport and related areas of research, intervention, and/or practice” (p. 232). Failing to provide a clear focus for the field leads to an inability to outline various important aspects of it, such as: who are the members in the field; what are their boundaries for research and practice; what models and theories underlie methods of practice; what are the subareas of the field and how are they linked; what training is needed to become a member of the field; what knowledge, skills, and abilities should be gleaned from that training; and how do we assess and ensure that members are competent and performing their roles effectively. Despite these issues being raised during an initial increase in popularity of the field, they have yet to be adequately addressed nationally and

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globally, leading many of these questions still unable to be answered within the field as well as for those outside the field. Vague definitions to date do not enable the important questions mentioned above to be answered and have largely focused mainly on research instead of practice as well as the populations being worked with rather than the services provided to them (Portenga et al., n.d.). With regards to professional practice in the field (the focus of this book), a lack of clearly outlined definitions leads to diverse methods of service delivery and training, which may result in the blurring of the boundaries regarding what practice in the field is, who is capable of practicing, and what competencies are needed to result in effective practice. In their pursuit of defining the field, Danish, Petitpas, and Hale (1992) proposed that early discussions focused on the academic disciplines in the field and the outcomes of training based on the discipline one was trained in, rather than focusing on the models and frameworks one should learn and be trained in. This only served to promote confusion, misinterpretation, division, and lack of productivity. Unfortunately, these issues are still acting as a barrier to the cohesion of the field and the development and adoption of clear definitions for the field and its subspecialties. According to Danish and Hale (1981), “applied research and practitioner groups within sport psychology barely communicate because they lack a common framework for discussing their mutual interests” (Danish & Hale, 1981, p. 96). Clearly, the ambiguous nature of the field and its resulting lack of focus and consistency complicate professional practice and service delivery. However, they also have strong implications for training in the field and a clear understanding of the methods of training and competencies underlying that training to ensure the development of competent and effective practitioners. Take into consideration the impact of a global lack of consistency and communication about the field and its definitions, and these issues are even further complicated.

BECOMING A SPORT, EXERCISE, AND PERFORMANCE PSYCHOLOGY PROFESSIONAL An important consideration stemming from the need to provide clear, consistent definitions is the clarification of what constitutes appropriate training in the field. According to Kontos and Feltz (2008), “a true model of training and its implementation across the discipline has not yet taken root in the field of sport psychology” (p. 7). As mentioned earlier, one issue complicating this discussion is the impact of academic discipline on education and training. Generally speaking, students face training in two distinct domains: kinesiology and psychology. On one hand, kinesiology, or sport science training, focuses on the research and application of psychological principles to movement, sport, and exercise settings. The main objective is to provide the knowledge and skills to deliver performance enhancement strategies (e.g., imagery, goal setting, relaxation) to athletes, exercisers, and performers. Coursework in sport psychology, sport sociology, team dynamics, biomechanics, and exercise physiology becomes the main source of knowledge and the foundation to any sport scientist or kinesiologist in training. Courses in injury prevention and rehabilitation, sport nutrition, and motor behavior may be useful as well to the SEPP professional. On the other hand, psychology is mainly focused on the general study of behavior and mental processes. The objective is to provide the knowledge and skills in a wide array of specialty areas such as biological psychology, cognitive psychology, social psychology, developmental psychology, educational psychology, abnormal psychology, and industrial and organizational psychology. In general, students in training will take coursework across this entire spectrum of psychology, particularly in the earlier stages of their education. This emphasis does not include human movement, sport, and/or exercise-based knowledge. Students interested in pursuing sport and exercise psychology knowledge are generally directed to take coursework in Kinesiology or Sport Science departments. These differences in training are being established in various ways depending on the country. Several authors (Aoyagi, Portenga, Poczwardowski, Cohen, & Statler, 2012; Fletcher &

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Maher, 2013) have argued for the need to promote multidisciplinary training of professionals. This multidimensional understanding will reflect the nature of the client needs and issues in performance (e.g., Poczwardowski, Sherman, & Henschen, 1998; Silva, Conroy, & Zizzi, 1999). In the last decade, there has been a trend to design curricula that reflect the unique nature of SEPP (Aoyagi, Czech, Portenga, Metzler, & Poczwardowski, 2009; Cremades & Poczwardowski, 2006). Ideally, students should acquire competency in both kinesiology-based training and psychology-based training. In addition, Aoyagi and colleagues (2012) proposed that to practice competently in performance psychology, training should cover the performance excellence, mental health counseling, consulting psychology, and performance specialty domain(s). The organization of training and path towards becoming a professional depends on the trainee’s intended focus of practice (e.g., performance excellence or mental health). Aoyagi and colleagues (2012) have suggested that sport psychology consists of two distinct service delivery models—performance-based interventions (i.e., performance enhancement or what they call ‘performance excellence’), and therapeutic-based interventions (i.e., sport psychology). Thus, professional practice that falls within the first category is what they recommend calling ‘performance psychology.’ On the other hand, Wrisberg (2012) restricts the labels characterizing the possible service domains to performance consulting and mental health counseling and contends that aspiring professionals interested in the former should seek training and practice in kinesiology, while those devoted to the latter need training and licensure in psychology. That said, the organization of training and the path towards becoming a professional remains dependent upon the necessary clarification of existing definitions of the field, areas of practice, as well as roles and boundaries of service providers.

THE NEED FOR A CULTURE OF COMPETENCIES Focusing on the pathways for training in SEPP is helpful and important. However, it is the authors’ contention that a focus on competencies may be more effective. In an effort to be inclusive of different disciplines, earned degrees/licensures, and educational backgrounds, recent literature has begun to discuss the need to define specific competencies within the SEPP field (Aoyagi et al., 2012; Fletcher & Maher, 2013). Focusing on competencies would help better define areas of professional practice in the field and importantly, the training needed to effectively prepare future professionals for practice. There have been several definitions of competence in the psychology literature (Fletcher & Maher, 2013; Rodolfa et al., 2005). A definition often cited in the medical field conceived professional competence as “the habitual and judicious use of communication, knowledge, technical skills, clinical reasoning, emotions, values, and reflection in daily practice for the benefit of the individual and community being served” (Epstein & Hundert, 2002, p. 227). In its application to psychology, competence involves understanding and performing tasks consistent with one’s professional qualifications, sensitive to cultural and individual differences, and anchored to evidence-based practices (APA Presidential Task Force on Evidence-Based Practice, 2006). This definition of competence refers to an individual’s overall suitability for a profession, reflecting his or her knowledge, skills, abilities, and attitudes as well as the integration of these knowledge, skills, abilities, and attitudes. In 2003, the ISSP Managing Council supported the publication of a position stand on competencies and their accomplishment in sport and exercise psychology (Tenenbaum, Lidor, Papaianou, & Samulski, 2003). A conceptual scheme emphasizing knowledge-based standards, practice standards, and supervised experience standards was presented (see Table 1.1). There have also been other efforts by organizations and professionals to set competency standards in the SEPP field. For example, in 1991, AASP established and approved criteria for certification intended to demonstrate that individuals seeking certification must have obtained a minimum level of training and experience to provide professional services in applied sport

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psychology. The current AASP certification criteria focus on the courses of study completed by the trainee as well as supervised/mentored experiences (see Table 1.1; AASP, 2012). Later on, in 2005, APA Division 47 developed a sport psychology self-assessment checklist intended to assist practitioners in assessing their knowledge and skills in terms of proficiency criteria. The checklist had three main areas: specialized knowledge, knowledge of persons and groups, and skills (see Table 1.1; APA, 2005). More recently, BPS has established specific competencies required to become an accredited sport and exercise psychologist in the U.K.. These competencies emphasize three cores (consultancy, research, and communication) as well as developing, implementing, and maintaining personal/professional standards and ethical practice (see Table 1.1; BPS, 2011). In the most up-to-date published study, Fletcher and Maher (2013) discussed the notion of competence in applied sport psychology by reviewing the literature on competence in professional psychology. The authors focused on defining, delineating, and understanding

Table 1.1 An Overview of Proposed Criteria or Competencies in SEPP ISSP competencies position stand (Tenenbaum, Lidor, Papaianou, & Samulski, 2003) • Knowledge-base topics (theories, scientific research tools, measurement assessment, and interpretation, as well as ethics and standards in both kinesiology and psychology domains) • Practice-base techniques (interventions and communications with teams, individual athletes, sport personnel, exercisers, and special groups) • Supervised experience (determination of the length of time required for sufficient development of the competencies. Allowing flexibility once more or less time is needed) APA Division 47 Self-Assessment Checklist (APA, 2005) • Specialized knowledge (e.g., sport psychology, clinical and counseling issues, developmental and social issues related to sport, knowledge of biobehavioral bases) • Knowledge of persons and groups (e.g., youth sport participants, intercollegiate and professional athletes, senior sport participants, athletes with disabilities or injuries) • Skills (e.g., psychological skills training, overtraining and burnout counseling, clinical issues, group dynamics training, athletic injury and rehabilitation, career transitions, and identity foreclosure) BPS Required Competencies for Accreditation (BPS, 2011) Competencies outlined in Key Roles (KR) • KR # 1: Develop, implement, and maintain personal and professional standards and ethical practice • KR # 2: Apply psychological and related methods, concepts, models, theories, and knowledge derived from reproducible findings • KR # 3: Research and develop new and existing psychological methods, concepts, models, theories, and instruments in occupational psychology • KR # 4: Communicate psychological knowledge, principles, methods, needs, and policy requirements Assessment Requirements • • • •

2 years of full-time post-graduate supervised applied practice Portfolio of competence submission (e.g., case studies, practice log, reflective diary) Evaluation of professional competence (completed by supervisor) The first option is a 25- to 35-page empirical research or grounded case study; the second option is a 20-page review of literature and either a 12-page empirical research or grounded case study • Research supervisor’s report • Oral assessment interview AASP certification criteria (AASP, 2012) • Courses of study (including ethics, sport science, SEPP, and psychology/counseling coursework) • Supervised/mentored applied practice (700 hours for master’s; 400 hours for Ph.D.) • Mentorship evaluation

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competencies and their emergence in applied sport psychology. They also explored the conceptualization of a competency model and its implications for applied sport psychology with regard to the professional development and lifelong learning process in the field. They concluded by calling for the applied sport psychology profession to create and sustain a culture of competence throughout the training and development of its practitioners. In an attempt to establish a culture of competence, Rodolfa and colleagues (2005) have developed a tripartite ‘cube’ model of competence in professional psychology that includes two orthogonal competency domains: foundational and functional. Foundational competency domains are considered “the building blocks of what psychologists do” (p. 350). Functional competency domains comprise “the knowledge, skills, and values necessary to perform the work of a psychologist” (p. 351). The third axis of the cube illustrates the psychologists’ stage of professional development during which the domains of competency are developed. This cube model offers a conceptual framework for understanding both foundational and functional competency domains in the development of a professional psychologist. This new culture of competencies must be adopted by the SEPP field to advance and create a common connection among cultural, political, and legal roadblocks across the globe. Further, a focus on competencies specific to SEPP practice needs to be addressed with a consideration of the definitions of sport, exercise, and performance psychology as well as the intended mode of service delivery of the future professional (e.g., performance excellence versus mental health).

CONCLUSION There is no common and internationally accepted definition of SEPP. This disagreement in defining the three specializations in the field (i.e., sport, exercise, and performance) is based on diverse educational systems and philosophical differences within and among countries. Reaching a global consensus on these definitions is needed for the advancement of the SEPP field. In addition, SEPP professionals should work towards a culture of competencies and globalization of the field to advance the profession. Only once we have clearly defined the field and modes of practice, determined the training needed based on the competencies underlying those definitions and modes, and come together as a consistent worldwide field, can SEPP move forward and further advance the profession.

TAKE-HOME MESSAGES • There are many definitions and labels being used worldwide to reflect what the SEPP field is and what practitioners do. • This lack of consistency in labels for the field and its practitioners is only serving to confuse, complicate, and limit the advancement of the field and the awareness of the general public about the field. • New definitions are provided for what we understand to be the three main specializations within the SEPP field (i.e., sport psychology, exercise psychology, and performance psychology). • While a simpler label (e.g., performance psychology) would be more practical, the proposed use of the label limits the boundaries of the field and unlinks exercise psychology from it. • Traditionally, training in the field has been focused on the academic disciplines that the field has stemmed from (e.g., kinesiology/sport science and psychology). • A more useful and effective method of designing and developing training in the field would be to delineate the competencies underlying practice in the SEPP field. • Globalization of the field is necessary for the effective advancement of SEPP practice and training.

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REFERENCES Acevedo, E. O. (2012). Exercise psychology: Understanding the mental health benefits of physical activity and the public health challenges of inactivity. In E. O. Acevedo (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of exercise psychology (pp. 3–8). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. American Psychological Association. (2005). Sport psychology: Knowledge and skills checklist. Retrieved from: www.apadivisions.org/division-47/about/resources/checklist.pdf American Psychological Association Presidential Task Force on Evidence-Based Practice. (2006). Evidencebased practice in psychology. American Psychologist, 61, 271–285. Aoyagi, M., Czech, D., Portenga, S., Metzler, J., & Poczwardowski, A. (2009). Current issues and working solutions in designing and delivering master’s programs: What might the future bring? In Association for Applied Sport Psychology 24th annual convention proceedings (p. 30). Salt Lake City, Utah: AASP. Aoyagi, M. W., Portenga, S. T., Poczwardowski, A., Cohen, A. B., & Statler, T. (2012). Reflections and directions: The profession of sport psychology past, present, and future. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43, 32–38. doi:10.1037/a0025676 Association for Applied Sport Psychology. (2012). Standard application form: Certified Consultant Association for Applied Sport Psychology. Retrieved from www.appliedsportpsych.org/files/cc-standard application2012.docx British Psychological Society. (2011). Competencies mapping document for doctoral programmes in sport & exercise psychology. Retrieved from www.bps.org.uk/careers-education-training/ accredited-courses-training-programmes/useful-accreditation-documents/spo Buckworth, J., Dishman, R. K., O’Connor, P. J., & Tomporowski, P. D. (2013). Exercise Psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Caspersen, C. J., Powell, K. E., & Christenson, G. M. (1985). Physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness: definitions and distinctions for health-related research. Public Health Reports, 100(2), 126–131. Cox, R. H. (2012). Sport Psychology Concepts and Applications (7th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw–Hill. Cremades, J. G., & Poczwardowski, A. (2006). Master’s program curriculum development based on AAASP certification standards. In Association for Applied Sport Psychology 21st annual convention proceedings (p. 25–26). Miami, FL: AASP. Danish, S. J., & Hale, B. D. (1981). Toward and understanding of the practice of sport psychology. Journal of Sport Psychology, 3, 90–99. Danish, S. J., Petitpas, A. J., & Hale, B. D. (1992). A developmental-educational intervention model of sport psychology. The Sport Psychologist, 6, 403–415. Epstein, R. M., & Hundert, E. M. (2002). Defining and assessing professional competence. JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association, 287, 226–235. doi:10.1001/jama.287.2.226 FEPSAC (1996). Position statement of the European Federation of Sport Psychology (FEPSAC): I. Definition of sport psychology. The Sport Psychologist, 10, 221–223. Fletcher, D., & Maher, J. (2013). Toward a competency-based understanding of the training and development of applied sport psychologists. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, May 6, 2013, advanced online publication. doi: 10.1037/a0031976 Hays, K. F. (2012). The psychology of performance in sport and other domains. In S. M. Murphy (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of sport and performance psychology (pp. 24–45). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Hays, K. F., & Brown Jr, C. H. (2004). You’re on! Consulting for peak performance. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Kontos, A. P., & Feltz, D. L. (2008). The nature of sport psychology. Advances in Sport Psychology, 3, 3–14. Poczwardowski, A., Sherman, C. P., & Henschen, K. P. (1998). A sport psychology service delivery heuristic: Building on theory and practice. The Sport Psychologist, 12, 191–207. Portenga, S. T., Aoyagi, M. W., Balague, G., Cohen, A., & Harmison, B. (n.d.). Defining the practice of sport and performance psychology. Division 47 (Exercise and Sport Psychology) of the American Psychological Association. Retrieved from: www.apadivisions.org/division-47/about/resources/index.aspx Rejeski, W. J., & Brawley, L. R. (1988). Defining the boundaries of sport psychology. The Sport Psychologist, 2, 231–242. Quartiroli, A., & Zizzi, S. J. (2011). A primer on the development of SEP in North America vs. Europe: Comparing the developmental paths of FEPSAC and AASP. Athletic Insight: The Online Journal of Sport Psychology, 13(1). Retrieved from www.athleticinsight.com/Vol13Iss1/FEPSAC.htm

Initial Considerations

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Rodolfa, E., Bent, R., Eisman, E., Nelson, P., Rehm, L., & Ritchie, P. (2005). A cube model for competency development: Implications for psychology educators and regulators. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 36, 347–354. doi:10.1037/0735–7028.36.4.347 Silva, J. M., Conroy, D. E., & Zizzi, S. J. (1999). Critical issues confronting the advancement of applied sport psychology. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 11, 298–320. Tenenbaum, G., Lidor, R., Papaianou, A., & Samulski, D. (2003). Competencies (occupational standards, knowledge, and practice) and their accomplishment (learning specification, essential knowledge and skills) in sport and exercise psychology: An ISSP position stand. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1, 155–166. doi:10.1080/1612197X.2003.9671709 Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2011). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Wilkes, S., & Côté, J. (2007). A sampling environment to promote diverse relationships and continued involvement in sport. In 12th European Congress of Sport Psychology (pp. 39–43). CD ROM. Wrisberg, C.A. (2012, Spring). Re-thinking the connection between education and practice in sport psychology. AASP Newsletter, pp. 8–11.

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The Practice of Service Delivery

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Gleaning Insights Perspectives of New Sport Psychology Practitioners Robyn A. Braun and Alexis DeVries

The focus of this chapter is to recount the first applied experiences of two recently graduated sport, exercise, and performance psychology (SEPP) practitioners. This is a retrospective look at the experiences that took place during graduate school at Barry University (Miami, FL, USA) and Florida State University (Tallahassee, FL, USA), while under the supervision of university faculty. This chapter may be most useful for graduate students or young consultants, as well as supervisors. Each of the authors will describe their educational background, development of philosophy and self-awareness, case study examples, models of supervision, ethical issues, practical issues, and lessons learned. Please note that RB refers to Robyn Braun and AD refers to Alexis DeVries.

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND To understand our experiences, it is useful to have an idea about our educational training and how this developed our views and philosophies in applied SEPP. RB received a Bachelor of Science in Psychology. However, it wasn’t until taking a Coaching Gymnastics course as an undergraduate that she learned about sport psychology. RB enrolled in a Master of Science in Movement Science with a specialization in Sport and Exercise Psychology and completed a combined degree that included a thesis and an applied internship. RB continued to expand her research-practitioner model through her doctoral training. Currently, RB is an assistant professor who mentors undergraduate and graduate students in the field. AD received a Bachelor of Science in both Psychology and Exercise Science. She learned about the field through an introductory sport psychology class as a freshman. After completing coursework, playing collegiate basketball, and coaching high school basketball, she decided to further her education in the field by pursuing a Master of Science in Movement Science with a specialization in Sport and Exercise Psychology and an emphasis in applied work. AD currently consults with collegiate and national athletes, obese adolescent exercisers, and the military. These educational and applied experiences provided both RB and AD with a solid foundation in applied SEPP. Of course, this was just their first steps into the world of SEPP consulting. Continuous reflective practice is critical to their ongoing professional development.

DEVELOPMENT OF CONSULTING PHILOSOPHY AND SELF-AWARENESS For RB, the experiences in graduate school provided the foundational knowledge and pedagogical skills for the development of her consulting philosophy. The majority of her early training focused on learning psychological skills training (e.g., goal-setting, self-talk, relaxation, and imagery) and how to implement these skills within the consulting model. Therefore, she primarily uses a cognitive-behavioral approach. However, she also utilizes a holistic approach

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to incorporate these skills as life skills and examines the psychosocial issues related to their nonperformance domain. Since she is not a licensed clinical psychologist, it is important to know and understand the boundaries and when to refer individuals. Furthermore, it is extremely important to be aware of one’s own biases and experiences that may influence consulting. These included personal experiences for RB with injury, coaches, and teammates. For example, she had multiple knee and shoulder surgeries; therefore, it is necessary to make sure these experiences do not interfere when consulting with injured athletes. Additionally, she had to learn that not all athletes believe in SEPP. RB’s graduate supervisor in her master’s degree taught her that approximately one-third of athletes believe in it, one-third are on the fence, and one-third reject it. This was difficult to comprehend at the time, but through her experiences, she has realized this to indeed be true. AD began developing her consulting philosophy during graduate applied supervision experiences. One of the most important lessons learned from her supervision was the importance of being authentic. The approach utilized by AD while consulting is an action-oriented (aggressive) and solution-focused approach. Additionally, her philosophy incorporates cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) because she believes it is important to develop positive and stable thoughts and emotions before introducing performers to any type of psychological skill. AD’s approach is solution-focused, and some might even say rigid. She feels that if an athlete comes in to see her they are seeking assistance to try to improve their performance. Therefore, she will try to do everything in her power to provide the athletes with the necessary skills to do just that. AD’s supervisor taught her that the ultimate goal of consulting is to provide athletes with the tools they need to put them in the best position to enhance their performance and then get them “out the door.”

SUPERVISION Supervision is a key component in the development of new SEPP consultants. Our graduate degree supervisors used the developmental model of supervision (Hogan, 1964; Littrell, LeeBorden, & Lorenz, 1979; Stoltenberg, 1981; Stoltenberg & Delworth, 1987), which emphasizes the evolution of the supervisor relationship over time. This model involves four levels of trainee growth. Level one describes neophyte trainees starting out in their first internship. This stage is the most dependent period. The trainee has generally had a minimal amount of experience and therefore lacks confidence and often seeks advice and guidance from the supervisor. Furthermore, the trainee is also lacking self-awareness. The supervisor provides a fair amount of structure, but also allows some room for their development and autonomy. More specifically, the supervisor uses instruction, support, awareness training, and exemplification. During level two, the trainee becomes more competent in his or her abilities and starts to develop his or her own approach to service delivery. There is an increasing level of self-awareness, a striving for independence, and a move toward becoming more self-assertive and less imitative. At this point, the supervisor loosens structure and uses less instruction, thus increasing autonomy. During the third level, the trainee is developing increased insight and empathy, and a more differentiated interpersonal orientation. The trainees are close to becoming independent and are now the primary source of structure. The relationship with the supervisor is nearly collegial. In the fourth and final level, the trainee has adequate self-awareness, insight into his or her own strengths and weaknesses, and has integrated the standards of the profession. Ideally, collegial supervision continues throughout their professional lives. RB and AD took two practicum courses during their master’s degree program at Barry University. These courses followed Stolenberg’s (1981) model of supervision. More specifically, this supervision included direct observation, weekly meetings, video analysis, journaling, reflection papers, and case study presentations. The supervision initially began with frequent feedback from the supervisor while progressing toward independence.

Gleaning Insights 17 RB’s doctoral program at Florida State University also included an applied sport psychology internship experience that involved a peer consultation program, group and individual supervision, performance enhancement workshops, and the development of self-awareness. Peer consultation or peer mentoring is a way to describe a process in which critical and supportive feedback is emphasized and evaluation is deemphasized. In contrast to supervision, peer consultation is characterized by the mentee’s right to accept or reject the suggestions of others (Bernard & Goodyear, 1992). The peer consultation program involves the use of a consultant team consisting of: a primary consultant, one or two secondary consultants, and up to three shadows. The primary consultant is the leader and mentor of the group. They are the contact person for the team and/or individual athletes. Additionally, they organize weekly meetings for the consultant team and arrange the sport psychology meetings with the team or individual athletes. The secondary consultant actively contributes during weekly planning sessions and shares the responsibility of leading team activities and discussions. They are responsible for supporting the primary and aiding in mentoring the shadows. The shadows main responsibility is to observe, learn, and ask questions. They are to assist in any way needed (i.e., passing out materials and dealing with distractions). The shadows rotate consultant teams three times a semester in order to observe the work of three different primaries.

EARLY APPLIED EXPERIENCES My (RB) first experience working full time with a team came during my first year as a doctoral student. Prior to this, I had only worked with individual clients and done a few workshops with teams. Furthermore, all of my applied experiences had been working alone. As a new doctoral student, I was assigned as a secondary consultant to work with a junior college softball team. I had to learn how to work in a group with a primary consultant and another secondary consultant. Additionally, I had little background knowledge about softball. Therefore, I had to do my research to learn about the game and how I could contribute to improving their mental performance. This included gathering information about the team. The situation was unique because most players were only there for two years, maybe three at most. However, they were recruited similarly to a four-year college or university and were from all over the world. This particular team had players from the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia as well as all across the United States. I not only had to learn about the sport of softball in general, but also had to learn about cultural differences. During my first year with the team, I spent a great deal of time observing the team dynamics and norms. Unfortunately, our consultation team rarely had planning meetings, so I had to go with whatever the primary decided and go with the flow. This taught me that I knew more than I thought I knew about applied SEPP since I was still able to properly deliver my consulting skills. Since I would find out about the topic and activity we were covering the same day we were meeting with the team, I had to trust my educational knowledge and previous experiences. Furthermore, the primary had total investment into the team and would travel with them almost every weekend, covering his own financial expenses. However, due to my scheduling and financial situation, I was unable to make such a commitment. My second year with the team, I took over the responsibilities of the primary consultant. At this point, I was able to plan the meetings with my secondary and shadows. This allowed for better communication between the consultant team and the softball team. During my initial meeting with the coach, she explained that she was hands off when it came to sport psychology and that I should schedule meetings through the players. However, she was there if I ever needed her assistance or input. From this point forward, we mainly worked directly with the players and scheduled our meetings through the leaders of the team. During this year, we had to make some changes from the previous year. We had to let the players know that we would not be able to travel with them to games, but we would do our best to attend all home games.

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Throughout the year, we had experiences that enabled us to develop as professionals. For example, the previous year, the team had done extremely well and had high expectations for this season. We had to help the team overcome the pressures being placed on them as a result of these expectations. Besides providing traditional mental skills training, we also provided them with life skills, which included time management skills. Furthermore, we assisted players with changes in their roles. One player specifically was expecting to play on a frequent basis this season after returning from an injury; however, she ended up sitting on the bench. We helped her identify with her new role and how she could help the team without physically being in the game. My last year with the team focused on issues related to the assistant coach. According to the team, this coach was “bipolar,” meaning one moment she was providing positive support and the next minute she was screaming for no apparent reason. We spent a significant amount of time focusing on what the players can control and what they cannot. The team this year was filled with a majority of new players who had to adjust to college life and different coaching styles. This last year I had a unique experience because one of the volunteer assistant coaches was in the sport psychology program with me. She provided me with great insight into what was going on with the team and became a helpful ally. Throughout my three years with the softball team I had to learn how to handle adversity. There were days when we would go in with a plan to work on a specific mental skill; however, we would have to drop our plan because something else had come up with the team that needed to be addressed immediately. Moreover, I learned about many different cultures and to be culturally sensitive. For instance, I had to be careful with my hand gestures due to cultural differences and respect to some players. Additionally, even though all of the players spoke English, it was sometimes difficult to understand their accents. Lastly, I learned that it is important to “be there” for the players. Some of them got homesick since they were so far away from their family, friends, and the life they know. My (AD) first experience working as a supervised consultant began the second semester of my first year as a graduate student. I was extremely fortunate to be able to work with Division II athletes. Furthermore, as a graduate student I was supervised when consulting various individual athletes and teams at the university. This included, for example, working with a female soccer (i.e., football in countries other than the USA) player from Sweden. In order to be true to our confidentiality agreement, her fictitious name will be Sue. Sue decided on her own that she wanted to seek assistance to improve her “mental game.” Three games into her junior season, Sue contacted one of my supervisors, stating that her game was suffering because she hesitates and takes too long to make a decision during soccer games. She felt this was a result of her not being confident about what decisions she should make during games. Additionally, she shared how she did not feel her teammates respected her as an upper classman and captain on the team and this, too, was impacting her self-confidence negatively. In the first two sessions I probed information from her regarding her current concerns (e.g., confidence, teammates, leadership), her goals of the consultation, and her history as a soccer player. After the first two sessions it was apparent to me that Sue wanted assistance increasing her self-confidence in order to facilitate deliberate decisions on the field. Also, enhancing her leadership skills would be vital in earning respect from her teammates as a captain. Further, the cultural differences made it difficult for Sue to lead and her teammates to follow. After the first two sessions, I observed Sue in “action” at one of her practices. This observation assisted me in becoming more familiar with the game, Sue, and her interactions with her teammates and coaches. Additionally, I played soccer for several years, so I had an understanding of the elementary fundamentals, positions, “lingo,” rules, and basic strategies. However, I needed to seek out more information in order to have a broader base of knowledge about Sue and the game. In addition to observing, I also asked Sue questions about her position as a center middle fielder, watched video clips, and read multiple articles describing the mid-fielder position.

Gleaning Insights 19 After these interview sessions, observations, and assessments, three main themes were identified to guide the intervention plan for Sue. First, she consistently expressed having difficulties focusing on the task at hand during practices and competitions. She often found her attention focused on external factors, such as the crowd, teammates, and coach reactions, rather than soccer. Second, Sue shared that her confidence had decreased significantly from high school. She believed this was due to differences in coaching styles. She felt confused by the many strategic options, and she felt her teammates did not respect her as a leader. Lastly, Sue had also experienced pre-performance anxiety in the last year. She believed this stemmed from her lack of selfconfidence, not being respected by her teammates, and confusion about her role as a mid-fielder. The intervention was based on psychological skills that focused on improving her attentional control before and during performance, increasing her self-confidence and her ability to lead the team, as well as increasing her pre-performance anxiety. These skills included focus cues, goal-setting, imagery, routines, and positive self-talk. Her responsibility was to experiment with these skills and to provide me with feedback. To further reinforce and increase Sue’s awareness and adherence to her mental skill development, I created a mental skills booklet. The booklet consisted of an outline of all of the psychological skill interventions that we worked on (pre-competition/training routines, self-talk, imagery, focus cues, goal-setting) and journal sections for daily feedback. Once Sue’s individual performance improved, her leadership skills also improved. However, there still remained a need to refine her leadership skills. More specifically, there was a need to learn how to communicate clearly, as well as gain an understanding of the keys to effective leadership. Sue stated that she saw immediate results and indicated that her teammates were beginning to ask her for advice and not questioning her decisions as a captain. In conclusion, I (AD) took a very goal-oriented intervention approach with Sue, as this approach best fit her overall needs. In all, Sue learned and experimented with five mental skills. Sue believed if she kept the same determined mindset and kept improving the psychological skills that her confidence and leadership would continue to improve and her pre-competitive anxiety and external focus would continue to decrease.

ETHICAL ISSUES Throughout graduate training, RB and AD had to be aware of potential ethical issues that could arise during their work with clients. In the next sections, issues related to transference and countertransference, multiple roles, boundaries, and confidentiality will be discussed. Transference and Countertransference Transference refers to the phenomenon whereby clients begin to relate and respond to SEPP consultants in a similar manner to the ways in which they have related to significant others in their past, such as parents, siblings, coaches, and teammates. For example, I (RB) had an experience with an athlete who was transferring her feelings to me as if I were her parent because she was extremely homesick. Countertransference refers to when the SEPP consultant begins to relate to the athlete in a similar way. For example, a consultant may relate to an athlete who has suffered the same injury as he/she. As a result of having a similar injury, the consultant may also expect the athlete to respond to the injury in a similar way. Fortunately, neither RB nor AD experienced countertransference. Multiple Roles The issue of multiple roles is another ethical dilemma that was addressed during our graduate programs. It was made quite clear during our applied course work that you must wear

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only “one hat” (i.e., SEPP consultant) and that hat alone. For example, you cannot coach the athlete and provide SEPP services as well. For me (RB), when I was working with a young gymnast, it was important to look only at the athlete’s mental aspects of her sport and not the physical issues with her skills. I was a gymnast for 13 years and also coached gymnastics; therefore, I had to be careful to not put on my “coaching hat.” I had to avoid helping her with the technical aspects of her skills. AD also had to be cognizant of multiple roles. In my role as a graduate assistant, I also supervised several students. One of these students was also an athlete on the team with whom I was consulting. I had to compartmentalize each role in order to avoid any potential conflict of interest and communicated the different roles to my client (who was both my performer and subordinate). Boundaries Since we are not licensed psychologists or counselors, we must be aware of and understand our boundaries. We are not qualified to treat clinical mental health disorders, such as depression, eating disorders, etc. However, we both took a graduate-level abnormal psychology class in which we learned about mental health disorders, including how to recognize the warning signs. For example, I (RB) had to refer an athlete to mental health counseling because of her severe homesickness. This athlete’s level of homesickness was causing her to lose a significant amount of sleep, as well as creating emotional difficulties. I (AD) also experienced having to refer multiple performers. For example, a performer I was working with had anxiety that was more extreme than performance anxiety. In this case, I referred this individual to a psychiatrist whom prescribed medication to ease the anxiety. Confidentiality Confidentially refers to ensuring information discussed between the performer and the consultant remains solely between the client and the consultant. It is important to inform each client of the parameters of confidentiality in the first session. I (AD) would discuss and have all my clients sign a confidentiality agreement at the beginning of the first session. I would say to my clients, “What is said in this room stays in this room.” However, there are certain exceptions to this general rule. These include the following: (1) information related to abuse, either current or past, (2) a plan to hurt oneself, or (3) a plan to hurt someone else. For me (RB), sometimes maintaining full confidentiality was difficult since I had to share a consulting room with other trainees. Although, I did my best to ensure no other graduate students would see the client, there was the potential that they would be around the room and see the client coming or going from a session. Space is often a scarce commodity in many universities and can be an impediment to maintaining confidentiality.

PRACTICAL ISSUES Being a graduate student can be challenging. You must balance several obligations all at one time, including coursework and practicum experiences and ensure you have enough income to cover the bills. Therefore, this section will cover the practical issues graduate students face in terms of time constraints and financial considerations. Time Constraints Being a graduate student is time-consuming. Throughout our graduate programs, we faced the academic demands of reading for class, completing assignments, supervision, and working with clients. These various obligations often limited our availability to our clients. For instance, we

Gleaning Insights 21 were not always able to attend practices and competitions. This prevented us from fully being able to understand all of the issues faced by our clients. Applied SEPP is a time-consuming process, as it takes considerable preparation and many observations to develop rapport and an effective mental skills program. However, it is a rewarding experience when you see that your intervention has made an impact with your clients. Financial Considerations During our first applied SEPP experiences, we were graduate students without any certification and limited training. Therefore, we felt that charging for our services would be unethical until we graduated with our master’s degrees. In addition, most of our primary clients were studentathletes or teams that did not have the financial funding to pay for SEPP services. This added a challenge for us because we still needed to pay our bills.

LESSONS LEARNED During our graduate training, we learned many lessons that we still carry with us today. We understand that throughout our professional careers, we must continue to reflect on and learn from our experiences. In this section, we summarize a few of the important lessons we learned along our journey. The first lesson we learned was that silence is not a bad thing. In fact, silence allows the client an adequate amount of time to answer and therefore provide the most thoughtful and honest response. We’ve learned to become “comfortable with the uncomfortable,” always remembering that silence can initially be uncomfortable. Our second lesson is that every athlete is different. We should provide every client with a blank canvas instead of a coloring book where they must stay in the lines you provide for them. In other words, every client’s perceptions of their experiences are unique. No two clients are exactly the same, and we should not treat them this way. We must take the information the clients give us and not make any assumptions, judgments, or jump to conclusions. We need to see the world through their experiences, not ours. This brings us to our next lesson, active listening. Being an active listener is key! We must devote our undivided attention to our clients in order to understand what they are saying both verbally and non-verbally. We must then check our understanding of what they have said through paraphrasing. We need to ensure that we are not making any assumptions or jumping to conclusions. Understanding the client’s perception is essential, and the best way to check is through active listening. Doing more listening rather than teaching increased the amount of valuable information we could receive from clients, assisted in the client feeling more autonomous, and helped in building a better relationship with them. The last lesson we want to discuss is that conflict is not a bad thing. Most people view conflict as a negative word, in fact we did as well up until our supervision. We have realized when working with multiple teams that a controlled conflict is a wonderful tool to use when trying to get both parties on the same page. Conflict gives both sides a chance to share their thoughts, feelings, and opinions on certain matters.

CONCLUSION To summarize, we have learned four very valuable lessons as supervised consultants through the years. We have learned that silence is not a bad thing, every athlete is an individual, as a consultant we need to become better active listeners, and that conflict can be productive. We know we still have a tremendous amount to learn as professionals, and that honestly excites us! We will continue to strive for personal excellence and absorb as much information as we can

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from our experiences. After all, our ultimate goal is to be the best practitioners we can be in order to assist performers in putting themselves in the best possible position to enhance their performance and well-being.

TAKE-HOME MESSAGES • • • • •

Be a reflective practitioner. Take supervision seriously. Be open to new experiences. Understand ethical and practical issues. Become a lifelong learner.

REFERENCES Bernard, J. M., & Goodyear, R. K. (1992). Fundamentals of clinical supervision. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Hogan, R.A. (1964). Issues and approaches in supervision. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Practice, I, 1739–1741. Littrell, J. M., Lee-Borden, N., & Lorenz, J. (1979). A developmental framework for counseling supervision. Counselor Education and Supervision, 19, 129–136. Stoltenberg, C. (1981). Approaching supervision from a developmental perspective: The counselor complexity model. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 9, 59–65. Stoltenberg, C., & Delworth, U. (1987). Supervising counselors and therapists: A developmental approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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Pursuing a Career in Applied Sport Psychology in the Czech Republic1 Katerina Kudlackova

INTRODUCTION The sport psychology (SP) field has been growing greatly in the past few decades and thus we can see more SP professionals working in the field at the regional, national, and international levels of sports competition (Williams, 2009). The quality of SP programs around the world differs, and quality programs can be found in many places, including the USA, Canada, Australia, and Europe. SP programs should include both theoretical and practical lessons for scholars, so they can use them in both academic and sports environments. Both lessons are equally important, and one cannot exist without the other. Therefore, the best applied professionals follow the most recent research, and the best researchers often get inspired by field work. The current chapter will describe my journey of becoming a SP professional, highlight some important insights, indicate my personal working approach, and provide advice to new professionals. Getting to Know the SP Field I pursued my SP master’s degree at Florida State University. The program was unique at that time because it included participation in applied work right from the beginning. In this type of program, new students can start experiencing work with real athletes at various ages and skill levels early in their education. Some students work with college athletes, others with juniors from high schools or elementary schools, etc. This experience is very valuable because of its diversity. Due to the structure of the applied experience in the program, new students can see the approaches of older classmates and also hear opinions from a supervisor, a certified consultant with the Association of Applied Sport Psychology (CC-AASP) with vast field experience. It was common to have several international students in the program, which is important as they can spread their knowledge and experience to their countries, where the field might not be as well developed yet. Being a foreign student studying a major that is not very common or even known at home and deciding to return home might not seem like a good decision. However, if one believes in the power of what he/she does, it can turn out to be the best decision one has ever made (Tenenbaum, 2008). At first, it is very difficult. Finding clients and making athletes realize that the mental game needs to be trained may sometimes seem like an impossible task. At that time, it is extremely important to apply SP knowledge and practice on oneself. This is beneficial in two ways. First, one really makes sure that SP works. Second, it helps one to become more mentally tough and learn how to handle some of the most challenging situations associated with being a professional. Working with athletes on a regular basis should be one’s goal, and thus every opportunity to meet with new clients should be taken very seriously and professionally. In order to do this, it is important to treat every client with maximum care and enthusiasm, and they will joyfully come back.

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SP in the Czech Republic The SP field in the Czech Republic is growing, but most people engaged in sports (i.e., athletes, coaches, parents of youth or adolescent athletes) still do not have a clear idea of how SP professionals can help with performance enhancement issues. Educating people and writing for sports magazines or journals about SP was an important part of my work to develop my practice and knowledge of the field, particularly when coming back to a country that does not have a large applied SP background. Thanks to this, people become more aware and can get an idea of what kind of services are available to them. They start understanding the importance and impact of the mind and that it can and should be trained just like one engages in physical training. The organization of sports and use of sport psychologists in the Czech Republic has changed over the years due to political/cultural changes in the country. During the communist era, there were large sports training centers where athletes trained collectively. At these centers, a large team of professionals made sure that the athletes were prepared properly and effectively for big competitions, such as the Olympic Games or world championships. The teams usually included several great coaches, physical therapists, and doctors as well as other professionals, but also included sport psychologists! The teams were paid by the government and were considered to be part of the state system rooted in the military and police division. However, that all changed in 1989 when communism was defeated. The structure of the Czech sports system changed at that time, and thus there are no more SP positions funded by the government. Therefore, today there are limited SP professionals in the country, and they must fund their own businesses. Currently, the lack of educational structure for the SP field in the Czech Republic makes it difficult to progress further. Any individual who obtains a degree in psychology can call himself/herself a sport psychologist. That is obviously not optimal, as some psychologists may never participate in any sports nor know much about them or the field. Knowing theories and being able to help people outside sports unfortunately does not guarantee the same in relation to sports performance. Mental training is very specific, and if a SP professional does not know how to implement the basic techniques (e.g., imagery) into training, he/she will hardly satisfy the specific needs of athletes in relation to performance enhancement (Selk, 2009). Several sport psychologists in the country work with athletes, and some of them do their work effectively on a regular basis. Most of the professionals interested in the field unite in the Association of Sport Psychologists (Asociace Psychologu˚ Sportu—APS), which guarantees proper qualification for applied work with athletes. This organization is also actively working on the creation of a structured educational framework and standardized certification process within the country. One of the attempts is also to unify the rules and regulations with the European Psychological system called the EuroPsy (European qualification standard for psychologists). The field itself has been progressing, but spreading the knowledge to such an extent that there will be fulltime positions for sport psychologists, as was previously the case, will require more time.

DEVELOPING MY PROFESSIONAL CAREER IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC Eliminating Doubts and Keeping an Open Mind Returning to my home country, I realized that the majority of people do not know what SP and mental training are and how they might be useful. That obviously makes finding clients and establishing a private practice a challenge. When I returned from my studies in the USA, I had doubts about my professional future and began to question why I studied this field. I was getting a little desperate, and this feeling was increased when I learned that some experienced sports psychologists in my country build their practice on diagnostics (e.g., psychological tests

Sport Psychology in the Czech Republic 25 such as the Eysenck Inventory; Stroop test; various tests for concentration, mechanical abilities, anxiety; etc.). I started doubting my knowledge and abilities to execute this profession in my home country. I needed to discuss my situation with someone I trusted, so I wrote to my professors at Florida State University and asked for advice (G. Tenenbaum, personal communication, 2011; D. Eccles, personal communication, 2012). I wanted to know their opinion, especially since they were familiar with the European system and environment. They encouraged me and assured me that I could be successful working in my profession. My professors’ encouragement made me believe in myself and eliminated all doubts. Today I know that I made the right decision by pursuing what I love. To live back home after a long time abroad is usually not easy at the beginning. One has to learn to keep one’s own mind open to new things, perspectives, methods, and approaches. Since many clients want diagnostics and they were a common practice, it was a good idea for me to learn how to use psychological testing in sports. Once I learned the basics, it gave me an extra tool that can be occasionally used with athletes (if the client seems interested in it). These tests provide additional information about clients (e.g., personality, motor abilities and learning, spatial orientation, reaction to stressful situations, etc.) and support or refute previous hypotheses about a particular case. Thanks to this piece of information, I feel that I can give clients better recommendations for training and competition and thus help them to enhance their performance. For example, training sessions in my country are designed based on the type and level of the sport. These training sessions are structured, and it is difficult to make some coaches understand that every athlete needs something slightly different to reach optimal performance. Some athletes might enjoy practicing, but others may not enjoy it because they prefer more diversity in their training. That is when extra information about one’s personality is useful. For example, when we find out that someone is a phlegmatic person, we know that he/she usually needs more time to prepare and become activated than others (Rocklin & Revelle, 1981). The professional can then recommend that the athlete take extra time before competition or training and start warming up earlier. It is possible to find out this type of information without psychological testing after getting to know the client well. However, that is sometimes not possible (e.g., when working with a big team). Apart from traditional diagnostics, some SP professionals use biofeedback to improve their work. It helps to measure the progress of athletes and enables an objective evaluation. This is very important because the results of mental training then become more understandable for coaches. They become measurable, and that is also crucial for team managers, who otherwise frequently do not appreciate or even accept mental training. Moreover, the use of biofeedback techniques is often enjoyable and athletes look forward to it. These techniques enrich mental training and add some variety to the process. Therefore, learning to work with these methods can be an important part of an SP professional’s training. Finding the First Clients One of the hardest tasks for a beginning practitioner is finding the first clients. I began my practice in a big sports complex in Prague, where I was coaching tennis. That helped me to gain access to my first clients. Soon I met people who were interested in my work, and my clientele started growing. I got in touch with wealthier people who were willing to try something new and invest money in performance enhancement. I got my first clients, and after several weeks I even got to work with one of the elite Paralympic archers (who will be referred to here as “DD”). This work gave me the energy I needed and strengthened my belief that what I do is worth it and that it is possible to pursue a SP professional career in my country. I worked with DD intensely for about four months before the Paralympics began and our work paid off with his mental preparation helping him to win a silver Olympic medal. DD realized the benefits of mental training and mentioned our cooperation several times in newspapers, which attracted

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more people to my practice. Thanks to this success, I was able to do some interviews for newspapers and people started to better understand and become aware of the SP field. Personal Philosophy and Current Practice I have met many great and interesting athletes. I still work with many athletes at different skill levels (Olympic, international, national, but also recreational), and it is very rewarding to see them growing, both personally and with regards to their sport performance. I currently work with teams and individuals and with children, adolescents, and adults. Mental training can be done with everyone, but obviously needs to be adjusted for every individual and team. Everyone is different, and that is why being empathetic is so important. Only once the SP practitioner understands the clients can he/she help, give advice, and lead them (Mack & Casstevens, 2001). When I started consulting in the Czech Republic, I was often not sure what to do and what needed to be done. I did not have supervision (other than what I received when I was at school), and it was a process to learn and understand how to practice SP and be sure that I did my job right. My personal philosophy is based on showing athletes the way to become better and getting them to the point where they know best how to help themselves. Therefore, I usually divide my work with clients into three equally important and interrelated stages: I = introduction, E = education, and A = application. Introduction is self-explanatory, but it is important to mention several things. These include the first impression, politeness, and an understandable explanation of what SP is and what can be (will be) done in the future during the mental training. Everyone knows that the first impression affects an interaction between two people and often determines the way relationships develop. It is no different in SP or mental training sessions. Therefore, always smile when meeting new people; be considerate and make them feel comfortable in whatever environment one is in at the moment. The environment one consults in is very important, but the impression one leaves on the client matters more. I started consulting for a sports complex without having an office, and many times I had to work in conditions that were not the most appropriate (e.g., an aerobic hall or a massage room). It challenged me to become very good at eye contact and body language so that the client did not even notice our surroundings. It is always important to be polite, to show clients that one is well-educated and that they can feel comfortable. I usually start my sessions by asking clients about how their day is going so far. Most of the time, they are surprised to hear that kind of question as it is not very common in my culture. It breaks barriers between us right away as the atmosphere gets more relaxed. I follow up by asking them why they visited me and explain to them how I can help. I believe that it is one of the most important steps as they feel better and more in control of their decisions for potential cooperation. Education is another crucial element of consulting sessions. Once athletes understand their own thoughts, feelings, and emotions, they can work with them and potentially change them. Once they understand how their body and mind work, they can use this understanding to their advantage. This is reflected in consulting sessions when athletes become self-aware and take responsibility for their own lives and everything related to it, including sports training and competitive performance. It greatly increases their motivation and helps them to control their thoughts and emotions. Therefore, after I get to know my clients, I work with them on various concepts related to SP. I try to educate and teach them how their mind works and how it affects their body, emotions, behavior, and ultimately performance and life. The next stage is application. Working with athletes on applying the knowledge into performance enhancement is critical. An SP practitioner should work with athletes on finding a way of incorporating the new knowledge and strategies into sports performance and preparation. The new techniques shall first be practiced in the office or in the field (depending on the needs of the client) and then applied in practice and competition. This phase of the working process must not be rushed so that there is room for discovery and improvement. Athletes can

Sport Psychology in the Czech Republic 27 try various strategies/techniques and determine what works best for them. If these strategies/ techniques work in the office setting, the SP practitioner helps athletes to use them in practice and competition. If athletes do not feel confident about their new techniques, strategies, routines, etc., they need to be adjusted or worked on for as long as needed until athletes feel confident and ready. Rushing this phase might be dangerous, because athletes may condemn the new strategies/techniques and associate them with failure if things do not go well. The practitioner’s work then becomes more difficult, as it creates athletes’ resentment towards mental training. Mental training is a process, and thus it takes time for athletes to learn new techniques (e.g., goal setting, deep breathing, imagery, etc.) and adjust their way of thinking. When I first started seeing clients, I was not sure how much I could teach and pass on to them. I thought I would teach them some techniques, they would become good at them, and then they would not need me anymore. However, with time and experience, I realized that being able to execute some of the techniques is only the first step on a long journey of becoming mentally tough. It takes time to believe in what one does, to change the neural paths in one’s brain, and to become positive and confident. It is an ongoing process that becomes very detailed. Working with professional athletes is a demanding experience for the practitioner, because these individuals are already highly mentally tough. Every detail of their preparation makes a difference in their performance, and so the practitioner needs to make sure that executed modifications enhance it. The longer I work with athletes, the more focused and detailed our cooperation becomes. In general, it takes about three to six months to teach someone basic techniques and methods of mental training. After that, it is important to keep monitoring and work with athletes towards finding the best way of incorporating these techniques and methods into practice and competition. That is sometimes very challenging and takes time, effort, and practice with many athletes. Sports are dynamic, and thus new situations, challenges, and opportunities appear every day. Therefore, the SP process is a combination of incorporating new techniques and methods while problem-solving issues (as they may appear any time). Learning about one’s own body and mind is an ongoing process that continues throughout life. As we get older, we gain different perspectives on the world around us, including the sports environment, community, or situations we are experiencing. As perspective changes, our thinking changes, and that is why regular monitoring is needed in order to maintain effective thinking routines and emotional control that can help us on our journey to personal peak performance.

AN APPLIED EXAMPLE IN THE SP FIELD In order to explain my working process as a practitioner, I will describe one of my case studies. I received a phone call from a father asking me for help with his 12-year-old son (let’s call him Adam for the purpose of this text). He was playing tennis tournaments, but having difficulties playing up to his potential during critical moments against tough opponents. Adam used to get unhappy about his own performance; he got mad or started crying and completely stopped enjoying the game during these situations. His dad was upset because he knew that Adam loved tennis and couldn’t enjoy it fully, as it was something stressful for him at certain moments. Therefore, I arranged an appointment with both of them. As they arrived at the office of the sports complex, I saw that they had a good relationship, which was confirmed during the initial interview. Adam’s parents were not much into sports and never pressured their son to play or to win. They just wanted to make him happy, and since tennis was something he wanted to do, they supported him. However, his mind got in the way, and he stopped enjoying playing. Adam even became desperate at times. His anxiety developed into fear of failure, so we started talking about it. I tried to change his perception of mistakes and slowly got him to the

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point where he accepted mistakes as something natural—but even more, as something that will help him to learn and grow. That was the first step of his transformation. Adam was a smart boy, so I was certain that he had the capacity to change his perceptions as well as his overall approach to tennis, and thus improve his own performance and life quality. We started consulting once a week. Using a cognitive-behavioral approach, Adam quickly understood his fear of failure. Together we created a comic, where Adam wrote his negative thoughts and was asked to rewrite them and make them positive so his performance could benefit from the positive thoughts. He stopped being afraid of making mistakes, as he knew the fear was not going to help him. Further, we created his personal performance profile and worked on various areas of his mental game accordingly. After several weeks, his fear of making mistakes was gone and he could finally enjoy his sport again. His performance improved, and he became more consistent. He was not afraid of failing anymore, and so could do what he loved without limiting himself with his own thoughts. It was rewarding to see this progress and feel his satisfaction from his own actions.

LESSONS LEARNED AS A BEGINNING PRACTITIONER Adam was one of the “easier” clients, as he had great family support. His parents did not expect him to be an elite tennis player, and their relationship was rather harmonious. However, I have also met clients where it was difficult to work on performance enhancement, as their home environment was oppressive. These clients usually have to face pressure caused by their parents. Most of the time, they are not developing in a task-oriented environment, and so they have several issues regarding their egos. They are often perfectionists, who over-identify with their success. In addition, they might be struggling at home while trying to get along with their parents or siblings. Therefore, the focus has to be on problem-solving these issues before beginning to work on performance enhancement. This type of work is more difficult and sometimes is energy draining as a practitioner, but it is necessary. Athletes who have to struggle with their family, school, or work environments just to get along with others cannot benefit from mental training as much because they have other issues that need to be resolved first. A practitioner may try to ignore these issues and work through them, but that would be like building a new house knowing that its foundations might not support its weight. The house might collapse, and so might the client. Mental training would be useless and might be counterproductive as well. As I mentioned before, I work with both individuals and teams. In my opinion, these two types of work are very different. Working with individuals is very specific. Each client is different and practitioners have to adjust to their needs and way of communication in order to help them effectively. Working with teams, on the other hand, requires more composure, knowledge, and flexibility (Janssen, 2007). In my short time of practice, I have already experienced a situation in which I had to adapt my idea of team mental training and adjust it to the needs of individuals. Typical team issues, such as team cohesion, teamwork, communication, and acceptance and execution of one’s role within the team, could not be worked on properly, as some members of the team ignored or disapproved of mental training. It was difficult to set a plan for several players of the team that would work for the players who were interested. I basically had to discuss individual issues in team settings. It eventually worked as the athletes attending this type of training were determined and wanted to become mentally tougher. Sometimes, the decisions related to the management of mental training do not depend on SP professionals, but rather come from the coaches, managers, or parents. It is then up to the SP professionals to either accept the job (and then do as much as possible) or to refuse it or ask for better (more effective) working conditions. In this type of situation, certain dilemmas may arise. For example, a coach might call an SP practitioner because he wants help for his players. He wants the practitioner to work with them, but he does not find time to meet

Sport Psychology in the Czech Republic 29 to discuss important issues related to the team and the individual players. That makes our work more difficult and might even deteriorate it as the results obtained will not be ultimately effective. Then the coach, players, media, etc. may assume that our work is not helpful; but in reality, it could not be effective as important parts of it were missing. It is for the practitioner to determine whether it makes sense to start by cooperating in this way to obtain the client or whether clear boundaries should be set at the start, potentially resulting in a loss of a client. As a young professional, I should be taking advantage of every opportunity I have, especially with great professional teams or individuals; but I’m slowly realizing that as my clientele grows and I have the option to choose, I will set higher standards and will not work with those who do not give 100%.

CONCLUSION Working with athletes on their mental game is an enriching experience. It is difficult to get bored with the work because each case is different. Each athlete is unique, and thus every case needs to be managed differently. Some athletes have problems with concentration, some are not sure what they want to achieve, some cannot control their emotions, and some fear making mistakes. SP professionals must be tough enough mentally to be able to do this job well. It is difficult to have several clients per day while maintaining concentration, composure, patience, and open-mindedness. However, when a professional finds the strength to treat each client with maximum care and mindfulness, the results can be self-fulfilling. The best reward for good work is client’s satisfaction and their acknowledgment of the cooperation. It is very fulfilling when athletes share that they progressed thanks to what one has taught them. My journey of being a SP professional in the Czech Republic has not been easy, but it is currently my dream job. The hardest thing in starting my own practice was getting the word out there and finding the first clients. Advertisements and the creation of websites, business cards, and articles for magazines and online sports journals were necessary. In addition, I was asked to translate some American publications into the Czech language, which also helped in spreading the word about our SP services (Orlick, 2007). It slowly progressed as I succeeded in getting the word about sport psychology onto a national radio station and into newspapers. Currently I am working together with some of my colleagues on writing a book of applied SP aimed to help Czech athletes, coaches, sport managers, and others interested in sports understand this field better. I am very excited to see the development of the field in my country, and I am determined to do my best in creating a good reputation for it. Once a practitioner strives to achieve something and set one’s mind to it, there is nothing that can hold one back. The future of this field in this country lies in the creation of an educational and certification system similar to the one developed by the Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP). This is also in progress as the national organization of APS in the Czech Republic is already executing some of these important steps. Everyone working in the field realizes that it is needed, and thus I believe there is a potential for a brighter future. It is important to follow the progress in Europe so the standards can be united, because practitioners working here want to develop as professionals and work on the international level as well (Iwan, 2012; Bradstreet, 2013).

TAKE-HOME MESSAGES • Follow working regulations in the country one plans to work in. One should know what needs to be done in order to create a consulting/psychological practice or get hired. • Believe in the lessons learned and self-implement mental skills training to enhance selfregulation on an everyday basis.

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• Future practitioners should have patience, inner strength, and joy when considering becoming a practitioner in the SP field. • Market the field well—spread the knowledge about mental training to sports journals, radios, and magazines and publish books, etc. • Treat every client with maximum care. • Be patient, flexible, and look for new opportunities. • Enjoy it all!

NOTE 1. The chapter was published with the support of specific research at Charles University called “Psychosocial determinants of physical programs in Czech population” and “PRVOUK P 39.”

REFERENCES Bradstreet, T. (2013). Alternative career paths in sport psychology. Message posted to www.linkedin.com/ groupItem?view=&gid=2908685&type=member&item=202043692&qid=7902a350–5cec-461e-b606– 3b8ff32f674a&trk=group_items_see_more-0-b-cmr Iwan, R. (2012).UK Sport invest £720,000 in Team GB coaches to boost 2016 Olympic hopes. Message posted to www.linkedin.com/groupItem?view=&gid=3937642&type=member&item=189929571& qid=abe9022d-a7b7-4b35-bd1b-7de1b56cb133&trk=group_items_see_more-0-b-cmr Janssen, J. (2007). The team captain’s leadership manual. Cary, NC: Winning the Mental Game. Mack, G., & Casstevens, D. (2001). Mind gym. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. Orlick, T. (2007). In pursuit of excellence. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Rocklin, T., & Revelle, W. (1981). The measurement of extroversion: A comparison of the Eysenck Personality Inventory and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. British Journal of Social Psychology, 20(4), 279–284. Selk, J. (2009). 10-minute toughness. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. Tenenbaum, G. (2008). The practice of sport psychology. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology. Williams, J. M. (2009). Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

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Sport Psychology Consulting in Trinidad and Tobago Donald La Guerre

INTRODUCTION DLG Sport Psych has taken an applied approach to sport psychology (SP) consulting in Trinidad and Tobago. We implement Psychological Skills Training (PST) primarily to athletes and coaches locally. SP practitioners aim at improving performance by teaching these skills (Butt, 1987). There are three main areas that guided our actions in turning a business idea into reality. The first point is based on the fact that we are like any other business, so it is important for us to have a source of income and make a profit. Secondly, most of the athletes and teams cannot afford to pay for the services being offered. Our third area of focus involves organizations that have funds set aside for sport development and were willing or obligated to invest financially into sporting initiatives. In the end, our objectives have been to be financially viable, be the service provider for sport teams that otherwise could not afford PST services, and help organizations fulfill their obligations to developing sports. In order to fulfill the above-mentioned objectives, we identified some necessary steps that we had to take. The first step was to figure out how to gain access to the athletes and also identify specific groups to target. There are strict rules and guidelines that needed to be followed during this process, especially when liaising with the government of Trinidad and Tobago. The actual implementation of the service involves conducting meetings with stakeholders first and foremost. These meetings are geared at primarily assessing what the athletes’ needs are, and the information gathered is used as the main component in designing the program. This is then followed by service delivery of PST. Implementing these services will have some impact on stakeholders because they play a direct role one way or another. The significance of reflective practice and evaluations of services will be discussed to illustrate how those involved are affected. During this process, many challenges are faced, and they will be highlighted along with some successful measures in overcoming them.

GAINING ACCESS TO ATHLETES SP is an underserved area in Trinidad and Tobago. To fill this gap, DLG Sport Psych was founded in an effort to provide this essential service to local athletes at all levels. The overall goals are to deliver SP services to individual athletes, teams, and coaches, and also be fairly compensated in doing so. To ensure that these are achieved, research must be undertaken in the following areas: sports being played, levels of competition, available funds for the teams, organizations or groups involved in the development of the different sports, services that have been aligned with the National Sport Policy of Trinidad and Tobago, and how to select national sporting programs conducted by the Ministry of Sport and the Sports Company of Trinidad and Tobago (2012a) (these two latter government organizations are responsible for sport development in the country).

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Selecting a Target Group Implementing on-going PST within existing sport development programs is one of the main objectives of DLG Sport Psych. Although we serve senior national and some elite athletes, sport administrators and national coaches have often stated that this training is essential at the youth level so that it is internalized from an early age. Specific groups include: sport clubs, schools, community-level teams, and national junior athletes, regardless of sport. There are 54 National Governing Bodies (NGBs) for sports in Trinidad and Tobago (Ministry of Sport, 2012b). NGBs are the sport-specific organizations that are aligned with international sporting bodies and grant approval to represent specific sports locally. Our aim is to select some groups from this pool of sporting bodies as well.

Following a Protocol The majority of consultations are conducted through the Ministry of Sport, which is the Trinidad and Tobago governmental division responsible for sport development and participation in the country. It was essential to understand how this division operated in terms of the rules and procedures that dictated daily functions. There are strict guidelines that need to be followed prior to including PST within existing sport training programs. To have initial discussions with the Ministry of Sport, it was necessary to set up meeting days and times. This meant that we either called or visited their office in advance to finalize meeting arrangements. After research on the target groups was completed, a presentation of the proposed ideas had to be made to administrators. The suggested plans emphasized the importance of including some performance psychology principles such as: coping skills, self-efficacy, interpersonal relationships among team members, and athletic counseling interventions (Chartrand and Lent, 1987). After the proposal was reviewed, negotiations were conducted, followed by a formal acceptance or rejection of the proposed project. The final element at this stage is the delivery of PST in an applied environment. It is also necessary to meet with the NGBs for sports. After contacting presidents and other administrators of NGBs, meetings and discussions were held with team coaches, followed by informal visits to training sites. This was conducted to obtain data on how the NGBs and teams function on a daily basis. We emphasize the need to meet with coaches prior to meeting with teams. Coaches play a vital role since they make the final decision on whether the facilitator will work with the team or not. They also assist in the implementation of PST because in the absence of the facilitator, the coach would be trained as well to apply some level of cognitive training and reinforce the lessons taught by practitioners. The inclusion of coaches’ training is generally requested by administrators and coaches themselves. Their perspective of what the needs of the athletes are will usually be assessed prior to feedback from the athletes. Combined with the practitioners’ observations, a holistic outlook on the needs of the athletes is obtained.

Introduction to Teams Contacting stakeholders is usually achieved in a number of ways. The main avenues of establishing contact locally are: phone calls, the use of an existing network or affiliations, referrals, emails, and face-to-face interactions. What we have observed is that some administrators, coaches, athletes and even parents need to know that SP practitioners are qualified and have been trained in the field. In order to satisfy this request, the practitioners would briefly discuss their educational background, training, and their experience in the field during meetings and workshops. To ensure that stakeholders understand what the applied aspect of SP means, hands-on workshops are conducted. These workshops seek to explain how theories and skills related to

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the field can increase the level of sport performance. Messages during meetings and workshops are clear and easily understood. In delivering SP services, there may be unique styles and approaches that different practitioners prefer. In Trinidad and Tobago, DLG Sport Psych has taken a very applied and interactive approach in the sporting environment since this is preferred by local athletes, as opposed to a classroom type setting. As much as possible, services are provided in the athletes’ training environment. Some workshops are conducted immediately before or after training on courts, fields, or bleachers. This approach has been taken based on feedback obtained from athletes, coaches, and evaluations. The fact that the information provided would be fresh in their minds particularly prior to training has also been considered. What we are in support of and we often propose to teams when conducting programs is to implement frequent PST or follow up sessions weekly, bi-weekly, or monthly. What has often happened is that national teams would seek our services a couple weeks or even days before departure for an international competition. Although this may still have a positive impact on sport performance, we emphasize that repeated sessions have proven to be more effective. With this approach, athletes would have had time to apply the new skills learned and improve in areas that were challenging. Proposed ideas are based on research gathered from the specific team or group so that the services are tailored to team goals and needs. For instance, knowing what competition a team is preparing for as well as the competition dates have helped greatly when aligned with specific team and individual goals. Challenges Many challenges exist in terms of gaining access to athletes in Trinidad and Tobago. These are minor obstacles when sight of the positive impact we can have on athletes at the national, regional, and international stage is not lost. Only the most prominent challenges will be highlighted in this section. The buy-in as a new field. We have met with athletes, coaches, and parents who stated that they have some reservations about the SP field. This specialty is often confused with clinical psychology by the majority of our clients. Facilitators have had to shift the focus away from being viewed as clinical psychologists. The misconception of being viewed as clinical psychologists is addressed immediately at meetings, workshops, and individual sessions because even though some may not speak about it openly, we have discovered that most of our clients have this misconception. One way we begin talking about this myth is by asking: “When you hear the word psychology, what do you think?” Most clients respond by stating that they think about the word “crazy.” Others have stated that psychology involves someone trained in the field “getting into their heads,” and another view involves the need for psychological intervention when something is wrong. We explain that our focus is on helping athletes perform optimally by teaching mental skills. We have discovered that by asking clients how much time is spent on mental training, they are reminded that the answer is little to none. This is then compared to how important the mental aspect of sport is during the final moments of competition, responses to intense competition, and instances where results would be directly determined by what they may or may not do in those last minutes or seconds of that event. Another major point that often helps to convince stakeholders about the significance and relevance of cognitive training is the fact that many elite athletes implement PST consistently. Testimonies and studies have revealed that successes have been attributed to mental training because it often made the difference between winning and losing, especially when competing against their very talented opponents (Orlick, 1986). Payment. The majority of our clients do not have the financial resources, claim to not have it, are willing to pay a small fee, or are only interested if the services are free. Our strategy has been to approach organizations and governing bodies for sport who have the financial

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resources and are willing to fund the services we offer. We also explain how the implementation of PST has been proven to increase performance by 75% (Vealey, 1994). Fees are discussed and negotiations are finalized. This approach is similar to grant writing. Communication. It is very difficult to use telephone and email as primary sources of communication. These have proven to be very unreliable. In one instance, over 60 emails were sent to schools and the education and sporting sectors of the government throughout the Caribbean. Only one local high school responded. Following up by having face-to-face talks with stakeholders has been the most successful form of communication. Scheduling meetings. Due to busy and conflicting schedules, coordination of schedules with the various stakeholders is at times challenging—so much so that contact is often completely lost with stakeholders. There are a number of measures that have worked successfully. They include: rescheduling days and times, prioritizing appointments, being prepared to share ideas and present proposals in five minutes or less at times, remaining very flexible, and not take cancellation of meetings as negative. An 8–4 or 9–5 job. Most athletes in Trinidad and Tobago go to school or work during the day and train early mornings before work and school or afternoons after their day is over. One of our practitioners was employed as a sport psychology officer. His role in that position was very similar if not equivalent to that of a sport and performance psychology professional, whereby some of the main responsibilities included design and implementation of mental skills training programs for athletes and coaches. The challenge here was the fact that his working hours were from 8am–4pm weekly. This meant that there were not many, if any, athletes at all to conduct sessions with since they were either at school or work. In an effort to ensure that more time was spent with athletes, we moved away from viewing the services we offer as an 8am–4pm job. Organizations, teams, athletes, coaches, and parents were now seen more often. The time previously spent in the office environment while clients were unavailable was now being spent by collaborating with organizations to fund our programs, conducting group workshops with teams, visiting training sessions, and liaising with parents.

DELIVERING SP SERVICES: FROM IDEA TO IMPLEMENTATION Psychological needs analysis and program design are the first and most important steps in delivering PST. The two most important stakeholders are coaches and athletes. They determine if there is a need for the services of an SP professional. Their recommendations are made to NGBs for sport, government, or their source of financial support. Psychological Needs Analysis After meetings are conducted, proposals are presented and recommendations are made. The specific sport, team, and individual needs are assessed for strengths and areas for improvement. Both group and one-on-one interviews are conducted to obtain facts and assess the specific experiences of coaches and athletes. The majority of the program will be based on the data obtained from this phase of delivery. Program Design Data gathered are then used to design a PST program. This program is tailored to meet the specific needs of coaches and athletes. To do this, it is important to recognize overall themes that may develop from the psychological needs analysis, obtain necessary resources, and be informed about and keep up-to-date with training and tournament days, times and locations. These steps are vital when we design a program that will coincide with the already existing team training program.

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Challenges Limited knowledge of SP. Setting up a consulting business and delivering PST in Trinidad and Tobago has been accomplished after encountering many difficult moments. The lack of knowledge about SP by the majority of athletes, teams, and coaches has been a repeated challenge. The field is often confused with clinical psychology, physiotherapy, coaching, and physical training. When individuals share these misconceptions then there is no real need for the services being offered because decisions are made based on these misconceived perspectives. To promote knowledge of the field, specific approaches are taken. During workshops and meetings, we explain what SP entails. Additionally, we have created a Facebook page, www. facebook.com/DLG.Sport.Psych, with pictures and descriptions of our workshops. Business cards were also a very useful marketing tool along with our website, www.dlgsportpsych.com. These approaches have helped educate the public about the field. Scheduling. It is challenging to schedule meetings around work and school hours. Because of this, meetings sometimes have low turnout. In other instances, we have also experienced where repeated cancellations and attempts at meeting at convenient times have caused stakeholders to lose interest. Being flexible and open-minded about locations and times helps greatly. In the early part of his career, Ken Ravizza (1990) stated that he often worked with professional baseball coaches while they sat to eat. We have taken a similar approach whereby meetings have been hosted at homes, in a car while driving to an event, and in malls because at the time those were the best options. Motivational talk versus an on-going program. When meetings and sessions do occur, requests are often made for SP consultants to come in and give a motivational talk before competition. Research has illustrated that this approach is not as effective as on-going consultations (Smith and Johnson, 1990). One of the explanations our clients have given for one-time requests is the possibility of having to pay a large amount of money for continued services. What we have since done is convince stakeholders that repeated sessions over a particular period of time can have a more significant impact on team performance. This was successfully done for the most part by having individualized discussions with stakeholders. In these meetings, references were often made to some elite athletes’ successful use of on-going mental skills training. Arranging a reasonable fee for both parties involved can be effective. When a client is not able to afford a fee, they are asked to make an offer that is comfortable for them. A program is then designed and implemented based on what they can afford. Under-qualified SP practitioners. The final major challenge faced in delivering the services is the fact that most of the practitioners have little or no training in the field. They sometimes have clinical training; however, most coaches, athletes, and parents are either not aware that this is a specialized field or that there are qualified practitioners in Trinidad and Tobago. To circumvent this challenge, we promote the services of DLG Sport Psych and the SP field mostly via the Internet, and attend and network with potential clients at sporting events and meetings.

THE EFFECT OF SP ON THOSE INVOLVED There are both challenging aspects and positive effects of SP on those involved in the implementation of the services. This requires many hours of work by the facilitator since assessments, program designing, and meetings are very time consuming. The applied aspect is physically demanding due to traveling from one location to the next and the high temperatures associated with being outdoors. This entire experience is very demanding yet fulfilling, especially with youth athletes and teams experiencing this for the first time. Athletes, coaches, parents, and other stakeholders generally have fun due to the interactions and activities used. Based on feedback received, they see the positive impact and value of the services. Rodney Stowe, Sport Development Officer in the Trinidad and Tobago Ministry of

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Sport stated, “We needed this 30 years ago! In general, we develop everything besides the brain and now athletes will be better prepared mentally, going into competition.” Reflective Practice Journaling in particular helps highlight significant areas that affect service delivery. Documenting experiences have helped in understanding and discovering these key areas in terms of service implementation. Through journaling, one can also became more self-aware of cultural differences in service delivery (for example, I became more self-aware of the differences in delivery between what I was trained to do in the US and what the local culture felt most comfortable with). The uniqueness of Trinidad and Tobago’s culture has been one of the main considerations for effective delivery. As the practitioner, it is important to understand the personalities and concerns of those involved. Language varies depending on the group being addressed. On occasion, jargon and local dialect is used with younger groups, while a more formal tone is used at initial meetings with administrators and coaches. Deciding on locations where stakeholders feel comfortable meeting is also important. Not knowing a sport in Trinidad and Tobago does not mean that a particular team or athlete is no longer a potential client. It does mean that the practitioner has some research to do. Different sports have diverse needs, team cultures, and, at times, even the language used is unique. These characteristics need to be taken into consideration so that improvements in delivering the services can be made. To help facilitate the knowledge of specific sports, time is spent attending practices and informally communicating with athletes. Evaluation To determine the effectiveness of the services being delivered (Smith, 1989) and discover new ways to improve the implementation of PST, evaluations are necessary. In order to ensure that athletes are properly evaluated, DLG Sport Psych collaborated with an educational psychologist to ensure that local culture and specific characteristics of the practitioners were considered in creating the evaluation form. The evaluation generally seeks to discover what participants believe are the pros and cons in delivering the service, as well as any recommendations they may have. The contents of the forms are explained to participants by the practitioner prior to conducting the assessment. Challenges One of the challenges faced by those affected by the services is transportation. Often athletes complain that they have difficulties attending sessions due to financial constraints or unavailable transportation. This causes some sessions to have limited numbers or late attendance with the end result being inconsistent exposure to the services. To deal with this, we have adopted an approach where the facilitators go to the athletes and conduct sessions at training venues and homes. Communication is another challenge. For instance, notification of changes in schedules is sometimes poor. This may be due to misunderstandings; however, the end result impacts service delivery negatively. Following up by calling or texting at least a day or a few hours before a session has proven to be very effective.

DLG SPORT PSYCH IN ACTION To highlight the process for consulting described above, an example is provided that is based on consultations with a national team that was crowned Caribbean Champions in 2012. The

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name and sport will not be mentioned, but details about gaining access, the delivery of PST, and how the services affected those involved will be discussed. After following the team’s progression via the media and briefly meeting with the president of the NGB for the sport, the need for PST was clear. In order to ensure that proper protocol was followed, the president of the NGB was formally contacted via telephone and he recommended that the coach be contacted directly. A formal meeting was held with the coach, and he was very interested since he felt that mental training was a missing component in the team preparations. An informal invitation to attend practice and observe the team was extended, and at the end of the training session the SP consultant was introduced. Following up some days later, a proposal was given to the coach for approval from the administrators of the NGB. They were in support of the suggested idea of including PST with the team’s training; however, they had no available funds. It was agreed that the services will be implemented free of charge for the three months leading up to the tournament, after which negotiations would have to be made for future initiatives post-tournament. The next meeting with the team covered some of the following points: the importance of PST as it related to performance enhancement, what the athletes’ strengths and areas for improvement were, and their training schedule. Because the only available time to do this was at the end of practice when the athletes were tired, the meeting was very brief. Most meetings after that were also brief because the athletes had to travel to different locations after training, they were up late at night, some athletes had to be at home to take care of their families, and they also had to prepare for work or school the next day. After the PST program was designed, delivering the services was very challenging. The SP consultant, athletes, and coaches had to balance time for sessions, follow-ups, personal lives, and travel. There were many challenges faced and measures to overcome them were developed. The practitioner felt the need to ensure that workshops were brief, fun, and interactive since most of the group would have had tiring days. There was still the issue of funding after the team had already won the competition; an alternative approach to paying for the services was taken by the practitioner. In the end, it was discovered that there are a lot of companies and organizations that are willing to fund programs. Some private companies sponsor sporting teams and/or athletes and in doing so they receive a tax deduction from the government—and in some instances, they do it for advertising purposes. In addition, there are some government divisions responsible for developing sport that are allotted budgets to sponsor teams and/or athletes; thus, companies and the government are generally considered for financial assistance.

CONCLUSION A major objective of DLG Sport Psych is to seek out organizations that are willing to give financial support for cognitive training of athletes and coaches. There were many challenges faced in gaining access to athletes and delivering PST. However, some successful ways to overcome these barriers in Trinidad and Tobago have been discussed. Some of these strategies can be applied to other cultures and countries around the world. The importance of evaluating the services being offered and understanding that this can increase service delivery is extremely important. Similar to what has been discussed in this chapter, practitioners need to decide their approach when delivering PST, selecting a target group, and following proper protocol or “playing by the rules of the game.” There are many ways to approach teams. For example, an informal team introduction has worked well in Trinidad and Tobago prior to assessing needs, designing a PST program, and conducting evaluations. Hopefully, the reader can take some strategies that have worked in Trinidad and Tobago and make the necessary alterations to this approach so that it is suited for one’s own culture.

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TAKE-HOME MESSAGES • • • • •

Gaining access to clients and selecting a specific group of athletes Following government’s protocol and communicating with stakeholders Determining the effects of services on stakeholders Finding solutions to challenges Including reflective practice and evaluation of services

REFERENCES Butt, D. S. (1987). Psychology of sport. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Chartrand, J. M., & Lent, R. W. (1987). Sports counselling: Enhancing the development of the studentathlete. Journal of Counseling and Development, 66, 164–167.doi: 10.1002/j.1556–6676.1987. tb00837. Ministry of Sport (2012a, November). National sport policy. Retrieved January 3, 2013, from www.msya. gov.tt/home/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=85&Itemid=111 Ministry of Sport (2012b, November). Physical education and sport. Retrieved January 3, 2013 from http://msya.gov.tt/home/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=40&Itemid=66 Orlick, T. (1986). Psyching for sport: Mental training for athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Ravizza, K. (1990). Sportpsych consultation issues in professional baseball. The Sport Psychologist, 4, 330–340. Sports Company of Trinidad and Tobago (2012, November). Associations. Retrieved January 3, 2013, from www.sportt-tt.com/home.aspx Smith, R. E. (1989). Applied sport psychology in the age of accountability. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 1, 166–180. Smith, R. E., & Johnson, J. (1990). An organizational empowerment approach to consultation in professional baseball. The Sport Psychologist, 4 (4). Vealey, R. (1994). Current status and prominent issues in sport psychology interventions. Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise, 4, 495–502.

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The Process of Providing Sport Psychology Services in Taiwan Chung-Ju Huang (Glen), Tsung-Min Hung, and Tai-Ting Chen

The ways in which sport psychology (SP) services are provided may differ based on the general climate surrounding sport sciences (Hung, Lin, Lee, & Chen, 2008), specific cultural demands (Naoi, Watson, Deaner, & Sato, 2011), and the certification systems used for sport psychology consultants (SPCs) in different countries. In East Asian countries such as Taiwan, China, Japan, and Korea, varied certification systems for SP consulting have been developed since the beginning of the 21st century to meet the specific demands in each nation. Typically, enhancing athletes’ performance at the national and international levels is the most important mission for the establishment of these certification systems.

SYSTEMS FOR SPORT PSYCHOLOGY SERVICES IN TAIWAN In Taiwan, SPC certifications are classified into four levels, namely, junior, intermediate, advanced, and experienced. Candidates who seek training must be a master’s student or a master’s degree holder in the field of SP or counseling psychology. Junior SPC certification candidates are required to first complete 120 hours of workshop training and pass the related exams, followed by 150 hours of practical training under supervision. The 120-hour workshop training incorporates helping skills, basic counseling skills, motor learning, group dynamics training, psychological skills training (PST), psychological assessment, career planning, and professional ethics for consulting. Certified junior SPCs can apply for intermediate SPC certification after receiving three years of continuous consulting experience; similarly, intermediate consultants can apply to become advanced SPCs after gaining another three years of consulting experience. However, these applications require endorsements from experienced SPCs. In order to receive a recommendation for the awarding of an experienced SPC certification, candidates must acquire consulting experience with a national team for at least three or more Asian Games or Olympic-level events. As can be seen, it is an important goal among SP practitioners in Taiwan to build sound SPC certification systems that ensure high levels of service quality and are trusted by governments, the general public, sport professionals, and coaches alike.

GAINING ACCESS The government offers the bulk of sport science support resources to help teams and individual athletes achieve peak performance at international events or to nurture potentially talented young athletes in Taiwan. For example, prior to important international events, such as the Asian Games and Olympic Games, a sport science committee, which includes SP practitioners, is formed by the government division in charge of sport affairs to support teams and individual athletes. The major mission of such a committee is to provide whatever resources are needed to help teams and individual athletes win medals in these competitions. Therefore, teams and athletes at the national training center are referred to the SP practitioners by coaches, sport

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organizations, and the authorities. For these cases, most of the SP practitioners who are invited as temporary consultants are experienced SPCs, with junior SPCs invited to serve as assistants. In addition, a certified junior SPC works on-site at the training center to provide services for emergency cases and to deal with administrative matters regarding SP services. Another example of government involvement occurs when the Ministry of Education or county governments that are in charge of student-athlete affairs become aware of the importance of SP services in the development of youth athletes, resulting in the given authority offering financial support to find professors to supply SP knowledge to young athletes. In particular, some performance enhancement projects funded by government bodies are targeted to adolescent athletes of aboriginal descent, who are generally believed to be talented in sports. Typically, the provision of SP services is one of the elements of these projects, and these services are organized and delivered by a team including experienced and junior SPCs. Evidently, the benefits of SP services are well received by the government, coaches, and sport professionals in Taiwan. In addition to referrals from government entities, teams, or individual athletes who are involved in professional sports (such as golf, baseball, and basketball) are sometimes introduced by coaches or college professors to SPCs. Further, an increasing number of sport groups and athletes, regardless of their levels of competition and ages, are seeking SP services. However, the popularity of SP services is still limited by the fact that current services are mainly provided from college professors who teach SP. It is critical to groom young SPCs who are competent to participate in the field of applied SP.

PREPARATION FOR SERVICES The consulting process is initiated when teams, coaches, or athletes request the services of SPCs. The initial consulting work commonly involves a search through various channels and the Internet for athlete and coach profile information (Visek, Harris, & Blom, 2009), such as demographic information, performance records, sport rules, match schedules, and coaching style. This information provides SPCs with an initial insight into the characteristics of the relevant sport and allows them to communicate more effectively with athletes or coaches. Importantly, this preparation helps SPCs quickly gain a sense of approval from coaches and athletes, and promotes better interactions between SPCs and team members. In addition, it is useful for SPCs to invest an adequate amount of time in communicating with coaches to earn their trust and to become familiar with all the athletes and individuals involved by observing training sessions or competitions. Although SPCs mainly interact with coaches at first, athletes typically begin to notice the presence of consultants at practices or competitions and gradually learn about and make use of the consulting services they provide (Bull, 1995). Prior to the provision of consulting services, SPCs can first derive from the information provided by coaches an initial understanding of team cohesion, individual personalities, goal setting, competition performance, match schedules, and their preliminarily required services. An example scenario was a request for SP services from a boxing coach in order to procure help for his boxers in overcoming low confidence issues. The coach believed the athletes were skilled but faced psychological obstacles; the SPC discovered through interviews with the athletes that they were deeply afraid of losing their matches. Additionally, an initial interaction makes coaches aware of the SPC’s professional competency. Another important part of preparation is setting a schedule of consulting service delivery. Confirmation with the coach is necessary when providing services to an entire team, and confirmation with individual athletes is required when assisting specific individuals. Most professional teams or athletes have very tight competition and training schedules, so a rigid consulting time table must be set to ensure that the full value of SP services will be delivered. Similarly, appropriate psychometric tools must also be prepared in advance. It is useful to administer psycho-

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metric assessments to teams or athletes prior to the start of consulting. This step helps SPCs to gather necessary objective information on athletes or teams.

PROVISION OF SERVICES In general, SP services provided to either sport teams or individual athletes contain three major stages: education, assessment, and intervention. Educational training is provided to primarily assist athletes to understand how psychological factors influence sport performance, such as anxiety, motivation, concentration, and self-confidence. PSTs, which effectively resolve these psychological agitations, are presented to help athletes raise their self-awareness toward these issues (Weinberg & Williams, 2006). In services tailored for teams, group dynamics are introduced to help athletes understand the potential issues of team operation and the importance of team cohesion, team norms, and communication skills. Improving the ability of athletes to adapt to team interactive processes is a common interest among coaches and athletes, because many teams often face challenges such as the perception of unfairness and infighting. The assessment stage involves psychological skills questionnaires to measure concepts such as mental toughness, goal orientations, motivational climate, and team cohesion. Athletes are usually requested to evaluate their own scores post questionnaires and raise their comments for discussion. Separately, meetings are held at the early stages of service delivery to discuss team related issues, such as team performance expectation and desirable team atmosphere. These discussions help SPCs to understand the team culture or climate and the interaction between coach and team members, which allows a proper intervention design for team building. The one-on-one interviews provide deeper revelation of the personality and psychological concerns of individual athletes, as well as the knowledge of the interactions between athletes and their teammates. After identifying the potential improvements for athletes, SPCs apply behavioral change strategies and PST to assist athletes during the intervention stage. For example, based on Ellis’ (1957) rational-emotive behavior therapy, consultants attempt to guide athletes to adopt rational thinking for bringing about positive and proactive emotions that lead to good performance instead of limiting irrational thinking that brings negative and passive emotions, and consequently leading to poor performance. Additionally, psychological skills are taught to assist athletes in coping with challenges faced in training or competition situations, such as imagery, goal setting, relaxation techniques, and pre-performance routines. In terms of team building, activities are designed according to coach’s recommendations and issues identified from team meetings. These activities range from expressing the importance and advantage of teammates and expectations for teammates, role exchange, sharing own stories, practicing communication with the coach, and conducting other team dynamic games. These team-building activities help team members to better know each other, improve team cohesion, and enhance communication skills between teammates and coaches. Regarding post-intervention assessment, the effectiveness of an intervention can be gauged by athletes’ and coaches’ feedback or by observing the team during competitions. In longer-term consultations, questionnaire surveys are conducted once every six months to help confirm the impact of intervention. The effect of team building interventions can be similarly assessed through discussion with coaches, responses of team members, evaluating team atmosphere at practice and matches, and questionnaire surveys.

A CASE STUDY: SERVICES FOR A BASKETBALL TEAM Services provided to a professional female basketball team were selected as an example to describe the SP consultation process. The process was initiated by the coach who was actively seeking SP services. The SPC and the coach built initial rapport during their first meeting and the consultant was brought up to date about the situation faced by the team. The team had

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performed poorly in the preceding season in which the players clearly had shown a lack of confidence and appeared highly stressed. This resulted in extremely inconsistent performance and a weary team atmosphere. At the initiation of this case, the SPC spent one week observing the team training sessions, finding that team members worked hard and adhered well to coaching instructions. However, the team atmosphere was relatively tense. Psychometric assessments were conducted for all the players in the subsequent weeks, and the players were taught to evaluate their own psychological skills. Consent was received from the players before the assessment results were shared with the head coach. Subsequently, education on the importance of psychological skills was delivered, and the techniques for improving each psychological skill were explained. Players were presented with an opportunity to share their psychological strengths and weaknesses, and their unique approach to overcome psychological barriers/ challenges in a group discussion. The SPC started building a trusting relationship with the players from these sessions and showed the players how SP could improve their performance. In regards to team performance, the players mentioned that the team was not being proactive enough during matches and gave poor effort at both ends of the basketball court. In order to more clearly elucidate the core issue, game recordings were reviewed at a team meeting. The recordings showed that the team took on average 5.3 passes after crossing the half court line to take a shot, which was vastly different from the average of 3.8 passes taken by the previous champion team. The players expressed that they were not confident about their shooting, so they only focused on getting the ball into the hands of one or two key players and let the key players make the offensive moves. Unfortunately, the opponents were well aware of this plan so the key players were frequently pressured by double team defense plays. As a result, the team suffered relatively more turnovers and poor offensive efficiency. Although the coach noticed this situation, she was unable to resolve the problem because most players lacked confidence. After examination of the videos, the players learned that every member played a role in team performance, and the team could not achieve success if the responsibilities were placed on only a few members. Individual interviews of team members were immediately conducted post discussion with the coach in order to unveil hidden issues held by individual athletes and the team. During the interviews, players were invited to describe their own issues and make recommendations for the team. The interview contents were sorted into four categories of psychological, environmental, technical, and coaching aspects, and were presented to the coach as a reference. Certain athletes mentioned that the coach would make excessive demands and cause players to suffer extreme fatigue from training. For example, in order to complete 500 shots as quickly as possible, players would try to maximize their shooting accuracy by taking their time when shooting the ball which would lead to lower in-game accuracy. As such, poor alignment of training session with match situation was one of the problems faced by the team. The SPC encouraged players to communicate with the coach instead of directly passing on this problem to the coach. Nevertheless, the consultant compiled the players’ recommendations on training and competition into a report for the coach. The report naturally omitted confidential information and only presented recommendations that might positively affect team improvement, which was extremely helpful to the communication between coach and players. In terms of PST, each player possessed different requirements. While some players had problems with concentration and attention span, others would easily lose their confidence or were afraid of making mistakes. Therefore, the SPC suggested specific trainings tailored to each player’s needs, such as slowing the tempo prior to passing, positive self-talk, mental rehearsal, deep breathing, muscle relaxation, and pre-performance routines. The players were requested to physically record these suggestions into tables to be completed at the end of each practice. During the entire consulting period of six months, SP services seemed to have improved team morale, personal attitude, self-confidence, and stress management capability of team members, based on the evidence of face-to-face interviews, psychometric post-assessment, coach’s feedback, and acknowledgement from the players. Though the service ended because of budget

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constraints, the SPC encouraged the players to continuously strive for improvements and developed a PST program for maximum efficiency.

OVERCOMING BARRIERS WHILE WORKING The following are barriers frequently faced by SPCs. First, SP services at national training centers are often postponed, as athletes are frequently away to participate in competitions and are unable to make time for consulting services. A possible solution is that consultants can travel with teams to competitions and conduct observations or provide SP services between matches. Provision of prompt assistance can bring consultants closer to coaches and athletes, and help consultants earn more trust. However, this approach is associated with issues of match location, budget, and timing because SPCs are occupied with their own work. Most of the experienced SPCs in Taiwan work as college professors. Additionally, even if consulting time and frequency were agreed upon between coaches and consultants at the beginning of the service period, potential delays or service postponements resulting from additional practice or casual travel must be coordinated with consultants. Then, arrangement for consulting at alternative time slots must be carried out to ensure the quality of SP service delivery. Second, SPCs may face certain issues of confidentiality. Coaches always expect consultants to help resolve athletes’ problems, and they often express high interest in athletes’ situations during the service process. Most coaches are unaware of consulting ethics and they want to know all the details. A frequent issue is that a coach might be the source of an athlete’s problem, but such information should not be passed on to the coach by consultants because the athlete would not wish for the coach to be informed. Therefore, consultants need to be extremely cautious under certain situations. Apart from providing adequate responses to coaches’ requests, consultants must prevent any confidential information leak that would break the relationship between consultants and athletes. In order to prevent breach of confidentiality, it is useful to discuss confidentiality and professional ethics of SP delivery through dialogues with coaches in the service process (Visek et al., 2009). Additionally, athletes must also be informed during the service process that they can trust consultants to not reveal certain information to their coach. Third, during the process of providing psychological service to young athletes, it was discovered that some coaches were biased against SP consulting and were unwilling to recommend their athletes to receive services. These coaches considered that young athletes need only focus on physical and technical training to develop sport skills, instead of wasting time on SP services that are non-essential for athletic performance. It is clear that SP services cannot exert their full effect without the cooperation from coaches. In terms of this problem, the coaches need to be educated. Government agencies and SP associations in Taiwan conduct SP workshops for coaches every year in an attempt to raise awareness about the impact of psychological skills on sport performance and the development of youth athletes. Further, coaches can be invited to participate in athlete educational training courses to help them better understand SP services. Separately, SPCs should continuously visit training sessions or competitions to talk with coaches to uncover their needs, and follow up to provide assistance to the team or individual athletes through consulting services.

CONCLUSION Given the fact that SP services have to meet the demands of specific cultural contexts, SPCs in Taiwan have kept working to develop their own paradigm of SP services. Since the SPC certification system relatively new, there are some challenges to advance SP delivery and increase the credibility of SPCs working with elite athletes. Especially, developing supervision and consultation systems are important issues that influence the delivery quality of SP. In order to establish these systems, experiences from other advanced countries should be borrowed. Therefore, SP

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services will gradually become the norm at all levels of competitive sport, which may cause increased public awareness toward the values of applied SP.

TAKE-HOME MESSAGES • In Taiwan, SP practitioners are endeavoring to develop their own certification systems to guarantee service delivery quality. • SPC certifications in Taiwan are classified into four levels: junior, intermediate, advanced, and experienced. • Taiwan’s government offers the bulk of SP support resources to help athletes achieve peak performance at international events or to nurture talented young athletes. • Searching for athlete and coach profile information, observing trainings and competitions, and communicating with coaches are effective ways to prepare for appropriate SP services. • SP services are generally provided in terms of psychological education, assessments, team building, one-on-one consultations, and post-intervention evaluations. • Experiences in supervision and applied practice should be borrowed from other advanced countries to assure the delivery quality of SP services.

REFERENCES Bull, S. J. (1995). Reflections on a five-year consultancy programme with the England women’s cricket team. The Sport Psychologist, 9, 148–163. Ellis, A. (1957). Rational psychotherapy and individual psychology. Journal of Individual Psychology, 13, 38–44. Hung, T., Lin, T., Lee, C., & Chen, L. (2008). Provision of sport psychology services to Taiwan archery team for the 2004 Athens Olympic Games. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6, 308–318. doi: 10.1080/1612197X.2008.9671875 Naoi, A., Watson, J., Deaner, H., & Sato, M. (2011). Multicultural issues in sport psychology and consultation. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 9, 110–125. doi:10.1080/1612197X. 2011.567101 Visek, A. J., Harris, B. S., & Blom, L. C. (2009). Doing sport psychology: A youth sport consulting model for practitioners. The Sport Psychologist, 23, 271–291. Weinberg, R. S., & Williams, J. M. (2006). Integrating and implementing a psychological skills training program. In J. M. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (5th ed., pp. 425–457). New York: McGraw-Hill.

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Dr. Seuss and the “Great Balancing Act” Exploring the Ethical Places You’ll Go Within Australian Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Gene M. Moyle

Stories by children’s writer Dr. Seuss have often been utilized as non-traditional narrative reflections regarding the issues of ethics and morality (Greenwood, 2000). Such case studies are viewed as effective teaching and learning tools due to the associated analytical and decisionmaking frameworks that are represented within the texts, and focus upon the exploration of universally general virtues and approaches to ethics (Hankes, 2012). Whilst Dr. Seuss did not create a story directly related to the sport, exercise, or performance domains, many of his narratives possess psychological implications that are applicable in any situation that requires ethical consideration of the thinking and choices people make. The following exploration of the ‘ethical places you’ll go’ draws upon references to his work as a guide to navigating this interesting and sometimes challenging landscape for sport, exercise, and performance psychologists (SEPP).

“THE MORE THAT YOU READ, THE MORE THINGS YOU WILL KNOW. THE MORE THAT YOU LEARN, THE MORE PLACES YOU’LL GO . . .” —ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN THE AUSTRALIAN CONTEXT In 2010, the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (AHPRA) was established as the organization responsible for the implementation of the National Registration and Accreditation Scheme across Australia. Each health profession is now represented by 14 practitioner boards, with the Psychology Board of Australia (PsyBA) taking over nationally from the previous individually run State-based psychology registration boards. As part of registration, psychologists can also apply for ‘endorsement’ in one of the nine recognized psychology disciplines (i.e., clinical neuropsychology, clinical, community, counseling, educational and developmental, forensic, health, organizational, and sport and exercise). This involves meeting certain requirements within the training pathway—that is, completion of an accredited discipline-specific university post-graduate program (i.e., doctorate or master’s) plus one or two years post-graduation supervision, respectively, in the area of endorsement by an approved and endorsed supervisor (i.e., Registrar Program). Once completed, psychologists then qualify to become ‘endorsed’ in that area of practice (i.e., sport and exercise psychology) and are entitled to use the legally protected title associated with the discipline (e.g., ‘sport and exercise psychologist’). A central and essential component to the responsibility and privilege of being a psychologist is ethical practice. Regardless of whether possessing general registration or an additional endorsement area, our professional practice is guided by our commitment and adherence to our code of ethics. As part of national registration, AHPRA adopted the Australian Psychological Society’s (APS) Code of Ethics for the profession, which additionally includes all APS Ethical Guidelines. The APS is the peak professional body for psychologists in Australia, and

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represents over 20,000 members in matters of advocacy, and advancing psychology as a discipline and a profession for the benefit of their members and the communities they serve. When considering the landscape of ethics within the SEPP practice in Australia, the conceptual foundations that guide our definition of what we practice are critical in the consideration of education and training areas. Whilst sport and exercise psychology has been clearly defined over many years, the related yet distinct area of performance psychology is still exploring a clear delineation and identity for itself. Within Australia, the area of performance psychology has been observed to be taking on an even stronger individually recognized presence within the broader field of psychology (Moyle, 2012; Terry 2008). Many psychological disciplines clearly identify with the solution-focused, positive psychology-influenced and excellence-in-performance approach, and as such, it appears to have brought about a further need to define what performance psychology is and where it sits in psychology. The American Psychological Association’s (APA) Division 47: Exercise and Sport Psychology specifically undertook a process in 2011 of defining the practice of sport and performance psychology, where it is suggested that sport psychology is actually a domain within performance psychology—not the other way around—and, as such, a clear definition of performance psychology is required. Aoyagi, Portenga, Poczwardowski, Cohen, and Statler (2011) suggest that sport psychology consists of two distinct service delivery models— performance-based interventions (i.e., performance enhancement or what they call ‘performance excellence’), and therapeutic-based interventions (i.e., sport psychology). Practice that falls within the first category is what they recommend calling ‘performance psychology.’ The authors propose that to practice competently in performance psychology, training should cover the performance excellence, mental health counseling, consulting psychology and performance specialty domain(s). This is interesting to note when reflecting upon the training pathways for sport and exercise psychologists in Australia. As outlined by Sebbens, Andersen, and Hanrahan (2012), practitioners are trained in general psychological skills and knowledge first, and as psychologists with expertise in working within sport, exercise, and performance settings second. This provides a broader education and training base, and focuses upon working with individuals as whole people, not ‘just’ athletes or performing artists (i.e., it is more than just performance enhancement). Aligned with this approach is the accreditation of university postgraduate programs, whereby the course approvals and accreditation process ensures that courses incorporate achievement of general competencies that are consistent across all psychologists (see Australian Psychology Accreditation Council, 2010), plus the additional competencies that uniquely distinguish each of the nine endorsement areas from one another (see Australian Psychological Society, 2010). These are important points in the consideration of ethical practice, as the area of performance psychology is not yet legally recognized in Australia as a separate discipline or endorsed area of practice within psychology, and thus the fact that registered ‘psychologists’ practice within this area automatically evokes adherence to the APS Code of Ethics and Ethical Guidelines.

“I MEANT WHAT I SAID, AND I SAID WHAT I MEANT. AN ELEPHANT’S FAITHFUL ONE HUNDRED PERCENT . . .” —KEY ETHICAL STANDARDS The development of the most recent APS Code of Ethics involved collapsing eight ethical principles (i.e., respect for the dignity and rights of people, justice, autonomy (narrow), nonmaleficence, beneficence, veracity, fidelity, responsibility) into three general principles: a) Respect for the rights and dignity of people and peoples, b) Propriety, and c) Integrity (Allan & Love, 2010). Each of these three principles is further divided into a number of ethical standards that reflect the minimum expectations with regard to psychologists’ professional conduct. Conduct

Dr. Seuss and the “Great Balancing Act” 47 that does not meet these standards is unethical and is subject to review, and where specific conduct is not identified by the standards, the general principles will apply (Australian Psychological Society, 2007). It is well documented that ethical challenges for SEPP practitioners potentially arise more regularly and/or are to be expected due to the unique and somewhat unconventional aspects of practice within this area, in comparison to other disciplines of psychology (Andersen, 1994. 2000, 2005; Andersen, Van Raalte, & Brewer, 2001a; Andersen, Van Raalte, & Brewer, 2001b; Brown, & Cogan, 2006; Haberl, & Peterson, 2006; Hankes, 2012; Hays, 2006; Oliver, 2010; Stapleton, Hankes, Hays, & Parham, 2010). As a result, Aoyagi and Portenga (2010) identified that ethical principles developed for clinical and counseling psychologists are useful although incomplete when reflecting upon sport, exercise, and performance psychology practice. This has been recognized recently in Australia, where the APS College of Sport and Exercise Psychologists (CoSEP) is working with the APS to develop some specific Ethical Guidelines targeted at situations that arise regularly for this specific population—such as working and traveling with teams. Whilst all aspects of ethical practice are important, there are a number of ethical standards that have been observed to warrant increased attention due to the unique environment sport, exercise, and performance psychologists operate in (Hays, 2012). Confidentiality, Informed Consent, and Conflicting Demands SEPP professionals often practice within a team that typically consists of multidisciplinary health professionals, coaches, high performance managers, administrative support staff, and artistic staff if within a performing arts environment. As a result, challenges around confidentiality, informed consent, collaborating with other professionals and conflicting demands often arise within this context. The APS ethical standards that best reflect these issues include: A.3— Informed Consent, A.5—Confidentiality, B.8—Collaborating With Others for the Benefit of Clients, and B.12—Conflicting Demands. Confidentiality is considered a cornerstone to practicing as a psychologist (Davidson, 1995; Hankes, 2012; Oliver, 2010). This is particularly important given sport, exercise, and performance psychologists usually consult with their clients in non-traditional and unconventional settings (i.e., buses, planes, cars, trackside, performance venues, dining halls, ‘green rooms,’ studios, gyms, hotel foyers, etc.) and are rarely operating in isolation in the servicing of the client, but are rather usually working within organizations and systems with multiple stakeholders in the client’s performance and welfare. Understanding the limitations and requirements of confidentiality is not only crucial to effective practice, but if mismanaged, can have significant negative impacts on both the therapeutic relationship with the client (i.e., breaking their trust), and their psychological and emotional welfare (Hamilton, 1997). When working as a psychologist within a sporting team or performing arts environment, it is typical for the client to observe the practitioner talking to key personnel such as the coach, manager, program administrator, other athletes/performers, the artistic director, teachers, etc. in the same physical environment or location. Often this observation is prefaced with the knowledge that the coach, manager, or other health professional may have referred the athlete to see the psychologist, so a natural conclusion drawn is that ‘they must be speaking about me.’ Without having first established an effective working relationship, which includes clearly outlining the parameters of confidentiality including informed consent and the sharing of information, the client’s level of trust in the practitioner could be compromised. This can result in a limited ability for the client to want to talk freely with the psychologist in future consultations—impairing the overall therapeutic process and desired outcomes. Operating within confidentiality parameters is not only a requirement from the client’s perspective, but additionally applies when working with other staff. Servicing of athletes and performers typically involves close collaboration with a multidisciplinary team of health providers,

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in addition to the coach, program manager, artistic director, etc. Often within elite sporting environments in Australia, athletes have signed a scholarship or contractual agreement with the sporting organization where they acknowledge that key health, welfare, and performance information will be shared with the servicing team, coach, and, if the athlete is also linked to a National squad, with the National staff team as well. Furthermore, conflicting demands on the psychologist might arise whereby colleagues expect that the practitioner will tell them ‘everything’ about what is going on with the athlete or what they have disclosed because it relates to their performance or welfare, and they have already ‘given their consent’ on the scholarship agreement. At such times, psychologists need to be mindful about continuing to meet ethical code requirements whilst balancing out the ability to contribute appropriate levels of information to ensure the continuity of care and support for the athlete. Often this can be navigated by obtaining informed consent from the client about what they are comfortable with regarding what can or cannot be shared in such situations. Erring on the side of caution is always recommended until such time you have had the opportunity to discuss this with the client directly. Multiple Relationships and Boundaries Moore (2003) outlined that sport and performance organizations and companies are often small communities of individuals who are largely self-contained, quite insular, and typically focused upon a shared common goal or world-view. Multiple relationships are often expected within these environments; for example, the psychologist services all the individual athletes within the team, works with the team as a group, supports the coach of the team, and consults to the program manager and/or higher-level sports administrators about the overall sports program and performance. This type of situation should continually prompt the practitioner to keep reflecting back upon ‘Who is the client?’ and ensure that they engage in processes such as documentation of consultations related to boundary management issues, peer consultation, and practicing positive ethics (Gottlieb & Younggren, 2009; Hankes, 2012; Knapp & VanDeCreek, 2006). When traveling with teams or performing arts companies, innumerable hours are spent with these multiple clients in non-traditional settings as previously outlined, which often contributes to blurred boundaries and can result in boundary crossings or violations (Andersen, 2001b; Hankes, 2012; Knapp & Slattery, 2004; Oliver, 2010). Boundary crossings are considered distinct from boundary violations, where not all boundary crossings are believed to be ethically inappropriate in sport and performance settings (Hankes, 2012); or that appropriate Non-Sexual Boundary Crossings (NSBCs) do not automatically lead to boundary violations (Gottlieb and Young, 2009). Hankes (2012) has also suggested that practice within these contexts often encourages and promotes NSBCs, whereby you might be required to accompany an athlete on a leisure activity as the responsible staff member (e.g., where staff are only allowed to be the official drivers on a car-hire policy), be present backstage when a dancer is doing a ‘quick change’ in costumes, or assist in helping athletes during physical workouts in the gym. As a practitioner, you need to be highly attuned to the professional culture and ethics of such an environment and ensure that your ethical decision-making is clear within such contexts. The APS ethical standards that best reflect these issues include: B.3—Professional Responsibilities (i.e., Boundaries), B.4—Provision of Psychological Services at the Request of a Third Party, and B.5—Provision of Psychological Services to Multiple Clients. Competence Working within a practitioner’s area of expertise is a central premise to the concept of ethical competence; with the APS ethical standard best reflecting this area as B.1—Competence.

Dr. Seuss and the “Great Balancing Act” 49 Whilst the requirement for psychologists in Australia to be endorsed in a specific discipline of psychology provides some level of quality assurance due to the specified requirements related to education, training, supervision, and professional experience, often SEPP practitioners face clients that present with a range of comorbid clinical issues (e.g., obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, anxiety, disordered eating). This is not surprising when practitioners are encouraged to operate from the holistic framework that we are dealing with ‘people,’ who also happen to be engaged in sport or performing arts performance. When reflecting back to the focus upon ‘psychologist first and experts in sport, exercise, and performance settings second’ within education and training in Australia (Sebbens, Andersen & Hanrahan, 2012), this approach has assisted in upskilling sport and exercise psychologists within clinical, counseling, and general psychology areas contrasted to purely mental skills training or a sole performance enhancement focus. However, it is still important to understand the boundaries of expertise and when the needs of the client cannot be serviced appropriately or adequately by the sport and exercise psychologist. At such times, referral to other psychologists endorsed or experienced in the area of the presenting issue/s is required and includes ensuring the transition for the client is as smooth and effective as possible. Ultimately, the welfare of the client is paramount. Other challenges that SEPP practitioners can often face is pressure from their ‘employers’ to solve the issues the athlete/performer might be experiencing, with the outcome focused upon restoring or enhancing the level of expected or desired performance (Oliver, 2010). To assist in avoiding and/or minimizing this type of occurrence, it is important to outline and explain to coaches, managers, administrators, artistic directors (as well as the athletes/performers) the parameters of your service delivery within the initial scoping, negotiation, and establishment stages of consultation. Use of Technologies—Servicing the Virtual Athlete Due to the rapid development of communication technologies, it is important to note the consideration and application of psychological services using these types of mediums. Often sport, exercise, and performance psychologists will work with teams or performing arts companies who travel interstate and overseas to participate in lengthy competitive or performance seasons, and due to a lack of funding (even in Olympic-level programs), service providers will not be able to travel with them. In such instances, the use of Internet and telecommunications technologies (i.e., Skype, email, phone) has risen dramatically to assist in continuity of service provision via virtual means. To address this growing area, the APS (2011) has developed the Ethical Guidelines for providing psychological services and products using the internet and telecommunications technologies.

“SOMETIMES THE QUESTIONS ARE COMPLICATED AND THE ANSWERS ARE SIMPLE . . .” —ETHICAL DILEMMAS Following are a number of real-life scenarios for further reflection and discussion in reference to ethical codes and guidelines. These scenarios help to illustrate some of the unique challenges faced by sport, exercise, and performance psychologists in navigating the ethical landscape of psychological practice within these contexts. Scenario 1 You are employed as a sport and exercise psychologist by the National Olympic Committee and attend the Olympic Games. Your role there is to service the athletes within a national individual

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sports program you have been working with over the previous two Olympic cycles, in addition to servicing eight other athletes from two other sports that you have never worked with nor met before. As your usual program is categorized as a high-performance program, priority is given to servicing these athletes (i.e., psychology, physiotherapy, sports science) in comparison to the other two sports programs. Neither of these other programs has had a sport and exercise psychologist working with them, and many of the athletes have never consulted with a psychologist previously. You hear through management that these athletes feel like a ‘poor second cousin’ that is getting the ‘leftover scraps’ from the highly funded primary program, and are not very open to working with the servicing team. Furthermore, upon arrival at the Athlete’s Village, it is identified that your primary program athletes have requested not to share a room due to having to compete against each other, which leaves you and the physiotherapist to become the new ‘roommates’ for each of the athletes. All support staff and athletes are of the same gender. During the duration of the Games, you are on-call and need to be accessible by mobile phone 24 hours a day. The primary athletes do not finish their official training or competition until the middle of Week 2 of the Olympics, and as training is often scheduled until late at night, they therefore need as much rest and recovery as possible. • • • •

What are the ethical considerations within this scenario? How should you manage the servicing of the athletes from the other two programs? What issues could potential turn into boundary violations? What are the outcomes that need to be achieved?

Scenario 2 You are employed as a full-time sport and exercise psychologist at a performing arts training institution. A team of internal and external multidisciplinary health professionals collectively manages the health and welfare of the students. A teacher identifies a recent pattern of absenteeism of a student from within their class, and expresses concern for their well-being. Furthermore, the teacher describes an obvious decline in the student’s training progress and performance levels, which are of concern in light of the upcoming examinations and performances. Upon follow-up with the student over a couple of sessions, he or she discloses that the one-year anniversary is drawing close of being involved in a vicious sexual and physical assault at knifepoint. The incident occurred before the student was enrolled at the training institution. He or she states that they have not disclosed this information to anyone else with the exception of a close friend back home (Interstate), nor did he or she report the incident to the police or his or her parents. The student is currently 16 years of age, lives alone in an apartment, and is presenting with symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). • • • • •

What are the ethical considerations within this scenario? How should you manage the information the student has disclosed? What duty of care issues do you need to address? What type of case management and treatment approach needs to be applied? What is the primary outcome that needs to be achieved?

CONCLUSION “YOU’RE ON YOUR OWN. AND YOU KNOW WHAT YOU KNOW. AND YOU ARE THE ONE WHO’LL DECIDE WHERE TO GO . . .” —NAVIGATING THE ETHICAL LANDSCAPE In conclusion, the unique aspects of practicing as a psychologist within sport, exercise, and performance settings can present some challenging ethical dilemmas. Practitioners need to take

Dr. Seuss and the “Great Balancing Act” 51 personal responsibility in reviewing and comprehending the ethical requirements of psychological practice, and how ethical standards and guidelines might be best applied to situations that do not always fit the norm. Fully understanding the contexts and dynamics of such environments is critical to effective servicing for clients, and competent psychologists recognize that they need to ask for advice, information, and/or guidance as an ongoing component of their professional development and life-long learning.

TAKE HOME MESSAGES • Psychological practice in sport, exercise, and performance settings is complex. • Ethical responsibility includes ensuring you are consciously aware of the varied issues that practicing within such environments presents (i.e., confidentiality, multiple relationships and boundaries, competence). • Ensure that a support network of peers and mentors is established and regularly utilized to assist in the provision of guidance re: successfully navigating this dynamic landscape.

REFERENCES Allan, A., & Love, A. (2010). Ethical practice in psychology: Reflections from the creators of the APS Code of Ethics. Chichester, UK: Wiley. Andersen, M. B. (1994). Ethical considerations in the supervision of applied sport psychology graduate students. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 6, 152–167. Andersen, M. B. (2000). Doing sport psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Andersen, M. B. (2005). “Yeah, I work with Beckham”: Issues of confidentiality, privacy and privilege in sport psychology service delivery. Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, 1(2), 5–13. Andersen, M. B., Van Raalte, J. L., & Brewer, B. W. (2001a). When sport psychology consultants and graduate students are impaired: Ethical and legal issues in training and supervision. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 12, 134–150. Andersen, M. B., Van Raalte, J. L., & Brewer, B. W. (2001b). Sport psychology service delivery: Staying ethical while keeping loose. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 32, 12–18. Aoyagi, M. W., & Portenga, S. T. (2010). The role of positive ethics and virtues in the context of sport & performance psychology service delivery. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 42, 253–259. Aoyagi, M. W., Portenga, S. T., Poczwardowski, A., Cohen, A. B., & Statler, T. (2011). Reflections and directions: The profession of sport psychology past, present and future. Professional Psychology, Research and Practice, 43(1), 32–38. Australian Psychology Accreditation Council. (2010). Rules & accreditation standards for psychology courses. Melbourne, Victoria: Author. Australian Psychological Society. (2007). Code of ethics. Melbourne, Victoria: Author. Australian Psychological Society. (2010). College course approval guidelines for postgraduate specialist courses. Melbourne, Victoria: Author. Brown, J. L., & Cogan, K. D. (2006). Ethical clinical practice in sport psychology: When two worlds collide. Ethics & Behaviour, 16, 15–23. Davidson, G. R. (1995). The ethics of confidentiality: Introduction. Australian Psychologist, 30, 153–157. Gottlieb, M. C., & Younggren, J. N. (2009). Is there a slippery slope? Considerations regarding multiple relationships and risk management. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 40, 564–571. Greenwood, M. (2000). The study of business ethics: A case for Dr Seuss. Business Ethics: A European Review, 9(3), 155–162. Haberl, P., & Peterson, K. (2006). Olympic-size ethical dilemmas: Issues and challenges for sport psychology consultants on the road and at the Olympic Games. Ethics & Behavior, 16, 25–40. Hamilton, L. H. (1997). The person behind the mask: A guide to performing arts psychology. Greenwich, CT: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Hankes, D. M. (2012). Sport and performance psychology: Ethical issues. In S. Murphy (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of sport and performance psychology (pp. 46–61). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

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Hays, K. F. (2006). Being fit: The ethics of practice diversification in performance psychology. Performance Psychology: Research and Practice, 37, 223–232. Hays, K. F. (2012). The Psychology of Performance in Sport and Other Domains. In S. Murphy (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of sport and performance psychology (pp. 24–45). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Knapp, S. J., & Slattery, J. M. (2004). Professional boundaries in nontraditional settings. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 35, 553–558. Knapp, S. J., & VanDeCreek, L. D. (2006). Practical ethics for psychologists: A positive approach. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Moore, Z. (2003). Ethical dilemmas in sport psychology: Discussion and recommendations for practice. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 34, 601–610. Moyle, G. M. (2012). Performance in the spotlight: Exploring psychology in the performing arts. InPsych, 36(4), 11–13. Oliver, J. (2010). Ethical Practice in sport psychology: Challenges in the real world. In S. J. Hanrahan and M. B. Andersen (Eds.), Routledge handbook of applied sport psychology: A comprehensive guide for students and practitioners (pp. 60–68). New York, NY: Routledge. Sebbens, J., Andersen, M. B., & Hanrahan, S. J. (2012). Beyond performance: Training sport psychologists in Australia. InPsych, 36(4) 18–19. Stapleton, A. B., Hankes, D. M., Hays, K. F., & Parham, W. B. (2010). Ethical dilemmas in sport psychology: A dialogue on the unique aspects impacting practice. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 41, 143–152. Terry, P.C. (2008). Performance psychology: Being the best, the best you can be, or just a little better? InPsych, 30(1), 8–11.

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Passing on Values of Fair Play and Sportsmanship Through the Practice of Sport Psychology Diego Gutiérrez del Pozo, Pilar Jerez Villanueva, and J. Gualberto Cremades

The aim of this chapter is to offer the reader a brief overview of the current situation of Sport Psychology (SP) applied practice in Spain, as well as to discuss the foundations of fair play and values education through sport. The philosophy of SP practice in Spain is consistent with FEPSAC’s (European Federation of Sport Psychology, 1996) definition of sport, and is thus inclusive of sport as well as physical activity. Presently, SP is an emergent area in Spain, and the following aspects must be improved to consolidate the field: a better professional definition of the area; legal recognition and regularization; standardized presence in work centers related to sport and exercise (e.g., sport teams, government sport federations, fitness centers); and a worldwide presence that would allow the general public to learn about the profession and what can be expected when working with an SP practitioner. At this point in time, the SP field in Spain is in a moment of constant dynamic change characterized by a certain stabilization and expansion of professional groups (e.g., the sport psychology group at the Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, the assessment and psychological treatment group at the Universidad Nacional de Educacion a Distancia, and Long Distance Education National University) and an increase of the educational offering in universities (optional coursework and postgraduate courses) and professional associations. For example, the Colegio Oficial de Psicologos (COP), or Official College of Psychologists, governs the practice and code of ethics for all psychologists in Spain. The COP’s Code of Ethics in Spain has been translated verbatim from the American Psychological Association (APA) Ethics Code. In general, SP in Spain is a relatively new science and therefore needs to blossom and evolve as any field requires. Further, how professionals related to the sport science field are positioned in the workforce will have a major impact on SP development in the next few years. With regards to SP applied intervention, one can identify the following areas: (a) elite sport performance, (b) sport initiation, and (c) health and leisure time. Each area possesses its own peculiarities and aims, which range from actions centered on education, formation, and psychological well-being in the search of maximum performance (Weinberg & Gould, 1996). In addition, SP practitioners can work with the following groups: (a) athletes, (b) coaches and technical sport personnel, (c) athletes’ parents, (d) referees and field judges, (e) executives and fans, and (f ) the general population (e.g., individuals with disabilities, elderly, youth, adults). It is necessary to identify the importance of SP tasks when having to deal directly with youth (e.g., approaching personal and/or performance aspects), and the indirect labor the practitioner conducts with the rest of members that constitute the sports arena (e.g., advising and informing coaches, giving formative workshops to the athletes’ parents) (Dosil, 2008). In the sport setting, the SP practitioner is able to exercise the following tasks: (a) evaluation, (b) planning and advice, (c) intervention, (d) education, and (e) investigation. In addition, one of the crucial tasks and influences SP practitioners can carry out is the education of moral development in youth.

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MORAL DEVELOPMENT Issues and Values of Fair Play and Sportsmanship Moral development is an important aspect to include in SP interventions when working with youth. Moral development refers to “psychological and behavioral processes such as moral reasoning and prosocial behavior” (Payne & Isaacs, 2012, p. 91). Moral development builds character in children. Two of the terms being used in the sport culture to address moral development are sportsmanship and fair play. Sportsmanship and fair play describe morally relevant attitudes and behaviors in sport contexts. Sportsmanship refers to “social norms and conventions associated with sport participation, such as shaking hands after a match or congratulating an opponent on a good performance” (Payne & Isaacs, 2012, p. 91). Definitions of fair play refer to attitudes and behavior similar to the ones associated with sportsmanship. Thus, both values (i.e., sportsmanship and fair play) will be used interchangeably in this chapter. Since ancient times, sport has always had the virtue of being an adequate means for the acquisition of values such as citizenship, perseverance, teamwork, justice, fairness, honesty, responsibility, self-discipline, and the will of self-improvement. This idea has been supported (e.g., Gutiérrez, 2003; Wandzilak, 1985) by highlighting that sport has values that can help to discover oneself, aid in personal development, and promote social education; plus, the athlete can develop these values throughout his/her life. Experts in this matter have given their approval to this idea by pointing out that both physical activity and sport play an important role in promoting social and personal values (Gutiérrez, 1995; Wandzilak, 1985). However, the practice of fair play, the ideal of sportsmanship, and the peacekeeping role that sport should be playing in our society do not seem to be practiced in every playground nowadays. Too often, one can hear reports in the media about violence and aggressive behavior in sport, cases of doping, and different ways of cheating to win at all costs (e.g., Durán, 1996). Several authors (e.g., Gutiérrez, 2003; Cruz, 1997) have suggested that sport has lost its moral principles and eliminated any transcendental values by encouraging winning at all cost, promoting extreme values such as competiveness, efficiency, and breaking world records, as well as turning the sport into something anti-educative. In reality, sport is neither good nor bad by nature, and shows, like any other human aspect, numerous ambivalences and contradictions. It is evident that sport and physical activity can be a source of solidarity, altruism, tolerance, self-confidence, and social integration. However, sport and physical activity can also be a source of violence, intolerance, deceit, and/or conflict (Arnold, 1991; Gutiérrez, 1995). Indeed, physical activity and sport do not teach values, but rather it depends on how these values are used by each individual so that one can learn values from sport. Therefore, it is necessary to promote an effective education in values, establish a precise procedure with specific objectives, and set up practical strategies to determine operational and suitable evaluation techniques that will allow practitioners to confirm whether there has been any improvement in the values, attitudes, and behavior of athletes undertaking an educational program (Cruz, 1997; Duran, 1996; Gutiérrez, 1995; Wandzilak, 1985). When first discussing the education of values in sport, one needs to consider two main issues of fair play in professional and youth sport: (a) the use of a professional model has led many coaches, parents, spectators, and managers, as well as many youth athletes, to imitate the attitude and conduct of professionals (M. Gutiérrez, 1995, 2006); and (b) winning at all costs in sport and the increasingly early initiation into professional sport are also serious threats to fair play, and are increasing the deterioration of sportsmanship in the sport field or arena. It is time to choose a better education system at all levels and develop new generations with strong character (i.e., virtues and qualities that individuals possess such as honesty, responsibility, and compassion). Sport needs a radical change, where the integral formation of the individual is the most important part, rather than the athlete’s statistics or breaking new records. Therefore, it is essential to conduct a multidisciplinary work where parents, athletes, coaches,

Values of Fair Play and Sportsmanship 55 SP practitioners, and managers work together to transmit strong values of fair play to young athletes in the sports arena. Both coaches and SP practitioners, who are the individuals with more training and preparation, must implement educational and intervention programs to transmit positive values and achieve a cleaner sport. Fair Play and Sportsmanship Fair play can enhance virtues such as integrity, respect, and honesty so that sport and physical activity become a beneficial experience to eliminate violence and enhance the social and moral development of youth. Sport without fair play does not have its full potential and value. Thus, SP practitioners have to make a concerted effort to educate the new generations and pass on values such as fair play when doing applied work. When passing on values, SP practitioners must be aware of the Code of Sports Ethics Council of Europe, which defines fair play as much more than playing with the rules. It incorporates the concepts of friendship, respect for others and always playing within the right spirit. Fair play is defined as a way of thinking, not just a way of behaving. It incorporates issues concerned with the elimination of cheating, gamesmanship, doping, violence (both physical and verbal), the sexual harassment and abuse of children, young people and women, exploitation, unequal opportunities, excessive commercialization and corruption. (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 2) Additionally, the Dictionary of Sports Science presents the definition of fair play summarized in six points: (1) to recognize and respect the rules of the game, (2) to establish appropriate relations with the opponent, (3) to maintain equal opportunities for all, (4) rejection of winning at all costs, (5) a dignified attitude in victory or defeat, and (6) the commitment to give the maximum effort possible (Diccionario de las Ciencias del Deporte, 1992). It is the athlete who is the one that must display sportsmanship first. Fair play is manifested by the acceptance of the rules (without arguing about the referee’s decisions) and the willingness to play for victory, but reject it if needed. Fair play means modesty in victory, composure in defeat, and enough generosity to create lasting human relationships and friendships. Both adults as well as institutions are responsible for promoting fair play. In addition, it is a notion of the right of children and young people to participate in sport and physical activity. It is a positive concept to see sport as an activity that enriches society and friendship between people (Council of Europe, 2001). To give fair play the importance it deserves, all sectors involved in sport (e.g., governments, sports organizations, parents, teachers, coaches, referees, executives, journalists, athletes, etc.) should consider this term as a concept of main concern. It is the obligation of all to foster this spirit of fair play because only in this way do youth athletes and all those who are involved in sport take advantage of its full potential benefits (Cruz, 1997; M. Gutiérrez, 2006).

PASSING ON VALUES THROUGH SP INTERVENTIONS SP is an ideal venue to educate and pass on the values of fair play and sportsmanship. Throughout the years, governments, schools, and private institutions have invested time, effort, and money in creating and developing youth programs to educate on moral development. Several projects and studies have been carried out in the international context and have shown promising results (e.g., Cecchini et al., 2008; Gibbons & Ebbeck, 1997; Gibbons, Ebbeck, & Weiss, 1995; D. Gutiérrez, 2006, 2007). For example, Fair Play for Kids, one of the major projects on sportsmanship at the international level, was carried out in 1990 by the Canadian government in a joint effort with the Commission

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for Fair Play. The objective of this project was to develop a teacher’s resource manual for students (ages 9 to 11) to integrate fair play activities into the classroom setting (including physical education, science, and social studies). The activities that were developed focus mainly on fostering attitudes and behaviors that exemplify fair play ideals: a) respect the rules, b) respect the officials and accept their decision, c) respect the opponent, d) give everyone an equal chance to participate, and d) maintain self-control at all times. In a series of studies, Gibbons and colleagues (Gibbons & Ebbeck, 1997; Gibbons, Ebbeck, & Weiss, 1995) evaluated Fair Play for Kids. In their first study, fourth- through sixth-grade classrooms were assigned to one of three curriculum groupings: fair play in physical education and other subjects, fair play in physical education only, and no fair play curriculum (i.e., control group). The results showed that both treatment groups scored higher on all four measures of moral development (i.e., judgment, reason, intention, and prosocial behavior) compared to the control group, but there were no differences between the two treatment groups. In the second study, Gibbons and Ebbeck (1997) found that different instructional strategies unique to social learning (e.g., modeling, reinforcement) and structural development (e.g., dialogue, problem solving) were equally effective for influencing moral behavior. Students in fourth- to sixth-grade classes were assigned to one of three groups: social learning, structural development, and control. Fair play activities were implemented during physical education classes at least once weekly for seven months. The findings revealed that structural development and social learning participants scored higher than those in the control group on moral judgment, intention, and prosocial behavior at both three-and-a-half and seven months. Furthermore, the structural development participants scored higher on moral reasoning than the other two groups (i.e., social learning and control). Taken together, moral growth occurred four months into the intervention by implementing specific instructional strategies unique to social learning and structural development. In Spanish society, moral development in youth has been emphasized lately in the educational setting, and there have been several studies financed by the government that have implemented educational values through sport and physical activity. For example, the government of Aragon (Spain) invested in the design of a specific program with the objective to improve sport participation in the school system. This program emphasized communication skills between parents and their children and was called “Training Fathers and Mothers” (Gimeno, 2000). The program had a twofold purpose: first, the development of a brochure aimed at parents of youth athletes and a guide of social skills for the youth coaches; and second, the delivery of sport psychology workshops directed to parents and coaches (Gimeno, 2003). The social skills guide for youth coaches aimed to enhance the quality of practice (e.g., coaches’ self-reflection) as well as to impact the coach–parent relationship in a positive manner (e.g., communication with parents, parents’ youth sport education). In addition, the guide gave insight on how to reduce negative attitudes among youth athletes (e.g., constructive criticism, advice to reduce burnout). Other interventions have included the development of coursework and materials for the teaching of values and fair play. For example, the Spanish Ministry of Education, Culture, and Sport, the Superior Council of Sport, and the Foundation of Youth Sports developed a didactic course that covered appropriate sport values in education. This coursework was targeted to physical education teachers and their students (12–15 years old) (Ramírez, Ontalba, Álvarez, & Vega, 2004). The didactic course was implemented with three different tools: (1) the teacher’s CD-ROM containing sport and classroom activities, examples from different athletes that served as models of fair play and sportsmanship as well as overcoming challenges, and a website with information on sport values (www.deporteyeducacion.info/udvde); (2) the teacher’s book, which included both theoretical and applied information necessary to deliver the course and reach its educational objectives; and (3) the student’s book, which included activities for concept applications and group discussions. Similarly, the government of Galicia carried out a project to promote the eradication of violence in sport and life (Mosquera, 2004). This

Values of Fair Play and Sportsmanship 57 program’s objective was to offer resources to better understand what leads to violent behavior and how this behavior can be tackled through intervention strategies. These resources were available to everyone involved in the elementary school setting. This program included three specific guides: (1) a teachers’ guide with a section on sport, violence, and the school environment analyzed from a social perspective, and a second section on several educational proposals for non-sport violence as well as curriculum development projects for physical education teachers in elementary school; (2) a guide for elementary school physical education students that included the education of values through physical activity and sport (with language being adapted for children), a code of conduct for non-violence in sport and life (including attitudes and behavior of fair play and sportsmanship), a non-violence dictionary, a non-violence contract, and a sport and life non-violence card identification; and (3) a parents’ guide that aimed at establishing a relationship between different family types and the appearance of violent behavior in children, which included a non-violence philosophy, several proposals to educate children, a code of conduct for non-violence, and a dictionary to clarify all the terms. Other projects and research studies have been conducted by SP practitioners and research entities in academia. For example, the research group “Sport and Values,” at the Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport in the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, conducted an intervention program through physical activity with at-risk youth (ages 16 to 18). The objective was to work on integration and cooperation among the students through adventure activities, cooperative games, and dance (Durán, Gómez, Rodríguez, & Jiménez, 2000). Classes were held for 147 students for one to two hours per week (the total number of sessions was between 13 and 32) while following Hellison’s (2003) model for the development of personal and social responsibility in youth. The model was applied at two different levels: the first one attempted to develop personal responsibility in youth through self-control of violent behavior by implementing strategies that included personal as well as collective reflection with other group members; the second level aimed to develop social responsibility in youth through behavioral self-control in order to enhance interpersonal relationships and develop respect to others’ rights, feelings, and needs, as well as cooperation and coordinated work to achieve a benefit for the community. The intervention was assessed through surveys, group discussions, interviews, personal diaries, and content analysis and the findings revealed that student behaviors were modified after being involved in the program. In a different study, Borràs (2004) designed an intervention to promote fair play and sportsmanship among youth football (i.e., soccer in the U.S.) athletes in Mallorca (Spain). This intervention included coaches, parents, and the athletes. There was a campaign to promote sportsmanship among parents, coaches were handed a brochure discussing fair play and sportsmanship, and youth athletes were immersed in a comprehensive intervention that lasted three weeks. At the beginning of practice, the intervention group used a brochure on fair play and sportsmanship to discuss a dilemma or conflict. The objective of the study was to develop an intervention to enhance sportsmanship and fair play, validate such a protocol, and establish a strategy to implement in the education of coaches and parents. In addition, values, attitudes, and behavior of 9 teams in the experimental group and 9 teams in the control group were compared before and after the intervention to validate the program’s efficacy. The findings revealed that pro-sport behavior (e.g., apologizing, returning the ball, accepting apologies, cheering the opponent) increased and non-sport behavior (e.g., complaining, wasting time on purpose, cheating, violent behavior) decreased in the experimental group after the intervention. However, there were no differences in regards to sport values and attitudes towards fair play after the intervention. In a similar line of applied work, D. Gutiérrez (2006) designed a four-month program to educate youth football players (8 to 11 years old) residing in Madrid (Spain) about sport values. During this intervention, values, attitudes, and behavior towards fair play were taught to the experimental group through moral dilemmas in the sport context. After the intervention program, results did not reveal differences in values: both groups (control and experimental)

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showed similar fair play values in regards to having fun, and indifference towards rough play and winning. However, the experimental group showed less non-sport behaviors than the control group after the intervention. In 2007, Gutiérrez developed a program to teach values through SP practice using a participatory action research paradigm. It was carried out in Getafe C.F. football school (Madrid, Spain) with 20 coaches and more than 300 children (ages 9 to 16 years). The intervention lasted seven months and included a weekly one-hour session with each team where the SP practitioner used different teaching methods in the education of values, such as establishing team norms, moral dilemma discussions, debates about sports fair play and violence, and sports interviews. The intervention included the coach, player, and researcher in social and educational situations to improve coaching practices in the dressing room and on the football field. Each week, the coaches carried out a session with the players and conducted an evaluation of the session. In addition, the coach prepared next week’s meeting along with the SP practitioner. The intervention had positive changes in behavior increasing pro-sport behaviors and decreasing non-sport behaviors. However, there were no changes regarding modification in sport values. This could be due to the fact that sport values are more internalized and more difficult to change than sport behaviors. In a more recent study, Cecchini and colleagues (2008) examined the impact of Hellison’s (2003) model for the development of personal and social responsibility on fair play and self-control in youth. Hellison’s model is designed to promote prosocial behavior with youth from diverse backgrounds. Programs based on this model strive for youth to reach five levels of responsibility: respect for the rights and feelings of others, self-motivation, self-direction, helping others, and applying these self- and other responsibilities to domains outside the gym. To test this model, Cecchini and colleagues collected data from students (ages 13 to 14 years) attending three public schools. Participants were assigned to one of three treatment groups: experimental group A (20 one-hour physical education sessions implementing all five levels of Hellison’s model), experimental group B (20 one-hour physical education sessions in which only the first four levels of the responsibility model were completed; the fifth level involving transference of the values developed on the practice field to other extra-sporting activities and situations was not worked on), and a control group (20 one-hour physical education sessions without implementing Hellison’s program). Findings revealed that subsequent to the intervention program, group A improved personal feedback, delayed gratification, self-control, and process self-regulation. Groups A and B showed an improvement in indicators of personal and social responsibility regarding enjoyment and sportsmanship and a decrease in variables related to the drive to win, rough play, contact fouls, and poor sportsmanship. No significant changes were observed in the control group. These studies and interventions show that it is possible to successfully implement moral development programs through sport and physical education classes as well as SP applied practice, providing a useful tool to build character through sport and physical activity. Furthermore, the interventions and programs mentioned above are a reminder that SP practitioners must reflect on the importance of education and the transmission of fair play and sportsmanship values and attitudes in youth and other associated individuals (e.g., coaches and parents). Overall, the studies mentioned above suggest that values are more stable and unchangeable whereas attitudes and behaviors are more likely to change after an intervention.

CONCLUSION Fair play and sportsmanship in youth must form part of sport education, understood as one whose main aim is to contribute to the harmonious development of the person promoting individual and social values (Gutiérrez, 1995; Wandzilak, 1985). Moreover, sport education

Values of Fair Play and Sportsmanship 59 and SP are useful tools to achieve goals focusing on the educational and pedagogical training process of the child. Therefore, educational sport must develop not only motor and psychomotor skills, but also the values, attitudes, and behaviors necessary to develop the child’s personality freely and autonomously, making him/her a better human being. Thus, it is essential that all significant individuals involved in the process (e.g., coaches, SP practitioners, parents, athletes, managers) work together to educate and pass on values of fair play and sportsmanship to the new generations. In turn, this will promote the much needed, and many times forgotten, educational aspect of sport.

TAKE-HOME MESSAGES • In Spain, one can identify the following SP applied intervention areas: (a) elite sport performance, (b) sport initiation, and (c) health and leisure time. • One of the crucial tasks and influences SP practitioners can carry out is the education of moral development in youth. • Fair play and sportsmanship in youth must be a part of sport education. • Several research studies show that it is possible to successfully implement moral development programs through sport and physical education classes, providing a useful tool to build character through sport and physical activity. • Coaches, SP practitioners, parents, athletes, and managers must work together to promote fair play and sportsmanship to the new generations. • Interventions suggest that values are more stable and unchangeable, whereas attitudes and behaviors are more likely to change after an intervention.

REFERENCES Arnold, P. J. (1991). Educación Física, movimiento y currículum. Madrid: Morata. Borràs, P. A. (2004). Intervención para la promoción de la deportividad en el fútbol cadete en Mallorca. Tesis doctoral. Universidad de las Islas Baleares, Mallorca, España. Cecchini, J. A., Montero, J., Alonso, A., Izquierdo, M., & Contreras, O. (2007). Effects of personal and social responsibility on fair play in sports and self-control in school-aged youths. European Journal of Sport Science, 7(4), 203–211. Council of Europe (2001). Revised code of sports ethics. www.coe.int/t/dg4/epas/resources/texts/ Rec%2892%2914rev_en.pdf Cruz, J. (1997). Factores motivacionales en el deporte infantil y asesoramiento psicológico a entrenadores y padres. En J. Cruz (Ed.), Psicología del deporte (pp. 147–176). Madrid: Síntesis. Diccionario de las Ciencias del Deporte. (1992). Málaga: Unisport. Dosil, J. (2008). Psicología de la actividad física y del deporte. Madrid: McGraw-Hill. Durán, J. (1996). Deporte, violencia y educación. Revista de Psicología del Deporte, 9–10, 103–109. Durán, J., Gómez, V., Rodríguez, J. L., & Jiménez, P. J. (2000). La actividad física y el deporte como medio de integración social y de prevención de violencia: Un programa educativo con jóvenes socialmente desfavorecidos. Comunicación presentada en el I Congreso de la Asociación Española de Ciencias del Deporte, Facultad de Ciencias del Deporte, Universidad de Extremadura, Cáceres, España. FEPSAC (1996). Position statement of the European Federation of Sport Psychology (FEPSAC): I. Definition of sport psychology. The Sport Psychologist, 10, 221–223. Gibbons, S. L., & Ebbeck, V. (1997). The effect of different teaching strategies on the moral development of physical education students. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 17(1), 85–98. Gibbons, S. L., Ebbeck, V., & Weiss, M. R. (1995). Fair play for kids: Effects on the moral development of children in physical education. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 66(3), 247–255. Gimeno, F. (2000). Entrenando a padres y madres . . . Claves para una gestión eficaz de la relación con los padres y madres de jóvenes deportistas. Guía de habilidades sociales para el entrenador. Zaragoza: Gobierno de Aragón, España. Departamento de Cultura y Turismo.

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Gimeno, F. (2003). Descripción y evaluación preliminar de un programa de habilidades sociales y de solución de problemas con padres y entrenadores en el deporte infantil y juvenil. Revista de Psicología del Deporte, 12(1), 67–79. Gutiérrez, D. (2006). Modelo de Intervención para educar en valores a través del fútbol: Una experiencia con niños entre ocho y once años en el Colegio Mirabal En Valores en Movimiento. La Actividad Física y el Deporte como Medio de Educación en Valores, 45, 67–102, Madrid: M.E.C. y C.S.D. Gutiérrez, D. (2007). Modelo de Intervención para educar en valores a través del fútbol: una experiencia con entrenadores de fútbol de la Comunidad de Madrid. Tesis doctoral. Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, España. Gutiérrez, M. (1995). Valores sociales y deporte. Madrid: Gymnos. Gutiérrez, M. (2003). Manual sobre valores en la educación física y el deporte. Barcelona: Paidos Ibérica. Gutiérrez, M. (2006). Cómo aprender valores mediante el diálogo en educación física. Ponencia presentada en el IV Congreso de la Asociación Española de Ciencias del Deporte, A Coruña, España. Hellison, D. (2003). Teaching responsibility through physical activity. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Mosquera, M. J. (2004). No violencia en el deporte y en la vida. Guía para docentes y personas interesadas. La Coruña: Dirección Xeral para o Deporte. Xunta de Galicia, España. Payne, V. G., & Isaacs, L. D. (2012). Human motor development: A lifespan approach. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Ramírez, F. J., Ontalba, R., Álvarez, J. J., & Vega, J. M. (2004). Los valores del deporte en la educación. Libro del alumno. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Deportes. Wandzilak, T. (1985). Values development through physical education and athletics. Quest, 37(2), 176–185. Weinberg, R., & Gould, D. (1996). Fundamentos de psicología del deporte y ejercicio físico. Barcelona: Ariel.

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Developing a Philosophy and Theoretical Framework Mapping a Rich and Complex Landscape for the Brave Explorer Richard J. Keegan

CONTEXT AND BACKGROUND Let’s lead with the bad news: It is impossible to practice as a psychologist without making assumptions. A practicing psychologist is trying to: change something inherently ineffable (e.g., someone’s way of thinking/feeling/experiencing), to achieve any number of aims (e.g., performance enhancement, recovery from injury, personal well-being, etc.), with no clear guide on how best to achieve this (e.g., approach/philosophy). This task requires a broad range of assumptions to be made. It is impossible to know for sure that we will ever achieve, with certainty, answers to the above three issues. As such, a sensible solution might be to do nothing—for fear of triggering some cataclysmic chain of events that could never have been predicted (e.g., a ‘butterfly effect’—Lorenz, 1957). However, athletes and exercisers do appear to need some sort of psychological support, and examples abound of performers suffering when their psychology is somehow wrong, benefitting when their psychology is right, and also benefitting from the advice of a sport, exercise, and performance psychologist (SEPP). So how should we proceed? For those who really want to practice psychology in SEPP, one must either be brash and simply wade in (perhaps with no idea of the above issues) or, preferably, be well-informed and astute enough to navigate the above issues without straying into dangerous territory. In each case, assumptions about the nature of psychology are being made, either implicitly (thus truly qualifying as assumptions) or more explicitly, by being isolated, examined, and deliberately chosen. Sticking with a territory metaphor, the comparison would be between explorers who are fully trained in navigation and equipped with maps and compasses, versus those who make do without and just want to enjoy the ride (and who most often end up calling mountain rescue!). This chapter might be considered a map, reflective awareness and client feedback may constitute one’s compass, and consulting experiences and supervision should help us learn how to use them. The types of assumptions practicing psychologists must make can be divided into three broad categories: 1) Overall aims—what is the purpose of consulting? This matters because it determines what one counts as a win. If a psychologist is happy to accept personal growth as a win, but the paying client wanted a measurable performance improvement, then there is a conflict, and the reputation of the profession could be damaged. 2) Ontology and epistemology—these sound horrible, but they play a vital role in determining how a psychologist acts. Fundamentally, we need to consider the nature of the ‘thing’ being studied—because if one tries to objectively measure something that a client feels is deeply personal and immeasurable, the support is doomed to fail (e.g., “Using a psychologist didn’t help me at all—he just didn’t get me”). Finally, the SEPP practitioner must consider: 3) Consulting Philosophy—which refers to the manner in which one attempts to achieve these aims. The way one asks questions, the tools one uses, the nature of the relationship formed, the measures of success, and more can all be linked to one’s consulting philosophy. Whilst it is an area that has received occasional attention in the

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literature, there are a many schools and competing terminologies in this area, which led Keegan (2010) to formulate a single continuum of consulting styles, from practitioner-led (e.g., “I am the expert and I know best, so do as I say”) at one end, to client-led at the other (e.g., “nobody can know your mind better than you, please help me to understand your experiences”). As a continuum, there is not always a black-and-white distinction, although there is a strong argument for adopting a logically consistent approach (Keegan, 2010). Current research (e.g., Tod & Bond, 2010) suggests that practitioners develop their philosophies with experience, from practitioner-led towards a more client-led approach—although at present this is often quite an unstructured and coincidental process. This chapter may help to begin the formalization of this development, by providing clear navigational tools.

THE AIMS OF THE GAME In performance-focused environments, the aim of a psychologist is to help create world champions, right? What about if a client approaches the practitioner at an important stage of the season but they are burned out and emotionally exhausted? Should they be helped to forge through, stay positive, and be a winner? These are obviously leading questions, but the answer is arguably: No. What if that athlete was suffering from depression/burnout, and the SEPP consultant was the only person in their entire social network who they could speak to in privacy, and who might not push them to get back on the pitch? What if applying inappropriate assumptions pushed them over the edge, leading to a severe depression and negative media coverage? One solution would be to make it explicit to every single athlete, coach, and team (before undertaking any work) that one’s SEPP practice only deals with performance enhancement and talent development (so please take any other issues somewhere else). That would make the job much simpler and avoid the above scenario, but it would also render the SEPP practitioner less effective as a consultant, because performance and personal issues frequently overlap and inter-link in rich and complex ways. Attempting to separate them out may severely restrict the number of athletes one can actually help. Another solution would be to accept and acknowledge that one may be dealing with performance enhancement, talent development, psychological well-being, clinical and sub-clinical issues (i.e., recognize and refer), injury rehabilitation, life-skills and character development, and/or the management of career transitions (e.g., Henriksen, Stambulova, & Roessler, 2010; Stambulova, Wrisberg, & Ryba, 2006; Wylleman, Alfermann, & Lavallee, 2004). This is not an exhaustive list at all. One may also offer consultancy to work on relationship dynamics between players, coaches, parents, etc., and of course team cohesion and team cultures. In order to develop as a practitioner, trainee psychologists should effortfully engage with the growing literatures in all these areas, and not just focus on mental skills. This may be easier said than done as the field of SEPP has historically struggled to break free of the ‘mental toolkit’ approach: assuming that problems are caused by a deficiency in one of several key mental skills (and so enhancing this skill will improve performance). Working under these implicit assumptions, a SEPP practitioner would merely need to look for a deficit in one or more areas (concentration, confidence, motivation, arousal control), and then reach into his/her toolkit and produce a suitable process/method which, when learned, would fill this deficit. Wonderfully simple, but also a wonderfully limited view of what a SEPP consultant can offer. Perhaps a more full and complete service would be offered by SEPP practitioners whose practice openly acknowledges the following: a) psychological well-being is at least as, if not more, important than performance in a caring profession such as psychology; b) psychological well-being may frequently come into conflict with performance demands; and b) career transitions, injuries, and life-skill development are all inherent parts of SEPP, which clearly interact with performance and well-being. Sometimes, the issue does not pertain to performance;

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rather, by being a politically neutral sounding board (i.e., offering confidentiality, understanding, and not being involved in selection processes), an SEPP practitioner can help clients feel supported and comfortable in otherwise quite challenging environments. This support may even prevent a life-event or interpersonal conflict from ever affecting performance in the first place, or it may help a client persist with tedious injury rehab and get back to performing sooner. Finally, many athletes/exercisers undergo key transitions during their careers, from a talented youngster to a development squad, and from there, perhaps, to the elite level. Many models exist to describe these transitions and the challenges they pose to athletes (e.g., Keegan, Biddle, & Lavallee, 2010; Wylleman et al., 2004), and this research suggests that transitions are vital opportunities to support athletes (and thus potentially achieve higher retention rates, higher motivation for training, and happier more successful athletes/coaches/teams). As noted earlier, on the one hand, focusing solely on performance may severely constrain the effectiveness of the psychologist. However, another danger would be to attempt any/all of these aims without stopping to check that the practitioner’s aims match the client’s aims. So where this is not already happening, perhaps all SEPP practitioners, young and old, should attempt to explicitly classify the goals of their support with each client and, where possible, agree on these goals with the client.

THE PITCH WE ARE PLAYING ON In the process of SEPP consulting, the question of what we are studying (and attempting to influence) is encompassed by the core concepts of ontology and epistemology. Ontology captures our assumptions about how the (mental) world is made up and the nature of (mental) things, whereas epistemology attempts to describe our beliefs about how one might discover knowledge about the (mental) world, and subsequently how we might change/influence it. Answers to these questions frequently come in pairs—so if we assume a fixed and solid world, then we set about measuring it reliably, but if we assume a world of ever-changing and complex relationships, we might seek to simply describe and understand it in any way possible, or to participate in it and therefore understand it by being part of it. Spanning from the hard and measurable (e.g., neuroscience and neurophysiology) to the soft and untenable (e.g., unique experiences and interpersonal relationships), SEPP frequently struggles (badly) with these matters. However, there is a strong danger of ‘getting it wrong’ here, as coaches/directors/clients frequently ask a psychologist to specify measurable outcomes that will determine if they are to be retained. However, if one promises to deliver something immeasurable, or in an area too complex to know with any certainty that an intervention will achieve its goals, one may be out of a job. As such, knowing and understanding the assumptions one is working under may help an SEPP practitioner to avoid making inappropriate promises, and equally, to avoid leaving some athletes feeling cold and misunderstood. Consequently, what follows is a brief summary of the dominant positions within philosophy of science, in the form of cartoonized traditions for ease of understanding. Armed with this knowledge, SEPP practitioners may be better able to understand their own consulting process: its goals, measurement techniques, mechanisms, and ways of intervening; and this knowledge may help to promote more coherent and more successful consulting practices. It must be noted, however, that these are extreme simplifications of burgeoning and often contradictory literatures, riddled with debate and nuance—and these brief summaries cannot possibly do justice to that body of writing. As such, the interested reader is invited to follow-up and engage with texts such as Blaikie (1993) for further clarification. Psychology is Hard Science (also known as: empiricism, positivism). “If I can measure it objectively, it’s real. If I can’t, it’s not. Well-supported theories (applicable to all athletes) developed using accurate measurement tools allow me to make correct decisions with certainty.”— In this tradition, accurate and repeatable observations are central, as these are used to infer rules

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and laws when certain events appear to co-occur or conjoin. When these laws and rules form theories, scientists can also make predictions using the theories, and if these predictions are confirmed, the theory gains credibility. It is a process of constantly seeking confirmation—seeking to be proved right—and in principle, the more consistently an idea/theory is supported, the better it is. Being critical for a moment, this approach struggles to deal with what might be catastrophic contradictions—clear and inexplicable exceptions to the law. In the classical hard science tradition, the approach may be to dismiss such exceptions as outliers—but psychology, as a field, very frequently generates exceptions to rules or inexplicable observations—that’s assuming our instruments have measured accurately in the first place (i.e., reliability and validity). Secondly, this confirmatory approach leads to the existence of many theories to explain the same thing—for example, there are at least three or four well-supported theories of motivation, confidence, and others. So which one is best? It is often very difficult to tell, and this leaves the SEPP practitioner simply having to choose a theory from a list of several, all of which seem to be well supported. In practice, this tradition means using reliable assessment techniques—for example validated questionnaires, performance outcomes, neuro-physiology, and clear interview protocols—in order to assess the athlete’s needs, which are then fitted into a well-supported theoretical framework that will then deliver clear guidance on how to intervene. Ideally, this approach would denote that the practitioner should make clear bench-mark and post-test measurements in order to track progress. The hard science tradition offers feelings of security and assuredness, because the measurement tools are validated and accepted, and the theories used are wellsupported. However, there is scope to question how appropriate the approach is to psychology and how suitable it is to apply universal laws to individuals who are, or at least feel, unique and special. Psychology is Soft Science (also known as: interpretivism, constructivism, and here including phenomenology and existentialism). “You can’t measure something as unique as psychology; instead, you must simply try to understand it and participate in its construction. Build a theory unique to your client and base decisions on that.”—This tradition rejects outright the ideas that: a) anything about someone’s psychology or social interactions can be measured in a reliable or valid way and b) that such observations can be used to infer generalized laws that apply to all human beings. Developed largely as a reaction against the hard science tradition, there is a strong history for soft science in applied consulting (Maslow, 1968; Rogers, 1961). In this tradition, psychological reality is constructed by each individual separately, depending on their unique characteristics and life experiences. As such, the psychologist should seek to explore the client’s story and experiences as thoroughly as possible, effectively collaborating to build a unique and personal ‘theory’ for that athlete—with the emphasis being on helping the athlete to understand their situation. This means that a key way of differentiating a hard science practitioner from a soft science practitioner is the extent to which they impose existing, accepted theories onto their client’s narrative. Strictly hard science would require the psychologist to fit the client’s symptoms into a theory in order to make a diagnosis, recommend interventions, etc. Strictly soft science would prohibit this, and insist upon the client detailing and understanding their own experiences—with the help of the supportive questioning from the practitioner—and in doing so realizing the appropriate solutions or actions to take. This soft science approach takes its assurance from explicitly and deliberately serving the unique needs of every client. Being critical, however, one could question how sensible it is to effectively reject/ ignore the findings of many years of scientific study, or how realistic it is to consult in a results business (i.e., sport and performance) without the weight of scientific consensus supporting decisions (and without being able to demonstrate robust and objectively measurable ‘results’). The psychologist may feel robbed of reliable needs analysis techniques but instead rely on developed attributes of warmth, genuine-ness, sophisticated questioning styles and, most importantly: taking time. Notably this approach takes time—in order to accumulate a detailed and unique story for each client—and time is a luxury one is not always afforded in SEPP.

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Just Do It (also known as: pragmatism, instrumentalism, functionalism). “It doesn’t matter what sort of reality you believe in, just do what works. Whatever you do, if it delivers results, go with it: that is the correct path.” Perhaps this initial characterization is unfair, as authors such as Dewey (e.g., Dewey & Bentley, 1949) attempted to extend the soft science described above to the point where the psychologist (and his/her own experiences, preconceptions, and beliefs) form an interactive system with those of the client, with the implication that the best (only) reliable way to discover anything about what is going on, and the best (only) way to make a difference, is to abandon theorizing and simply ‘get stuck in.’ Effectively—and as a strong reaction against the distant/aloof approach of hard science— Just Do It suggests that the psychologist is too close and too involved to do any sort of accurate or unbiased assessment/theorizing about causes and effects. So instead, this approach emphasizes action—with a view to finding what works and then doing that (perhaps by trialand-error or a more sophisticated form of guess-work such as professional judgment). In this respect, one’s assumptions about reality cease to matter very much, because technically this tradition would argue that truth or reality is limited to the very specific context it occurs in (i.e., not for any other athletes). Assessing the real-life implications of this tradition is more difficult, as what ‘works’ might look like hard science or soft science in terms of one’s actual approach to consulting decisions. However, one key difference is the shift of emphasis from conceptualizing/theorizing and onto action—a Just Do It practitioner might be characterized as always doing something. This might take us much closer to the immediate action often required by packed schedules and high-stakes in SEPP, but there are several key problems with the Just Do It approach. Firstly, it could easily rob the practitioner of any kind of organizing constructs, as there would not be any need for a systematic approach—so to an outside observer the psychologist could easily look like a ‘chancer’: flailing around and trying anything to get a result. Secondly, with such a reduced emphasis on understanding, conceptualizing, and theorizing, if something that appeared to work suddenly stops (e.g., perhaps your intervention achieved a short-term placebo effect), then you could be left none-the-wiser regarding what went wrong or what to do about it. Be Careful—psychology is complicated (also known as: critical realism, critical rationalism). “Some aspects of psychology are measurable, some are not, and (just for good measure) they interact in complex ways. Critically evaluate any evidence, theories, and practical ideas that you use, as there is never any guarantee you will be correct.” Whereas hard science is based largely on confirming and supporting ideas, and both soft science and Just Do It appear to reject that approach, the tradition labeled Be Careful argues that we can never knowingly achieve true theories (or measurements) in something as complex as psychology; so instead we should seek to avoid or reduce errors. This approach would claim that there is, after all, a true reality in psychology, but science will probably never have the tools to accurately measure/observe it—so both researchers and practitioners must constantly be very careful. So rather than trying to be right, practitioners should assume that any knowledge they hold is flawed, and so should seek to be less-and-less wrong (or wrong in the least harmful way possible). It can be quite difficult to mentally separate being ‘correct’ from being ‘increasingly less wrong,’ but that is the core of the Be Careful tradition. As such, this tradition emphasizes using techniques and theories intelligently, with a highly critical and self-aware attitude. If the thing one wants to assess can be accurately measured, perhaps try it (whilst carefully considering what it might miss, and how it might make the client feel). If one values the role of a good relationship, trust and rapport with a client in generating a detailed and rich understanding of their situation, use a counseling approach (but then be aware that this might preclude the use of impersonal validated measurement techniques, as those are based on a very different set of assumptions). Unlike Just Do It, Be Careful does ascribe an important role to theory, but only if deployed critically. Rather than assuming each theory of confidence or motivation is true, this approach assumes it will eventually be proved

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wrong, and so seeks to use it carefully and judicially—only if appropriate and even then, looking out for potential pitfalls. Likewise, this approach would arguably require the practitioner to carefully evaluate the evidence supporting their interventions before recommending them, rather than accepting that lots of favorable evidence is enough to proceed—they might ask if the specific intervention being discussed has any evidence of achieving the exact aims required. The benefits of this approach are that the client, the practitioner and, potentially, the reputation of the profession are all protected by making more realistic promises, fewer mistakes, and producing a more complete/thorough audit trail. However, Be Careful places a tremendous burden on the practitioner (and their supervisor) to be self-aware, familiar with (and critical of ) existing theory/evidence, and skilled in deploying and interpreting all the available assessment techniques. There could be a substantial risk of ‘paralysis by analysis’ under the Be Careful approach. As with all the assumption-sets in this chapter, there is not a correct or ideal option to choose, and these four highly simplified traditions only scratch the surface of what is out there. However, knowing one’s assumptions and being able to declare them can substantially strengthen one’s practice by stimulating consistency between assumptions, analysis techniques, conceptualization of needs, and the way interventions are implemented. It must be emphasized that these four traditions are not intended to be something one can ‘mix-and-match’—especially not with an individual client. It may be possible, however, to identify a client’s own assumptions regarding their psychological reality and match the way one practices to those, which could hold the potential to be an extremely powerful model of practice.

STRATEGY AND TACTICS: CONSULTING PHILOSOPHY At this point in the chapter, the aims of SEPP consulting and the nature/scope of what SEPP can achieve have been considered, but there remains the question of how to achieve any desired changes/impacts. To a large extent, the answers one adopts to the previous two issues will determine where one falls when it comes to consulting philosophy. The literature describes a range of theoretical perspectives/philosophies, including: cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), a sophist approach, humanistic perspectives, a counseling approach, a Socratic approach, a taskoriented approach, a relationship-oriented approach, a psychodynamic approach, or a gestalt theory approach (among others). As detailed earlier, Keegan (2010) set out to offer trainee SEPP practitioners a ‘foothold’ in this literature by classifying these different philosophies into a single continuum, with paternalistic assumptions at one end and collegial/counseling assumptions at the other. An extreme practitioner-led approach would involve the psychologist deciding what topics to cover, what questions to ask, and how to define and measure success. As the expert, the practitioner would also be required to draw from existing theory and research in order to decide (unilaterally) which intervention(s) to prescribe and how. Reliable and objective measures of pre- and post-intervention levels would be prioritized over subjective judgments. In contrast, an extreme client-led approach would seek to follow the client through their unique story and experiences, never leading and always asking open, non-directive questions. There may be no need to refer to known theories of confidence or motivation, etc., as their client’s own beliefs take priority. The client would define the criteria for success, and the client would judge success and progress him/herself, with no requirement to use objective/valid measurement tools. These styles link with the other assumption-sets discussed in this chapter. The hard science tradition is likely to build confidence and certainty, meaning that performance enhancement may well become the main aim of consulting (whereas others may not feel brave enough to offer such a juicy prize). It may also lead the practitioner to feel like an expert who can lead the session by directing questions (and topics), choosing analysis/intervention techniques, and

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deciding on realistic outcomes/goals for the sessions. In order to achieve this certainty, reliable and objective measures should be used, aligned to well-supported theories and robust ‘knowledge.’ Hence, this set (performance-enhancement and education paired with hard science and a practitioner-led style) forms a fairly consistent pattern that might typically be displayed by a SEPP practitioner. In contrast, the soft science tradition would assume the client’s experiences are unique and not subject to comparison with universal theories, or questionnaire measurements developed by averaging out the responses of thousands of participants. This tradition may not feel confident offering assurances of performance enhancement, but may instead seek to enhance psychological well-being and offer emotional support through challenging transitions/ injuries. In order to achieve this, a client-led, non-directive style, with open and responsive questions, seeking to build a mutual understanding of a situation (so that options for progress may become clearer), would be appropriate. In this case, a relatively consistent set is formed by assumptions of: well-being and support paired with soft science and a client led style. The Just Do It and Be Careful approaches do not neatly align with the other assumptions described here to form a set—Just Do It, in its purest form, may not consider it necessary to consider such things, whereas Be Careful would not rule out any approach, but would likely pause to consider the pros, cons, implications and appropriateness of each assumption being made.

CONCLUSION Whilst there is nothing to stop an SEPP practitioner mixing any of the above-described styles, this chapter has clearly delineated (or ‘mapped out’) separate sets of assumptions, and (returning to our terrain metaphor) the risk of uncritically or accidentally mixing assumption-sets might be compared to our explorers taking shorts and tee-shirts to the North Pole. If an SEPP consultant is not aware of the terrain being navigated, and prepared for it, then it may well result in a messy, disjointed, and confusing experience: for the practitioner, the client, and any onlookers. Put differently, by not addressing these issues, one leaves ‘success’ (reaching goals, enhanced experience, successful coping, etc.) in the lap of the gods: as one is carelessly wandering through uncharted territory. But by explicitly addressing, declaring, and even agreeing a set of assumptions with the client (and/or supervisor), then there is infinitely less scope for ‘getting lost’: for disagreements, misunderstandings, stress, uncertainty, unhappy clients, and damaged reputations. Whilst it is virtually impossible to prove this claim scientifically, there is an emerging consensus amongst the practicing SEPP community that philosophical and theoretical frameworks are a vital issue (Keegan, 2010; Orlick, 1989; Poczwardowski et al., 2004; Ravizza, 2002; Rotella, 1990). The best test, in the meantime, is to use one’s supervision processes and reflective practice to compare ‘flying blind’ (i.e., unknown/implicit assumptions) to planning and mapping (i.e., clearly identified and explicit assumptions). If one appears to deliver better results in practice, then that will be evidence on which the practitioner can act. In the short term, ‘not really thought about it’ and ‘deliberate and meticulous’ will both contain mistakes or feelings of dissatisfaction at times, but in the longer term, only one will lead to increased understanding and effectiveness as an SEPP practitioner.

TAKE-HOME MESSAGES • Anybody doing SEPP consulting has a philosophy, whether they admit it or not. • This philosophy can be regarding the aims of SEPP consulting, the nature of what constitutes a person’s psychology, or the most appropriate styles of consulting. • Being aware of one’s assumptions, and checking they are consistent with behavior and decision-making, should improve one’s practice by providing: a more coherent experience for clients, clear and consistent sales-and-marketing, and logically consistent decisions that do not fall apart under scrutiny.

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REFERENCES Blaikie, N.W.H. (1993). Approaches to social inquiry. Cambridge, MA: Policy Press. Dewey J. & Bentley, A. (1949). Knowing and the known. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. Henriksen, K., Stambulova, N., & Roessler, K. K. (2010). Holistic approach to athletic talent development environments: A successful sailing milieu. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11, 212–222. Keegan, R. J. (2010). Teaching consulting philosophies to neophyte sport psychologists: Does it help, and how can we do it? Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 1, 42–52. Keegan, R. J., Biddle, S.J.H., & Lavallee, D. E. (2010). It’s not how old you are, it’s where you’re at in life: Application of a life-span framework to physical activity in examining community and environmental interventions. Sport and Exercise Psychology Review, 6, 19–34. ISSN 1745-4980. Lorenz, K. (1957). The Nature of instinct: The conception of instinctive behaviour. In C. H. Schiller (Ed.), Instinctive Behavior: The Development of a Modern Concept. New York: International Universities Press, pp. 129–175. Maslow, A.H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being. (2nd ed.). New York: Van Nostrand. Orlick, T. (1989). Reflections on sport psych consulting with individual and team sport athletes at Summer and Winter Olympic Games. The Sport Psychologist, 3, 358–365. Poczwardowski, A., Sherman, C. P., & Ravizza, K. (2004). Professional philosophy in the sport psychology service delivery: Building on theory and practice. The Sport Psychologist, 18, 445–463. Ravizza, K. (2002). A philosophical construct: A framework for performance enhancement. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 33, 4–18. Rogers, C. (1961). On becoming a person: A therapist’s view of psychotherapy. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Rotella, R. J. (1990). Providing sport psychology consulting services to professional athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 4, 409–417. Stambulova, N. B., Wrisberg, C. A., & Ryba, T. V. (2006). A tale of two traditions in applied sport psychology: The heyday of Soviet sport and wake-up calls for North America. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 18, 173–184. Tod, D. & Bond, K. (2010). A longitudinal examination of a British neophyte sport psychologist’s development. The Sport Psychologist, 24, 35–51 Wylleman, P., Alfermann, D., & Lavallee, D. (2004). Career transitions in sport: European perspectives. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 5, 7–20.

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Sport Psychology Service Delivery to Danish Elite Athletes From Professional Philosophy to Successful Cases Gregory Diment, Kristoffer Henriksen, and Jakob Hansen

The field of applied sport psychology has developed rapidly in the last four decades, and many countries have established applied sport psychology programs within elite sport organizations, universities, and private clinics (Wylleman, Harwood, Elbe, & de Caluwé, 2009). Although most literature on sport psychology is addressed to scholars, coaches, or athletes, a number of recent publications—particularly books and chapters—have been published on the ‘how’ of doing sport psychology and specifically addressed to the sport psychology consultant (e.g., Andersen, 2005). As the profession continues to grow, a specific challenge to the field is developing coherent professional philosophies. Poczwardowski, Sherman, and Ravizza suggest that optimal sport psychological interventions require a coherent service delivery model that integrates the entire efforts of the consultant’s work (2004). They state that: “Professional philosophy significantly shapes the consultant’s approach to the essential elements of the consulting process such as gaining entry, assessment, conceptualization of the issue and the intervention, implementation, evaluation, and bringing closure to the consulting relationship” (p. 446). As such, the professional philosophy of a consultant is a driving force behind his or her consulting process, and therefore sport psychologists need to clarify their professional philosophy (Corlett, 1996). In 2008, Team Denmark (Denmark’s organization for elite sport) decided to strengthen the sport psychology service delivery in Danish elite sport by employing a permanent staff of sport psychologists (including the three authors of this paper). Until this point, the sport psychology field in Denmark had been characterized by many private practitioners using a wide variety of intervention techniques with little agreement on the objectives or models of delivering sport psychology services. The first task of this team was to develop a systematic and coherent professional philosophy. The objectives behind creating this professional philosophy included: (a) to make the professionalism of the sport psychology team visible in Danish elite sport and (b) to create an overall framework for the sport psychology work in Team Denmark. This chapter presents the philosophy, describes the rationale behind it, and presents two case studies of how this philosophy can be implemented in applied sport psychology interventions.

THE TEAM DENMARK SPORT PSYCHOLOGY PROFESSIONAL PHILOSOPHY The professional philosophy of the Team Denmark sport psychology team is presented in the form of a hierarchically structured model, which is inspired by—but does not strictly follow— the model outlined by Poczwardowski and colleques (2004). The professional philosophy is structured in five levels: (1) Basic beliefs and values, (2) Theories of intervention and behavior change, (3) Objectives of the sport psychology intervention, (4) The content and focus of the intervention structured in ‘the Team Denmark sport psychology model,’ and (5) Sport psychological services and methods. The idea of the philosophy is that a good intervention requires

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consistency between all these five levels. A tool-oriented sports psychologist will go directly to levels four and five and describe a number of practical skills and tools to teach them. The Team Denmark Sport Psychology team’s position is that the content and tools only make sense in the context of a fundamental professional philosophy. Level 1: Basic Beliefs and Values The foundation for action is the psychologist’s innermost and fundamental beliefs and values about the world, about the athletes, about coaches and their performance, and about the nature of elite sport. This level contains assumptions we are not always aware of and do not talk about in the daily work, but which govern our approach to the field. These basic beliefs and values are often considered to be individual or even private, and it is recommended that reflection on basic beliefs and values are integrated as an important part of the self-reflection and supervision of the sport psychology consultant (Poczwardowski et al., 2004; Poczwardowski & Lauer, 2006). As members of a team of consultants, it was considered important that these beliefs and values be shared among the team members. These basic beliefs and values are at the core of the professional philosophy, and the way in which they influence our interventions are subject to ongoing discussion and reflection in the team. Through lengthy discussion, we have, as a team, defined 10 fundamental beliefs that pervade our work: (1) Elite athletes and coaches operate from interplay of thoughts, feelings, physiology, and actions. The interplay of these elements is crucial for the athletes’ and coaches’ performance and well-being. (2) Elite athletes and coaches have a personality and identity (values, motives, self-esteem, and typical behaviors) that shape their lives and actions. However, people act differently in different situations, because they are also affected by the surroundings and adapt to different situations. (3) Elite athletes are embedded in an environment. One cannot understand an athlete without understanding his or her relationships with people within this environment. (4) Elite athlete are motivated and learn better when they are allowed to think and take responsibility for their own development. (5) Elite athletes are elite athletes 24 hours a day. This requires dedication and commitment. However, the development and performance of elite athletes is best in the long run when their identity has broader meaning than the sport and when their self-esteem is not only dependent on sporting performance. (6) A sports career is a progression through a series of natural phases that possess unique challenges. The transition between and progression through these phases are a key challenge for the athlete and hold the potential for crisis or growth. (7) Adversity is a part of sport. Athletes must learn to view adversity as a natural part of sport and therefore develop strategies to manage and cope with it. (8) The way to top results is through a focus on performance processes rather than only on the results. (9) The mental component plays a major role in both training and competition. Quality performances require quality training. A sports psychologist’s core mission is to build quality into daily training as well as in competition. (10) Mental skills should be developed in the sport environment. Therefore, psychological development should be part of the daily training and in cooperation with the coach. Level 2: Theories of Interventions and Behavior Change This level describes the theories of intervention on which the practical work is based. A number of intervention theories are visible today in the sport psychology field. The team believes that at the applied level some of the theories can complement each other in a fruitful manner. At the same time, it is important for a professional organization such as Team Denmark that their sport psychologist work from evidence-based intervention methods. Therefore we work from an eclectic perspective and draw inspiration from three approaches: cognitive behavioral psychology, systemic psychology, and humanistic/existential psychology. These approaches are

From Philosophy to Successful Cases 71 selected because their effectiveness in treatment is documented and because we believe that in combination these theories match the challenges of the sporting world. Cognitive behavioral therapy (Beck, 1993) stimulates us to focus on the link between thoughts, feelings, physiology, and behavior; to identify and deconstruct automatic and dysfunctional thoughts that are detrimental for performance; and to include psycho-education and behavioral experiments in our work. System’s theory directs us to look at athletes and teams from a holistic perspective (e.g., Bateson, 1973) and to sometimes shift our focus from the individual athletes to the environment (both in sporting and non-sporting areas) in which they develop (Henriksen, Stambulova, & Roessler, 2010). Humanistic/existential psychology (e.g., Nesti, 2004) inspires us to see athletes as self-actualized and able to assume responsibility for their own development, and draws our attention to larger questions of identity, choice, responsibility, and meaning, and to help athletes manage the many existential challenges that are an inevitable part of a sporting career. Level 3: Objectives of the Sport Psychology Intervention The sport psychology team is a part of Team Denmark and its overall objectives. These overall objectives include achieving results on the international level and doing so in a socially responsible manner. More specifically, the sport psychological team has the following objectives: (a) To ensure that Danish elite athletes obtain the right mental skills to perform optimally at the highest international level; (b) To further enhance the quality of daily training; (c) To ensure that the individual elite athletes experience meaning and value in life as elite athletes; (d) To create a common language for the psychological aspects of sports training and competition among professionals, coaches, and athletes across sports; and (e) To optimize team functioning and winning culture in national teams. Level 4: Content and Focus of the Intervention To provide an overview of the content and focus of applied interventions, the Team Denmark Sport Psychology Model was developed (see Figure 9.1). The model is structured with a triangle in the middle representing the athlete. This triangle has three levels: ‘Personality and identity,’ ‘Life as an elite athlete & life skills,’ and ‘Mental skills in training and competition.’ Surrounding the athlete is a circle representing the sport and non-sport environments into which the athlete is embedded. Personality and Identity. This foundation layer contains aspects of the athlete’s personality and identity. It includes: (a) Self-worth, building a solid base of self-worth in the athletes that is independent of his or her performance; (b) Motives, including awareness of motivating factors in his or her life and helping athletes to manage conflicting motives; (c) Values, helping athletes become aware of their own values so they can go through their career in a manner consistent with these values; and (d) Typical behavior, helping athletes become aware of their ‘sports personality’ and identify behavior strengths as well as areas for development. Life as an Elite Athlete & Life Skills. The middle layer refers to tackling life as elite athlete and mastering the life skills that are needed to be an elite athlete. Recent research has emphasized that sport psychology interventions should include life skills and have a broader focus than simply mental skills (Gould, Collins, Lauer, & Chung, 2007; Jones & Lavallee, 2009). This layer therefore emphasizes life skills and contains elements such as commitment, planning (time management skills), career transitions, team work, and sport–Life balance. These life skills seek to optimize the way athletes interact with the world around them, as well as effectively organize their daily lives. The Mental Wheel—Mental Skills in Training and Competition. In the upper layer is the Mental Wheel. The mental wheel contains eight key mental skills that are important to an elite athlete in order to perform optimally. A number of models, prioritized lists, and

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Figure 9.1 The Team Denmark Sport Psychology Model

other attempts to structure mental skills have been proposed over the years (e.g., Highman, Harwood, & Hall, 2007; Vealey, 2007). Based on reviews of literature and research, as well as experience in the applied field, the team chose the following mental skills to be included in the sport psychology model: goal setting, constructive evaluation, concentration, inner dialogue, self-confidence, arousal regulation, visualization, and competition strategies. External Influences. Outside the triangle are various external factors that affect the athlete. Sport psychology interventions need to include an understanding of the athlete’s overall environment and his or her relationships with people in this environment. This includes both the sporting environment (e.g., coach, teammates, competitors) and the non-sporting environment (e.g., parents, friends, partner) (Henriksen et al., 2010; Wylleman & Lavallee, 2004). In addition, the model also includes the specific situation in which the athletes currently find themselves, such as adversity, injury, success, etc. Level 5: Sports Psychological Services and Methods Team Denmark’s sports psychological services include courses, individual consultations, group consultations, coach supervision, the teaching of sport psychological skills in daily training as well as attendance at camps and competitions, and even parent courses. From the perspective of a professional philosophy, it is decisive that all the levels of the philosophy are consistent. This means that the specific services offered should reflect the basic assumptions, interventions theories, objectives, and key areas of content described in the previous sections. Two case

From Philosophy to Successful Cases 73 studies are presented as examples of interventions that display this consistency across the levels of the professional philosophy.

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PROFESSIONAL PHILOSOPHY: CASE STUDIES

Case Study 1. Mental Skills Training With the Danish U17 National Soccer Team The first case study presents the development and implementation of a mental skills training program for the Danish U17 national soccer team. The case presents a self-talk drill that was developed as one of a series of mental skills training drills delivered by the first author of this chapter in collaboration with the national coach. It was important that the coach was heavily involved in the development of the drill to ensure that it was immediately relevant to the players and reinforced important elements of the team’s tactical game-plan. The drill was designed and delivered as a regular part of the team’s training and was conducted on their training pitch. The self-talk drill consisted of three interdependent actions whereby: 1) the central defender plays a long diagonal pass to the winger, 2) the winger must then control the ball with one touch, dribble forward at speed, and then cross the ball into the penalty box where, 3) the striker runs into the box and shoots at goal with one touch. In order to challenge the players self-talk, the coach placed extremely high demands on the players regarding the quality of their technical skills. If any one of the actions from the defender, the winger, or the striker did not meet these high standards, then the drill was stopped and started again from the beginning. The drill included three 5-minute rounds. After the first round, there was a short 2–3 minute evaluation with the sport psychologist and the coach regarding the players’ self-talk and performance. The evaluation included discussions about how the players reacted to their own mistakes and mistakes of their teammates, the various thoughts and emotions they experienced, as well as how these reactions impacted their performance during the drill. Typical responses included frustration at their own errors or annoyance at their teammates for consistently making mistakes. Many players also expressed frustration towards the coach. After this evaluation another 5-minute round was played, followed by another evaluation. The second evaluation focused on the tips and strategies for effective self-talk and maintaining concentration. Strategies included cue-words, breathing activities, and communication skills. After this evaluation, the third and final round was played. After the final round, the drill finished with a larger evaluation focusing on personalizing strategies and ‘how and when’ these can be transferred to game situations. With regards to Team Denmark’s professional philosophy, all five levels can be seen in this case. Many of the basic beliefs and values regarding sport psychology service are present, with the most relevant being (#1) elite athletes and coaches operate from interplay of thoughts, feelings, physiology, and actions, and (#10) mental skills should be developed in the sport environment. Therefore, psychological development should be part of the daily training and in cooperation with the coach. The intervention was built largely on a cognitive behavioral perspective were the interaction between a player’s thoughts, feelings, physiology, and behavior are at the heart of their performance. The objectives of the intervention also aligned with the professional philosophy, and included: (#a) To ensure that Danish elite athletes obtain the right mental skills to perform optimally at the highest international level; (#b) To further enhance the quality of the daily training; and (#d) To create a common language for the psychological

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Case Study 2. Team-culture Development With the Danish National Orienteering Team In 2009, the Danish national orienteering team decided to include a strong emphasis on sport psychology in their efforts to reach the international elite level. Denmark had previously produced international results, but not for several years. The team consisted of approximately 10 athletes who primarily compete as individual athletes and sometimes in relays. The intervention started with an interview of the national team athletes and coaches. During these interviews, it became clear that an effort was needed to develop the team. The athletes reported that they found traveling together taxing and that they found themselves competing against each other in an unhealthy manner. The coach and second author in collaboration looked through the professional philosophy. Two basic assumptions provided the backdrop for the intervention: that (#3) athletes are embedded in an environment and that (#10) mental skills should be developed in the sport environment. Therefore, psychological development should be part of the daily training and in cooperation with the coach. A program was designed: 1) to focus on developing the team culture and 2) to do so over a longer period and as an integrated part of their daily activities. Accordingly, in terms of intervention theories, the intervention mainly drew on a systems theory approach. Systems theory attunes us to look at the relations between the athletes as well as between athletes and staff. In the Team Denmark model of sport psychology, the program would target the athletes’ social and cooperation skills (teamwork) and the sporting environment. The intervention adopted an Appreciative Inquiry approach. The first step involved the athletes interviewing each other about positive experiences and experiences in which being part of the national team laid an important foundation for their performances. From these interviews, we extracted five key values with corresponding subthemes, which were written on five individual posters. As an example, the title of one poster was: We make each other better, with subthemes such as we share in celebrating our successes and we discuss strategies and techniques among us to become the best nation. A second poster read: we act as a team, with subthemes such as we are active in the team’s social life and we talk to rather than about each other. The third and most difficult step was then to integrate these values in the daily life of the team, or in other words to go from espoused to enacted values. With this purpose in mind, it was decided that the delivery of sport psychology services should be integrated in the team’s normal activities and maintain a long-term focus. This meant the sport psychologist traveled with the team to a number of training camps and competitions as well as attended daily training. Focus was on developing the team culture inside the team’s normal routines. First, the posters were always taken to camps and competitions and displayed in the athletes’ rooms and in meeting rooms. At the end of every training day, the athletes or coach would pick a poster and discuss how well they managed to enact the values on the specific day. In some cases this stimulated them to formulate more specific rules. For example, it was realized that athletes who had performed poorly

From Philosophy to Successful Cases 75 at championships contributed to a negative atmosphere in the team, and it was decided that athletes would leave the team tent after competitions until they were ready to keep a positive attitude. Another example of going from espoused to enacted values was the implementation of ‘the positive story of the day’ at the evening meeting. This meant the athletes in front of the team should tell a story to one of their teammates about how this teammate lived up to one of the team values during the day. The best stories (the story teller and the one whom the story was about) received a prize. Altogether these (and many other) activities stimulated the coach and athletes to reflect on their own role in creating a supportive performance team climate. Effects of sport psychology interventions are hard to measure, but after approximately one year, several athletes mentioned they felt a more supportive group culture, as expressed by one of the athletes: “I have never in my time at the national team felt so at ease and at home—and just wanted to perform.” Also, the team actually started to perform and have medaled in several European and world championships since. Today, the team has defined different sport psychology targets, but the continual work on the team climate has become a natural and integrated part of the team’s practice.

CONCLUSION A professional philosophy shapes the way a consultant works. In Team Denmark, a common philosophy was developed to strengthen the way the team worked. Having such a philosophy has brought with it many positive effects: It has stimulated us to frequently discuss and spar with each other, it has made it easier to collaborate on common projects, it has helped create a common psychological language in Danish elite sport, it has sparked many discussions about how to initiate high-quality interventions that have strengthened the quality of the team’s work, and it has given the team a professional appearance inside Team Denmark and consolidated the sport psychology consultants as a natural member of an expert team. Outside Team Denmark, the full effect of this new initiative is yet to be seen; however, initial reactions from athletes, coaches, and sports federations have been positive. Sports federations have expressed satisfaction with and confidence in the concept. Athletes and coaches more often and more willingly approach Team Denmark to receive service, convinced it will help them achieve their goals. During the London 2012 Olympics, the Danish team included three sport psychology consultants, indicating increasing acceptance of sport psychology as an integrated part of Danish elite sport. This chapter thus supports the idea that formulating a cohesive professional philosophy within a working team can bring applied sport psychology forward.

TAKE-HOME MESSAGES • A professional philosophy could include the consultant’s (a) basic beliefs and values, (b) theories of intervention, (c) objectives of the intervention, (d) content and focus of the intervention, and (e) services and methods. • Consistency across all five levels is critical. • When implementing an intervention, it is important to reflect on not just how and what to deliver, but how the intervention reflects the basic assumptions, theories, and objectives of the consultant. • Individual sport psychology consultants, and elite sport psychology institutes, are encouraged to engage in a process of reflection and to develop their own professional philosophies.

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REFERENCES Andersen, M. B. (2005). Sport psychology in practice. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Bateson, G. (1973). Steps to an ecology of mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Beck, A. T. (1993). Cognitive therapy—past, present, and future. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 194–198. doi:10.1037/0022–006X.61.2.194 Corlett, J. (1996). Sophistry, Socrates, and sport psychology. The Sport Psychologist, 10, 94. Gould, D., Collins, K., Lauer, L., & Chung, Y. C. (2007). Coaching life skills through football: A study of award winning high school coaches. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 19, 16–37. doi: 10.1080/10413200601113786 Henriksen, K., Stambulova, N., & Roessler, K. K. (2010). A holistic approach to athletic talent development environments: A successful sailing milieu. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11, 212–222. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.10.005 Highman, A., Harwood, C., & Hall, C. (2007). Momentum in soccer: Controlling the game. Leeds, UK: Coachwise LTD. Jones, M. I. & Lavallee, D. (2009). Exploring the life skills needs of British adolescent athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10, 159–167.doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2008.06.005. Nesti, M. (2004). Existential psychology and sport: Theory and applications. New York: Routledge. Poczwardowski, A. & Lauer, L. (2006). The process of the Redondo Beach sport psychology consulting think tank. Sport Psychologist, 20, 74–93. Poczwardowski, A., Sherman, C. P., & Ravizza, K. (2004). Professional philosophy in the sport psychology service delivery: Building on theory and practice. Sport Psychologist, 18, 445–463. Vealey, R. (2007) Mental skills training in sport. In G. Tenenbaum, & R. C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (3rd ed., pp. 184–204). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Wylleman, P., Harwood, C. G., Elbe, A.-M., & de Caluwé, D. (2009). A perspective on education and professional development in applied sport psychology. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10, 435–446. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.03.008 Wylleman, P. & Lavallee, D. (2004). A developmental perspective on transitions faced by athletes. In M. Weiss (Ed.), Developmental sport and exercise psychology: A life span perspective (pp. 507–527). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.

10 Enhancing the Performance of Individual Athletes and Teams Considerations and Challenges for the Delivery of Sport Psychology Services Karl Steptoe, Jamie Barker, and Chris Harwood

INTRODUCTION Elite sport continues to champion the vital role of sport science in preparation for competition and the achievement of performance goals. A culture of acceptability, with regard to accessing sport psychology services, is also growing, which it is hoped will permeate all levels of participation. As demand increases for psychological education, access to mental skills training and support in overcoming barriers to performance, so will the need to inspire more practitioners to the applied world. Regulation of the psychology profession in the United Kingdom (UK) has meant that there has been a need to clarify the role of the sport psychologist, and whilst the dominant literature offers descriptive accounts, there are few real-life experiences of working in sport and exercise psychology domains (e.g., Males, 2006). The training route to working as a sport and exercise psychologist in the UK is outlined in this chapter, together with practitioner experiences of working with individuals and teams towards performance enhancement and personal growth. Of foremost importance here is attention to the challenges and considerations that can underpin successful interventions when working with each population and methods for evaluating the success of work and the achievement of consultancy goals.

SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN THE UNITED KINGDOM In 2009 the professional title of Sport and Exercise Psychologist became protected by law in the UK and is now only available to those registered as a Practitioner Psychologist with the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC). This move represented an important step towards educating both the general public, potential clients, and sporting organizations as to the training background of individuals working in the area of mental skills training, performance enhancement, and psychological wellbeing. In the vast majority of cases, the sport psychologist is only eligible for registration with the HCPC after having successfully completed the two-stage training route accredited by the British Psychological Society. Graduate Basis for Chartership (GBC) is achieved through either completion of an accredited undergraduate degree in psychology or alternatively a one-year conversion course, after which postgraduate study is required in an, again, accredited Masters course (in sport and exercise psychology) or completion of the Society’s (BPS) Stage 1, Qualification in Sport and Exercise Psychology. Where Stage 1 aims to ensure that the neophyte practitioner has developed an appropriate theoretical knowledge base, Stage 2 focuses on the application of that knowledge in working with athletes and teams as well as research, through a minimum two-year period of supervised practice. Across the Stage 2 qualification, it is expected that three dimensions of knowledge, research, and practice will be satisfied with competencies met within four key roles. These roles require the trainee to develop, implement, and maintain personal and professional

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standards and ethical practice; to demonstrate the application of evidenced-based psychological methods; to continue research and development of psychological methods; and to document the communication of psychological knowledge principles and methods to disparate sporting groups. These standards are evidenced by external assessment over the training period that include a practice log, reflective diary, supervision meeting records and reports, a comprehensive independent research project, four case studies, and finally an oral assessment interview. All assessment components require the trainee practitioner to demonstrate work across diverse sports and client groups, with an emphasis on delivery to and reflection of work in one-to-one and group situations. Before these competencies can be demonstrated, however, trainee sport psychologists must determine their approach to service delivery with consideration of: the multiple roles they may adopt (e.g., educator, counselor, and mental skills trainer), their philosophy and core beliefs, and adherence to ethical practice. In the following section, the development of these principles during Stage 2 of the BPS Qualification is discussed, detailing the support received from an experienced applied sport psychology consultant.

APPROACH TO SERVICE DELIVERY Taking the step from the classroom to the training ground to apply the knowledge gained at Stage 1 can be a daunting experience (e.g., Slater, 2012). Experiential knowledge is important, but where that is not possible, being able to learn directly from those who have gained valuable expertise is the next best option; therefore, the role of supervision is essential in ensuring competence in this domain (Williams & Scherzer, 2003). Supervision can provide opportunities for work experience, shadowing of practice, time for reflective practice, feedback on assessment, and offering guidance on the philosophical approach that will influence models of practice, consultancy goals, and intervention. A consultant’s philosophy will be influenced by preferred paradigms that explain human behavior (e.g., psychodynamic, behaviorist, humanistic, and cognitive approaches) and beliefs relating to the principle aims and role of the sport psychologist. These address the need to find a balance between a code of conduct that requires the sport psychologist to recognize and support an athlete’s health and welfare, and a desire expressed by athletes and coaches to seek sport psychology services in the pursuit of purely performance outcomes. Ultimately the success of a sport psychology practitioner can be assessed in a number of ways, including the more objective indices such as: the number of clients they are working with, the length of time they have had a working relationship with clients, or how much money a team or sporting organization invests in services. One-to-one work also presents opportunity for more immediate subjective efficacy measurement including: client feedback in response to discrete specific work and needs together with athlete engagement and enjoyment. When working with individual athletes, discussion frequently focuses on topics that include goal setting, coach–athlete relationships, mental preparation routines, confidence, stress management, maintaining enjoyment, frustration, thought stopping, dealing with distractions, fatigue, burnout, and poor attentional focus (e.g., Fifer, Henschen, Gould, & Ravizza, 2008). In addition to personal consultancy requests, one-to-one work will often arrive via referral from parents, coaches, or sporting organizations, as in the case outlined in the next section. Where supervision at this preparatory stage guides the trainee sport psychologist in the organization of their approach to service delivery, it is often essential in gaining access to work with athletes. In the following account, personal experiences of the first author under the supervision of the third author are presented that highlight the processes, benefits, challenges, and considerations commensurate with working one-to-one with athletes towards the enhancement of mental skills and psychological assets.

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ENHANCING THE PERFORMANCE OF INDIVIDUAL ATHLETES Through the first author’s experiences in sport and knowledge gained during Stage 1 of the BPS qualification (i.e., MSc in Sport and Exercise Psychology), an enhanced interest in the relationship between thoughts, feelings, and behavior in achievement settings was developed. As a result, a cognitive-behavioral theoretical orientation has influenced overall practice philosophy. These core beliefs and personal values were further grounded in humanistic principles; positioning clients at the center of the developmental process and using the positive relationship as a vehicle for behavior change. Supervision was of paramount importance at this stage in assisting in the formulation of materials to define roles with potential clients and to highlight training, approaches to delivery, boundaries of competence, and the confidential nature of consultation. The culmination of which was the development of a consultancy agreement that fully informed clients of the nature of any working relationship. Gaining Entry Stage 2 requires the formulation of a training plan, which helped to highlight areas where it would be necessary to gain work experience and, again, supervision was instrumental in facilitating entry into these settings and the accumulation of requisite contact hours. One such request for sport psychology support came from a High Performance Tennis Center (HPC) who committed to providing a pathway to elite players aged 10–16 years. As specific needs were initially not defined, a meeting was arranged with the coaches with an opportunity to observe the players in training. This assessment established for both parties an appropriate fit of philosophies and informed a proposed working agreement that detailed goals of consultancy and opportunities for working one-to-one with players. Direct player observation in training and competitive situations provided insight into all aspects of the performance cycle, with attention to preparation, pre-point routines, and body language, as well as interaction with others. This observation further served to inform later work with coaches in appraising the ability of players to respond in a physically adaptive way to good play, unforced errors, line call decisions, and tight match situations, as well as to reflect on cognitions and behaviors that may represent the most ‘mentally tough response’ to that situation (Harwood & Steptoe, 2013). This period of ‘being around’ and identifiable to the players was an important first opportunity to gain trust and outline intentions, as Fifer et al. (2008) suggested that clients need to “know that you care before they care what you know” (p. 357). Even when sports are individual in format (e.g., tennis, golf, swimming), the training landscape is often built around group-based coaching, with specific individual time allocated within this principle framework. Investment must be made by the sport psychologist, therefore, in the formation of key relationships with all potential members of a player’s support network to increase opportunities for referral and to highlight the role that they can play in player development if able to work one-to-one. Delivering Sport Psychology Services One-to-One One-to-one consultation opportunities are not a ‘given’ but instead have to be created within an athlete’s training schedule, and so the value of these meetings has to be embraced, as they require flexibility on the part of both the players and practitioner. To emphasize this point and as a progression from being visible to players as a sport psychologist was the opportunity to provide education to players about services, and also to highlight the psychological demands of tennis. Although initially this was delivered at a group level, it provided further meaningful engagement with players and the chance to broadly assess their unique interest areas and needs. There were clear relationship-building gains from this workshop format, and so a program was

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implemented that addressed both the education of mental skills associated with high performance sport and the development of internal and external psychological assets that foster positive youth progression. The 5Cs framework proposed by Harwood (2008) complimented this positive youth development agenda and key skills associated with commitment, communication, concentration, control, and confidence were targeted. One-to-one time with players was taken at every opportunity, including breaks in training, advertised drop-in sessions, scheduled end-of-day appointments, and remote access to support through telephone and email communication. All of these points of contact provided opportunities to work one-to-one with players by providing education around key psychological skills, observing relevant target behavior in training and competition, engaging in immediate feedback on the implementation of skills during breaks in play, addressing salient issues relating to performance and wellbeing during drop-in sessions, developing bespoke skills for a personal development plan in scheduled sessions, and continued feedback through remote access. Player experience of accessing one-to-one sport psychology support was epitomized by a 12-year-old male tennis player who was referred by coaches for sport psychology support. Coaches provided an initial account of presenting issues as they saw them from a performance and training perspective and of off-court issues that they believed to be impacting the player’s performance and enjoyment. These included losing concentration at key points in a match and distraction from negative thoughts relating to tennis performance and off-court issues. The coaches suggested that the player would be reluctant to ‘open up,’ and so the workshops provided valuable contact time in which to gain trust and demonstrate knowledge and ways in which support could be provided to the player. Following a presentation in which thought stopping techniques had been discussed, the player’s parents made contact to say that he had enjoyed the session but had some other questions that he would like to ask. When preparing for one-to-one work with youth players, practitioners have to be cognizant of both the ethical requirements of working alone with children and the desire to create an environment in which the players can talk freely about all issues and concerns. In this instance, an initial conversation took place with the player and parents to obtain consent and again with the coaches to define boundaries of confidentiality. It was agreed that subsequent player meetings would take place one-to-one in a glass-fronted teaching room visible to the Center staff and that parents would be copied in on any session notes and email communication. Coaches would only be informed of relevant areas of work with the approval of the player. This first one-to-one session allowed for a more in-depth analysis of client needs and case formulation that determined whether psychological support was to assist with performance development or dysfunction and ultimately informed the goals of one-to-one work. In particular, thought-stopping strategies were developed that had been presented in the workshop, as the player believed this strategy would be of use in dealing with negative thoughts and would improve concentration. Personally meaningful images, self-talk, and behaviors were tailored to ensure relevance, and goals were set for practicing these new skills in the day’s training session. To illustrate, the player rehearsed his thought-stopping strategy in warm-up and gave feedback on its effectiveness during breaks in play with scheduled one-to-one sessions allowing for deeper reflections and development of the skill. This was defined as a research period and further enabled success to be measured by key learning rather than more objective performance goals such as winning points or matches. When specific issues or barriers to performance were present, a brief intervention was provided based on Anshel’s (1990) COPE model that enabled us to work on Controlling emotions, Organizing information, Planning an appropriate response, and Executing the response by ‘acting it out.’ It was imperative that communication lines were open not only with the player but with his wider support network (e.g., coaches and parents) and that feedback continued for any work set. There had been previous unsuccessful attempts to engage players through logbooks and training diaries, which had been considered ‘boring,’ and therefore to ‘store’ players learning experiences for reflection and evaluation, a web-based tool designed by the sport psychologist

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was introduced. The player was able to keep a video diary, which became an enjoyable task when traveling away at tournaments and importantly provided a real-time account of thoughts, feelings, and behavioral indicators of anxiety (e.g., facial tension, change in pace of speech), rather than written reflections that may have been influenced by performance outcomes. The program maximized one-to-one contact time with the player, and with flexibility, creativity, and feedback on the part of both sport psychologist and client, thought stopping techniques were tailored in accordance with player needs. The important relationships established with the players’ wider support network further ensured that these skills were reinforced outside of the sport psychology sessions and, in addition to performance markers, provided useful information to assess the efficacy of the intervention. Measuring Success Evaluating practice and determining accountability as practitioners is of key importance in consultancy. To this end, where appropriate, single-case research methods and designs (SCDs) have enhanced understanding of the effectiveness of practice and the interventions presented to clients (see Barker, McCarthy, Jones, & Moran, 2011). To illustrate how a single-case research design can be applied in sport and exercise, an athlete’s behavior (or psychological response) is measured repeatedly, and a baseline is established so that trends and changes in the data can be examined as the treatment is introduced, and even possibly withdrawn. Data are typically analyzed using visual and graphical analysis including: changes in means, levels, and trends, as well as the speed of changes; however, an important aspect of SCDs is social validation. Social validation is a tool used to determine the satisfaction with an intervention and not only involves gaining feedback about the delivery and consumption of interventions, but also includes social-comparison (i.e., comparing the participant or group with a peer group on the same dependent variable(s)) and subjective evaluation (i.e., gathering the opinions of others who have familiarity with the participant or group including parents and coaches; see Page & Thelwell, 2013). In sum, single-case research designs provide a suitable framework for applied researchers and practitioners to determine their effectiveness and are therefore becoming increasingly popular in applied sport psychology (for a review, see Barker, Mellalieu, McCarthy, Jones, & Moran, 2013).

ENHANCING TEAM FUNCTIONING AND PERFORMANCE Fundamental to consultancy in elite sport is work that focuses on facilitating important group functioning variables and team performance. There are a number of consulting strategies, processes, and techniques that can assist practitioners in the achievement of many team consultancy aims (including communication, cohesion, and collective efficacy; e.g., Kleinert et al., 2012). However, one team-building intervention that has received recent research attention is that of Personal-Disclosure Mutual-Sharing (PDMS). The case that follows outlines work by the second author that sought to foster greater cohesion and communication between players at a UK top division soccer club. Through this experience of delivering sport psychology services at the group level, this work highlights the challenges to determining effectiveness, the importance of preparation and contingency, the secondary gains from the intervention delivered, and how brief intervention with teams can have a powerful influence on key performance and team-building issues. Delivering Sport Psychology Services to Teams The PDMS approach requires individuals (teammates) to publicly disclose previously unknown personal stories and information to members of their team (Holt & Dunn, 2006). Stemming

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from counseling settings, personal-disclosure symbolizes conscious verbal presentations of a situation or issue in an attempt to establish resolution through interpersonal interaction. Collaborative personal-disclosure underpinned by mutual-sharing can encourage empathetic responses between group members and, as a result, group members are provided with a better understanding and appreciation of one another’s experiences. In sporting contexts, personaldisclosure provides the catalyst for the mutual communication of morals, beliefs, attitudes, and personal motives that in turn augment perceptions, meanings, constructs, and understanding. Thus, PDMS could enhance prerequisites of effective team functioning, all of which could ultimately benefit team performance. Recently, PDMS in professional soccer was applied where the needs presented by the coaches of the soccer team were for an intervention to enhance team cohesion and to foster team spirit (Windsor, Barker, & McCarthy, 2011). The club had reached the latter stages of a domestic cup competition and team functioning issues were emerging according to the manager, coaches, and senior players, as the foreign players tended to socialize together due to language and cultural differences. Players reported concerns regarding selection and playing time, and there was evidence of potential conflict between senior players and new additions to the squad. With the aim of enabling the players to understand the motives and backgrounds of their teammates, an intervention that centered on the mutual sharing of personal information was proposed. An established relationship with the club and players, built on trust and a value of sport psychology support, were essential in building the appropriate foundation with which to encourage players to share personal thoughts, feelings, and experiences (e.g., attendance at matches and training sessions and wearing of team kit; Pain & Harwood, 2004). In preparation for the intervention, a brief period of time prior to a training session was allocated two weeks before to outline the aims and to administer questionnaires that would establish current measures of cohesion and communication. Players were informed that the session planned would involve them sharing a personal story with their teammates. Story content would center around two guiding questions designed to raise team awareness of individual player identity, their motivation, and role perceptions. Players were asked to inform their teammates why they play soccer and what they think that they bring to the team and, secondly, to describe a personal story that would help teammates understand them better, that they would want them to know, and that illustrated something that defined who they are. Players were encouraged to speak honestly and openly about personal sacrifices that they had made in the pursuit of their soccer career. Mindful of the potential negative consequences of self-disclosure—particularly for players with low self-esteem—reassurance, support, and guidance was provided on the appropriate content of player stories over the two-week period prior to the PDMS (Cameron, Holmes, & Vorauer, 2009). To enhance self-disclosure, the team’s request to conduct the session in the absence of coaches and manager was acknowledged, as they did not believe that they would be able to speak freely considering the role these individuals play in team selection. Support was given from the manager to deliver the PDMS intervention in the team hotel prior to an important domestic cup semi-final game, as it was felt that it would act as a useful ‘diversion’ and that this time would only otherwise be spent in their rooms listening to music or playing video games. Despite best efforts to reassure all members of the squad leading up to the session, five of the 21 players decided that they were not going to give their talk; however, they were told that they could stay and listen to the others and that their presence would be making a contribution to the group. The session lasted for 90-minutes, and each player spoke for approximately 3 minutes. Players listened attentively to each of their teammates and spontaneously applauded each speech, and by the time all had shared their experiences, the five that had originally declined to take part voluntarily offered their own accounts. These stories contained the largest amount of personal disclosure and were arguably among the most emotional speeches. Immediate responses to the session included one player suggesting that he ‘wanted to hug’ his teammates

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after hearing their stories and another who commented that if the player who had shared a particularly emotional story had cried, the whole team would have been in tears. The team performed above their expectations in the semi-final, narrowly losing to the cup favorites in a penalty shoot-out. Two weeks after the PDMS session, the aims of the intervention were discussed with the players. In addition, follow-up measures of cohesion and communication together with a social validation questionnaire to ascertain any maintenance effects were gathered. Data revealed most players found the intervention to be worthwhile and benefited the team, enhancing closeness, understanding of teammates, and communication.

CONCLUSION The cases outlined in this chapter have highlighted key issues of working one-to-one with athletes and with groups. First, it is important for practitioners to gain buy-in from their clients and the wider sporting organization. Buy-in is epitomized by a growing evidence-base that highlights PDMS to be an effective strategy particularly when coaches, captains, and older members of the team are supportive and enthusiastic about the intervention. Second, practitioners require a broad range of skills that often sit outside the traditional tool box. For example, being a sport psychologist is not just about delivering psychological principles, but is also about determining effectiveness, negotiation, communication, organization, marketing, and self-promotion. Finally, whether delivering sport psychology services one-to-one or to groups, the sport psychologist often does so as part of an interdisciplinary team or as a member of a support network to individual athletes that includes coaches, parents, and training partners. All play an integral role in the reinforcement of psychological education and mental skills whilst providing social validation to indicate efficacy of work. In working closely with all involved in athlete and team development, the sport psychologist can continue to challenge misconceptions about the profession, provide education about services, and promote the value of psychological training towards performance enhancement and wellbeing.

TAKE-HOME MESSAGES • The importance of rapport with clients should not be underestimated. • Practitioners must establish who the key stakeholders are in player and team development to enable consistent communication, encourage a ‘cohesive voice,’ and promote the reinforcement of key psychological skills. • Practitioners must foster a ‘culture of acceptability’ within sporting organizations in order to challenge negative misconceptions relating to receiving sport psychology support. • Adherence to psychological development programs presents a fundamental barrier to effective work. • Determining effectiveness and being accountable are important considerations for practitioners. • Single-case research methods provide a framework to determine service delivery effectiveness. • PDMS is an effective brief-contact intervention for improving important group functioning variables.

REFERENCES Anshel, M. H. (1990). Toward validation of the COPE model: Strategies for acute stress inoculation in sport. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 21, 24–39. Barker, J., McCarthy, P., Jones, M. V., & Moran, A. (2011). Single case research methods in sport and exercise psychology. Oxon, UK: Routledge.

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Barker, J. B., Mellalieu, S. D., McCarthy, P. J., Jones, M. V., & Moran, A. (2013). A review of single-case research in sport psychology 1997–2012: Research trends and future directions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 25 (1), 3–32. Cameron, J. J., Holmes, J. G., & Vorauer, J. D. (2009). When self-disclosure goes awry: Negative consequences of revealing personal failure for lower self-esteem individuals. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45 (1), 217–222. Fifer, A., Henschen, K., Gould, D., & Ravizza, K. (2008). What works when working with athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 22, 356–377. Harwood, C. G. (2008). Developmental consulting in a professional football academy: The 5C’s Coaching Efficacy Program. The Sport Psychologist, 22 (1), 109–133. Harwood, C. G., & Steptoe, K. (2013). The integration of single case designs in coaching contexts: A commentary for applied sport psychologists. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 25 (1), 167–174. Holt, N. L., & Dunn, J.G.H. (2006). Guidelines for delivering personal-disclosure mutual-sharing team building interventions. The Sport Psychologist, 20, 348–367. Kleinert, J., Ohlert, J., Carron, B., Eys, M., Feltz, D., Harwood, C. et al. (2012). Group dynamics in sports: An overview and recommendations on diagnostic and intervention. The Sport Psychologist, 26 (3), 412–434. Males, J. (2006). Reflections on Athens: Delivering sport psychology provision at the BOA headquarters. Sport and Exercise Psychology Review, 2 (2), 12–16. Page, J., & Thelwell, R. (2013). The value of social validation in single-case methods in sport and exercise psychology. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 25 (1), 61–71. Pain, M., & Harwood, C. (2009). Team-building through mutual-sharing and open discussion of team functioning. The Sport Psychologist, 23 (4), 523–542. Slater, M. (2012). Managing transitions part 1: From MSc student to applied practice. Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, 8 (1), 61–63. Williams, J. M., & Scherzer, C. B. (2003). Tracking the training and careers of graduates of advanced degree programs in sport psychology, 1994–1999. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15, 335–353. Windsor, P., Barker, J. B., & McCarthy, P. J. (2011). Doing sport psychology: Personal-disclosure mutualsharing in professional soccer. The Sport Psychologist, 25 (1), 94–114.

11 Age and Expertise Issues When Working With Performers and Their Support System—Moving Beyond “Teaching Grandma to Suck Eggs” Tim Holder

BACKGROUND FACTORS IN APPLIED PRACTICE IN GREAT BRITAIN Within any applied sport psychology (SP) practitioner’s working context there will be a range of expectations and boundaries placed upon that practice for the protection of the client, practitioner, and, ultimately the profession. Within most geographical locations, the local Professional Association and their associated requirements for their profession will be laid out clearly, and guidance documents provided to assist practitioners. Within Great Britain, such assistance has been significantly developed within the last 30 years, first through the work of the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (a governing body reflecting the needs of practitioners within the sport science disciplines of biomechanics, physiology, and psychology) and, more recently, the British Psychological Society (BPS). The BPS has a structure that incorporates divisional status representing sub-disciplines of psychology. Within the Division of Sport and Exercise Psychology, members can work towards Chartered status as Sport and Exercise Psychologists. Within the last 10 years, this has meant that the specific title of a Sport and Exercise Psychologist has been protected: This means that only those with the appropriate background knowledge, qualifications, training, and experience are able to legally use the title. This has, in 2009, been supplemented by a regulatory body named the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC). This body holds a register of those suitably qualified and able to practice under the title Sport and Exercise Psychologist. The title of Performance Psychologist has no similar register or control at this point (2013) in Great Britain. BASES has recently (2011) changed the titles of its accredited practitioners from discipline-specific titles, including psychology, to a more generic Sport and Exercise Scientist in order to reflect the professional training requirements now set out and protected by the BPS and HCPC. The most important and relevant feature of these quality assurance procedures (beyond the protection of title) is the provision of codes of conduct and ethics. These serve to provide a framework within which all applied practice should be carried out and helps to protect client, practitioner, and the profession alike (BASES, 2009; BPS, 2009). Training within Great Britain to attain Chartered and HCPC registered status comprises a BPS-approved undergraduate and postgraduate (Stage 1) program of study and a further period of supervised practice of over two years (Stage 2). A rigorous system for ensuring the quality of those completing Stage 2 is in place. These include the use of an extensive oral examination (Viva Voce) and written reports incorporating case studies as well as supervisor reports. A significant contributor to training is the use of reflection in and on practice, which is embedded within the systems to aid practitioner development (Cropley, Hanton, Miles, & Niven, 2010). Within Great Britain, there is also a further requirement for working with children and vulnerable adults where a check is made on the background of an individual to ensure that there is an assessment of the individual’s suitability to work with prospective clients. This process is called a Disclosure and Barring Service (DBS) (formally Criminal Records Bureau) check.

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The focus of this chapter is on the impact of age and expertise of clients on the applied practitioner. The above information (relevant to issues in regards to training and practice in the U.K.) provides some contextual information relevant to issues that may emerge for practitioners when dealing with young athletes as well as considerations relevant to performer expertise levels.

AGE Age-Related Principles and Possible Assumptions When first working with young performers (defined as under the age of 18), there are a number of assumptions and principles that may assist in the development of applied practice with this subgroup and are presented to provide a “testing ground” when working with specific clients (i.e., how accurately do the assumptions fit what a practitioner experiences). • When working with youth performers, there are significant implications for ensuring a safe environment for both the client and practitioner and a requirement for a clear explanation of the confidentiality of information (see BPS codes of ethics and conduct for further clarification). • Young performers have a limited experience and understanding of SP principles and strategies (this assumption can be challenged by some cases where their self understanding and insights into what impacts their performance are clear and well developed). • Their intellectual capacity and language capabilities can significantly impact applied practice approaches. Applied Practice With Youth Athletes Implementing educational group sessions: working with under-12 table tennis players. A development squad of performers below the age of 12 was established within the national program for the English Table Tennis Association and SP was incorporated into the program at weekend training camps. The challenges of working with this age group are substantial in relation to their development, as highlighted in Life Development models of applied practice (Danish, Petitpas, & Hale, 1995), and the need to understand the impact of their emotional, physical, cognitive, and social development on applied practice methods and approaches to delivery. The three most significant adaptations of applied practice were: 1.

2.

The use of small groups (4 or 5) to deliver educational input. This number creates a sense of comfort and ease that significantly aided the amount and quality of discussions. In addition to this factor, the small groups assist the performers in learning from each other through examples they may use and the variety of experiences that they may have had to draw on at that particular age. The opportunity to share understanding aligned the session approach well with the overall intention to educate. In order to take into account the limitations of attention and intellectual development, the sessions were critically focused on the discussion of one key component of the psychology of table tennis performance (e.g., concentration between points, pre-game nerves, etc.). This ensured that the duration of the sessions were limited to a maximum of 20 minutes and often were completed within 15 minutes. An additional element of importance became clear in relation to the style of delivery of the content within the short time frame. A number of metaphor devices were used in the sessions to help the young performers relate to the content under discussion (e.g., Lindsay, Thomas, & Douglas, 2010). For example, when discussing self-talk, the metaphor of the angel and devil cartoon characters

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sitting on their shoulders and whispering into their ears enhanced the effectiveness of the sessions in attaining and maintaining performers’ attention (Orlick & McCaffrey, 1991). Lastly, the importance of the venue for the delivery of the sessions was also critical to overall effectiveness and in recognition of ethical practice concerns. The positioning of the performers so that they could be seen by the coaches and other athletes ensured that delivery could be monitored. This helps protect the applied practitioner from any concerns over what was happening in the session. The athletes, most importantly, also had visual and auditory cues through others in the squad performing behind them that helped them to subconsciously connect the discussion to the sport.

Individual client work: individual tennis player (age 10 years). An individual client aged 10 sought assistance with enhancing performance and emotional control issues through his coach and parents. The two most important characteristics of applied practice in this scenario were: 1.

2.

Working with and through the parents and coach. The possibility of incorporating the work with the client in conjunction with both a parent and the performer’s main coach was grasped in order to enhance the effectiveness of any interventions (e.g., Harwood and Knight, 2009). The strategies being adopted with the client were discussed with the parent who had some responsibility in monitoring the use of strategies in competitive play (e.g., parking). The coach was also made fully aware of the use of particular strategies and could reinforce them within their coaching when appropriate. The integration of such strategies into learning environments. This has been offered as a suggestion in previous literature (e.g., Sinclair & Sinclair, 1994) and assists in the development of skills to be applied within competitive contexts. The incorporation of practical strategies into the performance context certainly helps the performer to both understand fully when and how to integrate a strategy but also offers clear opportunities to develop the use of the strategy and receive feedback in order to develop its effectiveness further (Visek, Harris, & Blom, 2009).

EXPERTISE Expertise-Related Principles and Possible Assumptions When working with performers with expertise in a sport (mostly adult populations), there are a number of assumptions and principles that may assist in the development of applied practice. Once more, these assumptions and principles are valuable in maintaining awareness of important considerations and biases to be wary of in applied practice. • Experience and motor expertise are intrinsically linked (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Romer, 1993); often this may not be the case for aspects of psychological skills development. • Expert performers will be able to readily make the links between the psychological factors of importance in their sport and actual sporting performance. • Expert performers will be fully aware of the factors influencing the psychology of their sporting performance. • Psychological habits are established and are more resistant to change or development. Applied Practice With Experts Working with elite, full-time performers. Within Great Britain, there are a number of professional sportspeople who are either paid by their club or organization or who receive funding from their governing body as part of a World Class Performance Program. For these individuals,

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there are a number of implications for the applied practitioner, of which the two following factors have consistently been important to consider in the author’s practice: 1.

2.

The elite, expert performer has a number of stressors to consider that do not correspond precisely to those of other performers. There is a wealth of literature attesting to the additional stressors of elite performers emanating from a number of environmental, personal, leadership, and team sources, including funding, accommodation, travel, injury, coaching style, and team communication (e.g., Fletcher & Hanton, 2003). Applied practitioners need to understand and use strategies to assist in responding to these unique circumstances. One such approach has been put forward in the shape of contextual intelligence, where the detailed examination of the context within which the performers are training and competing is analyzed. The resulting information can be an invaluable resource in helping to define the prevalent attitudes and dynamics within a squad or group as well as the lines of influence that can be utilized to guide applied practice in relation to who can effect change most readily (Brown, Gould, & Foster, 2005). The understanding by the performers of the psychology of their performance is almost always very well established at an elite level. As a result, there is likely resistance to new methods and an implication for applied practitioners to develop skills of persuasion to assist in the “buy in” for a different approach (Green, Morgan, & Manley, 2012). For example, a number of past and current clients have underestimated the impact that interpersonal communication can have on their relationships with fellow performers and ultimately on their effectiveness as a performer. One individual, having worked on assertiveness skills (Burke, 2010), developed a much stronger performance focus as well as performancerelated confidence that had been lacking and was more motivated to other processes of change that were influential on performance.

Working with expert coaches. The sports coaching profession has made significant steps forward during the time that the author has been in applied practice (Robinson, 2010). The incorporation of psychological materials within coach qualifications and coach education programs has made a significant impact on the dissemination of information to client groups, such as coaches. This has resulted in hugely varied backgrounds of coaches in terms of their understanding of, and confidence in, integrating psychology into performance environments based on their coaching qualifications and expertise. Recently, the opportunity to work with some expert middle-distance athletics coaches who meet as a mentoring group and embrace the benefits of developing communities of practice arose (Culver & Trudel, 2008). The challenges as an applied practitioner were many with such an expert group, but the following features stood out as key reflections on developing work with expert coaches. 1.

Specificity of content. Coaches were well educated in the strategies adopted within SP. However, the real challenge in effectively applying strategies with performers is often found in the details rather than a broad conceptual understanding. The group expressed a wish to discuss goal setting. During planning, through discussion with the mentoring group coordinator, it was clear that to maximize the session impact, a particular feature of goal setting would form the basis of the session: namely goal difficulty. This single feature of the complex goal setting process was chosen as the athletics coaches were challenged constantly by the combination of dealing with athletes who were developing at a rapid pace, showing quick improvements in fitness and times, as well as performers who were thwarted in their development by ongoing or acute injuries. This challenge was felt to be highly significant to both performers and coaches due to the powerful measurement methods used within the sport to assess progress: namely time. How the coaches could deal with the analysis of optimizing challenge in the goals based on the difficulty level became the key focus of debate.

Age and Expertise 89 2.

Style of delivery and duration of session. The style of delivery was adapted in concert with the mentoring nature of the group, as well as the intention to share good practice and to learn from each other. The session delivery was informal and facilitated by the sport psychologist to maximize input from the coaches themselves and draw upon their extensive experiences. This approach, with such expert coaches, recognizes a respect for their knowledge and encourages a sharing of information and expertise that would not be apparent in a more didactic style (Gould, Petlichkoff, Hodge, & Simons, 1990; Clement & Shannon, 2009). The session duration (90 minutes) allowed for such a style to be used and for full and detailed debates to be conducted within the deliberately limited scope of the session on goal difficulty.

Working with parents (of expert performers). Whilst working with expert coaches can create challenges based on a range of background expertise in psychological factors, the variety of background understanding and knowledge within parents of expert performers is of a much greater magnitude. Some parents are very well versed in the psychology of sporting performance based on dual roles as coaches or even ex-international athletes who have worked on their own performance from a psychological perspective. Other parents are naive and fearful of this aspect of their offspring’s sporting involvement. They may not have even had access to or interest in a basic understanding of the important psychological concepts, let alone having to apply them within sport. When dealing with the challenge of influencing the parents of expert performers, the following key applied approaches can assist the impact on this important subgroup: 1.

2.

Education of parents of expert performers can be achieved to establish a base of understanding of what SP involvement might encompass. This educative process through workshops, newsletters, online blogs, etc., may avoid some difficult conversations with fearful parents challenging applied practitioners at training camps by querying in aggressive tones “what are you doing to my son?” (this exact question was posed to the author in an early career experience by a parent of an expert youth performer in the public bar area at a national training camp venue, with rather accusatory implications!). The use of educational workshops at major events within the sport (where parents are often present) has, in the author’s experience, limited effectiveness due to the parents who may benefit most from such opportunities being the least likely to choose to attend such voluntary sessions. Making such sessions compulsory for parents to attend is much more likely to be successful for parents of funded athletes, where attendance can be built into expectations. With the inherent limitations of organized parent education events (or newsletter-style communications) the author has regularly chosen to incorporate an extension of the benefits of “hanging around” (Giges, 2000) for enhancing effectiveness of contact by applied practitioners with performers to enhance contact with parents. The seemingly “accidental” discussions that can be engineered with parents at training or competitive events are opportunities that can be grasped by the applied practitioner when in attendance. These opportunities are informal methods that can be effective at enhancing parent understanding and eliminating possible concerns or misunderstandings that may occur and, in some cases, that may negatively impact the service delivery being offered to the performers themselves. This informal, accidental approach often helps to gain parents’ trust and respect and, where appropriate, gain their assistance in reinforcing key strategies (see previous section example with young tennis player).

CONCLUSION This chapter has attempted to draw together a range of applied SP practice implications resulting from the individual difference factors of age and expertise. Taking into account the

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limitations of a short discussion, this chapter focused attention on particular experiential factors salient within the work of the author’s applied practice but which should be of relevance to applied practitioners working within the sporting realm. It is clear that some of the issues highlighted exemplify the old adage of trying to “teach Grandma to suck eggs,” a metaphor for teaching someone with experience how to do something that they have done for a lifetime! Applied practice constantly challenges practitioners due to the variety of ages and expertise that they work alongside and the rather unpredictable levels of expertise that can exist regarding the psychology of sporting performance. This becomes apparent during applied practice in attitudes suggesting: “I don’t need it and I already do it” (sucking eggs) to “I’ve never heard of it and certainly don’t think I can do it” (naiveté). For applied practitioners to maximize effectiveness, not only should they challenge preconceived notions based purely on age and sporting expertise, but they should also work to establish links to support systems such as coaches and parents. These links will develop working practices that draw on expertise in an interdisciplinary and multifaceted manner in the quest to optimize the client’s performance.

TAKE-HOME MESSAGES • Always consider ethical concerns specific to a subgroup (e.g., youth performers) as part of planning consultancy activity. • Utilize familiar, established relationships athletes have with parents and coaches to reinforce applied practice. • Take time to engage in conversations with important members in the athlete’s life (e.g., parent, sibling) to aid their understanding of one’s role and develop extended trust within the performer’s circle of influence. • Challenge assumptions of the lack of understanding in the young or enhanced understanding in the expert about the psychology of sporting performance. • Always try to understand the full range of complex factors influencing sporting performance in order to pinpoint more clearly the focus of an intervention. • In educational sessions, a facilitative style can enhance the sharing of good practice from coaches and athletes and significantly supplement content provided by an applied practitioner.

REFERENCES BASES (2009). Code of conduct. Retrieved from www.bases.org.uk/corecode/search/search.aspx?term= code%20of%20conduct BPS (2009). Code of ethics and conduct. Retrieved from www.bps.org.uk/system/files/documents/ code_of_ethics_and_conduct.pdf Brown, C. H., Gould, G., & Foster, S. (2005). A framework for developing contextual intelligence (CI). The Sport Psychologist, 19, 51–62. Burke, K. L. (2010). Constructive communication. In S. J. Hanrahan & M. B. Anderson, (Eds.) Routledge handbook of sport psychology: A comprehensive guide for students and practitioners (pp. 315–324). Oxon, UK: Routledge. Clement, D., & Shannon, V. (2009). The impact of a workshop on athletic training students’ sport psychology behaviors. The Sport Psychologist, 23, 504–522. Cropley, B., Hanton, S., Miles, A., & Niven, A. (2010). The value of reflective practice in professional development: An applied sport psychology review. Sport Science Review, 19(3–4), 179–208. Culver, D., & Trudel, P. (2008). Clarifying the concept of communities of practice in sport. International Journal of Sport Science and Coaching, 3(1), 1–10. Danish, S. J., Petitpas, A., & Hale, B. D. (1995). Psychological interventions: A life development model. In S. M. Murphy (Ed.) Sport psychology interventions. (pp. 19–38). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Age and Expertise 91 Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Romer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 363–406. Fletcher, D., & Hanton, S. (2003). Sources of organizational stress in elite sports performers. The Sport Psychologist, 17, 175–195. Giges, B. (2000). Removing psychological barriers: Clearing the way. In M. Andersen, (Ed.) Doing sport psychology (pp. 17–32). Champaign: IL: Human Kinetics. Gould, D., Petlichkoff, L., Hodge, K., & Simons, J. (1990). Evaluating the effectiveness of a psychological skills educational workshop. The Sport Psychologist, 4, 249–260. Green, M., Morgan, G., & Manley, A. (2012). Elite rugby league players’ attitudes towards sport psychology consulting. Sport and Exercise Psychology Review, 8(1), 32–44. Harwood, C., & Knight, C. (2009). Understanding parental stressors: An investigation of British tennis parents. Journal of Sport Sciences, 27(4), 339–351. Lindsey, P., Thomas, O., & Douglas, G. (2010). A framework to explore and transform client-generated metaphors in applied sport psychology. The Sport Psychologist, 24, 97–112. Orlick, T., & McCaffrey, N. (1991). Mental training with children for sport and life. The Sport Psychologist, 5, 322–334. Robinson, P. E. (2010). Foundations of sports coaching. London: Routledge. Schinke, R. J., Battochio, R. C., Dube, T. V., Lidor, R., Tenenbaum, Lane, A. M. (2012). Adaptation processes affecting performance in elite sport. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 6, 180–195. Sinclair, G. D., & Sinclair, D. A. (1994). Developing reflective performers by integrating mental management skills with the learning process. The Sport Psychologist, 8(1), 13–27. Visek, A. J., Harris, B. S., & Blom, L. C. (2009). Doing sport psychology: A youth sport consulting model for practitioners. The Sport Psychologist, 23, 271–291.

12 Promoting Physical Activity and Performance Excellence Among Individuals With Disabilities1 Ricardo de la Vega and Víctor Rubio

INTRODUCTION Individuals With Disabilities Disability is a complex phenomenon that refers to the interactions between health conditions and environmental as well as personal factors. According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2013): Disability can occur at three levels: an impairment in body function or structure; a limitation in activity, such as the inability to read or move around; a restriction in participation, such as exclusion from school or work. As such, people with disabilities include those who are traditionally understood as disabled (e.g., wheelchair users, people who are blind or deaf or people with intellectual impairments), and people who experience difficulties in functioning due to a wide range of health conditions such as chronic diseases, severe mental disorders, multiple sclerosis and old age. It is estimated that more than 1,000 million people around the world are disabled and 110–190 million experience serious difficulties (WHO, 2013). Specific prevalence for several countries around the world can be seen in Table 12.1. Thus, it is not surprising that the interest in applied research and practice of sport psychology with disabled individuals has increased exponentially during the last decades. Individuals With Disabilities in Physical Activity and Sport In the beginning, sport psychology and other allied disciplines working on disability applied the benefits of physical activity (PA) and exercising to promote health and psychological, social, and mainstreaming outcomes (Acevedo, 2012). However, the empowering movements from disabled and professional groups, as well as the progressive growth in popularity of sport events for disabled athletes, have fostered sport psychology consulting with these performers and have stimulated the study of the psychological variables involved in performance enhancement and their consequences on the individual’s psychosocial health (Blauwet, 2005). Both approaches share the use of sport and PA as a way of promoting their capabilities and potentials, instead of focusing on their impairments. At the same time, a plethora of public and non-profit organizations have emerged all around the world for promoting sport and PA among disabled individuals, as well as organizing competitions for them, such as the Paralympic Games organized by the International Paralympic Committee (www.paralympic.org). The present chapter presents a brief recent review for each of the two approaches (i.e., PA or performance excellence) as well as an applied focus on intervention for the topics to be considered.

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Table 12.1 Percentage of Different Disabilities in Several European, North and South American, and Asian Countries Country SPAIN

Visual

Auditive

Motor

Intellectual

1.73

1.74

3.23

1.70

Other 0.70

Source: Spanish Statistical Office, INE (2008). Prevalence rate per 1,000 habitants (www.ine.es/).

GERMANY

0.43

0.36

1.22

1.60

1.50

Source: The Federal Health Monitoring System (2009) (www.gbe-bund.de/gbe10/pkg_isgbe5.prc_isgbe?p_uid=gastd&p_ sprache=E).

USA

2.12

3.38

–

4.53

12

Source: Employment and Disability Institute—Cornell University (2011) (www.disabilitystatistics.org).

CANADA

13.67

Source: Statistics Canada (2006) (www.statcangc.ca).

MEXICO

0.43

0.29

0.83

0.28

–

Source: Mexican National Institute of Public Health, INSP, Encuesta Nacional de Salud, ENSANUT (2000) (http://ensanut. insp.mx/informes/ENSA_tomo1.pdf )

BRAZIL

3.50

1.12

2.33

1.37

–

5.91

2.24

1.30

0.07

0.07

0.05

Source: Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, IBGE (2010) (www.ibge.gov.br/english/)

CHILE

5.35

2.93

Source: Chilean National Statistics Institute (2012) (www.ine.cl/).

ARGENTINA

0.014

0.02

Source: Argentinian National Rehabilitation Servicer, Anuario Estadistico Nacional sobre Discapacidad (2011) (www.snr.gob. ar/uploads/Anuario2011.pdf ).

JAPAN

0.24

0.27

1.32

–

0.5

Source: Department of Health and Welfare for Persons with Disabilities, Survey on the Actual Status of People with Physical Disabilities (1996).

WORKING WITH DISABLED INDIVIDUALS TO PROMOTE PA Benefits of Promoting PA Among Individuals With Disabilities The effects of PA on health and well-being have been well established across the life-span. Exercising prevents obesity and other health risks that are related to potential causes of death (see Acevedo, 2012). PA also improves depression, anxiety, and overall quality of life outcomes. When talking about children and youth, PA plays a crucial role in their development, including physical, social, and mental aspects. Moreover, PA has been shown to prevent or minimize disability, either postponing the onset of persistent disability and/or reducing the years with disability (Schultz-Larsen, Rahmanfard, & Holst, 2012). If benefits from PA are considerably important for the population as a whole, benefits across different domains are even more remarkable for disabled individuals. First, exercising has many physiological and health benefits—among them, the enhancement of PA and muscular strength (see Hicks, Martin Ginis, Pelletier, Ditor, Foulon, & Wolfe, 2011, for a review about people with spinal cord injury; see Shin & Park, 2012, for a review about people with intellectual disabilities). Moreover, PA contributes to better body weight management, particularly relevant to the fact that children and adults with mobility limitations and intellectual or learning disabilities are at a greater risk for obesity and for high blood pressure in adulthood. Second, PA

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has shown to produce psychological functioning benefits, such as protecting against depression or improving intellectual functioning (Pastula, Stopka, Delisle, & Hass, 2012). In addition, PA should be at the basis of policies and interventions conducted with disabled individuals since it promotes independence and normalization. It enhances perceptions of self-esteem, competence, and self-efficacy defining a closed-loop process in which the more PA, the greater physical self-efficacy, the more competent, and vice versa. Furthermore, being with friends is a primary motive for youth sport participation and several studies (Groff & Kleiber, 2001; Martin, 2006) have shown the value of being able to connect with others who have disabilities. For instance, Martin (2006) found a positive perception of friendship quality among youth disabled athletes (particularly in the female group). In addition, Groff and Kleiber (2001) noted that virtually all the participants in an after-school adapted-sport program highlighted the value of this sense of connectedness for helping youth “to be themselves” (p. 326). These results are of particular interest because children who are perceived to be different or who present a deficiency of the standard motor skills may be at an increased risk for peer rejection or neglect. Moreover, individuals with disabilities have less extensive social networks and fewer friendships. Thus, PA and integrated sport practice might provide a potentially attractive social opportunity for children establishing stronger peer relations (Martin, 2006). Barriers to PA Among Individuals With Disabilities PA levels have dramatically decreased in western societies over the years and clearly remain under the recommended level of 30 minutes per day (60 minutes for children and youth; see WHO, 2010) by WHO and other health organizations (Acevedo, 2012). When referring to people with disabilities, the levels of exercise and PA are even lower. Various surveys (see Rimmer, Riley, Wang, Rauworth, & Jurkowski, 2004) have shown that individuals with disabilities have high rates of sedentariness. Around 56% of disabled adults are not engaging in any sport or leisure-time PA, which is 20% more than non-disabled adults. What could be provoking such a lack of PA among the disabled? Several authors have highlighted different barriers that can preclude people with disabilities from exercising (Martin, 2012) such as environmental and ecological aspects, convenience and availability, physical limitations and pain, lack of enjoyment, negative attitudes towards disabilities, lack of adequately qualified staff, or even restricted policies or rules for individuals with disabilities to have access to sport or leisure facilities. Rimmer et al. (2004) carried out a very extensive study using focus groups involving individuals with disabilities and professionals from different regions in the United States. They found that there are many barriers that limit or prevent people with disabilities from practicing PA. They established barriers that would be categorized into 10 major groups, including: (1) limitation due to buildings and natural environment; (2) economic limitations due to the cost of participating in recreational or fitness activities; (3) equipment, regarding the accessibility of the ordinary or specific materials needed; (4) guidelines, codes, regulations, and laws regarding accessibility to people with disabilities that paradoxically might bring on architectural barriers; (5) information, related to the access of within and outside facilities, such as signs or advertisements; (6) emotional/psychological factors, such as perceptions of unfriendliness, self-consciousness, concerns about needing assistance, fear of being laughed at or teased, of leaving their homes and falling, and/or overprotection by parents or family members; (7) knowledge, education, and training of the professionals in the areas of accessibility and monitoring; (8) perception and attitudes of both professionals and non-disabled individuals towards persons with disabilities accessing and practicing such activities; (9) policies and procedures imposed by the implementation of the facility (e.g., charging fees to personal assistants, limiting facility use time); and (10) lack of resources, such as transportation or the availability of and accessibility to fitness or recreational programs.

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Ways to Promote PA Among Individuals With Disabilities During the last few decades, many different models and theories have been proposed to explain why people do or do not practice PA. Theoretical approaches to exercise and PA promotion came from both basic behavioral science (e.g., Health Belief Model, Theory of Reasoned Action, Theory of Planned Behavior, Transtheoretical Model, and Self-Determination Theory; see, for instance, Williams & Marcus, 2012) and from the sport and exercise psychology fields (e.g., Precede-Proceed Model, Exercise Behavior Model, Investment Model, and the Sport Commitment Model; see, for instance, Soós, Liukkonen, & Thompson, 2007) and each one has suggested different intervention objectives and techniques. However, all of these models are primarily focused on the personal level of analysis, pointing out the intrapersonal processes such as attitudes, beliefs, cognitive processes, and affect. They can also include several micro environmental influences such as social support or perceived barriers. Nevertheless, an outlook integrating the different disciplines involved in promoting PA allows the combining of theoretical perspectives focused on personal factors with those perspectives that highlight the meso- and macro-environmental factors and approaches (King, Stokols, Talen, Brassington, & Killingswoth, 2002). Combining the individuals’ choice and decision to be active with the more choice-persuasive or the choice-enabling environmental perspectives gives a broaderscale perspective for analyzing the PA promotion field. From this point of view, intrapersonal, interpersonal, physical, environmental, and sociocultural variables interact with each other to promote or prevent people from engaging in PA. Thus, interventions to promote PA should address dispositional, cognitive, and affective processes (e.g., attitudes towards PA, self-efficacy beliefs), and other situational and intrapersonal variables (e.g., occupational duties), as well as social and cultural variables (e.g., social support or cultural limitations directed to specific populations such as women). Further, the impact of environmental conditions (e.g., physical barriers) on PA patterns should be considered (King et al., 2002). Moreover, it should be taken into account the changing role that several variables might adopt regarding the different moments of the physical changing process (i.e., adoption or maintenance), the PA type and goals promoted (i.e., instrumental or recreational), and the extent to which particular environmental conditions produce a facilitating (e.g., sport facilities in the neighborhood) or constraining (e.g., architectural barriers) influence on exercising. Case Study 1 below illustrates an applied experience that implements such a perspective.

Case Study 1. An Experience of Promoting PA With Disabled Individuals: An Afterschool Program for Adapted Sports and PA2 General objectives. The overall objectives of the program included promoting PA among people with disabilities, using sports for fostering leisure activities, playing sports to therapeutically train skills and abilities, extending the knowledge about technical and normative aspects of adapted sports, and strengthening social relationships through sports. Specific objectives. Specifically, the program aimed to: (1) promote supported and autonomous motor development in a leisure context, assess movement possibilities, set individual adapted goals, and establish a timeline to accomplish each goal; (2) promote positive attitudes towards PA and highlight its benefits; (3) playfully teach game rules, check for comprehension, and promote a spirit of self-improvement; (4) foster a sense of belonging, provide selfless aid to others, and encourage team cohesion; (5) develop a correct awareness of one’s self-image neither under nor over estimating such; (6) train resilience skills for coping with sport success and failure, as a way of transferring such abilities to some other life facets (e.g., frustration to increase tolerance to

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Ricardo de la Vega and Víctor Rubio being handicapped); (7) improve adaptive behaviors in different areas using sport and physical activities (e.g., attention, coordination, speed, spatial awareness, communication, and autonomy). Population. Participants in the program included boys and girls from 7 to 16 years all with either physical, sense, or intellectual disabilities as well as able-bodied and nonimpaired children of similar ages. Program description: procedures, techniques, and resources. The program consisted of a set of afterschool one-and-a-half-hour sessions organized twice a week by trained staff. Specialized professionals in different facets of impairment and disability (e.g., experts in alternative communication systems, psychologists, physiotherapists, social workers, physical education teachers), and volunteers with and without adaptive sports expertise were involved in the program. Sports used were wheelchair basketball, kayaking, slalom, indoor hockey, boccia, goalball, track and field, and some other traditional games adapted specifically for the activities and the participants’ needs. In all cases, the aim was twofold: bringing children with disabilities an experience comparable to the non-impaired (e.g., kayaking for people with spinal cord injuries), as well as creating scenarios in which children with and without disabilities can share the sport experience at the same level (i.e., wheelchair basketball, regardless of the physical condition). The program is normally applied in primary and secondary schools, which results in the use of their sport facilities. Children of these schools with and without disabilities who want to participate must go to the gym or the basketball court. Children with disabilities who are included in special education units are transported using their adapted vehicles to the school. Twice during a quarter, a special activity is organized (e.g., kayaking). In such cases, adapted and ordinary buses are used for bringing the whole group to the premises (e.g., a lake). Each sport activity is designed to become a positive experience for everyone, improving active participation of children with and without disabilities, and suggestions for new activities are frequently asked for, and given, by the children. The performance of the activities is developed according to the special needs of the individuals and the support system available by the trained staff. Brief summary of the results. The use of this framework for designing a program to promote PA has produced an improvement in competency and adaptive behavior of directly- (i.e., motor balance) and non-directly-related (i.e., communication skills) PA facets, an increase in with and without disability group cohesion, and a change in health-related parameters (i.e., muscle strength), regarding intrapersonal, interpersonal, and physical variables. In the sociocultural context, attitude change is appreciated from able-bodied children to disabled mates, lowering the existing overprotection by relatives to children with special needs. Finally, regarding environmental variables, the program contributed in promoting the accessibility of premises and facilities to individuals with disabilities that were previously avoided by them.

WORKING WITH DISABLED INDIVIDUALS IN PERFORMANCE EXCELLENCE Individuals With Disabilities and Sport Performance According to Brittain (2010), the Paralympic Games are the second-most important world sport event, highlighting the relevance of sport peak performance with these populations. Accordingly, both research and applied practice with these populations have increased in the last few years. In fact, such research indicates that the needs and experiences of disabled athletes

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are more similar to able-bodied elite athletes than different (Dieffenbach & Statier, 2012). It should be noted that most of the research studies and professional experiences have been carried out with people with physical disabilities (e.g., Henschen, Horvat, & Roswal, 1992), considering that those with sensorial and particularly intellectual disabilities are quite scarce (e.g., De la Vega, Galán, Ruiz, & Tejero, 2013). Generally speaking, physically disabled athletes were comparable to able-bodied athletes in most of the psychologically relevant dimensions to sport competition, and differences were as expected. To the contrary, Van Biesen, Mactavish, Pattyn, and Vanlandewijck (2012) found an important gap in technical proficiency between table tennis players with and without intellectual disabilities, the gap being larger for advanced strokes (e.g., the forehand chop, the backhand loop). However, they suggested the continued inclusion of such athletes in order to contribute to their professionalization. Mental Training for Athletes With Disabilities Even though several authors (Martin, 2012) point out that many disabled athletes practice mental training, there is a lack of controlled studies in order to test the efficacy of such programs. Although many similarities are assumed among athletes with and without disabilities (Hanrahan, 1998), practitioners should be taking into account that conditions associated with the impairment (e.g., the socialization into sports, the specific training of the staff, the parents’ overprotection) might differentially influence the practice of sport psychology training with disabled athletes. Nevertheless, as Hanrahan (1998) suggested, this population should be thought of first as athletes and second as disabled, and several experiences have shown the efficacy of psychological skills training (PST) for athletes with disabilities for the purposes of enhancing sport performance, such as goal setting, self-efficacy beliefs, relaxation, mental imagery, or self-talk (Martin, 2006). However, as with any other athlete, sport performance enhancement with disabled athletes should strive to attend to the particular characteristics of this population (e.g., muscle spasms, communication deficits). Some of these characteristics might act as barriers, specific difficulties, and/or uncontrollable events (Bawden, 2006). PST for athletes with physical disabilities. The type of athletes with physical disabilities encompasses in fact a broad group, including spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy, and amputations, among others, with each one having different impairments or degrees of injury. In turn, specific characteristics of these physical impairments such as wheelchair prostration, voluntary muscle control, degenerative condition, or muscle spasms affect directly or indirectly the feasibility, design, or application of different PST techniques. For instance, regarding relaxation, Hanrahan (1998) pointed out the difficulties of learning diaphragmatic breathing techniques for those who have abdominal affectation or compression due to the wheelchair posture, and Bawden (2006) noted the importance of considering the lack of control of certain limbs when practicing progressive relaxation. In addition, Bawden (2006) pointed out the need of training techniques to be applied during unexpected situations (e.g., muscle spasms). This will allow disabled athletes to refocus during performance for improving concentration as well as reducing the frustration during these situations. Moreover, the training should allow the disabled athletes to handle the many obstacles they have to cope with (e.g., accessibility to stadium, transportation). Last, Martin (2010) warned about the use of mental imagery with amputee athletes and the source of frustration of imaging missing limbs but also highlighted the usefulness of visuomotor behavior rehearsal for cerebral palsy athletes due to the fact that the relaxation element of the technique may reduce spasticity. PST for athletes with sensory disabilities. The group of athletes with sensory disabilities usually includes individuals with visual and/or hearing impairments. At the same time, they range from persons who compensate quite well for these deficits (e.g., they are able to drive a car when using glasses), whereas others have major impairments (e.g., people totally blind). Generally speaking, the main concern a sport psychologist has to face when training athletes with

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sensory disabilities is the communication issue. As Vose, Clark, and Sachs (2010) pointed out, consultants should consider how to best communicate with athletes with visual impairments in which the visual channel is limited or not functional at all when using, for example, modeling. In the same way, PST applied to deaf or hearing impaired athletes demands establishing a functional specific communication method. This should take into account whether the athlete is able to lip read (and avoiding exaggerated lips movements or anything obstructing the view of the lips) or communicate in sign language (and learning sign language or using a qualified sign language interpreter). Moreover, different sensory disabled sport modalities need assistance to perform (e.g., track and field guide runner, skiing guide). Thus, PST should include the assistant in order to reach the higher performance and effective communication between both the athlete and the practitioner (Bawden, 2006). PST for athletes with intellectual disabilities. The group of athletes with intellectual disabilities includes those with limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills. The main issue when working with athletes with intellectual disabilities is the call for adapting communication, strategies, techniques, rewards, prioritizing objectives, and choosing the psychological skills to meet the athlete’s needs. In this line, Gregg, Hrycaiko, Mactavish, and Martin (2004) successfully modified PST interventions to apply to three high-functioning track and field Special Olympics athletes. Changes such as using happy, sad, or neutral faces instead of Likert scales, practicing process goals for setting short-term goals, verbal statements adapted to their special characteristics, or goal visualization showed good results in decreasing the frequency and duration of off-task behavior, increasing the work output, and bringing the three of them close to reaching their personal bests. Ultimately, it should be taken into account that athletes with disabilities are athletes first and foremost. Even though they may occasionally need to depend on others and specific characteristics of their impairment should be considered for PST training (e.g., communication mode), there is no empirical or logical reason to suggest that psychological skills are different for disabled athletes compared to non-disabled athletes (Martin, 2012). Case Study 2 below illustrates the application of PST with an elite disabled athlete.

Case Study 2. An Experience of Enhancing Elite Performance: Training With a Paralympic Athlete3 Case description. David is a 28.5-year-old male who is going to participate in his first Paralympic Games in Boccia. According to the coach, David consulted with a sport psychology consultant in order to improve psychological skills for enhancing performance facing the Paralympic Games. A brief summary of the assessment carried out showed the following: (1) Cognitive aspects: In agreement with his previous results, expectations about his achievement have greatly increased among his team and staff, which are perceived by the athlete as a great pressure. David expresses the hope of not disappointing them and is worrying about it. (2) Emotional aspects: David feels exhausted, showing a high level of arousal and suffering restlessness and irritability. (3) Physiological aspects: Psychophysiological activity (i.e., galvanic skin response; GSR) shows a high reactivity to images from the past Paralympic Games that the sport psychology practitioner used as scenarios and situations similar to the ones David was going to cope with in the near future. (4) Behavioral aspects: Both coach and athlete agree on the technical balance the athlete has achieved and their mutual trust in each other in order to establish a working alliance. However, occasional stiffness due to muscle tension was reducing his accuracy. (5) Social aspects: David is integrated in the Paralympic team and his teammates hold

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him in high regard both in sport and interactional facets. He has established considerable social support from relatives. Program description: procedures and techniques. The main objectives and techniques were: (1) Goal setting: short-term objectives emphasizing attentional focus in specific pre-competition, competition, and post-competition aspects (e.g., “I look at the ball, point at the jack and firmly throw”). (2) Regulation of muscle tone and increasing throwing accuracy: diaphragmatic breathing for reducing stiffness and improving motor accuracy and imagery training developing covert essays (e.g., imagery reproduction of the correct complete motor sequence). (3) Stress management and arousal control: training with a relaxation program using deep breathing combined with biofeedback of arousal responses (GSR, HR) when visualizing recorded images with both competitive positive and negative actions, shaping and modeling active arousal control coping responses to stress. (4) Increasing self-confidence: positive reinforcement of responses (e.g., verbal statements, coping behaviors, etc.) directed to increase self-efficacy beliefs and positive self-talk. Brief summary of the results obtained. Athlete, coaches, and staff agreed on an increase in positive thinking and decrease in negative non-adaptive thoughts. There was an increased arousal control applied to pre-competition and competition settings. In fact, the athlete was able to reach peak performance even between competition events (i.e., team and individual) regardless of previous results. In addition, there was a reduction of physiological arousal to optimum pre-competitive and post-competitive levels. In the end, the outcome was an excellent athletic performance (Paralympic medal in both team and individual competitions).

CONCLUSION Sport and PA have an important impact on health, psychological functioning, and socialization of people. This is of particular significance to people with disabilities if we pay attention to the fact that PA among these individuals presents about the lowest rates compared to other populations as a result of the various personal and environmental complications directly arising from the impairment. Sport psychology and other allied disciplines have promoted PA for upholding such outcomes. Recently, the progressive growth in popularity of sports events for athletes with disabilities, among other factors, have also enhanced the demand of PST for athletes with such disabilities, as well as the scientific study of the variables involved in performance enhancement. Working with athletes with physical and intellectual disabilities represents the challenge of both approaches to, on one hand, use sport and PA as a way of promoting their capabilities and potentials, instead of focusing on their impairments, but, on the other hand, to attend to their diversity and special needs. The present chapter has attempted to present a brief scenario of what facets should be considered when working with individuals and athletes with disabilities as well as to provide two examples of combining such facets in field experiences.

TAKE-HOME MESSAGES • • • •

An athlete is an athlete, regardless of his/her impairment. Provide opportunities for engaging in PA using a variety of activities and resources. Consider individual differences and type of impairment in order to plan sport activities. Be aware of barriers that may constrain or prevent individuals with disabilities from engaging in PA.

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• Focus on promoting the potentials, instead of focusing on the impairments. • Pay attention to interpersonal, intrapersonal, social, and environmental factors.

NOTES 1. This chapter has been written thanks to the Spanish Research and Innovation Ministry grant (MINECO ref PSI2011-27000). 2. We would like to thank to the non-profit organization AVIVA (Salamanca, Spain) and its professionals for the information about their programs and acknowledge what they do for promoting physical activity and sports among people with disabilities. 3. We would like to thank to the Spanish Paralympic Boccia Team and the athlete for the information which has been changed to protect actual identities.

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13 A Theory-Based Model for Health Performance Consultation Sam J. Zizzi and Liz Gilchrist

Take a walk in any North American city or town, and it doesn’t take long to realize that many children and adults do not appear to be in the ideal shape or health. Epidemiological research related to our health habits in the US has revealed staggering statistics related to our ability to achieve markers of a “healthy lifestyle” within an environment that has shifted towards less healthy living. These habits include seven measurable health parameters identified by the American Heart Association (2012) that have been linked through research to preventable death. These factors include: (1) maintaining a healthy weight for your height (Body Mass Index